Expletive ele in European Portuguese Dialects - CLUL ...
Expletive ele in European Portuguese Dialects - CLUL ...
Expletive ele in European Portuguese Dialects - CLUL ...
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EXPLETIVE ELE<br />
IN<br />
EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS
UNIVERSIDADE DE LISBOA<br />
FACULDADE DE LETRAS<br />
DEPARTAMENTO DE LINGUÍSTICA GERAL E ROMÂNICA<br />
EXPLETIVE ELE<br />
IN<br />
EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
Ernest<strong>in</strong>a Carrilho<br />
Tese orientada por:<br />
Ana Maria Mart<strong>in</strong>s<br />
Knut Tarald Taraldsen<br />
DOUTORAMENTO EM LINGUÍSTICA<br />
(L<strong>in</strong>guística Portuguesa)<br />
2005
Quel que soit le po<strong>in</strong>t de vue auquel nous considérons la<br />
dialectologie, elle a une grande importance. En premier lieu,<br />
elle sert à la glottologie générale, parce que, comme les<br />
dialectes ont un développement plus libre et plus spontané que la<br />
langue des lettrés […] on y peut plus facilement surprendre<br />
l’action des forces vives du langage.<br />
José Leite de Vasconcellos, Esquisse d’une dialectologie portugaise.<br />
Nunca pude compreender bem a que propósito viria o nome<br />
expletivo, talvez por me ater muito à significação lat<strong>in</strong>a EXPLERE,<br />
encher. Se a oração já está plena, como é que a<strong>in</strong>da vem mais<br />
enchimento? [...] Hoje que a ciência da l<strong>in</strong>guagem <strong>in</strong>vestiga os fatos<br />
sem deixar-se pear por antigos preconceitos, já não podemos levar<br />
essas expressões à conta de superfluidades nem a<strong>in</strong>da atribuir-lhes<br />
papel decorativo, o que seria contra-senso [nota omitida, EC], uma<br />
vez que rareiam no discurso eloqüente e retórico e se usam a cada<br />
<strong>in</strong>stante justamente no falar desataviado de todos os dias.<br />
Manuel de Said Ali, Meios de Expressão e Alterações Semânticas.
Table of Contents<br />
Abstract xi<br />
Resumo (Summary <strong>in</strong> <strong>Portuguese</strong>) xiii<br />
Acknowledgements xxi<br />
1. INTRODUCTION 1<br />
2. EXPLETIVES, SUBJECTS AND BEYOND<br />
2.0 Introduction 9<br />
2.1 On the notion ‘expletive’ 10<br />
2.2 Pure expletives and their associates 18<br />
2.3 Non-overt expletives 21<br />
2.4 Exceptional overt expletives 26<br />
2.4.1 Some data 26<br />
2.4.2 A V2 requirement <strong>in</strong> Icelandic 33<br />
2.4.2.1 Platzack 1998: það satisfies a visibility condition on C 35<br />
2.4.2.2 Holmberg 2000c: það checks a P-feature of C 38<br />
2.4.3 A topic expletive <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish 39<br />
2.4.4 A peripheral expletive <strong>in</strong> Romance 45<br />
2.4.4.1 FP and overt expletives 46<br />
2.4.4.2 <strong>Expletive</strong>s as evidentiality markers (Uriagereka 2004) 48<br />
2.4.4.3 <strong>Expletive</strong>s and multiple specs <strong>in</strong> C (Silva-Villar 1998) 51<br />
9
3. ON DIALECT SYNTAX: METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES 59<br />
3.0 Introduction 59<br />
3.1 On the study of non-standard syntax 59<br />
3.2 The problem of data collection 65<br />
3.3 This study: methodological options 74<br />
4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA 77<br />
4.0 Introduction 77<br />
4.1 Sources 78<br />
4.2 The distribution of expletive <strong>ele</strong> 81<br />
4.2.1 Subject-like expletive <strong>in</strong> impersonal contexts 84<br />
4.2.1.1 Semantically impersonal predicates 85<br />
i. Natural predicates 85<br />
ii. Existential verbs 86<br />
iii. The verb ser ‘to be’ 90<br />
iv. Other impersonal verbs 92<br />
4.2.1.2 Clausal subject extraposition 94<br />
4.2.1.3 Presentative constructions 95<br />
i. Small clause complements and unaccusative verbs 96<br />
ii. Other verbs 101<br />
4.2.1.4 Subject wh-extraction contexts 101<br />
4.2.1.5 Summary 103<br />
4.2.2 Peripheral expletive 105<br />
4.2.2.1 Peripheral to the subject 106<br />
4.2.2.2 Peripheral <strong>in</strong> syntactically impersonal constructions 116<br />
i. Third plural arbitrary null subject 116<br />
ii. Impersonal se 118<br />
4.2.2.3 Before preverbal adverbials 120<br />
4.2.2.4 Before other peripheral constituents 125<br />
i. Topics 125<br />
ii. Clefts 129<br />
iii. Affective Phrases 130<br />
iv. Dislocated wh-phrases 131
4.2.2.5 In imperative sentences 132<br />
4.2.2.6 In (negative) answers to yes-no questions 133<br />
4.2.2.7 In question-tag 134<br />
4.2.2.8 Before an <strong>in</strong>dependent phrase 135<br />
4.2.2.9 In isolation 138<br />
4.2.2.10 Summary 139<br />
4.2.3 Postverbal expletive 141<br />
4.2.3.1 Verb <strong>in</strong>itial contexts 143<br />
4.2.3.2 Preverbal subject contexts 146<br />
4.2.3.3 Preverbal XP constexts 148<br />
4.2.3.4 Summary 151<br />
4.2.4 Geographical spread 150<br />
4.3 Comparative data: expletive demonstrative pronouns and expletive <strong>ele</strong> 157<br />
4.3.1 The distribution of “expletive” demonstratives: impersonal and<br />
peripheral contexts<br />
4.3.1.1 Impersonal contexts 158<br />
4.3.1.2 Peripheral contexts 159<br />
4.3.2 Demonstratives and the postverbal position 162<br />
4.3.3 Summary 164<br />
4.4 On the discourse functions of expletive <strong>ele</strong> 165<br />
4.5 Summary 177<br />
5. EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE SYNTAX 179<br />
5.0 Introduction 179<br />
5.1 The peripheral hypothesis revisited 181<br />
5.2 The expletive and the left periphery 186<br />
5.2.1 The postverbal expletive is peripheral to IP 186<br />
5.2.2 Two different peripheral positions for expletive <strong>ele</strong> 193<br />
5.3 The expletive and [Spec, IP] 209<br />
5.4 On the phrasal status of expletive <strong>ele</strong> 220<br />
5.5 Peripheral positions for expletive <strong>ele</strong> 223<br />
5.5.1 Prelim<strong>in</strong>aries 223<br />
5.5.2 Views on the left periphery 227<br />
157
5.5.3 The high position of peripheral expletive <strong>ele</strong> 236<br />
5.5.4 The low peripheral position of peripheral <strong>ele</strong> 246<br />
6. CONCLUSION 251<br />
APPENDIX 265<br />
REFERENCES 389
ABSTRACT<br />
This dissertation <strong>in</strong>vestigates the status of expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> non-standard <strong>European</strong><br />
<strong>Portuguese</strong> (EP). More specifically, it is concerned with the syntax of constructions<br />
<strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g expletive <strong>ele</strong>, whose properties it attempts to expla<strong>in</strong>, both at the syntactic and at<br />
the discourse levels. The aim of this <strong>in</strong>vestigation is twofold: (i) to provide a<br />
comprehensive account of overt expletive constructions <strong>in</strong> EP; (ii) to contribute to a better<br />
understand<strong>in</strong>g of the status and function of expletives <strong>in</strong> natural languages <strong>in</strong> general. The<br />
research is developed with<strong>in</strong> the Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples and Parameters framework of generative syntax<br />
(Chomsky 1981) under its m<strong>in</strong>imalist version (Chomsky 1993, 1995 and subsequent<br />
work). The empirical support for this work has been drawn from the Syntactically<br />
Annotated Corpus of <strong>Portuguese</strong> <strong>Dialects</strong> (CORDIAL-SIN) developed at Centro de<br />
L<strong>in</strong>guística da Universidade de Lisboa.<br />
Although it is usually assumed that Null Subject Languages (NSLs) like EP lack<br />
overt subject expletives, expletive <strong>ele</strong> has been traditionally analyzed as an expletive<br />
subject similar to those occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Non Null Subject Languages. This dissertation,<br />
however, explores and consolidates recent ideas relat<strong>in</strong>g certa<strong>in</strong> expletives to positions<br />
other than the canonical subject position. More specifically, it is argued that expletive <strong>ele</strong><br />
relates to the structure of the sentential left periphery (<strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e with Platzack 1998 and<br />
Holmberg 2000c for Icelandic expletive það; Holmberg and Nikanne 2002 for F<strong>in</strong>nish sitä;<br />
Uriagereka 1992-2004 and Silva-Villar 1996-2004 for Romance NSLs overt expletives).<br />
The empirical survey carried out <strong>in</strong> this <strong>in</strong>vestigation provides evidence for<br />
dist<strong>in</strong>guish<strong>in</strong>g three distributional types of expletive <strong>ele</strong>: (i) impersonal <strong>ele</strong>; (ii) peripheral<br />
<strong>ele</strong>; (iii) postverbal <strong>ele</strong>. It is argued that all types display discourse-related effects<br />
connected to the illocutionary force assumed by a sentence. The proposal put forth <strong>in</strong> this<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestigation thus relates expletives (i) and (ii) – which can be shown to be <strong>in</strong> general non<br />
dist<strong>in</strong>ct – to a high [Spec, ForceP] peripheral position, r<strong>ele</strong>vant for the sentence<br />
type/illocutionary force mapp<strong>in</strong>g (adapt<strong>in</strong>g Rizzi 1997, Haegeman 2002), and expletive<br />
(iii) to a low peripheral [Eval 0 ] position activated by evaluative sentences (adapt<strong>in</strong>g Ambar<br />
1997, 1999).<br />
KEYWORDS:<br />
expletive, left periphery, illocutionary force, <strong>Portuguese</strong> dialects, dialect syntax
RESUMO<br />
O expletivo <strong>ele</strong> em Português Europeu dialectal<br />
Esta dissertação tem como objecto de estudo o expletivo <strong>ele</strong>, característico de variedades<br />
não-standard do Português Europeu (PE). Mais especificamente, a <strong>in</strong>vestigação aqui<br />
apresentada centra-se sobre a s<strong>in</strong>taxe das construções que envolvem este expletivo,<br />
procurando explicar as propriedades por elas manifestadas, quer no nível s<strong>in</strong>táctico quer no<br />
domínio dos seus efeitos discursivos. Este estudo tem, no entanto, o duplo objectivo de não<br />
só (i) caracterizar cabalmente os fenómenos associados à ocorrência de expletivos visíveis<br />
em PE, como, concomitantemente, (ii) aprofundar o conhecimento sobre o estatuto e a<br />
função dos expletivos nas línguas naturais em geral. A análise apresentada toma como<br />
referência o quadro da Teoria de Pr<strong>in</strong>cípios e Parâmetros (Chomsky 1981 e trabalhos<br />
posteriores), na sua versão m<strong>in</strong>imalista (Chomsky 1993, 1994, 1995 e trabalhos<br />
subsequentes) e assenta em fundamentação empírica essencialmente proveniente do<br />
Corpus Dialectal com Anotação S<strong>in</strong>táctica – CORDIAL-SIN (em desenvolvimento no<br />
Centro de L<strong>in</strong>guística da Universidade de Lisboa).<br />
Os trabalhos que se ocupam de expletivos nas línguas naturais têm-se multiplicado<br />
nas últimas décadas. Uma considerável parcela de <strong>in</strong>vestigação em l<strong>in</strong>guística,<br />
especialmente no domínio da s<strong>in</strong>taxe, tem assim procurado elucidar as propriedades de<br />
certa forma enigmáticas que caracterizam estes <strong>ele</strong>mentos l<strong>in</strong>guísticos. Desprovidos de<br />
conteúdo referencial e de <strong>in</strong>terpretação argumental, os expletivos têm em geral sido<br />
considerados uma manifestação pura da s<strong>in</strong>taxe. Assim, a <strong>in</strong>vestigação sobre expletivos do<br />
tipo daqu<strong>ele</strong>s que ocorrem em Inglês tem normalmente sido concordante na caracterização<br />
destes <strong>ele</strong>mentos como um mero mecanismo estrutural que satisfaz um requisito de<br />
visibilidade da posição estrutural de sujeito (tradicionalmente, [Spec, IP]).<br />
Trabalhos recentes sobre expletivos de línguas diferentes do Inglês têm, no entanto,<br />
sugerido que alguns expletivos podem operar fora do domínio de IP, tipicamente associado<br />
à codificação s<strong>in</strong>táctica de uma proposição. Mais especificamente, têm sido propostas<br />
análises que relacionam os expletivos de certas línguas naturais com posições dentro do<br />
domínio de CP, tipicamente ligado à codificação de propriedades r<strong>ele</strong>vantes no plano<br />
discursivo. Algumas dessas propostas mantêm no essencial a ideia de que os expletivos<br />
correspondem a um mecanismo s<strong>in</strong>táctico meramente estrutural. Numa língua V2 como o<br />
Islandês, por exemplo, o expletivo það apareceria numa posição de especificador de uma
projecção da periferia esquerda como meio de satisfazer um requisito de visibilidade<br />
operante neste domínio (cf. Platzack 1998, Holmberg 2000c). No entanto, numa língua<br />
orientada para o discurso, como o F<strong>in</strong>landês, o expletivo sitä parece estar também<br />
associado ao modo como a <strong>in</strong>formação se distribui na frase, traduz<strong>in</strong>do propriedades<br />
discursivas relacionadas com a noção de tópico. Holmberg e Nikanne 2002, por exemplo,<br />
associam o expletivo à verificação de um traço [-Foc] de um núcleo F acima de IP, cujo<br />
especificador corresponderia a uma posição de tópico. Não havendo movimento de outro<br />
constitu<strong>in</strong>te para esta posição de tópico, o traço [-Foc] de F teria de ser verificado por<br />
<strong>in</strong>serção do expletivo sitä nessa posição.<br />
Propostas deste tipo permitem alargar os horizontes dentro dos quais os expletivos<br />
podem ser entendidos. Em especial, tornam mais plausível a<strong>in</strong>da a ideia de que os<br />
expletivos visíveis das línguas de sujeito nulo não têm necessariamente de estar<br />
relacionados com a posição de [Spec, IP]. Neste sentido, permitem também desenvolver<br />
novas explicações para o facto de vários línguas românicas de sujeito nulo (entre as quais o<br />
PE) apresentarem expletivos visíveis – explicações enquadradáveis numa l<strong>in</strong>ha de<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestigação já esboçada em trabalhos recentes sobre os expletivos destas línguas<br />
(Uriagereka 1992, 1995b e em especial 2004; Silva-Villar 1998, 2004).<br />
A escolha do tópico desta dissertação foi pois em parte motivada pelo desígnio<br />
geral de explorar uma nova abordagem à análise teorico-descritiva dos expletivos visíveis<br />
numa LSN. Naturalmente, para esta escolha contribuiu também um desígnio de alcance<br />
mais específico, o de procurar clarificar uma área relativamente obscura da l<strong>in</strong>guística<br />
portuguesa.<br />
Enquanto fenómeno característico de variedades não-padrão da língua portuguesa,<br />
o expletivo <strong>ele</strong> tem passado despercebido na maioria dos trabalhos de s<strong>in</strong>taxe teórica. Os<br />
poucos estudos que o mencionam, no entanto, subscrevem em geral a ideia tradicional de<br />
que <strong>ele</strong> desempenha em Português europeu o papel que it ou there desempenham em Inglês<br />
ou que il representa em Francês. Ou seja, o expletivo <strong>ele</strong> tem, em geral, sido considerado<br />
um sujeito expletivo. (A este respeito, Uriagereka 1992, 1995b, Mart<strong>in</strong>s 1993 e Raposo<br />
1995 constituem notáveis excepções.) A <strong>in</strong>vestigação que agora se apresenta procura então<br />
preencher esta lacuna e contribuir para um melhor conhecimento deste aspecto<br />
característico de variedades não-padrão do PE.
A dissertação consta de seis capítulos.<br />
A seguir a uma breve <strong>in</strong>trodução, o capítulo 2 revela o enquadramento teórico deste estudo<br />
sobre o expletivo <strong>ele</strong> e contextualiza este trabalho no quadro mais amplo da <strong>in</strong>vestigação<br />
l<strong>in</strong>guística sobre expletivos visíveis de línguas que permitem (e normalmente apresentam)<br />
expletivos não-visíveis. Num primeiro momento, clarifica-se a noção de ‘expletivo’, opção<br />
justificada pela ambiguidade term<strong>in</strong>ólogica que normalmente envolve a palavra expletivo.<br />
A s<strong>in</strong>taxe generativa especializou este termo no sentido de este designar especificamente<br />
um <strong>ele</strong>mento s<strong>in</strong>táctico que serve para preencher a posição do sujeito, e mais<br />
especificamente a<strong>in</strong>da, um tipo particular dos <strong>ele</strong>mentos que servem esta função – os<br />
designados “expletivos puros” do tipo de there em Inglês. Uma vez que a hipótese<br />
subjacente à <strong>in</strong>vestigação aqui desenvolvida se baseia na ideia de que o expletivo <strong>ele</strong> do PE<br />
não tem o estatuto de sujeito, facilmente se compreende que o termo expletivo seja aqui<br />
usado num sentido mais lato.<br />
A<strong>in</strong>da assim, o capítulo 2 <strong>in</strong>clui uma breve caracterização dos “expletivos puros”<br />
do tipo de there em Inglês, para que as suas propriedades possam no devido momento ser<br />
comparadas com as do expletivo <strong>ele</strong> do Português.<br />
No capítulo 2 são a<strong>in</strong>da revistas algumas conhecidas generalizações relativamente à<br />
escassez de sujeitos expletivos nas línguas naturais. Além de ser r<strong>ele</strong>mbrada a familiar<br />
generalização empírica sobre a ausência de expletivos visíveis nas LSNs (Rizzi 1982,<br />
Burzio 1986, Jaeggli e Safir 1989, i.a.), subl<strong>in</strong>ha-se a<strong>in</strong>da o facto de mesmo certas línguas<br />
de sujeito não-nulo (LSNN) permitirem a ausência de expletivos visíveis. Neste contexto, a<br />
ocorrência de expletivos visíveis em línguas que de forma generalizada admitem sujeitos<br />
nulos é sentida como bastante <strong>in</strong>esperada.<br />
O capítulo 2 <strong>in</strong>clui, no entanto, extensa evidência para a recorrência e<br />
complexidade dos contextos que envolvem expletivos “excepcionais”, i.e. expletivos que<br />
ocorrem em (certas variedades de) línguas que permitem sujeitos nulos em geral ou apenas<br />
sujeitos expletivos nulos. Variedades do Espanhol faladas no cont<strong>in</strong>ente americano,<br />
variedades do Catalão faladas nas ilhas Baleares e o Galego oferecem exemplos no quadro<br />
das LSNs românicas; o Islandês, o Alemão e o Yiddish ilustram o caso de LSNNs que<br />
normalmente têm expletivos não visíveis e que, no entanto, também apresentam expletivos<br />
visíveis. A última parte do capítulo 2 apresenta algumas análises recentes para estes<br />
expletivos “excepcionais”. Em comum, todas as análises encerram a sugestão de que estes
expletivos devem antes ser caracterizados como <strong>ele</strong>mentos da periferia esquerda, a<strong>in</strong>da que<br />
possam diferir em relação à posição que propõem para o expletivo na estrutura dessa<br />
periferia. Análises como as de Platzack 1998 e Holmberg 2000c defendem que numa<br />
língua de V2, como o Islandês, o expletivo satisfaz um requisito de visibilidade numa<br />
posição de Spec de uma projecção superior do domínio de C. Para uma língua de<br />
proem<strong>in</strong>ência do tópico, como o F<strong>in</strong>landês, propôs-se que o expletivo sitä satisfaz um<br />
requisito de visibilidade na posição característica do tópico, i.e. [Spec, FP] (Holmberg e<br />
Nikanne 2002). No que diz respeito às línguas românicas, as propostas recentemente<br />
apresentadas por Uriagereka 1992, 1995b, 2004 e Silva-Villar 1996, 1998, 2004 sugerem<br />
também que o expletivo visível nestas línguas pertence ao domínio acima de IP, i.e. CP.<br />
No capítulo 2, estas propostas são apresentadas e sumariamente comentadas, tendo em<br />
conta as predicções que fazem em relação ao expletivo do Português. Mais precisamente,<br />
mostra-se que estas propostas são adequadas no que diz respeito à identificação da<br />
natureza estruturalmente periférica do expletivo <strong>ele</strong>, mas deixam por explicar outras<br />
propriedades das construções que envolvem este expletivo – propriedades que o extenso<br />
corpus de PE <strong>in</strong>vestigado neste trabalho torna visíveis.<br />
No capítulo 3 desta dissertação discutem-se questões metodológicas. Na medida em que o<br />
objecto em estudo consiste num fenómeno característico de variedades não-standard da<br />
língua portuguesa, a abordagem aqui desenvolvida entra necessariamente no domínio da<br />
s<strong>in</strong>taxe não-standard, mais precisamente da s<strong>in</strong>taxe dialectal.<br />
Apesar de a s<strong>in</strong>taxe ser uma área tradicionalmente ignorada nos estudos dialectais,<br />
alguns desenvolvimentos recentes da l<strong>in</strong>guística (como a mundança conceptual operada<br />
pela Teoria de Pr<strong>in</strong>cípios e Parâmetros na s<strong>in</strong>taxe generativa) vieram <strong>in</strong>centivar o<br />
aparecimento da s<strong>in</strong>taxe dialectal como um novo domínio de estudos l<strong>in</strong>guísticos. A teoria<br />
l<strong>in</strong>guística manifesta hoje, também, o propósito de explicar a variação l<strong>in</strong>guística em geral,<br />
o que tem cada vez mais colocado a variação <strong>in</strong>tra-l<strong>in</strong>guística num lugar comparável<br />
àqu<strong>ele</strong> que já era o da variação <strong>in</strong>ter-l<strong>in</strong>guística. A <strong>in</strong>vestigação comparativista assim<br />
especializada torna-se prática corrente de novas abordagens aos estudos s<strong>in</strong>tácticos, como<br />
aquela que é desenvolvida pela s<strong>in</strong>taxe microparamétrica (cf., por exemplo, Black e<br />
Motapanyane 1996). Neste sentido, muitos dos resultados e recursos disponibilizados pela
dialectologia tradicional têm v<strong>in</strong>do a ganhar um lugar efectivo também nos estudos de<br />
s<strong>in</strong>taxe.<br />
No domínio do Português, e especificamente do PE, a s<strong>in</strong>taxe dialectal é também<br />
uma discipl<strong>in</strong>a apenas <strong>in</strong>cipiente. Um passo importante para o seu desenvolvimento foi a<br />
disponibilização de um recurso de largo alcance, como o Corpus Dialectal com Anotação<br />
S<strong>in</strong>táctica – CORDIAL-SIN, desenvolvido no Centro de L<strong>in</strong>guística da Universidade de<br />
Lisboa (http://www.clul.ul.pt/sectores/cordials<strong>in</strong>/projecto_cordials<strong>in</strong>.html) 1 . Na verdade,<br />
num domínio em que as <strong>in</strong>tuições do falante/<strong>in</strong>vestigador dificilmente servem para a<br />
formulação de hipóteses <strong>in</strong>iciais de trabalho, torna-se <strong>in</strong>dispensável o recurso a meios<br />
alternativos de fundamentação empírica. Trabalhos dialectais de natureza descritiva podem<br />
constituir também importantes <strong>in</strong>dicadores de dados dialectais, mas, na sua ausência, resta<br />
apenas o recurso à observação natural. Um corpus como o CORDIAL-SIN, constituído por<br />
transcrições de excertos de fala espontânea ou semi-dirigida obtida em <strong>in</strong>quéritos<br />
dialectais, constitui precisamente um <strong>in</strong>strumento privilegiado que permite obviar a muitas<br />
das dificuldades <strong>in</strong>erentes à observação natural de dados dialectais.<br />
A fundamentação empírica do trabalho aqui apresentado assenta sobretudo em<br />
dados extraídos do CORDIAL-SIN (numa fase de desenvolvimento do corpus em que<br />
<strong>in</strong>tegrava 200.000 palavras, correspondendo a dezassete localidades de Portugal<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>ental e <strong>in</strong>sular), ocasionalmente complementados por dados de outras fontes, como<br />
fala espontânea do quotidiano e escrita em jornais e romances. Na verdade, o que<br />
<strong>in</strong>icialmente se concebeu como apenas um primeiro passo nesta <strong>in</strong>vestigação acabou por<br />
constituir a sua pr<strong>in</strong>cipal base empírica. A riqueza e a complexidade das construções com<br />
expletivos recolhidas neste corpus motivaram a exclusão de outros métodos de obtenção de<br />
dados, <strong>in</strong>icialmente previstos, como o recurso ao levantamento sistemático de juízos de<br />
falantes. Pontualmente, no entanto, recorre-se a <strong>in</strong>tuições da autora sobre o seu dialecto<br />
materno, que permite alguns tipos de construções não-standard com expletivos.<br />
A colecção de dados assim obtida, essencialmente a partir do CORDIAL-SIN,<br />
permite def<strong>in</strong>ir o quadro geral de distribuição dos expletivos visíveis, em especial do<br />
1 Projecto f<strong>in</strong>aciado pela Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) e pelo fundo comunitário europeu<br />
FEDER (PRAXIS XXI/P/PLP/13046/1998, POSI/1999/PLP/33275 e POCTI/LIN/46980/2002).
