A Review on the Technology Transfer Models ... - EuroJournals

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European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 10, Number 4 (2009) 1. Introduction Based on a review of literature, technology transfer (TT) is not a new thing. Researchers have traced back TT process to the pre-history of the human species: where TT largely involved tacit knowledge which is evolutionary prior to explicit knowledge (Donald, 1991; Mathews and Roussel, 1997). As there were no written languages until 3000 BC, TT had mainly occurred through language; which were supplemented by equations and diagrams which constitute as the major means of explicit transfer of technological knowledge (Gorman, 2002). The spoken language and gestures have explicitly transferred technological knowledge in friendly encounters. However, much of pre-historic TT between people occurred when people with superior agricultural technology assimilated or eliminated those who could not reproduce as rapidly (Diamond, 1997). Segman (1989) who conducted a historical review of TT, traced the TT process from the Neolithic times, the role of Arabs played in transferring technologies from East to West and the transfer of English textile expertise to the American textile industry in the 18 th and 19 th Centuries. In the 18 th Century, despite the English law preventing knowledge migration, France eventually managed to obtain ‘specialized steel making know-how’ by importing English workers and through industrial espionage. The success of the American textile industry in THE 18 th and 19 th Century was due to the transfer of knowledge and expertise by the English textile industry (Cameron, 1960; Irwin and Moore, 1991). Previous studies have shown that certain industries collapsed, for example the English clock and watch industry, due to the industry resistance to the opportunities of TT (Irwin and Moore, 1991). The main objective of this paper is to review the evolution and development of TT models in terms of focus of each model, strengths and limitations of the models, and finally to highlight the significance influence of knowledge-based view (KBV) and organizational learning (OL) perspectives, which have strong theoretical foundation, on the current TT models. This review limits its perimeter by focusing on the inter-firm TT between two unaffiliated organizations. 2. Approaches to Technology Transfer (TT) Previous studies on TT have employed different approaches to shape and govern the TT efforts. TT as a domain covers all activities around technological development. Few TT models were developed after the World War II to govern the implementation of TT activities and their application to marketplace (Devine et al., 1987; Tenkasi and Mohrman, 1995). Among the traditional TT models developed were the appropriability model, dissemination model, knowledge utilization model, and communication model. In the 1970s studies have adopted “the economic international trade approach” in developing a linear model of TT (Bessant and Francis, 2005). In the 1980s research on TT emphasized on the effectiveness of the specific technology being transferred which in general is within a broader context of economic development (Hope, 1983). The 1990s approach emphasizes on the significance of learning at the organization level as a key element in facilitating technology transfer (Figuereido, 2001). In late 1980s and early 1990s TT models have started to absorb the principles of the organization development movement (French and Bell, 1995). Strategic management researchers have further contributed to the development of TT frameworks based on KBV and OL perspectives as these perspectives have been found to have quite similar dimensions such as outcomes, processes, barriers and facilitators (Daghfous, 2004). These perspectives have significantly contributed to the expansion of TT models since literatures from both KBV and OL perspectives appear to subsume most of the contributions of the TT literatures (Daghfous, 2004). 551
European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 10, Number 4 (2009) 3. Technology Transfer Models 3.1. The Appropriability Model This model, which was developed in 1945-1950s, suggests that good or quality technologies sell themselves (Gibson and Slimor, 1991). The model emphasizes on the importance of quality of research, and competitive market pressure in achieving TT and promoting the use of research findings (Devine et al., 1987; Gibson and Slimor, 1991; Tenkasi and Mohrman, 1995). According to this model, TT process simply occurs when technology has found users or has been discovered by the market. Purposive or deliberate TT mechanism is seen as unnecessary. This model assumes that after the researchers develop the technology and make technologies available through various forms of communications such as technical reports and professional journals, the users will “automatically show up at the researcher’s door” (Devine et al., 1987). Gibson and Slimor (1991), in their three-level TT model, describe the first level (technology development level) as the most fundamental level; when technology process can be largely passive through mediated means such as research reports, journal articles and computer tapes. The underlying presumption of the appropriability approach is “viewing TT as the result of an automatic process that began with scientific research and then moved to development, financing, manufacturing and marketing. [One] need not necessarily be concerned with linkages in the technology commercialization process” (Kozmetsky, 1990). However, previous studies have acknowledged that over the years evidence has shown that quality technologies do not usually sell well themselves (Devine et al., 1987; Gibson and Slimor, 1991). 3.2. The Dissemination Model This model, which was popularized by Rogers (1983) and Rogers and Kincaid (1982), is developed in the 1960-1970s (Gibson and Slimor, 1991). This approach suggests the importance of technology and innovation to be diffused or disseminated to the potential users by the experts (Williams and Gibson, 1990). This model assumes that an expert will transfer specialized knowledge to the willing user. The presumption underlying this model is that once the linkages are established, the new technology will move from the expert to the non-expert “like water through a pipe once the channel is opened” (Williams and Gibson, 1990; Gibson and Slimor, 1991). Gibson and Slimor (1991) describe this model as the second level of their model; the technology acceptance level. Based on their model, this level includes the expert’s primary responsibility to select technology and ensure the technology is available to a receptor that can understand and potentially use the technology (Gibson and Slimor, 1991). However, this model suffers from its one-way communication (unilateral) characteristic with no involvement from the users (Devine et al., 1987; Gibson and Slimor, 1991). 3.3. The Knowledge Utilization Model This model, which was developed in late 1980s (Gibson and Slimor, 1991), has a significant influence on TT literature (Szakonyi, 1990; Zacchea, 1992). The approach taken by this model is its emphasis on 1) the important role of interpersonal communication between the technology developers/researchers and technology users, and 2) the importance of organizational barriers or facilitators of TT. The knowledge utilization approach represents an evolutionary step which focuses on how to organize knowledge to effective use in the technology users setting (Backer, 1991). Gibson and Slimor (1991) view this model as the third level in their model; technology application level. This level is the most involved level of TT where it includes the profitable use of the technology in the market place as well as other application such as intra-firm processes. While this approach indicates an appreciation of the complexities of the TT, researchers have argued that the model suffers from a linear bias (Dimancescu and Botkin, 1986). The underlying presumption of this model is that technology moves “hand-to-hand” to one direction, unilaterally from the experts to the users, to become a developed idea and eventually a product (Gibson and Slimor, 552
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