Vox Populi 2023

VOX
POPULI
ST ALBANS SCHOOL
CLASSICS MAGAZINE
22/23

Contents
5 Editoral
6 The Twelve Tables
9 Ancient Medicine
10 Cleopatra
11 Gladiators
12 Solon
15 Women in Greek Mythology
16 British Museum
17 Roman Legal Procedure
19 Xenophanes
21 Composing Epic Poetry
22 The Art of the Simile
23 The Gallery
24 Capital Punishment
26 Moot Trial of Alexander the Great
28 Life of Cicero
30 Philology
32 Dido
2 3

Editorial
Jonathan, Lower Sixth
Our theme for this edition of vox
populi is ‘panem et circenses,’
the concept of ‘bread and
games’ for the people, to
reflect our desire to provide something for
everyone’s taste in our magazine through
its variety and depth of scholarship.
As the field of Classics develops, so its
boundaries widen to become ever more
diverse in its scope. With that in mind,
we have maintained our commitment to
some of the more traditional philological
aspects of the subject, but we have also
considered how Classics is furthering the
way it defines itself, spatially, temporally
and at points of connectivity with other
related academic disciplines and cultures
as we look to the future. After all, we are
at our strongest when we work together.
The Classics Department and the
Hylocomian Society have enjoyed a
wealth of co-curricular experiences
this year. Lower School students have
visited part of the furthest reaches of the
Roman Empire with their expedition to
Hadrian’s Wall. As we have developed
our scholarship beyond the curriculum,
our Hylocomian Society lectures have
been stimulating and challenging,
considering questions from the nature
of God to the very roots of Greek, Latin
and our own languages. Enhancing our
specialist knowledge further through
the Sixth Form’s regular Symposium,
students have collaborated on themes
which stretch from archaic Greek history
to later portrayals of one of the most
powerful women in literature, Dido,
Queen of Carthage. We are delighted to
share our explorations with you.
It only remains for me to thank all
those involved in the production of this
issue of vox populi. First, I would like
to thank all the students and staff who
have contributed articles and those who
have kept us all thinking and reflecting
on the ancient world through their
enthusiasm and curiosity. The questions
we have been asked on our Classical
journey have resulted in more interesting
answers. Second, thanks must be offered
to my fellow student editors in the
Lower Sixth Form, whose perspectives
and contributions have been greatly
appreciated. Finally, I would like to extend
special thanks to Mrs Ginsburg, Head of
Classics, for her tireless enthusiasm and
support in developing this publication;
her guidance and expertise have proved
invaluable to us all.
Opposite: The Romans of the Decadence - Thomas Couture
4 5

The Twelve Tables
Xavi, Lower Sixth
After the last king of Rome had
been expelled from Rome, the
new republic was governed by
a system of hierarchy between
magistrates. However, only those who
were part of the patrician class – an early
Roman aristocracy comprised of ruling
class families – were able to become
magistrates. This was among other
factors that led to great dissatisfaction
amidst the plebian class who felt that
they were unrepresented and at risk of
being subject to tyranny of a higher class
who had complete control of the law and
its interpretation. This social struggle
between classes is called the Conflict of
the Orders and lasted roughly 200 years;
the plebians effectively held the upper
hand within the struggle as they could
hold Rome ‘hostage’ by threatening to
leave the city so that it would come to a
standstill because the plebians were the
city’s labour force. The Twelve Tables
are a consequence of plebians insisting
that the previously unwritten customs
from which law in Rome was derived
be codified. The Twelve Tables were not
a reform but instead a way for regular
Roman citizens, beyond the previous
model which involved only a handful
of specialised magistrates being familiar
with the law, to know their rights as well
as the Tables acting as a safeguard from
tyranny.
Following increased pressure from
Roman plebians in the 450s BC, a
committee called the ‘decemviri’ (literally
translating After the last king of Rome
had been expelled from Rome, the new
republic was governed by a system of
hierarchy between magistrates. However,
only those who were part of the patrician
class – an early Roman aristocracy
comprised of ruling class families – were
able to become magistrates. This was
among other factors that led to great
dissatisfaction amidst the plebian class
who felt that they were unrepresented
and at risk of being subject to tyranny of a
higher class who had complete control of
the law and its interpretation. This social
struggle between classes is called the
Conflict of the Orders and lasted roughly
200 years; the plebians effectively held the
upper hand within the struggle as they
to ten men) was established and sent to
Greece in order to study the legal system
of Athens and other Greek civilisations.
The first committee completed the first
ten codes of the eventual twelve in 450BC
and a year later a second committee of ten
men completed two more codes after a
‘secessio plebis’ (secession of the plebes)
compelled the Senate to consider them.
After the last two codes were finished –
the twelve tables were finally declared
law.
The Twelve Tables was the first legal
document codifying the rights that each
and every Roman citizen had – these
tables were comprised of ‘unwritten laws’
that were already an established norm in
Roman culture. The provisions set out
by the Twelve Tables recognised legal
conventions that are now commonplace
in modern legal systems around the
work; these included equal rights for all
citizens to a fair trial by due process, laws
surrounding slander and defamation,
and differentiation between murder and
manslaughter.
The first three tables explore the rights of
citizens concerning trials, due processes in
court and how the judgement of the court
could be exacted. The first table discusses
proceedings between the plaintiff and
defendant; it considers how the court
should respond to various circumstances
such as what to do if the defendant fails to
appear in court or age/sickness prevents
them from doing so. An unusual feature
of this table for modern readers would
be the principle that if either one of the
parties failed to appear at the trial, then
the judge would make their judgement
in favour of the present party no matter
the circumstances. This also formed a
system of timetabling for the trial, as it
was decreed that all trials would end at
sunset. The second table talks further
Above: Appius Claudius Caecus in Senate - Cesare Maccari
about court proceedings – it states that if a
witness failed to show up, then the party
who summoned them could shout and
scream in front of his house every three
days. This table also states that a slave
who committed theft should be flogged
and then thrown to their death off of the
Capitoline Hill cliff.
The third table is most notable for dictating
how to deal with defrauding and areas
surrounding credit. Table III declares that
after 30 days of the debt being unpaid,
then the debtor would be brought to court
by force and the court would then hand
the debtor to the creditor for a period of
up to 60 days, which would most likely
be for labour. The conditions on which
the debtor should be held are also set out
and after the term of 60 days, the debtor
could in some circumstances be sold into
slavery.
The fourth table sets out the rights of
the ‘paterfamilias’ (the patriarch of the
family) which specifically apply to him.
This part of the code contains disturbing
proclamations such as that “dreadfully
deformed” children should be quickly
euthanised by the father and that if a
father tries to sell his son three times, then
the son will automatically become free.
This section also dictates that sons are
born into the inheritance of their family
and that if a boy is born within 10 months
of their suspected father’s death then they
are entitled to the man’s inheritance.
Tables V, VI and X discuss estates,
possession and religion and therefore
largely pertain to women as women at
the time were seen as possessions, which
is evident from the laws surrounding
ownership. Table five is concerned with
guardianship and the wills of citizens;
any inheritance was automatically given
to a man’s sons, however, if he had no
6 7