expletivo <strong>ele</strong>, em PE dialectal. O capítulo 4 desta dissertação apresenta uma descrição<br />
exaustiva dessa distribuição. Num primeiro momento considera-se a distribuição s<strong>in</strong>táctica<br />
de <strong>ele</strong> expletivo, de acordo com a qual se identificam três tipos de expletivo:<br />
(i) um expletivo de tipo sujeito impessoal (mais especificamente, o expletivo que ocorre<br />
nas construções impessoais em que as LSNNs obrigatoriamente apresentam um expletivo<br />
visível: construções com predicados impessoais, extraposição de sujeito oracional e<br />
construções apresentativas; são também considerados aqui os exemplos que envolvem<br />
extracção de um sujeito qu-);<br />
(ii) um expletivo periférico (que <strong>in</strong>clui diferentes <strong>in</strong>stâncias do expletivo <strong>ele</strong> numa posição<br />
visivelmente periférica, por exemplo, à esquerda de sujeitos pré-verbais ou de constitu<strong>in</strong>tes<br />
periféricos, como tópicos e constitu<strong>in</strong>tes-qu deslocados);<br />
(iii) um expletivo pós-verbal (que <strong>in</strong>variavelmente ocorre em adjacência imediata ao verbo<br />
flexionado).<br />
Os dados <strong>in</strong>vestigados permitem assim alargar a base empírica que tem sido<br />
considerada em estudos anteriores, fornecendo evidência para o facto de o expletivo <strong>ele</strong><br />
ocorrer em construções mais diversificadas do que aquelas que são normalmente<br />
analisadas. De modo significativo, a representatividade dos diferentes tipos no corpus<br />
considerado revela que os contextos impessoais não são aqu<strong>ele</strong>s que apresentam mais<br />
ocorrências do expletivo <strong>ele</strong> (apenas 39% do total). Mais significativamente, são os<br />
contextos periféricos aqu<strong>ele</strong>s que apresentam um maior número de casos de <strong>ele</strong> expletivo<br />
(55%). Apenas em 6% do total o expletivo corresponde a uma posição pós-verbal.<br />
O capítulo 4 <strong>in</strong>clui a<strong>in</strong>da dados distribucionais comparativos com os pronomes<br />
demonstrativos neutros, que também podem funcionar como expletivos. Desta comparação<br />
resulta um contraste nítido entre os tipos (i) e (ii) acima identificados, por um lado, e o tipo<br />
(iii), por outro. Enquanto os primeiros facilmente comutam com os demonstrativos,<br />
podendo, portanto, surgir nos mesmos contextos, o último nunca pode ser substituído por<br />
um demonstrativo.<br />
Um dos aspectos fundamentais da análise proposta nesta dissertação assenta na<br />
alegada importância do expletivo no plano discursivo. Nesse sentido, o capítulo 4<br />
apresenta a<strong>in</strong>da os pr<strong>in</strong>cipais efeitos discursivos que podem ser correlacionados com a<br />
presença de <strong>ele</strong>. Com base na evidência fornecida pelos dados do CORDIAL-SIN,
mostra-se que o expletivo de tipo (i) e (ii) actua como uma espécie de <strong>ele</strong>mento reforçador<br />
da força ilocutória que uma frase pode assumir, enfatizando o valor expressivo, o valor de<br />
ordem, ou o valor assertivo de frases, respectivamente, exclamativas e <strong>in</strong>terrogativas<br />
não-standard (como as <strong>in</strong>terrogativas retóricas), imperativas ou declarativas. O expletivo<br />
de tipo (iii), por sua vez, manifesta o efeito de contribuir para o valor avaliativo das frases<br />
em que ocorre.<br />
A análise apresentada no capítulo 5 procura dar conta destes efeitos discursivos<br />
manifestados pelo expletivo, tendo presentes as suas propriedades s<strong>in</strong>tácticas.<br />
Num primeiro momento a hipótese de que o expletivo <strong>ele</strong> é um <strong>ele</strong>mento periférico<br />
(já sugerida por Uriagereka 1992-2004 e Silva-Villar 1996-2004) é reavaliada à luz da<br />
tipologia de expletivos del<strong>in</strong>eada. Assume-se, de acordo com Uriagereka 2004, que o tipo<br />
(i) deve ser em geral re<strong>in</strong>terpretado como representativo também do tipo (ii), ou seja, os<br />
casos de expletivo <strong>ele</strong> aparentemente em posição de sujeito deverão ser antes analisados<br />
como <strong>in</strong>stâncias de um expletivo periférico que co-ocorre com um sujeito expletivo não<br />
visível. Assim, a tipologia f<strong>in</strong>al consta efectivamente de dois tipos: (i) e (ii), por um lado, e<br />
(iii), por outro (ou seja, expletivo periférico e impessoal vs. expletivo pós-verbal). A<br />
reavaliação da hipótese mencionada passa então pela determ<strong>in</strong>ação do estatuto do<br />
expletivo pós-verbal como um <strong>ele</strong>mento da periferia esquerda da frase. Assim, uma parte<br />
<strong>in</strong>icial do capítulo 5 é dedicada à demonstração de que o expletivo pós-verbal também<br />
ocorre na periferia esquerda da frase. Além disso, demonstra-se a<strong>in</strong>da que os dois tipos de<br />
expletivo não podem ser unificados. O quadro abaixo s<strong>in</strong>tetiza alguns dos aspectos em<br />
relação aos quais os dois tipos de expletivo exibem comportamentos dist<strong>in</strong>tos:<br />
EXPL<br />
PERIF/IMPESS<br />
EXPL<br />
PÓS-VERBAL<br />
a. posição na periferia alta baixa<br />
b. distribuição em contextos encaixados<br />
menos<br />
restrita<br />
mais<br />
restrita<br />
c. adjacência ao verbo - +<br />
d. substituição por demonstrativo + -<br />
Quadro 1. Contraste entre expletivos periféricos/impessoais e <strong>ele</strong> pós-verbal
As diferenças expressas pelas alíneas c) e d) do quadro 1 são correlacionadas com uma<br />
diferença fundamental relativa à posição estrutural destes expletivos: enquanto o expletivo<br />
periférico/impessoal parece corresponder a uma categoria de tipo XP, o expletivo<br />
pós-verbal corresponde antes a uma categoria de tipo X 0 .<br />
Discursivamente, os dois tipos apresentam uma diferença significativa: enquanto o<br />
primeiro tipo aparece correlacionado com diferentes valores ilocutórios (com um efeito<br />
sempre reforçativo), o expletivo pós-verbal aparece unicamente correlacionado com um<br />
valor avaliativo (expressivo).<br />
Com base nestas diferenças, defende-se nesta dissertação que aquilo a que chamamos<br />
expletivo <strong>ele</strong> é na verdade um <strong>ele</strong>mento ambíguo na gramática do PE. Antes de mais,<br />
alguns exemplos revelam que <strong>ele</strong> pode residualmente aparecer como sujeito, suger<strong>in</strong>do-se<br />
que nesse caso <strong>ele</strong> corresponda a um uso residual de tipo demonstrativo (a relacionar com<br />
a forma acusativa do neutro demonstrativo -o). Este será portanto um caso a dist<strong>in</strong>guir<br />
daqu<strong>ele</strong>s que foram acima apresentados como expletivo periférico/impessoal e expletivo<br />
pós-verbal. Em relação a estes, propõe-se uma dist<strong>in</strong>ção não só ao nível da sua categoria<br />
(XP/X 0 ) como também das posições que ocupam na periferia esquerda da frase: assim,<br />
enquanto os primeiros ocupariam um posição de Spec de uma projecção ForceP numa área<br />
alta da periferia esquerda, o segundo ocuparia a posição de núcleo de uma projecção<br />
EvaluativeP (adaptada de Ambar 1997, 1999) numa área mais baixa da periferia esquerda.<br />
PALAVRAS-CHAVE:<br />
expletivo, periferia esquerda, força ilocutória, Português dialectal, s<strong>in</strong>taxe dialectal
Acknowledgments<br />
I would like to express my warm thanks to all the people who made this dissertation become real.<br />
First of all, I would like to thank my national supervisor, Ana Maria Mart<strong>in</strong>s. From the<br />
very beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of this project, she has been a source of enthusiasm for explor<strong>in</strong>g the sphere of<br />
dialect syntax and the work here presented owes a lot to her <strong>in</strong>sights <strong>in</strong>to this doma<strong>in</strong>. Needless to<br />
say, I am very grateful for her read<strong>in</strong>ess to comment on my work, for her comments, suggestions,<br />
h<strong>in</strong>ts, patience, support, presence and friendship, and, above all, for her stimulat<strong>in</strong>g example.<br />
I am also very grateful to my supervisor <strong>in</strong> Norway, Tarald Taraldsen. Hav<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
opportunity to discuss with him many of the ideas underly<strong>in</strong>g this work has been a privilege. I<br />
thank him especially for his enthusiasm for <strong>Portuguese</strong> expletives and for <strong>Portuguese</strong> grammar, but<br />
also for his comments and many suggestions, and for push<strong>in</strong>g me to try harder on syntactic<br />
explanation.<br />
Many other people have contributed to this work <strong>in</strong> very different ways, at very different<br />
moments. To some of them I am particularly <strong>in</strong>debted for their role <strong>in</strong> stimulat<strong>in</strong>g my <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong><br />
syntax and <strong>in</strong> dialectology. Other people contributed <strong>in</strong> a more direct way to this work by<br />
discuss<strong>in</strong>g some aspects of it with me, by provid<strong>in</strong>g me with some r<strong>ele</strong>vant references, or simply by<br />
arrang<strong>in</strong>g circumstances so that this work could be improved and come to an end. My thanks go<br />
especially to, <strong>in</strong> alphabetical order, Rosarío Alvarez, Manuela Ambar, Ernesto d’Andrade,<br />
Manuela Barros Ferreira, Josef Bayer, H<strong>ele</strong>na Britto, Elisabetta Carpitelli, Ana Castro, Ivo<br />
Castro, Michel Cont<strong>in</strong>i, João Costa, Inês Duarte, André Eliseu, Charlotte Galves, Marc-Olivier<br />
H<strong>in</strong>zel<strong>in</strong>, Anders Holmberg, Georg Kaizer, Alazne Landa, Maria Lobo, Ana Crist<strong>in</strong>a Macário<br />
Lopes, Mar Massanells, Matilde Miguel, Antónia Mota, Christer Platzack, Eduardo Paiva Raposo,<br />
Antonio Romano, João Saramago, Luisa Segura da Cruz, Luis Silva-Villar, Peter Svenonius, Juan<br />
Uriagereka, Øyste<strong>in</strong> Vangsnes, Gabriela Vitor<strong>in</strong>o, Francisca Xavier.<br />
All errors and misconceptions rema<strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>e.<br />
Part of the work presented <strong>in</strong> this dissertation has received f<strong>in</strong>antial support from the<br />
Research Council of Norway. Other <strong>in</strong>stitutions also contributed to this work, by offer<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
optimal conditions for its development: Centro de L<strong>in</strong>guística da Universidade de Lisboa,<br />
Departamento de L<strong>in</strong>guística Geral e Românica da Faculdade de Letras de Lisboa, and Institutt<br />
for L<strong>in</strong>gvistikk, Det Humanistiske Fakultet, Universitet i Tromsø.<br />
Last but not least, I have a warm word for colleagues, friends and relatives who have been present<br />
– some of them vital – dur<strong>in</strong>g these times:<br />
Catar<strong>in</strong>a, Maria, Sandra, André, Gabriela, João, Luisa and Manuela<br />
Dom<strong>in</strong>ique, Michèle and Mich<strong>ele</strong><br />
Elisabetta, Francesca, Jean<strong>in</strong>e, Jean-Pierre, Mar, Maria, Sabr<strong>in</strong>a and Ton<strong>in</strong>o<br />
Artur, Asya, Elli, Hanna, Ingveld, Marit, Patricia, Paula and Siri<br />
Crist<strong>in</strong>a, Dulce, Esperança and Rita<br />
Anabela, Armanda, C<strong>ele</strong>ste, João, Guilherm<strong>in</strong>a, Madalena and Matilde<br />
Rita, Amália, Zé Manel and C<strong>ele</strong>ste Augusto<br />
Cidália, Hermínia, Laura, Ana, Milu and Lila<br />
Mana, Mãe, Pai and Zoca<br />
João and Joãoz<strong>in</strong>ho<br />
thanks!
1.<br />
Introduction<br />
This dissertation <strong>in</strong>vestigates a fairly unexpected topic: overt expletives <strong>in</strong> a null subject<br />
language. For decades, expletives have called the l<strong>in</strong>guists’ attention, and have encouraged<br />
a huge amount of reason<strong>in</strong>g about natural language. With<strong>in</strong> the Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples and Parameters<br />
framework of generative syntax (Chomsky 1981 and subsequent work), which is adopted<br />
<strong>in</strong> this dissertation under its m<strong>in</strong>imalist version (Chomsky 1993, 1994, 1995 and<br />
subsequent work), they have become one of the most prolific topics <strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>guistic debate<br />
and one central doma<strong>in</strong> of evidence for syntactic argumentation.<br />
As semantically vacuous pieces of language which behave much like a subject <strong>in</strong><br />
languages such as English or French, expletives like those <strong>in</strong> (1) below have essentially<br />
been seen as a manifestation of syntax par excellence, the l<strong>in</strong>guistic system’s response to a<br />
purely syntactic requirement on the subject position.<br />
(1) a. It is snow<strong>in</strong>g. / Il neige.<br />
b. It is true that I like the snow. / Il est vrai que j’aime la neige.<br />
c. There is too much snow on the roof. / Il y a trop de neige sur le toit.<br />
<strong>Expletive</strong>s are generally pronoun or adverb-like (such as French il and English there,<br />
respectively), and they are usually assumed to be non-referential (they have no reference,<br />
neither <strong>in</strong>trisically nor contextually def<strong>in</strong>ed) and non-argumental, i.e. as they are not<br />
arguments of a predicate, they do not bear any thematic role. In other words, they typically<br />
occur as the subject of impersonal constructions (<strong>in</strong> the broad sense of Perlmutter 1983).<br />
1
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
L<strong>in</strong>guistic discussion has essentially been focused on those expletives that usually<br />
appear <strong>in</strong> languages disallow<strong>in</strong>g any k<strong>in</strong>d of empty subject position (i. e. non null subject<br />
languages, NNSLs henceforth) – which is the case of English and French:<br />
(2) a. *(I) like the snow.<br />
b. *(J’) aime la neige.<br />
In such languages, non-argumental subjects like those <strong>in</strong> (1) behave much like argumental<br />
ones, such as those <strong>in</strong> (2): whichever the type of subject, this must be obligatorily overt.<br />
<strong>Expletive</strong>s appear then as the syntactic mechanism that permits a non-argumental subject<br />
position to be visible <strong>in</strong> NNSLs. In other words, expletives correspond to a structural<br />
device strictly connected with some visibility requirement on the subject position – they<br />
<strong>in</strong>deed constituted very strong motivation for postulat<strong>in</strong>g the universal requirement that<br />
says that every sentence must have a subject position (known as the EPP, for Extended<br />
Projection Pr<strong>in</strong>ciple, cf. Chomsky 1982: 10).<br />
Not surpris<strong>in</strong>gly, overt expletives are typically absent from languages allow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
empty referential subjects <strong>in</strong> f<strong>in</strong>ite clauses (i.e. null subject languages, NSLs). This is<br />
manifestly the case of <strong>European</strong> <strong>Portuguese</strong> (henceforth EP). The <strong>Portuguese</strong> counterpart<br />
to (2) above shows <strong>in</strong> fact the possibility of dropp<strong>in</strong>g out the subject pronoun:<br />
(3) (Eu) gosto de neve.<br />
I like of snow<br />
‘I like the snow.’<br />
And, by the same token, non-argumental subjects are equally allowed to be non-overt:<br />
(4) a. [-] Está a nevar.<br />
is A snow-INF<br />
‘It is snow<strong>in</strong>g.’<br />
b. [-] É verdade que gosto de neve.<br />
is true that like-1SG of snow<br />
‘It is true that I like the snow.’<br />
c. [-] Há muita neve no telhado.<br />
has much snow on.the roof<br />
‘There are lots of snow on the roof.’<br />
Actually, overt expletives tend to be absent from standard NSLs – hence, judgements on<br />
overt expletives <strong>in</strong> these languages usually conform to the follow<strong>in</strong>g pattern:<br />
2
(4’) a. (*Ele) está a nevar.<br />
EXPL is A snow-INF<br />
b. (*Ele) é verdade que gosto de neve.<br />
EXPL is true that like-1SG of snow<br />
c. (*Ele) há muita neve no telhado.<br />
EXPL has much snow on.the roof<br />
1. INTRODUCTION<br />
The correlation between NSLs and the lack of overt expletives has <strong>in</strong>deed become a well-<br />
established empirical generalization relat<strong>in</strong>g to the constellation of null subject phenomena<br />
(Rizzi 1982, 1986, Burzio 1986, Jaeggli and Safir 1989, i.a.).<br />
Quite paradoxically, thus, this dissertation studies overt expletives <strong>in</strong> EP, a NSL.<br />
Although the standard language normally lacks overt subjects <strong>in</strong> impersonal constructions<br />
(see (4) above), it is true that some EP varieties do allow a subject-like overt expletive.<br />
Grammarians, philologists and dialectologists have occasionally reported the use of such<br />
expletive, with marg<strong>in</strong>al and sporadic remarks on impersonal constructions <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g an<br />
overt subject (Leite de Vasconcellos 1901, Moreira 1913, Epifânio Dias 1918, Cunha and<br />
C<strong>in</strong>tra 1984, Vilela 1995, Mateus et al. 2003). The expletive allegedly <strong>in</strong>volved as the<br />
subject of such constructions has a pronoun-like shape, actually homophonous to the<br />
mascul<strong>in</strong>e third person s<strong>in</strong>gular subject pronoun: <strong>ele</strong>. It can be found <strong>in</strong> examples such as<br />
the follow<strong>in</strong>g:<br />
(5) […] <strong>ele</strong> há marotos muito grandes na tropa!<br />
EXPL has rascals very great <strong>in</strong>.the troops<br />
(Camilo Castelo Branco, Corja, 24, apud Epifânio Dias 1918, 1933: 21)<br />
‘… there are such rascals <strong>in</strong> the troops!’<br />
(6) Ele haveria no mundo nada mais acertado.<br />
EXPL have-COND.3SG <strong>in</strong>.the world noth<strong>in</strong>g more rightful<br />
(Miguel Torga, Contos da Montanha, 24, apud Cunha and C<strong>in</strong>tra 1984: 284)<br />
‘There would have noth<strong>in</strong>g so right <strong>in</strong> the world.’<br />
(7) Ele há tanta mulher por aí!... (Fernando Namora, O Trigo e o Joio, 258, apud id.)<br />
EXPL has so.much woman there<br />
‘There are so many women anywhere!’<br />
(8) Ele chove. (Leite de Vasconcellos 1901, 1987: 122)<br />
EXPL ra<strong>in</strong>s<br />
‘It ra<strong>in</strong>s.’<br />
(9) Ele são horas. (ibid.)<br />
EXPL are hours<br />
‘It is time.’<br />
3
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
(10) Ele choveu toda a noite. (Mateus et al. 2003: 283, fn. 5)<br />
EXPL ra<strong>in</strong>ed all the night<br />
‘It has ra<strong>in</strong>ed all night long.’<br />
The neuter demonstrative pronouns isto ‘this’, isso, and aquilo ‘that’ are also mentioned as<br />
expletive subjects:<br />
(11) […] isto é noite […] (H.P., I, 406, apud Epifânio Dias 1918, 1933: 21) 1<br />
this is night<br />
‘… it is night…’<br />
(12) Isto são dez horas já (Prestes, 125, apud id.)<br />
this are ten hours already<br />
‘It is already ten o’clock.’<br />
The use of such expletives (both <strong>ele</strong> and the neuter demonstratives) is recurrently related to<br />
some non-standard varieties of EP: to a “familiar style” (Said Ali 1927), to “<strong>in</strong>formal<br />
conversation” (Epifânio Dias 1918), to popular or popular-like varieties (Leite de<br />
Vasconcellos 1901, 2 Cunha and C<strong>in</strong>tra 1984, Vilela 1995), to “more conservative/archaic<br />
dialects” (Mateus et al. 2003).<br />
It must be added however that even the so-called standard variety of EP may admit<br />
an overt expletive <strong>in</strong> some controlled (impersonal) contexts. Mateus et al. 2003 notice the<br />
presence of the expletive <strong>in</strong> frozen expressions (= “frases feitas”) such as <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
examples (from Mateus et al. 2003: 283, fn.5):<br />
(13) Ele há cada uma!<br />
EXPL has such one<br />
‘There are such th<strong>in</strong>gs!’<br />
(14) Tudo está mais caro: <strong>ele</strong> é o leite, <strong>ele</strong> é a fruta, <strong>ele</strong> é o peixe.<br />
everyth<strong>in</strong>g is more expensive EXPL is the milk EXPL is the fruit EXPL is the fish<br />
± ‘Everyth<strong>in</strong>g is gett<strong>in</strong>g more expensive: milk, fruit, fish.’<br />
In fact, it is not uncommon to f<strong>in</strong>d expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> spoken and even <strong>in</strong> written language, <strong>in</strong><br />
expressive uses which <strong>in</strong>deed <strong>in</strong>volve either the existential verb haver (just like (13)<br />
above) or a presentative enumeration us<strong>in</strong>g the verb ser, similar to the one found <strong>in</strong> (14):<br />
1 See also Said Ali 1927, where the use of isto is <strong>in</strong>stead equated to the adverb agora ‘now’.<br />
2 It is not clear whether the use of <strong>ele</strong> has also been considered a regional feature of Southern dialects or not:<br />
Leite de Vasconcellos <strong>in</strong>cludes a note about expletive <strong>ele</strong> among a couple of remarks on the popular syntax<br />
from such dialects, but he adds no particular comment on the regional distribution of the expletive.<br />
4
1. INTRODUCTION<br />
(15) Af<strong>in</strong>al o que importa não é ser novo e galante<br />
‘After all, it does not matter to be young and charm<strong>in</strong>g’<br />
— <strong>ele</strong> há tanta maneira de compor uma estante!<br />
EXPL has so.much way of arrange-INF a bookcase<br />
(Mário Cesar<strong>in</strong>y, Pastelaria [poem] <strong>in</strong> Cesar<strong>in</strong>y 1991: 15)<br />
‘There are so many ways of arrang<strong>in</strong>g a bookcase!’<br />
(16) Ele há dias assim. (Isabel da Nóbrega, weekly newspaper Expresso, 25.10.2003)<br />
EXPL has days like.that<br />
‘There are such days.’<br />
(17) Passa todas as semanas, e parecia em perda de criatividade e de bom gosto.<br />
±is.on.TV every the weeks and seemed loos<strong>in</strong>g of criativity and of good taste<br />
Mas <strong>ele</strong> há “zapp<strong>in</strong>gs” felizes. Este de Luís Osório foi-o, seguramente.<br />
but EXPL has zapp<strong>in</strong>gs happy this of Luís Osório was-CL.ACCUS surely<br />
(newspaper, Público, 26.01.2003)<br />
± ‘You can see it every week, and it seemed to be loos<strong>in</strong>g criativity and good taste. But there<br />
are <strong>in</strong>deed good “zapp<strong>in</strong>gs”[name of TV program]. Surely, this one, by Luís Osório, was one<br />
of them.’<br />
(18) Elas acudiam com números de t<strong>ele</strong>fone: <strong>ele</strong> era para a ama que t<strong>in</strong>ha ficado<br />
they came with numbers of t<strong>ele</strong>phone EXPL was to the babysitter who had stayed<br />
com o filho, <strong>ele</strong> era para a mãe, <strong>ele</strong> era «para uma grande amiga que é como se<br />
with the son EXPL was to the mother EXPL was to a great friend who is as if<br />
fosse m<strong>in</strong>ha irmã». (Alçada Baptista 1985: 158)<br />
was my sister<br />
± ‘They came with phone numbers: to the babysitter who was with their children, to their<br />
mothers, to “some sister-like great friend”.’<br />
(19) As imagens das operações militares […] <strong>in</strong>vadiram as casas dos confundidos habitantes<br />
the images of.the operations military <strong>in</strong>vaded the houses of.the confused <strong>in</strong>habitants<br />
da capital. Ele eram os oficiais a dar ordens, <strong>ele</strong> eram os sargentos a berrar para<br />
of.the capital EXPL were the officers A give-INF orders EXPL were the sergeants A shout to<br />
as fazer cumprir, e eram os sapadores a <strong>in</strong>stalar barreiras […].<br />
them make-INF follow-INF and were the soldiers A <strong>in</strong>stall-INF barriers<br />
(José Saramago 2004: 69)<br />
±‘The images of the military operations […] <strong>in</strong>vaded the capital’s confused <strong>in</strong>habitants’<br />
homes. The officers were giv<strong>in</strong>g orders, the sergeants were shout<strong>in</strong>g to make people follow<br />
them, and the soldiers were <strong>in</strong>stall<strong>in</strong>g barriers […].’<br />
In view of such impersonal examples, it becomes thus unsurpris<strong>in</strong>g that non-referential <strong>ele</strong><br />
has essentially been compared to those subject expletives which are obligatory <strong>in</strong> NNSLs<br />
like English or French (see i.a., Cunha and C<strong>in</strong>tra 1984, Duarte and Matos 1984, Raposo<br />
1992, Peres and Móia 1995, Duarte et al. 2002). But this obviously calls <strong>in</strong>to question the<br />
received view that NSLs lack overt expletives. If a NSL such as EP has <strong>in</strong>deed overt<br />
5
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
expletive subjects, the very same k<strong>in</strong>d of expletives that appear <strong>in</strong> NNSLs, then it is the<br />
status of expletives itself that is challenged. 3<br />
Alternatively, one might well enterta<strong>in</strong> the hypothesis that what looks like an overt<br />
expletive subject <strong>in</strong> NSLs is actually a different k<strong>in</strong>d of l<strong>in</strong>guistic <strong>ele</strong>ment, whose status<br />
must evidently be elucidated. Such an approach has already been suggested for Romance<br />
NSLs’ expletives, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g EP <strong>ele</strong> (Uriagereka 1992, 1995a, 1995b, 2004, Mart<strong>in</strong>s 1993,<br />
Raposo 1995, Raposo and Uriagereka 1996, 2004, Silva-Villar 1998, 2004).<br />
[...] I am not conv<strong>in</strong>ced that the expletive one gets <strong>in</strong> French is of the same<br />
sort as the expletive <strong>in</strong> archaic dialects [<strong>Portuguese</strong>, Galician and Leonese,<br />
EC], the French one be<strong>in</strong>g a consequence of the impossibility of pro-drop.<br />
Uriagereka 1995b: 168<br />
An analysis with<strong>in</strong> the same spirit has been developed for overt expletives <strong>in</strong> a<br />
topic-prom<strong>in</strong>ent NSL like F<strong>in</strong>nish (see Holmberg and Nikanne 2002).<br />
As far as EP expletive <strong>ele</strong> is concerned, its characterization as a subject seems<br />
<strong>in</strong>deed to be far from def<strong>in</strong>ite. Casual data <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g this expletive made me suspect so.<br />
This suspicion was further strengthened by some additional observations <strong>in</strong>cluded under<br />
the article <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> the Novo Dicionário Aurélio:<br />
Aparece, às vezes, como sujeito frásico de verbos impessoais ou unipessoais,<br />
ao jeito do francês, do <strong>in</strong>glês e do alemão, uso a<strong>in</strong>da observável, sobretudo<br />
na l<strong>in</strong>guagem do povo, em Portugal […]. Tem, às vezes, caráter expletivo,<br />
serv<strong>in</strong>do para realçar o sujeito dantes expresso […]. Outras vezes, sem<br />
perder esse caráter, apresenta-se (no falar lusitano) contam<strong>in</strong>ado de<br />
afetividade mais ou menos <strong>in</strong>tensa e despido de qualquer conteúdo lógico.<br />
AURÉLIO 1986: 623, s.v. <strong>ele</strong><br />
[Sometimes, it [<strong>ele</strong>] appears as the subject of impersonal verbs, like <strong>in</strong> French,<br />
English and German, an usage which may be observed still today <strong>in</strong> popular<br />
language <strong>in</strong> Portugal […]. Sometimes, it has an expletive character, and it is used to<br />
re<strong>in</strong>force a formerly expressed subject […]. In other cases, also as an expletive, (<strong>in</strong><br />
the <strong>European</strong> usage) it appears connected to some <strong>in</strong>tense emotional <strong>in</strong>volvement,<br />
and deprived of any logic content. – my translation]<br />
3 In fact, besides EP, the presence of overt expletives has equally been reported <strong>in</strong> other NSLs, such as Old<br />
French, Catalan, Galician, American Spanish, F<strong>in</strong>nish, and Hebrew (Álvarez 1981, Álvarez et al. 1986,<br />
Bakker 1995, Fernández Soriano 1999, Henríquez Ureña 1939, Holmberg and Nikanne 2002, Kany 1945,<br />
Solà et. al. 2002, Toribio 1993, Uriagereka 1992, 1995a, 1995b, Va<strong>in</strong>ikka and Levy 1999, i.a.).<br />
4 These were ma<strong>in</strong>ly data casually found dur<strong>in</strong>g dialectal <strong>in</strong>quiries and/or dialectal <strong>in</strong>quiries’ listen<strong>in</strong>g, and<br />
other data that casually occurred <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>formal <strong>in</strong>teractions with speakers from my hometown, Portalegre<br />
(Northern Alentejo).<br />
6<br />
4
1. INTRODUCTION<br />
Surely, this is a fairly vague characterization, which, needless to say, requires additional<br />
clarification. But it already <strong>in</strong>cludes a clear suggestion for alternative ways of<br />
understand<strong>in</strong>g expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> EP.<br />
The start<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t for this dissertation has thus been the need to clarify the status of overt<br />
expletives <strong>in</strong> EP and, <strong>in</strong> a more general ve<strong>in</strong>, to have a better understand<strong>in</strong>g of the place of<br />
such l<strong>in</strong>guistic <strong>ele</strong>ments <strong>in</strong> NSLs and <strong>in</strong> language <strong>in</strong> general. Hence, the aim of this <strong>in</strong>quiry<br />
is twofold: (i) to provide an account of overt expletive constructions <strong>in</strong> EP; and (ii) to<br />
enlarge the l<strong>in</strong>guistic debate about the nature and function of expletives <strong>in</strong> natural<br />
language. To accomplish this, I will primarily rely on a comprehensive description of<br />
expletives’ distribution <strong>in</strong> EP. This will be permitted by recent developments on empirical<br />
sources for study<strong>in</strong>g dialect syntax <strong>in</strong> EP. Namely, I will systematically consider expletive<br />
constructions occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> an ongo<strong>in</strong>g project for a corpus of <strong>Portuguese</strong> dialects available<br />
on the <strong>in</strong>ternet. The collection of data so obta<strong>in</strong>ed, comb<strong>in</strong>ed with data drawn from other<br />
occasional sources, will provide a general picture of the distribution of overt expletives <strong>in</strong><br />
non-standard EP, which <strong>in</strong> fact spread over a spectrum of constructions that goes well<br />
beyond impersonals.<br />
The approach taken <strong>in</strong> this dissertation, that of <strong>in</strong>tegrat<strong>in</strong>g non-standard data <strong>in</strong>to<br />
the description of grammar and <strong>in</strong>to l<strong>in</strong>guistic argumentation, reflects a recent tendency <strong>in</strong><br />
parametric syntactic theory: the empirical basis for l<strong>in</strong>guistic research tends to be enriched<br />
by (non-standard) data from dialects (see Roberge and V<strong>in</strong>et 1989, Ben<strong>in</strong>cà and Poletto<br />
1991, Ben<strong>in</strong>cà 1994, Black and Motapanyane 1996, Poletto 2000, a.o.). On the other hand,<br />
this work explores a new approach to the study of l<strong>in</strong>guistic variation, putt<strong>in</strong>g under<br />
scrut<strong>in</strong>y the doma<strong>in</strong> of dialect syntax.<br />
The dissertation is organized as follows. Chapter 2 sets up the frame for build<strong>in</strong>g up our<br />
understand<strong>in</strong>g of expletive <strong>ele</strong>. In a first moment, it reviews the r<strong>ele</strong>vant knowledge about<br />
expletives <strong>in</strong> general. First of all, it is the notion of ‘expletive’ that is elucidated and then a<br />
general characterization of expletives is given. In a second moment, it is the <strong>in</strong>teraction<br />
between expletives and null subject properties that will be considered. Different cases of<br />
overt expletives occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> NSLs will be presented, which widen up the empirical ground<br />
7
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
and permit us to study expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> a more general perspective. Recent analyses for<br />
some of these expletives will be briefly reviewed, some of which present<strong>in</strong>g specific<br />
proposals that concern expletive <strong>ele</strong>.<br />
Chapter 3 focuses on methodological considerations. The empirical foundations for<br />
dialect syntax will be the ma<strong>in</strong> concern of this chapter. In particular, the role of naturalistic<br />
data vs. <strong>in</strong>trospection will be discussed and the methodological approach followed <strong>in</strong> this<br />
study on expletives will be elucidated. This chapter will also <strong>in</strong>clude the presentation of the<br />
corpus that serves as the ma<strong>in</strong> empirical source for this dissertation.<br />
Chapter 4 presents the general description of the studied data. First, the distribution<br />
