Women's Suffrage and rights in the constitutions of the world

Luca Marchiò Zanotta

WOMEN'S

SUFFRAGE AND RIGHTS

IN THE CONSTITUTIONS OF THE WORLD

24.9%

2020

English edition supervision: Margaret Nicol

February 14, 2020. Lake Como

To people all over the world who fight for the emancipation of women

Luca Marchiò Zanotta

WOMEN’S SUFFRAGE AND RIGHTS

IN THE CONSTITUTIONS OF THE WORLD

English edition supervision: Margaret Nicol

PRESENTATION

In the recognition of women's rights, different levels of constitutional forecasting can be identified. The analysis of the

Constitutions of the world of this publication takes place by highlighting the specific rights expressed in the charts with

direct reference to women, sex or gender. This does not mean that the rights granted to women are only those specified and

explained in this publication: a general rule of recognition of rights to all persons or to all citizens can lead to a generic

recognition either by a judge also of rights, such as access to the labor market and the recognition of a wage equal to that of

a man, or equal access to public offices or public health care, even if there is no explicit constitutional provision that

mentions women or both sexes. In other cases, we have rules outside the Constitution that recognize women fundamental

rights, especially in the common law legal systems.

The purpose of this publication, however, is to highlight the intervention of the Constituent Fathers in various countries of

the world in favor of women, recognizing their biological specificity and their socio-economic conditions, in many cases

unfavorable compared to those of a man. The recognition of their biological specificity ranges, for example, from the rights

related to motherhood, which cannot be denied to a woman who wants to legitimately live freely the conception, the birth

of a child and the growth of the child without the whole negatively affecting work and family, depriving her of her right to

self-determination and full personal fulfillment. The recognition of specific socio-economic conditions, for example, extends

from the removal of those legislative, financial and cultural obstacles (with a male-dominated social imprint) that prevent

them from accessing the highest levels of education, to managerial work roles, to the highest positions in the State, to full

emancipation. However, the impact and direction towards which certain rules referring to women tend to be well evaluated:

there is in fact a concrete risk that some statements that formally protect motherhood and the possibility of contracting

marriage, are more correctly to be understood as women’s role of procreator of children or wife of man, without identifying

a path of valorization, emancipation and independence women, reduced by the male-dominated subculture to a secondary

and non-autonomous role in society.

So far the formal right is, however ,very important, because it directs society and in a courtroom can allow women the

recognition of their often denied rights. The publication accomplishes a small step in substantive law by offering a statistical

overview of the historical evolution and the increase in women elected to Parliament. Universal suffrage and the right to

assume parliamentary, governmental and presidential positions represent the abc of the condition of recognition of

women's rights: and we will see how, as of 1 January 2020, only 4 parliaments in the world out of 197 have a female

representation in the Lower Chamber equal to or greater than 50% of their components. In all other cases, the affirmation of

the male dominates, which in the past could be identified in the rich white male. But that is not enough. The election of

women in Parliament, however important in itself, may not produce an automatic improvement in the material conditions of

the lives of women themselves.

The method followed in identifying women's rights in the Constitutions deliberately excluded the chapters intended for

citizenship rights, which are not the subject of this study, and in the indication of universal suffrage privileged and

extrapolated the general rule, omitting the details on the restrictions of the right to the active and passive electorate, which

are studies pertaining to parliamentary law. The studies and essays in this publication do not presume to be exhaustive, but

tenaciously pursue the objective of highlighting aspects of formal and substantive law that photograph the path taken so far

in affirming the self-determination of women and the long steps still to be taken for their full independence, affirmation and

emancipation in the year 2020, on the hundredth anniversary of the approval of the XIX amendment to the Constitution of

the United States of America, which acknowledged active and passive electoral rights for white women, yet still excluding

native Americans, blacks and others belonging to ethnic minorities from the effective exercise of their rights. In the United

States of America it was necessary to wait until 1966 for active and passive electoral law to become universal and substantial

in all States.

The road to take in the year 2020 towards the full emancipation of women is still long, full of obstacles, male-dominated,

paternalistic subcultural resistance and socio-economic conditions of serious disadvantage.

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ANALYSIS

Always, in all historical periods, in all societies and even today, women suffer the compression of their rights, are subject to

discrimination and do not see their biological diversity recognized: patriarchal communities suffocate, with different

intensities from one State to another, the full self-determination of women, the full exercise of affirmation in politics, in

managerial roles, in culture and in society.

The possibility of female self-determination grows proportionally in each state based on access to income: the more a

woman will have access to a well-paid job position, the more she will be able to exercise her individual rights. The world,

more than in states, is divided by wealth: access to wealth determines access to collective and personal freedoms.

But the world is also divided by States, in many different microcosms: their intense separation is more imposed by economic

powers than by the will of the individual communities. People and governments around the world are forced by economic

powers to suffer wars and violations of rights, including the compression of women's rights. The government of the United

States of America works incessantly in every corner of the world to guarantee and expand women's rights, coming into

conflict with economic powers that work in the opposite direction for the sole purpose of illegitimately preserving economic

and financial power in the hands of a few to the detriment of the vast multitude of the world, starting with those women who

see themselves relegated to strength in the unique roles of mother and domestic management.

There are signs that indicate the degree of evolution and emancipation achieved by society. This publication photographs

the situation on 1 January 2020, highlighting two fundamental aspects:

1) the establishment of universal female suffrage and the percentage of women in parliaments around the world;

2) the recognition or denial of the fundamental rights of women in the Constitutions of all the countries of the world.

A) STATE SECULARITY

The cornerstone of any State and of any democracy is the secular State. The State cannot be confessional, but must

necessarily be secular. The recognized freedom of exercising religious faiths can in no case be transformed into the

affirmation of a fundamentalist State. Unfortunately, in the year 2020, it is necessary to point out that many States still have

a confessional approach, where they make the bold will of a God prevail over the full exercise of the very personal rights of

men and women. To pay the price of this approach , contrary to the rule of law, are, above all, women, who see themselves

crushed into a marginal social role, without being able to access the highest offices of State: this happens for example in the

Vatican, where no woman has ever had access to the college of cardinals, but also in Syria, where a woman, deduced from

the literal wording of the norm (1), cannot be elected head of state, but can only be the wife (of exclusively Syrian origin) of

the President. In addition to access to public offices, the compression of rights also takes place through the affirmation of the

Shari'a, the Islamic law, which finds direct references in the following Constitutions: Afghanistan, Bahrain, Brunei, Iran,

Kuwait, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Syria, United Arab Emirates and Yemen.

In the Tunisian Constitution, however, the preamble states that "the State guarantees the supremacy of the law", but in article

74 the norm is contradicted by the requirements for the election as President of the Republic, among which is the profession

of the Islamic religion. The state organization of Vatican City is always of a confessional nature, in this case of

Christian-Catholic matrix. The separation between State and religion, the affirmation of the secular State and its laws,

remains an indispensable cornerstone of democracy in every corner of the earth. In this sense the advanced Constitution of

Nepal that even affirms (2) that “There shall not be any physical, mental, sexual or psychological or any other kind of violence

against women, or any kind of oppression based on religious, social and cultural tradition, and other practices” should be

noted.

There are also evident cases (3) of patriarchal, masculinist and classist approaches: Armenia (special protection of

motherhood “for the preservation and reproduction of the population”); Cyprus (“a married woman shall belong to the

Community [Greek or Turkish] to which her husband belongs”); India (“seats shall be reserved for the Scheduled Castes”); Iran

(“precious function of motherhood, rearing of ideologically committed human beings, … - woman – becomes the fellow

struggler of man in all vital areas of life”); Yemen (“Women are the sisters of man. They have rights and duties, which are

guaranteed and assigned by Shari’ah and stipulated by law”).

1 Syria, art. 84, par. 4: “The candidate for the office of President of the Republic should…not be married to a non-Syrian wife”)

2 Nepal, art. 38, par. 3.

3 Armenia, art. 16; Cyprus, art. 2, par. 7 ; India, art. 243T; Iran, preamble; Yemen, art. 31.

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B) UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE AND PARLIAMENTARY REPRESENTATION

Decades of battles, even bloody struggles, have led women almost all over the world to conquer the most elementary of

rights, tooth and nail, in a vision of equality with man: the right to vote, to choose their own legislators and be candidates to

become legislators. Since New Zealand, the first sovereign State, granted women the right to vote in 1893, up to now 127

years have passed, yet universal suffrage has not yet found affirmation everywhere: in 2002 Bahrain, in 2003 Qatar, in 2005

the Kuwait, in 2006 the United Arab Emirates, in 2008 Bhutan, in 2011-2012 Saudi Arabia (4), were among the last States to

recognize the right of active and passive electorate to women. Unfortunately the Vatican insists on not allowing access to

women in any high hierarchy. Suffrage cannot be considered universal even in Kuwait, because the vote is guaranteed on the

condition that "women stay in line with Islamic traditions".

To confirm that there is a gender inequality, that societies have a male-dominated and patriarchal stance as of 1 January

2020, are the figures of the parliamentary representation which say: out of a total of 46,540 parliamentarians, men hold

34,953 seats (75.1%) , women only 11,587 (24.9%): in the Lower Chamber out of a total of 39,345 members, only 9,813 are

women, equal to 24.94%; in the Upper House out of a total of 7,195, only 1,774 are women, equal to 24.66%. The overall

picture of the single States shows how in the 197 sovereign States (5) examined, only in 3 cases can the Lower Chamber of

the Parliament boast a higher representation of women than men (Rwanda, Cuba and Bolivia). In the case of the United Arab

Emirates (with a presidential decree of 2018, which represents an avant-garde light in the Arab world) there is equal

representation. In only 20 other cases is the percentage equal or greater than 40 (Mexico, Nicaragua, Sweden, Grenada,

Andorra, South Africa, Finland, Costa Rica, Spain, Senegal, Namibia, Switzerland, Norway, Mozambique, Argentina, New

Zealand, Belgium, Belarus, North Macedonia and Portugal). In all the other 173 States the percentage is less than 40 and

confirms gender inequality and the social discrimination that women have to suffer in society which are also transferred into

Parliament. The borderline cases are given by three states that register an absolute zero in the presence of women within the

Lower Chamber (Micronesia, Papua New Guinea and Vanuatu), with Micronesia boasting the sad record, shared with the

Vatican, of not having ever had a parliamentary woman. It should be noted that Cuba has achieved gender equality without

any specific laws, as happened instead in Bolivia, which imposed gender alternation on the electoral lists and placed the

female candidate at the top of the lists in the event of an odd number of candidates. The laws that guarantee an electoral

quota or a reserve of seats for women are adopted with the aim of rebalancing what is a serious imbalance that originates

from social, economic and cultural conditions that damage women's fundamental right to access management roles both in

public institutions, and in private companies: refusing to approve laws for rebalancing in parliamentary and governmental

representations means slowing down the process of empowering women in society. It is not surprising that some women

are against such laws in their favor: they are those with less self-awareness of their rights, which derives from an oppressive

society which would like the marginal role of women to continue to be the norm.

The factsheets of the individual States show in which cases there are electoral quotas reserved for women, which do not

necessarily derive from legislation included in the Constitution: the source can also be the electoral law or an ad hoc act.

Sometimes the forecast is very weak: the calculation of female parliamentary representation is determined by the statutes of

the individual parties, with results almost never sufficient to overcome the social gap that women have to bear. To prove it

there are the percentages of women actually elected, far from that 50% that reflects the composition of the population.

Moreover, if in some cases (6) the reserving of seats or the electoral quotas established in the Constitutions has led to having

in at least one of the two Chambers an appreciable female representation of more than 40%, in other cases (7) a rebalancing

shock has taken place but has settled on a percentage between 30% and 40%, while in many cases (8) where the percentage

is less than 30 it can be said that the constitutional provision is only a facade but does not act effectively in the

representational rebalancing : the extreme case is represented by Papua New Guinea which, despite the statement (9),

boasts the sad record of zero women among the 111 parliamentarians.

Next to the name of the State in the factsheet is the year in which women, all women without any ethnic or other

discrimination, have won the rights to vote and stand for national elections. A problem is created for those States that before

becoming independent were colonies: the year indicated is that in which the suffrage became universal, even if this

happened before independence, under occupation and foreign domination, and it was then confirmed after independence.

No one should miss the opportune evaluations on the effective exercise of women's rights in a state occupied and

dominated by foreign powers, which in some cases, as in that of Algeria and other African states and the rest of the world,

have given birth to intense struggles for freedom, democracy and the end of colonial occupation. However the cases of

States born of the dissolution of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia are different in that women there had already won,

decades before, the right to active and passive electorate, albeit in different years in the case of the Soviet Republics.

4 In September 2011, King Abdullah announced that women would be granted the right to both vote and stand for election from 2012. In 2015 women

participated for the first time in municipal elections.

5 The independent country is not only a self-governed nation with its own authorities, but this status needs the international diplomatic recognition of

sovereignty. Thereby, we can say that the total number of independent states in the world today is 197, including 193 fully recognized members of the

United Nations and 2 countries, Vatican City and Palestine, have the status of permanent observers in the UN. The other 2 states we include in the list are

Kosovo (recognized by 115 States, of which 15 have since been withdrawn) and Taiwan (recognized by 15 countries).

6 Argentina (40.86% and 40.28%); Belgium (40.67% and 45%); Bolivia (53.08% and 47.22%); Burundi (36.36% and 46.15%); Nicaragua (47.25%); Portugal

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6 Argentina (40.86% and 40.28%); Belgium (40.67% and 45%); Bolivia (53.08% and 47.22%); Burundi (36.36% and 46.15%); Nicaragua (47.25%); Portugal

(40%); Rwanda (61.25% and 38.46%); Senegal (43.03%); Zimbabwe (31.85% and 43.75%)

7 Ecuador (39.42%); France (39.51% and 33.33%); Italy (35.71% e 34.38%); Kosovo (31,67%); Nepal (32.73% and 37.29%); Serbia (37.65%); Taiwan (38.05%);

Tanzania (36.9%); Timor-Leste (38.46%); Uganda (34.86%).

8 Afghanistan (27.02% and 27.94%); Congo (Brazzavile) (11.26% and 18.84%); Egypt (15.1%); Eswatini (9.59% and 33.33%); Kenya (21.78% and 30.88%);

Mauritania (20.26%); Morocco (20.51% and 11.67%); Pakistan (20.18% and 19.23%); Papua New Guinea (0%); Samoa (10%); Saudi Arabia (19.87%); Slovenia

(27.78% and 10%); Somalia (24.36 and 24.07%); South Sudan (28.46% and 12%); Thailand (16.2% and 10%); Zambia (16.77%).

9 Papua New Guinea, art. 101, par. 1: “the Parliament is a single-chamber legislature, consisting of:(…)a number of women elected from a single-member

women’s electorates ad defined under an Organic Law”.

C) REPRESENTATION IN GOVERNMENT, IN CONSTITUTIONAL AND JUDICIAL

ORGANS AND IN THE DECISION-MAKING RANKS

There are only three Constitutions (Bolivia, South Sudan and Zimbabwe) that indicate the necessary presence of women and

gender balance within the national government. More numerous are those that establish a reserve of posts or announce the

principle of gender balance in the elections and in the appointment of the members of the organs provided for by the

Constitution (10) (including some ad hoc Commissions created to promote the full integration of women in society) and

members of the judiciary (11). Of great interest is also recognizing the importance and favoring of women's access to top

positions in public and private decision-making bodies (12), where decisions are actually taken and made to fall on others:

they cannot be a restricted club for men only, mostly white and wealthy.

10 Central African Republic; Ecuador; Eswatini; Ghana; Guyana; Kenya; Kosovo; Nepal; Niger; Rwanda; South Africa; South Sudan; Thailand; Zambia;

Zimbabwe.

11 Burundi; Ecuador; Kosovo; Morocco; South Africa; South Sudan; Zimbabwe.

12 Burundi; Chad; China; Colombia; Côte d’Ivoire; Dominican Republic; Egypt; Equatorial Guinea; Ethiopia; France; Ghana; Guyana; Haiti; Rwanda; Uganda;

Zambia; Zimbabwe.

D) ACCESS TO THE LABOR MARKET, EQUAL PAY FOR WORK, MATERNITY LEAVE

The emancipation and self-determination of women in any society ranges from their access to the labor market, to their

access to decent wages that allow them to lead an independent life, without having to depend economically on the

husband's livelihood. However, women tend to be paid less in the labor markets for equal professional services rendered by

men, tend to be exploited more frequently, tend to be discriminated against in accessing professions because of the

biological specificity that allows them to procreate human life. In many Constitutions specific articles have been included

that guarantee equal pay (13), the right to access to the labor market in conditions of equity (14), non-dismissability before

and after childbirth (15), which intersects and in some cases coincides with the right to maternity leave (16) (with salary and

job retention): four nodes that any State must face in regulating the relationship between work and women. In particular, the

biological specificity of women to procreate human life must necessarily be recognized and find the right place in labor law,

so that the free choice of having a child does not have negative repercussions in the life of the woman. Many countries have

taken measures, even outside the Constitutions, to recognize women's rights in accessing the labor market. Among the

States that wanted to recognize and include them in their Constitutions, due to the abundance of details and regulations

even in the length of maternity leave, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay and Timor-Leste

certainly deserve a mention.

In some cases (17) the right of women not to be employed in jobs that could jeopardize their health is also recognized, in

other cases (18) the right to reconcile work times with those to be dedicated to the family (to be investigated in the social

reality of each country, because this right could still be distorted and backfire against women closed in the role of housework

and child rearing, from which the husband can escape). The Constitution of North Korea deserves praise, because it explicitly

recognizes the right to be supported by a network of kindergartens, which are fundamental for mothers who want to work

and, in child care in preschool age, for those who cannot rely on babysitters for economic reasons or on grandparents and

relatives for other reasons. The Ghana Constitution also speaks of “facilities for the care of children below school-going age

to enable women realise their full potential”. Other generic nursery services are mentioned in other Constitutions (Cambodia

and others).

The Constitutions of Guyana and Venezuela recognize the social and economic value of unpaid work performed at home.

The Sierra Leone Constitution provides specific welfare for working women. That of Bangladesh undertakes to reserve for

women places of work normally reserved for men. Those in Ecuador, Nepal and Somalia guarantee access to the armed

forces and police on equal terms.

13 Belarus; Brazil; Burkina Faso; Cabo Verde; Cambodia; China; Ecuador; Ethiopia; Finland; Greece; Guyana; India; Italy; Korea (South); Lesotho; Liberia; Malta;

Mexico; Myanmar (Burma); Namibia; Nepal; Nicaragua; Nigeria; Panama; Poland; Portugal; Romania; Senegal; Sierra Leone; South Sudan; Suriname; Tunisia;

Ukraine; Zimbabwe.

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14 Algeria; Bangladesh; Belarus; Burkina Faso; Costa Rica; Côte d’Ivoire; Croatia; Czech Republic; Dominican Republic; Ecuador; Finland; Gabon; Gambia;

Ghana; Guatemala; Guinea; Guyana; Haiti; Italy; Jordan; Korea (South); Lesotho; Malta; Moldova; Montenegro; Paraguay; Poland; Romania; Senegal; Serbia;

Somalia; Spain; Suriname; Timor-Leste; Togo; Tunisia; Turkey; Ukraine; Venezuela; Zimbabwe.

15 Bolivia; Cambodia; Czech Republic; Ecuador; Guatemala; Guyana; Honduras; Lesotho; Mexico; Myanmar; Nicaragua; Panama; Paraguay; Portugal;

Seychelles; Slovakia; Suriname; Timor-Leste; Uganda.

16 Bolivia; Brazil; Cambodia; Costa Rica; Ecuador; El Salvador; Ethiopia; Ghana; Guatemala; Honduras; Korea (North); Nicaragua; Portugal; Romania; Serbia;

Seychelles; Suriname; Ukraine; Zimbabwe.

17 El Salvador; Georgia; Mexico; Myanmar (Burma); Nepal; Pakistan; Philippines; Slovakia; Suriname; Taiwan; Tajikistan; Turkey; Ukraine; Uruguay.

18 Cabo Verde; Egypt; Italy; Korea (North); Ukraine; Zimbabwe.

E) EDUCATION AND SCHOLARIZATION

A trained woman, a woman with analytical tools, the ability to rework and to intervene in reality is a freer woman, a woman

who can aspire to better working conditions, who will become aware of her rights within the family and association contexts

and will legitimately claim her right to exercise them. Most of the Constitutions recognize under formulas that include both

men and women, the right to education, even if there are some who are careful to specify that the right must be recognized

to both sexes (19) or specifically to women (20), resulting in something more than the generic formula of guaranteeing

access to education. In harsh and difficult situations, such as Afghanistan, the rules seek to bridge the huge gap that

separates women from access to higher education. A female graduate is a woman more likely to redeem her economic and

social status and to determine her own life choices without having to depend on others.

19 Austria; Congo (Kinshasa); Côte d’Ivoire; Togo; Turkey.

20 Afghanistan; Belarus; Bolivia; Cambodia; Guyana; Laos.

F) MATERNITY, HEALTH CARE AND WELFARE

The national public health service, accessible to all citizens and of excellent quality, is an inalienable right of the human

being, man and woman. It cannot be the census, the degree of wealth possessed, that determines who can or cannot access

health care, as if one were to participate in a macabre lottery in which life is played out. Women in poverty, agricultural and

rural situations are those with the greatest difficulty in accessing health care. A large number of Constitutions recognize the

right to motherhood: in some cases (21) it is a simple proclamation of maternity protection, but in many other cases (22) the

State implements specific and advanced welfare programs to care for women before, during and after childbirth. Only a

more in-depth analysis of the reality of each State can reveal in which cases we are faced with the effective recognition of a

right proper to the biological diversity of the woman and of a conscious choice of the woman to become a mother, and in

which cases instead, especially in States with a confessional and non-secular matrix, the role of women is relegated to that of

procreator of the human race.

Almost all of the Constitutions refer without distinction to the rules for access to health care within a public welfare system

for all citizens (as it should be): few are those (23) that explicitly provide a reference to women concerning access to welfare

or who envisage (24) a specific reference to welfare for widows, the elderly and pensioners.

21 Albania; Belarus; Benin; Burkina Faso; Cabo Verde; China; Congo (Brazzaville); Croatia; Georgia; Greece; Haiti; India; Iran; Iraq; Ireland; Italy; Kazahstan;

Korea (South); Kyrgyzstan; Libya; Lithuania; Monaco; Montenegro; Morocco; Mozambique; Myanmar (Burma); Niger; Pakistan; Peru; Philippines; Portugal;

Qatar; Rwanda; San Marino; Slovenia; Somalia; Spain; Suriname; Syria; Taiwan; Tajikistan; Turkey; Turkmenistan; Uganda; Ukraine; United Arab Emirates;

United Kingdom; Uruguay; Uzbekistan; Yemen; Zimbabwe.

22 Angola; Argentina; Armenia; Austria; Bolivia; Brazil; Cambodia; Colombia; Costa Rica; Cuba; Dominican Republic; Ecuador; Egypt; El Salvador; Eswatini;

Ethiopia; Gabon; Germany; Ghana; Guatemala; Honduras; Hungary; Korea (North); Malawi; Mexico; Moldova; Namibia; Nepal; Panama; Paraguay; Poland;

Sao Tome and Principe; Serbia; South Sudan; Sri Lanka; Thailand; Timor-Leste; Venezuela; Viet Nam.

23 Cambodia; Ecuador; Iraq; Laos; Nicaragua.

24 Hungary; Iran; Lesotho; Uganda.

G) PROHIBITION OF DISCRIMINATION

Almost all the Constitutions contain a provision that establishes the prohibition of discrimination. The norm highlighted in

the study is that which explicitly refers to the prohibition of discrimination on the basis of sex or gender or establishes formal

equality between men and women. It is a basic principle that cannot be lacking in any democratic legal order, even if to

become substantial, so that a woman really enjoys real and full access opportunities in the political, working, social and

cultural fields, a rule that serves as a statement is not enough, but needs further legislative interventions that regulate the

labor market, recognize maternity leave, equate women's rights with those of men within families and guarantee access to

the highest levels of education. It should be noted that in the process of emancipation from British colonialism, many States

(25) report a formula that is practically identical in all the Constitutions (texts that are in many cases lacking, however, in

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forecasts and recognitions of specific rights of women).

The prohibition of discrimination, which is transformed into access to the highest offices within indigenous communities,

provided for by the Constitutions of Ecuador, Guyana and Mexico deserves to be highlighted.

To underline the still open wound of the wars conducted against the populations of Yugoslavia and Sudan and which have

produced their disintegration: 5 States (26) have foreseen that the prohibition of discrimination cannot be derogated, even

during the state of war.

25 Antigua e Barbuda; Bahamas; Barbados; Botswana; Dominica; Fiji; Gambia; Ghana; Grenada; Guyana; Malta; Mauritius; Saint Kitts and Nevis; Saint Lucia;

Saint Vincent and The Grenadines; Sierra Leone; Solomon Islands; Sri Lanka; Uganda.

26 Croatia; Montenegro; North Macedonia; Slovenia; South Sudan.

H) MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY AND EQUALITY IN RELATIONS WITH A PARTNER

The male-dominated and patriarchal imprint in the conception of relationships within marriage is still very strong: its

intensity varies from State to State. Many Constitutions contain a law that recognizes that marriage can be contracted only

with the free and full consent of both spouses. Some Constitutions (27) go further, going so far as to establish equality

between spouses in the exercise of rights within marriage and after its eventual dissolution: it is a very important law, which

frees women from a state of submission formal and substantial towards men, which contributes in a decisive way to the

emancipation of the role of women in society and in the family and which rejects (in part) the attempt to confine the woman

to the role of procreator and breeder of children and almost exclusively in charge of household chores. Unfortunately the

Constitutions (28) which refer explicitly to equal rights for women are too few, not only limiting them to the juridical

institution of marriage, but extending them to any de facto relationship with a partner: the clearest is that of Venezuela (29)

which states that “a stable de facto union between a man and a woman which meets the requirements established by law

shall have the same effect as marriage”. Still today, unfortunately, unmarried women are discriminated against in society:

according to this approach, which is forbidden by some Constitutions, women have to have a male figure of reference for

most affairs to assert themselves in society and exercise their rights.

27 Andorra; Angola; Armenia; Azerbaijan; Belarus; Bolivia; Brazil; Bulgaria; Cabo Verde; Cambodia; China; Colombia; Cuba; El Salvador; Eritrea; Ethiopia;

Georgia; Ghana; Guatemala; Guinea Bissau; Honduras; Italy; Japan; Kenya; Korea (South); Kyrgyzstan; Laos; Lithuania; Malawi; Mexico; Moldova; Mongolia;

Montenegro; Mozambique; Namibia; Nepal; Nicaragua; Papua New Guinea; Paraguay; Portugal; Romania; Rwanda; Serbia; Slovenia; Spain; Tajikistan;

Timor-Leste; Turkey; Turkmenistan; Uganda; Ukraine; Uzbekistan; Venezuela; Viet Nam; Zimbabwe. In other Constitutions the norm of matrimonial equality,

even if not explicit, can be inferred from the recognition of equal rights in family relationships.

28 Dominican Republic; Equatorial Guinea; Venezuela.

29 Venezuela, art. 77.

I) SEXUAL FREEDOM

A woman must never have to justify how she dresses, stiletto heels and miniskirts that she wants to wear, the desire to

expose her naked breasts on the beach, neither to her father, nor to her brothers, nor even to her husband or partner. Just as

she need not give an account to her father, mother, brother or sister about the romantic relationships she wants to entertain.

A woman must be left free to fully determine herself: she has the right to enjoy her sexual and sentimental life. Also in this

case, there are Constitutions (Bolivia, Cuba and Ecuador) that stand out in recognizing the right to sexual relations. On the

other hand, no State can determine which person another person can or cannot marry or see: we are faced with a violation

of a very personal and inalienable right of each human being and the fundamentalist approach of some Constitutions

(Burundi, Honduras, Rwanda, Seychelles and Uganda) which prohibit homosexual marriages, should be opposed and

denounced without tacit acquiescence on the part of society. Only one Constitution (Ireland) explicitly recognizes marriages

even between persons of the same sex.

No State can replace the woman in her full self-determination if she decides to terminate the pregnancy: the Constitutions

that prohibit abortion (Eswatini, Kenya, Seychelles, Somalia and Zimbabwe) seriously damage the right and the principle of

woman's self-determination. Abortion is not a contraceptive method and every instance creates an injury, but no state can

take away from any woman the right to decide about her body and her life.

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J) PROPRIETARY LAW

In some Constitutions, especially in the realities of Central and South America (Bolivia, Brazil and Paraguay) and of Africa

(Eswatini, Ethiopia, Malawi and Zimbabwe), where economies are based on agricultural livelihoods in the countryside and

urban suburbs, it becomes essential to reaffirm the right of women to become owners of the land to be cultivated, which in

many cases represents the only source of livelihood and that cannot be a male prerogative as it was in the past and still

happens today in the most backward areas of the world.

K) DEATH PENALTY AND CARCERARY REGIME

There are Constitutions (Guatemala and Zimbabwe) that exempt women from the application of the death penalty and

others (South Sudan) (30), which exempt them only if they are pregnant or in the first two years of maternity leave. The

application of the death penalty, to women and men, is a great defeat for humanity, a legacy of a culturally undeveloped

society, which should not take place in any State in the world. Even the differentiation of the prison regime, distinct between

men and women (Mexico and Nicaragua), although based on the prevention of sexual crimes within prisons, is not

functional to the rehabilitation of the condemned who, in the right and obligatory path of reintegration into society, cannot

be deprived of any connection with people of the opposite sex.

30 South Sudan, art. 21, par. 3: “No death penalty shall be executed upon a pregnant or lactating woman, save after two years of lactation”

L) MASS-MEDIA SEXIST PROPAGANDA

The object woman, relegated to the role of sexual toy, is an image that the televisions of many States of the world convey,

not contributing to women's emancipation. Starting from this observation, from too many companies accepted with

acquiescence, ad hoc norms were formulated in a few Constitutions (Ecuador, Mexico and Paraguay) that forbid a sexist

propaganda of the role of women in society.

M) FECONDATIVE AND GENETIC THERAPIES

There is only one Constitution (Switzerland) which deals in depth with contemporary topics such as human cloning,

fertilization and other genetic therapies. If the uniqueness of the human being is a principle that the whole international

community agrees with and that involves the prohibition of cloning humans, the same cannot be said for fertilization,

especially the heterologous one, which sees very different disciplines among the various States of the world and that has

produced a "tourism" of men and women in search of the most favorable legislation to become parents. Women still have to

determine unambiguously at the legislative level how to reconcile the rejection of their body seen as a commodity with the

natural human aspiration to become parents.

13

AFGHANISTAN 1963

Right to vote and to stand for election: 1963

First woman in parliament: 1965

Population: 38,500,318

Parliament name: Jirga (National Assembly)

Chamber name: Wolesi Jirga (House of the People)

Structure & Status of parliament: Lower Chamber

Statutory number of members: 250

Electoral quota for women: Yes. According to Article 83 of

the 2004 Constitution, 68 of the 249 total seats in the Lower

House (Wolesi Jirga) are reserved for women, comprising at

least 2 women for each of the 34 provinces of the country;

10 seats are reserved for Kuchi Nomads If there are not

enough female candidates on the list to occupy the

allocated seat, the Commission shall adopt measures to

make sure the seats do not remain vacant.’ (Electoral Law

2010, Article 23)

Legal source: Electoral Law 2010, art. 20-23; Constitution,

art. 83

Chamber name: Meshrano Jirga (House of Elders)

Structure & Status of parliament: Upper Chamber


Indirectly elected members (68): these include one

representative from each of the 34 Provincial Councils,

serving a four-year term; and one representative from each of

the 34 local District Councils, serving a three-year term.

Appointed members (34) : appointed by the President for a

five-year term.

The appointed members include two persons with

disabilities, and two nomads.

Electoral quota for women: Yes. The statutory number of

members of the House of Elders is three times the number of

existing provinces (currently 34). The President shall appoint

50 per cent of 34 presidential appointees from amongst

women in accordance with Article 84 of the Constitution.

Legal source: Constitution, art. 84

DATE WOMEN %

2019-05

2019-01

2018-12

2010-09

2008-01

2007-01

2005-09

1988-01

1969-09

1965-07

68

59

68

69

68

67

68

7

0

4

27.87%

27.83%

27.31%

27.71%

27.31%

27.69%

27.31%

2.98%

0%

1.9%

DATE WOMEN %

2019-04

2018-12

2017-02

2016-12

2015-01

2010-02

2008-01

2007-01

2005-09

1965-07

17

16

18

21

18

28

23

22

23

0

25%

23.53%

26.47%

30.88%

17.65%

27.45%

22.55%

21.57%

22.55%

0%

The right to vote was granted in the 1963 Constitution which entered into force in 1964. The restriction about literacy no

longer exists. In July 1965 the first legislature of Afghanistan after the abolition of the monarchy in 1964. In 1965, Khadija

Ahrari, Masuma Esmati Wardak, Roqia Abubakr and Anahita Ratebzad became the first female parliamentarians of

Afghanistan (Canadian Women for Women in Afghanistan, factsheet 2014). The right to vote and to stand for election was

revoked during Taliban rule from 1996 to 2001.

CONSTITUTION OF 2004

14

Article 22

Any kind of discrimination and distinction between citizens of Afghanistan shall be forbidden. The citizens of Afghanistan,

man and woman, have equal rights and duties before the law. DISCRIMINATION BANNED EQUAL RIGHTS

AFGHANISTAN 1963

Article 44

The state shall devise and implement effective programs to create and foster balanced education for women, improve

education of nomads as well as eliminate illiteracy in the country. EDUCATION

Article 53

The state shall adopt necessary measures to regulate medical services as well as financial aid to survivors of martyrs and

missing persons, and for reintegration of the disabled and handicapped and their active participation in society, in

accordance with provisions of the law. The state shall guarantee the rights of retirees, and shall render necessary aid to the

elderly, women without caretaker, disabled and handicapped as well as poor orphans, in accordance with provisions of the

law. HELP THE POOR

Article 54

Family is the fundamental pillar of the society, and shall be protected by the state.

The state shall adopt necessary measures to attain the physical and spiritual health of the family, especially of the child and

mother, upbringing of children, as well as the elimination of related traditions contrary to the principles of the sacred

religion of Islam. SUBJECT TO RELIGION

Article 83

Members of the House of People shall be elected by the people through free, general, secret and direct balloting. The work

period of the House of People shall terminate, after the disclosure of the results of the elections, on the 1st of Saratan of the

fifth year and the new parliament shall commence work. The elections for members of the House of People shall be held

30-60 days prior to the expiration of the term of the House of People.

The number of the members of the House of People shall be proportionate to the population of each constituency, not

exceeding the maximum of 250 individuals. Electoral constituencies as well as other related issues shall be determined by

the elections law. The elections law shall adopt measures to attain, through the electorate system, general and fair

representation for all the people of the country, and proportionate to the population of every province, on average, at least

two females shall be the elected members of the House of People from each province. RESERVED SEATS IN LOWER CHAMBER

Article 84

Members of the House of Elders shall be elected and appointed as follows:

1. From amongst each provincial council members, one individual shall be elected by the respective council for a four year

term;

2. From amongst district councils of each province, one individual, elected by the respective councils, for a three year term;

3. The remaining one-third of the members shall be appointed by the President, for a five year term, from amongst experts

and experienced personalities, including two members from amongst the impaired and handicapped, as well as two from

nomads.

The President shall appoint fifty percent of these individuals from amongst women.

RESERVED SEATS IN UPPER CHAMBER

The individual selected as a member of the House of Elders shall lose membership to the related Council, and, another

individual shall be appointed in accordance with the provisions of the law.

15

ALBANIA 1920

Right to vote and to stand for election: January 21, 1920



Parliament name: Albanian Parliament

Chamber name: Kuvendi (Parliament)


Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes, 29 seats. For each electoral zone, at least thirty per cent of the multi-name list and one of the

first three names on the multi-name list shall belong to each gender.

Legal source: Electoral Code, art. 67

DATE WOMEN %

2019-09

2018-12

2017-08

2017-06

2016-06

2014-12

2014-01

1974-10

1945-12

36

41

39

33

32

29

28

83

3

29.51%

29.29%

27.86%

23.57%

22.86%

20.71%

20%

33.2%

3.7%

Looking back at the political history of Albania, it is noticed that the right to vote given to women for the first time in 1920

and attained full suffrage in 1945. Women were elected for the first time in Parliament in 1945, with the representation of 6

women out of 82 members (Albanian Women Participation in Politics and Decision-Making, Gender Alliance for Development,

Tirana, November 2015).

CONSTITUTION OF 1998, WITH AMENDMENTS THROUGH 2016

Article 18

1. All are equal before the law.

2. No one may be unjustly discriminated against for reasons such as gender, race, religion, ethnicity, language, political,

religious or philosophical beliefs, economic condition, education, social status, or parentage. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

3. No one may be discriminated against for reasons mentioned in paragraph 2 without reasonable and objective legal

grounds.

Article 45

1. Every citizen who has attained the age of 18, even on the date of the elections, has the right to elect and be elected.

… UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

4. The vote is personal, equal, free and secret.

Article 54

1. Children, the young, pregnant women and new mothers have the right to special protection by the state.

…

PREGNANCY AND MATERNITY SPECIAL PROTECTION

16

ALGERIA 1962

Right to vote and to stand for election: July 5, 1962


Independence: 1962


Parliament name: Barlaman (Parliament)

Chamber name: Al-Majlis Al-Chaabi Al-Watani (National

People's Assembly)



Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Legislated candidate

quotas. The law prescribes the following quotas in relation

to the magnitude of the electoral constituencies: 20% for

the constituencies with 4 seats; 30% for those with 5 or

more seats; 35% for those with 14 or more seats; 40% for

those with 32 or more seats; and 50% for the constituencies

abroad.

Legal source: Article 2 of the 2012 Law for the

Representation of Women.

DATE WOMEN %

2017-05

2012-05

2011-01

2010-01

2008-01

2007-09

2007-06

2007-05

2002-05

1998-06

1998-03

1995-01

1987-02

1982-03

1977-02

1964-09

1962-09

119

146

24

30

24

30

28

30

24

12

13

12

7

4

10

2

10

25.76%

31.6%

6.17%

7.71%

6.17%

7.71%

7.2%

7.71%

6.17%

3.16%

4.22%

6.74%

2.37%

1.42%

3.83%

1.45%

5.1%

Chamber name: Majlis al-Oumma (Council of the Nation)



Indirectly elected members (96): elected by the People's

Communal Assemblies and the People's Wilaya Assembly.

Appointed members (48): appointed by the President.

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Organization Act n. 12-03 of

12 January 2012 on modalities for facilitating women’s access

to membership in elected bodies requires that women make

up a certain percentage of the candidates for election to the

Wilaya Assembly and the Commune Assembly, from which

they may be elected to membership in the Council of the

Nation.

DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2016-02

2015-12

2012-01

2009-12

2006-12

2005-01

2004-12

2003-12

1998-05

9

10

8

10

7

4

28

4

28

8

6.82%

6.99%

5.84%

7.04%

5.15%

3.1%

19.44%

2.78%

19.44%

5.56%

Prior to independence, under French administration, women who were christian and french citizens living in Algeria were

granted the right to vote and stand for election in 1944. The French framework law (Loi-Cadre Deferre) of 1956 extended the

right to vote to Muslim women; it was imposed by de Gaulle through ordonnance in July 1958. These rights were confirmed

at independence.

17

ALGERIA 1962

CONSTITUTION OF 1989, REINSTATED IN 1996, WITH AMENDMENTS THROUGH 2016

Article 32

The citizens shall be equal before the law without any discrimination on the basis of birth, race, gender, opinion or any

other personal or social condition or circumstances. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Article 35

The State shall work for the promotion of political rights of women by increasing their chances of access to representation

in elected assemblies. REPRESENTATION IN ELECTED ASSEMBLIES

The modalities of application of this Article shall be determined by an Institutional Act.

Article 36

The State shall work to promote gender equity in the labor market. EQUITY IN THE LABOR MARKET

The State shall encourage the promotion of women in senior posts in public agencies and departments and at the level of

institutions. SENIOR POSTS IN PUBLIC WORKS AND INSTITUTIONS

Article 118

The members of the People's National Assembly shall be elected by universal, direct and secret suffrage.

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

18

ANDORRA 1973

Right to vote: April 14, 1970

Right to stand for election: September 5, 1973


Independence: 1993

Population: 77,142

Parliament name: Consell general (General Council)

Chamber name: Consell general (General Council)


Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: No.


DATE WOMEN %

2019-11

2019-05

2019-04

2016-10

2015-04

2015-03

2011-12

2011-04

2009-06

2005-04

1997-02

1993-12

13

14

12

9

11

10

14

15

10

9

2

1

46.43%

50%

42.86%

32.14%

39.29%

35.71%

50%

53.57%

35.71%

32.14%

7.14%

3.57%

Prior to independence, in 1984, in a by- election, Merce Borell Bertran won her seat and became the first female member of

the Andorran General Council (New Tork Times, October 28, 1984).

Article 6

1. All persons are equal before the law. No one may be discriminated against on grounds of birth, race, sex, origin, religion,

opinions or any other personal or social condition. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

2. Public authorities shall create the conditions such that the equality and the liberty of the individuals may be real and

effective.

Article 13

… MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

3. Both spouses have the same rights and duties. All children are equal before the law, regardless of their parentage.

Article 24

All Andorrans of age, in full use of their rights, enjoy the right of suffrage.

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Article 51

1. The Councillors are elected by universal, free, equal and direct suffrage for a four-year term. Their mandate shall cease

four years after their election or on the day that the General Council is dissolved. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

…

3. All Andorran nationals fully enjoying their political rights are entitled to vote and to be eligible for election.

…

RIGHT TO VOTE AND TO STAND FOR ELECTION

19

ANGOLA 1975

Right to vote and to stand for election: November 11, 1975



Parliament name: Assembleia nacional (National

Assembly)

Chamber name: Assembleia nacional (National Assembly)


Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Law 20/10 of 3 December provides rules to promote equal opportunities between men and

women, whereby there is at least 30% gender representation in directive bodies at all levels

Legal source: Law Political Parties, Law 20/10 of 3 December, art. 20

DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2017-11

2017-09

2016-12

2014-01

2012-08

2011-01

2009-01

2008-09

1999-01

1998-01

1992-09

1986-12

1980-11

66

67

68

84

81

75

82

85

82

21

34

21

42

19

30%

30.45%

30.91%

38.18%

36.82%

34.09%

37.27%

38.64%

37.27%

9.55%

15.45%

9.55%

14.53%

8.3%


Article 3: (Sovereignty)

1. Single and indivisible sovereignty shall lie with the people, who shall exercise it through universal, free, equal, direct,

secret and periodic suffrage in the various forms established in the Constitution, namely in order to choose their

representatives. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

…

20

Article 21: (Fundamental tasks of the state)

The fundamental tasks of the Angolan state shall be:

…

h. To promote equal rights and opportunities between Angolans, regardless of origins, race, party affiliations, sex, colour,

age or any other form of discrimination; DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

k. To promote equality between men and women; PROMOTION OF EQUAL RIGHTS

…

ANGOLA 1975

Article 23: (Principle of equality)

1. Everyone shall be equal under the Constitution and by law.

2. No-one may be discriminated against, privileged, deprived of any right or exempted from any duty on the basis of

ancestry, sex, race, ethnicity, colour, disability, language, place of birth, religion, political, ideological or philosophical beliefs,

level of education or economic, social or professional status. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Article 35: (Family, marriage and filiation)

...

3. Men and women shall be equal within the family, in society and before the state, enjoying the same rights and being

responsible for the same duties. MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

...

Article 54: (Right to vote)

1. Every citizen who has attained the age of eighteen years shall have the right to vote and stand for election for any state

or local authority body and to serve their terms of office or mandates, under the terms of the Constitution and the law.

... RIGHT TO VOTE AND TO STAND FOR ELECTION

Article 77: (Health and social protection)

1. The state shall promote and guarantee the measures needed to ensure the universal right to medical and health care, as

well as the right to child care and maternity care, care in illness, disability, old age and in situations in which they are unable

to work, in accordance with the law. MATERNITY

…

21

ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA 1951

Right to vote and to stand for election: December 1, 1951

Independence: 1981


Population: 97,488

Parliament name: Parliament

Chamber name: House of Representatives



Directly elected


Chamber name: Senate



Appointed members: Appointed by the Governor General on

the advice of the Prime Minister and the leader of the

opposition.


DATE WOMEN %

2014-06

2004-03

1994-03

1984-04

2

2

1

0

11.11%

10.53%

5.26%

0%

DATE WOMEN %

2018-03

2016-12

2014-12

2009-04

2008-01

2007-01

2004-03

1999-01

1994-03

1992-03

1989-03

1984-04

9

5

7

5

3

4

3

2

3

2

1

2

52.94%

29.41%

41.18%

29.41%

17.65%

23.53%

17.65%

11.76%

17.65%

11.76%

5.88%

11.76%

Prior to independence, under British administration women were granted the right to vote and to stand for election on 1

December 1951. This right was confirmed at independence.


3. Fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual

Whereas every person in Antigua and Barbuda is entitled to the fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual, that is

to say, the right, regardless of race, place of origin, political opinions or affiliations, colour, creed or sex, but subject to

respect for the rights and freedoms of others and for the public interest, to each and all of the following, namely:

a. life, liberty, security of the person, the enjoyment of property and the protection of the law;

b. freedom of conscience, of expression (including freedom of the press) and of peaceful assembly and association; and

c. protection for his family life, his personal privacy, the privacy of his home and other property and from deprivation of

property without fair compensation, FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

22

Article 14. Protection from discrimination on the grounds of race, sex etc

…

3. In this section, the expression "discriminatory" means affording different treatment to different persons attributable

wholly or mainly to their respective descriptions by race, place of origin, political opinions or affiliations, colour, creed, or sex

whereby persons of one such description are subjected to disabilities or restrictions to which persons of another such

description are not made subject or are accorded privileges or advantages that are not accorded to persons of another such

description. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA 1951

5. Nothing contained in any law shall be held to be inconsistent with or in contravention of subsection (1) of this section to

the extent that it makes provision with respect to qualifications (not being qualifications specifically relating to race, place

of origin, political opinions or affiliations, colour, creed or sex) for service as a public officer or as a member of a disciplined

force or for the service of a local government authority or a body corporate established by any law for public purposes.

DISCRIMINATION BANNED

23

ARGENTINA 1947

Right to vote and to stand for election: September 29, 1947



Parliament name: Congreso de la Nación (National

Congress)

Chamber name: Cámara de Diputados (Chamber of

Deputies)



Directly elected


quotas. For all national elections party electoral lists are

required to have a minimum of 30% women candidates

with real chances of being elected.

Legal source: Article 60 of the Electoral Code; Decree

1246/2000, art. 3-5; Law 24012 on the Quota for Women.

DATE WOMEN %

2019-10

2019-07

2016-12

2015-12

2011-10

2009-12

2009-08

2009-06

2007-10

2005-10

2001-10

1999-10

1996-01

1995-05

1992-12

1991-08

1989-05

1987-09

1983-10

1973-04

1965-03

1963-07

1960-03

1958-02

1955-06

1951-11

1946-02

102

100

100

92

96

99

107

99

102

91

79

68

71

65

37

15

16

12

10

19

4

1

2

4

34

24

0

40.16%

38.91%

38.91%

35.8%

37.35%

38.52%

41.63%

38.52%

40%

35.41%

30.74%

26.46%

27.63%

25.29%

14.4%

5.84%

6.3%

4.72%

3.94%

7.82%

2.08%

0.52%

1.05%

2.17%

21.66%

15.48%

0%

Chamber name: Senado (Senate)



Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Legislated candidate quotas.

For all national elections party electoral lists are required to

have a minimum of 30% women candidates with real

chances of being elected.

Legal source: Article 60 of the Electoral Code; Decree

1246/2000, art. 3-5; Law 24012 on the Quota for Women.

DATE WOMEN %

2019-10

2015-12

2011-10

2009-12

2009-06

2007-10

2006-01

2005-10

2001-10

1998-01

1997-11

1994-01

1993-10

1992-01

1989-12

1973-04

1958-02

1951-11

1946-02

28

30

28

25

27

28

31

30

24

2

4

2

4

2

4

3

0

6

0

38.89%

41.67%

38.89%

35.21%

37.5%

38.89%

43.06%

41.67%

33.33%

2.78%

5.56%

4.17%

8.7%

4.17%

8.7%

4.35%

0%

20%

0%

24

In some provinces, women were given the right to vote and stand for election at an earlier date. in 1951, Juanita Larrauri

(1910-1992) from the Entre Ríos Province became one of the first woman senator and Seferina del Carmen Rodriguez de

Copa from the Salta Province became one of the first female national representative (Graciela Rodriguez-Ferrand).

ARGENTINA 1947


Article 37

This Constitution guarantees full enjoyment of political rights, in accordance with the principle of popular sovereignty and

with the laws dictated pursuant thereto. Suffrage is universal, equal, secret and mandatory. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

True equality of opportunity between men and women in running for elected and party offices shall be guaranteed

through affirmative actions in the regulation of political parties and in the electoral system.

TRUE EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY IN RUNNING FOR ELECTED AND PARTY OFFICES

Article 75

The Congress shall have power:

…

22. To approve or reject treaties entered with other nations and with international organizations, and concordats with the

Holy See. Treaties and concordats have higher standing than laws.

The following [international instruments], under the conditions under which they are in force, stand on the same level as the

Constitution, [but] do not repeal any article in the First Part of this Constitution, and must be understood as complementary

of the rights and guarantees recognized therein: The American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man; the Universal

Declaration of Human Rights; the American Convention on Human Rights; the International Covenant on Economic, Social

and Cultural Rights; the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and its Optional Protocol; the [International]

Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide; the International Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of

Racial Discrimination; the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women; the

Convention Against Torture and other Cruel, Inhumane or Degrading Treatment or Punishment; and the Convention on the

Rights of the Child. They may only be denounced, if such is to be the case, by the National Executive Power, after prior

approval by two thirds of the totality of the members of each Chamber. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

TRUE EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY AND TREATMENT

23. To legislate and promote proactive measures that guarantee true equality of opportunity and treatment, and the full

enjoyment and exercise of the rights recognized by this Constitution and by current international treaties on human rights,

in particular with respect to children, women, the elderly and people with disabilities.

To enact a special and integral social security system that protects needy children, from gestation through the end of

elementary schooling, and that protects the mother during pregnancy and nursing.

SOCIAL SECURITY SYSTEM DURING PREGNANCY AND NURSING

25

ARMENIA 1918



Date of independence: 1991


Parliament name: Azgayin Zhoghov (National Assembly)

Chamber name: Azgayin Zhoghov (National Assembly)


Directly elected: 128. Minority representatives 4: up to four minority representatives may be elected.

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Legislated candidate quotas. One in every six seats on party lists is reserved for women. The

number of persons of each sex shall not exceed 80% of any integer group of five candidates starting from the second

number of the electoral list of a political party or alliance of political parties and of each party included in an alliance for the

National Assembly election under the proportional electoral system.

Legal source: Article 108 (2), Electoral Code of Armenia, 2011.

DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2017-05

2017-04

2016-12

2012-05

2009-01

2008-01

2007-05

2007-01

2003-05

1999-05

1995-07

1990-05

32

19

18

13

14

12

11

12

11

6

4

12

9

24.24%

18.1%

17.14%

9.92%

10.69%

9.16%

8.4%

9.16%

8.4%

4.58%

3.05%

6.32%

3.69%

The First Armenian Republic of 1918-1920 was one of the first to give women the right to vote and to be elected. The first

elections under the new constitution occurred between 21 and 23 June 1919 and of the 80 members elected to Parliament,

3 were women: Perchuhi Partizpanyan-Barseghyan, Varvara Sahakyan and Katarine Zalyan-Manukyan. Under Soviet

administration women also had the right to vote and stand for election; these rights were again confirmed at independence.

In May 1990 the Soviet Supreme of the SSR of Armenia became, under the name of Supreme Council (Khordrdaran) the first

legislature of Armenia after the country became independent on 21 September 1991. Armenian women were previously

elected to the Soviet Supreme of the SSR of Armenia and to the Parliament of the USSR.


Article 7: The Suffrage Principles

Elections of the National Assembly and community councils, as well as referenda shall be carried out on the basis of

universal, equal, free, and direct suffrage, by secret vote. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Article 16: Protection of the Family MATERNITY SPECIAL PROTECTION

Family, being the natural and fundamental cell of society and the basis for the preservation and reproduction of the

population, as well as motherhood and childhood shall be under special protection and aegis of the state.

26

ARMENIA 1918

Article 29: The Prohibition of Discrimination

Any discrimination based on sex, race, skin color, ethnic or social origin, genetic features, language, religion, worldview,

political or any other views, belonging to a national minority, property status, birth, disability, age, or other personal or social

circumstances shall be prohibited.


Article 30: Equality of Rights between Women and Men

Women and men shall have equal rights.

EQUAL RIGHTS

Article 35: Freedom to Marry

MARRIAGE BASED ON FREE WILL

1. A man and a woman of marriageable age shall have the right to marry each other and form a family by free expression

of their will. The age of marriage and the procedure of marrying and divorcing shall be stipulated by law.

2. In marrying, during marriage, and in divorce, a man and a woman shall have equal rights. MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

…

Article 48: Right to Vote and Right to Participate in a Referendum

1. Citizens of the Republic of Armenia, which have attained the age of 18 on the day of an election to the National Assembly

or on the day of a referendum, shall have the right to vote in such election and to take part in such referendum.

2. Anyone who has attained the age of 25, for the preceding four years has been a citizen of only the Republic of Armenia,

has permanently resided in the Republic of Armenia for the preceding four years, has voting right, and has a command of the

Armenian language may be elected as a member of the National Assembly. RIGHT TO VOTE AND TO STAND FOR ELECTION

…

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Article 57: The Freedom to Choose Employment and the Labor Rights

…

3. It shall be prohibited to dismiss from employment due to reasons related to maternity. Every employed woman shall

have the right to paid leave in case of pregnancy and child delivery. Every employed parent shall have the right to leave in

case of child birth or child adoption. Details shall be stipulated by law.

…

PROHIBITED TO DISMISS PREGNANT WOMEN AND RIGHT TO PAID LEAVE

Article 83: Social Security

Everyone shall, in accordance with law, have the right to social security in cases of maternity, having many children, illness,

disability, workplace accidents, need of care, loss of breadwinner, old age, unemployment, loss of employment, and in other

cases.

SOCIAL SECURITY IN CASE OF MATERNITY

Article 86: The Main Objectives of State Policy

The main objectives of state policy in the economic, social, and cultural spheres shall be:

…

4. To promote factual equality between women and men; PROMOTE FACTUAL EQUALITY

…

27

AUSTRALIA 1962

Right to vote and to stand for election: June 18, 1962



Parliament name: Parliament of the Commonwealth of

Australia




Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Voluntary political party

quotas.

Legal source: Cf. individual party statutes.




Directly elected


quotas.


DATE WOMEN %

2019-05

2018-12

2016-07

2014-12

2013-09

2010-08

2009-01

2007-11

2004-10

2001-11

1998-10

1996-03

1993-03

1990-03

1987-07

1984-12

1983-03

1980-10

1975-12

1974-05

1969-10

1966-11

1951-04

1949-12

1946-09

1943-08

46

45

43

40

39

37

41

40

37

38

32

23

13

10

9

8

6

3

0

1

0

1

0

1

2

1

30.46%

30%

28.67%

26.67%

26%

24.67%

27.33%

26.67%

24.67%

25.33%

21.62%

15.54%

8.84%

6.76%

6.08%

5.41%

4.8%

2.4%

0%

0.79%

0%

0.81%

0%

0.81%

2.67%

1.33%

DATE WOMEN %

2019-05

2018-12

2016-12

2016-07

2014-06

2014-01

2013-10

2013-09

2010-08

2004-10

2001-11

1998-10

1996-03

1993-03

1990-03

1987-07

1984-12

1983-03

1980-10

1975-12

1974-05

1970-11

1967-11

1964-05

1955-12

1949-12

1946-09

1943-08

37

30

31

28

29

31

29

16

29

27

23

22

23

16

18

17

14

13

9

6

4

2

3

4

5

4

2

1

48.68%

39.47%

40.79%

36.84%

38.16%

41.33%

38.16%

21.05%

38.16%

35.53%

30.26%

28.95%

30.26%

21.05%

23.68%

22.37%

18.42%

20.31%

14.06%

9.38%

6.67%

3.33%

5%

6.67%

8.33%

6.67%

5.56%

2.78%

FIRST WOMEN MEMBERS OF PARLIAMENT

House of Representatives: 21 August 1943, Enid Muriel Burnell Lyons (1897-1981)

Senate: 21 August 1943, Dorothy Margaret Tangney (1907-1985)

28

AUSTRALIA 1962

On a national basis, women, with the exception of Aboriginal women, obtained the right to vote and stand for federal

election when the Commonwealth Electoral Act 1902 came into effect. However, women from the States of South Australia

and Western Australia voted at the first federal election in 1901 because the elections were held under the electoral laws of

the States. Aboriginal women received full franchise in 1962, along with Aboriginal men. However, from 1949 Aboriginals in

the States of New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania were given the right to enrol and vote at federal

elections because the respective State electoral laws enabled them to do so. Aboriginals in Queensland and Western

Australia were entitled to vote only if they were serving or had served as members of the Australian Defence Force. The

Commonwealth Franchise Act 1902 granted the franchise to all persons of the age of 21 years, and thus women voted at the

first federal elections held under the Federal Law on 16 September 1903.

COMMONWEALTH FRANCHISE ACT 1902

The Act declared that all British subjects over the age of 21 years who had been living in Australia for at least 6 months were

entitled to a vote, whether male or female, and whether married or single.

COMMONWEALTH ELECTORAL ACT 1962

In 1960 reflecting the strong civil rights movements in the United States and South Africa, many changes in Aborigines’ rights

and treatment followed, including removal of restrictions on voting rights. The Menzies Government Commonwealth

Electoral Act of 1962 confirmed the Commonwealth vote for all Aborigines. Western Australia gave them State votes in the

same year, and Queensland followed in 1965.


51. Legislative powers of the Parliament

The Parliament shall, subject to this Constitution, have power to make laws for the peace, order, and good government of the

Commonwealth with respect to:

…

xxiiiA. the provision of maternity allowances, widows' pensions, child endowment, unemployment, pharmaceutical,

sickness and hospital benefits, medical and dental services (but not so as to authorize any form of civil conscription), benefits

to students and family allowances; MATERNITY ALLOWANCES

29

AUSTRIA 1918




Parliament name: Parlament (Parliament)

Chamber name: Nationalrat (National Council)



Directly elected


quotas.


Chamber name: Bundesrat (Federal Council)



Indirectly elected: the President of the Republic determines

the total number of members in the Federal Council as well

as the allocation of seats to each of the nine federal

provinces. The allocation of seats is based on the ratio

between each federal province and the one with the largest

population.

DATE WOMEN %

2019-09

2018-12

2017-10

2014-12

2014-01

2013-09

2010-01

2009-03

2009-02

2008-09

2008-01

2007-01

2006-10

2002-11

2000-01

1999-11

1995

1994-11

1990-11

1986-12

1983-05

1979-06

1975-11

1971-11

1970-03

1959-06

1956-06

1953-03

1949-11

1945-12

72

68

63

56

59

61

51

52

50

51

50

60

59

62

49

48

49

40

36

21

17

18

14

11

8

9

8

9

8

9

39.34%

37.16%

34.43%

30.6%

32.24%

33.33%

27.87%

28.42%

27.32%

27.87%

27.32%

32.79%

32.24%

33.88%

26.78%

26.23%

26.78%

21.86%

19.67%

11.48%

9.29%

9.84%

7.65%

6.01%

4.85%

5.45%

4.85%

5.45%

4.85%

5.45%


quotas.


DATE WOMEN %

2018-11

2016-12

2008-01

2007-01

2006-10

2005-01

2004-01

2002-12

1999-10

1996

1994-11

1986-12

1983-05

1979-06

1975-11

1970-03

1966-03

1962-12

1956-06

1949-11

1945-12

22

19

18

15

18

16

17

16

9

13

14

13

10

9

11

9

6

7

6

1

0

36.07%

31.15%

29.03%

24.59%

29.51%

25.81%

27.42%

25.81%

14.29%

20.97%

22.22%

20.97%

16.39%

16.36%

20%

16.67%

11.76%

13.73%

12.5%

2.08%

0%

On 16 February 1919 the first 8 women (4,7%) elected to the Constituent Assembly: Anna

Boschek, Hildegard Burjan, Emmy Freundlich, Adelheid Popp, Gabriele Proft, Therese

Schlesinger, Amalie Seidel, Marie Tusch.

30

AUSTRIA 1918


Article 7


1. All nationals are equal before the law. Privileges based upon birth, sex, estate, class or religion are excluded. No one shall

be discriminated against because of his disability. The Republic (Federation, Laender and municipalities) commits itself to

ensuring the equal treatment of disabled and non-disabled persons in all spheres of everyday life.

2. The Federation, Laender and municipalities subscribe to the de-facto equality of men and women. Measures to promote

factual equality of women and men, particularly by eliminating actually existing inequalities, are admissible.

…

ELIMINATING ACTUALLY EXISTING INEQUALITIES

Article 9a

…

3. Every male national is liable to military service. Female nationals may render voluntary service in the Federal Army as

soldiers and have the right to terminate such service. VOLUNTARY SERVICE IN THE FEDERAL ARMY

…

Article 12

1. In the following matters legislation as regards principles is the business of the Federation, the issue of implementing laws

and execution the business of the Laender:

1. social welfare; population policy in so far as it does not fall under Art 10; public social and welfare establishments;

maternity, infant and adolescent welfare; hospitals and nursing homes; requirements to be imposed for health reasons on

health resorts, sanatoria, and health establishments; natural curative resources; MATERNITY WELFARE

...

Article 13

…

3. Federation, Laender and municipalities have to aim at the equal status of women and men in the budgeting.

EQUAL STATUS IN THE BUDGETING

Article 14

…

6. … Admission to public school is open to all without distinction of birth, sex, race, estate, class, language and religion,

and in other respects within the limits of the statutory requirements… ADMISSION TO PUBLIC SCHOOL: BANNED DISCRIMINATION

Article 26

1. The National Council is elected by the Federal people in accordance with the principles of proportional representation on

the basis of equal, direct, personal, free and secret suffrage by men and women who have completed their sixteenth year of

life on the day of election. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

…

Article 51

…

8. In the management of the Federal budgets the principles of striving for efficiency, mainly under respect of the goal of

equal treatment of women and men, transparency, efficiency and a true picture of the financial situation of the Federation

as much as possible are to be respected. EQUAL TREATMENT IN FEDERAL BUDGETS

9.1 …the measures for an administration striving for efficiency, especially also under respect of the goal of equal

treatment of women and men; ADMINISTRATION PURSUES THE GOAL OF EQUAL TREATMENT

…

31

AZERBAIJAN 1918

Chamber name: Milli Mejlis (National Assembly)


Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2015-11

2014-01

2010-11

2010-01

2006-01

2005-01

2000-11

1996-02

1995-11

1990-09

20

21

19

20

14

13

15

13

1

15

1

16.81%

16.94%

15.57%

16%

11.38%

10.48%

12%

10.48%

2%

12.1%

2%



Independence: 1991


Parliament name: Milli Mejlis (National Assembly)

In 1918-1920, when Azerbaijan was first independent, women were granted the right to vote and stand for election:

Azerbaijan became one of the first countries in the world, and the very first majority-Muslim nation, to grant women equal

political rights with men. Under Soviet administration women also had these rights; they were again confirmed at

independence in 1991. In September 1990 the Soviet Supreme of the SSR of Azerbaijan became the first legislature of

Azerbaijan after the country became independent on 18 October 1991. Women from Azerbaijan were previously elected to

the Supreme Soviet of the SSR of Azerbaijan and to the Parliament of the USSR.


Article 2: The Sovereignty of the People

…

II. The Azerbaijan people implement their sovereign right by universal elections-referendum and by their representatives

elected on the basis of universal, direct and equal elections by secret and individual ballot. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Article 25: Right to Equality

I. Everyone is equal before the law and the court.

II. Men and women have equal rights and freedoms. EQUAL RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS

III. Everyone has equal rights and freedoms irrespective of race, ethnicity, religion, sex, origin, property status, social position,

convictions, political party, trade union organization and social unity affiliation. Limitations or recognition of rights and

freedoms because of race, ethnicity, social status, language, origin, convictions and religion are prohibited.

…


32

Article 34: Right to Marriage

…

IV. The rights of husband and wife are equal. The care and raising of children is the right and obligation of both parents.


BAHAMAS 1961

Right to vote: February 18, 1961

Right to stand for election: 1962


Independence: 1973

Population: 391,515


Chamber name: House of Assembly



Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: No

DATE WOMEN %

2017-05

2012-05

2007-05

2002-05

1997-03

1992-08

1987-06

1982-06

1973-07

5

5

5

8

6

4

2

1

0

12.82%

13.16%

12.2%

20%

15%

8.16%

4.08%

2.33%

0%




Appointed by the Governor General


DATE WOMEN %

2017-05

2012-05

2010-01

2009-01

2007-12

2007-06

2007-05

1998-01

1997-11

1987-06

1982-06

1977-07

1973-07

7

4

9

5

9

8

9

7

5

3

4

3

0

43.75%

25%

60%

33.33%

60%

53.33%

60%

43.75%

31.25%

18.75%

25%

18.75%

0%

Prior to independence, under British administration, adult male suffrage was introduced in 1959, although members of the

electorate satisfying certain property qualifications also received a second vote. Women were granted the vote in 1961 and

by 1964 all property qualifications had been abolished. The right to vote was confirmed at independence. Janet Gwennett

Bostwick (born Musgrove) in 1977 was appointed to the Senate and in 1982 became the first woman elected to the House of

Assembly.


Article 15. Fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual

Whereas every person in The Bahamas is entitled to the fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual, that is to say,

has the right, whatever his race, place of origin, political opinions, colour, creed or sex, but subject to respect for the rights

and freedoms of others and for the public interest, to each and all of the following, namely:

a. life, liberty, security of the person and the protection of the law;

b. freedom of conscience, of expression and of assembly and association; and


c. protection for the privacy of his home and other property and from deprivation of property without compensation, the

subsequent provisions of this Chapter shall have effect for the purpose of affording protection to the aforesaid rights and

freedoms subject to such limitations of that protection as are contained in those provisions, being limitations designed to

ensure that the enjoyment of the said rights and freedoms by any individual does not prejudice the rights and freedoms of

others or the public interest.

33

BAHRAIN 2002

Right to vote and to stand for election: October 24, 2002


Independence: 1971


Parliament name: Al-Majlis Al-Watani (National

Assembly)

Chamber name: Majlis Al-Nuwab (Council of

Representatives)



Directly elected


Chamber name: Majlis Al-Shura (Shura Council)



Appointed by the King


DATE WOMEN %

2018-11

2014-11

2014-01

2013-01

2010-10

2006-12

1973-12

6

3

4

1

4

1

0

15%

7.5%

10%

2.5%

10%

2.5%

0%

DATE WOMEN %

2014-12

2010-11

2006-01

2002-10

9

11

10

6

22.5%

27.5%

25%

15%

According to the Constitution (6 December 1973), all citizens are equal before the law; however the Electoral Law that was

adopted as a follow up, did not recognize women's suffrage. Women were consequently not able to exercise electoral rights

in the only legislative elections held in Bahrain in December 1973. In 1999, women were allowed to stand for election for

municipal councils, which they had been able to vote for since 1951. Women voted in 2001 for the referendum on the New

Constitution, which came into being in 2002 and confirmed women's suffrage. In 2006, Lateefa Al Gaood (1956- )became the

first female candidate to be elected to the Council of Representatives.


Article 1

…

e. Citizens, both men and women, are entitled to participate in public affairs and may enjoy political rights, including the

right to vote and to stand for elections, in accordance with this Constitution and the conditions and principles laid down

by law. No citizen can be deprived of the right to vote or to nominate oneself for elections except by law.

… RIGHT TO VOTE AND TO STAND FOR ELECTIONS

34

Article 5

FAMILY SUBJECT TO RELIGION

a. The family is the basis of society, deriving its strength from religion, morality and love of the homeland. The law preserves

its lawful entity, strengthens its bonds and values, under its aegis extends protection to mothers and children, tends the

young and protects them from exploitation and safeguards them against moral, bodily and spiritual neglect. The State cares

in particular for the physical, moral and intellectual development of the young.

b. The State guarantees reconciling the duties of women towards the family with their work in society, and their equality

with men in political, social, cultural, and economic spheres without breaching the provisions of Islamic canon law

(Shari’a). DUTIES OF WOMEN EQUALITY SUBJECT TO RELIGION

BAHRAIN 2002

Article 18

People are equal in human dignity, and citizens are equal before the law in public rights and duties. There shall be no

discrimination among them on the basis of sex, origin, language, religion or creed. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

35

BANGLADESH 1972



Independence: 1972


Parliament name: Jatiya Sangsad (Parliament)

Chamber name: Jatiya Sangsad (Parliament)


Directly elected: 300

Electoral quota for women: Yes, 50 seats indirectly elected. Fifty seats shall be reserved exclusively for women members, who

will be elected by the aforesaid members in accordance with the law on the basis of proportional representation in

Parliament by single transferable vote. These seats, reserved for women, are distributed to political parties in proportion to

their overall share of the votes received in the election. The candidates are approved by a vote of parliament. In accordance

with the constitutional amendment (Fifteenth Amendment Act) passed by parliament on 30 June 2011, the number of seats

reserved for women in parliament has increased from 45 to 50, bringing the total number of seats to 350.

Legal source: Constitution, art. 65(3)

DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2016-12

2014-12

2014-04

2014-03

2014-01

2013-01

2011-01

2009-01

2008-12

2007-01

2006-01

2005-01

2001-10

1996-06

1988-03

1979-02

1973-03

72

71

70

69

67

19

64

69

64

69

6

52

51

6

30

34

30

15

20.57%

20.29%

20%

19.83%

19.31%

6.4%

18.29%

19.71%

18.55%

19.71%

2%

15.07%

14.78%

2%

9.09%

10.3%

9.09%

4.76%

At the independence of Bangladesh, women's suffrage became actual. Prior to independence, the Government of India Act,

which was adopted in 1935 granted conditional suffrage to women. According to information provided by Pakistan, women

had to be literate, have an income and pay taxes. When Pakistan became an independent dominion in 1947 this right was

confirmed and also applied to Bangladesh, then being East Pakistan. Universal suffrage was granted to women in Pakistan in

1956, when Bangladesh was still a part of it. In 1973, no woman was directly elected: 15 seats were added to the 300 of the

elected men.


36

Article 19. Equality of opportunity

…

EQUAL OPPORTUNITY AND PARTICIPATION IN ALL SPHERES

3. The State shall endeavour to ensure equality of opportunity and participation of women in all spheres of national life.

BANGLADESH 1972

Article 28. Discrimination on grounds of religion, etc.


1. The State shall not discriminate against any citizen on ground only of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.

2. Women shall have equal rights with men in all spheres of the State and of public life. EQUAL RIGHTS

3. No citizen shall, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth be subjected to any disability, liability,

restriction or condition with regard to access to any place of public entertainment or resort, or admission to any

educational institution. ACCESS TO PUBLIC PLACES

4. Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from making special provision in favour of women or children or for the

advancement of any backward section of citizens. ADVANCEMENT OF ANY BACKWARD SECTION

Article 29. Equality of opportunity in public employment

…

2. No citizen shall, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth, be ineligible for, or discriminated against in

respect of, any employment or office in the service of the Republic. GENDER EQUALITY IN EMPLOYMENT OR STATE OFFICE

3. Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from:

…

c. reserving for members of one sex any class of employment or office on the ground that it is considered by its nature to

be unsuited to members of the opposite sex. SEATS RESERVED IN MALE JOBS

Article 65. Establishment of Parliament

…

2. Parliament shall consist of three hundred members to be elected in accordance with law from single territorial

constituencies by direct election and, for so long as clause (3) is effective, the members provided for in that clause; the

member shall be designated as Members of Parliament.

3. Until the dissolution of Parliament occurring next after the expiration of the period of ten years beginning from the date

of the first meeting of the Parliament next after the Parliament in existence at the time of the

commencement of the Constitution (Fourteenth Amendment) Act, 2004, there shall be reserved fifty seats exclusively for

women members and they will be elected by the aforesaid members in accordance with law on the basis of procedure of

proportional representation in the Parliament through single transferable vote: Provided that nothing in this clause shall be

deemed to prevent a woman from being elected to any of the seats provided for in clause (2) of this article.

3A. For the remaining period of the Parliament in existence at the time of the commencement of the Constitution (Fifteenth

Amendment) Act, 2011, Parliament shall consist of three hundred members elected by direct election provided for in clause

(2) and fifty women members provided for in clause (3). RESERVED SEATS IN PARLIAMENT

37

BARBADOS 1950



Independence: 1966

Population: 287,210

Parliament name: Parliament of Barbados (Parlement de

Barbade)




Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2018-06

2013-02

2008-01

2003-05

1994-09

1991-01

1981-06

1976-09

1971-09

1966-11

6

5

3

4

3

1

1

1

2

0

20%

16.67%

10%

13.33%

10.71%

3.57%

3.7%

4.17%

8.33%

0%




Appointed by the Governor General


DATE WOMEN %

2019-04

2018-06

2014-12

2013-03

2010-01

2009-01

2008-02

2003-05

1999-01

1991-01

1981-06

1971-09

1966-11

9

8

5

6

4

7

4

5

7

6

4

3

2

42.86%

38.1%

23.81%

28.57%

19.05%

33.33%

19.05%

23.81%

33.33%

28.57%

19.05%

14.29%

9.52%

Prior to independence, under British administration, women were granted the right to vote and stand for election on 23

October 1950 and a woman, Edna Ermyntrude Bourne, was elected on 18 December 1951. These rights were confirmed at

independence.


Article 11

Whereas every person in Barbados is entitled to the fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual, that is to say, the

right, whatever his race, place of origin, political opinions, colour, creed or sex, but subject to respect for the rights and

freedoms of others and for the public interest, to each and all of the following, namely: DISCRIMINATION BANNED

a. life, liberty and security of the person;

b. protection for the privacy of his home and other property and from

deprivation of property without compensation;

c. the protection of the law; and

d. freedom of conscience, of expression and of assembly and association

…

38

BELARUS 1919

Right to vote and to stand for election: February 4, 1919


Independence: 1991


Parliament name: Natsionalnoye Sobranie (National

Assembly)

Chamber name: Palata Predstaviteley (House of

Representatives)



Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2019-11

2016-09

2014-12

2012-09

2008-09

2004-10

2000-10

1996

1990-03

44

38

30

29

35

32

10

5

12

40%

34.55%

27.27%

26.36%

31.82%

29.09%

10.31%

4.55%

3.8%

Chamber name: Soviet Respubliki (Council of the

Republic)



Indirectly elected: 56. Eight members may be appointed by

the Head of State.


DATE WOMEN %

2019-11

2016-12

2015-01

2012-08

2008-01

2004-11

2000-12

2000-10

1997

14

17

19

20

19

18

19

18

19

25%

30.36%

32.76%

35.71%

33.93%

31.58%

30.65%

29.51%

31.15%

Prior to independence, under Soviet administration women in Belarus were granted universal suffrage on 4 February 1919,

when Belarus was a part of the USSR. In the RSFSR which, at the time claimed sovereignty over Belarus, women were granted

the right to vote in 1918. This right was confirmed at independence. In March 1990 the Soviet Supreme of the SSR of Belarus

became the first legislature of Belarus after the country became independent on 25 August 1991.


Article 32

MOTHERHOOD UNDER PROTECTION

Marriage, the family, motherhood, fatherhood, and childhood shall be under the protection of the State.

On reaching the age of consent women and men shall have the right to enter into marriage on a voluntary basis and start a

family. A husband and wife shall be equal in family relationships. MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

…

Women shall be guaranteed equal rights with men in their opportunities to receive education and vocational training,

promotion in labour, socio-political, cultural and other spheres of activity, as well as in creating conditions safeguarding

their labour and health.

… EQUAL RIGHTS TO RECEIVE EDUCATION, PROMOTION IN LABOUR, SOCIO-POLITICAL, CULTURAL AND SAFEGUARDING LABOUR AND HEALTH

Article 38

Citizens of the Republic of Belarus shall have the right to vote freely and to be elected to state bodies on the basis of

universal, equal, direct or indirect suffrage by secret ballot. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Article 42

…

EQUAL PAY FOR WORK

Women and men and adults and minors shall be entitled to equal remuneration for work of equal value.

39

BELGIUM 1948

Right to vote and to stand for election: March 27, 1948



Parliament name: Parlement fédéral - Federaal Parlement

- Föderales Parlament (Federal Parliament)

40

Chamber name: Chambre des Représentants (House of

Representatives)



Directly elected


quotas. On electoral lists, the number of candidates of

either gender cannot be greater than the other. This also

applies to the list of alternates. The two top candidates on

candidate lists and on the lists of alternates cannot be of

the same gender.

Legal source: Cf. Article 117bis of Electoral Code.

DATE WOMEN %

2019-12

2019-06

2019-05

2016-12

2014-05

2014-01

2010-06

2009-01

2008-01

2003-05

1999-06

1998

1997

1995-05

1991-11

1987-12

1985-10

1981-11

1978-12

1977-04

1974-03

1971-11

1968-03

1965-05

1961-03

1954-04

1950-06

1949-06

1946-02

61

63

64

57

59

62

59

57

55

53

35

18

19

18

20

18

16

12

16

15

14

6

8

7

11

9

7

5

3

40.67%

42%

42.67%

38%

39.33%

41.33%

39.33%

38%

36.67%

35.33%

23.33%

12%

12.67%

12%

9.43%

8.49%

7.55%

5.66%

7.55%

7.08%

6.6%

2.83%

3.77%

3.3%

5.19%

4.25%

3.3%

2.36%

1.49%

Chamber name: Sénat - Senaat - Senat (Senate)



Indirectly elected members: 50 senators of the federal

entities designated by Community and Regional Parliaments

Other: 10 senators - six Dutch-speaking and four

French-speaking - co-opted by the senators of the federal

entities based on the election results for the House of

Representatives.

Electoral quota for women: Yes. The Senate shall not have

more than two thirds of its members of the same sex. It shall

therefore be composed of at least 20 men and at least 20

women Senators.

Legal source: Cf. Article 67 (3) of Constitution.

DATE WOMEN %

2019-12

2019-07

2018-12

2014-07

2010-06

2009-01

2008-01

2007-07

2005-01

2004-01

2003-05

1999-06

1995-05

1991-11

1987-12

1985-10

1981-11

1978-12

1977-04

1974-03

1971-11

1968-03

1965-05

1961-03

1954-04

1949-06

1946-02

27

28

26

30

27

29

23

27

22

26

23

20

16

20

15

22

21

19

16

12

5

0

2

3

6

7

5

45%

46.67%

43.33%

50%

38.03%

40.85%

32.39%

38.03%

30.99%

36.62%

32.39%

28.17%

22.54%

10.87%

8.15%

11.96%

11.6%

10.5%

8.84%

6.63%

2.81%

0%

1.12%

1.71%

3.43%

4%

2.99%

BELGIUM 1948

The Law of 9 May 1919 gave the right to vote in national election to the widows or mothers of servicemen killed during the

war, citizens shot or killed by the enemy and women political prisoners. Universal suffrage was introduced for men in 1919

and was exercised for the first time in 1921. In 1921, women were given the right to stand for election in communal,

provincial and parliamentary elections and on 27 December 1921 Marie Janson (1873–1960) was co-opted in Senate. The

Law of 27 March 1948 then gave all women the right to vote in the same conditions as for men. Women voted for the first

time in 1949.


Article 10

…

Equality between women and men is guaranteed.

EQUAL RIGHTS

Article 11bis

EQUALLY EXERCISE RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS EQUAL ACCESS ELECTIVE AND PUBLIC MANDATES

The law, federate law or rule referred to in Article 134 guarantees that women and men may equally exercise their rights

and freedoms, and in particular promotes their equal access to elective and public mandates.

INCLUSION IN THE GOVERNMENTS

The Council of Ministers and the Governments of the Communities and the Regions include both women and men.

The law, federate law or rule referred to in Article 134 provides for women and men to sit on the permanent deputations of

the provincial councils, the colleges of the burgomasters and aldermen, the councils and permanent committees of the

public centres for social welfare and on the executives of any other inter-provincial, supra-municipal, inter-municipal or

intra-municipal territorial body. INCLUSION IN THE COUNCILS, COLLEGES, COMMITTEES AND MUNICIPALITIES

…

Article 67

…

§ 3. The Senate is composed of no more than two-thirds of senators of the same gender.

…

RESERVED SEATS FOR GENDER IN SENATE

41

BELIZE 1954



Independence: 1981

Population: 394,050

Parliament name: National Assembly




Directly elected: 31. The Speaker may be designated from

outside parliament and becomes a member of parliament

by virtue of holding the office of Speaker.


DATE WOMEN %

2017-01

2014-01

2012-03

2009-01

2008-04

2008-02

2007-01

2003-03

1998-08

1993-06

1989-09

1984-12

3

1

1

0

4

3

5

1

2

1

0

1

9.38%

3.13%

3.13%

0%

33.33%

25%

15.63%

3.33%

6.9%

3.45%

0%

3.57%




Appointed members: 6 members are appointed on the

advice of the Prime Minister; 3 on the advice of the Leader of

the Opposition; 1 on the advice of the Belize Council of

Churches and the Evangelical Association of Churches; 1 on

the advice of the Belize Chamber of Commerce and Industry

and the Belize Business Bureau; and 1 on the advice of the

National Trade Union Congress of Belize and the Civil Society

Steering Committee. The Speaker may be designated from

outside the Senate and becomes a member of the Senate by

virtue of holding the office of Speaker.


DATE WOMEN %

2017-01

2016-12

2008-04

2008-03

1984-12

2

4

5

4

3

15.38%

30.77%

33.33%

28.57%

30%

Prior to independence, under British administration women were granted the right to vote on 25 March 1954. This right was

confirmed at independence. In April 1961, Gwendolyn Lizarraga (1901-1975) became the first woman elected to the National

Assembly of British Honduras.


Preamble

WHEREAS the people of Belize

…

ELIMINATION ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL PRIVILEGE AND DISPARITY

e. …which eliminate economic and social privilege and disparity among the citizens of Belize whether by race, ethnicity,

colour, creed, disability or sex; which ensures gender equality;… GENDER EQUALITY

42

3. Fundamental rights and freedoms

Whereas every person in Belize is entitled to the fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual, that is to say, the right,

whatever his race, place of origin, political opinions, colour, creed or sex, but subject to respect for the rights and freedoms

of others and for the public interest, to each and all of the following, namely:

a. life, liberty, security of the person, and the protection of the law;

b. freedom of conscience, of expression and of assembly and association;


c. protection for his family life, his personal privacy, the privacy of his home and other property and recognition of his human

dignity; and

BELIZE 1954

d. protection from arbitrary deprivation of property,

…

16. Protection from discrimination on the grounds of race, etc

…



wholly or mainly to their respective descriptions by sex, race, place of origin, political opinions, colour or creed whereby

persons of one such description are subjected to disabilities or restrictions to which persons of another such description are

not made subject or are accorded privileges or advantages which are not accorded to persons of another such description.

…


the extent that it makes provision with respect to standards or qualifications (not being standards or qualifications

specifically relating to sex, race, place of origin, political opinions, colour or creed) to be required of any person who is

appointed to or to act in any office or employment. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

92. Conduct of voting

At any general election UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

a. every citizen of Belize or a citizen of any Commonwealth Country who has attained the age of eighteen years and who

satisfies the requirements of the Representation of the People Act shall have the right to vote;

b. no person shall be entitled to more than one vote; and

c. votes shall be cast in a secret ballot.

43

BENIN 1956



Independence: 1960


Parliament name: Assemblée nationale (National

Assembly)

DATE WOMEN %

2019-04

2015-04

2014-01

2011-04

2010-01

2007-03

2003-03

1998

1997

1995-04

1991-02

1989-06

1984-06

1979-11

6

6

7

8

9

7

6

5

6

5

4

6

8

28

7.23%

7.23%

8.43%

9.64%

10.84%

8.43%

7.23%

7.81%

7.23%

7.81%

6.25%

2.93%

4.08%

8.33%

Chamber name: Assemblée nationale (National Assembly)


Directly elected


Prior to independence, under French administration, article 10 of the 1956 framework law gave the right to vote for the

territorial assemblies to both sexes over 21. Universal suffrage was first exercised in the 1957 elections. Universal suffrage

was confirmed at independence.


Article 6

Suffrage shall be universal, equal and secret. The electors shall be, under the conditions determined by law, all Béninese

nationals of both sexes over the age of eighteen and in full possession of their civil and political rights. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Article 26

The State shall assure to everyone equality before the law without distinction of origin, of race, of sex, of religion, of

political opinion or of social position. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Men and women are equal under the law. The State shall protect the family and particularly the mother and child. It shall

take care of handicapped and aged persons. EQUALITY UNDER THE LAW PROTECTION OF THE MOTHER

44

BHUTAN 2008



Population: 767,528

Parliament name: Chi Tshog (Parliament)

Chamber name: Tshogdu (National Assembly)



Directly elected


Chamber name: Gyelyong Tshogde (National Council)



Directly elected members: 20

Appointed members by the King: 5


DATE WOMEN %

2018-10

2014-01

2013-07

2008-03

2006

1991

1975

1953

7

4

3

4

4

0

3

0

14.89%

8.51%

6.38%

8.51%

2.67%

0%

2%

0%

DATE WOMEN %

2018-06

2018-05

2018-04

2013-04

2008-03

2007

4

2

4

2

6

3

16%

8%

16%

8%

24%

20%

In 1953, women were granted the right to vote and to stand for election, but suffrage was limited to one vote per household.

The new constitution, adopted by Parliament on 21 July 2008 provides for universal suffrage.


Article 7: Fundamental Rights

...

15. All persons are equal before the law and are entitled to equal and effective protection of the law and shall not be

discriminated against on the grounds of race, sex, language, religion, politics or other status.

...

22. Notwithstanding the rights conferred by this Constitution, nothing in this Article shall prevent the State from subjecting

reasonable restriction by law, when it concerns:

… RESTRICTION BY LAW AGAINST INCITEMENT TO OFFEND

d. Incitement to an offence on the grounds of race, sex, language, religion or region;


Article 9: Principles of State Policy

...

ELIMINATING ALL FORMS OF DISCRIMINATION AND EXPLOITATION

17. The State shall endeavour to take appropriate measures to eliminate all forms of discrimination and exploitation

against women including trafficking, prostitution, abuse, violence, harassment and intimidation at work in both public and

private spheres.

…

Article 23: Elections

1. Under this Constitution, the general will of the people shall be the basis of government and it shall be expressed through

45

BHUTAN 2008

periodic elections.

2. A person shall have the right to vote by direct adult suffrage through secret ballot at an election if the person is:

a. A Bhutanese citizen as evidenced by a Citizenship Card;

b. Not less than eighteen years of age;

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

c. Registered in the civil registry of that constituency for not less than one year, prior to the date of the election; and

d. Not otherwise disqualified from voting under any law in force in Bhutan.

3. A candidate for an elective office under this Constitution shall:

a. Be a Bhutanese citizen;

b. Be registered voter of that constituency;

c. Be a minimum of twenty-five years and maximum of sixty-five years of age at the time of filing the nomination;

d. Not receive money or any assistance from foreign sources, be it governmental, nongovernmental, private organizations or

from private parties or individuals; and

e. Fulfil the necessary educational and other qualifications prescribed in the Electoral Laws.

...

46

BOLIVIA 1952




Parliament name: Asamblea Legislativa Plurinacional

(Plurinational Legislative Assembly)


Deputies)



Directly elected


quotas (50% men, 50% women). Both principal and

alternate candidate lists in multi-member constituencies

for elections to the Lower House (Cámara de Diputados)

must include equal numbers of men and women, in

alternation. In the case of a list composed of an odd

number of candidates, preference will be given to women.

In single-member constituencies, at least 50% of the

candidates (principal and alternate) nominated in all of the

constituencies must be women. This new legislation has

been applied to the Chamber of Deputies elected in 2014.

Legal source: Constitution, articles 26 and 147; articles 11

and 58 (2) of the 2010 Electoral Law.

DATE WOMEN %

2019-10

2014-10

2014-01

2011-01

2010-01

2009-12

2005-12

2002-06

1998

1997-06

1993-06

1989-05

1985-07

1980-06

1979-07

1966-07

1962

1958-07

1956-06

1951-04

69

69

33

29

33

29

22

24

15

9

14

12

4

1

3

1

2

0

1

0

53.08%

53.08%

25.38%

22.31%

25.38%

22.31%

16.92%

18.46%

11.54%

6.92%

10.77%

9.23%

3.08%

0.77%

2.56%

0.97%

1.94%

0%

1.79%

0%

Chamber name: Cámara de Senadores (Chamber of

Senators)



Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Articles 11 and 54 (2) of the

Electoral Law (2010) require that both principal and alternate

candidate lists in multi-member constituencies for elections

to the Upper House (Senado) must include equal number of

men and women, in alternation. In single-member

constituencies, at least 50% of the candidates (principal and

alternate) nominated in the total number of constituencies

must be women. This new legislation has been applied to the

Chamber of Senators elected in 2014.

