Part 1: Introduction, first and second language acquisition ...
Part 1: Introduction, first and second language acquisition ...
Part 1: Introduction, first and second language acquisition ...
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Transcríbhinn: Podchraoladh – Sealbhú teanga<br />
<strong>Part</strong> 1: <strong>Introduction</strong>, <strong>first</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>second</strong> <strong>language</strong> <strong>acquisition</strong>, bilingualism.<br />
0:00 Dia is Muire duit, agus fáilte romhat go dtí an podchraoladh 1 seo mar<br />
Marie gheall ar shealbhú teanga 2 . Welcome to this podcast about <strong>language</strong><br />
<strong>acquisition</strong>. It’s part of a series of NCCA podcasts <strong>and</strong> you can find more<br />
information <strong>and</strong> more podcasts on www.action.ncca.ie.<br />
Today I’m talking to Dr. Muiris Ó Laoire, <strong>and</strong> Muiris, can you tell me a<br />
little bit about yourself please?<br />
0:26 Ok Marie. I’m a senior lecturer at the Institute of Technology, Tralee, <strong>and</strong><br />
Muiris I also work part time at the National University of Irel<strong>and</strong>, Galway. I<br />
started as a teacher of Irish <strong>and</strong> French, many years ago, <strong>and</strong> I became<br />
fascinated by the way students were learning <strong>language</strong> <strong>and</strong> then that<br />
drove me to do research in applied linguistics 3 , particularly the<br />
<strong>acquisition</strong> of Irish. I am past president of the Irish Association of Applied<br />
Linguists (IRAAL), I have held research fellowships in New Zeal<strong>and</strong>, <strong>and</strong><br />
I’m a founding member of the International Association of Multilingualism.<br />
My research areas include Irish <strong>language</strong>, multilingualism 4 , <strong>language</strong><br />
<strong>acquisition</strong>, bilingualism 5 , those areas.<br />
1:08 Thank you very much Muiris.<br />
Marie So as I said, this podcast is about <strong>language</strong> <strong>acquisition</strong>. It’s divided into<br />
sections, <strong>and</strong> some of those sections are in Irish <strong>and</strong> some are in<br />
English, depending on the questions that we’re talking about. So for<br />
example parts dealing specifically with the teaching of Irish will be as<br />
Gaeilge. And a full transcript of the conversation is available on our<br />
website.<br />
So to start off Muiris, could you define what exactly do you mean by<br />
<strong>language</strong> <strong>acquisition</strong>?<br />
1:36 Well, that term is very important Marie really, because when you acquire<br />
Muiris something you have it for life, as you know. So <strong>acquisition</strong> means, then,<br />
acquiring a <strong>language</strong> as one does one’s <strong>first</strong> <strong>language</strong> 6 . And when you<br />
think about it, we acquire that <strong>first</strong> <strong>language</strong> without really knowing what<br />
we’re doing, so in other words we acquire it subconsciously. When we<br />
learn a <strong>language</strong>, what we learn may not necessarily be acquired 7 , may<br />
not necessarily be processed <strong>and</strong> it doesn’t enter long term memory 8 .<br />
So we all had the experience of learning vocabulary 9 or grammar<br />
exercises or poems or whatever for a test <strong>and</strong> then months later what<br />
happens is we’ve forgotten it. Now why does that happen? Because what<br />
we learn probably enters short-term memory 10 only, <strong>and</strong> doesn’t enter<br />
long-term memory. So long term memory is crucial – that it’s activated for<br />
<strong>acquisition</strong>. So when we acquire <strong>language</strong> then, it remains in long-term<br />
memory, it’s automised. And that’s the difference between <strong>language</strong><br />
<strong>acquisition</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>language</strong> learning. So learning we simply forget it,<br />
acquired we have it, <strong>and</strong> our ultimate aim, I suppose, in the classroom as<br />
teachers, would be that our learners acquire <strong>language</strong> rather than just<br />
learn <strong>and</strong> practise it.<br />
2:53 And is there a particular order, then, in how we acquire <strong>language</strong>s,<br />
Marie Muiris?<br />
Gluais/Glossary<br />
1 podcast<br />
2 <strong>language</strong> <strong>acquisition</strong><br />
3 sa teangeolaíocht<br />
fheidhmeach<br />
4 ilteangachas<br />
5 dátheangachas<br />
6 L1 (English<br />
abbreviation) T1 (as<br />
Gaeilge)<br />
7 sealbhaithe<br />
8 cuimhne<br />
fhadtéarmach<br />
9 stór focal<br />
10 cuimhne<br />
ghearrthéarmach
Transcríbhinn: Podchraoladh – Sealbhú teanga<br />
2:59 This is a very very interesting question. It’s a question that has exercised<br />
Muiris quite a lot of theorising <strong>and</strong> empirical research over the years. Now to<br />
begin with I’ll talk about learning a <strong>second</strong> <strong>language</strong> 11 . And recent<br />
research has investigated evidence that maybe yes, learners do acquire<br />
in a specific sequence 12 , what they call developmental stages 13 . And<br />
for example, two linguists, Florence <strong>and</strong> Myles, tell us that young learners<br />
of a <strong>second</strong> <strong>language</strong> – English for example – when they’re leaning the<br />
negative 14 , you know, I did not or whatever, they might put the negative<br />
particle either at the beginning or end of a sentence, they’d say:<br />
no me playing here or me playing here no. Then they might go <strong>and</strong> insert<br />
that negative particle in a verb phrase: car not coming<br />
And then finally they manipulate it correctly. So it’s a very interesting<br />
thing then, that there seems to be an order.<br />
Now that’s based on very interesting research that took place in the<br />
1970s by Brown. And he looked at the way that children acquire their <strong>first</strong><br />