of expletive <strong>ele</strong> will be considered. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the syntactic context where the expletive<br />
occurs, three different types of expletive <strong>ele</strong> constructions will be isolated. Considerations<br />
on the geographical distribution of the different types of expletive constructions, which are<br />
permitted by the nature of the data taken <strong>in</strong>to account, will then have their place. Some<br />
additional data on the expletive use of the neuter demonstrative pronouns isto ‘this’, isso<br />
and aquilo ‘that’ will be also presented. F<strong>in</strong>ally, the discourse functions of expletive <strong>ele</strong><br />
will be taken <strong>in</strong>to account.<br />
Chapter 5 is devoted to the syntactic analysis of expletive <strong>ele</strong> constructions <strong>in</strong> EP.<br />
The development of such an analysis takes <strong>in</strong>to account the predictions and results from<br />
previous analyses concern<strong>in</strong>g expletive <strong>ele</strong>, which are evaluated at the light of the new<br />
empirical data considered <strong>in</strong> this dissertation. Although the proposal presented here to a<br />
certa<strong>in</strong> extent develops ideas already present <strong>in</strong> these analyses (namely, the idea that EP<br />
expletives are different from NNSLs expletives, and the idea that EP expletives are related<br />
to the left-peripheral space of the sentence), it departs from them <strong>in</strong> many respects.<br />
The analysis put forth <strong>in</strong> this chapter builds on recent developments <strong>in</strong> the study of<br />
the structure of the sentential left periphery <strong>in</strong> general and <strong>in</strong> EP grammar <strong>in</strong> particular, to<br />
attempt to offer an explanation for both: (i) the discourse-related effects displayed by<br />
expletive <strong>ele</strong>; (ii) the syntactic properties of expletive <strong>ele</strong> constructions.<br />
8
2.0 Introduction<br />
2.<br />
<strong>Expletive</strong>s, Subjects and Beyond<br />
In this chapter, I review the theoretical background which underlies the present dissertation<br />
and I attempt to place the study of EP expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> the wider context of l<strong>in</strong>guistic<br />
research concern<strong>in</strong>g overt expletives <strong>in</strong> NSLs and <strong>in</strong> NNSLs allow<strong>in</strong>g for null expletives.<br />
In a first moment, I will be concerned with the elucidation of the mean<strong>in</strong>g of the<br />
term expletive, which displays some ambiguity <strong>in</strong> current l<strong>in</strong>guistic theory. Although<br />
generative syntax has come to specialize this term to refer the specific notion of ‘syntactic<br />
filler for the subject position’, and, even more, to a particular case of such syntactic filler<br />
(“pure expletives” of the there-type), <strong>in</strong> this work, the term expletive is rather used <strong>in</strong> a less<br />
restrictive sense that goes well beyond the notion of ‘subject filler’.<br />
Neverth<strong>ele</strong>ss, a brief characterization of pure expletives is <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> this chapter,<br />
so that the properties displayed by expletive <strong>ele</strong> may be subsequently compared to those of<br />
pure expletives.<br />
This chapter also reviews some generalizations concern<strong>in</strong>g the absence of expletive<br />
subjects <strong>in</strong> natural language. Namely, it will be recalled that NSLs usually lack overt<br />
expletives (cf. Rizzi 1982, Burzio 1986, Jaeggli and Safir 1989, i.a.) and it will be noted<br />
that even NNSLs may <strong>in</strong> some cases allow for non-overt expletive subjects. In this context,<br />
the presence of overt expletives <strong>in</strong> languages allow<strong>in</strong>g for non-overt subjects (or only<br />
non-overt expletive subjects) appears to be fairly exceptional.<br />
9
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
The last part of this chapter <strong>in</strong>cludes evidence for the recurrence and complexity of<br />
such exceptional overt expletives, present<strong>in</strong>g some examples from Romance NSLs and<br />
from Germanic NNSLs. Some recent analyses of such expletives will be presented which<br />
offer the suggestion that these are left-peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ments, rather than fillers for the subject<br />
position. In particular, proposals concern<strong>in</strong>g Romance NSLs’ overt expletives will be<br />
discussed with respect to some of their implications for the analysis of expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> EP.<br />
It will be suggested that, although these proposals make the right predictions concern<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the peripheral status of this expletive, they appear to fail to expla<strong>in</strong> other properties<br />
displayed by expletive constructions <strong>in</strong> EP.<br />
2.1 On the notion ‘expletive’<br />
By the word expletive, l<strong>in</strong>guists do not always mean exactly the same. In fact, the notion<br />
‘expletive’ allows for a significant oscillation <strong>in</strong> its semantic extent, thus correspond<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
different degrees of a similar mean<strong>in</strong>g. In this section, I will first sum up the ma<strong>in</strong> uses<br />
which are most commonly found for this word and then elucidate the use that it will be<br />
given <strong>in</strong> the present dissertation.<br />
In general, the etymological mean<strong>in</strong>g of the word (from the Lat<strong>in</strong> EXPLERE ‘to fill<br />
out’) is found <strong>in</strong> any of its uses, generally referr<strong>in</strong>g some sort of semantically vacuous<br />
structural or syntactic “filler”. We may however dist<strong>in</strong>guish between some fairly<br />
permissive notions and a more restrictive mean<strong>in</strong>g referr<strong>in</strong>g exactly to a type of subject<br />
position filler.<br />
The broadest notion of the word expletive (a fairly theory-neutral one) may be<br />
retrieved <strong>in</strong> traditional and descriptive grammarians and <strong>in</strong> some syntactic generative<br />
literature as well. Under this broad notion, expletive (as a synonym of pleonastic or<br />
dummy) generally means any k<strong>in</strong>d of l<strong>in</strong>guistic item which does not contribute to the<br />
propositional semantic content of a sentence. In the <strong>Portuguese</strong> grammatical tradition, for<br />
<strong>in</strong>stance, expletivo ‘expletive’ is a k<strong>in</strong>d of umbrella word, which may refer to several<br />
categories of words, all of them mak<strong>in</strong>g allegedly no contribution to the propositional<br />
content of the sentence where they appear (among the most usual, adverbs such as cá<br />
‘here’, lá, ‘there’, bem ‘well’; the pronouns <strong>ele</strong> ‘he’ and isto ‘this’ – cf. Said Ali 1908,<br />
10
2. EXPLETIVES, SUBJECTS, AND BEYOND<br />
1930: 85; C<strong>in</strong>tra and Cunha 1984: 284; Bechara 1999: 597, among others). 1 Even <strong>in</strong><br />
generative syntax, a doma<strong>in</strong> where the word expletive has come to be used <strong>in</strong> a more<br />
restricted sense, we may f<strong>in</strong>d a fairly broad use of the word, usually comb<strong>in</strong>ed with some<br />
further specification: wh-expletive, expletive determ<strong>in</strong>er, expletive negation.<br />
In a more restricted sense, expletive usually means a particular type of subject. In<br />
this respect, we may aga<strong>in</strong> dist<strong>in</strong>guish between a more permissive use and a more<br />
restrictive one. Accord<strong>in</strong>gly, the (sub)types of subjects that we may consider as expletives<br />
can vary a lot. Look<strong>in</strong>g first at the more permissive use, expletive may equally apply to the<br />
different k<strong>in</strong>ds of subjects found <strong>in</strong> impersonal constructions <strong>in</strong> general, which are<br />
illustrated <strong>in</strong> (1).<br />
(1) a. It ra<strong>in</strong>s a lot <strong>in</strong> April.<br />
b. It is evident that they are foreigners.<br />
c. It was said that nobody should leave.<br />
d. There are many issues here.<br />
Thus, although the word is here specialized to specifically mean a subject, it generally<br />
refers to any subject-like pronoun found <strong>in</strong> NNSLs <strong>in</strong> impersonal constructions <strong>in</strong> general<br />
(i.e. <strong>in</strong> constructions <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g no thematic subject). <strong>Expletive</strong>s have accord<strong>in</strong>gly been<br />
characterized as follows:<br />
[...] they are (i) morphologically identical to pro-forms (<strong>in</strong> English, two<br />
r<strong>ele</strong>vant forms are it, identical to the third person neuter pronoun, and<br />
there, identical to the nonproximate locative pro-adverb), (ii)<br />
nonreferential (neither anaphoric/cataphoric nor exophoric), and (iii)<br />
devoid of any but a vacuous semantic role [...].<br />
Postal and Pullum 1988: 636<br />
A fairly usual notion of expletive thus applies to <strong>ele</strong>ments that (i) have pronom<strong>in</strong>al status;<br />
and are otherwise characterized by their (ii) non-referentiality; and (iii) semantic vacuity.<br />
Among the predicates <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g such k<strong>in</strong>d of subject, we f<strong>in</strong>d:<br />
1 Sometimes, <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Portuguese</strong> grammatical tradition, the word expletivo is used with an additional mean<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
referr<strong>in</strong>g some k<strong>in</strong>d of emphatic <strong>ele</strong>ment. In this sense, the word expletivo usually corresponds to the<br />
expression partícula/expressão de realce ‘emphatic particle/expression’ (cf. Said Ali 1930, Mattoso Câmara<br />
Jr. 1968, 1978: 206).<br />
11
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
(i) weather verbs and other natural predicates referr<strong>in</strong>g to atmospheric conditions, time,<br />
distance, or general ambiance:<br />
(2) a. It never snows <strong>in</strong> Lisbon.<br />
b. It’s too dark <strong>in</strong> December.<br />
c. It’s very cold outside.<br />
d. It’s very late.<br />
e. It’s her birthday next week.<br />
f. It’s too far to North Pole.<br />
g. It’s ten miles to the next town.<br />
h. It’s too noisy here.<br />
i. It smells good outside.<br />
(ii) verbs such as appear, seem, turn out, happen, occur ..., when they take a clausal<br />
complement:<br />
(3) a. It appears (to me) that we need to make some changes.<br />
b. It seemed (to me) that they had changed.<br />
c. It turned out that she arrived late.<br />
d. It happened that I wasn’t there.<br />
(iii) adjectival predicates tak<strong>in</strong>g a clausal argument (such as likely, evident, possible,<br />
important, useful...):<br />
(4) a. It is likely that she’ll arrive next week.<br />
b. It is easy to trust her.<br />
c. It is important that you understand this.<br />
(iv) the passive of verbs such as regret, believe, know,... which take clausal <strong>in</strong>ternal<br />
arguments: 2<br />
2 Some languages seem to be less restrictive than English with respect to the class of verbs <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> such<br />
passive constructions. The follow<strong>in</strong>g examples illustrate the impersonal passive with verbs <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g no<br />
clausal argument:<br />
12<br />
(i) Il sera procédé au réexamen de cette question. (French, cf. Kayne and Pollock 1978)<br />
it be-FUT taken to.the reexam<strong>in</strong>ation of this issue<br />
(ii) Es wurde die ganze Nacht getanzt (German)<br />
it became the whole night danced<br />
(iii) Det ble skutt på bjømene (Norwegian)<br />
it became shot at the.bear<br />
(iv) Der blev snakket om dig på møtet (Danish)<br />
there became spoken about you at the meet<strong>in</strong>g
(5) a. It is believed that he will w<strong>in</strong> the race.<br />
2. EXPLETIVES, SUBJECTS, AND BEYOND<br />
b. It was regretted that such an accident had occurred.<br />
(v) existential verbs and other verbs occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the so-called presentative construction<br />
(non-transitive verbs tak<strong>in</strong>g an <strong>in</strong>ternal nom<strong>in</strong>al argument which occurs <strong>in</strong> a postverbal<br />
position):<br />
(6) a. There are lots of people outside.<br />
b. There exists a difference between the two of them.<br />
c. There will now follow a short story.<br />
d. There arrived a man.<br />
With<strong>in</strong> the framework of the Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples and Parameters Theory, expletives <strong>in</strong> this sense<br />
have been crucial to the <strong>in</strong>troduction of an <strong>in</strong>dependent general pr<strong>in</strong>ciple stat<strong>in</strong>g that every<br />
clause <strong>in</strong> natural language requires a subject – the Pr<strong>in</strong>ciple P (Chomsky 1981: 26), which<br />
has come to be known as the Extended Projection Pr<strong>in</strong>ciple (usually abbreviated EPP).<br />
[...] nonarguments can occupy the subject position, as <strong>in</strong> it is clear that S, I<br />
expect [it to be clear that S]; <strong>in</strong> fact, the subject position must be filled by a<br />
pleonastic <strong>ele</strong>ment <strong>in</strong> structures lack<strong>in</strong>g a θ-marked subject. It seems, then,<br />
that the requirement that a clause have a subject is <strong>in</strong>dependent of the<br />
Projection Pr<strong>in</strong>ciple. [...] I will henceforth refer to the Projection Pr<strong>in</strong>ciple<br />
along with the requirement that clauses have subjects as the Extended<br />
Projection Pr<strong>in</strong>ciple.<br />
Chomsky 1981: 9-10<br />
The set of <strong>ele</strong>ments referred to as expletives (<strong>in</strong> the sense under consideration at this<br />
moment) appears thus l<strong>in</strong>ked to a general syntactic requirement, a subject visibility<br />
constra<strong>in</strong>t for some structural reason. <strong>Expletive</strong>s would correspond then to a general<br />
l<strong>in</strong>guistic device which satisfies a generalized syntactic requirement on the subject<br />
position.<br />
There is even a more restrictive notion of such requirement and, accord<strong>in</strong>gly, a<br />
stricter mean<strong>in</strong>g for expletive. In fact, not any k<strong>in</strong>d of subject presented <strong>in</strong> examples (2)<br />
through (6) above would qualify as an expletive <strong>in</strong> such strict sense. Some of these subjects<br />
have <strong>in</strong>deed been argued to behave like arguments, rather than like non-arguments.<br />
Consider, for <strong>in</strong>stance, the follow<strong>in</strong>g examples which <strong>in</strong>clude different types of subjects<br />
represent<strong>in</strong>g those <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> (2) to (6) above:<br />
13
(7) It ra<strong>in</strong>s a lot.<br />
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
(8) It seemed improbable that we would arrive <strong>in</strong> time.<br />
(9) There was a party here.<br />
There seems to be no doubt that the subject <strong>in</strong> (7) and (8) is non-referential – cf. the<br />
ungrammaticality of the related questions <strong>in</strong> (7’) and (8’):<br />
(7’) *what ra<strong>in</strong>s?<br />
(8’) *what seems?<br />
However, these subjects have been argued to display some argument-like properties. For<br />
<strong>in</strong>stance, they behave like arguments with respect to control: unlike the expletive <strong>in</strong> (9) –<br />
see the ungrammatical example <strong>in</strong> (12) –, the subject of (7) and (8) may <strong>in</strong> fact control the<br />
subject of a non-f<strong>in</strong>ite adjunct:<br />
(10) Iti ra<strong>in</strong>ed after -i snow<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
(11) At first, iti seemed improbable that we would arrive at all, before -i becom<strong>in</strong>g more likely<br />
that we would just be very late. (adapted from Rothste<strong>in</strong> 2001: 69)<br />
(12) *Therei was a party here after -i be<strong>in</strong>g a meet<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Languages like Hungarian provide further evidence for this similarity with arguments: the<br />
subject pronoun <strong>in</strong> a sentence like (13) may even be focused (example from Kiss 2002:<br />
112).<br />
(13) Számomra [FP csak az [VP volt nyilvánvaló [CP hogy Éva megbukik]]]<br />
for.me only that.NOM was obvious that Eve fails<br />
‘Only that was obvious for me that Eve would fail.’<br />
Moreover, it has been argued that pronouns related to such subjects also appear <strong>in</strong> what<br />
looks like an object position (cf. Postal and Pullum 1988, Authier 1991):<br />
(14) a. I regret it that you couldn’t stay.<br />
b. I blame it on you that we can’t go.<br />
c. I would prefer it if you were not <strong>in</strong>formed.<br />
d. I hate it when you are late.<br />
e. Beat it!<br />
f. I like it here.<br />
Such examples would call <strong>in</strong>to question the established connection between expletives and<br />
the EPP. That is, if these pronouns relat<strong>in</strong>g to object positions may qualify as expletives<br />
then expletives may not be restricted to the subject position.<br />
14
2. EXPLETIVES, SUBJECTS, AND BEYOND<br />
Hence, if the relation EPP/expletives is to be ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed, we surely need a more<br />
restrictive notion of expletive. Obviously, such notion must exclude cases such as (7), (8),<br />
(13) and (14).<br />
A major dist<strong>in</strong>ction has <strong>in</strong>deed been <strong>in</strong>troduced among expletive subjects (latu<br />
sensu) like those illustrated <strong>in</strong> examples (2) to (6). At least, so-called weather-it, the<br />
subject of many natural predicates, has long been dist<strong>in</strong>guished from truly expletive<br />
subjects. The dist<strong>in</strong>ction is already present <strong>in</strong> Lectures on Government and B<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g, where<br />
“quasi-arguments” are treated as a class of arguments, thus clearly different from<br />
non-argumental or expletive subjects:<br />
It seems, then, that weather-it is similar to arguments <strong>in</strong> that it can control<br />
PRO but unlike them <strong>in</strong> that it denotes no member of D [a doma<strong>in</strong> of<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals that serve as values of variables and a denotata], as a matter of<br />
grammatical pr<strong>in</strong>ciple. Let us then dist<strong>in</strong>guish two classes of arguments: true<br />
arguments with potentially referential function – apart from conceptual<br />
constra<strong>in</strong>ts (e.g., those that may bar th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g rocks) there may be <strong>ele</strong>ments of<br />
D that they take as value or denotata – and quasi-arguments that lack any<br />
such function as a matter of grammatical pr<strong>in</strong>ciple. Let us assume,<br />
correspond<strong>in</strong>gly, that one of the possible θ-roles is that of quasi-argument.<br />
Chomsky 1981: 325<br />
Although quasi-arguments have thus argument-like properties, it is a fact that at several<br />
<strong>in</strong>stances they appear paired together with so-called pure expletives:<br />
There is a dist<strong>in</strong>ction between expletives that have Case and ϕ-features<br />
and the “pure expletives” that lack these features: <strong>in</strong> English, it and there,<br />
respectively. The dist<strong>in</strong>ction is neither clear nor sharp [my emphasis, EC],<br />
but it is adequate for our limited purposes [d<strong>ele</strong>ted footnote, EC]. The<br />
former satisfy all properties of the I-V head they check, eras<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
r<strong>ele</strong>vant features, and therefore bar associate rais<strong>in</strong>g. The latter do not<br />
erase the -Interpretable features of the I-V head. Therefore, rais<strong>in</strong>g is<br />
permitted, target<strong>in</strong>g this <strong>ele</strong>ment; and it is required for convergence.<br />
Chomsky 1995: 288<br />
<strong>Expletive</strong>s too must have the feature [person], s<strong>in</strong>ce they raise; and pure<br />
expletives of the there-type should have no other formal features, on the<br />
simplest assumptions. In a framework that dispenses with categorial<br />
features, as is reasonable on m<strong>in</strong>imalist grounds, [person] plays the role<br />
formerly assigned to D- or N-features.<br />
Chomsky 2001a: 7<br />
15
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
The dist<strong>in</strong>ction is thus stated <strong>in</strong> formal terms: quasi-arguments are ϕ-complete, hav<strong>in</strong>g<br />
their own [number] and [person] features (cf. Chomsky 1995, 2001), check<strong>in</strong>g Case<br />
features (Chomsky 1995) and bear<strong>in</strong>g a (quasi-argument) θ-role (cf. Chomsky 1981); pure<br />
expletives lack most of these formal features: they would only have the feature [person]<br />
(cf. Chomsky 2001a).<br />
As already suggested <strong>in</strong> Chomsky 1981, this long-stand<strong>in</strong>g dist<strong>in</strong>ction between<br />
quasi-arguments and pure expletives has given place, <strong>in</strong> some analyses, to a sharper<br />
opposition: so-called quasi-arguments have often been claimed to be <strong>in</strong>deed pla<strong>in</strong><br />
arguments, bear<strong>in</strong>g a θ-role (cf. Hoekstra 1983, Bennis 1986, Vikner 1995). Under such<br />
view, the tripartition argument/quasi-argument/non-argument appears replaced by the<br />
dichotomy argument/non-argument, where only pure expletives would qualify as<br />
non-arguments. The fairly permissive def<strong>in</strong>ition of expletives that encompasses all the<br />
subjects <strong>in</strong> examples (2) through (6) above then gives place to a stricter notion of expletive,<br />
correspond<strong>in</strong>g to English there-type subjects (i.e., only those illustrated <strong>in</strong> (6)).<br />
Under this more restrictive notion of expletive, some of the examples <strong>in</strong> (14) above<br />
would no longer be a problem for the connection expletive/EPP: given the argumental (or<br />
quasi-argumental, hence different from non-argumental) characterization of weather-it, the<br />
sort of idiomatic object-it <strong>in</strong> such examples (here repeated as (15)) would also qualify as an<br />
argument, rather than as a pure expletive (see also Rothste<strong>in</strong> 1995 and Svenonius 2002).<br />
(15) a. Beat it!<br />
b. I like it here.<br />
As for the rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g examples <strong>in</strong> (14) , repeated below as (16) , it may also be argued that<br />
this object it is related to so-called extraposition it <strong>in</strong> examples such as (17) (repeated from<br />
(4) above), which arguably must also be excluded from a more restrictive notion of<br />
expletive.<br />
16<br />
(16) a. I regret it that you couldn’t stay.<br />
b. I blame it on you that we can’t go.<br />
c. I would prefer it if you were not <strong>in</strong>formed.<br />
d. I hate it when you are late.<br />
(17) a. It is likely that she’ll arrive next week.<br />
b. It is easy to trust her.<br />
c. It is important that you understand this.
2. EXPLETIVES, SUBJECTS, AND BEYOND<br />
The similarity of extraposition it and pure expletives is <strong>in</strong> part due to the relation that both<br />
bear with an associate. Thus, pure expletives usually have a nom<strong>in</strong>al associate, while<br />
extraposition it has a clausal associate – the relation with the associate is marked as<br />
super-co<strong>in</strong>dex<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g examples:<br />
(18) a. [It] i is likely [that she’ll arrive next week] i .<br />
b. [There] i arrived [a man] i .<br />
In fact, even though the dist<strong>in</strong>ction between extraposition it and pure expletives is usually<br />
less explicitly stated than the opposition between expletives and quasi-arguments, it is<br />
clear that extraposition it behaves <strong>in</strong> most respects together with quasi-arguments.<br />
Remember, for <strong>in</strong>stance, from examples (11) and (13) above, the follow<strong>in</strong>g characteristics:<br />
(i) extraposition it, just like arguments and quasi-arguments, may control the subject of an<br />
<strong>in</strong>f<strong>in</strong>itive adjunct clause (remember example (11), repeated below as (19)); (ii) <strong>in</strong> a<br />
language such as Hungarian, the extraposition subject may be focused (remember example<br />
(20), repeated from (13) – example from Kiss 2002: 112).<br />
(19) At first, iti seemed improbable that we would arrive at all, before —i becom<strong>in</strong>g more likely<br />
that we would just be very late. (adapted from Rothste<strong>in</strong> 2001: 69)<br />
(20) Számomra [FP csak az [VP volt nyilvánvaló [CP hogy Éva megbukik]]]<br />
for.me only that.NOM was obvious that Eve fails<br />
‘Only that was obvious for me that Eve would fail.’<br />
Furthermore, it has been suggested that the association of it to a clausal argument acts as a<br />
k<strong>in</strong>d of resumptive relation, <strong>in</strong> which case we must concede that extraposition it has<br />
ϕ-features, and, consequently, differs from pure expletives. 3<br />
It is thus not surpris<strong>in</strong>g that, under certa<strong>in</strong> conditions, we may f<strong>in</strong>d a k<strong>in</strong>d of<br />
extraposition it <strong>in</strong> object position, as this behaves <strong>in</strong> several respects like a<br />
(quasi-)argument. In fact, for those who reduce the tripartite typology<br />
argument/quasi-argument/non-argument to the dichotomy argument/non-argument,<br />
extraposition it, just like quasi-arguments, patterns together with arguments (cf. Hoekstra<br />
1983, Bennis 1986, Vikner 1995).<br />
To summarize, we have essentially dist<strong>in</strong>guished three different extensions for the<br />
notion ‘expletive’: (i) <strong>in</strong> a broader sense, expletive means different k<strong>in</strong>ds of <strong>ele</strong>ments which<br />
3 This seems to be the idea that underlies the classification of extraposition it as an anticipatory or cataphoric<br />
pronoun (see Quirk et al. 1985).<br />
17
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
are normally assumed not to contribute to the propositional mean<strong>in</strong>g of a sentence, though<br />
they serve as some sort of structural fillers; (ii) the “<strong>in</strong>-between” notion essentially<br />
corresponds to different k<strong>in</strong>ds of subjects, often dist<strong>in</strong>guished from arguments:<br />
quasi-arguments, extraposition it and pure expletives; 4 (iii) f<strong>in</strong>ally, under a more restrictive<br />
notion, expletive would more precisely correspond to so-called “pure expletives”, i.e. those<br />
subjects of the English there-type, which have a nom<strong>in</strong>al associate.<br />
In the present dissertation, I will not stick to this restrictive notion of expletive, but<br />
rather admit some oscillation that goes beyond the <strong>in</strong>termediate notion of subject expletive.<br />
In fact, it will be argued that what I am call<strong>in</strong>g expletives <strong>in</strong> EP are not necessarily<br />
structural fillers for the subject position.<br />
2.2 Pure expletives and their associates<br />
Pure expletives correspond to the most deficient type of expletives. To be legitimate<br />
objects at the <strong>in</strong>terpretative component of the l<strong>in</strong>guistic system, they greatly depend on<br />
their relation with an associate. The way expletives and associates are related has been a<br />
matter of lively discussion dur<strong>in</strong>g the last decades.<br />
The relation between the expletive and the nom<strong>in</strong>al associate was first considered a<br />
cha<strong>in</strong>-like relation (Chomsky 1981, Safir 1982, 1985, Burzio 1986), a hypothesis also<br />
known as the “Case Transmission Hypothesis”. Consider the follow<strong>in</strong>g example:<br />
(21) There is a bird <strong>in</strong> the garden.<br />
The expletive there is <strong>in</strong>serted <strong>in</strong> a Case and Agreement position, to satisfy the EPP <strong>in</strong><br />
[Spec, IP]; but s<strong>in</strong>ce it has no θ-role – it is non-argumental –, it would not be a legitimate<br />
object at LF. The associate (a bird <strong>in</strong> the present example) has a θ-role, but supposedly its<br />
position is not Case marked. By the cha<strong>in</strong>-like relation between there and the bird, this<br />
nom<strong>in</strong>al argument gets the Nom<strong>in</strong>ative Case assigned to the expletive. The head of the<br />
cha<strong>in</strong> is a Case position; as expected, the tail of the cha<strong>in</strong> is a θ-marked position. Thus, the<br />
cha<strong>in</strong>-like relation expletive-associate represented <strong>in</strong> (21’) results <strong>in</strong> a legitimate object at<br />
the <strong>in</strong>terpretative component. In other words, a thematic associate is always required <strong>in</strong><br />
there expletive constructions.<br />
4 As we have seen, such “expletives” may, <strong>in</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> cases, appear <strong>in</strong> object position as well.<br />
18
(21’) [There] i is [a bird] i <strong>in</strong> the garden.<br />
2. EXPLETIVES, SUBJECTS, AND BEYOND<br />
This has come to be known as a CHAIN (to be read “an expletive-associate cha<strong>in</strong>”)<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g Safir 1982, 1985. Besides thematic relations and Case, agreement is also to be<br />
understood <strong>in</strong>side this CHAIN: the features of the associate are somehow associated with<br />
the expletive, and, as a consequence, standard subject-verb agreement between the subject<br />
(i.e. the expletive) and the verb reflects the agreement features of the associate: 5<br />
(22) There {are/*is} birds <strong>in</strong> the garden.<br />
The Case Transmission Hypothesis between expletive and associate appears further<br />
reformulated <strong>in</strong> Chomsky 1986, by means of so-called expletive replacement by the<br />
associate at LF. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to this new proposal, <strong>in</strong> expletive constructions, the argument<br />
(associate) moves to the position of the expletive for its Case to be licensed. Thus, for an<br />
expression like (21) above, the correspond<strong>in</strong>g LF form would be:<br />
(23) A bird is <strong>in</strong> the garden.<br />
The expletive, which has Nom<strong>in</strong>ative Case, acts as a sort of placeholder for the subject, by<br />
which it is replaced at LF. S<strong>in</strong>ce the expletive is not <strong>in</strong>terpretable at LF, it does not need<br />
Case (cf. Pr<strong>in</strong>ciple of Full Interpretation). This LF movement of the associate to subject<br />
position is thus essentially driven by two requirements: (i) the argument needs Case to be<br />
licensed; (ii) the semantically vacuous expletive needs to be elim<strong>in</strong>ated (so that Full<br />
Interpretation is satisfied).<br />
Some properties of control have been <strong>in</strong>voked to support such a hypothesis: the<br />
postverbal associate <strong>in</strong> expletive constructions seems to have exactly the same control<br />
properties that it has <strong>in</strong> preverbal position <strong>in</strong> non-expletive constructions (cf. Chomsky<br />
1995: 274):<br />
(24) a. There arrived [three men]i last night [PROi without identify<strong>in</strong>g themselves]<br />
b. [Three men]i arrived last night [PROi without identify<strong>in</strong>g themselves]<br />
5<br />
In fact, there seems to be some variation concern<strong>in</strong>g this agreement relation. French il, for <strong>in</strong>stance, behaves<br />
differently (cf. Pollock 1983):<br />
(i) Il {est/*sont} apparu des oiseaux dans le jard<strong>in</strong><br />
EXPL is are appeared some birds <strong>in</strong> the garden<br />
Even <strong>in</strong> English, non-agree<strong>in</strong>g variants are quite frequent (cf. Meechan and Foley 1994). The follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
examples are taken from Schütze 1999: 475 (cf. also Den Dikken 2000):<br />
(ii) How many calories’s there <strong>in</strong> a Tic Tac?<br />
(iii) There was fifty people at the party last night.<br />
19
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
Subsequently, however, this expletive replacement hypothesis is reformulated as<br />
adjunction of the associate to the expletive. Chomsky 1991 stipulates that there is an “LF<br />
affix”, i.e. at LF it must have an NP adjo<strong>in</strong>ed to it to be <strong>in</strong>terpretable. Thus, the pr<strong>in</strong>ciple of<br />
Full Interpretation makes it necessary that an NP adjo<strong>in</strong>s to there, otherwise it rema<strong>in</strong>s<br />