Legal source: Constitution, articles 26 and 147; articles 11 and

54 (2) of the 2010 Electoral Law.

DATE WOMEN %

2019-10

2014-10

2013

2010

2009-12

2005-12

2004

2002-06

1989-05

1980-06

1979-07

1951-04

17

17

15

17

15

1

3

4

1

2

1

0

47.22%

47.22%

41.67%

47.22%

41.67%

3.7%

11.11%

14.81%

3.7%

7.41%

3.7%

0%

Literate women and those with a certain level of income were given the right to vote and to stand for election in 1938. These

rights were extended to all women in 1952. Lidia Gueiler Tejada (1921-2011) was the first woman elected in 1956.

47

BOLIVIA 1952


Article 8

…

II. The State is based on the values of unity, equality, inclusion, dignity, liberty, solidarity, reciprocity, respect,

interdependence, harmony, transparency, equilibrium, equality of opportunity, social and gender equality in participation,

common welfare, responsibility, social justice, distribution and redistribution of the social wealth and assets for well being.

GENDER EQUALITY

Article 11

I. The Republic of Bolivia adopts a participatory democratic, representative and communal form of government, with equal

conditions for men and women. EQUAL CONDITIONS OF PARTICIPATION IN THE GOVERNMENT

II. Democracy is exercised in the following forms, which shall be developed by law:

…

2. Representative, by means of the election of representatives by universal, direct and secret vote, in accordance with the law.


Article 14

…

II. The State prohibits and punishes all forms of discrimination based on sex, color, age, sexual orientation, gender identity,

origin, culture, nationality, citizenship, language, religious belief, ideology, political affiliation or philosophy, civil status,

economic or social condition, type of occupation, level of education, disability, pregnancy, and any other discrimination that

attempts to or results in the annulment of or harm to the equal recognition, enjoyment or exercise of the rights of all people.

… DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Article 15

…

II. Everyone, in particular women, have the right not to suffer physical, sexual or psychological violence, in the family as

well as in the society. VIOLENCE BANNED

…

Article 26

I. All citizens have the right to participate freely in the formation, exercise and control of political power, directly or through

their representatives, individually or collectively. Participation shall be equitable and under equal conditions for men and

women. EQUAL CONDITIONS IN THE EXERCISE OF POLITICAL POWER

II. The right to participate includes:

…

2. The right to suffrage, by equal, universal, direct, individual, secret, free and obligatory vote, which is publicly counted.

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Article 45

…

SOCIAL SECURITY SYSTEM FOR MATERNITY

III. The social security system covers assistance for the following reasons:…maternity or paternity;

…

SAFE MATERNITY

V. Women have the right to a safe maternity, with an inter-cultural practice and vision; they shall enjoy the special

assistance and protection of the State during pregnancy and birth and in the prenatal and postnatal periods.

… SPECIAL ASSISTANCE AND PROTECTION DURING PREGNANCY, BIRTH AND POSTNATAL PERIODS

Article 48

…

INCORPORATION IN THE WORKFORCE EQUAL PAY FOR WORK

V. The State shall promote the incorporation of women into the workforce and shall guarantee them the same

remuneration as men for work of equal value, both in the public and private arena.

VI. Women shall not be discriminated against or fired because of their civil status, because of pregnancy, because of their

age or physical features, or because of the number of children they have. It is guaranteed that pregnant women and

parents cannot be dismissed from employment until the child completes one year of age.

… NOT DISCRIMINATED OR FIRED BECAUSE OF CIVIL STATUS, PREGNANCY, AGE, PHYSICAL FEATURES OR NUMBER OF CHILDREN

NOT DISMISSED FROM EMPLOYMENT UNTIL THE CHILD IS ONE YEAR OF AGE

Article 49

I. The right of collective bargaining is recognized.

II. The following shall be regulated by law:…maternity leave;… MATERNITY LEAVE

Article 58

Every person of minor age is considered a child or adolescent. Children and adolescents have rights recognized in the

Constitution, with the limits established by it, and they have the specific rights inherent to their development; to their

48

BOLIVIA 1952

ethnic, socio-cultural, gender and generational identity; and to the satisfaction of their needs, interests and aspirations.

GENDER SPECIFIC RIGHTS FOR CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS

Article 63

I. The marriage between a man and a woman is formed by legal bond and is based on equality of the rights and duties of

the spouses. MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

…

Article 66

SEXUAL AND REPRODUCTIVE RIGHTS

Women and men are guaranteed the exercise of sexual rights and their reproductive rights.

Article 79 GENDER EQUALITY IN EDUCATION

Education shall promote civic-mindedness, intercultural dialogue and ethical moral values. The values shall incorporate

gender equality, non differentiation of roles, non-violence, and the full enforcement of human rights.

Article 104 GENDER EQUALITY IN SPORT

Everyone has the right to sports, physical culture and recreation. The State guarantees access to sports without distinction as

to gender, language, religion, political orientation, territorial location, social, cultural membership or any other characteristic.

Article 147 EQUAL PARTICIPATION IN ELECTION OF LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY

I. The equal participation of men and women shall be guaranteed in the election of the members of the assembly.

Article 172

The attributes of the President of the State, in addition to those established by this Constitution and the law, are the

following:

…

22. To designate the Ministers of State, respecting the Pluri-National character of the country and gender equity in the

composition of the ministerial cabinet. GENDER EQUITY IN COMPOSITION OF GOVERNMENT

…

Article 210

…

II. The internal election of the leaders and the candidates of the citizen associations, and of the political parties, shall be

regulated and supervised by the Pluri-National Electoral Organ, which shall guarantee the equal participation of men and

women. EQUALITY OF PARTICIPATION IN THE ELECTIONS OF LEADERS AND CANDIDATES OF ASSOCIATIONS AND POLITICAL PARTIES

Article 270

The principles that govern territorial organization and the decentralized and autonomous territorial entities are: unity,

voluntariness, solidarity, equity, the common good, self government, equality, complementariness, reciprocity, gender

equity, subsidiarity, gradualness, coordination and institutional faithfulness, transparency, public participation and control,

provision of economic resources and the pre-existence of the nations and rural native indigenous peoples, under the terms

established in this Constitution. GENDER EQUITY IN TERRITORIAL ORGANIZATION AND AUTONOMOUS TERRITORIAL ENTITIES

Article 278

…

II. The law shall determine the general criteria for the election of members of the departmental assemblies, taking into

account population, territorial, cultural identity and linguistic representation when there are rural native indigenous

minorities, and parity and alternation of gender. ...

ALTERNATION OF GENDER IN THE ELECTION OF MEMBERS OF THE DEPARTMENTAL ASSEMBLIES

Article 300

I. The autonomous departmental governments have exclusive authority over the following in their jurisdictions:

…

30. Promotion and development of projects and policies for children and adolescents, women, the elderly and persons

with disabilities. PROMOTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIFIC PROJECTS AND POLICIES

…

Article 395

I. The lands that are taken over shall be given to rural native indigenous peoples, intercultural indigenous communities,

Afro-Bolivian and rural communities, which do not possess them or have insufficient lands, in accordance with state policy

concerned with the ecological and geographic realities, as well as the population, social, cultural and economic necessities.

The endowment shall be carried out according to the policies of sustainable rural development and the right of women to

access, distribution and redistribution of land, without discrimination based on civil status or marital union.…

RIGHT OF WOMEN TO ACCESS, DISTRIBUTION AND REDISTRIBUTION OF LAND, WITHOUT DISCRIMINATION BASED ON

CIVIL STATUS OR MARITAL UNION

49

BOLIVIA 1952

Article 402

The State has the obligation to:…

2. To promote policies aimed at eliminating all forms of discrimination against women in the access to, ownership and

inheritance of land. PROMOTION OF POLICIES TO ELIMINATE ALL FORMS OF DISCRIMINATION

50

BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA 1949



Independence: 1992


Parliament name: Skupstina (Parliamentary Assembly)

Chamber name: Predstavnicki dom (House of

Representatives)



Directly elected: 28 from the Federation of Bosnia and

Herzegovina, 14 from the Republika Srpska


quotas.

Legal source: Cf. Article 4.19 of Electoral Law.

Chamber name: Dom Naroda (House of Peoples)



Appointed: 10 from the Federation of Bosnia and

Herzegovina and 5 from the Republika Srpska.


DATE WOMEN %

2018-10

2014

2013

2010-10

2010-01

2009

2008

2007

2006-10

2002-10

2000-11

1998-09

1990-11

9

9

7

9

7

8

6

5

6

7

3

12

7

21.43%

21.43%

16.67%

21.43%

16.67%

19.05%

14.29%

11.9%

14.29%

16.67%

7.14%

28.57%

4.49%

DATE WOMEN %

2019-02

2007-03

2006-01

1998-09

3

2

1

0

20%

13.33%

6.67%

0%

Equal rights were given to men and women in 1943 by the law voted by the Antifascist National Council for Liberation of

Yugoslavia (the supreme representative organ with Executive and Legislative power to which a woman was first elected on

29 November 1943). This law was upheld by the Constitution of 1946. In November 1990 the Assembly of the Federated

Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina became the first legislature of Bosnia and Herzegovina after the country became

independent in March 1992. Women of Bosnia and Herzegovina were previously elected to the Parliament of the SFR of

Yugoslavia.


Article I: Bosnia and Herzegovina

7. Citizenship

…

b. No person shall be deprived of Bosnia and Herzegovina or Entity citizenship arbitrarily or so as to leave him or her stateless.

No person shall be deprived of Bosnia and Herzegovina or Entity citizenship on any ground such as sex, race, color,

language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, association with a national minority, property, birth or

other status. NO PERSON DEPRIVED OF CITIZENSHIP DUE TO SEX

…

51

BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA 1949

Article II: Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms

4. Non-Discrimination

The enjoyment of the rights and freedoms provided for in this Article or in the international agreements listed in Annex I to

this Constitution shall be secured to all persons in Bosnia and Herzegovina without discrimination on any ground such as

sex, race, color, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, association with a national minority,

property, birth or other status. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Annex I: Additional Human Rights Agreements To Be Applied In Bosnia And Herzegovina

…

9. 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women

… CONVENTION: ELIMINATION ALL FORMS DISCRIMINATION

52

BOTSWANA 1965



Independence: 1966



Chamber name: National Assembly



Indirectly elected: 6 members elected by the National Assembly.

Other: 2 ex officio members, the President of the Republic and the Speaker,

who may be appointed from outside the National Assembly.

DATE WOMEN %

2019-10

2014-11

2014-10

2014-01

2009-10

2004-10

1999-10

1994-10

1989-10

1984-09

1979-10

1974-10

1965-03

7

6

5

6

5

7

8

4

2

2

2

2

0

10.77%

9.52%

8.06%

9.52%

7.94%

11.11%

17.02%

10%

5%

5.13%

5.41%

5.4%

0%

Formally a British Colony, the 1965 Constitution only came into force upon independence in 1966. In 1974, Gaositwe

Keagakwa Tibe Chiepe (1922- ) and Kebatshabile Disele were specially elected as Members of Parliament.



Whereas every person in Botswana is entitled to the fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual, that is to say, the

right, whatever his or her race, place of origin, political opinions, colour, creed or sex, but subject to respect for the rights

and freedoms of others and for the public interest to each and all of the following, namely:




c. protection for the privacy of his or her home and other property and from deprivation of property without compensation.

the provisions of this Chapter shall have effect for the purpose of affording protection to those rights and freedoms subject

to such limitations of that protection as are contained in those provisions, being limitations designed to ensure that the

enjoyment of the said rights and freedoms by any individual does not prejudice the rights and freedoms of others or the

public interest.


…


3. In this section, the expression "discriminatory" means affording different treatment to different persons, attributable

wholly or mainly to their respective descriptions by race, tribe, place of origin, political opinions, colour, creed or sex whereby



53

BRAZIL 1932




Parliament name: Congresso nacional (National

Congress)

Chamber name: Cámara dos Deputados (Chamber of

Deputies)



Directly elected


quotas. Electoral law guarantees that lists contain a

minimum of 30% of candidates of each sex.

Legal source: Cf. Law 9.504/1997 amended by law

12.034/2009.

DATE WOMEN %

2018-10

2016-12

2015-02

2014-12

2014-10

2010-10

2008-01

2007-01

2006-01

2002-10

1998-10

1994-10

1990-10

1986-11

1982-11

1978-09

1974-11

1970-11

1966-11

1962-11

1958-10

1954-10

1950-10

1945-12

77

55

51

46

51

44

45

46

45

44

29

36

28

26

7

4

1

1

5

2

3

1

1

0

15.01%

10.72%

9.94%

8.97%

9.94%

8.58%

8.77%

8.97%

8.77%

8.58%

5.65%

7.02%

5.57%

5.34%

1.46%

0.95%

0.27%

0.32%

1.22%

0.49%

0.92%

0.31%

0.33%

0%

Chamber name: Senado Federal (Federal Senate)




Electoral law guarantees that lists contain a minimum of 30%

of candidates of each sex.

Legal source: Cf. Law 9.504/1997 amended by law

12.034/2009.

DATE WOMEN %

2018-10

2016-12

2015-02

2014-10

2010-01

2006-12

2006-10

2002-10

1994-10

1990-10

1982-11

1978-09

1945-12

12

12

13

11

13

10

12

10

6

2

0

1

0

14.81%

14.81%

16.05%

13.58%

16.05%

12.35%

14.81%

12.35%

7.41%

2.47%

0%

1.49%

0%

The right to vote and to stand for election was conquered in 1932 and incorporated into the 1934 Constitution as optional.

In 1933, Carlota Pereira de Queirós (1892-1982), a physician from the state of São Paulo, became the first woman elected to

the Chamber of Deputies (Eduardo Soares). Only the 1965 Electoral Code will equate the female vote with that of men.

54

BRAZIL 1932


Art 3

The fundamental objectives of the Federative Republic of Brazil are:

…

IV. to promote the well-being of all, without prejudice as to origin, race, sex, color, age and any other forms of

discrimination. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Art 5

Everyone is equal before the law, with no distinction whatsoever, guaranteeing to Brazilians and foreigners residing in the

Country the inviolability of the rights to life, liberty, equality, security and property, on the following terms:

I. men and women have equal rights and duties under the terms of this Constitution; EQUAL RIGHTS AND DUTIES

…

Art 6

Education, health, nutrition, labor, housing, transport, leisure, security, social security, protection of motherhood and

childhood and assistance to the destitute, are social rights, as set forth in this Constitution. PROTECTION OF MOTHERHOOD

Art 7

The following are rights of urban and rural workers, in addition to any others designed to improve their social condition:

…

XVIII. maternity leave without loss of job or wages for a period of one hundred-twenty days; MATERNITY LEAVE

…

XX. protection of the job market for women through specific incentives, as provided by law; PROTECTION OF THE JOB MARKET

…

XXX. prohibition of any difference in pay in performance of duties and in hiring criteria by reason of sex, age, color or

marital status; EQUAL PAY FOR WORK

…

Art 14

Popular sovereignty shall be exercised by universal suffrage, and by direct and secret vote, with equal value for all, and, as

provided by law… UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Art 143

Military service is compulsory as provided by law.

…

§2°. Women and the clergy are exempt from compulsory military service in peacetime but are subject to other duties that

may be assigned to them by law.

Art 183

An individual who possesses as his own an urban area of up to two hundred and fifty square meters, for five years without

interruption or opposition, using it as his or as his family's residence, shall acquire title to such property, provided that he

does not own any other urban or rural property.

§1°. The deed of title and concession of use shall be granted to the man or woman, or both, regardless of their marital status.

… USE OF URBAN AREA

Art 189

Beneficiaries of distribution of rural land under the agrarian reform shall receive deeds of title or concessions of use that are

nonnegotiable for a period of ten years.

Sole Paragraph

Deeds of title and concessions of use shall be granted to the man or woman, or to both, irrespective of their marital status,

pursuant to the terms and conditions provided for by law. DISTRIBUTION OF RURAL LAND

Art 201

Social security shall be organized in the form of a general regime, characterized by contributions and mandatory affiliation,

observing the criteria that preserve the financial and actuarial equilibrium, and shall provide for, as defined by law:

…

II. maternity protection, especially for pregnant women; MATERNITY PROTECTION FOR PREGNANT WOMEN

…

V. a pension for the death of an insured man or woman, for the spouse or companion, and dependents, obeying the

provision of § 2°. SOCIAL PENSION FOR THE DEATH

…

55

BRAZIL 1932

Art 203

Social assistance shall be provided to those who need it, regardless of contributions to social security, and shall have the

following objectives:

I. protection of the family, maternity, childhood, adolescence and old age; SOCIAL ASSISTANCE FOR MATERNITY PROTECTION

…

Art 226

The family, which is the foundation of society, shall enjoy special protection from the State.

…

§5°. The rights and duties of the conjugal society shall be exercised equally by men and women.

…

MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

56

BRUNEI 1959

Right to vote and to stand for election: 1959. Women (and

men) not allowed to vote and to stand for election since

1962.

Independence: 1984

Population: 435,503

Parliament name: Majlis Mesyuarat Negara (Legislative

Council)

Chamber name: Majlis Mesyuarat Negara (Legislative Council)

Statutory number of members: 45 (current members 33)

Appointed members (20): the Speaker, two titled persons, seven prominent citizens in public service and various fields of

endeavour, and eight representatives from four districts.

Other (13): The Sultan, the Crown Prince and Cabinet ministers (currently 11) who are ex officio members.

Brunei has not held direct legislative elections since 1962. Both men and women have voting rights only for local

elections.

The Constitution provides that the Legislative Council should consist of not more than 45 members as follows:

- Up to 30 people appointed by the Sultan from ex officio members (Cabinet Ministers), titled people, and prominent citizens

in public service and various fields of endeavour.

- Up to 15 representatives from the country's four districts: Brunei and Muara (up to seven members), Belait (up to three),

Tutong (up to three) and Temburong (up to two).

In addition, the Sultan and the Crown Prince are ex officio members.

DATE WOMEN %

2016-12

2016-03

2015-02

3

2

3

9.09%

6.45%

9.09%


4. Executive authority and principal officers

…

5. The appointment of Ministers and Deputy Ministers shall be made from among the Malay race professing the Islamic

Religion, save where His Majesty the Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan otherwise decides.

… ELIGIBILITY FOR CABINET: RACE, RELIGION AND MAJESTY

84A. Appointment to specified offices

1. No person shall be appointed to any office specified in the Third Schedule* unless he is a citizen of Brunei Darussalam of

the Malay race professing the Islamic Religion. APPOINTMENT TO SPECIFIED OFFICES: RACE AND RELIGION

*(Auditor General; Clerk to the Privy Council; Clerk to the Legislative Council; Chief Syar’ie Judge; Mufti Kerajaan; Attorney General;

Chairman of the Public Service Commission; Yang Di-Pertua Adat Istiadat; Speaker of the Legislative Council; Secretary to the

Council of Ministers)

57

BULGARIA 1944




Parliament name: Narodno sabranie (National Assembly)

Chamber name: Narodno sabranie (National Assembly)


Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. The different political parties promote the rising number of women candidates in the

election.

Legal source: Gender Equality Act, Prom. SG. 33/26 Apr 2016

DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2017-11

2016-12

2014-12

2014-10

2013-05

2008-01

2007-01

2005-06

2001-06

1997-04

1994-12

1991-10

1990-06

1986-06

1981-06

1976-05

1971-06

1966-02

1962-02

1957-12

1953-12

1949-12

1946-10

1945-11

62

57

46

49

48

59

50

52

50

63

26

32

31

34

84

87

78

75

71

65

41

39

36

38

16

25.83%

23.75%

19.17%

20.42%

20%

24.58%

20.83%

21.67%

20.83%

26.25%

10.83%

13.33%

12.92%

8.5%

21%

21.75%

19.5%

18.75%

17.07%

20.25%

16.14%

15.66%

15.06%

8.17%

5.8%


58

Article 6

1. All persons are born free and equal in dignity and rights.

2. All citizens* shall be equal before the law. There shall be no privileges or restriction of rights on the grounds of race,

national or social origin, ethnic self-identity, sex, religion, education, opinion, political affiliation, personal or social status or

property status. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

* The term "citizens" refers to all individuals to whom this Constitution applies.

BULGARIA 1944

Article 10

All elections, and national and local referendums shall be held on the basis of universal, equal and direct suffrage by secret

ballot. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Article 46

…

2. Spouses shall have equal rights and obligations in matrimony and the family.

…


59

BURKINA FASO 1958



Indipendence: 1960


Parliament name: Parlement (Parliament)



Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Legislated candidate quotas. Lists of candidates must include at least 30% of either sex.

Legal source: Law on Quotas, Article 3.

DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2016-12

2014-12

2014-01

2012-01

2011-01

2010-01

2007-05

2007-01

2002-05

1992-05

1978-04

1970-12

17

14

12

24

20

13

17

13

17

13

6

1

0

13.39%

11.02%

13.33%

18.9%

15.75%

11.71%

15.32%

11.71%

15.32%

11.71%

5.61%

1.75%

0%

Prior to independence, under French administration, women were granted the right to vote on 23 June 1956, by a framework

law (Loi-cadre Deferre). This right was confirmed at independence, in the 1958 constitution. In 1978, Rose Marie Nignan

became the first woman elected to the National Assembly (Women’s Empowerment for Sustainability in Africa, edited by Robert

Dibie).


Preamble

We, the Sovereign People of Burkina Faso:

…

RECOGNIZING that the promotion of gender is a factor for realization of the equality of law between men and women of

Burkina Faso; PROMOTION OF GENDER EQUALITY

…

Article 1

All the Burkinabe are born free and equal in rights.

All have an equal vocation to enjoy all the rights and all the freedoms guaranteed by this Constitution.

Discrimination of all sorts, notably those founded on race, ethnicity, region, color, sex, language, religion, caste, political

opinions, wealth and birth, are prohibited. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

60

Article 18

PROTECTION OF MATERNITY

Education, instruction, [professional] training, work, social security, housing, sport, leisure, health, protection of Maternity

BURKINA FASO 1958

and of Infancy, assistance to the aged or handicapped persons and [those] in social cases, [and] artistic and scientific

creation, constitute the social and cultural rights recognized by this Constitution which sees to their promotion.

Article 19

The right to work is recognized and is equal for all.

It is prohibited to discriminate in matters of employment and of remuneration founded notably on sex, color, social

origin, ethnicity or political opinion. EQUAL PAY FOR WORK DISCRIMINATION BANNED AT WORK

Article 23

…

Marriage is founded on the free consent of the man and of the woman. All discrimination based on race, color, religion,

ethnicity, caste, social origin, [and] fortune, is forbidden in matters of marriage. MARRIAGE BASED ON FREE WILL

…

Article 33

Suffrage is direct or indirect and exercised under the conditions specified by the law.

Direct suffrage is always universal, equal and secret. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Article 101

The law establishes the rules concerning:

…

the promotion of gender; PROMOTION OF GENDER

…

61

BURUNDI 1961

Right to vote and to stand for election: August 17, 1961


Independence: 1962



Chamber name: Inama Nshingamateka (National

Assembly)




Others: additional members, including three Twas, can be

co-opted to respect 60:40 Hutu-Tutsi split and 30 percent

quota for women. Currently there are 21 co-opted

members.

Electoral quota for women: Yes. 30% women. One in four

candidates on electoral lists must be a woman. If the quotas

for reserved seats are not met following an election, the

Electoral Administration co-opts (adds) the additional seats

needed to do so.

Legal source: Article 164 of the 2004 Constitution and

articles 108 and 147 of the Electoral Law.

DATE WOMEN %

2015-06

2014-01

2013-01

2010-07

2009-01

2005-07

1993-06

1982-10

1961-09

44

32

34

32

37

36

10

6

0

36.36%

30.48%

32.08%

30.19%

31.36%

30.51%

12.35%

9.23%

0%

Chamber name: Inama Nkenguzamateka (Senate)



Indirectly elected members (36): elected by an electoral

college composed of members of the communal councils in

the province concerned. One Hutu and one Tutsi Senator are

elected for each province. Senators may be co-opted to meet

gender and ethnic quotas.

Other (3): Twas. Additional members may be co-opted to

ensure respect for an equal distribution of seats among

Hutus and Tutsis and for the 30 per cent quota of women.

Electoral quota for women: Yes. 30% women. One in four

candidates on electoral lists must be a woman. If the quotas

for reserved seats are not met following an election, the

Electoral Administration co-opts (adds) the additional seats

needed to do so.

Legal source: Article 164 of the 2004 Constitution and

Articles 108 and 147 of the Electoral Law.

DATE WOMEN %

2018-06

2015-07

2010-07

2009-01

2005-07

1965-05

18

18

19

16

17

0

46.15%

41.86%

46.34%

32.65%

34.69%

0%

Prior to independence, the Legislative Decree of Rwanda - Urundi (L.D.R.U.) N° 02/269, issued by the Belgian administration

of the UN Trust territory on 17 August 1961 granted universal suffrage to women. This right was confirmed at independence.


62

Article 8

Suffrage is universal, equal, secret, free and transparent. It may be direct or indirect within the conditions provisioned by

the law. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

All Burundians at least 18 years of age and with all their civil and political rights have the right to vote within the conditions

determined by the electoral code.

BURUNDI 1961

Article 13

All Burundi people are equal in merit and dignity. All the citizens enjoy the same rights and have the right to the same

legal protection. No Burundi citizen may be excluded from the social, economic, or political life of the nation due to his or

her race, language, religion, gender or ethnic origin. BANNED DISCRIMINATION

Article 19

The rights and duties proclaimed and guaranteed, between others, by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the

International Pacts related to human rights, the African Charter of human and community rights, the Convention on the

elimination of all forms of discrimination at towards women and the Convention related to children’s rights are an

integral part of the Constitution of the Republic of Burundi.

… CONVENTION ON THE ELIMINATION OF ALL FORMS OF DISCRIMINATION

Article 22

All citizens are equal before the law, which assures them equal protection.

None may be the object of discrimination, particularly discrimination against their origin, race, ethnicity, sex, color,

language, social situation, religious, philosophical or political convictions, physical or mental handicap, HIV/AIDs infection or

any other incurable malady. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Article 24

All women and men have the right to life.

RIGHT TO LIFE

Article 25

All women and men have the right liberty, notably to physical and psychic integrit and the freedom of movement. No

one may be submitted to torture, cruel, inhumane, or degrading torture or punishment.

RIGHT TO PHYSICAL AND PSYCHIC INTEGRIT FREEDOM OF MOVEMENT TORTURE BANNED

Article 28

All women and men have the right to the respect of their private and family life, their domicile and their personal

communications. RESPECT OF THEIR PRIVATE AND FAMILY LIFE, DOMICILE AND COMMUNICATIONS

Article 29

The liberty to marry is guaranteed, as is the right to choose one’s partner. Marriage may not occur without the freedom and

full consent of the future spouses. MARRIAGE BASED ON FREE WILL

Marriage between two people of the same sex is prohibited. MARRIAGE: SEXUAL DISCRIMINATION

Article 135

The members of the Government make or propose the nominations of the public administration and the diplomatic

posts, keeping in mind the necessity to maintain an ethnic, regional, political, and gender equilibrium.

GENDER EQUILIBRIUM IN THE NOMINATIONS OF THE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND THE DIPLOMATIC POSTS

Article 164

The National Assembly is composed of at least one hundred deputies at the rate of 60% Hutu and 40% Tutsi, with a

minimum of 30% of women, elected by direct universal suffrage for a mandate of five years and three deputies from the

Twa co-opted ethnicity conforming to the electoral code. RESERVED SEATS IN NATIONAL ASSEMBLY

…

Article 168

The elections of deputies occur following the ballot of lists by proportional representation. These lists must have a

multiethnic character and maintain the equilibrium between women and men. For three candidates listed in a row, only two

may belong to the same ethnic group, and at least a quarter of the candidates must be women. ELECTORAL QUOTA

Article 180

The Senate is composed of:

1. Two delegates of each province, elected by an electoral college composed of members of the communal Councils of the

province considered, from different ethnic communities and elected by distinct ballots;

2. Three persons from the Twa ethnicity,

3. The former Heads of State.

There must be a minimum of thirty percent of women. The electoral law determines the practical modalities, with

co-optation in the necessary cases. RESERVED SEATS IN SENATE

Article 208

…

The procedures of recruitment and nomination in the judicial body obeys the concern of promoting regional, ethnic, and

gender equilibrium. GENDER EQUILIBRIUM IN THE RECRUITMENT AND NOMINATION OF JUDICIAL BODY

63

BURUNDI 1961

Article 217

The Superior Council of the Magistracy is balanced ethnically, regionally, and by gender…

SUPERIOR COUNCIL OF THE MAGISTRACY BALANCED BY GENDER

Article 247

The Corps of Defense and of Security develop within them a society that is not discriminatory, either by gender or

ethnicity. CORPS OF DEFENCE AND OF SECURITY DEVELOP WITHIN THEM A SOCIETY NOT DISCRIMINATORY BY GENDER

Article 255

The State has the duty to put in place a pertinent policy of reforms in the matter of defense and of security that reinforces

the unity and the cohesion of the Burundian People, notably by assuring the necessary ethnic, regional and gender

equilibriums. REFORMS IN THE MATTER OF DEFENSE AND OF SECURITY ENSURE GENDER EQUILIBRIUM

64

CABO VERDE 1975

Right to vote and to stand for election: April 15, 1975


Independence: 1975

Population: 553,077

Parliament name: Assembleia Nacional (National

Assembly)

Chamber name: Assembleia Nacional (National Assembly)


Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2016-03

2011-02

2010

2008

2007

2006-01

1995-12

1991-01

1985-12

1980-12

1975-07

17

15

13

11

13

11

8

6

10

8

1

23.61%

20.83%

18.06%

15.28%

18.06%

15.28%

11.11%

7.59%

12.05%

12.7%

1.79%

Prior to independence, under Portuguese administration, women voted for the first time on 15 April 1975. This right was

confirmed at independence. Universal suffrage was extended to the local level in July 1989. Isaura Gomes (1944- ) was the

first and only female deputy from 1975 to 1981.


Article 1: Republic of Cape Verde

…

2. The Republic of Cape Verde recognizes the equality of all citizens before the law, without distinction as to social origin

or economic situation, race, sex, religion, political or ideological convictions, and social conditions, and assures the full

exercise by all citizens of fundamental liberties. DISCRIMINATION BANNED EQUAL RIGHTS

…

Article 22: The Principle of Equality

All citizens shall have equal social status and shall be equal before the law, without privilege, benefit, or prejudice, and may

not be deprived of any rights or exempt from any duty by reason of race, sex, ancestry, language, origin, religion, social

and economic condition, or political or ideological conviction. EQUAL RIGHTS

Article 44: Marriage and Children

…

3. Spouses shall have equal rights, civil duties, and responsibilities.

…


65

CABO VERDE 1975

Article 59: The Right to Compensation and to Security of Employment

…

5. Men and women shall receive equal pay for equal work. EQUAL PAY FOR WORK

6. The law shall establish special protection for minors, for the handicapped, and for women during pregnancy and after

childbirth, and shall guarantee to women working conditions which permit them to carry out their family and maternal

duties. SPECIAL PROTECTION DURING PREGNANCY AND AFTER CHILDBIRTH

WORKING CONDITIONS MUST CONSIDER FAMILY AND MATERNAL DUTIES

Article 85: Obligations of the State

…

2. The State shall also have the duty to assure the elimination of conditions which tend to discriminate against women

and to assure the protection of women's rights, as well as the rights of children.

ELIMINATION OF DISCRIMINATIONS AND ASSURANCE OF PROTECTION

Article 86: Paternity and Maternity

…

3. Fatherhood and motherhood constitute the highest social values. MOTHERHOOD HIGHEST SOCIAL VALUE

Article 111: Exercise of Political Power Through Suffrage

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

In the exercise of political power, the people shall designate office holders by universal, direct, secret, periodic suffrage.

Article 313: Material Limits to Revision

1. The following may not be subject to revision:

…

c. Universal, direct, secret, periodic suffrage for the election of national and local officeholders.

… NON-REVISIONABLE UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

66

CAMBODIA 1955



Independence: 1953


Parliament name: Parliament (Parliament)

Chamber name: Radhsphea Ney Preah Recheanachakr

Kampuchea (National Assembly)



Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2018-09

2018-07

2013-07

2011-01

2009-01

2008-07

2003-07

1998-07

1993-05

1987-06

1986-12

1981-05

1976-03

1972-09

1962-06

1958-03

1955-09

25

19

25

20

26

20

12

10

7

25

23

22

46

4

0

2

0

20%

15.2%

20.33%

16.26%

21.14%

16.26%

9.76%

8.2%

5.83%

21.37%

19.66%

18.8%

18.4%

3.17%

0%

2.73%

0%




Indirectly elected members (60): 58 members are elected by

Commune/Sangkat councillors while two others are elected

by the National Assembly.

Appointed members (2): appointed by the King.


DATE WOMEN %

2018-06

2018-05

2018-04

2018-02

2016-12

2014-12

2012-10

2012-03

2008-01

2007-01

2006-03

2006-02

2006-01

1999-03

1955-09

11

10

11

10

9

10

9

8

9

24

9

8

9

8

0

17.74%

16.67%

17.74%

16.67%

14.75%

16.39%

14.75%

13.56%

14.75%

39.34%

14.75%

13.56%

14.75%

13.11%

0%

In the 1958 elections, two women were elected to the National Assembly: Pung Peng Cheng and Diep Dinar, representing

2% of the total of 73 elected (Kate Frieson, “In the Shadows: Women, Power and Politics in Cambodia”).


Article 31

The Kingdom of Cambodia recognizes and respects human rights as stipulated in the United Nations Charter, the Universal

Declaration of Human Rights and the covenants and conventions related to human rights, women's rights and children's

rights. CONVENTIONS RELATED TO RIGHTS

Khmer citizens shall be equal before the law, enjoying the same rights and freedom and obligations regardless of race,

color, sex, language, religious belief, political tendency, national origin, social status, wealth or other status. The exercise of

personal rights and freedom by any individual shall not adversely affect the rights and freedom of others. The exercise of

such rights and freedom shall be in accordance with the law. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Article 34


Khmer citizens of either sex shall enjoy the rights to vote and to stand as candidates for an election.

67

CAMBODIA 1955

Khmer citizens of either sex who are at least eighteen years old shall have the rights to vote.

Khmer citizens of either sex who are at least twenty-five years old shall have the rights to stand as candidates for the

National Assembly elections.


Khmer citizens of either sex who are at least forty years old shall have the rights to stand as candidates for the Senate

elections.

…

Article 35

Khmer citizens of either sex shall have the rights to participate actively in the political, economic, social and cultural life

of the nation. RIGHT TO PARTICIPATE IN POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE

…

Article 36

Khmer citizens of either sex shall enjoy the rights to choose any employment according their ability and to the needs of

the society. RIGHT TO CHOOSE ANY EMPLOYMENT

Khmer citizens of either sex shall receive equal pay for the same work. EQUAL PAY FOR WORK

Housework shall have the same value as work outside the home. RIGHT TO OBTAIN SOCIAL SECURITY AND SOCIAL BENEFITS

Khmer citizens of either sex shall have the rights to obtain social security and other social benefits as determined by law.

Khmer citizens of either sex shall have the rights to form and to be members of trade unions.

…

RIGHT TO FORM AND TO BE MEMBERS OF TRADE UNIONS

Article 43

Khmer citizens of either sex shall have the rights to freedom of belief.

…

RIGHT TO FREEDOM OF BELIEF

Article 45

All forms of discrimination against women shall be abolished. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

The exploitation of women in employment is prohibited. EXPLOITATION IN EMPLOYMENT BANNED

Men and women are equal in all fields especially with respect to marriage and family matters. MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

Marriage shall be conducted according to law, based on the principle of mutual consent between one husband and one

wife. MARRIAGE BASED ON FREE WILL

Article 46

Trading human beings, the exploitation of prostitution and obscenity, which affect the reputation of women, shall be

prohibited. EXPLOITATION OF PROSTITUTION BANNED NOT FIRED BECAUSE OF PREGNANCY

The termination of a woman's employment because of her pregnancy is prohibited.

MATERNITY LEAVE

Women shall have the rights to take maternity leave with full pay and with no loss of seniority or other social benefits.

The State and society shall provide opportunities to women, especially for those living in rural areas without adequate

social support, so that they can obtain employment and medical care, send their children to school and have decent

living conditions. OPPORTUNITIES (ESPECIALLY IN RURAL AREAS): EMPLOYMENT AND MEDICAL CARE, SCHOOL FOR CHILDREN,

DECENT LIVING CONDITIONS

Article 72

The health of the people shall be guaranteed. The State shall pay attention to disease prevention and medical treatment.

Poor people shall receive free medical consultations in public hospitals, infirmaries and maternity clinics.

The State shall establish infirmaries and maternity clinics in rural areas. FREE MEDICAL CONSULTATIONS FOR POOR PEOPLE

MATERNITY CLINICS IN RURAL AREAS

Article 73

The State shall pay attention to children and mothers. The State shall establish nurseries and help support women who

have numerous children and have inadequate support. NURSERIES AND HELP SUPPORT WOMEN WHO HAVE NUMEROUS

CHILDREN AND INDADEQUATE SUPPORT

68

CAMEROON 1946



Independence: 1961


Parliament name: Parlement - Parliament

Chamber name: Assemblée nationale - National

Assembly



Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Article 151 of the Electoral

Code states that each list of candidates must take into

account different sociological components of the

constituency. It must also take account of gender.

Legal source: Cf. Law 2012/001 of 19 April 2012 on the

electoral code.

DATE WOMEN %

2013-09

2007-09

2002-06

1997-10

1992-03

1988-04

1983-05

1978-05

1973-05

1970-06

1960-04

56

25

16

10

22

26

17

12

7

2

1

31.11%

13.89%

8.89%

5.56%

12.22%

14.44%

14.17%

10%

5.83%

4%

1%

Chamber name: Sénat - Senate



Indirectly elected members (70)

Appointed members (30)

Each region is represented in the Senate by 10 Senators,

seven of whom are indirectly elected at the regional level

and the remaining three are appointed by decree of the

President of the Republic. The Senators are elected in each

region by an electoral college composed of regional and

municipal councillors.

Electoral quota for women: Yes. At least one woman should

be represented on each list

Legal source: Cf. Law 2012/001 of 19 April 2012 on the

electoral code.

DATE WOMEN %

2018-04 26 26%

2013-04 20 20%

Prior to independence, women in the French administered part of Cameroon were granted the right to vote on 27 October

1946 with foundation of the French Union and the 4th Republic. Following the "Loi Lamine Guèye" all citizens of the Union

territories had the right to vote for the French Parliament. This right was extended to local legislative assemblies on 23 June

1956 by the Loi-cadre Deferre and confirmed at independence. Julienne Keutcha, a kindergarten teacher, became the first

woman elected to the National Assembly in 1960 (Jacqueline-Bethel Tchouta Mougoué, “Gender, separatist, politics and

embodied nationalism in Cameroon”).


Preamble

...

We, the people of Cameroon,

Declare that the human person, without distinction as to race, religion, sex or belief, possesses inalienable and sacred

rights; DISCRIMINATION BANNED

69

CAMEROON 1946

Affirm our attachment to the fundamental freedoms enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Charter of

United Nations and the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, and all duly ratified international conventions relating

thereto, in particular, to the following principles:

...

17. the Nation shall protect and promote the family which is the natural foundation of human society. It shall protect

women, the young, the elderly and the disabled; PROTECTION

...

25. the State shall guarantee all citizens of either sex the rights and freedoms set forth in the Preamble of the

Constitution. RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS

Article 2

1. National sovereignty shall be vested in the people of Cameroon who shall exercise same either through the President of

the Republic and Members of Parliament or by way of referendum. No section of the people or any individual shall arrogate

to itself or to himself the exercise thereof.

2. The authorities responsible for the management of the state shall derive their powers from the people through election by

direct or indirect universal suffrage, unless otherwise provided for in this Constitution. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

3. The vote shall be equal and secret, and every citizen aged twenty years and above shall be entitled to vote.

70

CANADA 1969




Parliament name: Parliament of Canada - Parlement du

Canada

Chamber name: House of Commons



Directly elected


quotas.

Legal source: cf. Individual party policies.

DATE WOMEN %

2019-10

2018-11

2017-12

2015-11

2015-10

2014

2011-05

2008-10

2007

2006-01

2004-06

2001-01

2000-02

1998

1993-10

1988-11

1984-09

1980-02

1979-05

1974-07

1972-10

1968-06

1965-11

1963-04

1958-03

1957-06

1953-08

1945-06

98

90

91

88

86

77

76

68

65

64

65

62

60

62

53

39

27

14

10

9

5

1

4

6

5

2

4

1

28.99%

26.95%

27%

26.04%

25.83%

25.08%

24.68%

22.08%

18.6%

20.78%

21.1%

20.6%

19.93%

20.6%

17.97%

13.22%

9.57%

4.96%

3.55%

3.41%

1.89%

0.38%

1.51%

2.26%

1.89%

0.75%

1.51%

0.41%




Appointed members: appointed by the Governor General on

the recommendation of the Prime Minister.


DATE WOMEN %

2018-11

2016-11

2016-01

2015-08

2014

2011-06

2008

2007

2001

1999

1998

1997

1993

1991

1990

1989

1986

1984

1981

1980

1979

1978

1975

1973

1970

1967

1966

1965

1963

1960

1957

1955

1953

1945

49

43

34

31

38

37

35

32

33

32

29

24

16

15

17

11

15

13

9

10

11

8

6

7

6

5

4

5

6

7

5

6

5

2

46.67%

42.16%

38.64%

37.35%

39.58%

35.92%

35%

34.41%

35.48%

30.77%

29%

23.08%

15.38%

14.02%

15.32%

10.58%

14.71%

12.87%

9.78%

10.31%

10.68%

8.33%

6.59%

7.37%

6.59%

5.32%

4.21%

5.15%

6%

6.86%

5.32%

6.59%

5.68%

2.5%

71

CANADA 1969

TIMELINE RIGHT TO VOTE: 1917, women who served in the military or who had a close male relative serving in the military

(i.e. a father, husband or son) were granted the right to vote; 1918, all women except for Indians; 1950, federal franchise

extended to Indians (regardless of gender) under the condition that they waive the tax exemptions given to them by the

Indian Act; 1960, universal adult male suffrage was not achieved federally until August 1960, with the unqualified extension

of voting rights to all Indians under the Act to Amend the Canada Elections Act; 1969, Quebec became the last province to

extend franchise rights to Indians, that provincial voting was secured.

TIMELINE RIGHT TO STAND FOR ELECTION: 1919, same conditions as men (age 21), only the House of Common; 1929, the

right to stand for elections is extended to the Senate; 1950, Indians granted right with same restriction (men and women);

1960, right to stand for election without any restriction.

“Universal suffrage at the federal and provincial levels of government is enshrined in Section 3 of the 1982 Charter of Rights

and Freedoms, which states, “Every citizen of Canada has the right to vote in an election of members of the House of

Commons or of a legislative assembly and to be qualified for membership therein.” This clause applies to First Nations

peoples, Métis and Inuit.” (source: The Canadian Encyclopedia)


House of Commons: 6 December 1921, Agnes Campbell Macphail (1890–1954)

Senate: 15 February 1930, Cairine Reay Wilson (née Mackay) (1885-1962)


CONSTITUTION ACT 1982

PART I: CANADIAN CHARTER OF RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS

…

C. DEMOCRATIC RIGHTS

3. Democratic rights of citizens

Every citizen of Canada has the right to vote in an election of members of the House of Commons or of a legislative

assembly and to be qualified for membership therein. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

F. EQUALITY RIGHTS

15.

1. Equality before and under law and equal protection and benefit of law

Every individual is equal before and under the law and has the right to the equal protection and equal benefit of the law

without discrimination and, in particular, without discrimination based on race, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion,

sex, age or mental or physical disability.

2. Affirmative action programs


Subsection (1) does not preclude any law, program or activity that has as its object the amelioration of conditions of

disadvantaged individuals or groups including those that are disadvantaged because of race, national or ethnic origin,

colour, religion, sex, age or mental or physical disability. AMELIORATION OF CONDITIONS OF DISADVANTAGED

J. GENERAL

…

28. Rights guaranteed equally to both sexes

Notwithstanding anything in this Charter, the rights and freedoms referred to in it are guaranteed equally to male and

female persons. EQUAL RIGHTS

PART II: RIGHTS OF THE ABORIGINAL PEOPLES OF CANADA

35.

…

4. Aboriginal and treaty rights are guaranteed equally to both sexes

Notwithstanding any other provision of this Act, the aboriginal and treaty rights referred to in subsection (1) are

guaranteed equally to male and female persons. ABORIGINAL AND TREATY RIGHTS GUARANTEED EQUALLY

72

CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC 1986



Independence: 1960



Assembly)



Directly elected

DATE WOMEN %

2016-12

2016-07

2016-01

2011-01

2009-01

2005-03

1998-12

1993-09

1987-07

1960-08

12

10

11

13

10

11

7

3

2

0

8.57%

7.19%

8.4%

11.4%

9.52%

10.48%

6.42%

3.53%

3.85%

0%


Preamble

…

Convinced that universal suffrage is the sole source of the legitimacy of public power;

…

Reaffirms its adherence to all International Conventions duly ratified, notably those concerning the prohibition of all

forms of discrimination with regard to women, to the protection of the rights of the child and those relative to the

autochthonous and tribal peoples;

…


UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Article 6

All human beings are equal before the law without distinction of race, of ethnic origin, of region, of sex, of religion, of

political affiliation and of social position. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

The State assures the reinforced protection of the rights of the minorities, of the autochthonous peoples, and of

handicapped persons.

The law guarantees to the man and to the woman equal rights in all the domains. In the Central African Republic one is

neither subject [to] nor [has] a privilege of place of birth, of person or of family. EQUAL RIGHTS IN ALL THE DOMAINS

Article 7

…

Marriage is the union between a man and a woman. It is organized by the law.

… PROTECTION AGAINST VIOLENCE, INSECURITY, EXPLOITATION AND MORAL, INTELLECTUAL AND PHYSICAL NEGLECT

The protection of the woman and of the child against violence and insecurity, exploitation and moral, intellectual and

physical neglect[,] is an obligation of the State and the other public collectivities. This protection is assured by the

appropriate measures and institutions of the State and of the other public collectivities.

73

CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC 1986

Article 11

…

All citizens are equal concerning employment. No one may be discriminated against in their work or their employment

because of their origin, of their sex, of their opinions or of their beliefs. DISCRIMINATION BANNED AT WORK

…

Article 26

…

The eligible institutions, responsible for [chargées de] directing the State, have their power from the people by way of [par

voie d'] elections, by direct or indirect universal suffrage. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Article 30

Central Africans of the two (2) sexes, aged eighteen (18) years of age and enjoying their civil rights, are electors within the

conditions determined by the law.

The vote is a civic duty.

Suffrage may be direct or indirect within the conditions specified by the Constitution. It is always universal, equal and

secret. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Article 31

…

The political parties must respect the principles of representation of gender and of regions specified by the law.

… RESPECT OF REPRESENTATION IN POLITICAL PARTIES

Article 36

Only men and women fulfilling the following conditions can be candidates to presidential election…

RIGHT TO STAND FOR PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION

Article 80

[The following] are of the domain of the law:

• The rules concerning the following matters:

…

• parity [concerning] man and woman in the decision-making bodies [instance de prise de décisions];

… PARITY IN THE DECISION-MAKING BODIES

Article 99

The Constitutional Court consists of nine (9) members including at least four (4) women, who hold the title of

Constitutional Judge. RESERVED SEATS IN CONSTITUTIONAL COURT

The duration of the mandate of the Constitutional Judges is of seven (7) years, non-renewable.

The members of the Constitutional Court are designated as follows:

• two (2) Magistrates including one woman, elected by their peers;

• two (2) Attorney including one woman, elected by their peers;

• two (2) [members] of a Faculty of Law [enseignants-chercheurs de Droit] including one woman, elected by their peers;

• one (1) member appointed by the President of the Republic;

• one (1) member appointed by the President of the National Assembly;

• one (1) member appointed by the President of the Senate.

…

Article 139

The High Council of Communication consists of nine (9) members including at least four (4) women.

… RESERVED SEATS IN HIGH COUNCIL OF COMMUNICATION

Article 148

[A High Authority responsible for Good Governance [Haute Autorité chargée de la Bonne Gouvernance] is instituted]

…

It sees equally to the protection of the rights of minorities, of the autochthonous peoples, of handicapped persons as well as

of the principle of equality between men and women. HIGH AUTHORITY FOR EQUAL RIGHTS

74

CHAD 1958



Independence: 1960



Assembly)

DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2018-06

2016-12

2014-01

2013-01

2011-02

2010-01

2008-01

2007-01

2002-04

1997-11

1993-04

1990-07

1963-12

1962-03

25

27

24

28

24

28

8

9

8

9

3

9

3

2

1

14.88%

15.25%

12.77%

14.89%

12.77%

14.89%

5.16%

5.81%

5.16%

5.81%

2.4%

16.36%

2.44%

2.67%

1.33%



Directly elected


Prior to independence, under French administration,women were granted the right to vote under the Loi-cadre Deferre,

adopted on 23 June 1956. In March 1962 Bourkou Louise Kabo (1934–2019) became the first woman elected to the National

Assembly.


Preamble

...

Let us recognize the promotion of gender and youth as a factor in achieving equality between men and women in our

country and the imperative of taking it into account for sustainable human development.

... PROMOTION OF GENDER EQUALITY

Article 6

Suffrage is universal, direct or indirect, equal and secret. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Voters under the conditions determined by law are all Chadians of both sexes, aged eighteen and enjoying their civil and

political rights.

Article 14

The State ensures legality before the law without distinction of origin, race, sex, religion, political opinion or social

position. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

75

CHAD 1958

It has a duty to ensure the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women and to ensure the protection of their

rights in all areas of private and public life. ELIMINATION OF ALL FORMS OF DISCRIMINATION AND PROTECTION OF RIGHTS

Article 34

The State works to promote the political rights of women through better representation in elected assemblies, public

and private institutions and administrations.

The modalities of application of this article are fixed by the law.

BETTER REPRESENTATION IN ELECTED ASSEMBLIES, PUBLIC AND PRIVATE INSTITUTION AND ADMINISTRATIONS

Article 35

... DISCRIMINATION BANNED AT WORK

No one can be harmed in his work because of his origins, his opinions, his beliefs, his sex or his marital status.

Article 171

The National Commission of Human Rights has for mission to:

• advise the Government on human rights issues, including the status of women, the rights of the child and the disabled;

• ... NATIONAL COMMISSION OF HUMAN RIGHTS ADVISOR OF GOVERNMENT

Article 213

An organic law fixes in particular:

...

• the conditions of democratic management of their affairs by the Provinces and the Communes, the number of Councilors,

the rules relating to eligibility, incompatibilities and cases of prohibition of the plurality of mandates, as well as the electoral

system and the provisions to ensure better participation of women and young people in these Councils;

BETTER PARTICIPATION IN COUNCILS

76

CHILE 1949




Parliament name: Congreso Nacional (National Congress)


Deputies)



Directly elected


quotas

Legal source: Individual party statutes.

DATE WOMEN %

2018-03

2013-01

2009-12

2005-12

2001-12

1998

1993-12

1990-12

1973-03

1969-03

1965-03

1961-03

1957-03

1951-04

1945-03

35

19

17

18

15

13

9

7

14

10

11

5

3

1

0

22.58%

15.83%

14.17%

15%

12.5%

10.83%

7.5%

5.83%

9.33%

6.67%

7.48%

3.4%

2.04%

0.68%

0%




Directly elected

The Statutory number of Senate has increased from 38 to 50

in accordance with Act No. 20.840. However, the Senate will

comprise 43 members until 2022: 23 of the incumbent

senators were elected in 2017, while 20 others were elected

in 2013. The next elections, due in 2021, will be held for 27

seats to make the Senate a 50-member body.


quotas


DATE WOMEN %

2018-03

2014-12

2013-01

2009-12

1998

1990-12

1965-03

1957-03

1953-03

1945-03

10

6

7

5

2

3

2

0

1

0

23.26%

15.79%

18.42%

13.16%

4.08%

6.38%

4.44%

0%

2.22%

0%

Women were given the right to vote in local elections on 30 May 1931. On January 8, 1949, the President of the Republic

signed Law No. 9,292, which gave women in Chile the universal possibility of using their citizenship and voting on equal

rights. On 24 April 1951, Inés Enríquez Frödden (1913–1998) became the first Chilean woman elected to the Lower House. In

2018 the first two women of the indigenous Mapuche group, Emilia Nuyado and Aracely Leuquén, became members of

Chile's Congress.


Article 19

The Constitution guarantees all persons:

…

2. Equality before the law. In Chile there are no privilege persons or groups. In Chile there are no slaves, and any that sets foot

on its territory will become free. Men and women are equal before the law. EQUAL RIGHTS

Neither the law nor any authority whatsoever may establish arbitrary differences;

...

77

CHINA 1949



Population: 1,444,901,298

Parliament name: Quanguo Renmin Daibiao Dahui

(National People's Congress)

Chamber name: Quanguo Renmin Daibiao Dahui (National People's Congress)


Indirectly elected by the provincial people's congresses.

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Each party must ensure that the number of women candidates is at least one-third of the

total number of candidates to be fielded by a political party in the proportional elections and in the first-past-the-post

electoral system

Legal source: Constituent Assembly Ordinance 2013

DATE WOMEN %

2018-03

2017-02

2013-03

2008-03

2007-10

2002-10

1998-03

1993-03

1988-03

1983-06

1978-02

1975-01

1964-12

1959-04

1954-09

742

709

699

637

611

604

650

626

634

632

742

653

542

150

147

24.94%

24.25%

23.4%

21.33%

20.62%

20.23%

21.82%

21.02%

21.29%

21%

21.22%

22.63%

17.83%

12.23%

11.99%

78

1949 corresponds to the proclamation of the Common Program of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference.

The Electoral Law of 1953 then confirmed the equal political rights of both men and women.


Article 34

All citizens of the People's Republic of China who have reached the age of 18 have the right to vote and stand for election,

regardless of nationality, race, sex, occupation, family background, religious belief, education, property status, or length of

residence, except persons deprived of political rights according to law. RIGHT TO VOTE AND TO STAND FOR ELECTION

Article 48

Women in the People's Republic of China enjoy equal rights with men in all spheres of life, political, economic, cultural

and social, and family life. EQUAL RIGHTS IN POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, CULTURAL, SOCIAL AND FAMILY LIFE

The state protects the rights and interests of women, applies the principle of equal pay for equal work for men and

women alike and trains and selects cadres from among women. PROTECTION OF RIGHTS AND INTERESTS EQUAL PAY FOR WORK

SELECTION OF THE EXECUTIVE CLASS

CHINA 1949

Article 49

Marriage, the family, and mother and child are protected by the state. PROTECTION OF THE MOTHER

Both husband and wife have the duty to practice family planning.

Parents have the duty to rear and educate their minor children, and children who have come of age have the duty to

support and assist their parents. DUTY TO PRACTICE FAMILY PLANNING AND EDUCATE CHILDREN

Violation of the freedom of marriage is prohibited. Maltreatment of old people, women and children is prohibited.

MALTREATMENT PROHIBITED

79

COLOMBIA 1954




Parliament name: Congreso (Congress)

Chamber name: Cámara de Representantes (House

of Representatives)



Directly elected (166)

Others (6): 5 members of the FARC; the runner-up running

mate in the presidential elections.

Electoral quota for women: Yes. For lists submitted for

election of 5 or more seats, at least 30% of candidates of

each gender must be included. Political parties decide

themselves whether their lists shall be open or closed.

Candidate lists that do not comply with the legal

requirements, including the gender quota requirement,

shall be rejected.

Legal source: Constitution, art. 176; Electoral Law 1475 of

2011, Article 28 (1), Article 32.

Chamber name: Senado de la República (Senate)



Directly elected members (102)

Others (6): the 2016 Peace Agreement guarantees the FARC

five seats in each Chamber of Congress for the next two

legislatures (2018-2022 and 2022-2026). Moreover, a new

rule guarantees the presidential runner-up a seat in the

Senate, while his or her running mate is guaranteed a seat in

the House of Representatives for the 2018-2022 legislature.

With these new measures, the number of senators has

increased from 102 to 108, while that of representatives has

increased from 166 to 172.

Electoral quota for women: Yes. For lists submitted for

election of 5 or more seats, at least 30% of candidates of each

gender must be included.

Legal source: Constitution, art. 176; Electoral Law 1475 of

2011, Article 28 (1), Article 32.

80

DATE WOMEN %

2019-01

2018-06

2018-03

2016-12

2014-06

2014-01

2010-03

2006-03

2002-03

1997

1994-03

1990-03

1986-03

1982-03

1978-02

1974-04

1970-04

1968-03

1966-03

1964-03

1962-03

1960-03

1958-03

1947-03

32

31

25

31

33

20

21

14

20

19

18

17

9

7

10

12

9

8

7

9

8

4

8

0

18.71%

18.13%

15.06%

18.67%

19.88%

12.12%

12.65%

8.43%

12.05%

11.66%

10.84%

8.54%

4.52%

3.52%

5.03%

6.03%

4.29%

3.92%

3.68%

4.89%

4.35%

2.74%

5.41%

0%

In 1958, Esmeralda Arboleda

Cadavid (1921–1997) became the

first woman elected to the Senate.

DATE WOMEN %

2018-08

2018-03

2016-12

2014-06

2014-01

2011-01

2010-03

2006-03

2002-03

1998-03

1994-03

1991-10

1990-11

1986-03

1982-03

1974-04

1970-04

1968-03

1966-03

1964-03

1962-03

1960-03

1958-03

1947-03

22

31

22

23

16

17

16

12

9

13

7

8

1

4

3

1

3

0

4

0

1

0

1

0

20.37%

30.39%

21.57%

22.55%

16%

16.67%

15.69%

11.76%

8.82%

12.75%

6.86%

8%

0.88%

3.51%

2.63%

0.89%

2.54%

0%

3.77%

0%

1.02%

0%

1.25%

0%

COLOMBIA 1954


Article 13

All individuals are born free and equal before the law, shall receive equal protection and treatment from the authorities,

and shall enjoy the same rights, freedoms, and opportunities without any discrimination on account of gender, race,

national or family origin, language, religion, political opinion, or philosophy. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

The State shall promote the conditions so that equality may be real and effective and shall adopt measures in favor of groups

that are discriminated against or marginalized.

…

Article 40

…

The authorities shall guarantee the adequate and effective participation of women in the decision-making ranks of the

public administration. PARTICIPATION IN DECISION-MAKING RANKS OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Article 42

The family is the basic nucleus of society. It is formed on the basis of natural or legal ties, through the free decision of a man

and woman to contract matrimony or through the responsible resolve to comply with it.

… MARRIAGE BASED ON FREE WILL

Family relations are based on the equality of rights and duties of the couple and on the reciprocal respect of all its

members… MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

Article 43

Women and men have equal rights and opportunities. Women cannot be subjected to any type of discrimination.

During their periods of pregnancy and following delivery, women shall benefit from the special assistance and protection

of the State and shall receive from the latter food subsidies if they should thereafter find themselves unemployed or

abandoned. EQUAL RIGHTS AND OPPORTUNITIES DISCRIMINATION BANNED SPECIAL ASSISTANCE DURING PREGNANCY AND AFTER BIRTH

The State shall support the female head of household in a special way.

SUPPORT HEAD OF HOUSEHOLD

Article 53

The Congress shall issue a labor statute. The appropriate law shall take into account at least the following minimal

fundamental principles:

… special protection of women, mothers, and minor-age workers. SPECIAL PROTECTION

…

Article 107

…

The political parties and movements shall organize themselves democratically and shall have as their guiding principles

transparency, objectivity, morality, the equality of sexes, and the duty to present and disseminate their political programs.

… EQUALITY IN POLITICAL PARTIES

Article 126

…

With the exception of the entrance exams regulated by law, the election of public servants attributed to public

corporations should be presided by a public convocation regulated by the law with requirements and procedures that

guarantee the principles of publicity, transparency, citizen participation, gender equality, and merit criteria for its election.

… GENDER EQUALITY IN ELECTION OF PUBLIC SERVANTS

Article 272

…

The Controllers of departments, districts, and municipalities will be elected by the Departmental Assemblies, Municipal

and District Councils, through public call made according to the law, following the principles of transparency, publicity,

objectivity, citizen participation, and equality of gender, for a period equal to that of the Governor or Mayor, according to

each case. GENDER EQUALITY IN ELECTION OF CONTROLLERS OF DEPARTMENTS, DISTRICTS AND MUNICIPALITIES

…

81

COMOROS 1956



Independence: 1975

Population: 860,312

Parliament name: Assemblée de l'Union (Assembly of the

Union)

Chamber name: Assemblée de l'Union (Assembly of the Union)


Directly elected (24). Indirectly elected (9): elected by the assemblies of the three islands of the Union (3 members each).


DATE WOMEN %

2016-12

2011-01

2010-01

2009-12

2008-01

2003-01

1996-12

1993-12

1978-12

2

1

0

1

0

1

0

1

0

6.06%

3.03%

0%

3.03%

0%

3.03%

0%

2.38%

0%

Prior to independence, under French administration, women were granted the right to vote under the Loi-cadre Deferre,

adopted on 23 June 1956.


Preamble

The Comorian people solemnly affirm their will

…

• to emphasize their commitment to the principles and fundamental rights defined by the Charter of the United Nations,

by the Charter of the Organization of African Unity, by the Pact of the League of Arab States, by the Universal Declaration of

Human Rights and by the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, as well as by the international conventions,

particularly those relating to childrens’ and womens’ rights.

…

PRINCIPLES AND FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS DEFINED BY THE INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS

They proclaim:

…

• the equality of all concerning rights and duties without distinctions based on sex, origin, race, religion or belief;


Article 4

In the conditions determined by statute suffrage shall be universal, equal and secret.

It may be direct or indirect. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

All Comorians of either sex who are in possession of their civil and political rights may vote as provided for by statute.

82

CONGO (DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE) (KINSHASA) 1970

Right to vote: May 3, 1967

Right to stand for election: April 17, 1970


Independence: 1960


Parliament name: Parliament (Parlement)

Chamber name: Assemblée nationale (National

Assembly)



Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2019-03

2018-12

2014-12

2014-01

2011-11

2006-07

2003-08

1994-04

1992-12

1987-09

1982-09

1977-10

1975-11

1970-11

1960-06

50

50

44

53

44

42

60

37

7

12

11

5

27

12

0

10%

10.31%

8.94%

10.64%

8.94%

8.4%

12%

5.01%

1.55%

5.41%

3.55%

1.84%

11.07%

2.86%

0%

Chamber name: Sénat (Senate)



Indirectly elected members (108): by the Provincial

Assemblies.

Other (1): former elected Presidents of the Republic are

senators for life.


DATE WOMEN %

2019-05

2019-03

2014-12

2014-01

2007

2003-08

1997

1960-06

23

19

5

6

5

3

2

0

21.1%

19%

4.63%

5.56%

3.7%

2.5%

3.33%

0%

The ordonnance-loi (Decree-law) regarding Referendum Act N°67-223 of 3 May 1967 recognized the right of all Congolese,

irrespective of sex, to participate in the Constitutional referendum. The law on legislative and presidential elections of 17

April 1970 supported suffrage as granted in the Constitution and formally gave both men and women the right to vote and

to stand for elections.


Preamble

…

Reaffirming our adherence and our attachment to the Conventions of the United Nations on the Rights of the Child and

on the Rights of Women, particularly to the objective of the parity of man-woman representation within the

institutions of the country as well as to the international instruments concerning the protection and promotion of human

rights; CONVENTION OF THE UNITED NATIONS ON THE RIGHTS OBJECTIVE OF THE PARITY REPRESENTATION WITHIN THE INSTITUTIONS

…

Article 5

National sovereignty belongs to the people. All power emanates from the people who exercise it directly by way of

83

CONGO (DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE) (KINSHASA) 1970

referendum or [by] elections and indirectly by their representatives.

No fraction of the people or any individual may arrogate its exercise.

The law establishes the conditions of organization of the elections and of the referendum. Suffrage is universal, equal and

secret. It is direct or indirect. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Without prejudice to the provisions of Articles 72, 102 and 106 of this Constitution, all Congolese of both sexes, of eighteen

years of age [at least], and enjoying their civil and political rights are electors and eligible, under the conditions determined

by the law. RIGHT TO VOTE AND TO STAND FOR ELECTIONS

Article 14

The public powers see to the elimination of any form of discrimination concerning women and assure the protection and

the promotion of their rights. ELIMINATION OF ALL FORMS OF DISCRIMINATION

They take, in all the domains, notably in the civil, political, economic, social and cultural domains, all the measures

appropriate to assure the total realization and full participation of women in the development of the Nation.

They take measures to struggle against all forms of violence made against women in public and in private life.

Women have the right to an equitable representation within the national, provincial and local institutions. The State

guarantees the implementation of man-woman parity in these said institutions.

The law establishes the modalities of application of these rights. FULL PARTICIPATION IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION

STRUGGLE AGAINST VIOLENCE IN PUBLIC AND IN PRIVATE LIFE

EQUITABLE REPRESENTATION WITHIN THE NATIONAL, PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL INSTITUTIONS

Article 36

…

No one may discriminated against [leser] in their work because of their origin, their sex, their opinions, their beliefs or their

socio-economic condition. DISCRIMINATION BANNED AT WORK

…

Article 45

…

All persons have access to establishments of national education, without discrimination of place of origin, of race, of

religion, of sex, of political or philosophical opinions, of their physical, mental or sensorial state in accordance with their

capacities. DISCRIMINATION BANNED TO ACCESS TO NATIONAL EDUCATION

…

84

CONGO (REPUBLIC OF THE) (BRAZZAVILLE) 1963

Right to vote for legislative election: March 2, 1961

Right to stand for election: December 8, 1963


Independence: 1960




Assembly)



Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2017-07

2012-07

2007-08

2002-05

1993-08

1992-06

1989-09

1984-09

1979-07

1973-06

1963-12

1959-06

17

10

10

12

2

3

19

15

13

8

3

0

11.26%

7.35%

7.3%

9.3%

1.6%

2.4%

14.29%

9.8%

8.5%

6.4%

5.45%

0%




Indirectly elected by the Councils and Districts, régions,

arrondisements and communes (administrative divisions

varying in size and importance)


DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2014-10

2013-01

2012-01

2011-10

2008-08

2005-10

2002-05

1993-08

1992-06

13

14

10

8

10

9

8

9

1

2

18.84%

19.44%

13.89%

13.33%

13.89%

12.86%

13.33%

15%

1.67%

3.33%

Prior to independence, universal suffrage was granted for Europeans and literate Africans only. In 1951 the right to vote was

extended to all those with a credible titre d'identité. Under French administration, Congolese women acquired the right to

vote under the 29 August 1947 law (N° 47-1629) on territorial assemblies. This electoral system was renewed in 1952 and

eventually replaced in 1957 when the framework law (Loi-cadre Deferre) of 1956 was entered into force. According to the

CEDAW (the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women) report, article 4 of the 2 March 1961

Constitution recognized the aforementioned rights. The right for women to stand for election was recognized by the

Constitution adopted on 8 December 1963.


Article 5

The national sovereignty belongs to the people who exercise it by means of universal suffrage, by their elected

representatives or by way of referendum. No fraction of the people one fraction of the people, no body of the State or no

individual may arrogate its exercise. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Article 6

Suffrage is universal, direct or indirect, free, equal and secret. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

All Congolese being already eighteen (18) years of age and enjoying their civil and political rights are electors within the

conditions established by the law. RIGHT TO VOTE FOR ELECTIONS

85

CONGO (REPUBLIC OF THE) (BRAZZAVILLE) 1963

Article 17

The woman has the same rights as the man. EQUAL RIGHTS

The law guarantees parity and assures the promotion as well as the representativeness of women in all political, elective

and administrative functions. REPRESENTATIVENESS IN POLITICAL, ELECTIVE AND ADMINISTRATIVE FUNCTIONS

Article 37

The State has the obligation to assist the family in its mission as guardian of the morality and of the values compatible with

the republican order.

The rights of the mother and of the child are guaranteed. RIGHTS OF THE MOTHER GUARANTEED

TITLE XIX: OF THE NATIONAL CONSULTATIVE COUNCILS

…

SUB-TITLE III: OF THE CONSULTATIVE COUNCIL OF WOMEN

Article 232

A Consultative Council of Women is instituted[,] responsible for emitting opinions on the condition of women and of

making suggestions to the Government aiming to promote the integration of women into the development.

CONSULTATIVE COUNCIL: OPINIONS ON THE CONDITION AND SUGGESTIONS TO PROMOTE THE INTEGRATION

Article 233

An organic law determines the organization, the composition and the functioning of the Consultative Council of Women.

86

COSTA RICA 1949

DATE WOMEN %

2018-02

2016-12

2014-02

2010-02

2010-01

2006-02

2002-02

1998-02

1997

1994-02

1990-02

1986-02

1978-02

1974-02

1970-02

1966-02

1962-02

1958-04

1953-11

1949-11

26

20

19

22

21

22

18

11

9

8

7

6

4

3

4

3

1

2

3

0

45.61%

35.09%

33.33%

38.6%

36.84%

38.6%

31.58%

19.3%

15.79%

14.04%

12.28%

10.53%

7.02%

5.26%

7.02%

5.26%

1.75%

4.44%

6.67%

0%




Parliament name: Asamblea Legislativa (Legislative

Assembly)

Chamber name: Asamblea Legislativa (Legislative Assembly)


Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Both legislated and voluntary political party quotas are in place.

Legal source: cf. Article 2 of Electoral Law 8765 of 2009 (Código Electoral 8765).

In 1953, in the first election in which women were allowed to vote, Ana Rosa Chacón (1889-1985), María Teresa Obregón

(1888-1956) and Estela Quesada (1924–2011) became the first three women elected to the Legislative Assembly.


Article 51

The family, as [a] natural element and foundation of society, has the right to the special protection of the State. The mother,

the child, the elder and the helplessly sick will equally have right to that protection. SPECIAL PROTECTION OF THE MOTHER

Article 52

Marriage is the essential basis of the family and rests on the equality of rights of the spouses.


Article 55

The special protection of the mother and of the minor will be the responsibility of an autonomous institution denominated

[the] Patronato Nacional de la Infancia [National Patronage of Infancy], with the collaboration of the other institutions of

the State. NATIONAL PATRONAGE OF INFANCY RESPONSIBLE FOR SPECIAL PROTECTION OF THE MOTHER

COSTA RICA 1949

Article 71

The laws will give special protection to the women and the minors in their work.

SPECIAL PROTECTION AT WORK

Article 73

Social securities for the benefit of the manual and intellectual workers are established, regulated by the system of

compulsory [forzosa] contribution of the State, employers and workers, in order to protect them against the risks of sickness,

disability, maternity, old age, death and other contingencies that the law determines.

… SOCIAL SECURITIES TO PROTECT WORKERS DURING MATERNITY

Article 93

Suffrage is [a] primordial and obligatory civic function and is exercised before the Electoral Boards [Juntas] in a direct and

secret vote, by the citizens registered in the Civil Registry. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Article 95

The law will regulate the exercise of suffrage in accordance with the following principles:

…

8. Guarantees for the designation of authorities and candidates of the political parties, according to democratic

principles and without discrimination based on gender.

DISCRIMINATION BANNED IN DESIGNATION OF AUTHORITIES AND CANDIDATES OF THE POLITICAL PARTIES

88

CÔTE D'IVOIRE 1952



Independence: 1960




Assembly)



Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2017-02

2016-12

2014-12

2014-01

2013

2011-12

2010-10

2008

2007

2000-12

1995-11

1990-11

1985-11

1980-11

1975-11

1970-11

1965-11

1960-11

28

27

29

23

24

28

26

18

19

18

19

14

8

10

8

11

3

3

0

10.98%

10.59%

11.46%

9.16%

9.45%

11.02%

10.24%

8.87%

8.52%

8.87%

8.52%

8%

4.57%

5.71%

5.44%

9.17%

3%

3.53%

0%




Indirectly elected members (66): Senators are elected in each

of the country’s 31 regions and 2 districts (2 senators per

region/district) by an electoral college composed of

members of the National Assembly, mayors, regional and

municipal councillors.

Appointed members (33): appointed by the President of the

Republic.


DATE WOMEN %

2019-04 19 19.19%

2018-04 8 12.12%

Prior to independence, under French administration, women were granted universal suffrage in 1952. This right was

confirmed by the Framework law (Loi-cadre Deferre) of 23 June 1956 and confirmed again at independence. On 7 November

1965, Jeanne Gervais, Hortense Aka-Anghui and Gladys Rose Anoma became the first three women elected to the

parliament (Emmanuel K. Akyeampong and Henry Louis Gates, “Dictionary of African Biography”)


Preamble

We, the People of Côte d'Ivoire;

…

Express our commitment to:

…

• promoting equality between men and women;

PROMOTION OF EQUALITY

89

CÔTE D'IVOIRE 1952

Article 4

All Ivoirians are born and remain free and equal in rights.

No one may be privileged or discriminated against by reason of their race, their ethnicity, their clan, their tribe, their skin

color, their sex, their region, their social origin, their religion or belief, their opinion, their fortune, their difference in culture

or language, their social status or their physical or mental state. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Article 10

School attendance is compulsory for children of both sexes, under the conditions determined by law.

... COMPULSORY SCHOOL

Article 14

Everyone has the right to choose their profession or employment freely.

Everyone has equal access to public or private employment, according to qualities and skills. It is prohibited to

discriminate in respect of access to employment or in the exercise thereof, on the basis of sex, ethnicity or political, religious

or philosophical opinions. DISCRIMINATION BANNED TO ACCESS TO PUBLIC OR PRIVATE EMPLOYMENT

Article 31

The family is the basic unit of the society. The State guarantees its protection.

Parental authority is exercised by the father and mother or, failing that, by any other person in accordance with the law.

PARENTAL AUTHORITY

Article 32

The State is committed to guaranteeing the specific needs of vulnerable persons.

It takes the necessary measures to prevent the vulnerability of children, women, mothers, the elderly and persons with

disabilities. NECESSARY MEASURES TO PREVENT THE VULNERABILITY

It is committed to guaranteeing the access of vulnerable persons to healthcare services, education, employment, culture,

sports and leisure.

Article 35

The State and public communities ensure the promotion, development and protection of women. They take the

necessary measures to eliminate all forms of violence against women and girls.

PROMOTION, DEVELOPMENT AND PROTECTION NECESSARY MEASURES TO ELIMINATE ALL FORMS OF VIOLENCE

Article 36

The State works to promote the political rights of women by increasing their chances of access to representation in

elected assemblies. INCREASING CHANCES OF REPRESENTATION IN ELECTIVE ASSEMBLIES

Detailed rules for the application of this Article are set forth in the law.

Article 37

PROMOTION OF THE EQUALITY IN THE LABOR MARKET

The State works to promote equality between men and women in the labor market.

The State encourages the promotion of women to decision-making positions in public institutions and

administrations as well as at the enterprise level.

PROMOTION TO DECISION-MAKING POSITIONS IN PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS AND ADMINISTRATIONS

Article 52

The right to vote is universal, free, equal and secret.

Voters are, under the conditions determined by law, all Ivoirian nationals of both sexes of at least eighteen years of age and

enjoying their civil and political rights. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

CROATIA 1945



Independence: 1991


Parliament name: Hrvatski Sabor (Croatian Parliament)

Chamber name: Hrvatski Sabor (Croatian Parliament)


Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2017-02

2016-12

2016-09

2015-11

2014-12

2013-01

2012-01

2009-01

2007-11

2003-11

2000-01

1995-10

1992-08

31

28

30

19

23

39

36

32

36

32

27

31

10

8

20.53%

18.54%

19.87%

12.58%

15.23%

25.83%

23.84%

21.19%

23.53%

20.92%

17.76%

20.53%

7.87%

5.8%

Equal rights were given to men and

women in 1943 by the law voted by the

Antifascist National Council for

Liberation of Yugoslavia (the supreme

representative organ with Executive

and Legislative power to which a

woman was first elected on 29

November 1943. This law was upheld

by the Constitution of 1946. Croatian

women were previously elected to the

Parliament of the SFR of Yugoslavia.


Article 3

Freedom, equal rights, national equality and equality of genders, love of peace, social justice, respect for human rights,

inviolability of ownership, conservation of nature and the environment, the rule of law, and a democratic multiparty system

are the highest values of the constitutional order of the Republic of Croatia and the ground for interpretation of the

Constitution.

EQUALITY OF GENDERS HIGHEST VALUE OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL ORDER AND GROUNDS FOR INTERPRETATION OF THE CONSTITUTION

Article 14

Everyone in the Republic of Croatia shall enjoy rights and freedoms, regardless of race, color, gender, language, religion,

political or other belief, national or social origin, property, birth, education, social status or other characteristics.

All shall be equal before the law. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Article 17

During a state of war or an immediate threat to the independence and unity of the State, or in the event of severe natural

disasters, individual freedoms and rights guaranteed by the Constitution may be restricted. This shall be decided by the

Croatian Parliament by a two-thirds majority of all members or, if the Croatian Parliament is unable to meet, at the proposal

of the Government and upon the counter-signature of the Prime Minister, by the President of the Republic.

The extend of such restrictions shall be adequate to the nature of the danger, and may not result in the inequality of persons

in respect of race, color, gender, language, religion, national or social origin.

… RESTRICTION OF RIGHTS DURING A STATE OF WAR MUST NOT BE DISCRIMINATORY BY GENDER

CROATIA 1945

Article 45

All Croatian citizens who have reached the age of eighteen years (voters) shall be entitled to universal and equal suffrage

in elections for the Croatian Parliament, the President of the Republic of Croatia and the European Parliament and in

decision-making procedures by national referendum, in compliance with law. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

…

Article 56

The right of employees and of members of their families to social security and social insurance shall be regulated by law and

collective agreements. RIGHTS IN CONNECTION WITH MATERNITY

Rights in connection with child-birth, maternity and child care shall be regulated by law.

Article 62

The State shall protect maternity, children and young people, and shall create social, cultural, educational, material and

other conditions promoting the right to a decent life. PROTECTION OF MATERNITY

Article 64

…

Young people, mothers and persons with disabilities shall be entitled to special protection at work.

SPECIAL PROTECTION OF MOTHERS AT WORK

92

CUBA 1934




Parliament name: Asamblea nacional del Poder popular

(National Assembly of the People's Power)

Chamber name: Asamblea nacional del Poder popular (National Assembly of the People's Power)


Directly elected


María Gómez Carbonell was the first

woman elected to the House of

Representatives in 1936 (Dolores Rovirosa,

“María Gómez Carbonell y una familia

excepcional”).

DATE WOMEN %

2018-03

2013-02

2008-01

2003-01

1998-01

1993-02

1986-11

1981-12

1976-11

1958-11

1948-06

322

299

265

219

166

134

173

113

107

3

4

53.22%

48.86%

43.16%

35.96%

27.62%

22.75%

33.92%

22.65%

22.25%

2.34%

5.56%


Article 42

All people are equal before the law, receive the same protection and treatment from the authorities, and enjoy the same

rights, liberties, and opportunities, without any discrimination for reasons of sex, gender, sexual orientation, gender

identity, age, ethnic origin, skin color, religious belief, disability, national or territorial origin, or any other personal condition

or circumstance that implies a distinction injurious to human dignity. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

Article 43 EQUAL RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES IN ECONOMIC, POLITICAL, CULTURAL, OCCUPATIONAL, SOCIAL AND FAMILIAL DOMAINS

Women and men have equal rights and responsibilities in the economic, political, cultural, occupational, social, and

familial domains, as well as in any other domain. SAME OPPORTUNITIES AND POSSIBILITIES

The State guarantees that both will be offered the same opportunities and possibilities.

The State encourages the holistic development of women and their full social participation. It ensures the exercise of their

sexual and reproductive rights, protects them from gender-based violence in all of its forms and in all spaces, and

creates the institutional and legal mechanisms to do so. ENCOURAGMENT OF HOLISTIC DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL PARTICIPATION

ASSURANCE OF EXERCISE OF SEXUAL AND REPRODUCTIVE RIGHTS

PROTECTION FROM GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE

Article 68

People who work have a right to social security. The State, through the social security system, guarantees adequate

protection when a person finds themselves unable to work due to age, maternity, paternity, disability, or illness.

PROTECTION THROUGH THE SOCIAL SECURITY SYSTEM DURING THE MATERNITY THOSE UNABLE TO WORK

93

CUBA 1934

Article 82


Marriage is a social and legal institution. It is one of the organizational structures of families. It is based on free consent and

on the equality of rights, obligations, and legal capacity of spouses. MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

Article 84

Maternity and paternity are protected by the State. PROTECTION OF MATERNITY

Mothers and fathers have essential responsibilities and roles in the holistic education and upbringing them as citizens with

moral, ethical, and civic values in correspondence with life within our socialist society.

Mothers and fathers or other relatives by blood or marriage who perform the roles of guardianship and caretakers have the

duty to feed children and adolescents, respect and guarantee the full exercise of their rights, protect them from all types of

violence, and contribute actively to the holistic development of their personality.

Children, in turn, are obligated to respect, care for, and protect their mothers, fathers, and other relatives, in accordance

with that which is established by law. RESPECT, CARE AND PROTECTION OF CHILDREN

Article 204

All citizens with the legal capacity to do so have the right to contribute to the management of the State, either directly or

through their elected representatives within the organs of People's Power and to participate, for this purpose, in the form

prescribed by the law, through periodic elections, plebiscites, and popular referendums that will be free, equal, direct, and

secret. Every elector has the right to a single vote. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Article 205

Voting is a citizen's right. The vote is exercised voluntarily by Cuban citizens, both men and women, that have reached the

age of sixteen… RIGHT TO VOTE FOR ELECTIONS

Article 207

Cuban citizens, both women and men, that are in full enjoyment of their political rights and meet the other requirements

established by law have the right to be elected. RIGHT TO STAND FOR ELECTIONS

If the election is for representatives on the National Assembly of People's Power, they must be over the age of 18.

94

CYPRUS 1960




Parliament name: Vouli Antiprosopon (House of

Representatives)

Chamber name: Vouli Antiprosopon (House of Representatives)


Directly elected: the Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus stipulates that, of the 80 seats in Parliament, 56 members are

elected by the Greek-Cypriot community while 24 are elected by the Turkish-Cypriot community (seats currently vacant). Of

the 56 Greek-Cypriot seats, 3 are reserved for each of the religious groups (Latins, Maronites, and Armenians).

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Voluntary political party quotas.

Legal source: cf. individual party statutes.

DATE WOMEN %

2016-06

2016-05

2014-01

2011-05

2010-01

2006-05

2001-05

1991-05

1985-12

1981-05

1970-07

1963-10

1960-07

10

11

7

6

7

8

6

3

1

1

0

1

0

17.86%

19.64%

12.5%

10.71%

12.5%

14.29%

10.71%

5.36%

1.79%

2.86%

0%

2.86%

0%


Article 2

For the purposes of this Constitution:

…

7.

MARRIED WOMAN SHALL BELONG TO THE COMMUNITY OF HER HUSBAND

a. a married woman shall belong to the Community [Greek or Turkish] to which her husband belongs;

b. a male or female child under the age of twenty-one who is not married shall belong to the Community to which his or

her father belongs, or, if the father is unknown and he or she has not been adopted, to the Community to which his or her

mother belongs FEMALE CHILD BELONGS TO THE COMMUNITY OF HER FATHER

Article 28

1. All persons are equal before the law, the administration and justice and are entitled to equal protection thereof and

treatment thereby.

2. Every person shall enjoy all the rights and liberties provided for in this Constitution without any direct or indirect

discrimination against any person on the ground of his community, race, religion, language, sex, political or other

convictions, national or social descent, birth, colour, wealth, social class, or on any ground whatsoever, unless there is express

provision to the contrary in this Constitution. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

95

CYPRUS 1960

Article 39

1. The election of the President and the Vice-President of the Republic shall be direct, by universal suffrage and secret ballot,

and shall, except in the case of a by-election, take place on the same day but separately: UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

…

Article 62

…

2. Out of the number of Representatives provided in paragraph I of this Article seventy per centum shall be elected by the

Greek Community and thirty per centum by the Turkish Community separately from amongst their members respectively,

and in the case of a contested election, by universal suffrage and by direct and secret ballot held on the same day.


Article 186

1. In this Constitution, unless it is otherwise expressly provided or required by the context:

…

b. words importing the masculine gender include females and words in the singular include the plural and vice-versa.

MASCULINE WORDS IN THE CONSTITUTION ALSO REFERRED TO FEMALE GENDER

96

CZECH REPUBLIC 1920



Independence: 1993



Chamber name: Poslanecka Snemovna (Chamber of

Deputies)



Directly elected


quotas.


DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2017-10

2015-03

2014-12

2013-10

2010-05

2009-01

2008-10

2007-04

2006-06

2002-06

1996-06

1992-06

45

44

40

38

39

44

31

14

11

31

34

30

20

22.5%

22%

20%

19%

19.5%

22%

15.5%

7%

5.5%

15.5%

17%

15%

10%

Chamber name: Senat (Senate)



Directly elected


quotas.


DATE WOMEN %

2018-10

2016-11

2016-10

2014-12

2014-10

2012-01

2010-10

2006-11

2000-11

1996-11

13

15

16

15

13

14

15

12

10

9

16.05%

18.75%

19.75%

18.52%

16.05%

17.28%

18.52%

14.81%

12.35%

11.11%

Prior to the separation of the Czech Republic and Slovakia, women were granted full universal suffrage in Czechoslovakia on

29 February 1920. In June 1992 the first legislature of the Czech Republic after the country became independent on 1

January 1993. Czech women had previously been elected to the Federal Parliament of Czechoslovakia. In 1912, Božena

Viková-Kunětická (1862-1934) became the first woman elected to the zemský snĕm (National Assembly or Bohemian Diet)

(Francisca de Haan, “Biographical Dictionary of Women's Movements and Feminisms in Central, Eastern, and South Eastern

Europe, 19th and 20th Centuries”)


Article 3

1. Everyone is guaranteed the enjoyment of her fundamental rights and basic freedoms without regard to gender, race,

color of skin, language, faith and religion, political or other conviction, national or social origin, membership in a national or

ethnic minority, property, birth, or other status. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

Article 21

…

3. The right to vote is universal and equal, and shall be exercised by secret ballot. The conditions for exercising the right to

vote shall be provided for by law. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

…

97

CZECH REPUBLIC 1920

Article 29

1. Women, adolescents, and persons with health problems have the right to increased protection of their health at work

and to special work conditions. INCREASED PROTECTION OF HEALTH AT WORK AND SPECIAL WORK CONDITIONS

…

Article 32

…

2. Pregnant women are guaranteed special care, protection in labor relations, and suitable work conditions.

… SPECIAL CARE, PROTECTION IN LABOR RELATIONS AND SUITABLE WORK CONDITIONS FOR PREGNANT WOMEN

98

DENMARK 1915




Parliament name: Folketinget (Parliament)

Chamber name: Folketinget (The Danish Parliament)


Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2019-06

2015-06

2014-12

2011-09

2010-01

2007-11

2005-02

2001-11

1998-03

1997

1994-09

1990-12

1988-05

1987-09

1984-01

1979-10

1977-02

1975-01

1973-12

1971-09

1966-11

1960-11

1957-05

1954

1953-09

1953-04

1950-09

1947-10

1945-10

70

67

68

70

68

67

66

68

67

59

60

59

55

52

47

42

30

28

27

31

19

17

15

17

14

17

12

13

8

39.11%

37.43%

37.99%

39.11%

37.99%

37.43%

36.87%

37.99%

37.43%

32.96%

33.52%

32.96%

30.73%

29.05%

26.26%

23.46%

16.76%

15.64%

15.08%

17.32%

10.61%

9.5%

8.38%

9.5%

9.27%

9.5%

7.95%

8.67%

5.37%

Universal suffrage was granted on a local level in 1908, restricted to tax paying women and at least 25 years old. The right

to vote and to stand for national election was established in the Constitution of 1915 but only entered into force after World

War One in 1918. On 22 April 1918, Danish women went to the polling booths to cast their vote for the first time at a

parliamentary election: 41 women ran for election. In total 402 political candidates fought to get one of the seats at the

Parliament. Only 9 women were elected: Karen Ankersted, Mathilde Malling Hauschultz, Helga Larsen, Elna Munch, Nina

Bang, Marie Christensen, Marie Hjelmer, Olga Knudsen and Inger Gautier Schmit.

99

DENMARK 1915


Article 2

…

The form of government shall be that of a constitutional monarchy. The Royal Power shall be inherited by men and women

in accordance with the provisions of the Succession to the Throne Act, 27th March, 1953.