sons then it would be given to his nearest
male relative. However, if the man had
no living male relatives, members of his
extended family would become the heirs
to the inheritance. Women were also
forced to remain under the guardianship
of a man, whether it was their husband
or father, no matter how old they were
(the notable exception to this were the
Vestal Virgins. The sixth table states
that a woman who lived with a man for
one year was his by marriage – and to
avoid this would have to be away from
his house for three consecutive nights
each year. This table also discusses the
freedom of slaves and how to go about
it – if there was an argument concerning
two conflicting claims over a slave’s
freedom, then the judge would have to
rule in favour of freeing the slave if there
was a lack of evidence. The tenth table –
concerned with religion and rites – stated
that women should not wail nor scratch
their faces when they were mourning
and that no more than three women
were permitted to prepare a corpse for a
funeral. The manner in which cremations
took place was also set out – jewellery
was not allowed to be cremated and
pyres could not be built from expensive,
polished woods.
Tables seven and eight cover areas of what
modern legal systems would call tort
law, as well as covering land rights. The
seventh table declared that all roads were
to be eight feet wide and that the people
who live near it were responsible for its
upkeep. Table VIII sets the precedent that
one who causes another damage should
pay the victim double the value of the
damaged property – if the perpetrator
was a child, then the victim could decide
whether or not to flog them. The most
startling convention set out in this section
was a death penalty for slander – the
guilty party was to be put to death by
clubbing.
The eight table also deals with the crime
of killing, intentional and unintentional,
and the circumstances of the specific
murder who determine what punishment
was to be given (patricide, for example,
was treated differently to homicide). The
penalty for accidentally causing one’s
death was to appease the victim’s family
by offering a ram for a public sacrifice.
Murder was obviously punishable by
death; yet patricide was viewed as the
worst possible crime. Someone found
guilty of patricide was to be sewn into a
leather sack containing a dog, a viper, and
a cockerel and then flung into a river.
Table IX sets out the concept adopted by
countries around the world that everyone
is equal in the eyes of the law. This table
also decrees that death sentences were
only allowed to be given by a court of
law and these verdicts could be appeal in
some cases.
The last two tables (XI & XII)
supplemented the other ten tables –
however the eleventh table that forbid
marriage between the plebeian and
patrician classes was repealed shortly
after being introduced. The twelfth and
final table clarifies certain aspects of the
other tables – it sets out a distinguishment
between intentional and accidental
killing.
Ancient Medicine
Subechya, Lower Sixth
The ancient world believed that the gods
were the reason why they got sick, as
they were often held responsible for good
health. The ancients believed that if they
angered the gods this could cause them to
fall ill.
Above: The Temple of Asclepius at Villa Borghese in Rome -
Anonymous
The earliest doctor is claimed to be
Asclepius; yet, many question whether
he truly even existed. Many did however
believe in his existence due to his Temple
in Rome and Sanctuary at Epidauras
where ‘no patient ever died’, this being
because anyone on the verge of death
was denied admittance and existing
patients with worsening conditions were
abandoned in the forest by priests.
Matters changed with the arrival of
Hippocrates, the first to discredit that
the magical cures and promote belief
in the study of the human body and
experimental research.
8 9
Some ancient medical practices include
trepanning, use of animal dung as a
beauty balm and as an elixir of human
flesh, bone and blood to cure headaches,
as well as muscle cramps and stomach
ulcers.
Women were not spared from the
patriarchal society, even with regards to
medicine and because they were viewed
as filth, they thought that there was no
other suitable cure for them other than
filth.
Despite this, the main cure for the most
common ailments experienced by women
was thought to be sex and pregnancy.
They believed that when a woman did
not have intercourse, her womb became
dry and was liable to become displaced,
a condition known as hysteria (from the
Greek hystēr ‘womb’).
Therefore, the ancient medical practice
made some fatal errors, yet they have
provided the basis for the principles
which we have since developed.
Above: Alexander of Macedon trust the doctor Philip - Henryk
Siemiradski

Cleopatra
Parth, Second Form
My symposium was done on Cleopatra’s
supposed suicide, and whether she did
kill herself be getting her maids to sneak
in a fig basket with a snake in. After all
Octavian, being a typical Roman emperor,
was a twisted psychopath, and if he did
want to kill Cleopatra, he’d tell everyone
it was suicide.
After all, the snake that killed her was
called an aspis, which, depending on the
language, could mean a Saharan Sand
Viper, or an Egyptian Cobra – the first has
weak venom that can’t kill you, and the
second is too big to be smuggled in in a fig
basket, and the venom is only discharged
50% of the time, and the maids committed
suicide after Cleopatra (Or did they –
maybe they were killed as witnesses)
Talking about the fig basket – the biggest
Egyptian baskets were not big enough to
hold a snake. Trust me, I spent a full hour
on the Le Louvre website trying to search
up basket before realising it was a French
website, and then I searched up French for
basket, and all it gave me was the wrong
thing. French for basket was panier!
The Psylli were a tribe – now extinct – of
nomads. The Romans claimed they can
heal snakebites. That sounds plausible,
right? The Romans also claimed they
were immune to poison. Okay, maybe it
could be true? They had no females. Still
slightly plausible? They also went extinct
600 years before Octavian lived.
Whether the Psylli existed or not, Octavian
said he marched in with the Psylli just
after Cleopatra committed suicide –
even though it would take 4-5 days to
take them there, even on horseback! Did
he know Cleopatra was going to die of
poison.
The snake was never found in the room.
Also, how did the maids catch the asp?
One major thing to consider is that
the same way we have biases around
countries, the Romans thought that Egypt
was full of snakes, the same way we
think all Italians eat pizzas (pizza is made
mainly for tourists).
Also, Egyptians think there is only
one way to commit suicide without
having yourself being eaten by Ammit
the Devourer – to jump into the river
Nile (which would turn you immortal).
Romans, however, thought that suicide
was a Roman way of death, so it would
make sense to Octavian that Cleopatra
would commit suicide, but not to the
Egyptians!
Gladiators
Will, Third Form
On the 16th of January, St Albans School
was visited by author Ben Kane. One
particularly interesting part of the
workshop was the Roman Gladiator
Fact or Myth Section where Ben Kane
myth busted common myths regarding
gladiators.
Some surprising myths came up like the
fact that all gladiators did not fight to
the death. This rattled our perception of
gladiatorial fights.
We were also informed of the fact that
gladiators were not terribly muscular.
Many TV shows and movies portray
gladiators to be muscular and fit but
Opposite: The Meeting of Antony and Cleopatra - Sir
Lawrence Alma-Tadema
Below: Ave Caesar! Morituri te salutant - Jean Léon Gérôme
scientific evidence proves this to be false.
Ben Kane explained to us that muscular
people who got injured are more likely
to be unable to fight since their skin is
thin. More obese people could get cut
and since their skin is thick they would
not be properly injured. This led to the
conclusion that more obese people could
survive longer in gladiatorial games. This
was fascinating to understand. Ben Kane
showed us the bridge between history
and science.
Modern artwork does not accurately
depict the true nature of gladiatorial
games. One painting that the author
showed us described a naval battle taking
place in an arena. We were showed by
Ben Kane that this is actually wrong. He
explained that arenas could not hold that
much water and that many ships due to
its size.
I thoroughly enjoyed the experience and
hope to have many more.
10 11

