NSCA's Performance Training Journal | Issue 11.1 - Premier Fitness

NSCA’s 

Training Journal Performance Issue 11.1 

Jan./Feb. ‘12 

www.nsca-lift.org 

Personal Training 

Features 

Resistance Training 

for Postmenopausal 

Women 

Brad Schoenfeld MS, 

CSCS,*D, NSCA-CPT,*D, 

PT-AR 

Redefi ning Your Core 

Richard Scrivener 

MSc, CSCS

about this 

PUBLICATION 

The NSCA’s Performance Training 

Journal (ISSN: 2157-7358) 

is a publication of the National 

Strength and Conditioning Association 

(NSCA). The PTJ publishes 

basic educational information 

for Associate and Professional 

Members of the NSCA. These 

groups include novice personal 

trainers, novice strength coaches, 

and training enthusiasts. The 

journal’s mission is to publish articles 

that provide basic, practical 

information that is researchbased. 

Copyright 2012 by the National 

Strength and Conditioning Association. 

All Rights Reserved. 

Disclaimer: The statements and 

comments in the NSCA’s Performance 

Training Journal are 

those of the individual authors 

and contributors and not of 

the National Strength and Conditioning 

Association. The appearance 

of advertising in this 

journal does not constitute an 

endorsement for the quality 

or value of the product or service 

advertised, or of the claims 

made for it by its manufacturer 

or provider. 

NSCA Mission 

As the worldwide authority on 

strength and conditioning, we 

support and disseminate research-based 

knowledge and its 

practical application, to improve 

athletic performance and fi tness. 

Talk to us… 

Share your questions and comments. 

We want to hear from 

you. Write to the NSCA’s Performance 

Training Journal, NSCA, 

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an email to ptj@nsca-lift.org. 

NSCA’s 

PerformanceTraining Journal Editorial Offi ce 

1885 Bob Johnson Drive 

Colorado Springs, Colorado 80906 

Phone: +1 719-632-6722 

Editor 

T. Jeff Chandler, EdD, 

CSCS,*D, NSCA-CPT,*D, FNSCA 

email: jchandler@jsu.edu 

Managing Editor 

Britt Chandler, MS, 

CSCS,*D, NSCA-CPT,*D 

email:chandler.britt@att.net 

Publisher 

Keith Cinea, MA, CSCS,*D, 

NSCA-CPT,*D 

email: kcinea@nsca-lift.org 

Copy Editor 

Matthew Sandstead 

email: msandstead@nsca-lift.org 

Editorial Review Panel 

Scott Cheatham, DPT, OCS, ATC, 

CSCS, NSCA-CPT 

Meredith Hale-Griffi n, MS, CSCS 

Ed McNeely 

Mike Rickett, MS, CSCS 

Chad D. Touchberry, PhD, CSCS 

nsca’s performance training journal • www.nsca-lift.org • volume 11 issue 1 

2

table of 

CONTENTS 

6 

14 

4 

10 

personal training 

Resistance Training for Postmenopausal Women 

Chat Williams, MS, CSCS,*D, NSCA-CPT,*D, PT-AR 

A common special population encountered in the personal training setting is the 

postmenopausal woman. This featured article examines various aspects of training such a 

specialized population. 


Richard Scrivener, MSc, CSCS 

This featured article explores functional training as it relates to core training. Isolation, 

stabilization, reactivity, deceleration, strength, and power are all aspects of core training that 

are addressed in this article. 

departments 

Personal Training for Performance 

Changing Up the Pace: Interval 

Training 

Chat Williams, MS, CSCS,*D, 

NSCA-CPT,*D, PT-AR 

The benefi ts of interval training are 

explored in this column and information 

for proper program design is presented. 

Sport-Specifi c Conditioning 

Keeping the Workout Fresh 

Patrick McHenry, MA, CSCS,*D, USAW 

This column offers advice for program 

design in regard to avoiding stale 

workouts. Steps for developing an 

effective program are also provided. 

12 

Training Table 

MyPlate and Athletes: 

Is it Right for You? 

Debra Wein, MS, RD, LDN, CSSD, 

NSCA-CPT and 

Megan Miraglia, MS, RD, LDN 

This column compares MyPyramid and 

the recent release of MyPlate by the 

U.S. Department of Agriculture. Daily 

prescriptions are provided as well as key 

messages and limitations of the different 

programs. 


3


for performance 

about the 

AUTHOR 

Chat Williams is the 

Supervisor for Norman 

Regional Health Club. 

He currently sits on 

the National Strength 

and Conditioning 

Association Board 

of Directors and is 

the past NSCA State 

Director Committee 

Chair, Midwest 

Regional Coordinator 

and State Director of 

Oklahoma (2004 State 

Director of the Year). 

He also served on 

the NSCA Personal 

Trainer SIG Executive 

Council. He is the 

author of multiple 

training DVDs. He runs 

his own company, 

Oklahoma Strength 


Productions, which 

offers personal training 

services, sports 

performance for youth, 

metabolic testing, 

and educational 

conferences and 

seminars for strength 

and conditioning 

professionals. 

Chat Williams, MS, CSCS,*D, NSCA-CPT,*D, PT-AR 

Change Up the Pace: 

Interval Training 

Personal trainers are continually faced with the challenge 

of creating fun, diverse, and multi-dimensional training 

programs. Training programs that are challenging and rewarding 

ensure motivated and satisfi ed individuals which 

can lead to a higher clientele adherence rate. Personal 

trainers are responsible for providing programs that incorporate 

resistance training, cardiovascular training, and 

fl exibility training. Depending on the individual’s fi tness 

level and goals, these training variables can be modifi ed 

over time for variety, increased intensity, and can help 

when they hit a plateau in the training program. Interval 

training can be incorporated into a cardiovascular training 

program to help individuals reach and set new goals (1,3). 

Interval Training Defined 

Interval training is a type of cardiovascular training that in- 

corporates high-intensity bouts of work followed by lower 

intensity bouts of work, or rest, that is repeated for a specifi 

c number of repetitions depending on the fi tness level 

of the individual (2). The rest periods allow for a buff ering 

of lactic acid from the blood ensuring recovery for the 

next high-intensity interval (4). There are four variables to 

consider when designing a program (2): 

1. Intensity or speed of each interval 

2. Distance or time of each interval 

3. Active rest or rest of each interval 

4. The total number or intervals or repetitions to be 

completed during the workout 

These variables will be determined by the goals the individual 

wants to achieve in the training program. The three 

energy systems that can be challenged during interval 

training are ATP-PC (sprints or shorter intervals), anaerobic 

(moderate distance or time), and aerobic (longer distance 

or time). All three energy systems will have diff erent 

workloads and recovery times due to the intensity, and 

the time allowed for the buff ering of lactic acid and replenishment 

of ATP so that the following interval may be 

completed at a high rate of work (Tables 1 and 2). For individuals 

who are less fi t, repetitions and work-to-rest ratios 

may be modifi ed to meet their needs. Instead of using a 

1:1 ratio, a 1:3 or 1:4 may be used until they have achieved 

a higher level of fi tness (4). 

Benefits of Interval Training 

As mentioned before, adding interval training to a current 

fi tness program can help an individual overcome a plateau 

in their current training program and add variety by 

changing up the program design. These two things alone 

can help with adherence and keep clients motivated so 

that they may reach their fi tness goals. Research has also 

shown positive physiological changes when incorporating 

interval training into a program. An increased VO2 

max, decreased resting blood pressure, and an increased 

insulin response are just a few physiological changes that 

can be experienced when comparing interval training to 

slow, steady-state exercise (4). In a study by Tremblay et al. 

a group of endurance trained individuals were compared 

to a group of high-intensity interval trained individuals 

and even though there was a signifi cant diff erence in the 

energy expenditure with the endurance group expending 

more calories, the interval group had a much greater reduction 

in skinfold measurements at the end of the study 

(1,4,5). In another study, untrained adults performed six 

weeks of interval training, each session (three per week) 

included ten 4-min bouts at 90% of peak oxygen consumption, 

and each interval was followed by 2 min of rest. At 

the conclusion of the study, researchers found an increase 

in peak oxygen consumption and power output, 9% and 

21% respectively (3). The study also concluded there was 

a decrease in lactate accumulation and an increase in fat 

oxidation, which suggests that interval training is an eff ective 

training method for increasing fat oxidation and the 

ability for muscle to oxidize fat (3). 

