Local Action for Safe Water - WECF

Water Safety Plan Compendium 

Local Action for Safe Water 

Educational Materials for Teachers for Developing 

Water Safety Plans 

with Youth in Rural Bulgarian Schools 

Authors 

Margriet Samwel, WECF 

Friedemann Klimek, WECF 

Claudia Wendland, WECF 

Diana Iskreva, Earth Forever 

Bistra Mihaylova, Ecoworld 2007 

Aglika Yordanova, Ecoworld 2007

Publication Data 

© 2012 WECF e.V., Germany 

ISBN 978-‐3-‐9813170-‐6-‐0 

Copyright: WECF 2012 

Copying parts of this publication is allowed on the condition that the source is mentioned 

Authors 


Friedemann Klimek, WECF 

Claudia Wendland, WECF 

Diana Iskreva, Earth Forever 

Bistra Mihaylova, Ecoworld 2007 

Aglika Yordanova, Ecoworld 2007 

Editor 

Anita Roetzer, Südwind Entwicklungspolitik Salzburg 


Layout 

Anita Roetzer, Südwind Entwicklungspolitik Salzburg 


All figures and tables are developed by the authors, unless mentioned 

Photos by the authors, unless mentioned 

Project Partner, Bulgaria 

This project was funded by the German Federal Environment Foundation 

(DBU). 

Diese Publikation wurde gefördert durch die Deutsche Bundesstiftung Umwelt 

(DBU) 

The content of this publication does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the 

donor. 

www.wecf.eu 

WECF – Women in Europe for a Common Future 

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Fax: +33 -‐ 450 -‐ 49 97 38 

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Germany 

Tel.: +49 -‐ 89 -‐ 23 23 938 -‐ 0 

Fax: +49 -‐ 89 -‐ 23 23 938 – 11

Contents 

List of tables and boxes, figures and graphics 

List of forms and examples 

Acknowledgements 

Introduction to the Water Safety Plan Compendium 

Introduction 

1. Aim of the presented materials 

2. The Target groups for a WSP project 

3. Content of the ring binder “Local Action for Safe Water” 

4. The toolbox 

5. Timeframe 

1. Module – Introducing Water Safety Plans – 

For small-‐scale water supply systems: boreholes, dug-‐wells, springs 

Authors: Margriet Samwel, Doris Müller. 

Introduction 

1. Why involvement of schools 

2. Development of Water Safety Plans 

2.1. Organising the programme 

2.2. System and stakeholder analyses 

2.3. Inventory of the water quality 

2.4. Risk and hazard assessment 

2.5.What to do with the results 

2.6. Developing plans for improvement of the water system 

3. Text sources and further reading 

2. Module – Introducing Water Safety Plans – For small-‐scale piped water distribution systems 

Author: Margriet Samwel 

Introduction 

1. Selection of the source water 

2. Selection of treatment processes 

3. Storage and distribution of water 

4. Development of a Water Safety Plan for a central piped water supply system. 

4.1. Set up a team 

4.2. Describe the water system 

4.3. Identify hazards, hazardous risks and assess the risks 

4.4. Sanitary surveys and catchment mapping 

4.5. Share the collected information with all stakeholder, determine and prioritise the risks 

4.6. Develop, implement and maintain an improved water supply system 


3. Module -‐ About (drinking) water and water cycle 

3A. Water Properties 

Author: Friedemann Klimek 

Introduction 

1. Water properties 

2. Exercises and activities 


3B. Water Cycle 

1. Water cycle -‐ global 

A WECF publication 2012

2. Water cycle -‐ local 

3. Exercises and questions 


3C. Ground and Drinking Water 

1. Groundwater 

2. Drinking water 

3. Experiments and questions 


4. Module -‐ Drinking Water Sources and Extraction 

Authors: Friedemann Klimek, Margriet Samwel 

Introduction 

1. Source selection and catchment area 

1.1. Surface water 

1.2. Springs 

1.3. Groundwater 

2. Water extraction 



5. Module -‐ Drinking Water Treatment and Storage 

Authors: Friedemann Klimek, Margriet Samwel 

Introduction 

1.Treatment at the supplier level 

1.1. Coagulation/ flocculation 

1.2. Sedimentation 

1.3. Filtration 

1.4. Other treatment processes 

1.5. Disinfection 

1.6. Corrosion control 

2. Treatment at the household level 

2.1. Ceramic filter 

2.2. Active carbon filter 

2.3. Ion-‐exchange 

2.4. Boiling 

3. Storage of drinking water 

4. Transport to consumer 

5. Maintenance, training and management 



6. Module – Drinking Water Distribution – Pipes 

Authors: Bistra Mihaylova, Margriet Samwel, Aglika Yordanova 

Introduction 

1. The most common materials used for transporting drinking water 

1.1. Metal pipes 

1.2. Plastic pipes 

1.3. Asbestos-‐cement pipes 

2. Common causes of damage to water pipes 

3. Practical issues 

3.1 How to recognise plastic, lead, copper or iron pipes? 

3.2. Actions to reduce metal intake via drinking water 




7. Module -‐ Drinking Water Quality 

Authors: Margriet Samwel, Aglika Yordanova 

Introduction 

1. Microorganisms: the most common and widespread disease causes 

1.1. Contamination of drinking water with faecal matter 

1.2. Contamination of water with Legionella bacteria 

1.3. Microbiological parameters for the quality of drinking water 

2. Chemical contaminants in drinking water 

2.1. Nitrate (NO3) 

2.2. Pesticides 

2.3. Fluoride (F) 

2.4. Metals 

3. Elements with technical aspects 

3.1. Calcium (Ca) and Magnesium (Mg) / hardness 

3.2. Iron (Fe) and Magnesium (Mn) 

4. General remarks 



8. Module -‐ Sanitation and Wastewater Treatment 

Author: Claudia Wendland 

Introduction 

1. Definition of characteristics 

1.1. Sanitation 

1.2. Domestic wastewater 

1.3. Urban wastewater 

1.4. Sustainable Sanitation 

2. Different types of toilets 

3. Wastewater 

3,1. Wastewater collection 

3.2. Septic tanks 

4. Wastewater treatment 

4.1. Extensive wastewater treatment systems 

4.2. Examples for sanitation and wastewater treatment in rural areas 

5. Re-‐use of toilet products, wastewater and sewage sludge 

6. Exercises and Questions 


9. Module -‐ WASH; Water, Sanitation and Hygiene 

Author: Diana Iskreva 

Introduction -‐ Historical data about WASH 

1. Hand-‐washing: the most important component of personal hygiene 

2. Importance of eating clean food, drinking clean water and using clean water for bathing 



10. Module -‐ Water Protection 

Authors: Margriet Samwel, Claudia Wendland 

10A. Water protection in general 

Introduction 

1. What can be done and on which levels? 

1.1 Policies and agriculture 


1.3. Animal manure 




10B. Water protection -‐ Groundwater Protection zones 

Introduction 

1. How are the groundwater protection zones defined? 

1.1. Overview of divided protection zones 

1.2. Groundwater protection zones and restrictions 

2. Barriers and mechanisms for implementing the restrictions 

2.1. Examples of good water protection policy 

2.2. Water protection by households and citizens 



11. Module -‐ Utilisation of Water in our Daily Life 

Author: Friedemann Klimek 

Introduction 

1. Sectorial use of water 

1.1. Domestic water use 

1.2. Industrial water use 

1.3. Agricultural water use 

2. Virtual water and water footprint 

2.1. An example: The water footprint in beverage production 

2.2. A global virtual water balance 



12. Module -‐ Water Saving 

Author: Diana Iskreva 

Introduction 

1.Water conservation 

2. Water efficiency 

2.1. Simple methods to reduce water waste 

2.2. Example of a waterless toilet (Urine Diverting Dry or Ecosan Toilet) 

3. Rainwater harvesting 



13. Module -‐ Financing Water and Wastewater Services 

Authors: Aglika Yordanova, Bistra Mihalova 

Introduction 

1. Water use and resources 

2. Current situation of the water sector of Bulgaria 

2.1. Interconnection between water/ sewerage services and costs 

3.Water and sewage service prices for consumers in Bulgaria 

3.1. Determination of water bills 

4. Investment needs within the Bulgarian water sector 

5. Operational needs within the Bulgarian water sector 

6. Institutional reforms needed 

7. Financial reforms needed 



14. Module -‐ Regulations on Water 

Authors: Diana Iskreva, Margriet Samwel 

Introduction 

1. Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC)) 

2. Drinking Water Directive (98/83/EC) 

3. Nitrate Directive (91/676/EEC) 

4. Directive on the protection of groundwater against pollution and deterioration (2006/118/EC) 


5. Protocol on Water and Health 

6. Human right access to safe water and sanitation 

7. Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 



15. Module – Step-‐by-‐step: 10 Relevant Practical Activities for developing a WSP 


1. Relevant practical activities 

15a. Scheme of activities, input and output for development of WSP for small-‐scale water supply system 

15b. Water network diagram-‐ identifying stakeholder of the water supply system 

16. Module -‐ Practicing Simple Water Quality Tests 


1. Taking and managing a water sample 

2. How to assess turbidity of water 

3. How to assess taste, odour and colour 

4. How to do a pH test 

5. How to do quick nitrate tests 

6. Recording the results 



17. Module -‐ Mapping the Village / Visualisation of the Analyses Results 


Introduction 

1. Mapping the village and its water sources/ distribution network 

2. Visualisation of the fluctuation of nitrate results 

3. Sharing information 



17a. Form for collecting monitoring results of water sources in and around the village 

17b. Form for reporting results of the long-‐term (seasonal) monitoring of 2 water sources 

17c. Example of mapping a village in Uzbekistan 

17d. Example of mapping a village in Georgia 

17e. Example of mapping water sources in a village and the related nitrate concentrations, Belarus 

17f. Example of visualisation of the seasonal fluctuation of nitrate concentration 

in 5 different wells, Ukraine 

17g. Example of visualisation of the seasonal fluctuation of nitrate concentration in 6 different 

wells and 2 different regions, Romania 

18. Module -‐ Risk Assessment of Small-‐Scale Water Supply Systems 


Introduction 

1. Sanitary inspection forms 

2. The results 


18a. Risk assessment of dug well or borehole 

18b. Risk assessment of public tap of pipes water 

18c. Risk assessment of pipes water with service reservoir 

18d. Risk assessment of gravity-‐fed pipes water 

18e. Risk assessment of river-‐fed piped water 

18f. Risk assessment of deep borehole with mechanised pumping 

18g. Risk assessment of protected spring 


19. Module -‐ Conducting Interviews 


Introduction 

1. Interviews can be conducted in several ways 

1.1. Interview logistics 

1.2. Preparation of the interviews before questioning 

1.3. Conducting interview 

1.4. After the interview 



19a. Questionnaire for citizens 

19b. Questionnaire for doctors and health professionals 

19c. Questionnaire for water supplier and water professionals 


List of tables and boxes, figures and graphics 

Tables and Boxes Module Chapter 

Framework for Safe Drinking Water 1 2 

Scheme of a simple treatment system for surface water 1 2.1. 

Example of involved stages in a water system -‐ from the catchment to the 

household level 

A WECF publication 2012 

2 4.2. 

Typical hazards affecting consumer premises 2 4.6. 

Typical hazards affecting the catchment 2 4.6. 

Typical hazards associated with the treatment 2 4.6. 

Typical hazards within the distribution network 2 4.6. 

Temperature and Precipitation of different cities in Europe 3a 2 

Water volume of the earth 3b 2 

Different types of raw water and vulnerability for possible natural and 

anthropogenic contaminants 

4 1.3. 

Overview of separation processes and their effectiveness 5 1.3. 

Overview or the removal capacity and effectiveness of several water treatment 

systems 

Different options of water treatment systems for households without adequate 

drinking water quality 

5 1.4. 

5 2.1. 

Microorganisms in faeces 7 1 

Causes of water-‐borne diseases 7 1 

Microbiological requirements of drinking water 7 1.3. 

Frequency of sampling and analysing the drinking water quality within the supply 

zone 

Overview of the most common chemical contaminants in drinking water, the 

related health concerns and its possible sources 

7 1.3. 

7 2.1. 

Chemical parameters and parametric values for the quality od drinking water 7 4 

Overview of the compounds of greywater and blackwater 8 1.2. 

Overview of the content of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) in urine and faeces, 

excreted per person and per day, and the content of N and P in greywater per 

person and per day 

8 1.2. 

Overview of the different types of wastewater 8 1.3. 

Characteristic and definition of urban wastewater (according to the Urban Waste 

Water Treatment Directive Council Directive 91/271/EEC) 

8 1.3. 

Different wastewater collection systems 8 3.1. 

Overview of an extensive wastewater treatment 8 4 

Microorganisms in faeces 9 1 

Overview of common Sources of Potential Water Contamination 10A 1.3. 

Overview of the water protection zones and examples of restriction. 10B 1.2. 

Water use (Domestic / Industrial / Agricultural) per year for selected European 

countries 

11 1 

Amount of water used for domestic activities (Swiss householder) 11 1.1. 

Terms regarding water footprint 11 2 

Hidden Water use in domestic goods 11 2

Prices in some Bulgarian cities (30.06.2011); 13 3.1. 

Average prices $/1m 3 and the daily consumption per person cubic meter 

in several countries. 

Average prices for water and wastewater services in dollars per cubic meter ($/1m 3 ) 

and consumption in several countries 


13 3.1. 

13 3.1. 

Figures and Graphics Module Chapter 

Water – states of matter 3a 1 

Model of a water molecule 3a 1 

Surface tension of different liquids (water and oil) 3a 1 

Water cycle 3b 1 

Average annual precipitation Europe 3b 2 

Long-‐term anomalies of annual precipitation, relative to 1961-‐1990 3b 2 

Regions threatened by droughts 3b 2 

Soil layers 3c 1 

Aquifer and wells 3c 1 

Overexploitation of a groundwater layer 4 1.3. 

Schematic overview of a well or borehole source 4 2 

Schematic overview of a spring source 4 2 

Microstrainer 5 1.3. 

Drawings of different technical devices used for aeration 5 1.4. 

Fully charges resin 5 2.3. 

Exhausted resin after ion exchange 5 2.3. 

Different types of containers: to the left unsafe, to the right safe storage of drinking 

water 

5 3 

Water tower schematic 5 4 

Water supply 6 1 

A poor quality of the installed pipes will shorten the lifetime of the pipes and are 

more prone to leaches and bursts 

6 2 

The E-‐coli Bacterium 7 1.1. 

Faecal-‐oral transmission route of pathogens 9 1 

Instructions and suggestions about washing your hands 9 2 

Illustration of areas that are most frequently and less frequently missed during 

handwashing 

9 2 

Comic on germs on not properly washed hands 9 2 

Scheme showing water protection zones l-‐lll 10B 1.1. 

Nitrate concentration – water supply Thülsfelde 10B 2.1. 

Water use per sector across regions in Europe 11 1 

Household water use in selected European countries 11 1.1. 

The total water footprint of 0.5 litre PET-‐bottle soft drink according to the type and 

origin of the sugar 

11 2.2. 

Virtual water balance per country related to trade in agricultural and industrial 

products over the period 1996-‐2005. 

11 2.2. 

Average water consumption per person and day in litre 11 3 

Water efficient house 12 2.1. 

Cross-‐section of a urine diverting dry (dehydration) toilet (UDDT). 12 2.2. 

Rainwater harvesting solutions 12 3 

The percentages of water used and wastewater generated by different sectors in 

Bulgaria 

13 1

List of forms and examples 

Forms and examples Module Number 

Scheme of activities-‐ input and output for the implementation of WSP for a small-‐ 

scale water supply system 


15 15a 

Water network diagram 15 15b 

Form for collecting monitoring results of water sources in and around the village 17 17a 

Form for reporting results of the long-‐term (seasonal) monitoring of 2 water 

sources 

17 17b 

Example of mapping a village in Uzbekistan 17 17c 

Example of mapping a village in Georgia 17 17d 

Example of mapping water sources in a village and the related nitrate 

concentrations, Belarus 

Example of visualisation of the seasonal fluctuation of nitrate concentration in 5 

different wells, Ukraine 

Example of visualisation of the seasonal fluctuation of nitrate concentration in 6 

different wells and 2 different regions, Romania 

17 17e 

17 17f 

17 17g 

Risk assessment of dug well or borehole 18 18a 

Risk assessment of public tap of pipes water 18 18b 

Risk assessment of pipes water with service reservoir 18 18c 

Risk assessment of gravity-‐fed pipes water 18 18d 

Risk assessment of river-‐fed piped water 18 18e 

Risk assessment of deep borehole with mechanised pumping 18 18f 

Risk assessment of protected spring 18 18g 

Questionnaire for citizens 19 19a 

Questionnaire for doctors and health professionals 19 19b 

Questionnaire for water supplier and water professionals 19 19c

Acknowledgements 

This publication, the Water Safety Plan Compendium for small-‐scale water supply systems, would not have been 

possible without the financial support of the German Foundation for the Environment, DBU (Deutsche 

Bundesstiftung Umwelt). Therefore, special thanks to the DBU who provided financial support for the 

development of this WSP Compendium. 

We would like to thank the children and staff of the schools in the Bulgarian villages, Hrishteni and Kaloyanovets 

of the region Stara Zagora, and the villages Pravets, Razliv and Vidrare of the region Pravets, for their support, 

their patience and willingness to participate in this project. They were the first users and testers of the provided 

WSP materials. 

We would like to express our sincere thanks to Dr Andrea Rechenburg (Institute for Hygiene and Public Health 

and Mr Cock Mudde (Project Manager, Vitens) for their valuable comments on the content of several modules. 

In particular, we would like to thank Mandilyn Beck, Intern for WECF’s Chemical and Health Department, who 

made the grammar corrections of the texts. 

They all played a very important role in the achievements of this publication. 


Introduction to 

The Water Safety Plan Compendium 

Better protection and management of drinking water sources is possible, if weaknesses and strengths are 

identified. For this and the identification of possible water source risks, the knowledge about water quality, 

pollutants, their sources and the ways of contamination is essential. A water safety plan (WSP) can be one way 

to obtain and maintain proficient drinking water quality and to minimise water related diseases. 

The management of a safe drinking water supply system, whether it is on a small or large scale, concerns many 

stakeholders. However, large-‐scale water supply systems require a lot of specific expertise in particular. 

On a village level, citizens in cooperation with the concerned stakeholders can play an important role in 

supporting better protection and management of the local drinking water supply system. In general, only a few 

citizens will have the knowledge on sustainable and safe management of the local drinking water supply 

system. Therefore, educational materials, based on the WSP approach of the World Health Organisation, were 

created for local leaders, teachers and NGOs whom develop Water Safety Plans for small-‐scale water supply 

systems. This includes the involvement of schools, the youth, citizens and other stakeholders. 

1. Aim of the presented materials 

The aim of the presented materials is to enable leaders, teachers and NGOs to involve pupils, citizens and other 

stakeholders, in developing a WSP for small water supply systems; e.g. dug wells, boreholes, springs and small-‐ 

scale piped centralised water supply systems. 

The users of this WSP compendium should be enabled to make their classes or groups interactive; to plan 

practical work, tests and experiments; to involve all stakeholders in discussions and to develop in cooperation 

with all stakeholders an action plan which should lead to safe drinking water in the community. Finally, the 

developed plans intended to improve the water safety should be implemented. The activities should be 

transparent to all, and the results shared and discussed with all stakeholders. 

2. The target groups for a WSP project 

• Schools, local citizens and parents 

• Youth groups and pupils in the age of 10 – 16 years 

• Local authorities 

• Institution/authorities responsible for the local water supply 

• Water and health experts 

• NGOs 

3. Content of the ring binder “Local Action for Safe Water” 

“Educational Materials for developing Water Safety Plans with youth in rural villages and schools” 

The content of the compendium presented in a ring binder, can be divided in tree parts: 

1. In the first two modules, general background information is described for the implementation of Water 

Safety Plans for small-‐scale water supply systems; e.g. the aim, the approach and the development 

progression. Whereas the first module focuses mainly on WSP for non-‐piped water supply systems, the 

second module focuses on small scale piped distribution systems. 

2. After the background information modules, module’s 3 -‐ 14 include theoretical lessons on for example 

general water issues, possible drinking water sources and treatment systems, water protection and water 

quality, water related regulations and financing of drinking water supply, exercises and practical activities 

to the users. 

Each module starts with a one-‐page introduction and overview of the suggested issues to be taught or 

carried out. The follow-‐up text offers a more detailed knowledge or explanation on the related issue. In 


order to gain some background and knowledge on a drinking water supply system, the sequence of the 

modules is arranged in a logical follow-‐up of water issues. Exercises, questions and a box with suggested 

activities for the development of a WSP for the local drinking water supply system are presented at the 

end of a module. Text sources and further reading finalise each module. 

3. The ring binder’s third part, module 15 -‐ 19, contains suggestions for practical activities, guidance for 

doing water test. Forms for processing the collected drinking water monitoring results and information 

are provided. The final modules contain risk assessment forms and questionnaires for citizens, water and 

health authorities, intended to gather information about the local water supply system and for surveying 

the perception and experiences of the local citizens and other stakeholders. The questionnaires and risk 

assessment forms can be adapted to local needs and conditions. 

In addition this part supports the users to report and make the findings visible for themselves and to the 

broader public. 

4. The toolbox 

There are core activities for developing a WSP in which tools are needed, such as assessment of water quality 

by analysing for example the nitrate concentration or the pH or colour. Therefore, it will be convenient to have 

a (tool) box for each class or group to gather the tools needed and related to the WSP lessons. The toolbox 

consists of practical tools, which can be combined according to the needs and circumstances. Educational 

and/or practical tools can be stored in the box. 

The content of the toolbox can be: 

• Clear drinking glass of 2 dl or 3 dl 

• Nitrate quick test strips – with a range from 0-‐500 mg/l 

• pH –indicator strips 

• Colour strip for measuring colour of the water 

• Puzzle poster of “bad” and “good wells”, other pictures or drawings e.g. “The water cycle” 

• Precipitation measure beaker 

• Thermometer 

• Towel or tissues 

5. Timeframe 

For developing a WSP, a time frame of one school year, working one to two hours per week, could be suitable. 

This includes the teaching of the educational materials. However, the water supply system is operating 

continually, therefore it has to be monitored and recovered frequently. A continuation of the WSP activities, in 

particular implementing the identified needed improvements, is required. 

Development the first year WSP activities could result in a continuation of sharing information while ensuring 

cooperation with all stakeholders, thus creating the establishment of a local water committee, which leads to 

planning and implementing improvements, and being followed by a new round of assessing the water supply 

system. 

Remarks 

The content of the given WSP compendium are not fixed and can be adjusted and developed according to the 

local situation and possibilities for implementation. For example, the age and the engagement of the pupils, the 

possibilities of the teachers, the input and cooperation of the citizens, the local and/or regional authorities and 

other stakeholders will all have an influence to the progress and the results of the WSP. 


___________________________________________________________________________ 

Introducing 


For small-‐scale water supply systems-‐ boreholes, 

dug-‐wells, springs 

Introduction 

In many rural areas citizens depend for their drinking water on unprotected water sources and hence depend 

on unsafe drinking water. The World Health Organisation (WHO) initiated the Water Safety Plans (WSP), which 

is to be considered as a part of the WHO or other guidelines or directives on drinking water quality. The WSP 

asks for an identification of risks, which could affect water safety and human health in every stage of the water 

supply. It is also necessary, however, to identify measures, which minimise and manage the risks have to be 

identified. 

A WSP should be discussed, developed and implemented with involvement of all stakeholders. The WSP 

focuses on the safety of all the different aspects of a water supply, which can vary from a large-‐scale supply 

providing water to several million consumers to a small-‐scale system, e.g. a bucket-‐well. The WSP is a concept 

to develop a process-‐orientated observation of the water supply and its goal is to identify and eliminate all the 

possible risks in the entire water supply system: from the potential risks of water pollution in the catchment 

area all the way along the line to the consumers. Therefore an understanding of the mechanisms of the system 

is needed. As well as the possible risks pertaining to the individual processes involved in the water supply and 

standard of water quality, the reasons for the potential and real risks have to be identified. Moreover, all 

stakeholders of the system and the „is and the should-‐be“ situation has to be defined. In addition, the means 

and tools on how to monitor the different stations, how to report and share the information and activities for 

improvement of the supply have to be defined. 

The main goals of this WSP programme are: 

• Minimising the health risks caused by unsafe drinking water in every stage of the water supply system 

• Monitoring the drinking water quality and sources of pollution in the communities 

• Raising awareness and motivating citizens to take local action for improving their environment, their 

access to information and to safe drinking water 

1. Why involvement of schools? 

Experiences show that children and young people are open to accepting new knowledge and participating in 

new activities. Children will involve their parents and transfer their knowledge. But for the development of the 

WSP, the support of the parents, teachers and authorities is also a condition. Cooperation with all stakeholders, 

sharing information will be learned and will give the children a wider view on their environment and 

community. A major advantage of the WSP is that children and the other stakeholders are discovering and 

gathering together information about the environmental situation in their community. This ‘learning by doing’ 

has proven a very effective way to internalise knowledge. 

Depending on the age of the children, the available time, the level of involvement of teachers and other 

stakeholders, the final outcome of the WSP will be more or less detailed, whilst fulfilling certain criteria. Parts 

of the proposed programme can be selected and even changed and adopted to the local circumstances and 

implemented by the pupils. 


___________________________________________________________________________ 

This action plan proposes a programme for children’s involvement in the monitoring of the quality of drinking 

water and the environment in their village. This programme will have several outcomes, such as: 

• Understanding of the water supply system, the risks and danger of pollution 

• Awareness raising about possible water borne diseases 

• Regular monitoring of drinking water quality 

• Registration of the seasonal fluctuations of nitrate concentrations in the water 

• Assessment and mapping the risks of drinking water pollution 

• Environmental awareness raising among children and citizens through active participation 

• Cooperation and capacity building of all stakeholders 

• Strengthening the demand for active water protection measures on local, regional and national level 

The results of the programme can be used for lobbying for the right to information and access to safe drinking 

water. The programme will contribute to a better gender balance; besides men, women will be involved in 

planning and decision making processes 

2. Development of Water Safety Plans 


Children learning to appreciate 

water as a valuable resource 

(Photo by Margarita Torres) 

Identification of the weaknesses, strengths of the water supply, the possible sources and risk of drinking water 

contamination is the base for a WSP, meaning also a better groundwater and well protection and improvement 

of water quality. 

The steps to be undertaken for the development of a WSP can be: 

• Setting up a team, discussing and deciding about the methodology to develop a WSP 

• Description of the water supply system: Making a detailed description of the whole system from the water 

catchment area to the extraction, the water treatment and transport until water storage at home and 

consumption by the consumer 

• Identifying stakeholders; drawing and mapping are good tools to support this activity 

• Discussion and taking decisions on e.g. what and when will be done, who will do it, and how hazards will 

be monitored and reported 

• Hazard assessment: Identification of the main hazards that can affect the safety of the water quality: e.g. 

water pollution by pit latrines, cracked wells or by dirty hands or buckets 

• Carrying out water analyses and interviews 

• Identification of local and regional water born diseases 

• Reporting and sharing information on the findings: organising exhibitions, meetings/discussions with 

citizens, authorities and mass media 

• Developing actions for improvement and maintenance of the system 

• Developing plans for operation, monitoring and maintenance, improvements and follow-‐ups of the WSP 

• Reporting and sharing information on the developed WSP on local, regional and national level 

• Reviewing the WSP, the hazards, risks and control mechanisms regularly

___________________________________________________________________________ 

2.1. Organising the programme 

For covering the different aspects of the water supply system a team of persons with different background and 

expertise will benefit the development of WSP. A basis of knowledge about the water system from the point 

where the water is extracted until it is used in the households should be gained by discussions, interviews, 

observations, and eventually via input from experts. Some existing data about the water supply and quality can 

be gathered from local and regional authorities. Water analyses can be done partly in the frame of the WSP 

programme. 

Box 1. Framework for Safe Drinking Water. 

Source WHO 2004, http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/wsp170805.pdf 

Nitrate concentration in water can serve as an indicator of anthropogenic water pollution by mismanagement 

of wastewater, animal manure or fertiliser. Children can carry out the nitrate analyses of water sources in the 

village and monitor the seasonal fluctuation of nitrate concentration in water. It gives an impression of the 

filter capacity of the soil layer and the possible relation to human activities. Further assessment of the 

occurrence of water born diseases, of the environment and the risks of water pollution will give insight into the 

level of water safety and the measures to be taken for improving water quality and minimising water related 

diseases. 

2.2. System and stakeholder analyses 

The procedure for carrying out the programme should be discussed in the community, in the school with 

children and teachers and it is desirable that parents and local authorities are informed about and involved in 

the project. 

Responsibilities and management 

Investigation of the current situation concerning the responsibilities and management of the water supply system is 

useful for identification of who is doing what. The involved NGO plays a crucial role in this process by facilitating the 

gathering of information from the different stakeholders. Questions like, who have officially the task of monitoring, 

cleaning and maintaining the water system should be posed. Is there any system or institution analysing the water 

quality and, if yes, with whom are the results shared? Is there any budget available for operation and maintenance; 

is there any contribution from the local citizens for water consumption? Who takes the decision about the budget 

etc.? Particular attention has to be paid to the role of women, as they are often responsible for the household budget 

as well as for health and sanitation issues. Local and national joint action can be developed by creating an 

atmosphere of understanding and cooperation, by knowing the different tasks and responsibilities, and bringing the 

consumers, water suppliers and all other stakeholders closer together. Structures of the responsibilities of the whole 

system can be summarised in an overview of responsibilities or in e.g. a ‘network diagram’. Other graphics of listing, 

ranking and connecting institutions, groups or individuals and communication systems and information sources that 

influence the community’s decision making on water supply can be used. 


___________________________________________________________________________ 

Mapping of the village and the water supply 

With the help of a map of the village an overview of a specified issue can be given. It helps to make the 

situation more visible and understandable. As far as possible, schools and citizens can make an inventory of the 

local water supply. What kind of supply is there? Are there dug wells, boreholes or public taps? Which water 

source is used and how deep is the tapped water layer? Where are the water points? Which distance do they 

have to the houses of the consumers? Which households have access to the water point or supply? Where are 

sources of contamination? What is the distance of the pollution (e.g. manure or latrine) from the water point? 

Many of this information can be transferred to a map. Using an existing map for identification and mapping is 

very useful. If no map is available an overview of the village and the water points or supply should be drawn up. 

Experiences/problems/perception analyses of supply owner and consumer 

The users of the water system often focus on problems or have different perceptions about e.g. water quality 

or about access to water compared to the water supplier. By using questionnaires or by participatory 

approaches like ranking, an insight about the problems and experiences of the supplier and user could be ob-‐ 

tained. The interviewer should keep in mind that closed questions could easily get unreliable answers. For 

example the question: ‘Do you get ill from the water’ might give another answer than ‘How do you perceive the 

drinking water quality? And why? And what are the consequences of drinking this water? What is the daily 

/monthly water consumption and for which purposes is the water used?’ Information can also be gathered by 

interviews from citizens, doctors or other key-‐informants. Note that if you gather information from people, 

they often want to know the results and the subsequent concrete actions. You can therefore organise a village 

meeting and inform the people about the findings. 

2.3. Inventory of the water quality 


Without involving the people Water Safety Plans will 

not work. Participation and access to information is a 

key to the success of Water Safety Plans 

Water can basically be contaminated either chemically (e.g. by heavy metals or pesticides), or biologically by 

micro organisms/pathogens (bacteria or viruses which cause diseases). Unfortunately, it is not easy to measure 

this kind of pollution. A certified and preferably independent laboratory could be contacted to carry out 

analyses of bacteria. Also pesticides could be a significant source of water pollution and should be measured in 

a laboratory. There are many kinds of pesticides and it should be known in advance which pesticides could be 

found in the drinking water because each pesticide requires a different analysis. However these analyses are 

quite costly. For some analyses such as acidity or nitrate in water easy to do quick tests are available. 

Observations and secondary data 

Nevertheless, it is quite possible to gather some indication about the quality of drinking water without 

laboratory analyses. 

• First of all doctors, teachers and other key-‐informants in the village can be asked about the occurrence of 

water-‐related diseases and a survey can be done among villagers about their perceptions of drinking

___________________________________________________________________________ 

water quality. The authorities should be asked for the data of water analyses and how the public water 

supply systems are maintained. 

• Secondly, the facilitating NGO can search for secondary data such as which research on water quality has 

been done in the past. Experts can be contacted and interviewed. Probably there is some information 

available about the geo-‐hydrological situation (groundwater depth, soil, and direction of the flow). This 

could be very useful for the planning phase. 

• Thirdly, observations can be made concerning the colour, taste, smell, turbidity, sediments etc. 

Observations can also include potential pollution risks. It always has to be kept in mind that these 

methods give only an indication. Even if all the results are within the norm, the water can still be highly 

polluted. 

Quick tests 

Quick tests can be a good and accurate way of obtaining a better indication of the water quality. They are 

cheap and easy to carry out. However they are not available for all the different kinds of pollution. Until now 

WECF has had good experiences with nitrate strips. Nitrate can be dangerous for new-‐born babies, but for 

older children and adults nitrate is not the most dangerous substance in drinking water. 

According to the EU directive for drinking water the limit for nitrate in drinking water is 50 mg/l. The EU 

considers ground water with nitrate values more than 25 mg/l as influenced by human activities. It therefore 

indicates if there is some contamination by human sources. Water protection measures should be initiated. 

Water samples are quick to analyse on nitrate pollution by using nitrate test stripes. It is preferable to test the 

water samples in the same season, e.g. during spring or summer time. Pupils can take the sample to school or 

the tests can be carried out directly on the spot. The depth of the water source should be noted. 

Other observations on water quality, like colour, turbidity or others should be reported. Physical parameters 

such as soluble sediments (turbidity) indicate possible microbiological pollution. Another easy to analyse 

parameter is the acidity or pH of water. The pH is a so-‐called indicator parameter, which means a too high or 

too low pH as such will not be harmful for health. Indicator parameters are often fixed for technical or 

esthetical reasons. The advised pH value in drinking water is 6.5 to 9.5. However water with a low pH can have 

corrosive properties for metal tools such as copper or lead water pipes. Too high concentrations of copper or 

lead in drinking water cause health risks. 

Nitrate monitoring of water sources 


Nitrate test strips are cheap and 

water samples are 

quick to analyse 

Monitoring of the water sources can be done in two different ways. First, a good overview of the existing 

nitrate concentration of the well water should be obtained. The water sources should be chosen in such a way 

that they are representative for all water sources. That means sources in different parts of the village, which 

are potential sources of drinking water for the public must be analysed. It is preferable to test the water

___________________________________________________________________________ 

samples in the same season, e.g. during spring or summer time. Pupils can take the sample to school or the 

tests can be carried out directly on the spot. The depth of the water source should be noted. Other 

observations on water quality, like colour, turbidity or others should be reported. Physical parameters such as 

soluble sediments (turbidity) indicate possible microbiological pollution. The locations of the investigated wells 

and the test results must be noted, and can be transferred to the map (for reporting and mapping. 

Secondly, it can be very informative to monitor nitrate levels in some wells throughout the year. For example a 

high, low and medium nitrate-‐polluted well is chosen for the seasonal monitoring. 

The tests results of a whole year give an overview of the seasonal fluctuation, which might be useful for the 

WSP. Depending on the soil layers e.g. the leakage of nutrients in the groundwater by precipitation, fertilisation 

by manure or nitrogen can be assessed clearly using such a monitoring programme. Therefore it is good to 

measure the precipitation and temperature as well, since these parameters could be related to the nitrate 

concentration. It must be ensured that everything is registered well to avoid any potential mistakes. 

When this is done on a 14-‐day basis throughout the whole year, you get an interesting and significant picture of 

the fluctuations of nitrate, temperature and precipitation). In order to raise awareness among the villagers, a 

very good approach, which gets everyone really involved, is to carry out these analyses with the involvement of 

the children under the teacher’s supervision. 

Other water quality parameter 

As most water borne diseases are caused by microorganisms, this is the most important parameter to identify 

the safety of drinking water. Water of unprotected and badly maintained sources is easily affected with 

microorganisms due to the contamination with human and/or animal excreta. One gram of faecal material can 

contain millions of bacteria and viruses! Water of public wells or central water supplies should be analysed on a 

regular basis and the results should be made accessible of water supplied to the community. 

The appearance of microorganisms, such as Escherichia coli (E-‐coli) or Enterococci should be known; otherwise 

an authorised laboratory should be requested for analysing the drinking water on microorganisms. Both are 

indicator bacteria for microbiological pollution: No E-‐coli or Enterococci at all should be found in 100 ml 

drinking water. 

2.4. Risk and hazard assessment 

For the risk assessment of the danger of well/ground water pollution by e.g. animal manure or wastewater 

questionnaires and checklists can be used. Also the state of the well or the tap and its surroundings should be 

investigated. E.g. is there a cover? Is there rain or wastewater infiltration? Is there an apron around the pump 

or well, etc.? 

After instructions and awareness raising by the teacher, children can make their own observations such as 

estimating the distances from manure heaps or pit latrines to the well, population density or the location of the 

source of pollution e.g. uphill or downhill, in the north or in the south of the water source. 

Citizens living near the wells should be interviewed about their practices of fertilising their fields. Other sources 

of microbiological pollution such as tools used for extracting the water or for the storage of water in the houses 

have to be observed and identified. A checklist adapted to the area and circumstances has to be prepared. 

Citizens, medical and water administration, doctors are important sources for information and should be 

interviewed on drinking water quality and related health diseases. 

2.5. What to do with the results? 

A part of the WSP is the documentation of the collected information and making the results and plans visible to all 

stakeholders. All the collected information should be objective and available in reports, and depending on the issue 

the results can be made visible in graphics or in maps. The facilitating NGO could be responsible for this. 


___________________________________________________________________________ 

Systems and structures 

Water supply systems can be made visible using drawings with the input of all stakeholders. What types of 

sources are used, e.g. wind wheels or pumps, dug wells or bore holes. Are there different water layers or 

sources in use? If yes, where and what are the given properties, such as depth? Location of the public wells or 

taps, location of sources and pipes etc. should be identified and which citizens are dependent on which source? 

All the collected data and information should be summarised in a report and made accessible to the citizens. 

Reporting, mapping wells and risks 

The results of the analyses and findings of the drinking water and seasonal fluctuations should be carefully 

documented in the register book. This can include: 

• The depth of the well 

• The state of the well (is it well maintained, does it have a cover and what kind of cover, does it have a 

concrete enforcement around it or not) 

• The location and presence of possible sources of pollution in 50 m proximity around the well. Is the source 

of pollution e.g. in the north or in the south of the water source, uphill or downhill 

• Nitrate concentrations of the water sources should be mapped 

If maps of the village exist, then those should be used. Wells or taps and the density of citizens can be indicated 

on the map, using different colours for the wells according to their nitrate pollution. In the absence of maps, 

simple maps can be drawn. The sources and dangers of pollution can be plotted manually on tracing paper, and 

overlaid on top of the map of the village. 

It is further recommended to prepare poster and to hang it in a classroom or a school corridor, where the 

results of the analyses are open to the pupils and visitors of the school. 


The results of the analyses of the 

drinking water should be 

carefully documented 

2.6. Developing plans for improvement of the water system 

Finally the main goal of the WSP is the identification of weaknesses and strengths of the system; reaching an 

improvement and minimising risks and hazards, which can deteriorate the water quality. After a shared 

identification of risks and hazards and possible improvements of the water system, joint actions on a local level 

could perform a better risk management, e.g. cleaning and restoring the source or pipes, installation of closed 

pump systems, safe human and animal excreta management, or even lobbying for the installation of a central 

water supply system. 

A community based WSP developed with the involvement of all stakeholders will forward: 

• An improvement of water protection 

• A minimising the health risks of water related diseases

___________________________________________________________________________ 

• An adequate management of the water system 

• Improvement of access to information and to safe and affordable water 

• An improved ownership of the water supply system 

Remarks 

The given examples and suggestions are not fixed and should be adjusted and developed according the local 

situation and possibilities of implementation. For example, the age and the engagement of the pupils, the 

possibilities of the teachers, the input and cooperation of the citizens, the local and/or regional authorities and 

other stakeholders will all influence the results of the WSP. 


Müller D., Samwel M., (2009). Developing water safety plans involving schools, WECF. Available from 

http://www.wecf.eu/english/publications/2008/wspmanuals-‐revised.php 

WHO, (2005). Water safety plans: Managing drinking-‐water quality from catchment to consumer. Available 

from http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/wsp0506/en/index.html 

WHO, (2009). Water safety plan manual (WSP manual): Step-‐by-‐step risk management for drinking-‐water 

suppliers. Available from 

http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publication_9789241562638/en/index.html 

WHO/UNECE, (2009). Small-‐scale water supplies in the pan-‐European region. Available from 

http://www.euro.who.int/en/what-‐we-‐publish/abstracts/small-‐scale-‐water-‐supplies-‐in-‐the-‐pan-‐european-‐ 

region.-‐background.-‐challenges.-‐improvements 

WHO/IWA, (2011). WSP Steps; Tools & Case Studies. Available from http://www.wsportal.org/ibis/water-‐ 

safety-‐portal/eng/home 

WHO, (2012). Water safety planning for small community water supplies; Step-‐by-‐step risk management 

guidance for drinking-‐water supplies in small communities Available from 

http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/2012/water_supplies/en/index.html 


Introducing 


For small-‐scale piped water distribution systems 

Introduction 

A central water supply system (cwss) is characterised by its potential to satisfy the water-‐needs of a group of 

users via a pipe network. In general small-‐scale cwss are easier to manage than larger systems. However, this 

does not imply that the quality of water in smaller systems is higher. Often small-‐scale systems lack the 

budget and/or the expertise for water protection measures, adequate treatment of the raw water, or 

operation/maintenance of the system. 