Solon: Reformer,
Law Maker, Poet
Jonathan, Lower Sixth
The principal sources for
details of Solon’s life are
Herodotus and Plutarch,
with Aristotle providing
information on changes in
the field of law.
Who was Solon?
Solon was an Athenian politician and poet
of noble birth who lived in the late seventh
and early sixth centuries BCE. One of the
Seven Sages listed in Plato’s Protagoras,
he was archon at Athens 594-593 BCE.
This is probably when he put in place
his reforms, which modernised Dracon’s
earlier laws. Despite his noble birth, he
came to sympathise with the poor. After
his archonship, he left Athens to travel
for 10 years, with this being the period
of time within which the Athenians had
agreed not to change his laws in order for
them to have time to take effect.
Why is Solon an important figure in
ancient Greek history?
Through his changes and legislation, Solon
laid the foundations for the reasonably
stable society of democratic Athens. His
reforms strengthened the assembly and
the law courts. Furthermore, he made
changes to society which created a free
peasant class and curbed the powers of
the nobility to some extent. Indeed, he
Below: Solon - Merry Joseph Blondel
can be considered an early agent in social
class struggle, if we wish to use a rather
anachronistic term.
Arguably, Solon’s most important reform
was ‘seisachtheia’ (literally a ‘shaking off
of burdens’), which is sometimes seen as
a cancellation of debts. It is more likely
to have been a liberation of the class of
‘hektemeroi’ (sixth parters) who gave
a sixth of their produce to an overlord.
This was abolished and they became
absolute owners of their land. However,
Solon did introduce changes to limit the
social impact of debt. Specifically, men
enslaved for debt were freed and it was
no longer legal to enslave someone on
these grounds.
The commercial environment at Athens
the commercial growth of olives for trade.
This reform also yielded social benefits
since it kept an affordable food supply at
home.
How did he organise the Athenian
citizens and what was the political
impact?
Solon categorised the people of Athens into
four property classes, which undermined
the power of noble families where political
influence was hereditary. The four classes
were the Pentakosiomedimoi (who
owned property to yield 500 medimnoi
at least), the Hippeis (generally cavalry
when required), the Zeugetai (whose
land yielded 200-300 medimnoi)and the
Thetes (lowest of four property classes).
The two higher classes held the major
political offices while the zeugetai
were eligible for minor offices. Thetes
were permitted to attend the assembly
(ekklesia) and the law court (Eliaia). It
is also possible that Solon incorporated
allotment to the election of archons and
he probably created a new council of 400
to prepare business for the assembly.
What was the nature of Solon’s
legislation?
The evidence we have for Solon’s
legislation suggests an emphasis on
social cohesion. In the area of family law,
orphaned heiresses did not enter their
husband’s family but were to produce
heirs for their own family, and those who
did not have heirs were able to adopt a man
to be heir under certain conditions. There
was a moral element to the legislation
since there were punishments for a lack
of chastity in women, as there were for
the procurement and prostitution of
boys, and a further law against excessive
display at funerals. Moreover, theft was
harshly punished if in the dark or from a
public place such as a market.
What do we know about Solon as a poet?
Unfortunately, Solon’s poetry only exists
in fragments. It appears to be focused on
his reforms and is rather moralising in
tone. Examples include:
Laws I wrote alike for nobleman and
commoner, awarding straight justice to
everybody. (24.18)
To the demos I have given such honour as
seems sufficient, neither taking away nor
granting them more. For those who had
power and were great in riches, I equally
cared that they should suffer nothing
wrong. Thus, I stood holding my strong
shield over both, and I did not allow
either to prevail against justice. (5.1ff)
(Translation by Eherenberg)
What does Herodotus tell us about him?
The fifth century (BCE) historian,
Herodotus, tells us that, during his ten
years of travelling after implementing his
reforms, Solon arrived in Sardis, the major
city of Lydia, where he met King Croesus.
Croesus asked him whom he considered
to the happiest of men, to which Solon
replied an Athenian called Tellus, who
had sons, all of whom had surviving
children. Tellus fought for Athens, died
in battle and had a glorious death. As a
result, he was honoured with a public
funeral. Solon would not even agree
that Croesus was the second happiest
person, instead citing two Argive young
men who dragged their mother’s cart to
12 13

Women in Greek Mythology
Izzy, Lower Sixth
Medusa was a woman who
had snakes instead of hair
and turned men to stone
when they looked her in
the eye. She lived in a cave with her two
sisters, Stheno and Euryale, and they
were collectively known as the Gorgons.
Many people over time have villainised
Medusa and turned her into a monster
when, in reality, she was mostly innocent.
nobody labels him as evil or twisted.
I also talked about other women such
as Medea, the witch queen of Corinth,
Pandora, the first mortal woman, and
Circe, the sorceress of Aeaea, who I feel
are similarly unjustly represented in
Greek mythology.
Hera’s temple, ensuring their reputation,
then died peacefully in the temple. His
point was that no man can be considered
happy until he is dead since he does not
know what lies ahead. Croesus only
understood the wisdom of Solon’s words
when he had lost his kingdom to the King
of Persia, Cyrus, and was imprisoned.
HOW SHOULD WE EVALUATE SOLON?
Was Solon a revolutionary?
The evidence suggests that he was an
agent of class change but not radical.
Did his changes last?
They were broadly sustained. His laws
were lasting but social factionalism broke
out. Some Athenians blamed Solon for not
becoming a tyrant and, in fact, Peisistratus
later became a tyrant at Athens.
What was his legacy?
His most significant contribution to the
development of Athenian politics was
that he paved the way for Cleisthenes’
democratic reforms at Athens in the
later sixth century BCE. And, of course,
even then, women and slaves were still
excluded from political power.
Above: Croesus and Solon
Medusa was born a very beautiful human,
so beautiful that the god Poseidon took
interest in her, resulting in him forcing
himself on her inside Athena’s temple
where Medusa ran hoping for protection
from the goddess. From this event,
Athena cursed Medusa turning her hair
into snakes so she was no longer attractive
and cursing her sight so she could never
be with a man again. It has been argued,
however, that this was done so nobody
could take advantage of her again and
Athena was giving her a way to protect
herself.
People also make her out to be a coldhearted
beast because she turns men into
stone, however, she did more damage in
death than in life as there are little to no
tales of her maliciously turning people
to stone yet her decapitated head was
Perseus’ favourite weapon. Her face was
even put on the Aegis which was a shield
Athena carried in battle.
Medusa is also unfairly portrayed partly
down to her gender as there are other
examples of characters such as Midas
who, at his request, was “blessed” with
the gift of turning objects into gold but
Below: Perseus, under the protection_of_Minerva, turns
Phineus to stone by brandishing the head of Medusa
14 15