Program Design 

Although, there are many benefi ts with interval train- 

ing, caution should be used before incorporating it into 

a training program. Due to high intensity, near maximal 

training loads, individuals should have a solid foundation 

of cardiovascular fi tness. Recovery times and maximal 

nsca’s performance training journal • www.nsca-lift.org • volume 11 issue 1 4

personal training for performance 

Table 1: Energy Systems 

heart rate percentages can be adjusted depending on their current fi tness 

level. Once an individual can complete 20 – 30 min of continuous exercise, 

bouts of 1 – 2 min of more intense exercise may be incorporated followed 

by 1 – 4 min of recovery time. Interval training can be performed on 

multiple pieces of cardiovascular equipment or outside on the track; the 

possibilities are endless. Table 3 includes examples of interval training on 

a treadmill, stationary cycle, and sprint work on a track. The treadmill example 

will display a 1:1 work-to-rest ratio (1:2 ratio for the stationary bike) 

and the sprint intervals will give an example of how to perform intervals 

using distance. Examples and max heart rates (estimated) are based on a 

healthy 30-year-old adult male. 

Summary 

Interval training can be a fun and creative way to challenge individuals 

once they have achieved a base level of fi tness and are ready for more 

advanced training. Maintaining interest and motivation are important to 

sustaining a training program for years to come. � 

References 

Change Up the Pace: Interval Training 

Energy System Workload Recovery (work/rest ratio) Repetitions 

ATP-PC 10 s 30 – 60 s (1:3 – 1:6) 6 – 10 

Anaerobic 1 min 2 min (1:2) 4 – 8 

Aerobic 3 min 3 min (1:1) 6 – 12 

Note: Repetitions should be based on current fi tness level of individual. 

Table 2: Age and Intensity (Interval Training) 

Age Range Heart Rate Goal 

20 – 29 180 

30 – 39 170 

40 – 49 160 

50 – 59 150 

60 – 69 140 

Note: Heart rate goal is described as the heart rate that should be reached at the peak of each interval (based on fi tness level). 

Table 3: Treadmill, Stationary Bike, and Sprint Interval Examples 

Mode of Exercise Warm-Up (WU)/Cool Down (CD) Intervals Max Heart Rate 

Treadmill 

Stationary Bike 

Sprints 

5 min Walking (WU) 

5 min Walking (CD) 

5 min Cycling (WU) 

5 min Cycling (CD) 

Dynamic Warm-Up 

5 min Walking (CD) 

5 x 3 min (Jog/Run) 

5 x 3 min (Walk/Active Rest) 

8 x 1 min (Intense) 

8 x 2 min (Active Rest) 

10 x 50 yards (Sprint) 

10 x 50 yards (Walk) 

Note: Max heart rate is based on a 30-year-old male. Alternate workloads on intervals: Intense/Active Rest. 

1. Fox, EL. Interval training. Bulletin of the Hospital Joint Diseases 40: 64–71, 

1979. 

2. Karp, J. Interval training for the fi tness professional. Strength and Conditioning 

Journal 22: 64–69, 2000. 

3. Perry, CG, Heigenhauser, GL, Bonen, A, and Spriet, LL. High-intensity aerobic 

interval training increases fat and carbohydrate metabolic capacities in human 

skeletal muscle. Applied Physiology Nutrition Metabolism 33: 1112–1123, 2008. 

4. Schoenfeld, B, and Dawes, J. High-intensity interval training: Applications for 

general fi tness training. Strength and Conditioning Journal 31(6): 44–46, 2009. 

5. Tremblay, A, Simoneau, JA, and Bouchard, O. Impact of exercise intensity on 

body fatness and skeletal muscle metabolism. Metabolism 43: 814–818, 1994. 

nsca’s performance training journal • www.nsca-lift.org • volume 11 issue 1 5 

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170 

170

feature 

about the 

AUTHOR 

Brad Schoenfeld is 

an internationally 

renowned fi tness 

expert and widely 

regarded as one of 

the leading authorities 

on body composition 

training (muscle 

development and fat 

loss). He is a lifetime 

drug-free bodybuilder, 

and has won numerous 

natural bodybuilding 

titles including the 

ANPPC Tri-State 

Naturals and USA 

Mixed Pairs crowns. 

He has been published 

or appeared in such 

publications as Shape, 

Self, Fitness, Men’s 

Fitness, Ironman, 

Men’s Workout, 

Woman’s Day, Exercise 

and Health, New York 

Times, New York Daily 

News, Washington 

Post, Chicago Tribune 

and many others. He 

earned his Master’s 

degree in Kinesiology/ 

Exercise Science 

from the University of 

Texas, and his thesis 

was published in the 

Journal of Strength 


Research. He was 

named the 2011 NSCA 

Personal Trainer of the 

Year. 

Resistance Training for 

Postmenopausal Women 

Brad Schoenfeld, MSc, CSCS, NSCA-CPT 

Over the past several decades, personal training has 

evolved from a cottage industry into a full-fl edged evidence-based 

profession. Given the scope of practice, 

today’s personal trainers must be prepared to work not 

only with young, healthy gym-goers, but with a variety 

of “special populations” as well. Clients who fall into this 

category have unique training needs that require distinct 

considerations with respect to program design. A common 

special population encountered in the personal 

training setting is the postmenopausal woman. 

Menopause is defi ned as 12 consecutive months of 

amenorrhea that results in the permanent cessation of 

ovarian function (11). During this time, a woman’s estrogen 

levels fall precipitously and continue to decline into 

the postmenopausal period. This has an eff ect on any 

tissue that contains estrogen receptors, which can have 

a host of physiological and psychological ramifi cations 

(17). 

Commonly, hormonal fl uctuations in the perimenopausal 

period (i.e., the interval where a woman experiences a 

shift from regular cycles of menstruation toward permanent 

infertility) bring about vasomotor symptoms such 

as hot fl ushes and night sweats (5,11). These symptoms 

often disturb normal sleep patterns. The resulting fatigue 

and irritability can be debilitating, impair functional ability, 

and decrease one’s quality of life. 

Menopause also has a profound impact on body composition. 

Changes in hormonal balance tend to cause a shift 

in the distribution of adipose tissue, with an increased 

accumulation of body fat in the midsection as opposed 

to the extremities (10,15). A cross-sectional study by 

Donato et al. found that postmenopausal women had a 

fi vefold increase in risk for central adiposity compared to 

premenopausal women, even after controlling for body 

mass index (BMI) and other confounders (6). This may be 

due to alterations in cellular processes, such as increased 


lipoprotein lipase activity and/or decreased lipolysis resulting 

from estrogen defi ciency (31). 

Compounding matters, menopause is associated with a 

profound decline in fat-free mass (28). It is not entirely 

clear at this point what factors are responsible for this 

phenomenon. Given that muscle tissue contains estrogen 

receptors, it is possible that estrogen plays a role in 

the maintenance of muscle protein balance, with a defi - 

ciency leading to a reduction in protein synthesis and/ 

or increase in proteolysis (4). A reduction in circulating 

growth factors may also have an impact, as menopausal 

women have been shown to display an impaired response 

of the GH/IGF-1 axis (8). Regardless of the mechanisms, 

a loss of muscle inevitably has a negative aff ect 

on strength, power, and, muscular endurance, which can 

ultimately lead to infi rmity and loss of independence. 

Changes in body habitus (i.e., physique) also can have 

serious repercussions on cardiovascular health. Central 

adiposity is recognized as an independent predictor of 

cardiovascular disease in women, and is associated with 

greater incidence of mortality compared with measures 

of overall adiposity (7,12,21,35). Moreover, hypertension, 

hypertriglyceridemia, hyperinsulinemia, and glucose intolerance 

have been found to be more pronounced in 

subjects with an android body type (19). These disorders 

encompass the so-called “metabolic syndrome,” which 

signifi cantly heighten cardiovascular risk. Furthermore, 

the decline in estrogen is associated with altered lipid 

levels, including an increase in LDL cholesterol and a decrease 

in HDL cholesterol (24). Taken as a whole, these 

data help to explain the exponential increase in cardiovascular 

mortality and morbidity in postmenopausal 

women (20). 

Perhaps the most overtly deleterious eff ect of menopause 

is on bone health. Estrogen is known to promote 

osteogenesis, apparently by a suppression of osteoclas- 


6

tic activity and thereby reduced bone resorption 

(37). Accordingly, bone loss is rather modest in 

premenopausal women between the ages of 30 

and 50, averaging less than 0.5% per year (37). 

