The Role of Cell-Free Rabbit Reticulocyte Expression ... - Promega

Chapter 

The Role of Cell‑Free Rabbit 

Reticulocyte Expression Systems 

in Functional Proteomics 

Michele Arduengo, Elaine Schenborn and Robin Hurst* 

Abstract 

In the broad area of functional proteomics, that is the global characterization of proteins and 

their function, cell‑free rabbit reticulocyte lysate (RRL) has been used extensively to elucidate 

the mechanisms of mammalian translation, cotranslational modifications, post‑translational 

modifications and translocation of proteins. More recently, RRL has been used as the workhorse 

for manufacturing the proteins engaged in interaction, selection and protein evolution studies 

from DNA or mRNA libraries either in microarray, display or in vitro expression cloning (IVEC) 

technologies. This chapter highlights recent functional proteomics applications that use cell‑free 

mammalian RRL. 

Abbreviations 

CMM, canine microsomal membrane; ER, endoplasmic reticulum; ERAD, endoplasmic 

reticulum‑associated degradation; GPI, glycosylphosphatidylinositol; IVC, in vitro compart‑ 

mentalization; IVEC, in vitro expression cloning; PCR, polymerase chain reaction; PTT, protein 

truncation test; RRL, rabbit reticulocyte lysate; RT‑PCR, reverse transcription‑polymerase chain 

reaction; SP cells, semipermeabilized cells. 

HighWire Press is a registered trademark of Stanford University. TnT is a registered trademark 

of Promega Corporation. 

Introduction 

In late 1950s and early 1960s researchers first demonstrated that radioactive amino acids could 

be incorporated into hemoglobin in cell‑free rabbit reticulocyte lysate (RRL). 1,2 Since then RRL 

has been used to elucidate the highly complex events that encompass translation, from initiation 

to termination. 3‑5 RRL has also proven useful in understanding cotranslational folding of nascent 

polypeptide chains, protein targeting and post‑translational folding. During the 1970s, researchers 

showed that RRL could be manipulated for exogenously directed mRNA protein synthesis, so 

that only a single protein of interest was synthesized. 6 In the 1990s, the development of coupled 

transcription/translation, in which RRL is supplemented with T7, T3, or SP6 RNA polymerases 

further simplified the expression of protein targets. 7,8 DNA‑directed protein synthesis in RRL 

has some advantages over mRNA‑primed RRL including the elimination of mRNA handling, 

and it usually achieves higher levels of protein synthesis. An advantage of cell‑free RRL over 

other cell‑free systems (E. coli or wheat germ extracts) is that the mammalian environment more 

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Cell-Free Expression, edited by Wieslaw Kudlicki, Federico Katzen and Robert Bennett. 

©2007 Landes Bioscience.

Cell-Free Expression 

closely mimics human cells. Cell‑free RRL is generated from lysed reticulocytes isolated from 

phenylhydrazine‑treated rabbits. The lysed reticulocytes are treated with microccocal nuclease 

to remove endogenous mRNA. The RRL is optimized and supplemented with components that 

give optimal translation when priming with mRNA and, in the case of a coupled system, optimal 

translation/transcription for priming with DNA that contains the appropriate RNA phage poly‑ 

merase promoter sequences. 

Cell‑free RRL has the same advantages as all cell‑free systems over cell‑based expression sys‑ 

tems: substantial time‑savings (two hours versus 24–48 hours for protein expression), the ability 

to adapt to high‑throughput formats, increased tolerance to additives and less sensitivity to toxic 

or proteolytic proteins. The current use of cell‑free RRL is substantial as illustrated by a HighWire 

Press® search covering January 2000 to April 2006 that yielded more than 3,000 articles containing 

the phrase “rabbit reticulocyte.” This chapter will focus on recent applications that use RRL for 

cell‑free functional proteomics. 

Membrane Topology 

Synthesis of Membrane Proteins 

Membrane protein topology is often described based on the predicted amino acid sequence and 

algorithms that estimate hydrophobicity and probable secondary structure of a stretch of amino 

acids. 9 However, different algorithms or different stringencies applied to the same algorithm can 

predict different topologies, and many algorithms fail to account for cotranslational processing 

events or the effects of post‑translational modifications on protein topology. 9 Translation in a 

cell‑free system containing microsomes or semipermeabilized cells can provide empirical data 

about membrane protein topology. 

Using a prepared lysate supplemented with endoplasmic reticulum (ER)‑derived microsomal 

membranes such as canine pancreatic microsomal membranes (CMMs) 10‑12 or digitonin‑permea‑ 

bilized cells (semipermeabilized cells), 13 membrane proteins can be successfully synthesized, trans‑ 

located and modified in vitro. Semipermeabilized (SP) cells have some advantages over ER‑derived 

microsomes. SP cells are more likely to contain the necessary components for the correct folding 

and modification of proteins normally expressed by the cells, and they have a spatially intact ER 

and Golgi system that better approximates the cellular environment. 13 Additionally, SP cells can 

be more efficient at specialized modifications such as adding glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) 

anchors. 14 Using SP cells and RRL without dithiothreitol allows disulfide bond formation and 

efficient folding of proteins such as MHC class I heavy chain. 15 

Proteins can be associated with the membrane in a variety of ways. Integral membrane proteins 

span both leaflets of the phospholipid bilayer with one or more alpha helical transmembrane do‑ 

mains consisting of approximately 20 hydrophobic amino acids. Peripheral membrane proteins 

can be associated with a single membrane leaflet either by means of a fatty acid modification, such 

as prenylation, myristoylation, or a GPI anchor, or by association of a predominantly hydrophobic 

stretch of amino acids. Cell‑free translation systems such as RRL supplemented with microsomes 

or SP cells can provide information about how a particular protein associates with a membrane. For 

instance, treating isolated microsomes with sodium carbonate dissociates peripheral but not integral 

membrane proteins from microsomes or semipermeabilized cells. 16 Such treatment has been used 

to show that the glycoprotein GP4 produced by the equine arteritis virus is an integral membrane 

protein, while the GP3 protein, produced by the same virus, is membrane‑anchored. 17 