British Museum
Johan, Third Form
Roman Legal Procedure
Xavi, Lower Sixth
On Monday 6th January, the classics
department and students went on a trip,
visiting the British Museum. Upon arrival,
we first got to explore the fascinating
hieroglyphics exhibition, featuring the
world-famous Rosetta Stone. The Rosetta
Stone was a relatively insignificant
proclamation from King Ptolemy V, but
was inscribed in 3 different languages,
demotic, hieroglyphic and Greek
allowing experts to translate demotic
and hieroglyphic. It was very interesting
to learn about the history of the Rosetta
Stone and how it made its way from
Egypt to the British Museum after being
discovered by the French. We got to see
the wide variety of different hieroglyphics
and how they could form new words in
different combinations. There are in total
over 700 hieroglyphics, many of which
were difficult to tell apart, making it a
very difficult language to decipher.
There were also lots of Egyptian statues to
see, which were impressively carved out
of stone. Many of them were Sphynxes
with lion’s hindquarters. Afterwards,
we were able to explore the museum
independently, which allowed us to
explore our own historical interests. I
personally really enjoyed visiting the
medicine display that explores the
thousands of drugs and pills that an
average British person takes in a lifetime.
I was shocked to find out how many
pills people on average end up taking
throughout their lives. This exhibition
also provides a fascinating opportunity
to appreciate the wonders of modern
medicine that have so greatly improved
our lives. Finally, we had time to browse
the gift shop in order to find things with
which to remember our trip by.
Below: The Sphinx
The legal procedure that Rome
used in its courts evolved
throughout the lifetime of the
Republic and then Empire; the
foundations that the Romans laid for
legal method have been used as the base
for the legal systems for the majority of
European countries and others around
the world. The development of the
system was shaped by three major events:
the ‘legis actiones’, the ‘formulary system’
and the ‘cognitio extraordinaria’ which
was in use after the fall of Rome.
The ’legis actiones’ were formulated
around the same time as the Twelves
Tables of Roman law in the fifth century
BC – these acts divided the court
proceedings into several steps. A plaintiff
would first have to address the defendant
in a public forum and request them to
go to court; however, if the defendant
refused to go to court, they would be
taken there by force. Each case that was
taken to court was separated into two
parts, the first of which was primarily
a formality where a magistrate would
decide whether there was a good case for
a trial and, if there was, they would set out
the specifics of the issue. Once the issues
at hand had been defined, a ‘iudex’ who
was a sort of legal layman as opposed to
a barrister or magistrate would be chosen
by both the plaintiff and defendant. The
second part of the trial would happen
under the supervision of this iudex,
this stage was less formal than the first
and it was here that witnesses would be
called to the stand, evidence set out and
barristers would make their arguments.
However, the verdict that the iudex came
to was simply advisory and they did not
have the power to execute the decision;
unlike modern judicial systems, the party
which won the trial was responsible for
enforcing the judge’s verdict themselves.
If the losing party refused to pay the
penalty, then the court was allowed
to bring them back by force and pay a
heftier penalty. This heightened penalty
depended on the nature of the original
trial – if the case involved debt, then the
debtor’s assets could seized or they could
be given as a slave to the plaintiff until
the debt was paid off. The alternative was
to sell them into slavery or to have them
dismembered.
As Roman society evolved, the cases that
came to the courts grew more complex
and in turn the judicial system advanced.
The new formulary system was created to
replace the overly formal and traditional
‘legis actionis’ system; its roots were
found in the way in which praetors dealt
with foreigners, but it was deemed so
effective that its use was adopted into
regular Roman law. These reforms meant
that the process was more streamlined as
well as the proceedings now being written
down. The pre-existing custom of calling
the defendant to court remained, but now
the plaintiff could physically drag the
defendant to court. The formulary system
got its name from the formula used in
the preliminary hearing comprised of six
stages: nominatio, intentio, condemnatio,
demonstratio, exceptio, and praescriptio.
The main difference between trials under
the formulary system and those of modern
16 17