A holistic approach to quality assurance of the water supply system, from the catchment area to the tap of 

the consumers, is important and includes: 

• Assessment and control of source waters to prevent or reduce pathogen contamination; 

• Selection and operation of treatment processes to reduce pathogens to target levels; 

• Prevention of contamination by pathogens, metals or other substances in the distribution system. 

Basic elements of many central water supply networks 

Whatever the source is, there should be enough water to sustain the users all throughout the year. The water 

capacity of a source during several seasons can be estimated by observations and long-‐term hydrological 

investigations carried out by experts. 


1. Selection of the source water 

For the selection of a source several aspects have to be taken into consideration, such as: 

Water availability and quality 

• Is there enough water available to fulfil the water demand of the community, including dry periods? 

• Is the water abstraction in balance with the subsequence delivery of new water? 

• Is the quality of the water stable and acceptable – is the water quality and quantity vulnerable for weather 

events like heavy rainfall or droughts? 

• Are possible contaminants removable without complicated and cost intensive treatments? 

Type of water source 

• The source of a water supply system can derive from several types of water, such as groundwater, spring 

or surface water (e.g. river). 

• Different sources of water have varying qualities and different needs of treatment. If groundwater is well 

protected against pollutants often no treatment is needed. 

• On the contrary surface waters have to be treated in any case. 

Location of the water source -‐ accessibility and protection 

• The location of the source, e.g. a well, should be chosen in an area where the risks of infiltration of 

contaminants, e.g. agriculture, are manageable. 

• Establishment of different water protection zones should be possible, such as restrictions of human 

activities. 

• The area should be accessible with the equipment required for operation and maintenance of the source. 


Removing particles (sand or other particles) 

Sedimentation 

↓ 

Removing small suspended substances (clay or algae) 

Coagulation and precipitation 

e.g. with aluminium-‐sulphate or ferric-‐chloride 

↓ 

Removing particles/colloids, odour or colour 

Filtration 

e.g. sand filter, active carbon filter 

↓ 

Avoiding corrosive properties 

Correction of the pH-‐neutralisation 

↓ 

Disinfection 

e.g. with chlorine (chloric gas), hypochlorite, chlorine dioxide 

or ultraviolet (UV) treatment. 

Table 1: Scheme of a simple treatment system for surface water 

2. Selection of treatment processes 

The type of the treatment depends greatly on the water source, i.e. on the water quality of the raw water. The 

results of laboratory tests estimate the type and the degree of intensity of the treatment. The treatment’s main 

tasks are to minimise the amount of microorganisms in the supply system, to eliminate particles, and to

eventually remove dissolved iron and manganese or other chemicals. Different treatment processes are required 

to remove different substances. Which kind of treatment finally is chosen depends heavily on the financial and 

human resources of the supplier. However, the water supplier’s task is to deliver drinking water to the consumer, 

without pathogens and health risks, for a lifetime. Water should be tasty and not corrosive, e.g. through the 

distribution system or pipes within the households. Water leaving water treatment plants should meet the 

stringent criteria set by the national and/or EU directive for drinking water. 

3. Storage and distribution of water 

The conditions of the storage and distribution of water is one of the essential factors to guarantee the quality 

and availability of water for the consumers. During the storage and distribution safe drinking water may get 

contaminated by metals or by infiltration of microorganism if the system is not well designed. A well-‐designed 

water storage and distribution system should be able to overcome high picks in water usage during day and 

night, at summer and winter time, and avoid long detention times in the storage and distribution system. 

Following some elements of a drinking water storage and distribution are summarised. 

• Reservoirs, where treated water is stored, allow fluctuations of the demand day and night, and throughout 

the seasons. 

• Reservoirs should be ferment-‐proof and covered to avoid contamination from pollutants. 

• When designing a piped system, sufficient pressure at the point of supply has to be ensured to provide an 

adequate flow to the consumer. 

• For maintaining the microbial quality, it is important to minimise the transit time and to avoid low flows and 

pressures. The system should not have an excessive capacity resulting in long transit time. 

• Low-‐flow, dead ends and loops should be avoided. 

• The materials of the pipes and the water should not allow strong chemical reactions between them. 

• Water should contain an estimated concentration of calcium resulting in a protection layer in metal pipes. 

Most countries established requirements on the quality of material in contact with drinking water e.g. using 

lead pipes for the construction of a new system is not allowed anymore in many countries. 

Appropriate pressure and flow rate 

Appropriate pressure should be maintained within a certain range in the whole system whereby the maximum 

pressure avoids pipe bursts and the minimum ensures that water is supplied in an adequate flow rate to the 

consumer, even to consumers in the 5 th floor of a building. Negative pressure should always be avoided, since it 

could causes high risks of infiltration of contaminated water in the network. As with the pressure, flow rates are 

crucial. A flow rate that is too high will result in water being wasted, whereas a flow rate is too low will mean 

that sanitary fixtures and other appliances in the household will not work properly. Experts should determine 

the suitable pressure, pipe size and the velocity of water low within the network. 

Backflow and intermittent supply 

In some situations, the supply is regularly interrupted, sometimes even daily for several hours. Such a 

situation represents a major challenge to the water supplier to uphold water quality standards. 

Backflow is unplanned reversal of flow of water (or water and contaminants) into the supply system. Backflow 

is caused by a difference in pressure, for example the supply pressure is less than the downstream pressure, 

allowing water to be pushed in the wrong direction. Different pressures can flow water back into the pipes, 

which can deteriorate the water quality. In addition by recharging the system surges may dislodge bio films 

into the pipes, leading to aesthetic problems. The control of hazards, such as stagnant water pools or drains, 

is important for managing the risks caused by intermittence. 

If gravity is insufficient to supply water at an adequate pressure, pumps need to be installed to boost the 

pressure. Control valves such as pressure reducing valves, non-‐return valves or throttled valves are designed 

to optimise the system with respect to pressure, water supply and energy costs. Regular control of pumps and 

valves is essential to assure the water quality. valves is essential to assure the water quality. 



A water tower maintaining 

an appropriate pressure day and night 

4. Development of a Water Safety Plan for a central piped 

water supply system 

Developing a WSP for a central water supply system contains several modules or steps. The involvement of 

different stakeholders, e.g. the responsible institution or manager, of the utility is essential. Also, staff for 

maintenance and operation, consumers or farmers having their fields in the water catchments zones, should 

take part in the development of an adequate WSP. 

4.1. Set up a team 

A small-‐scale centralised water supply system, e.g. for 500 or 1,000 consumers, has many aspects and 

involves many stakeholders. The establishment of a multi disciplinary team with members like teachers, 

pupils, citizens, farmers, local authorities and water experts is advisable. As far as possible tasks, activities, 

and responsibilities of the team and its members should be defined together: 

• Identify the required expertise and size of the team, 

• Involve multi-‐disciplinary experts, who will contribute to success, 

• Define and report the roles and responsibilities of the team and its members. 

4.2. Describe the water system 

A description of the whole water supply system is the base for understanding the system and the field of 

investigation: this includes the current availability of supplies from all sources, the causes of supply problems 

(e.g. dry streams and wells, pipe breaks, empty dams, damaged or silted up tanks, destroyed roof catchments, 

etc.) and the systems’ status . Furthermore, information on the water sources and the catchment area, the 

land use in the catchment, details about the treatment, storage, distribution, identification of the users and 

the water use, and availability of the utility staff are important. For this step in particular the support of the 

water supplier or local authorities is needed, but field visits from interviewing stakeholders (also citizens) can 

also provide information. Besides the description and maps, flow diagrams of the utilities are useful 

instruments for visualising the system.


Step Description Responsibility 

1 Catchment Farmer -‐ Utility 

2 Transfer -‐ pumping Utility 

3 Primary storage Utility 

4 Settling/sedimentation Utility 

5 Filtration – sand filter Utility 

6 Chlorination – Hypo chlorit Utility 

7 Quality control Utility 

8 Water Meter Utility 

9 Distribution Utility 

10 Water meter Household 

11 In-‐house network Household 

12 Household use Household 

Table 2: Example of involved stages in a water system -‐ from the catchment to the household level 

4.3. Identify hazards, hazardous risks and assess the risks 

Each step of the flow diagram that could go wrong, or where hazardous events could happen, has to be 

identified. This assessment can be done by interviewing, by collecting the experiences of stakeholders and by 

field visits. Biological, chemical and physical hazards should be assessed, identifying possible points where 

water could be contaminated, interrupted or compromised. Used materials need to be identified, e.g. by 

interviews, in case there is suspicion of harmful effects e.g. lead pipes. Laboratory analyses on metals can give 

additional information. 

The water supplier should take water samples before and after the treatment of the water. In any case, at 

least the quality of the water leaving the treatment system and delivered to the households should fulfil the 

requirements of drinking water regulated by the drinking water directive. 

The causes or indicators of contamination (e.g. leaking pipes, unprotected sources, and discolouration of the 

water, high turbidity, unusual smell, saltiness, diarrhoea or other possible water-‐related illnesses within the 

population) should be identified and reported. Table 3, 4, 5 and 6 give an overview of typical hazards affecting 

the catchment, hazards associated with the treatment, and hazards within the distribution network. Finally, 

hazards which could pose a threat to health risks long term, e.g. by chemical pollution or immediate risks by 

bacteriological pollution, have to be taken into consideration. 

4.4. Sanitary surveys and catchment mapping 

It is possible to assess the likelihood of faecal contamination of water sources by a sanitary survey of the 

catchment area. This is often more valuable than bacteriological testing alone because a sanitary survey 

makes it possible to see what needs to be done to protect the water source. Water samples represent the 

quality of the water at the time it was collected. Therefore bacteriological testing of water has to be carried 

out on a regular base. The process of frequent sanitary surveys can be combined with bacteriological, physical 

and chemical testing to enable field teams to assess contamination and—more important—provide the basis 

for monitoring water supplies in the post-‐disaster period. Even when it is possible to carry out bacteriological 

quality testing, results are not instantly available. Thus, the immediate assessment of contamination risk 

should be based on gross indicators, such as proximity to


Engine room at 

the water supplier 

After passing kilometres of pipes, the water quality 

at household level could be decreased and is often 

not known. 

sources of faecal contamination (human or animal); colour and smell; presence of dead fish or animals; 

presence of foreign matter, such as ash or debris; presence of a chemical or radiation hazard, or a wastewater 

discharge point upstream. Catchment mapping that involves identifying sources and pathways of pollution 

can be important tools for assessing the likelihood of contamination. 

Many countries developed a guideline for drinking water supply systems on the requirements of water 

sanitary zones, including allowed activities in the different zones. The implementation of the guideline can be 

assessed. 

It is important to use a standard reporting format for sanitary surveys and catchment mapping, to ensure that 

information gathered by different staff members and information of different water sources are reliable and 

comparable. 

4.5. Share the collected information with all stakeholders, determine and 

prioritise the risks 

In this stage, it is important to share and discuss the collected information about the water supply system and 

the identified risks with all stakeholders, including water experts and citizens. Exhibitions and public meetings 

can be useful instruments. Risks and causes should be prioritised in terms of their likely impact on the capacity 

and safety of the system. Also the causes of identified risks and problems should be discussed, including 

aspects about finances and capacity of the water supplier. Is there a budget for adequate maintenance of the 

system or for the implementation of the requirements of sanitary zones?

4.6. Develop, implement and maintain an improved water supply system 

With the results and information of the previous steps, an action plan for short, medium and long-‐term 

actions minimising the risks in the water supply system can be developed and implemented. In the action 

plan monitoring of implementation, results of improvements and adjustment of the WSP should be defined. 

Hazardous event Associated hazard 

Meteorology and weather event Flooding. Rapid changes in source water quality 

Seasonal variations Changes in source water quality 

Geology Arsenic, Fluoride, Uranium, Radon Shallow holes 

Agriculture Microorganisms, nitrate, pesticides, slurry spreading 

Industry mining Chemical and microbiological contamination 

Transport, roads-‐ railways Pesticides, chemicals 

Housing, septic tanks, pit latrines Microorganisms, nitrates 

Wildlife, recreational use, abattoirs Microbiological contamination 

Competing water use Sufficiency 

Unconfined aquifer Water quality subject to unexpected change 

Well/borehole not water tight Surface water intrusion 

Borehole casing corroded or incomplete Quality and sufficiency of raw water 

Raw water storage Algae blooms and toxins, stratification 

Table 3: Typical hazards affecting the catchment 


Any hazard not controlled/mitigated within the catchment As identified in the catchment 

Power supply Interrupted treatment-‐ loss of disinfection 

Capacity of treatment works Overloading treatment 

Disinfection Reliability, disinfection by-‐products 

By-‐pass facility Inadequate treatment 

Treatment failure Untreated water 

Unapproved treatment chemicals and materials Contamination of water supply 

Contaminated treatment chemicals Contamination of water supply 

Blocked filters Inadequate particle removal 

Inadequate filter media depth Inadequate particle removal 

Security, vandalism Contamination/ loss of supply 

Instrumentation failure Loss of control 

Flooding Loss of restriction of treatment works 

Fire, explosion Loss of restriction of treatment works 

Telemetry Communication failure 

Table 4: Typical hazards associated with the treatment 



Any hazard not controlled/mitigated within the treatment As identified in the treatment 

Mains burst Ingress of contamination 

Pressure fluctuations Ingress of contamination 

Intermittent supply Ingress of contamination 

Opening/closing valves Reversed or changes flow disturbing deposits 

Introduction of stale water 

Use of unimproved materials Contamination of water supply 

Third party access to hydrant Contamination of water supply/increased flow 

disturbing deposits 

Unauthorised connections Contamination by backflow 

Open service reservoir Contamination by wildlife 

Leaking service reservoir Ingress of contamination 

Unprotected service reservoir access Contamination 

Security, vandalism Contamination 

Contaminated land Contamination of water supply through wrong pipe 

type 

Table 5: Typical hazards within the distribution network 


Any hazard not controlled/mitigated within the 

distribution 


As identified in the distribution 

Unauthorised connections Contamination by backflow 

Lead pipes Lead contamination 

Plastic service pipes Contamination from oil or solvent spillage 

Table 6: Typical hazards affecting consumer premises 


World Health Organisation (WHO), International Water Association (IWA), (2004). Safe Piped Water, 

Managing Microbial Water Quality in Piped Distribution Systems. Available from: 

http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/924156251X/en/ 

World Health Organisation (WHO), International Water Association (IWA), (2008). Water Safety Plan Manual, 

Step-‐by-‐step risk management for drinking-‐water suppliers. Available from: 

http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publication_9789241562638/en/index.html


Module 3 

About Water 

Summary 

This module consists of 3 parts: 

A. Water Properties 

B. Water Cycle 

C. Ground and Drinking Water 

Water is one of the most important and ubiquitous molecules on the surface of our planet and in living 

organisms. It has very specific properties which are responsible for its very broad utilisation in nature and our 

daily life. Life could not exist without water. A brief overview of some water properties (A. Water 

Properties) are presented to encourage observation of them in daily life. Associated experiments are also 

suggested. In lesson B. Water Cycle, local and global water cycles are generally distinguished. Regarding 

Groundwater, specific aspects of regional and local conditions recharge and climate characteristics are 

summarized. In lesson C. Ground and Drinking Water, the occurrence of different types of natural 

drinking water sources are presented. A few examples of springs in Bulgaria are given. 

Objectives 

The pupils achieve physical and chemical background of water and carry out related experiments. They can 

describe important aspects of the water cycle, link these aspects to their own local water sources and water 

supply. They become more aware of the influence (changing) climate and varying weather conditions have 

on the local water supply. The pupils can distinguish between different types of natural drinking water 

sources, do experiments to see how soil cleans water and do first water tests to identify the water quality. 

Key words and terms 

Density, freezing and melting point, specific heat capacity, polarity and solubility, pH, surface tension; water 

cycle, evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, storage, runoff, groundwater, surface water; soil 

structure, soil type, aquifer, groundwater, spring 

Preparation/materials 

Materials Preparation 

Little glass bottles (2), 2 plastic sticks Pupils should bring several water samples. 

Freezer, Thermometer, Bunsen burner (or hot water burner) 

Modell of water molecule 

Salt, sugar, oil, Soap, Glasses, Towels (or tissue) 

Paper clips, screws, cork, ice cubes Ice cubes have to be prepared before. 

Paper and pens for drawing, scissors 

Charcoal (cotton wool), silt, gravel 

Big plastic bottles with a cap 

Module 4


3A. Water Properties 

Introduction 

Do the pupils know about any living organism which can exist without needing water at least every now and 

then? Is there any flower that does not fade, any animal that does not die without water? Every species on 

earth, whether it is a big animal like an elephant or a small insect like a bee or an ant, depends on water. 

Human Beings not only depend on water to survive but they consist of 60-‐70 % water. Water bodies are also 

important habitats for living creatures (e.g. sea, swamp, lakes and rivers). Water is a very important element in 

our daily life. We need water for the production of goods for (daily) consumption (clothes, food, etc.), 

transportation (rivers, sea, etc.) or recreation (swimming, skiing, ice-‐skating). Water is also essential for 

everyday activities like cooking, drinking and cleaning. Water is a very crucial element for life and especially for 

our well-‐being and prospering. To gain a deeper understanding of our drinking water’s vulnerability, it is helpful 

to know some of its properties. These properties are sometimes very astonishing (and on a first glance more or 

less hidden) and show us an admirable, vibrant, and vivacious element. 

1. Water properties 

Density 

Water has an approximate density of 1 g/cm 3 in it’s liquid state. But this changes when water freezes. The 

volume expands during the phase transition from water to ice and so the density lowers to around 0,9 g/cm 3 . 

Therefore, ice seems to be “lighter” than water because it floats on the water surface. As the volume of water 

increases when freezing, it develops a huge power as well. For example water pipes can burst during 

wintertime if not properly insulated. 

States of matter 

Our temperature scale of “degree centigrade” uses the freezing and boiling point of water for scaling. At both 

points water changes its state of matter. The graphic below names all the changes of water’s states of matter. 

Water is the only molecule on earth which shows all three states of matter in a natural environment. 

Graphic 1: Water – states of matter. 

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_matter 


Specific heat capacity 

Water has a very high specific heat capacity (4,186 kJ/ kg*K) in comparison to a lot of other materials like 

metals (e.g. steal 0,477 kJ/ kg*K) or other liquids (e.g. oil 1,67 kJ/ kg*K). Water needs – as it can store much 

more energy – a lot of energy to get heated. In return it keeps this energy and slowly cools down. Therefore, 

large water bodies can serve as a local energy reservoir and we can use water for heating (hot water bottle). 

The Black Sea works as a large heating source in winter (higher temperatures at the coast of the Black Sea than 

in the inland). 

Polarity/Solubility 

Water has a molecular structure which leads to the effect that water has a positive and a negative part (see 

graphic). This property is responsible for the solubility or insolubility of other substances in water. Polar 

molecules like sugar, salt and ethanol can easily be dissolved in water. Oil is nearly insoluble and floats as a thin 

layer on the water surface. However, if we use soap or a similar detergent we can “dissolve” substances like oil 

or fat. 

Surface tension 


Model of a water molecule. 

Source: www.uni-‐duesseldorf.de 

The above mentioned polarity of water molecules causes strong forces between them. The forces between 

molecules (surface tension) cause also the curve (meniscus) in the surface of a liquid close to the surface of a 

glass or other object. The meniscus of oil is different to the meniscus of water. The forces between the water 

molecules are lower than between water and the glass, and the forces between oil molecules are higher than 

between oil and the glass. In the illustration below, water and oil shows the effect of building respectively a 

concave and convex meniscus when filled into a glass. Intermolecular forces are also responsible for water 

building drops. In the nature and daily life we can see effects of the surface tension liquids. For example some 

animals can “walk” on the water surface (e.g. water strider). The addition of some drops of a detergent 

interrupts the strong connection between the water molecules and destroys the surface tension. 

Surface tension of different liquids (water and oil)

pH 

pH is a measure that describes how acid or alkaline the (watery) environment is. It ranges from 1 (very acid) to 

7 (neutral) to 14 (very alkaline). For many biological and chemical processes, a specific pH is important. If it 

differs too much from the optimum for a specific reaction, the process will not work. For example our stomach 

needs a pH around 1 (which is provided by the stomach acid) to digest the food properly. See also module 5. 


Let the pupils describe which results they expect from the following experiments, why they expect them and 

what they observed doing the experiments: 

Density 

• Different materials (screws, cork, wood, ice) show different behaviour when put into a container with 

water. They float or sink in water depending on their density. 

• Freezing water in a small glass bottle. The bottle will be cracked when ice is formed and expands. Fill 2 

glass bottles with water and close it with a cap. Put them into the freezer. Next time when taking the 

bottles out (after a few hours) they should be broken. 

States of matter 

• Where can we find the different states of matter (water, ice, steam) in our natural (or artificial) 

environment? 

Polarity/Solubility 

• Show with an electrostatic chargeable material like plastic sticks ( e.g. 2 plastic pens, or wool) that flowing 

water (tap) can be deflected by electric voltage. 

• Solubility of different materials: salt, sugar, oil. What happens if soap is used? 

Surface tension 

• What does the surface look like when water is filled into a thin, flat bottomed flask? 

• Children stand together and each child takes the hands of two other children (no row!) This should 

demonstrate the forces between the water molecules and that they tend to built “round” structures e.g. a 

meniscus (or drop). An object (e.g. book, glass) that each child should hold in one hand (in the other one 

still holding a hand of another child) demonstrates the effect of a detergent to lessen the surface tension. 

• A paper clip can float on the water surface. If the children are not able to put the clip carefully on the 

water surface they can use some absorbent paper. The addition of some drops of detergents will destroy 

the surface tension and the clip will sink to the ground. 

pH 

Measurement of pH of different liquids: 

• vinegar: 2,5 

• Cola: 2-‐3 

• orange, apple: 3-‐4 

• rainwater: 5-‐6 

• mineral water: 6 

• drinking water: 6-‐8 

• soap: 9-‐10 


General questions 

• A person weights 100kg. How much of him/her is water? 

• In which states of matter does water exist? 

• At which temperature does water freeze and boil? 

• At which temperature does sea water freeze and boil? 

WSP related activities 

• If you think of your home environment, in which situations do you come into contact with different 

states of water matter? 

• In which months of the year is the soil in your environment probably frozen? 


Water Science for Schools, U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), (2012). Available from http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/ 

Water Structure and Science, (2012). Available from http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/ 



3B. Water Cycle 

1. Water cycle -‐ global 

The water cycle starts on the ocean because it is the largest water reservoir on earth. It covers 71% of the 

earth's surface. Solar energy heats the water, particularly in the tropics. Through evaporation, especially at the 

sea surface and to a lesser extent also on the mainland, humidity is created. Because this vaporised water is 

lighter than air, it rises into the atmosphere. In higher altitudes, the air cools down and the water vapour 

condenses. This creates clouds. The wind transports the moist air and clouds to the mainland. 

When humid air meets cold air layers, it is lifted (warm front), as it is when it meets on mountain flanks 

(convection). When air rises, it cools down. Cold air can hold less moisture than warm. If the clouds are already 

saturated with condensed water to a certain extent, precipitation occurs and the water falls as rain, snow or 

hail to the ground. The form of precipitation depends on the local temperature. When the water falls to the 

ground, it can infiltrate the soil and seep into the groundwater layer, or it can flow on the surface directly into 

the next creek or river. 

Via a spring or well, the groundwater reaches the surface again and flows through a river system back into the 

ocean. In the Polar Regions and high mountain ranges, a part of the precipitation is stored in solid form as ice or 

snow, where it could pass through as melted water into the ocean again (Figure 1). 

Figure 1: Water cycle 

Source: http://library.thinkquest.org 


2. Water cycle -‐ local 

The local water cycle depends on geographical aspects like latitude, distance to the sea, main wind direction, 

temperature profile (on a yearly base) and topography. Bulgaria has (as indicated by Table 1 and Figure 2) less 

precipitation in some of its parts than other countries in Europe and a slightly higher average temperature. 


Town Temperature [°C] 

(annual average) 

Precipitation [mm] 

(annual average) 

Sofia 9,7 563 

Varna 12,1 471 

Paris 10,6 639 

Vienna 9,9 613 

Moscow 5,0 688 

Istanbul 14,1 698 

London 9,7 753 

Berlin 9,2 578 

Munich 9,2 1009 

Table 1: Temperature and Precipitation of different cities in Europe 

Source: www.klimadiagramme.de 

Figure 2: Average annual precipitation Europe 

Source: http://www.eea.europa.eu/data-‐and-‐maps/figures/average-‐annual-‐precipitation

Therefore, Bulgaria is vulnerable to severe droughts in some parts of the country, as they have already 

occurred in the past (Figure 4). Drought in Bulgaria was most severe in the years 1945 and 2000 with a 

precipitation of less than 30% of the current climatic values (1961-‐1990). The last drought period (1982-‐1994) 

affected groundwater considerably in Bulgaria (Figure 3). There was a reduction of discharge in most of the 

springs and the wells showed lower water levels. The reduction of spring discharge was determined to be up to 

20-‐30%. 

Source: European Water 1/2: 25-‐30, 2003; V. Alexandrov & M. Genev 

The following graphic shows the parts vulnerable to sever droughts in colour which might be most affected by 

the climate change hence drought. 

Figure 4: Regions threatened by droughts 

orange: serious risk; yellow: moderate risk 

Source: chm.moew.government.bg/SLM/files/spatial%20soil%20drought_part%201.pdf 



• Which forces generate the water cycle? 

• How much of the earth's surface is covered by water? 

• Draw a simplified picture of the water cycle. Name and describe all important stations of the water cycle. 

• Quote different types of precipitation. 

• What happens to your water sources (springs, wells or water supply) if there is less precipitation? 

• Have the pupils already experienced drought? 

• What could drought mean to their daily life? 


• How does the precipitation of the local area occur throughout the year? 

• Is the local area considered as an area prone to droughts, hence leading to water scarcity? 

If yes, is there a programme for implementing water saving measures? 


European Water 1 / 2: 25-‐30, (2003). Climate Variability and Change Impact on Water Resources in Bulgaria. 

Available from http://www.ewra.net/ew/pdf/EW_2003_1-‐2_04.pdf 

Water Science for Schools, U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), (2012). Available from http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/ 



3C. Ground and Drinking Water 

1. Groundwater 

Figure 1: soil layers 


The following text describes the flow of water, 

starting from the point where it soaks into the 

soil to the point where it appears on the earth's 

surface; e.g. a spring or in a well. Groundwater, as 

mentioned in module 3B (water cycle), is generated 

by precipitation infiltrating (rainfall, snow) into the 

soil. Gravity forces water to seep deeper and 

deeper through the soil and water move through 

the groundwater system where it eventually makes 

its way back to the surface. 

Soil is – put simply – a mixture of bedrock, clay, silt, 

organic material, air, water and many different 

organisms. It also has many different layers (Figure 

1). There is a large variety of different soil types and 

each one has unique characteristics, like in colour, 

texture, structure, depth and minerals. The 

composition and depth of the soil influences the 

compounds of the groundwater. There is an intense 

exchange of substances between water and soil 

components resulting in, for example, mineral-‐rich 

or mineral-‐poor water and with different hardness. 

Soil can act as a filter and can absorb substances 

like minerals (fertiliser), pesticides or acids. As 

water passes through the soil it can uptake wished 

substances, like minerals but also unwished 

substances such as arsenic, nitrate or pesticides. 

As water seeps deeper, it sometime encounters an impermeable layer. It flows horizontally along this layer 

filling all the cracks, crevices and pores above like a sponge. This water filled layer is called an aquifer. When 

the aquifer water returns back to the surface, the groundwater forms a spring. 

Depending on the local geographical conditions, there are different types of springs and aquifers which require 

different technical devices to extract water from the ground. An interesting type of spring or well is the artesian 

well. It is a well in geographical depression where the groundwater is exposed to a certain pressure. This 

pressure is high enough, that the water comes to the surface without pumping (Figure 2). 

The depth of groundwater can vary and can reach hundreds of metres deep into the earth. Another term for 

groundwater is aquifer, however, this term is usually used to describe water-‐bearing formations capable of 

providing enough water for peoples’ needs (industry). Often the different layers of aquifers structure the 

ground deep in the earth. Usually, the deeper the groundwater reaches, the more protected the water is. The 

different layers in the ground enhance the filter effect by purifying the water, as mentioned above by soil. 

Aquifers near the surface are prone to pollution. Severe pollution of groundwater is mostly caused by man. 

Thus the protection of water is essential (see module 11 for information on water protection).

Springs in Bulgaria 

Bulgaria has many hot springs where the spring water has higher temperatures and varying mineral content. 

Some examples are Velingrad, Narechen, Kyustendil, Separeva banya, Sandanski, Pomorie, Pavel Banya and 

Hissarya. Depending on the mineral content, the water can be used for healing purposes or as mineral water 

for drinking. Other important (warm) water reservoirs are geothermal water resources. You can find them 

throughout Bulgaria in depths between 100m and 5000m by drilling. They can be used as an energy resource 

and theoretically as a drinking water resource. 

Figure 2: Aquifers and wells 

Source: http://www.douglas.co.us/water/What_is_an_Aquifer$q.html 

The recharge of local springs depends largely on the local geology and climate. As aquifers store only a certain 

amount of water, the local water supply depends largely on the precipitation received in past weeks or months. 

If there is less precipitation and/or higher temperatures, the wells and springs could dry up. 

2. Drinking water 

According to the Protocol on Water and Health of UNECE and WHO “Drinking water means water which is used, 

or intended to be available for use, by humans for drinking, cooking, food preparation, personal hygiene or 

similar purposes,” drinking water or potable water is water of sufficiently high quality that can be consumed or 

used especially for drinking and cooking with low risk of immediate or long term harm. It has to be very pure. 

There can be various sources depending on local conditions. Drinking water can originate from groundwater 

(springs, wells), surface water (rivers, lakes, reservoirs, sea), rainwater or even mist. The usage of surface water 

can be necessary if local groundwater is scarce or non-‐explorable. Surface water is much more vulnerable to 

contamination by anthropogenic and natural activities and should be analysed and always treated adequately. 


Though our planet is covered by 71% of water, only a fraction can be used as drinking water (Table 1). 


Water volume [km³] Percentage [%] 

Total 1 384 120 000 100,00 

Saltwater (sea) 1 348 000 000 97,39 

Freshwater (total) 36 020 000 100 2,60 

Freshwater 

Water in polar ice, sea ice, glaciers 27 820 000 77,23 2,01 

Groundwater, soil moisture 8 062 000 22,38 0,58 

Water in rivers and lakes 127 000 0,35 0,01 

water in the atmosphere 13 000 0,04 0,001 

Table 1: Water volume of the earth 

Source: Marcinek & Rosenkranz 1996, Data according to Baumgartner und Reichel 1975; 

bfw.ac.at/300/pdf/globaler_wasserkreislauf.pdf 

Only 1% of all freshwater can be used as drinking water! This is an equivalent of 0,0026% of the total water 

volume! 

To make this a little bit more quantifiable here is a comparison: 

If a bath tub is full of water (150l) and this stands for the whole water reservoir of our world than roughly 4,2l 

(½ bucket) are freshwater and of these 

• 3,2l are ice (poles and glaciers) 

• 1l is groundwater and only 

• 0,02l (a brandy glass) are surface water bodies (lakes, rivers) 

• 0,004l (a thimble!!) are theoretically usable as drinking water 

3. Experiments and questions 

Build your own water filter 

• Cut the bottom of the plastic bottle. Turn it around (the cap is now at the bottom), put charcoal in first, 

then silt and add some gravel at the top. 

• Create some “dirty water” (soil + water and stir it) 

• Remove the cap of the bottle and place the bottle on a glass. Fill some of the dirty water into the bottle 

which is now the filter and see what happens. How does the dropping water look like? 

• Fill one bottle with pure garden soil and one with clay as explained above. Put some water on the top of 

the soils and observe what happens. Try to explain why. 


• Which types of water sources are found in the local environment? 

• In which geographical situation is the local area situated? 

• Which soil layers are found and how do they protect the water? 

• Which source is the drinking water taken from? How deep is the source?


Bundesanstalt fuer Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe (BGR), (2004). Groundwater bodies in Bulgaria, 

Identifikation and delineation. Available from 

http://www.bgr.bund.de/EN/Themen/Wasser/Veranstaltungen/workshop_gwbodies/Presentation_04_spasov 

_pdf.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=2 

UNECE, WHO (2000). Protocol on Water and Health. Available from 

http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/documents/2000/wat/mp.wat.2000.1.e.pdf 

UN-‐Statistics Water Resources, (2012). Available from http://www.unwater.org/statistics_res.html 

Nelson, Stephen A., Tulane University, (2011). Groundwater. Available from 

http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/geol111/groundwater.htm 


___________________________________________________________________________ 


Module 4 

Drinking Water Sources 

and Extraction 

Summary 

The supply of drinking water comprises many components and tasks, starting at the catchment area. This 

module introduces methods of selection of different sources for water supply and their qualities. Water 

extraction is also discussed. 

Objectives 

The module puts teachers and pupils in the position to understand the selection of water sources like 

groundwater, springs or rivers for a drinking water supply. They will be able to make a rough appraisal of the 

conditions of the water sources for their water supply, their advantages and disadvantages. 

Keywords and terms 

Catchment area, water source, surface water, well, borehole, spring, water extraction 

Preparation/material 


Questionnaire Making copies, eventual revising and adding more 

relevant questions 

Excursion to water sources 

Paper, pencils 

Module 4

___________________________________________________________________________ 

Drinking water sources 

and extraction 

Introduction 

In comparison with other European countries, Bulgaria is a water-‐poor country. Hence, a constant and reliable 

water supply to the public is a challenge. In 2003, around 372 m 3 of freshwater were abstracted, whereof 65% 

were from surface waters or bank filtrates and 35% were from groundwater. 98% of the households are 

connected to a central water supply. 50% of the freshwater used is good quality, thus further improvements 

are desired and EU-‐standards have to be fulfilled (EU Drinking Water Directive). Draughts and water shortages 

are challenges, as are water losses up to 60% through broken piping systems. 

A successfully working water supply, which delivers tasty and healthy drinking water all day, is not self-‐evident. 

The following pages give an overview on how supply of public water works and what kind of equipment is used 

to fulfil regulations and customer demands. 

1. Source selection and catchment area 

The selection of water sources to establish a water supply depends largely on the hydrological and geological 

conditions and (local) precipitation in the catchment area. An advanced mapping of the hydrological, geological 

and land use conditions is very helpful for proper planning and implementation. The management of the 

catchment area can be essential to minimising problems in water quality and in the treatment of the water. A 

higher quality of water is assured through accurate land use management (see also module 2 and 10). This can 

reduce technical and financial investment by already removing unwanted water contaminants like fertiliser, 

pesticides, other chemicals or pathogens. A good example is the work of the Munich Water Works 

(www.swm.de/english.html). Ecological agricultural practise within the catchment area and regional marketing 

of the products were established. Water suppliers are able to deliver drinking water without nearly any 

treatment. 

1.1. Surface water 

Rivers (e.g. Danube), canals or lakes (natural or artificial) are a frequently used source of water, but they are 

vulnerable to pollution by man and wildlife. Agriculture (pesticides, fertiliser, grazing cattle) industry and 

wastewater discharge cause a volatile water quality with higher concentrations of chemicals and pathogenic 

microorganisms. Nutrient-‐rich water can be affected by algae and their toxins too. Furthermore, droppings of 

wildlife in surface waters are un-‐avoidable; on account of this, surface waters without treatment are not safe 

for drinking purposes. Depending on the catchment area, different measures of preventing hazardous risks 

have to be undertaken. Because of the potential risk of pollution, surface waters are only considered if other 

sources (especially groundwater) are not available. 

Water from an upland catchment area, without agricultural activities and with an acceptable pH, usually shows 

good chemical quality, but does not necessarily have a good microbiological status! Finally, microorganisms are 

the main cause of diseases when unsafe water is consumed. Small rivers are often affected by local human 

activities and show poor water quality. The community and local administration have the power to change the 

conditions. Lowland streams are expected to have the worst water quality, and the local influence to change 

water quality is at a very low level. In general, this water can change very quickly in its properties, like turbidity 

(rainfall) or colour (seasons). Natural variability of water quality is common for surface waters, but man-‐made 

pollution should be as low as possible.. 


___________________________________________________________________________ 


The Danube is a source 

for drinking water for many villages and cities 

If possible water should be collected from the ground in the immediate vicinity of the stream and riverbank. 

Further, the intake should be situated at a point with low turbulence, during e.g. high rainfalls. If surface water 

is selected as a source for the drinking water supply, a lot of technical and financial effort has to be made to 

deliver safe and proper drinking water to the public. At least a minimum of filtration and disinfection is 

required. May be lakes are more uniform in their water quality, but not less vulnerable to contamination as 

mentioned above for rivers. 

1.2. Springs 

The quantity and quality of water from a spring can vary depending on its source. Springs fed by a deeper 

aquifer are more reliable and constant, whereas those issued by a perched water table or covered by fissured 

limestone or granite may dry up. The treatment of spring water is normally less intense because the suspended 

matter is lower. However, water is not protected against contaminants from agriculture or wastewater from 

households or communities in many areas. In certain circumstances microorganisms and chemicals can 

contaminate shallow ground and the spring’s waters. Soil layers have a certain capacity on adsorbing and 

filtering pollutants. Hence, deep-‐water layers are better protected against infiltration than shallow ones in 

general. As mentioned in module 3, the composition of the soil layers has a huge influence on the water quality 

and content. Water passing the soil layers dissolves and transports minerals from the soil into the groundwater. 

Depending on these layers and the geology, groundwaters and springs can contain a varying mixture of several 

minerals, which can cause technical or health risks. Building a water collection chamber can protect the 

abstraction point of the spring. The collection chamber can protect the source from pollution, entrance of 

vermin and debris, and can provide storage for times of higher demand. 

1.3. Groundwater 

Boreholes and wells are used to explore groundwater of different depths and quality. The quantity of water, 

which can be extracted, depends on the characteristics of the aquifer. It can be helpful to test it after 

construction by pumping. Shallow wells and boreholes are more at risk to be contaminated than deeper ones, 

but if sited correctly, they can deliver good quality drinking water. As for springs, the water content and quality 

is strongly related to the soil layers above the aquifer. Water abstracted from deep wells and boreholes can 

originate from catchments many kilometres away. Hence, it is important for the water supplier to know the 

properties and characteristics of the catchment area (see also module 10 – water protection). Most 

groundwater (aquifers) are renewed naturally by infiltration of water from rain or snow in the recharge area; 

which, as mentioned above, may be many kilometres away from the extraction point. However, the water table 

will subside if the water abstraction for water supply or for irrigation exceeds the natural recharge capacity of 

the groundwater layer (water mining).

___________________________________________________________________________ 

Figure 2: Overexploitation of a groundwater layer 

Source: http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/301groundwater.html 

In this case, wells may get dry, water could be sucked from the upper soil layers into the aquifer or coastal salty 

water could infiltrate into the aquifer depending on the depth. Overexploitation of the groundwater source has 

to be avoided! 

The water quality is a matter of type of water source and changes according to geological, land use and 

weather conditions. The following table gives a rough idea of expected raw water content. For example 

adequate extracted groundwater will contain no particles, but springs or surface water can contain many 

particles after heavy rainfalls. In contrary, the groundwater can have high levels of calcium, magnesium and 

salts depending on the geological conditions. Surface water is less vulnerable for those elements. 

Contaminant in raw water Ground 

water 


Artesian 

water 

Spring Surface 

water 

Most frequent source 

Microorganism + -‐ ++ ++ Wastewater, agriculture 

Nitrate ++ -‐ ++ -‐ Wastewater, agriculture 

Calcium/magnesium ++ ++ + -‐ Natural 

Sulphate + + + -‐ Natural 

Iron/manganese ++ ++ + -‐ Natural 

Fluoride + + -‐ -‐ Natural 

Sodium/potassium (Salts) ++ ++ + -‐ Natural, infiltration of sea water, 

inadequate irrigation practice 

Particles (sand/loam) -‐ -‐ ++ ++ Erosion, weather events (rain) 

Contaminant during distribution 

Microorganisms ++ ++ ++ ++ Leakages in pipes and connections 

Metals: lead, copper + + + + Lead or copper pipes, Corrosion 

Chlorine-‐compounds/halogens + + + + Chlorination 

Phosphates + + + + Treatment with phosphates 

Salts + + + Treatment by ion exchanger at 

household level 

Table 1: Different types of raw water and vulnerability for possible natural and anthropogenic contaminants. 

-‐ Low vulnerability; +Vulnerable; ++ High vulnerability

___________________________________________________________________________ 

2. Water extraction 

The technical realisation of water extraction is different for each type of source and geological condition. 

Descriptions are held simple to be clear and comprehensible. 