Protease Protection Assays 

Protease protection assays are often used to help determine membrane protein topology and 

orientation. Water‑soluble proteases cannot freely cross the lipid bilayer of microsomes, so segments 

of proteins that are in the lumen of the microsomes will not be subject to protease digestion unless 

the microsomes are first permeabilized. Assuming that the lumen of microsomes represents the

The Role of Cell-Free Rabbit Reticulocyte Expression Systems in Functional Proteomics 

lumen of the ER, the segments of proteins in the lumen of the microsomes become extracellular 

once a protein is inserted into the plasma membrane. 

Several studies have used protease protection assays to determine the topology of membrane 

proteins, including determining which of two proposed topologies is correct for cytochrome b 5. 18 In 

this study, failure of carboxypeptidase Y to remove C‑terminal labeled methionines of cytochrome 

b 5 suggests that the C‑terminus is inside the lumen of the ER and inaccessible to the protease. 18 

Often, the protease assay is performed on proteins translated in the presence of microsomes or 

SP cells. The microsomes are incubated with the protease with or without concomitant detergent 

solubilization, and protease fragments are compared between the solubilized or unsolubilized 

samples. Using a proteinase K protection assay of proteins translated in RRL supplemented with 

CMMs, Umigai et al 19 showed that the M2 domain of the K + channel Kir 2.1 is oriented with the 

C‑terminus toward the cytoplasm. A similar assay has been used to explore the effect of pathogenic 

mutations on the prion (PrP) protein. 14 In addition to determining topology of a particular protein, 

researchers can use protease assays to dissect the process of ER binding and translocation. 20 

Tagging Membrane Proteins to Determine Orientation 

Another strategy for determining membrane topology involves tagging a protein with an 

enzyme or epitope. Tagging is often used in conjunction with other studies such as glycosylation 

or protease assays to give a more complete picture of membrane topology. In one study, the 

C‑terminal end of each of several deletion mutants of Presenilin I was tagged with E. coli leader 

peptidase (LPase). Anti‑LPase antibody was able to immunoprecipitate in vitro translated protein 

from some but not all of the deletion mutants based on the location of the C‑terminus of the 

protein (either cytosolic or luminal). 21 C‑terminal and N‑terminal glycosylation tags have also 

been used in experiments to investigate the topology of vitamin K epoxide reductase. 22 

Glycosylation 

N‑Linked Glycosylation of Membrane and Secreted Proteins 

Glycosylation studies in RRL supplemented with CMMs or SP cells can provide information 

about membrane topology. Portions of proteins translocated into the lumen of microsomes or 

SP cells are exposed to enzymes responsible for core N‑linked glycosylation. N‑linked glyco‑ 

sylation acceptor sites can be inserted into the protein, at the N‑ or C‑terminus, for example. 

Any sugar residues that are added should be removed by the actions of glycosidases, such as 

endoglycosidase H, when microsomes containing the proteins are treated with detergents to 

allow the glycosidase access to the luminal portion of the protein. Such a strategy was used to 

determine the membrane topology of vitamin K epoxide reductase. 22 Zhang and Ling used sensi‑ 

tivity to peptide N‑glycosidase (PNGaseF) to determine whether an 18 kDa protease‑protected 

fragment from mouse P‑glycoprotein is glycosylated. 23 Additionally, carrying out translation 

in RRL supplemented with microsomes in the presence or absence of tunicamycin (a glycosyl‑ 

ation inhibitor) can allow comparison of glycosylated and unglycosylated forms of proteins 

produced in vitro. 24 

The membrane topology of polytopic proteins (proteins that span the membrane multiple 

times) can be especially difficult to predict. The Presenilin‑1 protein is a polytopic protein pre‑ 

dicted by hydrophobicity analysis to span the membrane from six to eight times. To determine 

membrane topology for Presenilin‑1, a series of C‑terminal deletions was made to remove predicted 

transmembrane regions of the protein. The truncated proteins were translated in vitro in the 

presence of microsomes. Endoglycosidase H sensitivity of protein from solubilized microsomes 

changed as deletions of the transmembrane domains altered the orientation of the protein in the 

membrane. 21 Combined with protease protection assays and epitope tag labeling at the C‑terminus, 

these glycosylation results supported a seven‑transmembrane domain structure with an additional 

membrane‑embedded domain for Presenilin‑1.


O‑linked Glycosylation of Cytosolic and Nuclear Proteins 

Secretory and membrane proteins are not the only proteins in the cell that are glycosylated. 