systems is that the case could occasionally
be resolved in the preliminary hearing via
the taking of oaths. Taking an oath to the
gods was seen as a deeply serious matter
and very few people would be willing to
perjure themselves (the penalty for perjury
was grave in both the eyes of the law
and the gods). The plaintiff could throw
the gauntlet to the defendant by making
him swear an oath – if the defendant was
willing to take this oath, then he won, but
if he did not, then he lost. This could be
reversed for the plaintiff where the same
rules would apply.
If the trial progressed beyond the
preliminary hearing, it would play out in
the same way as under the ‘legis actionis’
system. In the case of the debt, a new
procedure of holding a public auction
of the possessions of the debtor’s estate
would help the creditor to be reimbursed.
The third and final major development
in the procedure of the Roman judicial
process was the introduction of the
‘cognitio extraordinaria’ system. This
system was introduced after the Roman
Empire succeeded the Republic and bears
the most similarity with modern justice
structures. For the first time, defendants
were summoned to the court by the court
instead of the plaintiff having to summon
them; plaintiffs had to file a statement of
claim. If either one of the parties failed to
show at court on the date three separate
times then the party which turned up
won by default. The other major change
that the cognito system brought was the
process of appeals – the case could in
theory progress up through higher courts
and potentially reach the emperor.
Although law predates Rome by
thousands of years through social
convention and speech, Romans
revolutionised the way in which the rule
of law was implemented. It created a
blueprint for the societies that followed
through its systematic and impartial
process; while none of the punishment
have stood the test of time, the way in
which the law is applied remains largely
the same.
Below: Roman Law
Xenophanes
Jonathan, Lower Sixth
In the Autumn term Dr Shaul Tor, Senior
Lecturer in Ancient Philosophy at King’s
College London, delivered an insightful
lecture on the philosophy of Xenophanes
to the Hylocomian Society. His theme
was: What if cows could draw Gods?
And what do we see in a rainbow? Some
philosophical questions in Xenophanes.
Dr Tor began with an exploration of
Xenophanes’ biography. The Presocratic
philosopher was active in Colophon
(in Ionia) at the end of the sixth and
beginning of the fifth century BCE. He
travelled widely around Greece and
wrote in verse, using both the hexameter
and elegiac form. Xenophanes’ interests
lay in theology, knowledge and belief,
natural philosophy, ethics and politics.
His work remains either in fragmentary
form or preserved in the works of other
writers such as Aristotle and Plutarch.
Dr Tor then proceeded to reveal how
the fragmentary evidence we have for
Xenophanes’ work can be worked into a
coherent picture of his stated perspective
on the nature of the gods. By way of
context it is important to consider the
fact that the ancient Greek literary canon
drew heavily on Homer’s epics, The
Iliad and The Odyssey, and Hesiod’s
poetry about the origins of the gods,
Theogony. Both writers feature multiple,
anthropomorphic, imperfect deities.
However, fragments of Xenophanes’
work show him noting mortal belief that
gods are born and have bodily form and
clothing similar to their own.
He further notes that the poets portray
the gods as committing acts which are
reprehensible for mortals, for example
theft, adultery and deceit. Aristotle’s
18 19
capture of Xenophanes’ philosophy
suggests that he considered it to be
impious to suggest that gods came into
being or die. Furthermore, Xenophanes’
fragments draw out his suggestion that
all people create god in their own image;
he suggests that the Thracians and
Ethiopians, who tend to look physically
very different, say that their gods look
like them and, if they could draw, horses
would render images of their gods to look
like horse and oxen to look like oxen.
What is particularly interesting in the
further fragments is the similarity
of Xenophanes’ philosophy to a
monotheistic system. Although his
assertion of “One god, greatest among
gods and men,” does not exclude
polytheism, his assertion of this being
as “not at all like mortals either in frame
or cognition” implies an unknowable
quality in a supreme god. Moreover,
he also alludes to an omniscience and
omnipotence in this supreme god. This
being is further located as unchangeable
in space and time. These fragments have
remarkable resonance in modern religion.
Xenophanes is no less critical of the minor
deities, often deployed by ancient writers
to explain natural phenomena. In a further
fragment, he critiques the goddess Iris,
who manifests as a rainbow, believing her
to be “by nature cloud, purple, and red,
and greenish-yellow to behold.” This is
a marked step away from the Olympian
pantheon and their attendant demi-gods
and goddesses, who cause thunder,
storms, and the changing of the seasons.
In short, Dr Tor left us with the impression
of a very modern mind forged in an
ancient context and much to consider
to explore further the philosophy of the
Presocratics.

Composing Epic Poetry
John-Ellis, Lower Sixth
from ἡ Οὐλσινεία: Ulsinea (v. 136-150)
σίγησεν δ’ αὖ Γαβριήλ· μᾶλλον δ’ ἀνά χεῖρας
But Gabriel was silent in response; rather, he lifted up his hands
κρούσεν ἄγων, παράδειγμα δ’ ἔτριψεν ἐς οὔτι οὗ ἧκεν.
and clapped, and the paradigm crumbled into the naught whence it came.
Γαβριήλ δὲ κρινοστέφανος στῆθος μεγαλαύχει
And Gabriel of the lily garland began to boast his chest,
δῖον ὁρᾶν· αὔξῃ ὠλενῶν πόδε γυμνώ ἀνεῖχον.
godly to behold; with the expanse of his arms, his unshod feet began to arise.
κρᾶτ’ ἀνέκυψε κόμην δ’ ἀγαπηθεῖσαν καθέηκεν
He tilted back his head and let down his pampered hair
λουθεῖσάν τ’ Ἐδὲμ ὑδρηλῇ ὑγρήν τε ἀλοιφῇ
which had been bathed in watery Eden and was moist with ointment
Σουμερίης τετραρειθρώδευς πολυχρύσου Εὐιλάτ.
from Sumer of the four bounding streams and Havilah, rich in gold;
ἠΰτε πέρ ῥεθομαλίδας οὔπω ὀπωρῃ ἔτ’ Εὔα
just as when apple-cheeked Eve, still not yet in any way tainted by the fruit,
κως μυσαρή, ἐκ Σόλλακος εἶσ’ ἐπί ἀνέρι καλή,
cometh forth from the Sollax as a beauty for her husband,
οἷ δὲ δίδωσιν ἔλαιον ἑκών μενοεικέσι χερσίν,
and he willingly offers her olive oil with his agreeable hands,
ὄφρα φέρῃ κτένα βωλοκόπον βλοσυρῆς διά χαίτης
that she may lead her clod-breaking comb through her shaggy mane,
ᾄσσομένης μελανοπλοκάμου λείῳ κατά νώτῳ.
which flutters in black tresses down her smooth back.
ἐσθλή ἐπόψει Εὔα ποιητῶ παντετοκυῖα,
And Eve, mother of all, is good in the sight of her Maker,
εὐώδης θρέμμασσιν, ἅ ἦρος ἀνεῖκε χίμαιρα·
sweet to the smell of nurslings, whom the nanny-goat hath borne in the spring;
καὶ ὥς ἐν ὕπνῳ Γαβριήλ ᾐωρέετ’ αἰπύς.
even so was Gabriel suspended, lofty in trance.
20 21

