A Review on the Technology Transfer Models ... - EuroJournals

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European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 10, Number 4 (2009) 1991). This model reduces the complex transfer process to chronologically ordered stages (Gibson and Slimor, 1991; Sung and Gibson, 2000). The appropriability, dissemination and knowledge utilization models still suffer from inherent linear bias where these TT models have limitations in terms of their limited application in transferring technology across organizational boundaries (Tenkasi and Mohrman, 1995; Gibson and Slimor, 1991). 3.4. The Communication Model Departing from the previous three models, several researchers have suggested that the communication model as a replacement of the earlier TT models (Williams and Gibson, 1990; Gibson et al., 1990; Doheny-Farina, 1992). This model perceives TT as “a communication and information flow process with communication understood to be concerned with full exchange and sharing of meanings”. This model suggests technology as “an on-going process which involves a two-way interactive process (non-linear) by continuously and simultaneously exchanging ideas among the individuals involved” (Williams and Gibson, 1990). Consistent with this approach, other researchers view communication model of TT follows the network communication paradigm; where feedback is all pervasive and the participants in the TT process are transceivers rather than the sources and receivers (Gibson and Slimor, 1991; Irwin and Moore, 1991). Other researchers acknowledge that feedbacks help the participants in the transfer process to reach convergence about the important dimensions of the technology (e.g. Rogers, 1983). To overcome the obstacles and barriers to the transfer process, different sets of functions, activities, and network must occur simultaneously (Rogers, 1983; Kozmetsky, 1988a, 1988b). The communication model, which consists of characteristics such as two-way communication, interactive, interpersonal/organizational communication, helps to explain the failures of the previous TT strategies, which are based on one-way unidirectional communication, and dissemination/diffusion models (Irwin and Moore, 1991). Two-way interactive communication is primarily developed towards overcoming the communication barriers between the technology developer group and the user group (Doheny- Farina, 1992; Dobrin, 1989). This model assumes that there is “a body of information, of objective facts, just lying there waiting to be communicated” (Dobrin, 1989). The underlying presumption is that knowledge is an object that exists independently, valid, complete and has universal applicability (Tenkasi and Mohrman, 1995). The implementer (technology developer) is responsible for transferring knowledge correctly through the appropriate channels for the user to understand; and failure to adopt knowledge is simply because the users fail to understand (Tenkasi and Mohrman, 1995). Although the communication model shows an appreciation of the complexities of TT, this model is unable to provide explanations on 1) the complexities of TT in the context of knowledge transferred through collaborative learning, 2) the subjectivity of knowledge, and 3) the need for contextual adaptation, dialoging at the level of values, assumption, and beliefs that takes on more acute proportions with soft or disembodied technologies (Tenkasi and Mohrman, 1995). This view is consistent with the earlier studies on TT which suggests that the focus of the current management researchers is on TT in strategic alliances/IJVs, and learning at the organizational level in facilitating TT (Zhoa and Reisman, 1992; Figuereido, 2001). 3.5. Technology Transfer (TT) Models After 1990s A review of the literature reveals that TT researchers have attempted to develop new technology transfer model distinguishing from the traditional models developed earlier which mainly focus on TT processes. The later models developed by researchers (Gibson and Slimor, 1991; Rebentisch and Ferretti, 1995; Sung and Gibson, 2000) attempt to address the limitations that arise from the traditional TT models in terms of the application in contemporary high-tech industries (Gibson and Slimor, 1991). Several models developed after 1990s have emphasized on 1) the important element of communication 553
European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 10, Number 4 (2009) between the technology developer and the receiver or between different organizations, 2) the levels of TT, 3) the factors which influence TT and KT, and 4) the TT processes in IJV (Gibson and Slimor, 1991; Sung and Gibson, 2000; Rebentich and Ferretti, 1995). 3.6. Gibson and Slimor’s Model This model describes TT from the perspective of technology researchers and users through three levels of involvement. The underlying theories of this model are the organization and communication theories (Gibson and Slimor, 1991). This model proposes that TT consists of three levels of involvement: Level I (Technology Development), Level II (Technology Acceptance), and Level III (Technology Application). This model explains the levels of technology transfer involvements and integrates the activities involved in the traditional models. Technology Development is considered as the most important level where the transfer process is viewed as passive through transfer means such as research reports, journal articles, and computer tapes. This level relates to the appropriability model: where the emphasis is on the importance of quality of research and competitive market pressure in achieving technology transfer (Gibson and Slimor, 1991). Technology Acceptance level indicates more involvement of TT. During this level the technology developer is responsible in making certain that the technology is made available to the receptors that can understand and potentially use the technology. This level of involvement relates to the dissemination model: where the concentration is on disseminating innovations to individual users (Gibson and Slimor, 1991). Technology Application level is the most involved level of TT. Technology application includes commercializing the use of technology in the marketplace and other application such as intra-firm processes. This level equates with knowledge utilization model: where emphases are on the critical element of interpersonal communication between technology developers and users, and the organizational barriers and facilitators of TT (Gibson and Slimor, 1991). 3.7. Sung and Gibson’s Model This model is developed to have similar objectives as Gibson and Slimor’s (1991) model that is to address limitations in the traditional TT models. As an expansion and improvement to the three levels involvement model of TT (Gibson and Slimor, 1991), this model provides plausible explanations as to the levels and factors affecting knowledge and TT by describing knowledge and TT in four levels of involvements: Level I (Knowledge and Technology Creation), Level II (Sharing), Level III (Implementation), and Level IV (Commercialization) (Sung and Gibson, 2000). At the creation level, the technology developers conduct and develop research into knowledge and make available of their result/finding through research publication, videotapes, teleconference, news, and anecdotes. TT at this level is considered as a passive process where it needs only minimum involvement of all participants (Sung and Gibson, 2000). Secondly, at the sharing level, technology developers and users begin to share responsibility as the success of technology transfer occurs when knowledge and technology are transferred across personal, functional, or organizational, and knowledge and technology are well accepted and understood by users (Sung and Gibson, 2000). Thirdly, at the implementation level, success is determined by the timely and efficiency of knowledge and technology transfer, and the user’s resources ability to implement. KT and TT may occur through manufacturing transfer, processes transfer or services and best practice transfer (Sung and Gibson, 2000). Finally, at the commercialization level, knowledge and technology is commercially utilized. The commercialization level is built cumulatively on the success of creation, sharing, and implementation levels with the help of market strength. Success of the implementation level is measured by return of investment (ROI) and increased market share (Sung and Gibson, 2000). 554
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