unaffixed and an affix to which noth<strong>in</strong>g has adjo<strong>in</strong>ed is un<strong>in</strong>terpretable. In Chomsky’s<br />
1991 terms, we would then have the follow<strong>in</strong>g LF structure for sentence (21):<br />
(25) [ AGRSP [[ DP a bird]i there] is [ VP ti <strong>in</strong> the garden]]<br />
Chomsky 1993 still reta<strong>in</strong>s the idea that adjunction to the expletive is required for it to<br />
become an <strong>in</strong>terpretable LF object. But, under the assumption that movement is motivated<br />
by the need to check morphological features, it is proposed that the associate of the<br />
expletive must raise <strong>in</strong> order to check features <strong>in</strong> [Spec, AgrSP] (a movement thus driven<br />
by Greed). Check<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>volves here the noun’s φ-features (person and number) and its Case<br />
features. φ-features are checked aga<strong>in</strong>st AgrS itself and Case features are checked aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />
T, which <strong>in</strong> English adjo<strong>in</strong>s to AgrS. As a consequence, the associate ends up adjo<strong>in</strong>ed to<br />
the expletive, even if its movement has been motivated by feature check<strong>in</strong>g. For Chomsky<br />
1993, if there rema<strong>in</strong>s unaffixed at LF, it is still a legitimate object, so the derivation must<br />
converge. However, <strong>in</strong> that case, the expletive receives no <strong>in</strong>terpretation at LF, so the<br />
derivation “converges as semigibberish” (p. 200).<br />
Later on, Chomsky 1995 proposes a somewhat different approach to expletive<br />
constructions, assum<strong>in</strong>g a different background. First, there is a shift to the hypothesis that<br />
the φ-features of DPs are [+ <strong>in</strong>terpretable], even though these phrases cont<strong>in</strong>ue to need to<br />
check the Case features they bear. Second, there is no longer a place for the complex<br />
AgrS/T, s<strong>in</strong>ce Agr heads are dispensed with under this framework. Third, covert<br />
movement is limited to movement of the formal features of heads, which must adjo<strong>in</strong> to a<br />
functional head whose features they check. A functional head H attracts the formal features<br />
of the closest head that H c-commands. Fourth, the EPP is no longer related to the<br />
check<strong>in</strong>g of strong Case features. Instead, it is proposed that T universally has a strong<br />
D-feature that must be checked by any D category (or an EPP-feature, as <strong>in</strong> Chomsky<br />
2001a). F<strong>in</strong>ally, and most importantly, an expletive such as there is now hypothesized to<br />
bear no semantic features neither Case features. Its only role is to satisfy the EPP: as a<br />
category D, it can check the EPP feature of T (i.e. the D-feature of T). Alternatively, <strong>in</strong><br />
20
2. EXPLETIVES, SUBJECTS, AND BEYOND<br />
Chosmky’s 2001 terms, the expletive has an un<strong>in</strong>terpretable feature [person]. Under<br />
Match, the D-feature of the expletive (or its person feature) is d<strong>ele</strong>ted, together with the<br />
D-feature (or EPP-feature) of T. However, <strong>in</strong> there-constructions, the ϕ-set of T rema<strong>in</strong>s<br />
unchecked because the expletive has no additional features. Check<strong>in</strong>g of Case and<br />
agreement features <strong>in</strong> T is postponed until LF, at which po<strong>in</strong>t the formal features of the<br />
associate may raise to check these features. LF associate rais<strong>in</strong>g is then conceived of as<br />
adjunction of the associate’s formal features to T, as represented below:<br />
(26) TP<br />
tp<br />
D T’<br />
g tp<br />
there T PredP<br />
tu to<br />
[φ, NOM] T DP Pred’<br />
↑ g 4 5<br />
| is a bird <strong>in</strong> the garden<br />
| [φ, NOM]<br />
| |<br />
|_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _|<br />
Differently, an expletive like it, which is assumed to have both Case and φ-features, can<br />
check Case and agreement features <strong>in</strong> T, so that no further check<strong>in</strong>g is required. Thus, such<br />
expletive constructions don’t really need any nom<strong>in</strong>al associate.<br />
2.3 Non-overt expletives<br />
In this section, it is the absence of overt expletives <strong>in</strong> natural language that will be under<br />
<strong>in</strong>spection. First, I will consider the case of NSLs, about which it is generally assumed that<br />
they lack overt expletives. Then, it will be shown that even some NNSLs may allow<br />
expletives to be miss<strong>in</strong>g. A brief note on the status of null expletives will be <strong>in</strong>cluded at the<br />
end of this section.<br />
As is well-known, it has often been observed that languages allow<strong>in</strong>g null<br />
referential subjects (such as Italian or EP) do not have overt expletives (Rizzi 1982, Burzio<br />
1986, Jaeggli and Safir 1989, i.a.). Thus, s<strong>in</strong>ce the sentences <strong>in</strong> (27), which <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
referential null subjects, are both grammatical, then sentences <strong>in</strong> (28) through (30), which<br />
<strong>in</strong>volve different types of non-overt expletive subjects (cf. section 2.1 above), are equally<br />
allowed.<br />
21
(27) a. É arrivato alle due. (It)<br />
is arrived at.the two<br />
‘(He/it) has arrived at two o’clock.’<br />
b. Não come carne. (PE)<br />
NEG eats meat<br />
‘(He/she/it) doesn’t eat meat.’<br />
(28) a. Piove. (It)<br />
b. Chove. (PE)<br />
ra<strong>in</strong>s<br />
‘It ra<strong>in</strong>s.’<br />
(29) a. É venuto un altro studente. (It)<br />
is arrived another student<br />
‘There arrived another student.’<br />
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
b. Está um desconhecido à porta. (PE)<br />
is a stranger at.the door<br />
‘There is a stranger at the door.’<br />
(30) É óbvio que não sabes a resposta. (PE)<br />
is obvious that NEG knows-PRES.2SG the answer<br />
‘It is obvious that you don’t know the answer.’<br />
In fact, under the received view, overt expletives typically occur <strong>in</strong> NNSLs, such as<br />
English or French, i.e. <strong>in</strong> languages which require that the subject position always be overt,<br />
even if non-argumental. In this case, an overt expletive must obligatorily fill the subject<br />
position. The r<strong>ele</strong>vant examples are presented <strong>in</strong> (31) below:<br />
(31) a. *(He/She/It) doesn’t eat meat.<br />
b. *(It) ra<strong>in</strong>ed all night.<br />
c. *(It) is very important that you don’t forget this.<br />
d. *(There) are many taxis outside the station.<br />
As already mentioned, thus, overt expletives appear essentially as the purely structural<br />
device required by NNSLs to overtly fill a non-argumental subject position. In other<br />
words, such subjects are strictly connected with some visibility requirement on the subject<br />
position, a recurrent idea <strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>guistic theory, found under the EPP format of the Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples<br />
and Parameters theory (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the m<strong>in</strong>imalist approach).<br />
Such correlation between NNSLs and obligatory overt expletives is however to be<br />
seen as non-absolute. In fact, some languages disallow<strong>in</strong>g null referential subjects<br />
standardly allow (at least some k<strong>in</strong>ds of) non-overt expletive subjects. This is a<br />
well-documented phenomenon for some Germanic languages. Consider, first, the case of<br />
22
2. EXPLETIVES, SUBJECTS, AND BEYOND<br />
German: <strong>in</strong> this language, neither referential nor quasi-argumental subjects of weather<br />
verbs may be omitted, as illustrated <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g examples:<br />
(32) (Die K<strong>in</strong>der spi<strong>ele</strong>n jeden Tag.) Das tun *(sie) im Garten.<br />
(the children play every day) that do they <strong>in</strong>.the garden (ex. from Platzack 1996: 184)<br />
(33) Gestern regnete *(es).<br />
yesterday ra<strong>in</strong>ed it<br />
However, <strong>in</strong> extraposition and presentative constructions the expletive subject may well be<br />
absent:<br />
(34) Natürlich ist (es) gut, dass du gekommen bist.<br />
of course is it good that you come are<br />
(35) Gestern ist (*es) e<strong>in</strong> Junge gekommen.<br />
yesterday is it a boy come<br />
If we look at Icelandic <strong>in</strong>stead, we f<strong>in</strong>d that, although extraposition subjects may be overt,<br />
any type of expletive subject may be omitted <strong>in</strong> the correspond<strong>in</strong>g positions, as illustrated<br />
below:<br />
(36) Í gær rigndi (*það).<br />
yesterday ra<strong>in</strong>ed it<br />
(37) Að sjálfsögðu er (það) gott að þú ert kom<strong>in</strong>n.<br />
of course is it good that you are come<br />
(38) Í gær hafði (*það) komið strákur.<br />
yesterday has it come a boy<br />
The same is true about Yiddish, even if quasi-arguments and extraposition expletives may<br />
optionally be overt <strong>in</strong> this language (data adapted from Vikner 1995: 226):<br />
(39) Nekhtn hot (es) gerēgnt.<br />
yesterday has it ra<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
(40) Natirlekh iz (es) gut, vos du gekumen bist.<br />
of course is it good that you come are<br />
(41) Nekhtn iz (*es) gekumen a y<strong>in</strong>gl.<br />
yesterday is it come a boy<br />
Remark that, as far as only some types of expletives may be optionally overt, this sort of<br />
data may be taken as evidence for the differentiation of three types of subjects, all of them<br />
subsumed under the broad notion of expletive subject (see section 2.1).<br />
23
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
But, altogether, these data ma<strong>in</strong>ly support the generalization that requirements on<br />
null subjects are less strict for expletive subjects than for argumental ones, which was<br />
given formal content <strong>in</strong> Rizzi’s proposal on the licens<strong>in</strong>g of null subjects (Rizzi 1986), <strong>in</strong><br />
particular <strong>in</strong> languages with rich subject-verb agreement (<strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e with Taraldsen’s<br />
Generalization on null subject licens<strong>in</strong>g by overt agreeement morphology – Taraldsen<br />
1980). Most specifically, Rizzi proposes that null pronouns are subject to two separate<br />
requirements as stated <strong>in</strong> (42), namely, (i) one bear<strong>in</strong>g with its formal licens<strong>in</strong>g; and (ii) the<br />
other bear<strong>in</strong>g with the null subject content identification.<br />
(42) A null subject must be both licensed and identified.<br />
The licens<strong>in</strong>g requirement implies that a null subject must be governed by a rich Inflection<br />
head, and the identification requirement is satisfied by the person-number features of Infl,<br />
so that the null subject <strong>in</strong>herits these features’ values. Different comb<strong>in</strong>ations of the<br />
[person]/[number] features’ values yield different types of null subject identification, as<br />
represented <strong>in</strong> Table 1 below (adapted from Platzack 1996: 183):<br />
[+person] [+number] referential NS<br />
[–person] [+number] quasi-argumental NS<br />
[–person] [–number] pure expletive NS<br />
Table 1. Types of null subject’s identification<br />
Thus, the follow<strong>in</strong>g typology of null subjects may be sketched, relat<strong>in</strong>g to the different<br />
conditions for the identification of the content of empty subjects:<br />
i) referential NSs must be identified by the features [person] and [number];<br />
ii) quasi-argumental NSs require identification by a [number] feature;<br />
iii) pure expletive NSs need no feature identification at all.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>gly, languages may differ with respect to the type of null subjects they allow (cf.<br />
Table 2 below). “Full” NSLs, such as Italian or EP, have referential, quasi-argumental and<br />
pure expletive NSs. But, besides such typical NSLs, other languages equally allow null<br />
subjects: quasi-argumental ones and expletives <strong>in</strong> the case of Icelandic, and only pure<br />
24
2. EXPLETIVES, SUBJECTS, AND BEYOND<br />
expletive subjects <strong>in</strong> the case of German. “Full” NNSLs, like French and English, do not<br />
allow any k<strong>in</strong>d of null subject. 6, 7<br />
LANGUAGE Referential NS Quasi-argumental NS <strong>Expletive</strong> NS<br />
Italian / EP � � �<br />
Icelandic — � �<br />
German — — �<br />
French / Engl. — — —<br />
Table 2. Typology of languages regard<strong>in</strong>g null subjects<br />
Such a typology of NSLs <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>gly allows the follow<strong>in</strong>g prediction about expletives <strong>in</strong><br />
natural language:<br />
(43) Any language which is able to identify referential null subjects should also admit quasiargumental<br />
and expletive null subjects.<br />
In fact, natural languages seem generally to confirm the correlation between null subjects<br />
and the absence of overt expletives.<br />
Recently, Alexiadou and Anagnostopoulou 1998 propose a new theory about NSs and the<br />
EPP which also makes the prediction that NSLs do not have expletives. Assum<strong>in</strong>g that the<br />
EPP is universal and is to be seen as a D-feature <strong>in</strong> I (follow<strong>in</strong>g Chomsky 1995), these<br />
authors propose that languages can check the EPP either by movement of XP (the<br />
sentential subject) or by a nom<strong>in</strong>al category of X 0 , i.e. an <strong>in</strong>flected verb endowed with<br />
explicit person and number agreement. In other words, <strong>in</strong> some languages the AgrS<br />
features on the f<strong>in</strong>ite verb are nom<strong>in</strong>al enough to satisfy the EPP-feature, so that Vmovement<br />
to AgrS is sufficient, while <strong>in</strong> other languages either a nom<strong>in</strong>al argument has to<br />
move to [Spec, AgrSP] or a nom<strong>in</strong>al expletive must be <strong>in</strong>serted there. Accord<strong>in</strong>gly, s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
6<br />
To be more precise, even these languages allow some sort of omnipresent null subjects <strong>in</strong> natural language:<br />
highly context-dependent subjects such as the ones found <strong>in</strong> diary registers and notes, etc.<br />
In other cases, the drop of the expletive is correlated to some familiar registers.<br />
(i) – Faut pas pleurer. (Fr.)<br />
needs NEG cry-INF ‘There’s no need to cry.’<br />
(ii) –Y a que ça. (Fr.)<br />
Y has but this ‘There’s noth<strong>in</strong>g else than this.’<br />
(iii) – Looks like a storm.<br />
7<br />
Full NNSLs constitute a fairly rare pattern <strong>in</strong> natural language. Cf. Gilligan 1987.<br />
25
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
NSLs have verbal agreement features which can check the EPP feature, they do not have<br />
overt nor covert expletives. 8<br />
2.4 Exceptional overt expletives<br />
Although NSLs standardly lack overt expletives, the use of expletive-like pronouns has<br />
been documented <strong>in</strong> different NSLs, usually <strong>in</strong> non-standard (especially colloquial)<br />
varieties. Similarly, it must be noted that even NNSLs which allow null expletive subjects<br />
may, <strong>in</strong> some cases, show overt expletives. Conditions under which such overt expletives<br />
may appear have been a matter of recent <strong>in</strong>quiry. In this section, I will present some<br />
r<strong>ele</strong>vant data and discuss some recent proposals which try to account for the presence of<br />
overt expletives <strong>in</strong> such languages.<br />
2.4.1 Some data<br />
Overt expletives are found <strong>in</strong> several languages which standardly have expletive null<br />
subjects. Besides EP, for which more detailed data will be discussed <strong>in</strong> chapter 4, other<br />
Romance NSLs equally provide evidence for overt expletives.<br />
This is the case of different varieties of American Spanish, spoken <strong>in</strong> Santo<br />
Dom<strong>in</strong>go, Mexico, Colombia, and Caribbean dialects <strong>in</strong> general, as reported by Henriquez<br />
Ureña 1939, Kany 1945, Uriagereka 1995b, Fernández Soriano 1999, i.a.. The reference<br />
examples usually <strong>in</strong>volve impersonal contexts as <strong>in</strong> sentences (44) to (46) (which <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
an existential construction, a presentative construction and a clausal subject extraposition,<br />
respectively):<br />
(44) Ello hay dulce de ajonjolí?<br />
EXPL has sweet of sesame.seed<br />
‘Is there any sesame cake?’<br />
(45) Ello llegan guagas hasta acá.<br />
EXPL arrive-3PL buses there<br />
‘There arrive buses there.’<br />
(46) Ello es fácil llegar.<br />
EXPL is easy arrive-INF<br />
‘It is easy to get there.’<br />
8<br />
A similar idea is pursued <strong>in</strong> Picallo 1998, who argues that null expletives should be banned from NSLs by<br />
economy pr<strong>in</strong>ciples.<br />
26
2. EXPLETIVES, SUBJECTS, AND BEYOND<br />
On the basis of recently collected data from Dom<strong>in</strong>ican Spanish, the expletive has however<br />
been <strong>in</strong>terpreted as a correlate of the lost of some null subject properties <strong>in</strong> this language,<br />
namely the lost of strong Agr features (Toribio 1993, 2000, 2004).<br />
Neverth<strong>ele</strong>ss, Henríquez Ureña 1939 extensively reports other k<strong>in</strong>d of data on<br />
expletive ello <strong>in</strong> Dom<strong>in</strong>ican Spanish, which extend far beyond expletive subjects, as also<br />
po<strong>in</strong>ted out <strong>in</strong> H<strong>in</strong>zel<strong>in</strong> 2004:<br />
(47) Ello veremos.<br />
EXPL see-FUT.1PL<br />
‘WE’LL SEE.’<br />
(48) Ello, quizás no viene.<br />
EXPL maybe NEG comes<br />
‘Maybe, probably he’s not com<strong>in</strong>g.’<br />
(49) - ¿ Es usted verde, azul o rojo?<br />
‘Are you green, blue or red [names of political parties]?’<br />
- Ello, yo le diré; yo soy… santiaguero.<br />
EXPL I to.you tell-FUT I am from Santiago<br />
‘(Wait/You see,) I’ll tell you; I’m… from Santiago.’<br />
(50) Ello… Así decían.<br />
EXPL so said-3PL<br />
‘(You see,) so they said.’<br />
(51) - ¿ Vas al pueblo?<br />
‘Do you go to the village?’<br />
- Ello… [=eso dependerá]<br />
‘We’ll see…/ It depends… [=that will depend]’<br />
(52) ello sí<br />
EXPL yes<br />
‘Yes, surely.’<br />
(53) ello no<br />
EXPL no<br />
‘No, never.’<br />
In such examples, the expletive has been analyzed as express<strong>in</strong>g emphasis (example (47)),<br />
an evasive or concessive mean<strong>in</strong>g (examples (48) to (50)), hesitation (example (51)), or<br />
emphatic assertion (examples (52) and (53)). Henriquez Ureña’s <strong>in</strong>quiry reports these<br />
values for ello also <strong>in</strong> other Spanish varieties, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>European</strong> Spanish, found as early<br />
as 1630 <strong>in</strong> Maestro Gonzalo Correas’ Vocabulario.<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the 18th century the value of emphatic <strong>ele</strong>ment has been<br />
consolidated: it is usual <strong>in</strong> Moratín. It lasts for the 19th century, <strong>in</strong> some<br />
writers from the romantic period such as Martínez de la Rosa, Larra and<br />
Hartzenbusch. Just like <strong>in</strong> the 17th century, it [the expletive] may appear<br />
27
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
with or without a pause. So it still exists <strong>in</strong> the popular spoken language from<br />
Santander and from Santo Dom<strong>in</strong>go, where the emphatic value may give<br />
place to a concessive mean<strong>in</strong>g. […]<br />
All these uses have disappeared from the cultivated language, and the<br />
pronoun has lost vitality <strong>in</strong> the spoken language, although it is still found <strong>in</strong><br />
literature. It subsists with an important part of its multiple functions only <strong>in</strong><br />
spoken language from Spa<strong>in</strong> and from Antilles.<br />
Henríquez Ureña 1939: 229, my translation<br />
An expletive-like <strong>ele</strong>ment is also found <strong>in</strong> some Catalan varieties, <strong>in</strong> particular <strong>in</strong> those<br />
from the Balear Islands (Spitzer 1945, Corom<strong>in</strong>as and Pascual 1980-1991, s.v. ell, ella,<br />
DCVB, s.v. ell, Solà et al. 2002, i.a.). Aga<strong>in</strong>, besides impersonal contexts, ell is ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
used as an emphatic <strong>ele</strong>ment which appears at the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of exclamative sentences (as<br />
an “exclamative particle”, Solà et al. 2002):<br />
(54) Ell ha de ploure un dia o altre!<br />
EXPL will ra<strong>in</strong> a day or other<br />
‘It will ra<strong>in</strong> one of these days!’<br />
(55) Ell aixó no acaba mai!<br />
EXPL this NEG ends up never<br />
‘This does not end up!’<br />
In Galician, there is also ample evidence for the existence of an overt expletive (Carballo<br />
Calero 1966, Álvarez 1981, 2001, 2002, Álvarez et al. 1986, Uriagereka 1995b, Uriagereka<br />
2004, i.a.). Besides impersonal contexts, the expletive appears <strong>in</strong> Galician <strong>in</strong> a wide<br />
spectrum of constructions, as described especially by Álvarez 2001 and 2002. The<br />
impersonal contexts which <strong>in</strong>clude the overt expletive are fairly varied, <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g weather<br />
verbs and other natural predicates, existential sentences, constructions with impersonal ser,<br />
and extraposition constructions:<br />
28<br />
(56) El chovía miudiño.<br />
EXPL ra<strong>in</strong>ed ± a little<br />
‘It ra<strong>in</strong>ed a little.’<br />
(57) El era mediodía.<br />
EXPL was midday<br />
‘It was midday.’<br />
(58) El hai máis ca antes.<br />
EXPL has more than before<br />
‘There is more than before.’<br />
(59) E pois, el era unha vez un home que tiña catro fillos…<br />
and then EXPL was a time a man who had four children<br />
‘And then, once upon a time a man had four children.’
(60) Il é que vai frío.<br />
EXPL is that goes cold<br />
±‘It is that it’s cold.’<br />
(61) Il é millor deixá-lo.<br />
EXPL is better leave-INF him<br />
‘It’s better to leave him.’<br />
(62) El é certo que iso acontecéu.<br />
EXPL is certa<strong>in</strong> that that happened<br />
‘It is certa<strong>in</strong> that that has happened.’<br />
2. EXPLETIVES, SUBJECTS, AND BEYOND<br />
Álvarez 2001 reports the use of this expletive <strong>in</strong> other syntactically impersonal<br />
constructions, <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>def<strong>in</strong>ite se:<br />
(63) Il cóntase que fixo diñeiro nas Américas.<br />
EXPL is.said that made money <strong>in</strong>.the Americas<br />
‘It is said that [he/she] had earned money <strong>in</strong> America.’<br />
As often remarked <strong>in</strong> grammars and dictionnaries, some <strong>in</strong>terrogative sentences have an<br />
<strong>in</strong>itial “<strong>in</strong>terrogative el”, a well documented use for expletive el <strong>in</strong> Galician. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
Álvarez 2001, el is essentially frequent <strong>in</strong> yes-no questions, but especially <strong>in</strong> those which<br />
presuppose an answer <strong>in</strong> conformity to the speaker’s expectations:<br />
(64) ¿ El tendes por aí un martelo que me poidades emprestar?<br />
EXPL have there a hammer that to.me could lend<br />
‘Do you have a hammer that you could lend to me?’<br />
(65) ¿ El hai leite?<br />
EXPL has milk<br />
‘Is there any milk?’<br />
Its mean<strong>in</strong>g and function may parallel those of other modal phrases or words<br />
- either emphatic ones such as va que, a que, (non é) verdade que, (non) é<br />
certo que…, or others like seica, logo non… -, and this places el<br />
simultaneously together with clausal modal words and with those markers<br />
relat<strong>in</strong>g to the expression of the speaker’s position with respect to the<br />
utterance. The fact that some of these forms may co-occur with el (el é<br />
verdade que, el é certo que… […]) leads us to th<strong>in</strong>k that both constructions<br />
are related, and, under this hypothesis ¿El viñeron teus pais? would be based<br />
on ¿El (non) é certo que viñeron teus pais? and similar phrases.<br />
Álvarez 2001: 22, my translation<br />
A similar use is found <strong>in</strong> question-tags, which signal by themselves a confirmation request:<br />
(66) ¿Xa te mollaches, el si?<br />
already you wet EXPL yes<br />
‘You are already wet, aren’t you?’<br />
29
(67) No fixeches caso, ¿el non?<br />
NEG take notice EXPL NEG<br />
‘You ignored it, didn’t you?’<br />
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
(68) Aghora has tomar leite, ¿el has?<br />
now have take-INF milk EXPL have<br />
‘Now you have to take milk, haven’t you?’<br />
Cases of <strong>in</strong>itial el <strong>in</strong> yes-no questions <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g a disjunction between the existence and the<br />
non-existence are also reported:<br />
(69) Il hai ou non hai festa?<br />
EXPL has or NEG has party?<br />
‘Is there a party or not?’<br />
(70) ¿ El ves ou quedaste?<br />
EXPL come or stay<br />
‘Do you come or do you stay?’<br />
With respect to the <strong>in</strong>itial el found <strong>in</strong> these and other <strong>in</strong>terrogatives, Álvarez 2001 notes<br />
that its function is not necessarily that of an “<strong>in</strong>terrogative marker”. In some cases, it may<br />
almost parallel some question focus<strong>in</strong>g <strong>ele</strong>ment (el que …? = ‘what is it that…?’; el<br />
cando…? = ‘when is it that…?’):<br />
(71) ¿ El que che passou?<br />
EXPL what to.you happenned<br />
‘What happenned to you?’<br />
In other cases, it would rather correspond to the sort of “explicative-consequential<br />
connector” that Álvarez 2001 presents as a diverse function for expletive el, as found <strong>in</strong><br />
example (73):<br />
(72) Il que hora é, se fai o favor?<br />
EXPL what hour is if do the favour<br />
‘What time is it, please?’<br />
(73) Porque non estou ben seguro aora si eran…, si eran dezaseis pares un afusal, si eran<br />
dezaoito.<br />
‘Because I am not so sure whether it was … whether an afusal was sixteen or eighteen pairs.’<br />
Il por aí andaban.<br />
EXPL by.there were<br />
±‘It was someth<strong>in</strong>g like that.’<br />
Similar to the alleged “<strong>in</strong>terrogative marker” value, Álvarez 2001 signals the use of the<br />
expletive as a sort of exclamative marker:<br />
30<br />
(74) El tamém son ben caras! [as sardiñas]<br />
EXPL even are very expensive the sard<strong>in</strong>es<br />
‘They [the sard<strong>in</strong>es] are so expensive!’
2. EXPLETIVES, SUBJECTS, AND BEYOND<br />
Yet another use of expletive el is reported by Álvarez 2001: as a phatic <strong>ele</strong>ment, “which<br />
allows the speech to flow, fill<strong>in</strong>g up the possible silence of the speaker or tell<strong>in</strong>g the hearer<br />
that the channel cont<strong>in</strong>ues open <strong>in</strong> such direction” (Álvarez 2001: 27, my translation).<br />
(75) - Ai, mi má! | - Qué, fillo, qué? – respondélle a mai, que o conecera pola voz.<br />
‘- Oh, my mother! | - What is it, son, what is it? – answered his mother, who had recognized him by<br />
his voice.’<br />
- El, Dom<strong>in</strong>jo Dom<strong>in</strong>jez está en casa?<br />
EXPL D D is at home<br />
‘- Eh… is Dom<strong>in</strong>jo Dom<strong>in</strong>jez at home?’<br />
The data from Galician thus provide additional evidence for the presence of overt<br />
expletives <strong>in</strong> a NSL. Just like data from Spanish and Catalan, the Galician data also lead us<br />
to consider the spread of the overt expletive well beyond the usual contexts for expletives<br />
<strong>in</strong> NNSLs.<br />
We may still consider the case of another NSL: <strong>in</strong> Old French, some <strong>in</strong>stances of<br />
overt expletives are also found <strong>in</strong> impersonal constructions (Arteaga 1994, Bakker 1995,<br />
Kaiser 2004, Arteaga and Herschensohn 2004, i.a.):<br />
(76) Quant li jurz passet ed il fut anuit(i)et<br />
when the day passes and EXPL was night.fallen<br />
(77) Il i vont ci viel prestre<br />
EXPL there go these old priests<br />
(78) … ou il menjoient cent et c<strong>in</strong>quante toriaus.<br />
where EXPL ate-3PL hundred and fifty bulls<br />
(79) Issi poet il ben estre?<br />
this can EXPL well be<br />
(80) Si ot il assez en la place barons et chevaliers<br />
thus has EXPL many <strong>in</strong> the place barons and knights<br />
(81) N’a il soz ciel homme ne femme<br />
NEG has EXPL under heaven man nor woman<br />
However, as argued by Bakker 1995 and Arteaga and Herschensohn 2004, overt expletives<br />
<strong>in</strong> Old French may be related not only to null subject properties but also to the verb-second<br />
(V2) characterization of this language.<br />
In fact, as it will be presented below, some “exceptional” overt expletives <strong>in</strong><br />
Germanic languages also seem to relate to some V2 requirement (see section 2.4.2 below).<br />
As already mentioned above, Germanic languages such as German, Icelandic and Yiddish<br />
31
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
behave much like NSLs with respect to expletive subjects. In fact, all these languages<br />
require (at least some types of) non-overt expletives under certa<strong>in</strong> conditions (more<br />
precisely, <strong>in</strong> sentence-<strong>in</strong>ternal position) – cf. examples presented above, <strong>in</strong> section 2.3.<br />
Contrast the follow<strong>in</strong>g data (from Brandner 2004):<br />
(82) a. Gestern kam (*es) e<strong>in</strong> Junge. (German)<br />
yesterday came EXPL a boy<br />
b. Í gær hafði (*það) komið strákur. (Icelandic)<br />
yesterday has EXPL come a boy<br />
c. Nekhtn iz (*es) gekumen a y<strong>in</strong>gl. (Yiddish)<br />
d. omdat ??(er) een jonge komt (Dutch)<br />
because EXPL a boy come<br />
e. *(there) came a boy (English)<br />
f. at *(der) er kommet en dreng (Danish)<br />
g. I dag har *(det) kommit månge l<strong>in</strong>gvister hit (Norwegian)<br />
TODAY have EXPL come many l<strong>in</strong>guistis here<br />
h. Idag har *(det) komit många l<strong>in</strong>gvister hit (Swedish)<br />
Pure expletives are thus necessarily non-overt <strong>in</strong> German, Icelandic and Yiddish, while <strong>in</strong><br />
other Germanic languages they must be overt. However, even those expletive NSLs (i.e.<br />
German, Icelandic and Yiddish) require overt expletives <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>itial position, just like other<br />
V2 Germanic languages:<br />
(83) a. *(Es) ist e<strong>in</strong> Junge gekommen (German)<br />
b. *(Es) iz gekumen a y<strong>in</strong>gle (Yiddish)<br />
c. *( það) hafði komið strákur (Icelandic)<br />
d. *(Der) er kommet en dreng (Danish)<br />
e. *(Det) har kommit en pojke (Swedish)<br />
EXPL have (come) a boy (come)<br />
Outside Romance and Germanic languages, we f<strong>in</strong>d additional examples of overt<br />
expletives <strong>in</strong> other NSLs, such as Hebrew and F<strong>in</strong>nish (see Borer 1986, Schlonsky 1990,<br />
Va<strong>in</strong>ikka and Levy 1999, Holmberg and Nikanne 2002, Vilkuna 2003, i.a.). Although<br />
32
2. EXPLETIVES, SUBJECTS, AND BEYOND<br />
these languages differ both from “traditional” NSLs, they may not be considered NNSLs.<br />
The r<strong>ele</strong>vant fact for our purpose is that <strong>in</strong> both F<strong>in</strong>nish and Hebrew expletive<br />
constructions standardly show omission of the third person (expletive) subject, but<br />
neverth<strong>ele</strong>ss may <strong>in</strong> some cases have overt expletives (data from Va<strong>in</strong>ikka and Levy<br />
1999):<br />
(84) (Ze) nira she-Nurit amda lenaceax. (Hebrew)<br />
EXPL seemed-3SG.M that-Nurit stood-3SG.F to w<strong>in</strong><br />
‘It seemed that Nurit was about to w<strong>in</strong>.’<br />
(85) ( ? Se) on kyseenalaista, saako Liisa ylennyksen. (F<strong>in</strong>nish)<br />
EXPL be-3SG questionable get-3SG.Q Liisa-NOM promotion-ACC<br />
‘It is questionable whether Liisa will get a promotion.’<br />
The […] examples with an overt expletive ze are perfectly f<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> the<br />
standard colloquial Hebrew […]. However, their status differs […] <strong>in</strong> that<br />
the overt ze expletive is rarely used <strong>in</strong> the written language; Borer (1986, p.<br />
382) characterizes the overt expletive as possible but “substandard”. Recall<br />
that a similar situation obta<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish, where a phonetically empty<br />
expletive is usual <strong>in</strong> the written language, but where the subject expletive can<br />