The Art of Simile
John-Ellis, Lower Sixth
One of the most integral constructs of the
Homeric tradition is the simile – or, in
Greek, παραβολή (parabolē, from which
we gain the English ‘parable’). When one
writes in the style of Homer, the objective
is not simply to acquire a grasp for the
Epic dialect, nor to develop a mastery
of dactylic hexameter; rather, one must
begin to understand Homer’s literary
flair.
Homer’s timeless success as a poet may
be easily pinned down to his unparalleled
artistry in storytelling, leading to the
popularity of his works more than 2800
years later. Scholars on all sides of the
Homeric Question hold the central facets
of the genre in great respect: the simile,
the metaphor, intertextuality etc. Notably,
however, these all come on much grander
and more elaborate scales than one might
typically find in English literature. For
Homer, the simile is a device of visionary
transportation: the pylon through which
to lead the listener from diegetic tenor
to mystic vehicle. The tenor (from Latin:
teneō ‘I hold’) refers to the content which
‘holds’ the actual narrative – in the
case of the extract from my poem, the
Transfiguration of Gabriel. Reciprocally,
the vehicle (Latin: vehō ‘I transport’)
evolves the ideas of its counterpart but
transcends out of time, providing an
allegory often with similar characters
or events. In the Greek tradition, this
was frequently a useful mechanism to
stitch the threads of ancient folklore into
the broad tapestry of narratives such as
the Iliad and Odyssey. For instance, in
Iliad Book III, the hostile congress of the
Trojans and the Greeks is paralleled to
the infamous clash of the Cranes and the
Pygmies. In my own work, I took to a
similar path, analogising Gabriel’s angelic
figure to an idyllic, pre-Fall interpretation
of Eve – the first woman.
Naturally, there were deviations from
Iliadic writing, namely the inclusion
of Judeo-Christian references in place
of Hellenic equivalents. This seemed,
nonetheless, more appropriate in light
of the faith of the titular character Abbot
Wulsin (founder of our very own St Albans
School) and the location which Gabriel’s
radiant trance occurs: the Shrine of St.
Alban. Fundamentally, it remained vital to
the tone of poetry to emulate Homer’s use
of intertext, here with Biblical references.
Within the vehicle, itself fictitious, it was
fitting to cite real elements of Genesis
2; e.g ‘πολυχρύσου Εὐιλάτ’ (Havilah,
rich in gold) nods to “the whole land
of Havilah, where there is gold.” [Gn.
2:11] in the Pentateuchal depiction of the
Garden. Even then, subtle hints to Greek
mythology have place. As an example,
one may note the deliberate naming
of Eve’s bathing spot as ‘Σόλλακος’
(the Sollax), a recognition of this as its
original name, before the abduction of
Alphesiboea by Dionysus in the form of
a tiger, upon which the site was renamed
‘Tigris’ (from Greek: Τίγρις ‘tiger’).
The epithet (from Greek: ἐπίθετον
‘adjective’) is another signature
characteristic of the Homeric stamp. In the
original works, epithets add memorable
denotations of legendary characters; they
are responsible for the image of ‘swiftfooted’
Achilles or ‘white-armed’ Hera.
This is mirrored in the Ulsinea through
the depiction of Eve: παντετοκυῖα
(pantetokuia: ‘mother of all’). Such
sobriquets may also be jocose or ironic,
just as ‘ῥεθομαλίδας’ (rhethomālidas:
apple-cheeked) is proleptic of Eve’s
cheeks later being filled with the apple
(fruit) of the tree.
In full, the simile and many of Homer’s
other signatures were vital in the pastiche
of this beautiful genre.
Below: Spring by Lawrence Alma-Tadema
The Gallery
Zach, Fourth Form
As if we were on the Odyssey’s 10-year
journey, our arduous adventure from
St Albans to the London was full of
excitement. From school we took a brisk
walk to St Albans City Station, then the
train to St Pancras, crossing over onto
the Piccadilly Line to Leicester Square,
with another short walk on the other
side. From there, we finally reached our
destination: the National Gallery.
We were able to look at some of the
most amazing paintings, for example,
Paul Rubens’ The Judgement of Paris
and William Turner’s Ulysses deriding
Polyphemus. Both of these have huge
classical importance – for instance, The
Judgement of Paris is based upon Eris,
the Goddess of Strife, who after not being
invited to a wedding, decided to inscribe a
golden apple with the title “to the fairest”,
thus forcing a mortal man, Paris, to pick
between the goddesses Hera, Athena and
Aphrodite.
For me, I thoroughly enjoyed our guide’s
explanations of each painting. Not only
was there an in-depth analysis of each,
but after a while, I was able to ‘get an eye’
for understanding the significance of each
piece. For example, facial expressions,
movement, direction, body language and
lighting are all important elements in
understanding the context and meaning
of a picture. Not only can you infer
relationships between characters, but you
can also identify what is going on, what
they’re about to do and what has just
occurred.
22 23

Capital Punishment
Xavi, Lower Sixth
The worst crime that a Roman
citizen could commit was
patricide, which in turn
warranted the most extreme
punishments. The most famous of
these punishments was ‘poeni cullei’
meaning the punishment of the sack –
however, those convicted of patricide
could also choose ‘damnatio ad bestias’
where convicts would be thrown to wild
animals in the colosseum. Poeni cullei
involved the criminal being sewn into a
sac containing an array of snakes, dogs
roosters or chickens.
The first case in which someone was
punished by being bound in a sack and
subsequently thrown into the river Tiber is
disputed by different classical historians.
The Roman historian Livy claims that a
citizen called Publicius Malleolus was
found to have committed parricide by
killing his mother around the year 100BC
and was then punished with poeni
cullei. On the other hand, Dionysius of
Halicarnassus links the punishment to the
final king of Rome, Tarquinius Superbus;
a senior priest, called Marcus Atilius,
was bribed to steal a sacred text and then
disclosed the books’ secrets to a foreigner.
For betraying his religion and the Roman
state, Tarquinius ordered Atilius to be
sewn into a bag and thrown into a river –
it took many years for the punishment to
become common for patricide.
believed that this penalty was then made
specific to the murder of parents and
grandparents during the reign of Hadrian
in the early decades of the 2nd Century.
The reign of Emperor Hadrian saw a turn
in the way about which the punishment
for parricide was enacted – for the
first time, convicts were able to choose
between ‘poena cullei’ and being thrown
into the arena to be eaten or killed by
wild beasts. And in cases where there
was no river to throw a sack into, it was
mandatory for the guilty to be damned
to the beasts. The evolving nature of the
sentence saw the cruelty exacted by the
Romans increase; when the punishment
first started out, only snakes were placed
into the sack but by the 3rd Century, the
Below: Hadrian Visiting a Romano-British Pottery
celebrated jurist Modestinus writes that
‘[the sack contains] a dog, a dunghill cock,
a viper and a monkey’. The alternative of
‘damnatio ad bestias’ was similarly cruel
– with defenceless offenders being thrown
to lions, bears, Caspian tigers, elephants,
hyenas, leopards, buffaloes, and wolves.
While ‘damnatio ad bestias’ was a form of
capital punishment, it was supposed to be
a spectacle for Roman citizens as opposed
to a just a public execution – it was often
supposed to simulate the hunting of these
wild beasts. The majority of the animals
that took part in the punishment did
not naturally hunt humans – they were
subjugated to horrific conditions and
reared to be aggressive to humans.
The final time that poena cullei was
promulgated in a law scripture was in
the Corpus Juris Civilis, under the rule
of Emperor Justinian in the 530s AD. This
promulgation extended the penalty to
include fathers who unjustly murdered
their sons as well as the reverse of sons
murdering their fathers. This would
remain in common practice even after
the fall of the Roman Empire in the
5th Century – it was incorporated into
the punitive system of the Byzantine
Empire in the Eastern provinces of the
fallen Roman Empire. The practice was
abolished as the punishment fell out of
favour in the Byzantine Empire around
the year 890 AD – this, however, does
not coincide with a shift in attitude for
parricide – instead, those found guilty of
this crime were burned alive.
Below: Christ on the Cross
It was the dictator Sulla who brought the
punishment into fashion for punishing
murderers who killed a family member
after a period where it was the primary
penalty for any murder. However, it is
24 25

