cashwell_wikireader_edits

Illustrating the
Natural
World

1
Overview
Behavior among two or more organisms within
the same species, and encompasses any behavior in
which one member affects the other. Social behavior
can be seen as similar to an exchange of goods, with
the expectation that when you give, you will receive
the same. This behavior can be affected by both the
qualities of the individual and the environmental
(situational) factors. Therefore, social behavior arises
as a result of an interaction between the organism
and its environment.
A major aspect of social behavior is communication,
which is the basis for survival and reproduction.
Behavior can arise by those consciously behaving
(where there is an awareness and intent), or by pure
impulse. These factors that determine behavior can
work in different situations and moments, and can
even oppose one another. There are distinctions
between different types of social behavior, such as
mundane versus defensive social behavior. Mundane
social behavior is a result of interactions in day-to-day
life, and are behaviors learned as one is exposed
to those different situations. On the other hand,
defensive behavior arises out of impulse, when one is
faced with conflicting desires.
Development
The development of behavior is deeply tied with
the biological and cognitive changes one is experiencing
at any given time. Culture (parents and individuals
that influence socialization in children) play a large
role in the development of a child's social behavior, as
the parents or caregivers are typically those who
decide the settings and situations that the child is
exposed to. Emotions also play a large role in the
development of social behavior, as they are intertwined
with the way an individual behaves. Through social
interactions, emotion is understood through various
verbal and nonverbal displays, and thus plays a large
role in communication. The individual characteristics
of the child (their temperament) is important to
understanding how the individual learns social
behaviors and cues given to them, and this learnability
is not consistent across all children.
Organism
Social
Behavior
Overview
In biology, an organism (from Greek: ὀργανισμός,
organismos) is any individual entity that embodies the
properties of life. An organism may be defined as an
assembly of molecules functioning as a more or less
stable whole that exhibits the properties of life. Dictionary
definitions can be broad, using phrases such as
"any living structure, such as a plant, animal, fungus
or bacterium, capable of growth and reproduction.”
An organism may be either a prokaryote or a
eukaryote. Prokaryotes are represented by two
separate domains - bacteria and archaea. Eukaryotic
organisms are characterized by the presence of a
membrane-bound cell nucleus and contain additional
membrane-bound compartments called organelles.
Fungi, animals and plants are examples of kingdoms
of organisms within the eukaryotes. Estimates on the
number of Earth's current species range from two
million to one trillion, of which over 1.7 million
have been documented. More than 99% of all species,
amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived
are estimated to be extinct.
Structure
All organisms consist of structural units called
cells; some contain a single cell (unicellular) and
others contain many units (multicellular). Multicellular
organisms are able to specialize cells to perform specific
functions. A group of such cells is a tissue, and in
animals these occur as four basic types, namely epithelium,
nervous tissue, muscle tissue, and connective tissue.
Several types of tissue work together in the form of
an organ to produce a particular function. This pattern
continues to a higher level with several organs functioning
as an organ system such as the reproductive
system, and digestive system. Many multicellular
organisms consist of several organ systems, which
coordinate to allow for life.
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Sandstone
Overview
Opal is a hydrated amorphous form of silica
(SiO2·nH2O); its water content may range from three
to 21% by weight, but is usually between six and
10%. Because of its amorphous character, it is classed
as a mineraloid, unlike crystalline forms of silica, which
are classed as minerals. It is deposited at a relatively
low temperature and may occur in the fissures of
almost any kind of rock, being most commonly
found with limonite, sandstone, rhyolite, marl, and
basalt. There are two broad classes of opal: precious
and common. Precious opal displays play-of-color,
common opal does not.
The internal structure of precious opal causes it to
diffract light, resulting in play-of-color. Depending
on the conditions in which it formed, opal may be
transparent, translucent, or opaque and the background
color may be white, black, or nearly any color
of the visual spectrum. Black opal is considered to
be the rarest, whereas white, gray, and green are the
most common.
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Types
Precious opal shows a variable interplay of internal
colors, and though it is a mineraloid, it has an internal
structure. At microscopic scales, precious opal is
composed of silica spheres some 150 to 300 nm in
diameter in a hexagonal or cubic close-packed lattice.
Visible light cannot pass through large thicknesses of
the opal. This is the basis of the optical band gap in a
photonic crystal. For gemstone use, most opal is cut
and polished to form a cabochon. "Solid" opal refers
to polished stones consisting wholly of precious opal.
Opals too thin to produce a "solid" may be combined
with other materials to form attractive gems.