During perimenopause, however, loss of bone 

mineral density (BMD) can be as high as 3% (29). 

Every year thereafter, the rate of loss slows to an 

extent, but nevertheless remains above premenopausal 

levels at an annual rate of about 1.5% (27). 

By age 65, approximately 30% of women have osteoporosis, 

most commonly at the spine, hip and/ 

or wrist. The incidence of osteoporosis shows further 

increases with age, rising to approximately 

70% by age 80 (36). 

The eff ects of bone loss are wide-ranging. For 

one, osteoporosis is associated with an increased 

susceptibility to fractures. Hip fractures, in particular, 

are not only physically debilitating, but their 

associated complications can be potentially fatal, 

with those affl icted showing triple the mortality 

risk when compared to the reference population 

after a two-year follow-up (32). In addition, a loss 

of bone density in the spine leads to postural deviations, 

including hyperkyphosis (i.e., a Dowager’s 

hump). Hyperkyphosis causes compression 

of the chest and abdominal regions, which limits 

the ability of the lungs to expand during inhalation. 

This can impair the heart’s ability to deliver 

blood to the lungs effi ciently, thereby reducing 

cardiovascular capacity and potentially leading 

to heart failure (41). 

Resistance Training 

Guidelines for Menopausal 

Women 

Resistance exercise has proven to modify nu- 

merous facets of health in menopausal women, 

including improved bone density, enhanced 

physical fi tness, improved body composition, 

decreased cardiac risk factors, and increased 

strength, power, and muscular endurance (16,33). 

There is strong evidence that shows resistance 

training promotes favorable changes in body 

composition, similar to those experienced by 

premenopausal women. Studies on women who 

exercise during and/or after menopause report 

signifi cant reductions in body fat, waist circum- 


ference and waist/hip ratio, while simultaneously 

experience increases in lean body mass (17,40). 

A recent study by Bea et al. found that resistance 

training was inversely correlated with changes in 

body weight, body fat, and trunk fat in postmenopausal 

women, even after adjusting for age, years 

on hormone therapy, change in lean soft tissue, 

baseline body composition, and baseline habitual 

exercise (1). 

The positive infl uence of resistance exercise on 

bone health in menopausal women cannot be 

overstated. Not only does it attenuate bone loss, 

but signifi cant increases in BMD of the spine and 

femoral neck have been reported in those who 

train regularly (22,30,34). It is important to note 

that exercise intensity must exceed the minimum 

strain threshold of the bone to produce an 

adaptive response (16). This is especially true for 

menopausal women, as a decrease in estrogen 

is believed to increase the threshold of bone for 

mechanical loading (39). Ideally, it is best to stabilize 

BMD early in menopause before signifi cant 

resorption takes place. However, considerable 

improvements in BMD have been reported even 

in women who have been postmenopausal for 

years. 

Exercise may also help to alleviate vasomotor 

symptoms. Population-based studies show an 

association between regular participation in 

physical activity programs and positive indices of 

somatic and psychological dimension of health, 

well-being and quality of life (5,26). It is theorized 

that exercise may somehow aff ect the mechanisms 

that elicit hot fl ushes in perimenopausal 

and postmenopausal women, conceivably by 

increasing beta-endorphin secretion and stabilizing 

the thermoregulatory center (13). Research is 

still scant in this area and additional studies are 

needed to shed more light on the topic. 

There is no evidence to suggest that postmenopausal 

women should restrict resistance training 

participation in the absence of medical complications. 

Considering the rapid demineralization of 

bone during menopause and altered ratio of fat 

mass/fat-free mass, resistance training routines 


should have a specifi c focus on improving bone 

density and body composition. As with any fi tness 

program, these objectives must be reconciled 

with the specifi c goals and abilities of the 

client. 

To optimize results, resistance training programs 

should take a total-body approach to training 

with a concentration on exercises that direct 

forces through the spine, hip, and waist. To maximize 

skeletal loading, multi-joint movements 

should be employed whenever possible. Presses, 

rows, and squats are highly eff ective in maximizing 

musculoskeletal strain. Variety of exercise is 

extremely important to change the line of force 

applied to bone and muscle. Varying movements 

from one session to the next will help ensure 

that new stimuli are continually applied to bone, 

thereby promoting a greater impetus for remodeling. 

In addition, multi-joint movements have the 

greatest impact on fat loss. Studies show that exercises 

that recruit large amounts of muscle mass 

produce signifi cantly greater increases in excess 

post-exercise oxygen consumption compared to 

single-joint exercises (9). This results in increased 

energy expenditure well after the cessation of 

training and leads to greater reductions in fat 

mass. 

Beginning exercisers should start with an intensity 

of approximately 50% of their one-repetition 

maximum (1RM) to acclimate their body to the 

demands of loading. Over time, intensity should 

progressively increase so that the client is regularly 

training between 65 – 85% of their 1RM. It 

is important to perform at least some of the sets 

with rapid concentric actions. Power tends to decline 

more rapidly than strength as people age, 

and performing the concentric portion of repetitions 

with high velocities (≤ 1 s) has shown to produce 

greater functional improvements compared 

with slower tempos (25,38). A carefully structured 

periodized program can be benefi cial for diminishing 

the potential for overtraining and facilitate 

continued progress. 

7

Resistance training sessions should last a maximum 

of one hour in length. Short, intense bouts 

are not only highly benefi cial for bone health, but 

they have proven to be optimal for favorably impacting 

blood lipids (17). Multi-set protocols are 

preferable to single-set protocols as higher volume 

routines have been shown to produce more 

favorable changes in body composition and BMD 

(2,18,23). However, it may be prudent to begin 

with a single set in those who are highly unconditioned 

and progressively increase volume over 

time. 

Frequency of exercise will depend on each individual’s 

abilities. Benefi cial eff ects on menopausal 

conditions are seen with as few as two resistance 

training sessions per week (14). However, while 

this frequency has proven suitable for beginning 

exercisers, a greater exercise frequency was found 

to be positively and signifi cantly related to changes 

in total body BMD in more advanced exercisers 

(3). Thus, for those with six months or more 

of consistent training experience, a three or four 

day per week resistance training program may 

be the most appropriate. To accommodate individual 

schedules and preferences, routines can be 

structured to either work the entire body in one 

session or involve a “split” routine where the upper 

and lower body musculature are worked on 

separate days. � 

References 

1. Bea, JW, Cussler, EC, Going, SB, Blew, RM, Metcalfe, 

LL, and Lohman, TG. Resistance training 

predicts 6-yr body composition change in postmenopausal 

women. Med Sci Sports Exerc 42: 

1286–1295, 2010. 

2. Cussler, EC, Lohman, TG, Going, SB, Houtkooper, 

LB, Metcalfe, LL, Flint-Wagner, HG, Harris, RB, and 

Teixeira, PJ. Weight lifted in strength training predicts 

bone change in postmenopausal women. 

Med Sci Sports Exerc 35: 10–17, 2003. 

3. Cussler, EC, Going, SB, Houtkooper, LB, Stanford, 

VA, Blew, RM, Flint-Wagner, HG, Metcalfe, 

LL, Choi, J, and Lohman, TG. Exercise frequency 

and calcium intake predict 4-year bone changes 


in postmenopausal women. Osteoporos Int 16: 

2129–2141, 2005. 

4. Dahlberg, E. Characterization of the cytosolic 

estrogen receptor in rat skeletal muscle. Biochim 

Biophys Acta 717: 65–75, 1982. 

5. Daley, A, MacArthur, C, McManus, R, Stokes- 

Lampard, H, Wilson, S, Roalfe, A, and Mutrie, N. 

Factors associated with the use of complementary 

medicine and non-pharmacological interventions 

in symptomatic menopausal women. 

Climacteric 9: 336–346, 2006. 

6. Donato, GB, Fuchs, SC, Oppermann, K, Bastos, 

C, and Spritzer, PM. Association between menopause 

status and central adiposity measured 

at diff erent cutoff s of waist circumference and 

waist-to-hip ratio. Menopause 13: 280–285, 2006. 

7. Evans, DJ, Hoff mann, RG, Kalkhoff , RK, and 

Kissebah, AH. Relationship of androgenic activity 

to body fat topography, fat cell morphology, and 

metabolic aberrations in premenopausal women. 

J Clin Endocrinol Metab 57: 304–310, 1983. 