Moot Trial of
Alexander the Great
Jonathan, Lower Sixth
In a dramatic reversal of expectations,
Alexander the Great, the subject of
a moot trial at the Supreme Court,
was acquitted on four counts of war
crimes associated with the capture of the
Persian capital city, Persepolis, during the
winter of 331-330 BCE.
He was charged with the ransacking of
the city, the massacre of civilians, the mass
enslavement of Persian women and the
destruction of the ancient royal palace, a
cultural site, a few months after the capture
of the city. Philippe Sands KC argued that
the first three charges were not committed
out of military necessity and should
therefore be considered war crimes. He
advanced the suggestion that Persepolis
had already offered its co-operation prior
to the acts of the Macedonian Greek
forces and that Alexander’s motive was
revenge for earlier Persian agression
against the Greeks. Further, he proposed
that concerns about the application
of new laws to old crimes should be
dismissed on the grounds of modern
precedent in the post war justice systems
of the twentieth century. The prosecution
went on to address the fourth charge, the
destruction of Persepolis’ palace, refuting
the argument that it was a foolish drunken
act, and instead suggesting that it was
deliberate and politically motivated. The
evidence offered for this was the lack
of gold and silver in the archaeological
remains, which implies premeditation,
and Alexander’s bad character i.e. his
propensity for destroying cities out of
revenge, rather than military necessity.
The defence, led by Patrick Gibbs KC,
made an emotive appeal as to whether
Alexander the Great really belonged
with the modern figures traditionally
considered to be war criminals. He
suggested that we should not apply
modern norms to ancient behaviours
and called into question the sources cited
Below: Alexander Cuts the Gordian Knot
Above: Alexander the Great Founds Alexandria
as evidence by the prosecution on the
grounds of their temporal distance from
the relevant events (Diodorus Siculus,
Quintus Curtius Rufus, Plutarch and
Arrian). The prosecution’s appeal to
emotion was intensified by its exposition
of the context of the events at Persepolis.
Although both sides offered persuasive
arguments, the jury, comprising
those present at the venue, voted
overwhelmingly for the acquittal of
Alexander the Great. The Supreme Court
Justice, Lord Leggatt, who was presiding,
expressed his surprise at the verdict but it
seems that Alexander’s wider reputation
and his legal team’s emotive persuasion
won the day.
Gibbs pointed out that the co-operation
offered by Persepolis after the Battle of
Persian Gate was called into question
by the reforming of the Persian forces
to challenge the Greeks again, only
to be defeated once more. He further
suggested that Alexander would have
felt that the Persians needed to be firmly
stopped after 160 years of warfare. The
26 27
charge of the massacre of the city’s men
was complicated by the lack of visibility
of the chain of command. On the third
charge of enslavement, the prosecution
pointed to precedent in a culture in which
the Iliad was seen as the ‘dictionary of
heroism.’ Finally, the accusation of the
wilful destruction of Persepolis itself was
refuted as being out of character with
both Alexander’s policy of exploiting his
conquests rather than destroying them
and his desire to be accepted by the ruling
classes.
Although both sides offered persuasive
arguments, the jury, comprising
those present at the venue, voted
overwhelmingly for the acquittal of
Alexander the Great. The Supreme Court
Justice, Lord Leggatt, who was presiding,
expressed his surprise at the verdict but it
seems that Alexander’s wider reputation
and his legal team’s emotive persuasion
won the day.

Life of Cicero
Classics Department
On the 3rd of January 106 BC,
Marcus Tullius Cicero was
born to a wealthy father,
62 miles away from Rome
in a town called Arpino. Cicero was
educated in the teachings of classical
Greek poets and philosophers like most
sons in wealthy, up-and-coming families
during this time period. This education in
both Latin and Greek enabled Cicero to
integrate into elite Roman society.
In 79 BC, when Cicero was 27 years old, he
married a woman called Terentia which
would have been ideal for Cicero as she
was from a reputable family. Terentia was
a strong character who took great interest
in her husband’s career – the Roman
historian Plutarch states that ‘she took
more interest in her husband’s carrer than
she allowed him to take in household
affairs’. The pair remained harmoniously
married for almost three decades, having
two children, Tullia and Cicero Minor.
In the year 51 BC, Cicero and Terentia
divorced; Cicero states in letters to his
friends that she had betrayed him, but he
did not cite any specifics.
Cicero’s oldest child and only daughter
died suddenly of illness having given
birth to a son just weeks prior; he wrote a
letter to Atticus, devastated, saying ‘I have
lost the one thing that bound me to life’.
Caesar and Brutus were among those who
wrote him letters of consolation. Cicero’s
son, Cicero the Younger, had a successful
military career under Pompey yet was
defeated and subsequently pardoned by
Caesar at the Battle of Pharsalus. He went
on to become a consul in 30 BC and also
served as the governor of Syria.
Legal and Political Life
Cicero began his legal career as a defence
barrister in the late 80s BC, though he
got his first major case in 80 BC, as he
defended a man called Sextus Roscius
who was accused of patricide. This was a
courageous and bold move for Cicero as
not only was parricide an appalling crime
but one of the accusers of Roscius was a
favourite of Sulla. Other notable cases that
Cicero took part in include ‘Pro Caecina’,
‘Pro Cluentio’ and ‘Pro Quinctio’.
His first stint in public office was as a
‘quaestor’ in Western Sicily – he was
held in esteem amongst the locals and
was asked to prosecute the governor
of Sicily, Gaius Verres, on charges of
bribery and extortion. For Cicero, this
trial was a phenomenal success, his ad
hominem style of prosecution combined
with brilliant oratory skills cemented
his reputation as one of Rome’s best
orators. Furthermore, he was up against
Below: Cicero Discovers the Tomb of Archimedes
one of Rome’s most reputable lawyers,
Hortensius – the thumping win served
as a platform for Cicero to boost his legal
and political career.
The year 63 BC was the most important
in Cicero’s political career as he was
elected consul along with Gaius Antonius
Hybrida as his co-consul. The defining
event of Cicero’s consulship was this
foiling of the Catilinarian Conspiracy,
spearheaded by Lucius Sergius Catilina.
Catiline was the mastermind behind a
violent coup which involved veterans,
senators and plebs alike – Cicero
made four damning speeches which
denounced Catiline and his supporters.
Following these speeches, Catiline fled
Rome and Cicero was given the senatus
consultum ultimum to use force against
the conspirators and Catiline was killed
in battle in January 62 BC.
28 29
Exile
Although the Catiline Conspiracy was
a success for Cicero, Caesar turned on
Cicero in a bid to cement his stranglehold
on Roman politics. Cicero had executed
conspirators involved in the coup four
years before – the consul threatened that
any person who killed a Roman citizen
without a proper trial would be exiled.
He argued that he was exempt from this
as he had been given senatus consultum
ultimum, yet this argument was not
accepted by the Senate. Clodius passed
a law that meant that Cicero was not
allowed to take shelter within 400 miles
of Rome and stayed in Thessalonica – but
the Senate voted to rebuke his exile a year
later.
Penultimate Years of His Life
When Caesar crossed the Rubicon in 49
BC, Cicero fled Rome; however, he did
not endorse either Caesar or Pompey
Above: Fulvia with the Head of Cicero
though he favoured Pompey, he tried
not to alienate Caesar. He travelled with
Pompey’s forces to Pharsalus, where
Pompey would ultimately be defeated
– after which Cicero returned to Rome
and was pardoned. Cicero was caught
completely off guard when Julius Caesar
was assassinated as he was not a part of
the conspiracy yet the conspirators treated
him favourably in the aftermath.
When Mark Antony took advantage of the
unstable situation in Rome, Cicero stood
in firm opposition of Antony’s consulship
and claimed that Caesar’s wishes were
being deliberately misinterpreted. Cicero
urged the Senate to make Antony an
enemy of the state as he led a campaign
against a rebellious general. This plan
failed and Antony along with Octavian
made Cicero an enemy of the state –
although Octavian argued against this.
Cicero was captured and beheaded by a
centurion and a tribune – his hands were
cut off and were displayed in the Roman
forum on the order of Mark Antony. The
historian Cassius Dio claims that Antony’s
wife cut Cicero’s tongue out and stabbed
it with her hairpin as her final revenge
against Cicero’s scathing orating.