Boreholes/wells 

Boreholes have a small diameter, may vary in depth and are drilled by specialists. Even deeper aquifers are 

accessible. They are mostly favoured if no other water supply is provided and water is needed in high quantities 

(e.g. irrigation). Legal aspects have to be taken into consideration. In contrast to boreholes, wells are dug by 

hand, have a larger diameter of about 1 meter or more, and are in most cases not deeper than 20m. 

Springs 


Figure 1: Schematic overview of a well 

or borehole source 

According to Source: DWI: 

http://dwi.defra.gov.uk/research/completed-‐ 

research/reports/DWI70_2_137_manual.pdf 

Tapping of a water source can be established where groundwater occurs at the surface or is in less depth water 

layers. The source is exposed by a dredger or by hand. A filter pipe (PVC pipe with slots) is installed crosswise at 

the level the water flows. This is covered with silt and gravel. The water collected in the pipe is lead to a small 

chamber or basin from where it goes to the water treatment or straight to the consumer. Springs are protected 

from pollution and can provide storage for times of higher demand. 

Figure 2: Schematic overview of a spring source 

According to Source: DWI: 

http://dwi.defra.gov.uk/research/completed-‐ 

research/reports/DWI70_2_137_manual.pdf

___________________________________________________________________________ 

Rivers and lakes 


Entrance of a spring catchment 

Photo source: Bayerisches Landesamt für Umwelt 

(Bavarian State ofice for Environment); 

(http://www.lfu.bayern.de/wasser/merkblattsammlung/teil2_gewaesserk 

undlicher_dienst/doc/nr_219_anlage6.pdf 

Water collection of a spring in Bavaria. 

Tapping of the spring can be carried out with several 

drainage pipes. The basin should be covered and ferment 

proof. 

Photo source: Bayerisches Landesamt für Umwelt 

(Bavarian State ofice for Environment); 

(http://www.lfu.bayern.de/wasser/merkblattsammlung/tei 

l2_gewaesserkundlicher_dienst/doc/nr_219_anlage6.pdf 

Rivers and lakes can serve as drinking water supply; however, they always have to be treated before 

consumption. Surface waters are easily polluted by wildlife and infiltration by contaminants from wastewater 

and agricultural activities. Further natural variations of water quality, such as turbidity through water 

turbulences, are likely in rivers and streams. If possible, water should not be collected from the surface in the 

immediate vicinity of the stream and riverbank. The intake should be situated at a point with low turbulence. 


• Pupils collect information about the available water sources and their catchment areas; e.g. from the 

water supplier or and hydro-‐geologist. 

• In which way did water usage develop during the last 20-‐30 years in the pupil’s communities? Pupils could 

do some research on this topic. Pupils ask their parents or grandparents about their observations of the 

level of the groundwater (of the wells) or the water yield of local springs. 

• Pupils measure and observe the water flow of one or more springs (if available) over a given time. 

• Plan excursions to the local water sources and ask the pupils to discuss from which direction the 

groundwater flows.

___________________________________________________________________________ 


Pupils identify the sources used for the local drinking water supply and the related catchment area: 

• Pupils should make a map of the water sources used for water supply. 

• Pupils interview the drinking water supplier about the quantity and quality of the used drinking 

water sources 

• Pupils should discuss which sources they would choose if they would be a water supplier looking for the 

best circumstances for introducing a water safety plan in their environment. 

• Pupils write an essay on the most appropriate water sources for their drinking water supply. They can 

involve experts to support. 

4. Text Sources and further reading 

Drinking Water Inspectorate (DWI), (2001). Manual on Treatment for Small Water Supply Systems. 

Available from http://dwi.defra.gov.uk/research/completed-‐research/reports/DWI70_2_137_manual.pdf 

Oracle Thinkquest, (2012). Available from http://library.thinkquest.org/04apr/00222/sources.htm 

Water Education, (2012). Available from http://watereducation.utah.gov/waterinutah/municipal/default.asp 

WHO, (2012). Household water treatment and safe storage. Available from 

http://www.who.int/household_water/research/safe_storage/en/index.html 


____________________________________________________________________________ 


Module 5 

Drinking Water Treatment 

and Storage 

Summary 

This module introduces different types and steps of water treatment at a supplier and a household level. The 

steps and types presented are: removal of particles and chemical substances and several disinfection 

methods. Water storage at household level, operation and maintenance of the water supply are also 

discussed briefly. 

Objectives 

The module puts teachers and pupils in the position to understand the different options to remove or 

decrease undesired contaminants of the water. They will be able to make a rough appraisal of the conditions 

of their water supply and know about different water treatment opportunities and their advantages and 

disadvantages. 


Water treatment, sedimentation, coagulation, oxidation, filtration, disinfection, chlorination, household 

level, storage. 





Excursion to the water supplier 


Sand filter (see module 3) 

Module 4

____________________________________________________________________________ 

Drinking water treatment and storage 

Introduction 

The treatment of raw water’s function is to eliminate undesired substances. Because the treatment process is a 

rather complex topic, guidance by experts is recommended. A fitting drinking water treatment needs a proper 

investigation of site conditions including all necessary physical, chemical and biological parameters. It also needs 

test results of a laboratory to determine all required treatment steps to deliver healthy and safe drinking water. 

The following chapters give a brief overview on principles of water treatment and several treatment methods. 

1. 

Treatment at the supplier level 

Because there are many different types of water contamination, many different types of treatment techniques 

have been developed. For example, bacteria have to be treated in other ways than turbidity, metals or colour. 

The following describes the most important treatments of drinking water in brief. The techniques used depend 

largely on the local contamination of the water and the financial opportunities of the supplier, community 

and/or users. Before an adequate water treatment can be implemented, an advanced investigation of the site 

conditions including the chemical, physical and biological analysis of the water has to be conducted. After 

establishing a treatment process, the effectiveness of the treatment has to be determined. All the mentioned 

steps should take place under guidance of experts. Equipment suppliers and consultants should be chosen 

carefully. 

Treatment processes are based on the physical removal of contaminants through filtration, settling 

(coagulation/flocculation, often aided by some form of chemical addition) or biological removal of 

microorganisms. Usually, a treatment consists of a number of stages, with an initial pre-‐treatment by settling or 

pre-‐filtration through coarse media and sand filtration followed by chlorination. This is called the multiple barrier 

principle. It is an important concept as it provides the basis for an effective treatment of water and prevents a 

complete failure of treatment due to a malfunction of a single process. 

For instance, if a failure of the coagulation/flocculation should occur within a system that comprises rapid sand 

filter, the sedimentation and rapid sand filtration with final disinfection could still assure the supply of treated 

water. Many of the remaining microorganisms in the water will be killed by the final disinfection. Provided that 

the disorder is repaired promptly, there should be little decrease in water quality. 

Water treatment is a purposeful modification of the water quality. It comprises two groups of treatment: 

1) Elimination of substances from the water (e.g. filtration, sterilisation, softening) 

2) Addition of substances and adjusting water parameters (e.g. pH, ions, conductivity) 

1.1. 

Coagulation/flocculation 

Coagulation and flocculation are used to remove small particles from surface waters that are not removable by 

simple sedimentation. The addition of aluminium sulphate or ferric sulphate (or other chemicals) as coagulants 

causes the formation of a precipitate (or flock), which contains different impurities. Some metals like iron and 

aluminium, humins (e.g. from organic soil, peat), clay minerals and some (not necessarily all) organisms like 

plankton, protozoa or bacteria can be coagulated. The flocks are then separated by sedimentation and filtration. 

Advantage: the coagulation proceeds more rapidly than normal sedimentation and is very effective in removing 

fine particles. 

Disadvantage: higher costs for chemicals and equipment; very exact dosing and frequent monitoring, skilled 

personnel, disposal of sludge. 


____________________________________________________________________________ 

1.2. 

Sedimentation 

Simple sedimentation (i.e. unassisted by coagulation) may be used to reduce turbidity and solids in suspension. 

Sedimentation tanks are designed to reduce the velocity of water flow to permit suspended solids to settle under 

gravity. There are many different designs of tanks, and tank selection is based on simple settlement tests or by 

experience of existing tanks treating similar waters. 

1.3. 

Filtration 

Particles in water can be removed by different kinds of screens and filters. The applied technology depends on 

the size of the to be eliminated particles and the treatment concept. Following the most common types of 

filtration technics are presented. 

Screens 

Screens are effective for the removal of particulate material and debris from raw waters and are used on many 

surface water intakes. Coarse screens remove weeds and debris, while band screens or micro strainers remove 

smaller particles, including fish, and may be effective in removing large algae. Microstrainers are used as a pre-‐ 

treatment to reduce solids before slow sand filtration or chemical coagulation is carried out. A microstrainer 

consists of a rotating drum fitted with very fine mesh panels. Raw water flows through the mesh and suspended 

solids, including algae, are retained and removed by water wash, producing wastewater which may require 

treatment before disposal. 

Figure 1: Microstrainer 

Microstrainer is a rotating drum with continuous backwash from the top. Screen size openings 10-‐40 µm, algae 

removal, to prevent a rapid blocking of sand filters. 

Source: Mudde C., Vitens Water Treatment Course (2011), PowerPoint Baku 

Gravel filter 

Simple gravel (Graded gravel, 4-‐30mm) filters can be used as a step to remove algae and turbidity. The size of a 

gravel filter depends on the water quality, flow rate and size of gravel. A filter can be up to 12 m long, 2 to 5 m 

wide and 1 to 1,5 m deep. The filter should normally be sized for a flow rate of between 0,5 to 1,0 cubic metres 

per square metre of filter surface area per hour (m 3 /m 2 /h). 

Slow sand filter 

Slow sand filters provide a biological process in contrast to the later introduced rapid gravity filter, which is more 

or less a physical filter. Slow sand filters usually consist of tanks containing sand (size range 0,15-‐0,30 mm) to a 

depth of between 0,5 to 1,5 m. At the top of the filter a biological active sludge layer develops, which can be 

active in removing microorganisms. Such kind of filter can be operated as a tandem device -‐ one can be in service 


____________________________________________________________________________ 

whilst the other is being cleaned. The top few centimetres have to be replaced every 2-‐10 weeks, depending on 

the conditions of the raw water. 

Rapid gravity filter 

Rapid gravity filters are most commonly used to remove flock from coagulated waters and are filled with silica 

sand (0,5-‐1,0 mm). Accumulated solids in the upper layers are removed by backwashing the filter with treated 

water. This should happen every day. The diluted sludge after backwashing needs to be disposed of and/or 

treated in an appropriate way. Rapid gravity filters may also be used to remove turbidity, algae and iron and 

manganese from raw waters. Granular activated carbon medium is used to remove organic compounds and 

filters incorporating an alkaline medium are used to increase the pH value of acidic water. 

Membrane filtration 

Membrane filters are mechanical filters, which use a permeable membrane to separate gaseous or liquid 

streams. This technique originates especially from industrial and pharmaceutical applications. Depending on the 

purpose for the processed water, different types of membranes and techniques are used. Nowadays, some of 

these processes are applied in the treatment of drinking water too. The most common ones are ultra-‐, micro-‐ 

and nano-‐filtration, and reverse osmosis. They differ in membrane pore size and thus in capability to remove 

molecules and particles of different size (see table 1). Even though the membrane process can remove protozoa, 

bacteria or viruses, there is no guarantee of the membrane integrity and safety. Additional disinfection of the 

treated water should take place. 

Table 1: Overview of separation processes and their effectiveness 

According to http://dwi.defra.gov.uk/research/completed-‐research/reports/DWI70_2_137_manual.pdf 

1.4. Other treatment processes 

Aeration 

The purpose drinking water aeration is to eliminate iron, manganese or unwanted gases like carbon dioxide 

(carbonic acid), hydrogen sulphide (sulphuric acid) and methane. The release of carbon dioxide results in a higher 

pH as well. In addition, oxygen saturated water converts most of the iron or manganese into filtratable 


____________________________________________________________________________ 

substances. Different technical devices, like passing the water through air fountains, cascades, paddle wheels or 

cones, can do aeration. The air can also be passed through the water by aeration turbines or compressed air. 

Although, most aeration work by passing raw water through air in small streams rather than passing air through 

water (see Figure 2). To ensure elimination of iron and/or manganese, a filtration should be performed to 

remove the oxidised elements after the aeration. The oxidised elements appear as flocks in the water. 

Figure 2: Drawings of different technical devices used for aeration 

Source: Mountain Empire Community College. http://water.me.vccs.edu/courses/ENV115/Lesson5_print.htm 

pH 

The pH value of water may need to be adjusted before water distribution and during treatment for several 

reasons, including: 

• to ensure that the pH value meets the water quality standards; 

• to control corrosion in the distribution system and consumers' installations, or to reduce plumbo-‐solvency; 

• to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of disinfection; 

• to facilitate the removal of iron and manganese; 

• to facilitate the removal of colour and turbidity by chemical coagulation. 

Many raw surface waters are slightly acidic and coagulation processes further increase acidity. An increase of pH 

can be achieved by: 

• dosing with sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide or sodium carbonate; 

• passage of the water through a bed of alkaline medium; 

• removal of excess carbon dioxide by aeration. 

A reduction of pH can be achieved by dosing with a suitable acid such as sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, sodium 

hydrogen sulphate or carbon dioxide if the pH is too high. 

Removal of iron and manganese 

To remove dissolved iron from ground waters, it is necessary to oxidise it into the insoluble ferric hydroxide. This 

can be done by aeration as mentioned above. Afterwards it is possible to remove the oxidised substance by 

filtration (e.g. sand filter). If the water comes from peaty ground for example, iron is often present as an organic 

complex. Then it is required to use strong oxidants like chlorine or potassium permanganate to oxidise and 

remove it. 

The removal of manganese is more complicated than the removal of iron. It is a similar method as the removal of 

iron, but more intensive oxidation is necessary to convert manganese into manganese dioxide; also this step is 

followed by filtration (sand filter). 

When coagulation is practised to remove colour and turbidity, iron removal can be reached simultaneously. 

Here is an example of the iron reaction during water aeration: 

2 Fe(HCO3)2 + 0,5 O2 + H2O → 2 FeO(OH)·∙H2O ↓ 4 CO2 

Removal of nitrate 

Natural nitrate concentrations occur usually below 50mg/l, (the threshold value of the EU Drinking Water 

Directive). If the measured concentration is above this value, it can be an indicator for man-‐made pollution by 

agriculture (animals, manure, fertiliser) or sewage. In this case, nitrate has to be removed in order to fulfil legal 


____________________________________________________________________________ 

standards. Ion-‐exchange is the most common and easiest technique to remove nitrate. Water passes through 

columns filled with resin beads that remove anions such as nitrate. See also paragraph 3.3. of this module. 

During this process, nitrate is exchanged for the equivalent amount of chloride. When the capacity for exchange 

is exhausted, the resins have to be backwashed and recharged with sodium chloride. 

The wastewater contains large amounts of sodium chloride and nitrate. Therefore, the wastewater must be 

collected for disposal. Other possible removal-‐processes are filtering via membranes or de-‐nitrification. The 

latter one is expensive and one needs experience with such kind of processes. 


Bacte-‐ 

ria Cysts Viruses Algae 

Coarse Turbi-‐ 

particle dity Colour Al* As* 

Coagulation/ 

1 + + + + ++ ++ ++ ++ + ++ 

flocculation 

Sedimentation ++ + + + 

Gravel filter/screen + ++ + + + 

Rapid sand filtration + + + + ++ + + + 

Slow sand filtration ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ + + 

Chlorination ++ ++ + + 

Fe*/ 

Mn* NO3* 

Pesti-‐ 

cides 

Sol-‐ 

vents 

Ozonation ++ + ++ ++ + ++ ++ 

UV ++ + ++ + 

Activated carbon + + + ++ 

Activated alumina ++ 

Ceramic filter ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ 

Ion exchange + + ++ ++ 

Membranes ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ + ++ ++ ++ ++ 

Table 2: Overview or the removal capacity and effectiveness of several water treatment systems 

*Al: aluminium, As: arsenic, Fe: iron and Mn: manganese , NO3: Nitrate 

+ Partly effective ++ Effective/ preferred technique 

1 Pre-‐Oxidation may be required for effective removal of aluminium, arsenic, iron and manganese 

Source: Manual on Treatment for Small Water Supply Systems;http://dwi.defra.gov.uk/research/completed-‐ 

research/reports/DWI70_2_137_manual.pdf 

1.5. 

Disinfection 

Taste/ 

Colour 

Pollution of drinking water by animal or human faeces or sewage is one of the most threatening contaminations. 

This is because faeces or sewage contains an abundance of pathogenic microorganisms (see also Module 8 and 

9). Disinfection is a necessary step to kill or inactivate microorganisms and to prevent spreading of harmful 

diseases. It is very important to test the raw water for microorganisms, as indicated by the Drinking Water 

Directive. It determines what kind of treatment is needed and to which intensity. The processed water has to be 

tested as well to make sure that the disinfection step works sufficiently. Waters from lowland streams are most 

affected by faecal contamination (some thousand E. coli per 100 ml). Upland waters still have some ten E. coli 

per 100 ml. Groundwaters should be less prone to contamination, but they are still threatened depending on site 

conditions.

____________________________________________________________________________ 

The susceptibilities to disinfectants of the different microorganisms vary widely. The effectiveness of the 

disinfectants depends additionally on its concentration, contact time with pathogens, pH and temperature. 

Disinfection can be attained by means of physical or chemical disinfectants. For the disinfection of water the 

most common means are: 

1. Chlorination (chemical disinfectant) 

2. Ozonation (chemical disinfectant) 

3. Ultra violet radiation (physical disinfectant) 

Chlorination 

Chlorination is the most common in larger water supplies, but less in smaller ones. The sources of chlorine can be 

different, as for example, pure chlorine gas (from a cylinder), sodium or calcium hypochlorite granules or chlorine 

dioxide. Hypo-‐chlorous acid is a more powerful disinfectant than the hypochlorite ion. 

All chlorine containing substances are very reactive and toxic and should be carefully handled and stored. 

Additionally, chlorination processes need to be carefully controlled in order to minimise problems with 

complaints of taste and odour. Chlorination is usually practised at certain values of pH. Therefore, for small 

supplies, consideration should be given to use alternatives to chlorination, such as UV. 

Liquefied chlorine gas is supplied in pressurised containers. The gas is withdrawn from the cylinder and is dosed 

into water by a chlorinator, which controls and measures the gas flow rate. 

Sodium hypochlorite solution can be delivered to the site in drums. Not more than one month's supply should be 

delivered at one time, as its prolonged storage (particularly on exposure to light) results in a loss of available 

chlorine and an increase in concentration of chlorate relative to chlorine.. Water disinfection by means of 

chlorine or hypochlorite affects the taste of water in a negative way. 

The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that for the effective disinfection of drinking water “the pH 

should preferably be less than 8,0 and the contact time greater than 30 minutes, resulting in a free chlorine 

residual of 0,2 to 0,5 mg/l”. 

Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) is in most circumstances more effective in destroying harmful pathogens than chlorine 

gas. Especially the cysts of protozoa and legionella are killed in contrast to hypochlorite. Chlorine dioxide is very 

explosive and thus used only as an aqueous solution. It builds less chlorinated hydrocarbons with organic 

-‐ 

components than chlorine gas, but can form chlorite (ClO2 ). Chlorite is limited by regulation after disinfection to 

less than 0.2 mg/l. 

Keep in mind that chlorination with chlorine gas or hypochlorite does not affect the cysts of some protozoa 

(Giardia lambia, Cryptosporidium). 

Ozonation 

Ozone (O 3) is a very strong oxidising agent, which is toxic to most waterborne pathogens, even the cysts of 

protozoa like Cryptosporidium. Ozone has to be created on-‐site with oxygen and UV light or electrical discharge. 

It is added to the water by bubble contact with a minimum of 4 minutes of retention time. It can destroy taste 

and odour as well. Ozone decomposes rapidly and does not leave a persistent residual. Hence a longer lasting 

disinfectant should be added if necessary. It reacts with all kinds of organic and inorganic material in the water, 

thus the demand of ozone has to be determined analogously to chlorine. Ozone is regarded as safe in water 

treatment, even if some oxidation products are not well known. But because ozone is highly toxic, proper 

handling is indispensable. 

Ultra violet irradiation 

UV irradiation is the preferred method of disinfection in small-‐scale water supplies. Special lamps generate light 

with a wavelength between 250 and 265 nm. This electromagnetic radiation causes direct damage towards 

biological structures like proteins and DNA. An important prerequisite is clean water with low turbidity and 

colour. Dissolved organics and inorganics, clumping of microorganisms, turbidity or colour are some factors 

affecting the effectiveness of UV disinfection method. The dose of applied radiation must be high enough to 


____________________________________________________________________________ 

ensure a good disinfection. Residence time and UV intensity have to be adequate. A UV lamp can last up to one 

year. 

Advantages: Unlike the treatment with chlorine, there is no taste, odour, colour or health risks left and the cysts 

of Cryptosporidium are inactivated. The handling is simple, maintenance modest and the equipment compact. 

Disadvantages: As no residuals are left, the following steps of distribution have to be safe (especially storage). 

Otherwise, a longer lasting disinfectant like chloramine has to be applied. 

1.6. Corrosion control 

Corrosion is the partial dissolution of materials constituting the treatment and supply systems, tanks, pipes, 

valves, and pumps. It may lead to structural failure, leaks, loss of capacity, and deterioration of chemical and 

microbiological water quality. The internal corrosion of pipes and fittings can have a direct impact on the 

concentration of some water constituents, including lead, copper and nickel. Corrosion control is therefore an 

important aspect of the management of a water supply system. See Module 6 and 7. 

Corrosion control involves many parameters, including the concentrations of calcium, bicarbonate, carbonate, 

and dissolved oxygen, as well as pH. The detailed requirements differ depending on water quality and each 

distribution system material. The pH value controls solubility and the rate of reaction of the metals which are 

involved in corrosion reactions. It is particularly important for the formation of a protective film at the metal 

surface. For particular metals, alkalinity (carbonate and bicarbonate) and calcium (hardness) also affect corrosion 

rates. 

2. 

Treatment at the household level 

Besides treating water at a treatment plant, small devices are developed to treat water at the point of use. This 

means the equipment is able to clean water in small volumes with the distinct purpose to treat water on a 

household level. This treated water is mostly used only for cooking and drinking. There are treatment units for 

the household which work very similar to those at larger plants and can produce pure water from raw waters. 

These units can be taken into consideration if no public water supply and/or adequate treatment are offered. All 

filters have one common property: they all have to be maintained (cleaned, parts have to be exchanged or 

regenerated). 

Before residents of a household choose a water treatment system, the following questions should be answered: 

• Is the system designed to treat a specific water quality problem? 

• Are the local conditions, such as eventual needed high pressure, suitable for the system? 

• How many litres of treated water does the unit produce per day? 

• How much treated water is needed daily for consumption purposes for washing or etc.? 

• How will you know if the unit is not working properly? Is there an indicator to show any malfunction of the 

system if it occurs? 

• How high is the total cost and what kind of maintenance is required? Is it manageable? 

• Is there a service and warranty for the system? 

Filter Particles Odour Microorganisms Nitrate Metals, hardness Pesticides 

Ceramic +++ ++ 

Active carbon + ++ + 

Anion-‐exchanger +++ 

Cation-‐exchanger +++ 

Boiling ++ 

Table 3: Different options of water treatment systems for households without adequate drinking water quality 


____________________________________________________________________________ 

2.1. 

Ceramic filter 

The water has to flow through the ceramic (usually sold as 'candles'), which has a very porous structure. 

Depending on the pore size, particles up to 0.5 µm can be filtered. Sometimes the filter is impregnated with 

colloidal silver and will prevent bacteria or fungi from building up on the layers of the candle. Silver is very toxic 

for many microorganisms as it prevents them from taking oxygen from the water. An active carbon unit can be 

integrated into the filter. The candle has to be replaced regularly. Ceramic filters remove particles and 

microorganisms; chemicals like nitrates or calcium (hardness) are not reduced. 

2.2. 

Active carbon filter 

Activated carbon is carbon produced from carbonaceous source materials such as nutshells, peat, wood, coal etc. 

Due to its high degree of microporosity, just one gram of activated carbon can have a surface area in excess of 

500 m 2 . Activated carbon is widely used in water treatment processes, while it has a very porous structure and is 

able to adsorb dissolved organic substances which cause taste or odour. Some pesticides or pharmaceutical 

residues can be adsorbed by active carbon as well. The more non-‐polar the substances are, the better they are 

adsorbed. Ionic substances like minerals, nitrate, salts or lime are not adsorbed and remain in the water. 

2.3. 

Ion-‐exchange 

Many water-‐softening devices depend on a process known as ion-‐exchange. Ion-‐exchangers can exchange 

certain ions with ions with the same electric charge, for example calcium ions in water are exchanged with 

sodium ions that are loosely bound to a resin. Ion exchangers have a limited capacity, and after the resin is filled 

with the removed elements, the exchanger has to be regenerated. 

• Anion-‐exchanger: they can be used to remove nitrate or other negative charged ions or substances. 

• Cation-‐exchanger: they are used in households to soften the water (reduction of hardness) and exchange the 

positive ions Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ with Na + . 

Figure 3: Fully charged resin Figure 4: Exhausted resin after ion exchange 

Source http://www.healthgoods.com/Drinking_Water_Filter_Buying_Guide_s/150.htm 

2.4. Boiling 

Simple boiling of the water (minimum 5 minutes) can destroy microorganisms. It is a common and temporary 

help until the source of water contamination is determined and/or treatment is adjusted. Chemical 

contaminations are not at all affected or destroyed. 


____________________________________________________________________________ 

3. Storage of drinking water 

A water supply system should have the possibility to store a certain amount of water in an adequate tank to 

provide drinking water during times of maintenance, problems with the source or treatment and fluctuating 

demand. All storage tanks must be insulated to prevent freezing in the wintertime or heating during summer. 

Light, pollution and insects have to be kept away. Storage tanks have to be built and maintained in a proper 

manner and inspected regularly. Tanks might be used to maintain an appropriate pressure. 

Examples for special water storage tanks are high level tanks, i.e. the water level of an elevated water reservoir is 

higher than the supply area and the water can follow the natural slope by gravity. It has two functions: storing a 

smaller volume of water and providing an appropriate pressure at the consumer's tap. These terms can be 

achieved by using a water tower or by being integrated into a geographical elevated area. 

For the storage of drinking water in the household, dispensers with a narrow opening for filling and dispensing 

are recommended. These kinds of containers protect stored household water especially from contaminations 

with microbial organisms. Storage containers should furthermore be situated on a stable base so it will not tip 

over easily, be strong and durable, not be transparent (see-‐through) and be easy to clean. 

4. Transport to Consumer 


Figure 3: Different types of containers: to the left unsafe, 

to the right safe storage of drinking water 

Source: CAWST (2009) 

http://www.sswm.info/category/implementation-‐ 

tools/water-‐purification/hardware/point-‐use-‐water-‐ 

treatment/hwts 

Drinking water is transported to the consumer and distributed by a more or less extended water pipe network. 

The water pipes have to fulfil different standards in order to deliver good quality water. Hence, the material of 

the pipes has to comply with several technical (and legal) aspects. A proper design, assembling and installation 

from the catchment to the household are essential. For more information about this topic, please refer to 

module 2 and 6. 

A so far neglected issue is water loss in the network. In Bulgaria, around 60% of the water is lost on the way from 

the suppliers to the consumers. Other countries like Italy (28%), Great Britain (20%) and Germany (8%) have 

solved this problem in different ways. Broken pipes do not only lead to water loss, but can also be a source of 

water contamination as organisms and substances can enter the network (see also module 7 and 12). 

The supplier has to maintain an appropriate pressure as well. If necessary, pumps have to be installed to provide 

enough pressure for all consumers. The average flow velocity should guarantee that the retention time of the 

water does not last too long in order to avoid growing of pathogens and raising temperatures.

____________________________________________________________________________ 

5. Maintenance, training and management 


1. Pumping of the treated water to the tank 

2. Water tank (higher than tap at consumer level) 

3. Utilisation of water at consumers' household 

Figure 4: Water tower schematic 

Source: de.wikipedia.org/wiki/hochbehälter; Jonathan 

Cretton 

The management, implementation, operation and maintenance of a water supply system require commitment 

and adequate qualification of all personnel. This is often the most neglected part of a water supply system. The 

bigger the system, the more consumers are connected, the more water is provided, the more sophisticated the 

system will get and the more essential is the qualification of managers and workers. 

On the management level, planning, collecting data, engineering and communication takes place. In order to 

manage unforeseen situations, one of the overall tasks is also the elaboration of a local emergency plan for the 

water supply system. Typical hazardous events are listed in module 2. 

The workers take responsibilities to install pipes, operate and maintain treatment plants. For them, it is 

important not only to fix broken equipment, but also to check it all on a regular base. Devices, chemicals, lamps, 

and etc. have to be maintained and exchanged preventively. Simple check programmes identify problems in the 

time necessary to take appropriate measures for fixing. 

The checks may include: 

• Disinfection, it is most vulnerable and should be checked at least on a daily basis. 

• Filters and tanks should be cleaned regularly. 

• Site inspection of catchment and water source tapping. 

• Regular inspection of the treatment plant, piping system and storage tanks. 

Workers should be familiar with the topic and the special equipment used in the local treatment plant. For a 

proper operation, it is advisable to follow the instructions of the supplier. Suppliers often provide training for 

their devices. Some may offer contracts on maintenance too. The assistance of experts can be very helpful. 

Training of local workers and management personnel should comprise: 

• Conducting (or assigning) water analyses and publishing test results according to the regulations. 

• Checking that the treatment plant is working properly. 

• Protecting the source against contamination. 

• Refilling chemicals. 

• Conducting routine maintenance and small repairs. 

• Clarifying responsibilities (e.g. in case of emergency). 

• Documentation. 

• Developing mechanisms for the involvement of all stakeholders and developing transparent financial 

instruments for the operation and maintenance of the water supply. 


• Invite the water supplier to explain how the water system and treatment works. 

• Discuss the strong and weak points of the local water supply system with the supplier. Furthermore, ask 

about the desirable changes, and about the financial, technical and environmental aspects.

____________________________________________________________________________ 

• Visit the local water supplier, treatment plant or catchment area. 

• Draw a picture (mapping) of the water flow from the catchment area to the households. Which kind of 

source, source tapping, treatment and storage are included? 

• Explain the usage of a sand/gravel filter 

• What kind of devices do the pupils use at home for water treatment or storage? 

WSP – related activities 

Gather information from the local supplier: 

• Is the raw water treated? If yes, what kind of treatment is used for the local water? 

• Is the water quality monitored during and after the treatment? 

• Are the test results of drinking water made public? 

• What are the test results of raw and treated water? 

• Discuss if the treatment is sufficient enough. 

• In what condition is the local piping system and the treatment plant in? 

• Are the workers trained adequately and who is responsible for what? 

• Is there enough budget available for operation and maintenance of the local water supply system? 

• Is there any plan in case of an emergency? If yes, what does the plan look like? 

7. Text sources and further reading’ 

Functioning of Ceramic Filter Candles. Available from http://www.water4life.eu/html/technologie-‐uk.html 

Drinking Water Inspectorate (DWI), (2001). Manual on Treatment for Small Water Supply Systems. 

Available from http://dwi.defra.gov.uk/research/completed-‐research/reports/DWI70_2_137_manual.pdf 

Health goods (2012). Drinking water filter buying guide. Available from 

http://www.healthgoods.com/Drinking_Water_Filter_Buying_Guide_s/150.htm 

Household water treatment 2, Water and Environmental Health at London and Loughborough (WELL) No.59., 

Skinner, B., Shaw, R. 1999. Available from http://www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/technical-‐briefs/59-‐ 

household-‐water-‐treatment-‐2.pdf 

Mountain Empire Community College (2012). Water/Wastewater Distance Learning Website. Available from 

http://water.me.vccs.edu/ 

JACKSON, P. J., DILLON, G. R., IRVING, T. E. AND G STANFIELD, G. (2001): Manual on Treatment for Small Water Supply 

Systems; Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions; Buckinghamshire, United Kingdom 

Sustainable Sanitation and Water Management, water purification, (2012). Available from 

http://www.sswm.info/category/implementation-‐tools/water-‐purification 

The United Natiion’s World water development report, (2012). Available from 

http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-‐sciences/environment/water/wwap/wwdr/ 

WHO, (2012). Household water treatment and safe storage. Available from 

http://www.who.int/household_water/research/safe_storage/en/index.html 



Module 6 

Drinking Water 

Distribution – Pipes 

Summary 

When developing a water safety plan, the important aspects of distributing drinking water must be considered. 

This module explains these aspects of water distribution and they are: the most commonly used types of pipes, 

advantages and disadvantages of different materials used for water supply networks and households, and the 

importance of adequately chosen materials and the complexity of the materials. 

Objectives 

The pupils can describe some types of pipes used for drinking water supply networks. They know the 

advantages and disadvantages of the most common used materials and learn how to identify lead, copper and 

iron pipes. 


Metal pipes, cast iron, galvanised iron, copper, lead, plastic pipes, PVC and PE, asbestos cement, corrosion, 

freezing 



Questionnaires for water supplier and citizens Copies of questionnaires (see module 19.) 

Module 4

Drinking water distribution – pipes 

Introduction 

Pipes used to distribute drinking water are made of plastic, concrete or metal (e.g. galvanised iron or copper). 

All of them have some advantages and disadvantages, yet the properties of each pipe material should fulfil 

some specified requirements. 

Many water quality factors, including the chemistry and characteristics of the water (e.g. pH, salts that are 

dissolved in the water), lead to the corrosion of pipes used in water distribution. The corrosiveness of water is 

principally controlled by monitoring and adjusting the pH through the concentrations of calcium or phosphates 

in the water. The water supplier should address these factors and eventually treat the water, which will lead to 

reduced corrosion (see also module 5 and 7). Also, appropriate materials for the distribution of drinking water 

need to be selected. 

Pipes for drinking water distribution should be suitable for the transport of water. In many countries norms 

have been established on the minimal required quality of the pipes. When in contact with water or soil, the 

material should be resistant (corrosion-‐proof) to possible chemical reactions and the material should not allow 

toxic substances to be released into the water. Furthermore, the pipes have to be resistant against a specified 

internal and external pressure. 

In most countries, the water supplier has the responsibility for the network and water quality that ends at the 

water meter of the households. Within the house, the owner or costumer carries the responsibility for his/her 

pipes and other water or treatment tools. The diagram and table below show an example from Scotland, which 

is replicable for many countries. 

Graphic 1: Water supply 

Source: www. Scottishwatersupply.co.uk 


1. The most common materials used for transporting drinking water 

1.1. Metal pipes 

Cast iron and ductile cast iron pipes 

The use of cast iron pipes has a long tradition. In the 19th and 20th century, they found wide spread use as 

pressure pipes for the transport of water and gas or as sewage and drainage pipes. Currently, there is nearly no 

new manufacturing of cast iron pipes. Cast iron is relatively inexpensive but, nowadays, higher quality materials 

for water networks are available. For example ductile iron, also known as ductile cast iron, spheroidal graphite 

iron is much more flexible and elastic, due to its nodular graphite inclusion. 

For the production of cast iron or ductile iron pipes, minerals and other metals are added to the so-‐called pig 

iron. Pig iron is an intermediate product of smelting iron ore. The dosage of quantities added depends on the 

wished properties of the final product. For long-‐lasting service, corrosion protection of the iron is needed. 

Often Ductile pipes are somewhat resistant to internal corrosion and very often the surface is covered with 

Polyurethane (PUR), bitumen or cement mortar. 

Galvanised iron pipes 

One of the popular materials for transporting water is galvanised iron. Iron has been, and still remains, one of 

the most popular metals used in large scale construction. Though due to the instability of the material, iron 

pipes have to be coated in order to reduce its weak corrosive persistence. By galvanising (zinc-‐coating) the 

pipes, the quality increases. Zinc-‐coating contains a mixture of several metals, in which zinc is the main 

component. In many countries, special requirements for the composition of the metals are established. 

Galvanised pipes are sensitive to corrosion, such as cast-‐iron pipes. Therefore, water that comes in contact with 

galvanised pipes should have non-‐corrosive properties, and have certain hardness and pH. If drinking water is 

disinfected with free chlorine, an increase in corrosion of the iron materials can be expected. Elevating the pH 

of water counteracts the corrosive effect of chlorinated water on iron. 

Iron pipes that are in contact with soil are mostly lined with cement (cement-‐lining). A minimal amount of 

welding seams increases the stability of pipes. Galvanised iron pipes are rather cheap and easy to handle, but 

have a relatively short live time. 

Copper pipes 


The purpose of the distribution within the house will 

influence the selection of the materials 

Experts favour copper pipes mainly because of their universality. They are suitable for plumbing systems and 

heating, as well as gas pipeline installations. A great advantage is that chlorinated water has no or a very low 

impact on copper pipes. Furthermore, copper has proven bactericidal properties, which hinder the 

development of bacteria inside the pipes. International experience from operating with such tubes shows that 

their flawless use in plumbing and heating systems lasts from 50 to 100 years. Of course, as with all other

products, copper pipes also have some limitations in terms of application. They do not tolerate very acidic or 

very alkaline water, and very soft or very hard water. Hence, the water supplier has to be aware of eventual 

corrosive properties of drinking water towards copper pipes. Brand new installed copper pipes lack the 

protection layer of limestone (calcium sediments) and release some copper into the drinking water. Depending 

on the hardness of the water, a layer of limestone develops in the pipes after some months, serving as 

protection. 

Lead pipes 


Copper pipes are characterised by durability and 

reliability, but are relatively expensive. 

For many centuries and in many countries, lead pipes were the favourite material for water pipes within the 

distribution network and for installation within houses. After the early 1900´s, the installation of lead pipes was 

increasingly substituted by other materials such as copper or galvanised iron, and after the sixties by plastic 

pipes. The frequency of the appearance of lead pipes within the water distribution systems varies from country 

to country. Lead pipes can be affected by corrosion and release lead into the drinking water. Besides the 

drinking water pipes, faucets or fittings of brass, or solder used to seal joins in plumbing, may also contain 

elements of lead. 

Due to the high toxicity of lead, lead pipes are not used any more for the drinking water supply. 

1.2. Plastic pipes 

The raw material needed to make most plastics comes from petroleum and natural gas. Due to their relatively 

low costs, ease in manufacture, versatility, and imperviousness to water, plastics are used in an enormous and 

expanding range of products: from paper clips to pipes intended for transporting drinking water. Plastic has 

replaced many common materials such as cement and metals within drinking water networks. 

Plastics are often preferred than metals due to a number of inherent advantages: plastic piping is lightweight 

and does not require an open flame for joining the flexibility of plastic can simplify the installation. Plastics are 

typically lower in cost and resist the corrosion and scaling that plague metals in some applications. However, 

indication of the mitigation of synthetic chemical contaminants from plastic pipe materials to water may exist. 

These contaminants likely occur at low “safe” levels, but are sufficient to generate odour and taste concerns in 

some cases. Another disadvantage of some types of plastic pipes is that they have lowered resistance to 

chlorinated water. 

The most common types of plastics used in the drinking water distribution are presented in the following. 

PE (Polyethylene) pipes 

Depending on the product quality, there are high-‐density polyethylene (HDPE), medium density (MDPE) and 

low-‐density (LDPE) pipes. The level of density expresses the pressure that the pipes can sustain. For locations 

enduring high pressure or weights, like streets, HDPE pipes are used.

Plastic pipes and fittings are more and more widely used for indoor and outdoor water distribution systems 

Performances of PE pipes of different manufacturers show different possible temperature ranges in terms of 

application and usually range between -‐20 and +90 °C. Tubes of the PE group are resistant to ultraviolet rays. PE 

pipes are widely used for water and sanitation systems. High-‐quality PE pipes have a long lifetime (50 years) 

and are easy to maintain. They have a high impact strength and show resistance to cracking, even at low 

temperatures. PE pipes are also stable in water and do not tend to corrode. Nevertheless, due to weak or 

improper connections, leakages in distribution networks with plastic pipes are not uncommon. 

PVC (Polyvinyl chloride) pipes 

PVC is the third most widely produced plastic after PE and PP (polypropylene). PVC is widely used in 

construction because it is cheap, durable and easily workable. This material accounts for 66% of the water 

distribution market in the USA. In sanitary sewer pipe applications, it accounts for 75%. PVC pipes belong to the 

cheapest types of pipes, but the material tends to get brittle in the long-‐term. The usage of PVC is controversial, 

particularly because of the harmful chemicals (e.g. Dioxins) which may be released in the environment during 

its production and final disposal (burning). 

1.3. Asbestos-‐cement pipes 


Asbestos cement pipes have been used widely for 

drinking water distribution and there are many 

kilometres of them to be found all over the world. 

Source photo: the Environmental consultancy; 

http://www.asbestosguru-‐oberta.com/A-‐ 

CMyths&Facts.html 

Asbestos cement is a mixture of cement and primarily chrysolite, or i.e. Portland cement and white asbestos. 

Asbestos cement pipes have been widely used for drinking water distribution and there are many kilometres of 

it to be found all over the world. According to the results of long-‐lasting monitoring, no concerns have 

appeared for the health of consumers receiving the drinking water from asbestos cement pipes. So far, no 

programmes have been established to replace asbestos cement pipes. However, staff working within the

asbestos industry and working with asbestos pipes are exposed to the inhalation of asbestos fibres. There is 

consistent evidence that the inhalation of asbestos fibres is hazardous to health (carcinogenic). Only a few 

countries still install asbestos cement pipes, primarily because of issues regarding handling and economics. 