… ROYAL POWER

Article 29

1. Any Danish subject whose permanent residence is in the Realm, and who has the age qualification for suffrage provided

for in subsection (2) of this section shall have the right to vote at Folketing elections, provided that he has not been declared

incapable of conducting his own affairs. It shall be laid down by Statute to what extent conviction and public assistance

amounting to poor relief within the meaning of the law shall entail disfranchisement. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

2. The age qualification for suffrage shall be such as has resulted from the Referendum held under the Act dated the 26th

March, 1953. Such age qualification for suffrage may be altered at any time by Statute. A Bill passed by the Folketing for the

purpose of such enactment shall receive the Royal Assent only when the provision on the alteration in the age qualification

for suffrage has been put to a Referendum in accordance with subsection (5) of section 42, which has not resulted in the

rejection of the provision.

100

DJIBOUTI 1986

Right to vote: October 27, 1946



Independence: 1977

Population: 980,768


Assembly)



Directly elected

The constitutional amendments adopted in April 2010 provide for a bicameral parliament comprising the existing National

Assembly and a new Senate, yet to be established.

Electoral quota for women: Yes. The proportion of either male or female candidates on the lists of candidates submitted by

political parties and/or political party groupings must be 25 per cent of the number of seats to be filled. If not the list will be

inadmissible. The quota of elected members of either sex to the National Assembly is fixed at not less than 25 per cent.

Legal source: Article 3, Law no. 219/AN/18/7ème L

DATE WOMEN %

2018-06

2018-05

2018-04

2018-02

2016-12

2013-02

2007

2003-01

1977-05

17

15

17

15

7

7

9

7

0

26.15%

23.08%

26.15%

23.08%

10.77%

10.77%

13.85%

10.77%

0%

Prior to independence, under French administration, women were granted the right to vote on 27 October 1946 with

foundation of the French Union, the 4th Republic and the attribution of the status of territoire d'outre-mer to Djibouti the

same year. Following the "Loi Lamine Guèye" all citizens of the Union territories had the right to vote for the French

Parliament. This right was confirmed at independence.


Article 1

Islam is the Religion of the State

The State of Djibouti is a democratic, sovereign, one and indivisible Republic.

It assures to all equality before the law without distinction of language, of origin, of race, of sex or of religion. It respects

all beliefs. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

Article 3

The Republic of Djibouti as composed of the entirety of the persons that it recognizes as members and who have accepted

the duties, without distinction of language, of race, of sex or of religion. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

101

DJIBOUTI 1986

Article 4

The popular legitimacy is the foundation and the source of all power. It is expressed by universal, equal and secret suffrage.

The executive power and legislative power shall proceed from universal suffrage or from the instances elected through it.

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Article 5

All the Djiboutian nationals of majority, of both sexes, enjoying their civil and political rights are electors within the

conditions determined by the law. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

102

DOMINICA 1951

DATE WOMEN %

2019-12

2016-12

2014-12

2009-12

2008

2007

2005-05

2000-01

1995-06

1990-05

1985-07

1980-07

8

8

7

4

6

5

4

6

3

5

3

4

38.1%

25%

21.88%

12.5%

18.75%

13.89%

12.9%

18.75%

9.38%

16.67%

10%

13.33%

Right to vote and to stand for election: July, 1951


Independence: 1978

Population: 71,808

Parliament name: House of Assembly



Directly elected (21). Appointed (9): appointed by the Head of State. Others (2): the Speaker and the Attorney General.


Prior to independence, under British administration women were granted the right to vote in July 1951. This right was

confirmed at independence. Mary Eugenia Charles (1919-2005) was elected to the House of Assembly in 1970 and she was

Prime Minister of Dominica from 21 July 1980 until 14 June 1995.

CONSTITUTION OF 1978 WITH AMENDMENTS THROUGH 2014


Whereas every person in Dominica is entitled to the fundamental rights and freedoms, that is to say, the right, whatever

his race, place of origins, political opinions, colour, creed or sex, but subject to respect for the rights and freedoms of others

and for the public interest, to each and all of the following, namely:




c. protection for the privacy of his home and other property and from deprivation of property without compensation,

…


…

3. In this section, the expression “discriminatory” means affording different treatment to different persons attributable




…



specifically relating to sex, race, place of origin, political opinions, color or creed) to be required of any person who is

appointed to or to act in any office or employment. DISCRIMINATION BANNED AT WORK

103

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 1942




Parliament name: Congreso Nacional de la República

(National Congress of the Republic)


Deputies)



Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes, 40 seats. 25% are reserved

for women to be nominated to congressional or municipal

posts.

Legal source: Electoral Law No. 275-97




Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2016-06

2010-05

2006-05

2002-05

1998-05

1990-05

1986-05

1982-05

1978-05

1974-05

1966-06

1962-12

1957-05

1952-05

1947-05

51

38

35

26

24

14

9

7

11

13

3

2

1

3

1

26.84%

20.77%

19.66%

17.33%

16.11%

11.67%

7.5%

5.83%

12.09%

14.29%

4.05%

2.67%

1.72%

5.77%

2.63%

DATE WOMEN %

2010-05

2009-01

2002-05

1998-05

1994-05

1990-05

1986-05

1982-05

1978-05

1974-05

1970-05

1962-12

1958

1954

1946-12

3

4

1

2

1

0

1

1

2

3

4

1

2

3

0

9.38%

14.29%

3.13%

6.67%

3.33%

0%

3.33%

3.7%

7.41%

11.11%

14.81%

3.7%

8.33%

13.04%

0%


Article 5: Basis of the Constitution

The Constitution is based on the respect for human dignity and the indivisible unity of the Nation, common fatherland of

all Dominican men and women. COMMON FATHERLAND

104

Article 39: Right to equality

All people are born free and equal before the law, receive the same protection and treatment from institutions,

authorities, and other people and enjoy the same rights liberties and opportunities, without any discrimination for

reasons of gender, color, age, disability, nationality, family ties, language, religions, political or philosophical opinion, social

or personal condition. Consequently: DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

4. Women and men are equal before the law. Any act that has the objective or result of diminishing or annulling the

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 1942


recognition, enjoyment or exercise of fundamental rights of woman and men in conditions of equality is prohibited.

5. The State should promote and guarantee the equal participation of women and men in candidate lists to the offices of

popular election for the instances of guidance and decision in the public sphere, in the administration of justice, and in

the State-controlled bodies. EQUAL PARTICIPATION IN CANDIDATE LISTS TO THE OFFICES OF POPULAR ELECTION FOR THE INSTANCES

OF GUIDANCE AND DECISION IN THE PUBLIC SPHERE, ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE

AND STATE-CONTROLLED BODIES

Article 42: Right to personal integrity

All people have the right to have their physical, psychic, moral integrity and the right to live without violence respected. They

shall have the protection of the state in cases of threat, risk, or violation of the same. Consequently:

…

2. Familial and gender based violence in any of its forms is condemned. The State shall guarantee through the law the

adoption of necessary methods to prevent, sanction, and eradicate violence against women;

… VIOLENCE BANNED ADOPTION OF METHODS TO PREVENT, SANCTION AND ERADICATE VIOLENCE

Article 55: Rights of the family

The family is the basis of society and the fundamental space for the integral development of people. It is formed by natural

or legal ties, by the free decision of a man and a woman to enter into marriage or by the responsible willingness to conform

to it. MARRIAGE BASED ON FREE WILL

1. All persons have the right to form a family, in whose formation and development the woman and man enjoy equal rights

and duties and owe one another mutual understanding and reciprocal respect. FAMILY EQUALITY

…

6. Maternity, whether the social condition or the civil state of the woman, shall enjoy the protection of the public powers

and causes the right to official assistance in the case of need.

… MATERNITY PROTECTION AND ASSISTANCE CONSIDERING THE SOCIAL CONDITIONS AND THE CIVIL STATE

10. The State promotes responsible paternity and maternity. The father and the mother, even after separation and divorce,

have the shared and non-renounceable duty to feed, raise, train, educate, support, and provide safety and assistance to their

sons and daughters. The law shall establish the necessary and appropriate methods to guarantee the effect of these

obligations.

…

PROMOTION OF RESPONSIBLE MATERNITY

Article 56: Protection of minors

The family, society, and State shall give preference to the superior interests of male and female children and adolescents,

and shall have the obligation to assist and protect them in order to guarantee their harmonious and integral development

and the full exercise of their fundamental rights, in accordance with this Constitution and the laws. Consequently:

1. The eradication of child labor and all types of mistreatment or violence against minors is declared of the highest national

interest. Male and female children and adolescents shall be protected by the State against all forms of abandonment,

kidnapping, states of vulnerability, abuse or physical, psychological, moral or sexual abuse, commercial, labor, economic

exploitation or risky jobs. CHILD LABOR BANNED

2. The active and progressive participation of male and female children and adolescents in family, community, and social

life shall be promoted. PARTICIPATION OF CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS IN FAMILY, COMMUNITY AND SOCIAL LIFE

…

Article 62: Right to work

Work is a right, a duty, and a social function that is exercised with the protection and assistance of the State. It is an essential

purpose of the State to foment dignified and paid employment. The public powers shall promote the dialogue and

agreement between workers, employers, and the State. Consequently:

EQUAL RIGHTS AT WORK

1. The State guarantees the equality and equity of women and men in the exercise of the right to work.

…

3. Union freedom, social security, collective negotiation, professional training, respect for one’s physical and intellectual

abilities, privacy, and personal dignity are, among others, the basic rights of male and female workers.

Article 77: Election of male and female legislators

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

The election of senators and deputies shall be made by universal direct suffrage by the terms established by law.

Article 273: Grammatical genders

The grammatical genders that are adopted in the wording of the text of this Constitution do not signify, in any way,

restriction to the principle of equality of rights of women and men.

GRAMMATICAL GENDERS RESPECT THE PRINCIPLE OF EQUALITY OF RIGHTS IN THE CONSTITUTION

In the Constitution of the Dominican Republic the adjective “female” can be counted 90 times

105

ECUADOR 1967




Parliament name: Asamblea Nacional (National

Assembly)

Chamber name: Asamblea Nacional (National Assembly)


Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Legislated candidate quotas. For the elections through the system of proportional

representation, the names of men and women candidates shall alternate. Candidate lists for elections to the National

Assembly, the Andean and Latin American Parliament, the regional councils, as well as the district, municipal and rural

councils, shall be formed with an equal number sequence (woman–man or man–woman) to complete the total number of

principal and alternative candidates.

Legal socurce: Constitution, art. 116; Electoral Law 2009, art. 99 (1) and 160.

DATE WOMEN %

2019-12

2017-02

2014-01

2013-02

2009-04

2006-01

2002-10

2001

2000

1998-05

1994-05

1992-05

1990-06

1988-01

1986-06

1984-01

1968-06

1960-09

1948-06

54

52

57

53

40

25

16

21

18

21

3

4

5

3

1

3

0

2

0

39.42%

37.96%

41.61%

38.69%

32.26%

25%

16%

17.36%

14.88%

17.36%

4.48%

5.97%

7.46%

4.48%

1.39%

4.17%

0%

2.74%

0%

Between 1929 and 1967, voting was compulsory for men and optional for women, and literacy was required for both sexes;

in 1967 it became compulsory for both sexes. In 1956 a woman was elected as substitute member of National Assembly: this

parliamentarian sat occasionally.


106

Article 11

The exercise of rights shall be governed by the following principles:

…

2. All persons are equal and shall enjoy the same rights, duties and opportunities. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

No one shall be discriminated against for reasons of ethnic belonging, place of birth, age, sex, gender identity, cultural

ECUADOR 1967

identity, civil status, language, religion, ideology, political affiliation, legal record, socio-economic condition, migratory

status, sexual orientation, health status, HIV carrier, disability, physical difference or any other distinguishing feature,

whether personal or collective, temporary or permanent, which might be aimed at or result in the diminishment or

annulment of recognition, enjoyment or exercise of rights. All forms of discrimination are punishable by law.

Article 19

The law shall regulate the prevalence of contents for informative, educational and cultural purposes in the programming of

the media, and shall foster the creation of spaces for the dissemination of independent national production.

It is forbidden to broadcast advertisements that foment violence, discrimination, racism, drug addiction, sexism, religious

or political intolerance and all that undermines rights is forbidden.

FORBIDDEN TO BROADCAST ADVERTISEMENTS THAT FOMENT SEXISM

Article 27

Education will focus on the human being and shall guarantee holistic human development, in the framework of respect for

human rights, a sustainable environment, and democracy; education shall be participatory, compulsory, intercultural,

democratic, inclusive and diverse, of high quality and humane; it shall promote gender equity, justice, solidarity and peace;

it shall encourage critical faculties, art and sports, individual and community initiatives, and the development of

competencies and capabilities to create and work. EDUCATION TO PROMOTE GENDER EQUITY

Article 35

Elderly persons, girls, children and adolescents, pregnant women, persons with disabilities, persons in prison and those who

suffer from disastrous or highly complex diseases shall receive priority and specialized care in the public and private

sectors. The same priority care shall be received by persons in situations of risk, victims of domestic and sexual violence,

child mistreatment, natural or manmade disasters. The State shall provide special protection to persons who are doubly

vulnerable. PRIORITY AND SPECIALIZED CARE IN THE PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECTORS FOR PREGNANT WOMEN AND VICTIMS OF DOMESTIC

AND SEXUAL VIOLENCE

Article 38

The State shall draw up public policies and programs aimed at providing care for elderly persons that bear in mind specific

differences between the urban and rural sectors, gender concerns, ethnic group, culture, and the differences pertaining to

persons, communities, peoples and nations; it will also foster, to the greatest extent possible, personal autonomy and

participation in the drafting and implementation of these policies.

PROVIDE CARE FOR ELDERLY PERSONS CONSIDERING GENDER CONCERNS

Article 42

All arbitrary displacement is forbidden. Persons who have been displaced shall have the right to receive protection and

emergency humanitarian aid from the authorities, ensuring access to food, shelter, housing, and medical and health services.

Children, adolescents, pregnant women, mothers with underage daughters and sons, elderly persons and persons with

disabilities shall receive preferential and specialized humanitarian assistance.

All displaced persons and groups shall have the right to return to their place of origin voluntarily, with safety and dignity.

HUMANITARIAN ASSISTANCE FOR PREGNANT WOMEN AND MOTHERS WITH UNDERAGE DAUGHTERS AND SONS

Article 43

The State shall guarantee the rights of pregnant and breast-feeding women to:

1. Not be discriminated for their pregnancy in education, social, and labor sectors.

2. Free maternal healthcare services.

3. Priority protection and care of their integral health and life during pregnancy, childbirth and postpartum.

4. The facilities needed for their recovery after pregnancy and during breast-feeding.

PREGNANT AND BREAST-FEEDING WOMEN’S RIGHTS:

1 BANNED DISCRIMINATION IN EDUCATION, SOCIAL AND LABOR SECTORS

2 FREE MATERNAL HEALTHCARE SERVICES

3 PRIORITY PROTECTION AND CARE OF THEIR INTEGRAL HEALTH AND LIFE DURING PREGNANCY, CHILDBIRTH AND POSTPARTUM

4 FACILITIES DURING RECOVERY AFTER PREGNANCY AND DURING BREAST-FEEEDING

Article 46

The State shall adopt, among others, the following measures that safeguard children and adolescents:

…

7. Protection from the influence of programs or messages disseminated by means of any media and which promote

violence or racial or gender discrimination. Public policies for communication shall give priority to their education and

respect for their rights to an image, integrity and others pertaining to their age. Limitations and penalties shall be

established to enforce these rights.

… PROTECTION OF CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS BY MESSAGES OF GENDER DISCRIMINATION DISSEMINATED BY MEDIA

107

ECUADOR 1967

Article 51

Imprisoned persons are recognized the following rights:

…

6. Receiving preferential and specialized treatment in the case of pregnant women and breast-feeding women,

adolescents, elderly persons, the sick or persons with disabilities.

… PREFERENTIAL AND SPECIALIZED TREATMENT FOR PREGNANT AND BREAST-FEEDING WOMEN IN PRISON

Article 57

Indigenous communes, communities, peoples and nations are recognized and guaranteed, in conformity with the

Constitution and human rights agreements, conventions, declarations and other international instruments, the following

collective rights:

…

LEGAL SYSTEM OR COMMON LAW OF INDIGENOUS COMMUNES AND COMMUNITIES MUST RESPECT

CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS

10. To create, develop, apply and practice their own legal system or common law, which cannot infringe constitutional

rights, especially those of women, children and adolescents.

…

The State shall guarantee the enforcement of these collective rights without any discrimination, in conditions of equality

and equity between men and women.

…

EQUAL RIGHTS

Article 61

Ecuadorians benefit from the following rights:

…

7. To hold and discharge public office and duties on the basis of merits and capacities and in a transparent, inclusive,

equitable, pluralistic and democratic selection and designation system that guarantees their participation, on the basis of

criteria of gender equity and parity, equal opportunities for persons with disabilities, and intergenerational participation.

… GENDER EQUITY AND PARITY IN PUBLIC OFFICE

Article 62

The persons in possession of political rights have the right to equal, direct, secret and publicly scrutinized universal

suffrage,… UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Article 65

The State shall promote equality with respect to the representation of women and men in publicly appointed or elected

office, in its executive and decision-making institutions, and political parties and movements.

…

REPRESENTATION IN APPOINTED OR ELECTED OFFICE AND DECISION-MAKING INSTITUTIONS AND POLITICAL PARTIES AND MOVEMENTS

Article 66

The following rights of persons are recognized and guaranteed:

…

3. The right to personal well-being, which includes:

…

b. A life without violence in the public and private sectors. The State shall adopt the measures needed to prevent, eliminate,

and punish all forms of violence, especially violence against women, children and adolescents, elderly persons, persons

with disabilities and against all persons at a disadvantage or in a vulnerable situation; identical measures shall be taken

against violence, slavery, and sexual exploitation.

… MEASURES TO PREVENT, ELIMINATE AND PUNISH VIOLENCE AND SEXUAL EXPLOITATION

Article 67

…

Marriage is the union of man and woman and shall be based on the free consent of the persons entering into this bond and

on the equality of rights, obligations and legal capacity. MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

Article 69

To protect the rights of persons who are members of a family:

…

3. The State shall guarantee the equality of rights in decision making for the administration of the marital partnership

and the joint ownership of assets. FAMILY EQUALITY

…

108

Article 70 PROMOTION OF GENDER EQUALITY BY LAW, PLANS AND TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE IN PUBLIC SECTOR

The State shall draw up and implement policies to achieve equality between women and men, through the specialized

mechanism set up by law, and shall mainstream the gender approach in plans and programs and shall provide technical

assistance for its mandatory enforcement in the public sector.

ECUADOR 1967

Article 83

Ecuadorians have the following duties and obligations, without detriment to others provided for by the Constitution or by

law:

…

14. To respect and recognize ethnic, national, social, generational, and gender differences and sexual orientation and

identity.

…

Article 108

Political parties and movements are non-State public organizations, which constitute the expressions of political plurality of

the people and are sustained by philosophical, political, ideological, inclusive and nondiscriminatory concepts. Their

organization, structure and functioning shall be democratic and shall guarantee rotation of power, accountability, and

parity membership between women and men on their governing boards. They shall choose their board members and

candidates by means of internal electoral processes or primaries.

PARITY MEMBERSHIP ON GOVERNING BOARDS OF POLITICAL PARTIES

Article 116

For multi-person elections, the law shall establish an electoral system in line with the principles of proportionality, equality

of vote, equity, parity and rotation of power between women and men and shall determine the voting precincts inside and

outside the country. ELECTORAL SYSTEM PROVIDES EQUITY AND ROTATION OF POWER

Article 156

The National Equality Councils are bodies responsible for ensuring the full observance and exercise of the rights enshrined

in the Constitution and in international human rights instruments. The Councils shall exercise their attributions for the

drafting, cross-cutting application, observance, follow-up and evaluation of public policies involving the issues of gender,

ethnic groups, generations, interculturalism, and disabilities and human mobility, in accordance with the law. To achieve

their objectives, they shall coordinate with leading and executive entities and with specialized organizations for the

protection of rights at all levels of government.

NATIONAL EQUALITY COUNCILS INVOLVE THE ISSUES OF GENDER AND PROTECT THE RIGHTS AT ALL LEVELS OF GOVERNMENT

Article 160

…

Members of the Armed Forces and the National Police Force shall be subject to specific laws governing their rights and

obligations and subject to their system of advancement and promotions based on merit and gender equity criteria. Their

job security and professional development shall be guaranteed.

GENDER EQUITY IN ARMED FORCES AND IN NATIONAL POLICE FORCE

Article 171

The authorities of the indigenous communities, peoples, and nations shall perform jurisdictional duties, on the basis of

their ancestral traditions and their own system of law, within their own territories, with a guarantee for the participation of,

and decision-making by, women. The authorities shall apply their own standards and procedures for the settlement of

internal disputes, as long as they are not contrary to the Constitution and human rights enshrined in international

instruments. PARTICIPATION AND DECISION-MAKING POSITIONS GUARANTEE IN INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES

…

Article 176

The requirements and procedures for designating public servants of the judiciary must involve a competitive merit-based

examination, subject to challenge and social monitoring; parity between men and women shall be fostered.

… FOSTERED PARITY IN DESIGNATION OF PUBLIC SERVANTS OF THE JUDICIARY

Article 183

…

The judges of the National Court of Justice shall be elected by the Judiciary Council in conformity with a procedure

entailing a competitive merit-based examination, subject to challenge and social monitoring. Parity between men and

women shall be fostered. FOSTERED PARITY IN ELECTION OF JUDGES OF THE NATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

Article 210

In those cases of selection of an authority by competitive and merit-based examination, the Council for Public Participation

and Social Control shall choose the one who obtains the highest score in the respective examination and shall report this to

the National Assembly for the respective swearing in office.

…

CONDITIONS OF EQUITY AND PARITY IN SELECTION OF AN AUTHORITY

Those who are holding office shall not be able to submit their candidacies for public competitive and merit-based

examinations called to designate their substitutes. Conditions of equity and parity between women and men, as well

equality of conditions, shall be guaranteed for the participation of Ecuadorians living abroad.

109

ECUADOR 1967

Article 217

The Electoral Branch of Government shall guarantee the exercise of political rights as expressed by voting, as well as those

referring to the political organization of the citizenry.

The Electoral Branch shall be comprised of the National Electoral Council and the Electoral Dispute Settlement Court.

Both bodies shall have their seat in Quito and shall have national jurisdiction, administrative, financial, and organizational

autonomy, and their own legal status. They shall be governed by the principles of autonomy, independence, publicity,

transparency, equity, interculturalism, gender equality, swiftness and rectitude.

GENDER EQUALITY IN NATIONAL ELECTORAL COUNCIL AND ELECTORAL DISPUTE SETTLEMENT COURT

Article 224

The members of the National Electoral Council and the Electoral Dispute Settlement Court shall be designated by the

Council for Public Participation and Social Control, after selection by a competitive and merit-based examination, with

candidacies submitted by the citizenry and citizen right to challenge, as well as the guarantee of equity and parity between

men and women, in accordance with the law.

GUARANTEE OF EQUITY AND PARITY IN SELECTION OF MEMBERS OF NATIONAL ELECTORAL COUNCIL AND ELECTORAL DISPUTE SETTLEMENT COURT

Article 324

The State shall guarantee equal rights and equal opportunity to men and women in access to property and

decision-making in the management of their common marital estate.

EQUAL RIGHTS AND OPPORTUNITY IN ACCESS TO PROPERTY AND DECISION-MAKING IN THE MANAGEMENT OF COMMON MARITAL ESTATE

Article 325

The State shall guarantee the right to work. AH modes of work are recognized, whether as employee or self-employed,

including the work of self-sustenance and care-giving for people, along with all workers, male and female, as productive

social players. RIGHT TO WORK

Article 331

The State shall guarantee to women equal access to employment, vocational and professional training and

advancement, equitable pay, and the option to self-employment. All necessary measures shall be taken to eliminate

inequality. EQUAL ACCESS TO EMPLOYMENT, VOCATIONAL AND PROFESSIONAL TRAINING AND ADVANCEMENT, EQUITABLE PAY, AND THE

OPTION TO SELF-EMPLOYMENT. ELIMINATION OF INEQUALITY

Any form of discrimination, harassment or violent action, of any nature, whether direct or indirect, affecting women at

work is forbidden. DISCRIMINATION, HARASSMENT AND VIOLENT ACTION BANNED AT WORK

Article 332

The State shall guarantee respect for the reproductive rights of all workers, including the elimination of labor risks

affecting reproductive health, access to employment and job security, without limitations due to pregnancy or number of

children, maternity and breast-feeding rights, and the right to paternity leave. The dismissal of a working woman

because of pregnancy and maternity, along with discrimination in connection with reproductive roles, is forbidden.

REPRODUCTIVE RIGHTS OF ALL WORKERS WITHOUT LIMITATION DUE TO PREGNANCY, NUMBER OF CHILDREN, MATERNITY AND BREAST-FEDDING

FORBIDDEN DISMISSAL BECAUSE OF PREGNANCY AND MATERNITY

Article 333

Unpaid work of self-sustenance and care-giving, carried out in the home, is recognized as productive work.

The State shall strive towards a labor system that works in harmony with the needs for human care-giving, and that facilitates

suitable services, infrastructure and work schedules; it shall, in particular, provide services for child care, care for persons with

disabilities, and other services as needed for workers to be able to perform their labor activities; it shall furthermore foster

the joint responsibility and reciprocity of men and women in domestic work and family obligations.

DOMESTIC WORK RECOGNIZED AS PRODUCTIVE WORK RECIPROVCITY IN DOMESTIC WORK AND FAMILY OBLIGATIONS

Article 334

The State shall promote equitable access to inputs, to which end its duties shall be:

…

2. To draft specific policies to eradicate inequality and discrimination towards women producers, in the access to

production inputs. ERADICATION OF INEQUALITY AND DISCRIMINATION IN THE ACCESS TO PRODUCTION INPUTS

110

Article 363

The State shall be responsible for:

…

6. Ensuring sexual and reproductive health actions and services and guaranteeing the integral healthcare and the life

of women, especially during pregnancy, childbirth and postpartum.

… ENSURING SEXUAL AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH ACTIONS AND SERVICES AND GUARANTEEING INTEGRAL HEALTHCARE AND LIFE,

ESPECIALLY DURING PREGNANCY, CHILDBIRTH AND POSTPARTUM

ECUADOR 1967

Article 369

Mandatory universal insurance shall cover the contingencies of illness, maternity, paternity, labor hazards, termination of

employment, unemployment, old age, invalidity, disability, death and those provide for by the law. Health services for the

contingencies of illness and maternity shall be provided through the public integral health network.

… PUBLIC INTEGRAL HEALTH NETWORK MATERNITY COVER

Article 375

The State, at all levels of government, shall guarantee the right to habitat and decent housing, for which purpose it shall:

…

5. Develop plans and programs to fund housing of social interest, through government banks and grassroots credit

institutions, with emphasis on persons with limited financial resources and women heads of household.

… RIGHT TO DECENT HOUSING FOR HEADS OF HOUSEHOLD

Article 434

The members of the Constitutional Court shall be designated by a qualification commission comprised of two persons

appointed by each one of the following branches of government: the legislative, the executive, and transparency and social

monitoring. Members shall be elected from among the candidates submitted by the above-mentioned branches of

government, through a public examination process, with citizen oversight and option for challenging the process. In the

membership of the Court, efforts shall be made to ensure parity between men and women.

… PARITY IN THE MEMBERSHIP OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL COURT

111

EGYPT 1979




Parliament name: Majlis Al-Nuwab (House of

Representatives)

Chamber name: Majlis Al-Nuwab (House of Representatives)


Directly elected (568). Appointed members (28): appointed by the President.

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Constitution, Art. 11 says that the State shall take the necessary measures to ensure the

appropriate representation of women in the House of Representatives, as specified by Law, but does not provide a specific

number. This can change at each election. Only pertaining to the 2015 elections, each list for which 15 seats were allocated

should have included at least 7 women and each list in which 45 seats were allocated should have included at least 21

women. It is unclear if this will be the case in future elections.

Legal source: Resolution No. 46 of 2014 on the enactment of the Law on the House of Representatives.

DATE WOMEN %

2015

2011-11

2010-11

2009-01

2005-11

2001

2000-10

1995-12

1990-12

1987-04

1984-05

1979-06

1976-11

1971-11

1969-01

1964-03

1960-07

1957-07

1950-01

89

10

65

8

9

13

11

9

10

18

36

35

6

8

3

8

7

2

0

14.93%

1.97%

12.7%

1.76%

1.98%

2.86%

2.42%

1.98%

2.2%

3.93%

7.86%

8.93%

1.67%

2.22%

0.83%

2.22%

1.17%

0.57%

0%

From 1956 to 1979, men were automatically put on the electoral list, while women were only included on demand. Rawya

Ateya (1926–1997) and Amina Shukri became the first female parliamentarian in the Arab world in 1957.

112


EQUALITY IN CIVIL, POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RIGHTS

Article 11: The place of women, motherhood and childhood

The state commits to achieving equality between women and men in all civil, political, economic, social, and cultural

rights in accordance with the provisions of this Constitution.

The state commits to taking the necessary measures to ensure appropriate representation of women in the houses of

parliament, in the manner specified by law. MEASURES TO ENSURE APPROPRIATE REPRESENTATION IN THE HOUSE OF PARLIAMENT

It grants women the right to hold public posts and high management posts in the state, and to appointment in judicial

EGYPT 1979

bodies and entities without discrimination. HOLD PUBLIC POSTS AND HIGH MANAGEMENT POSTS IN THE STATE

APPOINTMENT IN JUDICIAL BODIES

The state commits to the protection of women against all forms of violence, and ensures women empowerment to

reconcile the duties of a woman toward her family and her work requirements. PROTECTION AGAINST VIOLENCE

ENSURING EMPOWERMENT TO RECONCILE THE DUTIES OF A WOMAN TOWARD HER FAMILY AND HER WORK REQUIREMENTS

The state ensures care and protection and care for motherhood and childhood, and for breadwinning, and elderly

women, and women most in need. CARE AND PROTECTION FOR MOTHERHOOD, BREADWINNING, ELDERLY AND MOST IN NEED

Article 53: Equality in public rights and duties

Citizens are equal before the law, possess equal rights and public duties, and may not be discriminated against on the

basis of religion, belief, sex, origin, race, color, language, disability, social class, political or geographical affiliation, or for any

other reason. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Discrimination and incitement to hate are crimes punishable by law.

The state shall take all necessary measures to eliminate all forms of discrimination, and the law shall regulate the

establishment of an independent commission for this purpose.

Article 74: Freedom to form political parties

Citizens have the right to form political parties by notification as regulated by the law. No political activity may be exercised

or political parties formed on the basis of religion, or discrimination based on sex, origin, sect or geographic location, nor

may any activity be practiced that is hostile to democracy, secretive, or which possesses a military or quasi-military nature.

… DISCRIMINATION BANNED IN POLITICAL PARTIES

Article 87: Citizen participation in public life

The participation of citizens in public life is a national duty. Every citizen has the right to vote, run in elections, and express

their opinion in referendums. The law shall regulate the exercise of these rights. Performance of these duties may be

exempted in cases specified by the law. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

…

Article 180: Election of local councils

Every local unit elects a local council by direct, secret ballot for a term of four years.

A candidate must be no younger than 21 years old. The law regulates other conditions for candidacy and procedures of

election, provided that one quarter of the seats are allocated to youth under 35 years old, one quarter is allocated for

women, workers and farmers are represented by no less than 50 percent of the total number of seats, and these percentages

include a proper representation of Christians and people with disability. RESERVED SEATS IN LOCAL COUNCIL

Article 214: National Councils

The law specifies independent national councils including the National Council for Human Rights, the National Council for

Women, the National Council for Childhood and Motherhood, and the National Council for Persons with Disability. The law

sets out their structures, mandates, and guarantees for the independence and neutrality of their members. They have the

right to report to the public authorities any violations pertaining to their fields of work.

HUMAN RIGHTS COMMISSION: “NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR WOMEN” AND “NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR CHILDHOOD AND MOTHERHOOD”

113

EL SALVADOR 1961

Right to vote for election: 1939




Parliament name: Asamblea legislativa (Legislative

Assembly)

Chamber name: Asamblea legislativa (Legislative Assembly)


Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Legislated candidate quotas. Political parties must include in their candidate lists for

elections to the Legislative Assembly at least 30% women candidates.

Legal source: Article 37 of the 2013 Law on Political Parties (No. 307)

DATE WOMEN %

2018-06

2018-04

2015-03

2014-03

2014-01

2013

2012-03

2009-01

2006-03

2003-03

2000-03

1999

1998

1997-03

1994-04

1988-05

1985-05

1983-12

1978-04

1974-06

1968-06

1966-06

1964-06

1961-12

26

26

27

23

22

23

22

16

14

9

8

13

14

13

9

7

4

7

4

3

2

6

1

2

30.95%

30.95%

32.14%

27.38%

26.19%

27.38%

26.19%

19.05%

16.67%

10.71%

9.52%

15.48%

16.67%

15.48%

10.71%

11.67%

6.67%

11.67%

7.41%

5.77%

3.85%

11.54%

1.92%

3.7%


114

Article 3

All persons are equal before the law. For the enjoyment of civil rights, no restrictions shall be established that are based

on differences of nationality, race, sex or religion. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Hereditary offices and privileges are not recognized.

EL SALVADOR 1961

Article 32

…

The legal foundation of the family is marriage and rests on the juridical equality of the spouses.


Article 34

…

The law shall determine the duties of the State and shall create institutions for the protection of maternity and infancy.

INSTITUTIONS FOR THE PROTECTION OF MATERNITY

Article 38

Labor shall be regulated by a Code which shall have the principal objective of harmonizing the relations between employers

and workers, establishing their rights and obligations. It shall be based on general principles that tend toward the

improvement of the living conditions of workers, and shall include especially the following rights:

1st. In the same business or establishment and under identical circumstances, to equal work shall correspond equal

remuneration for the worker, without regard for his sex, race, creed, or nationality;

…

10th.

…

Unhealthy or dangerous work is prohibited for persons under eighteen years of age and women. Night work is also

prohibited for persons under eighteen years old. The law shall define (determinar) dangerous and unhealthful work;

… UNHEALTHY OR DANGEROUS WORK PROHIBITED

Article 42

The working woman shall be entitled to paid rest before and after childbirth, and to the conservation of her

employment. MATERNITY LEAVE

The laws shall regulate the obligation of employers to install and maintain crib rooms and places of custody for the

children of workers.

OBLIGATION OF EMPLOYERS TO INSTALL AND MAINTAIN CRIB ROOMS AND PLACES OF CUSTODY FOR THE CHILDREN OF WORKERS

Article 47

Employers and private employees without distinction of nationality, sex, race, creed or political ideas, whatever their

activity or the nature of the work they complete, have the right to associate freely for the protection of their respective

interests, by forming professional associations or trade unions. Workers in official autonomous institutions, public

officials and employees and the municipal employees shall have the same right.

RIGHT OF EMPLOYERS AND EMPLOYEES TO ASSOCIATE FREELY AND FORM PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS OR TRADE UNIONS

Article 72

The political rights of the citizen are:

1st. The exercise of suffrage; UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

…

Article 78

The vote shall be free, direct, equal and secret.

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

EQUAL PAY FOR WORK

115

EQUATORIAL GUINEA 1963



Independence: 1968


Parliament name: Parlamento (Parliament)

Chamber name: Cámara de los Diputados (Chamber of

Deputies)



Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2019-03

2017-12

2014-01

2013-05

2011

2010

2008-05

2004-04

1999-03

1993-11

1988-07

1968-09

21

20

24

22

6

10

6

14

4

6

8

2

21%

20%

24%

22%

6%

10%

6%

14%

5%

7.5%

13.33%

5.71%






Others (2): two ex officio members. The statutory number of

the Senate is 70. However, the Senate may comprise

ex-officio members, whose number varies during the

legislature. The total number of senators may thus be higher

than 70.


DATE WOMEN %

2019-03

2017-12

2017-01

2016-12

2014-12

2014-01

2013-05

12

11

12

11

10

8

10

16.67%

15.28%

16.44%

15.71%

13.7%

10.67%

13.16%

Prior to independence, under Spanish administration, the Basic Law, adopted on 15 December 1963 introduced the right to

vote for women as well as limited autonomy and self-government. This right was confirmed at independence.


Article 2

Sovereignty belongs to the people, who exercise it by way of universal suffrage. From it emanate the public powers that are

exercised in the conditions determined by this Fundamental Law and other laws. No fraction of the people or individual shall

attribute itself the exercise of National Sovereignty. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Article 5

The fundamentals of the Equatoguinean society are:

…

c. The recognition of equality between men and women.

… EQUALITY

116

Article 13

…

1. Every citizen enjoys the following rights and freedoms.

…

EQUATORIAL GUINEA 1963

c. To equality before the law. The woman, irrespective of her civil status, shall have the same rights and opportunities as

men in all aspects of public, private and familiar life, in civil, political, economic, social and cultural life.

… SAME RIGHTS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN PUBLIC, PRIVATE AND FAMILIAR LIFE, IN CIVIL, POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE

2. On the basis of the principle of equality of the women before the law, the public powers will adopt legal initiatives and

mechanisms to favor the adequate representation and participation of the Woman in the performance of offices (cargos)

and other functions in all institutions of the State.

… ADEQUATE REPRESENTATION AND PARTICIPATION IN PUBLIC OFFICES AND IN ALL INSTITUTIONS

Article 15

1. Any act of partiality or discrimination duly found on the basis of tribe, ethnicity, gender, religion, social, political or other

analogous motives is punishable by law. DISCRIMINATION BANNED: PUNISHABLE BY LAW

…

Article 56

1. The Deputies and Senators are elected for a mandate of five years through universal, direct, and secret suffrage in general

elections… UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

117

ERITREA 1955



Independence: 1993


Parliament name: Hagerawi Baito (National Assembly)

Chamber name: Hagerawi Baito (National Assembly)


Indirectly elected

The National Assembly, established in 1994, was set up for an interim period of four years, pending the adoption of a

constitution and the holding of elections. It comprised 150 members. The National Assembly ratified the Constitution in

1997. It was supposed to enter into force after National Assembly elections, scheduled for 1997. However, the elections were

postponed indefinitely. The National Assembly has not met since February 2002.

Electoral quota for women: Yes. 30% of seats are reserved for women; and women can run for the remaining 70% of seats.

Legal source: Electoral Law, Article 12.4

DATE WOMEN %

2014-04

2011

2010

1994-02

33

22

33

22

22%

20.95%

22%

20.95%

Prior to independence while being a part of Ethiopia, women were granted the right to vote on 4 November 1955 as in the

rest of Ethiopia. This right was confirmed at independence.


Preamble

…

Noting the fact that the Eritrean women's heroic participation in the struggle for independence, human rights and solidarity,

based on equality and mutual respect, generated by such struggle will serve as an unshakable foundation for our

commitment to create a society in which women and men shall interact on the bases of mutual respect, solidarity and

equality; MUTUAL RESPECT, SOLIDARITY AND EQUALITY

…

Article 5: Gender Reference

Without consideration to the wording of any provision in this Constitution with reference to gender, all of its articles shall

apply equally to both genders. ARTICLES OF CONSTITUTION APPLY EQUALLY TO BOTH GENDERS

118

Article 7: Democratic Principles

…

2. Any act that violates the human rights of women or limits or otherwise thwarts their role and participation is

prohibited.

…

PROHIBITED ACT THAT VIOLATES THE HUMAN RIGHTS OF WOMEN OR LIMITS

OR OTHERWISE THWARTS THEIR ROLE AND PARTICIPATION

ERITREA 1955

Article 14: Equality under the Law

…

2. No person may be discriminated against on account of race, ethnic origin, language, color, gender, religion, disability,

age, political view, or social or economic status or any other improper factors. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

Article 22: Family

…

2. Men and women of full legal age shall have the right, upon their consent, to marry and to found a family freely, without

any discrimination and they shall have equal rights and duties as to all family affairs.

… MARRIAGE BASED ON FREE WILL MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

119

ESTONIA 1918



Independence: 1991


Parliament name: Riigikogu (The Estonian Parliament)

Chamber name: Riigikogu (The Estonian Parliament)


Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2019-03

2018-12

2016-12

2015-03

2014-12

2011-03

2009-01

2008-01

2007-12

2007-04

2007-03

2003-03

1999-03

1998

1997-11

1995-03

1992-09

1990-03

30

29

27

24

20

19

23

24

21

22

24

19

18

13

11

13

14

6

29.7%

28.71%

26.73%

23.76%

19.8%

18.81%

22.77%

23.76%

20.79%

21.78%

23.76%

18.81%

17.82%

12.87%

10.89%

12.87%

13.73%

5.71%

When Estonia was first independent, in 1918, women were granted the right to vote (by the Election law of the Constituent

Assembly). The first seven women were elected members of Constituent Assembly on 7 April 1919. Under Soviet

administration, women equally had the right to vote and this right was confirmed at independence in 1991. In March 1990

the Soviet Supreme of the SSR of Estonia became the first legislature of Estonia after the restoration of the country's

independence on 20 August 1991.


Article 12

Everyone is equal before the law. No one shall be discriminated against on the basis of nationality, race, color, sex,

language, origin, religion, political or other opinion, property or social status, or on other grounds.


…

120

Article 27

…

Spouses have equal rights.


ESWATINI 1968



Independence: 1968


Parliament name: Libandla (Parliament)




Directly elected (59). Appointed members (10): appointed

by the Head of State. The Speaker may be designated from

outside parliament and thereby becomes an ex officio

member of parliament.

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Reserved seats (4). The

Constitution requires that women should constitute 30% of

the Parliament (Constitution 2005, Art. 95, par. 1c). At least

half of the nominated members appointed by the King

must be female (Constitution 2005, Art. 95, par. 2a). ‘Where

at the first meeting of the House after any general election

it appears that female members of Parliament will not

constitute at least thirty per cent of the total membership

of Parliament, then, and only then, the provisions of this

section shall apply. […] For the purposes of this section, the

House shall form itself into an electoral college and elect

not more than four women on a regional basis to the House

in accordance with the provisions of section 95(3).’

(Constitution 2005, Art. 86, par. 1, 2)

Legal source: Constitution, art. 86 par. 1, art. 95 par. 1.

DATE WOMEN %

2018-10

2018-09

2013-09

2008-11

2008-10

2007-11

2007-10

2003-10

1987-11

1983-10

1978-10

1972-04

5

2

4

9

8

9

8

7

2

1

3

1

7.25%

2.9%

6.15%

13.85%

12.31%

13.85%

12.31%

10.77%

3.64%

1.82%

5.45%

1.82%

Chamber name: Senate (Senat)



Indirectly elected members (10): elected by the House of

Assembly, at least half of whom shall be women.

Appointed members (20): appointed by the Head of State, at

least eight of whom shall be women.

The Senate shall comprise not more than 31 members.

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Reserved seats (10). At least

half of the 10 senators elected by members of the chamber

shall be female. At least eight of the twenty Senators

appointed by the King should be female.

Legal source: Constitution 2005, Art. 94 par. 2, 3.

DATE WOMEN %

2018-10

2013-10

2008-10

2003-10

1998-10

1993-09

1983-10

1972-04

7

10

12

9

4

6

3

1

23.33%

33.33%

40%

30%

13.33%

20%

15%

5%

Following the proclamation by the King on the occasion of the country’s 50th anniversary in April 2018, the country name

has been modified from Swaziland to Eswatini with effective of 30 May 2018.

121

ESWATINI 1968



1. The fundamental human rights and freedoms of the individual enshrined in this Chapter are hereby declared and

guaranteed, namely:

…

f. respect for rights of the family, women, children, workers and persons with disabilities.

…

3. A person of whatever gender, race, place of origin, political opinion, colour, religion, creed, age or disability shall be

entitled to the fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual contained in this Chapter but subject to respect for the

rights and freedoms of others and for the public interest. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

15. Protection of right to life

…

5. Abortion is unlawful but may be allowed: ABORTION UNLAWFUL

a. on medical or therapeutic grounds including where a doctor certifies that:

i. continued pregnancy will endanger the life or constitute a serious threat to the physical health of the woman;

ii. continued pregnancy will constitute a serious threat to the mental health of the woman;

iii. there is serious risk that the child will suffer from physical or mental defect of such a nature that the child will be

irreparably seriously handicapped;

b. where the pregnancy resulted from rape, incest or unlawful sexual intercourse with a mentally retarded female; or

c. on such other grounds as Parliament may prescribe.

20. Equality before the law

1. All persons are equal before and under the law in all spheres of political, economic, social and cultural life and in every

other respect and shall enjoy equal protection of the law.

2. For the avoidance of any doubt, a person shall not be discriminated against on the grounds of gender, race, colour,

ethnic origin, tribe, birth, creed or religion, or social or economic standing, political opinion, age or disability.

3. For the purposes of this section, “discriminate” means to give different treatment to different persons attributable only or

mainly to their respective descriptions by gender, race, colour, ethnic origin, birth, tribe, creed or religion, or social or

economic standing, political opinion, age or disability. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

27. Rights and protection of the family

…


2. Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses.

…

4. Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance by society and the State.

… SPECIAL CARE AND ASSISTANCE DURING MOTHERHOOD

RESPECT FOR RIGHTS OF WOMEN

28. Rights and freedoms of women EQUAL TREATMENT AND OPPORTUNITIES IN POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL ACTIVITIES

1. Women have the right to equal treatment with men and that right shall include equal opportunities in political,

economic and social activities.

2. Subject to the availability of resources, the Government shall provide facilities and opportunities necessary to enhance the

welfare of women to enable them to realise their full potential and advancement.

WELFARE TO REALISE FULL POTENTIAL AND ADVANCEMENT

3. A woman shall not be compelled to undergo or uphold any custom to which she is in conscience opposed.

NOT COMPELLED TO UNDERGO OR UPHOLD ANY CUSTOM

32. Rights of workers

…

3. The employer of a female worker shall accord that worker protection before and after child birth in accordance with

law. PROTECTION BEFORE AND AFTER CHILD BIRTH

…

59. Economic objectives

…

5. The State shall afford equality of economic opportunity to all citizens and, in particular, the State shall take all necessary

steps so as to ensure the full integration of women into the mainstream of economic development.

… FULL INTEGRATION INTO THE MAINSTREAM OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

122

ESWATINI 1968

60. Social objectives

…

4. The State shall ensure gender balance and fair representation of marginalized groups in all constitutional and other

other bodies. GENDER BALANCE AND FAIR REPRESENTATION IN ALL CONSTITUTIONAL AND OTHER BODIES

…

84. Right to representation

…

2. Without derogating from the generality of the foregoing subsection, the women of Swaziland and other marginalized

groups have a right to equitable representation in Parliament and other public structures.

RIGHT TO EQUITABLE REPRESENTATION IN PARLIAMENT AND OTHER PUBLIC STRUCTURES

86. Representation of women

1. Where at the first meeting of the House after any general election it appears that female members of Parliament will not

constitute at least thirty percentum of the total membership of Parliament, then, and only then, the provisions of this

section shall apply. GENDER QUOTA IN PARLIAMENT

2. For the purposes of this section, the House shall form itself into an electoral college and elect not more than four women

on a regional basis to the House in accordance with the provisions of section 95(3). RESERVED SEATS IN THE HOUSE

94. Senate

1. The Senate shall consist of not more than thirty-one members (in this Constitution referred to as “Senators”) who shall be

elected or appointed in accordance with this section.

2. Ten Senators, at least half of whom shall be female, shall be elected by the members of the House in such manner as

may be prescribed by or under any law at their first meeting so as to represent a crosssection of the Swazi society.

3. Twenty Senators, at least eight of whom shall be female, shall be appointed by the King acting in his discretion after

consultation with such bodies as the King may deem appropriate. RESERVED SEATS IN THE SENATE

…

95. House of Assembly

…

3. The members elected on a regional basis, under subsection (1)(c), shall continue to be so elected, whenever the provisions

of section 86 (1) are true, in terms of the following paragraphs.

a. at the instance of the Chairman of the Elections and Boundaries Commission, the elected members from each Region shall

on their first meeting nominate not less than three and not more than five women from each Region qualified to be

members of Parliament; RESERVED SEATS IN THE HOUSE

b. the list of nominated candidates shall be published in at least two local newspapers and the electronic media on at least

three consecutive days; and

c. after ten days from the date of last publication the House shall meet to vote for one woman from each of the Regions,

taking into consideration any relevant in-put in terms of paragraph (b).

121. Regulation of procedure in Parliament

1. Subject to the provisions of this Constitution .

a. each chamber of Parliament may make Standing Orders with respect to:

…

vii. the nomination or election of women in the House under section 95;

…

211. Land

…

2. Save as may be required by the exigencies of any particular situation, a citizen of Swaziland, without regard to gender,

shall have equal access to land for normal domestic purposes.

… EQUAL ACCESS TO LAND FOR NORMAL DOMESTIC PURPOSES

123

ETHIOPIA 1955



Independence: 1941


Parliament name: Federal Parliamentary Assembly

Chamber name: Yehizb Tewokayoch Mekir Bete (House

of Peoples' Representatives)



Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes.

Legal source: Constitution, art. 54 (3).

DATE WOMEN %

2015-06

2010-05

2005-10

2000-05

1995-05

1987-06

1962-01

1957-10

212

152

116

42

11

1

4

2

38.76%

27.79%

22.05%

7.68%

2.05%

0.12%

1.9%

0.95%

Chamber name: Yefedereshein Mekir Bete (House of the

Federation)



Indirectly elected members (153). The State Councils may

either indirectly elect members of the House of the

Federation or organize direct elections.

Electoral quota for women: Yes. No current measures in place.

However the Growth and Transformation Plan foresees some

initiatives. There is a plan to increase the number of women

at the end of the Growth and Transformation Plan to 50:50

women/men.

DATE WOMEN %

2015-10

2010-05

2005-05

2000-05

1995-06

1957-10

49

22

21

8

7

0

32.03%

16.3%

18.75%

7.14%

6.48%

0%

Senedu Gebru (1916–2009) was an Ethiopian educator, writer and politician. In 1957, she became one of two first Ethiopian

woman elected to the Parliament (Kathleen Sheldon, “Historical Dictionary of Women in Sub-Saharan Africa”).


Article 7: Gender Reference

ARTICLES OF CONSTITUTION APPLY EQUALLY TO BOTH GENDERS

Provisions of this Constitution set out in the masculine gender shall also apply to the feminine gender.

Article 34: Marital, Personal and Family Rights

1. Men and women, without any distinction as to race, nation, nationality or religion, who have attained marriageable age as

defined by law, have the right to marry and found a family. They have equal rights while entering into, during marriage

and at the time of divorce. Laws shall be enacted to ensure the protection of rights and interests of children at the time of

divorce. MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY



124

Article 35: Rights of Women

EQUAL RIGHTS

1. Women shall, in the enjoyment of rights and protections provided for by this Constitution, have equal right with men.

2. Women have equal rights with men in marriage as prescribed by this Constitution. MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

3. The historical legacy of inequality and discrimination suffered by women in Ethiopia taken into account, women, in order

to remedy this legacy, are entitled to affirmative measures. The purpose of such measures shall be to provide special

attention to women so as to enable them compete and participate on the basis of equality with men in political, social

ETHIOPIA 1955

and economic life as well as in public and private institutions.

COMPETE AND PARTICIPATE ON THE BASIS OF EQUALITY IN POLITICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC LIFE, IN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE INSTITUTIONS

4. The State shall enforce the right of women to eliminate the influences of harmful customs. Laws, customs and

practices that oppress or cause bodily or mental harm to women are prohibited.

BODILY OR MENTAL HARM AND OPPRESSION BANNED

5. a. Women have the right to maternity leave with full pay. The duration of maternity leave shall be determined by law

taking into account the nature of the work, the health of the mother and the well-being of the child and family.

b. Maternity leave may, in accordance with the provisions of law, include prenatal leave with full pay.

MATERNITY LEAVE

6. Women have the right to full consultation in the formulation of national development policies, the designing and

execution of projects, and particularly in the case of projects affecting the interests of women.

FULL CONSULTATION IN THE FORMULATION OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT POLICIES

7. Women have the right to acquire, administer, control, use and transfer property. In particular, they have equal rights

with men with respect to use, transfer, administration and control of land. They shall also enjoy equal treatment in the

inheritance of property. RIGHT TO ACQUIRE, ADMINISTER, CONTROL, USE AND TRANSFER PROPERTY, IN PARTICULAR LAND

8. Women shall have a right to equality in employment, promotion, pay, and the transfer of pension entitlements.

EQUAL PAY FOR WORK

EQUAL RIGHTS TO WORK

TRANSFER OF PENSION ENTITLEMENTS

9. To prevent harm arising from pregnancy and childbirth and in order to safeguard their health, women have the right of

access to family planning education, information and capacity.

ACCESS TO FAMILY PLANNING EDUCATION, INFORMATION AND CAPACITY

Article 38: The Right to Vote and to be Elected

1. Every Ethiopian national, without any discrimination based on colour, race, nation, nationality, language, religion,

political or other opinion or other status, has the following rights:

a. To take part in the conduct of public affairs, directly and through freely chosen representatives;

b. On the attainment of 18 years of age, to vote in accordance with law;

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

c. To vote and to be elected at periodic elections to any office at any level of government; elections shall be by universal and

equal suffrage and shall be held by secret ballot, guaranteeing the free expression of the will of the electors.

Article 42: Rights of Labour

1…

d. Women workers have the right to equal pay for equal work.

…

EQUAL PAY FOR WORK

Article 89: Economic Objectives

…

7. Government shall ensure the participation of women in equality with men in all economic and social development

endeavours. PARTICIPATION IN EQUALITY IN ALL ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT ENDEAVOURS

…

125

FIJI 1963


Right to stand for election: May 5, 1963


Independence: 1970

Population: 892,910


Chamber name: Parliament


Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2018-11

2015-07

2014-10

2006-05

2001-08

1999-05

1994-02

1992-05

1987-05

1977-04

1972-05

10

8

7

8

5

8

3

1

0

1

2

19.61%

16%

14%

11.27%

7.04%

11.27%

4.29%

1.43%

0%

1.92%

3.85%

Prior to independence, under British administration, women were granted the right to vote on 17 April 1963. This right was

confirmed at independence. In 1966, Losalini Raravuya Dovi was nominated by the Great Council of Chiefs to be a member

of the Legislative Council. Alongside Loloma Livingston and Irene Jai Narayan, who had both been elected, she became one

of the first three female members, and the first ethnic Fijian women to be a member of the Council (Brij V. Lal, “Fiji Before the

Storm: Elections and the Politics of Development”).


Article 23. Political rights

…

3. Every citizen who has reached the age of 18 years has the right:

a. to be registered as a voter; UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

b. to vote by secret ballot in any election or referendum under this Constitution;

c. to be a candidate for public office, or office within a political party of which the citizen is a member, subject to satisfying

any qualifications for such an office; and

d. if elected, to hold office.

…

126

Article 26. Right to equality and freedom from discrimination

…

3. A person must not be unfairly discriminated against, directly or indirectly on the grounds of his or her:

a. actual or supposed personal characteristics or circumstances, including race, culture, ethnic or social origin, colour, place

of origin, sex, gender, sexual orientation, gender identity and expression, birth, primary language, economic or social or

health status, disability, age, religion, conscience, marital status or pregnancy; DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

FINLAND 1906



Independence: 1917


Parliament name: Eduskunta - Riksdagen (Parliament)

DATE WOMEN %

2019-12

2019-04

2018-02

2016-12

2015-04

2011-04

2009-01

2008-01

2007-12

2007-03

2006-01

2003-03

2001

2000

1999-03

1995-03

1991-03

1987-03

1983-03

1979-03

1975-09

1972-01

1966-03

1962-02

1954-03

1945-03

1907-03

92

94

83

84

83

85

80

84

83

84

76

75

74

73

74

67

78

63

61

52

46

43

33

28

30

18

19

46%

47%

41.5%

42%

41.5%

42.5%

40%

42%

41.5%

42%

38%

37.5%

37%

36.5%

37%

33.5%

39%

31.5%

30.5%

26%

23%

21.5%

16.5%

14%

15%

9%

9.5%

Chamber name: Eduskunta - Riksdagen (Parliament)


Directly elected


First female Parliamentarians in the world were elected in Finland in 1907: 13 of

19 MPs. Conservative parliamentarians wear black tops, while social democrats

wear white (National Board of Antiquities, Archives for Prints and Photographs).

Finland was the first country in the world to adopt both fundamental democratic rights (right to vote and right to stand for

election) in 1906. It also elected the world's first female members of parliament the following year on 15 and 16 March 1907.


Chapter 2: Basic rights and liberties

Section 6: Equality

Everyone is equal before the law.

No one shall, without an acceptable reason, be treated differently from other persons on the ground of sex, age, origin,

language, religion, conviction, opinion, health, disability or other reason that concerns his or her person.


127

FINLAND 1906

Equality of the sexes is promoted in societal activity and working life, especially in the determination of pay and the

other terms of employment, as provided in more detail by an Act.

EQUALITY PROMOTED IN SOCIETAL ACTIVITY AND WORKING LIFE EQUAL PAY FOR WORK EQUAL RIGHTS TO WORK

Section 14: Electoral and participatory rights

Every Finnish citizen who has reached eighteen years of age has the right to vote in national elections and referendums.

Specific provisions in this Constitution shall govern the eligibility to stand for office in national elections.

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

The first women Members of Parliament in Finland, 1907-1908

Aura Korppi-Tommola (Courtesy of Kansallisbiografia, Helsinki)

Nineteen women were elected as Members of Parliament in the first Finnish parliamentary elections in 1907. Nine of these

women were from the Social Democratic Party, while ten were from centrist and right-wing parties. The women worked

within their own parties to improve women's status and promote social welfare legislation, but they also participated in

other legislative work. They thus began a tradition that lives on today: Finnish women have not shown an interest in a

separate party for women. The first women MPs were active in many fields. Many of them were also public figures eagerly

recruited by the parties as their candidates.

The Social Democratic Party

Iida Aalle-Teljo (1885–1955)

Businesswoman Ida Aalle-Teljo was one of the founders of the Workers' Party and an important ideologue. She established

the Federation of Women Workers and was its chairwoman. Following the Finnish Civil War in 1918, Aalle-Teljo fled to Soviet

Russia. After returning to Finland the next year, she was imprisoned until 1922. Aalle-Teljo later ran a lodging house in Kotka

and was a member of the local City Council.

Anni Huotari (1874–1943)

Anni Huotari attended primary school and craft school. She went on to work as a craft teacher in Parkano and as a seamstress

in Vyborg. Huotari held elected positions in the Federation of Social Democratic Women and was the secretary of the

Seamstresses' Union. From 1918 to 1922, Huotari was a political prisoner with an influential role among those defeated in the

Civil War.

Mimmi Kanervo (1870–1922)

Mimmi Kanervo, previously a servant, went on to become the secretary of the Finnish Domestic and Restaurant Workers'

Union. After being imprisoned in 1918 in the aftermath of the Civil War, she was a lecturer for her party's women's

organisation.

Jenny Nuotio (later Upari) (1882–1948)

Jenny Nuotio, a weaver and the wife of a policeman, lived in Vyborg, the rural municipality of Vyborg and Sipoo. She was the

secretary and treasurer of the Federation of Women Workers and became the youngest member of the first Parliament. After

getting married, Nuotio abandoned politics, but following the death of her husband, she rejoined the weavers' trade union.

Maria Paaso-Laine (1868–1945)

Maria Paaso-Laine, a seamstress and a party official, had three children. She supported public funding for poor relief and the

recruitment of midwives and was a proponent of general compulsory education. Paaso-Laine attracted attention for her

fashionable, upper-class style of dress which reflected her eagerness to advance socially from the working class to the

middle class. On the other hand, she may have used the way she dressed to protest against the remnants of class society, in

which people were labelled also on the basis of their clothes.

Hilja Pärssinen (1876–1935)

Hilja Pärssinen, a primary school teacher and the daughter of a clergyman, sought to improve the living conditions of

disadvantaged people. Her work later took a radical turn: in 1918 she became a member of a revolutionary government

known as the Council of People's Representatives. In spring 1918, Pärssinen fled to Russia. She returned to Finland in 1919

and was imprisoned for several years. After her release, she worked as a secondary school teacher and served in Parliament

for one term.

Maria Raunio (1872–1911)

Maria Raunio was a seamstress, an official and active member of the workers' movement, and a member of the Social

Democratic Party. She had seven children. Raunio was a vociferous supporter of disadvantaged people. She was excluded

from the party's list of candidates in 1910 because of internal disagreements. Raunio then emigrated to the United States,

where she was an agitator for the workers' movement before her death.

128

FINLAND 1906

Sandra Lehtinen (Aleksandra) (1873–1954)

A servant, a seamstress and a political agitator, Sandra Lehtinen was a passionate supporter of the workers' movement and

a party official. She lived in Soviet Russia from 1919 to 1921 and was imprisoned from 1929 to 1931 for her political views.

Subsequently, she lived almost a decade in Moscow and did not return to Finland until 1945.

Miina Sillanpää (1866–1952)

Journalist Miina Sillanpää was an early advocate of women's trade union rights and a staunch supporter of social welfare

legislation. She was the first woman government minister, appointed in the 1920s. Thanks to this status and her exceptional

cooperation skills, Sillanpää became a symbol of equality for the whole nation. She later established a home for unmarried

mothers in Helsinki.

The Finnish Party

Eveliina Ala-Kulju (1867–1940)

Eveliina Alakulju, a farmer's wife from south-western Finland, attended primary school and completed a course for travelling

school teachers. She went on to teach at travelling schools in Kuortane and Karstula for five years, and also worked as a

shopkeeper. After marrying her second husband Aleksanteri Ala-Kulju, she ran a farm with him.

Hedvig Gebhard (1867–1961)

Hedvig Gebhard was a writer for the Swedish- and Finnish-language editions of Pellervo magazine. She was a founder of

Kotiliesi magazine and a pioneer in home economics instruction. In 1937 Gebhard was awarded the Finnish honorific title of

talousneuvos for accomplishments in the field of economics.

Aleksandra Gripenberg (1857–1913)

Writer Aleksandra Gripenberg was a prominent advocate of women's rights. She became well-known as the long-time

chairwoman of the Finnish Women's Association and as a founder and treasurer of the International Council of Women

before Finnish women's organisations began to cooperate with international partners. Gripenberg's views on equality were

rooted in the 19th century, and she therefore found it difficult to accept the idea of universal suffrage.

Liisi Kivioja (1859–1925)

Liisi Kivioja originally worked as a primary school teacher in the Ostrobothnia area along the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia.

After serving in Parliament, she became the head of a trade school for elderly blind people in Kuopio. From 1918 to 1925,

Kivioja was the manager of the Kalajoki branch of the Kansallis-Osake-Pankki bank. Such managerial positions were rarely

held by women at the time.

Hilda Käkikoski 1864–1912

Hilda Käkikoski was a history teacher at the Finnish Coeducational School in Helsinki and the vice-chair of the Finnish

Women's Association. As a Member of Parliament, Käkikoski campaigned for a woman's right to hold State posts and for

equal pay.

Hilma Räsänen (1877–1955)

Primary school teacher Hilma Räsänen was a well-known lecturer for Friends of Temperance and the Finnish Women's

Association. She opposed the establishment of a separate women's organisation within her party. Räsänen worked for

women's causes and ran a rest home for women in Askola. After briefly serving in Parliament, she worked as a primary school

teacher. She later defected to the Agrarian Party, which was established in 1908.

Iida Vemmelpuu (1868–1924)

Iida Vemmelpuu was a primary school teacher and the head of a folk high school. She supported popular enlightenment in

line with the ideology of the Fennoman movement. She was particularly influential in Huittinen, where she served on the

municipal council and held positions in the local youth association and women's association. Her ideology was based on

strong Christian ethics.

The Young Finns' party

Lucina Hagman (1853–1946)

Headteacher Lucina Hagman supported the radical wing of the women's movement in the 19th century. She was a founder

and chairwoman of the Union Women's Rights Federation in Finland. Hagman believed that coeducation would lead to

greater respect between men and women. Hagman was the head of the Finnish Coeducational School in Helsinki from 1886

to 1899. She then became the head of the New Finnish Coeducational School in Helsinki, which she herself had established,

and held that post until 1938. She was the first Finnish woman to be awarded the title of professor, in 1928.

129

FINLAND 1906

Alli Nissinen (1866–1926)

Headteacher, writer Alli Nissinen was a leading figure in the Martta Organisation and the Union Women’s Rights Federation

in Finland. She was the head of a preparatory school in Helsinki and wrote books, plays and poetry for children and young

people.

The Swedish People's Party

Dagmar Neovius (1867–1939)

Teacher, actuary Dagmar Neovius was one of the founders of the Martta Organisation and the Swedish-language Martta

Association. She was also a member of the Women's Kagal, which actively opposed the oppressive policies of the Russians.

Neovius was one of the non-socialist MPs who supported social welfare legislation.

Literature and sources

Ahtisaari, Eeva et al.

1997. Yksi kamari, kaksi sukupuolta. Suomen eduskunnan ensimmäiset naiset. Eduskunnan kirjasto, Helsinki.

Kansallisbiografia 1-6

2003-05. Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura.

www.kansallisbiografia.fi

130

FRANCE 1944






Assembly)



Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. The principle of equal

access is enshrined in the Constitution. Adjustment of

public financial assistance to parties according to the

electoral standing they accord to women. The law provides

for alternation between male and female candidates on the

electoral lists. No reserved seats.

Legal source: Constitution and the electoral laws.




Indirectly elected: indirect election by popularly chosen

departmental electoral colleges.

Electoral quota for women: Yes. The principle of equal access

is enshrined in the Constitution. Adjustment of public

financial assistance to parties according to the electoral

standing they accord to women. The law provides for

alternation between male and female candidates on the

electoral lists. No reserved seats.

Legal source: Constitution and the electoral laws.

DATE WOMEN %

2019-12

2018-12

2018-08

2017-07

2017-06

2016-12

2014-01

2012-01

2011-01

2010-01

2007-06

2007-01

2002-06

1997-06

1993-03

1988-06

1986-03

1981-06

1978-03

1973-03

1968-06

1967-03

1958-11

1956-01

1951-06

1947

1946-11

1946-06

1945-10

228

229

228

225

224

149

151

155

107

109

107

105

71

63

37

40

38

35

21

13

10

11

9

19

23

43

30

43

33

39.51%

39.69%

39.58%

38.99%

38.82%

25.82%

26.17%

26.86%

18.54%

18.89%

18.54%

18.29%

12.37%

10.92%

6.41%

6.93%

6.59%

7.13%

4.28%

2.65%

2.05%

2.26%

1.54%

3.19%

3.67%

6.96%

5.12%

6.96%

5.63%

DATE WOMEN %

2019-12

2018-12

2017-09

2016-12

2014-09

2014-01

2013-01

2011-09

2008-09

2007-01

2004-09

2001-09

1998-09

1995-09

1992-09

1989-09

1983-09

1980-09

1977-09

1974-09

1971-09

1959-04

1958-06

1951-05

1948-11

1946-12

116

112

102

95

87

78

87

77

75

60

56

35

19

18

16

10

9

7

5

7

4

5

6

9

12

21

33.33%

32.18%

29.31%

27.3%

25%

22.48%

25%

22.13%

21.87%

18.18%

16.92%

10.94%

5.92%

5.61%

4.98%

3.12%

2.84%

2.3%

1.69%

2.47%

1.41%

1.63%

1.91%

2.82%

3.75%

6.69%

131

FRANCE 1944

In 1943, Marthe Caillaud Simard (1901-1993) and Lucie Bernard Samuel (1912-2007, known as Lucie Aubrac) were nominated

to the Assemblée consultative provisoire (Provisional Consultative Assembly), which was an assembly of representatives of

the different factions of the French Resistance during the Second World War (Nicolas Boring).


ARTICLE 1

France shall be an indivisible, secular, democratic and social Republic. It shall ensure the equality of all citizens before the law,

without distinction of origin, race or religion. It shall respect all beliefs. It shall be organised on a decentralized basis.

Statutes shall promote equal access by women and men to elective offices and posts as well as to position of

professional and social responsibility.

EQUAL ACCESS TO ELECTIVE OFFICES AND POSTS AS WELL AS TO POSITION OF PROFESSIONAL AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY

ARTICLE 3

National sovereignty shall vest in the people, who shall exercise it through their representatives and by means of

referendum.

No section of the people nor any individual may arrogate to itself, or to himself, the exercise thereof.

Suffrage may be direct or indirect as provided for by the Constitution. It shall always be universal, equal and secret.

All French citizens of either sex who have reached their majority and are in possession of their civil and political rights may

vote as provided for by statute. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

132

GABON 1956

Right to vote and to stand for election: May 23, 1956


Independence: 1960




Assembly)



Directly elected





Indirectly elected members by municipal councils and

departmental assemblies.


DATE WOMEN %

2018-10

2016-12

2014-12

2014-01

2011-12

2010-01

2008-01

2007-01

2006-12

2000-01

1996-12

1990-12

1985-02

1980-02

1973-02

1964-04

1961-02

24

20

17

18

15

17

15

20

15

11

10

7

16

13

3

0

1

17.91%

17.09%

14.17%

15%

13.27%

14.66%

12.5%

16.67%

12.5%

9.17%

8.33%

5.88%

13.33%

13.98%

4.29%

0%

1.49%

DATE WOMEN %

2019-02

2015-04

2014-12

2014-01

2012-01

2011-01

2010-01

2009-01

2004-01

2003-02

2003-01

2002-01

2000-01

1997-02

18

18

19

17

18

17

18

17

12

10

12

10

12

10

18%

18.18%

18.63%

16.67%

17.65%

14.17%

17.65%

14.66%

13.19%

10.99%

13.19%

10.99%

13.19%

10.99%

Prior to independence, under French administration, women were granted the right to vote under the Loi-cadre Deferre,

adopted on 23 June 1956. This right was confirmed at independence.


Article 1

The Gabonese Republic recognizes and guarantees the inalienable and imprescriptible human rights, which are necessarily

tied to the public powers:

…

7°. Each citizen has the duty to work and the right to obtain employment. None may be discriminated against in one’s

work because of his or her origins, sex, race or opinions; RIGHT TO OBTAIN EMPLOYMENT WITHOUT DISCRIMINATION

8°. The State, according to its means, guarantees to all, notably to children, mothers, the handicapped, aged workers and the

elderly the protection of health, social security, a preserved natural environment, rest and leisure;

… PROTECTION OF HEALTH, SOCIAL SECURITY, REST AND LEISURE NOTABLY FOR MOTHERS

133

GABON 1956

Article 2

…

The Gabonese Republic assures equality for all citizens before the law, making no distinction of origin, race, sex, opinion or

religion. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

The seal of the Republic is a “Mother and Child Nursing”.

Article 4

Suffrage is universal, equal, and secret. It may be direct or indirect, following the provisions of the Constitution or the law.

The polls open for one voting round for all political elections. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

All Gabonese of both sexes, of at least 18 years of age, with their full civil and political rights, are considered voters

according to the conditions provisioned by the Constitution and the law.

All Gabonese of both sexes, with their full civil and political rights, are considered eligible, according to the conditions

provisioned by the Constitution and the law.

… RIGHT TO VOTE AND TO STAND FOR ELECTION

134

GAMBIA 1960



Independence: 1965





Directly elected (53). Appointed members (5) by the President.


DATE WOMEN %

2017-04

2014-01

2012-03

2011

2009

2007-01

2002-01

1997-01

1987-03

1982-05

1966-05

6

5

4

5

4

5

7

1

4

3

0

10.34%

9.43%

7.55%

9.43%

7.55%

9.43%

13.21%

2.04%

7.84%

6.12%

0%

Prior to independence, under British administration, women were granted the right to vote in 1960. This right was confirmed

at independence. Two women were appointed as nominated members of Parliament: Lucretia St. Clair Joof (1913-1982) in

December 1968 and Louise Antoinette N’Jie (1922-2014) in 1977. In 1982, Nyimasata Sanneh-Bojang (1942-2015) was

elected to the National Assembly (David Perfect, “Historical Dictionary of Gambia”).


17. Fundamental Rights and Freedoms

…

2. Every person in the Gambia, whatever his or her race, colour, gender, Language, religion, political or other opinion,

National or social origin, property, birth or other status, shall be entitled to the fundamental human rights and freedoms

of the individual contained in this chapter, but subject to respect for the rights and freedoms of others and for the public

interest. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

26. Political rights

Every citizen of The Gambia of full age and capacity shall have the right, without unreasonable restrictions:

…

b. to vote and stand for elections at genuine periodic elections for public office, which election shall be by universal and

equal suffrage and be held by secret ballot; UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

…

27. Right to marry

1. Men and women of full age and capacity shall have the right to marry and found a family

2. Marriage shall be based on the free and full consent of the intended parties. MARRIAGE BASED ON FREE WILL

135

GAMBIA 1960

28. Rights of women

1. Women shall be accorded full and equal dignity of the person with men. EQUAL DIGNITY

2. Women shall have the right to equal treatment with men, including equal opportunities in political, economic and

social activities. EQUAL TREATMENT EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES IN POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL ACTIVITIES

33. Protection from Discrimination

…

4. In this section, the expression "discrimination" means affording different treatment to different persons attributable

wholly or mainly to their respective descriptions by race, colour, gender, language, religion, political or other opinion,

national or social origin, property, birth or other status whereby persons of one such description are subjected to disabilities

or restrictions to which persons of another such description are not made subject, or are accorded privilege or advantages

which are not accorded to persons of another such description. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

214. Political objectives

…

4. In the composition of the Government, women shall be fairly represented.

…

REPRESENTATION IN THE GOVERNMENT

215. Economic Objectives

…

5. The State shall endeavour to ensure equal opportunity and full participation for women in the economic

development of the country. EQUAL OPPORTUNITY AND FULL PARTICIPATION IN THE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE COUNTRY

136

GEORGIA 1918



Independence: 1991


Parliament name: Sakartvelos Parlamenti (Parliament)

Chamber name: Sakartvelos Parlamenti (Parliament)


Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. The Organic Law on the Political Union of Citizens provides that a political party which has at

least 30% of female members shall receive a 30% bonus over the State Budget finances designated for that party.

Legal source: The Organic Law on the Political Union of Citizens.

DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2016-11

2014-12

2012-10

2011-01

2010-01

2008-05

2004-03

1999-11

1995-11

1992-10

1990-11

22

24

17

18

9

7

9

22

17

16

14

18

14.77%

16%

11.33%

12%

6%

5.11%

6%

9.36%

7.23%

6.93%

6.31%

7.2%

Article 1 of the Law of 22 November 1918 regarding legislative elections, granting women the right to vote, was adopted by

the National Council and Council of Ministers. The Constitution of 21 February 1921 confirmed this right in Article 46, under

Soviet administration and confirmed again at independence, in 1991. In 1990 the Supreme Soviet of the SSR of Georgia

became the first legislature of Georgia after the country became independent in April 1991. Georgian women were

previously elected to the Supreme Soviet of SSR of Georgia and to the Parliament of the USSR.

After the February 1917 Revolution, the transition from the South Caucasus began with a reform of the local governments.

On 26 May 1918, Georgia declared its independence. On 2 December 1918 Peri-Khan Sofieva (1884-1953) was elected town

councilor in the local elections in her village and shortly after became the candidate of the Georgian Socialist-Federalist

Revolutionary Party in the parliamentary elections held in 1919, after the announcement of the Democratic Republic of

Georgia representing her native region. She became an independent member of the National Assembly, defeating all the

other candidates, and the first female elected member of a parliament in the Muslim world (William Dunbar, Eurasianet).


Article 14

Everyone is born free and is equal before the law regardless of race, colour of skin, language, sex, religion, political or other

opinions, national, ethnic and social affiliation, origin, property or social status, place of residence. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

137

GEORGIA 1918

Article 28

1. Every citizen of Georgia, who has attained the age of 18, shall have the right to participate in referenda and elections of

state and self-government bodies. Free expression of the will of voters shall be guaranteed. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

…

Article 30

…

4. Organic law shall define protection of labour rights, fair compensation for work and safe, healthy working conditions, as

well as working conditions for minors and women. SPECIAL WORKING CONDITIONS FOR WOMEN

Article 36


1. Marriage shall be based on the equality of rights and free will of spouses. MARRIAGE BASED ON FREE WILL

2. The State shall promote family welfare.

3. The rights of mothers and children shall be safeguarded by law. RIGHTS OF MOTHERS SAFEGUARDED BY LAW

GERMANY 1918




Chamber name: Deutscher Bundestag (German

Bundestag)



Directly elected (598). Other members (111): there are 46

overhang seats (Überhangmandate) and 65 balance seats

(Ausgleichsmandate).


quotas.


DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2017-09

2016-12

2013-01

2009-09

2005-09

2002-09

1998-09

1997

1994-10

1990-12

219

218

233

230

204

195

194

207

176

177

136

30.89%

30.75%

36.98%

36.98%

32.8%

31.76%

32.17%

30.94%

26.19%

26.34%

20.54%

Chamber name: Bundesrat (Federal Council)



Appointed (69) by local länder governments.


DATE WOMEN %

2016-12

2014-12

2009

1994-10

1990-12

27

28

19

13

10

39.13%

40.58%

27.54%

19.12%

14.71%

First exercised right to vote in 1919. On 6 February 1919 Marie Gohlke Juchacz (1879-1956) and her sister Elisabeth Gohlke

Röhl (1888-1930) were two of the 37 women elected to the Weimar National Assembly (which in June 1920 was superseded

by the national Reichstag, to which Juchacz was also elected). On 19 February, Marie became the first woman to make a

speech before that body, or indeed any German parliament: “Gentlemen and ladies... [interrupted by laughter] This is the first

time that a woman has been allowed to address the people in the parliament on free and equal terms, and I wish to establish

here, entirely objectively, that in Germany as elsewhere, the revolution has overwhelmed the old preconceptions...". When

the Nazis came to power, women lost the right to stand for office.


Article 3: [Equality before the law]

1. All persons shall be equal before the law.

IMPLEMENTATION OF EQUAL RIGHTS AND ELIMINATION OF DISADVANTAGES

2. Men and women shall have equal rights. The state shall promote the actual implementation of equal rights for women

and men and take steps to eliminate disadvantages that now exist.

3. No person shall be favoured or disfavoured because of sex, parentage, race, language, homeland and origin, faith, or

religious or political opinions. No person shall be disfavoured because of disability. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

139

GERMANY 1918

Article 6: [Marriage - Family - Children]

…

4. Every mother shall be entitled to the protection and care of the community.

… MOTHERS’ PROTECTION AND CARE OF COMMUNITY

Article 12a: [Compulsory military and alternative civilian service]

…

4. If, during a state of defence, the need for civilian services in the civilian health system or in stationary military hospitals

cannot be met on a voluntary basis, women between the age of eighteen and fifty-five may be called upon to render such

services by or pursuant to a law. Under no circumstances may they be required to render service involving the use of arms.

… ALTERNATIVE CIVILIAN SERVICE DURING A STATE OF DEFENCE

Article 38: [Elections]

1. Members of the German Bundestag shall be elected in general, direct, free, equal and secret elections. They shall be

representatives of the whole people, not bound by orders or instructions, and responsible only to their conscience.

2. Any person who has attained the age of eighteen shall be entitled to vote; any person who has attained the age of

majority may be elected. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

…

140

GHANA 1954



Independence: 1957





Directly elected


Mabel Ellen Dove Danquah (1905-1984)

DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2016-12

2012-12

2011-01

2009-01

2008-12

2004-12

1996-12

1992-12

1979-06

1969-09

1960-08

36

35

30

18

19

18

25

18

16

5

2

10

13.09%

12.73%

10.91%

7.83%

8.3%

7.83%

10.87%

9%

8%

3.57%

1.43%

9.62%

Prior to independence, under British administration, women were granted the right to vote in 1954. This right was confirmed

at independence. In 1954, Mabel Ellen Dove Danquah became the first woman elected to parliament in Ghana and was

possibly the first African Woman parliamentarian on the continent (Kathleen Sheldon, “Historical Dictionary of Women in

Sub-Saharan Africa”). Lucy Anin (1939- ) was among the first 10 women to enter the Parliament of Ghana in 1960 under the

representation of the people (women members) act.


Preamble

IN THE NAME OF THE ALMIGHTY GOD

We the People of Ghana,

…

IN SOLEMN declaration and affirmation of our commitment to:

…

The Principle of Universal Adult Suffrage; UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

…

12. PROTECTION OF FUNDAMENTAL HUMAN RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS

…

2. Every person in Ghana, whatever his race, place of origin, political opinion, colour, religion, creed or gender shall be

entitled to the fundamental human rights and freedoms of the individual contained in this Chapter but subject to respect

for the rights and freedoms of others and for the public interest. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

141

GHANA 1954

17. EQUALITY AND FREEDOM FROM DISCRIMINATION

…

2. A person shall not be discriminated against on grounds of gender, race, colour, ethnic origin, religion, creed or social or

economic status. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

3. For the purposes of this article, "discriminate" means to give different treatment to different persons attributable only or

mainly to their respective descriptions by raw, place of origin, political opinions, colour, gender, occupation, religion or

creed, whereby persons of one description are subjected to disabilities or restrictions to which persons of another

description are not made subject or are granted privileges or advantages which are not granted to persons of another

description.

…

22. PROPERTY RIGHTS OF SPOUSES

1. A spouse shall not be deprived of a reasonable provision out of the estate of a spouse whether or not the spouse died

having made a will.

2. Parliament shall, as soon as practicable after the coming into force of this Constitution, enact legislation regulating the

property rights of spouses.

3. With a view to achieving the full realization of the rights referred to in clause (2) of this article

a. spouses shall have equal access to property jointly acquired during marriage;

b. assets which are jointly acquired during marriage shall be distributed equitably between the spouses upon

dissolution of the marriage. EQUAL ACCESS TO PROPERTY DURING MARRIAGE AND EQUITABLE DISTRIBUTION OF ASSETS AT DISSOLUTION

27. WOMEN'S RIGHTS SPECIAL CARE BEFORE AND AFTER CHILD-BIRTH MATERNITY LEAVE

1. Special care shall be accorded to mothers during a reasonable period before and after child-birth; and during those

periods, working mothers shall be accorded paid leave.

2. Facilities shall be provided for the care of children below school-going age to enable women, who have the traditional

care for children, realise their full potential.

FACILITIES FOR THE CARE OF CHILDREN BELOW SCHOOL-GOING AGE TO ENABLE WOMEN TO REALISE THEIR FULL POTENTIAL

3. Women shall be guaranteed equal rights to training and promotion without any impediments from any person.

EQUAL RIGHTS TO TRAINING AND PROMOTION WITHOUT ANY IMPEDIMENTS

35. POLITICAL OBJECTIVES

…


5. The State shall actively promote the integration of the peoples of Ghana and prohibit discrimination and prejudice on

the grounds of place of origin, circumstances of birth, ethnic origin, gender or religion, creed or other beliefs.

6. Towards the achievement of the objectives stated in clause, (5) of this article, the State shall take appropriate measures to:

…

b. achieve reasonable regional and gender balance in recruitment and appointment to public offices;

GENDER BALANCE IN RECRUITMENT AND APPOINTMENT TO PUBLIC OFFICES

36. ECONOMIC OBJECTIVES

…

6. The State shall afford equality of economic opportunity to all citizens; and, in particular, the State shall take all necessary

steps so as to ensure the full integration of women into the mainstream of the economic development of Ghana.

… FULL INTEGRATION INTO THE MAINSTREAM OF THE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

42. RIGHT TO VOTE

Every citizen of Ghana of eighteen years of age or above and of sound mind has the right to vote and is entitled to be

registered as a voter for the purposes of public elections and referenda. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

166. NATIONAL MEDIA COMMISSION

1. There shall be established by Act of Parliament within six months after Parliament first meets after the coming into force

of this Constitution, a National Media Commission which shall consist of fifteen members as follows:

a. one representative each nominated by:

…

ix. the National Council on Women and Development;

… RESERVED SEAT IN NATIONAL MEDIA COMMISSION

297. IMPLIED POWER, ETC

In this Constitution and in any other law:

…

e. words importing male persons include female persons and corporations.

… IN THE CONSTITUTION WORDS IMPORTING MALE PERSONS INCLUDE FEMALE PERSONS

142

GREECE 1952

DATE WOMEN %

2019-07

2018-08

2016-12

2015-09

2015-01

2012-06

2012-05

2012-01

2009-10

2008-01

2007-12

2007-09

2004-03

2000-04

1996-09

1993-10

1990-04

1989-11

1989-06

1981-10

1977-11

1974-11

1964-02

1963-11

1961-10

1958-05

1956-02

1952-11

1946-03

62

56

55

59

69

63

56

63

52

48

44

48

39

26

19

18

14

12

20

13

10

6

2

1

2

4

2

1

0

20.67%

18.67%

18.33%

19.67%

23%

21%

18.67%

21%

17.33%

16%

14.67%

16%

13%

8.67%

6.33%

6%

4.67%

4%

6.67%

4.33%

3.33%

2%

0.67%

0.33%

0.67%

1.33%

0.67%

0.33%

0%

Chamber name: Vouli Ton Ellinon (Hellenic Parliament)


Directly elected




Parliament name: Vouli Ton Ellinon (Hellenic Parliament)

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Legislated candidate quotas. At least one-third (1/3) of the total number of a political party's

candidates in an electoral district must be filled with candidates of each sex.

Legal source: Cf. Electoral Law 3231/2004 and Article 34, paragraph 6, of the Presidential Decree 26/2012.

The Constitution of 1927 provides that all Greek citizens are equal in law and that "political rights can be conferred to women

by law". On 2 January 1930, the Council of State expressed the view that women could have the right to vote in municipal

and communal elections. The Law N° 959 of April 1949 accorded women with the right to stand for office in municipal and

communal elections and the right to vote. The right to vote and to stand for election at the national level was in the

Constitution of 1 January 1952 established. In the same year, Heleni Skoura (1896–1991) became the first woman elected as

a member of the Greek parliament (Theresa Papademetriou).

143

GREECE 1952


Article 4

1. All Greeks are equal before the law.

2. Greek men and women have equal rights and equal obligations.

…

EQUAL RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS

Article 21

1. The family, being the cornerstone of the preservation and the advancement of the Nation, as well as marriage,

motherhood and childhood, shall be under the protection of the State. MOTHERHOOD UNDER PROTECTION

…

Article 22

1. Work constitutes a right and shall enjoy the protection of the State, which shall care for the creation of conditions of

employment for all citizens and shall pursue the moral and material advancement of the rural and urban working

population.

All workers, irrespective of sex or other distinctions, shall be entitled to equal pay for work of equal value.

… EQUAL PAY FOR WORK

Article 51


3. The Members of Parliament shall be elected through direct, universal and secret ballot by the citizens who have the right

to vote, as specified by law. The law cannot abridge the right to vote except in cases where a minimum age has not been

attained or in cases of legal incapacity or as a result of irrevocable criminal conviction for certain felonies.

Article 116

…

2. Adoption of positive measures for promoting equality between men and women does not constitute discrimination

on grounds of sex. The State shall take measures for the elimination of inequalities actually existing, in particular to the

detriment of women. BANNED DISCRIMINATION ELIMINATION OF INEQUALITIES ACTUALLY EXISTING

144

GRENADA 1951



Independence: 1974

Population: 112,188





Directly elected





Appointed by the Governor General.


DATE WOMEN %

2018-03

2013-02

2008-07

2003-11

1999-01

1995-06

1990-03

1984-12

1976-12

1972-01

1962-09

1961-03

7

5

2

4

4

3

2

2

1

3

1

1

46.67%

33.33%

13.33%

26.67%

26.67%

20%

13.33%

13.33%

6.7%

20%

10%

10%

DATE WOMEN %

2018-06

2018-05

2018-04

2013-03

2003-11

1999-01

1990-03

1972-02

4

2

4

2

4

1

2

1

30.77%

15.38%

30.77%

15.38%

30.77%

7.69%

15.38%

7.69%

Prior to independence, under British administration, women were granted the right to vote on 1 August 1951, under British

administration. This right was confirmed at independence. On 27 March 1961, Cynthia Gairy (1923-2018) became the first

woman to be elected to the legislature.



Whereas every person in Grenada is entitled to the fundamental rights and freedoms, that is to say, the right, whatever

his race, place of origin, political opinions, colour, creed or sex, but subject to respect for the rights and freedoms of others

and for the public interest, to each and all of the following, namely:



c. protection for the privacy of his home and other property and from deprivation of property without compensation; and

d. the right to work, FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…


…


3. In this section, the expression “discriminatory” means affording different treatment to different persons attributable

wholly or mainly to their respective descriptions by race, place of origin, political opinions, colour, creed or sex whereby


145

GRENADA 1951


…



specifically relating to race, place of origin, political opinions, colour, creed or sex) to be required of any person who is

appointed to or to act in any office in the public service. Any office in a disciplined force, any office in the service of a local

government authority or in any office in a body corporate established by law for public purposes.