<strong>language</strong> <strong>and</strong> he said, yes, they pass through similar stages, from crying<br />
to cooing to babbling, to just intonation 15 , to one-word utterances 16 , to<br />
two-word utterances to inflection 17 (that means they can change words,<br />
they can add plurals for example) to questions, to negatives <strong>and</strong> then to<br />
complex sentences.<br />
And he looked at children acquiring morphemes (a morpheme 18 is the<br />
smallest meaningful <strong>language</strong> unit. It could be a word, a part of a word,<br />
like dog or even the s, that’s a morpheme too, ‘s’ in dogs). So he found<br />
for example that, in the case of English, <strong>and</strong> in other <strong>language</strong>s there<br />
seems to be this order:<br />
• a present progressive 19 : so you’d have boy singing – ‘ing’ comes<br />
<strong>first</strong>; crying, doing,<br />
• then followed by prepositions 20 : doggy in car<br />
• followed by plural 21 : sweeties<br />
• followed by past irregular: gone<br />
• possessive 22 : [for example baby’s pram]<br />
• past regular comes after that: wanted<br />
• third person singular: eats<br />
• <strong>and</strong> the auxiliary: is running<br />
There has been just one research study that I know of regarding<br />
<strong>acquisition</strong> of Irish as a <strong>first</strong> <strong>language</strong>. It was a study done by McKenna<br />
<strong>and</strong> Wall in 1986 with two young children, Áine <strong>and</strong> Máire. Áine was 18<br />
months <strong>and</strong> Máire was 28 months, in Cnoc Fola in northwest Donegal<br />
Gaeltacht. And they studied what’s called the MLU - Mean Length of<br />
Utterance, or how long their sentences were in terms of time. And they<br />
did look at order. They found that these children began with questions,<br />
<strong>and</strong> then they went to the possessors 23 : the mo (you know–my) <strong>and</strong> they<br />
worked from there to imperatives 24 (giving orders), <strong>and</strong> ended,<br />
interestingly enough, with negatives.<br />
But more <strong>and</strong> more studies need to be done so that we can determine if<br />
that order that you refer to actually takes place in <strong>first</strong> <strong>language</strong><br />
<strong>acquisition</strong> <strong>and</strong> then if there’s an order in <strong>second</strong> <strong>language</strong> <strong>acquisition</strong>.<br />
And if we know about the order in <strong>first</strong> <strong>language</strong> <strong>acquisition</strong> (how you<br />
acquire your mother tongue) should we … replicate that order in the way<br />
we present <strong>language</strong> to learners?<br />
11 L2 (abbreviation)<br />
T2 (Irish abbrev)<br />
12 ord, seicheamh<br />
13 céimeanna<br />
forbartha<br />
14 diúltach<br />
15 tuin chainte<br />
16 ráiteas aon‐fhocal<br />
17 infhilleadh<br />
18 morféim<br />
19 an t‐ainm<br />
briathartha<br />
20 réamhfhocal<br />
21 an t‐iolra<br />
22 sealbhach (nó<br />
ginideach)<br />
23 an aidiacht<br />
shealbhach<br />
24 an modh<br />
ordaitheach
Transcríbhinn: Podchraoladh – Sealbhú teanga<br />
6:18 And if I’m underst<strong>and</strong>ing you correctly then Muiris, that there’s a<br />
Marie difference between the order in how we acquire our L1 <strong>and</strong> how we<br />
acquire our L2 or other additional <strong>language</strong>s, are there any particular<br />
things that teachers should be aware of or watching out for when we’re<br />
thinking about teaching <strong>second</strong> or additional <strong>language</strong>s?<br />
6:36 Absolutely. I think the thing they must be aware of is what they call<br />
Muiris inter<strong>language</strong> 25 . Inter<strong>language</strong> is a mixture of the <strong>first</strong> <strong>language</strong> <strong>and</strong> the<br />
<strong>second</strong> <strong>language</strong>, the mother tongue <strong>and</strong> the <strong>second</strong> <strong>language</strong> that<br />
they’re learning. It’s like they’re meeting <strong>and</strong> the two of them are trying to<br />
co-exist side by side. Inter<strong>language</strong> is not stable – it produces errors.<br />
Young children when they’re hearing <strong>language</strong>, <strong>first</strong> of all they’re looking<br />
for the meaning in their <strong>first</strong> <strong>language</strong>, they’re noticing how things are<br />
different.<br />
Now there can also be transfer 26 . In Irish teachers will know about for<br />
many years the Tá sé fear. This is a transfer from He is a man in English.<br />
And the transfer sometimes can be positive as well, if structures work in<br />
the same way in the <strong>first</strong> <strong>language</strong>: Tá sé mór- he is big <strong>and</strong> that’s a<br />
positive transfer 27 . So, as I said, it causes instability. It can cause as<br />
well what they call fossilisation 28 , <strong>and</strong> actually can stay in the system<br />
forever … somebody could actually go on saying forever Tá sí liathróid.<br />
That would be regarded as fossilisation <strong>and</strong> it can be very difficult if the<br />
<strong>language</strong> is not acquired correctly then.<br />
So inter<strong>language</strong> is very complex, <strong>and</strong> I think it’s good that teachers<br />
realise that if learners make errors it’s actually part of their developmental<br />
<strong>acquisition</strong> <strong>and</strong> they have to go through the stage where sometimes they<br />
make hypotheses 29 about <strong>language</strong> themselves <strong>and</strong> say Well, it must<br />
work in this way. Then they produce something <strong>and</strong> the utterance is<br />
deviant from what’s acceptable <strong>and</strong> that is when error occurs.<br />
But it’s good to think that sometimes: errors – you’re going to meet them,<br />
it’s not necessarily that the teacher has done something incorrectly or<br />
whatever, it’s the nature of <strong>acquisition</strong>.<br />
8:20 When you talk about this developmental order <strong>and</strong> how we have to<br />