2. Common causes of damage to water pipes 

Poor quality of materials and improper installation 

Poor quality of pipe materials and improper installation will shorten the pipes lifetime and make them more 

prone to leaches and bursts. Poor pipe quality may facilitate the infiltration of chemicals into the drinking water 

and make pipes more sensible for corrosion. In many countries, the pipe quality conditions for distribution of 

drinking water include: the size of pipes, the composition, the properties and quality of the materials. The age 

of the water pipes, their state of maintenance and the quality of water influence their strength, durability and 

safety. The older the pipes become, the more brittle and more prone they are to fractures. Unsuitable or low-‐ 

quality materials for plumbing or connecting the pipes can contaminate the drinking water with pollutants such 

as lead or make the water taste odd. 

Installing drinking water pipes and/or connecting households to the network is not a task for laymen, but for 

professionals. Improperly installed pipes often result in the infiltration of contaminants or a break/leakage 

within the network. 

Besides the quality and installation of the pipes, the arrangement of the network is also a key factor for safety. 

For example, the installation of valves within the distribution network is essential. Valves can isolate incidents 

of pipe breakages and contamination events and limit the risk of the surrounding network. Valves can also 

prohibit the backflow of water within the network. 

Corrosion 


Graphic 2. A poor quality of the installed pipes will shorten the 

lifetime of the pipes and are more prone to leaches and bursts. 

Source drawing: http://alpharetta.olx.com 

Depending on the properties, water can cause chemical reactions with metals and cement pipes, which is called 

corrosion. Pipes that are corroding release metals into the drinking water. There is also a risk that the pipe will 

start to leak or crack, increasing the risk of infiltration from microorganisms. Corrosion control is used to 

manage acidity, alkalinity and other water qualities that affect pipes and equipment used to transport water. 

Often, the so-‐called Langelier Saturation Index (LSI) is used for indicating the corrosive properties of water. The 

LSI (LSI = measured pH – pHs) indicates if the water will precipitate, dissolve, or be in equilibrium with calcium 

carbonate. If the LSI is more than 0, the calcium will precipitate and produce a protecting layer on the interior 

of the pipes; if the LSI is less than 0, the water is considered corrosive. This corrosion control is a task for the 

water supplier. Besides the interior corrosion, exterior corrosion of the pipes can also happen, caused by the

eaction of soil and water. Therefore, a protection layer, of e.g. bitumen, is often applied on the exterior side of 

the network pipes. 

Freezing 

If the temperature falls below the freezing point, there is a risk of the pipes freezing. Because the volume of 

frozen water increases, frozen pipes will crack and then burst, spilling large amounts of water. In unheated 

spaces, the pipes should be emptied because the pipes cannot be protected against freezing temperatures. In 

outside areas with cold winters, water pipes have to be protected against freezing temperatures by burying the 

pipes deep enough into the ground. The depth of the pipes in the ground depends on the climate and can vary 

from up to 2 meters down in the ground. 

Too much pressure 

If the pipes or joints are not in good shape, or if the water pump does not function properly, high pressure 

could result within the water pipes, which could cause rupture and breakage of the pipes. 

3. Practical issues 

3.1. How to recognise plastic, lead, copper or iron pipes? 

Plastic piping is found in newer homes and is distinctive in appearance. It can be blue, black, white, grey or 

colourless, and can often have glued or threaded joints. Scratching plastic piping will not create a significant 

mark. Tapping plastic piping will produce a hollow sound. 

Copper piping is very common and can be identified due to its bronze/copper colour that resembles the 

appearance of a one-‐cent piece or penny. Joints are usually made with copper fittings and solder, or with brass 

or bronze fittings. When you scratch a copper pipe, a shiny copper coloured line will become visible. A green 

stain will be apparent where moisture or water has been in contact with the copper pipe. 


Lead is usually dull grey or silver in colour 

Lead piping is used in older homes, usually built before 1950 or 1970 (depending on the country). Lead is 

usually dull grey or silvery in colour, is relatively bendable and it can be scratched and scraped easily. A good 

way to identify lead piping is to scratch the surface with a coin or similar object; if it is lead, a grey or silver 

colour will appear. 

Iron piping can be identified by its hardness, black paint, or rusty finish. Iron pipes are usually much more 

difficult to scratch then pipes made out of other material.

3.2. Actions to reduce metal intake via drinking water 


Ductile iron pipes 

Source photo: 

http://images.mitrasites.com/ductile-‐iron-‐pipe.html 

• Anytime the water in a particular faucet has not been used for six hours or longer, "flush" cold water pipes 

by letting the water run until it becomes as cold as it will get. The more time water remains in the pipes, 

the more lead or copper it may contain. 

• The only way to be sure of the amount of lead or other metal in the household water is to have it tested by 

a competent laboratory. The water supplier may be able to offer information or assistance with testing. 

Testing is especially important for apartment dwellers, because flushing may not be effective in high-‐rise 

buildings with lead-‐soldered central piping. 

• If cases of corrosion within the network or household installation occur frequently, the water supplier 

should be contacted. Drinking water should be treated at the plant to make it less corrosive. 

• If lead pipes release lead into the drinking water, the best way to reduce the lead intake, via the drinking 

water, is an exchange of the pipes. 


• Name the 3 most common categories of pipe materials. 

• Name examples for metal and plastic pipes, and discuss their advantages and disadvantages in using 

them. 

• Give some examples for possible reasons of a damaged water pipe. 

• Which property/ies of water support the material to turn corrosive? 

• Distinguish between lead, copper, plastic and iron pipes by scratching their surfaces. 

• How should you behave if there is suspicion of lead in the drinking water?


• Investigate the type of pipes used within the public network with the support of the water supplier. 

• How is the distribution network organised? (Are there several zones, branches, etc?) 

• Is it possible to isolate sections of the network in case of repairs or failures? 

• Does the provided water provoke corrosion? 

• Is the quality of the provided water treated in order to avoid corrosion? 

• Investigate the type of pipes used within the local households (observation, questionnaires, etc.). 

• Carry out a survey on corrosion products within the households (questionnaires or interviews). 

• Carry out a survey on leakages within the network supported by the water supplier, by your own 

observation and interviews among citizens. 

• Discuss what should be done in case of doubts about the drinking water quality, and if and how water 

analyses on contamination by heavy metals could be organised. 


InspectAPedia, (2012). Galvanized Iron Water Supply Piping, & Galvanized Drain Piping. Available from 

http://www.inspectapedia.com/plumbing/Galvanized_Iron_Pipes.htm 

United States Environment Protection Agency (EPA), (2012). Basic Information about Copper in Drinking Water. 

Available from http://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/basicinformation/copper.cfm 

United States Environment Protection Agency (EPA), (2012). Lead in Drinking Water. Available from 

http://water.epa.gov/drink/info/lead/index.cfm 

Hard Water (2012). Available from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_water 



Module 7 

Drinking Water Quality 

Summary 

Water that reaches our home usually comes either from surface water (water from small rivers, streams, 

rivers and lakes) or groundwater. About 80% of tap water in Bulgaria comes from lakes, rivers or other 

surface sources. Underground water sources and municipal wells provide about 20%. Most people believe 

that they receive clean, safe and healthy drinking water. Unfortunately, this is not always the case. 

Depending on the original source of drinking water and other factors, it may show various impurities. A 

description of the most important parameters for drinking water, such as technical guidelines, and related 

health risks are given in this module. In addition, maximum allowed concentrations of the related 

substances, as they are established by the European Union Drinking Water Directive, are presented. 

Objectives 

The pupils can describe water substances in drinking water and related health or technical risks. 


Contamination, pathogens, health risks, microorganisms, bacteria, chemicals, corrosion, indicators, 

parameters, Drinking Water Directive, nitrate, fluoride, arsenic, cadmium, lead, copper, iron, calcium, 

magnesium, manganese 



Drinking Water Directive 

Water analyses results of the local central water 

supply system 

Research on the Internet or cooperation with the 

water supplier 

Cooperation with the water supplier 

Interviews with water and health authorities, citizens Questionnaires (Module 19) 

Module 4

Drinking water quality 

Introduction 

Drinking water quality management has been a key pillar of primary prevention for over one-‐and-‐a-‐half 

centuries and it continues to be the foundation for the prevention and control of waterborne diseases. Water is 

essential for life, but it can and it does transmit diseases in countries on all continents – from the poorest to the 

wealthiest. Infectious diseases caused by pathogenic bacteria, viruses and parasites (e.g. protozoa and 

helminths) are the most common and widespread health risks associated with drinking water. The most 

predominant waterborne disease, diarrhoea, has an estimated annual incidence of 4.6 billion episodes and 

causes 2.2 million deaths every year. The sources of most of those pathogens (disease-‐causing microorganisms) 

are water contamination with animal or human faecal substances. However, natural and anthropogenic 

chemical substances in drinking water can also cause different diseases, depending on the geological condition. 

Furthermore, there are chemical substances without health risks, but due to technical reasons, unwanted by 

the water supplier in special amount. 

1. Microorganisms: the most common and widespread disease causes 

Life would be impossible without microorganisms. Microorganisms, like the group of coliform bacteria, are 

indispensable for the proper digestive functioning of human beings and animals. However, the bacteria should 

not appear in drinking water and can cause diseases in vulnerable persons. They can also cause problems if 

they enter the body via contaminated food or drinks. Particular pathogens that cause diarrhoea leave the body 

via the faeces; and they are then transmitted to humans, who can become ill when they ingest the pathogen. 

This is called faecal-‐oral transmission. For pathogens transmitted by the faecal–oral route, drinking water is 

only one vehicle of transmission. Contamination of food, hands, utensils and clothing can also play a role, 

particularly when domestic sanitation and hygiene are poor. There are several variants of water borne disease 

transmission. These include contamination of drinking water catchments (e.g. by human or animal faeces), 

water within the distribution system (e.g. through leaky pipes or obsolete infrastructure) or stored household 

water (as a result of unhygienic handling). 

1 gramme of faeces can contain 

10 million viruses 

1 million bacteria 

1,000 parasitic cysts 

100 parasitic eggs 

Table 1: Microorganisms in faeces 

Source: New Internationalist Issue 414, 2008, http://www.newint.org/features/2008/08/01/toilets-‐facts/ 

Table 1 gives an overview of the number of microorganisms that can be present in one gramme of faeces and 

the causes of water borne diseases. Hence, adequate sanitation measures are required from every step of the 

drinking water supply system to avoid any drinking water contamination. Hygienic handling of water in all 

stages of the water supply and personal hygiene (regular hand washing) are essential precautionary measures 

to minimise water related health risks. Microbial drinking water safety is not only related to faecal 

contamination. Some organisms live naturally in the water and can become problematic if they grow in large 

numbers in piped water distribution systems (e.g. Legionella). Whereas the larvae of others occur in the water 

source, e.g. guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis), and may cause individual cases or outbreaks. 

Improvements in the quality and availability of safe water, adequate excreta disposal and general hygiene are 

all important in reducing faecal–oral disease transmission. 


Cause Water-‐borne diseases 

Bacterial 

infections 


Diarrhoea, Typhoid fever, Cholera, Botulism, 

Paratyphoid fever, Bacillary dysentery, 

Legionellosis 

Viral infections Hepatitis A and E (jaundice), Poliomyelitis 

Protozoa 

infections 

Amoebic dysentery, Cryptosporidiasis, 

Giardiasis 

Table 2: Causes of water-‐borne diseases 

Source: adapted from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterborne_diseases 

1.1. Contamination of drinking water with faecal matter 

As illustrated in Table 1, faeces can contain millions of useful microorganisms, but can also harbour pathogens. 

Laboratory testing for specific disease causing microorganisms (e.g. Salmonella typhimurium and Vibrio 

cholerae) can be expensive, and if the bacteria are present only in low numbers, they may not be detected. 

Instead, more common bacteria are analysed as an indication of faecal pollution of the water, such as coliform 

bacteria. In many countries, evidence of the faecal coliform bacteria family serves as an indicator for faecal 

contamination of the drinking water. There are hundreds of coliform bacteria species in the human and animal 

intestine, and in the environment as well. On the contrary to several other bacteria, viruses and parasites, the 

bacteria Escherichia coli and faecal streptococci are rather easy to analyse. The presence of those bacteria in 

water is an indication of recent faecal pollution (see also module 8 and 9). In the following section, some 

bacteria are presented that are analysed for monitoring the microbiological drinking water quality. 

Faecal coliforms 

Faecal coliforms are conditionally pathogenic bacteria that are present in the intestinal tract of humans and 

most mammals. They are called conditionally pathogenic since they can cause diseases only under certain 

conditions (high concentrations, increased susceptibility and reduced human immune defence). The presence 

of faecal coliforms in water indicates faecal contamination and most likely the presence of pathogens. The 

most common health problems that may result from contact with faecal coliform contaminated water are 

dysentery, typhoid, hepatitis, and gastroenteritis. 

Escherichia coli (E.coli) 

Figure 1: The E-‐coli Bacterium 

Source: ©2001 HowStuffWorks 

90% of faecal coliforms are types of Escherichia coli (E. coli). This bacterium lives in the colon of warm-‐blooded 

animals and is necessary for proper digestion of food. Yet this bacterium can cause several infections outside of 

the colon. E. coli exists abundantly in nature, but the presence of E. coli in water is a sign of faecal 

contamination. E. coli is the most common cause of urinary tract infections, but can also cause many other

diseases such as diarrhoea, pneumonia, meningitis. There are many types (serotypes) of the E. coli with 

different properties. For example, E. coli type O157: H7 releases a powerful toxin, leading to severe and bloody 

diarrhoea with abdominal cramping’s. It can cause Haemolytic Uraemic Syndrome (HUS) in children, often with 

fatal consequences. In Canada, a waterborne epidemic caused by E. coli 0157:H7 infected more than 1.500 

persons and resulted in 10 deaths during the year 2000. 

Faecal Streptococci/ Intestinal Enterococci 

Faecal streptococci and intestinal enterococci bacteria are normally present in the intestinal tract of warm-‐ 

blooded animals. Outside the intestinal tract, the bacteria cause common clinical diseases, such as urethra 

infections, bacterial endocarditis, meningitis and diseases of the colon. Enterococci infection may be the reason 

for bladder infections and health problems with the prostate and male reproductive system. They also develop 

resistances against antibiotics and are sometimes difficult to treat. Wound infections with faecal streptococci 

can result in rapid skin damage and sepsis (blood poisoning), sometimes with fatal outcomes (amputation, 

death). In the environment, faecal streptococci are more resistant than E. coli, and they can survive longer in 

water. 

Clostridium perfringens 

C. perfringens is a Gram-‐positive, rod-‐shaped, anaerobic, spore-‐forming bacterium. It occurs in the soil, and in 

the intestinal tract of humans and other vertebrates. In contrast to the aforementioned and easy detectable E. 

coli, C. perfringens is able to survive in a sleeping stage because they form long-‐lasting spores. These spores can 

be used as an indicator for faecal contamination too. For the quality control of drinking water derived from 

surface waters, it is recommended to test on C. perfringens and its spores. They can serve as an indicator for 

the occurrence of harmful protozoa like Cryptosporidium or Giardia lamblia. C. perfringens effects the nervous 

system and can cause meningitis,Surface water and water catchment areas with intensively grazing livestock 

are especially threatened by C. perfringens. The spores of C. perfringens are very resistant to chlorine 

treatment. 

1.2. Contamination of water with Legionella bacteria 

The Legionella pneumophila bacterium was identified in 1977 as the cause of a severe pneumonia outbreak in a 

convention centre in the USA. This bacterium is associated with outbreaks of Legionellosis (Legionnaires 

disease) that are linked to poorly maintained artificial water systems; particularly in cooling towers, air 

conditioners, hot and cold water systems (showers) and whirlpools. Legionella can be spread by aerosols and 

infections can occur by inhalation of contaminated water sprays or mists. 

The bacterium is found worldwide in aquatic environments, but artificial water systems sometimes provide 

environments for growing Legionella bacteria. The bacteria colonize in water systems at temperatures of 20 to 

59 degrees Celsius (optimal-‐35 o C). 

1.3. Microbiological parameters for the quality of drinking water 

The EU Drinking Water Directive (90/313/EEC) mentions that member States should take measures to ensure 

that water intended for human consumption is wholesome and clean. This means that drinking water has to be 

free of any microorganisms and parasites, and of any substances that causes potential danger to human health! 

None of the Escherichia coli and enterococci faecal bacteria may appear in 100ml drinking water. See also 

module 14. 

Frequency of monitoring the quality 

The EU Drinking Water Directive also determines the frequency of water sampling and analyses intended for 

human consumption (also e.g. used in food-‐production enterprises), and how water is supplied from a 

distribution network (e.g. from a tanker). The frequency depends on the volume of water distributed or 

produced each day within a supply zone. 


Microbiological Parameters Parametric value (number/100 ml) 

Escherichia coli (E. coli) 0 

Enterococci 0 

Coliform bacteria * 0 

Clostridium perfringens* 0 

Table 3: Microbiological requirements of drinking water 

* Indicator parameter to be measured if the water originated or is influenced by surface water 

Source: According to EU Drinking Water Directive: COUNCIL DIRECTIVE 98/83/EC 

Volume of water distributed or produced 

each day within a supply zone [m3/d] 


Check monitoring number 

of samples per year 

< 100 The frequency is to be 

decided by the Member State 

concerned. 

>100 -‐ < 1 000 4 / year 1 / year 

> 1 000 -‐ < 10 000 4 / year 

+ 3 for each 1 000 m 3 /d and 

part thereof of the total 

volume 

Audit monitoring number 

of samples per year 

The frequency is to be 

decided by the Member State 

concerned. 

1 / year 

+ 1 for each 3 300 m 3 /d and 

part thereof of the total 

volume 

Table 4: Frequency of sampling and analysing the drinking water quality within the supply zone. 

Source: EU Drinking Water Directive: COUNCIL DIRECTIVE 98/83/EC of 3 November 1998 on the quality of water 

intended for human consumption, Official Journal of the European Communities 

2. Chemical contaminants in drinking water 

The quality of drinking water can be influenced by several sources: 

• Depending on the original source of drinking water, the water may contain various natural inorganic 

substances, partly wholesome for human health and partly even with health concerns. It may contain 

particles or natural organic substances (decomposing products) originating from forest or marsh areas. 

• Due to human activities, agriculture, industry or traffic, the water may contain impurities. 

• Drinking water can be contaminated by the contact of the materials within the network, e.g. metal from 

pipes. 

In the following section, the most common chemical contaminants, which can occur in drinking water and 

originate from the above three mentioned sources, are presented. In addition, the maximal allowed 

concentration for the respective chemical in drinking water (according the EU drinking water directive) are 

given. 

2.1. Nitrate (NO3) 

Nitrate (NO3) is a naturally occurring form of nitrogen found in soil. Nitrogen is essential to all life. Most crop 

plants require large quantities to sustain high yields. The formation of nitrates is an integral part of the nitrogen 

cycle in our environment. In moderate amounts, nitrate is a harmless constituent of food and water. Plants use 

nitrates from the soil to satisfy nutrient requirements and may accumulate nitrate in their leaves and stems. 

Usually plants take up these nitrates, but rain or irrigation water can leach them out due to its high mobility 

into groundwater. Although nitrate occurs naturally in some groundwater, in most cases, higher levels are 

thought to result from human activities (see also module 10)

Common sources of nitrate include: 

• Fertilisers and manure 

• Animal feedlots 

• Municipal wastewater and sludge 

• Septic systems and pit latrines 


Nitrate is a natural substance 

that all plants need for growing 

Nitrate in drinking water can aggravate “Blue Baby Disease” (Methaemoglobinaemia) as it is converted to 

nitrite in the body. Nitrite reacts with haemoglobin of the red blood cells to Methaemoglobin, affecting the 

blood’s ability to carry oxygen to the cells of the body. Infants less than three months of age are particularly at 

risk. The intake of tea or other baby food prepared with nitrate-‐rich water can cause the baby to not get 

enough oxygen and to turn blue. This disease can be lethal, or it can damage the brain or nerves of the child. 

Older people may also be at risk because of decreased gastric acid secretion. In areas where natural iodine 

intake by the inhabitants is low, high nitrate concentrations in drinking water can increase the frequency of 

thyroid problems. 

• The maximal allowed concentration of nitrate in drinking water is 50 mg/l. 

• The nitrate concentration in most natural water sources is less than 10 mg/l. 

• Nitrate levels with more than 25 mg/l, indicate a human-‐made pollution of the water source. 

Chemical Source Health concerns 

Nitrate Agriculture/ 

wastewater 

Harmful for new-‐born babies 

(Blue baby diseases or Methaemoglobinaemia) 

Pesticides Agriculture Carcinogenic, mutagenic, effects nervous system 

Mineral oil Landfills, leakages Carcinogenic 

Arsenic Geogenic Skin diseases, carcinogenic 

Fluorine* Geogenic Dental and bone fluorosis 

Iron and Manganese* Geogenic Suspected relation with nervous diseases 

Uranium Geogenic/mining Kidney diseases, cancer 

Copper* Copper pipes Liver damage 

Lead Lead pipes Effects nervous system 

Cadmium Galvanic pipes Kidney diseases 

Asbestos Asbestos-‐cement pipes Increased risk of developing benign intestinal polyps 

Table 5: Overview of the most common chemical contaminants in drinking water, the related health concerns 

and its possible sources. 

*These chemicals are essential for human health, but harmful in case of increased intake.

2.2. Pesticides 

Pesticides represent a risk factor in all intensive agricultural areas where drinking water is extracted from 

underground sources or surface waters. Many European rivers are affected by pesticides and with a seasonal 

variability. In countries with intensive agriculture, like the Netherlands, river water samples show an average of 

at least 10 different active pesticide substances. Many of these chemicals are proven or are suspected to be 

carcinogenic, mutagenic and/or a hormone-‐disruptor. Some types of pesticides can accumulate in fatty areas of 

the body; e.g. the breast is composed mainly of fatty tissue. Many of the artificial (synthetic) chemicals are long 

lasting in the environment and are found in the whole food cycle, for example DDT or Lindan. 

Depending on the chemical structure, pesticides can be water-‐soluble or fat-‐soluble. Water-‐soluble pesticides, 

such as substances of the chemical groups of urea or Triazin herbicides, should not be applied in water sensitive 

regions, and in particular, not in water protection zones. Some pesticides such as atrazine (a Triazin herbicide), 

which were used decades ago and caused a widespread contamination of groundwater, are forbidden in many 

countries since the early nineties. However, they are still present as active substances or as decomposing 

products in groundwater, thus still being risk factors for human health. 

The maximal allowed concentration of pesticides in drinking water for one active substance is 0,1 µg/l. 

The maximal allowed concentration of the total amount of active substances is 0,5 µg/l. 

Source:http://www.ourbreathingplanet.com/pesticides 

-‐and-‐food-‐safety/ 

2.3. Fluoride (F) 


Source: www.CartoonStock.com 

The appearance of fluoride in the groundwater is mostly of geogenic origin, but can also be caused by mining or 

industrial pollution. In Central Europe, groundwater resources that exceed the fluoride guideline value of 1.5 

mg/l are widespread, and effects on health have been reported in areas with high fluoride amounts in the 

water. Known regions with increased levels of fluoride in groundwater are found, e.g., in Ukraine, Moldova, 

Hungary or Slovenia. On one hand, fluoride is to some extension essential for the development of healthy 

bones and teeth, but on the other hand, long-‐term and increased intake of fluoride via water or other sources 

can cause severe problems with teeth and bones. 

The concentration of fluoride should not exceed 1.5 mg/l.

2.4. Metals 


Dental fluorosis is the appearance of spots on teeth that can 

range from white to brown spots with destruction of tooth 

enamel. 

Source Photo; Oral Health Tips. 

http://www.oralhealthtips.co.uk/tag/dental-‐fluorosis-‐2 

Metals are substances that occur naturally in geological formations. Some metals are essential for life and are 

available naturally in our food and water. On the other hand, drinking water may contain metals, in certain 

concentrations, which cause health risks. Several heavy metals, such as Plutonium or Lead, are not essential for 

life and can cause severe diseases. Those metals are undesired in drinking water. Copper is another heavy 

metal essential for life, but it is toxic in high concentrations. Other light (alkali) metals, like Calcium and 

Magnesium, are essential for life and are desired in drinking water for technical reasons. In the following, some 

metals that are most known in drinking water, are presented. 

Arsenic (As) 

Arsenic contamination of groundwater is found in many counties. It is mostly a natural occurring contamination 

in deeper levels of groundwater. One of the most known cases of large-‐scale poisoning by the consumption of 

arsenic contaminated water is found in India. Besides the natural occurrence of arsenic in groundwater, 

groundwater nearby mines can also be contaminated with As. 

In Europe, in e.g. Hungary, Romania and Slovakia, exposure of As in drinking water has been identified. Arsenic 

and its compounds have carcinogenic properties. Skin diseases and increased cases of cancer endanger the 

population in regions with too high of an arsenic level in their drinking water. 

The maximal allowed concentration of arsenic in drinking water is 10 µg/l. 

Cadmium (Cd) 

Sources of cadmium could be corrosion of galvanised pipes, erosion of natural deposits, discharge from metal 

refineries, runoff from waste batteries and paints. The release of Cd in drinking water due to galvanised pipes 

depends on the composition of the pipes. Many countries have a limited percentage of Cd allowed in 

constructing galvanised pipes. 

With the introduction of chemical fertilisers, cadmium has been accumulating in agricultural land and therefore 

in almost all foods (only a very small amount leaches into the groundwater). For example, many natural sources 

of phosphates are contaminated with Cd and other metals. Several developed countries have a regulated limit 

introduced for the concentration of cadmium in fertilisers. Cadmium can cause kidney, liver, bone and blood 

damage. 

The maximal allowed concentration of cadmium in drinking water is 5µg/l. 

Copper (Cu) 

Copper is a common, malleable metal that occurs naturally in rock, soil, water, sediment and air. It is used to 

make products such as coins, electrical wiring and water pipes for household plumbing. The primary sources of 

copper in drinking water are corroding pipes and brass components of household piping systems. The amount

of copper in drinking water also depends on the hardness and pH of the water, how long the water remains in 

the pipes, the condition of the pipes, the water’s acidity and its temperature (see also module 6) 

Signs that drinking water may have elevated levels of copper include a metallic taste or blue to blue-‐green 

stains around sinks and plumbing fixtures. The corrosion leads to the release of copper ions and their deposit of 

by-‐products on the pipe wall. The solubility of these by-‐products ultimately determines the level of copper at 

our taps. The only way to accurately determine the level of copper in drinking water is to have the water tested 

by a certified laboratory. 

Healthy water should not be corrosive and contain sufficient calcium (hardness) in order to develop a 

protective layer of lime scale within the pipes. In the beginning, newly installed copper pipes or other copper 

equipment release some copper into the water. Therefore, water that was left hours in new copper pipes 

should not be used for consumption. 

Although copper is an essential element for human beings, long-‐term exposure and increased amounts of 

copper causes liver or kidney damage. In particular, babies and children are affected. 

The maximal allowed concentration of copper in drinking water is 2 mg/l. 

Lead (Pb) 

Lead is a heavy, soft, and malleable metal found in natural deposits (such as ores containing other elements), 

and has no characteristic taste or smell. It is used to make pipes, cable sheaths, batteries, solder, paints, and 

glazes. Where drinking water is concerned, lead has been used to produce service lines and solder (both 

banned since 1988), and a variety of brass pipes and plumbing devices (see also module 6). 

Most lead enters our drinking water through the interaction of the water and plumbing materials containing 

lead, i.e. through corrosion and the solubilisation of lead-‐based corrosion by-‐products. Water chemistry, the 

age of the piping, and the amount of exposed lead at the surface of the material in contact with the water are 

the most important factors contributing to lead leaching into our drinking water. Furthermore, corrosion 

deposits within distribution systems can adsorb trace amounts of certain soluble contaminants, including lead. 

Lead is for humans, and in particular for foetuses and children, a toxic metal. Lead can affect delays in physical 

or mental development in children and infants. Children can show slight deficits in attention and learning 

activities. Adults can experience kidney problems and high blood pressure. 

Taking the recognised health risks of lead into consideration, the EU changed the regulations in 1998. 

The maximal allowed concentration of lead in drinking water was reduced from 50 µg/l to 10 µg/l. 

A transition period of 15 years was defined to allow replacing of lead distribution pipes. 


Lead is a heavy and malleable metal and has been used 

in previous time to produce service lines and solder. 

Lead is for human a toxic metal.

3. Elements with technical impacts 

3.1. Calcium (Ca) and Magnesium (Mg) / hardness 

The hardness of groundwater is very much influenced by the composition of the minerals in soils. Dissolved 

natural (carbonate) salts of calcium and magnesium cause water hardness, which can cause deposits of hard 

layers on the surfaces of water pipes or water heaters. 

As aforementioned, metal pipes can be a source of drinking water contamination. Therefore one of the 

requirements of the Drinking Water Directive is that drinking water should not have any corrosive properties in 

contact with metals. That means water should have certain hardness, although the EU Drinking Water Directive 

does not specify standards for hardness, composed of calcium or magnesium. 

However, too much hardness is unwanted, particularly within households. Heating apparatuses are damaged 

and the diameter of pipes can get smaller. The EU Drinking Water Directive does not advise a minimum or 

maximum concentration (indicator parameter) for calcium and magnesium, but several countries do so. Water 

with a very high hardness level may be a problem considering heating installations and household equipment. 

Ca-‐ and/or Mg-‐salts precipitate, in particular, on materials in contact with heated water (water cookers, 

heating systems). Furthermore, hard water requires more detergents/soaps for cleaning purposes. 

Calcium and magnesium are essential elements for human beings. Drinking water with high hardness levels is 

not considered to be harmful. 

3.2. Iron (Fe) and Manganese (Mn) 


Corrosion can cause severe leakages in the 

distribution system 

The primary sources of iron in drinking water are natural geologic sources, as well as ageing and corroding 

distribution systems (household pipes). Iron-‐based materials, such as cast iron and galvanised steel, have been 

widely used in our water distribution systems and household plumbing. 

Undesirable effects are tastes or odours. Iron in quantities greater than 0,3 mg/l in drinking water can cause an 

unpleasant metallic taste and rusty colour. Iron and manganese are both known to stain the water supply. They 

can make water appear red or yellow, create brown or black stains in the sink, and give off an easily detectable 

metallic taste. Even laundry can get brown spots by washing with Fe-‐ and Mn-‐rich water. Although these can all 

be aesthetically displeasing, iron and manganese are not considered to be unhealthy. Fortunately, they can be 

removed from the water easily. Furthermore, increased levels of iron can appear in the drinking water of 

galvanised pipes that are corroding and release iron. Because galvanised pipes consist of a mixture of metals, 

zinc or cadmium levels in the drinking water could also increase. Like iron, zinc is not considered to cause 

health risks. Please see above for cadmium.

4. General remarks 

Most substances that pose health risks are not visible and do not have a colour or a smell. Therefore, only 

extended water analyses of the water source and the final drinking water consumed by the people can give 

information about the quality. If any health-‐concerned substances exceed maximum levels, the consumer 

should be informed and advised on taking appropriate precautionary measures. 

The EU Directive indicates that the analyses results have to be made accessible to the public. The water 

supplier is responsible for the water quality of the entire supply system-‐up to the water meter of the connected 

household. Water should be free of pathogens, and the parameter values of the Drinking Water Directive 

should be fulfilled and the delivered water should have no corrosive properties. 

The water quality has to be monitored on a regular basis and according to the delivered quantity of drinking 

water. But within the house, it is the owner or consumer who is responsible for maintaining the quality of 

water, the pipes and other equipment in contact with the drinking water. The following Table (Table 6) shows 

parameters, which are substances that cause health concerns. The concentration should not exceed the set 

parametric values. 


Parameter Parametric 

value 

Unit 

Acrylamide 0,10 μg/l 

Antimony 5,0 μg/l 

Arsenic 10 μg/l 

Benzene 1,0 μg/l 

Benzo(a)pyrene 0,010 μg/l 

Boron 1,0 mg/l 

Bromate 10 μg/l 

Cadmium 5,0 μg/l 

Chromium 50 μg/l 

Copper 2,0 mg/l 

Cyanide 50 μg/l 

1,2-‐dichloroethane 3,0 μg/l 

Epichlorohydrin 0,10 μg/l 

Fluoride 1,5 mg/l 

Lead 10 μg/l 

Mercury 1,0 μg/l 

Nickel 20 μg/l 

Nitrate 50 mg/l 

Nitrite 0,50 mg/l 

Pesticides 0,10 μg/l 

Pesticides-‐total 0,50 μg/l 

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 0,10 μg/l 

Selenium 10 μg/l 

Tetrachloroethene and 

Trichloroethene 

10 μg/l 

Trihalomethanes — total 100 μg/l 

Vinyl chloride 0,50 μg/l 

Table 6: Chemical parameters and parametric values for the quality of drinking water 

Source: EUROPEAN COUNCIL DIRECTIVE 98/83/EC of 3 November 1998 on the quality 

of water intended for human consumption, Values of Annex 1, Part B


• What is the importance of clean drinking water? 

• What are the risks related to drinking water quality? 

• What are the types of contaminants and their impact on human health? 

• How can one recognize when water is contaminated and what are the sources of contamination? 

• What is hard water? 

• Can water have a chemical reaction with the pipes? 

• What is corrosion? 


Review the national drinking water directive. 

Cooperation with the water supplier or other responsible authorities: 

• Find out the water quality of your environment – which parameters are analysed in which frequency? 

• Where are the samples taken? 

• Are there leakages within the public network? 

• Are all households connected to the central water supply? 

• Do all citizens consume water of the centralised water supply network? 

• If not, what are their alternative water sources and what is the quality of that water? 

• If needed, initiate additional water analyses and discuss the results. 

• Are the results accessible and understandable to the wider public? 

• Are there parameters exceeding the limits indicated by the EU Drinking Water Directive? 

• If yes, what are the measures for a better water quality? 

• Are there any health risks linked to the water quality? 

• Did outbreaks of water related diseases occur in previous time? 

Household level: Make observations on the quality of the water pipes by interviews including 

following information: 

• Is there a presence of lead or copper pipes? 

• Are there complaints about turbidity or particles in the drinking water (corrosion or other visible 

particles)? 


Unicef, (2003). Common water and sanitation-‐related diseases. Available from 

http://www.unicef.org/wash/index_wes_related.html 

EU Drinking Water Directive: COUNCIL DIRECTIVE 98/83/EC of 3 November 1998 on the quality of water 

intended for human consumption, Official Journal of the European Communities. Available from http://eur-‐ 

lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:1998:330:0032:0054:EN:PDF 

New Internationalist Issue 414, (2008). Toilets -‐ The Facts. Available from 

http://www.newint.org/features/2008/08/01/toilets-‐facts/ 

WHO (2005) Factsheet Legionellosis. Available from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs285/en/ 

WHO, (2011). WHO Guidelines for drinking-‐water quality. Available from 

http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/guidelines/en/index.html 


___________________________________________________________________________ 


Module 8 

Sanitation and 

Wastewater Treatment 

Summary 

Water consumption and usage create wastewater. Unregulated run-‐off of raw wastewater poses a threat to 

public health and the environment. Proper wastewater treatment and safe sanitation are key challenges for 

a healthy environment in urban and rural settings. In the European Union, two main directives address the 

obligations on wastewater treatment. For a common understanding on wastewater and sanitation issues, 

definitions are formulated. Furthermore, there are several options presented in this module for the 

extensive management of wastewater and sustainable sanitation, including the safe re-‐use of wastewater in 

agriculture.,. 

Objectives 

Awareness of the needs, benefits and possibilities required to provide safe sanitation and wastewater 

treatment to small communities is obtained. Basic insight into the requirements of sustainable sanitation and 

the properties of domestic and other types of wastewater is gathered. 


Wastewater treatment, domestic wastewater, greywater, blackwater, urban wastewater, toilets, septic 

tanks, sustainable sanitation, re-‐use 





Excursion to wastewater treatment plant 


Module 4

___________________________________________________________________________ 

Sanitation and wastewater treatment 

Introduction 

Proper sanitation and wastewater treatment are key challenges for a healthy environment in urban and rural 

settings. Unregulated run-‐off of raw wastewater poses a threat to public health and the environment. Children 

and vulnerable groups are particularly affected by cases of water borne diseases, but adults are also affected, 

which can significantly hinder the economic development of a region. The environmental damage due to 

untreated wastewater is relevant as well. Groundwater, a major resource for drinking water, is under 

increasing pressure from human activities. EU legislation addresses the topic of sanitation and wastewater 

treatment through two directives, the Urban Waste Water Treatment (UWWTD) and the Water Framework 

Directive (WFD). The UWWTD obliges the new Member States to collect wastewater and install treatment 

plants in agglomerations with more than 2,000 people equivalent (PE). The WFD requires the achievement of 

good groundwater status and provides for the monitoring of groundwater bodies, as well as for measures to 

protect and restore groundwater. WFD demands that measures should be adopted to prevent and control 

groundwater pollution, including criteria for assessing good chemical status. In Bulgaria, 1.8 Million people live 

in settlements where there is not any wastewater collection or treatment. 

1. Definitions and characteristics 

1.1. Sanitation 

Sanitation generally refers to the provision of facilities and services for the safe disposal of human urine and 

faeces. The term sanitation refers also to the maintenance of hygienic conditions through services such as 

wastewater management and waste collection. Thus, sanitation deals with the toilet or latrine in households, 

schools and public places, the collection of toilet waste and the management of urban wastewater, and with 

hygiene practices such as proper hand washing. That is why parts of sanitation are included in other chapters. 

Please see also Module 11, 12, and 14. 


Domestic wastewater contains different types of wastewaters, which are produced in the households (see 

table 1). They have very different characteristics, depending on the source, and are classified accordingly: 

Greywater: Water coming from personal hygiene, kitchen and laundry, not from the toilets. The amount of 

greywater is much bigger than the amount of black water. It is dependent on the living standard within the 

household and if there are water saving devices installed, e.g. in showers. The volume of greywater can be up 

to 100.000 liter/person/year. 

Blackwater: Water coming from flushed toilets including urine, faecal matter, flush water and toilet paper. See 

table 1. The volume of black water is around 10.000 – 25.000 liter/person/year, depending on the type of 

toilet. 

The urine is sterile, if the people are not sick, and contains most of the nutrients: approximately 80% of the 

nitrogen, 55% of the phosphorus and 60% of the potassium. 

The average excreted daily amount of nutrients can differ from person to person and from country to country, 

and depend on the persons diet in particular. In average, people from Sweden excrete more nitrogen than 

people from India or Africa. The volume of the excreted urine is approximately 500 liter/year per person. At the 

same time, it constitutes only 1% of the domestic wastewater volume. 

The faecal matter is a relatively small amount of wastewater, and it comprises of ca. 50 kg/person/year, which 

also depends on the diet of the population. People who are vegetarian excrete more faecal matter than people 


___________________________________________________________________________ 

who eat meat. This relatively small volume contains most of the organic matter and a variety of pathogens, 

which can infect other people if they are not properly collected and treated. 1 gram of faeces can contain 

10.000.000 viruses, 1.000.000 bacteria, 1,000 parasite cysts and 100 parasite eggs. 

In table 2, the approximate daily amount of Nitrogen and Phosphorus originated from one person and found in 

urine, faeces and greywater are made visible. As mentioned before, the volume of urine is only 1% of the total 

daily volume of greywater, however in domestic wastewater, urine is the main source of nitrogen and 

phosphorus. The volume of faecal matter in domestic wastewater is even less than that of urine, but is the 

main source of microorganisms and pathogens. Therefore, in order to avoid an intensive treatment of huge 

volumes of domestic wastewater, modern approaches of wastewater treatment systems focus on a diversion 

and a safe reuse of the different wastewater streams. 


Table 1: Overview of the compounds of greywater and blackwater 

Table 2. Overview of the content of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) in urine and faeces, excreted per person 

and per day, and the content of N and P in greywater per person and per day. 

Source: According data from WHO 2006 

1.3. Urban wastewater 

Urban wastewater is defined as the mixture of domestic and industrial wastewater and sewer infiltration 

water. Sewer infiltration water is water that enters the sewer pipes due to broken pipes or illegal connections. 

The longer the sewer systems are, the higher the probability of having sewer infiltration water. It can 

significantly increase the quantity of urban wastewater treated in the treatment plant, and it must not be 

neglected. The solution to keep the volume of infiltration water low is regular proper monitoring and 

maintenance of the sewage network. Industrial wastewater is included in the urban wastewater stream as well,

___________________________________________________________________________ 

and should be treated at the source to reduce the amounts and loads of urban wastewater flow if possible. The 

quality and quantity arising from the different industrial sources can vary significantly. 


Table 3: Overview of the different types of wastewater 

Run-‐off rainwater or stormwater should be collected separately and treated accordingly. But many old sewer 

systems collect the rainwater with the wastewater in so-‐called combined sewer systems. 