Many nuclear and cytosolic proteins are modified by O‑linked glycosylation (O‑GlcNAcylation). 25 

RRL contains the enzymes and substrates necessary for the O‑GlcNAcylation of proteins, 26 and 

addition of microsomes or SP cells provides the environment necessary for correct membrane‑ 

protein folding. To assess whether the insulin‑responsive glucose transporter GLUT4 undergoes 

O‑GlcNAcylation, GLUT4 cDNA was transcribed and translated in RRL supplemented with 

CMMs. 25 RRL was able to successfully modify GLUT4 protein. 25 

Lipid Modification and Acetylation of Proteins 

Glycosylphosphatidyl Inositol (GPI) Anchors 

Some proteins are anchored to the cell membrane by means of a glycosylphosphatidyl inositol 

(GPI) modification at the C‑terminus. 27 Unlike proteins incorporated into the membrane by a 

transmembrane domain, proteins that are GPI‑anchored are reversibly associated with the lipid 

bilayer. GPI anchoring does not appear to be necessary for cell survival, but it is necessary for 

development. 28 Proteins that are modified by the addition of a GPI anchor contain two signal 

sequences, one at the N‑terminus that directs protein synthesis to the ER and a second at the 

C‑terminus that directs the addition of the GPI‑anchor by a transamidase activity. 29 Small nucleo‑ 

philic compounds like hydrazine can substitute for GPI, providing a means to assess whether GPI 

modification has occurred by comparing the molecular weight of proteins translated in the presence 

or absence of hydrazine. 30 Human placental alkaline phosphatase (PLAP) is a GPI‑anchored pro‑ 

tein. 24 GPI‑anchored mini‑PLAP has been generated by numerous groups using nuclease‑treated 

RRL supplemented with microsomal membranes from CHO, F9, EL4 or K562 cells, 24,28,29,31‑33 

demonstrating that GPI modification can be reconstituted in a cell‑free system. 

Prenylation 

Some proteins are modified by prenylation, the attachment of one or more isoprenoid groups, 

such as the 15‑carbon farnesyl group or the 20‑carbon geranylgeranyl group, to a cysteine residue. 

Prenylation can mediate membrane association of some proteins, particularly the Ras‑like GTPases, 

and protein‑protein interactions (e.g., nuclear lamins). 34 Prenylated proteins can be produced 

and detected in RRL supplemented with the labeled isoprenoid precursor mevalonic acid after 

the translation reaction is complete; additionally proteins synthesized in RRL can be modified 

using photoactivatable analogs of isoprenoids. 35‑37 Gel‑based assays to detect changes in protein 

migration as a result of prenylation are also used, but these are indirect assays and are usually 

performed along with a labeling experiment. Most prenylation assays require autoradiography 

of the labeled lysate, which can take weeks or months. Benetka and colleagues have developed 

an in vitro prenylation assay using N‑terminal GST‑tagged proteins and detection of 3 H‑labeled 

precursors using a TLC linear analyzer. 38 The incorporation of the GST tag allows the labeled 

protein of interest to be separated from free radioactive label and other proteins in the RRL, and 

using the TLC scanner to detect the incorporated lipid molecule significantly reduces the time 

required to obtain results. 

N‑Myristoylation and Palmitoylation 

Many proteins in eukaryotic cells are subject to N‑myristoylation, the addition of a 14‑ 

carbon fatty acid to the N‑terminus. 39 In addition to being prenylated, the alpha subunits of 

some G‑proteins, including pp60 src and p21 ras , are myristoylated. Other G‑protein alpha subunits, 

including some of the G s and G q subunits, are not myristoylated, but are instead modified by the 

attachment of a 16‑carbon palmitic acid (palmitoylation), and others are both myristoylated and 

palmitoylated. Some studies suggest that N‑myristolyation and palmitoylation contribute to the 

membrane association of these proteins. 40‑42 N‑myristoylation can occur cotranslationally, imme‑ 

diately after the removal of the N‑terminal methionine from a protein or even post‑translationally 

as with the protein BID (BCL‑2 interacting domain), a substrate of caspase‑8. 39,43 Upon cleavage


by caspase‑8, BID reveals an N‑myristoylation site. RRL contains the components necessary 

to complete N‑myristoylation, and has even been used to myristoylate tumor necrosis factor, a 

normally nonmyristoylated protein, when it is modified to contain the N‑myristolyation motif 

of other myristoylated proteins. 44,45 The Arabidopsis SOS3 protein involved in plant salt tolerance 

has also been synthesized and myristoylated in an RRL system. 46 

N‑Acetylation 

A majority (70–85%) of the proteins found in the cytoplasm or nucleus of eukaryotes may be 

modified by N‑acetylation. 47,48 Examples of N‑acetylated proteins include ovalbumin, actin and 

cytochrome c. Acetylation is catalyzed by N‑acetyltransferases cotranslationally after the initiator 

methionine has been cleaved. 48 Many proteins are also acetylated post‑translationally at internal 

sites by acetyltransferase enzymes different from those involved in cotranslational modification. 48 

Acetylation of modified tumor necrosis factor (TNF) has been demonstrated in RRL, 47 and acety‑ 

lation in RRL can be inhibited by the use of S‑acetonyl‑CoA, an analog of acetyl‑CoA. 49 

Reconstituting ER‑Associated Protein Degradation 

Conditions such as environmental stress, viral infection and the absence of required partner 

proteins can result in the accumulation of aberrantly folded proteins in the rough endoplasmic 

reticulum (RER). The RER has a “quality control” system that targets these misfolded proteins 

for degradation. This process, ER‑Associated Degradation (ERAD), requires ATP and is distinct 

from the lysosomal degradation pathway in cells. 50 

RRL in conjunction with CMMs or SP cells has been used to reconstitute ERAD activity. 