be phonetically realized as se ‘it’ <strong>in</strong> some spoken varieties of the language.<br />
Va<strong>in</strong>ikka and Levy 1999: 655<br />
With respect to F<strong>in</strong>nish, besides the expletive se, which is the nom<strong>in</strong>ative form of the third<br />
person s<strong>in</strong>gular non-human pronoun, another expletive may be found: sitä, correspond<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to the partitive form of the same pronoun:<br />
(86) Sitä leikki lapsia kadulla. (example from Holmberg and Nikanne 2002: 71)<br />
EXPL play children <strong>in</strong>.street<br />
‘There are children play<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the street.’<br />
On this expletive see section 2.4.3 below.<br />
Now that we have expanded the universe of overt expletives <strong>in</strong> (expletive) NSLs, I will<br />
review some different approaches that have been proposed to expla<strong>in</strong> such expletives,<br />
which will be presented <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g subsections.<br />
2.4.2 A V2 requirement <strong>in</strong> Icelandic<br />
Under the <strong>in</strong>fluential tradition on Germanic V2 phenomena that assumes V-to-C<br />
movement (den Besten 1977, 1989, Koopman 1984, Holmberg 1986, Platzack 1986a,<br />
33
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
1986b, 1987, Taraldsen 1986, Schwartz and Vikner 1989, Tomaselli 1990a, 1990b,<br />
Roberts 1993, Vikner 1995, i.a.), overt expletives <strong>in</strong> a language such as Icelandic (as also<br />
<strong>in</strong> Yiddish and German) have been argued to be restricted to [spec, CP] – a position which<br />
most naturally is reached by preposed constituents that can diverge from the subject 9 . The<br />
proposals that will be reviewed below both relate the Icelandic expletive það to the V2<br />
properties of this language.<br />
Platzack 1983 first referred to the Icelandic expletive það found <strong>in</strong> sentences like<br />
(87) as an “expletive topic”, base-generated <strong>in</strong> [spec, CP].<br />
(87) það hafa búið margir listamenn í Ósló. (Holmberg 2000c (3b))<br />
EXPL have lived many artists <strong>in</strong> Oslo<br />
A long tradition of studies on expletive constructions <strong>in</strong> Icelandic has preserved this<br />
dist<strong>in</strong>ction between það and expletive subjects (see Zaenen 1983, 1985, Rögnvaldsson<br />
1984, Sigurðsson 1989, i. a.). Holmberg 2000a rem<strong>in</strong>ds us of some of the arguments for<br />
relat<strong>in</strong>g the expletive to a Spec position higher than IP:<br />
[…] the primary motivation is that it expla<strong>in</strong>s why the expletive pronoun is<br />
excluded whenever a category is moved to specCP (wh-movement or<br />
topicalization), or <strong>in</strong> yes-no questions (where specCP must be empty,<br />
perhaps because it is occupied by a question operator)[…] <strong>in</strong> a phase-based<br />
framework there is an additional reason to place the Icelandic expletive <strong>in</strong><br />
specCP: Merge over Move will exclude the TEC if the expletive is part of the<br />
lexical subarray out of which TP is constructed. The expletive must be<br />
merged <strong>in</strong> a higher phase, that is after TP is completed, by assumption when<br />
f<strong>in</strong>ite-C is merged.<br />
Holmberg 2000a: 43-44<br />
As Holmberg also observes, the ma<strong>in</strong> argument aga<strong>in</strong>st merg<strong>in</strong>g the expletive as the Spec<br />
of C, the fact that the expletive may co-occur with a complementizer <strong>in</strong> embedded<br />
contexts, loses force when one considers an enlarged C-doma<strong>in</strong>, along the l<strong>in</strong>es of Rizzi<br />
1997.<br />
In what follows, I will consider first the account put forth <strong>in</strong> Platzack 1998 and then<br />
that of Holmberg 2000c. Both of them have <strong>in</strong> common the fact that they straightforwardly<br />
connect the expletive with an EPP-type visibility requirement <strong>in</strong> the C-doma<strong>in</strong>.<br />
9 The analyses differ with respect to the base position of the expletive, however. An alternative to the<br />
merg<strong>in</strong>g of the expletive <strong>in</strong> a C-related position is the view that the expletive is generated <strong>in</strong> [spec, IP] and<br />
then moved to the C-doma<strong>in</strong> (Card<strong>in</strong>aletti 1990, Vikner 1995, Jonas 1996).<br />
34
2. EXPLETIVES, SUBJECTS, AND BEYOND<br />
2.4.2.1 Platzack 1998: það satisfies a visibility condition on C<br />
Assum<strong>in</strong>g a split C-system as proposed by Rizzi 1997, Platzack (1998: 54) postulates a<br />
Visibility Condition for the C-doma<strong>in</strong> (VCC) – see (88) –, from which he derives some of<br />
the differences relat<strong>in</strong>g to C (and account<strong>in</strong>g for V2 phenomena) among the Scand<strong>in</strong>avian<br />
languages.<br />
(88) The Visibility Condition on the C-doma<strong>in</strong> (VCC): In a s<strong>in</strong>gle derivation, every projection<br />
with<strong>in</strong> the C-doma<strong>in</strong> must be visible at PF, i.e. it must host phonological features, but it<br />
cannot have such feature <strong>in</strong> the specifier and the head.<br />
The general proposal is that all Scand<strong>in</strong>avian languages conta<strong>in</strong> at least two projections<br />
with<strong>in</strong> C (Force and F<strong>in</strong>itude, as proposed by Rizzi 1997), the differences among them<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g derived from the different ways the VCC is satisfied, which depend on other<br />
language specific C-properties.<br />
Concern<strong>in</strong>g expletives, the r<strong>ele</strong>vant examples are presented <strong>in</strong> (89) through (92)<br />
(Platzack 1998: 86, (60) and (61)). Here, Swedish is representative of the other Ma<strong>in</strong>land<br />
Scand<strong>in</strong>avian languages (Norwegian and Danish), which pattern alike <strong>in</strong> this respect.<br />
(89) a. Det har kommit många l<strong>in</strong>gvister hit (Swedish)<br />
EXPL have come many l<strong>in</strong>guistis here<br />
‘There have arrived many l<strong>in</strong>guistis’<br />
b .það hafa komið margir málvís<strong>in</strong>damenn h<strong>in</strong>gað í dag (Icelandic)<br />
EXPL have come many l<strong>in</strong>guists here today<br />
(90) a. Idag har det kommit många l<strong>in</strong>gvister hit (Sw.)<br />
today have EXPL arrived many l<strong>in</strong>guists here<br />
b. Í dag hafa (*það) komið margir málvís<strong>in</strong>damenn h<strong>in</strong>gað (Ic.)<br />
today have EXPL arrived many l<strong>in</strong>guists here<br />
(91) a. Det dansades på skeppet igår (Sw.)<br />
EXPL was-danced on the ship yesterday<br />
b. það var dansað á skip<strong>in</strong>u í gær (Ic.)<br />
EXPL was danced on ship-the yesterday<br />
35
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
(92) a. Igår dansades det på skeppet (Sw.)<br />
yesterday was-danced EXPL on ship-the<br />
b. Í gær var (*það) dansað á skip<strong>in</strong>u (Ic.)<br />
yesterday was EXPL danced on ship-the<br />
The fact that Ma<strong>in</strong>land Scand<strong>in</strong>avian but not Icelandic allows for an overt expletive <strong>in</strong><br />
postverbal position <strong>in</strong> sentences like (90) and (92) would crucially derive from a<br />
well-known difference: Ma<strong>in</strong>land Scand<strong>in</strong>avian does not allow for null subjects while<br />
Icelandic does, at least for non-argumental ones (a correlate of ‘Rich’ Agr <strong>in</strong> Icelandic, see<br />
Holmberg and Platzack 1995). Thus, the similar distribution of expletives <strong>in</strong> examples (89)<br />
and (91) only partially derives from a similar grammar <strong>in</strong> respect to C. More concretly: <strong>in</strong><br />
these examples, the expletive satisfies different requirements <strong>in</strong> Icelandic and <strong>in</strong> Ma<strong>in</strong>land<br />
Scand<strong>in</strong>avian. What both k<strong>in</strong>ds of Scand<strong>in</strong>avian languages have <strong>in</strong> common is only the fact<br />
that the C-system must <strong>in</strong>clude at least two projections, which fall under condition (88).<br />
Ma<strong>in</strong>land Scand<strong>in</strong>avian differs from Icelandic with respect to the features operative at<br />
F<strong>in</strong>P: Swedish, Norwegian and Danish F<strong>in</strong> have a strong EPP-feature, understood as a<br />
subject requirement (s<strong>in</strong>ce they are all NNSLs) and a strong f<strong>in</strong>iteness ([f<strong>in</strong>ite]) feature<br />
(which forces the verb to raise to F<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> a verb second language); Icelandic F<strong>in</strong> lacks both<br />
of these features. 10<br />
Thus, the sentences above, which <strong>in</strong>volve expletives, would be derived <strong>in</strong> the<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g way: as for the Swedish examples <strong>in</strong> (90) and (92), the overt expletive satisfies<br />
the strong EPP feature <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong> and the verb raises to F<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> order to check its strong<br />
[f<strong>in</strong>ite]-feature. In accordance with the VCC stated <strong>in</strong> (88), Force is made visible by the<br />
presence of the adverbial; the expletive, which is needed for EPP-check<strong>in</strong>g, makes F<strong>in</strong><br />
visible. 11 The ma<strong>in</strong> difference with the correspond<strong>in</strong>g examples <strong>in</strong> (90) and (92) is that<br />
Icelandic has a weak EPP-feature and a weak [f<strong>in</strong>ite]-feature <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>. Neverth<strong>ele</strong>ss, the VCC<br />
still applies to a m<strong>in</strong>imum of two projections <strong>in</strong> C (just like <strong>in</strong> any other Scand<strong>in</strong>avian<br />
language). Thus, the adverbial makes Force visible and the verb raises to F<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> order to<br />
make it visible too. The r<strong>ele</strong>vant structure of these Icelandic examples is illustrated <strong>in</strong> (93).<br />
10<br />
The fact that [f<strong>in</strong>ite] is weak <strong>in</strong> Icelandic, a V2 language, may seem a weakness of this proposal. In<br />
Platzack’s words “the suggested characterization of the C-doma<strong>in</strong> is sufficient” (p.60) to account for the<br />
Icelandic V2 properties.<br />
11<br />
There is a complication here, s<strong>in</strong>ce the verb must leave F<strong>in</strong>: under VCC the specifier and the head of a<br />
projection with<strong>in</strong> C may not be both overt. For this and other examples of the same k<strong>in</strong>d (<strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g, for<br />
<strong>in</strong>stance, an Object fronted <strong>in</strong> [Spec,ForceP]), Platzack adopts an <strong>in</strong>termediate position μP (Pesetsky 1989,<br />
Johnson 1991) with<strong>in</strong> C, whose head is the target of the verb. S<strong>in</strong>ce these facts are irr<strong>ele</strong>vant for my purpose<br />
here, I will not develop them any further.<br />
36
2. EXPLETIVES, SUBJECTS, AND BEYOND<br />
(93) ForceP<br />
ru<br />
Í dag / Í gær Force’<br />
ru<br />
e F<strong>in</strong>P<br />
ru<br />
e F<strong>in</strong>’<br />
ru<br />
hafa / var IP<br />
The examples which are of particular r<strong>ele</strong>vance here are those <strong>in</strong> (89) and (91), repeated<br />
here as (94) and (95).<br />
(94) a. Det har kommit många l<strong>in</strong>gvister hit (Swedish)<br />
EXPL have come many l<strong>in</strong>guistis here<br />
‘There have arrived many l<strong>in</strong>guistis’<br />
b .það hafa komið margir málvís<strong>in</strong>damenn h<strong>in</strong>gað í dag (Icelandic)<br />
EXPL have come many l<strong>in</strong>guists here today<br />
(95) a. Det dansades på skeppet igår (Sw.)<br />
EXPL was-danced on the ship yesterday<br />
b. það var dansað á skip<strong>in</strong>u í gær (Ic.)<br />
EXPL was danced on ship-the yesterday<br />
Even if Icelandic does not have a strong EPP-feature, <strong>in</strong>itial expletives are merged <strong>in</strong><br />
constructions like these. Under Platzack’s analysis, this derives directly from the VCC.<br />
Both F<strong>in</strong> and Force must be visible <strong>in</strong> Scand<strong>in</strong>avian languages. In Ma<strong>in</strong>land languages,<br />
there is a strong [f<strong>in</strong>ite]-feature <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong> that attracts the verb, and there is a strong EPP-<br />
feature which derives the merg<strong>in</strong>g of the expletive <strong>in</strong> [Spec, F<strong>in</strong>P]. The expletive further<br />
raises to [Spec, ForceP] <strong>in</strong> order to make it visible, <strong>in</strong> accordance with the VCC, as<br />
represented <strong>in</strong> (96).<br />
(96) ForceP<br />
ru<br />
Deti Force’<br />
ru<br />
e F<strong>in</strong>P<br />
ru<br />
ti F<strong>in</strong>’<br />
ru<br />
har / dansades IP<br />
In Icelandic, however, the expletive is directly merged <strong>in</strong> [Spec, ForceP], hav<strong>in</strong>g no trace<br />
<strong>in</strong> [Spec, F<strong>in</strong>P] (see (97)). The verb raises to F<strong>in</strong>, <strong>in</strong> accordance with the VCC.<br />
37
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
(97) ForceP<br />
ru<br />
það Force’<br />
ru<br />
e F<strong>in</strong>P<br />
ru<br />
e F<strong>in</strong>’<br />
ru<br />
hafa / var IP<br />
Thus, “Icelandic það is used to make a functional projection <strong>in</strong> the C-doma<strong>in</strong> visible, i.e. a<br />
consequence of VCC” (Platzack 1998: 86).<br />
2.4.2.2 Holmberg 2000c: það checks a P-feature of C<br />
A similar account concern<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>itial expletive það is developped <strong>in</strong> Holmberg 2000c.<br />
In this paper, V2 languages are characterized as hav<strong>in</strong>g both a FV (F<strong>in</strong>iteVerb) feature and<br />
a P-feature <strong>in</strong> C. The FV-feature attracts I conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g a f<strong>in</strong>ite verb. The P-feature is a<br />
phonological version of the EPP, as proposed <strong>in</strong> Holmberg 2000b. Specifically, this feature<br />
requires Move or Merge of a phonological feature matrix to the specifier position of the<br />
head carry<strong>in</strong>g P. Thus, it turns out that <strong>in</strong> V2 languages, [Spec, CP] must always be overtly<br />
filled.<br />
In examples like (98) below, from Swedish (Holmberg’s (1a) through (1c)), the P-<br />
feature can be checked by <strong>in</strong>dependent movement to [spec, CP], when a topic, focus or wh<strong>ele</strong>ment<br />
is fronted:<br />
(98) a. I York har Per aldrig varit.<br />
to York has Per never been<br />
b. Aldrig har Per varit i York.<br />
never has Per been to York<br />
c. Har Per aldrig varit i York?<br />
has Per never been to York<br />
Holmberg’s ma<strong>in</strong> claim is that when this P-feature is not checked <strong>in</strong> the course of the<br />
syntactic derivation, the closest visible category must be moved to [Spec, CP] at spell-out.<br />
Alternatively, as turns out to be the case <strong>in</strong> Icelandic, an expletive can be merged to give<br />
phonological content to [Spec, CP]. As <strong>in</strong> Platzack’s analysis, the proposal emphasizes the<br />
differences between Ma<strong>in</strong>land Scand<strong>in</strong>avian languages and Icelandic, which follow from<br />
the fact that the former do not allow null subjects, while the latter does. A natural<br />
38
2. EXPLETIVES, SUBJECTS, AND BEYOND<br />
consequence is that “<strong>in</strong> Ma<strong>in</strong>land Scand<strong>in</strong>avian the closest category is always the subject,<br />
because either the subject is obligatorily moved to specIP, or a special expletive is merged<br />
<strong>in</strong> specIP” (Holmberg 2000c: 1). Differently, <strong>in</strong> Icelandic, [spec, IP] is not necessarily<br />
filled, s<strong>in</strong>ce the pronom<strong>in</strong>al Agr <strong>in</strong> the f<strong>in</strong>ite verb can check a D-feature <strong>in</strong> I (the standard<br />
EPP, as a subject requirement). Thus, “if there is no DP <strong>in</strong> specIP, then P <strong>in</strong> C is checked<br />
by movement of the next visible category down the tree. This can be an adverb, the<br />
nonf<strong>in</strong>ite verb, a verb particle, a PP, an adjective,...” (id: 2), as <strong>in</strong> (99). In this way, the<br />
proposal closely relates the construction known as “Stylistic Front<strong>in</strong>g” to the check<strong>in</strong>g of<br />
this contentless P-feature at spell-out.<br />
(99) a. Búið hafa margir listamenn í Ósló.<br />
lived have many artists <strong>in</strong> Oslo<br />
(Holmberg 2000c: 1 (3c))<br />
b. Sennilega hafa búið margir listamenn í Ósló.<br />
probably have lived many artists <strong>in</strong> Oslo<br />
(id.: 2 (7a))<br />
As <strong>in</strong> Platzack’s proposal, the <strong>in</strong>itial expletive það crucially makes C visible <strong>in</strong> examples<br />
like (87), repeated here as (100) – alternatively to movement of some constituent, the<br />
expletive may be merged <strong>in</strong> order to check P before spell-out.<br />
(100) það hafa búið margir listamenn í Ósló. (Holmberg 2000c (3b))<br />
EXPL have lived many artists <strong>in</strong> Oslo<br />
Thus, both Holmberg 2000c and Platzack 1998 account for the presence of a peripheral<br />
expletive <strong>in</strong> Icelandic <strong>in</strong> terms of a sort of EPP feature <strong>in</strong> C (or <strong>in</strong> one of its projections)<br />
closely dependent on the V2 properties of this language.<br />
2.4.3 A topic expletive <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish<br />
F<strong>in</strong>nish is another language where expletives appear to be <strong>in</strong>dependent from any subject<br />
requirement as it is understood <strong>in</strong> standard NNSLs. Neverth<strong>ele</strong>ss, the expletive sitä is not<br />
dependent on V2 requirements of the sort seen for Icelandic, s<strong>in</strong>ce F<strong>in</strong>nish is not a V2<br />
language. Holmberg and Nikanne 2002 (for the purposes of this subsection, H&N) rather<br />
relate the presence of the expletive to a (quasi-)generalized requirement for the topic<br />
position to be visible, which they conceive as the version of the EPP <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish, a topicprom<strong>in</strong>ent<br />
language.<br />
The proposal put forth by H&N crucially accounts for the obligatory presence of<br />
the expletive sitä <strong>in</strong> sentences like (101), which contrast with (102).<br />
39
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
(101) a. Sitä leikkii lapsia kadulla. (H&N (2a))<br />
EXPL play children <strong>in</strong>.street<br />
b. Sitä ovat nämä lapset jo opp<strong>in</strong>eet uimaan. (H&N (3a))<br />
EXPL have these children already learnt to.swim<br />
(102) *Leikkii lapsia kadulla. (H&N (2c))<br />
play children <strong>in</strong>-street<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce F<strong>in</strong>nish, as a NSL, allows for referential subject pro and for a “quasi-referential” null<br />
subject <strong>in</strong> sentences such as (103), it is not expected that the expletive turns out to be<br />
required <strong>in</strong> (101). 12<br />
(103) Sataa (vettä). (H&N (1b))<br />
ra<strong>in</strong>s (water)<br />
H&N build especially on the properties of the specifier position of the higher Inflectional<br />
node, F <strong>in</strong> their terms (for ‘f<strong>in</strong>ite’, roughly correspond<strong>in</strong>g to standard AgrS), follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Holmberg and al. 1993. As they demonstrate, this Spec is not a privileged position for the<br />
subject of the clause, but rather for the sentence topic, as <strong>in</strong> examples like (104) – “a<br />
category <strong>in</strong> this position, when referential (i.e. except when it is an expletive), has the<br />
discourse function of topic” (H&N 2002: 73).<br />
(104) Tämän kirjan on kirjoittanut Graham Greene. (H&N (12b))<br />
this book has written Graham Greene<br />
F<strong>in</strong>nish is thus characterized as a topic-prom<strong>in</strong>ent language, i.e. a language which allows<br />
an argument other than the subject to be externalized (the argument which functions as the<br />
sentence topic).<br />
The position of the expletive sitä, the partitive form of the third person s<strong>in</strong>gular<br />
pronoun, is arguably [Spec, FP]. First, it can be preceded by at most one <strong>ele</strong>ment, the sort<br />
of constituent which can occupy [Spec, CP] (wh-phrases and contrastive constituents, as <strong>in</strong><br />
(105) – see Vilkuna 1995) or an head <strong>in</strong> C (see (107) below):<br />
(105) a. Pihalla sitä leikkii lapsia (H&N (55a))<br />
<strong>in</strong>.yard EXPL plays children-PART<br />
‘IN THE YARD, it seems, there are children play<strong>in</strong>g.’<br />
12 As H&N po<strong>in</strong>t out, matters are more complicated with respect to null third person (referential) subjects: <strong>in</strong><br />
fact, these are not freely allowed. The account suggested <strong>in</strong>vokes the postulation of a third person AgrS<br />
which is not specified for number <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish (which would be further supported by the lack of a different<br />
morphology for third PL and SG <strong>in</strong> spoken F<strong>in</strong>nish): assum<strong>in</strong>g that expletives and quasi-referentials lack<br />
number, then the null subject would be licensed <strong>in</strong> these cases. Still, the difference between (101) and (103)<br />
is not expected.<br />
40
2. EXPLETIVES, SUBJECTS, AND BEYOND<br />
b. Nämä lapset sitä ovat jo opp<strong>in</strong>eet uimaan (H&N (55d))<br />
these children EXPL have already learnt to-swim<br />
‘Look at these children, they have already learnt to swim.’<br />
Furthermore, sitä always immediately precedes the head bear<strong>in</strong>g the F-affix (subject<br />
agreement <strong>in</strong> most cases) (see (106)), unless the head is itself moved to C (as <strong>in</strong> (107)).<br />
(106) a. Sitä [F eivät] nämä lapset olisi ik<strong>in</strong>ä opp<strong>in</strong>eet uimaan<br />
EXPL not-3PL these children have-COND ever learn-PTC to.swim<br />
‘These children would never have learnt to swim.’ (adapted from H&N (56a))<br />
b. *sitä nämä lapset [F eivät] olisi ik<strong>in</strong>ä opp<strong>in</strong>eet uimaan<br />
EXPL these children not-3PL have-COND ever learn-PTC to.swim<br />
(adapted from H&N (56d))<br />
c. Nämä lapset sitä [F eivät] olisi ik<strong>in</strong>ä opp<strong>in</strong>eet uimaan<br />
these children EXPL not-3PL have-COND ever learn-PTC to.swim<br />
‘These children, they would never have learnt to swim’ (adapted from H&N (56b))<br />
d. *Nämä lapset [F eivät] sitä olisi ik<strong>in</strong>ä opp<strong>in</strong>eet uimaan<br />
these children not-3PL EXPL have-COND ever learn-PTC to.swim<br />
(adapted from H&N (56e))<br />
e. sitä [F olisivat] nämä lapset opp<strong>in</strong>eet uimaan (adapted from H&N (56k))<br />
EXPL have-COND.3PL these children learn-PTC to.swim<br />
‘These children would have learnt to swim.’<br />
(107) [C Olisivati] sitä [F ti ] nämä lapset opp<strong>in</strong>eet uimaan<br />
have-COND -3PL EXPL these children learn-PTC to.swim<br />
‘These children WOULD have learnt to swim’ (adapted from H&N (56m))<br />
As H&N argue, there is however no special need for the expletive to be <strong>in</strong> the Spec of an<br />
overt head bear<strong>in</strong>g subject agreement. In fact, it can precede other <strong>ele</strong>ments <strong>in</strong> sentences<br />
where V-movement is optional (when [Spec, CP] or C is filled – see Vilkuna 1989, 1995,<br />
Holmberg 1997):<br />
(108) Millo<strong>in</strong> sitä nämä lapset olisivat uimaan opp<strong>in</strong>eet? (H&N (59))<br />
when EXPL these children would-have swim learned<br />
‘When would these children have learned to swim?’<br />
The only case where the expletive sitä can be <strong>in</strong> a position higher than [spec, FP] <strong>in</strong>volves<br />
an affix (the question particle -kö or the focus particle -hän).<br />
(109) a. Sitäkö ovat teidän lapset jo kaikki käyneet uimassa? (H&N (60))<br />
EXPL-Q have your children already all been swimm<strong>in</strong>g<br />
‘Have your children already all been swimm<strong>in</strong>g?’<br />
b. Sitähän ei nykyään puhuta vakoilusta.<br />
EXPL-PRTCL not nowadays talk-PASS espionage-ABL<br />
‘We don’t talk about espionage these days, do we?’<br />
41
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
H&N argue that the front<strong>in</strong>g of the expletive is <strong>in</strong> these cases triggered by a version of the<br />
‘Stranded Affix Filter’ of Lasnik 1981. When the sentence is headed by an expletive, sitä<br />
can serve as a host for the particle, with the same read<strong>in</strong>g as <strong>in</strong> cases where the f<strong>in</strong>ite verb<br />
moves itself to host the affix (see (110), “pragmatically equivalent” to (109)a): <strong>in</strong> both<br />
cases the event is focused.<br />
(110) Ovatko sitä teidän lapset jo kaikki käyneet uimassa? (H&N (61a))<br />
have-Q EXPL your children already all been swimm<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Thus, H&N conclude that the expletive occupies [spec, FP], the topic position, when the<br />
sentence does not have an overt topic.<br />
H&N elaborate then a discourse-sensitive version of the EPP <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish, which,<br />
they argue, correlates with a [-Foc] feature <strong>in</strong> F. Their assumption is that all arguments are<br />
assigned a [±Foc] feature when enter<strong>in</strong>g the syntactic derivation (or, alternatively, some<br />
arguments may have it <strong>in</strong>herently, as <strong>in</strong> the case of [-Foc] for weak pronouns and clitics).<br />
[+Foc] crucially correlates with the <strong>in</strong>formation focus (<strong>in</strong> the sense of Vallduví and<br />
Engdahl 1996), while [-Foc] qualifies an argument as part of the presupposition or<br />
‘ground’ (Vallduví and Engdhal 1996). Assum<strong>in</strong>g that [-Foc], an un<strong>in</strong>terpretable feature,<br />
must move outside the predicate phrase <strong>in</strong> order to be checked, one possible way of<br />
achiev<strong>in</strong>g this is movement of the [-Foc] argument to [spec, FP], satisfy<strong>in</strong>g the EPP <strong>in</strong><br />
F<strong>in</strong>nish. Crucially, the [-Foc] feature is checked outside the focus doma<strong>in</strong>, which, for<br />
H&N, is TP, the maximal projection of the predicate. (As H&N suggest, [-Foc] could also<br />
be at work <strong>in</strong> other processes, such as Scrambl<strong>in</strong>g and Object Shift.) FP qualifies as the<br />
presupposition doma<strong>in</strong>. Thus, the idea that arguments which are not part of the <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
focus must be moved out of the focus doma<strong>in</strong> is here implemented <strong>in</strong> terms of a feature [-<br />
Foc] be<strong>in</strong>g attracted by a feature [-Foc] <strong>in</strong> F, the EPP-feature.<br />
H&N admit that languages vary with respect to the strenght of this EPP-feature. In<br />
some languages, a weak [EPP] may allow for covert movement, but, <strong>in</strong> a language like<br />
F<strong>in</strong>nish, the check<strong>in</strong>g of a strong [EPP] <strong>in</strong>volves overt movement of a constituent or,<br />
alternatively, the merg<strong>in</strong>g of an expletive. This amounts to a requirement <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish for the<br />
[Spec, FP] position to be filled (some exceptions occur though, see examples (114) below).<br />
Yet, the subject does not have any privileged status regard<strong>in</strong>g the check<strong>in</strong>g of this<br />
EPP-feature. As H&N state “[i]n F<strong>in</strong>nish, the generalization seems to be that the EPP can<br />
be satisfied only by categories which are referential <strong>in</strong> a broad sense, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g locative<br />
42
2. EXPLETIVES, SUBJECTS, AND BEYOND<br />
and temporal adverbials, but exclud<strong>in</strong>g sentence adverbials and manner adverbials” (H&N<br />
2002: 81 – see (111) (=H&N (17)).<br />
(111) a.Tänään leikkii lapsia kadulla.<br />
today play children <strong>in</strong>.street<br />
b.Tromssassa leikkii lapsia kadulla.<br />
<strong>in</strong>.Tromsø play children <strong>in</strong>.street<br />
c. Kirveen avulla murtautuu helposti taloon.<br />
axe.GEN with.help break easily <strong>in</strong>to.house<br />
‘One can easily break <strong>in</strong>to the house with the help of an axe.’<br />
d. *Ehkä leikkii lapsia kadulla.<br />
perhaps play children <strong>in</strong>.street<br />
e. *Helposti murtautuu taloon kirveen avulla.<br />
easily break <strong>in</strong>to.house axe.GEN with.help<br />
In addition, a null subject or an expletive can also satisfy the EPP-feature <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish. That<br />
the <strong>in</strong>sertion of the expletive is prevented by a null subject is shown <strong>in</strong> (113).<br />
(112) Sitä leikkii lapsia kadulla. (H&N (2a))<br />
EXPL play children <strong>in</strong>.street<br />
(113) Miksi (*sitä) leikitte kadulla? (H&N (18))<br />
why EXPL play-2PL on.street<br />
‘Why are you play<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the street?’<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>gly, the expletive sitä fulfills the requirement for a Spec <strong>in</strong> the presupposition<br />
doma<strong>in</strong> to be filled up. “Its function is just to overtly fill the specFP position <strong>in</strong><br />
constructions where there is no lexical filler of that position, that is, formally to check the<br />
EPP-feature <strong>in</strong> F” (H&N 2002: 90). When no argument qualifies as presupposed, that is to<br />
say, when no argument carries a [-Foc] feature, the merg<strong>in</strong>g of the expletive saves the<br />
derivation, which otherwise would crash: a [-Foc] <strong>in</strong> F (the EPP <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish) must be<br />
checked.<br />
Matters are not so simple, however. Sentences like (114) (=H&N (19)), where an<br />
expletive is optional, fail to be accounted for <strong>in</strong> such an approach to the EPP <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish.<br />
43
(114) a. On ilmennyt ongelmia.<br />
have appeared problems<br />
b. Sattui onnettomuus.<br />
occurred (an) accident<br />
c. Tuli kiire.<br />
came haste<br />
‘We/they are <strong>in</strong> a hurry.’<br />
d. Sataa vettä.<br />
ra<strong>in</strong>s water<br />
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
e. Oli hauskaa että tulit käymään.<br />
was nice that came-2SG visit<strong>in</strong>g<br />
‘It was nice that you came by.’<br />
These examples arguably <strong>in</strong>volve no category which could move to preverbal position (see<br />
examples <strong>in</strong> (115)), i.e. they have no potential topic. Neverth<strong>ele</strong>ss, the expletive is not<br />
required.<br />
(115) a. *Ongelmia ilmeni. (H&N (26a))<br />
problems appeared<br />
b. *Onnettomuus sattui. (H&N (26b))<br />
accident occurred<br />
When another argument is added, this option is not available anymore:<br />
(116) a. *Ilmeni ongelmia pian. (H&N (21))<br />
appeared problems soon<br />
b. Pian ilmeni ongelmia.<br />
(117) a. *Sattui onnettomuus m<strong>in</strong>ulle. (H&N (22))<br />
occurred accident to-me<br />
b. M<strong>in</strong>ulle saatui onnettomuus.<br />
In order to account for cases such as (114), H&N have to weaken their theory (as they<br />
acknowledge) by the follow<strong>in</strong>g stipulation:<br />
(118) The EPP-feature <strong>in</strong> F is optional <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish. (H&N (27))<br />
Thus, if F is merged without the EPP-feature, the sentences <strong>in</strong> (114) are obviously<br />
well-formed. The postverbal argument, which cannot have a presuppositional read<strong>in</strong>g, is<br />
[+Foc]. Consequently, it need not move out of the focus doma<strong>in</strong>. In fact, it cannot move,<br />
44
2. EXPLETIVES, SUBJECTS, AND BEYOND<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce there is no movement trigger (see (115)). However, if another argument is added, a<br />
derivation without the EPP-feature will crash (cf. (116)a and (117)a). An un<strong>in</strong>terpretable [-<br />
Foc] feature rema<strong>in</strong>s unchecked, under H&N’s assumption that all arguments have a<br />
[±Foc] feature and that at most one argument can be [+Foc]. Essentially, the optionality of<br />
the EPP only plays a role <strong>in</strong> account<strong>in</strong>g for sentences like (114). Examples (116)a and<br />
(117)a are equally ruled out if F is merged with the EPP-feature: both the [-Foc] feature of<br />
F and the [-Foc] feature of one of the arguments will rema<strong>in</strong> unchecked. As for the<br />