Urban wastewater 

Domestic wastewater Industrial wastewater 

(Annex III of the 

UWWTD) 

Toilet wastewater 

(Urine, brownwater 

(faeces + flush water) 

10.000 – 25.000 

liter/person/year 

depending on the 

type of toilet 

Greywater (Water 

from personal hygiene, 

kitchen and laundry, 

not from the toilets) 

25.000 – 100.000 

liter/person/year 

depending on the 

status of water saving 

devices in the 

households 

Quantity depends on 

the industrial 

activities in the 

agglomerations and 

their wastewater 

management 

Sewer 

infiltration 

water 

Quantity is high 

(e.g. 100% 

of the domestic 

wastewater, 

especially in rural 

area) 

Storm water, 

Run-‐off 

rainwater 

Amount 

depends on 

the climate 

Table 4: Characteristic and definition of urban wastewater (according to the Urban Waste Water Treatment 

Directive Council Directive 91/271/EEC) 

1.4. Sustainable Sanitation 

It is important to implement sanitation and wastewater systems that are sustainable. Sustainability relates to 5 

aspects defined by the Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (www.susana.org). In order to be sustainable, a 

sanitation and wastewater system has to not only be economically viable, socially acceptable, and technically 

and institutionally appropriate; but it should also protect the environment and the natural resources. 

When improving an existing and/or designing a new sanitation system, sustainability criteria related to the 

following aspects should be considered:

___________________________________________________________________________ 

1. Health and hygiene: includes the risk of exposure to pathogens and hazardous substances that could affect 

public health at all points of the sanitation system from the toilet (via the collection and treatment system) 

to the point of re-‐use or disposal. 

2. Environment and natural resources: involves the required energy, water and other natural resources for the 

construction, operation and maintenance of the system, as well as the potential emissions to the 

environment resulting from use. It also includes the degree of recycling and re-‐use practiced and the effects 

of these (e.g. reusing wastewater; returning nutrients and organic material to agriculture), and the 

protection of other non-‐renewable resources, for example through the production of renewable energies 

(e.g. biogas). 

3. Technology and operation: incorporates the functionality and the ease with which the entire system; 

including the collection, transport, treatment and re-‐use and/or final disposal; can be constructed, operated 

and monitored by the local community and/or the technical teams of the local utilities. Furthermore, the 

robustness of the system, its vulnerability towards power cuts, water shortages, floods, and etc. are 

important aspects to be evaluated. The flexibility and adaptability of its technical elements to the existing 

infrastructure and to demographic and socio-‐economic developments are also included. 

4. Financial and economic issues: relate to the capacity of households and communities to pay for sanitation, 

including the construction, operation, maintenance and necessary reinvestments in the system. 

5. Socio-‐cultural and institutional aspects: the criteria in this category evaluate the socio-‐cultural acceptance 

and appropriateness of the system, convenience, system perceptions, gender issues and impacts on human 

dignity in compliance with the legal framework and stable and efficient institutional settings. 

2. Different types of toilets 

The standard toilet is the flush toilet, flushed with different volumes of flush water. Common toilets use up to 

10 liter per flush, but new water saving toilets use only 3-‐5 liter. Toilets, which use less water -‐only 1 l per flush-‐ 

, are vacuum systems which you might know from the airplane or a modern train. You might also know the 

traditional pit latrines, which are commonly located far away in the garden, because they smell bad, are often 

very unhygienic and pollute the groundwater. 

Waterless toilets also exist, and modern waterless toilets are equipped with urine diversion which ensures that 

the toilet does not smell like the traditional pit latrines do. The urine is collected separately. Instead of using 

water, these toilets are “flushed” with dry material such as ash, soil or shredded wood after defecating. 

Besides urine diverting dry toilets, low-‐flush urine diverting toilets are more in more used in modern 

sustainable sanitation systems. The urine can be used for fertilizing agricultural fields and the fecal matter 

could be used for biogas production or be composted and reused in agriculture. In all the presented toilet 

systems, spreading of pathogens and nutrients in the environment should be avoided. 


Urine diverting toilet with water flush

___________________________________________________________________________ 

3. Wastewater 

3.1. Wastewater collection 


Toilet flushing after use in case of a urine diverting dry 

toilet in Ukraine 

There are different technical options in wastewater collection. See table 5. 

Table 5: Different wastewater collection systems

___________________________________________________________________________ 

Centralized wastewater management is the standard approach in many countries. It is characterized by the 

collection and removal of urban wastewater by a centralized sewage system to a centralized intensive 

treatment plant where the wastewater and sludge are treated and disposed of under controlled conditions. 

The overall advantages of this concept are often lower investment and operational costs incurred by a single 

large treatment plant, as compared to several small-‐scale plants in regards to more effective control of quality 

standards and plant operation procedures. 

The centralized standard system also has a number of drawbacks, particularly in rural and peri-‐urban areas. 

Increasing attention has been given to modern onsite, decentralized or semi-‐centralized wastewater 

management concepts in recent years. These concepts comprise collection, treatment and disposal/re-‐use of 

wastewater from small communities (from individual homes to portions of existing communities) integrated in 

settlement/ village/town development projects. Such approaches consist of many small sanitation/wastewater 

treatment facilities designed and built locally. 

Decentralized systems maintain both the solid and liquid fractions of the wastewater at or near the point of 

origin, and hence, minimize the wastewater collection network. This approach offers a high degree of 

flexibility, allowing modification of the system’s design and operation to fit into various site conditions and 

scenarios. 

3.2. Septic tanks 


Wastewater collection pipe including a man hole which 

will be put underground 

A septic tank is a wastewater collection mechanism and partly a treatment system, which is predominantly 

applied in rural areas. These are tanks where pre-‐treatment takes place. 

There are two types of septic tanks: 

1. Collecting septic tanks, which need to be emptied as soon as they are full (e.g. each month) because they 

have no outlet. 

2. Septic tanks with an overflow outlet where the liquid effluent is infiltrated into the surrounding soil. The 

settled sludge is supposed to be emptied from time to time (e.g. every five years). The liquid effluent still 

contains dissolved organic matter, nutrients and pathogens. It needs to be divulged into sandy soil and no 

close connection to water sources. 

The drawback of septic tanks is that it is up to the house owner to take care of the emptying. A certified 

professional company should carry this out, which might be expensive. That is why many people do not empty 

their septic tank in reality, and the septic tanks overflow if the soil is impermeable and/or highly contaminated 

sewage is entering the environment. 

However, if the septic tank system is operated properly, it is a simple and efficient system. If it needs an 

upgrade, if for example the water resources are contaminated, an advanced combined onsite and centralized 

collection system can be applied where the septic tanks on-‐site are integrated into a full concept (as seen in the 

scheme above, table 5). The centralized sewage and treatment system then collects and treats only the pre-‐ 

treated wastewater, which requires a simpler and cheaper system.

___________________________________________________________________________ 


A street contaminated by wastewater from over 

flowing septic tanks 

In some rural regions, households discharge their wastewater of the flushed toilets, shower, wash water and 

kitchen, to a so-‐called soak away pit. The soak away pit collects the wastewater and directs the wastewater 

into the soil, or the wastewater overflows due to intensive wastewater production. These collection systems 

are harmful to the environment and are not considered an adequate wastewater collection and treatment 

system. 

4. Wastewater Treatment 

A soak away pit filled with wastewater 

There are different types of treatment systems, but they generally comprise of three stages, called primary, 

secondary and tertiary treatment: 

1. Primary treatment consists of temporarily holding the wastewater in a first basin where, on one hand, 

heavy solids settle to the bottom, and on the other hand, oil, grease and lighter solids float to the surface. 

The settled material is the primary sludge that is separated from the liquid and further treated. The sludge 

might be used in agriculture as organic fertiliser if the quality is acceptable, otherwise it is disposed off. 

The floating material is disposed of as solid waste and the remaining liquid goes to secondary treatment. 

2. Secondary treatment removes dissolved and suspended organic matter, as well as partly removing the 

nutrients, especially nitrogen and phosphorus. Secondary treatment is typically performed by indigenous 

micro-‐organisms which are also present in the environment. The microorganisms need oxygen which is 

provided in technical plants through technical aeration. The microorganisms form a biological sludge which 

is called activated sludge. In natural systems, the aeration is mostly provided naturally. Secondary 

treatment requires a separation step to remove the micro-‐organisms from the treated water prior to 

discharge, re-‐use or tertiary treatment. The so-‐called secondary sludge is separated and can be treated 

with the primary sludge.

___________________________________________________________________________ 

3. Tertiary treatment goes beyond primary and secondary treatment in order to allow discharge into a highly 

sensitive ecosystem, such as estuaries, low-‐flow rivers or coral reefs. Treated water is sometimes 

disinfected chemically or physically (e.g. by microfiltration, UV treatment) prior to discharge into a stream, 

river, bay, lagoon or wetland, or it can be used for irrigation in agriculture, of a golf course or park. If it is 

sufficiently clean, it can also be used for groundwater recharge or agricultural purposes. 

Table 6: Overview of an extensive wastewater treatment 

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SchemConstructedWetlandSewage.jpg 


View on a huge technical wastewater treatment 

plant in Hamburg 

Source: http://www.vdi.de/2151.0.html

___________________________________________________________________________ 

4.1. Extensive wastewater treatment systems 

Wastewater treatment in ponds or lagoons has been a well-‐known technology for centuries in Europe. The 

purification is ensured by a long retention time, which requires a lot of space compared to intensive systems. 

Pond systems are a high-‐performance, low-‐cost, low-‐energy (often zero-‐energy) and low-‐maintenance 

treatment process, especially suitable in warm climates. But they can be upgraded with simple technical 

aeration as well. Pond systems are widely used in the rural areas of many EU countries. In France, for example, 

there are more than 2500 waste stabilization pond systems in operation. 


Aerated pond in Germany 

(Photo: Andrea Albold) 

Pond system in Meze, France 

(Photo: Francois Brissaud) 

Constructed wetlands are natural systems in which the wastewater flows through a planted soil filter where 

the biological and physical treatment takes place. The bed can have filling material like sand or gravel and is 

sealed to the ground (by natural soil or an artificial foil). 

Constructed wetland in Germany

___________________________________________________________________________ 

The treatment relies on the bacterial activity, taking place in the biofilm of the bed, and the physical filter and 

adsorption effects. To enhance the process, the soil filter is planted with plants, typically reed, and that is why 

they are often called reed bed filters as well. 

4.2. Examples for sanitation and wastewater treatment in rural areas 

On-‐site modern dry sanitation and greywater treatment, Sulitsa, Bulgaria 

In Sulitsa, Bulgaria, there is a community centre where village meetings, celebrations, amateur activities and 

other initiatives take place. Because of water shortages, it was decided to build dry toilets with urine 

separation. Two toilets and two waterless urinals have been installed. 

Constructed wetland for a children´s home in Vidrare, Bulgaria 


Urine and the faecal matter of the urine diverting dry 

toilet are separated and collected in different 

containers, and treated for safe reuse in the garden 

of the community centre in Sulitsa 

Collected and stored urine should be used as fertilizer for backyard agriculture. Composted faeces can be used 

as soil conditioner. The greywater from the sinks is treated in a small horizontal flow constructed wetland. The 

treated water infiltrates into the ground. 

The constructed wetland for the wastewater treatment of a children´s home in the Vidrare, Pravetz 

municipality was inaugurated in 2011. It comprises a settling tank of 18 m 3 , two pumps, a sand filter with a 

surface area of 266 m 2 and an inspection shaft for sampling the treated effluent. The design criteria are 76 PE 

organic load and 95 PE hydraulic load. 

Soil filter with planted reed in Vidrare 

Photo: Bistra Mihaylova

___________________________________________________________________________ 

5. Re-‐use of toilet products, wastewater and sewage sludge 

Toilet products (urine and faecal compost) and sewage sludge contain a lot of valuable substances, organic 

matter and nutrients, which can be re-‐used. Treated wastewater can be recycled safely to other water 

resources. Also, the UWWTD says that wastewater and sludge should be re-‐used whenever possible. 

Wastewater re-‐use can be practiced, for example, in agricultural field irrigation or in urban landscaping. Sport 

and recreation areas are the largest consumers of treated wastewater. 

Other proven applications of re-‐used treated wastewater are the following: 

• Water for manufacturing (cooling and process water) and construction industries. 

• Dual water supply systems for urban non-‐potable use (garden irrigation and car washing). 

• Fire fighting, street washing. 

• Water for creation or restoration of natural or constructed aquatic ecosystems, recreational water bodies 

and fish ponds. 

• Aquifer recharge through infiltration basins and injection wells for water storage and saline intrusion 

control. 

• Redevelopment of old industrial or mining sites into attractive water parks for the community to increase 

quality of life and land value 

Urine, faecal compost and sewage sludge are suitable for organic fertilizer and soil conditioner. Prior to any re-‐ 

use, the potential pathogens must be taken into consideration in order to avoid the spread of disease. The level 

of treatment and the degree of safety measures depend on the purpose of re-‐use. For example, in case of 

applying the products in a forest area where there is no sensitive environment and no water protection area, 

the safety measure can be much lower than applying on agricultural fields. There are guidelines developed and 

published by the World Health Organisation (WHO that explain how toilet products, wastewater and sewage 

sludge should be handled and reused in an agriculturally safe way. 


• Why does the issue of sanitation not stop at the toilet? 

• What type of toilets do you know? 


Application of dewatered sewage sludge on 

agricultural field in Germany 

• What is the volume of greywater and blackwater per person per day? How can the volumes be reduced? 

• What is the difference between technical and natural wastewater treatment systems? 

• Why and how can wastewater be re-‐used? 

• Visiting a wastewater treatment plant nearby

___________________________________________________________________________ 


• Checking the school toilet, how is the state, what are options to improve the situation of the school toilet 

• Are there pit latrines or soak away pits in the village? If yes, is there danger of groundwater pollution? 

• Is the wastewater in the village collected and treated, and where is the wastewater released? 

• Are there any drinking water sources affected by the infiltration of wastewater? 

• Is the quality of the treated wastewater monitored? If yes, are the values according to the EU 

requirements? 

• Questionnaire of a sewage utility 


Sanitation: A continuous challenge for the European Region, Chapter of the European Document for the 

European Regional Process of the 5th World Water Forum (2009). Available from 

http://www.wecf.eu/download/2009/2009WWF5Sanitationregionaldocument.pdf 

WECF (2010). Sustainable and cost-‐effective wastewater systems for rural and peri-‐urban communities up to 

10,000 PE, Available from http://www.wecf.eu/english/publications/2010/guide-‐sofia.php 

WECF (2008). Europe‘s Sanitation Problem, Sustainable, Affordable and Safe Sanitation for citizens in the 

European Union – impossible? Discussion paper. Available from 

http://www.wecf.eu/download/2008/08-‐08-‐13_stockholm_discussion_paper_engl.pdf 

WECF, (2006) Dry Urine Diverting Toilets -‐ Principles, Operation and Construction. Available from 

http://www.wecf.eu/english/publications/2006/ecosan_reps.php 

WHO (2006) Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater. Available from 

http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/wastewater/gsuww/en/index.html 


__________________________________________________________________________ 


Module 9 

WASH Water, Sanitation and Hygiene 

Summary 

Handwashing with clean water and soap is the single most effective technique to protect public and individual 

health. It can prevent distribution of diseases like flu, diarrhoea, hepatitis A, cholera, and etc.. 

1,5 million children die each year worldwide from diarrhoea. Handwashing with soap could reduce child 

deaths from diarrhoea by 44%. In this module, the interconnection between water, wastewater, hygiene and 

human health is discussed connecting new information with information of previous modules. Some historical 

data about WASH are given as well. 

Objectives 

Pupils are informed about the importance of handwashing in order to prevent of a number of health risks they 

might face in their every day life; they are encouraged to create the habit of handwashing; and furthermore, to 

inform the community about the importance of handwashing and its role to prevent diseases. 


Handwashing, faecal-‐oral mechanism, diseases of dirty hands, private hygiene, public health, pathogens 

Preparation/ material 


For the demonstration of correct technique of 

hand washing: sink, water, soap, towel 

Check that soap and a towel are there. 

Module 4

__________________________________________________________________________ 

WASH Water Sanitation and Hygiene 

Introduction – Historical data about WASH 

Looking far back into history, mankind has been making observations for a very long time about the 

importance of safe collection and treatment of human and animal excreta to protect public and individual 

health. The first hygienic toilets were used in ancient times (see pictures below). 


Stone toilet found in 8th century BCE house in the City of 

David, Jerusalem 

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_David 

Roman public toilets, Ostia Antica 

Sourc: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostia_Antica 

We can learn about the importance of toilets and health-‐behaviour, for example, from museums about 

toilets, like in India and Germany. It might be interesting for you to know that the most sophisticated toilet 

was built for the spaceships. The spacecraft Soyuz had an on-‐board toilet facility since its introduction in 

1967. In 2008 Russia sold the technology to NASA for their International Space Station for 19 million USD. The 

system recycles urine into water. 

In some countries there are very strict taboos that prescribe specific behaviour for the protection of public 

and private health. In India, the left hand is the dirty hand, and the right hand is the clean hand. In Japan, it is 

strictly forbidden to sneeze and clean your nose in public, and hands have to be washed immediately after. 

1. Hand-‐washing: the most important component of personal hygiene 

Hands must always be washed after visiting the toilet, before processing food or drinks, and before putting 

anything into your mouth. Handwashing is the most important component of personal hygiene for the

__________________________________________________________________________ 

prevention of public and personal health. Hands are washed with clean water and soap. Hands are first 

wetted with water, soaped and then intensively brushed. At the end they have to be rinsed with clean water. 

If absolutely clean material for drying is missing, it is better leave the hands dry by themselves. In case dirty 

material is used to dry the hands, handwashing does not have any positive effect. 

Be aware that dirty computer keyboards, door handles, and etc. might contain more microorganisms than a 

toilet ring of a well-‐maintained toilet. 

Faecal–oral transmission occurs when diseases causing microorganisms found in the stool of one person or 

animal are swallowed by another person. This is especially common in group-‐day-‐care settings, where faecal 

organisms are commonly found on surfaces and on the hands of providers. See also Module 7. Usually, the 

contamination is invisible. Concerning some infections, such as by rotavirus, only a few viral particles (100 000) to create an infection. In the absence of visible stool contamination, these infections 

often travel through contaminated food or beverages. 

1 gramme of faeces can contain 

10 million viruses 

1 million bacteria 

1,000 parasitic cysts 

100 parasitic eggs 


Box 1: Microorganisms in faeces 

Source: New Internationalist Issue 414, 2008, 

Graphic 1: Faecal-‐oral transmission route of pathogens 

Source: New Internationalist Issue 414, 2008, http://www.newint.org/features/2008/08/01/toilets-‐facts/ 

Many common infections spread by faecal–oral transmission including: diarrhoeal diseases, Cholera, 

Thyphoid fever, Coxsackievirus (hand-‐foot-‐mouth disease) and helminth infestions. Pathogens that can be 

found to cause this diseases are (exemplary): Adenovirus, Campylobacter, Enteroviruses, E. coli, Giardia 

lamblia, Hepatitis A, Pinworms, Poliovirus, Rotavirus, Salmonella, Shigella, Tapeworms, Toxoplasma. 

Well-‐known epidemics are, for example, E. coli in Germany (2011), Hepatitis A (Stara Zagora, 2010), the 

Plague in Europe in the Middle Ages.

__________________________________________________________________________ 

2. Importance of eating clean food, drinking clean water and using clean 

water for bathing 

Swimming pools and water parks can also be places where faecal–oral transmission of diseases occur. If the 

water is not visibly contaminated and is adequately chlorinated, getting water in the mouth is usually not 

enough to cause an infection; the risk is greatly increased by swallowing. Never swallow water in 

sea/rivers/pools and water-‐play areas or from irrigation pumps. 

Figure 2: Instructions and suggestions about washing your hands. 

Source: Students Health Services, Windsor 


__________________________________________________________________________ 

Figure 3: Illustration of areas that are most frequently and less frequently missed during handwashing. 

Source: HAHS IPCU 2003 

Figure 4: Comic on germs on not properly washed hands. 

Source: www.1 st -‐in-‐handwashing.com 


__________________________________________________________________________ 


• Take the children to the handwashing facility in the school and show them all steps of correct hand 

washing. Pictures above (Figure2, 3, 4) can be copied and hung up in the class and used as a basis for 

further discussions. 

• Meet an experienced person from the community who will demonstrate how to prepare homemade 

soap. 

• What does the abbreviation WASH stand for? 

• When are the first built toilets dated back to? 

• Discuss the importance of safe water for human health. In which situations is safe water essential, and 

why is handwashing so important? 

• Explain what is meant by the faecal-‐oral transmission of pathogens. 

• How many bacteria, viruses, pathogenic cysts and eggs can be found approximately in 1 gramme of 

faeces? 

• A questionnaire could be prepared together with the pupils, including the following questions: 

When is handwashing day? 

Why is handwashing important? 

Describe the correct handwashing technique. 

Which diseases are prevented by handwashing? 

How many pathogens may be found on hands after using toilet? 

What does the faecal-‐oral mechanism explain? Make a drawing of it. 

What is the most important practice to prevent hepatitis A? 

How many children approximately die of diarrhoea each year in the world? 

What is the importance of soap? 

When is it critical to wash hands? 

How important is it to use clean bathing water? 

Parents and other persons from the community could be invited to the presentation of the results where 

acquired knowledge is also demonstrated. By this, the pupils contribute to awareness raising on this 

topic. 


• Discuss if schools and other public institutions provide appropriate facilities for handwashing. 

• Discuss where in the local environment pathogens are more likely to spread. What are the reasons for this 

and how could the situation be improved? 

• Which actions could the participants take in order to raise awareness about the importance of handwashing? 

4. Reference and Further reading 

Hygiene expert, (2010) Hand Wahing. Available from http://www.hygieneexpert.co.uk/hand-‐washing.html 

New Internationalist Issue 414, (2008). Toilets -‐ The Facts. Available from 

http://www.newint.org/features/2008/08/01/toilets-‐facts/ 

UNICEF, (2008). Water, Sanitation and Hygiene, Hygiene promotion. Available from 

http://www.unicef.org/wash/index_43107.html 

UNICEF. Fast Facts and Figures About handwashing. Availble from 

http://www.unicef.org/india/reallives_6533.htm 

UNICEF, (2011), Global Handwashing Day October 15. Available from http://www.globalhandwashingday.org/ 


__________________________________________________________________________ 

Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (WSSCC), (2012). Water Supply and Sanitation. Available 

from http://www.wsscc.org/ 

WHO, (2008). Global Handwashing Day. Available from 

www.who.int/gpsc/events/2008/Global_Handwashing_Day_Planners_Guide.pdf 

UNICEF, (2012). State of the World’s Children. Available from http://www.unicef.org/sowc/index_61804.html 



Module 10 

Water Protection 

Summary 

This module consists of 2 parts: 

A. Water protection in general 

B. Groundwater protection zones 

In many areas, groundwater is used directly as drinking water – this counts for up to 80% in Europe and 

Russia. It is the most reliable of all fresh-‐water resources. Possibilities for its abstraction and quality vary 

greatly from place to place. The lack of preventative measures against anthropogenic (man-‐made) water 

pollution contributes to unsafe drinking water. Polluted groundwater results in unsafe drinking water. High 

investments for treatment can lead to safe drinking water. In more extreme cases, a complete abandonment 

of drinking water abstraction may be the only solution. 

Part A. Water protection in general, gives an overview of the groundwater pollution’s most common 

sources of. Regulations on the prevention of water contamination are also discussed, and some examples on 

policies and measures to prevent water pollution are described. 

Part B. Groundwater protection zones, defines different water protection zones and the restriction on 

human activities in these zones. Some examples on good water protection measures are stated. 

Objectives 

The pupils can describe the most common sources of water pollution and are aware of water protection 

strategies. They can describe the different groundwater protection zones of a water catchment area and 

understand the aim of the different zones. 


Water pollution, anthropogenic, water protection, directives, agriculture, communal wastewater, animal 

waste; Water Protection Zones, sanitary zones, catchment area, water quality, hydrogeological conditions 



Map of the village, map of the sanitary zones Communication with mayor/water supplier 

Risk assessment check lists (protection zones) Available in module 18 

Related national/local guidelines or regulations 

on water protection 

National guidelines on the establishment of 

water protection zones within the drinking 

water catchment areas 

Guidelines on the restrictions within the 

different water protection zones 

Communication with mayor/water supplier 

Research on the Internet 

Communication with mayor/water supplier, 

eventual internet research on the Internet 

Communication with mayor/water supplier, 

eventual research on the Internet 

Module 4


10A. Water protection in general 

Introduction 

In most areas, groundwater is cleaner than surface water. Groundwater is usually protected against 

contamination from the surface by the soil and rock covering layers. However, depending on geological and 

hydrological conditions and on rock covering layers, groundwater can get severely contaminated, in particular 

with microorganisms, nitrate and pesticides. Polluted groundwater results in unsafe drinking water with high 

investments for treatment. In extreme cases, a complete abandonment for drinking water abstraction may be 

the only solution. The discharge of untreated or poorly treated wastewater, as well as infiltration of animal 

manure, strongly affects the quality of water sources and human life. 

A constant decline of ground-‐ and surface water quality has been observed in countries with intensive livestock 

farming (chicken, pigs), intensive crop growing, involving the use of chemical weed-‐killers (herbicides), and 

over-‐fertilisation. The runoff and leakages of nitrates, pesticides and phosphorus from agricultural land during 

rainfall is only one cause of water-‐pollution. However, regions with small-‐scale farming lacking safe 

management of animal manure, and other organic waste and households’ wastewater, often contribute to 

water pollution. 


Slopes and soil characteristics, erosion, deforestation, 

farmers’ land-‐use, crop choices and production 

techniques all contribute to the quality of waters. 

Besides man-‐made pollution, natural geological substances, such as fluorine, arsenic or salts, can also 

negatively affect water and restrict its use. In this manual, the focus is set on explaining anthropogenic water 

pollution by agricultural practices and mismanagement of human and animal excreta. 

1. What can be done and on which levels? 

Often, water pollution is man-‐made, and therefore, can be minimised by people. 

Experiences from many countries show that water protection policies are attractive and sustainable from an 

environmental and economic point of view for the long term. In many cases, costly groundwater treatment for 

providing safe drinking water could be avoided. In addition, safe recreational and bathing water are treasures 

to all people, where untreated wastewater should not be present. 

In many countries, local, regional or national regulations are established, targeting industries, communities or 

farmers in order to protect the water sources and basins, intended to deliver drinking water to the citizens. For 

implementation of the protection measures, stakeholders on all levels (national, regional and local) need to be 

involved.

1.1. Policies and agriculture 


A variety of pollution prevention and control measures 

are needed because water pollution can originate 

from many different sources. 

For many decades, discharges of nitrogen and pesticide compounds from agricultural activities have posed a 

problem for groundwater quality not only across Europe, but the world. Nitrogen is a substance needed for the 

vegetation of all plants and is found in mineral fertilisers, manure and slurry. However, only a small proportion 

of the applied fertiliser actually reaches the crops and is taken away with the harvest. A large proportion 

accumulates in the environment as a surplus, for example in the form of ammonia or laughing gas. The rest 

remains in the soil or seeps into the groundwater in the form of nitrate. Nutrients are not the only substances 

that contaminate our waters, but also heavy metals and pesticides. Around 20 to 40 % of heavy metal discharge 

into surface waters, originating from erosion or drainage outflows, are from agricultural land. 

The bulk of pesticide pollution originates from agriculture, from the application of fields to the cleaning of 

sprayers and other machinery. Pesticides from the triazin chemical group, for example the herbicides atrazin 

and simazin, are substances frequently found in ground-‐ and surface waters. Other pesticides with a high 

potential to pollute the groundwater are diuron or bentazon. Many countries have a pesticide list (active 

ingredients) with potential groundwater polluting properties. In Germany, around 40 active ingredients were 

identified with a high importance for water protection. 

The legal framework stipulates the following for example: 

• Obligations of the national, regional and local institutions and wastewater/water utilities 

• Quality of groundwater and/or surface water 

• Monitoring of water quality and quantity 

• Type of waste and wastewater treatment 

• Adapting and supporting the most sustainable and suitable sanitation systems 

• Measures on the restoration and protection of water bodies 

• Human rights regarding access to safe water and sanitation 

• Transparency and access to information and public participation 

In order to decrease water pollution in the European Union (EU), political actions, particularly in the area of 

agriculture, were needed and several water-‐related directives or guidance were developed and published. 

European Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) 

The purpose of the European Water Framework Directive of 2000 is to establish a framework for the protection 

of inland surface water, transitional water, coastal waters and groundwaters (see also Module 14). The Water 

Framework Directive (WFD) explains that further deterioration should be prevented, and promotes sustainable 

water use based on long-‐term protection of available water resources. Member States are expected to protect 

and enhance all artificial and heavily modified bodies of water with the aim of achieving a good ecological 

potential, a good chemical status, and ensure a balance between abstraction and recharge of groundwater.

European Nitrate Directive (91/676/EEC) 

In 1991, the EU published the Nitrate Directive, concerning the protection of water from pollution caused by 

nitrates from agricultural sources. This directive tries to control the amount and timeframe of fertiliser 

application for crops and grasslands, as well the usage of manure from livestock. Also, it requires Member 

States to designate “vulnerable zones”, which are areas of land that are likely to contribute to nitrate levels 

exceeding 50 milligrams per litre (mg/l). (See module 14 for further information.) 

European directive on the protection of groundwater against pollution and deterioration 

(EC Groundwater directive) (2006/118/EC) 

Measures to prevent and control groundwater pollution are stipulated in this directive and should be adopted. 

Quality standards for nitrates, plant protection products and biocides should be set as community criteria for 

the assessment of groundwater bodies’ chemical status. Together with the nitrate directive consistency, the EC 

Groundwater Directive should be ensured also related to human and animal waste. The EC Groundwater 

Directive sets EU-‐wide binding limits. (See module 14 for further information.) 


Worldwide, many rural villages rely on decentral water and wastewater systems for the collection of 

wastewater, such as dug wells, boreholes, standpipes, pit latrines and/or septic tanks. These mechanisms 

usually result in unprotected sources and mismanagement of human waste. The treatment of communal 

wastewater or individual wastewater is an essential requirement for long and short-‐term preservation of water 

resources. Communal wastewater and/or excreta from pit latrines or septic tanks have to be treated and 

sanitised before being released into the environment. See also module 8. 

Even in regions without a centralised wastewater collection and treatment system, an appropriate wastewater 

treatment or human excreta treatment can be practiced. Modern sustainable and decentral approaches, such 

as urine diverting dry toilets, constructed wetlands or wastewater ponds, contributes to the protection of 

water resources. Communities should be informed about the relation between communal and domestic 

wastewater management and pollution of water resources. They need to select the most appropriate solution, 

taking the available financial and human resources into consideration. Approaches on the management of 

wastewater should be investigated and adopted to the local environmental, social and economical conditions. 

Planning work and implementation of a wastewater management system should take a holistic approach to 

wastewater discharge, treatment and re-‐use. 


Particularly in high-‐density communities without a 

sewage connection or without a wastewater treatment 

system, the infiltration of untreated human excreta in 

soil or the discharge of improperly treated wastewater 

into surfaces waters should be avoided. 

A guidance on decentralised treatment of wastewater is delivered by the European Union: “Guide on extensive 

wastewater treatment processes, adapted to small and medium sized communities (500 to 5 000 population 

equivalent -‐p.e.)”. This guidance document is an addition to the Council Directive decreed on 21 May 1991 

concerning urban wastewater treatment (91/271/EEC), which is one of the key parts in the European Union's 

environmental policy. One of the main measures in this text is the obligation for agglomerations with more

than 10 000 or more than 2,000 p.e. that discharge their wastewater into a sensitive area, have to set up a 

system for collecting wastewater which is connected with a wastewater treatment plant. 

1.3. Animal manure 


A urine diverting toilet has two outlets and two 

collection systems, one for urine and one for the 

faeces, in order to keep these excreta fractions 

separate. Urine and faeces are collected in separate 

containers, stored or treated, and finally used in crop 

production. 

Constructed wetland used for a decentralised 

treatment of wastewater (Photo Andrea Albold). 

In many rural villages, it is rather common that families have some cattle for their own consumption or for 

commercial purposes. Depending on the culture, solid animal waste is mostly collected and stored outside on a 

heap, where the soil is in direct contact with the manure. Rainwater will partly washout the nutrients and 

finally infiltrate into the groundwater. 

Livestock is often kept in stables, where the conditions are not suitable for collecting the liquids, resulting in 

runoff into the soil. In order to avoid leakages of the animal manure into the soil, the manure produced in the 

stable should be collected and stored in a closed concrete platform with borders, such as small walls from 

which liquid manure can flow into a reservoir or pit. A watertight layer under the manure heap (manure 

platform), a covered watertight basin, or tanks for the slurry/liquid manure should avoid uncontrolled leakages 

into the groundwater. 

In some EU Member States (e.g. Austria, Germany, Netherlands) regulations on handling animal manure are 

established and promoted.

An often neglected aspect of sustainable water protection is the safe storage of animal manure. 

To assure runoff of the leaking liquid, the platform must have a slope of 3-‐5 %, and a gutter where the liquid is 

collected and stored in the reservoir. A storage capacity of at least 6 months should be available, in order to ensure 

a timely and targeted use of the slurry or manure. The application of the manure should be according to the needs 

of the plants. In general, the animal-‐stocking rate should be related to the size of the available fields and in balance 

with the cultivation of crops. 


Manure should be stored on 

a closed concrete platform with borders.


Table 1. Overview of common Sources of Potential Water Contamination 

Source: EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency 

Category Contaminant Source 

Agricultural 

• Fertilizer storage/use 

• Pesticide storage/use 

• Manure spreading areas/pits, lagoons 

• Animal burial areas 

• Drainage fields/wells 

• Animal feedlots and storage 

• Irrigation sites 

Commercial • Metal industry, photography establishments 

• Auto repair shops, Car washes/gas stations 

• Laundromats, Paint production/shops 

• Medical institutions/laboratories 

• Construction areas, Railroad tracks and yards 

• Wastewater drainage, storage tanks, landfills 

Industrial 

• Asphalt plants, wood preserving facilities 

• Petroleum production/storage 

• Mining, drainage 

• Chemical manufacture/storage 

• Toxic and hazardous spills 

• Electronic/metal manufacture 

• Wastewater drainage, pipelines 

• Wastewater sludge, septic cesspools 

Residential 

• Sewer lines, septic tank and pit latrines 

• Household hazardous products/detergents, 

• Pharmaceutical, fuel, oil 

• Fertiliser/pesticides in households and gardens 

• Manure leakages and spreading 

Other 

• Hazardous waste landfills 

• Cemeteries 

• Recycling/reduction facilities 

• Municipal incinerators and landfills 

• Road de-‐icing operations 

• Road maintenance depots 

• Municipal sewer lines 

• Storm water drains/basins/wells 

• Open burning sites 

• Transfer stations 

• Salt water intrusion


• What are the main reasons why water should generally be protected? 

• Which regulations on water protection are known and what do they imply? 

• On which levels (local, regional, international) can something be done towards water protection? 


• Concerning the assessment of human and animal waste management, a list of possible sources of 

water pollution in the local village can be made. 

• Interviewing the mayor or water authorities on the management of the communal wastewater about what 

they want to explain about water regulations is advisable. 

• How is the wastewater in private households managed? (Is wastewater deposed in a septic tank, in the 

sewer or infiltrated in a pit?) 

• Interviewing the family and neighbours on the management of animal manure, fertilisers and pesticides 

can reveal interesting aspects. Interviews with farmers about the usage of pesticides and fertilisers (and 

about knowledge about the Nitrate Directive) may be very helpful. 

• The “road” of the participants’ wastewater should be drawn from the point of usage to its release into the 

environment. 

• The most intensive sources of pollution in villages, and in the local village on-‐site, generally can be inserted 

into a map. 


Council Directive 91/676/EEC of 12 December 1991 concerning the protection of waters against pollution caused 

by nitrates from agricultural sources. Available from http://eur-‐ 

lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31991L0676:EN:NOT 

Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000 establishing a framework 

for Community action in the field of water policy. Available from http://eur-‐ 

lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32000L0060:EN:NOT 

Directive 2006/118/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December 2006 on the protection of 

groundwater against pollution and deterioration. Available from http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-‐ 

framework/groundwater/policy/current_framework/new_directive_en.htm 

EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2012. Water private wells-‐ What can you do. Available from 

http://water.epa.gov/drink/info/well/whatyoucando.cfm 

European Council Directive 91/271/EEC of 21 May 1991 concerning urban waste-‐water treatment. Available from 

http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31991L0271:EN:NOT 

Guide extensive Wastewater Treatment Processes adapted to small and medium size communities 

500-‐5000 Population Equivalent), European Commission 1991. Available from 

http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-‐urbanwaste/info/pdf/waterguide_en.pdf 

WECF, (2010). Sustainable and cost-‐effective wastewater systems for rural and peri-‐urban communities up to 

10,000PE. Available from http://www.wecf.eu/english/publications/2010/guide-‐sofia.php 

WECF, (2006). Dry Urine Diverting Toilets -‐ Principles, Operation and Construction. Available from 

http://www.wecf.eu/english/publications/2006/ecosan_reps.php 

UNEP, UNHabitat, (2010). Sick Water? The central role of wastewater management in sustainable development. 

Available from 

http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=617&ArticleID=6504&l=en 



10B. Groundwater protection zones 

Introduction 

For more intensive protection of groundwater sources, many countries established national or regional regulations 

on the protection of water sources intended for abstraction of drinking water. Generally, the water protection area 

is divided into several Water Protection Zones (WPZ) with more or less intensive restrictions addressing diffused 

water pollution from agricultural activities for example. Activities in the WPZ, which cause or could cause damage 

or pollution of the groundwater, are prohibited. 

1. How are groundwater protection zones defined? 

The shape and size of a protection zone or sanitary zone depends on the condition and properties of the soil layers, 

the infiltration of rain or river water and the movement of the groundwater (from which side does the 

groundwater stream). Hydro-‐geological studies define the properties of the ground and the groundwater. For 

example, the type of soil and its permeability are analysed as well as the velocity of the groundwater stream. 

The division of several zones can vary slightly from country to country. In general, the protection zones should 

include at least the so-‐called 50 or 60 days zone. In this zone, the groundwater needs 50 or 60 days to travel from 

any point below the water table to the abstraction point. During this timeframe, it should be able to minimise 

bacteria. However, within the mentioned time, chemical contaminants will hardly be reduced, and up to 3 or 4 

protection zones are necessary for preventing chemical pollution. Those zones should be identified by hydro-‐ 

geological investigation. 

The drinking water protection area should consist of the entire subterranean catchment area of a water 

abstraction point; sometimes, the surface catchment area needs to be considered as well. However, due to many 

reasons, most water suppliers or communities are not aware of this requirement. 

1.1. Overview of the divided protection zones 


Scheme showing water protection zones I-‐III. 

• Well-‐field protection (Zone I) 

• Inner protection zone (Zone ll) 

• Outer protection zone (Zone III) 

• Zone I, or well-‐field zone, must ensure the protection of the water abstraction point and its immediate 

environment from all types of contamination and impairment. Depending on the regulations, the radius 

can be established at least 10 meters around the point of abstraction and be surrounded by a stable fence. 

• Zone II, or inner protection zone, must ensure protection from contamination via pathogenic 

microorganisms (e.g. bacteria, viruses, parasites and worm eggs), as well as other impairments posing a 

hazard due to the presence of short flow paths and short flow durations to the water abstraction point.

This zone can have a minimum radius of 50 metres. 

• Zone III-‐A, or outer protection zone, should ensure protection from far-‐reaching impairments, especially 

from contamination with chemical or radioactive substances that are either resistant or non-‐degradable. 

For some countries, Zone III-‐A is defined by a 400-‐day travel time from the point below the water table. 

• Zone lll-‐B, or source catchment protection zone, is defined as the area around the source within which all 

groundwater recharge is presumed to be discharged at the source. 

1.2. Groundwater protection zones and restrictions 

In the following table examples of restrictions for different sanitary zones are presented. 


Examples of Restrictions 

Zone I Unauthorised entrance, any kind of agriculture or other usage 

Zone ll Setting up of construction sites; 

Designation of new construction areas; 

Building new traffic routes; 

Infiltration of sewage; 

Fertilisation with solid and liquid manure and mineral fertilisers; 

Application of pesticides; 

Deforestation; 

Discharge of waste for recycling purposes; 

Handling of substances hazardous to water; 

Exploitation of minerals; 

Animal preserves and permanent grazing; 

Building, extension and operation of industrial facilities handling extremely large quantities 

of substances that may be harmful to water (e.g. refineries, metallurgical plants, chemical 

plants, power plants); 

Zone lll-‐A Designation of new industrial estates; 

Discharge of waste for recycling purposes; 

Handling of substances hazardous to water; 

Exploitation of minerals; 

Building, extension and operation of facilities for the treatment, storage and deposition of 

waste, residues and mining refuse; 



plants, power plants) 

Usage of mineral fertilizer and water-‐soluble pesticides; 

Zone lll-‐B Building, extension and operation of facilities for the treatment, storage and deposition of 

waste, residues and mining refuse; 



plants, power plants); 

Table 1. Overview of the water protection zones and examples of restriction. 

Source: According to Deutscher Verein des Gas-‐ und Wasserfaches e.V., DVGW


Sign for a water 

protection zone 

in Germany 

2. Barriers and mechanisms for implementing the restrictions 

Adequate regulations on water protection strategies do not necessarily guarantee the implementation of the 

regulations. If land properties located in the protection zones are not communal, or do not belong to the water 

supplier, problems may arise with the implementation of restrictions. Also, lacking geological and hydrological 

information about the catchment zones or monitoring practices of the groundwater quality contribute to 

inadequate water protection. Land-‐users lacking awareness about do’s and dont’s in the protection zones 

contributes to groundwater pollution. Successful water protection strategies are carried out in cooperation 

with the relevant stakeholders, such as farmers and citizens. Mechanisms like forestation, raising awareness, 

intensive farmer consultation and disincentive taxes for polluting practices have all been proven to be effective 

to improve water quality. 