Marie accept that children will be making errors, it immediately brings to mind<br />
questions about: well at what stage <strong>and</strong> … the ages of children. Because<br />
when you think about learning Irish as <strong>second</strong> <strong>language</strong> children start at<br />
age four. Is there any research or information about optimal ages 30 for<br />
learning <strong>language</strong>s or anything like that?<br />
8:40 Oh there is, there’s been a lot of work done in that area Marie as well.<br />
Muiris They’ve talked about, that when we acquire <strong>language</strong>s, Chomsky <strong>and</strong><br />
people spoke about this thing called the LAD –the <strong>language</strong> <strong>acquisition</strong><br />
device 31 … like a biological function 32 which is in the brain, <strong>and</strong> which<br />
is strongly activated when we are acquiring a <strong>first</strong> <strong>language</strong>. Now the<br />
thinking was that that <strong>language</strong> <strong>acquisition</strong> device, like other biological<br />
functions … works successfully only when it’s stimulated 33 at the right<br />
time. And that made them research this idea of what’s called a critical<br />
period hypothesis 34 – that there’s a specific <strong>and</strong> limited time period for<br />
<strong>language</strong> <strong>acquisition</strong>. And the thinking is that yes, young children<br />
between four <strong>and</strong> twelve, before puberty, have this – almost – ability to<br />
acquire <strong>language</strong> naturally, <strong>and</strong> later there seems to be a cut-off-point 35 ,<br />
maybe beyond adolescence 36 , although the thinking on this, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
theorising on this, isn’t necessarily fully established.<br />
25 idirtheanga<br />
26 traschur<br />
27 traschur<br />
deimhneach<br />
28 iontaisiú<br />
29 hipitéis<br />
30 aois bharrmhaith,<br />
an aois is fearr<br />
31 mianach<br />
sealbhaithe teanga<br />
32 próiseas<br />
bitheolaíoch<br />
33 spreag (briathar)<br />
34 hipitéis na tréimhse<br />
criticiúla<br />
35 scoithphointe/<br />
pointe scoite<br />
36 ógántacht
Transcríbhinn: Podchraoladh – Sealbhú teanga<br />
So yes – there appears to be a cut off point in children’s natural ability to<br />
acquire <strong>language</strong>, <strong>and</strong> yes, early <strong>language</strong> learning appears to be good.<br />
Although, as I said, the jury is out on if there is a cut-off-point at twelve,<br />
thirteen, fourteen.<br />
9:54 That’s very interesting Muiris. Young children acquiring <strong>language</strong><br />
Marie naturally – it automatically brings to mind questions about bilingualism. Is<br />
there anything you’d be able to tell us about that?<br />
10:03 Well, <strong>first</strong> of all, bilingualism is the most natural thing in the world. People<br />
Muiris used to have this fear of bilingualism in the past, in other words if I learn<br />
a <strong>second</strong> <strong>language</strong> will it interfere with my <strong>first</strong> <strong>language</strong>? But when you<br />
look at the world <strong>and</strong> its demography 37 , we remember that if you speak<br />
one <strong>language</strong> – if you are a monolingual – you are actually in a minority.<br />
Research estimates that 60% plus of the world’s population is actually<br />
bilingual or multilingual. And I refer to research done by David Graddol<br />
(1997) back at the end of the nineties on English, <strong>and</strong> he said that about<br />
375 million people speak English as a <strong>first</strong> <strong>language</strong>, but that another<br />
billion use it as an L2. So that shows clearly that most people are<br />
multilingual or bilingual.<br />
Now there are different types of bilingualism, Marie, <strong>and</strong> it might be<br />
useful just to talk about them. There is of course simultaneous or<br />
balanced bilingualism 38 : that’s when you are bilingual from birth, <strong>and</strong><br />
both <strong>language</strong>s develop simultaneously <strong>and</strong> it’s quite balanced. Now a lot<br />
of the bilingualism we are dealing with as teachers is what’s called<br />
additive bilingualism 39 : we’re adding the <strong>second</strong> <strong>language</strong> to the <strong>first</strong><br />
<strong>language</strong>, we’re learning a <strong>language</strong> in school. And then we must be<br />
aware as well of subtractive bilingualism 40 : <strong>and</strong> that means that people<br />
can actually loose their <strong>first</strong> <strong>language</strong> when they learn their <strong>second</strong><br />
<strong>language</strong> – in the context of immigration 41 . So were I, for example,<br />
Spanish <strong>and</strong> I come to live in Engl<strong>and</strong>, <strong>and</strong> over the years I may loose, or<br />
use my Spanish less <strong>and</strong> less, so it becomes subtractive.<br />
11:32 That’s a very interesting point when you think about all the children that<br />
Marie are learning English as an additional <strong>language</strong> but already have other<br />
<strong>first</strong> <strong>language</strong>s.<br />
11:39 Absolutely, <strong>and</strong> maybe we should think of that a little bit more: that they<br />
Muiris are actually bilinguals <strong>and</strong> in fact additive bilingualism is occurring with<br />
English but subtractive bilingualism could be occurring with their <strong>first</strong><br />
<strong>language</strong>.<br />
11:51 And would you say that there are any advantages to being bilingual?<br />
Marie<br />
11:55 Oh, there are indeed. There’s very important research has been<br />
Muiris conducted to show the advantages to being bilingual. There’s research<br />
by Ellen Bialystok carried out in Canada, <strong>and</strong> she’s been working on this<br />
for a long time. She’s been asking Are bilinguals better learners? Her<br />
work has compared cognitive development 42 – particularly in younger<br />
children in the four to eight year age group – <strong>and</strong> she has compared<br />