146

GUATEMALA 1985




Parliament name: Congreso de la República (Congress of

the Republic)

Chamber name: Congreso de la República (Congress of the Republic)


Directly elected



DATE WOMEN %

2019-06

2018-12

2016-12

2015-11

2011-09

2007-09

2003-11

2001-01

2000-01

1999-11

1995-11

1990-11

1985-11

1974-03

1970-03

1966-03

1955-12

1954-10

31

30

20

22

21

19

13

8

10

8

10

6

7

2

1

1

0

1

19.38%

18.99%

12.66%

13.92%

13.29%

12.03%

8.23%

7.08%

8.85%

7.08%

12.5%

5.17%

7%

4%

2.04%

1.82%

0%

1.52%

According to the Electoral Law of 1946, suffrage was optional and secret for women, but obligatory for men and the right to

stand for election was restricted to literate women. The 1956 Constitution made the vote obligatory for all literate women

but maintained discrimination against illiterate women in that they could not stand for election. The 1965 Constitution

extended the right to be elected to all citizens, yet the vote was still not compulsory for illiterate women. The Constitution of

1985 extended the right to vote to all citizens and established equality between the sexes.


Article 4: Freedom and Equality

EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES

In Guatemala[,] all [of the] human beings are free and equal in dignity and rights. The man and the woman, whatever their

civil status may be, have equal opportunities and responsibilities. No person can be subject to servitude or to another

condition that diminishes his or her dignity. The human beings must exercise [guardar] brotherly behavior among them.

Article 18: Death Penalty DEATH PENALTY

The death penalty may not be imposed in the following cases:

147

GUATEMALA 1985

…

b. On women;

…

DEATH PENALTY MAY NOT BE IMPOSED

Article 47: Protection of the Family

The State guarantees the social, economic, and juridical protection of the family. It will promote its organization on the legal

basis of marriage, the equal rights of the spouses, [the] responsible paternity and the right of the persons to decide freely

the number and the spacing [espaciamiento] of their children. MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

Article 52: Maternity

The [state of] maternity has the protection of the State, which in special form will see to the strict compliance of the rights

and obligations that derive from it. PROTECTION OF MATERNITY

Article 66: Protection of Ethnic Groups

Guatemala is formed by diverse ethnic groups among which are found the indigenous groups of Mayan descent. The State

recognizes, respects, and promotes their forms of life, customs, traditions, forms of social organization, the use of the

indigenous attire by men and women, [and their] languages and dialects. THE USE OF THE INDIGENOUS ATTIRE

Article 102: Minimum Social Rights of Labor Legislation

The minimum social rights that form the basis of the labor legislation and the activity of the tribunals and [the] authorities

[are]:

…

k. The protection of the working woman and [the] regulation of the conditions under which she must render her services.

There may not be differences established between married and single women in terms of [the] work. The law will

regulate the protection of the maternity rights of the working woman, who may not be required to [conduct any] work

that may require an effort that puts her pregnancy in jeopardy [gravidez]. The working mother will enjoy a compulsory rest

[period] [descanso forzoso] paid on the basis of one hundred percent of her salary, during the thirty days prior to giving

birth and [during] the subsequent forty-five days. During the period of lactation she will have the right to two periods

of extraordinary rest, during her workday. The prenatal and postnatal rest periods will be expanded according to her

physical conditions, by medical prescription;

MAY NOT BE DIFFERENCES ESTABLISHED BETWEEN MARRIED AND SINGLE WOMEN IN TERMS OF WORK

MAY NOT BE REQUIRED TO CONDUCT ANY WORK THAT MAY REQUIRE AN EFFORT THAT PUTS HER PREGNANCY IN JEOPARDY

MATERNITY LEAVE PAID DURING THE 30 DAYS PRIOR TO GIVING BIRTH AND DURING THE SUBSEQUENT 45 DAYS

DURING LACTATION 2 PERIODS OF EXTRAORDINARY REST DURING WORKDAY

PRENATAL AND POSTNATAL REST PERIODS WILL BE EXPANDED ACCORDING TO PHYSICAL CONDITIONS

Article 136: Political Duties and Rights

The following are the rights and duties of the citizens:

a. To register in the Registry of Citizens [Registro de Ciudadanos];

b. To elect and be elected;

c. To see to the freedom and effectiveness of the suffrage and the purity of the electoral process;


Article 157: Legislative Power [Potestad] and the Composition [Integración] of the Congress of the Republic

The legislative power belongs to the Congress of the Republic, made up of deputies elected directly by the people by

universal and secret suffrage, through the system of electoral districts and [by] national list, for a period of four years, being

able to be reelected. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

148

GUINEA 1958



Independence: 1958



Assembly)



Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes, 29 seats. At least 30% of the candidates on the proportional representation lists must be

women (Article 129 (2) of the Electoral Law). In addition, in case 2 candidates of different sex obtain an equal number of

votes, the contested seat should be won by the candidate of an under-represented sex (Article 130).

DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2013-01

2002-06

1995-06

1974-12

1968-01

1963-09

26

25

22

8

25

16

14

22.81%

21.93%

19.3%

7.02%

16.67%

21.33%

18.67%

Prior to independence, under French administration, Guinea was a territories d'outre-mer. As such, universal suffrage was

granted in 1956 by the framework law (Loi-cadre Deferre). 1958 corresponds to the date of independence.


Preamble

…

THE PEOPLE OF GUINEA,

Proclaim:

Their adhesion to the ideals and principles, rights and duties established in the Charter of the Organization of the United

Nations, the Universal Declaration of the Rights of Man, the International Conventions and Pacts relative to the Rights of

Man, the constitutive Act of the African Union, the African Charter of the Rights of Man and of Peoples and its additional

protocols relative to the rights of women, as well as the revised Treaty of the Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) [Communauté Économique des États d’Afrique de l’Ouest (CEDEAO)] and its protocols on democracy and good

governance. AFRICAN CHARTER OF THE RIGHTS OF MAN AND OF PEOPLES

…

Article 1

Guinea is a unitary republic, indivisible, secular, democratic and social.

It assures the equality before the law of all the citizens without distinction of origin, of race, of ethnicity, of gender [sexe],

of religion and of opinion. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

149

GUINEA 1958

Article 2

…

Suffrage is universal, direct, equal and secret.

All Guinean citizens of majority, of one or the other gender, enjoying their civil and political rights are electors within the

conditions determined by the law.

…

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE RIGHT TO VOTE

Article 8

All human beings are equal before the law. Men and women have the same rights. EQUAL RIGHTS

No one may be privileged or disadvantaged by virtue of [en raison de] their sex, of their birth, of their race, of their

ethnicity, of their language, of their beliefs and of their political, philosophical or religious opinions. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Article 20

The right to work is recognized to all. The State creates the conditions necessary for the exercise of this right.

No one may be prejudiced [lésé] in their work by virtue of their gender, of their race, of their ethnicity, of their opinions or

of any other cause of discrimination. DISCRIMINATION BANNED AT WORK

…

150

GUINEA BISSAU 1977

Right to vote: 1974



Independence: 1974


Parliament name: Assembleia Nacional Popular (People's

National Assembly)

Chamber name: Assembleia Nacional Popular (People's National Assembly)


Directly elected

DATE WOMEN %

2014-04

2014-01

2008-11

2004-03

1999-11

1994-07

1989-06

1984-03

1976-12

1972-10

14

11

10

14

8

10

30

22

19

10

13.73%

11%

10%

13.73%

7.84%

10%

20%

14.67%

12.67%

8.33%


Prior to independence women were granted the right to vote in the areas controlled by the liberation movement PAIGC. This

right was confirmed at independence.


Article 24 DISCRIMINATION BANNED

All citizens are equal before the law, enjoy the same rights and are subjected to the same duties, without distinction of

race, sex, social status, social, intellectual or cultural level, religious belief or philosophical conviction.

Article 25 EQUAL RIGHTS IN POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE

Men and women are equal before the law in all aspects of political, economic, social and cultural life.

Article 26


3. Spouses have equal rights and duties in terms of civil and political capacities, as well as the maintenance and education

of the children.

Article 77

All members of the National Popular Assembly are elected by electoral districts defined by law, by means of a free, equal,

direct, secret and periodic universal suffrage. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Article 130

No draft revision may affect: UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE NOT REVISIONABLE

… g. The direct, equal, secret and regular universal suffrage for deciding the holders of sovereign elected positions; …

151

GUYANA 1953

Right to vote: 1953



Independence: 1966

Population: 784,614

Parliament name: Parliament of the Co-operative

Republic of Guyana

Chamber name: Parliament of the Co-operative Republic of Guyana


Directly elected (65). Other: includes 3 non-elected ministers and the Speaker. A maximum of four non-elected ministers

and two non-elected Parliamentary Secretaries may sit in the National Assembly. If the Speaker is not an elected member, he

or she becomes a member of the National Assembly by virtue of holding the office of Speaker. The National Assembly may

thus have up to 72 members.

Electoral quota for women: Yes, 21 seats.

Legal source: Constitution.

DATE WOMEN %

2016-12

2015-08

2015-05

2010-01

2009-01

2008-01

2006-08

2001-03

1997-12

1992-10

1973-07

1964-12

22

21

13

21

20

21

20

13

12

13

7

5

31.88%

30.43%

35.14%

30%

28.99%

30%

28.99%

20%

18.46%

20%

13.21%

9.43%

Prior to independence, under British administration, on 16 April 1953, universal suffrage was granted to both men and

women 20 years and over. Women were already given the right in 1945 to vote under the Legislature of British Guyana. This

right was confirmed at independence. At the 1953 general elections, held on 27th April, 1953, with universal adult suffrage

for the first time, three women, Janet Jagan, Jessie Irma Sampson Burnham and Jane Phillips-Gay, became legislators for the

first time in British Guyana (Frank A. Narain, “Parliament of Guyana”)


29. Women's participation in public decision-making

Women's participation in the various management and decision-making processes, whether private., public or state,

shall be encouraged and facilitated by laws enacted for that purpose or otherwise.

ENCOURAGED AND FACILITATED THE PARTICIPATION IN THE VARIOUS MANAGEMENT AND DECISION-MAKING PROCESSES PRIVATE AND PUBLIC

59. Qualifications and disqualifications for electors UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Subject to the provisions of article 159, every person may vote at an election if he or she is of the age of eighteen years or

upwards and is either a citizen of Guyana or a Commonwealth citizen domiciled and resident in Guyana.

152


1. Subject to the provisions of this article

a. no law shall make any provision that is discriminatory either of itself or in its effect; and

GUYANA 1953

b. no person shall be treated in a discriminatory manner by any person acting by virtue of any written law or in the

performance of the functions of any public office or any public authority.

2. In this article the expression "discriminatory" means affording different treatment to different persons attributable wholly

or mainly to their or their parents' or guardians' respective descriptions by race, place of origin, political opinions, colour,

creed, age, disability, marital status, sex, gender, language, birth, social class, pregnancy, religion, conscience, belief or

culture whereby persons of one such description are subjected to disabilities or restrictions to which persons of another such

description are not made subject or are accorded privileges or advantages which are not afforded to persons of another such

description.

…


4. Nothing contained in any law shall be held to be inconsistent with or in contravention of paragraph (1)(a) to the extent that

it makes provision with respect to standards or qualifications (not being standards or qualifications specifically relating to a

person's or his or her parents' or guardians' respective description by race, place of origin, political opinions, colour, creed,

age, disability, marital status, sex, gender, language, birth, social class, pregnancy, religion, conscience, belief or culture) to

be required of any person who is appointed to any office in the public service, any office in a disciplined force, or any office

in the service or of a local democratic organ or of a body corporate established by any law for public purposes.

149F. Equality for Women EQUAL RIGHTS AND STATUS IN ALL SPHERES OF POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL LIFE

1. Every woman is entitled to equal rights and status with men in all spheres of political, economic and social life. All

forms of discrimination against women on the basis of gender or sex are illegal. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

2. Every woman is entitled to equal access with men to academic, vocational and professional training, equal

opportunities in employment, remuneration and promotion and in social, political and cultural activity.

EQUAL ACCESS TO ACADEMIC, VOCATIONAL AND PROFESSIONAL TRAINING, EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES IN EMPLOYMENT, REMUNERATION

AND PROMOTION AND IN SOCIAL, POLITICAL AND CULTURAL ACTIVITY

160. Electoral system

…

3. Subject to the provisions of this Constitution, Parliament may make provision

a.

…

v. for the extraction from the lists and declaration of names of the candidates who have been elected, and for such provision

for extraction to take into account the proportion that women form of the electorate;

…

b.

…


PROPORTION OF THE CANDIDATES ELECTED

CANDIDATES ON A PARTY’S LIST

iii. for the minimum number or proportion of female candidates on a party's list and in all party's lists taken together;

iv. for the minimum number or proportion of female candidates on a party's lists for geographical constituencies taken

individually or together;

v. for the maximum percentage or the number of geographical constituencies a party can contest in which its lists contain

no female candidate.

212B. Composition of Ethnic Relations Commission

1. The Ethnic Relations Commission shall consist of RESERVED MEMBERS IN “ETHNIC RELATIONS COMMISSION”

a. not less than five nor more than fifteen members nominated by entities, by a consensual mechanism determined by the

National Assembly, including entities, representative of religious bodies, the labour movement, the private business sector,

youth and women after the entities are determined by the votes not less than two-thirds of all elected members of the

National Assembly;

b. a member who shall be a nominee, without the right to vote, chosen by and from each of the following commissions to

be established under this Constitution, Indigenous Peoples' Commission, Woman and Gender Equality Commission,

Commission for the Rights of the Child and Human Rights Commission…

A MEMBER OF “ETHNIC RELATIONS COMMISSION” WITHOUT THE RIGHT TO VOTE CHOSEN BY “WOMAN AND GENDER EQUALITY COMMISSION”

212G. Rights Commissions

1. There are hereby established the following Commissions, the goals of which are to strengthen social justice and the rule

of law…

b. the Women and Gender Equality Commission; “WOMEN AND GENDER EQUALITY COMMISSION” TO STRENGTHEN SOCIAL JUSTICE

212N. Human Rights Commission

…

4. In addition to the Chairperson , there shall be four members of the Commission who shall be the Chairpersons of the

Ethnic Relations Commission, Women and Gender Equality Commission, Indigenous Peoples' Commission and Rights of

the Child Commission. CHAIRPERSON OF “WOMEN AND GENDER EQUALITY COMMISSION” MEMBER OF “HUMAN RIGHTS COMMISSION”

…

153

GUYANA 1953

212Q. Women and Gender Equality Commission “WOMEN AND GENDER EQUALITY COMMISSION”

1. The Women and Gender Equality Commission shall promote national recognition and acceptance that women's rights

are human rights, respect for gender equality and the protection, development and attainment of gender equality.

PROTECTION, DEVELOPMENT AND ATTAINMENT OF GENDER EQUALITY

2. The Women and Gender Equality Commission shall consist of persons from each of the categories referred to in

subparagraphs (a) ,(b) and (c), appointed by the President as follows

a. not less than five nor more than fifteen members, with expertise in women's and gender equality issues, nominated by

entities, by a consensual mechanism determined by the National Assembly, after the entities which shall include the

Women's Advisory Committee of the Trade Union Congress, are determined by the votes of not less than two-thirds of all

the elected members of the National Assembly;

b. the Administrator of the Women's Affairs Bureau, by whatever name that office is designated; and

c. a member who shall be a nominee, without the right to vote, chosen by and from each of the following commissions: the

Human Rights Commission, Ethnic Relations Commission, Indigenous Peoples' Commission, and Rights of the Child

Commission.

212R. Functions of the Women and Gender Equality Commission

In addition to the functions specified in article 212J(2), the functions of the Women and Gender Equality Commission are to

a. promote the issues related to the enhancement of the status of women, girls and gender issues;

INCREASE THE STATUS AND THE ISSUES

b. promote the integration of women's needs and interests and mainstreaming of gender issues; INTEGRATION

c. promote the empowerment of women; EMPOWERMENT

d. promote women's rights as human rights; HUMAN RIGHTS

e. raise the awareness of the contribution of women and problems faced by women including the recognition and value of

unwaged work; RECOGNITION AND VALUE OF UNWAGED WORK

f. promote women's needs, interests, and concerns in the wider spectrum of economic and social development and

address both the practical and strategic needs of women as being different from those of men;

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT PRACTICAL AND STRATEGIC NEEDS AS BEING DIFFERENT FROM THOSE OF MEN

g. educate and monitor employers and the public on desirable employment practices in relation to women;

EDUCATE EMPLOYERS AND THE PUBLIC ON DESIRABLE EMPLOYMENT PRACTICES

h. monitor compliance and make recommendations for the compliance with international instruments to which the

Government accedes from time to time, including those already acceded to and which relate to the purpose of the

Commission; ENFORCING INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS

i. evaluate any system of personal and family law, customs and practices or any law likely to affect gender equality or

the status of women and make recommendations to the National Assembly with regard thereto;

EVALUATE ANY SYSTEM OF PERSONAL AND FAMILY LAW, CUSTOMS AND PRACTICES

j. recommend and promote the implementation of legislation and the formulation of policies and measures so as to

enhance and protect the status of women; MEASURES TO ENHANCE AND PROTECT THE STATUS

k. promote, initiate or cause to be carried out research and the creation of databases on women and gender related

issues including those of health, especially reproductive health, violence against women and the family, and their

socio-economic and political status, as the Commission may deem relevant or as may be referred to it by the National

Assembly; MONITORING REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH, VIOLENCE, SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL STATUS

l. promote consultation and cooperation with women's organisations in relation to decision-making that affects the lives

of women; DECISION-MAKING THAT AFFECTS THE LIVES

m. recommend training and technical assistance to support initiatives by and for women and girls; and

RECOMMEND TRAINING AND TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE

n. promote the participation of women in national decision-making.

PROMOTE THE PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN NATIONAL DECISION-MAKING

212S. Indigenous Peoples' Commission

…

b. three persons, at least one being a woman nominated by the Toshaos Council and two persons including one woman

nominated by Amerindian organisations determined by the votes of not less than two-thirds of all elected members of

the National Assembly; and

c. a member who shall be a nominee, without the right to vote, chosen by and from each of the following Commissions: the

Human Rights Commission, Ethnic Relations Commission, Women and Gender Equality Commission and the Rights of the

Child Commission. RESERVED MEMBERS IN “INDIGENOUS PEOPLE’S COMMISSION”

FOURTH SCHEDULE: Conventions (Article 154A, 212O(1))

…

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women.

…

INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS

Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence against Women.

154

HAITI 1950





Assembly)

Chamber name: Chambre des Députés (Chamber of

Deputies)



Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. The quota for institutions

was increased to 30%.

Legal source: Constitution, Articles 17.1 et 30.1.1.

DATE WOMEN %

2016-12

2015-12

2010-11

2007-02

2006-05

2000-05

1997

1994

1990

1988-02

1984-01

1979-04

1973-04

1967-04

1961-05

1946-07

3

0

4

4

2

3

3

3

3

1

5

3

2

5

3

0

2.56%

0%

4.21%

4.08%

2.02%

3.61%

3.61%

3.75%

3.61%

1.3%

8.47%

5.17%

3.45%

8.62%

5.17%

0%




Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. An amendment to the

Constitution establishes a 30% quota for women in all

elected and appointed positions at the national level,

particularly in the civil service. The amended Constitution

also provides for the development of legislation to apply this

quota to the political parties. Such legislation is under

development but has not established an electoral formula to

this effect.

Legal source: Constitution, Articles 17.1 et 30.1.1

DATE WOMEN %

2017-01

2014-01

2010-11

2009-04

2008-01

2006-04

2000-05

1990

1988

1946

1

0

1

0

2

4

7

0

1

0

5%

0%

3.33%

0%

11.11%

13.33%

25.93%

0%

3.7%

0%

Right to stand for election granted after the 6 December 1950 elections and confirmed in article 16 of the 1957 Constitution.

The Constitution of 1985 extended the right to vote to all citizens and established equality between the sexes. For the first

time in Haitian history, in the parliamentary elections held on 30 April 1961, two women were elected as deputies: Max

Adolphe and Ulrick Paul-Blanc.


Preamble

The Haitian people proclaim this Constitution:

…

To establish a governmental regime based on the fundamental liberties and the respect for human rights, the social peace,

economic equity, the equity of gender, the concerted action and the participation of all the population in the grand

decisions engaging the national life, by an effective decentralization. EQUITY OF GENDER

To assure to women a representation in the instances of power and of decision which must conform to the equality of

the sexes and to equity of gender. REPRESENTATION IN THE INSTANCES OF POWER AND OF DECISION

HAITI 1950

Article 17

All Haitians, regardless of sex or marital status, who have attained twenty-one years of age may exercise their political and

civil rights if the meet the other conditions prescribed by the Constitution and by law. POLITICAL AND CIVIL RIGHTS

Article 17-1

[Inserted by the Constitutional Law of 9 May 2011 / 19 June 2012]

The principle of the quota of at least thirty percent (30%) of women is recognized at all levels of national life, notably in

the public services. QUOTA RECOGNIZED AT ALL LEVELS OF NATIONAL LIFE, NOTABLY IN THE PUBLIC SERVICE

Article 31-1-1


Any law concerning the Political Parties must reserve in its structures and in its mechanisms of functioning a treatment

in conformity with the principle of the quota of at least thirty percent (30%) of women as expressed in Article 17-1.

QUOTA IN STRUCTURES AND IN MECHANISMS OF FUNCTIONING OF POLITCAL PARTIES

Article 35-2

The State guarantees workers equal working conditions and wages regardless of their sex, beliefs, opinions and marital

status. EQUAL WORKING CONDITIONS

Article 52-3 COMPULSORY CIVILIAN NATIONAL SERVICE

Compulsory civic service for both sexes is established. The terms thereof shall be set by law.

Article 89 UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

The Chamber of Deputies is a body composed of members elected by direct suffrage by the citizens and is responsible for

exercising, on their behalf and in concert with the Senate, the functions of the legislative power.


The Senate is a body composed of members elected by direct suffrage of the citizens and charged with exercising on their

behalf, in concert with the Chamber of Deputies, the duties of the Legislative Power.

Article 207-2bis


In the exercise of its functions, [Office of Citizen Protection] will pay a special attention to the complaints presented by

women, particularly in that relating to the discriminations and the aggressions of which they may be victims notably in

their work. COMPLAINTS RELATING TO THE DISCRIMINATIONS AND THE AGGRESSIONS, NOTABLY AT WORK

Article 260

[The State] must also protect all families regardless of whether they are constituted within the bonds of marriage. It must

endeavor to aid and assist mothers, children and the aged. AID AND ASSIST MOTHERS

Article 268 COMPULSORY CIVILIAN NATIONAL SERVICE

Within the framework of compulsory civilian national services for both sexes, provided for by Article 52-3 of the

Constitution, the Armed Forces participate in organizing and supervising that service.

Military service is compulsory for all Haitians who have attained eighteen (18) years of age.

The law sets the method of recruitment, and the length and regulations for the performance of these services.

156

HONDURAS 1955




Parliament name: Congreso Nacional (National Congress)

Chamber name: Congreso Nacional (National Congress)


Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. The candidate lists of the political parties for the elections for the National Congress must

include at least 40% women candidates. Candidate lists in single-member constituencies must include a female principal

candidate and a male alternate, or vice versa. If a political party violates the gender balance, it will be charged a fine of 5% of

the total state funding for the parties.

Legal source: Electoral Law 2009 amended in 2012, Articles 104, 105 and 116.

DATE WOMEN %

2017-12

2013-11

2009-11

2005-11

2001-11

1998

1997

1993-11

1989-11

1985-11

1981-11

1971-03

1957

1949

27

33

23

30

7

12

10

9

13

10

7

6

3

0

21.09%

25.78%

17.97%

23.44%

5.47%

9.38%

7.81%

7.03%

10.16%

7.52%

8.54%

9.68%

5.17%

0%

Honduras was the last Latin American country to give women suffrage.


Article 37

The following are rights of citizens:

1. To vote and be elected; UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

2. To be a candidate for public office;

3. To form political parties; to join or renounce membership from them; and

4. Those others recognized by this Constitution and other laws.

…

Article 44

Suffrage is a right and a public duty. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Voting shall be universal, obligatory, egalitarian, direct, free and secret.

Article 60

All men are born free and equal in rights. There are no privileged classes in Honduras. All Honduras are equal before the law.

157

HONDURAS 1955

All forms of discrimination on account of sex, race, class, or any other reason prejudicial to human dignity shall be

punishable. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

The law shall establish the crimes and penalties for violators of this provision.

Article 111 PROTECTION OF MOTHERHOOD

The family, marriage, motherhood and childhood are under the protection of the State.

Article 112 RIGHT TO MARRY

The right of a man and a woman, who have that quality naturally, to contract marriage between themselves is recognized,

as well as the legal equality of spouses. MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

Only a civil marriage performed by competent officials and under the conditions established by law is valid.

De facto union between persons having the legal capacity to marry is recognized.

The law shall indicate the conditions under which it shall have the effect of a civil marriage.

Marriage and de facto union between persons of the same sex is prohibited.

Marriages or de facto unions between persons of the same sex that are celebrated or recognized under the laws of other

countries shall not be valid in Honduras. SEXUAL DISCRIMINATION

Article 116

The right of adoption is recognized for persons united through matrimony or de facto union.

The giving of children through adoption to persons of the same sex who form marriages or de facto unions is

prohibited. The law shall regulate this institution. SEXUAL DISCRIMINATION

Article 123

All children shall enjoy the benefits of social security and education.

Every child shall have the right to grow and develop in good health, for which special care shall be given during the prenatal

period, as much for the child as for the mother, both being entitled to food, housing, education, recreation, exercise,

sport, and adequate medical services.

MOTHER ENTITLED TO FOOD, HOUSING, EDUCATION, RECREATION, EXERCISE, SPORT, AND ADEQUATE MEDICAL SERVICES

Article 128

Laws governing the relations between employers and workers are matters of public order. All acts, stipulations or

agreements that involve the waiver, diminution or restriction or evasion of the following guarantees shall be void:

…

6. In the facilities of his establishments, the employer must observe and enforce the legal provisions concerning hygiene and

health and adopt adequate safety measures in work, which help to prevent occupational hazards and ensure the physical

and mental integrity of workers.

Employers in agricultural enterprises are also subject to the same security system. Special protection shall be given to

women and minors.

…

SPECIAL PROTECTION OF WORKERS

11. A woman is entitled to leave before and after childbirth, without loss of employment or wages. During the nursing

period she shall be entitled to a rest period each day for nursing her child. The employer may not terminate the

employment contract of a pregnant woman, nor after childbirth, except after having proved just cause before a

competent judge, in the cases and conditions indicated by law. SPECIAL PROTECTION OF WORKERS

… MATERNAL LEAVE, WITHOUT LOSS OF EMPLOYMENT OR WAGES REST PERIOD EACH DAY FOR NURSING CHILD

EMPLOYER MAY NOT TERMINATE THE EMPLOYMENT CONTRACT OF A PREGNANT WOMAN

Article 142

Every person is entitled to the security of his economic means of subsistence in the event of work disability or inability to

obtain remunerated employment.

Social Security services shall be furnished and administered by the Honduran Social Security Institute and shall cover

cases of sickness, maternity, family allowance, old-age, orphanhood, forced lockouts, work injury, involuntary

unemployment; occupational disease, and all other contingencies affecting the capacity to produce.

… HONDURAN SOCIAL SECURITY INSTITUTE COVER MATERNITY

158

HUNGARY 1958

Right to vote: May 17, 1953

Right to stand for election: November 11, 1958



Parliament name: Országgyülés (National Assembly)

Chamber name: Országgyülés (National Assembly)


Directly elected. In addition, there are 12 National Advocates representing national minorities living in Hungary.

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Voluntary political party quotas


DATE WOMEN %

2018-06

2018-05

2018-04

2014-06

2014-04

2014-01

2010-04

2010-01

2006-04

2002-04

1998-06

1994-05

1990-04

1985-06

1980-06

1975-06

1971-04

1967-02

1958

1953

1949-04

1947-08

1945

25

20

23

20

19

36

35

43

40

33

32

44

28

80

106

101

84

69

62

52

71

22

12

12.56%

10.05%

11.56%

10.05%

9.55%

9.38%

9.07%

11.14%

10.36%

8.55%

8.29%

11.4%

7.25%

20.73%

30.11%

28.69%

23.86%

19.77%

18.34%

17.45%

17.66%

5.35%

2.85%

Women twice gained and also quickly lost the right to vote before they finally gained universal suffrage in 1945. They were

granted suffrage first in the social-democratic revolution of 1918 and then saw it reaffirmed during the communist takeover

of 1919, but their universal voting rights were short lived. In 1920, Margit Slachta (1884-1974) became the first Hungarian

woman elected to Parliament. The successive authoritarian political regime under the leadership of Admiral Horthy

persistently moved to eradicate signs of the immediate past and, consequently, passed laws that severely restricted women's

right to stand as political candidates, vote and have access to university education. In 1945 men and women voted with

different colored ballot paper, thus making it possible to see how each sex voted.

159

HUNGARY 1958


FOUNDATION

Article L

1. Hungary shall protect the institution of marriage as the union of a man and a woman established by voluntary

decision, and the family as the basis of the survival of the nation. Family ties shall be based on marriage and/or the

relationship between parents and children. MARRIAGE BASED ON FREE WILL

FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY

Article XV

1. Everyone shall be equal before the law. Every human being shall have legal capacity.


2. Hungary shall guarantee the fundamental rights to everyone without discrimination and in particular without

discrimination on grounds of race, colour, sex, disability, language, religion, political or other opinion, national orsocial

origin, property, birth or any other status.

3. Women and men shall have equal rights.

EQUAL RIGHTS

4. By means of separate measures, Hungary shall promote the achievement of equality of opportunity and social inclusion.

5. By means of separate measures, Hungary shall protect families, children, women, the elderly and persons living with

disabilities. PROTECTION

Article XIX

1. Hungary shall strive to provide social security to all of its citizens. Every Hungarian citizen shall be entitled to assistance in

the case of maternity, illness, disability, handicap, widowhood, orphanage and unemployment for reasos outside of his or

her control, as provided for by an Act.

…

ASSISTANCE DURING MATERNITY

4. Hungary shall contribute to ensuring the livelihood for the elderly by maintaining a general state pension system based

on social solidarity and by allowing for the operation of voluntarily established social institutions. The conditions of

entitlement to state pension may be laid down in an Act with regard to the requirement for stronger protection for

women. STRONGER PROTECTION IN STATE PENSION

Article XXIII

1. Every adult Hungarian citizen shall have the right to vote and to be voted for in elections of Members of the

National Assembly, local government representatives and mayors, and of Members of the European Parliament.


THE STATE

Article 2

1. Members of the National Assembly shall be elected by universal and equal suffrage in a direct and secret ballot, in

elections which guarantee the free expression of the will of the voters, in a manner laid down in a cardinal Act.

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

160

ICELAND 1920

Chamber name: Althingi (Parliament)


Directly elected



Population: 340,140

Parliament name: Althingi (Parliament)



Ingibjörg H. Bjarnason, the first woman elected to the Althingi

(Courtesy of National Museum of Iceland).

DATE WOMEN %

2017-10

2016-10

2014-12

2013-04

2009-04

2008-01

2007-12

2007-05

2003-05

1999-05

1995-04

1991-04

1987-04

1983-04

1971-06

1963-06

1959-06

1956-06

1953-06

1949-10

1946-06

24

30

26

25

27

20

21

20

19

22

16

15

13

9

3

1

2

1

0

2

1

38.1%

47.62%

41.27%

39.68%

42.86%

31.75%

33.33%

31.75%

30.16%

34.92%

25.4%

23.81%

20.63%

15%

5%

1.67%

3.33%

1.92%

0%

3.85%

1.92%

In 1882, the King approved a change in voting qualifications such that widows and other unmarried women who headed

farming households, or who in some other way were independent householders were given the right to vote and stand for

elections in local elections, provided that they fulfilled all the other legal requirements for this right (property, etc). In 1908

all women obtained the rights to vote and to run in municipal elections. In 1915 right to vote was limited to those women

who were over 40 and did not owe repayable poor relief. The age limit was to be reduced by 1 year annually. In 1920 right to

vote and to stand for election became universal at national election: minimum age 25 years. In 1922, Ingibjörg H. Bjarnason

(1867-1941) became the first woman elected to the Althingi.


Article 65


Everyone shall be equal before the law and enjoy human rights irrespective of sex, religion, opinion, national origin, race,

colour, property, birth or other status.

Men and women shall enjoy equal rights in all respects. EQUAL RIGHTS

161

INDIA 1950



Independence: 1947

Population: 1,373,390,106

Parliament name: Sansad (Parliament)

162

Chamber name: Lok Sabha (House of the People)



Directly elected (543). Appointed members: 2 members of

the Anglo-Indian Community are nominated by the

President. The Constitution provides that the House shall

have a maximum of 552 members. Up to 530 members

represent the states, up to 20 members represent the union

territories and not more than two members of the

Anglo-Indian Community are nominated by the President,

if, in the President's opinion, that community is not

adequately represented in the House.


DATE WOMEN %

2019-04

2018-12

2016-12

2014-12

2014-01

2009-01

2008-01

2007-01

2004-04

2001-01

2000-05

2000-01

1999-09

1998-02

1996-04

1991-04

1989-11

1984-12

1980-01

1977-03

1971-03

1967-02

1962-04

1957-04

1951-10

78

66

64

65

62

59

45

49

45

47

48

49

46

44

39

36

26

41

27

18

21

31

34

27

19

14.39%

12.6%

11.81%

11.97%

11.38%

10.83%

8.29%

9.06%

8.29%

8.66%

8.84%

9.02%

8.44%

8.1%

7.16%

7.23%

4.99%

7.77%

5.03%

3.33%

4.05%

5.93%

6.76%

5.48%

3.82%

In 1946, Annie Mascarene (1902-1963)

became one of the 15 women who were

elected to the 299-member Constituent

Assembly of India, tasked with drafting

the Constitution of India. She served on

the Assembly's select committee that

looked into the Hindu Code Bill. When

the Indian Independence Act 1947 was

passed by the British Parliament, the

Constitutional Assembly became, on 15

August, the parliament of the Dominion

of India.

Chamber name: Rajya Sabha (Council of States)



Indirectly elected members (233): elected by the legislative

assemblies of the states and union territories.

Appointed members (12): nominated by the Head of State.

DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2016-06

2014-11

2012-07

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006-07

2004-06

2002

2000

1996

1994

1992

1990

1986

1984

1982

1980

1978

1976

1974

1972

1970

1968

1966

1964

1962

1960

1958

1956

1954

1951

28

27

31

26

25

21

23

24

26

28

25

22

19

20

17

24

25

28

24

29

25

24

17

18

14

22

23

21

18

24

22

20

17

15

11.48%

11.07%

12.76%

10.61%

10.33%

9.01%

9.47%

9.88%

10.74%

11.57%

10.2%

8.98%

7.76%

8.16%

6.94%

9.8%

10.25%

11.48%

9.84%

11.89%

10.25%

9.84%

7%

7.41%

5.83%

9.17%

9.66%

8.82%

7.63%

10.17%

9.48%

8.62%

7.76%

6.94%

INDIA 1950

Prior to independence, under British administration, the Government of India Act (adopted in 1935, entered into force in

1937) accorded women with the restricted right to vote: literacy, income and tax payer were required . These rights were

maintained after 1947 when India became an "Independent Dominion". In 1950 the suffrage became universal.


15. Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth

1. The State shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of

them. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

2. No citizen shall, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them, be subject to any disability,

liability, restriction or condition with regard to

a. access to shops, public restaurants, hotels and places of public entertainment; or

b. the use of wells, tanks, bathing ghats, roads and places of public resort maintained wholly or partly out of State funds or

dedicated to the use of general public. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

3. Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from making any special provision for women and children.

…

16. Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment

1. There shall be equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to employment or appointment to any office under

the State.

2. No citizen shall, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth, residence or any of them, be ineligible

for, or discriminated against in respect of, any employment or office under the State.

… DISCRIMINATION BANNED TO ACCESS PUBLIC EMPLOYMENT

39. Certain principles of policy to be followed by the State

The State shall, in particular, direct its policy towards securing RIGHT TO AN ADEQUATE MEANS OF LIVELIHOOD

a. that the citizen, men and women equally, have the right to an adequate means of livelihood;

…

d. that there is equal pay for equal work for both men and women;

EQUAL PAY FOR WORK

e. that the health and strength of workers, men and women, and the tender age of children are not abused and that

citizens are not forced by economic necessity to enter avocations unsuited to their age or strength;

… HEALTH AND STRENGTH OF WORKERS NOT ABUSED

NOT FORCED BY ECONOMIC NECESSITY TO ENTER AVOCATIONS UNSUITED TO THEIR AGE OR STRENGTH

42. Provision for just and humane conditions of work and maternity relief

The State shall make provision for securing just and humane conditions of work and for maternity relief.

PROTECTION OF MATERNITY AT WORK

51A. Fundamental duties

It shall be the duty of every citizen of India:

…

e. to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India transcending religious,

linguistic and regional or sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women;

FORBIDDEN PRACTICES DEROGATORY TO THE DIGNITY OF WOMEN

124. Establishment and Constitution of Supreme Court

…

124A. 1. There shall be a Commission to be known as the National Judicial Appointments Commission consisting of the

following, namely:

…

d. …

Provided that one of the eminent person shall be nominated from amongst the persons belonging to the Scheduled Castes,

the Scheduled Tribes, Other Backward Classes, Minorities or Women:

…

PART IX: THE PANCHAYATS

d. "Panchayat" means an institution (by whatever name called) of self-government constituted under article 243B, for the

rural areas;

243D. Reservation of seats

… RESERVED SEATS IN PANCHAYAT

2. Not less than one-third of the total number of seats reserved under clause (1) shall be reserved for women belonging

to the Scheduled Castes or, as the case may be, the Scheduled Tribes.

163

INDIA 1950

3. Not less than one-third (including the number of seats reserved for women belonging to the Scheduled Castes and the

Scheduled Tribes) of the total number of seats to be filled by direct election in every Panchayat shall be reserved for women

and such seats may be allotted by rotation to different constituencies in a Panchayat.

4. The offices of the Chairpersons in the Panchayats at the village or any other level shall be reserved for the Scheduled

Castes, the Scheduled Tribes and women in such manner as the Legislature of a State may, by law, provide:

Provided that the number of offices of Chairpersons reserved for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes in the

Panchayats at each level in any State shall bear, as nearly as may be, the same proportion to the total number of such offices

in the Panchayats at each level as the population of the Scheduled Castes in the State or of the Scheduled Tribes in the State

bears to the total population of the State:

Provided further that not less than one-third of the total number of offices of Chairpersons in the Panchayats at each level

shall be reserved for women:

Provided also that the number of offices reserved under this clause shall be allotted by rotation to different Panchayats at

each level.

5. The reservation of seats under clauses (1) and (2) and the reservation of offices of Chairpersons (other than the reservation

for women) under clause (4) shall cease to have effect on the expiration of the period specified in article 334.

243T. Reservation of seats RESERVED SEATS IN THE SCHEDULED CASTES IN EVERY MUNICIPALITY

1. Seats shall be reserved for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes in every Municipality and the number of

seats so reserved shall bear, as nearly as may be, the same proportion to the total number of seats to be filed by direct

election in that Municipality as the population of the Scheduled Castes in the Municipal area or of the Scheduled Tribes in

the Municipal area bears to the total population in that area and such seats may be allotted by rotation to different

constituencies in a municipality. RESERVED SEATS IN THE SCHEDULED TRIBES IN EVERY MUNICIPALITY

2. Not less than one-third of the total number of seats reserved under clause (1) shall be reserved for women

belonging to the Scheduled Castes or, as the case may be, the Scheduled Tribes.

3. Not less than one-third (including the number of seats reserved for women belonging to the Scheduled Castes and the

Scheduled Tribes) of the total number of seats to be filled by direct election in every Municipality shall be reserved for

women and such seats may be allotted by rotation to differentconstituencies in a Municipality.

4. The offices of Chairpersons in the Municipalities shall be reserved for the Scheduled Castes, the Scheduled Tribes and

women in such manner as the Legislature of a State may, by law, provide.

5. The reservation of seats under clauses (1) and (2) and the reservation of offices of Chairpersons (other than the reservation

for women) under clause (4) shall cease to have effect on the expiration of the period specified in article 334.

326. Elections to the House of the People and to the Legislative Assemblies of States to be on the basis of adult suffrage

The elections to the House of the People and to the Legislative Assembly of every State shall be on the basis of adult

suffrage; that is to say, every person who is a citizen of India and who is not less than eighteen years of age on such date as

may be fixed in that behalf by or under any law made by the appropriate Legislature and is not otherwise disqualified under

this Constitution or any law made by the appropriate Legislature on the ground of non-residence, unsoundness of mind,

crime or corrupt or illegal practice, shall be entitled to be registered as a voter at any such election.

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

SEVENTH SCHEDULE: (Article 246)

List III: Concurrent List

…

24. Welfare of labour including conditions of work, provident funds, employers' liability, workmen's compensation, invalidity

and old age pensions and maternity benefits.

… MATERNITY BENEFITS

164

INDONESIA 1945

DATE WOMEN %

2019-04

2018-12

2016-12

2014-12

2014-04

2014-01

2011-01

2010-01

2009-12

2009-05

2009-04

2008-01

2007-01

2004-04

1999-06

1997-05

1997-01

1992-06

1987-04

1982-05

1977-05

1971-07

1968-02

1966-01

1960-06

1959-07

1955-09

1951-01

1950-08

1950-02

100

102

111

95

94

104

102

101

100

93

102

62

64

62

40

57

63

61

62

42

34

33

31

29

28

16

17

8

4

8

17.39%

18.21%

19.82%

17.12%

16.79%

18.57%

18.21%

18.04%

17.86%

16.61%

17.74%

10.78%

11.13%

11.07%

8.00%

11.40%

12.60%

12.20%

12.40%

9.13%

7.39%

7.17%

7.49%

8.29%

9.21%

6.18%

6.25%

3.39%

2.65%

3.39%



Independence: 1945


Parliament name: Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat (House of

Representatives)

Chamber name: Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat (House of Representatives)


Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. There is a quota for women; at least 30% of candidates in legislative elections

Legal source: Bill No. 8/2012 on Legislative Election Regulation from the General Election Commission No. 7/2013


Article 28I

2. Every person shall have the right to be free from discriminative treatment based upon any grounds whatsoever and shall

have the right to protection from such discriminative treatment.

165

IRAN 1963

Right to vote and to stand for election: September 1963



Parliament name: Majles Shoraye Eslami (Islamic

Parliament of Iran)

Chamber name: Majles Shoraye Eslami (Islamic Parliament of Iran)


Directly elected (285). 5 seats are reserved for the following minorities: Zoroastrians, Jews, Assyrian and Chaldean

Christians, Armenian Christians in the north of the country, Armenian Christians in the south of the country.

DATE WOMEN %

2016-04

2012-03

2008-03

2004-02

1998-01

1997-11

1996-03

1992-04

1980-05

1975-06

1971-07

1967-08

1963-09

1947-07

17

9

8

9

10

13

10

9

4

20

18

7

6

0

5.88%

3.1%

2.76%

3.1%

4.03%

4.89%

4.03%

3.45%

1.48%

7.46%

6.72%

3.2%

3.03%

0%


In 1963, Farrokhroo Parsa (1922-1980), a physician and educator, was one of the six first women elected to the Majles.


The Wrath of the People

The publication of an outrageous article meant to malign the revered 'ulama' and in particular Imam Khumaynî on 15 Day,

1356 [January 7, 1978] by the ruling regime accelerated the revolutionary movement and caused an outburst of popular

outrage across the country. The regime attempted to quell the volcano of the people's anger by drowning the protest and

uprising in blood, but the bloodshed only quickened the pulse rate of the Revolution. The seventh-day and fortieth-day

commemorations of the martyrs of the Revolution, like a series of steady heartbeats, gave greater vitality, intensity, vigour,

and solidarity to this movement all over the country. In the course of this popular movement, the employees of all

government establishments took an active part in the effort to overthrow the tyrannical regime by calling a general strike

and participating in street demonstrations. The widespread solidarity of men and women of all segments of society and of

all political and religious factions, played a clearly determining role in the struggle. Especially the women were actively and

massively present in a most conspicuous manner at all stages of this great struggle. The common sight of mothers with

infants in their arms rushing towards the scene of battle and in front of the barrels of machine-guns indicated the essential

and decisive role played by this major segment of society in the struggle.

166

Woman in the Constitution

Through the creation of Islamic social infrastructures, all the elements of humanity that hitherto served the multifaceted

foreign exploitation shall regain their true identity and human rights. As a part of this process, it is only natural that women

IRAN 1963

should benefit from a particularly large augmentation of their rights, because of the greater oppression that they

suffered under the taghuti regime. The family is the fundamental unit of society and the main centre for the growth and

edification of human being. Compatibility with respect to belief and ideal, which provides the primary basis for man's

development and growth, is the main consideration in the establishment of a family. It is the duty of the Islamic government

to provide the necessary facilities for the attainment of this goal. This view of the family unit delivers woman from being

regarded as an object or as an instrument in the service of promoting consumerism and exploitation. Not only does

woman recover thereby her momentous and precious function of motherhood, rearing of ideologically committed

human beings, she also assumes a pioneering social role and becomes the fellow struggler of man in all vital areas of

life. Given the weighty responsibilities that woman thus assumes, she is accorded in Islam great value and nobility.

FREE FROM EXPLOITATION AND CONSUMERISM SEXIST SET: ROLE OF WOMEN SUPPORTING MALES

Article 3

In order to attain the objectives specified in Article 2, the government of the Islamic Republic of Iran has the duty of directing

all its resources to the following goals:

…

14. securing the multifarious rights of all citizens, both women and men, and providing legal protection for all, as well as

the equality of all before the law; EQUAL BEFORE THE LAW

…

Article 20

All citizens of the country, both men and women, equally enjoy the protection of the law and enjoy all human, political,

economic, social, and cultural rights, in conformity with Islamic criteria.

PROTECTION OF THE LAW AND ENJOY ALL HUMAN, POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, AND CULTURAL RIGHTS SUBJECT TO THE RELIGION

Article 21

The government must ensure the rights of women in all respects, in conformity with Islamic criteria, and accomplish the

following goals: RIGHTS OF WOMEN SUBJECT TO THE RELIGION

1. create a favourable environment for the growth of woman's personality and the restoration of her rights, both the

material and intellectual; GROWTH OF PERSONALITY AND RESTORATION OF MATERIAL AND INTELLECTUAL RIGHTS

2. the protection of mothers, particularly during pregnancy and childrearing, and the protection of children without

guardians; PROTECTION OF MOTHERS DURING PREGNANCY AND CHILDREARING

3. establishing competent courts to protect and preserve the family;

4. the provision of special insurance for widows, and aged women and women without support;

SPECIAL INSURANCE FOR WIDOWS, AND AGED WOMEN AND WOMEN WITHOUT SUPPORT

5. the awarding of guardianship of children to worthy mothers, in order to protect the interests of the children, in the

absence of a legal guardian.

167

IRAQ 1980

Right to vote and to stand for election: February 1980


Independence: 1932


Parliament name: Council of Representatives of Iraq

Chamber name: Council of Representatives of Iraq


Directly elected (320). 9 seats are reserved for minority groups: Christian (5), Fayli Kurds (1); Sabean (1); Shabak (1); Yizidi (1).

Electoral quota for women: Yes, 82 seats. A quota of at least 25% of the total number of the Council's 329 seats.

Legal source: Constitution, Article 49(4)

DATE WOMEN %

2018-05

2016-12

2014-12

2014-04

2010-03

2005-12

2000-03

1996-03

1989-04

1984-10

1980-06

1948-06

83

83

87

83

82

70

19

16

27

33

16

0

25.23%

25.3%

26.52%

25.3%

25.23%

25.45%

7.6%

6.4%

10.8%

13.2%

6.4%

0%


Preamble

…

We, the people of Iraq, who have just risen from our stumble, and who are looking with confidence to the future through a

republican, federal, democratic, pluralistic system, have resolved with the determination of our men, women, elderly, and

youth to respect the rule of law, to establish justice and equality, to cast aside the politics of aggression, to pay attention to

women and their rights, the elderly and their concerns, and children and their affairs, to spread the culture of diversity, and

to defuse terrorism. ATTENTION TO RIGHTS

…

Article 14

Iraqis are equal before the law without discrimination based on gender, race, ethnicity, nationality, origin, color, religion,

sect, belief or opinion, or economic or social status. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

168

Article 20

Iraqi citizens, men and women, shall have the right to participate in public affairs and to enjoy political rights including

the right to vote, elect, and run for office. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE RIGHT TO VOTE AND TO STAND FOR ELECTION

IRAQ 1980

Article 29

First

…

B. The State shall guarantee the protection of motherhood, childhood and old age, shall care for children and youth, and

shall provide them with the appropriate conditions to develop their talents and abilities.

PROTECTION OF MOTHERHOOD

Article 30

First

The State shall guarantee to the individual and the family - especially children and women – social and health security, the

basic requirements for living a free and decent life, and shall secure for them suitable income and appropriate

housing. SOCIAL AND HEALTH SECURITY BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR LIVING A FREE AND DECENT LIFE

…

SUITABLE INCOME AND APPROPRIATE HOUSING

Article 37

…

Third

Forced labor, slavery, slave trade, trafficking in women or children, and sex trade shall be prohibited.

PROHIBITED SEX TRADE AND TRAFFICKING

Article 49

…

Fourth

The elections law shall aim to achieve a percentage of representation for women of not less than one-quarter of the

members of the Council of Representatives. RESERVED SEAT IN THE COUNCIL OF REPRESENTATIVES

169

IRELAND 1928




Parliament name: Oireachtas (Parliament)

Chamber name: Dáil Éireann (House of Representatives)



Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Part 6 of the Electoral

(Amendment) (Political Funding) Act of 2012 provides that

political parties will face a cut of half their State funding

received under the Electoral Act 1997 if they do not have at

least 30% women and 30% men candidates at the next

general election (2016). Seven years from the general

election where this provision first applies, the Act makes

provision for this figure to rise to 40% in respect of each

gender, commencing at the general election held next

after that.

DATE WOMEN %

2016-02

2014-12

2014-01

2011-10

2011-05

2011-02

2010-01

2002-05

1997-06

1997-01

1992-11

1989-06

1982-11

1981-06

1977-06

1973-02

1969-06

1965-04

1961-10

1948-02

35

27

26

25

24

25

23

22

20

23

20

13

14

10

6

4

3

5

3

5

22.15%

16.27%

15.66%

15.06%

14.46%

15.06%

13.94%

13.25%

12.05%

13.86%

12.05%

7.83%

8.43%

6.02%

4.05%

2.8%

2.1%

3.47%

2.08%

3.4%

Chamber name: Seanad Éireann - Senate (Senate)



Indirectly elected (49): includes: 43 members elected by

panels of candidates; 3 members each elected by the

National University of Ireland and the University of Dublin.

Appointed members (11): appointed by the Prime Minister.


DATE WOMEN %

2016-05

2016-04

2014-10

2013-12

2011-02

2007-07

2007-01

2002-07

1997-08

1993-02

1989-08

1987-04

1983-01

1982-04

1981-08

1977-08

1973-02

1969-08

1965-06

1961-12

1957-05

1948-04

18

14

18

19

18

12

13

10

11

8

6

5

6

8

9

6

4

5

4

3

4

3

30%

28.57%

30%

31.67%

30%

20%

21.67%

16.67%

18.33%

13.33%

10%

8.33%

10%

13.33%

15%

10%

6.67%

8.33%

6.67%

5%

6.67%

5%

170

TIMELINE 1918 Right to vote and to stand for election restricted: voting age for women over 30, for men 21. 1928 Right to

vote and to stand for election became universal.

In 1918, Constance Georgine Gore-Booth Markievicz, known as Countess Markievicz (1868-1927), an Irish politician,

revolutionary, nationalist, suffragist and socialist, became the first woman elected to the Westminster Parliament.

IRELAND 1928


ARTICLE 9

1.

3°. No person may be excluded from Irish nationality and citizenship by reason of the sex of such person.

… NO PERSON EXCLUDED FROM IRISH NATIONALITY AND CITIZENSHIP BY REASON OF SEX

ARTICLE 16

1.

1°. Every citizen without distinction of sex who has reached the age of twenty-one years, and who is not placed

under disability or incapacity by this Constitution or by law, shall be eligible for membership of Dáil Éireann.

2°.

i. All citizens, and

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE RIGHT TO VOTE AND TO STAND FOR ELECTION

ii. such other persons in the State as may be determined by law, without distinction of sex who have reached the

age of eighteen years who are not disqualified by law and comply with the provisions of the law relating to the election of

members of Dáil Éireann, shall have the right to vote at an election for members of Dáil Éireann.

3°. No law shall be enacted placing any citizen under disability or incapacity for membership of Dáil Éireann on the

ground of sex or disqualifying any citizen or other person from voting at an election for members of Dáil Éireann on that

ground.

…

ARTICLE 40

…

3.

RIGHT TO LIFE OF THE MOTHER

3°. The State acknowledges the right to life of the unborn and, with due regard to the equal right to life of the

mother, guarantees in its laws to respect, and, as far as practicable, by its laws to defend and vindicate that right.

ARTICLE 41

…

2.

1°. In particular, the State recognises that by her life within the home, woman gives to the State a support

without which the common good cannot be achieved.

2°. The State shall, therefore, endeavour to ensure that mothers shall not be obliged by economic necessity to

engage in labour to the neglect of their duties in the home.

… MOTHERS SHALL NOT BE OBLIGED BY ECONOMIC NECESSITY TO ENGAGE IN LABOUR TO THE NEGLECT OF THEIR DUTIES IN THE HOME

4. Marriage may be contracted in accordance with law by two persons without distinction as to their sex.

MARRIAGE: TWO PERSONS WITHOUT DISTINCTION OF SEX

ARTICLE 45

2. The State shall, in particular, direct its policy towards securing:

…

i. That the citizens (all of whom, men and women equally, have the right to an adequate means of livelihood) may

through their occupations find the means of making reasonable provision for their domestic needs.

…

4

DISCRIMINATORY LAWS ABOUT THE RIGHT TO VOTE AND TO STAND FOR ELECTION ARE FORBIDDEN

RIGHT TO AN ADEQUATE MEANS OF LIVELIHOOD

2°. The State shall endeavour to ensure that the strength and health of workers, men and women, and the tender age of

children shall not be abused and that citizens shall not be forced by economic necessity to enter avocations unsuited to

their sex, age or strength. STRENGTH AND HEALTH OF WORKERS NOT BE ABUSED

CITIZENS NOT BE FORCED BY ECONOMIC NECESSITY TO ENTER AVOCATIONS UNSUITED TO THEIR SEX

171

ISRAEL 1948



Independence: 1948


Parliament name: Knesset (Parliament)

Chamber name: Knesset (Parliament)


Directly elected



DATE WOMEN %

2019-09

2019-04

2018-12

2016-12

2015-11

2015-10

2015-09

2015-03

2013-01

2011-01

2010-01

2009-02

2007-01

2006-03

2003-01

2001-01

2000-01

1999-05

1998

1996-06

1992-06

1988-11

1984-07

1981-06

1979-06

1974-01

1969-10

1965-11

1961-09

1959-11

1955-08

1951-07

1949-01

28

29

35

33

32

31

30

29

27

21

23

21

17

17

24

14

15

18

11

9

11

9

10

8

9

11

9

10

12

10

14

12

12

23.33%

24.17%

29.17%

27.5%

26.67%

25.83%

25%

24.17%

22.5%

17.5%

19.17%

17.5%

14.17%

14.17%

20%

11.67%

12.5%

15%

9.17%

7.5%

9.17%

7.5%

8.33%

6.67%

7.5%

9.17%

7.5%

8.33%

10%

8.33%

11.66%

10%

10%

Golda Meir (1898-1978), original name Goldie Mabovitch, later

Goldie Myerson, was elected to the Knesset in 1949 and served in

that body until 1974. She became the fourth prime minister of Israel

(1969–74) (Encyclopaedia Britannica).

The 12 women in the first Knesset: Drori, Hasya; Idelson, Beba; Ilanit,

Fayge; Kagan (Cohen), Rachel; Lamdan, Hannah; Maimon, Ada; Meir,

Golda; Netzer, Devorah; Persitz, Shoshana; Raziel-Naor, Esther;

Simhoni, Yehudit; Taversky, Genia (Jewish Women’s Archive).

172

ISRAEL 1948


4. Electoral system UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

The Knesset shall be elected by general, national, direct, equal, secret and proportional elections, in accordance with the

Knesset Elections Law; this section shall not be varied save by a majority of the members of the Knesset.

5. The right to vote

Every Israel national of or over the age of eighteen years shall have the right to vote in elections to the Knesset, unless a

court has deprived him of that right by virtue of any Law; the Elections Law shall determine the time at which a person shall

be considered to be eighteen years of age for the purpose of the exercise of the right to vote in elections to the Knesset.

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

173

ITALY 1945




Parliament name: Parlamento (Parliament)

Chamber name: Camera dei Deputati (Chamber of

Deputies)



Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Voluntary candidate quotas

with sanctions. The penalty for a party presenting fewer

than 40% candidates of either gender is a reduction in the

financial resources allotted to that party.

Legal source: Decree-law n. 149/2013, art. 9.

DATE WOMEN %

2018-03

2014-12

2014-01

2013-02

2008-04

2008-01

2006-04

2001-05

1996-04

1994-03

1992-04

1987-06

1983-06

1979-06

1976-06

1972-05

1968-05

1963-04

1958-05

1953-06

1948-04

*1946-06

225

195

198

179

134

133

109

62

70

95

51

81

48

53

47

24

17

29

25

33

44

21

35.71%

30.95%

31.43%

28.41%

21.27%

21.14%

17.3%

9.84%

11.11%

15.08%

8.1%

12.86%

7.62%

8.41%

7.46%

3.81%

2.7%

4.6%

4.19%

5.59%

7.67%

3.78%

* Constituent Assembly

Chamber name: Senato della Repubblica (Senate)




Appointed members: The President of the Republic may

appoint 5 citizens.

Other: ex-officio member (former Presidents of the Republic

are ex officio Senators and for life unless they renounce the

office).

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Voluntary candidate quotas

with sanctions. The penalty for a party presenting fewer than

40% candidates of either gender is a reduction in the

financial resources allotted to that party.

Legal source: Decree-law n. 149/2013, art. 9.

DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2018-03

2013-05

2013-02

2008-04

2006-01

2001-05

1996-04

1994-03

1992-04

1987-06

1983-06

1979-06

1976-06

1972-05

1968-05

1963-04

1958-05

1953-06

1948-04

110

113

92

86

58

44

25

26

29

31

22

17

10

11

6

11

6

3

1

4

34.38%

35.31%

28.84%

26.96%

18.01%

13.66%

7.79%

7.98%

8.9%

9.51%

6.79%

5.25%

3.11%

3.42%

1.86%

3.42%

1.87%

1.2%

0.41%

1.17%

The Legislative Decree of the Lieutenancy n. 23 of February 1, 1945, which extended to the women in Italy for the first time

the right to active and passive electorate, excluded in article 3, however, "the prostitutes" who practiced the profession

outside the brothels. Prostitutes, in accordance with the Legislative Decree of the Lieutenancy n. 74 of 10 March 1946, were

discriminated against and could not vote (Article 5, paragraph 10) and be elected (Article 7) on 2 June 1946 in the election of

members of the Constituent Assembly. The discrimination would disappear only a year later, with the Law n. 1058 of

174

ITALY 1945

7 October 1947, which would govern the active electoral right, excluding however from the exercise of the right itself in art.

2 paragraph 9 the women and men "who are the owners of the brothels". Only with law n. 75 of 20 February 1958, c.d. Merlin

law, would brothels and police surveillance on prostitution be abolished.

On 2 June 1946 the first 21 women elected to the Constituent Assembly: Adele Bej, Bianca Bianchi, Laura Bianchini, Elisabetta

Conci, Maria De Unterrichter Jervolino, Filomena Delli Castelli, Maria Federici, Nadia Gallico Spano, Angela Gotelli, Angela

Guidi Cingolani, Nilde Jotti, Teresa Mattei, Angelina Merlin, Angiola Minella, Rita Montagnana, Maria Nicotra, Teresa Noce,

Ottavia Penna Buscemi. Elettra Pollastrini, Maria Maddalena Rossi, Vittoria Titomanlio.


Art 3

All citizens have equal social dignity and are equal before the law, without distinction of sex, race, language, religion,

political opinion, personal and social conditions. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

It is the duty of the Republic to remove those obstacles of an economic or social nature which constrain the freedom and

equality of citizens, thereby impeding the full development of the human person and the effective participation of all

workers in the political, economic and social organization of the country.

Art 29

…

Marriage is based on the moral and legal equality of the spouses within the limits laid down by law to guarantee the unity

of the family. MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

Art 31

…

PROTECTION OF MOTHERS

The Republic protects mothers, children and the young by adopting necessary provisions.

Art 37

Working women are entitled to equal rights and, for comparable jobs, equal pay as men. Working conditions must allow

women to fulfil their essential role in the family and ensure appropriate protection for the mother and child.

… EQUAL RIGHTS AND EQUAL PAY FOR WORK WORKING CONDITIONS MUST ALLOW FULFILMENT IN THE ROLE IN THE FAMILY

Art 48

Any citizen, male or female, who has attained majority, is entitled to vote.

The vote is personal and equal, free and secret. The exercise thereof is a civic duty.


Art 51

Any citizen of either sex is eligible for public offices and elected positions on equal terms, according to the conditions

established by law. To this end, the Republic shall adopt specific measures to promote equal opportunities between

women and men.

… ELIGIBILITY FOR PUBLIC OFFICES AND ELECTED POSITIONS ON EQUAL TERMS: SPECIFIC MEASURES TO PROMOTE EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES

Art 117

…

Regional laws shall remove any hindrances to the full equality of men and women in social, cultural and economic life

and promote equal access to elected offices for men and women.

… REGIONAL LAWS SHALL REMOVE ANY HINDRANCES TO THE FULL EQUALITY IN SOCIAL, CULTURAL AND ECONOMIC LIFE AND PROMOTE

EQUAL ACCESS TO ELECTED OFFICES

JAMAICA 1944



Independence: 1962






Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2016-02

2007-09

1999-01

1998-01

1993-03

1989-02

1983-12

1980-10

1976-12

1967-02

11

8

7

8

7

3

7

6

5

2

17.46%

13.33%

12.07%

13.56%

11.67%

5%

11.67%

10%

8.33%

3.77%




Appointed by the Governor General.


DATE WOMEN %

2016-03

2014-01

2012-01

2007-09

2007-01

2002-10

1999-01

1998-01

1993-03

1989-02

1983-12

1980-10

1972-02

1967-02

5

6

5

2

3

4

3

5

3

4

3

4

3

2

23.81%

28.57%

23.81%

9.52%

14.29%

19.05%

14.29%

23.81%

14.29%

19.05%

14.29%

19.05%

14.29%

9.52%

Prior to independence after a long period of direct British colonial rule, Jamaica gained a degree of local political control in

the late 1930 and held its first election under full universal adult suffrage on 20 November 1944. This right was confirmed at

independence. On 14 December 1944, Iris Collins became the first woman elected to the parliament (Jaqueline A. Coore-Hall,

“Feminist Advocacy and Actvism in State Institutions”)



…

3. The rights and freedoms referred to in subsection (2) are as follows:

…

i. the right to freedom from discrimination on the ground of:

i. being male or female; DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

176

JAPAN 1947

Right to vote and to stand for election: February 24, 1947*



Parliament name: Kokkai (National Diet)

Chamber name: Shugiin (House of Representatives)



Directly elected


Chamber name: Sangiin (House of Councillors)



Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2017-10

2016-12

2014-12

2014-01

2012-01

2009-08

2007-01

2006-01

2005-09

2003-11

2000-06

1996-10

1993-07

1990-02

1986-07

1983-12

1980-06

1979-10

1976-12

1972-12

1969-12

1960-11

1958-05

1955-02

1952-10

1949-01

1947-04

1946-04

47

44

45

39

38

54

43

45

43

34

35

23

14

12

7

8

9

11

6

7

8

7

11

8

9

12

15

39

10.11%

9.26%

9.47%

8.13%

7.92%

11.25%

8.96%

9.41%

8.96%

7.08%

7.29%

4.6%

2.74%

2.34%

1.37%

1.57%

1.76%

2.15%

1.17%

1.43%

1.65%

1.5%

2.36%

1.71%

1.93%

2.58%

3.22%

8.37%

*17 December 1945 for elections to the House of Representatives,

and 24 February 1947 for elections to the House of Councillors.

DATE WOMEN %

2019-07

2016-07

2014-12

2013-07

2010-07

2008-01

2007-12

2007-07

2006-01

2005-01

2004-07

2001-01

1998

1997

1996

1995

1994

1993

1992-07

1991

1990

1989-07

1986-07

1983-06

1980-06

1977-07

1974-07

1970

1969

1968-07

1965-07

1959-06

1953-04

1950-06

1947-04

56

50

38

39

44

42

44

42

35

34

33

38

43

35

37

35

37

33

37

33

22

33

22

18

17

16

18

13

17

13

17

13

15

12

10

22.86%

20.66%

15.7%

16.12%

18.18%

17.36%

18.18%

17.36%

14.46%

14.05%

13.64%

15.38%

17.06%

13.89%

14.68%

13.89%

14.68%

13.1%

14.68%

13.1%

8.76%

13.1%

8.76%

7.23%

6.77%

6.4%

7.14%

5.2%

6.83%

5.2%

6.83%

5.2%

6%

4.8%

4%

177

JAPAN 1947

Women exercised their rights to vote and to stand for election for the first time in 10 April 1946: the rights were restricted to

the elections of Lower House. In 1947 suffrage became universal without restrictions.


Article 14

All of the people are equal under the law and there shall be no discrimination in political, economic or social relations

because of race, creed, sex, social status or family origin. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

Article 15

The people have the inalienable right to choose their public officials and to dismiss them.

All public officials are servants of the whole community and not of any group thereof.

Universal adult suffrage is guaranteed with regard to the election of public officials.

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

In all elections, secrecy of the ballot shall not be violated. A voter shall not be answerable, publicly or privately, for the choice

he has made.

Article 24 MARRIAGE BASED ON FREE WILL

Marriage shall be based only on the mutual consent of both sexes and it shall be maintained through mutual cooperation

with the equal rights of husband and wife as a basis. MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

With regard to choice of spouse, property rights, inheritance, choice of domicile, divorce and other matters pertaining to

marriage and the family, laws shall be enacted from the standpoint of individual dignity and the essential equality of the

sexes.

Article 44

The qualifications of members of both Houses and their electors shall be fixed by law. However, there shall be no

discrimination because of race, creed, sex, social status, family origin, education, property or income.

DISCRIMINATION BANNED FOR QUALIFICATIONS OF MEMBERS OF BOTH HOUSES

178

JORDAN 1989



Independence: 1946


Parliament name: Majlis Al-Umma (National Assembly)

Chamber name: Majlis Al-Nuwaab (House of

Representatives)



Directly elected (115). Twelve of the 115 seats are reserved

for minorities: nine for Christians and three for Chechens

and Circassians. Other (15): seats reserved for women.

Electoral quota for women: Yes, 15 seats.

Legal source: Cf. Electoral Law.

DATE WOMEN %

2016-09

2013-01

2010-11

2007-11

2003-06

1997-11

1993-11

1946

20

18

13

7

6

0

1

0

15.38%

12%

10.83%

6.36%

5.45%

0%

1.25%

0%

Chamber name: Majlis Al-Aayan (Senate)



Appointed by the King


DATE WOMEN %

2016-09

2014-12

2013-10

2011-10

2010-11

2006-01

2005-01

2003-11

1997-11

1993-11

1989-11

1946

10

8

9

7

9

7

6

7

3

2

1

0

15.38%

10.67%

15%

11.67%

15%

12.73%

10.91%

12.73%

7.5%

5%

2.5%

0%

At the local level, women were granted the right to vote in 1982. Women exercised their rights to vote and to stand for

elections for the first time in 1989, even if they were formally recognized in 1974. In 1989, Leila A. Sharaf (1940-1980) became

the first woman appointed to the Senate (Ghada Ashem Talhami, “Historical Dictionary of Women in the Middle East and North

Africa”). In 1993, Toujan al-Faisal (1948- ), a human rights activist and a TV journalist, became the first woman elected to the

House of Representatives.


Article 6

…

5. The law shall protect motherhood, childhood and the old-aged; and shall avail care for the youngsters and those with

disabilities and protect them against abuse and exploitation. PROTECTION OF MOTHERHOOD

Article 23

…

2. The State shall protect labour and enact legislation therefor based on the following principles:

…

d. Establishing special conditions for the work of women and juveniles.

SPECIAL CONDITIONS OF WORK

179

KAZAKHSTAN 1924



Independence: 1991



Chamber name: Mazhilis (House of Representatives)



Directly elected (98). Nine members are indirectly elected

with the consent of the Assembly of the People of

Kazakhstan.


DATE WOMEN %

2016-03

2014-12

2014-01

2012-01

2011-01

2009-01

2007-08

1999-10

1995-12

1994-03

1990-03

29

28

29

26

17

19

17

8

9

21

24

27.1%

26.17%

25.22%

24.3%

15.89%

17.76%

15.89%

10.39%

13.43%

11.86%

6.67%

Chamber name: Senate (Senate)



Indirectly elected (32): elected at a joint session of the

deputies of all representative bodies of the respective oblast

(regions), major cities and the capital of the Republic.

Appointed (15): appointed by the President of the Republic.


DATE WOMEN %

2017-06

2013-01

2008-10

2008-05

2005-08

2002-10

1999-09

1995-12

5

3

2

1

2

3

5

4

10.64%

6.38%

6.45%

3.13%

5.13%

7.69%

12.82%

10%

180

Prior to independence, under Soviet administration, the right to vote was recognized on 31 January 1924 (date of first

Constitution of the USSR) and confirmed at independence on 28 January 1993 (date of the Constitution of independent

Kazakhstan). In March 1990 the Supreme Soviet of the SSR of Kazakhstan became the first legislature of Kazakhstan after the

country became independent on 16 December 1991. Kazak women were previously elected to the Supreme Soviet of SSR of

Kazakstan and to the USSR Parliament.


Article 14

1. Everyone shall be equal before the law and court. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

2. No one shall be subject to any discrimination for reasons of origin, social, property status, occupation, sex, race,

nationality, language, attitude towards religion, convictions, place of residence or any other circumstances.

Article 27

1. Marriage and family, motherhood, fatherhood and childhood shall be under the protection of the state.

… PROTECTION OF MOTHERHOOD


1. Elections of ninety eight deputies of Majilis shall be carried out on the basis of the universal, equal and direct right under

secret ballot. Nine deputies of Majilis shall be elected by Assembly of the people of Kazakhstan. Regular elections of the

deputies of the Majilis shall be held no later than two months before the termination of the powers of current the

Parliament…

KENYA 1963



Independence: 1963


Parliament name: Parliament of Kenya




Directly elected (337). Other (13): 12 members nominated

by political parties represented in parliament according to

their proportion of members of the National Assembly to

represent special interests, including youth, persons with

disabilities and workers; the Speaker (ex officio member).

Electoral quota for women: Yes. 47 reserved seats.

Legal source: Constitution, Articles 97(1)(b).

DATE WOMEN %

2017-08

2016-12

2014-12

2014-01

2013-03

2011-01

2010-01

2009-01

2008-10

2007-10

2002-12

1992-12

1988-03

1983-09

1979-11

1974-10

1969-12

1963-05

76

68

69

67

65

21

22

21

22

21

16

6

2

3

5

6

2

0

21.78%

19.43%

19.71%

19.14%

18.57%

9.38%

9.82%

9.38%

9.82%

9.38%

7.14%

2.97%

1.06%

1.74%

2.91%

3.49%

1.16%

0%





Other (21): 16 women members nominated by political

parties according to their proportion of members in the

Senate; 2 members (one man and one woman) representing

youth (aged between 18 and 34 years old); 2 members (one

man and one woman) representing persons with disabilities;

The Speaker (ex officio member).


Legal source: Constitution, Articles 98(1)(b-c-d).

DATE WOMEN %

2017-08 21 30.88%

2013-03 18 26.47%

The right to vote and stand for office had been given to European women in Kenya in 1919 (in 1937, Sidney Mary Catherine

Anne Farrar (1900-1987) became the first woman elected to the Legislative Council of Kenya); in 1956, those rights were

extended to African men and women under certain conditions related to educational level and property ownership. In 1963,

all Kenyans, regardless of color and other previously restricting factors, were given the right to vote and stand for election. In

1969, Grace Monica Akech Onyango (1924- ), popularly known as Nya'Bungu (Daughter of the Bush), became one of the first

female Members of Parliament in post-independence Kenya.


21. Implementation of rights and fundamental freedoms

…

3. All State organs and all public officers have the duty to address the needs of vulnerable groups within society, including

181

182

KENYA 1963

women, older members of society, persons with disabilities, children, youth, members of minority or marginalised

communities, and members of particular ethnic, religious or cultural communities.

… DUTY TO ADDRESS NEEDS

26. Right to life

…

4. Abortion is not permitted unless, in the opinion of a trained health professional, there is need for emergency treatment,

or the life or health of the mother is in danger, or if permitted by any other written law. ABORTION IS NOT PERMITTED

27. Equality and freedom from discrimination

…

3. Women and men have the right to equal treatment, including the right to equal opportunities in political, economic,

cultural and social spheres. EQUAL TREATMENT AND EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES IN POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, CULTURAL AND SOCIAL SPHERES

4. The State shall not discriminate directly or indirectly against any person on any ground, including race, sex, pregnancy,

marital status, health status, ethnic or social origin, colour, age, disability, religion, conscience, belief, culture, dress, language

or birth. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

5. A person shall not discriminate directly or indirectly against another person on any of the grounds specified or

contemplated in clause (4).

6. To give full effect to the realisation of the rights guaranteed under this Article, the State shall take legislative and other

measures, including affirmative action programmes and policies designed to redress any disadvantage suffered by

individuals or groups because of past discrimination.

7. Any measure taken under clause (6) shall adequately provide for any benefits to be on the basis of genuine need.

8. In addition to the measures contemplated in clause (6), the State shall take legislative and other measures to implement

the principle that not more than two-thirds of the members of elective or appointive bodies shall be of the same

gender.

…

NOT MORE THAN TWO-THIRDS OF THE MEMBERS OF ELECTIVE OR APPOINTIVE BODIES OF THE SAME GENDER

45. Family


2. Every adult has the right to marry a person of the opposite sex, based on the free consent of the parties.

3. Parties to a marriage are entitled to equal rights at the time of the marriage, during the marriage and at the dissolution of

the marriage. MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

…

59. Kenya National Human Rights and Equality Commission

1. There is established the Kenya National Human Rights and Equality Commission.

2. The functions of the Commission are:

…

b. to promote gender equality and equity generally and to coordinate and facilitate gender mainstreaming in national

development;

… “NATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS AND EQUALITY COMMISSION” TO PROMOTE GENDER EQUALITY AND TO COORDINATE AND FACILITATE

GENDER MAINSTREAMING IN NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

60. Principles of land policy

1. Land in Kenya shall be held, used and managed in a manner that is equitable, efficient, productive and sustainable, and in

accordance with the following principles

…

f. elimination of gender discrimination in law, customs and practices related to land and property in land;

… ELIMINATION OF DISCRIMINATION IN LAW, CUSTOMS AND PRACTICES RELATED TO LAND AND PROPERTY IN LAND

81. General principles for the electoral system

The electoral system shall comply with the following principles:

…

b. not more than two-thirds of the members of elective public bodies shall be of the same gender;

… ELECTORAL QUOTA

90. Allocation of party list seats

2. The Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission shall be responsible for the conduct and supervision of elections

for seats provided for under clause (1) and shall ensure that:…

b. except in the case of the seats provided for under Article 98 (1) (b), each party list comprises the appropriate number of

qualified candidates and alternates between male and female candidates in the priority in which they are listed; and

… EACH PARTY LIST ALTERNATES BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE CANDIDATES

KENYA 1963

91. Basic requirements for political parties

1. Every political party shall:

… POLITICAL PARTIES RESPECT AND PROMOTE GENDER EQUALITY

f. respect and promote human rights and fundamental freedoms, and gender equality and equity;

97. Membership of the National Assembly

1. The National Assembly consists of RESERVED SEATS IN NATIONAL ASSEMBLY

a. two hundred and ninety members, each elected by the registered voters of single member constituencies;

b. forty-seven women, each elected by the registered voters of the counties, each county constituting a single member

constituency;

c. twelve members nominated by parliamentary political parties according to their proportion of members of the National

Assembly in accordance with Article 90, to represent special interests including the youth, persons with disabilities and

workers; and

d. the Speaker, who is an ex officio member.

…

98. Membership of the Senate

1. The Senate consists of RESERVED SEATS IN SENATE

a. forty-seven members each elected by the registered voters of the counties, each county constituting a single member

constituency;

b. sixteen women members who shall be nominated by political parties according to their proportion of members of the

Senate elected under clause (a) in accordance with Article 90;

c. two members, being one man and one woman, representing the youth;

d. two members, being one man and one woman, representing persons with

disabilities; and

e. the Speaker, who shall be an ex officio member.

…

100. Promotion of representation of marginalised groups

Parliament shall enact legislation to promote the representation in Parliament of

a. women; PROMOTION OF REPRESENTATION IN PARLIAMENT

…

127. Parliamentary Service Commission

1. There is established the Parliamentary Service Commission.

2. The Commission consists of:

… RESERVED SEATS IN PARLIAMENTARY SERVICE COMMISSION

c. seven members appointed by Parliament from among its members of whom

i. four shall be nominated equally from both Houses by the party or coalition of parties forming the national

government, of whom at least two shall be women; and

ii. three shall be nominated by the parties not forming the national government, at least one of whom shall be

nominated from each House and at least one of whom shall be a woman; and

d. one man and one woman appointed by Parliament from among persons who are experienced in public affairs, but are not

members of Parliament.

171. Establishment of the Judicial Service Commission

1. There is established the Judicial Service Commission.

2. The Commission shall consist of:

… RESERVED SEATS IN JUDICIAL SERVICE COMMISSION

d. one High Court judge and one magistrate, one a woman and one a man, elected by the members of the association of

judges and magistrates;

…

f. two advocates, one a woman and one a man, each of whom has at least fifteen years' experience, elected by the members

of the statutory body responsible for the professional regulation of advocates;

…

h. one woman and one man to represent the public, not being lawyers, appointed by the President with the approval of the

National Assembly.

172. Functions of the Judicial Service Commission

2. In the performance of its functions, the Commission shall be guided by the following:

… PROMOTION OF GENDER EQUALITY BY JUDICIAL SERVICE COMMISSION

b. the promotion of gender equality.

183

KENYA 1963

175. Principles of devolved government

County governments established under this Constitution shall reflect the following principles

…

c. no more than two-thirds of the members of representative bodies in each county government shall be of the same

gender. RESERVED SEATS IN COUNTY GOVERNMENTS

177. Membership of county assembly

1. A county assembly consists of

…

b. the number of special seat members necessary to ensure that no more than two-thirds of the membership of the

assembly are of the same gender; RESERVED SEATS IN COUNTY ASSEMBLIES

…

197. County assembly gender balance and diversity

1. Not more than two-thirds of the members of any county assembly or county executive committee shall be of the same

gender. RESERVED SEATS IN COUNTY ASSEMBLY OR COUNTY EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

…

232. Values and principles of public service

1. The values and principles of public service include:

…

i. affording adequate and equal opportunities for appointment, training and advancement, at all levels of the

public service, of: EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES FOR APPOINTMENT, TRAINING AND ADVANCEMENT IN PUBLIC SERVICE

i. men and women;

…

250. Composition, appointment and terms of office

…

11. The chairperson and vice-chairperson of a commission shall not be of the same gender.

… ALTERNATIVE GENDER BETWEEN CHAIRPERSON AND VICE-CHAIRPERSON OF A COMMISSION

184

KIRIBATI 1967



Independence: 1979

Population: 118,530

Parliament name: Maneaba Ni Maungatabu (House of

Assembly)

Chamber name: Maneaba Ni Maungatabu (House of Assembly)


Directly elected (44). Appointed members (1): appointed by the Banaban community, the vast majority of whom live on the

island of Rabi in Fiji. Other (1): the Attorney General is an ex officio member. In case the Attorney General is an elected

member, the statutory number will be 45. The Speaker is designated from outside Parliament.


DATE WOMEN %

2015-12

2011-10

2007

2006

1998-09

1990-07

1978-02

3

4

2

3

2

1

0

6.52%

8.7%

4.35%

7.14%

4.76%

2.38%

0%

Prior to independence, under British administration, women were granted the right to vote on 15 November 1967: Gilbert &

Ellice Islands Colony (Electoral Provisions) Order 1967 and Constitution de 1967. In 1971, Tekarei Russell (1937- ) became the

the first woman to be elected to Parliament (Fay Alailima, “New Politics in the South Pacific”).



Whereas every person in Kiribati is entitled to the fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual, that is to say, the

right, whatever his race, place of origin, political opinions, colour, creed or sex, but subject to respect for the rights and

freedoms of others and for the public interest, to each and all of the following, namely:





64. The franchise

1. Subject to the provisions of this section and of section 118(3) of this Constitution, every person who:

a. is a citizen of Kiribati;

b. has attained the age of eighteen years; and

c. is a person resident within an electoral district established by or under this Constitution,

shall be entitled to be registered as an elector in the electoral district in which he is resident, and when so registered to vote

at an election of a member of the Maneaba ni Maungatabu for that electoral district

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

185

KOREA (DEMOCRATIC PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF) (NORTH - PYONGYANG) 1946



Independence: 1948


Parliament name: Choe Go In Min Hoe Ui (Supreme

People's Assembly)

Chamber name: Choe Go In Min Hoe Ui (Supreme People's Assembly)


Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2019-03

2014-04

2013-01

2012-01

2011-01

2010-01

2008-04

1986-11

1982-02

1977-11

1972-12

1967-11

1962-10

1957-08

1948-08

121

112

107

47

41

107

41

138

120

115

113

73

34

28

69

17.61%

16.3%

18.45%

15.67%

13.67%

15.57%

13.67%

21.07%

19.51%

19.86%

20.89%

15.97%

8.88%

13.02%

12.06%

Prior to sovereignty, under Allied administration, Women's suffrage was granted in the Law on Equality of the Sexes, adopted

on 30 July 1946.


Article 6

The organs of State power at all levels, from the county People’s Assembly to the Supreme People’s Assembly, are elected on

the principle of universal, equal and direct suffrage by secret ballot. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Article 66 RIGHT TO VOTE AND TO STAND FOR ELECTION

All citizens who have reached the age of 17 have the right to elect and to be elected, irrespective of sex, race, occupation,

length of residence, property status, education, party affiliation, political views or religious belief. Citizens serving in the

armed forces also have the right to elect and to be elected. A person who has been disenfranchised by a Court decision and

a person legally certified insane do not have the right to elect or to be elected.

186

Article 77 EQUAL SOCIAL STATUS AND RIGHTS MATERNITY LEAVE REDUCED WORKING HOURS FOR MOTHERS WITH SEVERAL CHILDREN

Women are accorded equal social status and rights with men. The State shall afford special protection to mothers and

children by providing maternity leave, reduced working hours for mothers with several children, a wide network of

maternity hospitals, creches and kindergartens, and other measures. The State shall provide all conditions for women to

play their full roles in society. MATERNITY HOSPITALS, CRECHES AND KINDERGARTENS FULL ROLE IN SOCIETY

KOREA (REPUBLIC OF) (SOUTH - SEOUL) 1948



Independence: 1948


Parliament name: Kuk Hoe (National Assembly)

Chamber name: Kuk Hoe (National Assembly)


Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. For the 56 seats allocated by proportional representation (multi-member national

constituency), political parties must include 50 percent women on their candidate lists. For the election of members to

represent the Assembly’s 243 single-member constituencies, it is recommended that political parties include at least 30%

women candidates.

Legal source: Public Official Election Act.

DATE WOMEN %

2019-05

2016-04

2014-10

2012-01

2011-01

2010-01

2008-04

2007-01

2000-04

1996-04

1988-04

1985-02

1981-03

1978-12

1973-02

1971-05

1967-06

1963-11

1960-07

1958-05

1954-05

1950-05

1948-05

50

51

49

47

41

44

41

43

39

9

6

8

9

8

12

5

3

2

1

3

1

2

0

16.67%

17%

16.33%

15.67%

13.71%

14.72%

13.71%

14.38%

13.04%

3.01%

2.01%

2.9%

3.26%

3.46%

5.48%

2.45%

1.71%

1.14%

0.43%

1.29%

0.49%

0.95%

0.5%

In 1949, in a by-election held in in Andong, Yim Young-shin became the first woman elected to the National Assembly (Susan

Franceschet, “The Palgrave Handbook of Women’s Political Rights”).


Article 11

1. All citizens shall be equal before the law, and there shall be no discrimination in political, economic, societal or cultural

life on account of sex, religion or social status. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

187

KOREA (REPUBLIC OF) (SOUTH - SEOUL) 1948

Article 24

All citizens shall have the right to vote as prescribed by law.

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Article 25

All citizens shall have the right to hold public office as prescribed by law.

Article 32

…

4. Special protection shall be accorded to working women and they shall not be subjected to unjust discrimination in

terms of employment, wages and working conditions.

EQUAL PAY FOR WORK

… DISCRIMINATION BANNED AT WORK IN TERMS OF EMPLOYMENT, WAGES AND WORKING CONDITIONS

Article 34

…

3. The State shall endeavor to promote the welfare and rights of women.

PROMOTION OF WELFARE AND RIGHTS

Article 36

1. Marriage and family life shall be entered into and sustained on the basis of individual dignity and equality of the sexes,

and the State shall do everything in its power to achieve that goal. MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

2. The State shall endeavor to protect mothers.

… PROTECTION OF MOTHERS

Article 41

1. The National Assembly shall be composed of members elected by universal, equal, direct and secret ballot by the citizens.


188

KOSOVO 1946



Independence: 2008


Parliament name: Kuvendi (Assembly)

Chamber name: Kuvendi (Assembly)


Directly elected (100). Other (20): 10 seats for the representatives of the Serbs; 4 seats for the representatives of the Romani,

Ashkali and Egyptians; 3 seats for the Bosniaks; 2 seats for the Turks; 1 seat for the Gorans.

DATE WOMEN %

2019-10

2017-06

2001-11

38

36

32

31.67%

30%

26.66%

Women obtained the right to vote with the Constitution of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia adopted on 31

January 1946. The first Assembly of Kosovo, under the aegis of the United Nations, was established on 17 November 2001. In

2008 Kosovo declared independence.


Article 7: Values

… GENDER EQUALITY

2. The Republic of Kosovo ensures gender equality as a fundamental value for the democratic development of the society,

providing equal opportunities for both female and male participation in the political, economic, social, cultural and

other areas of societal life. EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION IN THE POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL AREAS

Article 22: Direct Applicability of International Agreements and Instruments

Human rights and fundamental freedoms guaranteed by the following international agreements and instruments are

guaranteed by this Constitution, are directly applicable in the Republic of Kosovo and, in the case of conflict, have priority

over provisions of laws and other acts of public institutions:

…

6. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women;

… “CONVENTION ON THE ELIMINATION OF ALL FORMS OF DISCRIMINATION AGAINST WOMEN” DIRECTLY APPLICABLE

Article 24: Equality Before the Law

1. All are equal before the law. Everyone enjoys the right to equal legal protection without discrimination.

2. No one shall be discriminated against on grounds of race, color, gender, language, religion, political or other opinion,

national or social origin, relation to any community, property, economic and social condition, sexual orientation, birth,

disability or other personal status. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

Article 45: Freedom of Election and Participation

1. Every citizen of the Republic of Kosovo who has reached the age of eighteen, even if on the day of elections, has the right

to elect and be elected, unless this right is limited by a court decision.


189

KOSOVO 1946

Article 71: Qualification and Gender Equality

1. Every citizen of the Republic of Kosovo who is eighteen (18) years or older and meets the legal criteria is eligible to become

a candidate for the Assembly.

GENDER EQUALITY IN THE ASSEMBLY

2. The composition of the Assembly of Kosovo shall respect internationally recognized principles of gender equality.

Article 101: Civil Service

1. The composition of the civil service shall reflect the diversity of the people of Kosovo and take into account internationally

recognized principles of gender equality. GENDER EQUALITY IN THE CIVIL SERVICE

…

Article 104: Appointment and Removal of Judges

1. The President of the Republic of Kosovo shall appoint, reappoint and dismiss judges upon the proposal of the Kosovo

Judicial Council.