RRL has several advantages over intact‑cell systems for such study. The protein of interest will be 

the only protein labeled in the RRL, making its degradation easy to follow. 51 Second, a variety 

of microsomal membranes can be used with RRL to reconstitute the activity. 15,51 Because hemin 

inhibits the proteasome activity of ERAD, degradation studies are best performed in RRL that 

does not contain exogenous hemin. Researchers have reported that RRL that works well for studies 

of degradation is usually poor for translation. 51 Additionally, since ERAD is ATP‑dependent, the 

RRL will need to be supplemented with ATP and an ATP regeneration system, 51 and some authors 

report that excess unlabeled methionine seems to aid in reconstituting ERAD activity. 52 

RRL‑based protein degradation systems have been used to investigate the synthesis, stability 

and degradation of a variety of wild type and mutant proteins. In one such study, tyrosinase 

ERAD was reconstituted in a commercially available RRL system supplemented with an ATP 

regeneration system. 53 Wild type and mutant tyrosinase associated with albinism were translated 

in the presence of SP melanocytes; the SP cells were isolated and then resuspended in RRL 

with the ATP regeneration system. Both proteins were degraded, although the mutant protein 

degraded at a higher rate than the wild type protein. RRL‑based and rat cytosol‑based degra‑ 

dation systems have also been used to investigate the degradation of Apoprotein B (apoB). 54 

Aliquots of the transcription/translation reaction of HA‑tagged apoB were incubated in the 

presence of an ATP regeneration system in fresh RRL or rat hepatocyte cytosol with or without 

proteasome inhibitors. Inhibition of apoB degradation was more obvious in the rat hepatocyte 

cytosol, presumably because RRL contains factors that interfere with the proteasome inhibitors. 

To assess the role of the chaperone protein, hsp90, in the degradation of apoB48, geldanamycin 

(GA), an antibiotic that competes for the ATP binding site on hsp90, was added to pelleted 

CMMs before the degradation assay. There was no significant decrease in the amount of apoB48 

in the presence of GA, indicating that GA did inhibit degradation and hsp90 was required for 

apoB48 degradation. 54 

RRL has been used to reconstitute the degradation of α 1‑antitrypsin Z [(α 1AT)Z]. 52 Individuals 

who are homozygous recessive for a mutation resulting in a Glu 342 to Lys substitution have increased 

susceptibility to liver disease. 52 The amino acid substitution disrupts proper folding of (α 1AT)Z, 

and individuals susceptible to the liver disease are not able to degrade the misfolded protein effi‑ 

ciently. Mutant and wild type (α 1AT)Z degradation were examined using an RRL degradation assay 

system. The mutant (α 1AT)Z was degraded efficiently. Mutant protein produced in the presence 

15, 51


of salt‑washed or puromycin‑treated, salt‑washed microsomes was also degraded, indicating that 

the full complement of RER proteins was not required for degradation. 52 

Several mechanisms have been suggested to control the targeting of proteins accumulated in 

the ER for degradation, including regulating the trimming of N‑linked oligosaccharide chains. 

Oligosaccharide side chains can be modified by mannosidase I in the ER. Inhibiting this activity 

seems to stabilize misfolded proteins. 15 Wild type MHC class I heavy chain and a mutant heavy 

chain that lacks the N‑linked glycosylation site but that can assemble into functional MHC class I 

molecules were translated in RRL in the presence of SP HT1080 cells. 15 The wild type protein was 

degraded more quickly than the mutant, indicating that glycosylation is important for ERAD. 

In Vitro Viral Assembly 

The ability to reconstitute cotranslational assembly events and protein interactions using 

cell‑free RRL systems can be extended to the study of in vitro mammalian viral protein assembly, 

viral protein interactions with other cellular components, and viral protein effects on translation. 

Early studies of viral protein assembly demonstrated that capsid proteins expressed in RRL were 

capable of self‑assembling in vitro. For example, adenovirus type 2 fiber protein synthesized in 

RRL formed trimers without requiring additional viral proteins or components. 55 From this 

relatively well‑defined, single‑protein model, more complex viral protein interactions and as‑ 

sembly studies evolved. Human papillomavirus‑like particles have been assembled in vitro from 

L1 capsid protein expression in RRL. 56 These particles also mimicked endogenous virus in its 

conformational epitope exposure, and antibodies generated against the in vitro‑assembled L1 

particles were effective in recognizing similar epitopes in patient samples. In addition to human 

papillomavirus, human hepatitis C (HCV) core viral capsid precursor structures were also gen‑ 

erated de novo in reticulocyte lysates. 57 Cell‑free systems have allowed detailed examination of 

HCV core capsid assembly processes and properties, whereas mammalian culture systems have 

been limited by low viral titers. 