In principle, experience has shown that water protection can only succeed WITH agriculture, not AGAINST it. 

Expertise and competent advice to farmers is an important element of this approach. 

Groundwater quality is prone to contamination 

by e.g. the intensive cultivation of maize. 

Pesticides and synthetic fertiliser were applied on 

the field in this picture. 

There are some ways of reducing water pollution by adopting modified approaches to 

farm and land management: 

1) Nutrient balance assessment and fertiliser management 

2) Crop rotation, appropriate land use, riparian buffer strips 

3) Organic farming – restricted amount of livestock per hectare

4) Elimination or restricted usage of synthetic nitrogen fertiliser and pesticides 

5) Forestation, termination of ploughing of grassland 

2.1. Examples of good water protection policy 

Since the foundation of the Munich waterworks in Germany around 1900, forest management has been 

focused on ensuring good water quality. However, in spite of the existing regulation within the water 

protection zones, a slow but constant decrease in water quality had been observed. In 1992, the waterworks 

decided to cooperate more intensively with the farmers. Organic farming was promoted, and farmers were 

subsidised for not using synthetic fertilisers or pesticides for working according to the rules of organic farming. 

Citizens were informed and stimulated to consume the organic grown products from the catchment area. 

Currently an area of 4 200 hectare (ha) is managed primarily to maintain water quality: 1 500 ha is forest and 

an additional area of 2 700 ha is bound to long-‐term contracts of about 100 local farmers, who have committed 

to certified ecological/organic agriculture. Due to its strict prevention policy, the Munich water works deliver 

excellent drinking water without any treatment to their consumers. Since some years, the water has been free 

of pesticides. The nitrate concentration remains on the natural level of less than 10mg/l. Financial experts 

calculated this prevention policy, including consulting and subsidising the farmers, which is less expensive than 

water treatment. 

The following example shows the water supply in Thülsfelde, in North-‐Germany. Due to the intensive livestock-‐ 

activity in the water catchment area, the nitrate concentration in the shallow groundwater, which was used for 

the water supply, exceeded the limit of 50 mg/l more and more. In 1993, the water supplier promoted organic 

farming in the water catchment areas in close cooperation with the farmers. For marketing the organic-‐grown 

products and food processing firms, supermarkets and consumers were mobilised as well. As the graphic shows 

(Graphic 1), the nitrate concentration was decreased to the limit of 50mg/l after 6 years of organic farming. 

mg/l 

140 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 


Nitrate concentration - Water supply Thülsfelde 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 

1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 

Year 

Graphic 1: In 1993, the water supplier promoted and realised organic farming in the 

water catchment areas in close cooperation with the farmers in Thülsfelde, North-‐Germany. 

Source: Data according OOWV, PowerPoint Grundwasserbewirtschaftung, Egon Harms 

2.2. Water protection by households and citizens 

Communities are also often located in a catchment area from where drinking water is extracted and delivered 

by a centralised system or individual water sources to the households. Certainly, consumers and households 

can also contribute to a contamination of ground and surface waters. For example, car wash runoff flows into 

rivers, or the oil contaminated wash water infiltrates into the groundwater. Other examples include: pesticides 

and too much fertiliser used for gardening, manure of livestock and human excreta that are not adequately 

managed, and left overs of painting or medicines released in the environment or in the toilet. Therefore, water 

protection starts at the household level and everybody can contribute to keep the water clean. Campaigns

sensibility of water sources and the risks and causes of water pollution can be an effective measure for raising 

citizen’s awareness of the effects of their water handling. 


• Which properties are important in defining a water protection zone? 

• Name the different protection zones and the appropriate restrictions. 

• Which barriers could occur when implementing water protection regulations? An interview with the 

mayor or water authorities should be informative because they speak from own experience. 

• Research on the Internet about geological-‐hydrological conditions in areas of water sources, e.g. type of 

soil: sandy, loamy, rocks, and on the direction of the groundwater streams and the groundwater level. 

• Name a good practise example of water protection policy. 

WSP related activities: 

• Detailed research on the Internet may give information about regulations on water protection zones in the 

local area. 

• Make a map of the different protection zones in the local area (in cooperation with the expert). 

• Farmers of households located nearby the drinking water sources should be interviewed e.g. about the 

usage of pesticides and fertilisers and about the knowledge of managing water protection zones. 

• An excursion to the WPZ can be organised to identify possible sources of groundwater pollution: how 

should the situation be and what is the practice currently? 

• Land-‐users in the protection zones should be interviewed concerning the management of animal manure, 

usage of fertilisers and pesticides, or other possible pollutants of e.g. industry-‐processing firms. 

• Are there firms, industries or households releasing substances or liquids into the environment which 

endanger the water quality? 

• The drinking water provider should be interviewed concerning: quality and quantity of the abstracted 

water, water analyses and other monitoring (water level) results, challenges and opportunities in the 

catchment area, a system of subsidy for good practices of farmers. 


Decision 2455/2001/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 November 2001, establishing the 

list of priority substances in the field of water policy and amending Directive 2000/60/EC (Official Journal L331 

of 15.12.2001). 

Deutscher Verein des Gas-‐ und Wasserfaches e.V., DVGW, (2006). Guidelines on Drinking Water Protection 

Areas, Code of practice W101. Available from 

http://www.dvgw.de/english-‐pages/services/standardisation/translations/ 

Directive 2006/11/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 February 2006 on pollution caused 

by certain dangerous substances discharged into the aquatic environment of the Community. 

OOWV-‐Water4All (2005). Sustainable Groundwater Management; Handbook of best practice to reduce 

agricultural impacts on groundwater quality. Available from http://www.wise-‐rtd.info/sites/default/files/d-‐ 

2008-‐07-‐02-‐w4a_Handbuch.pdf 


Module 11 

Utilisation of Water in Our 

Daily Life 

Summary 

Water is utilised for a variety of purposes in everyday life. Domestic water used for body care and household 

purposes is most familiar. Domestic water consumption varies among countries in the world, also within 

Europe. In brief, this lecture describes what purposes humans utilise water for. This module gives an 

overview on water consumption in Europe, which puts it in an international context. The first part of this 

module illustrates water consumption in Europe and the different sectors of water use. The second part 

focuses on 'Virtual Water' and the 'Water Footprint' by explaining their concepts and giving some examples. 

Objectives 

Pupils gain knowledge of the amount of water used for different purposes and especially in their immediate 

environment. This module is directly linked with module 12 'Water Saving'. Pupils get an idea of how their 

consumption of water is connected to water scarcity and water pollution, e.g. in Bulgaria or other parts of 

the world. 


Water consumption, water abstraction, virtual water, water footprint 


Material Preparation 

Copies of table 4 at the end of this module 


Module 4

Utilisation of water in our daily life 

Introduction 

In Europe 42% of total water abstraction is used for agriculture, 32% for industry, 18% for energy production 

and around 8% for domestic use. The water consumption between the different economic sectors varies 

considerably from one region to another, depending on natural conditions, and economic and demographic 

structures. In South-‐Western Europe, where the climate is drier, agriculture accounts for 50–70% of total water 

abstraction. In Central European countries, that have a higher presence of industry, water is dominantly used 

for cooling processes in the electricity production. In Northern European countries, for example Finland and 

Sweden, little water is used for agriculture. In contrast water is abstracted mainly for industrial purposes, such 

as cellulose and paper production, both very water-‐intensive industries (Figure 1 and Table 1). 

Population distribution and density are other key factors influencing the availability of water resources. 

Increased urbanisation concentrates water demand and can lead to the overexploitation of local water 

resources. Water usage is not the only thing that puts pressure on water resources; pollution puts pressure on 

water usage as well. For example, the cooling process in energy production causes substantial heating of water 

or evaporation. The run off of power plants heats rivers and influences the ecosystem heavily. Many processes 

in industry and in households (toilets!) contaminate drinking water, which has to be treated adequately 

afterwards. 

Figure 1: Water use per sector across regions in Europe 

Source: http://www.grid.unep.ch/product/publication/freshwater_europe/consumption.php 


1. Sectorial use of water 

Regarding the total freshwater withdrawal of a country or defined groups of water users, water is used in 

different sectors. A distinction between different sectorial uses of water is helpful especially when a decision 

must be made somewhere to save water (module 12). Three sectors are distinguished: domestic, industrial and 

agricultural water use. Table 1 gives an overview of water use in some European countries. 

Region & 

Country 

Year 

Total 

Fresh 

water 

With-‐ 

drawal 

km 3 /yr 

Table 1: Water use (Domestic / Industrial / Agricultural) per year for selected European countries 

Source: Eurostat. 2005. Updated 7/2005 and Global Water Intelligence 

1.1. Domestic water use 

Water required for drinking and domestic purposes is the smallest proportion of the total water demand. In 

European countries, water consumption on household level ranges between around 80 litres/person a day in 

Lithuania and around 250 litres/person a day in Spain (Figure 2). On a global scale, the variation is much bigger. 

People in arid zones, for example in Africa, have an average water consumption of only 20 litres/person a day, 

an extreme contrast to the 300 litres/person a day in the USA. 

Figure 2: Household water use in selected European countries 



Per 

Capita 

With-‐ 

drawal 

m 3 /p/yr 

Domesti 

c Use 

% 

Indus-‐ 

trial Use 

% 

Agri-‐ 

cultural 

Use 

% 

Domes-‐ 

tic Use 

m 3 /p/yr 

Industrial 

Use 

m 3 /p/yr 

Agricultu 

ral Use 

m 3 /p/yr 

2005 

Popula-‐ 

tion 

Millions 

Bulgaria 2003 6.92 895 3 78 19 27 700 168 7.73 

Romania 2003 6.50 299 9 34 57 26 103 171 21.71 

Spain 2001 37.70 802 9 13 78 72 104 625 47.15 

Germany 2001 38.01 460 7 73 20 57 312 91 82.69 

Europe 2005 350.00 8 50 42 

Spain 

Norway 

Netherlands 

France 

Switzerland 

Luxembourg 

Austria 

Hungary 

Denmark 

Germany 

Poland 

Slovenia 

Belgium 

Estonia 

Lithuania 

Household Consumption in Europe 

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 

Litres per day per 

person

Higher standards of living are changing water demand patterns in Europe. This is reflected mainly in increased 

domestic water use, especially for personal hygiene. Most of the European population has indoor toilets and 

showers for daily use. Most of the water used in households is for toilet flushing (33%), bathing and showering 

(20-‐32%), and for washing machines and dishwashers (15%). The proportion of water for cooking and drinking 

(3%) is minimal compared to other utilisations. See examples of water utilisation on the household level in 

tables 2 and4. 

Water consumption on household level 

Activity water use (l/day) 

Toilet 47.7 

Bath/shower 31.7 

Washing machine 30.2 

To cook, drink, wash dishes (by hand) 24.3 

Wash yourself and wash dresses (by hand) 20.7 

Dishwasher 3.6 

Other 3.8 

Total 162 

Table 2: Amount of water used for domestic activities (Swiss householder) 


1.2. Industrial water use 

Industrial water demand is especially high in urban areas with high populations and where most industries are 

located. The amount of water used by industry and the proportion of total abstraction accounted for by 

industry varies greatly between countries. In Europe, the abstraction of water for industrial use has decreased 

over the past 20 years: 10% reduction in western (central & northern) countries, 40% reduction in southern 

countries and up to 82% reduction in eastern countries. In Turkey, the reduction reaches 30%. The decrease is 

partly due to the general decline in water-‐intensive industry, but also because of increase in water efficiency. 

The cooling processes in energy production accounts for 45% of total water abstraction in Europe. In Poland, 

France and Germany, more than half of the water abstraction is used for energy production (cooling). 

1.3. Agricultural water use 

As mentioned above water use for agricultural activities in Europe can be very high, especially in parts where 

intensive irrigation takes place. First, this depends largely on climate and soil conditions, not to forget the crop. 

Secondly, the common agricultural policy of the EU regulates type and quantity of crops and therefore has a 

major influence on the amount of irrigated land. So the use of water in irrigation is insignificant in countries like 

Ireland and Finland, but very high in the southern part of Europe, e.g. Spain, Greece, Italy and highest in 

Portugal (Figure 1). Around 5,000 to 7,500 m 3 /ha/year of water is used for irrigation. The water demand can 

differ significantly depending on the technology used and maintenance of the irrigation system and grown 

crops. In summer, water for irrigation puts a lot of pressure on water resources and can have a great impact on 

the groundwater table and water quality. Vegetation, animals and the domestic use of water (wells, springs, 

and other aquifers) can be affected as well. 


2. Virtual water and water footprint 

Household water originates almost everywhere from a tap to a nearby well/borehole. Prior to use (for e.g. for 

baking bread or growing vegetables) it is clearly visible as water. In contrast, water which is used to 

manufacture commodities, goods or services, is not visible (physically touchable or perceptible) to consumers 

in the end product. When buying fresh vegetables or fruits from a market or grocery store, it can be difficult to 

imagine the amount of water that was used to grow them. This kind of water is called 'virtual water'. Thus, 

virtual water plays an important role in every-‐day water consumption. The two paragraphs aforementioned on 

industrial and agricultural water use belong to this water classification (for us as consumers). 

A broader, comparatively new concept is the ‘water footprint’ for different kind of products, consumer groups, 

and geographical units etc.. Box 1 explains some important terms regarding different terms of water, the 

concept of 'virtual water' and the 'water footprint'. 

Box 1 – Terms regarding water footprint 

Virtual water. This term defines a specific 'type' of water (like rain water, drinking water or waste water). 

It describes water used for the production of a good or service, which is not visible as water in the final 

product. Virtual water refers to freshwater “embodied” in the product; not in a real sense, but in a virtual 

sense. The virtual water content of a product stands for the volume of fresh water consumed or polluted 

for producing a product, measured over its full production chain. 

Examples: the production of 1 kg wheat costs 1,300l water, the production of 1 kg beef costs 15,500l 

water, Jeans (1000g) contain 10,850 liters of embedded virtual water. (Table 3) 

Water footprint. The water footprint is a multi-‐dimensional indicator of freshwater use that calculates 

both direct and indirect water use of a consumer or producer. Like the virtual water content, the water 

footprint refers to the embodied water in a product. In addition, the water footprint also accounts for 

which sort of water is being used and when and where that water is being used. The water footprint is a 

geographically explicit indicator, not only showing volumes of water use and pollution, but also considering 

the locations. Water use is measured in terms of water volumes consumed (evaporated) and/or polluted 

per unit of time. The water footprint of an individual, community or business is defined as the total volume 

of freshwater that is used to produce the goods and services consumed by the individual, community 

or business. A water footprint can be calculated for a particular product, for any well-‐defined group of 

consumers (e.g. an individual, family, village, city, province, state or nation) or producers (e.g. a public 

organization, private enterprise or economic sector). 

The above terms consist of the following three components: 

Blue water. Fresh surface or groundwater, i.e. the water in freshwater lakes, rivers and aquifers. 

Green water. The precipitation on land that does not run off or recharge the groundwater but is stored in 

the soil or temporarily stays on top of the soil or vegetation. Eventually, this part of precipitation 

evaporates or transpires through plants. Green water can be made productive for crop growth (but not all 

green water can be taken up by crops, because there will always be evaporation from the soil and not all 

periods of the year or areas are suitable for crop growth). 

Grey water. The grey water footprint measures the volume of water flow and aquifers and rivers polluted 

by humans. 

In this way, the green, blue and grey water footprints measure different sorts of water attribution. 

Example of water footprint for Bulgaria: Average water footprint of Bulgaria: 2297 m³/yr per capita 

Part of footprint falling outside of the country: 18.7 % 

Global average water footprint (for comparison): 1385 m³/yr per capita 


The following table illustrates the estimated amount of virtual water used in the production of certain 

consumer goods: 

The hidden water use (virtual water) 

Commodity Water consumed (l) 

1 litre of beer 7 

1 litre of gasoline 10 

1 cola 70 

A single bath 200 

1 kg of paper 320 

1 kg of bread 1,000 

1 kg of potatoes 1,000 

Television set 1,000 

1 kg of meat 4,000 to 10,000 

One pair of jeans 8,000 

Table 3: Hidden Water use in domestic goods 


2.1. An Example: The water footprint in beverage production 

The food and beverages processing industry requires a huge amount of water. One of the main problems is the 

amount of wastewater produced in the food plants. Water is used for several purposes: as an ingredient, a 

cleaning agent, for boiling and cooling purposes, for transportation and conditioning of raw materials. The 

production of a soft drink includes the following process steps: bottle making (from PET resins to PET-‐bottle 

forms), bottle cleaning (by air), syrup preparation, mixing, filling, labelling and packing. The highest contribution 

to the water footprint of a soft drink comes from its supply-‐chain, mainly from its ingredients (95 %). A smaller 

fraction stems from packaging and labelling materials (4%), particularly from its bottle. In production processes, 

the amount of water consumed is very small compared to its supply-‐chain (1%), which is mainly water 

incorporated into the product. Sugar is one of the main water consuming ingredients in soft drinks. Three 

different sugar types are typically used in soft drinks: sugar beet, sugar cane and high fructose maize syrup 

(HFMS). Type and origin of sugar input significantly affect the total water footprint of the soft drink. For 

example, the total water footprint of the soft drink is 310 litres when the sugar originates from cane sugar from 

Cuba, 170 litres when the sugar comes from beet sugar from the Netherlands, and 180 litres with HFMS from 

USA (Figure 3). 

2.2. A global 'virtual water balance' 

The link to the Water Safety Plan: With the afore mentioned concepts of virtual water and water footprint, it is 

easier to compare the amount of water actually used to different approaches. This can be done for certain 

products, geographical locations, time scales, consumer groups, etc.. Figure 4 shows the 'global virtual water 

balance' per country. In combination with other figures, it is much easier to make conclusions about which 

country places a lot or a little amount of pressure on its water resources. 

Two factors determine the magnitude of the water footprint of national consumption: 

• The volume and pattern of consumption 

• The water footprint per ton of consumed products. 


Figure 3: The total water footprint of 0.5 litre PET-‐bottle soft drink according to the type and origin of the sugar 

(SB=Sugar Beet, SC=Sugar Cane, HFMS= High Fructose Maize Syrup). Source: www.waterfoodprint.org 

In the case of agricultural products, the latter factor depends on climate, irrigation and fertilisation practice and 

crop yield. The global average water footprint related to consumption was 1,385 m 3 /yr per capita from 1996 to 

2005. Industrialised countries have water footprints in the range of 1,250-‐2,850 m 3 /yr/cap, while developing 

countries show a much larger range of 550-‐3,800 m 3 /yr/cap. 

The low values for developing countries relate to low consumption volumes; the large values refer to very large 

water footprints per unit of consumption. 

Module 12 'Water Saving' gives some recommendations on how to reduce stress on local water resources and 

how to balance out the country's virtual water balance by choosing or letting aside certain products. 

Figure 4: Virtual water balance per country related to trade in agricultural and industrial products over the 

period 1996-‐2005. Net exporters are shown in green and net importers in red. The arrows show the biggest 

gross international virtual water flows (> 15 Gm3/yr); the fatter the arrow, the bigger the virtual water flow. 

Source:National Water Footprint Accounts; Mekonnen and Hoekstra (2011). 



• Please complete the following table 4. 

• How much water do you use on a daily base? And for which purpose? 

• Think about 2 or 3 goods you use: how much virtual water was used to produce them (Internet search). 

Which countries do they originate from (have a look at the map (Figure 4)? Are these countries net water 

importers or exporters? 

• In which steps of the production of a PET-‐bottle for a soft drink is water used? 

• Where do you have production sites of drinks (juices, soft drinks, etc.) in your vicinity in Bulgaria? What 

does that mean for the (water) environment (water abstraction, water pollution, water treatment, etc.)? 

• Is “virtual”water exported in your region or village? Make a list of products. 

• Make suggestions on how the consumption of virtual water could be minimized. 

• Calculate your own water footprint: www.waterfootprint.org and discuss it in class. 


Average water consumption 

per person and day in litre 

Family Bulgaria Germany 

Drinking 1 

Cooking 3 

Dish-‐Washer 2 

Showering, Bathing 40 

Body care 6 

Washing machine 20 

Room cleaning 4 

Toilet 40 

Car washing 3 

Watering (flowers) 1 

Watering (garden) 6 

Other 

... 

... 

Total 126 

Table 4: Average water consumption per person and day in litre 

Source: Compilation of different sources


• How much water do the households, the enterprises in your village consume? And for which purpose? 

Do a short survey (ask the water supplier). 

• Make an estimate on how much water is used for irrigating crops for livestock; which source of water 

is used? 

• Is there a water shortage in your village? If yes, how is this shortage noticeable? 

• Make suggestions on how the water usage in the village could be reduced. 


Arjen Y. Hoekstra, Ashok K. Chapagain, Maite M. Aldaya, Mesfin M. Mekonnen (2011): The water footprint 

assessment manual. Setting the global standard; Earthsacan. Available from 

http://www.waterfootprint.org/?page=files/WaterFootprintAssessmentManual 

European Environmental Agency (EEA) (2003): Europe's water: An indicator-‐based assessment; Copenhagen, 

Denmark. Available from http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/topic_report_2003_1 

European Environmental Agency (EEA), (2009). Water resources across Europe — confronting water scarcity 

and drought. Copenhagen, Denmark. Available from http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/water-‐resources-‐ 

across-‐europe 

Institute for Environmental Policy, (2000). The environmental impacts of irrigation in the European Union. 

London, Great Britain. Available from http://ec.europa.eu/environment/agriculture/pdf/irrigation.pdf 

Mekonnen, M.M. and Hoekstra, A.Y. (2011): National water footprint accounts: the green, blue and grey water 

footprint of production and consumption, Value of Water Research Report Series No.50, UNESCO-‐IHE. 

Available from http://www.waterfootprint.org/Reports/Report50-‐NationalWaterFootprints-‐Vol1.pdf 

National Statistical Institute, Water abstraction by source and supply category, total for the country. Available 

from http://www.nsi.bg/ORPDOCS/Ecology_9.1_en.xls 

UNEP, (2004): Freshwater in Europe – Facts, Figures and Maps; Châtelaine, Switzerland. Available from 

http://www.grid.unep.ch/product/publication/freshwater_europe/consumption.php 

Virtual water, water footprint, (2012). Available from http://www.waterfootprint.org, 

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_water) 

http://www.waterfootprint.org/downloads/WaterFootprintManual2009.pdf 



Module 12 

Water Saving 

Summary 

Water is a limited resource of enormous importance for nature and all living creatures on earth. Climate 

change and population growth add to the burden on water resources. It is vitally important to conserve 

water and establish water efficient measures and decrease water scarcity. In this module, water saving 

methods and techniques for households are discussed in detail and examples of water saving methods are 

given. Also, the personal responsibility of each human to protect water resources is generally addressed. 

Objectives 

The pupils can explain which human activities are responsible for the most extensive water usages. They can 

describe sources of possible water loss within a water supply network and the households. Furthermore, 

they are able to make suggestions on how to save water in daily life. 


Water conservation, water efficiency, rainwater harvesting 



Bucket 

Measuring bowl 

Electronic clock or stop-‐watch 

Precipitation beaker 

Module 4

Water saving 

Introduction 

Water is fundamentally important, not only for human beings, but for all other living creatures on earth and the 

entire environment. Water plays a substantial role in numerous processes on the planet, and is essential for 

living and non-‐living elements. We are responsible to preserve quality water for future generations. 

Source: http://www.harvesth2o.com/ 

1. Water conservation 

Water is a limited resource. Climate change reduces the availability of water in our geographical area as 

average annual temperatures increase and average annual precipitation decreases. Population growth also 

adds to the planet’s the increasing burden on water resources. 

We all need to take responsibility in monitoring our water consumption and apply water efficient solutions in 

our households, schools, offices, and factories. It is extremely important to introduce water efficient irrigation 

systems into our yards and farms. More than 70% of the consumed water serves the needs of agriculture, 

especially concerning irrigation water (see also module 11). 

In our households, the biggest potential for preventing saving water is through the efficient use of water in 

toilets and bathrooms. Residents of households need to consider options for reusing the water used for toilet 

flushing, e.g. reusing the flushed water for the irrigation of the garden and lawn. Also, the consideration of not 

using drinking water for flushing the toilet, which is common, should be an appropriate action. 

Leaks are another very large burden to our supply system, and also burden the financial status of our 

households. 

Only one leaking tap may contribute to thousands of litres of water loss per year. Saving water means 

saving energy and other resources. By doing this, we protect natural resources and help animals and plants that 

also need water to sustain their lives 


Graphic 1: Residential indoor water use on the example of Winnipeg, Canada 

Source: www.winnipeg.ca 

2. Water efficiency 

Water conservation is the process of applying measures for the efficient use of water. This includes actions, 

change in behaviour, devices, technologies and improved designs to reduce the loss of water (by wasting or 

leakages), and to increase water reuse. More efficient water use leads to a reduced demand for water. The key 

for efficiency is reducing the wasting of water, not restricting the use. Examples of water efficient steps include, 

fixing leaking taps, taking showers rather than baths, installing displacement devices inside toilet cisterns, using 

dishwashers and washing machines with full loads. 

Water efficiency is of growing importance. If present levels of consumption continue, two-‐thirds of the global 

population will live in areas of water stress by 2025 according to the Second UN World Water Development 

Report (2006). Now, 2,6 billion people do not have safe drinking water. Changes in climate, population growth 

and lifestyles influence the situation. 

The graphic above (Graphic 1) gives an example from Canada showing how 35% of the water used within the 

household is used in the bathroom, and another 32% in the toilet. That means that an average of about 10 000 

up to 20 000 litres of drinking water is used per person per year for flushing excreta into the sewerage. About 

23% of the water used inside our home is used for laundry. About 10% of the water used inside our home is 

used in the kitchen. A running kitchen tap can use around 9 litres of water per minute. 

2.1. Simple methods to reduce water waste 

We all can be more efficient at home by applying simple methods to reduce water waste, by: 

• turning off the tap while brushing teeth or shaving -‐ a running tap can waste over six litres per minute. 

• putting a plastic bottle or other displacement device into the toilet cistern to reduce the flush. 

• fixing dripping taps. A dripping tap can waste more than 2 000 litres of water per month, which is 24 000 

litres per year. 

• use the dishwasher and washing machine only when they are full. 

• having a short shower instead of a bath. Every minute cut from the shower reduces up to 20l of water. 

• washing fruits and vegetables in a bowl rather than under a running tap. 


• using leftover water e.g. from washing vegetables. Not all used water needs to be thrown away 

immediately as it may still be useable for e.g. watering the plants. 

Used water does not necessarily mean that it is not useful anymore. 

• using a bucket and sponge when washing the car rather than a running hosepipe. 

• reusing grey water to flush the toilet or use a water-‐less or low flush-‐ toilet 

(see also below chapter 2.2. and module 8). 

• using water saving devices like aerators, etc. to reduce the water amount used in the kitchen sink. 

Tap aerators break up the solid flow of water, effectively adding air to the water flow. This results in less 

water passing out of the tap each second. 

• checking for toilet leaks. A barely visible leak into your toilet bowl can waste more than 4 000 litres of 

water per year. Visible constant leaks (creating a hissing sound) can waste 95 000 litres per year. 

There are many other simple methods of saving water. Pupils should be encouraged to give other examples of 

activities that are already practised in their households or offer other innovative suggestions. 

Graphic 2: Water efficient house 

Source: www.thinkwater.act.gov.au 


2.2. Example of a waterless toilet (Urine Diverting Dry or Ecosan Toilet) 

Urine diverting dry toilets (UDDT, also called Ecosan toilets) are very useful in water scarce regions or in regions 

where no sewage or water supply system exists. A special urine-‐diverting toilet seat or squatting slab is used for 

a proper diversion of the urine from the faeces. With an Ecosan toilet urine and faecal matter are stored and 

treated separately. See graphic 3. No water is needed for flushing because faeces are stored in a dry condition 

and covered with ashes or saw dust, making sure that bad odours and flies are kept away. After a certain 

storage and/or composting period, the products are used as a fertiliser in the fields. See also module 8. 

Graphic 3: Cross-‐section of a urine diverting dry 

(dehydration) toilet (UDDT). 

Source and design Stefan Deegener, TUUH 

3. Rainwater harvesting 


Interior of an Ecosan toilet, 

toilet (UDDT), constructed inside of a 

house in Bulgaria. Photo Earth Forever 

Rainwater harvesting means collecting, storing and reusing precipitation water. Rainwater is a reliable source 

of water for livestock, irrigation, as well as other typical uses of water. Rainwater collected from the roofs of 

buildings can make an important contribution to household needs. In some places, rainwater may be the only 

available or economical water source. After an appropriate treatment, rainwater can be used as drinking water. 

Rainwater harvesting systems can be simple to construct from inexpensive local materials and are potentially 

successful in most habitable locations. 

The potential amount of collected water depends on the size and type of the collection surface (for example 

square metre of roofing), annual volume of precipitation and the rate of water lost, e.g. by the evaporation on 

the roof.

Rainwater harvesting solutions 

Source: www.indiamart.com/hitechdrillingengineers 

rainwater-‐harvesting-‐solutions.html 


Rain water barrels 

Source: www.rain-‐barrel.net 

The following example gives an example how to calculate the amount of water which can be harvested from a 

roof or plot. 

1. Area of plot = 100 m 2 

2. Height of the annual rainfall = 0.6 m (600 mm) 

3. Volume of rainfall over the plot = area of plot (m 2 ) x height of rainfall (mm) = 100 m 2 x 600 mm=60,000l 

4. Assuming that only 60 per cent of the total rainfall is effectively harvested: volume of rainfall over plot x 0.6: 

60,000 litres x 0.6 = volume of annual water harvested = 36,000 litres 


• Mathematical task: Which amount of water can be collected annually from the roof of the school that 

could be used for rainwater harvesting? How much money will that save for one year? 

• Interview the oldest persons you know and write a short story of how people used to collect and use 

rainwater before. Examples for questions to be asked: 

Name of the interviewed person and how it happens that you know him/her. 

How old is he/she (year of birth)? 

Was he/she living in a rural or urban area? 

Does his/her household have access to tapped water? 

How was his/her family supplied with water? 

How much water was used in their household for the use of the family (what kind) and/or for animals 

and/or for the garden? 

Which needs were prioritised? 

Were they collecting rainwater in their households? 

How was the rainwater collected? How often and to which amounts? 

What was rainwater used for? 

What was the treatment they used to keep rainwater clean or to purify it? 

Are they collecting and using rainwater now? Why? 

Which amounts of water do they collect now and what are they using it for? 

What is his/her advice for young people concerning protection and usage of water?

• Make some observations at home: 

How much water is used for flushing the toilet and for irrigation? 

How much water is wasted approximately if the tap is open while brushing the teeth? 

Which kind of everyday activities consume the largest amounts of water? 

What can people do to reduce the usage? 

• Measure weekly or monthly the amount of precipitation with a precipitation meter. 

• Measure how much water will run from the tap while brushing teeth or while shaving. 

• How much water runs out of the tap for 1 minute? (Save the water used for this experiment in order to use 

it for another use as well.) 

• Project: Draw a plan for rainwater and wastewater harvesting for the school building: 

Find out the required measures and calculate what could be the amount collected. 

Propose which needs could be met with rainwater harvesting and what would be the savings for the 

school budget. 

Give a proposal what could be done instead with the saved financial resources. 

WSP related activities: 

• Gather information from the water supplier in order to assess the quantity of water: 

– How much water (cubic meter) is yearly/monthly supplied into the network? 

– How much water is yearly/monthly used and paid by the consumer? 

– How much drinking water is non-‐accountable – is lost by leakages within the network? 

• Interview a consumer on his/her daily or yearly water need from the water supply and/or from a well. 

• Make an inventory/estimation of how many taps, or flush-‐toilets within the households are leaking 

(by interviews, observations). 

• Make an estimation of the amount of yearly precipitation within the area of the village. 

• Relate the level of precipitation/evaporation to the water usage in the village. 

• Find out if the water supplier or local experts have information about the balance between the 

groundwater use and the amount of renewed groundwater. 


Act Government, (2012). Think water act water. Available from http://www.thinkwater.act.gov.au/ 

Centre for Science & Environment, (2012). Water harvesting. Available from 

http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org/whatiswh.htm 

Energy Saving Trust, (2012). Water. Available from http://www.energysavingtrust.org.uk/In-‐your-‐home/Water 

UNESCO, (2006). 2nd UN World Water Development Report, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural 

Organization. Available from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001454/145405E.pdf 

WHO, (2012). Water Sanitation Health. Available from http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/en/ 

Ecosan 



Module 13 

Financing Water and 

Wastewater Services 

Summary 

Financial investment is needed for the delivery of safe water to the consumers. This is the reason why 

consumers have to pay for having access to clean fresh water, but also for wastewater services. This module 

explains how the price of water is set and how it varies depending on different factors. An overview of the 

prices in the world and in various cities in Bulgaria and Europe are given. The needs and perspectives related 

to the water sector, in particular in Bulgaria, are discussed. Overall, the issue of required changes to improve 

the water sector and responsibilities are raised. 

Objectives 

Pupils understand the composition of the price of water. They acknowledge the importance of water and 

discover that access to clean fresh drinking water and a safe sewerage system is very expensive for some 

people. They get an idea of how much of the family budget is needed to cover the costs of access to clean 

drinking water. Furthermore, they learn about the price of drinking water in different places of the world, 

and also in Bulgaria, and about the trend in global changes. 


Drinking water, sewerage, price, defining prices, payment, consumers, suppliers 

Preparation/Materials 


Some examples of local water and wastewater 

invoices that household receive 

Teachers or pupils bring some of their private 

invoices 

Report on price setting for the local community The water supplier needs to be consulted. 

Yearly overview of the delivered water and costs by 

the supplier 

The water supplier needs to be consulted. 

Module 4

Financing water and wastewater 

services 

Introduction 

In several new Member States of the European Union, the water supply was transferred to another system of 

financing. The EU water framework directive includes the principle that the costs of water services should be 

cost covering. In many countries, the costs of water delivery are covered by several sources of financial means: 

by tax, tariffs and transfer. Depending on the needed investments, and the economic situation of the country, 

the level of several financial resources differs. 

Countries in transition, like Bulgaria, have more need of transfers by e.g. loans; in countries with a long history 

of financing the water delivery on communal level, such as Germany or the Netherlands, the water delivery is 

mainly covered by tariffs. 

In any case, the delivery of safe water and sanitation services to the consumers has its price. The price will 

depend on the availability and location of the water resources, on the quality of the raw water, and on the 

extension of the network. Therefore, all worldwide differences in water prices can be observed. 

1. Water use and resources 

Bulgaria is relatively poor in water resources compared to other European countries. Depending on the 

humidity during the year, the amount of water resources is between 9 and 24 billion cubic metres. The average 

water amount per capita is 2 300-‐2 500m 3 . Regarding these water resources, Bulgaria is among the five most 

water stressed countries in Europe with Cyprus, Spain, Macedonia and Belgium (see also module 3, 11 and 12) 

Graphic 1. shows that in Bulgaria that industry is the main user of water sources. Households and agriculture 

use respectively 6,23 and 3,17% of the delivered water. However, households produce 28% of the total amount 

of generated wastewater. 

Graphic 1: The percentages of water used and wastewater generated by different sectors in Bulgaria 

Source: http://ispa-‐mrrb.org/en/?id=111 

2. Current situation of the water sector of Bulgaria 

The state of water supply systems is insufficient in villages. Most of them were constructed in the period of 

1960-‐1970. Over 20% of the systems are out-‐dated and need reconstruction. Some systems do not deliver the 


needed quantity of water and should be expanded and replaced. Nearly 500 000 citizens do not have 24-‐hour 

access to water. 

Since 2007 is Bulgaria a Member State of the European Union. Hence in the future Bulgaria should comply with 

the EU Directives on environment. Unfortunately Bulgaria is not complying with the directives currently. There 

are many different problems that contribute to this incompliance. Leakages in pipes can cause infiltration of 

contaminated groundwater or sewage water, which can lead to health risks. Infiltration of sewage water occurs 

mainly in cases of low pressure in the water pipe when it is being emptied. The costs for recovering the water 

supply and sewerage services with good quality are high for everyone. 

About 98% of the population use the services of the “Water Supply and Sewerage Company” (WSSC). WSSC are 

trading companies operating under the Companies Act. 

In Bulgaria, there are 64 WSSC service points, which have different levels of ownership structure: 

• Some are 100% run by the state: Sofia, Blgoevgrad, Bourgas, etc. 

• Others have a 51% state and 49% municipal participation: Varna, Vratsa, Dimitrovgrad, etc. 

• Some are 100% run by municipal participation: Velingrad, Dupnitsa, Kresna, Petrich, etc. 

• A few are given a concession such as Sofia city 

2.1. Interconnection between water/sewerage services and costs 

In the last 15 years, the water supply and sewerage sector has been suffering from a lack of investments. 

During the transition period, the state budget could not finance the recovery of the water sector. Concurrently, 

the income of the population did not allow a significant increase in tariffs. However, the effectiveness of 

activities on water management was not a priority before the transition period, and the attitude did not change 

after. These combined factors have led to inadequate services, high loss of water, environmental risks related 

to water quality and discharge of wastewater, as well as financial difficulties for companies. According to the 

law regulating the water supply and sewerage services, affordability of the price of water and sewerage 

services is given when their value (determined on a minimum monthly consumption of water for drinking and 

household needs of 2,8 cubic metres per person) does not exceed 4 per cent of the monthly average household 

income in the region. 

Composition of the overall costs 

The price of water is determined by several factors. Both the user and water operator have to cover costs to 

provide user access to safe drinking water. Providing clean drinking water is associated with different activities, 

which water companies are responsible for. For example: 

• Supply of water for drinking, industrial and other uses, including the extraction and treatment of the 

water, investments and operation of the network and monitoring the system. 

• Collection and treatment of sewage water and storm water from the property of the consumer in urban 

areas (cities, villages). According to the EU Wastewater Directive, wastewater should be treated before its 

release in the environment: for communities with more than 10 000 people equivalents (p.e.), for 

environmental sensible areas for communities with more than 5 000 p.e.. 

• Establishment, maintenance and operation of water supply and sewerage systems, including wastewater 

treatment plants and other facilities (Act to regulate the water supply and sewerage services). 

All these activities determine the final price the consumer must pay in order to receive continuous access to 

water and wastewater services. 

3. Water and sewage service prices for consumers in Bulgaria 

The law regulating the water supply and sewerage services defines prices of water supply and sewerage 

services in Bulgaria. The State Energy and Water Regulatory Commission, which is created under the Law of 

Energy, regulates the water supply and sewerage services. The commission regulates prices of the operators’ 

delivery of water to the consumers, discharging sewage wastewater and connecting new users to the system. 


Further methods of regulating the prices are defined according to The State Energy and Water Regulatory 

Commission. 

Water supply price 

The price for water supply is calculated by the ratio between the annual revenue for the service and the water 

quantity. The water quantity is defined as the difference between the measured quantities for the previous 

year (at the entrance of the water supply system served by the operator) and the maximum allowable total loss 

of water according to the annual target levels of quality, which are established by the Commission. 

Price for connecting consumers to the water supply and sewer system 

The price covers the costs of preparation and connection of plumbing installations to the water supply system 

and/or sewer installations, which are recognised and defined by the Commission depending on the projected 

water quantities. 

Wastewater removal price 

The price is calculated by the ratio between the annual revenue for the service and the annual amount of 

discharged wastewater, and it depends on the level of contamination that is determined by an accredited 

laboratory for industrial and other business users. The annual amount of discharged wastewater for 

households, public facilities and other users is determined on the basis of the invoiced amount of water 

delivered. For industrial and other economic users, measured amounts of water from the previous year are 

used. 

Price for wastewater treatment 

The price is calculated by the ratio between the annual revenue for the service and the annual quantities of 

purified wastewater, depending on the level of contamination determined by an accredited laboratory for 

industrial and other business users. The annual amount of purified wastewater for households, treated as 

public and other users, is determined on the basis of invoiced amount of water delivered, and for industrial and 

other economic users – according to the measured amounts of water from the previous year. 

3.1. Determination of water bills 

The water bill for households is determined in two ways: as indicated in the water-‐metres or based on an 

average value according to the number of residents. If there is a water-‐metre installed on every plumbing 

deviation (riser), the measure is entered into the database of “Sofiyska voda”, after that, the metre is sealed 

with a plastic seal, and the bill can be determined by its indications. An auditor periodically reports the data 

from the individual water metres. For those months when no auditing takes place, an amount of water is 

automatically calculated on the bases of the average water consumption in the household from previous 

periods. After the actual report is done, the bill is equalised according to the real consumption. For users who 

do not have a water metre installed on every riser, or if metres are not calibrated or do not have a plastic seal, 

the bill is calculated based on an average value according to the number of residents. 

Under Regulation № 4 every resident should be charged monthly for 6 cubic meters if the household has 

central heating and for 5 cubic meters – if it has none. For condominium buildings, when there is a difference 

between the reported amount of water according to the general (revenue) water meter and the total amount 

of consumption in separate properties (consumption according to individual water metres and amount for 

charging based on the number of residents), a corresponding quantity is added to the individual cost of each 

property which is called “total consumption”. This “total consumption” amount is included in the invoice only 

once in every 3 months. 