8. Fanciulli, G, Delitala, A, and Delitala, G. Growth 

hormone, menopause and ageing: No defi nite 

evidence for rejuvenation with growth hormone. 

Hum Reprod Update 15: 341–358, 2009. 

9. Farinatti, PT, and Castinheiras Neto, AG. The effect 

of between-set rest intervals on the oxygen 

uptake during and after resistance exercise sessions 

performed with large- and small-muscle 

mass. J Strength Cond Res 25: 3181–3190, 2011. 

10. Gambacciani, M, Ciaponi, M, Cappagli, B, Benussi, 

C, De Simone, L, and Genazzani, AR. Climacteric 

modifi cations in body weight and fat tissue 

distribution. Climacteric 2: 37–44, 1999. 

11. Greendale, GA, Lee, NP, and Arriola, ER. The 

menopause. Lancet 353: 571–580, 1999. 

12. Haarbo, J, Hassager, C, Schlemmer, A, and 

Christiansen, C. Infl uence of smoking, body fat 

distribution, and alcohol consumption on serum 


lipids, lipoproteins, and apolipoproteins in early 

postmenopausal women. Atherosclerosis 84: 239– 

244, 1990. 

13. Hammar, M, Berg, G, and Lindgren, R. Does 

physical exercise infl uence the frequency of postmenopausal 

hot fl ushes? Acta Obstet Gynecol 

Scand 69: 409–412, 1990. 

14. Hartard, M, Haber, P, Ilieva, D, Preisinger, E, Seidl, 

G, and Huber, J. Systematic strength training 

as a model of therapeutic intervention. A controlled 

trial in postmenopausal women with osteopenia. 

Am J Phys Med Rehabil 75: 21–28, 1996. 

15. Ijuin, H, Douchi, T, Oki, T, Maruta, K, and Nagata, 

Y. The contribution of menopause to changes 

in body-fat distribution. J Obstet Gynaecol Res 25: 

367–372, 1999. 

16. Kemmler, W, Lauber, D, Weineck, J, Hensen, J, 

Kalender, W, and Engelke, K. Benefi ts of 2 years of 

intense exercise on bone density, physical fi tness, 

and blood lipids in early postmenopausal osteopenic 

women: results of the Erlangen Fitness 

Osteoporosis Prevention Study (EFOPS). Arch Intern 

Med 164: 1084–1091, 2004. 

17. Kemmler, W, Engelke, K, von Stengel, S, Weineck, 

J, Lauber, D, and Kalender, WA. Long-term 

four-year exercise has a positive eff ect on menopausal 

risk factors: the Erlangen Fitness Osteoporosis 

Prevention Study. J Strength Cond Res 21: 

232–239, 2007. 

18. Krieger, JW. Single vs. multiple sets of resistance 

exercise for muscle hypertrophy: a metaanalysis. 

J Strength Cond Res 24: 1150–1159, 2010. 

19. Krotkiewski, M, Bjorntorp, P, Sjostrom, L, and 

Smith, U. Impact of obesity on metabolism in men 

and women. Importance of regional adipose tissue 

distribution. J Clin Invest 72: 1150–1162, 1983. 

20. Kung, HC, Hoyert, DL, Xu, J, and Murphy, SL. 

Deaths: fi nal data for 2005. Natl Vital Stat Rep 56: 

1–120, 2008. 

8

21. Lapidus, L, Bengtsson, C, Larsson, B, Pennert, 

K, Rybo, E, and Sjostrom, L. Distribution of adipose 

tissue and risk of cardiovascular disease and 

death: a 12-year follow up of participants in the 

population study of women in Gothenburg, Sweden. 

Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 289: 1257–1261, 1984. 

22. Maddalozzo, GF, Widrick, JJ, Cardinal, BJ, Winters-Stone, 

KM, Hoff man, MA, and Snow, CM. The 

eff ects of hormone replacement therapy and resistance 

training on spine bone mineral density 

in early postmenopausal women. Bone 40: 1244– 

1251, 2007. 

23. Marzolini, S, Oh, PI, Thomas, SG, and Goodman, 

JM. Aerobic and resistance training in coronary 

disease: single versus multiple sets. Med Sci 

Sports Exerc 40: 1557–1564, 2008. 

24. Matthews, KA, Kuller, LH, Sutton-Tyrrell, K, and 

Chang, YF. Changes in cardiovascular risk factors 

during the perimenopause and postmenopause 

and carotid artery atherosclerosis in healthy 

women. Stroke 32: 1104–1111, 2001. 

25. Miszko, TA, Cress, ME, Slade, JM, Covey, CJ, 

Agrawal, SK, and Doerr, CE. Eff ect of strength and 

power training on physical function in community-dwelling 

older adults. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med 

Sci 58: 171–175, 2003. 

26. Newton, KM, Buist, DSM, Keenan, NL, Anderson, 

LA, and LaCroix, AZ. Use of alternative therapies 

for menopause symptoms: results of a population-based 

survey. Obstet Gynecol 100: 18–25, 

2002. 

27. Okano, H, Mizunuma, H, Soda, M, Kagami, I, 

Miyamoto, S, Ohsawa, M, Ibuki, Y, Shiraki, M, Suzuki, 

T, and Shibata, H. The long-term eff ect of 

menopause on postmenopausal bone loss in Japanese 

women: results from a prospective study. J 

Bone Miner Res 13: 303–309, 1998. 

28. Panotopoulos, G, Raison, J, Ruiz, JC, Guy- 

Grand, B, and Basdevant, A. Weight gain at the 

time of menopause. Hum Reprod 12 Suppl 1: 126– 

133, 1997. 


29. Pouilles, JM, Tremollieres, F, and Ribot, C. Spine 

and femur densitometry at the menopause: are 

both sites necessary in the assessment of the 

risk of osteoporosis? Calcif Tissue Int 52: 344–347, 

1993. 

29. Pruitt, LA, Jackson, RD, Bartels, RL, and 

Lehnhard, HJ. Weight-training eff ects on bone 

mineral density in early postmenopausal women. 

J Bone Miner Res 7: 179–185, 1992. 

30. Rebuff e-Scrive, M, Andersson, B, Olbe, L, and 

Bjorntorp, P. Metabolism of adipose tissue in 

intraabdominal depots of nonobese men and 

women. Metab Clin Exp 38: 453–458, 1989. 

31. Richmond, J, Aharonoff , GB, Zuckerman, JD, 

and Koval, KJ. Mortality risk after hip fracture. 

2003. J Orthop Trauma 17: 2–5, 2003. 

32. Shangold, MM. Exercise in the menopausal 

woman. Obstet Gynecol 75: 58, 1990. 

33. Silverman, NE, Nicklas, BJ, and Ryan, AS. Addition 

of aerobic exercise to a weight loss program 

increases BMD, with an associated reduction in 

infl ammation in overweight postmenopausal 

women. Calcif Tissue Int 84: 257–265, 2009. 

34. Simpson, JA, MacInnis, RJ, Peeters, A, Hopper, 

JL, Giles, GG, and English, DR. A comparison 

of adiposity measures as predictors of all-cause 

mortality: the Melbourne Collaborative Cohort 

Study. Obesity (Silver Spring) 15: 994–1003, 2007. 

35. Srivastava, M, and Deal, C. Osteoporosis in elderly: 

prevention and treatment. Clin Geriatr Med 

18: 529–555, 2002. 

36. Srivastava, S, Toraldo, G, Weitzmann, MN, Cenci, 

S, Ross, FP, and Pacifi ci, R. Estrogen decreases 

osteoclast formation by down-regulating receptor 

activator of NF-kappa B ligand (RANKL)-induced 

JNK activation. J Biol Chem 276: 8836–8840, 

2001. 


37. Tschopp, M, Sattelmayer, MK, and Hilfi ker, R. Is 

power training or conventional resistance training 

better for function in elderly persons? A metaanalysis. 

Age Ageing 40: 549–556, 2011. 

38 Turner, CH. Homeostatic control of bone structure: 

an application of feedback theory. Bone 12: 

203–217, 1991. 

39. Velthuis, MJ, Schuit, AJ, Peeters, PHM, and 

Monninkhof, EM. Exercise program aff ects body 

composition but not weight in postmenopausal 

women. Menopause 16: 777–784, 2009. 

40. Wanderman, KL, Goldstein, MS, and Faber, J. 

Letter: cor pulmonale secondary to severe kyphoscoliosis 

in Marfan’s syndrome. Chest 67: 250–251, 

1975. 