In vitro expression of Gag precursor proteins in RRL has allowed detailed examination of the 

more complex pathway for retroviral assembly, which includes not only protein interactions, but 

also plasma membrane interactions and budding. Viral capsid structures of immunodeficiency 

virus type 1 (HIV‑1) have been assembled from the Gag precursor protein p55 gag expressed in 

RRL, and these particles resembled immature HIV‑1 viral structures. 58 Additional processing of 

proteins in viral capsids can include prenylation and glycosylation. Myristoylation of HIV‑1 viral 

particles 59 and glycosylation of woodchuck hepatitis virus capsid proteins 60 have been investigated 

using cell‑free RRL systems. These results illustrate the importance of cell‑free protein expression 

in delineating processes involved in viral particle assembly pathways. 

Protein Microarray Technology 

In the field of functional proteomics, protein microarrays are filling a niche for miniaturization 

coupled with high‑throughput assay capability. 61,62 Protein microarray concepts are patterned after 

DNA microarrays, but immobilization of diverse types of proteins in a manner that preserves con‑ 

formation and functionality is a complex and challenging problem to solve. Continuing advances 

in microarray surface chemistries coupled with improvements in protein production capabilities, 

sensitive detection methods, and instrumentation are accelerating the pace of development for 

protein microarrays. Microarray formats include printing proteins at high density on a glass slides 

or other solid surfaces, using miniaturized reaction chambers adapted for slides, and assaying 

samples in multiwell plates. 

Currently two general types of protein microarray applications are being pursued: antibody‑ or 

peptide‑based arrays and functional protein arrays. Antibody‑ or peptide‑based arrays bind pro‑ 

teins of interest in given samples, such as serum, and can provide information about the amount 

and specificity for binding of such proteins. This is referred to as protein profiling. The search 

for disease biomarkers for diagnostic purposes and drug screening capabilities drives many of 

the innovations for these types of arrays. Another strategy is to use protein microarray formats


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to interrogate and carefully perturb protein functions such as protein‑protein, protein‑nucleic 

acid or protein‑small molecule interactions, as well as protein enzyme activities. Cell‑free protein 

expression systems, such as RRL, are well suited to supply the functional proteins required for 

these types of protein microarrays. Cell‑free protein expression in RRL is versatile and allows 

incorporation of specific moieties into the protein sequence for immobilization or detection 

strategies, as well as post‑translational modifications, in an automatable manner. 

Early proof‑of‑principle for use of RRL in combination with a multiwell array‑type format was 

demonstrated by He and Taussig in 2001, 63,64 and named “PISA” (Protein In Situ Array). Proteins 

with double (His)6 tags were expressed directly from DNA templates with RRL in each well, and 

the expressed proteins were immobilized by the (His)6 tag to nickel‑coated surfaces. Expression 

and immobilization of functional proteins were demonstrated by enzymatic activity of a cloned 

(His)6 tagged‑luciferase and a tagged‑single chain antibody fusion that bound its corresponding 

antigen, progesterone. Microwells offer an advantage of maintaining aqueous reaction conditions 

that are compatible with native protein conformation, compared to more harsh conditions pres‑ 

ent on a spotted glass slide. Expression of tagged protein expressed in cell‑free extracts eliminates 

laborious protein purification schemes (Fig. 1).


Oleinikov et al 65 describe a variation on protein arrays based on expression of protein from 

RRL with concomitant immobilization. This strategy exploits features of electronic semicon‑ 

ductor microchips for protein binding and detection. A second variation of protein arrays takes 

advantage of the stability of immobilized DNA in microarrays, protein expression and spatially 

defined protein capture. 66 This approach, named NAPPA (nucleic acid programmable protein 

array) involves generating protein in situ with a coupled transcription/translation RRL layered 

onto slides printed with a mixture of biotinylated DNA, avidin and polyclonal GST antibody. 

Target proteins are expressed from template DNA encoding a C‑terminal GST fusion tag and 

then the fusion proteins are spatially bound to the GST antibody. The target proteins are detected 

using a monoclonal antibody to GST. 

Protein Interaction with Other Molecules 

Cell‑free RRL has been used to examine numerous protein‑protein, 70 protein‑DNA, 71,72 and 

protein‑RNA interactions 73‑75 via immunoprecitation 67,74‑76 and tagged protein pull‑down. 68,70,72 

Confirmation of protein‑protein interactions in vitro often includes expression of target proteins 

in RRL and pull‑down with a tagged protein, such as GST‑tagged protein, which is bound to 

a solid support. These types of GST‑pull‑down experiments have been used to confirm spe‑ 

cific interactions of protein involved in signal transduction, 77,78 transcription regulation, 79‑81 ion 

channels 82 and splicesosomes. 83 Reconstitution studies can be performed in which expressed pro‑ 

teins form a complex in cell‑free RRL and give a measurable biochemical response that mimics 

an in vivo response. One interesting recent example is the demonstration that p43, a telomerase 

accessory protein, can affect the in vitro nucleotide addition activity and processivity of the con‑ 

served core consisting of the protein telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) and the telomerase 

RNA subunit. The resulting reconstituted ternary complex [TERT•RNA•p43] was identified and 

examined by immunoprecipitation in coupled transcription/translation in RRL. 76 

Another interesting example of protein‑RNA interaction in RRL involved the depletion 

of the internal ribosome entry site (IRES)‑interacting protein of the RRL by the immobilized 

foot‑and‑mouth virus (FMDV)‑IRES. 84 The effect of the depleted lysate was assessed by transla‑ 

tion efficiency of transcripts that were either capped or had FMDV IRES in the sense or antisense 

orientation. This procedure should be useful for analysis of protein‑RNA interactions and their 

role in IRES‑dependent translation. 