Common opal include the milk opal, milky bluish
to greenish (which can sometimes be of gemstone
quality); resin opal, which is honey-yellow with a
resinous luster; wood opal, which is caused by the
replacement of the organic material in wood with opal.
Other types are menilite, which is brown or grey;
hyalite, a colorless glass-clear opal sometimes called
Muller's glass; geyserite, also called siliceous sinter,
deposited around hot springs or geysers. Common
opal often displays a hazy-milky-turbid sheen from
within the stone.
Overview
Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary rock composed
mainly of sand-sized (0.0625 to two mm) silicate grains.
Sandstones make up about 20 to 25 percent of all
sedimentary rocks. Most sandstone is composed of
quartz or feldspar because they are the most resistant
minerals to weathering processes at the Earth's surface.
Like uncemented sand, sandstone may be any color
due to impurities within the minerals, but the most
common colors are tan, brown, yellow, red, grey,
pink, white, and black.
Sandstones are clastic in origin. The silicate sand
grains from which they form are the product of
physical and chemical weathering of bedrock.
As sediments continue to accumulate in the
depositional environment, older sand is buried by
younger sediments, and it undergoes diagenesis.
This mostly consists of compaction and lithification
of the sand. Early stages of diagenesis, take place at
shallow depths. The red hematite that gives red bed
sandstones their color is likely formed during this
process. Compaction takes place as the sand comes
under increasing pressure from overlying sediments.
Points of contact between grains are under the greatest
strain, and the strained mineral is more soluble than
the rest of the grain. As a result, the contact points
are dissolved away, allowing the grains to come into
closer contact.
Uses
Sandstone has been used since prehistoric times
for construction, decorative art works and housewares,
and continues to be used. It has been widely
employed around the world in constructing temples,
homes, and other buildings. Although its resistance
to weathering varies, sandstone is easy to work. That
makes it a common building and paving material,
including in asphalt concrete. However, some types
that have been used in the past, such as the Collyhurst
sandstone used in North West England, have had
poor long-term weather resistance, necessitating
repair and replacement in older buildings. Because
of the hardness of individual grains, uniformity of
grain size and friability of their structure, some types
of sandstone are excellent materials from which to
make grindstones, for sharpening blades and other
implements. Non-friable sandstone can be used
to make grindstones for grinding grain. A type of
pure quartz sandstone, orthoquartzite, with more
of 90–95 percent of quartz, has been proposed for
nomination to the Global Heritage Stone Resource.
In some regions of Argentina, the orthoquartzitestoned
facade is one of the main features of the
Mar del Plata style bungalows.
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Opal

5
Overview
Maratus is a spider genus of the family Salticidae
(jumping spiders). These spiders are commonly
referred to as peacock spiders due to the males’
colorful and usually iridescent patterns on the upper
surface of the abdomen often enhanced with lateral
flaps or bristles, which they display during courtship.
Females lack these bright colors, being cryptic in
appearance. In at least one species, Maratus vespertilio,
the expansion of the flaps also occurs during ritualised
contests between males. The male display and courtship
dance are complex, involving visual and vibratory signals.
Maratus species are small spiders, with a total body
length mostly around 4-5 mm (0.2 in), sometimes
smaller, with a high degree of sexual dimorphism.
Not all species have colors that appear bright to human
vision; Maratus vespertilio is relatively cryptically
colored, with most iridescence on the lateral flaps.
The abdominal display is used in courtship and, in at
least one species, also in aggressive interactions with
rival males.
Taxonomy
The genus Maratus was first described by
Ferdinand Karsch in 1878. Karsch was a curator at
the Museum für Naturkunde, Berlin, and named
spiders and other animals from preserved specimens
collected by others. He described the species Maratus
amabilis, the type of his new genus, on the basis
of a single male specimen, whose origin was only
recorded as "Australia". All species of Maratus are
found in Australia, with the exception of Maratus
furvus from China. M. furvus was first described in
1992 in the genus Lycidas, becoming part of Maratus
when Lycidas was synonymized in 2012. His short
description mentioned the abdomen being flattened
and quadrangular in shape, but otherwise did not refer
to the characteristic abdominal "flaps.” One molecular
phylogenetic study, by Junxia Zhang in 2012, concluded
that the seven Australian genera Hypoblemum,
Jotus, Lycidas, Maileus, Maratus, Saitis and Prostheclina
were so closely related that they could all be accommodated
in Saitis but this suggestion has not been
carried through to any taxonomic publication.
Crypsis
Peacock Spider
Overview
In ecology, crypsis is the ability of an animal to
avoid observation or detection by other animals.