bilingual children to their monolingual 43 counterparts. And she has<br />
shown consistently <strong>and</strong> clearly that, for example in areas like problemsolving<br />
that includes a little bit of misleading information, bilingual<br />
children perform significantly better.<br />
37 déimeagrafaíocht<br />
38 an dátheangachas<br />
comhuaineach nó<br />
cothrom<br />
39 an dátheangachas<br />
suimitheach/<br />
breiseánach<br />
40 dátheangachas<br />
dealaitheach/<br />
aghdaithe<br />
41 inimirce<br />
42 forbairt chognaíoch<br />
43 aonteangach
Transcríbhinn: Podchraoladh – Sealbhú teanga<br />
They are better able to make the distinction between a symbol [the word]<br />
<strong>and</strong> the thing to which it refers [the picture], to underst<strong>and</strong> that words are<br />
only referents 44 . And they can block out any misleading information. And<br />
that holds true for bilingual children not only in pre-reading skills, but also<br />
in tests to do with mathematical concepts, shapes, <strong>and</strong> sizes etc.<br />
12:57 And is that also true for children who are additive bilinguals, children who<br />
Marie have actually learned their <strong>second</strong> <strong>language</strong>, maybe at school, as well as<br />
people who’ve been … bilingual from a very early age?<br />
13:08 Yes, that’s a good point. Jim Cummins said that there’s a certain<br />
Muiris threshold 45 … there’s a threshold hypothesis that once you’re an<br />
additive bilingual at a certain capacity – so it won’t happen immediately –<br />
some of these advantages to being bilingual accrue as well, in terms of<br />
cognitive development.<br />
13:24 And are there any other advantages as well as the cognitive ones?<br />
Marie<br />
13:28 The cognitive ones … yes, there are indeed, there are the advantages of<br />
Muiris maybe being more imaginative, of seeing the world—as somebody<br />
said—in two different ways, in problem solving, in creativity. But the<br />
strongest evidence that Ellen Bialystock has produced is definitely in<br />
cognitive development. And all the other areas that I just mentioned:<br />
imagination, openness, seeing the world in a dual way, are all being<br />
investigated.<br />
44 tagráin (tagrán)<br />
45 tairseach
Transcríbhinn: Podchraoladh – Sealbhú teanga<br />
<strong>Part</strong> 2: Language teaching: insights, theories, approaches <strong>and</strong> factors.<br />
13:52 So Muiris I might move on a bit now to start thinking more about teaching<br />
Marie <strong>language</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> I suppose one of the <strong>first</strong> questions that teachers might<br />
be asking: What kind of factors affect how a child acquires a <strong>second</strong><br />
<strong>language</strong>? Things like the child’s <strong>first</strong> <strong>language</strong>, or the <strong>language</strong> in the<br />
community, or intellectual ability 46 , what kind of factors 47 would be<br />
affecting it?<br />
14:13 That’s a very good question <strong>and</strong> research at the moment is focusing very<br />
Muiris much on those factors, like the child’s background, their <strong>first</strong> <strong>language</strong>,<br />
things you just mentioned, the <strong>language</strong> the child hears in the<br />
environment, the intellectual ability, the amount of time spent learning is<br />
one – they definitely affect the <strong>acquisition</strong> of <strong>second</strong> <strong>language</strong>.<br />
Research, I think, is coming more <strong>and</strong> more to the conclusion that what<br />
they call individual factors 48 play a very important role in <strong>language</strong><br />
learning; quite a lot of books now on what’s called the individual factor in<br />
<strong>language</strong> learning. Even we know that learners within the same family,<br />
they often differ greatly in the degree of success they achieve when<br />
learning the <strong>second</strong> <strong>language</strong>. So they [researchers] have categorised all<br />
these individual factors into two big categories.<br />
One—cognitive factors. They talk there about intelligence, <strong>language</strong><br />
aptitude 49 <strong>and</strong> <strong>language</strong> learning strategies 50 .<br />
And then importantly as well, <strong>and</strong> sometimes overlooked in research up<br />
to now, the affective factors 51 , like the <strong>language</strong> attitudes, the attitudes<br />
they’d have to the speakers of the <strong>language</strong>, motivation, the <strong>language</strong><br />
anxiety 52 (sometimes when learners are called upon to produce<br />
<strong>language</strong> they can become anxious, is the <strong>language</strong> correct) <strong>and</strong> then at<br />
the other end of the scale a thing called the willingness to<br />
communicate 53 : that in certain groups – if you take a group of 20<br />
learners – some of those are more willing to communicate than others,<br />
<strong>and</strong> they’re investigating those what’s called WTC – willingness to<br />
communicate factor in <strong>second</strong> <strong>language</strong> <strong>acquisition</strong>.<br />
In the past 20 years though only, Marie, are researchers turning to these<br />
<strong>and</strong> seeing them as extremely important in developing theories of <strong>second</strong><br />
<strong>language</strong> <strong>acquisition</strong>.<br />
15:50 So another question then that would spring to mind is that at the very<br />
Marie start of the podcast you mentioned how <strong>language</strong> learning <strong>and</strong> <strong>language</strong><br />
<strong>acquisition</strong> are at two ends of a spectrum of development 54 . What’s the<br />
role of formal <strong>language</strong> teaching on that spectrum?<br />
16:06 That’s a very very good question. Because when Chomsky <strong>and</strong> Krashen<br />
Muiris <strong>and</strong> all these theorists came out in the seventies <strong>and</strong> said Well, look,<br />