Affordability of the price of the water and sewerage services 

As mentioned above, according to the law regulating the water supply and sewerage services, affordability of 

the prices of water and sewerage services are given when their value determines a minimum monthly 


consumption of water for drinking and household needs. The minimum is 2,8 cubic metres per person, and 

does not exceed 4 per cent of average monthly household income in the region. 

According to the National Statistical Institute (data 2. Quarter of 2012), the average income per household is 

1071 BGN per month. In 2011, the average water consumption per person per day was 99 liters or 0, 1 m 3 . 

Hence, the average household should pay not more than BGN 42,84 monthly for the delivered water and 

sewerage services. 

City BGN/m 3 

Blagoevgrad 1,35 

Botevgrad 1,01 

Burgas 1,74 

Varna 1,79 

Veliko Tarnovo 1,47 

Gabrovo 1,72 

Dimitrovgrad 1,55 

Dobrich 2,24 

Dupnitsa 1,14 

Sofia 1,40 

Stara Zagora 2,10 

Lovech 1,88 

Pernik 1,47 

Pleven 1,58 

Plovdiv 1,22 

Razgrad 2,21 

Shumen 2,08 

City $/m 3 

1. Copenhagen (Denmark) 8,00 

2. Aarhus (Denmark) 7.61 

3. Honolulu (USA) 6,06 

4. Glasgow (UK) 5,89 

5. Ghent (Belgium) 5,79 

6. Berlin (Germany) 5,67 

7. Sydney (Australia) 5,03 

8. Stuttgart (Germany) 4,93 

9. San Diego (USA) 4,9 

10. Frankfurt (Germany) 4,89 


BGN/m 3 

Prices for supply and sewerage services approved by the Comission up to 

30.06.2011 

2,5 

1,5 

0,5 

Table 1. and Graphic 2: Prices in some Bulgarian cities (30.06.2011); 

Data source: The State energy and water regulatory commission: 

http://www.dker.bg/indexen.php 

Table 2 and Graphic 3: Average prices $/1m 3 and the daily consumption per person cubic meter 

in several countries. Data source: Global water intelligence 

2 

1 

0 

483 

368 

238 

308 

City 

Cubic meter per person per day 

552 

342 

200 95 139 114 151 

373 

149 

605 

616 

232 139 

213 

778 

Blagoevgrad 

Botevgrad 

Burgas 

Varna 

Veliko Tarnovo 

Gabrovo 

Dimitrovgrad 

Dobrich 

Dupnitsa 

Sofia 

Stara Zagora 

Lovech 

Pernik 

Pleven 

Plovdiv 

Razgrad 

Shumen 

Denmark 

Germany 

Australia 

France 

United Kingdom 

Czech republic 

Canada 

USA 

Poland 

Japan 

Spain 

Portugal 

Turkey 

Italy 

Russia 

Republic of Korea 

Mexico 

China 

India

Above, in table 1 and graphic 2 the Bulgarian prices for water supply and sewerage services of one cubic meter 

squared are provided. In table 2 and graphic 3 data from all over the world about the average daily water 

consumption per person and the water price per cubic meter are presented, and below in table 4, the average 

prices for water and wastewater services in several countries. 

Country Total price $ Water Wastewater m 3 / Person/day 

Denmark 7,81 $7.81 $0.00 114 

Germany 4,26 $2.74 $1.52 151 

Australia 4,18 $2.17 $2.01 605 

France 3,92 $3.54 $0.38 232 

United Kingdom 3,76 $1.82 $1.94 139 

Czech republic 2,75 $1.39 $1.36 213 

Canada 2,75 $1.70 $1.05 778 

USA 2,71 $1.13 $1.58 616 

Poland 2,21 $1.02 $1.19 149 

Japan 2,19 $1.26 $0.93 373 

Spain 1,83 $1.22 $0.61 342 

Portugal 1,77 $1.23 $0.54 308 

Turkey 1,69 $1.39 $0.30 238 

Italy 1,47 $0.81 $0.66 483 

Russia 0,71 $0.43 $0.28 368 

Republic of Korea 0,69 $0.51 $0.18 552 

Mexico 0,59 $0.50 $0.09 200 

China 0,42 $0.29 $0.13 95 

India 0,16 $0.13 $0.03 139 

Table 4. Average prices for water and wastewater services in dollars per cubic meter ($/1m 3 ) 

and consumption in several countries. 1$ = 0,81 Euro or 1,60 BGL. 

Data source: Global water intelligence 

4. Investment needs within the Bulgarian water sector 

The main priorities within the Bulgarian water sector, which are defined by the Strategy for Management of 

Water Supply and Sewerage (March, 2004), have the following estimations of financial needs for the: 

• rehabilitation of the water supply infrastructure in settlements : € 2 832 million; 

• building of new water sources and water supply infrastructure, including dams, drinking water treatment 

plants, water supply networks : € 1 137 million; 

• collection and treatment of wastewater: € 2 962 million. 

Rehabilitation of water supply infrastructure 

The estimated cost of € 2 832 million represents rehabilitation of the existing water distribution network which 

has not been adequately replaced over the past fifteen years. The total length of the water transmission and 

distribution network is 70 620 km, and the asbestos cement pipes which account for 70% of the network are in 

very poor condition. In Western Europe, typically 2 -‐ 4% of the network is replaced each year. In Bulgaria, this 

ratio has been less than 1%, resulting in a considerable amount of (unaccounted) water losses within the 

network. This unaccounted for water (UFW) is estimated to be around 60% of the production volume. 


New water sources and water supply 

The estimated cost of € 1 137 million corresponds to ensuring water supply from surface and groundwater 

resources; this includes upgrading 42 drinking water treatment plans and about 3 500 pumping stations in the 

country. Water resources are unevenly distributed, which causes water shortages in many areas. To overcome 

the water supply problems in these areas, the government has plans to further explore groundwater sources 

and construct small dams, some of which have partially been completed. 

The construction of dams is part of the government’s plan to provide water resources uniformly throughout 

the country. This plan was developed earlier but not implemented due to the shortage of public funds. The 

strategy proposes to construct dams in areas that suffer from water shortage. These dams are small and will be 

used largely for the supply of drinking water and minor irrigation purposes. 

Collection and treatment of wastewater 

The estimated cost of € 2 034 million is to upgrade the existing sewerage network and expand the services to 

meet the requirements of the EU. The sewerage network services about 3,8 million people or about a little less 

than 50% of the population. The total length of the network is around 9 000 km, which is not in good condition 

and needs to be upgraded. The government plans to build additional 16 000 km of sewers to connect 2,4 

million people as part of the strategic plan to meet the EU directives. 

The estimated cost of € 928 million is to upgrade wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Currently, 35% of the 

population’s wastewater is treated trough 61 WWTPs. Fifty of these plants are biological treatment plants, 

whereas the rest are plants with mechanical treatment. The strategic plan of the government is to treat 

wastewater generated by 85% of the population. 

5. Operational needs within the Bulgarian water sector 

Besides the needs of investment to improve the infrastructure within the water sector, the sector also needs to 

address several operational issues. Some key elements of a well functioning and sustainable system are listed: 

• Increased operation and maintenance: Given the economic difficulties over the last fifteen years, the 

Regional Water Companies were not able to allocate sufficient resources towards operation and 

maintenance (O&M) costs. Currently, the O&M costs have been around € 0,30/m 3 . The plan is that this 

cost will reach 0,70/ m 3 in 2014. Thus, it is important to increase tariffs to allow for a higher level of O&M 

costs; 

• Reducing administrative losses: The high water losses resulting in unaccounted for water drains the 

economy. While the water distribution network rehabilitation programme helps to reduce the physical 

losses, equal emphasis should be put on the reduction of commercial losses, which account for a 

significant portion of the UFW. Incentives to reduce the commercial losses should be considered, including 

the introduction of the private sector, which would depend on the volume of collections; 

• Increased Collection Rate: The present bill collection rate (with arrears) is 86%. This represents the ratio of 

all collections including overdue payments and the annual billings. On an annual basis the collection rate is 

around 75%. The dues to the utilities are from public institutions, central and local government buildings, 

industry (some of which are public) and the population. According to accounting standards in Bulgaria, 

overdue payments are not written off and provisions are not made to account for this loss. 

For the first item, the tariffs need to increase to allow more operation and maintenance expenses. For the 

other two items, there needs to be an increased emphasis on operational efficiency, which may be supported 

by the private sector. 

The above investment programme and operations are implemented by the Regional Water Companies (RWCs). 

Thus, it is essential that the RWCs function in an efficient manner. To this end, the staff and management in the 

RWCs should receive adequate training on technical and financial matters. Adequate incentives should be in 

place for the RWCs to provide good quality service. Representative of the RWCs should also be familiar with the 

recent developments and practices in the EU countries regarding operations and investments. This knowledge 

will help to strengthen operation of the Bulgarian RWCs. 


The water sector of Bulgaria needs serious reforms to address problems with the out-‐dated water supply and 

sewer system. According to ISPA regulatory framework, reforms are needed, as well as institutional and 

financial reforms. 

6. Institutional reforms needed 

For the implementation of the needed reform for adequate infrastructure, operation and maintenance of the 

water supply and sewer systems, institutional reforms would benefit the process and make it more sustainable. 

The following institutional reforms were identified: 

• clarify the roles of the Ministry of Regional Development, Public Works and Ministry of Environment and 

Water. Currently both ministries are responsible for policy setting and implementing policies; 

• make the water regulator functional as soon as possible to regulate tariffs and service standards. The law 

for establishing the water regulator became effective on the 20th of January 2005. To make the regulator 

functional, the regulator must receive institutional support and secondary legislation has to be in place; 

• clarify the asset ownership issue in Regional Water Companies where the ownership is shared between 

the state and the municipalities; the issue leads to delays in decision making. A model to establish 

operating companies has been discussed, in addition to separating the assets between the state and the 

municipalities. Appropriate legislation should be adopted to implement this model. 

• attract the private sector as soon as possible through good examples so that a proper signal about the 

government’s willingness to reform the sector is sent to the markets. 

7. Financial reforms needed 

An improvement of the financial structures in the Bulgarian water and wastewater sector are not dispensable. 

For example, the following financial reforms could be addressed: 

• The Ministry of Finance could develop a financial framework that would specify the following in short, 

medium and long terms: level of public expenditure support, allowable public debt given so that utility 

borrowings will contribute towards this debt stock, and volume of sovereign guarantees. 

• The programme of fiscal decentralisation should continue to address the core problem in the financing 

sector: lack of resources at the local level. 

• Municipalities should be given more autonomy to raise local revenues, which in turn will help them to 

support investments in the sector. 

• A proper financial management system for accounting should be put in place, and financial resources 

should be raised and utilised at the local levels. 


• Which interconnections occur between the need of clean drinking water and the access to it? 

• How is the price of water defined? 

• Why is the price of water different in different cities in Bulgaria? 

• Discus changes in trends of past prices, now and in the future? 

• What is the price of water all around the world – where is the water price high and where is it low? 

• Discuss how to deal with families who cannot afford the connection and water supply costs? 

• Should everybody, e.g. poor and rich consumers or consumers with low water and high water 

consumption, pay the same water price? 

• Calculate how much 1 litre of water and 1 litre of Coca cola (or any other soft drink) costs. 

• Make an interview to find out how many litres of bottled water residents of households drink in 

average monthly and how much they pay for water and sewage services? 


8.1. WSP related activities: 

• Who is the owner of the local water supply and who regulates the prices? 

• How high are the costs for the water supplier to deliver 1 m 3 water? 

• What are the local prices for 1 m 3 drinking water? 

• How much is the local water consumption in average per person and per year? 

• How are the water costs for the consumer compiled? 

• Is there a local budget for operation and maintenance, for monitoring the water and network quality? 

• Are there subsidies for the very poor households? 

• Are there cases of drinking water unaffordability among the local villagers? 

• Is there a local system guaranteeing access to safe water for all? 

• Which percentage do households in your village spend in average monthly from their income for their 

water supply? 


European Environment Agency (2008). Water scarcity. Available from 

http://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/water/featured-‐articles/water-‐scarcity 

Financing water supply and sanitation systems. Available from 

http://www.oecd.org/document/17/0,3746,en_2649_34285_42103889_1_1_1_1,00.html 

Financing water supply and sanitation in EECCA Conference of EECCA Ministers of Economy/Finance, 

Environment and Water and their partners from the OECD, 17-‐18 November 2005, Yerevan, Armenia (English). 

Available from http://www.oecd.org/document/33/0,3746,en_2649_34285_35221537_1_1_1_1,00.html 

Sofiyska voda, (2012) Information water supply City Sofia. Available from 

http://www.sofiyskavoda.bg/en/default.aspx 

State Energy & Water regulatory Commission, (2012) Bulgaria. Information available fromhttp://www.dker.bg/ 

Global water intelligence (2012). Available form http://www.globalwaterintel.com/home/ 



Module 14 

Regulations on Water 

Summary 

This module provides information on EU and UN regulations concerning drinking water quality and the 

human right to have access to clean drinking water and sanitation. A number of international legislative acts 

and initiatives about these principles exist. The EU legislation is binding for all Member States, which the 

Bulgarian legislation is a part of. The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) that also concern access to 

drinking water and sanitation are presented and discussed. People need to know their rights and obligations 

according to the common legislation at the national and international level. 

Objectives 

Pupils gain insight into the structure of regulations on the national and international level, and gain some 

knowledge about different directives. They are informed about the MDGs and their right to have access to 

clean drinking water and sanitation. 


Water quality, EU Directives, Protocol on Water and health, Human rights, MDGs 



Information on national and international regulations 

on water 

Research on the Internet, cooperation with the 

water supplier 

Module 4

Regulations on Water 

Introduction 

Drinking water is water that is pure enough to be consumed or used with a low risk of immediate or long-‐term 

harm. In most developed countries, the water supplied to households, commerce and industry is in 

concordance with drinking water standards, although only a very small proportion of the delivered water is 

explicitly used for drinking or preparation of food. 

Over large parts of the world, humans have inadequate access to water with good quality and use sources 

contaminated with disease vectors, pathogens or unacceptable levels of toxins or suspended solids. Drinking or 

using such water in food preparation leads to widespread acute and chronic illnesses and is a major cause of 

death and misery in many countries. Reduction of waterborne diseases is a major public health goal in 

developing countries. The quality of drinking water is a powerful environmental determinant of health. 

Assurance of drinking water safety is fundamental for the prevention and control of waterborne diseases. 

1. Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) 

The European Union (EU) has established a framework for water protection and management in all member 

states of the EU. This directive is valid for (European) inland surface waters, groundwater, transitional waters 

and coastal waters. The Water Framework Directive (WFD) has a number of objectives, such as preventing and 

reducing pollution, promoting sustainable water usage, environmental protection, improving aquatic 

ecosystems and mitigating the effects of floods and droughts. Its ultimate objective is to achieve “good 

ecological and chemical status” for all waters by 2015. 

The river basin’s management plans under this directive aim to: 

• prevent deterioration, enhance and restore bodies of surface water, achieve good chemical and ecological 

status of such water by 2015 at the latest and reduce pollution from discharges and emissions of 

hazardous substances. 

• protect, enhance and restore the status of all bodies of groundwater, prevent pollution and deterioration 

of groundwater, and ensure a balance between groundwater abstraction and replenishment. 

• preserve protected areas. 

The EU encourages all stakeholders of all Member States to participate in the implementation of this 

Framework Directive. 

2. Drinking Water Directive (98/83/EC) 

The European Council Directive deals with the quality of water intended for human consumption. Its intention 

is to protect human health by initiating health and purity requirements, which must be met for drinking water 

provided to consumers. It applies to water meant for human consumption apart from mineral and table waters, 

and waters which are used for medicinal products. Mineral, table water and medicinal water are regulated in a 

separate directive. 

Member States’ responsibilities: 

• Member States ensure that such drinking water does not contain any concentration of microorganisms, 

parasites or any other substance that constitutes a potential human health risk and meets the minimum 

requirements (microbiological and chemical parameters and those relating to radioactivity) laid down by 

the Drinking Water Directive. 

• They take any other action needed in order to guarantee the health and purity of water intended for 

human consumption. 


• Member States lay down the parametric values corresponding at least to the values set out in the 

Directive. If parameters are not set out in the Directive, and if necessary to protect health, limit values 

must be performed by the Member States themselves. 

• The Directive requires Member States to regularly monitor the quality of water intended for human 

consumption by using the methods of analysis specified in the Directive or equivalent methods. For this 

purpose, they determine the sampling points and draw up monitoring programmes. Where parametric 

values are not attained, the Member States concerned ensure that the corrective action is taken as quickly 

as possible in order to restore water quality. 

• Regardless of compliance, or otherwise with the parametric values, Member States prohibit the 

distribution of drinking water or restrict its use and take any action needed where that water constitutes a 

potential human health hazard. Consumers have to be informed of any such action. 

• The Directive provides the Member States with a range of exemptions from the parametric values up to a 

maximum value, given that: 

– the exemption does not constitute a human health hazard; 

– there is no other reasonable means of maintaining the distribution of drinking water in the area 

concerned; 

– the exemption must be as restricted in time as possible and not exceed three years (it is possible to 

renew the exemption for two further three-‐year periods). 

• From these provisions, Directive Member States may exempt water intended for human consumption 

from an individual supply providing less than 10 m 3 a day as an average, or serving less than 50 persons, 

unless the water is supplied as part of a commercial or public activity. Monitoring the quality of those 

drinking waters has to be decided by the Member States concerned. 

3. Nitrate Directive (91/676/EEC) 


EU Member States have to ensure that water intended for 

human consumption does not contain any concentration of 

micro-‐organisms, parasites or any other substance which 

constitutes a potential human health risk, and meets the 

minimum requirements (microbiological and chemical 

parameters and those relating to radioactivity) laid down by 

the Directive. 

The Nitrate Directive aims to protect waters in Europe by preventing nitrates from agricultural sources to 

pollute groundwater and surface waters through encouraging the use of good agricultural practices. The 

Nitrates Directive is an integral part of the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) and is one of the key 

instruments for protecting water against agricultural pressures. It was published in 1991. 

The Nitrate Directive request the EU Member States to: 

• identify surface water and groundwater sources affected by pollution, or that are at risk of being polluted, 

based on procedures and criteria cited in the Directive. Specifically when the concentration of nitrates in 

ground-‐water or surface water reaches 50 mg/l, or when the surface water is eutrophic or is at risk of 

being so. 

• designate vulnerable zones, which are known areas in their territories which drain into the identified 

waters. The Nitrates Directive provides a possibility for Member States to be exempted from the 

requirement to designate vulnerable zones if the action programmes are applied to their entire national 

territory.

• establish a code of good agricultural practice to be implemented by farmers on a voluntary basis. 

• set up compulsory action programmes to be implemented by all farmers who work in vulnerable zones. 

These programmes must contain the measures, which aim to limit the land application of mineral and 

organic fertilisers containing nitrogen, as well as land application of livestock manure. 


The Nitrate Directive is one of the key instruments 

for protecting water against agricultural pressures, 

in which the application of the amount of nitrogen 

fertiliser and the timeframe on agricultural 

fields is regulated. 

4. Directive on the protection of groundwater against pollution and 

deterioration (2006/118/EC) 

This directive is a “daughter directive” to the WFD, and sets out general provisions for the protection and 

conservation of groundwater. Measures to prevent and control groundwater pollution are stipulated and 

should be adopted. These include criteria for assessing good groundwater chemical status, for the identification 

of significant and sustained upward trends, and for the definition of starting points for trend reversal. Quality 

standards for nitrates, plant protection products and biocides should be set as community criteria for the 

assessment of the groundwater sources’ chemical status. With the nitrate directive, consistency should be 

ensured, which is also related to human and animal waste. 

The EC Groundwater Directive sets binding EU-‐wide limits. The Directive uses the term "quality standards" of 

50 mg/l for nitrate, and 0,1 μg/l for individual substances; 0,5 μg/l for the overall pollution load for active 

pesticide ingredients and biocides. These levels derive from the EC Drinking Water Directive. 

5. Protocol on Water and Health 

In the European Part of the UNECE region, an estimated 120 million people do not have access to safe water 

and adequate sanitation; resulting in many cases of water related diseases, such as cholera, dysentery, coli 

infections, and viral hepatitis A. Safe water and better sanitation could prevent over 30 million cases of water-‐ 

related disease each year in the region. The 1999 Protocol on Water and Health (PWH) was negotiated with this 

in mind. 

The main aim of the PWH is to protect human health and well being by better management, including the 

protection of water ecosystems, and by preventing, controlling and reducing water-‐related diseases. To meet 

these goals, its parties are required to establish national and local targets for the quality of drinking water and 

the quality of discharges, as well as for the performance of water supply and wastewater treatment. Another 

requirement is to reduce water related diseases. Each party has the obligation to establish and publish its 

national targets and its respective target dates for each area within 2 years of becoming a party. 

22 countries ratified or accepted the PWH, 14 other countries signed it in 1999, but no ratification followed. For 

those countries that ratified the PWH, the Protocol is binding and obligations should be fulfilled.

6. Human right access to safe drinking water and sanitation 

Human rights are basic rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled, and which are essential for 

human existence; access to water and sanitation are among them. This fact is now officially recognised by the 

UN Human Rights Council. In the past, human rights discussions have largely ignored water and especially 

sanitation. But after years of fierce debate, the Human Rights Council adopted the resolution (A/HRC/15/L.14) 

by consensus on 30th September 2010, affirming that access to safe drinking water and sanitation is a human 

right. 

In order to realise the human right to have access to safe drinking water and sanitation, there are certain 

criteria to be met: 

• availability: UN appeals for at least 50 l/p/d of safe water to meet personal needs; 

• accessibility: Services must be available within or in the immediate vicinity of each household, as well as 

schools, workplaces, health-‐care settings and public places. Access must be ensured in a sustainable 

manner; 

• quality/safety: the human right to water and sanitation means that water and sanitation have to be safe 

for human health; 

• affordability: the total expenses for water and sanitation of a household should not be more than 3% 

(recommendation of the UNDP) of the average income of a household in their geographical area; 

• acceptability: the technologies offered to the population and ethnic/religious groups have to be culturally 

acceptable and enter without contradicting their believes and values; 

• non-‐discrimination: no group of the population would be discriminated on the principles of origin, 

religion, gender, as well as age or health status, geographical location or level of urbanisation of the 

territory; 

• participation: the whole population has the right to participate in decision-‐making connected to water 

and sanitation services; consumers have the right to information about the quality of services, health and 

financial effects, etc.; 

• accountability: the water and sanitation suppliers, and respective national and local authorities have to 

report on their expenses, effectiveness and safety of the services to the tax payers and general 

population; 

• impact: the quality of water and sanitation services directly affects quality of life, health status of the 

population, especially children; furthermore, it is decisive for the attractiveness of the business 

environment; 

• sustainability: water and sanitation services have to be provided to the population and businesses 

without compromising the chance of next generations to meet their needs safely; the needs of all living 

creatures and nature as a whole have to be respected 

The Special Rapporteur of the UN emphasises particularly on practical solutions with regard to the 

implementation of the human right to safe water and sanitation. And the resolution calls on States to ensure 

enough financing for sustainable delivery of water and sanitation services. 


Mrs. Catarina de Albuquerque is the first UN 

Special Rapporteur (independent expert) on the 

right to safe drinking water and sanitation 

Source: http://acnudh.org/en/2012/02/un-‐expert-‐on-‐ 

right-‐to-‐safe-‐drinking-‐water-‐and-‐sanitation-‐in-‐first-‐ 

mission-‐to-‐uruguay/

7. Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 

In 2002, at the World Summit on Sustainability in Johannesburg, the United Nations adopted 8 MDGs. The 

MDGs, a series of targets for reducing social and economic ills by 2015, includes the goals of halving the 

proportion of people who cannot reach or afford improved drinking water and halving the number who do not 

have basic sanitation. The term access to “improved” water and sanitation is defined by the UN and does not 

explicitly mention that the quality of the water and sanitation systems is safe. 

Some 1,7 billion people have gained access to improved drinking water since 1990. Yet 884 million people 

worldwide still do not have access to improved drinking water and 2,6 billion people lack access to basic 

sanitation services, such as toilets or latrines. Important developments of MDGs that are indirectly linked to 

reaching the goals related to water include: The world has missed the 2010 target for biodiversity conservation. 

Based on current trends, the loss of species will continue throughout this century. Slum improvements are 

failing to keep pace with the growing number of urban poor. The absolute number of slum dwellers keeps 

rising, with some 828 million people living in slums today, even though the share of the urban population living 

in slums is declining. 

The world will meet or even exceed the drinking water target by 2015 if current trends continue. By that time, 

an estimated 86 per cent of the population in developing regions will have gained access to improved sources 

of drinking water, up from 71 per cent in 1990. Four regions: North Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, 

East Asia and South-‐East Asia have already met the target. 


Kofi Annan, UN Secretary General at Earth 

Summit, 2002 

Source: 

http://www2.lse.ac.uk/newsAndMedia/news/ 

archives/2002/Kofi_Annan_at_LSE.aspx 

Jan Prank, Secretary-‐General's Special Envoy for the 

World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) 

Source: 

http://berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2002/08/ 

30_summit.html, Yogi Hendlin photo 

Although progress was made primarily in rural areas, those areas still have remaining disadvantageous. 

Globally, eight out of ten people who are without access to an improved drinking water source live in rural 

areas. For sanitation, the 2015 target appears to be out of reach since half of the population of developing 

regions lacks basic sanitation. At the current rate of progress, the world will miss the target of halving the 

proportion of people without access to basic sanitation, such as toilets or latrines. In 2008, an estimated 2,6 

billion people around the world lacked access to improved sanitation. If the trend continues, that number will 

grow to 2,7 billion by 2015. Wide disparities also exist by region, with sub-‐Saharan Africa and South Asia

continuing to lag behind. Recent data shows 69 per cent and 64 per cent of their populations still lack access to 

improved sanitation, respectively. The gap between rural and urban areas remains huge, especially in South 

Asia, sub-‐Saharan Africa and Oceania. 


• What is the difference between the Water Framework Directive and the Drinking Water Directive? 

• Give some examples of EU Member State’s responsibilities, referring to the Drinking Water Directive. 

• Since when is having an access to safe drinking water and sanitation a human right? 

• Which MDG connected to water may be reached and which may not? 

• Organise a debate on the right to water and sanitation: divide the class into 2 groups that represent 

Different viewpoints: one group stands for water and sanitation (WS) as a human right, and the other one 

opposes. Both groups pose their arguments. Invite independent arbitrary persons to chair the 

negotiations (the village mayor, school headmaster, chair of Community Centre, etc.). 

• Write an essay on individual obligations to protect water quality. 

• Did your country sign or ratify the Protocol on Water and Health? 

• Are there any regulations of the drinking water quality systems providing less than 10 m3 a day as an 

average or serving fewer than 50 persons? 


• Investigate if the requirements of the drinking water quality are fulfilled: ask the water supplier for 

the results of the water analyses; find out how often analyses are being done. 

• Invite lecturers from the local administration or WS utility to discuss the topic: Ask him/her for 

success and failures in the implementation of EU water legislation in your municipality and your 

village. 

• Find out if there is an emergency plan in case of exceeding a parameter with health risks. How would 

the citizens be informed; which measures are taken to assure the citizens of safe drinking water? 

• Ask about the regulation of quality drinking water systems, providing less than 10 m 3 a day as an 

average or serving fewer than 50 persons. 


Amnesty International/ COHRE (2010). The right to adequate water and sanitation. Available from 

http://hrbaportal.org/wp-‐content/files/right_to_water_and_sanitation_light.pdf 

Council Directive of 8 December 1975 concerning the quality of bathing water (76/160/EEC). Available from 

http://eur-‐lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31976L0160:EN:HTML 

Council Directive of 21 May 1991 concerning urban waste water treatment. Available from http://eur-‐ 

lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:1991:135:0040:0052:EN:PDF 

Council Directive 98/83/EC of 3 November 1998 on the quality of water intended for human consumptio’n. 

Available from http://eur-‐lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:1998:330:0032:0054:EN:PDF 

Directive 2007/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2007 on the assessment and 

management of flood risks. Available from 

http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2007:288:0027:0034:EN:PDF 

European Union (2010). The EU Nitrates Directive. Available from 

http://ec.europa.eu/environment/pubs/pdf/factsheets/nitrates.pdf 

UN, The Human right to water and sanitation, (2012) Available from 

http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/human_right_to_water.shtml/ 


UNECE, (1992). Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes. 

Available from http://www.unece.org/env/water/text/text.htm 

UNECE, (1999). Protocol on Water and Health to the 1992 Convention on the Protection and Use of 

Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes, 1999. Available from 

http://www.unece.org/env/water/pwh_text/text_protocol.html 

UNEP, (2011). Towards a green economy, Pathways to sustainable development and Poverty Eradication, 

Chapter Water. Available from http://www.unep.org/pdf/water/WAT-‐ 

Water_KB_17.08_PRINT_EDITION.2011.pdf 

UNICEF, WHO (2012). Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation, update 2012. 

Available from: http://www.unicef.org/media/files/JMPreport2012.pdf 

Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000. 

Available from 

http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/environment/water_protection_management/l28002b_en.htm 



Module 15 

Step-‐by-‐Step 

10 Suggested Practical Activities for 

Developing a WSP 

Summary 

This Module gives some practical guidance for the step-‐by -‐step development of a Water Safety Plan for local 

small-‐scale water supply systems. The list of activities is a suggestion and can be extended and adopted to 

the local situation. The most important modules related to the activities are mentioned. 

This module includes an overview of the suggested activities with their input and output. It also includes the 

tools and stakeholders needed to achieve estimated results. 

Furthermore, some input is given for the stakeholder analyses and visualise their relationships and 

interactions 

Objective 

The leader or facilitator, responsible for the local WSP project, will obtain guidance and suggestions for the 

implementation of a Water Safety Plan for a small -‐scale water supply system. 

Module 4

Step-‐by-‐Step 

10 Suggested practical activities for developing a WSP 

1. Relevant practical activities 

In the following, 10 suggested activities and several sub-‐activities, and the most important related modules 

are presented: 

1. Cooperation with the local water authorities and other stakeholders (citizens, schools, Ngo´s) 

and set up a WSP working team and identify the tasks (see also module 1 and 2). 

2. Collection of information about the local drinking water system (see also module 1, 2, 18 and 19), 

for example: 

• Getting an overview of the public network, obtaining, e.g., a map with the location of pipes, 

reservoirs, pumps or wells, etc. 

• Number of connected and unconnected households/inhabitants 

• Quantity and quality of the local supplied drinking water, also from official analyses reports (see also 

module 7 and 8) 

• Identification of the raw water sources and treatment system (see also module 3,4 and 5) 

• Type of used distribution pipes within the public network and in the houses (see also module 6) 

• Identification of the water protection zones in the catchment area and related regulations (see also 

module 10) 

• Financial aspects of the system: water price for the consumer, income and costs of the supply etc. 

(see also module 13) 

• Challenges and positive aspects of the water supply system 

• Wishes and planning for the future; 

3. Identification of needs, and of relevant stakeholders for action, to improve the water quality, through 

observations, communication and doing interviews (see also module 19). 

4. Practicing simple water tests and developing a village map (see also module 16 and 17) 

• Obtain or draw a village map, including the locations of the water sources, pipes etc. 

• Exercises on reporting the monitored results. 

• Monitoring of drinking water: Nitrate (NO3), turbidity, colour, odour, pH. 

• If available, selection of some public and individual wells or springs for monitoring every 2 or 3 weeks 

and over a period of several months; 

• Collecting water analyses results or other important information from the water provider. 

• Request for special water analyses of the water supply system. 

• Insert the results of the water quality monitoring in the map. 

5. Conducting risk assessment of the water supply system (see also module 8, 10, 18) 

• Assessment of the water quality perception: interviews with the water users. 

• Assessment of the provided water health risks: interviews with health authorities. 

• Risk assessment for several public and/or individual wells or springs (using the WHO form 

• Risk assessment for piped water (using the WHO forms and cooperating with the supplier, e.g. are 

there leakages and where; is there wastewater infiltration or unused pipe lines?) 

• Excursions to the sanitary zones, to the locations of water extraction and treatment and to the water 

supplier. 

• Mapping activities in the protection zone; e.g. type of agriculture/usage of pesticides or nitrogen, 

fertiliser, fuel pump or industry. 

6. Sharing information, mobilising communities, for example, via exhibitions, meetings, seminars, working 

with the media. 


7. Development of an action plan to minimise the risks related to the water supply by involving the 

community and relevant stakeholders (community mobilisation; see also module 15) . 

Identify the time frame, the responsible persons/institutions of the actions and estimate a budget or 

other possible financial resources. 

8. Report and share the planned action to improve the water quality with citizens and other stakeholders. 

Exchange experiences with project partners from other villages and regions. See also module 17) 

9. Implementation of the action plan. 

10. Report and share information about the findings and progress of the planned actions, and the impact 

on the water supply system. And continue to adjust the local water safety planning activities! 

• Monitoring of water quality and the risks, reporting and communicating with all stakeholders, 

informing citizens about on-‐going activities for an adequate water safety plan. 


15a. Scheme of activities 

input and output for the implementation of WSP for a small-‐scale water supply system 

Step Activity Input/Tools Output (Results) 

1. Set up a WSP-‐ working team and identify the Sharing information and discussing them with local 

tasks 

authorities and school staff 

2. Describe a water supply system Secondary data from governmental bodies, 

interviews with stakeholders, surveys, etc. 

3. Identify stakeholders Secondary data from governmental bodies, 

structured interviews with stakeholders 

4. Draw the situation of the area (village map) Local maps. Secondary data from governmental 

with water points or a water network and bodies, local and regional water authorities, 

add results of water quality monitoring (e.g. structured interviews with stakeholders. Field visits 

nitrate) 

and water analyses. 

5. Conduct hazard assessment; insert the 

Local map, input from experts, field visits, checklists 

locations/points with risks in a village map and questionnaires. Secondary data from 

governmental bodies, structured interviews with 

stakeholders (authorities, experts) 

6. Report and share information of findings on Meetings, exhibition, media. Involvement of 

local and regional levels 

community and pupils 

7. Discussions with stakeholders and action planning Action planning with stakeholders, community 

mobilisation 

8. Report and share information on conclusions Meetings, exhibition, media. Involvement of 

and plans on local and regional level 

community and schools 

9. Implementation of an action plan Input of all stakeholders, authorities, community, 

pupils 

10. Report and share information of findings and Meetings, exhibition, media 

progress on local and regional level. Review, 

adjustment of the WSP 

Input of all stakeholders, authorities, community, 

pupils. Start at step 1 and work to words step 10 

Work plan of team 

Description of a water supply system, sources 

of water and its state, maintenance and 

operation 

Stakeholder analysis 

Map of village with water points and nitrate 

results. Knowledge on water quality (nitrate), 

other analyses-‐results 

Map of village with risks points, 

Identification of water related health risks and 

causes 

Awareness of the situation. Maps, poster, 

leaflets, articles 

Description of action and actors. Timetable 

and financial plan 

Awareness of the situation and plans. Maps, 

poster, leaflets, articles 

Start of improvement of the system 

Awareness of the situation. Maps, poster, 

leaflets, articles 

No-‐ending WSP activities

___________________________________________________________________________ 

15b. Water network diagram 

Identifying stakeholders of the water supply system 

Important stakeholders involved in a water supply system should be identified and collected. Of course other 

stakeholders, such as school or farmers, can be added. Please set the relevant stakeholders into the right 

boxes, and visualise their relationships and interactions by lines and arrows. The network diagram clarifies the 

main responsibilities and connections of the different stakeholders for the provision of a safe water supply in a 

community. In the diagram below, possible stakeholders at different levels and/or positions are presented in 

different colours. However their relationships and interactions are not (yet) made visible. 

Private wells 


Local 

health 

centre 

National level 

Drinking water directive: regulation quality 

Regional level 

Responsible authorities for water and 

sanitation issues 

Health inspection Environment 

Accredited 

inspection 

laboratory 

User of the 

catchment 

Mayor water 

supplier 

Centralised 

piped water 

supply 

Community 

Public wells 

or springs 

Schools 

a 

r 

e 

a 

NGO / water 

committee 

Public street 

taps


Module 16 

Practicing Simple Water 

Quality Tests 

Summary 

In this module, a whole range of steps concerning water quality testing is introduced: taking and managing a 

water sample, assessing turbidity of water, odour and colour, doing a pH test and nitrate quick test, 

recording the measured data and suggestions for related exercises. 

Objectives 

Pupils can take and label water samples, carry out some related water tests such as some quick tests. They 

are made aware of the organoleptic character of water (odour, colour, taste, turbidity). The results will be 

recorded adequately. Pupils learn how to work properly and record the results. 


Odour, taste, turbidity, colour, pH, acidity, alkaline, nitrate quick tests, pH indicator strips, water sample, 

recording. 



Several types of water from: tap, well and/or spring, 

canal, river and rain, vinegar, limestone 

Labels and a water proof pen 

Several clean and clear drinking glasses, dish/tea 

towel 

Nitrate quick tests (range 10-‐500 mg/l), pH indicator 

strips or litmus paper, white paper 

Forms for recording the results, 

Notebook for reporting the practice 

Pupils should bring several water samples 

Nitrate quick tests and pH indicator strips could be 

obtained via an NGO or a company for laboratory 

and chemistry equipment 

Making copies of the forms for monitoring water 

quality 

Module 4

Practicing simple water quality tests 

1. Taking and managing a water sample 

There are certain rules that should be adhered to when sampling drinking water because the quality and 

reliability of drinking water analyses vary according to the way in which the sample was taken. There are many 

different types of contaminants and categories of sampling, yet here we concentrate on the ones appropriate 

for our purposes. Certain categories of analysis require an expert to take the sample. For bacteriological 

analysis, all tools used for the analysis of the water have to be sterile. 

The vessel 

One of the most important parts of taking water samples is using clean tools. It is important not to touch the 

inner side of the vessel or cover it with your fingers. Before the vessel is filled with water to be tested, it is good 

to rinse out the container once with the water you are testing. This is to reassure you have rinsed out anything 

in the bottle that might cause cross-‐contamination. For our purposes, a plastic or glass mineral water bottle of 

300 or 500 ml can be used for the sample. 

If you want to test the water on metals, pesticides or bacteria you should contact a laboratory and ask how to 

take the samples (the type of vessel and who should take the sample is essential). 

Taking a drinking water sample – an example 

Water samples can be taken from freshly extracted water from a well, spring or the tap. If the source is a tap, 

the best is to take the tap which is used for drinking and cooking, e.g. in the kitchen, and to let the water run 

for one or two minutes. Be aware that the return of the water should not be wasted, and that it can be used for 

watering the flowers or it can be given to animals. 

Labelling and recording 

Write on a water resistant label and fix the label on the bottle: 

• Name of the water sampler 

• Date and time of sampling 

• Name of the water user 

• Location: complete address 

• Type of source: e.g. tap in kitchen, dug well in yard, rainwater etc. 

• Purpose of water: e.g. drinking water, irrigation 


A mineral water bottle can be used for sampling. The bottle should be 

filled completely and covered with a cap, and if possible, no air should be 

left in the bottle.

Besides labelling the bottle, it is very useful to keep records of the samples that have been taken and analysed 

in a “laboratory book”. Remarks on the well’s surrounding, leakages in the pipes or other relevant findings and 

observations should be noted. Finally, the results of the analyses and tests should be recorded in the book. 

Storage of water samples 

In general water samples should be stored in a cool and dark place. If several hours pass between sampling and 

analysing, the sample should be stored in the fridge or in some other cool and dark room (cupboard). 

Location and time of carrying out water tests 

It is wise to take the samples into the school laboratory, the classroom or the kitchen to do the tests properly. 

However, if the weather is suitable (no rain, not below approx. 15 ° Celsius), some tests can be performed 

outside directly at the water source. Nevertheless, indoor pupils can be more attentive, and since chemical 

analysis means working in a very precise way, it is advisable to be indoors. 

Have in mind that some tests need to be done soon after taking the sample. Water is a liquid with several 

compounds, which can react and change for example the pH. If the sample is not tested soon, eventual present 

volatile chemicals could evaporate or the odour may change, therefore tests on pH, odour and colour should be 

done straight away. Nitrate has to be tested within 48 hours. Nitrate is a rather stable compound, however, if 

the sample is contaminated with bacteria the concentration can change. 

Hygienic rules 

Working tables should be clean. Tables can be covered with a fresh and clean towel. 

2. How to assess turbidity of water 


• Wash your hands before doing the tests. 

• Never touch the “chemicals on the strip” 

with your fingers. 

• Never lay down test strips on the table or on 

the towel. The chemicals on the strip will 

react also with chemical traces on the table 

or towel. 

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hand_washing#So 

ap_and_water 

Turbidity is the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by individual particles (suspended solids) that are 

generally invisible to the naked eye, similar to smoke in the air. The measurement of turbidity is a key test of 

water quality. Fluids can contain suspended solid matter consisting of many different sized particles. While 

some suspended materials are large and heavy enough to settle rapidly to the bottom of the container, if a 

liquid sample is left to stand (the settable solids), very small particles settle only very slowly or not at all. Small 

solid particles cause the liquid to appear turbid. 

The turbidity of drinking water can be assessed visually in the field. A glass with 0,3 l volume is filled with water. 