It may be a predation strategy or an antipredator
adaptation. Methods include camouflage, nocturnality,
subterranean lifestyle and mimicry. Crypsis can
involve visual, olfactory (with pheromones), or
auditory concealment. When it is visual, the term
cryptic coloration, effectively a synonym for animal
camouflage, is sometimes used, but many different
methods of camouflage are employed by animals.
There is a strong evolutionary pressure for animals to
blend into their environment or conceal their shape,
for prey animals to avoid predators and for predators
to be able to avoid detection by prey. Cryptic animals
include the tawny frogmouth (feather patterning
resembles bark), the tuatara (hides in burrows all day;
nocturnal), some jellyfish (transparent), the leafy sea
dragon, and the flounder (covers itself in sediment).
Methods
This first method is visually, Many animals have
evolved so that they visually resemble their surroundings
by using any of the many methods of natural
camouflage that may match the color and texture of
the surroundings and/or break up the visual outline
of the animal itself. Such animals may resemble rocks,
sand, twigs, leaves, and even bird droppings. Other
methods including transparency and silvering are
widely used by marine animals. Next is olfactory.
Some animals, in both terrestrial and aquatic environments,
appear to camouflage their odor, which might
otherwise attract predators. Numerous arthropods,
both insects and spiders, mimic ants, whether to
avoid predation, to hunt ants, or to trick the ants
into feeding them. Lastly is auditory crypsis, some
insects were originally theorized to defend themselves
against predation by echolocating bats, both by
passively absorbing sound with soft, fur-like body
coverings and by actively creating sounds to mimic
echoes from other locations or objects.
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8
Overview
Paleontology is the scientific study of life that existed
prior to, and sometimes including, the start of the
Holocene Epoch (roughly 11,700 years before
present). It includes the study of fossils to classify
organisms and study interactions with each other
and their environments. Paleontological observations
have been documented as far back as the 5th century
BCE. It lies on the border between biology and geology,
but differs from archaeology in that it excludes the
study of anatomically modern humans. It now uses
techniques drawn from a wide range of sciences,
including biochemistry, mathematics, and engineering.
Body fossils and trace fossils are the principal types
of evidence about ancient life, and geochemical
evidence has helped to decipher the evolution of life
before there were organisms large enough to leave
body fossils.
Subdivisions
As knowledge has increased, paleontology has
developed specialised subdivisions. Vertebrate
paleontology concentrates on fossils from the
earliest fish to the immediate ancestors of modern
mammals. Invertebrate paleontology deals with
fossils such as molluscs, arthropods, annelid worms
and echinoderms. Paleobotany studies fossil plants,
algae, and fungi. Palynology, the study of pollen and
spores produced by land plants and protists, straddles
paleontology and botany, as it deals with both living
and fossil organisms. Micropaleontology deals with
microscopic fossil organisms of all kinds. Paleoecology
examines the interactions between different ancient
organisms, such as their food chains, and the two-way
interactions with their environments.
Tuatara
Overview
Tuatara are reptiles endemic to New Zealand.
Although resembling most lizards, they are part of
a distinct lineage, the order Rhynchocephalia. The
single species of tuatara is the sole surviving member
of its order, hich originated in the Triassic period
around 250 million years ago and which flourished
during the Mesozoic era. Tuatara are greenish brown
and grey, and measure up to 80 cm (31 in) from
head to tail-tip and weigh up to 1.3 kg (2.9 lb) with
a spiny crest along the back, especially pronounced
in males. They have two rows of teeth in the upper
jaw overlapping one row on the lower jaw, which is
unique among living species. They are also unusual
in having a pronounced photoreceptive eye, the
third eye, which is thought to be involved in setting
circadian and seasonal cycles.
Taxonomy
Tuatara, along with other now-extinct members
of the order Sphenodontia, belong to the superorder
Lepidosauria, the only surviving taxon within
Lepidosauromorpha. Squamates and tuatara both
show caudal autotomy (loss of the tail-tip when
threatened), and have transverse cloacal slits. The
origin of the tuatara probably lies close to the split
between the Lepidosauromorpha and the Archosauromorpha.
Though tuatara resemble lizards, the
similarity is superficial, because the family has several
characteristics unique among reptiles. The typical
lizard shape is very common for the early amniotes;
the oldest known fossil of a reptile, the Hylonomus,
resembles a modern lizard. While there is currently
considered to be only one living species of tuatara,
two species were previously identified: Sphenodon
punctatus and the much rarer Sphenodon guntheri.