2. The composition of the judiciary shall reflect the ethnic diversity of Kosovo and internationally recognized principles of

gender equality. GENDER EQUALITY IN THE COMPOSITION OF THE JUDICIARY

…

Article 108: Kosovo Judicial Council

… GENDER EQUALITY IN THE JUDICIAL COUNCIL

2. The Kosovo Judicial Council is a fully independent institution in the performance of its functions. The Kosovo Judicial

Council shall ensure that the Kosovo courts are independent, professional and impartial and fully reflect the multi-ethnic

nature of Kosovo and follow the principles of gender equality. The Kosovo Judicial Council shall give preference in the

appointment of judges to members of Communities that are underrepresented in the judiciary as provided by law.

…

4. Proposals for appointments of judges must be made on the basis of an open appointment process, on the basis of the

merit of the candidates, and the proposals shall reflect principles of gender equality and the ethnic composition of the

territorial jurisdiction of the respective court. All candidates must fulfill the selection criteria provided by law.

… GENDER EQUALITY IN THE PROPOSALS FOR APPOINTMENT OF JUDGES

Article 109: State Prosecutor

…

4. The State Prosecutor shall reflect the multiethnic composition of the Republic of Kosovo and shall respect the principles

of gender equality.

… GENDER EQUALITY IN THE STATE PROSECUTOR

Article 110: Kosovo Prosecutorial Council

1. The Kosovo Prosecutorial Council is a fully independent institution in the performance of its functions in accordance

with law. The Kosovo Prosecutorial Council shall ensure that all persons have equal access to justice. The Kosovo

Prosecutorial Council shall ensure that the State Prosecutor is independent, professional and impartial and reflects the

multi-ethnic nature of Kosovo and the principles of gender equality.

…

GENDER EQUALITY IN THE PROSECUTORIAL COUNCIL

3. Proposals for appointments of prosecutors must be made on the basis of an open appointment process, on the basis of

the merit of the candidates, and the proposals shall reflect principles of gender equality and the ethnic composition of the

relevant territorial jurisdiction.

…

Article 114: Composition and Mandate of the Constitutional Court

1. The Constitutional Court shall be composed of nine (9) judges who shall be distinguished jurists of the highest moral

character, with not less than ten (10) years of relevant professional experience. Other relevant qualifications shall be

provided by law. Principles of gender equality shall be respected.

… GENDER EQUALITY IN THE CONSTITUTIONAL COURT

190

KUWAIT 2005*

Right to vote and to stand for election: 2005*


Independence: 1961


Parliament name: Majles Al-Ommah (National Assembly)

Chamber name: Majles Al-Ommah (National Assembly)


Directly elected (50). Other (15): Cabinet ministers who were not elected as members of the National Assembly are

considered ex officio members. They can vote at the National Assembly, except in votes of confidence.The number of

Ministers shall not exceed one third of the number of the members of the National Assembly (currently 16). They must

include at least one member of the National Assembly. This brings the parliament's total membership to a maximum of 65.


DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2016-12

2014-05

2014-04

2014-01

2012-06

2012-02

2009-05

2008-05

2005-06

1962-01

3

2

1

2

3

4

0

5

2

1

0

4.62%

3.08%

1.67%

3.08%

4.62%

6.35%

0%

7.69%

3.08%

1.54%

0%

*The amendment of Election Law No. 35/1962 in 2005, which granted women the right to vote and run for office, opened the

door for female candidates to participate in parliamentary and local elections for the first time, on the condition that “women

stay in line with Islamic traditions”. Suffrage can’t be considered universal. In June 2005, Massouma al-Mubarak (1947- )

became the first female cabinet member and in the 2009 Kuwaiti parliamentary elections, she and three other women (Aseel

al-Awadhi, Rola Dashti, Salwa al-Jassar) won seats to become the first women elected to the Kuwaiti parliament.

CONSTITUTION OF 1962, REINSTATED IN 1992

Article 9 FAMILY SUBJECT TO RELIGION

The family is the foundation of society; its mainstays are religion, morals and the love of country. The Law shall preserve its

entity, shall strengthen its bonds and shall, under its aegis, protect mothers and infants.

Article 80

The National Assembly shall be composed of fifty members elected by general direct secret ballot in accordance with the

provisions of the Electoral Law.

Ministers who are not elected to the National Assembly shall be considered members of the Assembly by virtue of their

functions.

Article 81

Election constituencies shall be determined by Statute.

191

KYRGYZSTAN 1918

Right to vote and to stand for election: June 1918


Independence: 1991


Parliament name: Jogorku Kenesh (Supreme Council)

Chamber name: Jogorku Kenesh (Supreme Council)


Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2015-10

2010-10

2007-12

2005-02

2000-02

1995-02

1990-02

23

28

23

0

1

5

22

19.17%

23.33%

25.56%

0%

2.22%

4.76%

6.29%

Prior to independence, under Soviet administration, women were granted the right to vote. This right was confirmed

at independence: in February 1990 the Supreme Soviet of Kyrgyzstan became, under the name of Uluk Kenesh, the

first legislature of Kyrgyzstan after the country became independent in September 1991. Kyrgyz women were previously

elected to the Supreme Soviet of the SSR of Kyrgyzstan and to the USSR Parliament.


Article 2

…

4. The elections shall be free. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

The elections of the deputies of the Jogorku Kenesh, the President as well as the deputies of representative local

self-governance bodies shall be conducted on the basis of universal equal and direct suffrage by secret ballot.

The right to vote shall be granted to the citizens of the Kyrgyz Republic having reached 18 years of age.

192

Article 16

…

2. The Kyrgyz Republic shall respect and ensure human rights and freedoms to all persons on its territory and under its

jurisdiction. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

No one may be subject to discrimination on the basis of sex, race, language, disability, ethnicity, belief, age, political and

other convictions, education, background, proprietary and other status as well as other circumstances.

…

4. In the Kyrgyz Republic men and women shall have equal rights and freedoms and equal opportunities for their

realization.

…

EQUAL RIGHTS, FREEDOMS AND EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES FOR REALIZATION

KYRGYZSTAN 1918

Article 31

…

4. The propagation of national, ethnic, racial and religious hatred, gender as well as other social supremacy which calls to

discrimination, hostility and violence shall be prohibited. DISCRIMINATION, HOSTILITY AND VIOLENCE BANNED

Article 36

1. Family shall be the foundation of the society. Family, paternity, maternity and childhood shall be the subject of care of the

entire society and preferential protection by law. CARE AND PROTECTION OF MATERNITY

…

5. A family is created upon voluntary union of a man and a woman who reached the age of consent and entry into marriage.

No marriage shall be entered into without mutual consent of persons desiring to marry. MARRIAGE BASED ON FREE WILL

The marriage shall be registered by the state.

The spouses shall have equal rights and obligations in marriage and family. MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

193

LAOS 1958



Independence: 1953


Parliament name: Sapha Heng Xat (National Assembly)

Chamber name: Sapha Heng Xat (National Assembly)


Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2016-03

2011-04

2006-04

2002-02

1997-01

1992-12

1989-03

1975-12

1972-12

1958-05

1955-12

41

33

29

25

21

8

5

4

2

1

0

27.52%

25%

25.22%

22.94%

21.21%

9.41%

6.33%

8.89%

3.39%

1.7%

0%

In May 1958, Khampheng Boupha, leader of Women’s Union (an organization member of Lao Patriotic Front, became the first

woman elected to the National Assembly (Daily Report, Asia and Pacific, 6 April 1973, n. 67 vol. IV)


Article 4

…

The election of members of the National Assembly shall be carried out through the principles of universal equal direct

suffrage and secret balloting. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

…

Article 7 LAO WOMEN’S UNION

The Lao Front for National Construction, the Lao Federation of Trade Unions, the Lao People’s Revolutionary Youth Union, the

Lao Women’s Union and other social organisations are the organs to unite and mobilise all strata of the multi-ethnic people

to take part in the tasks of protection and construction of the country; to develop the right of self-determination of the

people and to protect the legitimate rights and interests of members of their respective organisations.

194

Article 22

…

The State and society attend to developing high quality national education, to create opportunities and [favourable]

conditions in education for all people throughout the country, especially people in remote areas, ethnic groups, women and

disadvantaged children. HIGH QUALITY NATIONAL EDUCATION

…

LAOS 1958

Article 25

…

The State and society attend to building and improving disease prevention systems and providing health care to all people,

creating conditions to ensure that all people have access to health care, especially women and children, poor people and

people in remote areas, to ensure the people’s good health. ACCESS TO HEALTH CARE

…

Article 29

The State, society and families attend to implementing development policies and supporting the progress of women

and to protecting the legitimate rights and benefits of women and children.

IMPLEMENTING DEVELOPMENT POLICIES AND SUPPORTING PROGRESS PROTECTING LEGITIMATE RIGHTS AND BENEFITS


Lao citizens are all equal before the law irrespective of their gender, social status, education, beliefs and ethnic group.

Article 37

Citizens of both genders enjoy equal rights in the political, economic, cultural and social fields and in family affairs.

EQUAL RIGHTS IN POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, CULTURAL AND SOCIAL FIELDS AND IN FAMILY AFFAIRS

195

LATVIA 1918



Independence: 1991


Parliament name: Saeima (Parliament)

DATE WOMEN %

2019-02

2018-10

2016-12

2014-11

2014-10

2014-01

2012-01

2011-09

2010-10

2010-01

2008-01

2007-01

2006-10

2002-10

1998-10

1997-01

1993-06

1990-03

30

31

16

18

19

25

21

23

19

22

19

20

19

18

17

9

15

9

30%

31%

16%

18%

19%

25%

21%

23%

19%

22%

19%

20%

19%

18%

17%

9%

15%

4.48%

Chamber name: Saeima (Parliament)


Directly elected


When Latvia was first independent, women were granted the right to vote and stand for election in 1918. Under Soviet

administration, women retained these rights; they were confirmed at independence. In March 1990 the Supreme Council of

the SSR of Latvia became the first legislature of Latvia after the restoration of the country's independence on 21 August 1991.

Latvian women were previously elected to the Supreme Soviet of SSR of Latvia and to the USSR Parliament. Berta Ziemele

Pīpiņa (1883–1942) in 1931 became the first woman to serve in the Saeima.


Article 8

All citizens of Latvia who enjoy full rights of citizenship and, who on election day have attained eighteen years of age shall

be entitled to vote. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Article 91

All human beings in Latvia shall be equal before the law and the courts.

Human rights shall be realised without discrimination of any kind.

196

Article 110

The State shall protect and support marriage – a union between a man and a woman, the family, the rights of parents and

rights of the child. The State shall provide special support to disabled children, children left without parental care or who

have suffered from violence.

LEBANON 1952



Independence: 1943


Parliament name: Majlis Al-Nuwwab (National Assembly)

Chamber name: Majlis Al-Nuwwab (National Assembly)


Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2019-04

2019-02

2018-06

2009-06

2005-05

1992-01

1947-01

6

5

6

4

6

3

0

4.69%

3.94%

4.69%

3.13%

4.69%

2.34%

0%

Prior to independence, under the administration of the French Trust Territory, equality of all citizens before the law was

enshrined in Article 7 of the constitution of 26 May 1926 without specific affirmation of women's rights (women had to show

proof of education to exercize the right to vote). The electoral law was amended between 1952 and 1953 to introduce full

women's suffrage. In 1963, Myrna Emile Bustani (1937- ) became the first woman to serve in the Lebanese parliament.


Article 7

All Lebanese are equal before the law. They equally enjoy civil and political rights, and assume obligations and public duties

without any distinction among them.

Article 21

Every Lebanese citizen, twenty-one years old, has a right to be an elector, pending meeting the requirements prescribed

by the Electoral Law. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

197

LESOTHO 1965



Independence: 1966






Directly elected (120). Other (2): the President and

Vice-President of the National Assembly may be elected

"from among the members of the National Assembly or

among other people ".

Electoral quota for women: Yes. The country has adopted a

zebra model proportional party list which provides for the

arrangement of candidates in such a manner that a male or

female candidate is followed by a candidate of an opposite

sex.

Legal source: The National Assembly Electoral Act, 2011.




Appointed members (11): appointed by the King on the

advice of the Council of State.

Other (22): Principal Chiefs.


DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2017-06

2015-02

2014-01

2012-01

2009-01

2008-01

2007-02

2007-01

2002-05

1993-03

1990-04

1965-04

28

27

30

32

30

29

28

29

28

14

3

8

0

23.33%

22.88%

25%

26.67%

25%

24.37%

23.33%

24.17%

23.53%

11.67%

4.62%

7.34%

0%

DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2015-04

2012-06

2010-01

2009-01

2007-03

2007-01

2002-05

1998-05

1993-03

1965-04

7

8

9

10

6

10

9

12

9

8

3

21.88%

24.24%

27.27%

30.3%

21.43%

30.3%

29.03%

36.36%

27.27%

24.24%

9.09%

Prior to independence, under British administration, general elections with universal adult suffrage were held on 30 April

1965. This right was confirmed at independence.


198

4. Fundamental human rights and freedoms

1. Whereas every person in Lesotho is entitled, whatever his race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion,

national or social origin, property, birth or other status to fundamental human rights and freedoms, that is to say, to each

and all of the following: DISCRIMINATION BANNED

a. the right to life;

LESOTHO 1965

b. the right to personal liberty;

c. freedom of movement and residence;

d. freedom from inhuman treatment;

e. freedom from slavery and forced labour;

f. freedom from arbitrary search or entry;

g. the right to respect for private and family life;

h. the right to a fair trial of criminal charges against him and to a fair determination of his civil rights and obligations;

i. freedom of conscience;

j. freedom of expression;

k. freedom of peaceful assembly;

l. freedom of association;

m. freedom from arbitrary seizure of property;

n. freedom from discrimination;

o. the right to equality before the law and the equal protection of the law; and

p. the right to participate in government,

…

18. Freedom from discrimination



wholly or mainly to their respective descriptions by race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or

social origin, property, birth or other status whereby persons of one such description are subjected to disabilities or

restrictions to which persons of another such description are not made subject or are accorded privileges or advantages

which are not accorded to persons of another such description.

…

20. Right to participate in government

1. Every citizen of Lesotho shall enjoy the right:

a. to take part in the conduct of public affairs, directly or through freely chosen representatives;

b. to vote or to stand for election at periodic elections under this Constitution under a system of universal and equal

suffrage and secret ballot;

c. to have access, on general terms of equality, to the public service.


26. Equality and justice

1. Lesotho shall adopt policies aimed at promoting a society based on equality and justice for all its citizens regardless of

race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.

… PROMOTING A SOCIETY BASED ON EQUALITY AND JUSTICE

30. Just and favourable conditions of work

Lesotho shall adopt policies aimed at securing just and favourable conditions of work and in particular policies directed to

achieving:

a. remuneration which provides all workers, as a minimum with:

i. fair wages and equal remuneration for work of equal value without distinction of any kind, and in particular,

women being guaranteed conditions of work, including pension or retirement benefits, not inferior to those enjoyed by

men, with equal pay for equal work; and PENSION OR RETIREMENT FROM WORK BENEFITS EQUAL PAY FOR WORK

ii. a decent living for themselves and their families;

b. safe and healthy working conditions;

c. equal opportunity for men and women to be promoted in their employment to an appropriate higher level, subject to

no considerations other than those of seniority and competence; EQUAL OPPORTUNITY TO BE PROMOTED IN THE EMPLOYMENT

d. the protection of women who are in employment during a reasonable period before and after childbirth; and

e. rest, leisure and reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay, as well as remuneration for public

holidays. PROTECTION BEFORE AND AFTER CHILDBIRTH

154. Interpretation

…

5. In this Constitution unless the context otherwise requires,

a. words and expressions importing the masculine gender include the feminine;

WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS IN THE CONSTITUTION INCLUDE THE FEMININE GENDER

199

LIBERIA 1946



Independence: 1847


Parliament name: Legislature




Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2018-01

2017-10

2016-12

2012-01

2011-10

2005-10

1997-07

9

7

9

8

7

8

5

12.33%

9.86%

12.33%

10.96%

9.59%

12.5%

7.81%

In 1959, Ellen Mills Scarborough became the first

woman elected to the House of Representatives

(Liberia Today, Vol. 8 No.3, September 1959).


Chamber name: The Liberian Senate



Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2015-01

2011-10

1997-07

3

4

5

10%

13.33%

19.23%

In 2005, Ellen Johnson Sirleaf (1938- )

was elected president of Liberia, the first

woman elected to head an African

government.

Article 11


b. All persons, irrespective of ethnic background, race, sex, creed, place of origin or political opinion, are entitled to the

fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual, subject to such qualifications as provided for in this Constitution.

…

Article 18 EQUAL OPPORTUNITY FOR WORK AND EMPLOYMENT EQUAL PAY FOR WORK

All Liberian citizens shall have equal opportunity for work and employment regardless of sex, creed, religion, ethnic

background, place of origin or political affiliation, and all shall be entitled to equal pay for equal work.

Article 50

The Executive Power of the Republic shall be vested in the President who shall be Head of State, Head of Government and

Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Liberia. The president shall be elected by universal adult suffrage of registered

voters in the Republic and shall hold office for a term of six years commencing at noon on the third working Monday in

January of the year immediately following the elections. No person shall serve as President for more than two terms.


200

Article 79

No association, by whatever name called, shall function as a political party, nor shall any citizen be an independent

candidate for election to public office, unless:

…

DISCRIMINATION BANNED IN ASSOCIATIONS AND POLITICAL PARTIES

b. the membership of the association or the independent candidate's organization is open to every citizen of Liberia,

irrespective of sex, religion or ethnic background, except as otherwise provided in this Constitution.

LIBYA 1964


Independence: 1951


Parliament name: Majlis Al-Nuwaab (House of

Representatives)

Chamber name: Majlis Al-Nuwaab (House of Representatives)


Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes, 32 reserved seats.

DATE WOMEN %

2014-08

2012-07

2006-03

1952-02

30

33

36

0

15.96%

16.5%

7.69%

0%


Article 5

Family shall be the basis of society and shall be protected by the State. The State shall protect and encourage marriage. The

State shall guarantee the protection of motherhood, Childhood and old age and look after children, young people and

persons with special needs. PROTECTION OF MOTHERHOOD

Article 6

Libyans shall be equal before the law, enjoy equal civil and political rights with, have the same opportunities in all areas

and be subject to the same public duties and obligations, without distinction on the grounds of religion, belief, language,

wealth, gender, kinship, political opinions, social status, or tribal, regional or familial adherence.


201

LIECHTENSTEIN 1984



Population: 38,019

Parliament name: Landtag (Diet)

Chamber name: Landtag (Diet)


Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2016-12

2013-02

2005-03

2001-02

1997-02

1994

1993-10

1993-02

1986-02

3

5

6

3

1

2

1

2

1

12%

20%

24%

12%

4%

8%

4%

8%

6.67%

Last country in Europe to grant women suffrage.


Art 19

1. The State shall safeguard the right to work and shall protect the workers, especially women and young persons

employed in commerce and industry. SAFEGUARD OF THE RIGHT TO WORK AND PROTECTION OF THE WORKERS

…

Art 31

1. All citizens shall be equal before the law. The public offices shall be equally open to them, subject to observance of the

legal regulations. BANNED DISCRIMINATION PUBLIC OFFICES EQUALLY OPEN

2. There shall be equality of rights between the sexes.

…

Art 46

1. Parliament shall consist of 25 Representatives who shall be elected by the People by universal, equal, secret and direct

suffrage according to the system of proportional representation. The Upper Country (Oberland) and the Lower Country

(Unterland) shall each form a constituency. Of the 25 Representatives, 15 shall be elected by the Upper Country and 10 by

the Lower Country. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

2. In addition to the 25 Representatives, substitutes shall be elected in each constituency. For each three Representatives in

a constituency, each electoral group shall have one substitute but if an electoral group has obtained one mandate it shall

have at least one substitute…

202

LITHUANIA 1919



Independence: 1991


Parliament name: Seimas (Parliament)

Chamber name: Seimas (Parliament)


Directly elected



DATE WOMEN %

2016-10

2014-12

2012-01

2011-01

2009-01

2008-10

2007-01

2006-01

2004-10

2000-10

1998-01

1997-01

1996-10

1992-10

1990-03

30

33

34

25

27

25

31

35

31

15

25

24

25

10

14

21.28%

23.4%

24.11%

17.73%

19.15%

17.73%

21.99%

24.82%

21.99%

10.64%

18.25%

17.52%

18.25%

7.09%

9.93%

When Lithuania was first independent, women were granted the right to vote and stand for election in 1919. Under Soviet

administration, women also had the right to vote and stand for election; these rights were confirmed at independence. In 1990

the Soviet Supreme of the SSR of Lithuania became the first legislature of Lithuania after the restoration of the country's

independence on 6 September 1991. In May 1920, Gabrielė Petkevičaitė-Bitė (1861-1943) was one of the five women (4,46%)

elected to the Constituent Assembly of Lithuania (Bonnie G. Smith, “The Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World History, Vol. 1”).


Article 29

All persons shall be equal before the law, the court, and other State institutions and officials.

The rights of the human being may not be restricted, nor may he be granted any privileges on the ground of gender, race,

nationality, language, origin, social status, belief, convictions, or views. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Article 34

Citizens who, on the day of election, have reached 18 years of age, shall have the electoral right.

The right to be elected shall be established by the Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania and by the election laws.


203

LITHUANIA 1919

Article 38

The family shall be the basis of society and the State. PROTECTION AND CARE OF MOTHERHOOD

Family, motherhood, fatherhood and childhood shall be under the protection and care of the State.

Marriage shall be concluded upon the free mutual consent of man and woman. MARRIAGE BASED ON FREE WILL

The State shall register marriages, births, and deaths. The State shall also recognise church registration of marriages.

In the family, the rights of spouses shall be equal. MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

Article 55

The Seimas [(Parliament)] shall consist of representatives of the Nation:141 Members of the Seimas who shall be elected for

a four-year term on the basis of universal, equal, and direct suffrage by secret ballot. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

…

204

LUXEMBOURG 1919



Population: 621,274

Parliament name: Chambre des Députés (Chamber of

Deputies)

Chamber name: Chambre des Députés (Chamber of Deputies)


Directly elected



DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2018-10

2014-01

2013-10

2011-01

2010-01

2009-06

2007-01

2006-01

2004-06

1999-06

1994-06

1989-06

1984-06

1979-06

1974-05

1968-12

1945-10

15

12

17

14

15

12

15

12

14

12

10

12

8

7

8

3

2

0

25%

20%

28.33%

23.33%

25%

20%

25%

20%

23.33%

20%

16.67%

20%

13.33%

11.67%

13.56%

5.08%

3.57%

0%

In 1919, Marguerite Thomas-Clement (1886-1979) became the first woman elected to parliament.


Article 11

1. The State guarantees the natural rights of the human person and of the family.

2. Women and men are equal in rights and duties. The State sees to active promotion of elimination of impediments

which may exist in matters of equality between women and men.

…

EQUAL RIGHTS ELIMINATION OF IMPEDIMENTS TO EQUALITY

Article 51

…

5. The Deputies are elected on the basis of universal suffrage pure and simple, on [a party] list ballot, following the rules of

proportional representation, conforming to the principle of the smallest electoral quotient and following the rules to be

determined by the law. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

…

205

MADAGASCAR 1959



Independence: 1960


Parliament name: Parliament of Madagascar

Chamber name: Antenimierampirenena (National

Assembly)



Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2019-07

2019-05

2016-12

2014-09

2013-01

2011-01

2010-10

2007-09

2007-01

2002-01

1998-05

1993-06

1989-05

1983-08

1977-06

1970-05

1965-08

1960-06

24

27

29

31

34

64

32

12

10

6

12

5

9

2

4

6

1

0

15.89%

17.88%

19.21%

20.53%

23.13%

17.53%

12.5%

9.45%

8%

3.75%

8%

3.62%

6.52%

1.46%

2.92%

5.77%

0.93%

0%

Chamber name: Antenimierandoholona (Senate)



Indirectly elected members (42): 7 senators per province,

elected by an electoral college.

Appointed members (21): appointed by the Head of State.

In accordance with presidential decree no. 2019-006, the

statutory number of Senate members will decrease from the

current 63 to 18 after the end of the current term in 2021. The

new Senate will comprise 12 indirectly elected senators (2

per province, down from 6) and 6 presidential appointees

(down from 21; 3 put forward by the most representative

social and economic groupings and 3 appointed for their

particular expertise).


DATE WOMEN %

2019-07

2016-12

2016-01

2012-01

2010-10

2008-04

2003-01

2002-01

2001-03

1970-09

1965-08

1960-06

12

13

12

20

10

5

10

4

10

4

1

0

19.35%

20.63%

19.05%

12.2%

11.11%

15.15%

11.11%

7.84%

11.11%

7.84%

1.96%

0%

Women first exercised their right to vote and to stand for election in 1960.


206

Preamble

The sovereign Malagasy People,

…

Convinced of the necessity of the Malagasy society to recover its originality, its authenticity and its Malagasy character, and

to inscribe itself in the modernity of the millennium while conserving its traditional fundamental principles and values based

on the Malagasy fanahy that includes « ny fitiavana, ny fihavanana, ny fifanajàna, ny fitandroana ny aina », and privileging a

framework of life allowing a « living together » without distinction of region, of origin, of ethnicity, of religion, of political

opinion, or of gender, DISCRIMINATION BANNED

MADAGASCAR 1959

…

Considering the geopolitical situation of Madagascar and its voluntarist participation in the dialog of nations, and making its

own, notably:

…

• The Conventions relative to the rights of the child, to the rights of women, to the protection of the environment, to the

social, economical, political, civil and cultural rights,

… CONVENTION RELATIVE TO THE RIGHTS OF WOMEN

Article 5

Sovereignty belongs to the People, source of all power, who exercise it by their representatives elected by universal direct

or indirect suffrage, or by way of referendum.

…

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

All nationals of the two sexes enjoying the exercise of their civil and political rights are electors within the conditions

determined by the law. The quality of being elector is lost only by a decision of justice becoming definitive.

207

MALAWI 1961



Independence: 1964





Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Some political parties allocate/reserve a certain percentage of seats for women. United

Democratic Front (UDF) aims to have 25 percent of its parliamentary seats held by women, according to the party

constitution.Malawi Congress Party [MCP] aims to allocate 33 percent of the seats to women at all levels of the party

structure. according to the party Manifesto, women should occupy 30 per cent or more of all decision, policy and managerial

positions in the government".

DATE WOMEN %

2019-05

2014-05

2013-01

2011-01

2010-01

2009-05

2009-01

2004-05

1999

1998

1997

1994-06

1992-06

1988

1983-06

1978-06

1976-05

1971-04

1964-04

44

32

43

41

40

41

40

27

16

10

14

10

17

11

5

8

6

4

1

22.92%

16.67%

22.28%

21.24%

20.83%

21.24%

20.83%

14.59%

8.25%

5.65%

7.25%

5.65%

11.64%

9.82%

4.95%

9.2%

6.9%

6.67%

2%

Prior to independence, under British administration, women were granted the right to vote and stand for election under the

constitution of 1961. These rights were confirmed at independence. In 1964, Rose Lomathinda Chibambo (1928-2016)

became the first woman elected to the Legislative Council (Kathleen Sheldon, “Historical Dictionary of Women in Sub-Saharan

Africa”).


208

6. Authority to govern, universal and equal suffrage

Save as otherwise provided in this Constitution, the authority to govern derives from the people of Malawi as expressed

through universal and equal suffrage in elections held in accordance with this Constitution in a manner prescribed by an

Act of Parliament. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

MALAWI 1961

13. Principles of national policy

The State shall actively promote the welfare and development of the people of Malawi by progressively adopting and

implementing policies and legislation aimed at achieving the following goals:

a. Gender Equality

To obtain gender equality through:

FULL PARTICIPATION IN ALL SPHERES OF SOCIETY BANNED DISCRIMINATION

i. full participation of women in all spheres of Malawian society on the basis of equal opportunities with men;

ii. the implementation of the principles of nondiscrimination and such other measures as may be required; and

iii. the implementation of policies to address social issues such as domestic violence, security of the person, lack of

maternity benefits, economic exploitation and rights to property.

DOMESTIC VIOLENCE, SECURITY OF THE PERSON, LACK OF MATERNITY BENEFITS, ECONOMIC EXPLOITATION AND RIGHTS TO PROPERTY

20. Equality

1. Discrimination of persons in any form is prohibited and all persons are, under any law, guaranteed equal and effective

protection against discrimination on grounds of race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national,

ethnic or social origin, disability, property, birth or other status or condition.

… BANNED DISCRIMINATION

22. Family and marriage

1. The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and the State.

2. Each member of the family shall enjoy full and equal respect and shall be protected by law against all forms of neglect,

cruelty or exploitation.

3. All men and women have the right to marry and found a family.

4. No person shall be forced to enter into marriage. MARRIAGE BASED ON FREE WILL

…

24. Rights of women FULL AND EQUAL PROTECTION BY THE LAW DISCRIMINATION ON THE BASIS OF GENDER OR MARITAL STATUS BANNED

1. Women have the right to full and equal protection by the law, and have the right not to be discriminated against on

the basis of their gender or marital status which includes the right:

a. to be accorded the same rights as men in civil law, including equal capacity:

i. to enter into contracts; ENTERING INTO CONTRACTS

ii. to acquire and maintain rights in property, independently or in association with others, regardless of their

marital status; ACQUIRING AND MAINTAINING RIGHTS IN PROPERTY

iii. to acquire and retain custody, guardianship and care of children and to have an equal right in the making

of decisions that affect their upbringing; and MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

iv. to acquire and retain citizenship and nationality.

b. on the dissolution of marriage, howsoever entered into:

i. to a fair disposition of property that is held jointly with a husband; and

ii. to fair maintenance, taking into consideration all the circumstances and, in particular, the means of the former

husband and the needs of any children. FAIR DISPOSITION OF PROPERTY AND MAINTENANCE ON DIVORCE

2. Any law that discriminates against women on the basis of gender or marital status shall be invalid and legislation

shall be passed to eliminate customs and practices that discriminate against women, particularly practices such as:

a. sexual abuse, harassment and violence; SEXUAL ABUSE, HARASSSMENT AND VIOLENCE BANNED

b. discrimination in work, business and public affairs; and DISCRIMINATION BANNED IN WORK, BUSINESS AND PUBLIC AFFAIRS

c. deprivation of property, including property obtained by inheritance. DEPRIVATION OF PROPERTY BANNED

30. Right to development

1. All persons and peoples have a right to development and therefore to the enjoyment of economic, social, cultural and

political development and women, children and persons with disabilities in particular shall be given special consideration

in the application of this right. RIGHT TO DEVELOPMENT IN ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, CULTURAL AND POLITICAL FIELDS

…

31. Labour

…

3. Every person shall be entitled to fair wages and equal remuneration for work of equal value without distinction or

discrimination of any kind, in particular on basis of gender, disability or race. EQUAL PAY FOR WORK

209

MALAYSIA 1957



Independence: 1957


Parliament name: Parlimen (Parliament)

Chamber name: Dewan Rakyat (House of

Representatives)



Directly elected (222). Other (1): the Speaker. The Speaker

may be elected either from among elected members of the

House of Representatives or from among persons who are

qualified for election to the House of Representatives. Any

person elected as Speaker who is not a member of the

House of Representatives shall, by virtue of holding his

office, become a member of the House.


quotas.


DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2018-06

2013-05

2011-01

2010-01

2008-03

2007-01

2004-03

1999-11

1995-04

1990-10

1986-08

1982-04

1978-07

1974-08

1959-08

32

31

23

24

22

24

25

20

14

15

11

9

8

7

5

3

14.41%

13.9%

10.36%

10.81%

9.91%

10.81%

12.95%

9.13%

7.25%

7.81%

6.11%

5.08%

5.19%

4.55%

3.25%

2.88%


Chamber name: Dewan Negara (Senate)



Indirectly elected members (26): elected by the State

Legislative Assemblies.

Appointed members (44): appointed by the Head of State.


On 27 July 1955, Halimahton Abdul Majid was elected to

the Federal Legislative Council.

In 1959, Fatimah Haji Hashim (1924-2010), Hajah Zain

binti Sulaiman (1903-1989) and Khadijah binti Mohd

Sidik (1918-1982), became the first women elected to

the House of Representatives (Susan Franceschet, “The

Palgrave Handbook of Women’s Political Rights”).

DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2016-12

2016-03

2015-06

2014-02

2013-12

2013-01

2010-01

2009-01

2008-03

2004-03

2003-01

2002-01

2001-01

1995-06

1992-08

1988-03

1980-04

1976-04

1965-05

1959-09

13

15

14

15

17

16

15

17

18

17

18

20

12

18

12

9

11

7

5

2

0

19.4%

22.06%

21.88%

23.08%

28.81%

27.12%

22.73%

24.29%

28.13%

24.29%

25.71%

37.04%

17.39%

26.09%

23.08%

14.75%

18.03%

10.45%

9.26%

3.45%

0%

8. Equality

1. All persons are equal before the law and entitled to the equal protection of the law.

2. Except as expressly authorised by this Constitution, there shall be no discrimination against citizens on the ground only

of religion, race, descent, place of birth or gender in any law or in the appointment to any office or employment under a

public authority or in the administration of any law relating to the acquisition, holding or disposition of property or the

establishing or carrying on of any trade, business, profession, vocation or employment.


MALAYSIA 1957

List 1: Federal List

…

14. Medicine and health including sanitation in the federal capital, and including

a. Hospitals, clinics and dispensaries; medical profession; maternity and child welfare; lepers and leper institutions;

…

15. Labour and social security, including

…

b. Unemployment insurance; health insurance; widow’s, orphans’ and old age pensions; maternity benefits; provident and

benevolent funds; superannuation; and

ELEVENTH SCHEDULE: Provisions of the Interpretation and General Clauses Ordinance, 1948 (Malayan Union Ordinance No.

7 of 1948), Applied for Interpretation of the Constitution [Article 160(1)]

Section Subject Matter

…

2(94): Construction of masculine gender- words importing the masculine gender include females.

MASCULINE GENDER-WORDS INCLUDE FEMALES

211

MALDIVES 1932



Independence: 1965

Population: 537,422

Parliament name: Majlis (People's Majlis)

Chamber name: Majlis (People's Majlis)


Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2009-05

2005-01

1989-11

1984-11

1979-11

4

5

6

3

1

2

4.71%

6.49%

12%

6.25%

2.08%

4.17%

Prior to independence, under British administration women were granted the right to vote and stand for election in 1932 and

a woman was elected in 1953. These rights were confirmed at independence. In 1975, Moomina Haleem became the first

woman to be directly elected to the Parliament (The Edition, Maldives).


17. Non-discrimination

a. Everyone is entitled to the rights and freedoms included in this Chapter without discrimination of any kind, including

race, national origin, colour, sex, age, mental or physical disability, political or other opinion, property, birth or other status,

or native island. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

26. Right to vote and run for public office

Unless otherwise provided in this Constitution, every citizen of the Maldives eighteen years of age or older has the right:

a. to vote in elections, and in public referendums, which shall be held by secret ballot; UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

b. to run for public office;

c. to take part in the conduct of public affairs, directly or through freely chosen representatives.

62. Retention of other rights

a. The enumeration of rights and freedoms in this Chapter are guaranteed equally to female and male persons.

b. The enumeration of rights and freedoms individually in this Chapter shall not be construed to deny or negate other rights

retained by the people which are not specified in this Chapter.

RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS GUARANTEED EQUALLY TO FEMALE PERSONS

212

MALI 1956



Independence: 1960


Parliament name: Assemblée Nationale (National

Assembly)

Chamber name: Assemblée Nationale (National Assembly)


Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. An electoral list submitted by a political party, group of political parties or group of

independent candidates, with at least three persons on it may not comprise more than 70 per cent of either women or men.

Legal source: Article 2, Law No. 2015-052 dated 18 December 2015

DATE WOMEN %

2019-06

2015-04

2013-11

2002-07

1997-07

1992-02

1988-06

1985-06

1982-06

1979-06

1964-02

14

13

14

15

18

3

5

3

2

3

1

9.52%

8.84%

9.52%

10.2%

12.24%

2.33%

6.1%

3.66%

2.44%

3.66%

1.25%

Prior to independence, under French administration, suffrage had been granted by the 1956 framework law (Loi-cadre

Deferre). In 1959, Aoua Kéita (1912-1980) was the only woman elected to the National Assembly (Kathleen Sheldon, “Historical

Dictionary of Women in Sub-Saharan Africa”). This right was confirmed at independence.


Preamble

The sovereign people of Mali, strong from their traditions of heroic struggle, pledge to remain faithful to the ideals of the

victims of repression and the fallen martyrs of the battlefield for the rise of a state of law and pluralist democracy,

…

• proclaim their determination to defend the rights of women and children as well as the cultural and linguistic diversity of

the national community, DEFENSE OF THE RIGHTS OF WOMEN

Article 2

Every Malian shall be born and remain free and equal in rights and obligations. All discrimination founded on social origin,

color, language, race, sex, religion and political opinion shall be prohibited. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Article 27

Suffrage shall be universal, equal and secret.

Electors shall be, within the conditions determined by law, every citizen of voting age, possessing their civic and political

rights. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

213

MALTA 1947



Independence: 1964

Population: 441,111

Parliament name: Il-Kamra Tad-Deputati (House of

Representatives)

Chamber name: Il-Kamra Tad-Deputati (House of Representatives)


Directly elected (65). Other (3): 2 additional members elected in accordance with the Constitution; the Speaker may be

designated from outside parliament and becomes a member of parliament ex officio.



DATE WOMEN %

2017-06

2014-12

2013-03

1998-09

1997

1992-02

1966-03

10

9

10

6

4

1

2

14.93%

13.04%

14.29%

9.23%

5.8%

1.54%

4%

Before the independence, in 1947, Agatha Barbara (1923-2002) became the first woman elected to the Parliament and in

1982 she became the 3rd President of Malta.


14. Equal rights of men and women EQUAL RIGHT TO ENJOY ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, CULTURAL, CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

The State shall promote the equal right of men and women to enjoy all economic, social, cultural, civil and political

rights and for this purpose shall take appropriate measures to eliminate all forms of discrimination between the sexes by

any person, organisation or enterprise; the State shall in particular aim at ensuring that women workers enjoy equal rights

and the same wages for the same work as men. APPROPRIATE MEASURES TO ELIMINATE ALL FORMS OF DISCRIMINATION

EQUAL RIGHTS AT WORK

EQUAL PAY FOR WORK


Whereas every person in Malta is entitled to the fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual, that is to say, the right,

whatever his race, place of origin, political opinions, colour, creed, sex, sexual orientation or gender identity but subject to

respect for the rights and freedoms of others and for the public interest, to each and all of the following, namely -


b. freedom of conscience, of expression and of peaceful assembly and association; and

c. respect for his private and family life, DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

214



3. In this article, the expression "discriminatory" means affording different treatment to different persons attributable

wholly or mainly to their respective descriptions by race, place of origin, political opinions, colour, creed, sex, sexual

orientation or gender identity whereby persons of one such description are subjected to disabilities or restrictions to

which persons of another such description are not made subject or are accorded privileges or advantages which are not

MALTA 1947

accorded to persons of another such description.

…

5. Nothing contained in any law shall be held to be inconsistent with or in contravention of sub-article (1) of this article to the

extent that it makes provision:

a. with respect to qualifications for service or conditions of service in any disciplined force; or

b. with respect to qualifications (not being qualifications specifically relating to sex, sexual orientation or gender identity)

for service as a public officer or for service of a local government authority or a body corporate established for public

purposes by any law.

…

11. Nothing in the provisions of this article shall apply to any law or anything done under the authority of a law, or to any

procedure or arrangement, in so far as such law, thing done, procedure or arrangement provides for the taking of special

measures aimed at accelerating de facto equality between men and women, and in so far only as such measures, taking

into account the social fabric of Malta, are shown to be reasonably justifiable in a democratic society.

… SPECIAL MEASURES AIMED AT ACCELERATING DE FACTO EQUALITY

215

MARSHALL ISLANDS 1979



Independence: 1986

Population: 58,791

Parliament name: Nitijela (Parliament)

Chamber name: Nitijela (Parliament)


Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2019-11

2015-11

1991-11

2

3

1

6.06%

9.09%

3.03%

Prior to independence, under United States administration, women were granted the right to vote and stand for election on

1 May 1979. These rights were confirmed at independence. In 1978, Evelyn Konou (1948- ) became the first woman elected

to the Nitijela (Ethel Simon-McWilliams, Karen Reed Green, “Glimpses into Pacific Lives: Some Outstanding Women”, Feb. 1987)


ARTICLE II: BILL OF RIGHTS

Section 12: Equal Protection and Freedom from Discrimination

1. All persons are equal under the law and are entitled to the equal protection of the laws. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

2. No law and no executive or judicial action shall, either expressly, or in its practical application, discriminate against any

persons on the basis of gender, race, color, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, place of

birth, family status or descent.

3. Nothing in this Section shall be deemed to preclude non-arbitrary preferences for citizens pursuant to law.

Section 14: Access to Judicial and Electoral Processes

…

2. Every person has the right to participate in the electoral process, whether as a voter or as a candidate for office, subject

only to the qualifications prescribed in this Constitution and to election regulations which make it possible for all eligible

persons to take part. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

3. In the administration of judicial and electoral processes, no fee may be imposed so as to prevent participation by a person

unable to afford such a fee.

ARTICLE IV: THE LEGISLATURE

Section 3: Elections of Members of the Nitijela

1. Elections of members of the Nitijela shall be conducted by secret ballot under a system of universal suffrage for all

citizens of the Republic of the Marshall Islands who have attained the age of 18 years, and who are otherwise qualified to

vote pursuant to this Section. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

…

216

MAURITANIA 1961



Independence: 1960


Parliament name: Barlamane (Parliament)

Chamber name: Al Jamiya-Al-Wataniya (National

Assembly)



Directly elected


The Senate was abolished by a constitutional referendum

held in August 2017.

Electoral quota for women: Yes. 20 seats are reserved for

women candidates running in a single nationwide list.

Political parties that elect more women than required by

the quota will obtain a financial benefit.

Legal source: Article 3 of the Organic Law on the Election of

Members of the National Assembly, as amended by Law n°

2012- 029. Political Funding Legislation, art. 6.

In 1971, two women were elected as

deputies to the National Assembly and a

woman, Aissatou Kane, was named minister

of Health, both events being the first of their

kind (Anthony G. Pazzanita, “Historical

Dictionary of Mauritania”).

DATE WOMEN %

2018-09

2013-11

2011-01

2010-01

2006-11

1998

1997

1996

1992-03

1975-10

1971-08

1965

31

37

17

21

17

3

1

3

0

2

2

0

20.26%

25.17%

17.89%

22.11%

17.89%

3.8%

1.27%

3.8%

0%

2.86%

4%

0%


Title I: General Provisions and Fundamental Principles

Article 1

Mauritania is an Islamic, indivisible, democratic, and social Republic.

The Republic assures to all citizens without distinction of origin, of race, of sex, or of social condition, equality before the

law.

All particularist propaganda of racial or ethnic character is punished by the law. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Article 3

The suffrage can be direct or indirect, in the conditions specified by the law. It is always universal, equal, and secret.

All the citizens of the Republic, of majority of both sexes, enjoying their civil and political rights, are electors.

The law favors the equal access of women and of men to the electoral mandate and elective functions.

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE EQUAL ACCESS TO THE ELECTORAL MANDATE AND ELECTIVE FUNCTIONS

217

MAURITIUS 1956



Independence: 1968


Parliament name: National Assembly - Assemblée

nationale

Chamber name: National Assembly - Assemblée nationale


Directly elected (62). Appointed members (8): the Electoral Supervisory Commission may nominate a maximum of eight

additional members with a view to correcting any imbalance in community representation in parliament.


DATE WOMEN %

2019-11

2014-12

2010-05

2005-03

2000-09

1995-12

1991-09

1987-08

1983-08

1976-12

14

8

13

12

4

5

2

5

4

3

20%

18.84%

17.14%

5.71%

7.58%

2.86%

7.14%

5.71%

4.29%

0%

Prior to independence, under British administration, women were granted the right to vote and stand for election in 1956.

These rights were confirmed at independence.


3. Fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual DISCRIMINATION BANNED

It is hereby recognised and declared that in Mauritius there have existed and shall continue to exist without discrimination

by reason of race, place of origin, political opinions, colour, creed or sex, but subject to respect for the rights and freedoms

of others and for the public interest, each and all of the following human rights and fundamental freedoms:

a. the right of the individual to life, liberty, security of the person and the protection of the law;

b. freedom of conscience, of expression, of assembly and association and freedom to establish schools, and

c. the right of the individual to protection for the privacy of his home and other property and from deprivation of property

without compensation,

…

218

16. Protection from discrimination

…

1. Subject to subsections (4), (5) and (7), no law shall make any provision that is discriminatory either of itself or in its effect.


3. In this section, 'discriminatory" means affording different treatment to different persons attributable wholly or mainly to

their respective descriptions by race, caste, place of origin, political opinions, colour, creed or sex whereby persons of one

such description are subjected to disabilities or restrictions to which persons of another such description are not made

MAURITIUS 1956

subject or are accorded privileges or advantages that are not accorded to persons of another such description.

4. Subsection (1) shall not apply to any law so far as that law makes provision:

a. for the appropriation of revenues or other funds of Mauritius;

aa. for a minimum number of candidates for election to local authorities to be of a particular sex, with a view to

ensuring adequate representation of each sex on a local authority;

ab. for a minimum number of candidates for election to the Rodrigues Regional Assembly to be of a particular sex,

with a view to ensuring adequate representation of each sex in the Rodrigues Regional Assembly;

… POSSIBILITY OF ELECTORAL QUOTA

219

MEXICO 1953

Right to vote: February 15, 1947*

Right to stand for election: October 17, 1953



Parliament name: Congreso de la Unión (Congress of the

Union)


Deputies)



Directly elected


quotas.

Legal source: Articles 219 and 220 of the Federal Code for

Electoral Institutions and Procedures (Código Federal de

Instituciones y Procedimientos Electorales, COFIPE).

Chamber name: Cámara de Senadores (Senate)



Directly elected members


Legal source: Articles 219 and 220 of the Federal Code for

Electoral Institutions and Procedures (Código Federal de

Instituciones y Procedimientos Electorales, COFIPE).

220

DATE WOMEN %

2018-07

2015-06

2014-12

2014-01

2012-07

2011-01

2010-01

2009-01

2006-11

2006-07

2003-07

2000-07

1999

1998

1994-08

1991-08

1988-07

1985-07

1982-07

1979-07

1976-07

1973-07

1970-07

1967-07

1964-07

1961-07

1958-07

1955-07

1952-09

241

211

190

187

184

141

131

141

113

129

113

80

71

87

71

38

60

44

45

31

24

18

11

12

13

9

8

4

1

48.2%

42.2%

38%

37.4%

36.8%

28.2%

26.2%

28.2%

22.6%

25.8%

22.6%

16%

14.2%

17.4%

14.2%

7.6%

12%

11%

11.25%

7.75%

8%

6%

5.24%

5.71%

6.19%

4.29%

4.94%

2.47%

0.62%

DATE WOMEN %

2018-07

2016-12

2014-12

2014-01

2012-01

2010-01

2009-01

2006-07

2005-01

2000-07

1999

1998

1994-08

1991-08

1982-07

1976-07

1964-07

63

47

43

44

42

22

25

22

28

20

16

19

16

3

10

4

2

49.22%

36.72%

33.59%

34.38%

32.81%

17.19%

19.53%

17.19%

21.88%

15.63%

12.5%

14.84%

12.5%

4.69%

15.63%

6.25%

3.33%

MEXICO 1953

*Women were permitted to vote in some local and state elections at an earlier date. Yucatan and San Luis Potosi were the first

states to recognize the right to stand for election, in 1922 and 1923 respectively. Aurora Jiménez de Palacios (1925-1958) was

the first woman elected to Mexico’s House of Representatives in 1954. Alicia Arellano Tapia (1942- ) and María Lavalle Urbina

(1908-1996) were the first two women elected to the Mexican Senate in 1964 (Gustavo Guerra).


Article 1

… Any form of discrimination, based on ethnic or national origin, gender, age, disabilities, social status, medical conditions,

religion, opinions, sexual orientation, marital status, or any other form, which violates the human dignity or seeks to annul

or diminish the rights and freedoms of the people, is prohibited. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Article 2

…

A. This Constitution recognizes and protects the indigenous peoples’ right to self-determination and, consequently, the right

to autonomy, so that they can:

… LEGAL SYSTEMS OF INDIGENOUS MUST RESPECT DIGNITY AND SAFETY

II. Apply their own legal systems to regulate and solve their internal conflicts, subjected to the general principles of this

Constitution, respecting the fundamental rights, the human rights and, above all, the dignity and safety of women. The

law shall establish the way in which judges and courts will validate the aforementioned regulations.

III. Elect, in accordance with their traditional rules, procedures and customs, their authorities or representatives to exercise

their own form of internal government, guaranteeing the right to vote and being voted of indigenous women and men

under equitable condition; as well as to guarantee the access to public office or elected positions to those citizens that have

been elected or designated within a framework that respects the federal pact and the sovereignty of the states. In no case

the communitarian practices shall limit the electoral or political rights of the citizens in the election of their municipal

authorities.

…

RIGHT TO VOTE AND TO STAND FOR ELECTION OF INDIGENOUS

B. In order to promote equal opportunities for indigenous people and to eliminate discriminatory practices, the Federation,

the Federal District, the States and thelocal councils shall establish the necessary institutions and policies to guarantee

indigenous people’s rights and comprehensive development of indigenous communities. Such institutions and policies shall

be designed and operated together with them.

In order to eliminate the scarcities and backwardness affecting indigenous towns and communities, authorities are obliged

to:

V. Promote indigenous women development by supporting their productive projects, protecting their health,

granting incentives for their education and fostering indigenous women participation in decision-making process of

their communities.…

PROMOTE INDIGENOUS DEVELOPMENT BY SUPPORTING THEIR PRODUCTIVE PROJECTS, PROTECTING THEIR HEALTH, GRANTING INCENTIVES

FOR THEIR EDUCATION AND FOSTERING INDIGENOUS WOMEN’S PARTICIPATION IN DECISION-MAKING PROCESS OF THEIR COMMUNITIES

VIII. Establish social policies to protect indigenous immigrants both, in Mexican territory and foreign countries, through

actions that: assure farm workers’ labor rights, improve women’s health, provide special educational and nutrition

programs for children and young people belonging to immigrant families, ensure their human rights are respected and

spread indigenous peoples’ culture. IMPROVE HEALTH OF INDIGENOUS

…

Article 4

Man and woman are equal under the law. The law shall protect the organization and development of the family.

Every person has the right to decide, in a free, responsible and informed manner, about the number of children desired and

the timing between each of them. MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

Article 6

A. In order to exercise the right of access to information, the Federation, the States and the Federal District, according to their

respective powers, shall act in accordance to the following basis and principles:

VIII. … The conformation of the National Transparency Agency shall promote gender equality…

… “NATIONAL TRANSPARENCY AGENCY” TO PROMOTE GENDER EQUALITY

B. In matters of broadcasting and telecommunications:

V. A statute shall establish a decentralized agency with technical, operative, decision-making and management autonomy,

which shall provide non-profit broadcasting to secure access to the population at large in each and every one of the

Federation’s jurisdictions, to media contents that promote: national integration; educational, cultural and civic training;

gender equality; supply of impartial, timely and truthful information about national and international news, allowing for

the broadcasting of independent productions, as well as the expression of diverse and pluralistic opinions that strengthen

societal democratic life. MEDIA CONTENTS PROMOTE GENDER EQUALITY

221

MEXICO 1953

Article 18

… Women and men shall be imprisoned in separate places…

Article 41

…

I. … The political parties’ main objectives shall be: a) to promote people’s participation in democracy, b) to contribute to the

integration of national representative entities and as citizens organizations, c) to allow access by citizens to public power,

according to their programs, principles and ideas and through universal, free, secret and direct vote, as well as the rules to

guarantee gender equality on candidates to local and federal Congress. Only citizens can form a political party and may join,

individually and freely to them. Intervention of labor unions, social associations or any other group affiliation is prohibited.


Article 123

A. Workers, day laborers, domestic servants, artisans and, in a general way, to all labor contracts:

V. During pregnancy, women shall not perform such work that requires excessive physical effort and could be dangerous

regarding pregnancy. Women have the right to enjoy a disability leave due to childbirth, which shall cover six weeks

previous to the birth and six weeks thereafter. During such disability leave, women shall receive their full wages and retain

their employment and the rights acquired under their labor contract. During the nursing period, they shall have two

special rest periods per day, consisting of half hour each one, to feed their babies.

PROHIBITED DANGEROUS WORK AND WORK THAT REQUIRES EXCESSIVE PHYSICAL EFFORT DURING PREGNANCY

DISABILITY LEAVE DUE TO CHILDBIRTH COVER SIX WEEKS PREVIOUS AND AFTER: FULL WAGES AND RETENTION OF EMPLOYMENT

TWO SPECIAL REST PERIODS PER DAY DURING THE NURSING TO FEED BABY

SEPARATE PLACES IN PRISON

VII. Equal wages shall be paid for equal work, regardless of sex or nationality.

EQUAL PAY FOR WORK

XV. ... The employer must organize the work in such a way to protect the health and safety of workers and of unborn

children, in the case of pregnant women. …

… EMPLOYER MUST PROTECT THE HEALTH AND SAFETY OF WORKERS AND OF UNBORN CHILDREN, IN THE CASE OF PREGNANT WOMEN

B. The Powers of the Union, the Federal District Government and their employees:

V. Equal wages shall be paid for equal work, regardless the gender.

…

XI. Social security shall be organized according to the following minimum basis:

a. Social security shall cover work accidents, occupational diseases and other diseases, motherhood, retirement,

disability, elderlies, and death. SOCIAL SECURITY TO COVER WORK ACCIDENTS DURING MOTHERHOOD

b. In case of accident or illness, the right to work shall be retained for the time specified by law.

c. During pregnancy, women shall not perform such work that requires excessive physical effort and could be dangerous

regarding pregnancy. Women have the right to enjoy a disability leave due to childbirth, which shall cover one month

previous to the birth and two months thereafter. During such disability leave, women shall receive their full wages and retain

their employment and the rights acquired under their labor contract. During the nursing period, they shall have two special

rests per day, consisting of half hour each one, to feed their babies. In addition, they shall enjoy medical and obstetrical

services, medicines, nursing aid and nursery services.

…

222

MICRONESIA 1979


First woman in parliament: NEVER

Independence: 1986

Population: 114,369

Parliament name: Congress

Chamber name: Congress


Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2019-03 0 0%

2017-03 0 0%

Prior to independence, under United States administration, women were granted the right to vote and stand for election on

3 November 1979. These rights were confirmed at independence. While there are no legal barriers to women’s

representation in government, Micronesia has never had a woman in parliament.


ARTICLE IV: DECLARATION OF RIGHTS

Section 4

Equal protection of the laws may not be denied or impaired on account of sex, race, ancestry, national origin, language,

or social status. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

ARTICLE VI: SUFFRAGE

Section 1

A citizen 18 years of age may vote in national elections. The Congress shall prescribe a minimum period of local residence

and provide for voter registration, disqualification for conviction of crime, and disqualification for mental incompetence or

insanity. Voting shall be secret. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

223

MOLDOVA 1978



Independence: 1991



Chamber name: Parlament (Parliament)


Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. The Parliament of the Republic of Moldova adopted on 14 April 2016 the Law no. 71, which

provided amendments to 15 other national legislative acts (including the Electoral Code) and introduced the gender quotas

for party list candidates and cabinet nominees.

DATE WOMEN %

2019-02

2016-12

2015-02

2014-12

2014-11

2010-11

2009-07

2009-04

2005-03

2001-02

1998-03

1994-02

1990-02

26

23

22

21

18

19

24

26

22

16

8

5

8

25.74%

22.77%

21.78%

20.79%

17.82%

18.81%

23.76%

25.74%

21.78%

15.84%

7.92%

4.81%

2.11%

Prior to sovereignity, under Soviet administration, the right to vote was recognized on 15 April 1978 and confirmed on 14

October 1993. The Supreme Soviet of the SSR of Moldova became the first legislature of Moldova after the country became

independent in August 1991. Moldovian women were previously elected to the Supreme Soviet of the SSR of Moldova and

to the USSR Parliament.


Article 16: Equality

1. The foremost duty of the State shall be the respect and protection of human person. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

2. All citizens of the Republic of Moldova shall be equal before the law and public authorities, regardless of the race,

nationality, ethnic origin, language, religion, sex, opinion, political affiliation, property or social origin.

224

Article 38: Right to vote and right to stand for election

1. The people's will shall constitute the basis of the State power. This will is expressed by free elections periodically conducted

and based on universal, equal, direct, secret and freely expressed suffrage.

2. Except for the persons banned from voting by law, all citizens of the Republic of Moldova having attained the age of 18,

including by the day of election, shall be entitled to vote.

3. The right to stand for election shall be guaranteed, under the law, to all citizens of the Republic of Moldova enjoying the

right to vote. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

MOLDOVA 1978

Article 43: Right to work and labour protection

…

2. All employees shall have the right to social protection of labour. The protecting measures shall bear upon the labour safety

and hygiene, working conditions for women and young people, the introduction of a minimum wage per economy,

week-ends and annual paid leave, as well as difficult working conditions and other specific situations.

… PROTECTING MEASURES SHALL BEAR UPON THE WORIKING CONDITIONS

Article 48: Family


2. The family shall be founded on a freely consented marriage between a husband and wife, on their full equality in rights

and the parents' right and obligation to ensure their children's upbringing, education and training.

3. The law shall lay down the conditions under which a marriage shall be concluded, terminated or annulled.

…

Article 49: Protection of family and orphaned children

…

2. The State shall protect the motherhood, children and young people, by fostering the development of the required

institutions. PROTECTION OF MOTHERHOOD

…

Article 50: Protection of mothers, children and young people

1. Mothers and children shall benefit by special assistance and protection. All the children, including those born out of

wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection.

… SPECIAL ASSISTANCE AND PROTECTION FOR MOTHERS

225

MONACO 1962



Population: 38,964

Parliament name: Conseil national (National Council)

Chamber name: Conseil national (National Council)


Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2018-02

2013-02

2008-02

2003-02

1998-02

1993-01

1978-02

1963-02

8

5

6

5

4

1

2

1

33.33%

20.83%

25%

20.83%

22.22%

5.56%

11.11%

5.56%

In 1963, Roxane Noat-Notari became the first woman elected to the National Council (Annexe au Journal de Monaco officiel du

12 avril 1963).


Art 26

Monegasques are entitled to the assistance of the State in the event of destitution, unemployment, sickness, handicap, old

age and maternity in the circumstances and manner laid down by law. MATERNITY ASSISTANCE

Art 53

The National Council comprises twenty-four members, elected for five years by direct universal suffrage and by the list

system under the conditions prescribed by law. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

In accordance with the conditions determined by law, electors are Monegasque citizens of either gender, at least eighteen

years old, with the exception of those deprived of the right to vote for any of the causes set forth by law.

Art 54 RIGHT TO STAND FOR NATIONAL ELECTION

All Monegasque electors of either gender, aged at least twenty-five, who have held the Monegasque nationality for at least

five years, and who are not deprived of the right to stand for election for any of the causes set forth by law, are eligible.

Law determines which offices are incompatible with the National Councillor’s mandate.

226

Art 79

The Commune is administered by a municipality composed of the mayor and deputies designated by the Communal

Council from amongst its members. RIGHT TO VOTE AND TO STAND FOR ELECTION OF MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT

In accordance with the conditions determined by law, elections are Monegasque citizens of either gender, at least eighteen

years of age, with the exception of those deprived of the right to vote for any of the causes set forth by law.

All Monegasque electors of either gender, at least twenty-one years of age, who have held the Monegasque nationality for

at least five years and who are not deprived of the right to stand for election for any of the causes set forth by law are eligible.

MONGOLIA 1924



Independence: 1911


Parliament name: Ulsiin Ih Hural (State Great Hural)

Chamber name: Ulsiin Ih Hural (State Great Hural)


Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Legislated candidate quotas. At least 20 % of candidates on lists presented by political parties

for both types of contests (majority and proportional) shall be women.

Legal source: Cf. Article 27 of The Law on Parliamentary Elections.

DATE WOMEN %

2016-06

2014-01

2013-01

2012-12

2012-07

2012-01

2008-08

2008-06

2008-03

2004-06

2000-07

1996-06

1992-06

1990-07

1986-01

1981-06

1977-07

1973-06

1969-06

1966-06

1963-06

1960-06

1957-06

1954-06

1951-06

13

11

10

11

9

10

3

2

6

5

8

6

3

9

92

90

82

77

65

62

54

56

22

66

59

17.11%

14.86%

13.51%

14.86%

13.04%

13.51%

4.55%

3.03%

8.7%

6.58%

10.53%

7.89%

3.95%

2.09%

24.86%

24.32%

23.16%

22.92%

21.89%

21.6%

20%

20.97%

9.44%

22.37%

20%

In 1951 the first legislature of Mongolia after the country became independent in 1921.


Article 14

1. All persons lawfully residing within Mongolia shall be equal before the law and the courts.

2. No person shall be discriminated against on the basis of ethnic origin, language, race, age, sex [gender], social origin and

status, property and assets, employment occupation and official position, religion and conscience, conviction and opinion,

and education. Every human being shall be a legal person. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

227

MONGOLIA 1924

Article 16

The citizens of Mongolia shall be guaranteed to exercise the following rights and freedoms:

…

9. The right to participate in State management [public administration] affairs directly or through the organs of

representation. Have the right to elect and to be elected to the State organs. The right to elect shall be exercised from the

age of eighteen years, and the age qualification for being elected shall be determined by law, taking into consideration the

requirements for the relevant State organs and official positions concerned.

…

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

11. Men and women shall enjoy equal rights in political, economic, social, cultural fields and in marriage. The marriage

shall be based on the equality and consensual relationship of the spouses who have attained the age determined by law.

The State shall protect the interests of a family, motherhood and the child.

… EQUAL RIGHTS IN POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, CULTURAL FIELDS MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

Article 21

1. The State Great Hural (Parliament) shall have one chamber, and shall be composed of seventy-six members.

2. Members of the State Great Hural (Parliament) shall be elected by the citizens who are qualified to vote, on the basis of

universal, free, direct suffrage by secret ballot for a term of four years.


228

MONTENEGRO 1946



Independence: 2006

Population: 628,172

Parliament name: Skupstina (Parliament)

Chamber name: Skupstina (Parliament)


Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Article 39a (1) and (2) of the Law on the Election of Councillors and Representatives (last

amended on 21 March 2014) reads as follows: “For the purpose of exercising the gender equality principle, candidates of the

less represented gender shall account for no less than 30% of the candidates listed. For every four candidates listed in

sequential order (first four candidates, next four candidates etc. to the end of the list) there shall be at least one candidate of

the less represented gender.” Article 104 (3) of the same law states the following: “If the term of office for an incumbent

councillor or representative of the less represented gender terminates, the next candidate on the list of the less represented

gender shall be elected to replace the outgoing incumbent.”

DATE WOMEN %

2019-10

2016-10

2016-06

2014-11

2013-01

2012-11

2012-01

2009-12

2009-10

2009-03

2008-01

2007-01

2006-09

23

19

15

14

12

14

12

9

5

9

7

9

7

28.4%

23.46%

18.52%

17.28%

14.81%

17.28%

14.81%

11.11%

6.17%

11.11%

8.64%

11.11%

8.64%

Women first gained the right to vote and

stand for election in 1946 in the Socialist

Republic of Montenegro, the predecessor to

modern-day Montenegro, and one of six

republics forming the Former Republic of

Yugoslavia. Before Montenegro's full

independence in 2006, the first three women

to enter parliament were on 3 November 1946

elected to the Socialist Republic of

Montenegro's Constitutional Assembly: Lidija

Jovanović, Draginja Vušović and Dobrila

Ojdanić. During the breakup of Yugoslavia,

Montenegro formed a union with Serbia,

which was peacefully dissolved in 2006.


Article 8: Prohibition of discrimination

Direct or indirect discrimination on any grounds shall be prohibited.

Regulations and introduction of special measures aimed at creating the conditions for the exercise of national, gender and

overall equality and protection of persons who are in an unequal position on any grounds shall not be considered

discrimination. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

Article 18: Gender equality GUARANTEE OF THE EQUALITY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE POLICY OF EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES

The state shall guarantee the equality of women and men and shall develop the policy of equal opportunities.

Article 25: Temporary limitation of rights and liberties

During the proclaimed state of war or emergency, the exercise of certain human rights and freedoms may be limited, to the

necessary extent.

229

MONTENEGRO 1946

The limitations shall not be introduced on the grounds of sex, nationality, race, religion, language, ethnic or social origin,

political or other beliefs, financial standing or any other personal feature.

… DISCRIMINATION BANNED DURING THE STATE OF WAR OR EMERGENCY

Article 64: Rights of the employed

…

Youth, women and the disabled shall enjoy special protection at work.

SPECIAL PROTECTION AT WORK

Article 69: Health protection

Everyone shall have the right to health protection. HEALTH PROTECTION OF PREGNANT WOMAN

A child, a pregnant woman, an elderly person and a person with disability shall have the right to health protection from

public revenues, if they do not exercise this right on some other grounds.

Article 71: Marriage

Marriage may be entered into only on the basis of a free consent of a woman and a man.

Marriage shall be based on equality of spouses. MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY


Article 73: Protection of mother and child

Mother and child shall enjoy special protection. SPECIAL PROTECTION OF MOTHER

The state shall create the conditions that encourage childbirth.

230

MOROCCO 1963

Right to vote and to stand for election: May, 1963


Independence: 1956


Parliament name: Barlaman (Parliament)

Chamber name: Majliss-annouwab (House of

Representatives)



Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Moroccan legislation

encourages women and young people to run for legislative

office by establishing national lists for 90 of the 395 seats in

the Assembly of Representatives (with a national list of

women candidates for 60 seats and a list of young

candidates for 30 seats).

Legal source: Organic Law 27-11 with respect to the

Assembly of Representatives, Promulgated by Dahir

1-11-165 of 14 October 2011.

DATE WOMEN %

2016-10

2014-01

2012-01

2011-12

2011-11

2010-01

2009-01

2007-07

2002-09

1997-11

1993-06

1963-05

81

67

66

67

66

34

6

34

35

2

2

0

20.51%

16.96%

16.71%

16.96%

16.71%

10.46%

2.22%

10.46%

10.77%

0.62%

0.6%

0%

Chamber name: Majlis al-Mustacharin (House of

Councillors)



Indirectly elected: 72 members elected at the Kingdom's

regional level, who represent the subnational administrative

areas (collectivitiés territoriales); 20 members elected in each

region by a single electoral college made up of all those in

the relevant region that have been elected to the following

professional associations: the agriculture associations, the

commerce, industry and services associations, the arts and

crafts associations and the marine fisheries associations; 8

members elected in each region by an electoral college

made up of those elected from the most representative

employers' professional organizations; 20 members elected

nationally by an electoral college made up of of employees.

DATE WOMEN %

2015-10

2009-10

2003-10

2000-09

1997-11

14

6

3

1

2

11.67%

2.22%

1.11%

0.37%

0.74%

The right to vote was granted for both the local and national levels on 1 September 1959. This right was first exercised on 18

June 1963. In 1993, Latifa Bennani-Smires and Badia Skalli became the first women elected to the House of Representatives

(Susan Franceschet, “The Impact of Gender Quotas”).


Preamble

…

Founded on these values and these immutable principles, and strong in its firm will to reaffirm the bonds of fraternity, or

cooperation, or solidarity and of constructive partnership with all other States, and to work for common progress, the

Kingdom of Morocco, [a] united State, totally sovereign, belonging the Grand Maghreb, reaffirms that which follows and

commits itself:

231

MOROCCO 1963

…

To ban and combat all discrimination whenever it encounters it, for reason of sex, or color, of beliefs, of culture, of social

or regional origin, of language, of handicap or whatever personal circumstance that may be;


Article 6

…

The public powers work for the creation of the conditions permitting the effectiveness of liberty and of the equality of

citizens [feminine] and citizens [masculine] to be made general [generaliser], as well as their participation in political,

economic, cultural and social life. PARTICIPATION IN POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, CULTURAL AND SOCIAL LIFE

…

ENJOYMENT IN EQUALITY THE RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS OF CIVIL, POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, CULTURAL

Article 19 AND ENVIRONMENAL CHARACTER

The man and the woman enjoy, in equality, the rights and freedoms of civil, political, economic, social, cultural and

environmental character, enounced in this Title and in the other provisions of the Constitution, as well as in the

international conventions and pacts duly ratified by Morocco and this, with respect for the provisions of the Constitution,

of the constants [constantes] of the Kingdom and of its laws.

The State works for the realization of parity between men and women. REALIZATION OF PARITY

An Authority for parity and the struggle against all forms of discrimination is created, to this effect.

AUTHORITY FOR PARITY AND THE STRUGGLE AGAINST ALL FORMS OF DISCRIMINATION

Article 30

All the citizens [feminine] and the citizens [masculine] of majority, enjoying their civil and political rights[,] are electors and

eligible. The law provides [prevoit] the provisions of [a] nature encouraging the equal access of women and men to the

elective functions. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE RIGHT TO VOTE AND TO STAND FOR ELECTION

The vote is a personal right and a national duty.

ENCOURAGING EQUAL ACCESS TO THE ELECTIVE FUNCTIONS

…

Article 34

The public powers enact [elaborent] and implement the policies designed [destinies] for persons and for categories of

specific needs. To this effect, it sees notably:

• to respond to [traiter] and provide for the vulnerability of certain categories of women and of mothers, of children, and

of elderly persons; POLICIES TO RESPOND AND PROVIDE FOR THE VULNERABILITY OF WOMEN AND OF MOTHERS

…

Article 62

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

The members of the Chamber of Representatives are elected for five years by universal direct suffrage…

Article 115

The Superior Council of the Judicial Power is presided over by the King. It is composed:

…

• a representation of [women] magistrates must be assured, from among the ten members elected, in proportion to their

presence in the corps of the magistrature; RESERVED SEATS IN “SUPERIOR COUNCIL OF THE JUDICIAL POWER”

…

Article 146

An organic law establishes notably:

• the conditions of democratic management of their affairs by the regions and the other territorial collectivities, the number

of members of their councils, the rules relative to the eligibility, to the incompatibilities and to the case of the interdiction of

accumulation of mandates, as well as the electoral regime and the provisions designed [visant] to assure the better

participation of women within these councils;

… PARTICIPATION ASSURED IN THE COUNCILS

232

MOZAMBIQUE 1975



Independence: 1975


Parliament name: Assembleia da Republica (Assembly of

the Republic)

Chamber name: Assembleia da Republica (Assembly of the Republic)


Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2019-10

2014-12

2009-10

2004-12

1999-12

1994-10

1986-01

1982-12

1977-12

103

99

98

87

75

63

39

40

26

41.2%

39.6%

39.2%

34.8%

30%

25.2%

15.66%

16%

12.38%


Article 35: Principle of Universality

All citizens are equal before the law, and they shall enjoy the same rights and be subject to the same duties, regardless of

colour, race, sex, ethnic origin, place of birth, religion, level of education, social position, the marital status of their parents,

their profession or their political preference. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Article 36: Principle of Equality EQUALITY IN ALL SPHERES OF POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE

Men and women shall be equal before the law in all spheres of political, economic, social and cultural life.

Article 39: Acts against National Unity PUNISHMENT OF DISCRIMINATION

All acts intended to undermine national unity, to disturb social harmony or to create divisions or situations of privilege or

discrimination based on colour, race, sex, ethnic origin, place of birth, religion, level of education, social position, physical

or mental ability, the marital status of one’s parents, profession or political preference, shall be punished in terms of the law.

Article 73: Universal Suffrage

The Mozambican people shall exercise political power through elections of their representatives by universal, direct, equal

and periodic suffrage and by secret ballot, through referenda on major national issues, and through the permanent

democratic participation of citizens in the affairs of the nation. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Article 119: Family

…

3. In the context of the development of social relations based on respect for human dignity, the State shall guarantee the

principle that marriage is based on free consent. MARRIAGE BASED OF FREE WILL

…

233

MOZAMBIQUE 1975

Article 120: Motherhood and Fatherhood

1. Motherhood and fatherhood shall be afforded dignity and protection. DIGNITY AND PROTECTION OF MOTHERHOOD

2. The family shall be responsible for raising children in a harmonious manner, and shall teach the new generations moral,

ethical and social values.

3. The family and the State shall ensure the education of children, bringing them up in the values of national unity, love for

the motherland, equality among men and women, respect and social solidarity. MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

4. Fathers and mothers shall support children born out of wedlock and those born in wedlock.

Article 122: Women DEVELOPMENT AND GROWING ROLE IN SOCIETY, IN ALL SPHERES OF POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTRAL LIFE

1. The State shall promote, support and value the development of women, and shall encourage their growing role in

society, in all spheres of political, economic, social and cultural life of the country.

2. The State shall recognise and hold in high esteem the participation of women in the national liberation struggle and in the

defence of sovereignty and democracy.

Article 251: Access and Statute of Officers

1. Access to public office shall not be obstructed on grounds of colour, race, sex, religion, ethnic or social origin, or

party-political preference, and shall adhere strictly to the criteria of the merit and ability of applicants.

… DISCRIMINATION IN ACCESS TO PUBLIC OFFICE BANNED

234

MYANMAR (BURMA) 1948

Right to vote: 1948

Right to stand for election: March 19, 1946


Independence: 1948


Parliament name: Pyidaungsu Hluttaw (Assembly of the

Union)

Chamber name: Pyithu Hluttaw (House of

Representatives)



Directly elected (330). Appointed (110): not more than 110

members who are Defence Services personnel are

nominated by the Commander-in-Chief of the Defence

Services.


DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2016-12

2015-12

2015-11

2014-12

2014-01

2013-01

2011-01

2010-11

1981-10

1978-01

1974-02

49

44

43

41

26

24

14

26

14

13

12

9

11.32%

10.16%

9.93%

12.69%

6.19%

5.59%

3.22%

5.98%

4.29%

2.74%

2.59%

2%

Chamber name: Amyotha Hluttaw (House of Nationalities)



Directly elected members (168): 12 representatives from

each region or territory and one representative from each

self-administered division/zone.

Appointed members (56): 56 members who are Defence

Services personnel are nominated by the

Commander-in-Chief of the Defence Services; four

representatives from each region or territory.


DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2015-11

2014-01

2010-11

27

23

4

6

12.05%

10.27%

1.79%

3.57%

Prior to independence, under British administration, women were granted the right to vote and stand for election under the

government of India Act passed in 1935 on condition that they were literate, had an income and paid taxes. These rights

were extended to universal suffrage at independence. Maha Thiri Thudhamma Khin Kyi (1912–1988) served as a member of

parliament in the country's first post-independence government from 1947 to 1948.


Chapter I: Basic Principles of the Union

Part 2: Basic Principles

…

26.

a. Civil Services personnel shall be free from party politics.

b. The Union shall enact necessary laws for Civil Services personnel to have security and sufficiency of food, clothing

and shelter, to get maternity benefits for married women in service, and to ease livelihood for welfare of retired Service

personnel. MATERNITY BENEFITS FOR MARRIED WOMEN IN SERVICE

…

235

MYANMAR (BURMA) 1948

32. The Union shall: CARE FOR MOTHERS

a. care for mothers and children, orphans, fallen Defence Services personnel's children, the aged and the disabled;

Chapter VIII: Citizen, Fundamental Rights and Duties of the Citizens

…

348. The Union shall not discriminate any citizen of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar, based on race, birth, religion,

official position, status, culture, sex and wealth. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

EQUAL RIGHTS AT WORK EQUAL PAY FOR WORK

350. Women shall be entitled to the same rights and salaries as that received by men in respect of similar work.

MOTHERS AND PREGNANT WOMEN ENJOY EQUAL RIGHTS

351. Mothers, children and expectant women shall enjoy equal rights as prescribed by law.

352. The Union shall, upon specified qualifications being fulfilled, in appointing or assigning duties to civil service

personnel, not discriminate for or against any citizen of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar, based on race, birth,

religion, and sex. However, nothing in this Section shall prevent appointment of men to the positions that are suitable for

men only.

…

DISCRIMINATION BANNED IN APPOINTING OR ASSIGNING DUTIES TO CIVIL SERVICE PERSONNEL

368. The Union shall honour and assist citizens who are outstanding in education irrespective of race, religion and sex

according to their qualifications.

… DISCRIMINATION BANNED IN ASSISTANCE OF CITIZENS WHO ARE OUTSTANDING IN EDUCATION

236

NAMIBIA 1989



Independence: 1990






Directly elected (96). Appointed (8): eight non-voting

members appointed by the President of the Republic.


DATE WOMEN %

2019-11

2018-01

2014-12

2014-01

2011-01

2010-01

2009-11

2004-11

1999-12

1998

1994-12

1989-11

41

48

43

20

19

21

19

21

18

16

13

5

42.71%

46.15%

41.35%

25.64%

24.36%

26.92%

24.36%

26.92%

25%

22.22%

18.06%

6.94%

Chamber name: National Council



Indirectly elected members (42): the members are indirectly

elected by the 14 regional councils (at the rate of three

members per regional council).


DATE WOMEN %

2015-12

2014-12

2004-11

1998-01

10

6

7

2

23.81%

23.08%

26.92%

7.69%

The constituent Assembly elected in

November 1989 became the first legislature

of Namibia after the country became

independent on 21 March 1990. Namibia

was the last African country to grant women

voting rights in 1989.


Preamble

…

Whereas the said rights include the right of the individual to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness, regardless of

race, colour, ethnic origin, sex, religion, creed or social or economic status; DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

Article 10: Equality and Freedom from Discrimination

1. All persons shall be equal before the law.

2. No persons may be discriminated against on the grounds of sex, race, colour, ethnic origin, religion, creed or social or

economic status. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Article 14: Family

1. Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, colour, ethnic origin, nationality, religion, creed or social

or economic status shall have the right to marry and to found a family. They shall be entitled to equal rights as to marriage,

during marriage and at its dissolution. MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY



237

NAMIBIA 1989

Article 23: Apartheid and Affirmative Action

1. The practice of racial discrimination and the practice and ideology of apartheid from which the majority of the people of

Namibia have suffered for so long shall be prohibited and by Act of Parliament such practices, and the propagation of such

practices, may be rendered criminally punishable by the ordinary Courts by means of such punishment as Parliament deems

necessary for the purposes of expressing the revulsion of the Namibian people at such practices.

2. Nothing contained in Article 10 hereof shall prevent Parliament from enacting legislation providing directly or indirectly

for the advancement of persons within Namibia who have been socially, economically or educationally disadvantaged by

past discriminatory laws or practices, or for the implementation of policies and programmes aimed at redressing social,

economic or educational imbalances in the Namibian society arising out of discriminatory laws or practices, or for achieving

a balanced structuring of the public service, the defence force, the police force, and the correctional service.

3. In the enactment of legislation and the application of any policies and practices contemplated by Sub-Article (2) hereof, it

shall be permissible to have regard to the fact that women in Namibia have traditionally suffered special discrimination

and that they need to be encouraged and enabled to play a full, equal and effective role in the political, social,

economic and cultural life of the nation.

WOMEN NEED TO BE ENCOURAGED AND ENABLED TO PLAY A FULL, EQUAL AND EFFECTIVE ROLE IN THE POLITICAL, SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND

CULTURAL LIFE OF THE NATION

CHAPTER 11: Principles of State Policy

Article 95: Promotion of the Welfare of the People

The State shall actively promote and maintain the welfare of the people by adopting, inter alia, policies aimed at the

following:

a. enactment of legislation to ensure equality of opportunity for women, to enable them to participate fully in all

spheres of Namibian society; in particular, the Government shall ensure the implementation of the principle of

non-discrimination in remuneration of men and women; further, the Government shall seek, through appropriate

legislation, to provide maternity and related benefits for women;

ENSURING EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY EQUAL PAY FOR WORK PROVIDING MATERNITY AND RELATED BENEFITS

b. enactment of legislation to ensure that the health and strength of the workers, men and women, and the tender age of

children are not abused and that citizens are not forced by economic necessity to enter vocations unsuited to their age and

strength; ENSURING THAT THE HEALTH AND STRENGTH OF THE WORKERS ARE NOT ABUSED

…

238

NAURU 1968



Independence: 1966

Population: 10,756




Directly elected


In 1986, Ruby Dediya Thoma (1949- )

became the first woman elected to

Parliament.

DATE WOMEN %

2019-08

2016-12

2013-06

1997-02

1986-12

1968-01

2

2

1

0

1

0

10.53%

10.53%

5.26%

0%

5.56%

0%


3. Preamble.

Whereas every person in Nauru is entitled to the fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual, that is to say, has

the right, whatever his race, place of origin, political opinions, colour, creed or sex, but subject to respect for the rights and

freedoms of others and for the public interest, to each and all of the following freedoms, namely: DISCRIMINATION BANNED


b. freedom of conscience, of expression and of peaceful assembly and association; and

c. respect for his private and family life,

…

81. Interpretation.

5. In this Constitution, unless the context otherwise requires

a. words importing the masculine gender shall be taken to include females;

… MASCULINE WORDS IN THE CONSTITUTION INCLUDE FEMALE GENDER

239

NEPAL 1951




Parliament name: Sanghiya Sansad (Federal Parliament)

Chamber name: Pratinidhi Sabha (House of

Representatives)



Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Each party must ensure

that the number of women candidates is at least one third

of the total number of candidates to be fielded by a

political party in the proportional elections and in the

first-past-the-post electoral system (Constituent Assembly

Ordinance 2013). If the lists of candidates submitted for the

election fail to meet the quota rule, the Commission will

return the list to the party concerned in order to align the

list with the gender quota regulation. in case of noncompliance,

the list will be rejected.

DATE WOMEN %

2018-02

2017-12

2013-11

2009-01

2007-01

1999-05

1991-05

1987

1979

1973

1970

1967

1965

1962

1958

1954

1952

90

6

172

197

57

12

7

8

4

5

4

3

4

3

8

10

3

32.73%

3.64%

29.91%

32.78%

17.33%

5.85%

3.41%

5.84%

2.96%

4.07%

3.2%

2.4%

3.2%

2.4%

8.79%

9.43%

8.57%

Chamber name: Rastriya Sabha (National Assembly)



Indirectly elected members (56): 56 members (8 per

province) elected by an Electoral College comprising

members of the Provincial Assembly and chairpersons and

vice-chairpersons of village councils and Mayors and Deputy

Mayors of municipal councils who will have different weights

of votes. The eight members representing each province

must include at least three women, one Dalit, one person

with disability or minority.

Appointed members (3): Three members, including at least

one woman, appointed by the President on the

recommendation of the Government.

Electoral quota for women: Yes, 4 reserved seats. For women,

three are elected by an electoral college composed of

members of the State Assembly, chairpersons and

vice-chairpersons of the Village Bodies, and Mayors and

Deputy-Mayors of the Municipalities, with different

weightage of vote by members of the State Assembly,

chairpersons and vicechairpersons of the Village Bodies, and

Mayors and Deputy-Mayors of the Municipalities, as

provided for in the Federal law.

Legal source: Constitution, Art. 86 (2).

DATE WOMEN %

2018-02

2001-06

2000-01

1997

1991-06

1959-02

22

5

9

5

3

1

37.29%

8.33%

15%

8.33%

5%

2.78%


240

Preamble

…

Embracing multi-caste, multi-lingual, multi-cultural and diverse geographical specificities, by ending discriminations

NEPAL 1951

relating to class, caste, region, language, religion and gender discrimination including all forms of racial untouchability, in

order to protect and promote unity in diversity, social and cultural solidarity, tolerance and harmonious attitudes, we also

express our determination to create an egalitarian society on the basis of the principles of proportional inclusion and

participation, to ensure equitable economy, prosperity and social justice, DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

18. Right to equality

1. All citizens shall be equal before law. No person shall be denied the equal protection of law.

2. There shall be no discrimination in the application of general laws on the grounds of origin, religion, race, caste, tribe, sex,

physical conditions, disability, health condition, matrimonial status, pregnancy, economic condition, language or

geographical region, or ideology or any other such grounds.

3. The state shall not discriminate among citizens on grounds of origin, religion, race, caste, tribe, sex, economic condition,

language or geographical region, ideology and such other matters. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Provided that nothing shall be deemed to bar the making of special provisions by law for the protection, empowerment or

advancement of the women lagging behind socially and culturally, Dalits, Adibasi, Madhesi, Tharus, Muslims, oppressed

class, backward communities, minorities, marginalized groups, peasants, laborers, youths, children, senior citizens, sexual

minorities, persons with disability, pregnant, incapacitated and the helpless persons, and of the citizens who belong to

backward regions and financially deprived citizens including the Khas Arya.

Explanation: With reference to this Part and Part 4, “financially deprived” means the person having the income less than

prescribed in the Federal law.

EQUAL PAY FOR WORK RIGHT TO SOCIAL SECURITY

4. There shall not be any gender discriminations regarding remuneration for the same work and social security.

5. There shall be no gender discrimination regarding the right to parental property with regard to all family members.

RIGHT TO PARENTAL PROPERTY

38. Right of women

1. Every woman shall have equal right to lineage without any gender discriminations.

2. Every woman shall have the right relating to safe motherhood and reproductive health.

SAFE MOTHERHOOD AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH

3. There shall not be any physical, mental, sexual or psychological or any other kind of violence against women, or any

kind of oppression based on religious, social and cultural tradition, and other practices. Such an act shall be punishable

by law and the victim shall have the right to be compensation as provided for in law.

ANY KIND OF VIOLENCE AND OPPRESSION BASED ON RELIGIOUS, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL TRADITION BANNED

4. Women shall have the right to access participate in all state structures and bodies on the basis of the principle of

proportional inclusion. RIGHT TO PROPORTIONAL ACCESS IN ALL STATE STRUCTURES AND BODIES

5. Women shall have the right to special opportunity in the spheres of education, health, employment and social

security on the basis of positive discrimination.

RIGHT TO SPECIAL OPPORTUNITY EDUCATION, HEALTH, EMPLOYMENT AND SOCIAL SECURITY

6. Both the spouses shall have equal rights in property and family affairs. MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

42. Right to social justice

1. The economically, socially or educationally backward women, Dalit, indigenous nationalities, Madhesi, Tharu, Muslims,

backward classes, minorities, marginalized communities, persons with disabilities, gender and sexual minorities, farmers,

labourers, oppressed or citizens of backward regions and indigent Khas Arya shall have the right to participate in the State

bodies on the basis of principle of proportional inclusion.

… RIGHT TO PROPORTIONAL ACCESS IN ALL STATE STRUCTURES AND BODIES

43. Right to social security

Economically poor, physically incapacitated and helpless person, helpless single women, persons with physical

impairment, children, persons who cannot look after themselves and the citizens who belong to communities that are on the

verge of extinction, shall have the right to social security as provided for by law.

RIGHT TO SOCIAL SECURITY FOR HELPLESS SINGLE WOMEN

51. State policies

The State shall pursue the following policies:

…

j. Policies regarding social justice and inclusion:

PRIORITIZING EMPLOYMENT FOR HELPLESS SINGLE WOMEN

1. Making appropriate arrangements of livelihoods by prioritizing employment for single women who are in helpless

conditions on the basis of skill, capability and merit.

2. Making women self reliant who are vulnerable, victims of conflict, excluded by family and the society, by making

necessary arrangements of rehabilitation, protection and empowerment for them.

… REHABILITATION, PROTECTION AND EMPOWERMENT OF VULNERABLE WOMEN

12. Giving priority to the very poor within all communities, regions, and gender, while providing social security and social

justice.

241

NEPAL 1951

13. Making a well planned investment in sports and sports men and women in order to produce healthy, able and

disciplined citizens and developing sports as a medium of consolidating national unity and promoting national prestige in

the international arena.

…

70. President and Vice-President to belong to different gender or community

While conducting election of the President and Vice-President under this constitution, the election shall be held so as to

represent different gender or communities. PRESIDENT AND VICE-PRESIDENT ALTERNATE GENDER

84. Constitution of House of Representatives

… LIST OF WOMEN FOR ELECTION OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

2. Provision shall be made according to Federal law for the representation of political parties to file candidacy for the election

of the House of Representatives for proportional representation system through closed list of women, Dalit, Adibasi

Janajati, Khas Arya, Madhesi, Tharu, Muslim, and backward regions. Balance in geography and province shall be considered

for such candidacy…

…

5. Every Nepali citizen who has attained the age of eighteen years, as provided in law, shall be entitled to vote in any

constituency. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

…

8. Notwithstanding anything contained elsewhere in this Article, women should account for at least one third of total

members elected from each party in Federal Parliament. In case, one-third percentage of women are not elected while

being elected under section (a) of clause (1), and section (a), clause (2) of Article 84, the party that fails to ensure one-third

representation shall have to elect at least one-third of total numbers as woman in the Federal Parliament while electing

members under section (b) of clause (1). RESERVED SEATS IN FEDERAL PARLIAMENT

…

86. Constitution of National Assembly and terms of members

1. National Assembly shall be a permanent house.

2. There shall be fifty-nine members in the National Assembly as follows: RESERVED SEATS IN NATIONAL ASSEMBLY

a. Fifty six members elected from an Electoral College comprising members of Provincial Assembly and chairpersons and

vice-chairpersons of Village councils and Mayors and Deputy Mayors of Municipal councils, with different weights of votes

for each, with eight members from each province, including at least three women, one Dalit, one person with disability

or minority;

b. Three members, including at least one woman, to be nominated by the President on the recommendation of

Government of Nepal.