Philology
Jonathan, Lower Sixth
Below: A Roman Studio
Bottom: Cadmus Fighting the Dragon
Earlier this year, the
Hylocomian Society was
proud to welcome back to St
Albans Dr Tom McConnell
as a guest speaker, our first
in-person speaker after many
months of Teams and Zoom based events.
Dr McConnell is no stranger to the school,
having been taught by Mrs Ginsburg,
Mr Rowland and Mr Davies before
embarking on his academic career. He
began his journey after leaving the School
by completing his degree in Classics at
the University of Exeter before doing his
Masters and researching his DPhil at the
University of Oxford. He currently lectures
at Oriel College and for the Classics
Faculty.
He gave us an introduction to the
fascinating topic of comparative philology,
beginning with an explanation of the
complex family tree of Indo-European
languages. Just as we are familiar with
the modern Romance languages (French,
Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Romanian
and Catalan) being derived from Latin,
many languages, ancient and modern,
widely spoken and more obscure, can
be traced back to their common ancestor,
Proto Indo-European. The family tree is
represented in geographical terms and
ranges from the Celtic languages including
Old Irish, Welsh and Breton, to Tocharian,
the most easterly of the family, originating
in China. Dr McConnell described how a
study of ancient and modern languages
allows us to understand two key facets;
morphology, or how languages are formed,
especially their cases, and phonology
which focuses on the sound of languages.
When morphology and phonology
correlate with meaning, it gives us the
tools to reconstruct earlier languages.
From this point we focused on how
a smaller set of languages might be
compared to understand its antecedents,
which demonstrates how languages
interrelate into a family tree. Everyday
words in modern English, German and
Dutch can be set side by side to deduce
how their commonalities might point
to moments of earlier development. For
example, the English ‘water,’ the German
‘Wasser’ and the Dutch ‘water’ are clearly
similar and suggest a correspondence
between the English ‘t,’ the German ‘ss’
and the Dutch ‘t.’ Analysis suggests the
Proto-West-Germanic language which
preceded these used ‘t’ for that consonant.
This method can be developed further to
understand how the ancient languages of
Sanskrit, Greek, Latin and modern English
can be used to reconstruct their ultimate
ancestor, Proto-Indo European. An
example of this is the word ‘brother,’ which
is b’ratar in Sanskrit, ‘frater’ in Greek,
‘frater’ in Latin and may be reconstructed
in a simplified way to be ‘b’rater’ in Proto-
Indo European. We know that these
commonalities are not chance alone since,
if we apply the same method to Romance
languages, we reconstruct Late Vernacular
Latin.
Dr McConnell’s lecture shed light on the
fascinating reasons behind some of the
similarities we often notice when learning
Latin and Greek but, perhaps even more
interestingly, it raised questions which
are as yet unanswered, for example the
placement of the Minoan and Mycenaean
scripts, Linear A and Linear B: there are still
many linguistic mysteries to be explored.
30 31

Dido
Katia, Lower Sixth
When asked who Dido was,
the Phoenician queen
whose love affair with
the Trojan Aeneid pulled
her away from her promise to her late
husband and towards her suicide is
the most common answer. However,
before Virgil was commissioned by the
Emperor August to write the Aeneid,
different classical writers spread stories
of a different Dido. One who never
met Aeneas, never was swayed from
protecting her people instead dying for
their safety, and never replaced her dead
husband.
Pompeius Trogus (a Gallo-Roman
historian) writes of Dido – who he calls
‘Alishat’ -fleeing Phoenicia and once
completing a long Odyssey-like journey
she arrives in North Africa. After her
arrival, she commits a grand suicide on
a pyre with many sacrifices to prevent
being forced to a local chieftain. In this
version, Dido founds her North African
city-state 70 years before Aeneas’ journey,
thus eradicating any chances of their
intense love affair, and her character is
not reduced to a love interest. Moreover,
another intensive history written by
Timaeus of Tauromenium mentions
a queen, who he calls Theoisso and
says was called Elissa or Alishat by the
Phoenicians- the daughter of Pygmalion,
King of Tyre. Similarly, she is forced to
marry a local king and kills herself by
jumping into an enormous pyre. There
is no mention of Aeneas, or his arrival,
and this Dido is presented as a strong and
independent leader.
Different interpretations of Dido didn’t
fizzle out after Virgil’s propagandized
presentation becomes popular. For
instance, Livy makes no mention of Dido
in connection to Aeneid, and Macrobius
(an author of late Antiquity) claims Virgil
was inspired by the relationship between
Jason and Medea for Dido and Aeneas’
relationship.
Opposite: The Meeting of Dido
and Aeneas
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