examples <strong>in</strong> (115), s<strong>in</strong>ce the EPP feature cannot be checked by an argument [+Foc], the<br />
derivation crashes as well. What is crucial is the fact that <strong>in</strong> sentences (114) the<br />
EPP-feature as proposed by H&N must not be <strong>in</strong>voked – hence the stipulation <strong>in</strong> (118) –,<br />
even though the same sentences happen to (optionally) admit the expletive, <strong>in</strong> which case<br />
the EPP-feature should be operative.<br />
Summariz<strong>in</strong>g the r<strong>ele</strong>vant facts: (i) <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish, a NSL, which arguably is topic-prom<strong>in</strong>ent,<br />
(a version of) the EPP-feature is operative <strong>in</strong> a higher head of the sentence structure (F)<br />
and it is conceived as a requirement for a [-Foc] feature <strong>in</strong> F to be checked by a [-Foc]<br />
constituent; (ii) the function of the expletive sitä amounts to check<strong>in</strong>g this discourse-<br />
related EPP-feature. S<strong>in</strong>ce the EPP <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish needs not be checked by the subject, “sitä is<br />
not an expletive subject but an expletive topic. It satisfies the requirement that a given<br />
sentence-<strong>in</strong>itial spec-position, namely SpecFP, be filled <strong>in</strong> sentences where, for whatever<br />
reasons, that position is not filled by an argument” (H&N 2002: 96).<br />
2.4.4 A peripheral expletive <strong>in</strong> Romance<br />
The special status of the overt expletive <strong>in</strong> Galician (and EP) and <strong>in</strong> some other Romance<br />
NSLs has also received some attention dur<strong>in</strong>g the last decade. As mentioned <strong>in</strong> chapter 1,<br />
the dist<strong>in</strong>ction between this k<strong>in</strong>d of expletive and the subject expletive found <strong>in</strong> NNSLs is<br />
already suggested by Uriagereka 1992, 1995b. The proposal put forth by Uriagereka 1988<br />
(and subsequent work) for a functional projection FP above the IP space at several<br />
<strong>in</strong>stances has permitted a correlation between this projection and the availability of overt<br />
expletives <strong>in</strong> Romance NSLs. The ma<strong>in</strong> claims of the proposals put forth by Uriagereka<br />
1992, 1995b are reviewed <strong>in</strong> subsection 2.4.4.1. More recently, Uriagereka 2004 presents a<br />
45
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
new proposal for the peripheral expletive <strong>in</strong> Western Iberian, correlat<strong>in</strong>g overt expletives<br />
with evidentiality effects. This proposal will be presented <strong>in</strong> subsection 2.4.4.2. An<br />
alternative account for expletives <strong>in</strong> Romance NSLs has been attempted by Silva-Villar<br />
1998, 2004, which will be presented <strong>in</strong> section 2.4.4.3.<br />
2.4.4.1 FP and overt expletives<br />
The availability of overt expletives <strong>in</strong> Galician, EP and some Leonese dialects is one of the<br />
properties Uriagereka 1992, 1995b correlates with the morphological and syntactic<br />
realization of a functional projection above IP <strong>in</strong> these languages – FP <strong>in</strong> his terms (F<br />
stands for ‘functional’ <strong>in</strong> Uriagereka 1988, for ‘Focus’ <strong>in</strong> Uriagereka 1992, 1995a, 1995b).<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to Uriagereka’s proposal, this FP projection would allow some<br />
parametric variation with respect to its morphological and its syntactic strenght: strong <strong>in</strong><br />
Old Romance, the loss of this strength <strong>in</strong> some modern Romance languages would<br />
correlate with some well-known differences among these languages (concern<strong>in</strong>g not only<br />
overt expletives, but also the position of clitics, the availability of <strong>in</strong>flected and personal<br />
<strong>in</strong>f<strong>in</strong>itives and recomplementation, for <strong>in</strong>stance). Even if the [Spec, FP] position is taken as<br />
a land<strong>in</strong>g site for focused constituents, this “Focus” projection is to be dist<strong>in</strong>guished from<br />
other Focus positions that have been proposed for the structure of the left periphery of the<br />
clause (Brody 1990, a.o.):<br />
46<br />
I associate half a dozen properties of medieval Romance dialects with F [...],<br />
properties that have noth<strong>in</strong>g to do with focalization proper. Spec F hosts<br />
emphasis phrases, noncontrastive (aboutness) topics [...], overt expletives,<br />
dislocated material <strong>in</strong> “CP recursion”, and even wh-phrases <strong>in</strong><br />
circumstances that would otherwise violate the Wh-Island Constra<strong>in</strong>t,<br />
whereas the head F is overtly realized as focus<strong>in</strong>g pleonasms,<br />
recomplementation, and the hosts of clitic placement and V-movement.<br />
Languages with an active, morphological F exhibit these properties;<br />
languages without it exhibit none of them; and languages with a residual,<br />
nonmorphological F exhibit only some. [...] My view is that F syntactically<br />
encodes a speaker’s or an embedded subject’s po<strong>in</strong>t of view. This is what<br />
allows attribution of reference, loaded descriptions (e.g., epithets), emphasis,<br />
and so on. We may th<strong>in</strong>k of F as a po<strong>in</strong>t of <strong>in</strong>terface at LF between the<br />
competence levels of syntax and the performance levels of pragmatics.<br />
Uriagereka 1995b: 92
2. EXPLETIVES, SUBJECTS, AND BEYOND<br />
Concern<strong>in</strong>g overt expletives, the ma<strong>in</strong> claim of Uriagereka’s 1992, 1995b proposal is that<br />
they are dependent on the Case licens<strong>in</strong>g properties of a morphologically strong F. Thus,<br />
under the assumption that the expletive <strong>ele</strong>, the nom<strong>in</strong>ative form of the third mascul<strong>in</strong>e<br />
s<strong>in</strong>gular pronoun, needs Case, it is suggested that its Case is assigned by F, an extra source<br />
of nom<strong>in</strong>ative (that is to say, a source of a sort of nom<strong>in</strong>ativus pendens). The crucial data<br />
for Uriagereka are sentences like (119) (Uriagereka’s (17)a. and b., from Álvarez 1981),<br />
where supposedly both the expletive and the postverbal argument need Case.<br />
(119) a. O tia Gertrudes, <strong>ele</strong> está i a m<strong>in</strong>ha aboa? (Galician)<br />
Hey aunt Gertrudes EXPL is there the my grandma<br />
b. e il estaria iste coche na batalla do Marne? (Galician)<br />
and EXPL could.have.been this carriage <strong>in</strong>.the battle of Marne<br />
Under this account, the expletive is assigned Case <strong>in</strong> [spec, IP], under government by F,<br />
assum<strong>in</strong>g the proposal about barriers <strong>in</strong> Raposo and Uriagereka 1990. I assigns Case to the<br />
postverbal subject. This would expla<strong>in</strong>, Uriagereka claims, the ungrammatical status<br />
ascribed to sentences where the expletive co-occurs with an overt preverbal subject, as <strong>in</strong><br />
(120):<br />
(120) a. O tia Gertrudes, *<strong>ele</strong> a m<strong>in</strong>ha aboa está i? (Uriagereka’s 1995b judgement)<br />
hey aunt Gertrudes EXPL the my.F grandma is there<br />
b. *il iste coche estaria na batalla do Marne? (idem)<br />
EXPL this carriage could.have.been <strong>in</strong>-the battle of Marne<br />
[...] the overt expletive is apparently <strong>in</strong>compatible with subjects <strong>in</strong> the spec of<br />
IP. This follows if the expletive starts out <strong>in</strong> this position, where it can get<br />
Case from F.<br />
Uriagereka 1995a: 167<br />
These empirical facts seem however to run counter to some attested evidence for the overt<br />
expletive co-occurr<strong>in</strong>g with a preverbal subject. Álvarez et al. (1986: 169) <strong>in</strong>clude the<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g example, where, despite the fact that a parenthetical sentence occurs between the<br />
subject and the verb, the overt expletive <strong>ele</strong> shows up immediately to the left of a<br />
nom<strong>in</strong>ative subject pronoun:<br />
47
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
(121) E el eu, a verdade sexa dita, coidei que era certo. (Galician)<br />
and EXPL I the truth BE-SUBJ.3SG said thought that was right<br />
<strong>European</strong> <strong>Portuguese</strong> data further confirm the order attested for Galician (see also below,<br />
chapter 4):<br />
(122) a. Ele os papéis também nunca mais virão... (from Aquil<strong>in</strong>o Ribeiro, Terras do Demo)<br />
EXPL the papers also never more come-FUT-3PL<br />
b. Ele os lobos andam com fome (Leite de Vasconcellos 1928: 222)<br />
EXPL the wolves go-3PL with hunger<br />
Be that as it may, we could still ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> the Case-dependent correlation between the<br />
projection of F and the overt expletive, assum<strong>in</strong>g that the expletive gets its Case (if it needs<br />
one) <strong>in</strong> [Spec, FP], which would be a natural Spec-Head Case licens<strong>in</strong>g configuration<br />
under early m<strong>in</strong>imalist assumptions (under Uriagereka’s proposal that F is a Caseassigner).<br />
In any case, [Spec, FP] is a position suggested for the expletive, at least <strong>in</strong><br />
examples like (123) (where que would fill the F position).<br />
(123) ello que yo lo vi (Archaic Spanish)<br />
EXPL that I it saw<br />
‘Of course I saw it!’<br />
This example is <strong>in</strong>deed taken to <strong>in</strong>dicate “that the overt expletive may occupy the spec of<br />
F, perhaps rais<strong>in</strong>g from the spec of IP” (Uriagereka 1995a: 160). Note, however, that <strong>in</strong> the<br />
mentioned sentence, the pronoun yo ‘I’ would also be a natural candidate for [Spec, IP].<br />
Thus, it seems that assum<strong>in</strong>g the expletive is <strong>in</strong>serted <strong>in</strong> [Spec, FP] could be, <strong>in</strong> these cases,<br />
a straightforward move that would avoid additional problems. That overt expletives can<br />
occupy this position is also assumed <strong>in</strong> Uriagereka 1995a, Mart<strong>in</strong>s (1993: 62) and Raposo<br />
(1995: 473), Raposo and Uriagereka 1996, 2004.<br />
2.4.4.2 <strong>Expletive</strong>s as evidentiality markers (Uriagereka 2004)<br />
More recently, Uriagereka has put forth a more articulated proposal about overt expletives<br />
<strong>in</strong> Western Iberian, on the basis of a more extensive data collection of expletives <strong>in</strong><br />
Galician (Uriagereka 2004).<br />
As Uriagereka notes, such expletive looks like “standard” expletives (i.e. NNSLs’<br />
expletives) <strong>in</strong> that it can apparently <strong>in</strong>duce possible long-distance agreement with an<br />
associate, as <strong>in</strong> (124):<br />
48
2. EXPLETIVES, SUBJECTS, AND BEYOND<br />
(124) El nasceron duas cuxas na granxa (=Uriagereka 2004 (1e))<br />
EXPL were-born two calves <strong>in</strong>.the farm<br />
‘There were born two calves <strong>in</strong> the farm.’<br />
However, Uriagereka lists several peculiarities that make this expletive special:<br />
(i) the overt expletive occurs <strong>in</strong> NSLs, which normally have null expletives;<br />
(ii) differently from standard expletives, the overt expletive <strong>in</strong> Galician and <strong>in</strong> Western<br />
Iberian does not <strong>in</strong>duce a def<strong>in</strong>iteness effect <strong>in</strong> its associate:<br />
(125) […] i el era ben do meu gosto aquel caldo de calabozo doce que facía a señora<br />
and EXPL was well of.the my taste that soup of pumpk<strong>in</strong> sweet that made the lady<br />
Marcel<strong>in</strong>a polo Outono (=Uriagereka 2004 (4b))<br />
Marcel<strong>in</strong>a by.the Fall<br />
‘And there pleased me well that sweet pumpk<strong>in</strong> soup that Lady Marcel<strong>in</strong>a would cook <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Fall.’<br />
(iii) the overt expletive behaves like standard expletives <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>duc<strong>in</strong>g thetic <strong>in</strong>terpretations<br />
(cf. (126)) and be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>compatible with categorical <strong>in</strong>terpretations (cf. (127)):<br />
(126) A: Que lle pasou á Xubenca? (=Uriagereka 2004 (5))<br />
what to_her happened to_the X.<br />
‘What happened to Xubenca?’<br />
B: A Xubenca morreu, pobriña.<br />
the Xubenca died poor th<strong>in</strong>g<br />
‘The Xubenca died, poor th<strong>in</strong>g.’<br />
B’: #El morreu [a Xubenca], pobriña.<br />
EXPL died the Xubenca poor th<strong>in</strong>g<br />
‘There died the Xubenca, poor th<strong>in</strong>g.’<br />
(127) A: Que foi? (=Uriagereka 2004 (6))<br />
what was<br />
‘What happened?’<br />
B: (El) morreu a Xubenca, pobriña.<br />
EXPL died the Xubenca poor th<strong>in</strong>g<br />
‘There died the Xubenca, poor th<strong>in</strong>g.’<br />
B’: #A Xubenca morreu, pobriña.<br />
the Xubenca died poor th<strong>in</strong>g<br />
‘The Xubenca died, poor th<strong>in</strong>g.’<br />
(iv) the overt expletive was widespread among other medieval Romance varieties,<br />
correlat<strong>in</strong>g with “a variety of busy left-field effects”, such as the presence of evidentiality<br />
markers as <strong>in</strong> (128), recomplementation structures, <strong>in</strong>terpolation, verbal reduplication <strong>in</strong><br />
expressive contexts, among others.<br />
49
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
(128) Seica che lles morreu a cuxa. (=Uriagereka 2004 (7a))<br />
know-I-the you-know on-them died the calf<br />
‘Apparently, you know, the calf died on them.’<br />
Uriagereka 2004 po<strong>in</strong>ts out two additional uses for expletive el <strong>in</strong> Galician: the “narrative<br />
use” illustrated <strong>in</strong> (129) and (130), and the “<strong>in</strong>quisitive use” illustrated <strong>in</strong> (131):<br />
(129) I el, ela foi a primeira muller que eu v<strong>in</strong> en coiros […] (=Uriagereka 2004 (8b))<br />
and EXPL she was the first woman that I saw <strong>in</strong> leather<br />
(from Alvaro Cunqueiro (1955) Merl<strong>in</strong> e Familia)<br />
‘And so (it was that) she was the first woman I saw <strong>in</strong> the nude.’<br />
(130) El é, meu señor S<strong>in</strong>bad, que a segunda miña […] sempre me anda dec<strong>in</strong>do si […]<br />
(=Uriagereka 2004 (9b))<br />
EXPL is my master S<strong>in</strong>bad that the second of.m<strong>in</strong>e always to.me walks say<strong>in</strong>g if<br />
(from Alvaro Cunqueiro (1961) Se o Vello Simbad volvese ás Illas)<br />
‘And so it is, my master S<strong>in</strong>bad, that the second child of m<strong>in</strong>e always goes around tell<strong>in</strong>g<br />
me that…’<br />
(131) El non sementou leitugas e cabazo doce no meu saído […]?<br />
(=Uriagereka 2004 (10b))<br />
EXPL not planted lettuces and pumpk<strong>in</strong>s sweet <strong>in</strong>_the my garden<br />
(from Alvaro Cunqueiro (1961) Se o Vello Simbad volvese ás Illas)<br />
‘Perchance he did not plant lettuces and sweet pumpk<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> my garden?’<br />
Uriagereka’s 2004 proposal for overt expletives <strong>in</strong> Western Iberian essentially builds on<br />
the effects that el orig<strong>in</strong>ates <strong>in</strong> this k<strong>in</strong>d of sentences. In the narrative use, the presence of<br />
the expletive would more or less correspond to a more expanded expression like el é <strong>in</strong><br />
(130) or even el é sabido ‘it is known’, el é certo ‘it is certa<strong>in</strong>’; as for the <strong>in</strong>terrogative use,<br />
as Uriagereka po<strong>in</strong>ts out, “questions with el have a ‘perchance’ pressupposition, they are<br />
pressupposed <strong>in</strong>formation that requires confirmation” (p. 7). Thus, the proposal put forth<br />
suggests that “el <strong>in</strong>troduces a pseudo-cleft, which may be overtly realized” (ibid.) as <strong>in</strong> el é<br />
que / el é sabido que.<br />
50<br />
A pseudo-cleft-<strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g el should be able to co-occur with a null<br />
pleonastic, much as it does with there <strong>in</strong> it is true that there is a God. In WI<br />
we obta<strong>in</strong> el (é certo que) pro hay Deus, with optional copula, predicate, and<br />
complementizer <strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g the clause […].<br />
The fact, then, that while Pro-drop languages normally have null expletives,<br />
but despite overt el, WI is pro-drop, is not mysterious: <strong>in</strong> its normal (there)<br />
role, the WI pleonastic is null; when overt (it role, clause associated) it<br />
<strong>in</strong>duces evidentiality of the sort studied <strong>in</strong> Etxepare 1998.<br />
It is also expected that, unlike overt (e.g. French) expletives, and like null<br />
Romance counterparts, WI el doesn’t <strong>in</strong>duce a def<strong>in</strong>iteness effect <strong>in</strong> its<br />
associate: the pro pleonastic behaves as it does elsewhere <strong>in</strong> Romance <strong>in</strong> not<br />
<strong>in</strong>duc<strong>in</strong>g def<strong>in</strong>iteness effects – el has no bear<strong>in</strong>g on this.
2. EXPLETIVES, SUBJECTS, AND BEYOND<br />
The fact that el and variants were typologically widespread among medieval<br />
Romance languages, correlat<strong>in</strong>g with a variety of ‘left-field’ evidentiality<br />
effects (see Mart<strong>in</strong>s 1995[4]), speaks to whatever parameter is <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong><br />
pragmatically ‘hot’ left-fields (Huang 1984) allow<strong>in</strong>g for the realization of<br />
evidential material <strong>in</strong> the matrix.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ally the question for the categorical/thetic dist<strong>in</strong>ction is why sentences<br />
<strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g el are unacceptable without the thetic <strong>in</strong>terpretation. Suppose a<br />
pleonastic forces the event quantification it signals to be essentially unary,<br />
thus arguably <strong>in</strong>compatible with a categorical judgement.<br />
Uriagereka 2004: 8<br />
2.4.4.3 <strong>Expletive</strong>s and multiple specs <strong>in</strong> C (Silva-Villar 1998)<br />
Silva-Villar 1998 tries to unify several expletive constructions <strong>in</strong> EP, Galician and Leonese<br />
under a suggestion for a Multiple Specs configuration <strong>in</strong> C. This study has the merit of<br />
br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g up together a large amount of attested data (some of them for old varieties of<br />
Romance), which are categorized <strong>in</strong>to different k<strong>in</strong>ds of expletive constructions, to be<br />
dist<strong>in</strong>guished from the expletive constructions found <strong>in</strong> NNSLs, accord<strong>in</strong>g to Silva-Villar:<br />
(i) “S<strong>in</strong>gle <strong>Expletive</strong> (subject) Construction (SEC)”; and (ii) “Multiple <strong>Expletive</strong><br />
Construction”, which allows for two variants: the “Multiple Subject Construction (MSC)”;<br />
and the “Interrogative <strong>Expletive</strong> Construction (IEC)”.<br />
The SEC corresponds to the common case of expletive constructions latu sensu <strong>in</strong><br />
NNSLs such as English or French: they <strong>in</strong>volve atmospheric predicates (cf. (132)a-b),<br />
existential impersonal verbs (cf. (132)c), and extraposition contexts (cf. (132)d) (s<strong>ele</strong>cted<br />
examples from Silva-Villar’s (8)-(10)).<br />
(132) a. Êle já orvalha. (EP, from Leite de Vasconcellos 1928: 221)<br />
EXPL already drizzle<br />
‘It is already drizzl<strong>in</strong>g’<br />
b. Ello moja mucho. (Leonese, from Penny 1994: 278)<br />
EXPL soaks a lot<br />
‘It is soak<strong>in</strong>g wet’<br />
c. Pois <strong>ele</strong> haverá castelhanos honrados? (EP)<br />
thus EXPL have-FUT-3SG Castilians honest<br />
‘Are there honest Castilians?’<br />
d. Êle é certo que muitos se envergonham de... (EP)<br />
EXPL is true that many SE shamed of<br />
‘It is true that many people are ashamed of...’<br />
51
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
Under the SEC, Silva-Villar also <strong>in</strong>cludes two examples <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g “<strong>in</strong>version contexts”<br />
(i.e., presentative constructions), a k<strong>in</strong>d of data which is “more scarce”, he acknowledges.<br />
Note that both examples <strong>in</strong>volve unaccusative verbs:<br />
(133) a. El volveu a re<strong>in</strong>a a Madrid? (19th-c. Galician)<br />
EXPL come.back-PST.3SG the queen to Madrid<br />
‘Did the queen come back to Madrid?’<br />
b. Ello llegan guaguas hasta allí. (Dom<strong>in</strong>ican Spanish)<br />
EXPL arrive-3PL buses until there<br />
‘Buses go all the way to there’<br />
The MSC consists of constructions where “the expletive pronoun and overt (or covert)<br />
thematic subject surface together” (Silva-Villar 1998: 256). It <strong>in</strong>cludes, thus, expletive<br />
constructions with a preverbal overt subject (cf. (134), see also (122), above) or with a null<br />
subject (cf. (135)).<br />
(134) a. Ele aquela mulher é muito bondosa. (EP)<br />
EXPL that woman is very k<strong>in</strong>d<br />
b. Ele aqu<strong>ele</strong>s campos estão bem cultivados.<br />
EXPL those lands are well farmed<br />
(EP, from Leite de Vasconcellos 1928: 222)<br />
(135) Ello vamos a gastar ve<strong>in</strong>tisiete riales. (18th-19th-c. Spanish)<br />
EXPL go-1PL to spend twenty-seven reales<br />
‘We are go<strong>in</strong>g to spend twenty-seven reales (quarters of peseta)’<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ally, the IEC comprises <strong>in</strong>terrogative sentences headed by the expletive (s<strong>ele</strong>cted<br />
examples from Silva-Villar’s (21)-(22)):<br />
(136) a. El sabedes cando chegarán? (Galician, from Alvarez and al. 1986: 291)<br />
EXPL know-2PL when arrive-3PL<br />
‘Do you know when they’ll arrive?’<br />
b. El qué vos dixeron da xuntanza? (idem, ibid.)<br />
EXPL what to.you said-3PL of.the meet<strong>in</strong>g<br />
‘What did they tell you about the meet<strong>in</strong>g?’<br />
c. Ele quantos estudantes vieram à festa? (EP)<br />
EXPL how.many students came-3PL to.the party<br />
‘How many students came to the party?’<br />
The <strong>in</strong>tended unification for the three k<strong>in</strong>ds of expletive constructions seems however to<br />
face several empirical problems. Silva-Villar’s proposal departs from the assumption that<br />
all types of expletive constructions <strong>in</strong> EP, Galician and Leonese share the follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
properties, which would dist<strong>in</strong>guish them from expletive constructions <strong>in</strong> NNSLs:<br />
52
2. EXPLETIVES, SUBJECTS, AND BEYOND<br />
i. lack of “subject-verb <strong>in</strong>version”, i.e. expletive-verb <strong>in</strong>version;<br />
ii. asymmetry matrix/embedded contexts;<br />
iii. lack of non-f<strong>in</strong>ite expletive constructions;<br />
iv. lack of rais<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
The data Silva-Villar takes <strong>in</strong>to account for this claim <strong>in</strong>volve only the sort of atmospheric<br />
or existential verb <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the SEC, but he assumes “the MSC and the IEC share their<br />
basic properties with the SEC”. And he adds: “We will use this state of affairs to unify the<br />
whole array of expletive constructions” (p. 261). With<strong>in</strong> his proposal, these properties<br />
serve ma<strong>in</strong>ly to motivate the claim that the SEC is different from “standard” expletive<br />
constructions <strong>in</strong> NNSLs (disregard<strong>in</strong>g here the dist<strong>in</strong>ction between true expletives and<br />
quasi-arguments, which are not dist<strong>in</strong>guished <strong>in</strong> Silva-Villar’s work).<br />
Let us first consider property (i). As for expletive-verb <strong>in</strong>version, it is claimed that<br />
the SEC patterns <strong>in</strong> this respect with other expletive constructions where there is an overt<br />
(or covert) subject, that is to say, the expletive cannot <strong>in</strong>vert itself with the verb. However,<br />
the k<strong>in</strong>d of sentences that Silva-Villar judges as ungrammatical sounds possible <strong>in</strong> the<br />
varieties of EP that have the overt expletive:<br />
(137) a. Haverá <strong>ele</strong> coisa melhor?<br />
have-FUT-3SG EXPL th<strong>in</strong>g better<br />
‘Is there anyth<strong>in</strong>g better?’<br />
b. Haja <strong>ele</strong> d<strong>in</strong>heiro, ...<br />
have-COND-3SG EXPL money, ...<br />
‘If there is money, ...’<br />
c. Voltará <strong>ele</strong> a nevar este ano?<br />
turn-FUT-3SG EXPL A snow-INF this year<br />
‘Will it snow aga<strong>in</strong> this year?’<br />
In fact, there are some attested examples with the expletive <strong>in</strong>verted with the verb ser ‘to<br />
be’ <strong>in</strong> impersonal constructions, as it will be shown <strong>in</strong> more detail <strong>in</strong> chapter 4 below:<br />
(138) a. Seja <strong>ele</strong> ao fim do tempo que for (Guerreiro 1968: 351)<br />
be-PRES.SUBJ. EXPL to.the end of.the time that be-FUT.SUBJ<br />
±‘No matter what time it will take.’<br />
b. Mas fosse <strong>ele</strong> ano de espiga grada, ... (from Aquil<strong>in</strong>o Ribeiro, Terras do Demo)<br />
but be-IMP.SUBJ EXPL year of gra<strong>in</strong> great, ...<br />
± ‘But if it was a good year for gra<strong>in</strong>, ...’<br />
53
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
Second, accord<strong>in</strong>g to Silva-Villar, the SEC would be possible only <strong>in</strong> matrix contexts.<br />
Once aga<strong>in</strong>, the sort of data he takes <strong>in</strong>to account (those which <strong>in</strong>volve impersonal verbs)<br />
seems to allow for expletives <strong>in</strong> embedded contexts as well:<br />
(139) a. Parece qu’<strong>ele</strong> vai botar água! (Dias 1982: 325)<br />
seems that EXPL goes give-INF water<br />
‘It seems that it is go<strong>in</strong>g to ra<strong>in</strong>’<br />
b. Parece qu’<strong>ele</strong> vai ser ano de milho. (ibid.)<br />
seems that EXPL goes be-INF year of corn<br />
± ‘It seems that it is go<strong>in</strong>g to be a good year for grow<strong>in</strong>g corn.’<br />
(140) eu tenho a impressão (...) que <strong>ele</strong> que havia a<strong>in</strong>da lá disso. (CORDIAL-SIN, AAL21)<br />
I have the impression that EXPL that had still there of.that<br />
‘I have the impression that there was some of that there.’<br />
(141) e quando êle assim me custa já tanto,<br />
and when EXPL thus to.me be.difficult-PRE.SUBJ.3SG already so.much<br />
não sei o que seria se abalasse... (Ribeiro 1927: 162)<br />
NEG know-1SG what be-COND.3SG if go.away-IMP.SUBJ. 1/3SG<br />
± ‘If it is already so difficult to me <strong>in</strong> this way, I don’t know what would happen to me if<br />
he/she/I went away.’<br />
The example <strong>in</strong> (141) <strong>in</strong>volves an impersonal construction with a Dative argument<br />
(Benefactive/Experiencer) where the overt expletive is also allowed – see data <strong>in</strong> chapter 4<br />
below. As (140) shows, this sort of expletive may even be enveloped between several<br />
<strong>in</strong>stances of the complementizer <strong>in</strong> recomplementation contexts.<br />
Presentative constructions with unaccusative verbs seem to pattern alike, the<br />
expletive be<strong>in</strong>g also allowed <strong>in</strong> embedded contexts (<strong>in</strong> a cleft construction <strong>in</strong> (142)):<br />
(142) (...) agora neste tempo, mais ou menos, Fevereiro, Março, é que <strong>ele</strong> ia<br />
now <strong>in</strong>.this time more or less February March is that EXPL went-3SG<br />
outra máqu<strong>in</strong>a (CORDIAL-SIN, AAL01)<br />
another mach<strong>in</strong>e<br />
± ‘It was now, at this time, February, March, that another mach<strong>in</strong>e was used’<br />
Silva-Villar’s MSC shows a similar behavior with respect to embedded contexts:<br />
54<br />
(143) a.Se <strong>ele</strong> isso é assim... (Braga 1971: 171)<br />
if EXPL that is <strong>in</strong>.this.way<br />
‘If that is this way…’<br />
b. Devem de estar a chigar qu’<strong>ele</strong> o sol já se pôs! (Paul<strong>in</strong>o 1959: 168)<br />
must-3PL of be-INF A arrive-INF that EXPL the sun already SE set-3SG<br />
± ‘They must arrive <strong>in</strong> a while, because the sun is already set down!’
2. EXPLETIVES, SUBJECTS, AND BEYOND<br />
c. Acho que <strong>ele</strong> o sol já se pôs.<br />
believe1SG that EXPL the sun already SE set3SG<br />
± ‘I th<strong>in</strong>k that the sun is already down’<br />
This does not however entail that all the expletive constructions pattern alike when one<br />
considers the lack of asymmetry between matrix and embedded contexts. At least, for the<br />
constructions discussed by Silva-Villar, it seems that some IECs (those that correspond to<br />
wh-embedded questions) fail to be allowed <strong>in</strong> an embedded context, as the contrast<br />
between (144)a and (144)b-c shows:<br />
(144) a. Não sei se <strong>ele</strong> os alunos já leram o livro.<br />
NEG know-1SG if EXPL the students already read-PERF.3PL the book<br />
‘I don’t know if the students have already read the book.’<br />
b. *Não sei <strong>ele</strong> quantos estudantes vieram à festa.<br />
NEG know-1SG EXPL how.many students came-3PL. to-the party<br />
c. *Não sei <strong>ele</strong> quem veio à festa.<br />
NEG know-1SG EXPL who came-3SG to-the party<br />
As for property (iii) above, concern<strong>in</strong>g the lack of non-f<strong>in</strong>ite expletive constructions,<br />
Silva-Villar’s judgements seem not to match the sort of data that EP allows (the examples<br />
<strong>in</strong> (145) correspond to the contexts <strong>in</strong>voked <strong>in</strong> his analysis):<br />
(145) a. (A<strong>in</strong>da é cedo)... para <strong>ele</strong> nevar outra vez.<br />
still is early for EXPL snow-INF aga<strong>in</strong><br />
b. Por <strong>ele</strong> haver tanta desgraça ...<br />
for EXPL have-INF so.much misfortune<br />
In these impersonal constructions, the expletives seem to pattern with subjects <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>flected<br />
<strong>in</strong>f<strong>in</strong>itive clauses <strong>in</strong> EP. Furthermore, the expletive can also co-occur with an overt subject<br />
(<strong>in</strong> a MSC) <strong>in</strong> this context:<br />
(146) a. ... para <strong>ele</strong> a Maria fazer isso.<br />
for EXPL the Maria do-INF that<br />
b. Por <strong>ele</strong> a Maria ter feito isso ...<br />
for EXPL the Maria have-INF done that<br />
At last, <strong>in</strong> what concerns rais<strong>in</strong>g, it is not clear that expletives <strong>in</strong> impersonal constructions<br />
should not be able to raise, contrary to what Silva-Villar assumes:<br />
55
(147) Ele parece haver muito trabalho.<br />
EXPL seems have-INF much work<br />
‘There seems to be a lot of work.’<br />
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
Consider also (148), <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g a rais<strong>in</strong>g construction with a modal verb (cf. Gonçalves<br />
1996).<br />
(148) Ele deve haver para aí (...) alguns quarenta. (CORDIAL-SIN, PFT02)<br />
EXPL must have-INF about some forty<br />
‘There must be some forty (years).’<br />
In short, the data presented above seem to weaken Silva-Villar’s attempt to unify all the<br />
expletive constructions on the basis of properties (i)-(iv) above. It is clear that some of the<br />
discussed data behave <strong>in</strong>deed <strong>in</strong> a way similar to expletive (or, more accurately, quasi-<br />
argumental) constructions <strong>in</strong> NNSLs. In the absence of other k<strong>in</strong>d of arguments, it is not<br />
evident that the SEC and the other expletive constructions should be paired off.<br />
In what follows, I will present the ma<strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e of Silva-Villar’s general proposal,<br />
which clearly relates the overt expletive <strong>in</strong> EP with the periphery of IP – a move<br />
substantiated at least by the sort of expletive constructions Silva-Villar <strong>in</strong>cludes under the<br />
MSC and the IEC.<br />
Concern<strong>in</strong>g the position of the expletive, Silva-Villar first admits two options,<br />
exclud<strong>in</strong>g [Spec, IP] on the basis of examples such as (134) above (repeated here as (149)),<br />
where this position is supposedly occupied by the preverbal subject: “either [Spec, CP] (...)<br />
or a higher (i.e. later) stage of the derivation” (p. 264), see (150)a and (150)b, respectively.<br />
56<br />
(149) a. Ele aquela mulher é muito bondosa.<br />
EXPL that woman is very k<strong>in</strong>d<br />
b. Ele aqu<strong>ele</strong>s campos estão bem cultivados.<br />
EXPL those lands are well farmed<br />
(150) a. CP<br />
ru<br />
Exp ty<br />
C TP<br />
ru<br />
T ...