…

91. Speaker and Deputy-Speaker of the House of Representatives

…

2. While electing Speaker and Deputy Speaker as per clause (1), either Speaker or Deputy Speaker shall be a woman and

belong to different parties. SPEAKER AND DEPUTY-SPEAKER OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES ALTERNATE GENDER

…

92. Chairperson and Vice-Chairperson of National Assembly

…

2. While electing as per clause (1), either Chairperson or Vice chairperson Chairman of the National Assembly shall be a

woman. CHAIRPERSON AND VICE-CHAIRPERSON OF NATIONAL ASSEMBLY ALTERNATE GENDER

…

176. Formation of the Provincial Assembly

…

9. Notwithstanding anything contained elsewhere in this Article, at least one third of the total number of members to be

elected from each political party to the Provincial Assembly shall have to be women. In case at least one third of the

candidates elected from a political party pursuant to section (a) of clause (1) are not women, the political party shall have to

make provision of electing at least one third women while electing members pursuant to section (b) of the same clause.

… RESERVED SEATS IN PROVINCIAL ASSEMBLY

182. Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the Provincial Assembly

…

2. While electing speaker and deputy speaker as per clause (1), either of Speaker or Deputy Speaker shall be woman and they

shall belong to different parties. SPEAKER AND DEPUTY-SPEAKER OF THE PROVINCIAL ASSEMBLY ALTERNATIVE GENDER

242

NEPAL 1951

215. Provisions related to Head and Deputy Head of Village Executive

…

4. Four women members that are elected by the Village Assembly members from among themselves and two persons

elected from the Dalit or minority community with qualifications pursuant to Clause (5) below shall also be members of the

Village executive and this election shall be held within 15 days following the final result of the election of Village Assembly

as per Article 222. RESERVED SEATS IN THE VILLAGE EXECUTIVE

…

216. Provisions related to Mayor and Deputy Mayor of Municipality

… RESERVED SEATS IN MUNICIPAL EXECUTIVE

4. Five women members that are elected by the Municipal Assembly members from among themselves and three persons

elected from the Dalit or minority community with qualifications pursuant to Clause (5) below shall also be members of the

Municipal executive and this election shall be held within 15 days following the final result of the election of Municipal

Assembly as per Article 223

…

220. District Assembly and District Coordination Committee

…

3. The District Assembly shall, pursuant to Provincial laws, elect a District Coordination Committee with a maximum of nine

members including a Head, a Deputy Head, at least three women and at least one person from the Dalit or minority

community. The District Coordination Committee shall execute all tasks to be carried out on behalf of the District Assembly.

… RESERVED SEATS IN DISTRICT COORDINATION COMMITTEE

222. Formation of Village Assembly

…

3. The Village Assembly to be constituted pursuant to Clause (1) shall have the representation of at least two women from

every Ward of the Village Council.

… RESERVED SEATS IN VILLAGE ASSEMBLY

223. Constitution of Municipal Assembly

…

3. The Municipal Assembly to be constituted pursuant to Clause (1) shall have the representation of at least two women

from every Ward of the Municipality.

… RESERVED SEATS IN MUNICIPAL ASSEMBLY

252. National Women Commission

1. There shall be a National Women Commission in Nepal consisting of a Chairperson and four other members.

…

253. Functions, duties and powers of the National Women Commission

1. Functions, duties and powers of the National Women Commission shall be as follows: NATIONAL WOMEN COMMISSION

a. To formulate policies and programs regarding women welfare for the Government of Nepal and forward them to the

Government for implementation,

b. To review whether or not statutes related to women’s welfare are executed, and whether the international covenant signed

by Nepal, as a signatory, has been executed, and to forward a recommendation to the Government of Nepal in case they are

found not to have been executed, BRINGING INTO THE MAINSTREAM OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND IN ALL STATE AGENCIES

c. To monitor, review and evaluate policies and programs implemented by the State to bring women into the mainstream

of national development such as proportionate representation in all of the state agencies, and to forward a

recommendation to the Government of Nepal for an effective implementation of those provisions,

d. To carry out research and studies regarding, other legal provisions concerning women, and to forward a recommendation

to the concerned bodies regarding the areas to be amended in those laws, and to monitor the same,

e. To monitor the government regarding report to be submitted by the Government of Nepal in matters related to

international covenant and treaties to which Nepal is a party,

f. To forward a recommendation to concerned authority to lodge a petition in the court, in accordance with the law, in

matters related with gender violence, and women deprived of women rights due to social malpractices,

2. The National Women Commission may delegate, some of its rights to the Chairperson of the Commission, member, or an

officer of the Government of Nepal, to be exercised in compliance with the conditions specified.

3. Other functions, duties and powers of the National Women Commission shall be as specified in Federal law.

254. Offices may be established in province

The National Women’s Commission may establish its offices in provinces as may be necessary.

243

NEPAL 1951

267. Provision relating to Nepal Army

1. There shall be an organization of Nepal Army, committed to democratic principles, inclusive in character and national in

form, for the protection of Nepal’s independence, sovereignty, territorial integrity, autonomy and national unity.

2. The President shall be the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Nepal Army.

PRINCIPLE OF EQUALITY AND INCLUSION IN NEPAL ARMY

281. Review and revision of Special Powers

The Government of Nepal shall review and revise, along with census of every ten years, the provisions regarding special

rights of the women and Dalit community and its implementation and effectiveness based on human development index.

TARGET OF DEVELOPMENT OF RIGHTS EVERY 10 YEARS

244

NETHERLANDS 1919


Right to stand for election: November 29, 1917



Parliament name: Staten-Generaal (States General)

Chamber name: Tweede Kamer der Staten-Generaal

(House of Representatives)



Directly elected


quotas.


Chamber name: Eerste Kamer der Staten-Generaal

(Senate)



IIndirectly elected by the 12 Provincial Councils.


DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2017-03

2016-12

2014-12

2012-01

2010-01

2009-01

2003-01

2002-05

1998-05

1997

1994-05

1989-09

1986-05

1981-05

1972-04

1967-02

1963-05

1959-03

1957

1956-10

1956-06

1952-06

1948-07

1946-05

47

54

57

56

58

61

63

55

51

54

47

49

32

30

17

15

12

15

14

13

9

13

7

5

4

31.33%

36%

38%

37.33%

38.67%

40.67%

42%

36.67%

34%

36%

31.33%

32.67%

21.33%

20%

11.33%

10%

8%

10%

9.33%

8.67%

9%

8.67%

7%

5%

4%

Suzanna "Suze" Groeneweg (1875-1940) was a Dutch

politician (Social Democratic Workers' Party - SDAP). She

was the first woman to be elected into the Dutch

parliament. In 1918, when the first elections after

women's suffrage were held, she was elected to

parliament as the first woman and sat in the chamber

alongside 99 men.

DATE WOMEN %

2019-05

2018-12

2015-05

2011-05

2007-05

2004-01

2003-06

1999-05

1998-05

1995-05

1991-05

1989-09

1987-06

1986-05

1983-08

1981-06

1980-07

1977-07

1971-04

1957

1956-10

1956-06

1955-08

1948-07

1946-07

29

27

26

27

26

25

24

21

20

17

20

16

20

17

16

17

12

6

3

4

2

4

2

1

2

38.67%

36%

34.67%

36%

34.67%

33.33%

32%

28%

26.67%

22.67%

26.67%

21.33%

26.67%

22.67%

21.33%

22.67%

16%

8%

4%

5.33%

4%

5.33%

4%

2%

4%


Article 1

All persons in the Netherlands shall be treated equally in equal circumstances. Discrimination on the grounds of religion,

belief, political opinion, race or sex or on any other grounds whatsoever shall not be permitted. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

245

NETHERLANDS 1919


Every Dutch national shall have an equal right to elect the members of the general representative bodies and to stand for

election as a member of those bodies, subject to the limitations and exceptions prescribed by Act of Parliament.

Article 57a

The temporary replacement of a member of the States General during pregnancy and maternity leave or during illness

shall be regulated by Act of Parliament. PREGNANCY AND MATERNITY LEAVE FOR MEMBERS OF THE STATES GENERAL

246

NEW ZEALAND 1919

Right to vote: September 19, 1893

Right to stand for election: October 29, 1919



Parliament name: House of Representatives



Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2019-06

2018-12

2017-09

2016-12

2014-01

2011-11

2008-11

2007-01

2005-09

2001-01

2000-01

1996-10

1993-11

1990-10

1987-08

1984-07

1981-11

1978-11

1972-11

1969-11

1963-11

1954-11

1949-11

1946-11

1943

1938

1935

1933

49

48

46

41

41

39

41

40

39

35

37

35

21

16

14

12

8

4

4

4

5

4

3

2

2

3

0

1

40.83%

40%

38.33%

34.17%

33.88%

32.23%

33.61%

33.06%

32.23%

29.17%

30.83%

29.17%

21.21%

16.49%

14.43%

12.63%

8.7%

4.35%

4.6%

4.76%

6.25%

5%

3.75%

2.5%

2.5%

3.75%

0%

1.25%

All men except for Maori were granted the right to vote in 1852 with the Constitution Act; in 1886 women were granted the

right to vote in local elections. On 19 September 1893 the governor, Lord Glasgow, signed a new Electoral Act into law. As a

result of this landmark legislation, New Zealand became the first self-governing country in the world in which women had

the right to vote in parliamentary elections. All women who were 'British subjects' and aged 21 and over, including Māori,

were now eligible to vote (the nationhood requirement excluded some groups, such as Chinese women): plural registration

was abolished, plural voting for Māori property-owners was abolished, and only those whose descent was exactly half Māori

were allowed to choose whether to vote in European or Māori electorates. Even so, New Zealand women still had a long way

to go to achieve political equality. They would not gain the right to stand for Parliament until 1919, and the first female

Member of Parliament (Elizabeth McCombs) was not elected until 1933 – 40 years after the introduction of women’s suffrage.

247

NEW ZEALAND 1919


New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990

12. Electoral rights

Every New Zealand citizen who is of or over the age of 18 years: UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

a. has the right to vote in genuine periodic elections of members of the House of Representatives, which elections shall be

by equal suffrage and by secret ballot; and

b. is qualified for membership of the House of Representatives.

Human Rights Act 1993

21. Prohibited grounds of discrimination

1. For the purposes of this Act, the prohibited grounds of discrimination are:

a. sex, which includes pregnancy and childbirth

b. marital status, which means being:

i. single; or

ii. married, in a civil union, or in a de facto relationship; or


iii. the surviving spouse of a marriage or the surviving partner of a civil union or de facto relationship; or

iv. separated from a spouse or civil union partner; or

v. a party to a marriage or civil union that is now dissolved, or to a de facto relationship that is now ended:

…

m. sexual orientation, which means a heterosexual, homosexual, lesbian, or bisexual orientation.

…

248

NICARAGUA 1955





Assembly)



Directly elected (90). Other (2): the runner-up in the presidential election and the immediate past vice-president.

Electoral quota for women: Yes. “List of candidates must contain fifty percent of male and fifty percent of female candidates,

presented in a fair and alternating order”.

Legal source: Constitution, art. 131.

DATE WOMEN %

2019-12

2018-01

2016-11

2015-05

2014-12

2014-02

2011-11

2009-01

2007-01

2006-11

2001-11

1998

1997

1996-10

1990-02

1979-07

1974-09

1948

43

41

42

38

36

39

37

19

17

14

19

9

10

9

15

11

8

0

47.25%

44.57%

45.65%

41.3%

39.13%

42.39%

40.22%

20.65%

18.48%

15.22%

20.65%

9.68%

10.75%

9.68%

16.3%

21.57%

11.43%

0%

The Constitutions of 1939, 1948 and 1950 indicated that a law would determine when

women would be given the right to vote. That right was established by the Electoral Law of

1950 and enshrined in the Constitution of 1955. In the 1957 election, Olga Nuñez Abaunza

de Saballos (1920-1971) became the first woman to be elected to the Nicaraguan House of

Representatives (Cámara de Diputados) (Norma Gutiérrez).


Article 2

National sovereignty resides in the people who exercise it by means of democratic procedures, deciding and participating

freely in the establishment and improvement of the nation’s economic, political, cultural and social system. The people

exercise sovereign power through their representatives freely elected by universal, equal, direct, and secret suffrage,

barring any other individual or group of individuals from usurping such representation... UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE


All individuals are equal before the law and have the right to equal protection. There shall be no discrimination based on

birth, nationality, political belief, race, gender, language, religion, opinion, origin, economic position or social condition.

Article 39

In Nicaragua, the Penitentiary System is humanitarian, and has as a fundamental objective the transformation of the

interned in order to reintegrate [him or her] into society. With the progressive system it promotes family unity, health,

249

NICARAGUA 1955

educational and cultural advancement and productive occupation with financial compensation for the interned. Sentences

have a re-educational character. DIFFERENT PENAL CENTER

Convicted women shall serve in prison in different penal centers than men, and guards of the same sex shall be provided.

Article 48 EQUALITY IN THE EXERCIZE OF POLITICAL RIGHTS

Unconditional equality of all Nicaraguans in the enjoyment of their political rights, in the exercise of these rights, and in the

fulfillment of their duties and responsibilities, is established; there exists absolute equality between men and women.

It is the obligation of the State to remove obstacles that impede the actual equality among Nicaraguans and their effective

participation in the political, economic and social life of the country.

Article 49 RIGHT TO ASSOCIATION

In Nicaragua workers in the cities and countryside, women, youth, agricultural producers, artisans, professionals,

technicians, intellectuals, artists, religious persons, the Communities of the Atlantic Coast and the population in general have

the right to form organizations with the goal of realizing their aspirations according to their own interests, without

discrimination, and to participate in the construction of a new society.

Article 72

Marriage and stable de facto unions are protected by the State; they rest on the voluntary agreement between a man and a

woman, and may be dissolved by mutual consent or by the shall of one of the parties. The law shall regulate this matter.

Article 73

Family relations rest on the respect, solidarity and absolute equality of rights and responsibilities between the man and

woman. MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

…

Article 74

The State grants special protection to the process of human reproduction.

Women shall have special protection during pregnancy and shall be granted maternity leave with pay and all

appropriate social security benefits. SPECIAL PROTECTION DURING PREGNANCY MATERNITY LEAVE AND SOCIAL SECURITY

No one may deny employment to women for reasons of pregnancy nor dismiss them during pregnancy or the

post-natal period; all in conformity with the law.

ILLEGAL REFUSE EMPLOYMENT OR DISMISS A PREGNANT WOMAN BEFORE AND AFTER CHILD-BIRTH

Article 78 PROTECTION OF MATERNITY

The State protects responsible paternity and maternity. The right to investigate paternity and maternity is established.

Article 82

Workers have the right to working conditions that specifically ensure them:

1. Equal pay for equal work under identical conditions, suitable to their social responsibility, without discrimination for

political, religious, racial, gender or any other reasons, which ensure a well-being compatible with human dignity;

… EQUAL PAY FOR WORK

7. Social security for integral protection and means of subsistence in cases of incapacitation, old age, professional risks,

illness or maternity; and for their relatives in cases of death, in the form and under conditions established by law.

SOCIAL SECURITY FOR INTEGRAL PROTECTION DURING MATERNITY

Article 105

… FREE HEALTH CARE PRIORITY TO MOTHERS

Free health care is guaranteed for the vulnerable sectors of the population, giving priority to the completion of programs

benefiting mothers and children. Specific family and community health programs shall be developed.

Article 109

The State shall promote the voluntary association of peasants in agricultural cooperatives, without discrimination

based on sex, and in accord with its resources, it shall facilitate the material means necessary to raise their technical and

productive capacity in order to improve the standard of living of the peasants.

DISCRIMINATION BANNED IN PROMOTION OF THE VOLUNTARY ASSOCIATION OF PEASANTS IN AGRICULTURAL COOPERATIVES

Article 131 ELECTORAL QUOTA

… In the case of officials elected by popular vote on the basis of closed lists proposed by political parties in accordance with

the principle of proportional representation, deputies in the National Assembly, deputies in the Central-American

Parliament, Municipal Councilors, and Regional Councilors, the list of candidates must contain fifty percent of male and

fifty percent of female candidates, presented in a fair and alternating order; the same relation between the sexes must

be maintained between the mandate holders and their alternates, where applicable.

250

NICARAGUA 1955

Article 178

… ELECTORAL QUOTA IN MUNICIPAL ELECTION

The nomination for the posts of Mayor and Vice Mayor must be based on the principle of the equal and fair treatment of

the sexes in the exercise of local power, as one of them must be a woman and the other a man, respecting the

proportionality between the two sexes. The political parties and electoral alliances must present in their list of

candidates for Mayor, Vice Mayor and Councilors fifty percent of men and fifty percent of women.

251

NIGER 1948



Independence: 1960



Assembly)



Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Law 2000-008 of 7 June 2000, establishing the quota system.

DATE WOMEN %

2016-12

2016-02

2011-01

2009-10

2004-11

1996-11

1995-01

1989-12

1958

29

25

15

11

14

1

3

5

0

16.96%

14.62%

13.27%

9.73%

12.39%

1.2%

3.61%

5.38%

0%

Prior to independence, under French administration, women were granted the right to vote and stand for election in 1948.

These rights were confirmed at independence. In 1989, Roukayatou Abdou Issaka, Bibata Adamou Dakaou, Marie Lebihan,

Aïssata Karidjo Mounkaïla and Hadizatou Diallo Souna became the first women to serve as members of Parliament (Alice J.

Kang, “Bargaining for Women's Rights: Activism in an Aspiring Muslim Democracy”)


Article 4

National sovereignty belongs to the People.

No fraction of the People, no community, no corporation, no political party or association, no trade-union [syndicale]

organization and no individual may arrogate its exercise.

In the exercise of the power of the State, personal power, regionalism, ethnocentrism, discrimination, nepotism, sexism, the

clan spirit, the feudal spirit, slavery in all its forms, illicit enrichment, favoritism, corruption, racketeering and the

influence-trafficking are punished by the law. IN THE EXERCIZE OF THE POWER OF THE STATE SEXISM IS PUNISHED BY THE LAW

Article 7

Suffrage is direct or indirect. It is universal, free, equal and secret. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Nigeriens of the two (2) sexes, aged eighteen (18) years on the day of the ballot or the emancipated minors, enjoying their

civil and political rights are electors[,] under the conditions determined by the law.

252


The Republic of Niger is a State of Law [Etat de droit]. ALL MANIFESTATIONS OF SEXIST DISCRIMINATION ARE PUNISHED BY THE LAW

It assures to all equality before the law without distinction of sex, [or] of social, racial, ethnic or religious origin.

It respects and protects all beliefs. No religion, no belief can arrogate the political power or interfere in the affairs of State.

All particularist propaganda of a regionalist, racial or ethnic character, all manifestation of racial, social, sexist, ethnic,

political or religious discrimination, are punished by the law.

NIGER 1948

Article 21

…

The State and public collectivities have the duty to see to the physical, mental and moral health of the family, particularly of

the mother and of the child. PHYSICAL, MENTAL AND MORAL HEALTH OF THE MOTHER

Article 22 ELIMINATION OF ALL FORMS OF DISCRIMINATION

The State sees to the elimination of all forms of discrimination concerning [à l’égard de] women, young girls and

handicapped persons. The public policies in all the domains assure their full development and their participation in the

national development. MEASURES TO COMBAT VIOLENCE

The State takes, among others, measures to combat the violence done to women and children in public and private life.

It assures to them an equitable representation within the public institutions through the national policy [concerning]

gender and the respect for the quotas. EQUITABLE REPRESENTATION WITHIN THE PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS

Article 84

The Deputies are elected by universal, free, direct, equal and secret suffrage. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Nigeriens of the two (2) sexes, at least twenty-one (21) years old and enjoying their civil and political rights[,] are eligible to

the National Assembly. RIGHT TO STAND FOR ELECTION

Article 161

The Superior Council of Communication is composed of fifteen (15) members as it follows:

…

• three (3) representatives elected by the socio-professional organizations of the medias of the private sector including, at

least, one woman;

• three (3) representatives elected by the trade-union [syndicales] organizations of workers of the medias of the public sector

including [dont] a journalist, a producer and a technician with at least one woman;

…

• one (1) representative elected by the collective of the women organizations;

RESERVED SEATS IN THE “SUPERIOR COUNCIL OF COMMUNICATION”

253

NIGERIA 1979



Independence: 1960






Directly elected





Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2019-02

2015-05

2015-03

2014-01

2011-04

2007-04

2006-01

2003-04

1999-01

1992-07

12

20

14

24

13

25

22

24

12

13

3.38%

5.56%

4.17%

6.67%

3.69%

6.98%

6.11%

6.67%

3.42%

2.19%

DATE WOMEN %

2019-02

2015-05

2015-03

2014-01

2011-04

2008-01

2007-04

2006-01

2005-01

1999-12

1999-06

1992-07

7

7

6

7

4

9

8

3

4

3

8

1

6.54%

6.48%

5.56%

6.42%

3.67%

8.26%

7.34%

2.83%

3.67%

2.75%

7.34%

1.1%

Women in Nigeria’s southern region were enfranchised in stages, beginning in 1950 (3 women were elected in House of

Chiefs with very little functional relevance), whereas women in the northern region (predominantly Muslim) were not.

Southern women voted and contested offices in the 1959 federal elections (under British administration), but no northern

women were allowed to do so. Northern women finally received their full electoral franchise (to vote and contest office) in

1979. In 1960, Wuraola Adepeju Esan (1909-1985) became the first woman to serve in Nigerian Senate (Kathleen Sheldon,

“Historical Dictionary of Women in Sub-Saharan Africa”).


Chapter II: Fundamental Objectives and Directive Principles of State Policy

15.

…

2. Accordingly, national integration shall be actively encouraged, whilst discrimination on the grounds of place of

origin, sex, religion, status, ethnic or linguistic association or ties shall be prohibited. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

17.

3. The State shall direct its policy towards ensuring that: EQUAL PAY FOR WORK

e. there is equal pay for equal work without discrimination on account of sex, or on any other ground whatsoever;

254

Chapter IV: Fundamental Rights

42.

1. A citizen of Nigeria of a particular community, ethnic group, place of origin, sex, religion or political opinion shall

NIGERIA 1979

not, by reason only that he is such a person:

a. be subjected either expressly by, or in the practical application of, any law in force in Nigeria or any executive or

administrative action of the government, to disabilities or restrictions to which citizens of Nigeria of other communities,

ethnic groups, places of origin, sex, religions or political opinions are not made subject; or

b. be accorded either expressly by, or in the practical application of, any law in force in Nigeria or any such executive

or administrative action, any privilege or advantage that is not accorded to citizens of Nigeria of other communities, ethnic

groups, places of origin, sex, religions or political opinions. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

D. Political Parties

222. No association by whatever name called shall function as a party, unless

…

b. the membership of the association is open to every citizen of Nigeria irrespective of his place of origin,

circumstance of birth, sex, religion or ethnic grouping DISCRIMINATION IN ASSOCIATION AND POLITICAL PARTIES BANNED

CC. The National Industrial Court of Nigeria

254C.

1. … the National Industrial Court shall have and exercise jurisdiction to the exclusion of any other court in civil

causes and matters:

g. relating to or connected with any dispute arising from discrimination or sexual harassment at workplace;

NATIONAL INDUSTRIAL COURT EXERCIZE JURISDICTION RELATING TO DISCRIMINATION OR SEXUAL HARASSMENT AT WORKPLACE

255

NORTH MACEDONIA 1946



Independence: 1991


Parliament name: Sobranie (Assembly of the Republic)

Chamber name: Sobranie (Assembly of the Republic)


Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Legislated candidate quotas. In the submitted list of candidates for Members of Parliament,

in every three places at least one will be reserved for the less represented sex.

Legal source: Cf. Article 64 of Electoral Code.

DATE WOMEN %

2019-12

2019-08

2018-08

2017-10

2017-05

2016-12

2014-07

2014-04

2014-01

2013-01

2012-01

2011-06

2009-12

2009-01

2008-06

2007-01

2006-07

2002-09

1998-01

1994-10

1990-12

48

47

46

45

41

38

41

40

42

34

42

38

39

38

36

35

34

21

9

4

5

40%

39.17%

38.33%

37.5%

34.17%

31.67%

33.33%

32.52%

34.15%

27.64%

34.15%

30.89%

32.5%

31.67%

30%

29.17%

28.33%

17.5%

7.5%

3.33%

4.17%

Equal rights were given to men and women in 1943 by the law voted by the Antifascist

National Council for Liberation of Yugoslavia (the supreme representative organ with

Executive and Legislative power to which a woman was first elected on 29 November

1943. This law was upheld by the Constitution of 1946. In December 1990 the Assembly of

the federated Socialist Republic of Macedonia became the first legislature of the Former

Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia after the country became independent on 8 September

1991. The Republic of Macedonia officially changed its name to the Republic of North

Macedonia in February 2019.


Article 9

Citizens of the Republic of Macedonia are equal in their freedoms and rights, regardless of sex, race, colour of skin,

national and social origin, political and religious beliefs, property and social status.

All citizens are equal before the Constitution and law. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

256

Article 22

Every citizen on reaching 18 years of age acquires the right to vote. The right to vote is equal, universal and direct, and is

exercised at free elections by secret ballot… UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

NORTH MACEDONIA 1946

Article 54

The freedoms and rights of the individual and citizen can be restricted only in cases determined by the Constitution.

The freedoms and rights of the individual and citizen can be restricted during states of war or emergency, in accordance

with the provisions of the Constitution. The restriction of freedoms and rights cannot discriminate on grounds of sex,

race, colour of skin, language, religion, national or social origin, property or social status.

… DISCRIMINATION BANNED IN RESTRICTION OF FREEDOMS AND RIGHTS DURING STATES OF WAR OR EMERGENCY

Article 110

The Constitutional Court of the Republic of Macedonia

…

• protects the freedoms and rights of the individual and citizen relating to the freedom of conviction, conscience, thought

and public expression of thought, political association and activity as well as to the prohibition of discrimination among

citizens on the ground of sex, race, religion or national, social or political affiliation;

… CONSTITUTIONAL COURT PROTECTS THE FREEDOMS AND RIGHTS OF THE INDIVIDUAL RELATING TO THE PROHIBITION OF DISCRIMINATION

257

NORWAY 1913



Independence: 1905


Parliament name: Stortinget (Parliament)

Chamber name: Stortinget (Parliament)


Directly elected



DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2017-09

2009-09

2008-01

2007-01

2005-09

1997-09

1993-09

1989-09

1985-09

1981-09

1977-09

1973-09

1969-09

1965-09

1961-09

1957-10

1945-10

69

70

67

64

61

64

60

65

59

54

40

37

24

14

12

13

10

7

40.83%

41.42%

39.64%

37.87%

36.09%

37.87%

36.36%

39.39%

35.76%

34.39%

25.81%

23.87%

15.48%

9.33%

8%

8.67%

6.67%

4.67%

In 1907 the rights to vote and to stand for election were restricted: there were special conditions related to private property

and income. Those restrictions were removed in 1913 and the suffrage became universal. Two years before, in 1911, women’s

rights activist and educator Anna Rogstad (1854–1938) became the first-ever female Member of Parliament in Norway.


Article 49

The people exercise the Legislative Power through the Stortinget.

Representatives to the Stortinget are elected through free elections and secret ballot.

Article 50

Those entitled to vote are Norwegian citizens, men and women, who, at the latest in the year when the election is held,

have completed their 18th year... UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

258

Article 98

All are equals before the law.

No person must be subject to unfair or unreasonable discrimination.

OMAN 1994



Independence: 1971


Parliament name: Majles

Chamber name: Majles A'Shura (Shura Council)



Directly elected


Chamber name: Majles Addawla (State Council)



Appointed members: 85 members and the Chairman, who

also has the right to vote. They all are appointed by Royal

Decree.


DATE WOMEN %

DATE WOMEN % 2019-11 15

2019-10 2 2.33%

2016-02 14

2015-10 1 1.18%

2015-11 13

2011-10 1 1.19%

2011-10 15

2007-10 0 0%

2007-11 14

2003-10 2 2.41%

2003-10 9

17.44%

16.47%

15.29%

18.07%

20%

15.52%

In 1994 Oman became the first Gulf state to grant women the right to vote and stand for public office. In 2000, Rahila bint

Amur Al Riyami and Lujaina Mohsin Darwish became the first women elected to Shura Council.



All Citizens are equal before the Law and share the same public rights and duties. There shall be no discrimination

amongst them on the ground of gender, origin, colour, language, religion, sect, domicile, or social status.

Article 58bis 9

The election of the members of Majlis A’Shura shall be conducted through a direct secret vote in accordance with the

manner specified in the Election Law.

259

PAKISTAN 1956



Independence: 1947


Parliament name: Majlis-e-Shoora (Parliament)




Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. 60 seats reserved.





Indirectly elected members (96): 23 by each of the country's

four provincial assemblies; 8 by the members of the National

Assembly who represent the Federally Administrated Tribal

Areas; 4 chosen to represent the federal capital, Islamabad,

by the members of the National Assembly.

Of the 104 seats, 17 seats are reserved for women, 17 others

are reserved for technocrats and ulemas, and 4 for

non-Muslim minorities (one member per province).

Electoral quota for women: Yes. 17 seats reserved.

DATE WOMEN %

2018-10

2018-07

2015-06

2013-05

2008-02

2007-01

2002-10

1997-02

1993-10

1990-10

1988-11

1985-03

1977-03

1973

69

68

70

67

76

72

74

5

4

2

24

21

10

6

20.23%

20.61%

20.59%

20.74%

22.35%

21.05%

21.64%

2.3%

1.84%

0.92%

10.13%

8.86%

4.63%

4.11%

DATE WOMEN %

2018-03

2015-06

2015-03

2012-03

2009-03

2006-03

2003-03

2003-02

1998

1997-03

1991-03

1985-03

1977-03

1973

20

19

18

17

18

17

18

17

1

3

1

0

3

1

19.23%

18.27%

18%

16.35%

18%

17%

18%

17%

1.15%

3.45%

1.15%

0%

4.76%

2.22%

Prior to independence, under British administration, women were granted the right to vote under the government of India

Act passed in 1935 on the condition that they were literate, had an income and paid taxes. This right was confirmed at

independence in 1947. According to information provided by Pakistan, women had the right to be elected to parliament for

the first elections held under the Government of India Act in 1946 under certain conditions. Very few women qualified as

voters. In 1947, the first constituent assembly of Pakistan had two women members, Begum Jahanara Shahnawaz

(1896-1979) and Begum Shaista Suhrawardy Ikramullah (1915-2000). The 1956 Republican constitution provided for

universal suffrage. In January 1972 the cessation of Bangladesh.


260

25. Equality of citizens

1. All citizens are equal before law and are entitled to equal protection of law.

PAKISTAN 1956

2. There shall be no discrimination on the basis of sex.

3. Nothing in this Article shall prevent the State from making any special provision for the protection of women and

children. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

26. Non-discrimination in respect of access to public places DISCRIMINATION BANNED TO ACCESS TO PUBLIC PLACES

1. In respect of access to places of public entertainment or resort, not intended for religious purposes only, there shall be

no discrimination against any citizen on the ground only of race, religion, caste, sex, residence or place of birth.

2. Nothing in clause (1) shall prevent the State from making any special provision for women and children.

27. Safeguard against discrimination in services

1. No citizen otherwise qualified for appointment in the service of Pakistan shall be discriminated against in respect of

any such appointment on the ground only of race, religion, caste, sex, residence or place of birth:

… DISCRIMINATION BANNED TO BE APPOINTED IN THE SERVICE OF PAKISTAN

32. Promotion of local Government institutions SPECIAL REPRESENTATION IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS

The State shall encourage local Government institutions composed of elected representatives of the areas concerned and

in such institutions special representation will be given to peasants, workers and women.

34. Full participation of women in national life FULL PARTICIPATION IN ALL SPHERES OF NATIONAL LIFE

Steps shall be taken to ensure full participation of women in all spheres of national life.

35. Protection of family, etc PROTECTION OF MOTHERS

The State shall protect the marriage, the family, the mother and the child.

37. Promotion of social justice and eradication of social evils

The State shall:

… SAFE EMPLOYMENT AND MATERNITY BENEFITS AT WORK

e. make provision for securing just and humane conditions of work, ensuring that children and women are not employed in

vocations unsuited to their age or sex, and for maternity benefits for women in employment;

38. Promotion of social and economic well-being of the people

The State shall

a. secure the well-being of the people, irrespective of sex, caste, creed or race, by raising their standard of living, by

preventing the concentration of wealth and means of production and distribution in the hands of a few to the detriment of

general interest and by ensuring equitable adjustment of rights between employers and employees, and landlords and

tenants;

…

SECURING WELL-BEING

d. provide basic necessities of life, such as food, clothing, housing, education and medical relief, for all such citizens,

irrespective of sex, caste, creed or race, as are permanently or temporarily unable to earn their livelihood on account of

infirmity, sickness or unemployment;

…

51. National Assembly

1. There shall be three hundred and forty-two seats for members in the National Assembly, including seats reserved for

women and non-Muslims.

…

PROVIDING BASIC NECESSITIES OF LIFE

RESERVED SEATS IN NATIONAL ASSEMBLY

3. The seats in the National Assembly referred to in clause (1), except as provided in clause (4), shall be allocated to each

Province, the Federally Administered Tribal Areas and the Federal Capital as under:

• Balochistan: General Seats 16, Women 4, Total 20

• Khyber Pakhtunkhwa: General Seats 39, Women 9, Total 48

• Punjab General: General Seats 141, Women 33, Total 174

• Sindh: General Seats 61, Women 14, Total 75

• Federally Administered Tribal Areas: General Seats 12, Women -, Total 12

• Federal Capital: General Seats 3, Women -, Total 3

Total: General Seats 272, Women 60, Total 332

59. The Senate

1. The Senate shall consist of one hundred and four members, of whom:

… RESERVED SEATS IN SENATE

c. two on general seats, and one woman and one technocrat including aalim shall be elected from the Federal Capital in such

manner as the President may, by Order, prescribe;

d. four women shall be elected by the members of each Provincial Assembly;

…

261

PAKISTAN 1956

106. Constitution of Provincial Assemblies

1. Each Provincial Assembly shall consist of general seats and seats reserved for women and non-Muslims as specified

herein below: RESERVED SEATS IN PROVINCIAL ASSEMBLIES

a. Baluchistan: General Seats 51, Women 11, Non-Muslims 3, Total 65

b. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa: General Seats 99, Women 22, Non-Muslims 3,Total 124

c. The Punjab: General Seats 297, Women 66, Non-Muslims 8, Total 371

d. Sindh: General Seats 130, Women 29, Non-Muslims 9, Total 168

203C. The Federal Shariat Court

…

3A. Of the Judges, not more than four shall be persons each one of whom is, or has been, or is qualified to be, a Judge of a

High Court and not more than three shall be Ulema having at least fifteen years experience in Islamic law, research or

instruction. SUBJECT TO THE RELIGION

203D. Powers, jurisdiction and functions of the Court

1. The Court may, either of its own motion or on the petition of a citizen of Pakistan or the Federal Government or a Provincial

Government, examine and decide the question whether or not any law or provision of law is repugnant to the

Injunctions of Islam, as laid down in the Holy Quran and the Sunnah of the Holy Prophet, hereinafter referred to as

the Injunctions of Islam. SUBJECT TO THE RELIGION

1A. Where the Court takes up the examination of any law or provision of law under clause (1) and such law or provision of law

appears to it to be repugnant to the Injunctions of Islam, the Court shall cause to be given to the Federal Government in the

case of a law with respect to a matter in the Federal Legislative List or to the Provincial Government in the case of a law with

respect to a matter not enumerated in the Federal Legislative List, a notice specifying the particular provisions that appear

to it to be so repugnant, and afford to such Government adequate opportunity to have its point of view placed before the

Court.

2. If the Court decides that any law or provision of law is repugnant to the Injunctions of Islam, it shall set out in its

decision SUBJECT TO THE RELIGION

a. the reasons for its holding that opinion; and

b. the extent to which such law or provision is so repugnant;

and specify the day on which the decision shall take effect:

Provided that no such decision shall be deemed to take effect before the expiration of the period within which an appeal

therefrom may be preferred to the Supreme Court or, where an appeal has been so preferred, before the disposal of such

appeal.

228. Composition, etc., of Islamic Council

…

3. While appointing members of the Islamic Council, the President shall ensure that:

…

d. at least one member is a woman. RESERVED SEAT IN ISLAMIC COUNCIL

263. Gender and number

In the Constitution,

a. words importing the masculine gender shall be taken to include females; and

b. words in the singular shall include the plural, and words in the plural shall include the singular.

MASCULINE WORDS IN THE CONSTITUTION INCLUDE FEMALE GENDER

262

PALAU 1979



Independence: 1994

Population: 18,008

Parliament name: Olbiil Era Kelulau (National Congress)

Chamber name: House of Delegates



Directly elected





Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2016-11

2008-11

2008-01

1992-11

2

0

2

0

12.5%

0%

15.38%

0%

DATE WOMEN %

2016-11

2012-11

2008-11

2000-11

1996-11

1992-11

2

3

2

0

1

0

15.38%

23.08%

15.38%

0%

7.14%

0%

Prior to independence, under US administration, women were granted the right to vote and stand for election on 2 April

1979. These rights were confirmed at independence. The Parliament elected on 4 November 1992 became the first

legislature of the Republic of Palau after the country became independent on 1 October 1994. Ucheliou Besong became the

first woman elected legislator (Donald R. Shuster, “Leadership in the Pacific Islands: Tradition and the Future”)


ARTICLE IV: FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS

Section 5

Every person shall be equal under the law and shall be entitled to equal protection.

The government shall take no action to discriminate against any person on the basis of sex, race, place of origin, language,

religion or belief, social status or clan affiliation except for the preferential treatment of citizens, for the protection of minors,

elderly, indigent, physically or mentally handicapped, and other similar groups, and in matters concerning intestate

succession and domestic relations. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

No person shall be treated unfairly in legislative or executive investigation.

ARTICLE VII: SUFFRAGE

A citizen of Palau eighteen (18) years of age or older may vote in national and state elections. The Olbiil Era Kelulau shall

prescribe a minimum period of residence and provide voter registration for national elections. Each state shall prescribe a

minimum period of residence and provide for voter registration for state elections. A citizen who is in prison, serving a

sentence for a felony, or mentally incompetent as determined by a court may not vote.

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

263

PALESTINE 1995




Parliament name: Palestinian Legislative Council

Chamber name: Palestinian Legislative Council


Directly elected

DATE WOMEN %

2006-01 17 13%

The first Palestinian Legislative Council met for the first time on 7 March 1996. Under the Oslo II Accord, the powers and

responsibilities of the PLC are restricted to civil matters and internal security in Area A of the West Bank and Gaza, while in

Area B they are restricted to civil affairs and security matters are under the control of the Israel Defense Forces. In Area C,

Israel has full control. In 1996, Intissar al-Wazir (1941- ) became the first woman appointed to the Palestine National

Authority’s cabinet (Ghada Ashem Talhami, “Historical Dictionary of Women in the Middle East and North Africa”). The 2006

election was the last Palestinian legislative election.


Title Two: Public Rights and Liberties

Article 9

Palestinians shall be equal before the law and the judiciary, without distinction based upon race, sex, color, religion,

political views or disability. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Article 26

Palestinians shall have the right to participate in political life, both individually and in groups. They shall have the following

rights in particular:

1. To form, establish and join political parties in accordance with the law.

2. To form and establish unions, associations, societies, clubs and popular institutions in accordance with the law.

3. To vote, to nominate candidates and to run as candidates for election, in order to have representatives elected through

universal suffrage in accordance with the law. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

4. To hold public office and positions, in accordance with the principle of equal opportunities.

264

PANAMA 1946





Assembly)



Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Nomination lists of political parties presented for primaries and internal elections should

include 50% women. These lists should be certified by a representative of the women’s secretariats in political parties. If the

level of women’s participation is less than the standard provided by this article, and this is attested by the women’s

secretariat, the party can fill the vacant candidacies with male candidates.

Legal source: Electoral Code of Panama, article 239 (amended by Law 54, 2012, Article 6).

DATE WOMEN %

2019-05

2015-06

2014-05

2009-05

2004-05

1999-05

1998

1997

1994-05

1989-05

1984-05

1982

1978-08

1972

1964

1956-04

1948

1946

15

13

11

6

13

7

6

7

6

5

4

1

3

0

1

2

1

2

21.13%

18.31%

19.3%

8.45%

16.67%

9.72%

8.33%

9.72%

8.33%

7.46%

5.97%

1.79%

8.11%

0%

2.38%

3.77%

2.38%

4%

Law n. 98 of 5 July 1941 stipulated that "Panamanian women aged 21 and over who held a university degree or had completed

vocational training teachers' college or secondary schooling, may vote in and be elected to provincial bodies". In 1946 suffrage

became universal without restrictions.


Article 19

There shall be no public or private privileges, or discrimination, by reason of race, birth, social class, handicap, sex, religion

or political ideology. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Article 56 PROTECTION OF MOTHERHOOD

The State protects marriage, motherhood and the family. What is relative to civil status shall be determined by law.

265

PANAMA 1946

Article 57

Marriage is the legal basis of the family. It rests on equality of rights of both spouses and may be dissolved in accordance

with the provisions of the law. MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

Article 67 EQUAL PAY FOR WORK

A like wage or salary shall always be paid for like work under identical conditions, irrespective of the person who performs

it, without taking into account sex, nationality, age, race, social standing, political or religious ideologies.

Article 70

… Likewise, it is unlawful to employ children under 14 as domestic servants, and to employ children and women in

unhealthy occupations… UNLAWFUL TO EMPLOY WOMEN IN UNHEALTHY OCCUPATIONS

Article 72 PROTECTION OF MOTHERHOOD OF WORKING WOMAN

Motherhood of the working woman is protected. The pregnant woman may not be separated from her public or private

employment for this reason. For a minimum of six weeks prior to confinement and eight weeks thereafter, she is entitled to

rest with the same remuneration that she was receiving, and her job shall be kept for her, as well as all the rights inherent

to her contract. Upon returning to work, the mother may not be dismissed for one year, except in special cases prescribed

by law, which shall in addition, regulate the special working conditions of the pregnant woman.

PREGNANT WOMAN KEEPING EMPLOYMENT AND SAME REMUNERATION DURING MATERNITY LEAVE

MOTHER MAY NOT BE DISMISSED FOR ONE YEAR UPON RETURNING TO WORK

Article 110

In matters of health, the State is primarily obliged to develop the following activities,integrating the functions of prevention,

cure and rehabilitation in the:

…

3. Protection of the health of mother, young child and adolescent, guaranteeing health care during the periods of

pregnancy, lactation, childhood and adolescence;

… PROTECTION OF THE HEALTH OF MOTHER HEALTH CARE DURING PREGNANCY, LACTATION, CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE


Voting is a right and a duty of all citizens. The vote is free, equal, universal, secret and direct.

Article 300

Public Employees shall be of Panamanian nationality, without discrimination for reasons of race, sex, religion or political

activities. Their appointment and removal may not be the absolute and discretional prerogative of any Authority, except as

provided in this Constitution. DISCRIMINATION BANNED IN APPOINTMENT TO PUBLIC EMPLOYMENT

266

PAPUA NEW GUINEA 1964

Right to vote: February 15, 1964

Right to stand for election: February 27, 1963


Independence: 1975


Parliament name: National Parliament

DATE WOMEN %

2017-07

2012-06

2002-06

1997-06

1987-07

1982-06

1977-07

1972-03

0

3

1

2

0

1

3

1

0%

2.7%

0.92%

1.83%

0%

0.92%

2.8%

1%

Chamber name: National Parliament


Directly elected


Prior to independence, under Australian administration, women were granted the right to vote on 15 February 1964: this

right was confirmed at independence. In 1972, Josephine Abaijah (1940- ) became the first woman to be elected to the

Papua New Guinea House of Assembly. Abaijah was re-elected in 1977 with two other women: Nahau Rooney and Waliyato

Clowes (Kerryn Baker, “Pacific Women in Politics: Gender Quota Campaigns in the Pacific Islands”).


1. INTEGRAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

We declare our first goal to be for every person to be dynamically involved in the process of freeing himself from every form

of domination or oppression so that each man or woman will have the opportunity to develop as a whole person in

relationship with others. OPPORTUNITY TO DEVELOP AS A WHOLE PERSON IN RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHERS

…

2. EQUALITY AND PARTICIPATION

We declare our second goal to be for all citizens to have an equal opportunity to participate in, and benefit from, the

development of our country.

WE ACCORDINGLY CALL FOR:

… EQUAL PARTICIPATION IN ALL POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS ACTIVITIES

5. equal participation by women citizens in all political, economic, social and religious activities; and

…

12. recognition of the principles that a complete relationship in marriage rests on equality of rights and duties of the

partners, and that responsible parenthood is based on that equality. MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

5. PAPUA NEW GUINEAN WAYS

Basic Rights DISCRIMINATION BANNED

WE HEREBY ACKNOWLEDGE that, subject to any restrictions imposed by law on noncitizens, all persons in our country are

entitled to the fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual, that is to say, the right, whatever their race, tribe,

places of origin, political opinion, colour, creed or sex, but subject to respect for the rights and freedoms of others and for

267

PAPUA NEW GUINEA 1964

the legitimate public interest, to each of the following:

a. life, liberty, security of the person and the protection of the law; and

b. the right to take part in political activities; and

c. freedom from inhuman treatment and forced labour; and

d. freedom of conscience, of expression, of information and of assembly and association; and

e. freedom of employment and freedom of movement; and

f. protection for the privacy of their homes and other property and from unjust deprivation of property,

…

PART I: INTRODUCTORY

55. EQUALITY OF CITIZENS EQUAL RIGHTS

1. Subject to this Constitution, all citizens have the same rights, privileges, obligations and duties irrespective of race,

tribe, place of origin, political opinion, colour, creed, religion or sex.

2. Subsection (1) does not prevent the making of laws for the special benefit, welfare, protection or advancement of females,

children and young persons, members of under-privileged or less advanced groups or residents of less advanced areas.

101. MEMBERSHIP

1. Subject to this section, the Parliament is a single-chamber legislature, consisting of:

… ELECTORAL QUOTA

d. a number of women elected from a single-member women's electorates as defined under an Organic Law.

126. ELECTIONS

…

3. The members of the Parliament (other than the nominated members) shall be elected under a system of universal, adult,

citizen suffrage in accordance with Section 50 (right to vote and stand for public office) and the other Constitutional Laws,

and the voting age is 18 years.


SCHEDULE 1: RULES FOR SHORTENING AND INTERPRETATION OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL LAWS

Sch.1.8: Gender and number

In a Constitutional Law

a. words importing the masculine gender include females; and

b. words in the singular include the plural and words in the plural include the singular.

IN THE CONSTITUTIONAL LAW MASCULINE WORDS INCLUDE FEMALE GENDER

268

PARAGUAY 1961




Parliament name: Congreso (Congress)


Deputies)



Directly elected


quotas. Parties are required to ensure the participation of

no less than 20 percent women in elective offices, and one

of every five candidates must be a woman.

Legal source: Cf. Article 32, lett. q, of Electoral Code (Codigo

Electoral).




Directly elected


Parties are required to ensure the participation of no less

than 20 percent women in elective offices, and one of every

five candidates must be a woman.

Legal source: Cf. Article 32, lett. q, of Electoral Code (Codigo

Electoral).

DATE WOMEN %

2018-06

2018-05

2016-12

2014-01

2013-04

2010-01

2009-01

2008-04

1998-04

1993-05

1989-05

1988-02

1983-02

1978-02

1973-02

1963-04

1948-01

12

11

11

12

14

10

7

10

8

2

4

2

1

2

3

2

0

15%

13.75%

13.75%

15%

17.5%

12.5%

15.56%

12.5%

10%

2.5%

5.56%

2.78%

1.67%

3.33%

5%

3.33%

0%

DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2018-06

2018-05

2013-04

2008-04

2007-01

2003-04

2000-01

1999-02

1993-05

1988-02

1968-02

9

8

9

9

7

6

4

5

8

5

2

1

20%

17.78%

20%

20%

15.56%

13.33%

8.89%

12.2%

17.78%

11.11%

5.56%

3.33%


Article 27: Of the Use of the Mass Media of SocialCommunication

The use of the mass communication media is of public interest; in consequence, their functioning may not be closed or

suspended.

… REGULATION OF THE PUBLICITY OF MASS MEDIA TO THE EFFECT OF BEST PROTECTING THE RIGHTS OF THE WOMAN

The law will regulate the publicity to the effect of best protecting the rights of the child, of youth, of the illiterate, of the

consumer, and of the woman.

Article 48: Of the Equality of Rights of Men and Women EQUAL CIVIL, POLITICAL, SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND CULTURAL RIGHTS

Men and women have equal civil, political, social, economic and cultural rights. The State will promote the conditions

269

PARAGUAY 1961

and will create the adequate mechanisms for, making equality real and effective, by leveling [allanando] the obstacles that

prevent or hinder its exercise and facilitating the participation of women in all areas [ámbitos] of the national life.

FACILITATING THE PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN ALL AREAS OF THE NATIONAL LIFE

Article 50: Of the Right to Constitute [a] Family

All persons have the right to constitute [a] family, in whose formation and development the man and the woman will have

the same rights and obligations. FAMILY EQUALITY

Article 53: Of Children

…

The laws will regulate the assistance that should be given to the large family [familia de prole numerosa] and to women

who head families. ASSISTANCE TO WOMEN WHO HEAD FAMILIES

Article 55: Of Maternity and Paternity

Responsible maternity and paternity will be protected by the State, which will promote the creation of [the] necessary

institutions to these ends. PROTECTION OF MATERNITY

Article 61: Of Family Planning and of Maternal-Child Health [Care]

… SPECIAL PLANS OF MATERNAL-CHILD HEALTH

Special plans of reproductive health and maternal-child health [care] for people of scarce resources will be established.

Article 88: Of Nondiscrimination

No kind of discrimination will be admitted between the workers for motives of ethnic, gender [sexo], age, religion, social

status and political or syndical preferences. DISCRIMINATION BANNED AT WORK

The work of persons with limitations or physical or mental incapacities will be especially protected [amparado].

Article 89: Of the Work of Women EQUAL RIGHTS AT WORK ASSISTANCE SERVICES AND MATERNITY LEAVE

The workers of both sexes have the same labor rights and obligations, but maternity will be subject to special

protection, that will include the assistance services and the corresponding leaves of absence [descansos], which will not be

less than 12 weeks. A woman may not be terminated [despedida] during the pregnancy, or as long as the leaves of

absence for maternity continue. KEEPING JOB DURING PREGNANCY AND MATERNITY

…

Article 118: Of Suffrage

Suffrage is [a] right, [a] duty, and [a] function of the elector. It constitutes the basis of the democratic and representative

regime. It is founded on the universal, free, direct, equal, and secret vote; in the public and supervised [fiscalizado] ballot,

and in the proportional representation system. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Article 115: Of the Bases of Agrarian Reform and of Rural Development

Agrarian reform and rural development are effected in accordance with the following bases:

… AGRARIAN REFORM AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT SUPPORT TO THE PEASANT WOMAN, ESPECIALLY TO WHO IS HEAD OF THE FAMILY

9. support to the peasant woman, especially to who is head of [the] family;

10. the participation of the peasant woman, in equality with the man, in the plans of agrarian reform;

… PARTICIPATION OF THE PEASANT WOMAN IN THE PLANS OF AGRARIAN REFORM

Article 117: Of the Political Rights DISCRIMINATION BANNED TO PARTICIPATE IN PUBLIC MATTERS

The citizens, without distinction of gender [sexo], have the right to participate in public matters, directly or through their

representatives, in the form determined by this Constitution and the laws.

The access of women to public functions shall be promoted. PROMOTION OF ACCESS TO PUBLIC FUNCTIONS

Article 129: Of the Military Service

…

Women will only provide [prestarán] military service as auxiliaries in the case of necessity, during [an] armed international

conflict.

…

270

PERU 1955




Parliament name: Congreso de la República (Congress of

the Republic)

Chamber name: Congreso de la República (Congress of the Republic)


Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Legislated candidate quotas. Candidate lists in each electoral district must include at least

30% women candidates. In the candidate list with three candidates, at least one of them must be a woman.

Legal source: Cf. Laws 26859, 27683 and 26864.

DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2016-07

2016-04

2014-01

2011-04

2009-01

2006-04

2001-04

2000-04

1998-01

1997-12

1990-07

1985-07

1980-07

1963-07

1962-06

1956-07

1945-01

39

36

34

29

28

33

35

22

24

12

13

12

10

13

2

5

8

0

30%

27.69%

26.15%

22.31%

21.54%

27.5%

29.17%

18.33%

20%

10%

10.83%

6.67%

5.56%

7.22%

1.43%

3.4%

4.4%

0%

In 1956, Matilde Pérez Palacio, Manuela Candelaria Billinghurst, Lola Blanco de la Rosa

Sánchez, Alicia Blanco Montesinos, Eleonora Silva Silva, María Mercedes Colina Lozano de

Gotuzzo, Juana Ubillús de Palacios and Carlota Ramos de Santolaya were elected deputies;

Irene Silva de Santolalla was elected senator.


Article 2

Every person has the right:

…

2. To equality before the law. No person shall be discriminated against on the basis of origin, race, sex, language, religion,

opinion, economic situation, or any other distinguishing feature. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

Article 4

The community and the State extend special protection to children, adolescents, mothers, and the elderly in situation of

abandonment. They also protect the family and promote marriage, which are recognized as natural and fundamental

institutions of society. SPECIAL PROTECTION OF MOTHERS

…

271

PERU 1955

Article 23

Work, in its diverse forms, is a matter of priority concern for the State, which provides special protection for working

mothers, minors, and persons with disabilities. SPECIAL PROTECTION FOR WORKING MOTHERS

…

Article 176

The electoral system has the purpose of ensuring that elections express the free, authentic, and spontaneous will of citizens,

and that the vote count mirrors the accurate and timely reflection of the will of voters expressed at the polls by direct

suffrage. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

…

Article 191

…

The law determines the minimum percentages to facilitate representation of women, rural and indigenous communities,

and aboriginal peoples in regional councils. The same applies for municipal councils.

FACILITATING REPRESENTATION IN REGIONAL COUNCILS

PHILIPPINES 1937



Independence: 1946


Parliament name: Kongreso (Congress)

Chamber name: Kapulungan Ng Mga Kinatawan (House

of Representatives)



Directly elected





Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2019-05

2016-12

2016-05

2013-05

2011-01

2010-05

2009-11

2007-11

2007-06

2007-05

2006-11

2004-05

2001-05

1998-01

1997-11

1995-05

1992-05

1987-05

1978-04

1969-11

1965-11

1961-11

1957-11

1953-11

1946-04

1941-11

85

86

87

79

62

49

56

49

53

49

36

37

38

25

24

22

23

20

11

3

6

2

1

2

1

1

27.96%

29.45%

29.29%

27.34%

22.14%

21.4%

20.97%

20.42%

22.46%

20.42%

15.25%

15.68%

17.76%

11.26%

11.06%

8.8%

10.65%

9.09%

5.5%

2.75%

5.5%

1.89%

0.97%

1.94%

1.01%

1.02%

DATE WOMEN %

2019-05

2013-05

2010-05

2004-05

2001-05

1992-05

1987-05

1971-11

1969-11

1967-11

1961-11

1957-11

1955-11

1949-11

1947-11

1946-04

7

6

3

4

3

4

2

1

0

2

1

0

1

0

1

0

29.17%

25%

13.04%

16.67%

12.5%

16.67%

8.33%

12.5%

0%

25%

12.5%

0%

12.5%

0%

12.5%

0%

Prior to independence, under US administration, women were granted the right to vote on 30 April 1937 by the Plebiscite

Law, Commonwealth Act No. 34. This right was confirmed at independence. Elisa Rosales Ochoa (1897-1978) became the first

woman elected to the House of Representatives on 11 November 1941.

PHILIPPINES 1937


ARTICLE II: DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES AND STATE POLICIES PRINCIPLES

PRINCIPLES

Sec 12

The State recognizes the sanctity of family life and shall protect and strengthen the family as a basic autonomous social

institution. It shall equally protect the life of the mother and the life of the unborn from conception. …

… PROTECTION OF THE LIFE OF THE MOTHER

Sec 14

The State recognizes the role of women in nation-building, and shall ensure the fundamental equality before the law

of women and men. RECOGNIZING THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN NATION-BUILDING EQUAL BEFORE THE LAW

ARTICLE V: SUFFRAGE

Sec 1

Suffrage may be exercised by all citizens of the Philippines not otherwise disqualified by law, who are at least eighteen years

of age, and who shall have resided in the Philippines for at least one year and in the place wherein they propose to vote for

at least six months immediately preceding the election. No literacy, property, or other substantive requirement shall be

imposed on the exercise of suffrage. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE WITHOUT RESTRICTIONS

ARTICLE VI: LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT

Sec 5

1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of not more than two hundred and fifty members…

2. The party-list representatives shall constitute twenty per centum of the total number of representatives including those

under the party list. For three consecutive terms after the ratification of this Constitution, one-half of the seats allocated to

party-list representatives shall be filled, as provided by law, by selection or election from the labor, peasant, urban poor,

indigenous cultural communities, women, youth, and such other sectors as may be provided by law, except the religious

sector.

…

ARTICLE XIII: SOCIAL JUSTICE AND HUMAN RIGHTS

…

HEALTH

Sec 11

The State shall adopt an integrated and comprehensive approach to health development which shall endeavor to make

essential goods, health and other social services available to all the people at affordable cost. There shall be priority for

the needs of the underprivileged sick, elderly, disabled, women, and children. The State shall endeavor to provide free

medical care to paupers.

…

WOMEN

Sec 14

PRIORITY IN ENJOYMENT OF ESSENTIAL GOODS, HEALTH AND OTHER SOCIAL SERVICES

The State shall protect working women by providing safe and healthful working conditions, taking into account their

maternal functions, and such facilities and opportunities that will enhance their welfare and enable them to realize their full

potential in the service of the nation. SAFE AND HEALTHFUL WORKING CONDITIONS MATERNAL FUNCTIONS AND WELFARE

274

POLAND 1918




Parliament name: Zgromadzenie Narodowe (National

Assembly)

Chamber name: Sejm



Directly elected


quotas. The number of candidates who are women cannot

be less than 35% of all candidates on the list. The number of

candidates who are men cannot be less than 35% of all

candidates on the list.

Legal source: Cf. Article 211 of Electoral Code (amended

January, 2011).




Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2019-10

2018-12

2016-12

2015-10

2014-01

2011-10

2005-09

2001-09

1993-09

1991-10

1989-06

1985-10

1980-03

1976-03

1972-03

1969-06

1965-05

1961-04

1957-02

1952-11

1947-02

132

134

129

126

112

110

94

93

60

44

62

93

106

95

73

62

57

60

19

75

0

28.7%

29.13%

28.04%

27.39%

24.35%

23.91%

20.43%

20.22%

13.04%

9.57%

13.48%

20.22%

23.04%

20.65%

15.87%

13.48%

12.39%

13.04%

4.14%

17.65%

0%

DATE WOMEN %

2019-10

2016-12

2011-10

2007-10

2005-10

2005-09

2001-09

2000

1999

1998

1993-09

1991-10

1989-06

24

14

13

8

13

14

23

11

12

11

13

8

7

24%

14%

13%

8%

13%

14%

23%

11%

12%

11%

13%

8%

7%

In 1919, Gabriela Balicka (1871-1962), Jadwiga Dziubińska (1874-1937), Irena Kosmowska, Maria Moczydłowska, Zofia

Gostkowska Moraczewska (1873-1958), Anna Piasecka (1882-1980), Zofia Sokolnicka, Franciszka Wilczkowiakowa and Roza

Pomerantz-Meltzer (1884-1930) became the first women elected to the Sejm. In 1928, Zofia Emilia Daszyńska-Golińska

(1866-1934) became the first woman elected to the Senate.

275

POLAND 1918


Article 18

Marriage, being a union of a man and a woman, as well as the family, motherhood and parenthood, shall be placed under

the protection and care of the Republic of Poland. PROTECTION AND CARE OF MOTHERHOOD

Article 33

1. Men and women shall have equal rights in family, political, social and economic life in the Republic of Poland.

2. Men and women shall have equal rights, in particular, regarding education, employment and promotion, and shall

have the right to equal compensation for work of similar value, to social security, to hold offices, and to receive public

honours and decorations. EQUAL RIGHTS IN FAMILY, POLITICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC LIFE EQUAL PAY FOR WORK

EQUAL RIGHTS IN EDUCATION, EMPLOYMENT AND PROMOTION

RIGHT TO SOCIAL SECURITY, HOLD OFFICES AND RECEIVE PUBLIC HONOURS

Article 68

…

3. Public authorities shall ensure special health care to children, pregnant women, handicapped people and persons of

advanced age. SPECIAL HEALTH CARE TO PREGNANT WOMEN

…

Article 71

…

2. A mother, before and after birth, shall have the right to special assistance from public authorities, to the extent

specified by statute. SPECIAL ASSISTANCE BEFORE AND AFTER BIRTH

Article 96

1. The Sejm shall be composed of 460 Deputies. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

2. Elections to the Sejm shall be universal, equal, direct and proportional and shall be conducted by secret ballot.

Article 97

1. The Senate shall be composed of 100 Senators. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

2. Elections to the Senate shall be universal, direct and shall be conducted by secret ballot.

Article 233

…

2. Limitation of the freedoms and rights of persons and citizens only by reason of race, gender, language, faith or lack

of it, social origin, ancestry or property shall be prohibited.


276

PORTUGAL 1976




Parliament name: Assembleia da Republica (Assembly of

the Republic)

Chamber name: Assembleia da Republica (Assembly of the Republic)


Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Legislated candidate quotas. Candidate lists must include a minimum of 33% women and

33% men.

Legal source: Cf. Organic Law 3 of 2006 (Lei Orgânica n.º 3/2006).

DATE WOMEN %

2019-12

2019-10

2018-12

2015-11

2014-01

2012-01

2011-12

2011-06

2010-01

2009-09

2008-01

2007-01

2005-02

2002-03

1999-10

1995-10

1991-10

1987-07

1985-10

1983-04

1979-12

1976-04

1973-10

1965-11

1961-11

1945-11

92

89

82

80

72

61

66

61

63

64

49

65

49

44

43

30

20

19

16

18

17

13

9

4

3

2

40%

38.7%

35.65%

34.78%

31.3%

26.52%

28.7%

26.52%

27.39%

27.83%

21.3%

28.26%

21.3%

19.13%

18.7%

13.04%

8.7%

7.6%

6.4%

7.2%

6.8%

4.94%

6.08%

3.08%

2.31%

1.67%

In 1931, women were given the right to vote and stand for election, with the restriction that they had to have completed

secondary or higher education (men only had to know how to read and write). All citizens who were literate were granted

the right to vote and stand for election in 1934. In 1934, Domitila Hormizinda Miranda de Carvalho (1871-1966), Maria

Baptista dos Santos Guardiola (1895-1987) and Maria Cândida de Bragança Parreira (1877-1942) became the first women

elected to the Assembleia Nacional (Maria Sousa Galito, “Women in politics - Portugal as a case study”).

Some restrictions on women, however, remained for election to certain local administrative bodies under a 1968 law. Full

equality of the sexes with regard to the franchise and right of election to all bodies was achieved in 1976.

277

PORTUGAL 1976


Article 9: Fundamental tasks of the state

The fundamental tasks of the state shall be:

…

h. To promote equality between men and women.

PROMOTION OF EQUALITY

Article 10: Universal suffrage and political parties

1. The people shall exercise political power by means of universal, equal, direct, secret and periodic suffrage, referendum

and the other forms provided for in this Constitution. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

…

Article 13: Principle of equality

1. Every citizen shall possess the same social dignity and shall be equal before the law.

2. No one shall be privileged, favoured, prejudiced, deprived of any right or exempted from any duty on the basis of

ancestry, sex, race, language, place of origin, religion, political or ideological beliefs, education, economic situation, social

circumstances or sexual orientation. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Article 36: Family, marriage and filiation

1. Everyone shall possess the right to found a family and to marry on terms of full equality.

2. The law shall regulate the requirements for and the effects of marriage and its dissolution by death or divorce, regardless

of the form in which it was entered into.

3. Spouses shall possess equal rights and duties in relation to their civil and political capacity and to the maintenance and

education of their children. MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY


…

b. Equal opportunities in the choice of profession or type of work, and the conditions needed to avoid the gender-based

preclusion or limitation of access to any position, work or professional category;

… AVOIDANCE OF GENDER-BASED PRECLUSION OR LIMITATION TO ACCESS TO ANY POSITION, WORK OR PROFESSIONAL CATEGORY

Article 59: Workers' rights

1. Regardless of age, sex, race, citizenship, place of origin, religion and political and ideological convictions, every worker

shall possess the right:

a. To the remuneration of his work in accordance with its volume, nature and quality, with respect for the principle of equal

pay for equal work and in such a way as to guarantee a proper living; EQUAL PAY FOR WORK

b. That work be organised in keeping with social dignity and in such a way as to provide personal fulfilment and to make

it possible to reconcile professional and family life; SOCIAL DIGNITY AT WORK PROVIDING PERSONAL FULFILMENT

RECONCILING PROFESSIONAL AND FAMILY LIFE

c. To work in conditions that are hygienic, safe and healthy; WORKING CONDITIONS RESPECT HYGIENE, SAFETY AND HEALTH

d. To rest and leisure time, a maximum limit on the working day, a weekly rest period and periodic paid holidays;

RIGHT TO REST AND LEISURE TIME

e. To material assistance when he involuntarily finds himself unemployed;

MATERIAL ASSISTANCE FOR THE INVOLUNTARILY UNEMPLOYED

f. To assistance and fair reparation when he is the victim of a work-related accident or occupational illness.

ASSISTANCE AND FAIR REPARATION FOR THE VICTIMS OF A WORK-RELATED ACCIDENT OR OCCUPATIONAL ILLNESS

2. The state shall be charged with ensuring the working, remuneratory and rest-related conditions to which workers are

entitled, particularly by:

…

c. Ensuring special work-related protection for women during pregnancy and following childbirth, as well as for

minors, the disabled and those whose occupations are particularly strenuous or take place in unhealthy, toxic or dangerous

conditions; SPECIAL WORK-RELATED PROTECTION DURING PREGNANCY AND FOLLOWING CHILDBIRTH

…

Article 67: Family

…

2. In order to protect the family, the state shall particularly be charged with:

…

d. With respect for individual freedom, guaranteeing the right to family planning by promoting the information and access

to the methods and means required therefore, and organising such legal and technical arrangements as are needed for

motherhood and fatherhood to be consciously planned;

… RIGHT TO MOTHERHOOD

278

PORTUGAL 1976

Article 68: Fatherhood and motherhood

1. In performing their irreplaceable role in relation to their children, particularly as regards the children's education, fathers

and mothers shall possess the right to protection by society and the state, together with the guarantee of their own

professional fulfilment and participation in civic life.

2. Motherhood and fatherhood shall constitute eminent social values.

3. Women shall possess the right to special protection during pregnancy and following childbirth, and female workers

shall also possess the right to an adequate period of leave from work without loss of remuneration or any privileges.

SPECIAL WORK-RELATED PROTECTION DURING PREGNANCY AND FOLLOWING CHILDBIRTH MATERNITY LEAVE

4. The law shall regulate the grant to mothers and fathers of an adequate period of leave from work, in accordance with

the interests of the child and the needs of the family unit.

Article 109: Citizens' participation in politics

The direct and active participation in politics by men and women is a fundamental instrument in the consolidation of the

democratic system, and the law shall promote both equality in the exercise of civic and political rights and the absence

of gender-based discrimination in access to political office.

PROMOTION OF EQUALITY IN THE EXERCIZE OF CIVIC AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

ABSENCE OF GENDER-BASED DISCRIMINATION IN ACCESS TO POLITICAL OFFICE

279

QATAR 2003

Right to vote and to stand for election: 2003*


Independence: 1971


Parliament name: Majlis Al-Shura (Shura Council)

Chamber name: Majlis Al-Shura (Shura Council)


Appointed by the Emir.


DATE WOMEN %

2017-11 4 9.76%

2005-06 0 0%

280

*Women exercised their right to vote for the first time in the 1999 Municipal council elections; they were granted the right to

vote in municipal elections in 1998. In 2003 the right was extended to stand for Shura Council (the members are not elected

but appointed by the Emir). As at 2019 no legislative elections were ever held: men and women aged over 18 are eligible to

vote for 30 of the 45 seats in the Consultative Assembly according to the 2003 Constitution of Qatar. In 2017, Hind Abdul

Rahman al-Muftah, Hessa Sultan al-Jaber, Reem al-Mansoori and Aisha Yousef al-Mannai were appointed as members of

Shura Council.


Article 1 SUBJECT TO THE RELIGION

Qatar is an Arab State, sovereign and independent. Its religion is Islam, and the Islamic Law is the main source of its

legislations. Its system is democratic, and its official language is the Arabic language. The people of Qatar are part of the Arab

Nation.

Article 9

The Prince appoints the Heir Apparent by a Princely Order after consultation with the Ruling Family and the notables in the

Country. The Heir Apparent must be a Moslem, from a Qatari Moslem mother.

Article 10

On his appointment before this Prince, the Heir Apparent takes the following oath: "I swear by God, the Great, to respect the

Islamic Law, the Constitution, and the Law, and to maintain the independence of the Country, and to safeguard its territorial

integrity, and to protect the People's freedoms and interests, and to be loyal to the Homeland and the Prince."

Article 21

The family is the nucleus of society. Its pillars are the religion, morals, and love of the Homeland. The law regulates the means

capable of its protection, maintaining its structure, strengthening its ties, and safeguarding motherhood, childhood, and

old age within its framework. SAFEGUARDING MOTHERHOOD

Article 35

People are equal before the law. There shall be no discrimination against them because of sex, race, language, or religion.


ROMANIA 1946

Right to vote and to stand for election: July 1946



Parliament name: Parlamentul României (Parliament of

Romania)

Chamber name: Camera Deputatilor (Chamber of

Deputies)




Other (17): if a legally established national minority does

not win any seats in either chamber of Parliament, the

citizens' organization representing that national minority is

entitled to one seat in the Chamber of Deputies (under

certain conditions). There are 19 legally established

national minorities; the Czech and Slovak minorities are

represented by one person. A maximum of 18 seats can

therefore be allocated to national minorities.

Chamber name: Senatul (Senate)



Directly elected


quotas.

Legal source: cf. individual party statutes and Law 202/2002.


quotas.

Legal source: cf. individual party statutes and Law

202/2002.

DATE WOMEN %

2019-10

2016-12

2012-01

2007-01

2006-01

2004-11

2000-11

1997-11

1997-01

1996-11

1990-05

1985-03

1980-03

1975-03

1965

1961

1957

1952

1948

1946-11

72

68

55

38

37

38

37

25

23

25

14

127

122

53

67

77

71

65

30

22

21.88%

20.67%

13.35%

11.45%

11.18%

11.45%

10.72%

7.29%

7.01%

7.29%

3.62%

34.42%

33.06%

15.19%

14.41%

16.56%

16.25%

15.37%

7.25%

5.31%

DATE WOMEN %

2017-02

2016-12

2012-01

2008-11

2007-01

2004-12

2004-11

2000-11

1997-11

1997-01

1996-11

1992-09

1990-05

19

20

13

8

14

13

8

11

2

3

2

3

1

13.97%

14.71%

7.39%

5.84%

10.22%

9.49%

5.71%

7.86%

1.4%

2.1%

1.4%

2.1%

0.84%

Women had restricted electoral rights from 1929; under the same conditions as men from July 1946.

281

ROMANIA 1946


Article 4: The Unity of the People and Equality Among Citizens

…

2. Romania is the common and indivisible homeland of all its citizens regardless of race, ethnic origin, language, religion,

sex, opinion, political allegiance, wealth, or social origin. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Article 16: Equality of Rights

1. Citizens are equal before the law and before public authorities, with no privileges and with no discrimination.

2. No one is above the law.

3. Access to public, civil, or military offices and honors is granted, in accordance with the law, to persons of Romanian

citizenship with a domicile in the country. The Romanian State shall guarantee equal opportunities for men and women to

accede to such offices and honors. EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES TO ACCEDE TO PUBLIC, CIVIL OR MILITARY OFFICES AND HONORS

…

Article 41: Labor and the Social Protection of Labor

…

2. All employees are entitled to measures of social protection. Such measures concern employees' safety and health,

working conditions for women and young people, the establishment of a national minimum wage, the weekly time off,

paid annual holidays, work under difficult or special conditions, and other specific situations, as defined by law.

… WORKING CONDITIONS FOR WOMEN

4. Women receive the same pay as men for equal work. EQUAL PAY FOR WORK

…

Article 47: The Standard of Living

…

2. Citizens have the right to pensions, paid maternity leave, medical care in public health centers, unemployment benefits,

and other forms of public or private social security, as provided by the law. Citizens have the right to social assistance in

accordance with the law. PAID MATERNITY LEAVE

Article 48: The Family

1. The family is based on a freely consented marriage by the spouses, their full equality, and the right and duty of the

parents to raise, educate, and instruct their children.

…

MARRIAGE BASED ON FREE WILL MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

Article 62: Election of the Chambers

1. The Chamber of Deputies and the Senate are elected by universal, equal, direct, secret, and free suffrage, in accordance

with the electoral law. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

…

282

RUSSIA 1918

Right to vote and to stand for election: June 1918


Independence: 1990


Parliament name: Federalnoye Sobraniye (Federal

Assembly)

Chamber name: Gossoudarstvennaya Duma (State

Duma)



Directly elected


Chamber name: Soviet Federatsii (Council of the

Federation)



Appointed members: Regional representatives appointed by

legislative bodies of constituent entities of the Russian

Federation. The President may appoint up to 10 per cent

(currently 17) of the members to the Council of the

Federation. However, no President has ever appointed any

members.


DATE WOMEN %

2016-12

2016-09

2011-12

2006-01

2002-01

1999-12

1998-01

1997-12

1993-01

1990-03

71

57

61

63

46

34

60

46

60

11

15.78%

12.67%

13.56%

14%

10.22%

7.57%

13.36%

10.22%

13.36%

8.73%

DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2014-12

2012-01

2007-12

2003-12

1998-01

1997-12

1993-12

1990-03

31

29

13

8

10

9

1

9

11

18.24%

17.06%

7.98%

4.73%

5.65%

5.11%

0.56%

5.11%

8.73%

Provisional Government ratified the Official Clause about the elections to the constituent Assembly of Russia. The first nine

women were elected to the 767-seat legislative body on 25 November 1917 (Peter Roudik). The Constitution of 1918, after the

Revolution, confirmed the right to vote and to stand for elections.


Article 19

1. All persons shall be equal before the law and the court. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

2. The State guarantees the equality of human and civil rights and freedoms regardless of sex, race, nationality,

language, origin, material and official status, place of residence, attitude to religion, convictions, membership of public

associations, or of other circumstances. All forms of limitations of human rights on social, racial, national, language or

religious grounds shall be prohibited.

3. Men and women shall enjoy equal rights and freedoms and equal opportunities to exercise them.

EQUAL RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS AND EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES TO EXERCIZE THEM

Article 81

1. The President of the Russian Federation shall be elected for six years by citizens of the Russian Federation on the basis of

universal, equal, direct suffrage by secret ballot. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

…

283

RWANDA 1978



Independence: 1962


Parliament name: Parliament (Parlement)

Chamber name: Chambre des Députés (Chamber of

Deputies)




Indirectly elected (27): 24 women by electoral colleges

from each Province and the City of Kigali; 2 members

elected by the National Youth Council; 1 member elected

by the Federation of the Associations of the Disabled.

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Twenty four (24) female

Deputies shall be elected by specific organs in accordance

with national administrative entities. A Presidential Order

shall determine a national administrative entity and the

number of women Deputies to be elected at each entity. At

each entity through which election has been conducted,

candidates who obtain more votes shall be considered as

elected

Legal source: Constitution, art. 75; Article 109 of Organic

Law 03/2010/OL of 18 June 2010 governing presidential

and legislative elections.




Indirectly elected members (18): 12 members (one per

Province and the City of Kigali) indirectly elected by

members of the Executive Committees of Sectors and

District, Municipality, Town or City Councils; 4 members

elected by the Forum of Political Organizations; 2 university

lecturers indirectly elected by the academic and research

staff of public and private universities and institutions of

higher education.

Appointed members (8): 8 members appointed by the

President.

In addition, former Heads of State become members of the

Senate upon their request.

Electoral quota for women: Yes. At least 30 per cent of

members must be women.


DATE WOMEN %

2018-09

2016-12

2013-09

2008-09

2003-09

1994-11

1988-12

1983-12

1981-12

1965-12

49

49

51

45

39

3

12

9

4

1

61.25%

61.25%

63.75%

56.25%

48.75%

4.29%

17.14%

12.86%

6.25%

2.1%

DATE WOMEN %

2019-09

2011-09

2005-01

2004-01

2003-09

10

10

6

9

6

38.46%

38.46%

23.07%

34.62%

23.07%

Prior to independence, the Legislative Decree of Rwanda - Urundi (L.D.R.U.) N° 02/269, issued by the Belgian administration

of the UN Trust territory on 17 August 1961 (and first exercised in the legislative elections on 25 September 1961) granted

universal suffrage to women. This right was confirmed at independence when suffrage was granted in the 1962 Constitution.

In 1961 the right to stand for election was granted for all positions except that of President (granted in 1978, in the new

constitution). In 1965, Angele Mukakayange became the first woman elected to Parliament (Swanee Hunt, “Rwandan Women

Rising”; Gretchen Bauer, “Gender and the Judiciary in Africa: From Obscurity to Parity?”).

284

RWANDA 1978


Preamble

…

COMMITTED to building a State governed by the rule of law, based on the respect for human rights, freedom and on the

principle of equality of all Rwandans before the law as well as equality between men and women;

… EQUALITY

Article 2: Suffrage

Suffrage is universal and equal for all Rwandans. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

All Rwandans, both men and women, fulfilling the requirements provided for by law, have the right to vote and to be

elected. RIGHT TO VOTE AND TO STAND FOR ELECTION

…

Article 10: Fundamental principles

…

4°. building a State governed by the rule of law, a pluralistic democratic Government, equality of all Rwandans and between

men and women which is affirmed by women occupying at least thirty percent (30%) of positions in decision-making

organs; RESERVED SEATS IN DECISION-MAKING ORGANS

…

Article 16: Protection from discrimination

All Rwandans are born and remain equal in rights and freedoms. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Discrimination of any kind or its propaganda based on, inter alia, ethnic origin, family or ancestry, clan, skin colour or race,

sex, region, economic categories, religion or faith, opinion, fortune, cultural differences, language, economic status, physical

or mental disability or any other form of discrimination are prohibited and punishable by law.

Article 17: Right to marry and found a family

The right to marry and found a family is guaranteed by the law. SEXUAL DISCRIMINATION

A civil monogamous marriage between a man and a woman is the only recognised marital union.

…

No one can be married without his or her free and full consent. MARRIAGE BASED ON FREE WILL

Spouses are entitled to equal rights and obligations at the time of marriage, during the marriage and at the time of

divorce. MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

Article 18: Protection of the family

…

The State puts in place appropriate legislation and organs for the protection of the family, particularly the child and mother,

in order to ensure that the family flourishes. PROTECTION OF MOTHERS

Article 56: Obligations of political organisations

Political organisations must always reflect the unity of Rwandans as well as equality and complementarity of men and

women in the recruitment of members, in establishing their leadership organs, and in their functioning and activities.

… POLITICAL ORGANISATIONS: EQUALITY IN RECRUITMENT OF MEMBERS, ESTABLISHING LEADERSHIP ORGANS AND FUNCTIONING

Article 57: Prohibitions for political organisations POLITICAL ORGANISATIONS ARE PROHIBITED FROM BASING THEMSELVES ON SEX

Political organisations are prohibited from basing themselves on race, ethnic group, tribe, lineage, region, sex, religion or

any other division which may lead to discrimination.

Article 75: Composition of the Chamber of Deputies and election of its members UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

The Chamber of Deputies is composed of eighty (80) Deputies. They originate and are elected from the following categories:

1°. fifty-three (53) Deputies elected from a fixed list of names of candidates proposed by political organisations or

independent candidates elected by direct universal suffrage based on proportional representation;

2°. twenty- four (24) women elected by specific electoral colleges in accordance with the national administrative entities;

3°. two (2) Deputies elected by the National Youth Council; RESERVED SEATS IN CHAMBER OF DEPUTIES

4°. one (1) Deputy elected by the National Council of Persons with Disabilities.

The organic law governing elections may increase or decrease the number of Deputies or the categories mentioned in the

first paragraph of this Article.

At least thirty percent (30%) of Deputies must be women.

Article 80: Composition of the Senate

… The organs responsible for the nomination of Senators take into account national unity and the principle of gender equality.

285

RWANDA 1978

At least thirty percent (30%) of elected and appointed Senators must be women.

… RESERVED SEATS IN SENATE

Article 139: National commissions, specialised organs, national councils and public institutions

…

2°. Specialised organs:

…

c. Gender Monitoring Office; GENDER MONITORING OFFICE

…

3°. National Councils:

a. National Women Council; NATIONAL WOMEN COUNCIL

…

286

SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS 1951



Independence: 1983

Population: 52,823




Directly elected (11). Appointed (3): appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister and the leader

of the Opposition. Other (1): ex officio (the Attorney General when he is not an elected member).

The Speaker may be designated from outside the National Assembly and becomes a member of parliament by virtue of

holding the office of Speaker.


DATE WOMEN %

2015-02

2010-01

2008-01

2007-01

2004-10

1995-07

1984-06

2

1

0

1

0

2

1

13.33%

6.67%

0%

6.67%

0%

13.33%

6.67%


September 1951. These rights were confirmed at independence. In 1984, Constance Viola Mitcham (1947- ) became the first

woman elected to the National Assembly.



Whereas every person in Saint Christopher and Nevis is entitled to the fundamental rights and freedoms, that is to say, the

right, whatever his race, place of origin, birth, political opinions, colors, creed or sex, but subject to respect for the rights and

freedoms of others and for the public interest, to each and all of the following, namely: DISCRIMINATION BANNED

a. life, liberty, security of the person, equality before the law and the protection of the law;


c. protection for his personal privacy, the privacy of his home and other property and from deprivation of property without

compensation,

…

15. Protection from discrimination on grounds of race etc

…

3. In this section the expression "discriminatory" means affording different treatment to different persons attributable

wholly or mainly to their respective descriptions by race, place or origin, birth out of wedlock, political opinions or affiliations,

color, sex or creed whereby persons of one such description are subjected to disabilities or restrictions to which persons of

another such description are not made subject or are accorded privileges or advantages that are not accorded to persons of

another such descriptions.

287

SAINT LUCIA 1951



Independence: 1979

Population: 183,160

Parliament name: Houses of Parliament




Directly elected (17). Other (1): the Speaker may be

designated from outside parliament and becomes a

member of parliament by virtue of holding the office of

Speaker.





Appointed by the Governor General, on the advice of the

Prime Minister (6), the Leader of the Opposition (3) and the

Governor General (2).


DATE WOMEN %

2016-07

2016-06

2011-11

2010-01

2009

2008

2007-01

2006-12

2006-01

2001-12

1998-01

1997-11

1979-07

3

2

3

2

4

1

2

0

1

2

0

2

0

16.67%

11.76%

16.67%

11.11%

36.36%

5.56%

11.11%

0%

5.56%

11.11%

0%

11.76%

0%

DATE WOMEN %

2014-12

2007-01

2001-12

1997-11

1992-04

1987-04

1982-05

1979-07

3

2

4

2

4

2

3

2

27.27%

18.18%

36.36%

18.18%

36.36%

18.18%

27.27%

18.18%

Prior to independence, under British administration, women were granted the right to vote and stand for election in 1951.

These rights were first exercised on 12 October 1951 and confirmed at independence. In 1951, Marie Grace Augustin

(1897–1996) became the first woman nominated to serve on the Legislative Council.


Preamble

WHEREAS the People of Saint Lucia:

…

g. express their commitment to democracy, in particular the principle of a government freely elected on the basis of

universal adult suffrage. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

…

288

CHAPTER I: PROTECTION OF FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS

1. Whereas every person in Saint Lucia is entitled to the fundamental rights and freedoms, that is to say, the right,


SAINT LUCIA 1951

of others and for the public interest, to each and all of the following, namely: DISCRIMINATION BANNED

a. life, liberty, security of the person, equality before the law and the protection of the law;


c. protection for his family life, his personal privacy, the privacy of his home and other property and from deprivation of

property without compensation,

…

13.

…





…



specifically relating to sex, race, place of origin, political opinions, colour or creed) to be required of any person who is

appointed to or to act in any office or employment.

289

SAINT VINCENT AND THE GRENADINES 1951



Independence: 1979

Population: 110,589

Parliament name: House of Assembly



Directly elected (15). Appointed (6): Six members (senators) - 4 on the Government side and 2 from the opposition - are

appointed by the Governor General. Others (2): ex officio members are the Speaker and the Attorney General).


DATE WOMEN %

2014-01

2013-01

2011-01

2010-12

2009-01

2005-12

2001-03

1998-01

1989-05

1984-07

1979-12

3

3

4

3

5

4

5

1

2

1

2

13.04%

14.29%

18.18%

14.29%

21.74%

18.18%

22.73%

4.76%

9.52%

5.26%

10.53%

Prior to independence, under British administration, women were granted the right to vote on 5 May 1951. This right was

confirmed at independence. Ivy Joshua (1924 – 1992) was a Grenadian-born seamstress and politician, who was, in 1958, the

first woman elected to serve in the Legislative Council.



Whereas every person in Saint Vincent is entitled to the fundamental rights and freedoms, that is to say, the right,


of others and for the public interest, to each and all of the following, namely:





…

290


…





…

SAMOA 1990

Right to vote and to stand for election: October, 1990


Independence: 1961

Population: 197,651

Parliament name: Fono (Legislative Assembly)

Chamber name: Fono (Legislative Assembly)


Directly elected (49): 47 seats are reserved for ethnic Samoans; 2 seats are open to members of other communities.

Other (1): Additional member (woman) who became a member of the Legislative Assembly by virtue of the Constitution

Amendment Act 2013.

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Women shall constitute a minimum of 10% of the Members of the Legislative Assembly. This

provision will apply to the parliament to be elected in 2016.

Legal source: Constitution Amendment Act No. 17 of 2013

DATE WOMEN %

2016-03

2014-10

2011-03

2008-01

2006-12

2006-03

1998

1997

1996-04

1991-04

1988-02

1985-02

1979

1976-02

1970-02

1967-02

1964-04

5

3

2

4

3

4

3

2

3

2

1

2

1

2

1

0

0

10%

6.12%

4.08%

8.16%

6.12%

8.16%

6.12%

4.08%

6.12%

4.26%

2.13%

4.26%

2.13%

4.26%

2.13%

0%

2.13%

In 1948, prior to independence, under the administration of New Zealand, women were granted the right to vote and stand

for election, with restrictions: only matais and non-Samoan (of European or Chinese decent) men and women who had

completed all residence and citizenship formalities had the right to vote and stand for election. These rights were extended

to universal suffrage in 1990. In 1970, Leaupepe Taulapapa Fuatino Faimaala Vaovasamanaia Filipo became the first woman

elected to the Legislative Assembly.


15. Freedom from discriminatory legislation

1. All persons are equal before the law and entitled to equal protection under the law. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

2. Except as expressly authorised under the provisions of this Constitution, no law and no executive or administrative action

of the State shall, either expressly or in its practical application, subject any person or persons to any disability or restriction

or confer on any person or persons any privilege or advantage on grounds only of descent, sex, language, religion, political

291

SAMOA 1990

or other opinion, social origin, place of birth, family status, or any of them.

3. Nothing in this Article shall

a. prevent the prescription of qualifications for the service of Samoa or the service of a body corporate directly established

under the law; or

b. prevent the making of any provision for the protection or advancement of women or children or of any socially or

educationally retarded class of persons.

…

44. Members of the Legislative Assembly

1. Subject to the provisions of this Article, the Legislative Assembly shall consist of:

a. one member elected for each of 41 territorial constituencies having such names and boundaries and including such

villages or sub-villages or villages and sub-villages as are prescribed from time to time by Act:

aa. six additional members being one additional member elected for each of such 6 of those territorial constituencies as are

prescribed from time to time by Act;

b. two (2) members respectively elected, under the two (2) urban constituencies provided by Act, by persons whose names

appear on the urban constituency roll;

1A. Subject to this Article, women Members of the Legislative Assembly shall:

RESERVED SEATS IN LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY

a. consist of a minimum of 10% of the Members of the Legislative Assembly specified under clause (1) which for the

avoidance of doubt is presently five (5); and

b. be elected pursuant to clause (1) or become additional Members pursuant to clause (1B), (1D) or (1E).