<strong>language</strong> <strong>acquisition</strong> is a very natural thing, then it called into question<br />
Well, what can a teacher do, really, in a classroom if <strong>language</strong> <strong>acquisition</strong><br />
occurs naturally, occurs subconsciously?<br />
Now I think that communicative <strong>language</strong> teaching 55 plays an<br />
enormous role here <strong>and</strong> the syllabi in Irish <strong>language</strong> is the cur chuige<br />
cumarsáide, the communicative <strong>language</strong> teaching. The theory here is<br />
very interesting: that if learners engage meaningfully in communication,<br />
then <strong>language</strong> <strong>acquisition</strong> occurs almost subconsciously – they’re not<br />
aware they’re learning.<br />
46 cumas intleachtúil<br />
47 tosca (toisc)<br />
48 tosca an duine<br />
aonair<br />
49 inniúlacht/mianach<br />
teanga<br />
50 straitéisí foghlama<br />
teanga<br />
51 tosca<br />
mothachtálacha<br />
52 buairt/imní<br />
53 fonn cumarsáide<br />
54 speictream/<br />
contanam na<br />
forbartha<br />
55 cur chuige na<br />
cumarsáide i<br />
múineadh teangacha
Transcríbhinn: Podchraoladh – Sealbhú teanga<br />
Also sometimes when learners are learning subjects through the medium<br />
of the target <strong>language</strong> – it’s called CLIL, Content <strong>and</strong> Language<br />
Integrated Learning 56 – this occurs too. They’re not actually focusing on<br />
learning the <strong>language</strong>, but they’re focusing on doing something through<br />
the <strong>language</strong>, then that actually fuels <strong>and</strong> drives <strong>language</strong> <strong>acquisition</strong> as<br />
well.<br />
17:10 And we actually have another podcast, all about the communicative<br />
Marie approach, with Dr. Kènia Puig i Planella, which is also available on the<br />
website www.action.ncca.ie.<br />
Now Muiris, earlier you were talking about the developmental stages, <strong>and</strong><br />
you were just mentioning there how the teacher is a facilitator 57 in<br />
facilitating this <strong>acquisition</strong>, so how does the teacher go about<br />
sequencing 58 the tasks <strong>and</strong> sequencing the <strong>language</strong> that the children<br />
are learning?<br />
17:39 Remember what I was saying earlier that we’re not fully fully convinced of<br />
Muiris the research yet, because it’s still … experimental, but if there is a<br />
developmental stage then how we actually prepare our <strong>language</strong> learning<br />
materials to fit in with that would be crucial. However, research also is<br />
showing that <strong>language</strong> learning isn’t linear 59 – it doesn’t [necessarily]<br />
happen in that developmental sequence I was just talking about. And we<br />
all know that too, in our classroom one day a learner might produce a<br />
form which is absolutely correct, <strong>and</strong> then, maybe a couple of weeks later<br />
or a month later, they can produce that form again totally incorrectly. So<br />
when this happens then, what’s happening is that maybe the<br />
inter<strong>language</strong> system is being incorporated.<br />
18:24 And what about mistakes? I mean – should I be correcting the children to<br />
Marie try <strong>and</strong> move them on to the next stage, or should I never correct them?<br />
Should I correct them some of the time?<br />
Muiris That’s another good question. These are the questions that constantly we<br />
want to know as teachers Am I doing the right thing, should I correct?<br />
Well, the thinking is that there are two types of correction. There’s<br />
explicit correction 60 : that if a learner makes an error that you correct the<br />
error immediately <strong>and</strong> you bring the learner’s attention to the error. So if<br />
somebody says, for example, An dtaitníonn sé leat? <strong>and</strong> they say Sea,<br />
that you would correct that as No, you say Ní thaitníonn, ní deir tú ‘sea’,<br />
ní thaitníonn nó taitníonn. That’s what’s called explicit [correction].<br />
The other is implicit 61 [correction]. Now a lot of teachers use that:<br />
implicit, or recasts 62 . So again if you say An dtaitníonn sé leat <strong>and</strong> a<br />
learner replies Sea that the teacher would say Ó, taitníonn sé leat? <strong>and</strong><br />
then from that the learner might infer Look, I’ve made a mistake, <strong>and</strong> this<br />
is the right for’. So you’re not drawing attention to the error but you are<br />
giving the right form.<br />
Now again the jury is out in research on that – on both types. Actually,<br />
both might be of very little value unless the learners notice that they’ve<br />
made an error. To give you an example, if I said Tá an carr ar an<br />
mbóthar, learners at a stage of developing will hear the words carr <strong>and</strong><br />
bóthar, <strong>and</strong> they underst<strong>and</strong> from that, particularly in meaningful<br />
communication; they get the idea: carr … bóthar. But at inputprocessing<br />
stage 63 they may not even notice m before the b – mbóthar<br />
– or they may not even notice Tá at all. So it can take a long time for<br />
learners sometimes to actually notice correct forms. I think time is crucial.<br />
56 Foghlaim<br />
Chomhtháite Ábhar<br />
agus Teangacha<br />
57 éascaitheoir<br />
58 seicheamhú<br />
59 líneach<br />
60 léircheartú /ceartú<br />
follasach<br />
61 ceartú intuigthe<br />
62 ateilgean<br />
63 céim próiseála<br />
ionhuir
Transcríbhinn: Podchraoladh – Sealbhú teanga<br />
So to answer your question, yes, I think we must constantly give the<br />
correct form, but do not be discouraged if it takes learners longer<br />
sometimes to arrive at the correct form; they will in time, it’s just that<br />
maybe they’re not noticing those correct forms - no matter how often it’s<br />
heard, they notice when their inter<strong>language</strong> is almost ready for that<br />
noticing.<br />
20:32 That’s a very interesting point Muiris, because it’s probably a source of<br />
Marie frustration for a lot of teachers, maybe particularly with written work,<br />