2. EXPLETIVES, SUBJECTS, AND BEYOND<br />
b. XP<br />
ru<br />
Exp ty<br />
X CP<br />
ru<br />
ru<br />
C TP<br />
ru<br />
ru<br />
T ...<br />
Both options are however discarded: (150)b is excluded because “no source for Case is<br />
available”, and (150)a because “[Spec, CP] cannot be occupied by both the expletive and a<br />
Wh-phrase at the same time” (ibid.). Neverth<strong>ele</strong>ss, a central role of C is assumed: “[...] the<br />
root-embedded asymmetries already presented are a typical characteristic of the active role<br />
of C. F<strong>in</strong>ally, if the EPP and the Case-assign<strong>in</strong>g feature can be satisfied <strong>in</strong>dependently and<br />
by different lexical units, we are forced to provide an extra position beyond T for our<br />
derivation. (...) Whatever the solution to the problem may be, we want a C-like stage but<br />
we cannot have it” (ibid.). It is <strong>in</strong> this context that the Multiple Specs configuration <strong>in</strong> C is<br />
suggested. Silva-Villar ma<strong>in</strong>ly builds on the condition that “multiple specifiers must have<br />
the same distribution”, referr<strong>in</strong>g to the similar positions of subjects and expletives and of<br />
wh-phrases and expletives <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g examples ((32) and (33) <strong>in</strong> his text):<br />
(151) a. Ele sempre é grande. (EP)<br />
EXPL always is big<br />
‘It is always big’ (more accurately, ‘After all, it is big’)<br />
b. O mundo é grande.<br />
the world is big<br />
c. Ele o mundo é grande.<br />
EXPL the world is big<br />
(152) a. I ónde hei ter eu a maus? (Gal.)<br />
QM where have-1SG have-INF I the hands<br />
‘And where do I have my hands?’<br />
b. I el hei ter eu a maus (no bolso)?<br />
QM EXPL... (<strong>in</strong>.the pocket)<br />
c. I el onde hei ter eu a maus ?<br />
QM EXPL where ...<br />
However, further substantial support is not added and we are left with a f<strong>in</strong>al remark that<br />
the expletives “surface <strong>in</strong> the structures discussed [...] as a consequence of a strong feature<br />
57
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
of C. Verbs move to C to check a feature associated to the matrix (prosodic) doma<strong>in</strong>. [...]<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce the strength of C is the agglut<strong>in</strong>ant for all types of expletive constructions, they are<br />
unified under the label of Complementizer <strong>Expletive</strong> Construction” (p. 267).<br />
Tentative as Silva-Villar’s proposal may be, some observations to the general<br />
approach are still <strong>in</strong> order here. First, although Silva-Villar 1998 assumes that the expletive<br />
needs Case (just like <strong>in</strong> Uriagereka’s proposal), it is not clear how it gets Case as a second<br />
specifier of C. To my knowledge, the properties of C as a Case assigner are far from<br />
evident. Case check<strong>in</strong>g typically operates with<strong>in</strong> the IP doma<strong>in</strong> – Case assignment with<strong>in</strong><br />
the outer doma<strong>in</strong>, as <strong>in</strong> Uriagereka’s proposal (see section 2.4.4.1 above), is rather<br />
exceptional and, at least, it needs further motivation. Second, the non-comprehensive lack<br />
of asymmetry between matrix and embedded contexts (seen <strong>in</strong> (139) through (144) above)<br />
crucially underm<strong>in</strong>es the role assigned to C, and consequently, the <strong>in</strong>sertion of the<br />
expletive with<strong>in</strong> the strict projection of C. To conclude, as already noted above, the<br />
similarity of the expletive constructions discussed is not evident, which raises significant<br />
doubts on the <strong>in</strong>tended unification under a s<strong>in</strong>gle “Complementizer <strong>Expletive</strong><br />
Construction”.<br />
From the approaches reviewed above, I will reta<strong>in</strong> the ma<strong>in</strong> claim shared by both of them<br />
about an above-IP position for overt expletives <strong>in</strong> EP.<br />
58
On Dialect Syntax: Methodological Issues<br />
3.0 Introduction<br />
The object of this study consists of a phenomenon which is characteristic of non-standard<br />
varieties, and <strong>in</strong> most cases absent from standard EP. Insofar as the <strong>in</strong>vestigation is focused<br />
on data ma<strong>in</strong>ly drawn from EP dialects, the approach here developed may also be seen as<br />
an approximation to the study of dialect syntax <strong>in</strong> EP.<br />
In this chapter I discuss some methodological issues concern<strong>in</strong>g dialect syntax <strong>in</strong><br />
general and the approach followed <strong>in</strong> this work <strong>in</strong> particular. After some <strong>in</strong>troductory<br />
remarks about the <strong>in</strong>terplay between syntax and dialectology <strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>guistic studies, I will<br />
discuss the importance of the different k<strong>in</strong>ds of data that may constitute the empirical basis<br />
for dialect syntactic studies.<br />
In the last part of the chapter, the methodological options taken <strong>in</strong> this work will be<br />
presented.<br />
3.1 On the study of non-standard syntax<br />
It is not my <strong>in</strong>tention here to recapitulate the often mentioned divide between theoretical<br />
l<strong>in</strong>guistics and the study of l<strong>in</strong>guistic variation. This is <strong>in</strong> effect a well-known split, still<br />
highlighted <strong>in</strong> our days:<br />
3.<br />
59
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
At first sight, and often for some also <strong>in</strong> f<strong>in</strong>al analysis, l<strong>in</strong>guistic variation,<br />
while empirically evident, represents an <strong>ele</strong>ment of disturbance, someth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
that seems to obscure the true perception of th<strong>in</strong>gs, an obstacle to the<br />
theoriz<strong>in</strong>g and abstraction required for the scientific understand<strong>in</strong>g of facts.<br />
This is so much so that the fundamental theoretical traditions <strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>guistics,<br />
from Saussure to Chomsky, to post-generativism, to many functionalists<br />
themselves (not Halliday, of course; but certa<strong>in</strong>ly Dik, or Givón up to a<br />
certa<strong>in</strong> extent, to name but two) who, despite their po<strong>in</strong>t of view – which<br />
ought to make them particularly receptive to our problem – have more or<br />
less systematically sought to elim<strong>in</strong>ate all <strong>ele</strong>ments of variation from the<br />
l<strong>in</strong>guist’s scope, posit<strong>in</strong>g only that which is constant, <strong>in</strong>variable, underly<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the chang<strong>in</strong>g superficial realizations and <strong>in</strong>dependent from the speaker’s<br />
actuation as a worthy object of study. And so, over the last thirty years there<br />
has been a gradual divid<strong>in</strong>g of competences with<strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>guistic science. On the<br />
one hand, we have real l<strong>in</strong>guistics, general and theoretical l<strong>in</strong>guistics, which<br />
theorizes, searches for, and produces explanations – first class l<strong>in</strong>guistics,<br />
we might term it, which deals with language as used by a perfectly competent<br />
native speaker <strong>in</strong> an ideal situation, language as a formal construct where<br />
variety and <strong>ele</strong>ments of variation are systematically put to one side as<br />
irr<strong>ele</strong>vant. On the other hand, we have second class l<strong>in</strong>guistics,<br />
sociol<strong>in</strong>guistics and other fields of external l<strong>in</strong>guistics (to use Saussure’s<br />
term), which is left to take care of the bits and pieces of l<strong>in</strong>guistic practice of<br />
speakers <strong>in</strong> concrete situations where <strong>in</strong>stability, variety, fluctuation,<br />
diversity – variation <strong>in</strong> other words – reign supreme.<br />
Berruto 2004: 294<br />
My emphasis will go <strong>in</strong>stead to the manifest <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrat<strong>in</strong>g the f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs of the study<br />
of l<strong>in</strong>guistic variation <strong>in</strong>to a larger theoretical frame, which, for the doma<strong>in</strong> of generative<br />
syntax, is relatively recent.<br />
It is true that the study of syntax has only played a marg<strong>in</strong>al role <strong>in</strong> traditional<br />
dialectology. 1 Dialectologists have ma<strong>in</strong>ly been concerned with the study of phonological<br />
and lexical variation, and it was for this purpose that data were systematically collected <strong>in</strong><br />
dialect surveys and l<strong>in</strong>guistic atlases, which represent the ma<strong>in</strong> data source for traditional<br />
dialectology. In fact, <strong>in</strong> the atlas projects all over the world no more than five percent of<br />
published dialect maps <strong>in</strong>volve syntactic data (Gerritsen 1991: 9, apud Cornips and<br />
Jongenburger 2001: 1).<br />
This neglect of syntax <strong>in</strong> dialect studies certa<strong>in</strong>ly owes much to the methodological<br />
problems that syntactically oriented fieldwork raises. The classical method for<br />
1<br />
To this respect, Remacle’s (1952-60) <strong>in</strong>sightful work on the syntax of the Walloon dialect of la Gleize is a<br />
remarkable exception.<br />
60
3. ON DIALECT SYNTAX: METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES<br />
dialectological fieldwork is the <strong>in</strong>terview, conducted with the help of a questionnaire<br />
conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g essentially nam<strong>in</strong>g questions and eventually complet<strong>in</strong>g questions (generally<br />
organized accord<strong>in</strong>g to semantic fields). It is naturally difficult to take this sort of approach<br />
if one tries to obta<strong>in</strong> a specific syntactic construction. In most <strong>European</strong> atlases thus the<br />
method used for elicit<strong>in</strong>g syntactic properties has been the translation from the standard<br />
language <strong>in</strong> oral <strong>in</strong>terviews. This k<strong>in</strong>d of elicitation raises, of course, several problems, the<br />
most important of which seems to be the high risk of gett<strong>in</strong>g an answer <strong>in</strong>fluenced by the<br />
standard construction (also worth mention<strong>in</strong>g is the fact that <strong>in</strong>formants tend to get rapidly<br />
exhausted of this k<strong>in</strong>d of task).<br />
The experiences of the Swiss German Dialect Atlas team with syntactically<br />
oriented translation questions were quite bad, […] because either the<br />
<strong>in</strong>formants too often provided a literal translation from standard German<br />
and gett<strong>in</strong>g the natural responses would have taken too much time, or the<br />
<strong>in</strong>formants often didn’t understand at all the task they were faced with.<br />
Bucheli and Glaser 2002: 3<br />
Furthermore, it must be noted that such a method is only conceivable (despite its<br />
imperfections) for those areas whose varieties depend on different l<strong>in</strong>guistic systems<br />
(which is <strong>in</strong>deed the case of Italy, France or Switzerland, to refer some of the areas where<br />
this method has been applied).<br />
The situation of dialect syntax <strong>in</strong> <strong>Portuguese</strong> studies is not significantly different. The<br />
major EP dialect surveys do not generally contemplate any k<strong>in</strong>d of syntactic variation (cf.<br />
C<strong>in</strong>tra 1971, 1983, Boléo 1942-1973, Boléo and Silva 1962). The questionnaire of the<br />
l<strong>in</strong>guistic atlas ALEPG explicitly states that it is “for pratical reasons” that it does not<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude syntactic questions (Gottschalk, Barata and Adragão 1974).<br />
However, although no comprehensive description of syntactic variation phenomena<br />
may be found, there exist some sparse allusions to syntactically r<strong>ele</strong>vant variation<br />
phenomena <strong>in</strong> EP.<br />
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EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
Leite de Vasconcellos, who was pioneer for <strong>Portuguese</strong> dialectology, already po<strong>in</strong>ts<br />
out some aspects of syntactic variation <strong>in</strong> non-standard (popular and regional) varieties<br />
(among which the reference to expletive <strong>ele</strong>, as mentioned <strong>in</strong> chapter 1 of this dissertation):<br />
La syntaxe populaire ne diffère pas essentiellement de la syntaxe littéraire.<br />
Cependant, il y a à remarquer plusieurs particularités, soit dans le langage<br />
populaire général, soit dans les dialectes.<br />
Leite de Vasconcellos 1901, 1987: 121<br />
[Popular syntax does not essentially differ from literary syntax. However, there are<br />
some remarkable particularities, either <strong>in</strong> popular language <strong>in</strong> general, or <strong>in</strong> dialects.<br />
– my translation]<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the twentieth century, several dialect monographs presented to the Universities of<br />
Lisbon and Coimbra collected a non-negligible amount of remarks on <strong>Portuguese</strong> dialect<br />
syntax. 2 More recently, Cast<strong>ele</strong>iro 1975 presents a concise collection of non-standard<br />
syntactic constructions characteristic of <strong>in</strong>land <strong>Portuguese</strong> varieties.<br />
Neverth<strong>ele</strong>ss, it may be stated that most of the time syntax and dialectology have<br />
been pursu<strong>in</strong>g different <strong>in</strong>terests.<br />
The general situation of dialect syntax has however changed <strong>in</strong> the last decades, a period<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g which the convergence between syntactic theory and the study of l<strong>in</strong>guistic<br />
variation has become an explicit need.<br />
In the late seventies, the <strong>in</strong>ternational project Atlas L<strong>in</strong>guarum Europae (ALE)<br />
already sketched this tendency and stated the <strong>in</strong>terest for syntactic theory to count on a<br />
comparative <strong>in</strong>quiry <strong>in</strong>to dialect syntax (see Lehman 1980, Kruijsen 1983). A group of<br />
Dutch syntacticians committed to this l<strong>in</strong>guistic atlas have elaborated a questionnaire<br />
oriented to the study of syntax (Weijnen and Kruijsen 1979). However, this syntactic<br />
questionnaire has not been applied <strong>in</strong> most <strong>European</strong> l<strong>in</strong>guistic doma<strong>in</strong>s and no ALE syntax<br />
volume has been published.<br />
It was the framework of the Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples and Parameters Theory of generative<br />
grammar (Chomsky 1981 and subsequent work) that set the grounds for a renewal of the<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> syntactic variation.<br />
2<br />
Several of these monographs were <strong>in</strong>spected <strong>in</strong> the survey of dialect syntax phenomena presented by<br />
Carrilho and Lobo 1999.<br />
62
3. ON DIALECT SYNTAX: METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES<br />
[…] it was quickly realized that, through a systematic use of this notion<br />
[parameter, EC], it had become possible to account for all the variation <strong>in</strong><br />
syntactic computations and do away completely with the notion of<br />
language-specific rule system (Chomsky 1981).<br />
Universal Grammar (UG) could be rethought of as a system of<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>ciples and parameters. The former expressed l<strong>in</strong>guistic <strong>in</strong>variance; the<br />
latter were conceived as b<strong>in</strong>ary choice po<strong>in</strong>ts express<strong>in</strong>g the range of<br />
possible variation. A particular grammar could be seen as a specific<br />
realization of UG under a particular set of parametric values.<br />
Rizzi 2004a: 329<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce then, work <strong>in</strong> generative l<strong>in</strong>guistics has been ma<strong>in</strong>ly comparative. The comparative<br />
approach to languages similar <strong>in</strong> many respects, such as English and French or Italian and<br />
French, has been fundamental to the construction of a theory of Universal Grammar<br />
conceived <strong>in</strong> terms of <strong>in</strong>variant pr<strong>in</strong>ciples and parameters allow<strong>in</strong>g for some l<strong>in</strong>guistic<br />
variation. Under such a model, differences between languages may reduce to the sett<strong>in</strong>g of<br />
a small number of abstract parameters, hav<strong>in</strong>g effects throughout the grammar.<br />
Comparative work on the syntax of a large number of closely related<br />
languages can be thought of as a new research tool, one that is capable of<br />
provid<strong>in</strong>g results of an unusually f<strong>in</strong>e-gra<strong>in</strong>ed and particularly solid<br />
character. [omitted footnote, EC] If it were possible to experiment on<br />
languages, a syntactician would construct an experiment of the follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
type: take a language, alter a s<strong>in</strong>gle one of its observable syntactic<br />
properties, exam<strong>in</strong>e the result to see what, if any, other property has changed<br />
as a consequence of the orig<strong>in</strong>al manipulation. If one has, <strong>in</strong>terpret that<br />
result as <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that it and the orig<strong>in</strong>al property that was altered are<br />
l<strong>in</strong>ked to one another by some abstract parameter.<br />
Kayne 1996: xii<br />
Such a parametric approach after all displays an attractive potential to expla<strong>in</strong> patterns of<br />
variation also between closely related dialects. On the other hand, s<strong>in</strong>ce l<strong>in</strong>guistic variation<br />
is taken to be highly constra<strong>in</strong>ed, the syntactic differences found among different dialects<br />
constitute a challeng<strong>in</strong>g piece of evidence for l<strong>in</strong>guistic theory. Closely related yet<br />
different varieties of a language provide the sort of almost experimental empirical basis for<br />
syntacticians to test their highly constra<strong>in</strong>ed hypotheses (see, a.o., work presented <strong>in</strong><br />
Ben<strong>in</strong>cà and Poletto 1991, Ben<strong>in</strong>cà 1994, Black and Motapanyane 1996, Roberge and<br />
V<strong>in</strong>et 1989).<br />
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EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
One strategy which turned out to be very fruitful <strong>in</strong> the quest for parameters<br />
has been the comparative study of very closely related grammatical systems,<br />
the ideal case be<strong>in</strong>g the study of the microvariation across dialectal<br />
varieties. […] So it is not surpris<strong>in</strong>g that an important trend of generative<br />
dialectology of Romance and Germanic varieties flourished shortly after the<br />
<strong>in</strong>troduction of parametric models. This very fruitful development has<br />
coexisted with the cont<strong>in</strong>uation of macro-comparative syntax, <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
comparison of several languages quite distant historically and typologically<br />
[…]. Both trends are needed and complementary <strong>in</strong> order to address<br />
comparative issues at the f<strong>in</strong>est gra<strong>in</strong> possible while keep<strong>in</strong>g the grand<br />
picture of language diversity <strong>in</strong> sight.<br />
Rizzi 2004a: 332<br />
The situation of dialect syntax has thus considerably changed s<strong>in</strong>ce the early eighties. As<br />
an <strong>in</strong>dication of this change, it is worth mention<strong>in</strong>g the fact that, over the last decade,<br />
several national projects on the study of the syntax of dialects have been (<strong>in</strong>dependently)<br />
established <strong>in</strong> different <strong>European</strong> countries, some of which are still ongo<strong>in</strong>g: 3 the Syntactic<br />
Atlas of Northern Italy (ASIS); the Syntactic Atlas of the Dutch <strong>Dialects</strong> (SAND); the<br />
Syntactically Annotated Corpus of <strong>Portuguese</strong> <strong>Dialects</strong> (CORDIAL-SIN); the projects<br />
English Dialect Syntax from a Typological Perspective; Swiss German Dialect Syntax; and<br />
The Morphosyntactic Typology of Romani <strong>Dialects</strong>: Database Enhancement Project. 4<br />
Thus, the situation of dialect syntax <strong>in</strong> current <strong>Portuguese</strong> studies is also chang<strong>in</strong>g. The<br />
project CORDIAL-SIN has been conceived as a specific l<strong>in</strong>guistic resource aim<strong>in</strong>g at the<br />
enhancement of research activity with<strong>in</strong> this field. This still ongo<strong>in</strong>g project started <strong>in</strong><br />
September 1999 and, s<strong>in</strong>ce then, it has encouraged the development and publication of<br />
several dialect syntactic studies (i.a., Mart<strong>in</strong>s 2000b, 2000c, 2003a, 2003b, forthcom<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
Carrilho 2001, 2003a, 2003b, 2003c, Costa et al. 2001, Costa and Pereira 2003a, 2003b,<br />
Lobo 2001, forthcom<strong>in</strong>g, Magro 2003, 2004, Pereira 2003a, 2003b). The present<br />
dissertation is another outcome of this project. (Further details on this project will be given<br />
<strong>in</strong> the next section.)<br />
3<br />
As presented at the ESF/SCH Exploratory Workshop on <strong>European</strong> Dialect Syntax, held at the University of<br />
Padova, <strong>in</strong> September 2003.<br />
4 Similar projects are also planned for other <strong>European</strong> l<strong>in</strong>guistic areas, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Catalan, Scand<strong>in</strong>avian<br />
languages, and languages spoken <strong>in</strong> the Balkan pen<strong>in</strong>sula (cf. Rigau 2003, Platzack and Vangsnes 2003 and<br />
Krapova 2003, respectively).<br />
64
3.2 The problem of data collection<br />
3. ON DIALECT SYNTAX: METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES<br />
An important obstacle to the development of dialect syntax has been the absence of<br />
collected data and of a simple method for obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g syntactically r<strong>ele</strong>vant and<br />
representative data <strong>in</strong> a short span of time. As mentioned above, traditional dialectology<br />
methods could hardly apply to syntactic <strong>in</strong>vestigation specific purposes.<br />
The data situation has however improved and cont<strong>in</strong>ues to improve, as Kortmann<br />
2002 notes for English dialect syntax. In particular, the fact that dialectological fieldwork<br />
has come to <strong>in</strong>volve more than only the specific answers to a questionnaire has largely<br />
contributed to such an improved situation. In fact, dialectological sound record<strong>in</strong>gs often<br />
conta<strong>in</strong> significant stretches of fairly natural spontaneous speech and syntactically r<strong>ele</strong>vant<br />
annotations are often <strong>in</strong>cluded by field workers <strong>in</strong> their notebooks. As Kortmann po<strong>in</strong>ts<br />
out, “<strong>in</strong> both types of material we run a much greater chance of encounter<strong>in</strong>g certa<strong>in</strong><br />
constructions that are far less frequently found <strong>in</strong> the rather formal questionnaire-oriented<br />
<strong>in</strong>terview situation” (Kortmann 2002: 3). Emblematic of the need for a large collection of<br />
such spontaneous data is the attention that dialect syntacticians have given even to dialect<br />
speech collected for other purposes. Interviews conducted for oral history projects, for<br />
<strong>in</strong>stance, have been recently made available <strong>in</strong> the form of a computerized corpus of<br />
English dialects (FRED) 5 , which has been developed by the English department at the<br />
University of Freiburg.<br />
A different move <strong>in</strong> dialect syntax has been the effort to collect new data<br />
specifically oriented to dialect grammar issues.<br />
There are currently two major models for this k<strong>in</strong>d of data collection: One<br />
large project is be<strong>in</strong>g planned <strong>in</strong> England (the Survey of Regional English<br />
(SuRE); cf. Kerswil/Llamas/Upton 1999) whose aim it simply is to record as<br />
much natural discourse material as possible, without follow<strong>in</strong>g a strict<br />
questionnaire method. The second type of project <strong>in</strong>tends to collect data<br />
specifically for the purpose of syntactic analyses, us<strong>in</strong>g elicitation<br />
questionnaires. This method is currently be<strong>in</strong>g explored <strong>in</strong> Switzerland for<br />
Swiss dialect syntax […] and <strong>in</strong> The Netherlands and Belgium for the SAND<br />
project on Dutch and Flemish dialect syntax […].<br />
Kortmann 2002: 3<br />
To this respect, <strong>in</strong> fact, data collect<strong>in</strong>g methods developed for the purpose of<br />
syntactic atlases deserve more detailed consideration, for which see below.<br />
5 The Freiburg English Dialect Corpus (cf. http://www.anglistik.uni-freiburg.de/<strong>in</strong>stitut/lskortmann/FRED/).<br />
65
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
Before that, let us take a look at the data situation for <strong>Portuguese</strong> dialect syntax.<br />
Several projects of dialect geography have been developed by the Research Group on<br />
L<strong>in</strong>guistic Variation at Centro de L<strong>in</strong>guística da Universidade de Lisboa (see<br />
http://www.clul.ul.pt/sectores/projectos.html#4), on the basis of tape-recorded<br />
dialectological <strong>in</strong>terviews, which for the most part <strong>in</strong>clude important stretches of<br />
spontaneous speech produced by dialect <strong>in</strong>formants. This material, collected from the<br />
mid-seventies till now, constitutes an important source whose potential for dialect syntax<br />
studies seems evident. However, it is also evident that such raw collection of data can<br />
hardly have a straightforward use for dialect syntacticians. The project CORDIAL-SIN 6 ,<br />
already mentioned above, aimed precisely at mak<strong>in</strong>g available for researchers <strong>in</strong> general<br />
(and especially for those <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> dialect syntax) a significant amount of spontaneous<br />
and semi-directed speech excerpts drawn from these data. In this way, the empirical basis<br />
for syntactic theory, and for dialect syntax <strong>in</strong> particular, could be enriched with already<br />
collected – but unavailable – materials.<br />
A team of five <strong>ele</strong>ments (researchers and post-graduate students) 7,8 coord<strong>in</strong>ated by<br />
Ana Maria Mart<strong>in</strong>s has been (and still is) commited to the s<strong>ele</strong>ction, transcription,<br />
annotation and publication of such material. The annotated corpus is freely available on the<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternet(http://www.clul.ul.pt/english/sectores/cordials<strong>in</strong>/projecto_cordials<strong>in</strong>_corpus.html),<br />
under four different formats: (i) verbatim orthographic transcripts; (ii) ‘normalized’<br />
orthographic transcripts; (iii) morphologically tagged texts; (iv) syntactically annotated<br />
texts 9 .<br />
Verbatim orthographic transcripts <strong>in</strong>clude the mark<strong>in</strong>g up of phonetic and<br />
morphological variants, and of generalized spoken language phenomena, such as<br />
hesitations, filled and empty pauses, repetitions, rephrased segments, false starts, truncated<br />
words, speech overlapp<strong>in</strong>gs, unclear productions, etc. Normalized orthographic transcripts<br />
6<br />
This project is under development at Centro de L<strong>in</strong>guística da Universidade de Lisboa and it has been<br />
funded by Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT) and by <strong>European</strong> FEDER (PRAXIS<br />
XXI/P/PLP/13046/1998, POSI/1999/PLP/33275 and POCTI/LIN/46980/2002).<br />
7<br />
Among which, the author of this dissertation.<br />
8<br />
In addition, the project counts on three consultants for specialized areas: Charlotte Galves, Anthony Kroch,<br />
and João Saramago.<br />
9<br />
For methodological reasons, the syntactically annotated format will be available only at the end of the<br />
project.<br />
66
3. ON DIALECT SYNTAX: METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES<br />
correspond to a simplified version of verbatim transcripts, automatically obta<strong>in</strong>ed through<br />
elim<strong>in</strong>ation of the marked up features of spoken language and of phonetic transcriptions.<br />
The ASCII versions of the normalized transcripts are the <strong>in</strong>put for the tagg<strong>in</strong>g and the<br />
syntactic annotation. See below for an illustration:<br />
(i) verbatim ortographic transcript 10<br />
Eu sei que aquilo que{fp} {PH|nu�=não} é por mal, sabe? Mas quem ouve… Vem cá<br />
uma pessoa estranha, {PH|nu�=não} é, {PH|nu�=não} conhece e diz: "Ah, [AB|são] são<br />
malcriados, os pescadores" (…).<br />
(VPA15)<br />
(ii) normalized ortographic transcript (ASCII version)<br />
Eu sei que aquilo que não é por mal, sabe? Mas quem ouve... Vem cá uma pessoa<br />
estranha, não é, não conhece e diz: "Ah, (...) são malcriados, os<br />
pescadores" (...) .<br />
(iii) morphologically tagged text 11<br />
Eu/PRO sei/VB-P-1S que/C aquilo/DEM que/C não/NEG é/SR-P-3S por/P mal/ADV<br />
,/, sabe/VB-P-3S ?/.<br />
Mas/CONJ quem/WPRO ouve/VB-P-3S .../.<br />
Vem/VB-P-3S cá/ADV uma/D-UM-F pessoa/N estranha/ADJ-F ,/, não/NEG é/SR-P-<br />
3S ,/, não/NEG conhece/VB-P-3S e/CONJ diz/VB-P-3S :/. "/QT Ah/INTJ ,/, <br />
(...) são/SR-P-3P malcriados/ADJ-P ,/, os/D-P pescadores/N-P "/QT <br />
(...) ./.<br />
10 On the conventions used <strong>in</strong> such verbatim transcripts and their relation to normalized transcripts, see<br />
Normas de Transcrição, http://clul.ul.pt/sectores/cordials<strong>in</strong>/manual_normas.pdf.<br />
11 For detailed <strong>in</strong>formation on the tagset and application of each tag, see CORDIAL-SIN Manual de Anotação<br />
Morfológica, at http://www.clul.ul.pt/sectores/cordials<strong>in</strong>/manual_anotacao_morfologica.pdf.<br />
67
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
(iii) syntactically annotated text 12<br />
(IP-MAT (NP-SBJ(PRO Eu))<br />
(VB-P-1S sei)<br />
(CP-THT (C que)<br />
(NP-2 (DEM aquilo))<br />
(CP-THT (C que)<br />
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ *ICH*-2)<br />
(NEG não)<br />
(SR-P-3S é)<br />
(PP (P por)<br />
(ADVP (ADV mal))))))<br />
(, ,)<br />
(CP-QUE-CON (VB-P-3S sabe))<br />
(. ?))<br />
Such corpus may thus provide fast and systematic access to precise morphological and<br />
syntactic <strong>in</strong>formation on a significant amount of data (aim<strong>in</strong>g at 500,000 words) drawn<br />
from sound record<strong>in</strong>gs collected with<strong>in</strong> the scope of several dialectological studies<br />
(l<strong>in</strong>guistic atlases, such as the Atlas L<strong>in</strong>guístico-Etnográfico de Portugal e da Galiza –<br />
ALEPG, the Atlas L<strong>in</strong>guístico do Litoral Português – ALLP, the Atlas L<strong>in</strong>guístico e<br />
Etnográfico dos Açores – ALEAç, and Segura da Cruz 1987).<br />
At its present state, the corpus <strong>in</strong>cludes a geographically representative body of<br />
spontaneous and semi-directed speech from 24 localities with<strong>in</strong> the cont<strong>in</strong>ental and <strong>in</strong>sular<br />
territory of Portugal (amount<strong>in</strong>g to more than 300,000 words) – for the geographical<br />
distribution of these locations, see Map 1 below.<br />
12 For the current version of the CORDIAL-SIN Syntactic Annotation Manual, see<br />
http:/www.clul.ul.pt/english/sectores/cordials<strong>in</strong>/manual_syntactic_annotation_system.pdf.<br />
68
3. ON DIALECT SYNTAX: METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES<br />
Map 1. Geographical distribution of CORDIAL-SIN locations<br />
1 VPA Vila Praia de Âncora<br />
(Viana do Castelo)<br />
2 CTL Castro Laboreiro<br />
(Viana do Castelo)<br />
3 PFT Perafita (Vila Real)<br />
4 AAL Castelo de Vide, Porto da<br />
Espada, São Salvador de<br />
Aramenha, Sapeira, Alpalhão,<br />
Nisa (Portalegre)<br />
5 PAL Porches, Alte (Faro)<br />
6 CLC Câmara de Lobos, Caniçal<br />
(Funchal)<br />
7 PST Camacha, Tanque (Funchal)<br />
8 MST Monsanto (Castelo Branco)<br />
9 FLF Fajãz<strong>in</strong>ha (Horta)<br />
10 MIG Ponta Garça (Ponta Delgada)<br />
11 OUT Outeiro (Bragança)<br />
12 CBV Cabeço de Vide (Portalegre)<br />
13 MIN Arcos de Valdevez, Bade, São<br />
Lourenço da Montaria (Viana do<br />
Castelo)<br />
14 FIG Figueiró da Serra (Guarda)<br />
15 ALV Alvor (Faro)<br />
16 SRP Serpa (Beja)<br />
17 LVR Lavre (Évora)<br />
18 ALC Alcochete (Setúbal)<br />
19 COV Covo (Aveiro)<br />
20 PIC Bandeiras, Cais do Pico<br />
21 PVC Porto de Vacas (Coimbra)<br />
22 EXB Enxara do Bispo (Lisboa)<br />
23 TRC Font<strong>in</strong>has<br />
(Angra do Heroísmo)<br />
24 MTM Moita do Mart<strong>in</strong>ho<br />
69
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
The importance of such l<strong>in</strong>guistic resource appears fairly evident when one considers the<br />
study of dialect syntax.<br />
It is true that <strong>in</strong>trospection (ma<strong>in</strong>ly under the format of grammaticality judgements)<br />
has played a central role as the empirical basis for theoretical studies <strong>in</strong> generative syntax.<br />
However, such type of data could hardly work for the study of non-standard syntax. In fact,<br />
even if the l<strong>in</strong>guist is familiar with different varieties of his native language, one could<br />
hardly say to what extent he can produce reliable judgements about these varieties. To this<br />
respect, it appears that only judgements on his native (or native-like) dialect may offer<br />
some reliability.<br />