1B. If, following any general election:

a. all members elected under clause (1) are men, the prescribed number of women candidates (if any) with the highest

number of votes shall become additional Members; or

b. less than the prescribed number of women candidates are elected under clause (1), the remaining prescribed number of

women candidates (if any) with the highest number of votes shall become additional Members for the purposes of clause

(1A).

1C. Clause (1B) does not apply if the prescribed number of women are all elected under clause (1).

1D. If the seat of an additional Member becomes vacant, it shall, despite Article 48, be filled by the woman candidate (if any)

who has the next highest number of votes at the last election or general election.

1E. Subject to Article 48, if a seat under clause (1) held by a woman becomes vacant, to which a man is elected to fill that

vacant seat, the woman candidate (if any) with the highest number of votes from that election or the last election or general

election shall become the additional Member.

1F. If, in the selection of the required number of women under clause (1B), (1D) or (1E), two (2) or more candidates have equal

number of votes, the additional Member shall be selected by lot before the Electoral Commissioner with the presence of the

candidates or their authorized representatives and at least two (2) police officers.

1G. If a woman candidate becomes an additional Member of a constituency (irrespective of a woman candidate being

elected to that constituency), no other woman candidate from the same constituency shall become an additional Member

unless there is no other woman candidate from any other constituency to make up the required prescribed number.

…

292

SAN MARINO 1973

Right to vote: April 29, 1959

Right to stand for election: September 10, 1973


Population: 33,860

Parliament name: Consiglio Grande e Generale (Great and

General Council)

Chamber name: Consiglio Grande e Generale (Great and General Council)


Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. No list may have more than two thirds of candidates of the same sex.

Legal source: Cf. Art. 15, Law No. 6/1996 (Electoral Law).

DATE WOMEN %

2019-12

2018-12

2017-01

2016-11

2014-12

2014-01

2012-11

2011-01

2009-01

2008-11

2006-06

2001-06

1998-05

1988-05

1983-05

1978-05

1974-09

1945-03

19

15

16

14

10

11

10

9

10

9

7

10

8

7

6

3

4

0

31.67%

25%

26.67%

23.33%

16.67%

18.33%

16.67%

15%

16.67%

15%

11.67%

16.67%

13.33%

11.67%

10%

5%

6.67%

0%

In 1974, the first women to be elected to the Great and General Council were: Clara Boscaglia (1930-1990), Fausta Simona

Morganti (1944- ), Anna Maria Casali and Marina Busignani Reffi (1930-2006).

DECLARATION OF CITIZENS' RIGHTS AND OF THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF THE

SAN MARINESE LEGAL ORDER OF 1974

Article 7

Suffrage shall be universal, secret and direct. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

All citizens of voting age who satisfy the conditions prescribed by law shall have the right to vote and to stand for election.

Article 12

The Republic shall safeguard the institution of the family, having its basis in the spouses' moral and legal equality.

All mothers shall be entitled to the community's assistance and protection.

… ASSISTANCE AND PROTECTION OF MOTHERS

293

SAO TOME AND PRINCIPE 1975



Independence: 1975

Population: 217,089

Parliament name: Assembleia Nacional (National

Assembly)

Chamber name: Assembleia Nacional (National Assembly)


Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. At least 30% of the candidates on the lists must be women.

Legal source: Resolution No. 74/VIII/09.

DATE WOMEN %

2018-10

2010-10

2008-01

2007-01

2006-03

1998-11

1994-10

1985-09

1980-05

1975-12

8

10

4

1

4

5

4

6

2

6

14.55%

18.18%

7.27%

1.82%

7.27%

9.09%

7.27%

11.76%

5%

18.18%


Article 15: Principles of Equality

1. All citizens are equal before the law, enjoy the same rights and are subject to the same obligations without distinction

as to social or racial origin, sex, political tendency, religious belief or philosophical conviction. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

2. Woman is equal to man in rights and obligations, being guaranteed to her full participation in political, economic,

social and cultural life.

EQUAL IN RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS FULL PARTICIPATION IN POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE

Article 51: Family

…

2. It is incumbent, especially, upon the State:

a. To promote the social and economic independence of households;

b. To promote the creation of a national network of maternal infant assistance;

… NATIONAL NETWORK OF MATERNAL INFANT ASSISTANCE

Article 58: Right to suffrage

All citizens of more than eighteen years have the right of suffrage, excepting incompetence as provided in the general law.

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

294

SAUDI ARABIA 2011

Women became eligible for unelected Shura: 2011

Right to vote and to stand for Municipal election: 2012



Parliament name: Majlis Ash-Shura (Shura Council)

Chamber name: Majlis Ash-Shura (Shura Council)


Appointed members: 150 members and the Speaker, appointed by the King.

Electoral quota for women: Yes, 30 seats. A January 2011 Royal Order amended the composition of the previously all-male

150-member Consultative Council by reserving 20% of its seats for women members. The Royal Order issued on 2 December

2016 provided that women shall be represented in the Council at a minimum level of 20% of its 150 members.

DATE WOMEN %

2013-01 30 19.87%

2005-04 0 0%

The law of 1977 granted universal suffrage to all citizens, without any specific restrictions on women. The Electoral law of

August 2004 granted universal unconditional suffrage. However, only men had the right to vote in the 2005 partial municipal

elections. Technical reasons, such as the difficulty of organizing a voting office for women, were quoted as the explanation

for why women did not take part. In September 2011, King Abdullah announced that women would be granted the right to

both vote and stand for election from 2012. In 2015 women participated for the first time in municipal elections: officials said

about 130,000 women had registered to vote in poll, compared with 1.35 million men. The disparity was attributed by female

voters to bureaucratic obstacles and a lack of transport. In 2011 King Abdullah also stated that women would become

eligible to take part in the unelected Shura.


Article 3

The Shura Council shall consist of a Speaker and One hundred and fifty members chosen by the King from amongst

scholars, those of knowledge, expertise and specialists, provided that women representation shall not be less than (20%)

of members number. Their rights, duties and affairs shall be determined by a Royal Order. RESERVED SEATS IN SHURA COUNCIL

Article 9

The family is the nucleus of Saudi society. Its members shall be brought up imbued with the Islamic Creed which calls

for obedience to God, His Messenger and those of the nation who are charged with authority; for the respect and

enforcement of law and order; and for love of the motherland and taking pride in its glorious history.

SUBJECT TO RELIGION

Article 10

The State shall take great pains to strengthen the bonds which hold the family together and to preserve its Arab and Islamic

values. Likewise it is keen on taking good care of all family members and creating proper conditions to help them cultivate

their skill and capabilities.

295

SENEGAL 1945



Independence: 1960



Assembly)



Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Quotas of candidates registered in the law. The lists of candidates must be made alternately

of men and women. Since Senegal has a parallel electoral system, the parity provisions apply to both lists of candidates

seeking elective proportional representation and lists in majority ballots for multi-member constituencies. For example, in a

five-member multi-member constituency, a party must have at least two women on its five-candidate list.

Legal source: Electoral law n. 92-16 of 1992, as modified by the law n. 2012-01 of 2012, article L 145.

DATE WOMEN %

2017-01

2014-12

2014-01

2012-01

2011-01

2010-01

2008-01

2007-06

2001-04

1998-05

1993-05

1988-02

1983-02

1978-02

1973-01

1963-12

1960

69

64

65

64

27

34

27

33

23

17

14

15

13

7

4

1

0

41.82%

42.67%

43.33%

42.67%

18%

22.67%

18%

22%

19.17%

12.14%

11.67%

12.5%

10.83%

7%

4%

1.25%

0%

Prior to independence, under French administration, women gained the right to vote and to stand for election by the decree

of 19 February 1945 which states that there is no difference between Senegalese women and French women in their right to

vote: "les femmes sénégalaises sont électrices et éligibles dans les mêmes conditions que les femmes orginaires de France."

In 1956 women were granted the right to vote to local elections by the loi-cadre Deferre. This right was confirmed at

independence. In 1963, Caroline Faye Diop (1923-1992) was elected the first female deputy to the National Assembly.


296

Preamble

The sovereign People of Senegal,

…

AFFIRM:

• their adhesion to the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789 and to the international instruments

adopted by the Organization of the United Nations and the Organization of African Unity, notably the Universal Declaration

SENEGAL 1945

of the Rights of Man of 10 December 1948, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination with

Regard to Women of 18 December 1979, the Convention relative to the Rights of the Child of 20 November 1989 and the

African Charter of the Rights of Man and of Peoples of 27 June 1981;

CONVENTION ON THE ELIMINATION OF ALL FORMS OF DISCRIMINATION WITH REGARD TO WOMEN

Article 1

The Republic of Senegal is secular, democratic, and social. It assures the equality before the law of all the citizens, without

distinction of origin, of race, of sex [and] of religion. It respects all beliefs [croyances]. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

Article 3

…

Suffrage may be direct or indirect. It is always universal, equal, and secret. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

All Senegalese nationals of both sexes, who are 18 years old, enjoying their civil and political rights, are electors within the

conditions determined by the law. RIGHT TO VOTE

…

Article 4

…

The political parties and coalitions of political parties, likewise the independent candidates, are held to respect the

Constitution as well as the principles of national sovereignty and of democracy. They are forbidden to identify themselves

to one race, to one ethnicity, to one sex, to one religion, to one sect, to one language or to one part of the territory.

… POLITICAL PARTIES ARE FORBIDDEN TO IDENTIFY THEMSELVES TO ONE SEX

Article 7

…

All human beings are equal before the law. Men and Women are equal in right [droit]. EQUAL RIGHTS

The law promotes [favorise] the equal access of women and men to the mandates and functions.

… PROMOTION OF EQUAL ACCESS TO THE MANDATES AND FUNCTIONS

Article 15

…

The man and the woman have the right to accede to the possession and to the ownership [propriété] of land within the

conditions determined by the law. RIGHT TO ACCEDE TO THE POSSESSION AND TO THE OWNERSHIP OF LAND

Article 18

Forced marriage is a violation of individual liberty. It is forbidden and punished within the conditions established by the

law. MARRIAGE BASED ON FREE WILL

Article 19

The woman has the right of having her own patrimony[,] as [does] her husband. She has the right to the personal

management of her assets. INSIDE THE FAMILY WOMEN HAVE THE RIGHT TO HAVE AND MANAGE THEIR OWN PATRIMONY AND ASSETS

Article 25

Everyone has the right to work and the right to seek [prétendre] employment. No one may be impeded in their work for

reason of their origins, of their sex, of their opinions, of their political choices or of their beliefs. The worker may affiliate with

a union and defend their rights through union action. DISCRIMINATION BANNED TO ACCESS TO WORK

Any discrimination between men and women in employment, salary and taxation [impôt] is forbidden.

… DISCRIMINATION BANNED AT WORK EQUAL PAY FOR WORK EQUAL TAXATION FOR WORK

297

SERBIA 1946



Independence: 2006


Parliament name: Narodna skupstina (National

Assembly)

Chamber name: Narodna skupstina (National Assembly)


Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Legislated candidate quotas. For every three candidates on the electoral list (first group of

three places, second group of three places and so on until the end of the list) there shall be at least one candidate of the

under-represented sex on the list.

Legal source: Cf. Article 100 of the Constitution and Article 40 a, Law on the Election of Members of the Parliament, as

amended by Law on Altering and Amending the Law on Election of Members of Parliament, 36/2011.

DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2016-12

2014-03

2014-01

2012-01

2008-05

2007-01

93

86

85

84

81

54

51

37.65%

34.4%

34%

33.6%

32.4%

21.6%

20.4%



29 November 1943). This law was upheld by the Constitution on 31 January 1946, when Yugoslavia introduced women's right

to vote. During the breakup of Yugoslavia, Serbia formed a union with Montenegro, which was peacefully dissolved in 2006.


Article 15: Gender equality GUARANTEE OF EQUALITY AND DEVELOPMENT OF EQUAL OPPORTUNITY POLICY

The State shall guarantee the equality of women and men and develop equal opportunities policy.

298


All are equal before the Constitution and law.

Everyone shall have the right to equal legal protection, without discrimination.

All direct or indirect discrimination based on any grounds, particularly on race, sex, national origin, social origin, birth,

religion, political or other opinion, property status, culture, language, age, mental or physical disability shall be prohibited.

Special measures which the Republic of Serbia may introduce to achieve full equality of individuals or group of individuals in

a substantially unequal position compared to other citizens shall not be deemed discrimination.


Article 52: Electoral right

Every citizen of age and working ability of the Republic of Serbia shall have the right to vote and be elected.

Suffrage shall be universal and equal for all, the elections shall be free and direct and voting is carried out by secret ballot

in person. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Election right shall be protected by the law and in accordance with the law.

SERBIA 1946

Article 57: Right to asylum

Any foreign national with reasonable fear of prosecution based on his race, gender, language, religion, national origin or

association with some other group, political opinions, shall have the right to asylum in the Republic of Serbia.

The procedure for granting asylum shall be regulated by the law.

RIGHT TO ASYLUM FOR FOREIGN NATIONALS WITH FEAR OF PROSECUTION BASED ON THEIR GENDER


…

Women, young and disabled persons shall be provided with special protection at work and special work conditions in

accordance with the law. SPECIAL PROTECTION AT WORK AND SPECIAL WORK CONDITIONS

Article 62: Right to enter into marriage and equality of spouses

…


Marriage shall be entered into based on the free consent of man and woman before the state body.

Contracting, duration or dissolution of marriage shall be based on the equality of man and woman.


Article 68: Health care

…

Health care for children, pregnant women, mothers on maternity leave, single parents with children under seven years

of age and elderly persons shall be provided from public revenues unless it is provided in some other manner in

accordance with the law. PUBLIC HEALTH CARE SYSTEM FOR PREGNANT WOMEN AND MOTHERS ON MATERNITY LEAVE

…

Article 100: Constitution of the National Assembly

The National Assembly shall consist of 250 deputies, who are elected on direct elections by secret ballot, in accordance with

the Law.

In the National Assembly, equality and representation of different genders and members of national minorities shall be

provided, in accordance with Law. EQUALITY AND REPRESENTATION OF DIFFERENT GENDERS IN THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY

299

SEYCHELLES 1948



Independence: 1976

Population: 97,924

Parliament name: Lasanble Nasyonal Sesel (National

Assembly)

Chamber name: Lasanble Nasyonal Sesel (National Assembly)


Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2016-09

2011-09

2007-05

2002-12

1998-03

1993-07

1991-12

1987-12

1983-08

1979-06

1976-09

1974-04

7

14

8

10

8

9

11

4

6

8

1

0

21.21%

41.18%

23.53%

29.41%

23.53%

27.27%

45.83%

16%

24%

32%

4%

0%

300

Prior to independence, under British administration, women were granted the right to vote and stand for election at the local

level in 1945 and on 6 August 1948 at the national level: the first woman was elected in December 1967. These rights were

confirmed at independence.


24.

1. Subject to this Constitution, every citizen of Seychelles who has attained the age of eighteen years has a right:

a. to take part in the conduct of public affairs either directly or through freely chosen representatives;

b. to be registered as a voter for the purpose of and to vote by secret ballot at public elections which shall be by

universal and equal suffrage;

c. to be elected to public office; and UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

d. to participate on general terms and equality, in public service.

…

30. The State recognises the unique status and natural maternal functions of women in society and undertakes as a result to

take appropriate measures to ensure that a working mother is afforded special protection with regard to paid leave and

her conditions at work during such reasonable period as provided by law before and after childbirth.

MATERNITY PAID LEAVE SPECIAL CONDITIONS AT WORK BEFORE AND AFTER CHILDBIRTH

32.

1. The State recognises that the family is the natural and fundamental element of society and the right of everyone to form a

family and undertakes to promote the legal, economic and social protection of the family.

SEYCHELLES 1948

2. The right contained in clause (1) may be subject to such restrictions as may be prescribed by law and necessary in a

democratic society including the prevention of marriage between persons of the same sex or persons within certain

family degrees. SEXUAL DISCRIMINATION

SCHEDULE 7: TRANSITIONAL

PART I: EXISTING OFFICERS AND OFFICES

2. The Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1981 shall unless sooner repealed, cease to have effect twelve months after the date

of coming into force of this Constitution. “TERMINATION OF PREGNANCY ACT” CEASES TO HAVE EFFECT

301

SIERRA LEONE 1961

DATE WOMEN %

2018-04

2012-11

2007-08

2002-05

1996-02

1982-05

1977-05

1973-05

18

15

16

18

5

1

0

1

12.33%

12.4%

14.29%

14.52%

6.25%

0.96%

0%

1.03%



Independence: 1961





Directly elected (132). Indirectly elected (14): Paramount Chiefs are elected to represent the 14 provincial districts.

Electoral quota for women: Yes. There is a policy that advocates for a 30% quota for women in awarding party symbols.

Legal source: Constitution for Paramount Chiefs

In the 1792 elections in Sierra Leone, then a new British colony, all heads of household could vote and one-third were ethnic

African women. The Sierra Leone Parliament, like its counterparts in other former British colonies, began as a Legislative

Council. It was inaugurated in 1863, but was renamed the House of Representatives in 1954. At the general election of 1957

Patience Richards and Constance Cummings-John were elected to the new House of Representatives, even though women

did not yet have the franchise. They couldn’t take up their seats in Parliament because electoral petitions were filed against

them (Mariz Tadros, “Women in Politics: Gender, Power and Development).


6. Political objectives

…

2. Accordingly, the State shall promote national integration and unity and discourage discrimination on the grounds of

place of origin, circumstance of birth, sex, religion, status, ethnic or linguistic association or ties.


8. Social objectives

3. The State shall direct its policy towards ensuring that:

…

c. the health, safety and welfare of all persons in employment are safeguarded and not endangered or abused, and in

particular that special provisions be made for working women with children, having due regard to the resources of the

State; HEALTH, SAFETY AND WELFARE FOR WORKING WOMEN WITH CHILDREN

…

e. there is equal pay for equal work without discrimination on account of sex, and that adequate and satisfactory

EQUAL PAY FOR WORK

remuneration is paid to all persons in employment;

…

302

9. Educational objectives

1. The Government shall direct its policy towards ensuring that there are equal rights and adequate educational

SIERRA LEONE 1961

opportunities for all citizens at all levels by:

…

b. safeguarding the rights of vulnerable groups, such as children, women and the disabled in securing educational

facilities; and EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES

…

15. Fundamental Human Rights and Freedoms of the Individual

Whereas every person in Sierra Leone is entitled to the fundamental human rights and freedoms of the individual, that is

to say, has the right, whatever his race, tribe, place of origin, political opinion, colour, creed or sex, but subject to respect for

the rights and freedoms of others and for the public interest, to each and all of the following: DISCRIMINATION BANNED

a. life, liberty, security of person, the enjoyment of property, and theprotection of law;


c. respect for private and family life; and

d. protection from deprivation of property without compensation;

…

22. Protection for privacy of home and other property

…

2. Nothing contained in or done under authority of any law shall be held to be inconsistent with or in contravention of this

section to the extent that the law in question makes provision that is reasonably required:

…

e. for the purpose of affording such special care and assistance as are necessary for the health, safety, development and

well-being of women, children and young persons, the aged and the handicapped; and except in so far as that provision or,

as the case may be, the thing done under authority thereof is shown not to be reasonably justifiable in a democratic society

SPECIAL CARE AND ASSISTANCE FOR HEALTH, SAFETY, DEVELOPMENT AND WELL-BEING

27. Protection from discrimination

1. Subject to the provisions of subsection (4), (5) and (7), no law shall make any provision which is discriminatory either of

itself or in its effect.

2. Subject to the provisions of subsections (6), (7) and (8), no person shall bereated in a discriminatory manner by any person

acting by virtue of any law or in the performance of the functions of any public office or any public authority.

3. In this section the expression “discriminatory” means affording different treatment to different persons attributable

wholly or mainly to their respective descriptions by race, tribe, sex, place of origin, political opinions, colour or creed

whereby persons of one such description are subjected to disabilities or restrictions to which persons of another such

description are not made subject, or are accorded privileges or advantages which are not accorded to persons of another

such description. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

171. Interpretation

…

2. In this Constitution unless a contrary intention appears:

a. words importing male persons shall include female persons and corporations;

… IN THE CONSTITUTION MASCULINE WORDS INCLUDE FEMALE GENDER

303

SINGAPORE 1947



Independence: 1965





Directly elected (89). Appointed members (9): up to nine members may be nominated by the President for a term of two

and a half years. Other (3): up to nine non-constituency members may be appointed from among unsuccessful opposition

candidates who obtained the highest percentage of votes in a general election.


DATE WOMEN %

2017-08

2016-03

2016-01

2015-09

2014-01

2011-05

2010-01

2007-01

2006-05

2001-11

1997-01

1991-08

1988-09

1984-12

1972-09

1968-04

1963-09

23

24

21

22

25

20

22

23

18

10

6

3

4

3

0

1

3

23%

24%

23.08%

23.91%

25.25%

22.22%

23.4%

24.47%

21.18%

11.76%

6.45%

3.7%

4.88%

3.8%

0%

1.72%

5.88%

Prior to independence, under British administration, women were granted the right to vote and stand for election on 18 July

1947 and first exercised this right in the 1948 legislative council elections. These rights were confirmed at independence. In

1951, Vilasini Menon and Elisabeth Choy Su-Moi (1910-2006) became the first women, respectively elected and nominated

by the Governor, to the Legislative Council (C.M. Turnbull, “A History of Modern Singapore, 1819-2005”).


12. Equal protection

1. All persons are equal before the law and entitled to the equal protection of the law.

2. Except as expressly authorised by this Constitution, there shall be no discrimination against citizens of Singapore on the

ground only of religion, race, descent or place of birth in any law or in the appointment to any office or employment under

a public authority or in the administration of any law relating to the acquisition, holding or disposition of property or the

establishing or carrying on of any trade, business, profession, vocation or employment.

…

304

SLOVAKIA 1919


First woman in new parliament: 1992

Independence: 1993


Parliament name: Národná rada Slovenskej republiky

(National Council)

Chamber name: Národná rada (National Council)


Directly elected


Legal source: Individual political party statutes.

DATE WOMEN %

2016-03

2014-01

2013-01

2012-11

2012-06

2010-06

2010-01

2008-01

2007-01

2006-08

2006-06

2002-09

1998-09

1994-10

1992-06

30

28

24

28

26

23

27

30

29

30

24

29

19

22

23

20%

18.67%

16%

18.67%

17.33%

15.33%

18%

20%

19.33%

20%

16%

19.33%

12.67%

14.67%

18.11%

Prior to the separation from the Czech Republic, women were granted the right to vote and stand for election on 31 January

1919, confirmed in the constitution of Czechoslovakia of 29 February 1920. These rights were confirmed again at sovereignty

in 1993. Slovak women had previously been elected to the Federal Parliament of Czechoslovakia. On 14 November 1918,

Alice Masaryková and other 9 women became members of the Revolutionary National Assembly (Blanca Rodriguez Ruiz, “The

Struggle for Female Suffrage in Europe: Voting to Become Citizens”)


Article 12

…

2. Basic rights and freedoms on the territory of the Slovak Republic are guaranteed to everyone regardless of sex, race,

color of skin, language, faith and religion, political, or other thoughts, national or social origin, affiliation to a nation, or ethnic

group, property, descent, or any other status. No one may be harmed, preferred, or discriminated against on these grounds.


Article 30

…

3. The right to vote is universal, equal, and direct and is exercised by means of secret ballot. Conditions for exercising the

right to vote shall be laid down by law. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

…

305

SLOVAKIA 1919

Article 38

1. Women, minors, and persons with impaired health are entitled to an enhanced protection of their health at work, as

well as to special working conditions. PROTECTION OF HEALTH AT WORK AND SPECIAL WORKING CONDITIONS

…

Article 41

…

2. Special care, protection in labor relations, and adequate working conditions are guaranteed to a woman during the

period of pregnancy. SPECIAL CARE, PROTECTION IN LABOR RELATIONS AND ADEQUATE WORKING CONDITIONS DURING PREGNANCY

Article 74

1. Members of Parliament are elected by secret ballot in general, equal, and direct elections.

2. A citizen who has the right to vote, has reached the age of 21 and has permanent residence on the territory of the Slovak

Republic may be elected a Member of Parliament. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

…

306

SLOVENIA 1945



Independence: 1991


Parliament name: Parlament Slovenije (Slovenian

Parliament)

Chamber name: Drzavni Zbor (National Assembly)



Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. A list of candidates needs

to guarantee that male and female candidates on the list

have at least 35% representation with regard to their total

number.

Legal source: Article 43 of the 2006 National Assembly

Elections Act.

DATE WOMEN %

2019-09

2018-06

2014-12

2014-07

2014-01

2011-12

2010-01

2008-01

2001-01

2000-01

1996-11

1992-12

25

22

33

32

30

29

13

12

11

9

7

13

27.78%

24.44%

36.67%

35.56%

33.33%

32.22%

14.44%

13.33%

12.22%

10%

7.78%

14.44%

Chamber name: Drzavni Svet (National Council)



Indirectly elected members. Elected by interest groups: 22

representatives of local interest groups; 6 representatives of

non-commercial activities; 4 employers' representatives; 4

employees' representatives and 4 farmers', craftsmen's,

tradesmen's and independent professionals' representatives.


DATE WOMEN %

2017-11

2012-01

2007-11

2002-12

4

3

1

3

10%

7.5%

2.5%

7.5%



29 November 1943. This law was upheld by the Constitution adopted on 31 January 1946. Election to the first Slovene

Assembly were held on 27 October 1946, at which 9 women (8,3%) were elected to a 120-member representative body

(Susan Franceschet, “The Palgrave Handbook of Women’s Political Rights”). In December 1992 the first legislature of Slovenia

after the country became independent on 8 October 1991. Slovenian women had previously been elected to the Parliament

of the SFR of Yugoslavia.


Article 14: Equality before the Law

In Slovenia everyone shall be guaranteed equal human rights and fundamental freedoms irrespective of national origin,

race, sex, language, religion, political or other conviction, material standing, birth, education, social status, disability or any

other personal circumstance. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

All are equal before the law.

307

SLOVENIA 1945

Article 16: Temporary Suspension and Restriction of Rights

Human rights and fundamental freedoms provided by this Constitution may exceptionally be temporarily suspended or

restricted during a war and state of emergency. Human rights and fundamental freedoms may be suspended or restricted

only for the duration of the war or state of emergency, but only to the extent required by such circumstances and inasmuch

as the measures adopted do not create inequality based solely on race, national origin, sex, language, religion, political or

other conviction, material standing, birth, education, social status or any other personal circumstance.

RESTRICTION OF RIGHTS DURING A STATE OF WAR MUST NOT BE DISCRIMINATORY BY GENDER

Article 43: Right to Vote

The right to vote shall be universal and equal. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Every citizen who has attained the age of eighteen years has the right to vote and be elected.

The law may provide in which cases and under what conditions aliens have the right to vote.

The law shall provide measures for encouraging the equal opportunity of men and women in standing for election to

state authorities and local community authorities.

MEASURES FOR ENCOURAGING EQUAL OPPORTUNITY IN STANDING FOR ELECTION

Article 53: Marriage and the Family MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

Marriage is based on the equality of spouses. Marriages shall be solemnised before an empowered state authority.

Marriage and the legal relations within it and the family, as well as those within an extramarital union, shall be regulated by

law.

The state shall protect the family, motherhood, fatherhood, children and young people and shall create the necessary

conditions for such protection. PROTECTION OF MOTHERHOOD

308

SOLOMON ISLANDS 1974

Right to vote and to stand for election: April 1974


Independence: 1978

Population: 678,325




Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2019-04

2018-10

2018-06

2014-11

2013

2012

2001-12

1993-05

1989

1980-08

2

1

2

1

0

1

0

1

1

0

4.08%

2.04%

4%

2%

0%

2%

0%

2.13%

2%

0%

Prior to independence, under British administration, women were granted the right to vote and stand for election in April

1974. These rights were confirmed at independence. In 1965, Lilly Ogatina Valahoe Poznanski (1942-1989) was indirectly

elected to the Legislative Council. In 1989, Hilda Thugea Kari (1949- ) became the first woman to be elected to the National

Parliament of Solomon Islands (Fay Alailima, “New Politics in the South Pacific”).


Preamble

We the people of Solomon Islands… AGREE AND PLEDGE that

a. our government shall be based on democratic principles of universal suffrage and the responsibility of executive

authorities to elected assemblies;… UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE


Whereas every person in Solomon Islands is entitled to the fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual, that is to

say, the right, whatever his race, place of origin, political opinions, colour, creed or sex, but subject to respect for the rights

and freedoms of others and for the public interest, to each and all of the following, namely:


b. freedom of conscience of expression and of assembly and association; and



…

15. Protection from discrimination on grounds of race, etc


4. In this section the expression “discriminatory” means affording different treatment to different persons attributable

wholly or mainly to their respective descriptions by race, place of origin, political opinions, colour, creed or sex whereby


not made subject or are accorded privileges or advantages which are not accorded to persons of another such description…

309

SOMALIA 1961



Independence: 1960


Parliament name: Federal Parliament

Chamber name: House of the People



Indirectly elected: A total of 135 traditional elders select

14,025 members (51 members for each of the 275

members of the House of the People) to Electoral Colleges

in consultation with their relevant and respective elders

(Nabadoono). The Electoral Colleges then elect 275

members to the House of the People.

Electoral quota for women: Yes. At least 30 per cent of seats

are reserved for women.

Legal source: Garowe Principles I (2011) and Garowe

Principles II (2012), are the two documents which outline

the key constitutional and governance principles for the

future set-up of Somalia as a federal state, and among

others provide a thirty per cent (30 %) reserved seats for

women.

Chamber name: Upper House



Indirectly elected: The Upper House shall comprise no more

than 54 members drawn from: the 18 regions that existed in

Somalia before 1991; the current number of federal member

states in Somalia. All federal member states shall have an

equal number of representatives in the Upper House. Three

seats are reserved for the clans of Sool, Eastern Sanaag and

Buuhoodle. One of those seats belongs to minorities in the

clan areas. Two further seats are reserved for the Somaliland

communities.


DATE WOMEN %

2017-02

2016-12

2012-01

2004-08

1984-12

1979-12

1960-02

67

64

38

37

7

18

0

24.36%

24.24%

13.82%

6.78%

3.95%

10.17%

0%

DATE WOMEN %

2017-02 13 24.07%

2016-01 12 22.64%

Popular elections are to be held in 2020 for the first time since 1969. UNSOM has been mandated to support the preparations

for universal elections.


Article 3: Founding Principles

…

5. Women must be included in all national institutions, in an effective way, in particular all elected and appointed

positions across the three branches of government and in national independent commissions. REPRESENTATION QUOTAS

310

Article 11: Equality

1. All citizens, regardless of sex, religion, social or economic status, political opinion, clan, disability, occupation, birth or

dialect shall have equal rights and duties before the law. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

2. Discrimination is deemed to occur if the effect of an action impairs or restricts a person's rights, even if the actor did not

SOMALIA 1961

intend this effect.

3. Government must not discriminate against any person on the basis of age, race, colour, tribe, ethnicity, culture, dialect,

gender, birth, disability, religion, political opinion, occupation, or wealth.

… BANNED DISCRIMINATION

Article 15: Liberty and Security of the Person

1. Every person has the right to personal liberty and security. SAFEGUARDED FROM ANY FORM OF VIOLENCE

2. Every person has the right to personal security, which shall be safeguarded through the prohibition of illegal detention,

all forms of violence, including any form of violence against women, torture, or inhumane treatment.

3. The physical integrity of every person is inviolable. No one may be subjected to medical or scientific experiments without

their consent or, if a person lacks the legal capacity to consent, the consent of a near relative and the support of expert

medical opinion.

4. Circumcision of girls is a cruel and degrading customary practice, and is tantamount to torture. The circumcision of

girls is prohibited. BANNED CIRCUMCISION OF GIRLS

5. Abortion is contrary to Shari'ah and is prohibited except in cases of necessity, especially to save the life of the mother.

ABORTION PROHIBITED RIGHTS SUBJECT TO THE RELIGION

Article 22: Right of Political Participation

…

2. Every citizen who fulfils the criteria stated in the law has the right to elect and to be elected.


Article 24: Labour Relations

…

5. All workers, particularly women, shall have a special right of protection from sexual abuse, segregation and

discrimination in the work place. Every labour law and practice shall comply with gender equality in the work place.

PROTECTION FROM SEXUAL ABUSE, SEGREGATION AND DISCRIMINATION IN THE WORK PLACE

Article 27: Economic and Social Rights

…

5. It shall be ensured that women, the aged, the disabled and minorities who have long suffered discrimination get the

necessary support to realize their socio-economic rights. SUPPORT TO REALIZE SOCIO-ECONOMIC RIGHTS

Article 28: Family Care

1. Marriage is the basis of the family, which is the foundation of society. Its protection is a legal duty of the state.

2. Mother and child care is a legal duty of the state. MOTHER CARE

…

5. No marriage shall be legal without the free consent of both the man and the woman, or if one or both of them have not

reached the age of maturity. MARRIAGE BASED ON FREE WILL PROHIBITED MARRIAGE OF CHILDREN

Article 111D: Parliamentary Service Commission

…

2. The Parliamentary Service Commission shall consist of:

… RESERVED SEATS IN “PARLIAMENTARY SERVICE COMMISSION”

c. Four (4) members elected by the House of the People from among its members, of whom at least two (2) shall be women;

d. Two (2) members elected by the Upper House from among its members, of whom at least one shall be a woman;

Article 127: Principles for the Security Forces

…

2. Every Somali citizen is entitled to be considered for positions in the national armed forces at all levels, without

discrimination and the rights of women shall be protected in this respect.

ACCESS TO ALL LEVELS IN THE NATIONAL ARMED FORCES

311

SOUTH AFRICA 1994








Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2019-11

2019-09

2017-10

2014-01

2009-04

2004-01

1998-01

1994-04

1989-09

1984-08

1981-04

1974-04

1966-03

1961-10

1958-04

1953-04

1948-05

1943-07

184

181

165

179

174

119

114

100

1

0

2

1

2

3

2

3

2

1

46.35%

45.71%

41.98%

44.75%

43.5%

29.82%

28.5%

25%

2.22%

0%

1.13%

0.58%

1.18%

1.88%

1.23%

1.89%

1.31%

0.65%

Chamber name: National Council of Provinces



Appointed members (54): appointed by parties represented

in provincial legislatures.

Other (36): 36 special delegates representing provincial

legislatures.

In addition, not more than 10 part-time representatives

designated by local government may participate in the

National Council of Provinces, but are not allowed to vote.


DATE WOMEN %

2019-09

2019-05

2014-01

2007-01

1999-06

1998-01

1994-04

1974-05

1970-11

1960-11

1955-11

20

21

18

22

17

9

16

2

1

2

1

37.74%

38.89%

33.96%

40.74%

31.48%

16.67%

17.78%

3.64%

1.82%

3.7%

1.12%

TIMELINE Right to vote and to stand for election in South Africa: May 21, 1930, white women only; 1933, Bertha Solomon

(1892-1969) became the first woman member of parliament (Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban, “Female Well-Being: Toward a Global

Theory of Social Change”); March 30, 1984, colored and South Africans accorded the right to vote but only for their respective

Houses in the tri-cameral parliament; January 14, 1994, the right of all South Africans to vote is enshrined in the Bill of Rights

of the Constitution since 1996 but men and women had exercised this right since 1994.


312

1. Republic of South Africa

The Republic of South Africa is one, sovereign, democratic state founded on the following values:

a. Human dignity, the achievement of equality and the advancement of human rights and freedoms.

b. Non-racialism and non-sexism. NON-SEXISM

c. Supremacy of the constitution and the rule of law.

d. Universal adult suffrage, a national common voters roll, regular elections and a multiparty system of democratic

government, to ensure accountability, responsiveness and openness. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

SOUTH AFRICA 1994

9. Equality

1. Everyone is equal before the law and has the right to equal protection and benefit of the law.

2. Equality includes the full and equal enjoyment of all rights and freedoms. To promote the achievement of equality,

legislative and other measures designed to protect or advance persons, or categories of persons, disadvantaged by unfair

discrimination may be taken.

3. The State may not unfairly discriminate directly or indirectly against anyone on one or more grounds, including race,

gender, sex, pregnancy, marital status, ethnic or social origin, colour, sexual orientation, age, disability, religion, conscience,

belief, culture, language and birth.

4. No person may unfairly discriminate directly or indirectly against anyone on one or more grounds in terms of subsection

(3). National legislation must be enacted to prevent or prohibit unfair discrimination.

5. Discrimination on one or more of the grounds listed in subsection (3) is unfair unless it is established that the

discrimination is fair. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

16. Freedom of expression

1. Everyone has the right to freedom of expression…

2. The right in subsection (1) does not extend to

…

c. advocacy of hatred that is based on race, ethnicity, gender or religion, and that constitutes incitement to cause harm.

FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION DOES NOT EXTEND TO ADVOCACY OF HATRED THAT IS BASED ON GENDER

37. States of emergency

Table of Non-Derogable Rights

Column 3: Extent to which the right is non-derogable “DISCRIMINATION BANNED” IS NON-DEROGABLE

With respect to unfair discrimination solely on the grounds of race, colour, ethnic or social origin, sex, religion or language.

174. Appointment of judicial officers

…

2. The need for the judiciary to reflect broadly the racial and gender composition of South Africa must be considered when

judicial officers are appointed. APPOINTMENT OF JUDICIAL OFFICERS MUST REFLECT GENDER COMPOSITION

181. Establishment and governing principles

1. The following state institutions strengthen constitutional democracy in the Republic:

…

d. The Commission for Gender Equality. COMMISSION FOR GENDER EQUALITY

…

186. Composition of Commission

1. The number of members of the Commission for the Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Cultural, Religious and

Linguistic Communities and their appointment and terms of office must be prescribed by national legislation.

2. The composition of the Commission must

a. be broadly representative of the main cultural, religious and linguistic communities in South Africa; and

b. broadly reflect the gender composition of South Africa.

COMPOSITION OF “COMMISSION FOR THE PROMOTION AND PROTECTION OF THE RIGHTS OF CULTURAL, RELIGIOUS

AND LINGUISTIC COMMUNITIES” REFLECT GENDER EQUALITY

187. Functions of Commission for Gender Equality

1. The Commission for Gender Equality must promote respect for gender equality and the protection, development and

attainment of gender equality. PROTECTION, DEVELOPMENT AND ATTAINMENT OF GENDER EQUALITY

2. The Commission for Gender Equality has the power, as regulated by national legislation, necessary to perform its

functions, including the power to monitor, investigate, research, educate, lobby, advise and report on issues

concerning gender equality. POWER TO MONITOR, INVESTIGATE, RESEARCH, EDUCATE ON ISSUES CONCERNING GENDER EQUALITY

3. The Commission for Gender Equality has the additional powers and functions prescribed by national legislation.

313

SOUTH SUDAN 1964

Right to vote and to stand for election: November, 1964


Independence: 2011


Parliament name: National Legislature

Chamber name: Al-Majlis Al-Tachirii (Transitional

National Legislative Assembly)



Appointed members (68): 50 representatives of the South

Sudan Armed Opposition; 1 former detainee; 17

representatives of political parties.

Other (332): The Assembly was established in August 2011,

following the proclamation of South Sudan's

independence on 9 July 2011. The members comprise: 170

former members of the Southern Sudan Legislative

Assembly; 96 former members of the Sudanese National

Assembly.

Electoral quota for women: Yes. 83 reserved seats. Ensuring

that women represent at least 25% of in legislative and

executive bodies

Legal source: Constitution, art. 16 §4.

Chamber name: Al-Watani (Council of States)




Other (20): former members of the Council of States of the

Republic of Sudan.

Electoral quota for women: Yes. 13 reserved seats. Ensuring

that women represent at least 25% of in legislative and

executive bodies.

Legal source: Constitution, art. 16 §4

DATE WOMEN %

2016-08 6 12%

2011-08 5 10%

DATE WOMEN %

2016-08 109 28.46%

2011-08 88 26.51%

Prior to independence while being a part of Sudan, women were granted the right to vote and to stand for election in

November 1964 as in the rest of Sudan. These rights were confirmed at independence.


Preamble

We, the People of South Sudan,

…

Committed to establishing a decentralized democratic multi-party system of governance in which power shall be peacefully

transferred and to upholding values of human dignity and equal rights and duties of men and women; EQUAL RIGHTS

14. Equality before the Law

All persons are equal before the law and are entitled to the equal protection of the law without discrimination as to race,

ethnic origin, colour, sex, language, religious creed, political opinion, birth, locality or social status. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

314

15. Right to found a Family

Every person of marriageable age shall have the right to marry a person of the opposite sex and to found a family according

to their respective family laws, and no marriage shall be entered into without the free and full consent of the man and

woman intending to marry. MARRIAGE BASED ON FREE WILL

SOUTH SUDAN 1964

16. Rights of Women

1. Women shall be accorded full and equal dignity of the person with men. FULL AND EQUAL DIGNITY OF THE PERSON

2. Women shall have the right to equal pay for equal work and other related benefits with men. EQUAL PAY FOR WORK

3. Women shall have the right to participate equally with men in public life. PARTICIPATION IN PUBLIC LIFE

4. All levels of government shall:

a. promote women participation in public life and their representation in the legislative and executive organs by at least

twenty-five per cent as an affirmative action to redress imbalances created by history, customs, and traditions;

RESERVED SEATS IN THE LEGISLATIVE AND EXECUTIVE ORGANS

b. enact laws to combat harmful customs and traditions which undermine the dignity and status of women; and

LAWS TO COMBAT HARMFUL CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS WHICH UNDERMINE THE DIGNITY AND STATUS

c. provide maternity and child care and medical care for pregnant and lactating women.

PROVIDING MATERNITY AND CHILD CARE AND MEDICAL CARE FOR PREGNANT AND LACTATING WOMEN

5. Women shall have the right to own property and share in the estates of their deceased husbands together with any

surviving legal heir of the deceased.

RIGHT TO OWN PROPERTY AND SHARE IN THE ESTATES OF THE DECEASED HUSBAND

21. Restriction on Death Penalty

… DEATH PENALTY

3. No death penalty shall be executed upon a pregnant or lactating woman, save after two years of lactation.

26. Right to Participation and Voting


2. Every citizen shall have the right to vote or be elected in accordance with this Constitution and the law.

108. Establishment and Composition of the Council of Ministers

… RESERVED SEATS IN THE COUNCIL OF MINISTERS

3. The President shall ensure that at least twenty-five percent of members of the Council of Ministers are women.

122. The Judicial Power

…

6. There shall be a substantial representation of women in the Judiciary having regard to competence, integrity,

credibility and impartiality. REPRESENTATION IN THE JUDICIARY

142.

1. The National Government shall establish independent institutions and commissions as provided for by this Constitution.

Such institutions and commissions shall perform their functions and duties impartially and without interference from any

person or authority.

2. The National Government may establish other institutions and commissions compatible with its powers as it deems

necessary to promote the welfare of its people, good governance and justice.

3. The National Government shall ensure that at least twenty-five percent of the membership of each of these

institutions and commissions shall be women. RESERVED SEATS IN THE INDEPENDENT INSTITUTIONS AND COMMISSIONS

163. State Organs

…

7. In fulfillment of the principle of affirmative action, women shall be allocated at least twenty-five per cent of the seats

and positions in each legislative and each executive organ of each state, without prejudice to their right to compete for

the remaining seats and positions in such organs. RESERVED SEATS IN THE LEGISLATIVE AND EXECUTIVE ORGANS

190. Powers of the President in a State of Emergency

During a state of emergency, the President may, by law or orders, take any measures that shall not derogate from the

provisions of this Constitution except as provided herein:

a. to suspend part of the Bill of Rights; however, there shall be no infringement on the right to life, prohibition against

slavery, prohibition against torture, the right of non-discrimination on the basis of race, sex, religious creed, the right to

litigation or the right to fair trial; DURING A STATE OF EMERGENCY THE RIGHT OF NON-DISCRIMINATION IS NOT WAIVED

…

315

SPAIN 1931

Right to vote: December 9, 1931

Right to stand for election: May 8, 1931



Parliament name: Las Cortes Generales (The Cortes)

Chamber name: Congreso de los Diputados (Congress of

Deputies)



Directly elected


quotas. Candidate lists must have a balanced proportion of

women and men, so that candidates of either sex make up

at least 40% of total membership. Where the number of

seats to be covered is less than five, the balance between

women and men shall be as even as possible.

Legal source: Section 44 of Electoral Law (Ley Orgánica del

Régimen Electoral General).

DATE WOMEN %

2019-11

2019-04

2018-12

2014-01

2008-03

2004-03

2000-03

1998

1997

1996-03

1993-06

1989-10

1986-06

1982-10

1979-03

1977-06

1971

1967

1964

1961

1946

154

166

144

139

127

126

99

75

86

75

56

51

33

22

24

21

9

7

4

3

2

44%

47.43%

41.14%

39.71%

36.29%

36%

28.29%

21.43%

24.57%

21.43%

16%

14.57%

9.43%

6.29%

6.86%

6%

1.11%

0.96%

0.53%

0.42%

0.34%





Indirectly elected members (57): elected by the parliaments

of the 17 Autonomous Communities.


Candidate lists must have a balanced proportion of women

and men, so that candidates of either sex make up at least

40% of total membership. Where the number of seats to be

covered is less than five, the balance between women and

men shall be as even as possible.

Legal source: Section 44 of Electoral Law (Ley Orgánica del

Régimen Electoral General).

DATE WOMEN %

2019-11

2019-08

2018-12

2015-12

2013-01

2011-11

2008-04

2005-01

2004-03

2001-01

2000-03

1996-03

1993-06

1989-10

1986-06

1982-10

1979-03

1977-06

103

103

98

104

91

88

79

66

60

63

59

34

32

27

14

11

5

6

39.02%

39.46%

36.84%

39.25%

34.21%

33.46%

30.04%

25.48%

23.17%

24.32%

22.78%

13.28%

12.6%

10.63%

5.51%

4.3%

2.02%

2.42%

In June 1931 elections, Clara Campoamor Rodríguez (1888-1972), Victoria Kent Siano (1891-1987) and Margarita Nelken y

Mansbergen (1894–1968) became the first women to win seats in Spain's Cortes (Lisa Margaret Lines, “Milicianas: Women in

Combat in the Spanish Civil War”).

316

SPAIN 1931


Section 14

Spaniards are equal before the law and may not in any way be discriminated against on account of birth, race, sex,

religion, opinion or any other personal or social condition or circumstance. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Section 23

1. Citizens have the right to participate in public affairs, directly or through representatives freely elected in periodic

elections by universal suffrage.


Section 32

1. Man and woman have the right to marry with full legal equality.


Section 35 SUFFICIENT REMUNERATION FOR THE SATISFACTION OF THE NEEDS OF THE FAMILY

1. All Spaniards have the duty to work and the right to work, to the free choice of profession or trade, to advancement

through work, and to a sufficient remuneration for the satisfaction of their needs and those of their families.

Under no circumstances may they be discriminated on account of their sex. DISCRIMINATION BANNED AT WORK

2. The law shall regulate a Workers' Statute.

Section 39

1. The public authorities ensure social, economic and legal protection of the family.

2. The public authorities likewise ensure full protection of children, who are equal before the law, regardless of their

parentage, and of mothers, whatever their marital status. The law shall provide for the possibility of the investigation of

paternity. FULL PROTECTION OF MOTHERS

317

SRI LANKA 1931



Independence: 1948





Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2015-12

2015-08

2014-01

2010-04

2010-01

2004-04

2001-12

2000-10

1994-08

1989-02

1977-07

1970-05

1965-03

1960-07

1956-04

1952-05

1947-09

12

13

11

13

12

13

11

10

9

12

11

4

6

4

2

3

2

1

5.33%

5.78%

4.89%

5.78%

5.33%

5.78%

4.89%

4.44%

4%

5.33%

4.91%

2.38%

3.82%

2.55%

1.27%

2.97%

1.98%

0.99%


March 1931. Adeline Molamure Meedeniya (1890 – 1977) was the first female member of State Council of Ceylon, and

therefore, the first elected female legislator in Sri Lanka on 14 November 1931. These rights was confirmed at independence.


318

12. Right to equality

1. All persons are equal before the law and are entitled to the equal protection of the law. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

2. No citizen shall be discriminated against on the grounds of race, religion, language, caste, sex, political opinion, place of

birth or any one of such grounds:

Provided that it shall be lawful to require a person to acquire within a reasonable time sufficient knowledge of any language

as a qualification for any employment or office in the Public, Judicial or Local Government Service or in the service of any

Public Corporation, where such knowledge is reasonably necessary for the discharge of the duties of such employment or

office:

Provided further that it shall be lawful to require a person to have a sufficient knowledge of any language as a qualification

for any such employment or office where no function of that employment or office can be discharged otherwise than with a

SRI LANKA 1931

knowledge of that language.

3. No person shall, on the grounds of race, religion, language, caste, sex or any one of such grounds, be subject to any

disability, liability, restriction or condition with regard to access to shops, public restaurants, hotels, places of public

entertainment and places of public worship of his own religion. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

4. Nothing in this Article shall prevent special provision being made, by law, subordinate legislation or executive action, for

the advancement of women, children or disabled persons.

27. Directive Principles of State Policy

…

6. The State shall ensure equality of opportunity to citizens, so that no citizen shall suffer any disability on the ground of

race, religion, language, caste, sex, political opinion or occupation.

… EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY

41B. Council to recommend appointments

…

3. It shall be the duty of the Council to recommend to the President fit and proper persons for appointment as Chairmen or

members of the Commissions specified in the Schedule to this Article, whenever the occasion for such appointments arises,

and such recommendations shall endeavour to ensure that such recommendations reflect the pluralistic character of Sri

Lankan society, including gender. In the case of the Chairmen of such Commissions, the Council shall recommend three

persons for appointment, and the President shall appoint one of the persons recommended as Chairman.

… COUNCIL TO RECOMMEND APPOINTMENTS INCLUDE DIFFERENCES OF GENDER

NINTH SCHEDULE

LIST I: Provincial Council List

11. Health:

11:1. The establishment and maintenance of public hospitals, rural hospitals, maternity homes, dispensaries (other than

teaching hospitals and hospitals established for special purposes);

11:2. Public health services, health education, nutrition, family health maternity and child care, food and food sanitation,

environmental health; MATERNITY HOMES AND FAMILY HEALTH MATERNITY

319

SUDAN 1964



Independence: 1956


Parliament name: National Legislature




Directly elected

Chamber name: Council of States



Indirectly elected members


The National Assembly and Council of State were dissolved on 11 April 2019 following a military coup which overthrew

Sudan President Omar al-Bashir and Assembly's ruling National Congress Party. As part of the 2019 Sudanese transition to

democracy, a Transitional Legislative Council is to be formed which will function as the legislature of Sudan until elections

scheduled for 2022.

The temporary de facto Constitution of Sudan is the Draft Constitutional Declaration, which was signed by representatives

of the Transitional Military Council and the Forces of Freedom and Change alliance on 4 August 2019. This replaced the

Interim National Constitution of the Republic of Sudan, 2005 (INC) adopted on 6 July 2005, which had been suspended on

11 April 2019 by Lt. Gen Ahmed Awad Ibn Auf in the 2019 Sudanese coup d'état.

In 1965, Fatima Ahmed Ibrahim (1933-2017) became the first woman elected to the National Assembly (Ghada Ashem

Talhami, “Historical Dictionary of Women in the Middle East and North Africa”).

DATE WOMEN %

04-2015

04-2010

08-2005

12-2000

1992-02

1986-04

1982-01

1980-04

1978-02

1974-04

1972

1968-04

1965-04

1954

133

86

84

35

26

2

13

24

20

15

14

0

1

0

27.65%

24.3%

18.9%

9.7%

8.2%

0.8%

8.5%

6.5%

6.6%

6.0%

5.5%

0%

0.4%

0%

DATE WOMEN %

06-2015

05-2010

08-2005

19

5

3

26.76%

17.2%

6.0%

320

SURINAME 1948



Independence: 1975

Population: 583,960

Parliament name: Nationale Assemblee (National

Assembly)

Chamber name: Nationale Assemblee (National Assembly)


Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2019-10

2018-12

2015-05

2014-01

2010-05

2005-05

2004-01

2000-05

1996-05

1991-05

1987-11

1975-10

16

15

13

6

5

13

10

9

8

3

4

2

31.37%

29.41%

25.49%

11.76%

9.8%

25.49%

19.61%

17.65%

15.69%

5.88%

7.84%

5.13%

Women acquired the right to stand for elections in 1936, when Suriname was still part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands,

and the first woman, Grace Schneiders-Howard (1869-1968), was elected to De Staten van Suriname (the then 15-member

parliament) in 1938. However, as general suffrage was only granted in 1948, it would be another decade before they were

allowed to vote. It was not until 1963 that the next woman parliamentarian was elected to the 36-member parliament. When

Suriname became independent in 1975, the parliament comprised 39 members: one of whom was a woman (Where Are The

Women? A Study of Women, Politics, Parliaments and Equality in the CARICOM, United Nations Development Programme, 2015).


Article 8

1. All who are within the territory of Suriname shall have an equal claim to protection of person and property.

2. No one shall be discriminated against on the grounds of birth, sex, race, language, religious origin, education, political

beliefs, economic position or any other status. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Article 27

1. It shall be the duty of the State to guarantee the right to work, as much as possible by:

…

c. Guaranteeing equal opportunity in the choice of profession and type of work and forbidding that access to any

function or profession by prevented or limited on grounds of sex; DISCRIMINATION BANNED AT WORK

… EQUAL OPPORTUNITY IN THE CHOICE OF PROFESSION AND TYPE OF WORK

321

SURINAME 1948

Article 28

All employees have, independent of age, sex, race, nationality, religion or political opinions, the right to:

a. Remuneration for their work corresponding to quantity, type, quality and experience on the basis of equal pay for equal

work; EQUAL PAY FOR WORK

b. The performance of their task under humane conditions, in order to enable self- development; HUMANE CONDITIONS

c. Safe and healthy working condition; SAFE AND HEALTHY WORKING CONDITIONS

d. Sufficient rest and recreation. SUFFICIENT REST AND RECREATION

Article 29

It is the duty of the State to indicate the conditions for work, remuneration and rest to which employees are entitled,

especially by:

a. Making regulations with regard to wages, time of work, about conditions and special categories of workers;

b. Supplying special protection on the job for women before and after pregnancy, for minors, disabled persons and for

those who are engaged in work which demands special efforts or who work in unhealthy or dangerous conditions.

SPECIAL PROTECTION ON THE JOB BEFORE AND AFTER PREGNANCY

Article 35

1. The family is recognized and protected.

2. Husband and wife are equal before the law. MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

…

5. The State recognizes the extraordinary value of motherhood. RECOGNIZATION OF EXTRAORDINARY VALUE OF MOTHERHOOD

6. Working women shall be entitled to paid maternity leave. PAID MATERNITY LEAVE

Article 60

Everything else relating to universal suffrage, the creation of an independent electoral council and its authority the division

of Suriname in electoral districts, the repartition of seats in the National Assembly by electoral district and the

methodsaccording to which the allocation of seats takes place shall be regulated by law. This law shall be passed with a 2/3

majority. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

322

SWEDEN 1921

Right to vote and to stand for election: September, 1921



Parliament name: Riksdagen (Parliament)

Chamber name: Riksdagen (Parliament)


Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Voluntary political party quotas whereby several parties require that women and men be

equally represented on candidate lists.


DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2018-09

2014-12

2014-10

2014-09

2010-09

2009-01

2006-09

2002-08

1998-09

1994-09

1991-09

1988-09

1985-09

1982-09

1979-09

1976-09

1973-09

1970-09

1968-09

1964-09

1960-09

1956-09

1952-09

1948-09

1944-09

165

161

152

156

152

157

162

165

158

149

141

117

134

110

96

97

80

75

49

36

31

32

29

28

22

18

47.28%

46.13%

43.55%

44.7%

43.55%

44.99%

46.42%

47.28%

45.27%

42.69%

40.4%

33.52%

38.4%

31.52%

27.51%

27.79%

22.92%

21.43%

14%

15.45%

13.3%

13.79%

12.61%

12.17%

9.57%

7.8%

TIMELINE: 1862, Swedish women had technically held the same rights to vote in municipal elections as men since 1862,

thanks to the gender-neutral terminology of the law. For both men and women, however, this right was limited to those who

owned and paid taxes on property at a certain level. Since legal restrictions on women's property rights meant that far fewer

women than men met this requirement, the reality was that only a small number of women could actually vote at the local

level.; 1918: local elections; May 1919: universal suffrage granted; September 1921: universal suffrage in effect; in 1921,

Kerstin Hesselgren (1872-1962) became the first woman to be elected into the Upper House of the Swedish parliament

alongside Nelly Maria Thüring (1875-1972), Agda Lundgren Östlund (1870-1942), Elisabeth Tamm (1880-1954) and Bertha

Wellin (1870-1951) in the Lower chamber.

323

SWEDEN 1921


Art 1

All public power in Sweden proceeds from the people.

Swedish democracy is founded on the free formation of opinion and on universal and equal suffrage. It is realised through

a representative and parliamentary form of government and through local self-government. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Public power is exercised under the law.

Art 2

…

The public institutions shall promote the opportunity for all to attain participation and equality in society and for the rights

of the child to be safeguarded. The public institutions shall combat discrimination of persons on grounds of gender,

colour, national or ethnic origin, linguistic or religious affiliation, functional disability, sexual orientation, age or other

circumstance affecting the individual. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Art 4

Every Swedish citizen who is currently domiciled within the Realm or who has ever been domiciled within the Realm, and

who has reached the age of eighteen, is entitled to vote in an election to the Riksdag. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

…

Art 13

No act of law or other provision may imply the unfavourable treatment of anyone on grounds of gender, unless the

provision forms part of efforts to promote equality between men and women or relates to compulsory military service or

other equivalent official duties. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Supplementary provision 4.6.15

The Committee on the Labour Market shall prepare matters concerning:

… “COMMITTEE ON THE LABOUR MARKET” TAKE CARE OF GENDER EQUALITY

5. equality between women and men, insofar as these matters do not fall to any other committee to prepare.

Supplementary provision 5.12.1

State expenditure shall be referred to the following expenditure areas:

…

13) Integration and gender equality;… INTEGRATION AND GENDER EQUALITY

324

SWITZERLAND 1990

Right to vote and to stand for Federal election: February 7,

1971

Right to vote and to stand for Cantonal election: November

27, 1990



Parliament name: Bundesversammlung - Assemblée

fédérale - Assemblea federale (Federal Assembly)

Chamber name: Nationalrat - Conseil national -

Consiglio nazionale (National Council)



Directly elected


quotas.

Legal source: C.f. individual party statutes.

Chamber name: Ständerat - Conseil des Etats - Consiglio

degli Stati (Council of States)



Directly elected


quotas.

Legal source: C.f. individual party statutes.

DATE WOMEN %

2019-10

2016-12

2015-10

2014-12

2014-01

2011-11

2011-10

2009-01

2007-10

2003-10

1999-10

1995-10

1991-10

1987-10

1983-10

1979-10

1975-10

1971-10

83

65

64

61

62

57

59

58

59

50

45

42

35

28

22

21

14

11

41.5%

32.5%

32%

30.5%

31%

28.5%

29.5%

29%

29.5%

25%

22.5%

21%

17.5%

14%

11%

10.5%

7%

5.5%

DATE WOMEN %

2019-10

2015-11

2013-01

2008-01

2007-10

2003-10

1999-10

1995-10

1991-10

1987-10

1979-10

1975-10

1971-10

12

7

9

10

6

11

9

8

4

5

3

0

1

26.09%

15.22%

19.57%

21.74%

16.67%

23.91%

19.57%

17.39%

8.7%

10.87%

6.52%

0%

2.27%

In 1971, Lise Girardin (1921–2010) became the first woman elected to the Council of States. In the same year, Nelly Wicky

(1923- ), Lilian Uchtenhagen (1928-2016), Hanny Thalmann (1916-2000), Liselotte Spreng (1912-1992), Hanna Sahlfeld,

Martha Ribi (1915-2010), Gabrielle Nanchen, Josi Meier (1926-2006), Hedi Lang (1931-2004), Tilo Frey (1923-2008) and

Elisabeth Blunschy (1922-2015) became the first women elected to the National Council.

Due to the cantonal and federal system of granting suffrage, the political participation of women was not fully integrated on

a national level until 1990. Appenzell Innerrhoden was the last canton to recognize women's suffrage: judgment of 27

November 1990 in the case of Theresa Rohner and consort against Appenzell Innerrhoden.

325

SWITZERLAND 1990


Art 8: Equality before the law

1. Every person is equal before the law. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

2. No person may be discriminated against, in particular on grounds of origin, race, gender, age, language, social position,

way of life, religious, ideological, or political convictions, or because of a physical, mental or psychological disability.

3. Men and women have equal rights. The law shall ensure their equality, both in law and in practice, most particularly in

the family, in education, and in the workplace. Men and women have the right to equal pay for work of equal value.

… EQUAL RIGHTS IN FAMILY, EDUCATION AND WORKPLACE MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY EQUAL PAY FOR WORK

Art 41

…

2. The Confederation and Cantons shall endeavour to ensure that every person is protected against the economic

consequences of old-age, invalidity, illness, accident, unemployment, maternity, being orphaned and being widowed.

… PROTECTED AGAINST THE ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF MATERNITY

Art 59: Military service and alternative service

1. Every Swiss man is required to do military service. Alternative civilian service shall be provided for by law.

2. Military service is voluntary for Swiss women. MILITARY SERVICE

…

Art 61: Civil defence

…

3. It may declare civil defence service to be compulsory for men. For women, such service is voluntary.

… CIVIL DEFENCE SERVICE

Art 116: Child allowances and maternity insurance

…

3. It shall establish a maternity insurance scheme. It may also require persons who cannot benefit from that insurance to

make contributions.

4. The Confederation may declare participation in a family allowances compensation fund and the maternity insurance

scheme to be compulsory, either in general terms or for individual sections of the population, and make its subsidies

dependent on appropriate subsidies being made by the Cantons. MATERNITY INSURANCE SCHEME

Art 119: Reproductive medicine and gene technology involving human beings

1. Human beings shall be protected against the misuse of reproductive medicine and gene technology.

2. The Confederation shall legislate on the use of human reproductive and genetic material. In doing so, it shall ensure the

protection of human dignity, privacy and the family and shall adhere in particular to the following principles:

a. all forms of cloning and interference with the genetic material of human reproductive cells and embryos are unlawful.

b. non-human reproductive and genetic material may neither be introduced into nor combined with human reproductive

material.

c. the procedure for medically-assisted reproduction may be used only if infertility or the risk of transmitting a serious illness

cannot otherwise be overcome, but not in order to conceive a child with specific characteristics or to further research; the

fertilisation of human egg cells outside a woman’s body is permitted only under the conditions laid down by the law; no

more human egg cells may be developed into embryos outside a woman’s body than are capable of being immediately

implanted into her.

d. the donation of embryos and all forms of surrogate motherhood are unlawful.

e. the trade in human reproductive material and in products obtained from embryos is prohibited.

f. the genetic material of a person may be analysed, registered or made public only with the consent of the person concerned

or if the law so provides.

g. every person shall have access to data relating to their ancestry.

REPRODUCTIVE MEDICINE AND GENE TECNOLOGY

Art 136: Political rights

1. All Swiss citizens over the age of eighteen, unless they lack legal capacity due to mental illness or mental incapacity, have

political rights in federal matters. All citizens have the same political rights and duties.

2. They may participate in elections to the National Council and in federal popular votes, and launch or sign popular

initiatives and requests for referendums in federal matters. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

326

SYRIA 1953



Independence: 1946


Parliament name: Majlis Al-Chaab (People's Assembly)

Chamber name: Majlis Al-Chaab (People's Assembly)


Directly elected


*The 400-member Assembly of the

Assembly of Egypt and 200

representatives from Syria: there

were no women among

representatives from Syria. The

Assembly was dissolved following

a military coup d'Etat on 29

September 1961 in Damascus.

Syria then seceded from the UAR

and established the independent

Syrian Arab Republic.

DATE WOMEN %

2016-04

2014-12

2012-05

2007-04

2003-03

1998-12

1994-08

1990-05

1986-02

1981-11

1977-08

1973-05

1961-11

1960-07

1947

33

31

30

31

30

26

24

21

18

13

7

5

0

7*

0

13.2%

12.4%

12%

12.4%

12%

10.4%

9.6%

8.4%

9.23%

6.67%

3.59%

2.69%

0%

1.17%

0%

On 10 September 1949 the right to vote was restricted to the women who had reached the educational level of the 6th

primary class. Only in 1953 were all educational restrictions on voting lifted for women and suffrage became universal.

The first seats in the National Assembly were gained by two women in 1940 and since then women have been present in the

Legislative Council, except for a short period of absence in 1961. Four women held seats in the Parliament in 1971 (Nida Latif,

“Gender Profile - Syrian Arab Republic”, Institute for Women’s studies in the Arab World).


Article 3 SUBJECT TO RELIGION

The religion of the President of the Republic is Islam; Islamic jurisprudence shall be a major source of legislation; The

State shall respect all religions, and ensure the freedom to perform all the rituals that do not prejudice public order; The

personal status of religious communities shall be protected and respected.

Article 8

…

4. Carrying out any political activity or forming any political parties or groupings on the basis of religious, sectarian, tribal,

regional, class-based, professional, or on discrimination based on gender, origin, race or color may not be undertaken;

… DISCRIMINATION BANNED IN POLITICAL PARTIES

327

SYRIA 1953

Article 20

1. The family shall be the nucleus of society and the law shall maintain its existence and strengthen its ties;

2. The state shall protect and encourage marriage, and shall work on removing material and social obstacles that hinder it.

The state shall also protect maternity and childhood, take care of young children and youth and provide the suitable

conditions for the development of their talents. PROTECTION OF MATERNITY

Article 23

The state shall provide women with all opportunities enabling them to effectively and fully contribute to the political,

economic, social and cultural life, and the State shall work on removing the restrictions that prevent their

development and participation in building society.

ENABLED TO EFFECTIVELY AND FULLY CONTRIBUTE TO THE POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE

REMOVING THE RESTRICTIONS THAT PREVENT THE DEVELOPMENT AND PARTICIPATION IN BUILDING SOCIETY

Article 33

…

3. Citizens shall be equal in rights and duties without discrimination among them on grounds of sex, origin, language,

religion or creed; DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

Article 84

The candidate for the office of President of the Republic should:

…

4. Not be married to a non-Syrian wife;

GENDER AND CITIZENSHIP DISCRIMINATION

328

TAIWAN 1947

Chamber name: Legislative Yuan


Directly elected



Parliament name: Legislative Yuan

Electoral quota for women: Yes. “In the various elections, a certain number of mandates shall be reserved to women; the law

provides for the implementation of this objective”.

Legal source: Constitution, art. 134

DATE WOMEN %

2016-01

2012-01

2008-12

2004-12

2001-12

1998-12

1995-12

1992-12

43

38

34

47

50

43

23

17

38.05%

33.63%

30.09%

20.89%

22.22%

19.11%

14.02%

10.56%


Article 7

All citizens of the Republic of China, irrespective of sex, religion, ethnic origin, class, or party affiliation, shall be equal

before the law. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Article 10

…

The State shall protect the dignity of women, safeguard their personal safety, eliminate sexual discrimination, and

further substantive gender equality.

… THE STATE PROTECTS THE DIGNITY OF WOMEN, SAFEGUARDS THEIR PERSONAL SAFETY, ELIMINATES SEXUAL DISCRIMINATION,

AND FURTHER SUBSTANTIVE GENDER EQUALITY

Article 26

The National Assembly shall be composed of the following Delegates:

… RESERVED SEATS IN THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY

7. The number of Delegates to be elected by women’s organizations shall be determined by law.

Article 129

The various elections prescribed in this Constitution shall be by universal, equal, and direct suffrage and by secret ballot,

unless otherwise stipulated in this Constitution. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Article 134

In the various elections, a certain number of mandates shall be reserved to women; the law provides for the

implementation of this objective. RESERVED SEATS IN THE ELECTIONS

329

TAIWAN 1947

Article 153

…

2. Special protection shall be provided for women and children engaging in manual labor, in accordance with their age

and physical condition.

Article 156

The State, in order to consolidate the foundation of national existence and development, shall protect motherhood and

carry out a policy for the promotion of the welfare of women and children.

PROTECTION OF MOTHERHOOD AND PROMOTION OF WELFARE

The Additional Articles of the Constitution of the Republic of China

Article 4

Beginning with the Seventh Legislative Yuan, the Legislative Yuan shall have 113 members, who shall serve a term of four

years, which is renewable after re-election.

The election of members of the Legislative Yuan shall be completed within three months prior to the expiration of each term,

in accordance with the following provisions, the restrictions in Article 64 and Article 65 of the Constitution notwithstanding:

1. Seventy-three members shall be elected from the Special Municipalities, counties, and cities in the free area. At least one

member shall be elected from each county and city.

2. Three members each shall be elected from among the lowland and highland aborigines in the free area.

3. A total of thirty-four members shall be elected from the nationwide constituency and among citizens residing abroad.

Members for the seats set forth in Subparagraph 1 of the preceding paragraph shall be elected in proportion to the

population of each Special Municipality, county, or city, which shall be divided into electoral constituencies equal in number

to the number of members to be elected. Members for the seats set forth in Subparagraph 3 shall be elected from the lists of

political parties in proportion to the number of votes won by each party that obtains at least 5 percent of the total vote, and

the number of elected female members on each party's list shall not be less than one-half of the total number.

RESERVED SEATS IN THE LEGISLATIVE YUAN

SPECIAL PROTECTION IN MANUAL LABOR

330

TAJIKISTAN 1924



Independence: 1991


Parliament name: Majlisi Oli (Supreme Council)

Chamber name: Majlisi namoyandogon (House of

Representatives)



Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2015-03

2014-01

2010-02

2005-02

2001-01

2000-03

2000-02

1995-02

1990-02

12

10

12

11

8

9

8

5

7

19.05%

15.87%

19.05%

17.46%

12.7%

15%

12.7%

2.76%

3.04%

Chamber name: Majlisi milli (National Assembly)



Indirectly elected (25) at the joint meetings of people's

deputies.


Other (1): outgoing president.


DATE WOMEN %

2016-06

2015-03

2014-01

2010-03

2006-01

2005-03

2000-02

7

2

4

5

6

8

4

21.88%

6.25%

11.76%

14.71%

17.65%

23.53%

11.76%

Prior to independence, under Soviet administration, women were granted the right to vote and stand for election in 1924.

These rights were confirmed at independence. In 1990 the Supreme Soviet of the SSR of Tajikistan became the first

legislature of Tajikistan after the country became independent on 9 September 1991. Tajikistan women had previously been

elected to the Soviet Supreme of the SSR of Tajikistan and to the USSR.


Article 17

All are equal before the law and court. The State guarantees the rights and freedoms of everyone regardless of his

nationality, race, gender, language, religious beliefs, political persuasion, education, [and] social and property status.

Men and women have equal rights. DISCRIMINATION BANNED EQUAL RIGHTS

Article 33

Family as the foundation of the society is under the protection of the State.

Everyone has the right to form a family. Men and women who have reached the marital age have the right to freely enter into

a marriage. In family relations and in dissolution of the marriage, spouses have equal rights. Polygamy is prohibited.

MARTIMONIAL EQUALITY

Article 34

A mother and child are under special protection and patronage of the State.

… SPECIAL PROTECTION OF THE MOTHER

331

TAJIKISTAN 1924

Article 35

…

Using the labor of women and minors in heavy and underground works as well as in harmful conditions is prohibited.

PROHIBITED HEAVY AND UNDERGROUND WORKS AND LABOUR IN HARMFUL CONDITIONS

Article 49

The Majlisi Namoyandagon is elected on the basis of universal, equal, and direct suffrage by secret ballot. The Majlisi

Namoyandagon functions on a constant and professional basis. Every citizen of the Republic of Tajikistan no younger than

25 years and having higher education may be elected a deputy of the Majlisi Namoyandagon.


332

TANZANIA 1959



Independence: 1961


Parliament name: Bunge (National Assembly)

Chamber name: Bunge (National Assembly)


Directly elected (264). Indirectly elected members (118): includes 113 women elected by political parties in proportion to

their share of the electoral vote; and five members from Zanzibar (two of whom must be women); Appointed members (10):

appointed by the President (five of whom must be women); Other(1): the Attorney General;

The Speaker may be designated from outside Parliament and becomes a member of parliament by virtue of holding the

office of Speaker.

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Women members must not make up less than 30% in the National Assembly. The special

seats for women are distributed among the political parties in proportion to the number of seats awarded to them in

parliament.

Legal source: Constitution, article 66, 78; Elections Regulations 2010, 86A.

DATE WOMEN %

2017-09

2016-12

2015-12

2010-10

2010-01

2005-12

2000-10

1990-10

1980-10

1975-10

1970-10

145

143

136

126

99

97

61

28

23

18

8

36.9%

36.39%

36.56%

36%

30.65%

30.41%

22.18%

11.24%

9.62%

8.26%

3.9%

Prior to indepence, under British administration, women were granted the right to vote and stand for election in 1959. These

rights were confirmed at independence. Lucy Selina Lameck Somi (1934–1993) was appointed to the Tanganyika National

Assembly in 1960, before being elected to the Tanzania National Assembly in 1965 (Susan Geiger, “TANU Women: Gender and

Culture in the Making of Tanganyikan Naionalism, 1955-1965”).


5. The franchise

1. Every citizen of the United Republic who has attained the age of eighteen years is entitled to vote in any election held in

Tanzania. This right shall be exercised in accordance with the provisions of subarticle (2), and of the other provisions of this

Constitution and the law for the time being in force in Tanzania in relation to public elections.


9. The pursuit of Ujamaa and Self-Reliance

The object of this Constitution is to facilitate the building of the United Republic as a nation of equal and free individuals

enjoying freedom, justice, fraternity and concord, through the pursuit of the policy of Socialism and Self Reliance which

333

334

TANZANIA 1959

emphasises the application of socialist principles while taking into account the conditions prevailing in the United Republic.

Therefore, the state authority and all its agencies are obliged to direct their policies and programmes towards ensuring:

…

g. that the Government and all its agencies provide equal opportunities to all citizens, men and women alike without

regard to their colour, tribe, religion, or station in life; EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES

…

13. Equality before the law DISCRIMINATION BANNED

1. All persons are equal before the law and are entitled, without any discrimination, to protection and equality before the

law.

2. No law enacted by any authority in the United Republic shall make any provision that is discriminatory either of itself or in

its effect.

3. The civic rights, duties and interests of every person and community shall be protected and determined by the courts of

law or other state agencies established by or under the law.

4. No person shall be discriminated against by any person or any authority acting under any law or in the discharge of the

functions or business of any state office.

5. For the purposes of this Article the expression “discriminate” means to satisfy the needs, rights or other requirements of

different persons on the basis of their nationality, tribe, place of origin, political opinion, colour, religion, sex or station in life

such that certain categories of people are regarded as weak or inferior and are subjected to restrictions or conditions

whereas persons of other categories are treated differently or are accorded opportunities or advantage outside the specified

conditions or the prescribed necessary qualifications except that the word "discrimination" shall not be construed in a

manner that will prohibit the Government from taking purposeful steps aimed at rectifying disabilities in the society.

20. Person’s freedom of association

…

2. Notwithstanding the provisions of subarticles (1) and (4), it shall not be lawful for any political entity to be registered which

according to its constitution or policy:

a. aims at promoting or furthering the interests of:

i. any religious faith or group;

ii. any tribal group, place of origin, race or gender; PROMOTION OF ONLY ONE GENDER IN ASSOCIATIONS BANNED

…

66. Members of Parliament

1. Subject to the other provisions of this Article, there shall be the following categories of Members of Parliament, that is to

say:

a. members elected to represent constituencies;

RESERVED SEATS IN THE PARLIAMENT

b. women members being not less than thirty percentum of all the members mentioned in paragraphs (a), (c), (d), (e) and

(f) with qualifications mentioned in Article 67 elected by the political parties in accordance with Article 78, on the basis of

proportion of votes;

c. five members elected by the House of Representatives from among its members;

d. the Attorney General;

e. not more than ten members appointed by the President from amongst persons with qualifications specified under

paragraphs (a) and (c) of subarticle (1) of Article 67 and, at least five members amongst them shall be women;

f. the Speaker, if he is not elected from amongst the members…

78. Procedure for election of women Members of Parliament RESERVED SEATS IN THE PARLIAMENT

1. For the purposes of the election of women Members of Parliament mentioned in Article 66(1) (b), political parties which

took part in the general election in accordance with the procedure laid down and obtained at least five percentum of the

total valid voters for Parliamentary election, shall propose to the Electoral Commission the names of women on the basis of

the proportion of votes obtained by each party in the Parliamentary election.

2. Notwithstanding the provisions of subarticle (1), the following votes shall be counted as valid votes for the unopposed

Member of Parliament in the constituent:

a. where a political party has nominated a Presidential candidate, presidential votes cast in the constituency for a Presidential

candidate from that political party;

b. where a political party has not nominated a presidential candidate, fifty one percentum of the votes of the total voters

registered in the respective constituency.

3. The names of the persons proposed to the Electoral Commission in accordance with subarticle (1) shall be declared to be

the results of the election after the Commission is satisfied that the relevant provisions of the Constitution and of other

legislation have been complied with.

4. The list of names for women candidates submitted to the Electoral Commission by each political party for general election

shall be the list to be applied by the Election Commission after consultation of the party concerned, for purpose of filling any

vacancy of Members of Parliament of this category whenever during the life of Parliament.

THAILAND 1932




Parliament name: Rathhasapha (National Assembly)

Chamber name: Saphaphuthan Ratsadon (House of

Representatives)



Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Section 48 of the Organic

Act on Political Parties prescribes that to run for an election,

political parties need to prepare their lists of Party-List

candidates by taking gender balance into consideration.

Legal source: 2017 Constitution, art. 90.

DATE WOMEN %

2019-07

2019-05

2018-09

2014-08

2011-07

2009-01

2007-12

2005-02

2004-01

2001-01

1996-11

1995-07

1992-09

1991-03

1988-07

1986-07

1983-04

1979-04

1976-04

1975-01

1973-12

1972-12

1969-02

1958-01

1957-02

1952-02

1945-09

81

79

13

12

79

63

56

53

40

42

22

24

15

11

10

12

13

9

5

3

18

0

6

4

1

4

0

16.2%

15.8%

5.28%

6.09%

15.8%

13.32%

11.67%

10.6%

8.83%

8.64%

5.6%

6.14%

4.17%

3.77%

2.8%

3.46%

4.01%

2.99%

1.86%

1.17%

6.02%

0%

2.74%

2.5%

0.63%

3.25%

0%

Chamber name: Wuthisapha (Senate)



Appointed members: 194 senators selected by the National

Council for Peace and Order (NCPO) among 400 names

nominated by the Senator Selection Committee; 50 senators

selected by the NCPO among 200 candidates representing

various occupational groups who had been chosen by their

peers and selected by the Election Commission; 6 ex-officio

members: the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of

Defence, the Supreme Commander, the

Commander-in-Chief of the Royal Thai Army, the

Commander-in-Chief of the Royal Thai Navy, the

Commander-in-Chief of the Royal Thai Air Force and the

Commissioner-General of the Royal Thai Police.


DATE WOMEN %

2019-05 25 10%

On 5 June 1949, Orapin Chaiyakan (1904-1996) became the first woman elected to sit in the

Thai parliament (Ployparn Ekraksasilpchai).

335

THAILAND 1932


Section 27

All persons are equal before the law, and shall have rights and liberties and be protected equally under the law.

Men and women shall enjoy equal rights. EQUAL RIGHTS

Unjust discrimination against a person on the grounds of differences in origin, race, language, sex, age, disability, physical

or health condition, personal status, economic and social standing, religious belief, education, or political view which is not

contrary to the provisions of the Constitution, or on any other grounds shall not be permitted. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Measures determined by the State in order to eliminate an obstacle to or to promote persons’ ability to exercise their rights

or liberties on the same basis as other person or to protect or facilitate children, women, the elderly, persons with disabilities

or underprivileged persons shall not be deemed as unjust discrimination under paragraph three.

…

Section 48

The rights of a mother during the period prior to and after giving birth shall be protected and assisted as provided by

law. MOTHERS PROTECTED AND ASSISTED PRIOR TO AND AFTER GIVING BIRTH

…

Section 71

…

The State should provide assistance to children, youth, women, the elderly, persons with disabilities, indigent persons and

underprivileged persons to be able to have a quality living, and shall protect such persons from violence or unfair

treatment, as well as provide treatment, rehabilitation and remedies to such injured persons. QUALITY LIVING

In allocating the budget, the State shall take into account the different necessities and needs with respect to genders, ages

and conditions of persons to ensure fairness.

BUDGET TAKES INTO ACCOUNT THE DIFFERENT NCESSITIES AND NEEDS WITH RESPECT TO GENDERS

Section 85

Members of the House of Representatives who are elected on a constituency basis shall be elected by direct suffrage and

secret ballot…. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Section 90

Any political party which sends a candidate for election on a constituency basis shall have the right to send a candidate for

election on a party list basis.

In sending a candidate for election on a party list basis, each political party shall prepare one list of candidates, in which

candidates for election of each political party shall not be the same as others’ and not be the same as the names of

candidates for election on a constituency basis. Such list of candidates shall be submitted to the Election Commission prior

to the end of the period for application for candidacy for election of Members of the House of Representatives on a

constituency basis.

In the preparation of a list of candidates under paragraph two, the members of the political party shall be allowed to

participate in the deliberations, and regard shall be had to the candidates for election from different regions and equality

between men and women.

EQUALITY IN THE PREPARATION OF A LIST OF CANDIDATES FOR ELECTION OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

Section 128

The House of Representatives and the Senate have the power to enact rules of procedure governing the election and

performance of duties of the President, Vice-Presidents, matters or activities which are within the duties and powers of each

standing committee, performance and quorum of committees, sittings, submission and consideration of organic law bills

and bills, submission of motions, consultation, debate, passing of a resolution, recording and disclosure of the passing of a

resolution, interpellation, general debate, observation of the rules and orders and other relevant matters, as well as the

power to enact rules of procedure regarding the code of ethics of members and committee members and other matters for

the implementation of the Constitution.

The rules of procedure under paragraph one in the part concerning the appointment of an ad hoc committee for the

consideration of bills the substance of which is decided by the President of the House of Representatives to concern with

children, youths, women, the elderly, the disabled or handicapped, shall stipulate that such ad hoc committee consists of the

said types of persons or representatives from private organisations concerned directly with the respective types of persons,

of at least one-third of the total number of the ad hoc committee members.

RESERVED MEMBERS IN THE AD HOC COMMITTEE

336

TIMOR-LESTE 1945



Independence: 2002





Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. On electoral lists, one out of every group of three candidates must be a woman, otherwise

the list will be rejected.

Legal source: Law on Elections of the National Parliament (Art. 12 (3))

DATE WOMEN %

2019-03

2019-01

2018-06

2017-07

2012-07

2011-01

2010-01

2008-01

2007-12

2007-06

25

26

22

21

25

18

19

18

19

18

38.46%

40%

33.85%

32.31%

38.46%

27.69%

29.23%

27.69%

29.23%

27.69%

Prior the independence, on 17 August 1945, under Indonesia administration, women were given the right to vote and to

stand for election. These rights were confirmed at indepedence.


Article 6: Objectives of the State

The fundamental objectives of the State are:

…

j. to promote an effective equality of opportunities between women and men.

PROMOTION OF AN EFFECTIVE EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITIES

Article 16: Universality and Equality

1. All citizens are equal before the law, shall exercise the same rights and shall be subject to the same duties.

2. No one may be discriminated against on grounds of color, race, marital status, gender, ethnic origin, social or economic

status, political or ideological convictions, religion, education or physical or mental condition. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Article 17: Equality Between Women and Men

Women and men have the same rights and duties in all areas of political, economic, social, cultural and family life.

SAME RIGHTS AND DUTIES IN ALL AREAS OF POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, CULTURAL AND FAMILY LIFE

337

TIMOR-LESTE 1945

Article 39: Family, Marriage and Maternity

…

3. Marriage is based upon free consent by the parties and on terms of full equality of rights between spouses, in

accordance with the law. MARRIAGE BASED ON FREE WILL MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

4. Maternity is dignified and protected, and special protection shall be guaranteed to all women during pregnancy and

after delivery and working women shall have the right to be exempted from the workplace for an adequate period

before and after delivery, without loss of remuneration or any other benefits, in accordance with the law.

MATERNITY DIGNIFIED AND PROTECTED SPECIAL PROTECTION DURING PREGNANCY

KEEPING REMUNERATION AND BENEFITS DURING MATERNITY LEAVE

Article 50: Right to Work

1. Every citizen, regardless of gender, has the right and the duty to work and to choose freely his or her profession.

… RIGHT AND DUTY TO WORK

Article 63: Participation by Citizens in Political Life

1. Direct and active participation by men and women in political life constitutes a requirement of, and a fundamental

instrument for, the democratic system.

2. The law promotes equality in the exercise of civil and political rights and nondiscrimination on the basis of gender

for access to political positions. PROMOTION OF EQUALITY IN THE EXERCISE OF CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS

DISCRIMINATION IN ACCESS TO POLITICAL POSITIONS BANNED

Article 65: Elections

1. Elected organs of sovereignty and of local government shall be chosen by free, direct, secret, personal and regular

universal suffrage. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

…

338

TOGO 1945





Assembly)



Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. The lists of candidates must contain equal numbers of men and women.

Legal source: Electoral Code, art. 220 alin. 5.

DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2013-07

2011-01

2010-01

2008-01

2007-12

2006-01

2002-10

1999-03

1994-02

1991-08

1990-03

1985-03

1979-12

1963-05

1961-04

15

14

7

9

7

9

7

6

4

1

5

3

4

7

0

1

16.48%

15.38%

8.64%

11.11%

8.64%

11.11%

8.64%

7.41%

4.94%

1.23%

6.33%

3.9%

5.19%

10.45%

0%

1.96%

Prior to independence, under French administration, women were granted the right to vote and stand for election to the

French parliament in 1945 and to the local legislative assembly in 1956 by the Loi-cadre Deferre. These rights were confirmed

at independence. Women participated in the first legislative elections on 1946 after Togo's application for suffrage was

completed and the French decree of 22 August 1945 was entered into force.


Article 2

The Togolese Republic assures the equality before the law of all citizens without distinction of origin, of race, of sex, of

social condition or of religion. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…


Suffrage is universal, equal and secret. It may be direct or indirect. All Togolese nationals of the two sexes, at least eighteen

(18) years of age and enjoying their civil and political rights[,] are electors within the conditions established by the law.

339

TOGO 1945

Article 11

All human beings are equal in dignity and in right.

The man and the woman are equal before the law. EQUAL BEFORE THE LAW

No one may be favored or disadvantaged for reason of their familial, ethnic or regional origin, of their economic or social

situation, of their political, religious, philosophical or other convictions.

Article 35

The State recognizes the right to education of children and creates conditions favorable to accomplish this objective.

School is obligatory for children of the two sexes until the age of 15 years. SCHOOL OBLIGATORY

The State assures progressively the gratuity of public education.

Article 37

…

No one may be disadvantaged in their work for reason of their sex, of their origin, of their beliefs or of their opinions.

DISCRIMINATION BANNED AT WORK

340

TONGA 1960



Independence: 1970

Population: 105,048

Parliament name: Fale Alea (Legislative Assembly)

Chamber name: Fale Alea (Legislative Assembly)


Directly elected (17). Indirectly elected (9): nine nobles. Other (1): the new Cabinet, formed in January 2018, includes one

member who was not elected to the Legislative Assembly.


DATE WOMEN %

2017-11

2016-12

2014-11

2011-01

2010-11

2006

1996-01

1993-02

1975-05

2

1

0

1

0

1

0

1

1

7.69%

3.85%

0%

3.57%

0%

3.33%

0%

3.33%

0%

Prior to independence, under British administration, women were given the right to vote and stand for election in 1960.

These rights were confirmed at independence. In 1975, Princess Mele Si'uilikutapu became the first female member of

Parliament (Fay Alailima, “New Politics in the South Pacific”).


1. Declaration of freedom

Since it appears to be the will of God that man should be free as He has made all men of one blood therefore shall the people

of Tonga and all who sojourn or may sojourn in this Kingdom be free for ever. And all men may use their lives and persons

and time to acquire and possess property and to dispose of their labour and the fruit of their hands and to use their own

property as they will.

341

TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO 1946



Independence: 1962






Directly elected (41). Other (1): the Speaker may be

designated from outside parliament.


DATE WOMEN %

2015-09

2010-05

2007-11

2002-10

2001-12

1995-12

1991-12

1981-11

1976-09

1971-05

1966-11

1961-12

13

12

11

7

6

4

5

6

3

1

3

1

30.95%

29.27%

26.83%

19.44%

16.67%

11.11%

13.51%

16.67%

8.33%

2.78%

8.33%

3.33%




Appointed by the Head of State.


DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2017-01

2015-09

2014-01

2013-01

2010-06

2008-01

2007-12

2001-01

1995-12

1991-12

1981-11

1976-09

1971-05

1966-11

1961-12

11

9

10

6

7

8

10

13

10

9

7

4

5

3

4

5

35.48%

29.03%

32.26%

19.35%

22.58%

25.81%

32.26%

41.94%

32.26%

29.03%

22.58%

12.9%

16.13%

12.5%

16.67%

20.83%

Prior to independence, under British administration, women were given the right to vote and stand for election in 1946 and

a woman was appointed to Parliament the same year. These rights were confirmed at indepedence. In 1961, Isabel Ursula

Teshea (1911- 1981) became the first woman elected to the House of Representatives. She was Minister of Health and

Housing from 1963 to 1967 and Minister of Housing from 1967 to 1970. In 1970 Teshea was appointed ambassador to

Ethiopia and from 1974 High Commissioner to Guyana, a post she held until her retirement in 1977 (Suzanne Lopez, Rhona

Baptiste, ”The 90 Most Prominent Women in Trinidad and Tobago”, Imprint Caribbean Limited).


342

4. Recognition and declaration of rights and freedoms

It is hereby recognised and declared that in Trinidad and Tobago there have existed and shall continue to exist without

discrimination by reason of race, origin, colour, religion or sex, the following fundamental human rights and freedoms,

namely: DISCRIMINATION BANNED

a. the right of the individual to life, liberty, security of the person and enjoyment of property and the right not to be deprived

thereof except by due process of law;

b. the right of the individual to equality before the law and the protection of the law;

c. the right of the individual to respect for his private and family life;

d. the right of the individual to equality of treatment from any public authority in the exercise of any functions;

TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO 1946

e. the right to join political parties and to express political views;

f. the right of a parent or guardian to provide a school of his own choice for the education of his child or ward;

g. freedom of movement;

h. freedom of conscience and religious belief and observance;

i. freedom of thought and expression;

j. freedom of association and assembly; and

k. freedom of the press.

343

TUNISIA 1959



Independence: 1956


Parliament name: Majlis Nawwab ash-Sha'ab (Assembly

of People's Representatives)

Chamber name: Majlis Nawwab ash-Sha'ab (Assembly of People's Representatives)


Directly elected

Electoral quota for women: Yes. According to the electoral law, Article 16 of Decree 35: "Candidates must apply on the basis

of parity between men and women". Lists that do not respect the principle of parity between the sexes will be admitted only

when the number of seats in the constituency concerned will be odd and "the lists will be established so as to alternate

between men and women" (Article 16).

DATE WOMEN %

2019-10

2018-12

2014-10

2013

2011-10

2011-06

2009-10

2008

2007

2004-10

1999-10

1998

1994-04

1989-04

1981-11

1979-11

1974-11

1969-11

1959-04

49

78

68

61

57

58

59

43

17

43

21

12

11

6

7

4

3

4

1

22.58%

35.94%

31.34%

28.11%

26.27%

26.73%

27.57%

22.75%

15.32%

22.75%

11.54%

7.36%

6.75%

4.26%

5.15%

3.17%

2.54%

3.7%

1.11%

In May 1957, for the first time, women took part in municipal eIections by decree. In 1959, Radhia Haddad (1922-2003)

became the first woman elected to Parliament (Susan Franceschet, ”The Palgrave Handbook of Women’s Political Rights”).


344

Preamble

…

With a view to building a republican, democratic and participatory system, in the framework of a civil state founded on the

sovereignty of the people, exercised through the peaceful alternation of power through free elections, and on the principle

of the separation and balance of powers, which guarantees the freedom of association in conformity with the principles of

pluralism, an impartial administration, and good governance, which are the foundations of political competition, where the

State guarantees the supremacy of the law and the respect for freedoms and human rights, the independence of the

judiciary, the equality of rights and duties between all citizens, male and female, and equality between all regions,

… STATE GUARANTEES THE SUPREMACY OF THE LAW EQUAL RIGHTS

TUNISIA 1959

Article 21

All citizens, male and female, have equal rights and duties, and are equal before the law without any discrimination.

The state guarantees freedoms and individual and collective rights to all citizens, and provides all citizens the conditions for

a dignified life. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Article 55

Members of the Assembly of the Representatives of the People shall be elected by universal, free, direct, secret, fair and

transparent voting, in accordance with the election law.


Article 40

Work is a right for every citizen, male and female. The state shall take the necessary measures to guarantee work on the

basis of competence and fairness.

All citizens, male and female, shall have the right to decent working conditions and to a fair wage.

DECENT WORKING CONDITIONS EQUAL PAY FOR WORK

Article 74

Every male and female voter who holds Tunisian nationality since birth, whose religion is Islam shall have the right to

stand for election to the position of President of the Republic. SUBJECT TO RELIGION

345

TURKEY 1934

Right to vote and stand for election: December 5, 1934



Parliament name: Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi (T.B.M.M)

(Grand National Assembly of Turkey)

Chamber name: Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi (T.B.M.M) (Grand National Assembly of Turkey)


Directly elected


Legal source: Individual political party statutes.

DATE WOMEN %

2018-06

2017-02

2015-11

2015-06

2014-01

2011-06

2007-07

2002-11

1999-04

1995-12

1991-10

1987-11

1983-11

1977-06

1973-10

1969-10

1961-10

1957-10

1954-05

1950-05

1946-08

104

80

82

98

79

78

50

24

23

13

8

6

12

4

6

5

3

8

4

3

9

17.33%

14.57%

14.91%

17.82%

14.42%

14.18%

9.11%

4.36%

4.18%

2.36%

1.78%

1.33%

3%

0.88%

1.32%

1.11%

0.67%

1.33%

0.75%

0.61%

1.81%

On 3 April 1930, women were granted the right to vote and stand for election in local elections. In 1934 a new constitution

was introduced that raised the general voting age (for men and women) from 18 to 22 years (Dolf Sternberger, Bernhard Vogel,

Dieter Nohlen, "Die Wahl der Parlamente"). In February 1935, 17 women, included Hatı Çırpan (formerly Satı Kadın, 1890-1956),

were appointed to parliament (as a result of the by-election in 1936 the number of women increased to 18).


346

ARTICLE 10

Everyone is equal before the law without distinction as to language, race, colour, sex, political opinion, philosophical

belief, religion and sect, or any such grounds. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Men and women have equal rights. The State has the obligation to ensure that this equality exists in practice. Measures

taken for this purpose shall not be interpreted as contrary to the principle of equality. EQUAL RIGHTS

TURKEY 1934

Measures to be taken for children, the elderly, disabled people, widows and orphans of martyrs as well as for the invalid and

veterans shall not be considered as violation of the principle of equality.

No privilege shall be granted to any individual, family, group or class.

State organs and administrative authorities are obliged to act in compliance with the principle of equality before the law in

all their proceedings.

ARTICLE 41

Family is the foundation of the Turkish society and based on the equality between the spouses. MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

The State shall take the necessary measures and establish the necessary organization to protect peace and welfare of the

family, especially mother and children, and to ensure the instruction of family planning and its practice.

… PROTECTION OF MOTHER

ARTICLE 42

…

Primary education is compulsory for all citizens of both sexes and is free of charge in state schools.

… EDUCATION COMPULSORY AND FREE OF CHARGE

ARTICLE 50

No one shall be required to perform work unsuited to his/her age, sex, and capacity. UNSUITED WORK BANNED

Minors, women, and physically and mentally disabled persons, shall enjoy special protection with regard to working

conditions. SPECIAL PROTECTION WITH REGARD TO WORKING CONDITIONS

…

ARTICLE 67

In conformity with the conditions set forth in the law, citizens have the right to vote, to be elected, to engage in political

activities independently or in a political party, and to take part in a referendum.

Elections and referenda shall be held under the direction and supervision of the judiciary, in accordance with the principles

of free, equal, secret, direct, universal suffrage, and public counting of the votes. However, the law determines applicable

measures for Turkish citizens abroad to exercise their right to vote. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

All Turkish citizens over eighteen years of age shall have the right to vote in elections and to take part in referenda.

…

347

TURKMENISTAN 1927



Independence: 1990


Parliament name: Mejlis (Assembly)

Chamber name: Mejlis (Assembly)


Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2018-03

2014-12

2013-12

2008-12

2004-12

1999-12

1994-12

1990-01

31

32

33

21

8

13

9

8

24.8%

25.81%

26.4%

16.8%

15.38%

26%

18%

4.57%


These rights were confirmed at independence. In 1990 the Supreme Soviet (Yokani Soveti) of the SSR of Turkmenistan

became the first legislature of Turkmenistan after the country became independent on 27 October 1991.Turkmenistan

women had been previously elected to the Supreme Soviet of the SSR of Turkmenistan and the USSR.


Article 28

Turkmenistan shall guarantee the equality of rights and freedoms of a person and a citizen, and also the equality of a

person and a citizen before the law regardless of their nationality, skin colour, gender, origin, property and official status,

place of residence, language, religion, political beliefs, and other circumstances.

Article 29

Men and women in Turkmenistan shall have equal rights and freedoms, and equal opportunities for their realization.

Violation of equality on the basis of gender shall be punishable according to the law.

EQUAL RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS, EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES FOR THEIR REALIZATION

Article 40


Family, motherhood and fatherhood, and childhood shall be under the protection of the state.

Men and women having attained the marriageable age, shall have the right, by mutual consent, to marry and start families.

Spouses shall have equal rights in family relations.

…




348

Article 119

Elections of the President of Turkmenistan, deputies of the Mejlis, members of the halk maslahaty (Peoples Council) and

Gengesh shall be held by universal and equal suffrage. The citizens of Turkmenistan, who attained the age of 18, shall have

the right to vote; each voter shall have one vote.

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

TUVALU 1967



Independence: 1978

Population: 11,646

Parliament name: Palamene o Tuvalu (Parliament of

Tuvalu)

Chamber name: Palamene o Tuvalu (Parliament of Tuvalu)


Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2019-09

2014

1998-03

1989-09

1977-08

1

1

0

1

0

6.25%

6.67%

0%

7.69%

0%


January 1967. These rights were confirmed at independence. In 1989, Naoma Maheu Latasi became the first woman elected

to Parliament (Queensland University of Technology, "Pacific Islands History").


11. The fundamental human rights and freedoms

1. Every person in Tuvalu is entitled, whatever his race, place of origin, political opinions, colour, religious beliefs or lack of

religious beliefs, or sex, to the following fundamental rights and freedoms: DISCRIMINATION BANNED

a. the right not to be deprived of life (see section 16); and

b. personal liberty (see sections 17 and 18); and

c. security for his person (see sections 18 and 19); and

d. the protection of the law (see section 22); and

e. freedom of belief (see section 23); and

f. freedom of expression (see section 24); and

g. freedom of assembly and association (see section 25); and

h. protection for the privacy of his home and other property (see section21); and

i. protection from unjust deprivation of property (see section 20),

and to other rights and freedoms set out in this Part or otherwise by law…

87. Nature of elections

1. Members of Parliament shall be elected under a system of universal, citizen, adult suffrage, in accordance with this

Constitution and any law made for the purposes of section 89 (electoral laws)… UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

SCHEDULE 1: RULES FOR THE INTERPRETATION OF THE CONSTITUTION

5. Gender and number

In this Constitution

a. the masculine gender includes the female gender; and IN THE CONSTITUTION MASCULINE WORDS INCLUDE FEMALE GENDER

b. the feminine gender includes the masculine gender,…

349

UGANDA 1962



Independence: 1962





Directly elected (422). Indirectly elected (25): (a) Five youth representatives; (b) Five representatives of disabled persons; (c)

Five workers' representatives; and (d) 10 representatives of the Uganda People's Defence Forces. At least one person from

categories (a) to (c), and two from category (d) must be women. Other (18): In addition to the 447 members, the President of

the Republic may appoint as many ex officio members as he/she wishes. The number of ex officio members (ministers who

do not have voting rights), and thus the statutory number of members, may vary during the course of the legislature.

Electoral quota for women: Yes, 112 reserved seats.

Legal source: Cf. Article 78 of the Constitution and Parliamentary Elections Act.

Pumla Ellen Ngozwana Kisosonkole

(1911–1997) was a Ugandan politician and

activist in women's organizations. In 1956,

she was nominated to the Uganda

Legislative Council of the Protectorate

Government. She was the first African

woman to enter the legislative council.

(Kathleen Sheldon, “Historical Dictionary of

Women in Sub-Saharan Africa”).

DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2016-12

2016-03

2014-01

2011-02

2010-01

2008-01

2007-01

2006-02

2001-06

1996-05

1994-03

1989-02

1980-07

1962-04

160

154

143

135

131

102

99

102

89

75

50

54

34

1

2

34.86%

34.3%

33.49%

34.97%

34.93%

31.48%

30.75%

31.68%

27.64%

24.67%

17.79%

18.75%

12.23%

0.79%

2.2%


NATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY

XV. Recognition of role of women in society

The State shall recognise the significant role that women play in society.

350

21. Equality and freedom from discrimination

1. All persons are equal before and under the law in all spheres of political, economic, social and cultural life and in every

other respect and shall enjoy equal protection of the law.

2. Without prejudice to clause (1) of this article, a person shall not be discriminated against on the ground of sex, race,

colour, ethnic origin, tribe, birth, creed or religion, or social or economic standing, political opinion or disability.

3. For the purposes of this article, "discriminate" means to give different treatment to different persons attributable only or

mainly to their respective descriptions by sex, race, colour, ethnic origin, tribe, birth, creed or religion, or social or economic

standing, political opinion or disability… DISCRIMINATION BANNED

UGANDA 1962

31. Rights of the family

1. A man and a woman are entitled to marry only if they are each of the age of eighteen years and above and are entitled at

that age:

a. to found a family; and

b. to equal rights at and in marriage, during marriage, and at its dissolution. MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

2. Parliament shall make appropriate laws for the protection of the rights of widows and widowers to inherit the property

of their deceased spouses and to enjoy parental rights over their children. PROTECTION OF THE RIGHTS OF WIDOWS

2a. Marriage between persons of the same sex is prohibited. SEXUAL DISCRIMINATION

3. Marriage shall be entered into with the free consent of the man and woman intending to marry.


32. Affirmative action in favour of marginalised groups

1. Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution, the State shall take affirmative action in favour of groups marginalised on

the basis of gender, age, disability or any other reason created by history, tradition or custom, for the purpose of redressing

imbalances which exist against them.

2. Laws, cultures, customs and traditions which are against the dignity, welfare or interest of women or any other

marginalised group to which clause (1) relates or which undermine their status, are prohibited by this Constitution.

… PROHIBITED LAWS, CULTURES, CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS AGAINST THE DIGNITY, WELFARE OR INTEREST OF WOMEN

33. Rights of women

1. Women shall be accorded full and equal dignity of the person with men. FULL AND EQUAL DIGNITY

2. The State shall provide the facilities and opportunities necessary to enhance the welfare of women to enable them to

realise their full potential and advancement. REALISATION FULL POTENTIAL AND ADVANCEMENT

3. The State shall protect women and their rights, taking into account their unique status and natural maternal functions

in society. TAKE CARE OF MATERNITY

4. Women shall have the right to equal treatment with men and that right shall include equal opportunities in political,

economic and social activities. EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES IN POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL ACTIVITIES

5. Without prejudice to article 32 of this Constitution, women shall have the right to affirmative action for the purpose of

redressing the imbalances created by history, tradition or custom.

40. Economic rights

…

4. The employer of every woman worker shall accord her protection during pregnancy and after birth, in accordance

with the law. PROTECTION DURING PREGNANCY AND AFTER BIRTH

78. Composition of Parliament

1. Parliament shall consist of

a. members directly elected to represent constituencies;

b. one woman representative for every district; RESERVED SEATS IN PARLIAMENT

…

3. The representatives referred to in paragraph (a) of clause (1) of this article shall be elected on the basis of universal adult

suffrage and by secret ballot. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

…

180. Local government councils

…

2. Parliament shall by law prescribe the composition, qualifications, functions and electoral procedures in respect of local

government councils, except that

…

b. one third of the membership of each local government council shall be reserved for women; and

… RESERVED SEATS IN THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT COUNCIL

FIFTH SCHEDULE: REGIONAL GOVERNMENTS. (Article 178)

2. Composition of Regional Assembly

1. The composition of a regional assembly shall be prescribed by Act of Parliament and shall consist of:

…

b. representatives of women, who shall not be less than one third of the membership;

… RESERVED SEATS IN THE REGIONAL ASSEMBLY

351

UKRAINE 1919



Independence: 1991


Parliament name: Verkhovna Rada (Parliament)

Chamber name: Verkhovna Rada (Parliament)


Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2019-07

2018-12

2016-12

2015-07

2014-10

2012-01

2007-08

2006-03

2002-03

1998-03

1994-04

1990-03

87

49

52

51

49

42

38

32

24

35

17

11

20.52%

11.58%

12.29%

12.09%

11.67%

9.44%

8.44%

7.11%

5.33%

7.92%

3.78%

2.44%

352


These rights were confirmed at independence. In 1990 the Supreme Soviet of the SSR of the Ukraine became the first

legislature of the Ukraine after the country became independent on 5 December 1991. Ukrainian women had previously

been elected to the Supreme Soviet of the SSR of Ukraine and to the USSR.


Article 24

Citizens have equal constitutional rights and freedoms and are equal before the law.

There shall be no privileges or restrictions based on race, colour of skin, political, religious and other beliefs, sex, ethnic and

social origin, property status, place of residence, linguistic or other characteristics. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Equality of the rights of women and men is ensured: by providing women with opportunities equal to those of men, in

public and political, and cultural activity, in obtaining education and in professional training, in work and its remuneration;

by special measures for the protection of work and health of women; by establishing pension privileges, by creating

conditions that allow women to combine work and motherhood; by legal protection, material and moral support of

motherhood and childhood, including the provision of paid leaves and other privileges to pregnant women and mothers.

EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES IN PUBLIC, POLITICAL AND CULTURAL ACTIVITY, IN OBTAINING EDUCATION AND IN PROFESSIONAL TRAINING

EQUAL PAY FOR WORK PROTECTION OF WORK AND HEALTH COMBINING WORK AND MOTHERHOOD PAID MATERNITY LEAVE

Article 43

…

The employment of women and minors for work that is hazardous to their health, is prohibited.

… HAZARDOUS WORK FOR HEALTH PROHIBITED

UKRAINE 1919

Article 51

Marriage is based on the free consent of a woman and a man. Each of the spouses has equal rights and duties in the

marriage and family.

…

MARRIAGE BASED ON FREE WILL MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

The family, childhood, motherhood and fatherhood are under the protection of the State. PROTECTION OF MOTHERHOOD

Article 71

Elections to bodies of state power and bodies of local self-government are free and are held on the basis of universal, equal

and direct suffrage, by secret ballot. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Voters are guaranteed the free expression of their will.

353

UNITED ARAB EMIRATES 2006



Independence: 1971


Parliament name: Majlis Watani Itihadi (Federal National

Council)

Chamber name: Majlis Watani Itihadi (Federal National Council)


Indirectly elected (20) by an electoral college. Appointed members (20): appointed by the rulers of the various emirates.

Electoral quota for women: Yes. 50% reserved seats.

Legal socurce: President’s directive, 2018.

DATE WOMEN %

2019-11

2019-10

2017-07

2016-12

2015-11

2012-01

2006-12

1971-12

20

7

9

8

9

7

1

0

50%

35%

22.5%

20%

22.5%

17.5%

2.5%

0%

In 2006 the first ever legislative elections were held, for half the seats in the Federal National Council, voted by an electoral

college which included women. In 2018 President Sheikh Khalifa issued a directive to achieve gender parity within the Federal

National Council: this historic step is a first in the Arab world and it culminates the full empowerment of the UAE women.


Article 7

Islam is the official religion of the UAE. The Islamic Shari’a is a main source of legislation in the UAE. The official language

of the UAE is Arabic. SUBJECT TO RELIGION

Article 16

The community shall care for children and mothers, and protect minors and others who are unable to look after themselves

for any reason, such as illness or incapacity or old age or forced unemployment, assist and rehabilitate them for their own

interest and for the interest of the community. Welfare and social security laws regulate these matters.

TAKING CARE OF MOTHERS

354

UNITED KINGDOM 1928




Parliament name: UK Parliament

Chamber name: House of Commons



Directly elected


quotas.

Legal source: Cf. The Sex Discrimination (Election

Candidates) Act 2002 which allows political parties to select

candidates from all-women shortlists. Cf. also individual

party statutes.

Chamber name: House of Lords



Appointed members (676): 676 life peers appointed by the

Crown on the advice of the Prime Minister.

Other (115): 90 hereditary Peers and 25 archbishops and

bishops.


DATE WOMEN %

2019-12

2017-06

2015-05

2010-05

2010-01

2005-05

2001-06

1997-04

1997-01

1992-04

1987-06

1983-06

1979-05

1974-02

1966-03

1964-10

1959-10

1955-05

1951-10

1950-02

1945-07

220

208

191

143

126

128

118

120

62

60

41

23

19

27

26

29

25

24

17

21

24

33.85%

32%

29.38%

22%

19.5%

19.81%

17.91%

18.21%

9.52%

9.22%

6.31%

3.54%

2.99%

4.25%

4.13%

4.6%

3.97%

3.81%

2.72%

3.36%

3.75%

DATE WOMEN %

2019-12

2018-09

2016-06

2015-07

2014-12

2014-01

2010

2008

2007

2006

2004-11

2003

2002

2001

2000-03

2000

1999

1998

1997

1997-04

1995

216

208

205

192

191

182

172

147

148

142

126

113

104

117

104

105

103

104

81

104

82

27.17%

26.3%

25.63%

24.55%

24.15%

23.36%

22.63%

19.71%

19.73%

18.91%

17.82%

16.69%

14.59%

16.41%

15.62%

15.77%

8.84%

14.59%

7.52%

14.59%

6.83%

TIMELINE 1918: Representation of the People Act 1918: women over 30 only (voting age for men 21). 1928: Full voting equality

with men. Age restriction lowered to 21 and now 18. On 28 December 1918, Constance Georgine Markievicz, known as

Countess Markievicz (1868-1927), was the first woman elected to the UK House of Commons, though she did not take her seat.

The first woman elected to the Commons, Countess Markievicz, was elected in 1918 for the St Patrick’s division of Dublin as a

Sinn Féin member but, in protest against British policy in Ireland, never took her seat. It was ironic that the first woman to do

so, Viscountess Nancy Witcher Astor (1879-1964), who was elected at a by-election on 15 November 1919, had never

campaigned for women’s rights (Robert Rogers, Rhodri Walters, “How Parliament Works”).

355

UNITED KINGDOM 1928


Life Peerages Act 1958

1. Power to create life peerages carrying right to sit in the House of Lords

…

3. A life peerage may be conferred under this section on a woman. APPOINTIVE FOR THE HOUSE OF LORDS

…

Northern Ireland Act 1998

75. Statutory duty on public authorities

1. A public authority shall in carrying out its functions relating to Northern Ireland have due regard to the need to promote

equality of opportunity:

…

b. between men and women generally; PROMOTION OF EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES IN NORTHERN IRELAND

…

SCHEDULES

SCHEDULE 1: The Articles

PART I: The Convention Rights and Freedoms

Article 12: Right to marry

Men and women of marriageable age have the right to marry and to found a family, according to the national laws

governing the exercise of this right.


The enjoyment of the rights and freedoms set forth in this Convention shall be secured without discrimination on any

ground such as sex, race, colour, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, association with a

national minority, property, birth or other status. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Schedules

F1. Social security schemes

Section F1

Interpretation

• Providing assistance for social security purposes to or in respect of individuals includes (among other things) providing

assistance to or in respect of individuals:

a. who qualify by reason of old age, survivorship, disability, sickness, incapacity, injury, unemployment, maternity or the care

of children or others needing care,

…

Exceptions

…

a. providing financial assistance for the purposes of meeting maternity expenses, funeral expenses or expenses for heating

incurred due to cold weather,

L2. Equal opportunities

Section L2

Equal opportunities, including the subject-matter of:

…

b. the Sex Discrimination Act 1975,

…

Interpretation

ASSISTANCE FOR MATERNITY

SEX DISCRIMINATION ACT

- “Equal opportunities” means the prevention, elimination or regulation of discrimination between persons on grounds of

sex or marital status, on racial grounds, or on grounds of disability, age, sexual orientation, language or social origin, or of

other personal attributes, including beliefs or opinions, such as religious beliefs or political opinions.


356

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 1966




Parliament name: Congress




Directly elected. In addition, there are six non-voting

members: Five delegates (one each from the District of

Columbia, US Virgin Islands, American Samoa, Guam and

the U.S. Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands)

and one Resident Commissioner from Puerto Rico.


DATE WOMEN %

2019-11

2018-11

2018-05

2018-04

2017-06

2016-11

2014-11

2013-01

2012-01

2009-01

2008-12

2006-11

2004-11

2002-11

2000-11

1998-11

1996-11

1992-11

1990-11

1988-11

1986-11

1984-11

1982-11

1980-11

1978-11

1976-11

1974-11

1972-11

1970-11

1966-11

1964-11

1962-11

1960-11

1958-11

1956-11

101

102

84

83

84

83

84

79

78

73

74

71

65

62

61

58

51

48

28

29

23

22

21

16

18

19

16

13

10

11

12

18

17

15

17

23.43%

23.5%

19.49%

19.44%

19.4%

19.17%

19.31%

18.29%

17.97%

16.78%

17.01%

16.32%

14.94%

14.25%

14.02%

13.33%

11.72%

10.91%

6.42%

6.59%

5.23%

5%

4.77%

3.64%

4.09%

4.32%

3.64%

2.95%

2.27%

2.5%

2.73%

4.09%

3.86%

3.41%

3.86%




Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2018-11

2018-06

2018-05

2018-04

2018-01

2016-11

2012-01

2010-11

2009-01

2008-11

2006-11

2004-11

2000-11

1996-11

1994-11

1992-11

1978-11

1974-11

1972-11

1968-11

1960-11

1956-11

1954-11

1948-11

1946-11

25

24

23

22

23

22

21

20

17

15

17

16

14

13

9

8

7

2

0

2

1

2

1

3

1

0

25%

24%

23%

22%

23%

22%

21.21%

20%

17%

15.31%

17%

16%

14%

13%

9%

8%

7%

2%

0%

2%

1%

2%

1%

3%

1%

0%

357

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 1966

House of Representatives

DATE WOMEN %

1954-11

1952-11

1950-11

1948-11

1946-11

12

10

9

7

11

2.73%

2.27%

2.05%

1.59%

2.5%

TIMELINE

1788: the Constitution of 13 September 1788 does not mention sex with regard to the right to stand for election to the

House of Representatives or the Senate, referring only to "members" or "persons". Nor does the Constitution mention sex

with regard to eligibility for election to the Presidency or Vice-Presidency.

1870: XV amendment to the Constitution, which states that the right to vote is recognized to all citizens and cannot be

denied by the federal government and the States on the basis of race, skin color and past condition of slave. The law does not

include women and is repeatedly violated by the laws of individual states, where white supremacists and racists exclude

blacks and native Americans.

1920: with the approval of the XIX amendment, which states that the federal government and the States cannot deny on the

basis of sex, the path towards universal suffrage takes a clear step forward, even if in fact almost only white women will be

exclusively able to vote. Discrimination and the substantial denial of the right to vote for black women, Native Americans and

other ethnic minorities will continue.

1924: approval of the Indian Citizenship Act, which will not however determine the automatic recognition of the right to

vote for Native Americans.

1948: the Arizona Supreme Court struck down the provision of its state that kept Indians from voting.

1962: New Mexico is last state to enfranchise Native Americans.

1964: approval of the XXIV amendment to the Constitution which makes poll taxes illegal in federal elections.

1965: approval of the Voting Rights Act, which banned the use of literacy tests, provided for the federal oversight of

registration in areas less than 50 percent of the non-white population and gave the attorney general the power to investigate

the use of poll taxes in state and local elections.

1966: with the sentence of the U.S. Supreme Court (Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections) which prohibits poll taxes in

state elections, the path leading to the substantial affirmation of universal suffrage in the United States of America ended.

1990: passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act ensured that election workers and polling sites provide services

designed to ensure that individuals with disabilities can vote.


House of Representatives: 4 March 1917, Jeannette Pickering Rankin (1880-1973)

Senate: 12 January 1932, Hattie Ophelia Wyatt Caraway (1878-1950)

CONSTITUTION 1789, WITH AMENDMENTS THROUGH 1992

Amendment XV

Section 1

The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on

account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

Section 2

The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment XIX

The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on

account of sex. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. FORMAL VOTING RIGHT

Amendment XXIV

Section 1

The right of citizens of the United States to vote in any primary or other election for President or Vice President for electors

for President or Vice President, or for Senator or Representative in Congress, shall not be denied or abridged by the United

States or any State by reason of failure to pay any poll tax or other tax. ACTUAL VOTING RIGHT

Section 2

The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation

358

URUGUAY 1932




Parliament name: Asamblea General (General Assembly)

Chamber name: Cámara de Representantes (House of

Representatives)



Directly elected


quotas. Candidates of both sexes must be represented in

every three places on electoral lists, either throughout the

entire list or in the first fifteen places. Where only two seats

are contested, one of the two candidates must be a woman.

Legal source: Cf. Law nº 18.476, Article 2.





Other (1): the Vice-President of the Republic is an ex officio

member.


Candidates of both sexes must be represented in every three

places on electoral lists, either throughout the entire list or in

the first fifteen places. Where only two seats are contested,

one of the two candidates must be a woman.

Legal source: Cf. Law nº 18.476, Article 2.

DATE WOMEN %

2019-10

2018-12

2016-12

2015-03

2015-02

2014-01

2011-01

2010-01

2009-10

1999-01

1994-11

1989-11

1984-11

1971-11

1946-11

19

22

20

16

18

13

14

15

14

12

7

6

0

1

0

19.19%

22.22%

20.2%

16.16%

18.18%

13.13%

14.14%

15.15%

14.14%

12.12%

7.07%

6.06%

0%

1.01%

0%

DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2015-03

2015-02

2014-01

2009-10

2008

2007

1999-10

1994-11

1946-11

8

9

8

2

4

3

4

3

2

0

25.81%

29.03%

25.81%

6.45%

13.33%

9.68%

12.9%

9.68%

6.67%

0%

In 1942, Sofia Álvarez Vignoli de Demicheli and Isabel Pinto de Vidal became the first female

senators, not only of Uruguay, but of the whole Continent of South America. At the same

time, Julia Arévalo and Magadalena Antonelli Moreno were named deputies.


Article 42

…

Maternity, regardless of the condition or circumstances of the mother, is entitled to the protection of society and to its

assistance in case of destitution. PROTECTION OF MATERNITY

Article 43

The law shall provide that juvenile delinquency shall be dealt with under a special system in which women will be allowed

to participate. SPECIAL SYSTEM TO DEAL WITH JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

359

URUGUAY 1932

Article 54

…

The labor of women and of minors under eighteen years of age shall be specially regulated and limited.

LABOR SPECIALLY REGULATED AND LIMITED

Article 77

Every citizen is a member of the sovereignty of the Nation; as such he is a voter and eligible for election in the cases and in

accordance with the procedure which will be set forth.

Suffrage shall be exercised in the manner determined by law…

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

360

UZBEKISTAN 1938



Independence: 1991


Parliament name: Oliy Majlis (Supreme Assembly)

Chamber name: Qonunchilik palatasi (Legislative

Chamber)



Directly elected (135). Indirectly elected (15): by the

Ecological Movement of Uzbekistan.

Electoral quota for women: Yes. The number of women

shall constitute not less than 30 per cent of the total

number of candidates deputy nominated by a political

party.

Legal source: Law on Elections of the Legislative Chamber

of the Oliy Majlis, Article 22 (4).




Indirectly elected members (84): elected by local councils.

Appointed members (16): 16 eminent citizens appointed by

the President.


DATE WOMEN %

2014-12

2009-12

2004-12

1999-12

1994-12

1990-02

24

33

21

17

15

48

16%

22%

17.5%

6.8%

6%

9.6%

DATE WOMEN %

2014-12 17 17%

2005-01 15 15%


These rights were confirmed at independence. In 1990 the Soviet Supreme of the SSR of Uzbekistan became the first

legislature of Uzbekistan after the country became independent on 31 August 1991. Uzbek women were previously elected

to the Supreme Soviet of the SSR of Uzbekistan and to the USSR Parliament.


Article 18

All citizens of the Republic of Uzbekistan shall have equal rights and freedoms, and shall be equal before law without

discrimination by sex, race, nationality, language, religion, social origin, convictions, individual and social status.

Any privileges may be granted solely by law and must conform to the principles of social justice. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Article 46

Women and men shall have equal rights.

EQUAL RIGHTS

Article 63


Marriage shall be based on the willing consent and equality of both parties.

361

UZBEKISTAN 1938

Article 65

…

Motherhood and childhood shall be protected by the state.


Article 117

Citizens of the Republic of Uzbekistan shall have the right to elect and be elected to the representative bodies of state

authority. Every elector shall have one vote. The right to vote, equality and freedom of expression of will shall be guaranteed

by law.

The elections of the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan, to the Legislative Chamber of the Oliy Majlis of the Republic of

Uzbekistan and Jokarghy Kenes of the Republic of Karakalpakstan, to the representative bodies of state authority in regions,

districts, cities and towns shall be held accordingly on the year of expiration of the constitutional term of their powers – on

the first Sunday of the third decade of December. The elections shall be held on the basis of the general, equal and direct

suffrage by secret ballot. The right to elect have the citizens of the Republic of Uzbekistan who have reached eighteen years

of age. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

…

362

VANUATU 1975



Independence: 1980

Population: 303,579




Directly elected


DATE WOMEN %

2016-01

2012-10

2004-07

2002-04

1998-03

1991-12

1987-11

1979-11

0

0

2

1

0

1

2

0

0%

0%

3.85%

1.92%

0%

2.17%

4.35%

0%

Prior to independence, under the administration of the British-French Condominium, women were granted the right to vote

and stand for election in November 1975. These rights were confirmed at independence. In 1979 first legislature of Vanuatu

after the country became independent on 30 July 1980. In 1987, Motarilavoa Hilda Lini and Maria Crowby, became the first

women elected to the parliament.


4. NATIONAL SOVEREIGNTY, THE ELECTORAL FRANCHISE AND POLITICAL PARTIES

1. National sovereignty belongs to the people of Vanuatu which they exercise through their elected representatives.

2. The franchise is universal, equal and secret. Subject to such conditions or restrictions as may be prescribed by Parliament,

every citizen of Vanuatu who is at least 18 years of age shall be entitled to vote.


5. FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS OF THE INDIVIDUAL

1. The Republic of Vanuatu recognises, that, subject to any restrictions imposed by law on non-citizens and holders of dual

citizenship who are not indigenous or naturalised citizens, all persons are entitled to the following fundamental rights and

freedoms of the individual without discrimination on the grounds of race, place of origin, religious or traditional beliefs,

political opinions, language or sex but subject to respect for the rights and freedoms of others and to the legitimate public

interest in defence, safety, public order, welfare and health: DISCRIMINATION BANNED

a. life;

b. liberty;

c. security of the person;

d. protection of the law;

e. freedom from inhuman treatment and forced labour;

f. freedom of conscience and worship;

g. freedom of expression;

h. freedom of assembly and association;

363

VANUATU 1975

i. freedom of movement;

j. protection for the privacy of the home and other property and from unjust deprivation of property;

k. equal treatment under the law or administrative action, except that no law shall be inconsistent with this sub-paragraph

insofar as it makes provision for the special benefit, welfare, protection or advancement of females, children and young

persons, members of under-privileged groups or inhabitants of less developed areas.

…

17. ELECTION OF MEMBERS OF PARLIAMENT

1. Parliament shall consist of members elected on the basis of universal franchise through an electoral system which

includes an element of proportional representation so as to ensure fair representation of different political groups and

opinions. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

2. Subject to such conditions or restrictions as may be prescribed by Parliament every citizen of Vanuatu who is at least 25

years of age shall be eligible to stand for election to Parliament.

364

VATICAN CITY NEVER

Right to vote and to stand for election: NEVER

First woman in parliament: NO PARLIAMENT

Population: 799

Parliament name: NO PARLIAMENT

The Supreme Pontiff holds legislative, executive and judicial power. There is no parliament. Legislative power can be

exercised by a Commission of Cardinals appointed by the Supreme Pontiff.

The Supreme Pontiff and the Cardinals have always been all men and women are denied access to the highest offices of the

Catholic Church.

FUNDAMENTAL LAW OF VATICAN CITY STATE OF 2000

Art. 1

1. The Supreme Pontiff, Sovereign of Vatican City State, has the fullness of legislative, executive and judicial powers.

2. During the vacancy of the See, the same powers belong to the College of Cardinals which, however, can issue legislative

dispositions only in a case of urgency and with efficacy limited to the time of the vacancy, unless they are confirmed by the

Supreme Pontiff subsequently elected in conformity with Canon Law.

Art. 3

1. Legislative power, except for those cases which the Supreme Pontiff intends to reserve to himself or to other subjects

(istanze), is exercised by a Commission composed of a Cardinal President and other Cardinals, all named by the Supreme

Pontiff for a five-year term.

…

SUBJECT TO RELIGION

VENEZUELA 1946





Assembly)



Directly elected (164). Other (3): three seats are reserved for indigenous people of Venezuela.

Electoral quota for women: Yes. The list of both titular and substitute candidates under both systems (majority and

proportional representation) must meet a 50-per cent quota with a zebra-system (alternation between men and women). In

cases where a party cannot ensure parity, the proportion of its candidates of either sex cannot be lower than 40% or higher

than 60% (article 3, resolución Nº 150625-147 del Consejo Nacional Electoral).

Legal source: Constitution, article 186; Organic Law of Electoral Process (Ley Organica de Procesos Electorales, LOPRE), article

133.

DATE WOMEN %

2016-12

2015-12

2010-09

2008-01

2007-01

2006-01

2005-12

2000-07

1999-01

1998-11

1993-12

1988-12

1983-12

1978-12

1973-12

1968-12

1963-03

1958-12

1948-02

37

24

28

29

31

30

29

16

5

27

12

20

7

6

5

0

6

3

2

22.16%

14.37%

16.97%

17.37%

18.56%

17.96%

17.37%

9.7%

8.77%

13.11%

5.91%

9.95%

3.5%

3.02%

2.5%

0%

3.37%

2.26%

1.82%

Constituent Assembly elections were held in Venezuela on 27 October 1946. 12 female

deputies were elected (Tomás Straka, “Historical Dictionary of Venezuela”): Ana Luisa Llovera,

Mercedes Fermín, Cecilia Núñez Sucre, Carmen Gracián de Malpica, Amparo Monroy Power,

Isaura Saavedra, Catalina de Romero, Nieves de Entrena, Panchita Soublette, Lucila Palacios,

Luisa del Valle Silva de Bravo and Inés de Lara (“Mujeres diputadas a la constituyente”, Correo

Civico Femenino, n. 16, November 1946).


366

Article 21

All persons are equal before the law, and, consequently:

1. No discrimination based on race, sex, creed or social standing shall be permitted, nor, in general, any discrimination with

the intent or effect of nullifying or encroaching upon the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on equal terms, of the rights

and liberties of every individual. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

2. The law shall guarantee legal and administrative conditions such as to make equality before the law real and effective

manner; shall adopt affirmative measures for the benefit of any group that is discriminated against, marginalized or

VENEZUELA 1946

vulnerable; shall protect in particular those persons who, because of any of the aforementioned circumstances, are in a

manifestly weak position; and shall punish those who abuse or mistreat such persons.

…

Article 54

No person shall be subjected to slavery or servitude. Traffic of persons, in particular women, children and adolescents, in

any form, shall be subject to the penalties prescribes by law. TRAFFIC OF PERSONS SUBJECT TO THE PENALTIES PRESCRIBES BY LAW

Article 63

Suffrage is a right. lt. shall be exercised through free, universal, direct and secret elections. The law shall guarantee the

principle of personalization of suffrage and proportional representation. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

Article 76

Motherhood and fatherhood are fully protected, whatever the marital status of the mother or father. Couples have the right

to decide freely and responsibly how many children they wish to conceive, and are entitled to access to the information and

means necessary to guarantee the exercise of this right. The State guarantees overall assistance and protection for

motherhood, in general, from the moment of conception, throughout pregnancy, delivery and the puerperal period, and

guarantees full family planning services based on ethical and scientific values. The father and mother have the shared

and inescapable obligation of raising, training, educating, maintaining and caring for their children, and the latter have the

duty to provide care when the former are unable to do so by themselves. The necessary and proper measures to guarantee

the enforceability of the obligation to provide alimony shall be established by law.

ASSISTANCE AND PROTECTION FOR MOTHERHOOD WITH FULL FAMILY PLANNING SERVICES BASED ON ETHICAL AND SCIENTIFIC VALUES

Article 77

Marriage, which is based on free consent and absolute equality of rights and obligations of the spouses, is protected.

A stable de facto union between a man and a woman which meets the requirements established by law shall have the

same effects as marriage. MARRIAGE BASED ON FREE WILL MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY

DE FACTO UNION SAME EFFECTS AS MARRIAGE

Article 86

All persons are entitled to Social Security as a nonprofit public service to guarantee health and protection in

contingencies of maternity, fatherhood, illness, invalidity, catastrophic illness, disability, special needs, occupational risks,

loss of employment, unemployment, old age, widowhood, loss of parents, housing, burdens deriving from family life, and

any other social welfare circumstances. The State has the obligation and responsibility of ensuring the efficacy of this right,

creating a universal and complete Social Security system, with joint, unitary, efficient and participatory financing from direct

and indirect contributions… SOCIAL SECURITY TO GUARANTEE HEALTH AND PROTECTION DURING MATERNITY

Article 88 EQUAL TREATMENT IN THE EXERCISE OF THE RIGHT TO WORK

The State guarantees the equality and equitable treatment of men and women in the exercise of the right to work. The

state recognizes work at home as an economic activity that creates added value and produces social welfare and

wealth.

Housewives are entitled to Social Security in accordance with law.

RECOGNITION OF WORK AT HOME AS AN ECONOMIC ACTIVITY THAT CREATES ADDED VALUE AND PRODUCES SOCIAL WELFARE AND WEALTH

HOUSEWIVES ENTITLED TO SOCIAL SECURITY

Article 89

Work is a social fact and shall enjoy the protection of the State. The law shall make the necessary provisions for improving the

material, moral and intellectual conditions of workers…

5. All types of discrimination because of political reasons, age, race, creed, sex or any other characteristic is prohibited.

… DISCRIMINATION BANNED AT WORK

Article 128

The State shall develop a zoning policy taking into account ecological, geographic, demographic, social, cultural, economic

and political realities, in accordance with the premises of sustainable development, including information, consultation and

male/female participation by citizens. An organic law shall develop the principles and criteria for this zoning.

ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES

Article 186

The National Assembly shall consist of Deputies elected in each of the federal entities by universal, direct, personalized and

secret ballot with proportional representation, using a constituency base of 1.1 % of the total population of the country.

Each federal organ shall also elect three additional deputies. The native peoples of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela shall

elect three deputies in accordance with the provisions established under election law, respecting the traditions and customs

thereof.

Each deputy shall have an alternate elected by the same process.

367

VIET NAM 1946



Independence: 1946


Parliament name: Quoc-Hoi (National Assembly)

Chamber name: Quoc-Hoi (National Assembly)


Directly elected


When Viet Nam became independent,

10 women were elected to Parliament

on 6 January 1946 (Audrey Seah,

“Vietnam”), amon them Lê Thị Xuyến

(1909-1996). In April 1976 the first

legislature after the reunification of Viet

Nam, which was officially proclaimed in

July 1976.

DATE WOMEN %

2016-07

2016-05

2014-01

2011-05

2007-05

2002-05

1998

1992-07

1987-04

1981-04

1976-04

132

133

121

122

127

136

118

73

88

108

132

26.72%

26.81%

24.3%

24.4%

25.76%

27.31%

26.22%

18.48%

17.74%

21.77%

26.83%

368


Article 7

1. Elections of representatives of the National Assembly and representatives of the People's Councils are held in accordance

with the principles of universal, equal, direct, and secret suffrage. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

…

Article 26

1. Male and female citizens have equal rights in all fields. The State has a policy to guarantee equal gender rights and

opportunities. EQUAL GENDER RIGHTS AND OPPORTUNITIES

2. The State, the society, and the family create conditions for women’s comprehensive developments and promotion of

their role in the society. COMPREHENSIVE DEVELOPMENTS AND PROMOTION IN THE SOCIETY

3. Sex discrimination is strictly prohibited. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

Article 36

1. Male and female have the right to marry and divorce. Marriage shall conform to the principles of free consent,

progressive union, monogamy and equality between husband and wife, and mutual respect.

2. The State protects marriage and family, and protects interests of mothers and children.

MARRIAGE BASED ON FREE WILL MATRIMONIAL EQUALITY PROTECTION OF INTERESTS OF MOTHERS

Article 58

… 2. It is the responsibility of the State, society, the family and the citizen to ensure care and protection for mothers and

children and to carry into effect the family planning. CARE AND PROTECTION FOR MOTHERS

YEMEN 1970



Independence: 1967


Parliament name: Majlis (Parliament)

Chamber name: Majlis Annowab (House of

Representatives)



Directly elected


Chamber name: Majlis Alshoora (Consultative Council)



Appointed by the President


DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2015-02

2003-04

1993-04

1990-05

1

0

1

2

10

0.33%

0%

0.33%

0.66%

3.32%

DATE WOMEN %

2018-12 3 2.7%

2001-04 2 1.8%

In 1971 in the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen 10 women were appointed to the parliament. Prior to the unification,

women were granted the right to vote and stand for election in 1967 in the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen and in

1970 in the Arab Republic of Yemen, that became independent in 1967 and 1918 respectively. These rights were confirmed

at unification in 1990.


Article 30

The state shall protect mothers and children, and shall sponsor the youth and the young.

PROTECTION OF MOTHERS

Article 31

Women are the sisters of men. They have rights and duties, which are guaranteed and assigned by Shari'ah and

stipulated by law. PATERNALISTIC VISION AND AFFIRMATION SUBJECT TO RELIGION

Article 63

The House of Representatives consists of 301 members, who shall be elected in a secret, free and equal vote directly by

the people. The Republic shall be divided into constituencies equal in number of population with a variation of not more

than 5% plus or minus. Each constituency shall elect a member to the House of Representatives.

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

369

ZAMBIA 1962







Directly elected (156). Appointed members (8): the President may appoint up to eight members where she or he considers it

necessary to enhance the representation of special interests, skills or gender in the National Assembly. Other (3): the

Vice-President, the Speaker and the First Deputy Speaker.


Prior to independence, women

voted and stood for election for

the first time in the elections of 30

October 1962, leading to the

independence of Zambia. These

rights were confirmed at

independence. The Legislative

Council of Northern Rhodesia

elected in January 1964 became

the first legislature of Zambia after

the country became independent

on 24 October 1964; it was

renamed the National Assembly

on 28 October 1964. In January

1964, Ester Banda, Malina Chilila

Margret Mbeba, Nakatindi Yeta

Nganga (1922-1972) and

Madeline Robertson became the

first women elected to parliament.

DATE WOMEN %

2016-08

2014-12

2011-09

2011-01

2009-01

2008-01

2007-01

2006-09

2001-12

1998

1997

1996-11

1991-10

1988-10

1983-10

1978-12

1973-12

1968-12

1964-01

30

20

17

18

22

23

24

23

19

16

15

16

10

9

4

6

8

2

4

17.96%

12.66%

10.97%

11.46%

14.01%

14.56%

15.19%

14.65%

12.03%

10.13%

9.68%

10.13%

6.67%

6.62%

2.94%

4.41%

5.88%

1.8%

5.33%

370


Preamble

WE, THE PEOPLE OF ZAMBIA:

…

CONFIRM the equal worth of women and men and their right to freely participate in, determine and build a sustainable

political, legal, economic and social order;

… EQUAL RIGHT TO PARTICIPATE IN POLITICAL, LEGAL, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL FIELDS

Article 11: Fundamental Rights and Freedoms

It is recognised and declared that every person in Zambia has been and shall continue to be entitled to the fundamental

ZAMBIA 1962

rights and freedoms of the individual, that is to say, the right, whatever his race, place of origin, political opinions, colour,

creed, sex or marital status, but subject to the limitations contained in this Part, to each and all of the following, namely:

a. life, liberty, security of the person and the protection of the law; DISCRIMINATION BANNED

b. freedom of conscience, expression, assembly, movement and association;

c. protection of young persons from exploitation;

d. protection for the privacy of his home and other property and from deprivation of property without compensation;

…

Article 12: Protection of Right to Life

…

2. No person shall deprive an unborn child of life by termination of pregnancy except in accordance with the conditions

laid down by an Act of Parliament for that purpose.

Article 23: Protection from Discrimination on the Ground of Race, etc

…

3. In this Article the expression “discriminatory” mean, affording different treatment to different persons attributable,

wholly or mainly to their respective descriptions by race, tribe, sex, place of origin, marital status, political opinions colour or

creed whereby persons of one such description are subjected to disabilities or restrictions to which persons of another such

description are not made subject or are accorded privileges or advantages which are not accorded to persons of another

such description. DISCRIMINATION BANNED

…

Article 45: Principles of electoral systems and process

1. The electoral systems provided for in Article 47 for the election of President, Member of Parliament or councillor shall

ensure:

a. that citizens are free to exercise their political rights;

b. universal adult suffrage based on the equality of a vote; UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

c. fair representation of the various interest groups in society; and

d. gender equity in the National Assembly or council. GENDER EQUITY IN THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY OR COUNCIL

…

Article 60: Political parties

…

3. A political party shall not:

a. be founded on a religious, linguistic, racial, ethnic, tribal, gender, sectoral or provincial basis or engage in propaganda

based on any of these factors; FORBIDDEN SEXIST PARTIES

…

Article 69: Nominated Members of Parliament

1. The President may nominate a person referred to in Article 68 (2) (b) where the President considers it necessary to

enhance the representation of special interests, skills or gender in the National Assembly.

… GENDER REPRESENTATION IN THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY

Article 82: Speaker and Deputy Speakers of National Assembly

…

3. There shall be two Deputy Speakers of the National Assembly who are not members of the same political party and of

the same gender. ALTERNATIVE GENDER OF THE TWO DEPUTY SPEAKERS

…

Article 173: Values and principles of public service

1. The guiding values and principles of the public service include the following:

…

j. adequate and equal opportunities for appointments, training and advancement of members of both gender and

members of all ethnic groups; EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES FOR APPOINTMENTS, TRAINING AND ADVANCEMENT IN PUBLIC OFFICES

…

Article 231: Gender Equity and Equality Commission

1. There is established the Gender Equity and Equality Commission which shall have offices in the Provinces and

progressively in districts. GENDER EQUITY AND EQUALITY COMMISSION

2. The Gender Equity and Equality Commission shall promote the attainment and mainstreaming of gender equality.

3. The Gender Equity and Equality Commission shall:

a. monitor, investigate, research, educate, advise and report on issues concerning gender equality;

371

ZAMBIA 1962

b. ensure institutions comply with legal requirements and other standards relating to gender equality;

c. take steps to secure appropriate redress to complaints relating to gender inequality, as prescribed; and

d. perform such other functions as prescribed.

Article 259: Nominations and appointments

1. Where a person is empowered to make a nomination or an appointment to a public office, that person shall ensure:

…

b. that fifty percent of each gender is nominated or appointed from the total available positions, unless it is not

practicable to do so; RESERVED SEATS IN PUBLIC OFFICE

372

ZIMBABWE 1980



Independence: 1980






Directly elected (210). Other (60): 60 seats reserved for

women*

*The statutory number of members of the National

Assembly stipulated in the 2013 Constitution is 210, one

elected from each of the 210 constituencies. In accordance

with Article 124 (1) (b) of the Constitution, an additional 60

seats will be reserved for women only for the first two

Parliaments to be elected under the 2013 Constitution (i.e.,

in 2013 and the next one due in 2018).

DATE WOMEN %

2018-12

2018-07

2018-01

2017-11

2016-12

2013-07

2011-01

2008-08

2008-03

2007-01

2005-03

2000-06

1995-04

1990-03

1985-07

1980-02

86

85

83

86

88

85

28

32

28

24

25

14

22

18

11

8

31.85%

31.48%

33.2%

32.58%

32.59%

31.48%

13.33%

15.24%

31.11%

16%

16.67%

9.33%

14.67%

12%

11%

8%





Other (20): 2 representatives of persons with disabilities; 18

traditional chiefs: the President and Deputy President of the

National Council of Chiefs; and two chiefs each from eight of

the provinces (excluding the two metropolitan provinces of

Harare and Bulawayo).

Electoral quota for women: Yes. Male and female candidates

are listed alternately, every list being headed by a female

candidate.

Legal source: Constitution art. 120, par. 2, lett. B.

DATE WOMEN %

2018-07

2013-07

2010-01

2009-01

2008-03

2007-01

2006-01

2005-11

1985-07

1980-03

35

38

23

24

23

24

23

21

4

3

43.75%

47.5%

24.73%

24.24%

24.73%

36.36%

34.85%

31.82%

10%

7.5%

Prior to independence, women were granted the right to vote and stand for election under the following restrictions:

Between 1919 and 1957, only men and European women could vote. In 1923, Ethel Maud Cookson Tawse Jollie (1874-1950)

became the first female parliamentarian in the British overseas empire (Donal Lowry, "Colquhoun, Archibald Ross (1848–1914)”,

Oxford Dictionary of National Biography).

In 1957, a qualified right to vote was extended to black married women. A wife was deemed to have the same means of

qualifications as her husband, but in the case of a polygamous marriage, this privilege only applied to the first wife. Wives

were required to have literacy in English and any educational qualifications in their own right. In order to be registered as a

general voter, a person had to have one of four alternative qualifications:

(i) income of £ 720 per annum or ownership or immovable property valued at £ 1,500;

(ii) income of £ 3,480 per annum or ownership of immovable property valued at £ 1,000 plus the completion of a primary

course of education of prescribed standard;

(iii) being a minister of religion, who had undergone certain stipulated training and periods of service in the Ministry and

who followed no other profession, trade or gainful occupation;

(iv) being a chief as defined in the Act.

373

ZIMBABWE 1980


3. Founding values and principles

1. Zimbabwe is founded on respect for the following values and principles:

…

g. gender equality;

…

GENDER EQUALITY

2. The principles of good governance, which bind the State and all institutions and agencies of government at every level,

include:

…

i. recognition of the rights of:

…iii. women, the elderly, youths and children;

RECOGNITION OF RIGHTS

13. National development

…

3. Measures referred to in this section must protect and enhance the right of the people, particularly women, to equal

opportunities in development. EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES IN DEVELOPMENT

…

14. Empowerment and employment creation

1. The State and all institutions and agencies of government at every level must endeavour to facilitate and take measures to

empower, through appropriate, transparent, fair and just affirmative action, all marginalised persons, groups and

communities in Zimbabwe.

2. At all times the State and all institutions and agencies of government at every level must ensure that appropriate and

adequate measures are undertaken to create employment for all Zimbabweans, especially women and youths.

CREATION OF EMPLOYMENT

17. Gender balance

1. The State must promote full gender balance in Zimbabwean society, and in Particular:

a. the State must promote the full participation of women in all spheres of Zimbabwean society on the basis of equality

with men; FULL PARTICIPATION IN ALL SPHERES OF SOCIETY

b. the State must take all measures, including legislative measures, needed to ensure that:

i. both genders are equally represented in all institutions and agencies of government at every level; and

EQUAL REPRESENTATION IN ALL INSTITUTIONS AND AGENCIES OF GOVERNMENT AT EVERY LEVEL

ii. women constitute at least half the membership of all Commissions and other elective and appointed

governmental bodies established by or under this Constitution or any Act of Parliament;

RESERVED SEATS IN ALL COMMISSIONS AND GOVERNMENTAL BODIES

c. the State and all institutions and agencies of government at every level must take practical measures to ensure that

women have access to resources, including land, on the basis of equality with men. EQUAL ACCESS TO RESOURCES

2. The State must take positive measures to rectify gender discrimination and imbalances resulting from past practices

and policies. RECTIFING GENDER DISCRIMINATION AND IMBALANCES

24. Work and labour relations

…

2. The State and all institutions and agencies of government at every level must endeavour to secure:

…

d. the implementation of measures such as family care that enable women to enjoy a real opportunity to work.

FAMILY CARE THAT ENABLES WOMEN TO ENJOY A REAL OPPORTUNITY TO WORK

25. Protection of the family

The State and all institutions and agencies of government at every level must protect and foster the institution of the family

and in particular must endeavour, within the limits of the resources available to them, to adopt measures for:

a. the provision of care and assistance to mothers, fathers and other family members who have charge of children; and

b. the prevention of domestic violence. CARE AND ASSISTANCE OF MOTHERS PREVENTION OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

26. Marriage

The State must take appropriate measures to ensure that:

a. no marriage is entered into without the free and full consent of the intending spouses;

b. children are not pledged in marriage; MARRIAGE BASED ON FREE WILL

c. there is equality of rights and obligations of spouses during marriage and at its dissolution; and


d. in the event of dissolution of a marriage, whether through death or divorce, provision is made for the necessary

protection of any children and spouses. PROTECTION AFTER THE DISSOLUTION OF THE MARRIAGE

374

ZIMBABWE 1980

48. Right to life

…

2. A law may permit the death penalty to be imposed only on a person convicted of murder committed in aggravating

circumstances, and

…

d. the penalty must not be imposed or carried out on a woman;

…

3. An Act of Parliament must protect the lives of unborn children, and that Act must provide that pregnancy may be

terminated only in accordance with that law. ABORTION ILLEGAL

56. Equality and non-discrimination

1. All persons are equal before the law and have the right to equal protection and benefit of the law.

2. Women and men have the right to equal treatment, including the right to equal opportunities in political, economic,

cultural and social spheres. EQUAL TREATMENT AND OPPORTUNITIES IN POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, CULTURAL AND SOCIAL SPHERES

3. Every person has the right not to be treated in an unfairly discriminatory manner on such grounds as their nationality,

race, colour, tribe, place of birth, ethnic or social origin, language, class, religious belief, political affiliation, opinion, custom,

culture, sex, gender, marital status, age, pregnancy, disability or economic or social status, or whether they were born in or

out of wedlock.

…

DEATH PENALTY


65. Labour rights

…

6. Women and men have a right to equal remuneration for similar work. EQUAL PAY FOR WORK

7. Women employees have a right to fully paid maternity leave for a period of at least three months.

PAID MATERNITY LEAVE

67. Political rights

…

3. Subject to this Constitution, every Zimbabwean citizen who is of or over eighteen years of age has the right:

a. to vote in all elections and referendums to which this Constitution or any other law applies, and to do so in secret; and

b. to stand for election for public office and, if elected, to hold such office. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

…

80. Rights of women

1. Every woman has full and equal dignity of the person with men and this includes equal opportunities in political,

economic and social activities. EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES IN POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL ACTIVITIES

2. Women have the same rights as men regarding the custody and guardianship of children, but an Act of Parliament

may regulate how those rights are to be exercised. CUSTODY OF CHILDREN

3. All laws, customs, traditions and cultural practices that infringe the rights of women conferred by this Constitution are

void to the extent of the infringement.

104. Appointment of Ministers and Deputy Ministers

…

4. In appointing Ministers and Deputy Ministers, the President must be guided by considerations of regional and gender

balance. GENDER BALANCE IN APPOINTING MINISTERS AND DEPUTY MINISTERS

…

120. Composition of Senate

…

2. Elections of Senators must be conducted in accordance with the Electoral Law, which must ensure that the Senators

referred to in subsection (1)(a) are elected under a party-list system of proportional representation:

… ALTERNATIVE CANDIDATES IN ELECTORAL LIST OF SENATORS

b. in which male and female candidates are listed alternately, every list being headed by a female candidate.

124. Composition of National Assembly

1. The National Assembly consists of:

a. two hundred and ten members elected by secret ballot from the two hundred and ten constituencies into which

Zimbabwe is divided; and

b. for the life of the first two Parliaments after the effective date, an additional sixty women members, six from each of

the provinces into which Zimbabwe is divided, elected through a system of proportional representation based on the votes

cast for candidates representing political parties in a general election for constituency members in the provinces.

… RESERVED SEATS IN THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY FOR THE LIFE OF THE FIRST TWO PARLIAMENTS

375

ZIMBABWE 1980

139. Standing Orders

… STANDING ORDERS MUST REFLECT GENDER COMPOSITION OF PARLIAMENT

4. Any committee established by or under Standing Orders must reflect, as closely as possible, the political and gender

composition of Parliament or of the House to which the Standing Orders apply.

151. Committee on Standing Rules and Orders

…

3. Members must be appointed or elected to the Committee on Standing Rules and Orders as soon as possible after the

beginning of the first session of each Parliament, and they must be selected so that the committee reflects as nearly as

possible the political and gender composition of the combined Houses of Parliament.

… REFLECTING GENDER COMPOSITION

155. Principles of electoral system

1. Elections, which must be held regularly, and referendums, to which this Constitution applies must be:

a. peaceful, free and fair;

b. conducted by secret ballot;

c. based on universal adult suffrage and equality of votes; and UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

…

177. Qualifications of judges of Constitutional Court

… Appointments to the judiciary must reflect broadly the diversity and gender composition of Zimbabwe.

… APPOINTMENTS TO THE JUDICIARY MUST REFLECT GENDER COMPOSITION

194. Basic values and principles governing public administration

1. Public administration in all tiers of government, including institutions and agencies of the State, and

government-controlled entities and other public enterprises, must be governed by the democratic values and principles

enshrined in this Constitution, including the following principles:

…

k. employment, training and advancement practices must be based on merit, ability, objectivity, fairness, the equality of

men and women and the inclusion of persons with disabilities; EQUALITY IN EMPLOYMENT, TRAINING AND ADVANCEMENT

…

245. Establishment and composition of Zimbabwe Gender Commission

1. There is a commission to be known as the Zimbabwe Gender Commission consisting of:

a. a chairperson appointed by the President after consultation with the Committee on Standing Rules and Orders; and

b. eight other members, of whom

i. seven are appointed by the President from a list of not fewer than twelve nominees submitted by the Committee

on Standing Rules and Orders; and

ii. one is a nominee of the National Council of Chiefs, appointed by the President.

2. Members of the Zimbabwe Gender Commission must be chosen for their integrity and their knowledge and

understanding of gender issues in social, cultural, economic and political spheres, and the genders must be equally

represented on the Commission.

246. Functions of Zimbabwe Gender Commission

The Zimbabwe Gender Commission has the following functions: ZIMBABWE GENDER COMMISSION

a. to monitor issues concerning gender equality to ensure gender equality as provided in this Constitution;

b. to investigate possible violations of rights relating to gender;

c. to receive and consider complaints from the public and to take such action in regard to the complaints as it considers

appropriate;

d. to conduct research into issues relating to gender and social justice, and to recommend changes to laws and practices

which lead to discrimination based on gender;

e. to advise public and private institutions on steps to be taken to ensure gender equality;

f. to recommend affirmative action programmes to achieve gender equality;

g. to recommend prosecution for criminal violations of rights relating to gender;

h. to secure appropriate redress where rights relating to gender have been violated; and

i. to do everything necessary to promote gender equality.

247. Reports by Zimbabwe Gender Commission

In addition to the report it is required to submit in terms of section 323, the Zimbabwe Gender Commission may, through the

appropriate Minister, submit reports to Parliament on particular matters relating to gender issues which, in the

Commission's opinion, should be brought to the attention of Parliament.

376

ZIMBABWE 1980

268. Provincial councils

…

3. Elections to provincial councils must be conducted in accordance with the Electoral Law, which must ensure that the

councillors referred to in subsection (1)(f) are elected under a party-list system of proportional representation:

a. which is based on the votes cast for candidates representing political parties in the province concerned in the general

election for Members of the National Assembly; and

b. in which male and female candidates are listed alternately, every list being headed by a female candidate.

ALTERNATIVE CANDIDATES IN ELECTORAL LIST OF PROVINCIAL COUNCILS

289. Principles guiding policy on agricultural land

In order to redress the unjust and unfair pattern of land ownership that was brought about by colonialism, and to bring

about land reform and the equitable access by all Zimbabweans to the country's natural resources, policies regarding

agricultural land must be guided by the following principles:

…

c. the allocation and distribution of agricultural land must be fair and equitable, having regard to gender balance and

diverse community interests; GENDER BALANCE IN ALLOCATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF AGRICULTURAL LAND

…

296. Establishment and composition of Zimbabwe Land Commission

…

2. Members of the Zimbabwe Land Commission must:

b. reflect the diversity of Zimbabwe's population, in particular its regional interests and gender balance.

… COMPOSITION OF “ZIMBABWE LAND COMMISSION” MUST REFLECT GENDER BALANCE

297. Functions of Zimbabwe Land Commission

1. The Zimbabwe Land Commission has the following functions:

… ELIMINATION OF GENDER DISCRIMINATION BY “ZIMBABWE LAND COMMISSION”

A. the elimination of all forms of unfair discrimination, particularly gender discrimination;

320. Membership of Commissions and conditions of service of members

1. Except as otherwise provided in this Constitution, every member of a Commission is appointed for a term of five years

which is renewable for one additional term only.

…

4. Where a Commission has a chairperson and a deputy chairperson, they must be of different genders.

… DIFFERENT GENDERS BETWEEN CHAIRPERSON AND DEPUTY CHAIRPERSON OF COMMISSIONS PROVIDED IN THE CONSTITUTION

377

378

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

44

45

46

47

49

50

RWANDA

CUBA

BOLIVIA

UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

MEXICO

NICARAGUA

SWEDEN

GRENADA

ANDORRA

SOUTH AFRICA

FINLAND

COSTA RICA

SPAIN

SENEGAL

NAMIBIA

SWITZERLAND

NORWAY

MOZAMBIQUE

ARGENTINA

NEW ZEALAND

BELGIUM

BELARUS

NORTH MACEDONIA

PORTUGAL

DENMARK

FRANCE

ECUADOR

AUSTRIA

ETHIOPIA

TIMOR-LESTE

DOMINICA

ICELAND

TAIWAN

SERBIA

TANZANIA

BURUNDI

ITALY

UGANDA

GUYANA

UNITED KINGDOM

EL SALVADOR

MONACO

NETHERLANDS

NEPAL

UZBEKISTAN

ZIMBABWE

KOSOVO

SAN MARINO

SURINAME

GERMANY

80

605

130

40

500

91

349

15

28

397

200

57

350

165

96

200

169

250

257

120

150

110

120

230

179

577

137

183

547

65

21

63

113

247

393

121

630

459

69

650

84

24

150

275

150

270

120

60

51

709

49

322

69

20

241

43

164

7

13

184

92

26

154

71

41

83

70

103

105

49

61

44

48

92

71

228

54

72

212

25

8

24

43

93

145

44

225

160

24

220

28

8

50

90

48

86

38

19

16

221

61.25%

53.22%

53.08%

50%

48.2%

47.25%

46.99%

46.67%

46.43%

46.35%

46%

45.61%

44%

43.03%

42.71%

41.5%

41.42%

41.2%

40.86%

40.83%

40.67%

40%

40%

40%

39.66%

39.51%

39.42%

39.34%

38.76%

38.46%

38.1%

38.1%

38.05%

37.65%

36.9%

36.36%

35.71%

34.86%

34.78%

33.85%

33.33%

33.33%

33.33%

32.73%

32%

31.85%

31.67%

31.67%

31.37%

31.17%

RANK COUNTRY SEATS WOMEN %

WOMEN IN THE LOWER OR SINGLE HOUSE

Ranking as of 1st January 2020. Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union (integrated by the author)

51

52

53

54

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

74

75

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

99

100

CAMEROON

TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

AUSTRALIA

ANGOLA

LATVIA

LUXEMBOURG

PERU

MONTENEGRO

ALBANIA

CANADA

ESTONIA

POLAND

SOUTH SUDAN

PHILIPPINES

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

SLOVENIA

LAOS

KAZAKHSTAN

AFGHANISTAN

VIET NAM

BULGARIA

IRAQ

DJIBOUTI

ALGERIA

CABO VERDE

TURKMENISTAN

CHINA

TUNISIA

MOLDOVA

SOMALIA

LITHUANIA

SINGAPORE

ARMENIA

USA

ISRAEL

LESOTHO

MALAWI

GUINEA

CHILE

PANAMA

CZECH REPUBLIC

VENEZUELA

ERITREA

ROMANIA

KENYA

BOSNIA AND HERZEGOV.

SEYCHELLES

URUGUAY

HONDURAS

EQUATORIAL GUINEA

180

42

151

220

100

60

130

81

122

338

101

460

383

304

190

90

149

107

248

494

240

329

65

462

72

124

2975

217

101

275

141

100

132

431

120

120

192

114

155

71

200

167

150

329

349

42

33

99

128

100

56

13

46

66

30

18

39

24

36

98

29

132

109

85

53

25

41

29

67

132

64

87

17

119

18

31

742

54

25

67

34

24

31

101

28

28

44

26

35

16

45

37

33

72

76

9

7

21

27

21

31.11%

30.95%

30.46%

30%

30%

30%

30%

29.63%

29.51%

28.99%

28.71%

28.7%

28.46%

27.96%

27.89%

27.78%

27.52%

27.1%

27.02%

26.72%

26.67%

26.44%

26.15%

25.76%

25%

25%

24.94%

24.88%

24.75%

24.36%

24.11%

24%

23.48%

23.43%

23.33%

23.33%

22.92%

22.81%

22.58%

22.54%

22.5%

22.16%

22%

21.88%

21.78%

21.43%

21.21%

21.21%

21.09%

21%


WOMEN IN THE LOWER OR SINGLE HOUSE



101

102

103

104

106

107

108

109

110

114

115

116

117

118

119

120

121

122

123

124

125

126

127

128

129

130

131

132

133

134

135

136

137

138

139

140

141

142

143

144

145

146

147

148

149

150

BANGLADESH

IRELAND

UKRAINE

GREECE

SLOVAKIA

MOROCCO

INDONESIA

MAURITANIA

PAKISTAN

BARBADOS

CAMBODIA

MAURITIUS

SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS

SAUDI ARABIA

CYPRUS

FIJI

CROATIA

KYRGYZSTAN

TAJIKISTAN

GUATEMALA

TOGO

COLOMBIA

KOREA (NORTH)

JAMAICA

MONGOLIA

TURKEY

KOREA (SOUTH)

NIGER

AZERBAIJAN

ZAMBIA

SAINT LUCIA

PARAGUAY

THAILAND

LIBYA

MADAGASCAR

RUSSIA

CHAD

JORDAN

EGYPT

BAHRAIN

BHUTAN

GABON

BRAZIL

SAO TOME AND PRINCIPE

MALAYSIA

INDIA

GEORGIA

GUINEA-BISSAU

MALTA

BURKINA FASO

349

158

423

300

150

395

575

153

342

30

125

70

15

151

56

51

151

120

63

158

91

169

687

63

75

589

295

171

119

167

18

80

500

188

151

450

162

130

596

40

47

142

513

55

222

543

149

102

67

127

73

33

88

62

31

81

117

31

69

6

25

14

3

30

11

10

29

23

12

30

17

31

121

11

13

102

51

29

20

28

3

13

81

30

24

71

25

20

90

6

7

21

75

8

32

78

21

14

9

17

20.92%

20.89%

20.8%

20.67%

20.67%

20.51%

20.35%

20.26%

20.18%

20%

20%

20%

20%

19.87%

19.64%

19.61%

19.21%

19.17%

19.05%

18.99%

18.68%

18.34%

17.61%

17.46%

17.33%

17.32%

17.29%

16.96%

16.81%

16.77%

16.67%

16.25%

16.2%

15.96%

15.89%

15.78%

15.43%

15.38%

15.1%

15%

14.89%

14.79%

14.62%

14.55%

14.41%

14.36%

14.09%

13.73%

13.43%

13.39%


151

152

153

154

155

156

157

158

160

161

162

163

164

166

167

168

169

170

171

172

173

174

175

176

177

178

179

180

181

182

183

185

186

187

188

189

190

191

192

193

Suspended

GHANA

S. VINCENT AND THE GRE.

PALESTINE

BAHAMAS

CONGO (KINSHASA)

PALAU

SYRIA

LIBERIA

SIERRA LEONE

HUNGARY

LIECHTENSTEIN

CÔTE D'IVOIRE

CONGO (BRAZZAVILLE)

ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA

MYANMAR

BOTSWANA

NAURU

SAMOA

JAPAN

QATAR

ESWATINI

MALI

BELIZE

BRUNEI DARUSSALAM

GAMBIA

CENTRAL AFRICAN REP.

TONGA

BENIN

KIRIBATI

KUWAIT

TUVALU

SOLOMON ISLANDS

COMOROS

MARSHALL ISLANDS

IRAN

SRI LANKA

LEBANON

MALDIVES

NIGERIA

HAITI

OMAN

YEMEN

MICRONESIA

PAPUA NEW GUINEA

VANUATU

VATICAN

SUDAN

WORLD

275

23

132

39

500

16

250

73

146

199

25

251

151

18

432

65

19

50

464

41

73

147

32

33

58

140

27

83

46

63

16

49

33

33

289

225

128

87

350

118

86

301

14

111

52

0

-

36

3

17

5

64

2

31

9

18

24

3

30

17

2

48

7

2

5

46

4

7

14

3

3

5

12

2

6

3

4

1

3

2

2

17

12

6

4

12

3

2

1

0

0

0

0

-

39,345 9,813

13.09%

13.04%

13%

12.82%

12.8%

12.5%

12.4%

12.33%

12.33%

12.06%

12%

11.95%

11.26%

11.11%

11.11%

10.77%

10.53%

10%

9.91%

9.76%

9.59%

9.52%

9.38%

9.09%

8.62%

8.57%

7.41%

7.23%

6.52%

6.35%

6.25%

6.12%

6.06%

6.06%

5.88%

5.33%

4.69%

4.6%

3.43%

2.54%

2.33%

0.33%

0%

0%

0%

0%

-

24.9%

379

WOMEN IN THE UPPER HOUSE OR SENATE



1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

36

37

38

40

41

42

43

45

46

47

48

50

ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA

MEXICO

AUSTRALIA

CANADA

BOLIVIA

BURUNDI

BELGIUM

BAHAMAS

ZIMBABWE

BARBADOS

ARGENTINA

SPAIN

SOUTH AFRICA

NETHERLANDS

RWANDA

AUSTRIA

NEPAL

GERMANY

TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

ITALY

ESWATINI

FRANCE

ETHIOPIA

IRELAND

KENYA

GRENADA

PHILIPPINES

URUGUAY

AFGHANISTAN

SAINT LUCIA

UNITED KINGDOM

SWITZERLAND

CAMEROON

BELARUS

USA

SOMALIA

POLAND

JAMAICA

NAMIBIA

CHILE

JAPAN

BAHRAIN

LESOTHO

TAJIKISTAN

COLOMBIA

BELIZE

CONGO (KINSHASA)

BOSNIA AND HERZEG.

PARAGUAY

MADAGASCAR

17

128

76

99

36

39

60

16

80

21

72

264

54

75

26

61

59

69

31

320

30

348

153

60

68

13

24

31

68

11

795

46

100

60

100

54

100

21

42

43

245

40

32

32

106

14

109

15

45

62

9

63

37

48

17

18

27

7

35

9

29

103

21

29

10

23

22

25

11

110

10

116

49

19

21

4

7

9

19

3

216

12

26

15

25

13

24

5

10

10

56

9

7

7

23

3

23

3

9

12

52.94%

49.22%

48.68%

48.48%

47.22%

46.15%

45%

43.75%

43.75%

42.86%

40.28%

39.02%

38.89%

38.67%

38.46%

37.7%

37.29%

36.23%

35.48%

34.38%

33.33%

33.33%

32.03%

31.67%

30.88%

30.77%

29.17%

29.03%

27.94%

27.27%

27.17%

26.09%

26%

25%

25%

24.07%

24%

23.81%

23.81%

23.26%

22.86%

22.5%

21.88%

21.88%

21.7%

21.43%

21.1%

20%

20%

19.35%


51

52

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

60

61

62

64

65

66

67

68

69

69

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

78

PAKISTAN

CÔTE D'IVOIRE

MALAYSIA

CONGO

GABON

OMAN

RUSSIA

UZBEKISTAN

EQUATORIAL GUINEA

CAMBODIA

BHUTAN

JORDAN

PALAU

CZECH REPUBLIC

ROMANIA

BRAZIL

MYANMAR

SOUTH SUDAN

MOROCCO

KAZAKHSTAN

INDIA

THAILAND

SLOVENIA

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

NIGERIA

ALGERIA

LIBERIA

YEMEN

HAITI

WORLD

104

99

68

69

100

86

170

100

72

62

25

65

13

81

136

81

223

50

120

47

240

250

40

32

109

132

30

111

10

20

19

13

13

18

15

29

17

12

10

4

10

2

12

20

11

27

6

14

5

25

26

4

3

8

9

1

3

0

7,195 1,774

19.23%

19.19%

19.12%

18.84%

18%

17.44%

17.06%

17%

16.67%

16.13%

16%

15.38%

15.38%

14.81%

14.71%

13.58%

12.11%

12%

11.67%

10.64%

10.42%

10.4%

10%

9.38%

7.34%

6.82%

3.33%

2.7%

0%

24.66%

380

EVOLUTION OF

PARLIAMENTARY REPRESENTATION

YEAR

1945

1955

1965

1975

1985

1995

2005

2015

2020

STATES WITH

A PARLIAMENT

26 STATES

61 STATES

94 STATES

115 STATES

136 STATES

176 STATES

184 STATES

190 STATES

197 STATES

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

MEMBERS OF SINGLE

OR LOWER CHAMBERS WOMEN % NUMBER OF

SECOND CHAMBERS

6,365

17,038

22,707

24,642

28,950

34,066

35,453

38,044

39,345

188

1,278

1,830

2,697

3,478

3,845

5,627

8,505

9,813

3.0%

7.5%

8.1%

10.9%

12.0%

11.6%

15.5%

22.4%

24.9%

1. No information on the proportion of women MPs in 1 State

2. No information on the proportion of women MPs in 11 States





7. Parliament suspended in Sudan. No Parliament in Vatican City.

Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union (integrated by the author)

11

29

35

40

43

52

68

76

78

MEMBERS OF SECOND

OR UPPER CHAMBERS

980

3,570

4,129

3,976

4,363

5,388

6,526

6,932

7,195

WOMEN %

22

274

382

416

553

501

962

1,424

1,774

HEAD OF STATE AND PRIME MINISTER

2.2%

7.7%

9.3%

10.5%

12.7%

9.4%

14.7%

20.5%

24.6%

COUNTRY

NAME

TITLE OF OFFICE

DATE TERM BEGAN

AUSTRIA

BANGLADESH

BARBADOS

BELGIUM

CROATIA

DENMARK

ESTONIA

ETHIOPIA

FINLAND

GEORGIA

GERMANY

ICELAND

MARSHALL ISLANDS

MYANMAR

NAMIBIA

NEPAL

NEW ZEALAND

NORWAY

SERBIA

SINGAPORE

SLOVAKIA

TAIWAN

TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

Brigitte Bierlein

Sheikh Hasina

Mia Mottley

Sophie Wilmès

Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović

Mette Frederiksen

Kersti Kaljulaid

Sahle-Work Zewde

Sanna Marin

Salome Zourabichvili

Angela Merkel

Katrín Jakobsdóttir

Hilda Heine

Aung San Suu Kyi

Saara Kuugongelwa

Bidhya Bhandari

Jacinda Ardern

Erna Solberg

Ana Brnabić

Halimah Yacob

Zuzana Čaputová

Tsai Ing-wen

Paula-Mae Weekes

Prime Minister

Prime Minister

Prime Minister

Prime Minister

President

Prime Minister

President

President

Prime Minister

President

Chancellor

Prime Minister

President

State Counsellor

Prime Minister

President

Prime Minister

Prime Minister

Prime Minister

President

President

President

President

3 June 2019

6 January 2009

25 May 2018

27 October 2019

18 February 2015

27 June 2019

10 October 2016

25 October 2018

10 December 2019

16 December 2018

22 November 2005

30 November 2017

28 January 2016

6 April 2016

21 March 2015

22 August 2015

26 October 2017

16 October 2013

29 June 2017

14 September 2017

15 June 2019

20 May 2016

19 March 2018

Out of 197 Countries on 1 January 2020 only 23 countries have a female Head of State or Prime Minister: only the 11,68%

381

EVOLUTION OF

PARLIAMENTARY REPRESENTATION

The first 15 Countries of the world for the proportion of women MPs in the single chamber or the popular Chamber

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

1945

FINLAND

SWEDEN

BULGARIA

FRANCE

DOMINICANA REP.

AUSTRIA

DENMARK

NORWAY

UNITED KINGDOM

ALBANIA

TURKEY

CUBA

IRELAND

HUNGARY

YUGOSLAVIA

9.0%

7.8%

5.8%

5.6%

5.6%

5.5%

5.4%

4.7%

3.8%

3.7%

3.3%

2.9%

2.9%

2.9%

2.6%

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union

1955

GERMAN DEM. REP.

USSR

MONGOLIA

ARGENTINA

POLAND

HUNGARY

BULGARIA

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

ROMANIA

FINLAND

SWEDEN

KOREA (NORTH)

CHINA

ALBANIA

DENMARK

24.5%

24.0%

22.4%

21.7%

17.7%

17.5%

15.7%

15.5%

15.4%

15.0%

12.2%

12.1%

12.0%

12.0%

9.5%

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

1965

GERMAN DEM. REP.

USSR

BULGARIA

MONGOLIA

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

GUINEA

HUNGARY

CHINA

ROMANIA

FINLAND

YUGOSLAVIA

SWEDEN

POLAND

ALBANIA

NETHERLANDS

27.4%

27.2%

20.3%

20.0%

20.0%

18.7%

18.2%

17.8%

14.4%

14.0%

13.7%

13.3%

12.4%

11.7%

10.0%

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

1975

ALBANIA

VIET NAM

GERMAN DEM. REP.

USSR

HUNGARY

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

FINLAND

MONGOLIA

CHINA

SWEDEN

KOREA (NORTH)

GRENADA

YUGOSLAVIA

BULGARIA

SAO TOME AND PRIN.

33.2%

32.2%

31.8%

30.5%

28.7%

26.0%

23.0%

22.9%

22.6%

21.4%

20.9%

20.0%

19.1%

18.8%

18.2%

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

1985

GUYANA

ROMANIA

NORWAY

GERMAN DEM. REP.

SWEDEN

USSR

FINLAND

ALBANIA

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

DENMARK

MONGOLIA

SEYCHELLES

CUBA

VIET NAM

BULGARIA

36.9%

34.4%

34.4%

32.4%

31.5%

31.1%

30.5%

30.4%

28.0%

26.3%

24.3%

24.0%

22.7%

21.8%

21.8%

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

1995

SWEDEN

NORWAY

FINLAND

DENMARK

NETHERLANDS

SEYCHELLES

GERMANY

ICELAND

MOZAMBIQUE

SOUTH AFRICA

AUSTRIA

CUBA

ARGENTINA

NEW ZEALAND

CHINA AND ERITREA

40.4%

39.4%

33.5%

33.0%

31.3%

27.3%

26.2%

25.4%

25.2%

25.0%

23.5%

22.8%

21.8%

21.2%

21.0%

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

2005

RWANDA

SWEDEN

NORWAY

DENMARK

FINLAND

NETHERLANDS

CUBA

SPAIN

COSTA RICA

MOZAMBIQUE

BELGIUM

AUSTRIA

ARGENTINA

SOUTH AFRICA

GERMANY

48.8%

45.3%

38.2%

38.0%

37.5%

36.7%

36.0%

36.0%

35.1%

34.8%

34.7%

33.9%

33.7%

32.8%

32.8%

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

2015

RWANDA

BOLIVIA

ANDORRA

CUBA

SEYCHELLES

SWEDEN

SENEGAL

FINLAND

ECUADOR

SOUTH AFRICA

ICELAND

NAMIBIA

SPAIN

MOZAMBIQUE

NORWAY

63.8%

53.1%

50.0%

48.9%

43.8%

43.6%

42.7%

42.5%

41.6%

41.5%

41.3%

41.3%

41.1%

39.6%

39.6%

382

SOURCES OF FREE BOOK

“WOMEN’S SUFFRAGE AND RIGHTS IN THE CONSTITUTIONS OF THE WORLD” is a free book: presentation and analysis are

totally free. Parliamentary Data and Constitutions on the book are subject to the following owner’s rules

CONSTITUTIONS TRANSLATED IN ENGLISH

- Constitute: constituteproject.org

Constitute was developed by the authors of the Comparative Constitutions Project at the University of Texas at Austin. It was

born with a grant from Google Ideas (now Jigsaw), with additional financial support from the Indigo Trust and IC2.

The following organizations have made important investments in the Comparative Constitutions Project since 2005: the

National Science Foundation (SES 0648288, IIS 1018554), the Cline Center for Advanced Social Research (formerly the Cline

Center for Democracy), the United States Institute of Peace, the University of Texas, the University of Chicago, and the

Constitution Unit at University College London.

Except for material identified as copyrighted by other parties, the content of constituteproject.org is provided under a

Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 3.0 Unported License (which allows you to make free use of information

from the site for noncommercial purposes).

PARLIAMENTARY DATA ON 1 JANUARY 2020 AND HISTORY

- Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), Geneva, Switzerland: ipu.org

All content on the IPU websites or extracts thereof may be displayed, reproduced or translated for research or personal use

but not for sale or for use in conjunction with commercial purposes. Any use of content from the IPU websites should be

accompanied by an acknowledgment of IPU as the source, citing any copyrighted materials.

- Women Suffrage and Beyond: womensuffrage.org

Women Suffrage and Beyond is an electronic academic journal (ISSN 2292-1060) that is always open to new submissions. It’s

based at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada. The head of our team is Dr. Veronica Strong-Boag, Canadian

historian with the Institute for Gender, Race, Sexuality, and Social Justice and Educational Studies at the University of British

Columbia.

- J. Martin and Mart Martin, The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 2000)

- Other books referred directly on factsheets

FLAGS, COAT OF ARMS, EMBLEM, SEAL OF STATE, HEADS OF STATE AND GOVERNMENT ON 1 JANUARY 2020

- Wikipedia: www.wikipedia.org

POPULATION DATA ON 1 JANUARY 2020

- World Population Review: worldpopulationreview.com

FINNISH BIOGRAPHIES

- Aura Korppi-Tommola, www.kansallisbiografia.fi

COVER PHOTOGRAPHS

- Women’s March 2017 - Pennsylvania Ave – Washington D.C. United States: photo by Vlad Tchompalov on Unsplash

- Hijab Woman: photo by Adhadimohd on Pixabay.com

- Black Women: photo by Jacejojo on Pixabay.com

- White Woman: photo by Brenkee on Pixabay.com

HOW MANY COUNTRIES?

The independent country is not only a self-governed nation with its own authorities, but this status needs the international

diplomatic recognition of sovereignty. Thereby, we can say that the total number of independent states in the world today is

197, including 193 fully recognized members of the United Nations and 2 countries, Vatican City and Palestine, have the

status of permanent observers in the UN. The other 2 states we include in the list are Kosovo (recognized by 115 States, of

which 15 have since been withdrawn) and Taiwan (recognized by 15 countries).

383

BIO AND EDITIONS

AUTHOR

Luca Marchiò Zanotta is an Italian author born in 1975. He lives and works in Como, where he is responsible for the

communication of an employers’ association. A law graduate, he has visited and established relationships in 68 countries of

the world.

ENGLISH EDITION SUPERVISION

Margaret Nicol is an English language teacher who first came to Italy in 1973 after graduating at Queen Margaret College in

Edinburgh. After spending 4 years in South East Asia she came back to Italy and has lived and worked here ever since.

WEB EDITION FREE BOOK

www.womensuffragerights.com

PRINTED EDITION FREE BOOK

Printed in 10 copies for free in April 2020 in Como, Italy.

385

386

387

24.9%

There are signs that indicate the degree of evolution and emancipation achieved by society. This

publication photographs the situation on 1 January 2020, highlighting two fundamental aspects:

1) the establishment of universal female suffrage and the percentage of women in parliaments

around the world;

2) the recognition or denial of the fundamental rights of women in the Constitutions of all the

countries of the world.

To confirm that there is a gender inequality, that societies have a male-dominated and patriarchal

stance as of 1 January 2020, are the figures of the parliamentary representation which say: out of

a total of 46,540 parliamentarians, men hold 34,953 seats (75.1%) , women only 11,587 (24.9%): in

the Lower Chamber out of a total of 39,345 members, only 9,813 are women, equal to 24.94%; in

the Upper House out of a total of 7,195, only 1,774 are women, equal to 24.66%.

2020

388

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