where they’re correcting things, <strong>and</strong> correct the same things over <strong>and</strong><br />
over <strong>and</strong> never see any changes; that it’s all about when the learner<br />
notices <strong>and</strong> that’s where the importance lies, not in the correcting or not<br />
correcting, of the mistake.<br />
20:53 Absolutely. One way to get learners to actually improve their <strong>language</strong><br />
Muiris skills is to get them to notice very very good <strong>language</strong>. So if they could<br />
hear somebody, or see a piece written, that’s at a stage better than their<br />
own stage of development, <strong>and</strong> ask them to reflect on Why is that better?<br />
What do you notice as being very good about this? then once noticing is<br />
activated <strong>and</strong> triggered, actual <strong>acquisition</strong> might occur.<br />
21:27 And that brings up then the question of <strong>language</strong> awareness 64 <strong>and</strong><br />
Marie getting children to notice features 65 about <strong>language</strong><br />
21:30 Yes, absolutely, <strong>and</strong> I think that the more we can make our learners<br />
Muiris curious about <strong>language</strong>, <strong>and</strong> we have wonderful opportunities sometimes<br />
in our classrooms with speakers of other <strong>language</strong>s than English as a<br />
<strong>first</strong> <strong>language</strong>; get them aware that people pronounce 66 words<br />
differently, there are different sounds in <strong>language</strong>, you can actually ask<br />
the children to say some words, to try <strong>and</strong> get children to repeat these<br />
words from Russian or Arabic or French or whatever, <strong>and</strong> that makes<br />
them very curious; that’s a very simple <strong>language</strong> awareness task. So we<br />
can’t just simply assume that because they hear <strong>language</strong> <strong>and</strong> they see<br />
it, <strong>and</strong> they use it, that they actually notice the correct forms.<br />
22:05 And I suppose another crucial point then is the post-communicative<br />
Marie stage 67 of communicative <strong>language</strong> lessons where you actually explicitly<br />
focus on features or errors …<br />
Muiris Absolutely, <strong>and</strong> that can be done sometimes by reflection, saying How<br />
did you get on? What did you find easy, what did you find difficult? Postcommunicative<br />
or post-task <strong>language</strong> teaching, you know you have your<br />
pre-task where they prepare the <strong>language</strong>, they do the task<br />
communicatively <strong>and</strong> in the post-task stage you’re focusing on How well<br />
did you do it? Did you notice anything difficult? Did you notice anything<br />
you did well? Always. If you were to ask somebody else to do it – maybe<br />
a native speaker – this is what they might say <strong>and</strong> get them to notice it, at<br />
various levels of ability. But also encouragement, all the other<br />
educational principles obviously apply in <strong>language</strong> teaching as well.<br />
64 feasacht teanga<br />
65 gnéithe teangacha/<br />
comharthaí sóirt<br />
teangacha éagsúla<br />
66 fuaimniú<br />
67 tréimhse<br />
iarchumarsáideach
Transcríbhinn: Podchraoladh – Sealbhú teanga<br />
Cuid 3: Sealbhú agus múineadh na Gaeilge/<strong>acquisition</strong> <strong>and</strong> teaching of Irish<br />
22:53 Agus ag bogadh ar aghaidh anois a Mhuiris, chun díriú isteach go 68 specifically<br />
69 <strong>language</strong><br />
Marie sainiúil 68 ar mhúineadh na Gaeilge agus ceisteanna sealbhaithe<br />
teanga 69 a bhaineann le múineadh na Gaeilge, is dócha gur í an chéad<br />
cheist a ritheann liomsa ná an bhfuil an Ghaeilge níos deacra ná<br />
teangacha eile, le foghlaim nó le múineadh?<br />
23:09 Ceist mhaith agus tá sí minic cloiste agam. Níl aon fhianaise 70 go bhfuil<br />
Muiris a leithéid fíor ach ceaptar a leithéid go mionmhinic. Cinnte, dearfa, tá<br />
gnéithe 71 áirithe a bhaineann leis an nGaolainn 72 nach bhfuil a leithéid<br />
againn sa Bhéarla: cuir i gcás an séimhiú, an t-urú 73 , an rud seo, an<br />
t-infhilleadh 74 (athruithe ar fhocail agus mar sin de) agus tá an forainm<br />
réamhfhoclach 75 (agam, agat, orm, ort) rud atá acu, dála an scéil, sa<br />
Pholainnis agus sa Rúisis. Dá mbeadh teanga Cheilteach eile againn<br />
mar mháthairtheanga 76 , a mbeadh na gnéithe sin ag baint léi, bheadh<br />
sé níos fusa. Tá ar deireadh rud ar a nglaonn siad ansin psychotypology<br />
nó typology 77 : is é sin má labhraíonn tú teanga amháin mar theanga<br />
dhúchais 78 agus tú ag foghlaim teanga eile atá gaolmhar (a bhaineann<br />
leis an gclann chéanna teangacha) ansin ar ndóigh tá sé níos fusa. Ach<br />
tá difríochtaí idir córas an Bhéarla agus córas na Gaeilge agus níor<br />
mhiste ansin b’fhéidir … bhíomar ag caint ó chianaibh 79 ar cheachtanna<br />
feasachta teanga, <strong>language</strong> awareness, caithfimid iad sin a bhunú níos<br />
mó ar na difríochtaí sin.<br />
24:14 Ach é sin ráite, mar a deir tú, ní hí go bhfuil sí [an Ghaeilge] i bhfad níos<br />
Marie deacra agus gach rud atá fíor ó thaobh sealbhú teangacha 80 eile de, tá<br />
sé fíor i dtaobh na Gaeilge freisin?<br />
24:24 Díreach é. Níl sí níos deacra, agus gach aon rud a dúirt (mé) ansin ó<br />
Muiris chianaibh mar gheall ar shealbhú teanga ó thaobh na dteangacha eile de<br />
bheadh sé fíor chomh maith i leith na Gaolainne.<br />
24:36 Agus is dócha, ceist eile ansin a thagann chun cinn go minic ná go bhfuil<br />
Marie sé ráite go soiléir i gcuraclam na Gaeilge gur cheart na ceachtanna a<br />
mhúineadh trí mheán na Gaeilge 81 . Agus uaireanta bíonn sé sin deacair<br />
ar mhúinteoirí, mura bhfuil a gcuid Gaeilge féin chomh líofa 82 agus atá an<br />
Béarla acu. Cén fáth a ndeirtear sin, agus cén fáth a gcaithfimid bheith<br />
dian uaireanta ar na páistí agus a bheith ag iarraidh an Ghaeilge a<br />
ghríosadh 83 uathu.<br />
25:00 Bhuel, anois, níl an oiread sin den bheotheanga 84 , b’fhéidir, acu sa<br />