Cell‑free translations in RRL can also provide information about protein‑protein interactions. 

Translation in RRL with microsomal membranes and immunoprecipitations have helped to 

elucidate the mechanism of activation of the endogenous p21‑activated kinase 2 (PAK‑2) by Nef 

proteins that are encoded by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and simian immunodeficiency 

virus (SIV) in vitro. 67 The cell‑free system allows further investigation of the molecular mechanism 

of activation because the timing and order of component additions can be easily controlled. 

Protein interactions that involve ribosome‑associated chaperones (cotranslational folding 

and targeting) and post‑translational interactions have also been explored using RRL. 68‑70 During 

cotranslational folding the nascent chains interact with chaperones such as the 70‑kD heat shock 

protein cognate (Hsc‑70) and nascent polypeptide‑associated complex (NAC) 68,85 and chapero‑ 

nins such as the Tailless complex polypeptide 1 (TCP1) ring complex (TRiC). 61,87 Recently the 

interaction of the TRiC with the nascent polypeptide chain as it emerges from the ribosome was 

demonstrated using photoreactive N ε ‑(5‑azido‑2‑nitrobenzoyl)‑Lys‑tRNA lys along with translation 

of truncated actin in the RRL. Post‑translation interactions of chaperones have been investigated 

using mutagenesis and immunoprecipitation from RRL after the expression of protein kinases. 

These studies showed that phosphorylation of Ser 12 of the Hsp‑90 cochaperone Cdc37 is critical 

for its interaction with eukaryotic protein kinases and Hsp‑90. 70 

Historically, protein‑DNA interactions have been identified via mobility shift assays 71,72 in 

which the DNA binding activity of proteins expressed in RRL are visualized by a shift of molecular 

weight on native polyacrylamide gels. Human biliverdin reductase (hBVR) is a serine/threonine 

kinase that catalyzes the reduction of biliverdin to bilirubin in response to oxidative stress. Using


hBVR and hBVR mutants that were translated in RRL and analyzed using a mobility shift assay, 

hBVR was found to bind to specific DNA sequences. 71 

Display Technologies 

Cell‑free display technologies, such as ribosome display, 86‑91 mRNA display 92‑94 or in vitro virus 

(IVV), 95 and in vitro compartmentalization (IVC) 96 are powerful technologies that can be used 

to identify protein‑target molecule interactions and for directed evolution of proteins for desired 

improvements. These technologies rely on coupled transcription/translation or translation using 

RRL or other sources of lysates. Cell‑free display technologies have advantages over cell‑based 

display technologies such as phage display, 97 and cell surface display on bacteria 98 or yeast. 99 The 

cell‑based display systems have limited library diversity because of transfection inefficiencies, the 

inability to specify incorporation of nonnatural amino acids via amber suppressor tRNAs and bias 

against cytotoxic proteins. Display technologies rely on coupling genotype (mRNA) to phenotype 

(protein) to retrieve the genetic information along with protein function. 

Eukaryotic Ribosome Display 

Eukaryotic ribosome display is an entirely cell‑free technology that screens and selects 

functional proteins and peptides from large libraries. For ribosome display, the link between 

genotype and phenotype is accomplished by an mRNA‑ribosome‑protein (PRM) complex that 

is stable under controlled conditions. The eukaryotic method of ribosome display using RRL for 

coupled transcription/translation has been used to display single‑chain antibodies to form an 

antibody‑ribosome‑mRNA (ARM) complex. 87,88,91 The function of the single‑chain antibody is 

evaluated by its binding properties to an immobilized antigen. The function of other non‑antibody 

proteins can be evaluated by using a different immobilized target, such as a partner protein, ligand 

or substrate, to capture the relevant PRM complexes. The mRNA that is complexed with the 

protein can then be amplified by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT‑PCR) and 

recovered as DNA. If screening and selection is the goal, then proofreading DNA polymerases 

are necessary; however, if evolution or diversification of the DNA sequence pool is required, then 

a nonproofreading polymerase such as Taq DNA polymerase is used. The major distinguishing 

feature between eukaryotic ribosome display and prokaryotic ribosome display 86,90 is that in 

eukaryotic ribosome display, the RT‑PCR is carried out on the intact PRM complexes rather than 

on mRNA that has been released from PRM complex. 

Eukaryotic ribosome display has been used to select the enzyme, sialyltransferase II, from 

a cDNA library in a 96‑well plate coated with the substrate, ganglioside GM3. 100 Coupled 

transcription/translation in an RRL expression system from the cDNA library resulted in an 

enzyme‑specific protein‑ribosome‑mRNA (PRIME) complex. A recently described modification 

of eukaryotic ribosome display incorporates Qβ RNA‑dependent RNA polymerase into the display 

and selection process. 101 This allows a continuous in vitro evolution (Fig. 2). The cell‑free RRL 

is used in the coupled transcription/translation mode to generate mRNA and then protein. The 

Qβ RNA‑dependent RNA polymerase mutates the generated mRNA and thus the simultaneous 

display of the protein generated from the original mRNA. The ribosome ternary complexes display 

the synthesized proteins/single chain antibodies and are selected against immobilized antigens. 

For the selection process, the displayed wild type and mutants are competing for the target. The 

recovery of the mRNA is the same as in ARM display. 