It is held against the light. Turbidity is assigned to the categories: clear, weak turbid, medium turbid or strong 

turbid. Note if the suspended solids settle to the bottom of the glass after some time.


Samples of turbidity standards with 5, 50, and 500 

NTU. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbidity 

A more accurate measure of turbidity is based on the property that particles scatter light when a light beam is 

focussed on them. Turbidity measured this way uses an instrument called a nephelometer with a detector set 

up to the side of the light beam. More light reaches the detector if there are lots of small particles scattering 

the source beam than if there were few. The units of turbidity from a calibrated nephelometer are called 

Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU). 

The Drinking Water Directive of the European Union (98/83/EC) stipulates that the turbidity of water should be 

acceptable to consumers and should not show any abnormal change. In the case of surface water treatment, 

EU Member States should strive for a parametric value not exceeding 1,0 NTU in the water ex treatment works. 

3. How to assess taste, odour and colour 

All water sources contain a number of naturally occurring minerals such as calcium, magnesium and iron. The 

varying concentrations of these minerals in water give rise to slightly different colours and tastes that can be 

detected easily. People, travelling to different parts of the country will be able to notice differences. Water also 

contains dissolved gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide that can give tap water a distinctive taste. Without 

these elements, water would taste flat and unappetising. 

While relatively small quantities of water are colourless when observed by humans, pure water has a slight 

blue colour that becomes a deeper blue as the thickness of the observed sample increases. The blue tint of 

water is an intrinsic property and is caused by selective absorption and scattering of white light. Impurities 

dissolved or suspended in water may give water different coloured appearances. The presence of colour in 

water does not necessarily indicate that the water is not potable. Colour-‐causing substances, such as tannins, 

may be harmless. 

Qualitative visual assessment of the watercolour can be carried out in the field by filling a 0.3 l volume drinking 

glass and holding it in front of white paper. 

Different tastes and odours 

The odour of drinking water samples can be determined by the olfactory sense of the sampler in the field, or 

the well-‐covered sample can also be taken indoors for testing. For the field test, a 0.3l glass is filled with water 

and the odour is determined by smelling. The intensity of the smell can be categorised as weak, medium or 

strong. The type of odour can be attributed to no odour, faecal, soil, chlorine and others. 

In many centralised water supply systems, chlorine gas is added to drinking water during the final stages of 

treatment to kill any harmful germs that may be present. A small amount of chlorine remains in the water as it 

makes its way to customers’ taps and gives the water a chlorine taste. 

Water that passes through peaty land can have an earthy or musty taste and/or odour. Rubber and plastic 

hoses used to fill drinking water tanks or vending machines and hoses of washing machines and dishwashers 

can give rise to a rubbery or plastic taste. Copper, iron or galvanised pipes can cause a metallic or bitter taste.

Spilled heating or motor oil or petrol on driveways and gardens can adversely affect the ground water. A plastic 

service pipe located in this area can also adversely affect water. If petrol or a chemical taste or odour is 

detected in the drinking water, the customers should contact the water supplier. 

4. How to do a pH test 

pH is the unit of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. Pure distilled water at 25 o C has a pH level of 7 and is 

called neutral (the measurement scale ranges from 0-‐14). Acids are defined as solutions that have a pH less 

than 7, while bases (alkaline) are defined as solutions that have a pH greater than 7. The normal range for pH in 

surface water systems is 6.5 to 8.5, and the pH range for groundwater systems is between 6 and 8.5. 

The drinking water directive of the European Union indicates the pH units in drinking water should not be 

aggressive which means not less than 6,5 and not exceed 9,5 pH units. 

pH 

1 Gastric acid 

2 Lemon juice 

3 Apple, orange 

4 Tomato juice 

5 Black coffee 

6 Milk, Urine 


Acid 

7 Destilled water Neutral 

8 Sea water 

9 Baking soda 

10 Soap 

11 Ammonia solution 

12 Soapy water 

13 Bleach 

14 

Alkaline 

Examples of some liquids and their pH (acidity/alkalinity) 

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH 

How to use the pH indicator test strips: 

• Water temperature should be about 20 o C when it is measured because the pH level depends on the 

temperature as well. 

• Dip the strip for 1-‐ 3 seconds for reaction to take place and compare strip to colour chart. 

Litmus tests can be applied to indicate if a liquid is acid or alkaline. Litmus strips are cheaper than pH indicator 

test strips, however they are not as precise. 

5. How to do quick nitrate tests 

Nitrate in water is undetectable without testing because it is colourless, odourless, and tasteless. Nitrate in 

drinking water can be a problem, especially for infants. A water test is the only way to determine the nitrate-‐ 

nitrogen concentration and ascertain whether it is under the acceptable EU standard of 50 mg/l.

A quantitative nitrate test is usually done in a laboratory, but with nitrate quick tests strips, a very good and 

reliable impression on the rate of the nitrate concentration in water can be gained. Nitrate test strips give a 

semi quantitative result, and fulfil the purpose of detecting a nitrate contamination or not. Although the tests 

are easy to carry out, some regulations have to be followed: 

1. Read the instructions of the package carefully. Assure a clean and proper working place. 

2. For testing the nitrate concentration in water, keep the strip just one second in the water sample and 

shake excess water from the strip very gently. 

3. Wait one minute and compare the developed colour with the colour scale on the tube. 

4. Do not test nitrate in an area with a temperature below 15 o Celsius. During times with cold temperatures 

the chemical reaction of test strips is decreased. Therefore please take the sample to a warm location for 

testing. 

5. In case of unexpected results, it is necessary to repeat the analysis. For this reason, pour a new sample into 

a clean glass and repeat the procedure as described above. 

6. Please be aware that the test strips are not suitable for chlorinated drinking water. 

7. If no tests are carried out between testing phases, please cover the test strip tube with the lid. 

8. Store the well-‐closed tube in a cool place. The fridge is the best place. 


Nitrate testing tube containing test strips, 

measuring the nitrate concentration of water with 

a range from 0 – 10 – 25-‐ 50 -‐100-‐ 250 – 500 mg/litre 

are very suitable. 

It is possible to cut the test strip lengthways and make two strips from one strip. Please work very clean and 

hygienically and use very clean scissors. Never touch the nitrate indicator with your fingers and do not lay the 

strips down anywhere, like on the table. 

6. Recording the results 

Recording and reporting the sample type, tests carried out, results and observations are the basis for 

communication and keeping track of developments. Recorded results should be readable, understandable and 

transparent to all concerned stakeholders. Please record at least the following information of sampling: date 

and location (street, house number, village), source of water, some information about the environment of the 

water source, and the results. See also module 17. 


• Pupils test different liquids such as vinegar, soap, fruit juice, loamy water, rainwater and tap water on pH. 

• Which different nitrate results are observed after testing various types of water/liquid? 

• Which observations of turbidity, colour and odour of the tested liquids can be made? Discuss the 

differences. 

• Pupils record all the results and observations, presented and discussed.


• Each participant could take samples from water sources in their environment, carry out an adequate 

labelling of the samples, test the samples and record the results. Individual wells and several taps in 

households that are served by the public water supply could be tested this way. 

• Compare the collected results and get an overview on how clean the groundwater is. 

• The water supplier should be asked about available results of water tests, and about the frequency of 

the analyses and the location of sampling. Discuss these results and experience. 


Ministry of Health, Wellington New Zealand (2007). Monitoring and Sampling for Small Supplies: Resources for 

the Drinking-‐water Assistance Programme. Available from 

http://waternz.org.nz/documents/sigs/smallwatersystems/101207_moh_sampling_and_monitoring.pdf 

pH, (2012). Available from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH 

World Health Organisation / UNICEF,(1994). Rapid Assessment of Drinking Water Quality, A handbook for 

implementation. Available from http://www.bvsde.paho.org/CD-‐ 

GDWQ/Biblioteca/Manuales_Guias_LibrosDW/RADWQ/RADWQ%20handbook.pdf 

World Health Organisation, (1997). Guidelines for Drinking-‐Water Quality, 2nd edition, Volume 3 – Surveillance 

and control of community supplies, chapter 4 Water sampling and analysis. Available from 

http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/gdwq2v1/en/index2.html 


___________________________________________________________________________ 

Module 17 

Mapping the Village/ 

Visualisation of Analyses 

Results 

Summary 

A village map with the location of the water sources (wells or springs) and their related nitrate 

concentrations gives an indication of the “hot spots” of polluted water sources, and also the areas with little 

or no nitrate pollution. A similar map can be produced with the locations of pollution sources of. Long-‐term 

monitoring of the nitrate concentrations in different local water sources gives insight into the level of water 

pollution during the different seasons. 

Forms for recording the monitoring results, examples of village maps with locations of the monitored wells 

or distribution system and graphics of long-‐term nitrate monitoring results are found in this module: 

17a Form for collecting monitoring results of water sources in and around the village 

17b Form for reporting results of the long-‐term (seasonal) monitoring of 2 water sources 

17c Example of mapping a village in Uzbekistan 

17d Example of mapping a village in Georgia 

17e Example of mapping water sources in a village and the related nitrate concentrations in Belarus 

17f Example of visualisation of the seasonal fluctuation of nitrate concentration in 5 different wells in 

Ukraine 

17g Example of visualisation of the seasonal fluctuation of nitrate concentration in 5 different wells and 2 

different regions in Romania 

Objectives 

The pupils make the water supply system and water sources visible in a village map and the long-‐term 

nitrate monitoring results of selected wells are processed in a graphic. By this activity a better understanding 

of the sensibility of the groundwater pollution and its causes will be reached. The maps and graphics 

contribute to the identification of strategies for providing safe water to the citizens. 


Mapping, visualisation, monitoring 



Maps of the village Cooperation with mayor or water supplier 

Paper/poster, coloured pens 

Nitrate quick tests and forms for recording the 

results 

2 or 3 weekly monitoring results of some selected 

local water sources. Form 17a and b 

A WECF publication 

Precipitation 

2012 

meter Report of the level of precipitation 

Module 4

___________________________________________________________________________ 

Mapping the village/ 

visualisation of analyses results 

Introduction 

For the implementation of a Water Safety Plan, a lot of data is produced and collected. One way to get a better 

overview of the collected data about water sources and their locations, or about the area with potential 

contaminants, is by making the data visible in maps and/or graphics. An advantage of producing maps and 

graphics (visualisation) is that the results are easier accessible and understandable to a broader public. 

1. Mapping the village and its water sources/ distribution network 

Use an existing map of the village if possible. If the village is served with a centralised piped water system, you 

could ask the mayor or the water supplier for a village map showing the distribution pipes, water reservoirs, 

abstraction points and the houses connected to the network. If no map is available, you can draw one yourself 

(see example 17c). First draw a draft to find out what has to be included, how big the scale will be and what 

size the map will be drawn. 

Each child will then draw a more detailed map of his home’s surroundings. This works like a zoom into the 

bigger map. Use the water supply (the well, where the drinking water is taken from) as the centre of the map 

and include the near surroundings. 

Place the maps together to get a bigger picture of the village. If there are still unmapped parts of the 

settlement, the basic elements should be added. Drafts are sufficient here. If the individual maps overlap, 

compare the results. The more accurate version will be placed on top. 

The following basic elements should be found: 

• Distinctive landmarks and institutions such as schools, churches, town hall, dispensary 

• Heights (hills, valleys etc.) 

• Rivers, waterways etc. 

• Streets 

• Houses 

• North/South/East/West 

• Scale 

Then include the following elements: 

• Water supply: wells, public tabs, water points, springs etc. 

• Land use, such as grazing land, landfill (dump), industry or small businesses (garages, fuel stations, 

workshops etc.) 

• (Pit/school) latrines, disposal of wastewater 

• Pig/cow stables 

After testing the nitrate concentration of the different water sources, think about using colours to mark the 

quality of each water supply (see also module 7 and 16). Different symbols can be used to distinguish the 

various types of water supplies. Insert the nitrate monitoring results into the related water sources. Relevant 

information such as the supply relevant parameter involving turbidity can also be inserted into the map. In 

addition, the possible identified sources of water pollution could be included in the same map. 

For a village served with one water supply network, the map can clarify which houses are connected to the 

supply, the location of the water abstraction and the catchment area with the different protection zones. 

In the map, the land-‐use or human activities within the catchment zones could be distinguished and critical 

circumstances could be identified (see also module 1, 2 and 10). 


___________________________________________________________________________ 

2. Visualisation of the fluctuation of nitrate results 

Water sources are influenced by environmental events and circumstances, as well as by human activities, 

including management of animal and human excreta manure or gardening. Therefore, many water sources do 

not have stable quality and parameters, such as microorganism or nitrates, can fluctuate more or less 

throughout the year. 

To understand the sensitivity of water sources to man-‐made (anthropogenic) contaminants, it is very useful to 

select some water sources in different locations within or around the village and monitor the nitrate 

concentration of the sources on a regular basis (Form 17b can be used for recording the results). If possible, 

monitor the sources during one year every 2 or 3 weeks (long-‐term or seasonal monitoring). 

To investigate the influence of precipitation on the nitrate concentration in the water source, the weather 

events should be recorded. A precipitation measure beaker in a yard could be used for this task, or it could be 

recorded by simple observation. 

The monitoring results can be collected in a form and finally processed/visualised in graphics (see example in 

Module 17). Pupils can make the graphics by hand or with a computer programme. The recorded levels of 

precipitation and the long-‐term nitrate monitoring results should be processed in a graphic, and the two 

recording’s data should parallel by having the same time frame. 

In the graphic, it is extremely important to mention: the used units, the related parameter, date of sampling, 

type of water source or sample, etc., and to give a clear subtitle of the visualised results of the investigation. 

Finally an outsider should be able to understand the presented data. 

3. Sharing information 

It is recommended to prepare a poster of the maps and graphics, and hang this in a classroom, a school corridor 

or in another public place, where the results of the findings are open to the pupils and a broader public. 

Also, discuss the results with the water authorities and other stakeholders. 

Please be aware, a low nitrate concentration in the water source is no guarantee for safe drinking water!!! 


• Compare the environments of polluted and clean water supplies. 

• Have you identified any risks to the water supply? 

• Identify why is one less protected source more influenced by a nitrate contamination than the 

other source? 

• Identify possible sources of pollution. 

• Identify the depth of groundwater sources/wells. 

• Is there a relation between the depth of the groundwater layer and the nitrate concentration? 

• Is there a relation between the location of the water sources and the nitrate concentration? 

• Are there any visible patterns in the dispersion of the water quality? 

• What can be done to protect the water from contamination? Collect all ideas. Often the 

unconventional suggestions lead to innovative solutions. 

• Is the water catchment of the centralised water supply area well protected against any 

contamination? 


___________________________________________________________________________ 


• The results of the maps and the graphics should be discussed with all stakeholders. 

• What and where are the sources of pollution? 

• Do all villagers have access to safe water? 

• Develop strategies for a better water protection. 

• Develop strategies for improved access to safe water for all villagers. 


WaterAid learning for advocacy and good practice, (2007). Water and sanitation mapping: a synthesis of 

findings, WaterAid. Available from http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/docs/3838.pdf 


17a. Form for collecting monitoring results of water sources in and around the village 

Selected results, for example the nitrate results and the location of the related water sources could be inserted and made visible in a village map. 

Date of 

sampling 

Type of water source 

(central piped water, 

well, spring or river, 

etc.) 

Location of sampling Depth 

of 

well/ 

ground 

water 

Nitrat 

mg/l 

Turbi-‐ 

dity 

Odour Colour pH Remarks

17b. Form for reporting results of the long-‐term (seasonal) monitoring of 2 water sources 

For the seasonal monitoring of the nitrate concentration fluctuation and visual quality /suspended solids, some (4 or 5) selected water sources are tested every 2 or 3 weeks 

during the year, if possible. Parallel to the monitoring, the level of precipitation is measured with a precipitation measure beaker or observed and recorded. If the precipitation is 

not measured, codes for the level of precipitation should be used; e.g. -‐, +, ++, +++ 

Finally, the nitrate results and the related level of precipitation and date of sampling should be transferred into a graphic (see example of form 17e). 

Project school: Village: 

Name/address of water 

source 

Type of water source (river, 

well, spring or piped water) 

Depth of groundwater 

State of well /remarks 

Date of monitoring 

Nitrate mg/l 

pH 

Suspended solids 

Colour 

Precipitation during 14 days 

Continuation: 

Date of monitoring 

Nitrate mg/l 

pH 

Suspended solids? 

Colour 

Precipitation during 14 days 

Source Source

17c. Example of mapping a village in Uzbekistan 

A village map with the locations of the water sources increases the understanding of the local water system. The water network and house-‐connections should also be 

included. 

Source. WECF/Mehriban (2007) TMF Project

17d. Example of mapping a village in Georgia 

A locally designed map of the village Nabeghlavi, Georgia, with the locations of the water sources, connected and not-‐connected houses and the local spaces. 

Colour: Red house; Blue water sources, green public spaces 

Source: WECF/ Momavlis Gzebi (2011)

17e. Example of mapping water sources in a village and the related nitrate concentrations, Belarus 

A village map with the location of the water sources (wells or springs) and their related nitrate concentrations gives an indication of the “hot spots” of polluted water sources, 

but also the areas with less or without nitrate pollution of the water. The range of the nitrate concentration should be made visible with different colours. 

A similar map can be produced with the locations of pollution sources. Such maps are useful for identifying strategies and for providing safe water to the citizens. Questions 

such as “why are some well waters polluted and not others; what are possible sources of pollution; which well waters could be recommended for consumer use”, should be 

answered. 

Map of the Smilovichy Village, Belarus, with drinking water wells and the related nitrate concentration. Produced by students of the local secondary school. The set maximal value 

for nitrate in drinking water in Belarus is 45mg/l. The nitrate quick tests give an impression of the level of nitrate pollution, but do not demonstrate the exact concentration. 

Source WECF/Ecoproject, 2008, MATRA Project

17f. Example of visualisation of the seasonal fluctuation of nitrate concentration in 

5 different wells, Ukraine 

Nitrate concentrations in groundwater can more or less fluctuate during the year and season. The fluctuations depend on i.e. human activities, the type of soil 

layers and amount of precipitation, the velocity and the depth of the groundwater. Long-‐term monitoring of the precipitation level and the nitrate 

concentration of some identified water sources, connection between the environments, human activities and the sensibility of the groundwater pollution can 

be made. Answers to questions suchas “why are some wells severe polluted, why is the nitrate concentration increasing in springtime” should be found 

NO3 (mg/l) 

550 

500 

450 

400 

350 

300 

250 

200 

150 

100 

50 

0 

05.11.04 

02.12.04 

09.01.05 

06.02.05 

06.03.05 

03.04.05 

29.04.05 

27.05.05 

24.06.05 

22.07.05 

19.08.05 

17.09.05 

15.10.05 

national standard 1 2 3 4 5 

Seasonal nitrate monitoring results of 5 different wells in the village Bobryk, Ukraine, carried out by the local school. 

Source: WECF/Mama-‐86, MATRA project 2004-‐2006 

13.11.05 

11.12.05 

08.01.06 

05.02.06

17g. Examples of visualisation of the seasonal fluctuation of nitrate concentration in 

6 different wells and 2 different regions, Romania 

Nitrate concentrations in groundwater can more or less fluctuate during the year and season. The fluctuations depend on i.e. human activities, the type of soil 

layers and amount of precipitation, the velocity and the depth of the groundwater. Long-‐term monitoring of the level of precipitation and the nitrate 

concentration of some identified water sources, connection between the environments, human activities and the sensibility of the groundwater for pollution can 

be made. Answers on questions such as “why are some wells severely polluted, why is the nitrate concentration increasing in springtime” should be found. 

The graph on the right shows the monitoring results of 3 wells from a groundwater layer of 60 m depth in Pietrele. They don´t show any fluctuation in the nitrate 

concentration, indicating that the aquifer is well protected for now. However, a nitrate concentration of 50 mg/l indicates that the aquifer is influenced by man-‐ 

made pollution. 

The water samples in Tiganesti (at the left), from a groundwater layer of 8m depth, partly show an enormous nitrate decrease in the months of December and 

January. This is the season when the pigs, mostly located in the backyards of the households, are slaughtered. The graphic also shows that the groundwater is 

very sensitive to the infiltration of contaminants. 

Nitrate mg/l 

300 

250 

200 

150 

100 

50 

0 

Longitudinal Nitrate Monitoring 

Tiganesti 

04.12.2008 

18.12.2008 

01.01.2009 

15.01.2009 

29.01.2009 

12.02.2009 

26.02.2009 

12.03.2009 

26.03.2009 

Source 1: drilled 

indivdual well 

Source 2: 

individual well, 

3 m depth 

Source 3: 

Individual well, 3,5 

m depth 

09.04.2009 

23.04.2009 

07.05.2009 

21.05.2009 

Seasonal nitrate monitoring results of different wells in the villages Tiganesti (county Teleorman) and Pietrele (county Giurgiu), Romania, carried out by the 

local schools. 

Source: WECF/EuroTeleorman, Fondation Ensemble project, 2009

___________________________________________________________________________ 


Module 18 

Risk Assessment of Small-‐ 

Scale Water Supply Systems 

Summary – Using sanitary inspection forms 

The following represents a range of sanitary inspection forms for assessing risks of a range of supply systems: 

mainly community managed point sources such as boreholes, springs, dug wells and piped water supplies fed 

with surface water or mechanised boreholes connected to distribution systems. 

Objectives 

Pupils can eventually, with the support of an adult and/or the water supplier, carry out a basic inspection of the 

water supply system. Pupils can process the risk assessment forms for specified water systems. 

Preparation /material 


Risk assessment forms available from this module Making copies, eventual revising and adding more 


Module 4

___________________________________________________________________________ 

Risk assessment of small scale-‐water 

supply systems 

Introduction 

Having described and understood the water supply system technically, the next step is to conduct a risk 

assessment – hazard analysis of the system. Hazards may occur throughout the whole system, from the water 

catchment to the point of consumption. 

One of the most critical hazards within a water supply system is caused by infiltration and contamination of the 

drinking water with microorganisms (pathogens). Pathogens generally originate from human or animal faecal 

material, contaminating raw water and finding their way into the water delivery system. Common sources of 

faeces include: wildlife such as birds, grazing animals and vermin in and around reservoirs, backflow from 

unprotected connections and sewer cross connections. 

One way to identify hazards is through water analyses (see module 16). However, water analyses illustrate the 

presence or absence of a contaminant in a certain moment. Therefore, possible factors that could cause 

contamination at all possible times must be considered.. For example, the application of human or animal 

manure, or an accident with a sewage line in a catchment area, can be a temporary hazard of the supply 

system and not necessarily affect it infinitely. Besides the required water analyses, visual surveys and 

interviews are extremely important for the overall assessment of a drinking water system. 

1. Sanitary inspection forms 

The World Health Organisation (WHO) developed sanitary inspection forms for conducting a sanitary inspection 

(risk assessment) of small-‐scale water systems. For different distribution systems, the situation and risks can be 

different, and therefore, other aspects have to be considered. For the most relevant small-‐scale water delivery 

systems, forms were developed including a checklist for the basic and most general hazards. 

The risk assessment forms presented in this module were partly adjusted to the local requirements or 

extended to relevant possible hazards. The forms enable citizens to conduct a basic and simple sanitary survey 

of the water sources, contributing to the identification and understanding of the hazards in a small-‐scale water 

system. The sanitary inspection is an important part of a WSP, although it is not a stand-‐alone activity for the 

implementation of a WSP. The risk assessment is like a piece of the whole “WSP puzzle”, and the challenge will 

be to gather and interpret the correct information. 

In this module, sanitary inspection (risk assessment forms) are provided for the following water systems: 

a) Dug well or borehole 

b) Public tap of piped water 

c) Piped water with service reservoir 

d) Gravity-‐fed piped water 

e) River-‐water-‐fed piped water 

f) Deep borehole with mechanised pumping 

g) Protected spring 

The WSP team should discuss and decide which form should be used, and which questions of the sanitary 

inspection are lacking and should be added. Depending on the water system, several systems, such as 

centralised piped water supply, can only be assessed in cooperation with the responsible person or team of the 

water supply system. In case of an individual or public dug well or borehole, the assessment can be carried out 

mainly by observation. 


___________________________________________________________________________ 

2. The results 

After the “yes” and “no” answers of the related form are identified, the yes answers are counted. The total 

score of “yes” answers and the related level of risks for the water system are presented at the bottom of the 

form. 

Positive results of a sanitary inspection are no guarantee for safe drinking water. Groundwater and spring 

sources can be influenced by contaminants, which infiltrated the source many kilometres away from the point 

of abstraction (see also module 10). This happens in mountainous areas with karst formations in particular. A 

challenge in identifying the risks of water sources is the amount of knowledge there is regarding the 

hydrological and geological conditions of the sources. Unfortunately, this knowledge is not always available. 

From case to case, it may be concluded that not all the questions of the form have the same level of risks. For 

example, in Form A. “risk assessment of dug well or borehole”, questions 1 and 2 (Is there a latrine, animal 

breeding etc. within 30m of the well or borehole?) could be more important than question 6. (Is the fence 

missing or faultry?). 

Furthermore, possible risks of water contamination related to, for example, the mining of minerals or oil are 

not considered in the sanitary inspection forms of this module. Industry and geogenic conditions are also not 

included. For more information on WSP risk assements with typical hazards on several stages of a piped water 

distribution system, refer to the information presented in module 2. 

Nevertheless, carrying out a risk assessment by using the sanitary inspection forms is an excellent tool for 

learning more about the possible risks of the water system and raising awareness on possible sources of 

pollution. 

3. Text Sources and further reading 

WHO, (2001). Water quality: Guidelines, standards and health, Assessment of risk and risk management for 

water related infectious disease. Available from 

http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/whoiwa/en/ 


18a. Risk assessment of dug well or borehole 

Location: 

Depth of well/borehole: meter 

Nitrate (quick test) concentration of the water: mg/litre 

Date of visit: 

Inspection was carried out by: 

Specific Diagnostic Information for Assessment Risk Yes No Remarks 

1 Is there a latrine within 30m of the well or borehole? 

2 

3 

4 

Is there animal breeding of pigs, cows, goats or others within 

30m of the well or borehole? 

Is there any cultivation (use of manure or fertiliser) within 

30m of the well or borehole? 

Is the drainage faulty, allowing ponding within 2m of the 

well or borehole? 

5 Is the drainage channel cracked, broken or needs cleaning? 

6 Is the fence missing or faulty? 

7 Is the apron less than 1m in radius? 

8 Does spilt water collect in the apron area? 

9 Is the apron cracked or damaged? 

10 Is the hand pump loose at the point of attachment? 

11 Is the well-‐cover unsanitary? 

(Source WHO, modified by WECF) 

Total Score of Risks: 10 for dug well, 11 for borehole; 

Risk score: 9-‐11 = Very high; 6-‐8 = High; 3-‐5 = Medium; 0-‐3 = Low 

Results and Recommendations: 

The following important points of risk were noted (list 1-‐11): 

Comments:

18b. Risk assessment of public tap of piped water 

Location: 





1 Does any tap stand leak? 

2 Does surface water collect around any tap stand? 

3 Is the area uphill of any tap stand eroded? 

4 Are pipes exposed close to any tap stand? 

5 

Is human excreta on the ground or latrine within 30m of any 

tap stand? 

6 Is animal manure on the ground within 30m of any tap stand? 

7 

Is there any fertilising with manure or chemicals within 

30m of any tap stand? 

8 Is there a sewer within 30m of any tap stand? 

9 

Is there a sewer or any fertilising with manure or chemicals 

within 30m of any extraction point? 

10 Has there been discontinuity in the last weeks at any tap stand? 

11 Are there signs of leaks in the mains pipes in the parish? 

12 Did the community report any pipe breaks in the last weeks? 

13 Are the mains pipes exposed anywhere in the parish? 


Total Score of Risks 13; 




Comments:

18c. Risk assessment of piped water with service reservoir 

Location: 





1 Does any standpipe leak at sample sites? 

2 Does water collect around any sample site? 


4 Are pipes exposed close to any sample site? 

5 

Is human excreta on the ground within 30m of 

any tap stand? 

6 Is a sewer or latrine within 30m of any sample site? 

7 

8 

9 

Is animal manure on the ground within 30m of 


Is there any fertilising with manure or chemicals 

within 20m of any sample site? 

Has there been discontinuity in the last weeks 

at any sample site? 

10 Are there signs of leaks in the sampling area? 

11 

Did the community report any pipe breaks in 

the last weeks? 

12 Is the main supply exposed in sampling area? 

13 Is the service reservoir cracked or leaking? 

14 Is the inside of the service reservoir clean? 

15 Are the air vents or inspection cover unsanitary? 

(Source WHO; modified by WECF) 

Total Score of Risks 15 

Risk score: 15-‐12 = Very high; 11-‐8 = High; 5-‐7 = Medium; 2-‐4 = Low; 0-‐1 Very low 



Comments:

18d. Risk assessment of gravity-‐fed piped water 

Location: 





1 Does the pipe leak between the source and storage tank? 

2 Is the storage tank cracked, damaged or leaking? 

3 Are the vents and covers on the tank damaged or open? 

4 Is the storage tank clean? 

5 Does any tap stands leak? 

6 Does surface water collect around any tap stand? 


8 Is human excreta on the ground or a latrine within 30m of 


9 Is there any fertilizing with manure or chemicals within 

20m of any tap stand? 

10 Is there a sewer within 30m of any tap stand? 

11 Is there a sewer or any fertilising with manure or chemicals 

within 30m of any extraction point? 

12 Has there been discontinuity in the last weeks at any tap 

stand? 

13 Are there signs of leaks in the mains pipes in the system? 

14 Did the community report any pipe breaks in the last weeks? 

15 Are the main pipes exposed anywhere in the system? 


Total Score of Risks 15 



The following important points of risk were noted (list nos. 1-‐15): 

Comments:

18e. Risk assessment of river water-‐fed piped water 

Location: 

Name of river 

Depth, width and length of the river: meter 




1 Is the area up stream eroded? 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

Is there ground cover (meadow or forest) within 100m from 

the riverbank to the extraction point? 

Have grazing animals access to the river within 100m from 

the river banks to the extraction point? 

Is there any fertilising with manure 100m from the river 

banks to the extraction point 

Is there any solid waste dumping place within 100m from 

the river banks to the extraction point 

Is there any communal or industrial wastewater discharge 

into the river upstream? 

Are particles in the water removed by 

sedimentation/filtration? 

8 Is the river water intensively treated? 

9 Is the water disinfected? 

10 Is the storage tank cracked, damaged or leaky? 

11 Are the vents and covers on the tank damaged or open? 

12 Is the storage tank clean? 

13 Does any tap stands leak? 

14 Has there been discontinuity in the last weeks at any tap? 

15 Are there signs of leaks in the main pipes of the system? 

16 Did the community report any pipe breaks in the last 

weeks? 

17 Are the main pipes exposed anywhere in the system? 

(Source WHO and DVGW Arbeitsblatt W102, modified by WECF) 

Total Score of Risks 16; Risk score: 12-‐17= Very high; 12-‐8 = High; 4-‐7 = Medium; 0-‐4 = Low 



Comments:

18f. Risk assessment of deep borehole with mechanised pumping 

Location: 

Depth of borehole: meter 




1 


Is there a latrine or sewer or animal manure 100m from 

the pump house? 

2 Is there any source of other pollution within 100m? 

3 Is there an uncapped well within 100m? 

4 Is the drainage around the pump house faulty? 

5 Does damaged fencing allow animal entry? 

6 Is the floor of the pump house permeable to water? 

7 Does water form pools in the pump house? 

8 Is the well seal unsanitary? 

9 Is the well-‐cover unsanitary? 


Total Score of Risks: 9 




Comments:

18g. Risk assessment of protected spring 

Location: 

Depth of borehole: meter 





1 Is the spring unprotected? 

2 

3 

4 

Is there a latrine or sewer uphill and/or within 30m of 

the spring? 

Is there any fertilising with manure or chemicals uphill or 

within 30m of the spring? 

Is there any other source of pollution uphill and/or 

within 30 m of spring? (solid waste, manure, pesticides) 

5 Can animals have access within 30m of the spring? 

6 Is the masonry protecting the spring faulty? 

7 Is the backfill area behind the retaining wall eroded? 

8 Is the fence absent or faulty? 

9 Does surface water collect uphill of the spring? 

10 

Is the diversion ditch above the spring absent or non-‐ 

functional? 


Total Score of Risks: 10 




Comments:

___________________________________________________________________________ 


Module 19 

Conducting interviews 

Summary 

The development of a Water Safety Plan requires information from several stakeholders. 

A very useful and rather easy way to collect information about several aspects of a water supply system is by 

conducting interviews with the relevant stakeholders. The type of stakeholders and the posed questions vary 

from the water supplier to the consumers. Some basic knowledge and approaches on conducting interviews 

are presented in this module. 

This module provides questionnaires for different stakeholders: 

19a. Questionnaire for citizens 

19b. Questionnaire for doctors and health professionals 

19c. Questionnaire for water supplier and water professionals 

Objectives 

Pupils supported by an adult are able to conduct interviews with several types of stakeholders. They collect 

and process useful information from the water supplier, local health authorities and consumers. 


Interviewer, interviewee, preparation of questionnaires; 



Questionnaires available from module 18 Eventual revising and adding more relevant 

questions, making copies 

Village map 

Locations of the interviewees Using the map for making a selection 

Module 4

___________________________________________________________________________ 

Conducting interviews 

Introduction 

For conducting interviews some understanding of the interviewee is needed. The interviewees may be 

reluctant and hesitant to communicate with the interviewer and/or to answer the posed questions. Before you 

start to design your interview questions and process, clearly define which information should be gathered and 

identify the target groups of respondents. Also, thoughts should be made or the interviewer should be 

instructed on how to approach the interviewees. This helps you to keep a clear focus on the intent of each 

question and to obtain reliable information. 

1. Interviews can be conducted in several ways 


Before the start, practical logistics and processing of the gathered 

information should be discussed and clarified 

• The interview can be conducted in an informal and conversational way: no determined questions are 

asked. 

• A guided interview approach ensures that the required information is collected, yet in a more structured 

way (the conversational way generally allows a certain degree of freedom in talking). 

• With a standardised, open-‐end interview the same open ended questions are asked to all interviewees, 

but the interviewees are free to choose how to answer the question. 

• With a closed, fixed-‐response interview all interviewees are asked the same questions and are asked to 

answer from among the same set of alternatives. 

For our purpose to enable non-‐experts to conduct interviews, questionnaires with standardised questions are 

prepared; answers can be a combination of free choice and a choice of given answers. 

1.1. Interview logistics 

Selection of persons to be interviewed 

Interviewing the local water supply and health authorities in a small village involves a naturally restricted 

number of interviewees of 3 -‐ 6 persons. Whereas interviewing citizens, a strategy for a broad variety of 

samples (interviewees) and locations has to be developed. Considering restricted possibilities, such as the 

availability of interviewers and interviewees, the number of wished respondents could be minimized. A

___________________________________________________________________________ 

minimum of 15 citizens should be interviewed to get an impression on the citizen’s experiences living in a small 

village. 

One way is to randomly select the interviewees in a city. The locations should be equally spread out over the 

community by using a map for identifying the locations of the interviewees. Another possibility is to ask the 

pupils to interview their parents/relatives and neighbours. The advantage is that more interviews can be 

conducted. However, the location of the respondents should not be in one area of the village, but spread out 

over the whole village like in the random approach.. 

Preparing the questionnaires 

The questions of the questionnaires provided in this ring binder should be checked together with the 

interviewees on their relevance, completeness and comprehension. If pupils are conducting the interviews, 

they should understand the relevance and the text of the question. 

Interviewers should be provided with enough copies of the questionnaires, pens and instructions for doing the 

interviews. 


Often, interviewees may feel more comfortable at 

their own places of work or homes. 

Make sure that the interviewee is comfortable 

1.2. Preparation of the interview before questioning 

1. Choose a setting with some discretion. Avoid loud lights or noises and ensure that the interviewee is 

comfortable. Often, the interviewee may feel more comfortable at his / her own place of work or home. 

2. Introduce yourself and explain the purpose of the interview. 

3. Address terms of confidentiality. Noting the respondents name or age is not necessary; the results will be 

handled anonymously. Explain who will get access to their answers; note time and locality 

4. Explain the format of the interview you are conducting and its nature. 

5. Indicate how long the interview will approximately take. 

6. Tell them how to get in touch with you later if they want to. 

7. Ask them if they have any questions before you both get started with the interview. 

8. Do not count on your memory to recall their answers and note the answers of the respondent straight 

away. 

1.3. Conducting the interview 

Obtaining reliable information from the interviewees is not always easy. For conducting an interview, some 

basic rules should be taken in consideration. For example: 

1. Ask one question at a time. 

2. Attempt to remain as neutral as possible. That is, do not show strong emotional reactions to the 

responses.

___________________________________________________________________________ 

3. Encourage responses with occasional nods of the head, etc. 

4. Be careful about your behaviour when taking notes and how it may influence the further course of the 

interview. (e.g. if you jump to take a note, it may appear as if you are surprised or very pleased about an 

answer, which may unconsciously influence further answers.) 

5. Be careful with “why” questions; these questions may cause respondents to react defensive, e.g., that they 

feel they have to justify their response, which may inhibit their responses to this and future questions. 

6. Provide transitions between major topics, e.g., "we have been talking about (some topic) and now I'd like 

to move on to (another topic)." 

7. Do not lose control of the interview. This can occur when respondents stray to another topic, taking too 

much time to answer a question reducing the interviewing time; another possibility is that the interviewee 

may start asking questions of the interviewer. 

1.4. After the interview 

Make sure that the interviewee is allowed to look at your written notes after the interview in order to clarify 

any scratches, ensure pages are numbered, search out any notes that do not make senses, etc. Write down any 

observations made during the interview. For example, if there were any surprises during the interview. 

After the responses of all interviewees are collected, the data has to be processed. Pooling similar answers 

and/or making graphics of the pooled answers can be used as a summary of the findings. Percentages of the 

positive and negative perceptions or knowledge can be calculated for example. 


• Questionnaire forms can be discussed with the pupils focussing on its relevance for the community and the 

water supply, and the clearness of the questions. 

• Interviews can be practised in class. Pupils act as the interviewer and interviewees, a third person watching 

an interview practise can act as the observer giving feedback after the interview. 


Free Management Library (20129. General Guidelines for Conducting Research Interviews. Available from 

http://managementhelp.org/businessresearch/interviews.htm#anchor140495 

How to Do a Survey (2012). Available from http://www.mathsisfun.com/data/survey-‐conducting.html 


19a. Questionnaire for citizens: Experiences/problems/perception 

Interviewer: 

Project school 

Date: 

Family: Nr. of persons in the household 

Address 

1 Do you have centralized water connection in the house? 

2 Which other water sources do you use? 

3 With which water do you irrigate the garden? 

4 How much water do you need per day for your household? 

5 Is there always enough water available? 

6 Do you think the drinking water quality is good? 

6a If not, please explain. 

6b If the quality is not good, what is the reason? 

7 Do you treat/boil water for drinking? 

8 Do you think you get ill from the drinking water? 

10 Do you use bottled water? 

11 How much do you pay monthly for bottled water? 

12 Do you have a water meter? 

13 How much do you pay monthly for the public water supply? 

14 Do you have copper, lead or another type of pipe in your house? 

If yes, which type? 

15 Do you have complaints on the drinking water supply’s quality? 

16 What kind of toilet do you have? (flush toilet or pit latrine) 

17 Is the wastewater of your house/toilet treated? 

18 What are your wishes concerning the drinking water supply? 

Yes No Other Answer Remarks

19b. Questionnaire for doctors and health professionals: Water quality and water related diseases 

Interviewer: 


Date: 

Resource person 

Name of village and number of inhabitants 

1 Do you think the drinking water quality in the village is good? 

2 Do you receive or do you have access to the water analyses results? 

2a If yes, how often do you receive the analyses results? 

3 What is the main concern about the local drinking water quality? 


5 Are there any water related diseases in the village? 

6 If yes, please mention the diseases 

7 Is there any relation between cases of diarrhoea and water quality 

in the village? 

8 Is there any relation between cases of diarrhoea and hygiene in the 

village? 

9 If yes, what is the reason? 

10 Do you advise the citizens to boil the water for consumption? 

11 Do you have any complaints regarding the local drinking water 

supply? 

12 If yes, please explain. 



19c. Questionnaire for water suppliers and water professionals: Water quality and management 

Interviewer: 


Date: 

Resource person and his/her function 

Name of village and number of inhabitants 

1 How many households are connected to the water supply network? 

2 How many households are not connected to the water supply 

network? 

3 Which kinds of water sources are used for the central supply? 

4 Is the raw water treated? If yes, please explain. 

5 How many cubic meters of water are delivered to the households? 

6 How old is the distribution network? 

7 How much water (%) is lost by leakages within the network? 

8 What types of pipes are used for the distribution network? 

9 Do you think the drinking water quality in the village is good? 

9a If not, what is the main reason? 

10 How often is the water quality analysed? 

11 Are the analyses results made available to the citizens? 

12 Is there any parameter exceeding the limit? If yes which? 


14 Is or were there any water related diseases in the village? 

15 Do you have enough financial means for operation and maintenance? 

15a If not, what is the reason? 

16 Do you have enough qualified staff? 

17 What are the main concerns regarding water pollution? 

18 Do you have strategies to protect the water sources? 

18a If yes, please explain. 

19 Do you advise the citizens to boil the water for consumption?

Local Action for Safe Water - WECF

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