9

sport-specifi c 

conditioning Patrick McHenry, MA, CSCS,*D, USAW 

about the 

AUTHOR 

Patrick McHenry is the 

Head Strength and 

Conditioning Coach 

at Castle View High 

School in Castle Rock, 

CO. He designs the 

lifting and speed/ 

agility programs for 

all the weightlifting 

classes as well as 

works with the school’s 

20 varsity sports. 

McHenry earned a 

Master’s degree is in 

Physical Education 

with an emphasis in 

Kinesiology from the 

University of Northern 

Colorado. He is a 

Certifi ed Strength 


Specialist® with 

Distinction with the 

National Strength 


Association. He is 

also a Certifi ed Club 

Coach with USA 

Weightlifting. McHenry 

has worked with 

athletes from youth 

to the elite-level in a 

wide variety of sports. 

He has presented 

at international and 

national strength 

coaches and physical 

education conferences. 

He is published in 

books, journals, 

internet manuals and 

videos. 


Variation is “the purposeful change of the program design 

variable assignments to expose an individual to new or 

diff erent training stressors,” (1). It is a key component to 

getting results and keeping individuals coming back. 

Variation can refer to sets, reps, training loads, or rest 

periods. Variation can also refer to the exercises performed 

by the individual within the weekly workout. The positive 

side for changing the exercises within the workout is that 

“the more exercises performed, the greater variety and 

stimulus to the system,” (5). The negative aspect of changing 

up the workout is that too much change will confuse the 

individual and not produce the desired outcome; not 

enough variety and they will become bored or complacent. 

An easy-to-use, helpful tool for keeping variety in a program 

while maintaining the results is to develop a “notebook” of 

exercises that allows you to quickly substitute one exercise 

for another in an organized, effi cient manner. There are 

many ways the notebook can be arranged depending on 

how the workout is designed. If the program is laid out 

by body part then list the exercises for each body part 

(i.e., shoulder, back, chest, quadriceps, and hamstrings). 

By listing each specifi c muscle group then you know that 

one lift can be exchanged for another while focusing on 

a specifi c area. Another way to arrange a notebook is by 

the type of exercise that is performed (i.e., full body, upper 

body, lower body, shoulder rehab). Whichever method is 

chosen, make it fi t the needs of the individual. 

When designing programs, research shows that a heavy 

day and light day should be included in the workout (1). 

Having heavy days early in the week with the basic “core” 

lifts allows the individual to add a little more weight 

because they are fresh. The lighter days later in the week 

are a perfect time to use the “alternate” exercises because 

many times individuals are tired. Changing the exercises 

manipulates the workout so that they have to lighten up 

the weight to perform the lift correctly. If lower body is 

worked on Monday, then a “core” exercise, such as the back 

squat, would be performed. On Wednesday an “alternate” 

for the back squat can be the front squat, or a front spilt 

squat depending on the individual’s training level. The 

“alternate” exercise requires the individual to lighten up 

naturally and yet, it is still challenging. There are several 

benefi ts to adding variety in the workout. One method 

for altering a program is performing diff erent exercises to 

develop the same muscle (6). 

To develop a wide variety of exercises, start out with the 

basic lifts (Tables 1 and 2). Next, look at the variables that 

make up the lift including foot placement, body position, 

implement used, speed of movement, or machine. Putting 

all the information into a table is an easy way to track data 

and read it when needed. The following steps will help you 

develop a list, or table, of exercise variations. 

Step one: Choose the core lifts that will be the base for the 

exercise program. Squat, bench press, incline press, and 

military press, are common “core” lifts. 

Step two: If it is a lower body exercise, decide on the various 

ways the feet can be placed. For an upper body exercise the 

feet can be on or off the ground. Upper body exercises can 

be performed from a standing, sitting or prone position. 

Step three: What implement will be used to perform the 

exercise? It could be a bar, dumbbell, sandbag, kettlebell, 

medicine ball, or plate (2,3,4). 

Step four: How will the implement be held? Some options 

are in the front of the body, on the back, overhead, or next 

to the body. 

Step fi ve: What speed will be associated with the 

movement? Some examples are same speed up/down, 

slow on the way down, explosive on the way up, pausing at 

the bottom, or shrugging at the top. 

Step six: Is there a machine that can take the place of the 

free-weight exercise? 

Step seven: Can two exercises be combined? For example, 

when performing a dumbbell bench press, stopping at the 

top then transitioning into a dumbbell fl y. 


sport-specifi c conditioning 

Table 1: Example of Varying Squat Exercises 

Feet Position Stable Staggered 

Squat 

One leg on box, one 

leg on ground 


One leg on bench, one 

leg on ground 

Bar Position Back Front Overhead Zercher (hold on arms) 

Dumbbell Next to side On shoulders Overhead 

Other Implement Sandbag Plates Kettlebells Medicine ball Chains 

Speed Same speed down/up Slow down/ explode up Pause at bottom 

Machine Smith machine Leg press 

Table 2: Example of Varying Bench Press Exercises 

Bench 

Body Position Feet fl at Feet up Standing 

Grip Normal Wide grip Close grip 

Implement Bar Dumbbell Plate Sandbag Kettlebell 

Speed 

Same speed down/ 

up 

Pause on chest 

Negative slow 

down, quick up 

Machine Smith machine Cross-over cable Free motion 

Combination DB bench to fl y 

DB push-up to side 

raise 

The use of variety in exercise selection will keep the workout fun, eff ective 

and progressive while ensuring the desired results. With the number of 

diff erent exercises, scientifi cally proven equipment, and the proper use 

of program design, any program can incorporate variety. The key is the 

objective of the program. Make sure the lifts meet the desired outcome and 

this will guarantee results and prevent wasted time in the gym. � 

References 

1. Earle, R, and Baechle, T. Essentials of Personal Training. Champaign, IL: 

Human Kinetics; 362–389, 2004. 

2. Hedrick, A. Dumbbell training for football at the U.S. Air Force Academy. 

Strength and Conditioning Journal 20(6): 34–39, 1998. 

DB push-up to 

rotation 

Shrug at top 

3. McHenry, P, and Raether, J. 101 Sandbag exercises. Coaches Choice; 1–151, 

2009. 

4. Sell, K, Taveras, K, and Ghigiarelli, J. Sandbag training: A sample 4-week 

training program. Strength and Conditioning Journal 33(4): 88–96, 2011. 

5. Torcolacci, M. Rethinking strength training for throwers. Strength and 

Conditioning Journal 15 (6): 47–52, 1993. 

6. Yessis, M. The key to strength development: Variety. National Strength 

Coaches Association Journal 3(3): 32–34, 1981. 


training table 

about the 

AUTHOR 

Debra Wein is a 

recognized expert 

on health and 

wellness and has 

designed award 

winning programs 

for both individuals 

and corporations 

around the US. She 

is president and 

founder of Wellness 

Workdays, Inc., (www. 

wellnessworkdays. 

com). In addition, Wein 

is the president and 

founder of partner 

company, Sensible 

Nutrition, Inc. (www. 

sensiblenutrition.com) 

Wein has nearly 20 

years of experience 

working in the health 

and wellness industry. 

Megan Miraglia is a 

dietitian at Wellness 

Workdays and 

Sensible Nutrition, Inc. 

Previously, she worked 

in research focused 

on the prevention of 

childhood obesity. 

She completed a 

dietetic internship and 

earned a Master of 

Science degree from 

Tufts University and 

the Frances Stern 

Nutrition Center. 

Miraglia is a certifi ed 

Freshstart facilitator for 

the American Cancer 

Society’s Fresh Start 

tobacco cessation 

program. 

Debra Wein, MS, RD, LDN, CSSD, NSCA-CPT,*D and Megan Miraglia, MS, RD, LDN 

MyPlate and Athletes: 

Is it Right for You? 

Following the release of the 2005 Dietary Guidelines, the 

United States Department of Agriculture released MyPyramid 

(www.mypyramid.gov) to help individuals discover 

appropriate eating messages as well as to develop an individualized 

and tailored nutrition plan to meet their own 

nutrient, activity, and energy needs (4). However, with the 

recent release of the 2010 Dietary Guidelines, a new icon is 

in town that simplifi es the message even more, “MyPlate” 

(www.choosemyplate.gov) (5). 