Recently, improvements have been developed for eukaryotic ribosome display that allow 

20.8‑fold more efficient selection 102 than current methods, making ribosome display a readily 

accessible technique for all researchers. 

mRNA Display or in Vitro Virus 

A different approach to the selection and identification of functional proteins is mRNA dis‑ 

play, also called in vitro virus, 95 a technique that uses the cell‑free RRL translation system to link 

a peptide or protein covalently to its encoding mRNA. 92‑94 The mRNA has a puromycin‑tagged 

DNA linker ligated or photo‑crosslinked to the 3´‑terminus. 103 The ribosome will stall when

10 Cell-Free Expression 

Figure 2. The proposed �ontinuous in �itro e�o�ution (CIV�) �y��e. The �oup�ed tr�ns�ription/tr�ns- 

��tion syste� with in��usion of Qβ rep�i��se. This produ�es � pro�ess in whi�h�� in the re��tion 

�ix�� NAs �re tr�ns�ri�ed fro� the �NA te�p��te �y T7 po�y�er�se�� rep�i��ted �nd �ut�ted 

�y the Qβ rep�i��se�� tr�ns��ted �nd disp��yed on the surf��e of the ri�oso�es. In se�e�ting �g�inst 

� t�rget�� the disp��yed wi�d type �nd �ut�nt �re �o�peting for the t�rget. �eprinted fro�: Ir�ing 

�A et �� J I��uno� Meth 248:31-45; ©2001 with per�ission fro� ��se�ier. 101 

it reaches the mRNA‑DNA junction, and puromycin enters the ribosomal A‑site. The nascent 

peptide is coupled to the puromycin by the peptidyl‑transferase. The complex of peptide‑ 

puromycin‑DNA linker‑mRNA is dissociated from the ribosome and can then be used for selec‑ 

tion and identification of functional protein (Fig. 3). mRNA display or IVV in combination with 

in vitro selection are powerful tools for evolving and discovering new functional proteins. mRNA 

display of a random peptide library has been used to determine the epitope‑like consensus motifs 

that define the determinants for binding of the anti‑c‑Myc antibody. 104 Recently, a method has 

been described for mRNA display using a unidirectional nested deletion library. 105 The method 

identified high‑affinity, epitope‑like peptides for an anti‑polyhistidine monoclonal antibody and 

should be useful for determining minimal binding domains and novel protein‑protein interactions. 

Also, mRNA display can be used to select mRNA templates capable of efficiently incorporating 

the nonnatural amino acid, biotinyl‑lysine, a lysine derivatized at the epsilon amino via amide 

linkage to biotin. 106 To generate the mRNA‑peptide fusions, the template library and the tRNA 

pools are added to RRL for translation. The mRNA‑peptide fusions contain a mixture of peptides, 

some of which contain the biotinyl‑lysine. Those that contain biotinyl‑lysine can be purified by 

binding to streptavidin‑agarose. 

In Vitro Compartmentalization 

In vitro compartmentalization (IVC) links genotype and phenotype by compartmentalization 

into discrete water‑in‑oil emulsions. 96 Until recently, IVC has mainly been used in conjunction


Figure 3. �rotein:�NA fusion. Co��ent �NA:protein �o�p�exes ��n �e gener�ted �y �ig�tion 

of � �NA:puro�y�in �inker to the in �itro tr�ns�ri�ed ��NA. The ri�oso�e st��s �t the 

�NA:�NA jun�tion. �uro�y�in then �inds to the ri�oso�� A site. The n�s�ent po�ypeptide 

is there�y tr�nsferred to puro�y�in. The resu�ting �o��ent�y �inked �o�p�ex ��n �e used 

for se�e�tion experi�ents. �eprinted fro�: S�h�ffitze� C et �� J I��uno� Meth 231:119-135; 

©1999 with per�ission fro� ��se�ier. 90 

with prokaryotic coupled transcription and translation (E. coli S30 extract) for selection of peptide 

ligands 107‑109 and directed evolution of Taq DNA polymerase, 110 bacterial phosphotriesterase 111 and 

DNA methyltransferase. 112 However, IVC has been used in conjunction with coupled transcrip‑ 

tion/translation in RRL to select active restriction enzymes from a randomized large (10 9 –10 10 

molecules) mutant Fok I library. 103 Use of RRL in this way is made possible by a new inert emulsion 

formulation that is compatible with coupled transcription/translation, 114 allowing an expanded 

range of vertebrate protein targets that may be difficult to express as soluble and functional in S30 

(bacterial) or wheat germ lysates. 

Screening 

In Vitro Expression Cloning (IVEC) 

IVEC 115,116 is another approach that uses RRL for coupled transcription/translation to identify 

genes and elucidate protein interactions with other molecules. Using this method cDNAs or small 

plasmid pools (50–100 clones) are expressed and then assayed for a specific function. Plasmids from 

the positive pools are further deconvoluted and rescreened (Fig. 4). The process is repeated until a 

single positive plasmid has been identified. IVEC is only successful if the specific function assayed 

can be distinguished from the endogenous activity in cell‑free RRL. IVEC has been successfully 

used to identify protein substrates, 117‑120 protein‑protein interactions, 121,122 enzymatic activity, 123‑125 

protein‑DNA interactions, 126 and phospholipid‑protein interactions. 136 

11


Figure 4. The str�tegy of in �itro expression ��oning. An un��p�ified ��NA expression �i�r�ry 

is p��ted �t � density of �pproxi��te�y 100 ��ones per ��teri�� p��te. �oo�ed p��s�id �NA 

is o�t�ined �y s�r�ping �o�onies fro� e��h p��te �nd perfor�ing � s��-s��e p��s�id 

purifi��tion. ��h p��s�id poo� is then tr�ns�ri�ed �nd tr�ns��ted in �itro with � �o��er�i��y 