Muiris timpeallacht 85 is a bheifeá ag súil leis – bhuel, braitheann sé anois: má<br />
tá tú i dtimpeallacht na Gaeltachta agus mar sin de tá an bheotheanga<br />
sin timpeall ort. Ba cheart an oiread [agus is féidir] den bheo teanga sin<br />
a úsáid sa timpeallacht, i dtreo is go mbeadh an rud ar a dtugann siad<br />
ionchur (input) saibhir teanga ann.<br />
Mar sin, tá sé tábhachtach go labhraímid Gaolainn leo an oiread agus is<br />
féidir 86 nó go gcloisfidís an Ghaolainn oiread agus is féidir i rith an lae.<br />
Agus rud amháin, tá sé an-tábhachtach go dtuigfeadh na foghlaimeoirí é<br />
sin. Go minic, déanaimid é sin, ach an dtuigeann na foghlaimeoirí cad ina<br />
thaobh go mbíonn na ceachtanna as Gaolainn? B’fheidir .. ní thuigeann<br />
siad cad chuige a bhfuil an Béarla le seachaint 87 ?<br />
<strong>acquisition</strong> issues<br />
70 no evidence<br />
71 features<br />
72 Gaeilge (in Munster<br />
dialect)<br />
73 eclipis<br />
74 inflection<br />
75 prepositional<br />
pronouns<br />
76 mother tongue<br />
77 típeolaíocht<br />
78 native (<strong>first</strong>)<br />
<strong>language</strong><br />
79 a while ago<br />
80 <strong>language</strong>(s)<br />
<strong>acquisition</strong><br />
81 through the<br />
medium of Irish<br />
82 fluent<br />
83 urge/incite<br />
84 living <strong>language</strong><br />
85 in the environment<br />
86 as much as<br />
possible<br />
87 to be avoided
Transcríbhinn: Podchraoladh – Sealbhú teanga<br />
Agus ar ndóigh, má thuigeann siad gur chuid den fhorbairt 88 agus gur<br />
chuid den sealbhú teanga é an bheotheanga sin a chlos agus a úsáid sa<br />
timpeallacht teanga b’fhéidir go gcabhródh sé sin leo ó thaobh<br />
spreagadh 89 agus mar sin de.<br />
Tá sé an-tábhachtach chomh maith go mbeifeá féin, mar mhúinteoir, ar<br />
do chompord 90 leis an teanga agus go mbainfí úsáid aisti mar<br />
bheotheanga chumarsáide 91 sa seomra ranga, agus ar ndóigh chomh<br />
minic agus is féidir lasmuigh de. Ba dheas liom go gcífeadh múinteoirí<br />
b’fhéidir, agus foghlaimeoirí, go mbaineann an teanga, ní hamháin leis an<br />
seomra ranga, ach leis an ngnáthshaol laethúil 92 lasmuigh den seomra<br />
ranga, agus arís tá an fheasacht teanga an-tábhachtach chuige sin.<br />
Féadann tú a rá leo Tá mise dátheangach 93 , tá dá theanga agam,<br />
Béarla-Gaeilge. Agus ansin dá mbeadh daoine eile, b’fhéidir, sa rang a<br />
mbeadh dá theanga acu chomh maith, Polainnis-Béarla nó rud éigin mar<br />
sin, d’fhéadfá é sin a úsáid le cur ar a súile dóibh gur rud iontach é seo,<br />
an dátheangachas 94 .<br />
26:47 Agus ag caint ansin ar an dátheangachas, agus ar an ionchur teanga nó<br />
Marie <strong>language</strong> input, ar cheart mar sin go mbeadh páistí ag éisteacht le<br />
cainteoirí dúchas 95 ?<br />
26:58 Ba cheart. Ba cheart go gcloisfidís raon leathan 96 de chainteoirí dúchais<br />
Muiris agus cainteoirí dara teanga. Ar ndóigh bheadh sé deacair, go háirithe<br />
nuair a thagann sé go canúintí 97 , b’fhéidir, nach mbeadh fiú cur amach<br />
iomlán ag múinteoirí orthu go minic, ach mar sin féin, leis na difríochtaí<br />
sin canúna 98 , na difríochtaí sin foghraíochta 99 : a mhíniú dóibh agus a<br />
rá Bíonn sé seo i ngach aon teanga. Tarlaíonn sé sin leis an mBéarla fiú,<br />
dá rachfá maidin amárach chuig Sasana, tá áiteanna ansin b’fhéidir nach<br />
dtuigfeá an cineál Béarla atá iontu go tapaidh.<br />
Ach mar sin féin tá sé an-tábhachtach go dtuigfeadh siad go bhfuil a<br />
leithéid de rud agus cainteoir dúchais ann, agus go bhfuil cainteoirí<br />
dúchais óg agus aosta [ann], agus fiú dá mbeadh cartúin, ar TG4 agus<br />
mar sin, gur féidir cuid díobh sin a úsáid fiú (cuid de na carachtair a<br />
bheadh ansin sna cartúin ar cainteoirí dúchas iad sin) chun aird na<br />
bhfoghlaimeoirí 100 a tharraingt air sin. B’fhéidir nach dtuigfidís, ach de<br />
réir a chéile 101 … ní sheachnóinn in aon chor an cainteoir dúchais cé go<br />
bhfuil dúshlán ag baint leis – ní sheachnóinn 102 é san ionchur teanga<br />
sin.<br />
27:59 Agus luaigh tú canúintí agus b’fhéidir sa Bhéarla go mbíonn canúintí ann<br />
Marie freisin cé nach smaoinímid air sin, an bhfuil aon chomhairle 103 agat do<br />
mhúinteoirí maidir le canúintí agus conas déileáil leo siúd?<br />
28:11 Arís ceist mhaith. An phríomhchomhairle 104 , is dóigh liom, a chuirfinn ar<br />
Muiris mhúinteoirí ná bheith chomh nádúrtha agus is féidir. Mar cuimhnigh gur<br />
chuig cumarsáid 105 í an teanga tar éis an tsaoil 106 . Agus is iomaí cineál<br />
cainteora atá ann. Dá mbeifeá ag obair i scoil Ghaeltachta, ar ndóigh,<br />
bheadh an-bhéim ar an gcanúint logánta 107 nó áitiúil. Ach mar a dúirt,<br />
b’fhiú cur ar a súile 108 d’fhoghlaimeoirí go bhfuil foghraíocht 109 ar leith<br />
ag baint leis an nGaeilge sa tslí chéanna ina bhfuil foghraíocht ag baint<br />
leis an bPolainnis nó ag Araibis nó an Fhraincis. Ach an príomhrud ná<br />
bheith chomh nádúrtha, chomh cumarsáideach agus is féidir sa treo is go<br />
dtuigfidís gur seo teanga chumarsáideach, agus bheith chomh nádúrtha<br />
agus is féidir laistigh de sin.<br />
88 of development<br />
89 motivation<br />
90 comfortable<br />
91 living means of<br />
communication<br />
92 with everyday life<br />
93 bilingual<br />
94 bilingualism<br />
95 native speakers<br />
96 wide range<br />
97 dialects<br />
98 those dialectical<br />
differences<br />
99 those phonetic<br />
differences<br />
100 the learners<br />
attention<br />
101 by degrees<br />
102 I wouldn’t avoid<br />
103 any advice<br />
104 the main advice<br />
105 communication<br />
106 in the end of the<br />
day<br />
107 local<br />
108 to make (learners)<br />
aware of<br />
109 phonetics
Transcríbhinn: Podchraoladh – Sealbhú teanga<br />
28:51 Agus an gceapann tú, a Mhuiris, go bhfuil cur chuige éagsúil 110 ag<br />
Marie teastáil ansin má tá duine ag múineadh i scoil Ghaeltachta?<br />
29:00 Or ar ndóigh tá. Mar bheadh an teanga ansin ar a dtoil 111 , ní ag gach<br />
Muiris páiste, ach ag an-chuid de na páistí. An príomhrud ná dúshlán 112 na<br />
bhfoghlaimeoirí ag an bpointe sin a thabhairt. Má tá siad siúd ag obair ar<br />