The MyPlate image, released by the U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, provides a mealtime visual to help identify 

the fi ve food group categories: protein, grains, dairy, fruits 

and vegetables (5). Instead of focusing on the number of 

portions to consume throughout the day, as with MyPyramid, 

MyPlate focuses on food categories, provides information, 

and emphasizes three key points to accompany 

the MyPlate icon (5): 

Balancing Calories 

• Enjoy your food, but eat less 

• Avoid oversized portions 

Foods to Increase 

• Make half your plate fruits and vegetables 

• Make at least half your grains whole grains 

• Switch to fat-free or low-fat (1%) milk 

Foods to Reduce 

• Compare sodium in foods like soup, bread, and 

frozen meals – and choose the foods with lower 

numbers 

• Drink water instead of sugary drinks 

The idea behind MyPlate is that if Americans can follow 

these basic key messages and match the way they portion 

foods on their plate with the examples provided 

by MyPlate, then this will lead to a healthier overall lifestyle. 

MyPlate advocates physical activity to supplement 

healthy eating, but without specifi c recommendations, 

MyPlate suggests individuals start with activities they 

enjoy as physical activity is an important component of 

overall health (4,5). Like MyPyramid, an individual can still 

log onto www.choosemyplate.gov and enter their age, 

sex, height, weight and activity level to generate a personalized 

“daily food plan” that shows food group recommendations 

and portion sizes for a given calorie amount. 

Although this may be very helpful for the general population, 

can it be used to support and meet the energy needs 

of an athlete? 

MyPlate: Key Messages 

for Athletes 

While the basic messages from MyPlate may only be use- 

ful for those exercising less than 60 – 90 min per day, 

there are still some key “take-home” concepts for food 

selections that are helpful for individuals of all levels. For 

example, making half the plate fruits and vegetables will 

not only help ensure that an individual gets enough vitamins, 

minerals, and antioxidants, but also contributes to 

the overall carbohydrate load that the body needs. For example, 

an athlete may obtain more of their carbohydrate 

needs from nutrient-rich fruits and starchy vegetables 

rather than solely fi lling up on breads, pasta and rice. Additionally, 

of the carbohydrates from grains an athlete may 

choose, making at least half of them whole grains allows 

the athlete to reap the benefi ts of B vitamins, fi ber and 

long-lasting energy (1). In some instances, such as 15 – 30 

min before an exercise session or event, simple carbohydrates 

may be more appropriate to help avoid stomach 

discomfort. However, for general intake throughout the 

day, the whole grain message should be observed. Finally, 

while sports drinks may have their place for some exercise 

bouts that are greater than 60 min, they are not always 

necessary and it is good to choose water over sugary 

drinks to meet hydration needs in everyday situations (2). 

Limitations of MyPlate for 

the Athlete 

Following the basic principles of MyPlate can be a good 

starting point for individuals to learn the relative relationship 

of protein, grains, vegetables and fruit on the plate. 


12

training table 

However, for certain athletes, especially endurance and ultra-endurance 

athletes where exercise may last upwards of two or more hours per day, 

MyPlate does not provide enough detail to meet specifi c nutrient needs 

for muscle growth, development and recovery between exercise sessions 

(2,3). MyPlate does not provide calorie guidelines, portion sizes and does 

not mention plate size to help gauge the actual amounts on a plate. All of 

these items are especially important for a serious athlete to properly meet 

necessary energy needs. 

The “daily food plan” can be used as a guide to help an athlete plan his/ 

her daily intake of food, but calorie recommendations max out at 3,200 

calories which may not be applicable for endurance and ultra-endurance 

athletes (5). For example, a 205 lb, 32-year-old male weightlifter who trains 

twice per day may require upwards of 4,000 calories per day. On the other 

hand, it can be helpful for a 23-year-old female who is 125 lb, runs 60 min 

per day and requires a 2,400-calorie diet, as described below. According to 

the “daily food plan” this 23-year-old female athlete should consume the 

following amount of food from each food group: 

• 8 oz of grains 

• 3 c of vegetables 

• 2 c of fruits 

• 3 c of milk and dairy 

• 6.5 oz of protein 

With recognition of both the useful aspects and limitations of the MyPlate 

icon and key messages, they can serve as useful tools to help guide an individual 

to make more healthful food selections. Athletes exercising more 

than 60 min per day would most likely benefi t more from personalized 

recommendations from a dietitian that can also account for their level of 

activity, and specifi c nutrient needs to meet the demands placed on their 

bodies. � 

References 

1. Burke, L, Cox, G, Cummings, N, and Desbrow, B. Guidelines for daily carbohydrate 

intake do athletes achieve them? The American Journal of Sports 

Medicine 108: 1896–1901, 2001. 

2. Dunford, M, and Doyle, J. Nutrition for sport and exercise. Belmont, CA: 

Thomson Wadsworth; 2008. 

3. Stoler, F. Active voice: Impressions of the new USDA “MyPlate.” American 

College of Sports Medicine: Sports Medicine Bulletin. Retrieved December 

8, 2011 from, http://www.multiview.com/briefs/acsm/ACSM112911.php. 

2011. 

4. United States Department of Agriculture. 2005 Dietary Guidelines for 

Americans. Retrieved December 7, 2011 from, http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2005/document/. 

2005. 

5. United States Department of Agriculture. 2010 Dietary Guidelines for 

Americans. Retrieved December 7, 2011 from, www.dietaryguidelines. 

gov. 2010. 


MyPlate and Athletes 

13

feature 

about the 

AUTHOR 

Richard Scrivener 

currently resides in 

London, UK, where 

he works as a Health, 

Fitness and Nutrition 

Lecturer for Premier 

Training International. 

Scrivener has 

previously worked as 

a Premiership Rugby 

Union Strength and 

Conditioning Coach 

and holds the NSCA’s 

CSCS credential. He 

previously studied 

at Brunel University 

gaining an MSc in 

High Performance 

Physiology and Human 

Performance. 


Richard Scrivener, MSc, CSCS 

The image that often resonates with the term “core training” 

in the local gymnasium is more often than not one 

of exercising the abdominals and lower back. More than 

likely, everyone has heard someone say, “I’m training 

my chest, triceps and core today.” It is usually followed 

by 15 min of as many crunch and curl-up variations as 

possible. The objective of these exercise inclusions is to 

improve the physique aesthetically. Unfortunately, this 

approach to training the core may often be typical of 

many athletes too; and begs the question, is this really 

functional to their sporting needs? Moreover, is this a 

method of training that is functional for anyone? 

Now, another term that is heard on many occasions is, 

“functional.” The fi ner details of the meaning of this term 

in training nomenclature can be debated until blue in 

the face; and what is “functional” to one individual or 

team may be somewhat dysfunctional to others. For the 

sake of this article, “functional training” can be defi ned 

as training that improves an individual’s capability to 

perform integrated whole-body movements, with effi 

ciency and eff ectiveness, which are likely required in 

both sport and activities of daily living (ADL). 

A brief description of the core may help emphasize why 

those 15 min of crunches may not provide the most 

“bang for your buck.” The core is a link between the upper 

and lower extremities. The core musculature is taken 

as being 29 pairs of muscles that support a region of 

the body known as the lumbo-pelvic-hip complex (the 

lumbar spine and sacrum with the pelvis) during functional 

movements (11). What this defi nition will hopefully 

make clear, is that any muscle attaching to the hips 

and/or spine must ultimately aff ect the position of the 

core and how well it works (5). Imagine a tent that is 

pitched on a windy day. For it to be stable and upright, 

the guy ropes must be evenly spaced apart, anchored 

as far as possible from the main central tent pole and 

provide equal tension when secured to the ground. If 

there is unequal tension and stress on some guy ropes 

and not others, it will result in an unstable and “dysfunctional” 

tent. 


When considering the capabilities and fi tness levels of 

novice exercisers and elite athletes, and simultaneously 

assessing the role of the core in both sport and ADL, one 

can attempt to build a much more suitable model for 

core training that is eff ective, progressive, varied, and 

challenging. 

Core in Isolation 

It might be argued that activation of the inner core 

muscles is a reasonable place to start with core training. 

