Sommerville-Software-Engineering-10ed

19.1 ■ Sociotechnical systems 559
Property
Reliability
Repairability
Security
Usability
Volume
Description
System reliability depends on component reliability, but unexpected interactions
can cause new types of failure and therefore affect the reliability of the system.
This property reflects how easy it is to fix a problem with the system once it has
been discovered. It depends on being able to diagnose the problem, access the
components that are faulty, and modify or replace these components.
The security of the system (its ability to resist attack) is a complex property that
cannot be easily measured. Attacks may be devised that were not anticipated by
the system designers and so may defeat built-in safeguards.
This property reflects how easy it is to use the system. It depends on the
technical system components, its operators, and its operating environment.
The volume of a system (the total space occupied) depends on how the
component assemblies are arranged and connected.
Figure 19.5 Examples
of emergent properties
and conflicts between organizational objectives, and how people in the organization
interpret these objectives. New management may reinterpret the organizational
objectives that a system was designed to support so that a “successful”
system may then be seen as no longer fit for its intended purpose.
Sociotechnical considerations are often critical in determining whether or not a
system has successfully met its objectives. Unfortunately, taking these into account
is very difficult for engineers who have little experience of social or cultural studies.
To help understand the effects of systems on organizations, various sociotechnical
systems methodologies have been proposed. My paper on sociotechnical systems
design discusses the advantages and disadvantages of these sociotechnical design
methodologies (Baxter and Sommerville 2011).
19.1.1 Emergent properties
The complex relationships between the components in a system mean that a system
is more than simply the sum of its parts. It has properties that are properties of the
system as a whole. These “emergent properties” (Checkland 1981) cannot be attributed
to any specific part of the system. Rather, they only emerge once the system
components have been integrated. Some emergent properties, such as weight, can be
derived directly from the subsystem properties. More often, however, they emerge
from a combination of subsystem properties and subsystem relationships. The
system property cannot be calculated directly from the properties of the individual
system components. Examples of emergent properties are shown in Figure 19.5.
There are two types of emergent properties:
1. Functional emergent properties, when the purpose of a system only emerges after
its components are integrated. For example, a bicycle has the functional property
of being a transportation device once it has been assembled from its components.