théacsanna 113 nó mar sin atá ag leibhéal ró-íseal dóibh ní spreagfaidh<br />
sé sin iad. Mar a dúirt Krashen fadó, caithfidh an t-ionchur teanga a<br />
bheith ag leibhéal amháin chun tosaigh 114 ar chumas na<br />
bhfoghlaimeoirí.<br />
Agus ansin sa Ghaeltacht b’shin an prionsabal a bheadh i gceist.<br />
Caithfidh an t-ionchur teanga a bheith saibhir sna seomraí ranga ar fad,<br />
ach sa Ghaeltacht caithfidh sé bheith ag leibhéal chun tosaigh [ar<br />
Ghaeilge na bpáistí] agus bheith chomh saibhir agus is féidir. Cur chuige<br />
eile mar sin dáiríre, dhíreofá ansin b’fhéidir ar stór leathan foclóra 115 ,<br />
réimse leathan cora cainte 116 agus leaganacha 117 , comhchiallacha 118<br />
agus mar sin de, a thabhairt dóibh a luaithe agus is féidir.<br />
29:55 Agus an teoiric sin mar gheall ar dhúshlán na bpáistí a thabhairt? An<br />
Marie bhfuil sé sin fíor do sheomraí ranga eile freisin, nach bhfuil cainteoirí<br />
dúchais iontu?<br />
30:03 Tá. Ceist an-mhaith í sin. Ní bhaineann sé le cainteoirí dúchais amháin.<br />
Muiris Sin fíor maidir le daltaí agus le foghlaimeoirí i gcoitinne. Cuir i gcás dá<br />
mbeadh seanchleachtadh 119 ag na daltaí ar na gnáthrudaí, abair<br />
gnáthbheannachtaí 120 , Conas tá tú, cá bhfuil cónaí ort, cén aois tú?<br />
agus go bhfuil sé sin acu, abair, agus seantaithí acu [orthu].<br />
Dá dtosóidís air sin arís, sa mheánscoil, (dá bhféadfainn an mheánscoil a<br />
lua anseo) an chéad lá nó an dara lá nó an chéad mhí nó mar sin,<br />
b’fhéidir go ndéarfaidís leo féin ansin Bhuel, an bhfuil aon dul chun<br />
cinn 121 ar siúl agam maidir leis an nGaolainn? Caithfidh tú cur ar a súile<br />
dóibh go gcaithfidh siad dul chun cinn a dhéanamh, go gcaithfidh tú, mar<br />
a dúraís ansin, a ndúshlán a thabhairt i gcónaí trí théacsanna atá leibhéal<br />
amháin níos casta ná an teanga atá sealbhaithe acu cheana féin.<br />
30:52 Agus as sin ardaítear ceisteanna mar gheall ar dul siar, mar chun dul<br />
Marie chun cinn a dhéanamh, ní mór dul siar 122 freisin. Agus éiríonn na páistí,<br />
mar a dúirt tú, bréan de 123 bheith ag dul siar ar rudaí céanna? Conas is<br />
féidir tabhairt faoi sin, n’fheadar?<br />
31:07 Tá an dul siar nó an t-athdhéanamh 124 sin thar a bheith tábhachtach,<br />
Muiris ach dá bhféadfá, b’fhéidir, é a dhéanamh i slite úra 125 , abair, seachas<br />
bheith ag druileáil agus an dul siar agus an t-athrá 126 arís. Go mbainfidís<br />
úsáid as, b’fhéidir, dráma beag, nó go gcuirfidís rud éigin le chéile<br />
bunaithe ar na focail agus ar na leaganacha atá á gclos acu ar feadh na<br />
seachtaine nó ar feadh na míosa.<br />
Mar sin dúshlán an-mhór …. mar dá mhéad uair a úsáidfidh foghlaimeoirí<br />
focal nua/téarma nua/cora cainte nua – i gcomhthéacsanna nua chomh<br />
maith – is amhlaidh is fusa a shealbhóidh siad sin. Tá an dul siar thar a<br />
bheith tábhachtach, ach cuimhnigh ar shlite úra nua cruthaitheacha 127<br />
ina bhféadfadh páistí na focail, na leaganacha atá sealbhaithe, nó<br />
foghlamtha acu, a úsáid arís.<br />
110 a different<br />
approach<br />
111 to be fluent in<br />
112 challenge<br />
113 texts<br />
114 ahead of<br />
115 wide vocabulary<br />
116 idioms<br />
117 forms of speech<br />
(idioms)<br />
118 synonyms<br />
119 strong familiarity<br />
120 ordinary greetings<br />
121 progress<br />
122 revise, go back<br />
over<br />
123 tired of, bored with<br />
124 revision<br />
125 new ways<br />
126 the repetition<br />
127 creative
Transcríbhinn: Podchraoladh – Sealbhú teanga<br />
31:55 Tuigim. Agus a Mhuiris, bhíomar ag caint níos túisce ansin mar gheall ar<br />
Marie earráidí 128 , agus ceartú earráidí agus mar sin de. An bhfuil aon saghas<br />
moltaí breise maidir le múineadh na Gaeilge, gramadach na Gaeilge,<br />
agus mar sin de, le cur leis an méid a bhí ráite cheana?<br />
32:10 Bhuel, arís déanaim tagairt don idirtheanga sin – gur cuid den fhorbairt<br />
Muiris nádúrtha agus de phróiseas an tsealbhaithe [é]. Tá sé tábhachtach na<br />
mórbhotúin 129 a cheartú cinnte, i dtreo is nach bhfanfadh na botúin sin<br />
reoite 130 . Agus arís bheith an-fhoighneach 131 ar fad, mar go dtógann sé<br />
an-chuid ama … gan misneach a chailliúint. Agus go minic bímid cráite<br />
nuair a bhíonn rudaí múinte – mar a thuigimid – i gceart againn, agus<br />
mar sin de, nach bhfuil siad sealbhaithe. Agus cuimhnigh ar na<br />
difríochtaí aonair 132 sin a mhaireann idir foghlaimeoirí. Is dóigh liom gur<br />
sin iad na léargais ón teangeolaíocht fheidhmeach 133 agus ó shealbhú<br />
an dara teanga a thugann, is dóigh liom, sólás dúinn mar mhúinteoirí mar<br />
tuigimid gur próiseas casta é próiseas an tsealbhaithe 134 . Agus má<br />
leanaimid orainn, le cúrsaí ama agus le spreagadh, agus leis an rud a<br />
dhéanamh chomh cruthaitheach agus is féidir agus chomh fuinniúil 135<br />
agus is féidir, éireoidh linn ar ball.<br />
33:04 Agus is deas an nóta dóchais é sin. Anois, is dócha go bhfuilimid ag<br />
Marie druidim chun deiridh, ach an bhfuil aon rud breise ar mhaith leat a rá faoi<br />
shealbhú teanga agus múineadh teangacha?<br />
33:15 Is dóigh liom gur an é rud is mó a chabhraigh liomsa féin ná gur thug sé<br />
Muiris léargas áirithe 136 dom. Go minic bhíos ag cur an mhilleáin 137 orm féin<br />
mar mhúinteoir agus ag rá Cad ina thaobh a bhfuil siad ag déanamh na<br />
mbotún? agus níor thuigeas an rud seo faoi idirtheanga. Níor thuigeas,<br />
mar shampla, na difríochtaí idir foghlaimeoirí agus mar sin de. Tugann sé<br />
cineál breismhisnigh 138 do mhúinteoirí agus sin, is dócha, an nóta<br />
dóchais ar mhaith liom tagairt dó ag deireadh an agallaimh seo.<br />
33:42 Agus is deas é sin mar chríoch don agallaimh. A Mhuiris, go raibh míle<br />
Marie maith agat.<br />
Muiris Míle fáilte romhat.<br />
128 errors<br />
129 the main errors<br />
130 frozen (fossilised)<br />
131 very patient<br />
132 individual<br />
differences<br />
133 applied linguistics<br />
134 the <strong>acquisition</strong><br />
process<br />
135 energetic<br />
136 a certain insight<br />
137 blaming<br />
138 a certain amount<br />
of extra courage