An abdominal hollowing action while attempting to 

stabilize and control the lumbo-pelvic-hip region while 

moving the extremities allows for recruitment of local 

muscles, such as the transverse abdominis and lumbar 

multifi dus (8). These muscles are important, as research 

tells us that their activation of limb movement will provide 

a stable base from which these gross movements 

may occur (6). Biofeedback tools may be useful for the 

exerciser/athlete to ensure positioning and control is 

maintained. It should, however, be recognized that this 

isolative approach to training the core is a contentious 

issue among experts, but has been used widely. (See 

Table 1, page 17) 

Core in Stabilization 

Faries and Greenwood state that when we fail to create 

stability in our spine, the vertebrae are unlikely to be 

correctly aligned, and that we should aim to maximize 

spinal stability during functional tasks (4). Therefore, it 

might be suggested that the exerciser/athlete should 

possess the body awareness required to position themselves 

in correctly aligned postures, and develop the 

strength to stabilize these positions. Holding these postures 

will cause the associated musculature of the core 

to work together concomitantly creating the necessary 

tension to maintain and endure correct alignment of 

the skeleton, and in doing so enhance stability. In sport, 

consider the necessary stability required of the lumbopelvic-hip 

complex in a rugby union scrum or that of a 

100-m sprinter, where effi ciency and control are crucial 

as the legs and arms produce very large forces at high 

speeds. (See Table 2, page 18) 


14

Core in Reactivity 

The core muscles consist of both type I (slow 

twitch) and type II (fast twitch) muscle fi bers 

(4). Endurance can be developed in the type 

I muscles by holding positions for prolonged 

durations, e.g., 60 – 180 s at low levels of muscular 

tension (30 – 40%); while the type II fi bers 

are better trained when using faster movements 

and resistances above 40% (4). Creating a proprioceptively 

rich environment, where the body 

needs to react rapidly to changing positions 

will assist in providing a training eff ect whereby 

quick deformations to neutral posture are lost 

and quickly regained. Consider if you were to 

trip at work when carrying an object, or when 

landing from a jump in basketball while being 

bumped by an opponent, the ability to correct 

and stabilize your position would be advantageous. 

It would, however, be advisable to 

quickly move on from this phase once suffi cient 

mastery of basic exercises has been established. 

Evidence suggests that when unstable training 

environments are used, overall force production, 

movement velocity, and range of motion of the 

associated musculature are reduced (3). These 

physical attributes are essential for successful 

athletic performance, and in making ADL that 

much easier. (See Table 3, page 19) 

Core in Deceleration 

It is not uncommon for general training pro- 

grams to be heavily biased towards producing 

force from the shortening of muscles (known 

as concentric muscle actions) creating external 

pushing and pulling movements. However, the 

role of eccentric or lengthening muscle actions 

cannot be ignored. Pick a sport, any sport, and 

on how many occasions are you required to slow 

down your body (e.g., jump landing), a limb (e.g., 

soccer kick), a sporting implement (e.g., racket), 

or resist an opponent’s attacking movement 

(e.g., judo). These all require eccentric muscle 

activation, and the core will be right at the center 

of these actions. McGill suggests that “energy 

leaks” can result from weaker joints being forced 

into disadvantageous positions when stronger 

joints work (7). It might be proposed, therefore, 

that it would be benefi cial to train the core to re- 

sist excessive movement as the joints around it 

work. (See Table 4, page 20) 

Core in Strength 

The human body has numerous joints; some built 

for mobility (e.g., shoulders and hips), and others 

for stability (e.g., knee and lumbar spine). The 

saying, “you are only as strong as your weakest 

link” can be exemplifi ed by the observation that 

most individuals can leg press far more weight 

than they can squat. This is largely because the 

stability of the spine cannot support the same 

loads as the angled back rest of a machine. We 

might surmise, therefore, that 1) the core will always 

be trained well when compound structural 

lifts using free-weights are selected over fi xedpath 

resistance machines and isolation-based 

free-weight exercises; and 2) the core is trained 

in a more functional manner when exercises are 

performed with mobile joints moving through 

their full ranges and stable joints providing the 

supporting platform for this to occur. A strong 

example would be a deep overhead squat. (See 

Table 5, pages 21 and 22) 

Core in Power 

Muscular power and rate of force development 

are athletic qualities essential to success in most 

sports (10). Professional bodies such as the National 

Academy of Sports Medicine (NASM) advocate 

that core training should be progressed 

from a balance/stability approach through to 

strength and then power in a periodized fashion, 

in line with the exerciser’s/athlete’s level of readiness 

(1). Consider, also, an individual attempting 

to open a large, heavy swing door at a shopping 

mall; they’d be unlikely to try to open this door 

slowly, which would place undue excess stress 

on their musculoskeletal system. By generating 

momentum through acceleration, less overall 

eff ort is required to open the door and reduced 

stress imposed. So, perhaps power training has a 

role to play in all training plans, not just those of 

athletes. (See Table 6, page 23) 


Conclusion 

As Gray Cook states on the topic of function and 

integrated movement, “Separating them [core 

muscles] makes as much sense as individually 

training each fi nger and thumb and hoping they 

will work together when it’s time to catch or 

throw a ball,” (2). In relation to training the core, 

we have (and perhaps still do in some instances) 

separated and attempted to train some of the 29 

pairs of muscles in a targeted and isolated manner 

when ultimately this might do more harm 

than good when it comes to the health and optimal 

function of the musculoskeletal system, particularly 

in relation to athletic performance. With 

that said, there may be instances when coaches 

are required to regress core training programs 

based upon the level of conditioning of an individual’s 

needs. A suggested model and practical 

guidance for core training has been provided in 

this article and it is anticipated that it should be 

applied in a periodized and progressive manner 

with the individual’s constraints and requirements 

at the heart of the programming process. 

� 


References 

1. Clark, MA, Lucett, SC, and Sutton, BG. NASM essentials 

of personal fi tness training. (4th ed.) Baltimore, 

MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1–624, 

2012. 

2. Cook, G. Athletic body in balance. Champaign, IL: 

Human Kinetics; 1–232, 2003. 

3. Drinkwater, EJ, Pritchett, EJ, and Behm, DG. Effect 

of instability and resistance on unintentional 

squat-lifting kinetics. International Journal of 

Sports Physiology and Performance 2(4): 400–413, 

2007. 

4. Faries, MD, and Greenwood, M. Core training: 

Stabilizing the confusion. Strength and Conditioning 

Journal 29(2): 10–25, 2007. 

National Strength and 

Conditioning Association 

5. Fredericson, M, and Moore, T. Core stabilization 

training for middle and long-distance runners. 

New Studies in Athletics 20(1): 25–37, 2005. 

6. Hodges, PW, Richardson, CA, and Moore, T. Ineffi 

cient muscular stabilization of the lumbar spine 

associated with low back pain: A motor control 

evaluation of transverses abdominis. Spine 21(22): 

399–405, 1996. 

7. McGill, S. Core training: Evidence translating 

to better performance and injury prevention. 

Strength and Conditioning Journal 32(3): 33–46, 

2010. 

8. Richardson, CA, Jull, G, Hodges, PW, and Hides, 

J. Therapeutic exercise for spinal segmental stabilization 

in low back pain: Scientifi c basis and 

clinical approach. Edinburgh, NY: Churchill Livingstone; 

1–191, 1999. 


9. Stanton, R, Raeburn, P, and Humphries, B. The 

eff ect of short-term swissball training on core stability 

and running economy. Journal of Strength 

and Conditioning Research 18(3): 522–527, 2004. 

10. Turner, A. Training for power: Principles and 

practice. Professional Strength and Conditioning 

14: 20–32, 2009. 

11. Willardson, JM. Core stability training for 

healthy athletes: A diff erent paradigm for fi tness 

professionals. Strength and Conditioning Journal 

29(6): 42–49, 2007. 

PERSONAL TRAINERS CONFERENCE 

April 13 – 14, 2012 / Las Vegas / www.nsca-lift.org/PTC2012 


Core Training Phase: Table 1: Core in Isolation 

Rules: 

Sample Exercises: 

Typical Reps x Sets x 

Tempo x Recovery: 


Lumbo-pelvic-hip complex remains fi xed once positional awareness is gained; sequential open chain limb 

movements are used to challenge this position. 

Lumbo-Pelvic Tilting 

Lying Supine with 

Leg and Arm 

Movements 

Lying Supine with 

Combined Arm and Leg 

Movements 

Anterior tilting (lumbar arching) and posterior tilting (lumbar fl attening) through 

a full range is performed to gain familiarity and proprioceptive awareness of 

the lumbo-pelvic-hip position. The athlete should note how the pressure gauge 

changes (see below for additional details). 