��i��e syste�� su�h �s the TnT ® Coup�ed Tr�ns�ription/Tr�ns��tion Syste�s fro� �ro�eg� 

Corpor�tion. The resu�ting protein poo� is then �ss�yed for the presen�e of �n ��ti�ity. In 

the i��ustr�ted experi�ent�� r�dio��ti�e ��ino ��id is in��uded in the tr�ns��tion syste� to 

spe�ifi��y ��e� the poo� of proteins. In�u��tion of � poo� with � �odifying enzy�e (��nes 

��e�ed +) su�h �s � prote�se or kin�se ��n resu�t in � �h�nge in �o�i�ity of � su�str�te (��nds 

��rked with �sterisk). �oo� 1 �ont�ins � protein whose �o�i�ity is redu�ed fo��owing tre�t�ent 

with � kin�se; �oo� 2 �ont�ins � protein th�t is degr�ded fo��owing tre�t�ent with �n extr��t 

�ont�ining �n ��ti��ted proteo�yti� syste�; �oo� 3 �ont�ins � protein th�t is spe�ifi��y ��e��ed 

fo��owing tre�t�ent with � prote�se�� de�re�sing its �pp�rent �o�e�u��r ��ss. On�e � poo� 

�ont�ining � ��ndid�te ��ti�ity is identified�� the origin�� NA poo� is su�di�ided �nd retested 

unti� the sing�e ��NA en�oding the protein of interest is iso��ted. �eprinted with per�ission 

fro�: King �W et �� S�ien�e 277:973; ©1997 AAAS. 115


Protein Truncation Test 

The protein truncation test (PTT) is a mutation detection technique that specifically identifies 

pathogenic premature termination codons and has the advantage of not detecting polymorphisms. 

Using extracted RNA, the coding region is screened for truncated mutations. The RNA is subjected 

to RT‑PCR such that the cDNA product contains a T7 promoter. The cDNA is subjected to 

coupled transcription/translation in cell‑free RRL, and the translated products are analyzed on gels 

to identify the truncated proteins. The PTT has been applied to screening for many clinical condi‑ 

tions including hereditary breast and ovarian cancer (BRCA I and BRCA II), 128 colorectal cancer 

(APC), 129 Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD), 130 and neurofibromatosis type I (NFI). 131 

Other Screening 

An approach to screening that uses cell‑free RRL and site‑directed mutagenesis to identify 

elements critical for protein N‑myristoylation 132 has recently been described. Sequential vertical‑ 

scanning mutagenesis in the N‑terminal region of tumor necrosis factor (TNF), followed by 

cotranslation N‑myristoylation in RRL revealed the major sequence requirements for protein 

N‑myristoylation. RRL has also been used to functionally screen a randomly mutagenized 

phage library. 133 In this example, critical amino acids in the protein C1 were identified that were 

responsible for binding RNA. Other amino acids were identified that were important for protein 

oligomerization. Protein C1 is a member of the heterogeneous ribonucleoproteins that bind 

nascent RNA transcripts. 

Screens that use cell‑free RRL have also been developed to identify small‑molecule inhibitors 

of translation. 134 Numerous reports have implicated alternative translation initiation controls 

occurring in cancer cells, 135‑139 and small‑molecule inhibitors may provide tools for determining 

the molecular mechanism of this alternative regulation. A high‑throughput screen was designed 

to identify small‑molecule inhibitors of eukaryotic translation as well as inhibitors that interact at 

the mRNA‑ribosome level to inhibit gene‑specific translation. This multiplex in vitro translation 

was used to screen over 900,000 distinct compounds identified novel inhibitors. 134 A secondary 

high‑throughput eukaryotic translation screen to discover broad spectrum antibacterial com‑ 

pounds has also been used to assess the biochemical selectivity of the compounds for prokaryotic 

translation. 140 

Another screen using RRL is a PCR‑based rapid detection screen for pyrazinamide 

(PZA)‑resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis. 141 After amplification of the pncA gene and coupled 

transcription/translation of the PCR product, the activity of the enzyme pyrazinamidase is 

measured by the conversion of PZA to pyrazinoic acid. Other PCR‑based coupled transcrip‑ 

tion/translation methods for rapid phenotypic screening have also been developed, including 

screening of the thymidine kinase gene for monitoring acyclovir resistant herpes simplex virus 

and varicella‑zoster virus. 142 

Conclusions 

Cell‑free RRL plays an important role in functional proteomics, whether the protein is destined 

for the ER, modification, degradation, or forms a complex with DNA, RNA and other proteins. 

RRL provides a mammalian environment for elucidating quasi‑cellular mechanisms and can be 

easily manipulated by depleting or adding protein, tRNA or membranes to provide the desired 

environment so that the function of a protein or proteins can be studied. Additionally, cell‑free 

RRL is proving to be a useful tool for high‑throughput protein synthesis in protein microarrays 

and other screening situations. 

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