Paleontology
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9
Overview
Botany is the science of plant life and a branch of
biology. The term "botany" comes from the Ancient
Greek word βοτάνη (botanē) meaning "pasture,"
"grass," or "fodder.” Traditionally, botany has also
included the study of fungi and algae by mycologists
and phycologists respectively. Today, botanists study
approximately 410,000 species of land plants. Botany
originated in prehistory as herbalism with the efforts
of early humans to identify - and later cultivate - edible,
medicinal and poisonous plants, making it one of
the oldest branches of science. In the 19th and 20th
centuries, new techniques were developed for the
study of plants, including methods of optical microscopy
and live cell imaging, electron microscopy, etc.
Modern botany is a broad, multidisciplinary
subject with inputs from most other areas of
science and technology.
Importance
The study of plants is vital because they underpin
almost all animal life on Earth by generating a large
proportion of the oxygen and food that provide
humans and other organisms with aerobic respiration
with the chemical energy they need to exist. Plants
are crucial to the future of human society as they
provide food, oxygen, medicine, and products for
people, as well as creating and preserving soil. Botanists
examine both the internal functions and processes
within plant organelles, cells, tissues, whole plants,
plant populations and plant communities. Virtually
all staple foods come either directly from primary
production by plants, or indirectly from animals that
eat them.Plants and other photosynthetic organisms
are at the base of most food chains because they use
the energy from the sun and nutrients from the soil
and atmosphere, converting them into a form that
can be used by animals. Botanists study how plants
produce food and how to increase yields.
Caffeine
Botany
Overview
Caffeine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant
of the methylxanthine class. It is the world's most widely
consumed psychoactive drug. Unlike many other
psychoactive substances, it is legal and unregulated
in nearly all parts of the world. There are several
known mechanisms of action to explain the effects
of caffeine. The most prominent is that it reversibly
blocks the action of adenosine on its receptors and
consequently prevents the onset of drowsiness induced
by adenosine. Caffeine also stimulates certain portions
of the autonomic nervous system. Caffeine is found
in the seeds, nuts, or leaves of a number of plants
native to Africa, East Asia and South America, and
helps to protect them against predator insects and to
prevent germination of nearby seeds. The most
well-known source of caffeine is the coffee bean.
People may drink beverages containing caffeine to
relieve or prevent drowsiness and to improve
cognitive performance.
Natural Occurance
Around thirty plant species are known to contain
caffeine. Common sources are the “beans” (seeds) of
the two cultivated coffee plants, Coffea arabica and
Coffea canephora. Along with the cocoa plant,
Theobroma cacao; the leaves of the tea plant; and
kola nuts. Caffeine in plants acts as a natural pesticide:
it can paralyze and kill predator insects feeding on
the plant. High caffeine levels are found in coffee
seedlings when they are developing foliage and lack
mechanical protection. Caffeine is stored in tea leaves
in two places. Firstly, in the cell vacuoles where it is
complexed with polyphenols. This caffeine probably
is released into the mouths of insects, to discourage
herbivory. Secondly, around the vascular bundles,
where it probably inhibits pathogenic fungi from
entering and colonizing the vascular bundles. Caffeine
in nectar may improve the reproductive success of
the pollen producing plants by enhancing the reward
memory of pollinators such as honey bees.
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Yaupon Holly
Overview
Ilex vomitoria, commonly known as yaupon or
yaupon holly, is a species of holly that is native to
southeastern North America. The word yaupon
was derived from the Catawban yąpą, from yą- tree
and pą leaf. The plant was traditionally used by
Native Americans to make an infusion containing
caffeine. It is among a very few plants endemic to
North America that produce caffeine. The plant is
also widely used for landscaping in its native range.
Yaupon holly is an evergreen shrub or small tree
reaching 5–9 m tall, with smooth, light gray bark and
slender, hairy shoots. The leaf arrangement is alternate,
with leaves ovate to elliptical and a rounded apex with
crenate or coarsely serrated margin that’s glossy dark
green above, slightly paler below. The flowers are
5–5.5 mm diameter, with a white four-lobed corolla.
The fruit is a small round, shiny, and red drupe.
Uses
Native Americans brewed the leaves and stems to
brew a tisane, commonly thought to be called asi or
black drink for male-only purification and unity rituals.
The ceremony included vomiting, and Europeans
deduced that yaupon caused it. Native Americans
may have also used the infusion as a laxative. Ilex
vomitoria is also a common landscape plant in the
Southeastern United States. The most common
cultivars are slow-growing shrubs popular for their
dense, evergreen foliage and their adaptability to
pruning into hedges of various shapes.
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