Using a blood pressure sphygmomanometer for biofeedback, the trainer or coach 

can guide the athlete through a progressive series of extremity movements, which 

challenge the ability to maintain a neutral lumbo-pelvic-hip postion. A suggested 

working pressure in the cuff is 40 mmHg and should not deviate more than 10 

mmHg during movement (5). 

The level of diffi culty can be progressed from arm or leg movements only to 

combinations of both; and/or from having the moving limb remaining on the 

ground to being held 1 in. off the ground during movement. 

Movements are performed to establish optimal control and muscular endurance (until control/form is lost). 

Progress time under tension up to 180 s (3 x 60 s) with a 5 (concentric)/2 (isometric)/5 (eccentric) tempo with 

30 s of rest between sets. 


Core Training 

Phase: 

Rules: 


Typical Reps x 

Sets x Tempo x 

Recovery: 

Table 2: Core in Stabilization 


Light intra-abdominal pressure is required to assist in maintaining correct posture of the lumbo-pelvic-hip 

complex. Gravity will create a “buckling” force which the athlete must work against. The core musculature is 

therefore required to co-contract in a supportive manner. 

Prone Planks 

Horse Stance / 

Quadruped Poses 

Supine Bridging 

The trainer or coach can guide the athlete in adjusting their whole body positioning in a 

4-point, load-bearing, prone plank exercise. A dowel can be used as feedback for correct 

postural positioning (contacting back of the head, mid-thoracic and gluteals without 

excessive cervical and lumbar lordosis/curvature). 

Additional poses can also be used as described above. By lifting upper, lower or 

combinations of both extremities, rotational forces are created that should be resisted and 

controlled. 

Supine poses can be used to promote neuromuscular activation of the posterior core 

musculature. The trainer or coach, however, should still ensure that a neutral posture is 

maintained. The base of support can be manipulated to increase the exercise diffi culty 

(e.g., six points of contact with arms spread on the fl oor > three points of contact with arms 

raised). 

Movements are performed to establish muscular endurance or until control/form is lost. Develop time under 

tension up to 180 s (3 x 60 s) with isometric/static holds, resting 45 s between sets. 



Phase: 

Rules: 

Sample exercises: 



Recovery: 

Table 3: Core in Reactivity 


All exercises are performed in a proprioceptively rich environment and require the athlete to react repeatedly in 

order to correct and maintain changes in posture and alignment. Reactivity challenge and predictibility can be 

provided and progressed in several forms. 

Stability Ball Poses 

BOSU Balance Poses 

Partner Perturbations 

When an unstable surface is used, equilibrium reactions are required. Balance is 

constantly being challenged and high levels of co-contraction are initially required until 

positional awareness is heightened. Greater diffi culty can be achieved by moving the 

upper limbs or by throwing and catching light balls. 

Training eff ects from the stability phase are integrated and challenged within a 

reactivity environment. When strength and endurance exercises, such as push-ups, are 

later utilized, positional awareness and posture is then optimized. 

By manipulating the variable of predictibility, the athlete is required to respond to 

unexpected stimuli as the trainer or coach provides “taps” of varying direction and 

magnitude. 

Movements are performed to establish muscular endurance or until control/form is lost. Develop time under 

tension up to 180 s (3 x 60 s) with a combination of isometric/static holds and movement-based exercise as 

shown; rest 45 s between sets. 



Phase: 

Rules: 




Recovery: 

Table 4: Core in Deceleration 


These exercises involve the utilization of eccentric muscle actions which provide a training eff ect that promotes 

the ability to decelerate and control; all movements begin from higher velocity and should be brought to a halt 

quickly and under control at all times. 

Kneeling MB 

Rotational Catch 

Partner Towel Wrestle 

Barbell Roll-Out 

In a lunge kneeling stance the trainer or coach throws a medicine ball to the athlete 

requiring a catching action, and therefore a demand to control and decelerate the 

medicine ball momentum. The trainer or coach can stand further away or use a heavier 

ball as required to provide progression. 

This fun, interactive drill builds rapport between the athlete and trainer or coach. The 

core and global musculature work with the full spectrum of muscle actions (concentric, 

eccentric and isometric) while reactivity and corrective adjustments are made. 

Begin with a strong neutral lumbo-pelvic-hip position and retract and set the shoulder 

girdle with the head aligned with the spine. Allow the bodyweight to drop forward 

steadily without loss of posture to a range of motion that can be controlled and then 

return to the beginning position. 

6 – 12 reps, 2 – 3 sets with 60 – 90 s recovery between sets. The eccentric phase is the focus of these exercises as 

the various training implements are slowed and controlled. The fi nal position, where applicable, should be held 

momentarily to ensure good postural integrity, and that any necessary positional adjustments are made. 



Phase: 

Rules: 


Table 5: Core in Strength 


All exercises selected here are free-weight, multi-joint structural lifts which take us closer to our defi nition of 

functional. The athlete begins in a standing position and is required to generate moderate to large amounts 

of force from the extremities while the core musculature provides a solid platform from which movement can 

eff ectively and effi ciently occur. 

Cable Russian twist 

Cable Woodchop 

Deadlift 

In a standing pose, with knees soft, the lumbo-pelvic-hip in a neutral position, 

shoulders retracted and elbows soft, drive the cable across the body aggressively 

rotating through the trunk. This open chain exercise may be useful for simulating 

actions when working against opponents (e.g., in combative sports). 

Similar to the Cable Russian Twist, however a weight shift pattern in the frontal plane 

through the lower body can also be utilized to integrate the exercise with the upper 

body. Both low-to-high and high-to-low options can be used as deemed appropriate. 

This is a hip-dominant lift that requires the athlete to maintain the bar close to 

the body throughout, while driving aggressively into the ground utilizing a strong 

extension pattern from the knees and hips. 



Phase: 




Recovery: 

Overhead Squat 

Overhead Lunge 

Kettlebell Turkish 

Get-Up 

Table 5: Core in Strength (continued) 


Many variations of the squat exist with their use being prevalent in most strength and 

conditioning facilities with respect to athlete training and lower body hypertrophy, 

strength and power development. Overhead squats shift the athlete’s center of mass 

upwards and create an increased requirement for the core musculature to stabilize the 

spine and pelvis. 

The lunge utilizes a 1-leg movement pattern and creates a stability challenge at the 

hip, knee and ankle in the frontal plane as gross movement occurs in the sagittal 

plane. The torso, shoulders and head should be held upright and neutral while the 

unilateral nature of the loading above the head creates additional demands for the 

athlete. 

This is an excellent whole-body movement performed in all planes. The time under 

tension for the core musculature is extended per rep due to the number of phases (not 

all shown) required to complete the lift. 

Assuming the strength phase of a periodized training plan: 5 – 8 reps, 3 – 5 sets, with 3 – 5 min recovery. Utilize a 

controlled but urgent intent to lift. 


Core Training Phase: Table 6: Core in Power 

Rules: 


Typical Reps x Sets x 

Tempo x Recovery: 


All exercises selected here are free-weight, multi-joint structural lifts which optimize our defi nition of functional. 

The athlete is in a standing position and is required to generate moderate to large amounts of force from the 

extremities at maximum speed, while the core musculature provides a solid platform from which movement 

can eff ectively and effi ciently occur. 

Olympic-Style Lifts and 

Variations 

Tire Sledgehammers 

Tri-Planar Kettlebell 

Lifts 

Variations of the Clean and Snatch lifts are classically used to develop muscular power 

of the lower limbs using a forceful and rapid triple extension of the ankles, knees 

and hips. These technique-intensive lifts should be coached by a qualifi ed Certifi ed 

Strength and Conditioning Specialist®. (An example of a Clean High Pull is shown.) 

This exercise demands a rapid and forceful fl exion and rotational force from the 

torso subsequent to loading of the anterior musculature. An important benefi t is the 

absence of the requirement for the antagonists (posterior muscles) to decelerate and 

slow the downward movement. 

Kettlebell training calls upon an aggressive “hip snap” and thus encourages strong 

activation of the posterior hip musculature of the core. Although rarely exploited, “triplanar 

kettlebell training” promotes the development of many desirable athletic traits 

that are highly functional (11). The forces of gravity and momentum can be utilized to 

enhance the effi ciency of energy recycling from the elastic soft tissues. 

Higher loading: 3 – 6 reps, 3 – 5 sets. 3 – 5 min recovery between sets. Lower loading: 8 – 15 reps, 2 – 4 sets. 

2 – 4 min recovery between sets.

NSCA's Performance Training Journal | Issue 11.1 - Premier Fitness

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