One po<strong>in</strong>t which might be made is that this method [the <strong>in</strong>trospective<br />
method, EC] cannot be used to study any language or language variety not<br />
known to the <strong>in</strong>vestigator, and s<strong>in</strong>ce academic l<strong>in</strong>guists are seldom<br />
competent speakers of non-standard dialects or uncodified languages, can <strong>in</strong><br />
practice be used for describ<strong>in</strong>g only fully codified languages. This is not of<br />
course to deny that those who have grown up as native speakers of a dialect<br />
(for example, Peter Trudgill <strong>in</strong> Norwich […]) may have <strong>in</strong>tuitions about its<br />
structure; so also might non-native speakers who have developed an <strong>in</strong>timate<br />
knowledge of the structure of a dialect (see J. Milroy 1981 for an example).<br />
But descriptions of non-standard dialects generally use <strong>in</strong>tuition as an aid to<br />
focus<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>vestigation, rather than a basic method; […].<br />
Milroy 1987: 76<br />
Above all, <strong>in</strong>trospection alone could hardly be a source of hypotheses-motivat<strong>in</strong>g data <strong>in</strong><br />
dialect syntax. In this context, thus, dialect corpora may be seen as important sources of<br />
data, which are <strong>in</strong> fact essential, especially for the <strong>in</strong>itial hypotheses-mak<strong>in</strong>g step.<br />
Observations often repeated with respect to the empirical basis of l<strong>in</strong>guistic research <strong>in</strong><br />
general become even more accurate when referr<strong>in</strong>g to empirical methodologies applied to<br />
the study of dialect syntax:<br />
70<br />
The advantage of work<strong>in</strong>g with a corpus is, of course, the enhanced<br />
objectivity of the data and of all the research that is based on it. In<br />
comparison with the other approaches, the possibilities for the researcher to<br />
manipulate the data are m<strong>in</strong>imized. Another great advantage is that a corpus<br />
the researcher has not produced himself may be varied, heterogeneous, full<br />
of surprises and a constant source of <strong>in</strong>spiration. Expos<strong>in</strong>g oneself to<br />
spontaneous data is, <strong>in</strong> fact, the safest way of discover<strong>in</strong>g those categories of<br />
a language that are peculiar to it and that the researcher did not expect.<br />
Lehmann 2004: 201
3. ON DIALECT SYNTAX: METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES<br />
This is so much so to the extent that comprehensive descriptive dialect syntactic studies are<br />
often unavailable for certa<strong>in</strong> languages – which is <strong>in</strong> fact the case of EP. Thus, large-scale<br />
dialect data sources such as the CORDIAL-SIN for EP or the FRED for English provide<br />
researchers with a valuable means to approach dialect syntax, which, of course, may be full<br />
of surprises.<br />
Even though I conceive such naturalistic data-based approach as the necessary first step<br />
towards the study of dialect syntax, I do not neglect the role that complementary empirical<br />
methods may play <strong>in</strong> further focus<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>vestigation. To this respect, methodologies<br />
developed with<strong>in</strong> the frame of recent syntactic atlases may be very helpful, even for dialect<br />
syntactic studies with more limited purposes.<br />
Elicitation of data, for <strong>in</strong>stance by collect<strong>in</strong>g grammaticality judgements, is<br />
necessary <strong>in</strong> addition to corpora <strong>in</strong> order to be able (i) to exam<strong>in</strong>e sentence<br />
types that rarely occur <strong>in</strong> spontaneous speech or (written and recorded)<br />
corpora and (ii) to exam<strong>in</strong>e negative data that an observational study cannot<br />
provide.<br />
Barbiers and Cornips 2002: 8<br />
Atlas projects usually <strong>in</strong>volve oral and/or written elicitation methods, so that they may<br />
collect relatively reliable, sufficient and comparable data <strong>in</strong> a limited span of time.<br />
Elicitation <strong>in</strong> syntactic fieldwork may (and has) assumed several formats,<br />
represented by different tasks. Barbiers and Cornips 2002 po<strong>in</strong>t out to an extensive list of<br />
such tasks:<br />
(i) Indirect grammaticality judgement task comb<strong>in</strong>ed with a scale; e.g., the<br />
subjects have to <strong>in</strong>dicate how uncommon (highest value=1) or how common<br />
(highest value=7) the variant is <strong>in</strong> their local dialect; heterogeneity is<br />
assumed by provid<strong>in</strong>g several alternatives for one test sentence; (ii)<br />
Discourse driven elicitation task (Buchelli & Glaser, this volume); a little<br />
story or a r<strong>ele</strong>vant context precedes each sentence to create a discourse<br />
situation; (iii) Translation task; (iv) Empty spots task; the subject has to fill<br />
<strong>in</strong> the r<strong>ele</strong>vant (function) word(s) from his dialect; (v) Completion task; the<br />
subject has to f<strong>in</strong>ish the sentence; (vi) Compliance tests (Greenbaum 1973);<br />
the task is to transform a stimulus sentence <strong>in</strong> some way, for example, to<br />
convert a statement <strong>in</strong>to a question; (vii) Relative judgements; common<br />
practice <strong>in</strong> generative research of the late 60s and early 70s. The subject is<br />
not asked to give a judgement about one sentence but rather to compare the<br />
71
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
acceptability of two or more sentences and (viii) Mean<strong>in</strong>g questions; In this<br />
task the subject is asked to provide the mean<strong>in</strong>g of a sentence.<br />
Barbiers and Cornips 2002: 9-10<br />
The experience of data collection throuhg elicitation has however proven that this method<br />
is not free from problems.<br />
Every elicitation situation is artificial, because the subject is be<strong>in</strong>g asked for<br />
a sort of behavior that is entirely different from everyday conversation (cf.<br />
Schütze 1996: 3). Sociol<strong>in</strong>guistic research has clearly shown that the<br />
response of subjects on direct judgement tasks (‘Is this a good sentence <strong>in</strong><br />
your dialect?’) often tends to reflect the form which they believe to have<br />
prestige or obeys the learned norm, rather than the form they actually use<br />
(Labov 1972: 213). A reasonable alternative is to use more <strong>in</strong>direct<br />
elicitation tasks (e.g. ‘Do you encounter this sentence <strong>in</strong> your dialect?’)<br />
Different levels of speech style (<strong>in</strong>formal and formal) yield another<br />
complicat<strong>in</strong>g factor for syntactic data elicitation.<br />
id.: 8-9<br />
To this respect, note, for <strong>in</strong>stance, that the results obta<strong>in</strong>ed through elicitation data often<br />
differ from those appear<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> spontaneous speech. From the experience with<strong>in</strong> the SAND<br />
project, Cornips 2003 po<strong>in</strong>ts out that speakers with a higher education are able to control<br />
variation <strong>in</strong> elicitation procedures, which does not generally happen <strong>in</strong> spontaneous speech.<br />
The degree of reliability varies among the different elicitation tasks, especially when one<br />
considers the different written/oral nature of the means that are used. Both of them have<br />
their disadvantages, but may <strong>in</strong> some cases serve specific purposes.<br />
Data for the Italian ASIS project, for <strong>in</strong>stance, has been collected, <strong>in</strong> a first phase,<br />
through a questionnaire written <strong>in</strong> Italian, request<strong>in</strong>g translations <strong>in</strong>to the <strong>in</strong>formants’ own<br />
dialect. In a second phase, <strong>in</strong>formants were asked for grammaticality judgements on a<br />
given set of sentences. The first questionnaire essentially aims “to def<strong>in</strong>e the characteristics<br />
of the dialects with respect to syntactic phenomena that are most widely known and<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestigated these days and typical of Northern Italy” (cf. ASIS Data collection webpage,<br />
at http://asis-cnr.unipd.it/raccolta.en.html). The second-phase questionnaires further<br />
“<strong>in</strong>vestigate <strong>in</strong> depth the syntactic areas identified as a result of both theoretical analyses<br />
and the areas highlighted by the outcome of the general questionnaire” (ibid.). The sort of<br />
written translation-ask<strong>in</strong>g questionnaire used by the ASIS project certa<strong>in</strong>ly permits to<br />
obta<strong>in</strong>, with<strong>in</strong> a short time span, a huge amount of almost costless data. Dialectology<br />
72
3. ON DIALECT SYNTAX: METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES<br />
fieldwork experience has however proven that such translation tasks may hardly be a<br />
reliable method for variation studies, when not comb<strong>in</strong>ed with other methods and/or<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation available for the varieties/dialects to study. The same might be said of written<br />
elicitation <strong>in</strong> general which also seems to raise a significant collection of problems.<br />
Written elicitation methods <strong>in</strong>duce numerous well-known task effects such<br />
as: (i) repetition effect, i.e. the subjects repeat exactly the sentence offered to<br />
them; (ii) sentences are rejected on the basis of lexical items, knowledge of<br />
the world and context of the sentence; (iii) subjects give judgements on the<br />
basis of <strong>in</strong>terpretability rather than gramaticality; (iv) habituation effect:<br />
when a given sentence type is offered repeatedly, acceptability tends to<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease; (v) order effect: the relative order <strong>in</strong> which test sentences are<br />
presented to the subject has <strong>in</strong>fluence on the judgements; (vi) written forms<br />
are unduly <strong>in</strong>fluenced by prescriptive educational practices. These task<br />
effects have to be taken <strong>in</strong>to account, both <strong>in</strong> the design of elicitation<br />
methods and <strong>in</strong> the result<strong>in</strong>g analysis.<br />
id.: 9<br />
Oral elicitation, on the other hand, permits to elicit more natural data and to correct<br />
possible mis<strong>in</strong>terpretations. However, as Barbiers and Cornips (ibid.) note, “there is a high<br />
risk that the subjects will accommodate i.e. adjust from the dialect towards the<br />
standard-like varieties of more formal speech styles of the <strong>in</strong>terviewer”. A possible<br />
solution to this problem has been suggested by the Dutch SAND project practice: the<br />
assistance of another dialect speaker(s) from the same community with the same social<br />
characterization.<br />
In fact, the SAND project experience seems to be <strong>in</strong> all respects exemplar. The phases of<br />
plann<strong>in</strong>g the SAND data collection <strong>in</strong>volved, as a first step, a comprehensive literature<br />
study. A written questionnaire has been prepared on the basis of the syntactic phenomena<br />
described <strong>in</strong> the dialect literature (just to have an idea, more than 1310 titles have been<br />
identified). As Cornips and Jongenburger 2001 report, this questionnaire was carefully<br />
prepared to provide <strong>in</strong>sight <strong>in</strong>to (i) the geographic distribution of syntactic variation; (ii)<br />
the validity of each type of (written) elicitation; (iii) Dutch-speak<strong>in</strong>g areas particularly<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g with respect to syntactic variation. As such, this questionnaire served as the<br />
<strong>in</strong>put for the next phase, which consisted of oral fieldwork. Prepar<strong>in</strong>g the oral fieldwork for<br />
the SAND project <strong>in</strong>volved the consideration of an appropriate elicitation test for each<br />
syntactic variable to be <strong>in</strong>vestigated. The results with respect to the usability of both the<br />
73
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
written and the oral elicitation techniques used for this project are summarized <strong>in</strong> the Table<br />
below (where ‘+’ means that the task is easy to perform; and ‘-‘ means that the task is<br />
difficult to perform), adapted from Cornips and Jongenburger 2001: 61.<br />
SETTING<br />
TYPE OF TASK WRITTEN ORAL<br />
repetition task <strong>in</strong>appropriate +<br />
<strong>in</strong>direct grammaticality judgements<br />
‘do you encounter?’<br />
+ +<br />
<strong>in</strong>direct grammaticality judgements<br />
+ <strong>in</strong>appropriate<br />
on 5-po<strong>in</strong>ts-scale<br />
translation task geographic area? +<br />
empty spots test + <strong>in</strong>appropriate<br />
completion task not used <strong>in</strong> SAND –<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>g questions +/– –<br />
Table 1. Usability of elicitation tasks used by the SAND-project<br />
From the experience of the SAND project, I would like to emphasize some aspects<br />
concern<strong>in</strong>g the reliability/workability of elicitation <strong>in</strong> dialect syntax studies: (i) though<br />
useful, elicitation tasks are not without problems; (ii) the negative effects associated to<br />
each elicitation task must be carefully evaluated; (iii) comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g different types of data<br />
collection methods may help obviat<strong>in</strong>g some problems; (iv) dialect syntax analysis requires<br />
careful consideration of the relation between the collected data and the effects <strong>in</strong>duced by<br />
the method by means of which the data were obta<strong>in</strong>ed.<br />
3.3 This study: methodological options<br />
The <strong>in</strong>vestigation presented here constitutes a first step approach to EP dialect syntax. The<br />
methodological options followed for the study of expletive <strong>ele</strong> were <strong>in</strong> part determ<strong>in</strong>ed by<br />
the type of data already available for EP dialects.<br />
The preparatory study of the r<strong>ele</strong>vant literature was very short <strong>in</strong> time and <strong>in</strong><br />
results. In fact, as mentioned above, such literature does not abound for the EP doma<strong>in</strong> and<br />
for expletive constructions <strong>in</strong> particular. Some prelim<strong>in</strong>ary examples have been collected<br />
from dialect monographs, grammars and specialized literature. These constitute however<br />
an almost <strong>in</strong>significant part of the data. Some additional examples have been also collected<br />
from written novels reproduc<strong>in</strong>g regional spoken language.<br />
74
3. ON DIALECT SYNTAX: METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES<br />
The fundamental part of the data collection comes from CORDIAL-SIN transcripts,<br />
which have been systematically <strong>in</strong>spected. This was, <strong>in</strong> a first moment, conceived as only<br />
the first part of the data collection phase, which should be further detailed through the<br />
adequate elicitation procedures. However, the r<strong>ele</strong>vance of CORDIAL-SIN for dialect<br />
syntax has appeared as paradigmatic <strong>in</strong> the case of data on expletive <strong>ele</strong>. These data <strong>in</strong>deed<br />
have proven to be extremely complex and numerous, so that no additional method could be<br />
developed and applied with<strong>in</strong> the scope of this dissertation.<br />
The data thus provided by CORDIAL-SIN are representative on l<strong>in</strong>guistic/syntactic<br />
and <strong>in</strong> geographical terms. Furthermore, these data are also reliable with respect to the<br />
uniform sociol<strong>in</strong>guistic characterization of the <strong>in</strong>formants that have produced them. In fact,<br />
given the orig<strong>in</strong> of the spoken language CORDIAL-SIN excerpts (ma<strong>in</strong>ly, <strong>in</strong>terviews for<br />
traditional l<strong>in</strong>guistic atlases), this corpus provides a fairly homogeneous sample with<br />
respect to most social variables, such as socio-cultural background (age, occupation,<br />
<strong>in</strong>struction…), autochthony and geographic mobility.<br />
Negative effects of us<strong>in</strong>g corpus data, such as the risk of absence of certa<strong>in</strong><br />
constructions, did not appear as significant when consider<strong>in</strong>g the specific object of this<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestigation. In fact, the wide sprectrum of expletive constructions provided by<br />
CORDIAL-SIN data went well beyond the <strong>in</strong>itially expected results.<br />
A major problem of this k<strong>in</strong>d of data is however the absence of negative evidence,<br />
which, whenever possible, I try to obviate by means of appeal<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>in</strong>tuitive judgements<br />
on my own native dialect (whenever possible checked with other speakers of the same<br />
dialect). This approach has however to be seen as a first rough approximation to the use of<br />
<strong>in</strong>trospective methods, which I conceive as a natural – and required – specialization on the<br />
ma<strong>in</strong> data collect<strong>in</strong>g method here adopted. However, I am also conv<strong>in</strong>ced that the sort of<br />
naturalistic data-based survey here presented cannot be avoided as an <strong>in</strong>dispensable phase<br />
prelim<strong>in</strong>ary to any k<strong>in</strong>d of elicitation based data collection (for the purposes of this study<br />
and for dialect syntactic studies <strong>in</strong> general).<br />
The comprehensive description of the data <strong>in</strong>spected <strong>in</strong> this dissertation is presented<br />
<strong>in</strong> the next chapter.<br />
75
4.0 Introduction<br />
4. Overt <strong>Expletive</strong>s<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>European</strong> <strong>Portuguese</strong> <strong>Dialects</strong>: Data<br />
This chapter exam<strong>in</strong>es the distribution of overt expletives <strong>in</strong> non-standard EP, with special<br />
focus on expletive <strong>ele</strong>. After a brief note on the orig<strong>in</strong> of the data analyzed <strong>in</strong> this work<br />
(section 4.1), I will first consider the syntactic environments where this expletive appears<br />
(section 4.2). The observed data will make it clear that, <strong>in</strong> non-standard EP, expletive <strong>ele</strong> is<br />
used <strong>in</strong> (i) impersonal constructions; (ii) different types of discourse-related peripheral<br />
configurations; and (iii) quite marg<strong>in</strong>ally, <strong>in</strong> postverbal position. Such a division among<br />
expletive constructions will be further substantiated by the differences found <strong>in</strong> the<br />
distributive patterns of expletive <strong>ele</strong> vs. those of the neuter demonstrative expletives, which<br />
will be considered <strong>in</strong> section 4.3.<br />
The geographical distribution of the different syntactic types of expletive<br />
constructions will be considered at the last part of section 4.2. This will allow us to<br />
conclude for the irr<strong>ele</strong>vance of space variation with respect to the areal spread of overt<br />
expletives <strong>in</strong> EP dialects.<br />
In section 4.4, the discourse effects of expletive constructions will be discussed,<br />
which may seem a fairly unusual approach to take with respect to such constructions. As it<br />
will become evident, however, differently from pure expletives <strong>in</strong> NNSLs, expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
EP has <strong>in</strong>deed some discourse import on the utterance where it occurs.<br />
77
4.1 Sources<br />
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
The non-standard data I will present <strong>in</strong> this chapter mostly come from the corpus of<br />
<strong>Portuguese</strong> dialects CORDIAL-SIN (see chapter 3). 1 From this corpus, I will consider<br />
transcripts from seventeen locations, amount<strong>in</strong>g to a corpus size of approximately 200,000<br />
words (more precisely, 201,484 words). 2 These locations correspond to the po<strong>in</strong>ts 1<br />
through 17 on the map below. Occasionally, when necessary, data from locations more<br />
recently <strong>in</strong>tegrated <strong>in</strong>to the corpus will also be taken <strong>in</strong>to account (marked A through D on<br />
the map).<br />
Map 1. Geographical distribution of the data from CORDIAL-SIN<br />
Examples taken from CORDIAL-SIN will always be identified by a code correspond<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
(i) the location code; plus (ii) the number of the source file – for <strong>in</strong>stance, “AAL01”. The<br />
full list of the locations’ codes is given below, together with the correspond<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>ts<br />
represented on the map:<br />
1 See the Appendix at the end of this dissertation for a complete list, where the examples are presented with<strong>in</strong><br />
the r<strong>ele</strong>vant l<strong>in</strong>guistic context.<br />
2 Concordances on these data were generated us<strong>in</strong>g the program Concordance for W<strong>in</strong>dows NT4.0/2000/XP<br />
(Copyright © R.J.C. Watt 1999, 2000, 2002).<br />
78
PT CODE LOCATION<br />
4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
1 VPA Vila Praia de Âncora<br />
(Viana do Castelo)<br />
2 CTL Castro Laboreiro<br />
(Viana do Castelo)<br />
3 PFT Perafita (Vila Real)<br />
4 OUT Outeiro (Bragança)<br />
5 COV Covo (Aveiro)<br />
6 FIG Figueiró da Serra (Guarda)<br />
7 MST Monsanto (Castelo Branco)<br />
8 AAL Castelo de Vide, Porto da<br />
Espada, São Salvador de<br />
Aramenha, Sapeira, Alpalhão,<br />
Nisa (Portalegre)<br />
9 CVB Cabeço de Vide (Portalegre)<br />
10 LVR Lavre (Évora)<br />
PT CODE LOCATION<br />
11 ALC Alcochete (Setúbal)<br />
12 SRP Serpa (Beja)<br />
13 PAL Porches, Alte (Faro)<br />
14 ALV Alvor (Faro)<br />
15 PST Camacha, Tanque (Funchal)<br />
16 CLC Câmara de Lobos, Caniçal<br />
(Funchal)<br />
17 FLF Fajãz<strong>in</strong>ha (Horta)<br />
A MIN Arcos de Valdevez, Bade,<br />
São Lourenço da Montaria<br />
(Viana do Castelo)<br />
B PVC Porto de Vacas (Coimbra)<br />
C EXB Enxara do Bispo (Lisboa)<br />
D MIG Ponta Garça (Ponta Delgada)<br />
In addition to CORDIAL-SIN data, I also take <strong>in</strong>to account expletive constructions drawn<br />
from: (i) a collection of unpublished dialectal monographs presented to the University of<br />
Lisbon; (ii) occasional productions <strong>in</strong> spontaneous, natural speech and <strong>in</strong> written texts<br />
(journalistic and literary); and also (iii) the regionalist novel A Planície Heróica (published<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1927), by Manuel Ribeiro 3 , which largely reproduces dialectal characteristics of the<br />
Southern EP variety from Alentejo.<br />
The analysis developed <strong>in</strong> chapter 5 is largely based on the data presented <strong>in</strong> this<br />
chapter. As a complement to these naturalistic data, I will also make use of my own<br />
l<strong>in</strong>guistic <strong>in</strong>tuitions and/or <strong>in</strong>tuitions from other speakers (who evidently use expletive<br />
constructions). However, whenever possible, this k<strong>in</strong>d of data will be postponed until<br />
chapter 5.<br />
Before turn<strong>in</strong>g our attention to the data, a word is needed to clarify the status of expletive<br />
<strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> CORDIAL-SIN oral transcripts.<br />
First of all, it must be acknowledged that identify<strong>in</strong>g this expletive is not a trivial<br />
task when transcrib<strong>in</strong>g dialectal spoken <strong>Portuguese</strong>. The difficulty greatly derives from the<br />
phonetic weakness of the word <strong>ele</strong>, whose pronunciation standardly consists of the<br />
close-mid front vowel [e] followed by the velarized lateral consonant [�]. Such<br />
3 I am perfectly aware that the diverse nature of this latter source recommends some caution when<br />
consider<strong>in</strong>g the examples it provides. As far as expletive constructions are concerned, the data seem however<br />
very close to those obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> naturalistic contexts, although by far much more frequent.<br />
79
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
pronunciation [e�] displays, of course, important phonetic variation when we consider data<br />
from different <strong>Portuguese</strong> dialects. Besides such variation, it is the generalized <strong>in</strong>stability<br />
of the velarized consonant that makes it difficult, <strong>in</strong> some cases, to identify the expletive<br />
unambiguously. In fact, given the semantic vacuity of expletives, it is not always<br />
unproblematic to recognize the pronunciation of an [e] (and other phonetic variants) as the<br />
expletive <strong>ele</strong> (ma<strong>in</strong>ly where the context equally allows for words such as eu [the<br />
nom<strong>in</strong>ative form of the first person s<strong>in</strong>gular pronoun], for <strong>in</strong>stance, <strong>in</strong> optional subject<br />
contexts, 4 or even the use of the vowel as a filled pause, transcribed as {fp}). Thus, the<br />
expletive appears sometimes <strong>in</strong> CORDIAL-SIN transcripts as one of at least two<br />
alternatives <strong>in</strong> dubious sequences, such as:<br />
(1) Nunca (eu) /<strong>ele</strong>\ t<strong>in</strong>ha visto fazer aquilo.<br />
never I EXPL had seen do-INF that<br />
(2) Olhe, (eu) /<strong>ele</strong>\ dei cabo aqui disto (com tanta coisa).<br />
look I EXPL damaged here this with so.many th<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
(3) (…) Eu tenho lá. (Eu,) /Ele\ na m<strong>in</strong>ha casa, tenho lá.<br />
I have there I EXPL <strong>in</strong> my house have there<br />
(4) INF ({fp}) /Ele\ punha-se-lhe o eixo.<br />
<strong>in</strong>formant [filled pause] EXPL put-SE-to.it the axle<br />
(5) Mas (<strong>ele</strong>) /eu\ os nomes disso é que eu (…) não me lembro.<br />
but EXPL I the names of.that is that I NEG to.me remember<br />
(6) Se (<strong>ele</strong>) /lhe\ alguém disser alguma coisa, (…) diga-lhe que foi à m<strong>in</strong>ha ordem<br />
if EXPL to.him anybody say-FUT.SUBJ any th<strong>in</strong>g tell-to.him that was to my order<br />
(7) Agora quem não tem nunca (<strong>ele</strong>) /lhe\ pode comprar.<br />
now who NEG has never EXPL to.him can buy<br />
In other cases, it is the existence of the expletive itself that is dubious (then transcribed<br />
<strong>in</strong>side parentheses, without alternative):<br />
(8) Então, (<strong>ele</strong>) a gente vai à igreja e vê o Nosso Senhor morto, crucificado.<br />
so EXPL the people goes to.the church and sees the Our Lord dead crucified<br />
(9) E depois, (<strong>ele</strong>) em estando lêveda, acende-se o forno.<br />
and after EXPL <strong>in</strong> be-GER leavened lights-SE the oven<br />
(10) (Ele) estava a nevar, nevava muito<br />
EXPL was A snow-INF snowed a.lot<br />
In any case, this is the k<strong>in</strong>d of problem that anyone deal<strong>in</strong>g with (spontaneous) speech<br />
transcription has to face. Several transcribers (and consultants for dialectal speech<br />
4 As the result of diphtong [ew] reduction, the vowel [e] (and variants) may dialectally correspond to this<br />
pronoun.<br />
80
4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
transcription) help to decide on such problematic cases <strong>in</strong> CORDIAL-SIN, which means<br />
that more than a s<strong>in</strong>gle transcriber has agreed on the transcription presented here.<br />
Although the Appendix presents a comprehensive collection of all the <strong>in</strong>stances of<br />
expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> CORDIAL-SIN transcripts (which naturally <strong>in</strong>clude many dubious cases),<br />
for the purposes of this dissertation I consider only the examples where the expletive is<br />
either entirely certa<strong>in</strong> or highly accepted by different transcribers. This means that from the<br />
dubious examples, I only reta<strong>in</strong> those where the expletive is transcribed alone <strong>in</strong>side<br />
parentheses (such as <strong>in</strong> examples (5)-(7) and (8)-(10)). Accord<strong>in</strong>gly, second alternatives <strong>in</strong><br />
dubious sequences, such as those <strong>in</strong> examples (1)-(4) above, have also been disregarded.<br />
I also ignore examples where not only the expletive but all the sequence where <strong>ele</strong><br />
appears is uncerta<strong>in</strong>, such as <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g example:<br />
(11) (Não.Ele era lá agora!)<br />
NEG EXPL was LÁ now<br />
4.2 The distribution of expletive <strong>ele</strong><br />
As mentioned <strong>in</strong> chapter 1 above, expletive <strong>ele</strong> is only sporadic <strong>in</strong> <strong>European</strong> <strong>Portuguese</strong>.<br />
This <strong>in</strong>tuitive observation is <strong>in</strong> fact confirmed by the <strong>in</strong>cidence of overt expletive<br />
constructions <strong>in</strong> the data observed, <strong>in</strong> particular <strong>in</strong> those from CORDIAL-SIN. If we<br />
compare, for each CORDIAL-SIN location, the total of occurrences of the expletive with<br />
the total amount of words, the scarcity of the former results unquestionable. This paucity<br />
subsists if we consider the total of <strong>in</strong>stances of <strong>ele</strong> (both expletive and referential): <strong>in</strong> this<br />
case, however, <strong>in</strong> some localities, such as AAL, MST, OUT, LVR, ALC, the expletive<br />
corresponds to about 50% of the total <strong>in</strong>stances of <strong>ele</strong> (both referential and expletive).<br />
81
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
total total of total<br />
Location of words <strong>ele</strong> of expl. <strong>ele</strong><br />
VPA 12,300 37 5<br />
CTL 8,696 68 7<br />
PFT 8,916 60 8<br />
AAL 13,819 51 29<br />
PAL 9,288 51 7<br />
CLC 8,813 37 1<br />
PST 9,178 27 0<br />
MST 11,448 52 25<br />
FLF 8,561 35 2<br />
OUT 9,863 100 53<br />
CBV 15,763 70 7<br />
FIG 7,160 17 7<br />
ALV 12,320 89 21<br />
SRP 14,423 37 8<br />
LVR 13,789 26 13<br />
ALC 14,787 79 35<br />
COV 22,360 350 70<br />
Total 201,484 1118 298<br />
Table 1. Total of expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> CORDIAL-SIN locations 5<br />
It is true that the significance of this sort of values is only <strong>in</strong>dicative, when one deals with<br />
(apparently optional) syntactic phenomena. In fact, it might well be the case that precisely<br />
the s<strong>ele</strong>cted transcripts conta<strong>in</strong>ed less (or more…) expletives than other pieces of<br />
spontaneous speech. This is not a crucial po<strong>in</strong>t for the ma<strong>in</strong> goals of this work, however.<br />
Insofar as expletive constructions do occur <strong>in</strong> the data, I am <strong>in</strong>terested above all <strong>in</strong><br />
understand<strong>in</strong>g the type of expletive constructions allowed by EP grammar, the regularities<br />
they display and the conditions under which they appear.<br />
Also, the fact that the <strong>in</strong>cidence of expletives is asymmetric <strong>in</strong> the different<br />
locations <strong>in</strong> the corpus (contrast, for <strong>in</strong>stance, OUT, COV, ALC, MST, or AAL with PST,<br />
CLC, or FLF) is not geol<strong>in</strong>guistically significant per se and may well be the result of<br />
accidental circumstances <strong>in</strong> spontaneous speech. Anyway, I will come back to the<br />
geographical spread of expletive <strong>ele</strong> constructions after I have presented the different types<br />
of contexts where this expletive occurs.<br />
5 The total of expletive <strong>ele</strong> does not <strong>in</strong>clude, as mentioned, expletives as second alternatives <strong>in</strong> dubious<br />
sequences and expletives <strong>in</strong>side longer dubious sequences.<br />
82
4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
As already mentioned (see <strong>in</strong> particular chapter 1), expletive <strong>ele</strong> has typically been<br />
referred as a non-standard phenomenon associated to certa<strong>in</strong> impersonal contexts, namely<br />
those <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g weather and existential verbs and ser constructions (remember examples<br />
(12) through (14) below, repeated from chapter 1).<br />
(12) Elle ha marotos muito grandes na tropa!<br />
EXPL has rascals very great <strong>in</strong>.the troops<br />
‘There are such rascals <strong>in</strong> the troops!’<br />
(13) Ele chove.<br />
EXPL ra<strong>in</strong>s<br />
‘It ra<strong>in</strong>s.’<br />
(14) Ele são horas.<br />
EXPL are hours<br />
‘It is time.’<br />
Contrary to our expectation, however, this correlation does not appear as particularly<br />
significant with<strong>in</strong> CORDIAL-SIN data. If a more significative relation was to be identified,<br />
we should <strong>in</strong>stead consider the distribution of expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> impersonal contexts <strong>in</strong><br />
general rather than only <strong>in</strong> those created by ser, existential and weather verbs (see section<br />
4.2.1 below).<br />
Neverth<strong>ele</strong>ss, it must be said that impersonal contexts <strong>in</strong> general correspond to less<br />
than a half of the total occurrences of this expletive <strong>in</strong> CORDIAL-SIN data, which<br />
obviously means that the distribution of the expletive significantly spreads over other<br />
type(s) of context. 6 In fact, only <strong>in</strong> 38.6 % of the occurrences <strong>in</strong> this corpus the expletive<br />
corresponds to a likely subject <strong>in</strong> impersonal constructions (that is, 115 cases out of a total<br />
of 298).<br />
6 In a survey of unpublished dialectal monographs presented to the University of Lisbon, Carrilho and Lobo<br />
1999 already report the occurrence of expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> contexts other than impersonals. As seen <strong>in</strong> chapter 2,<br />
some other studies have also taken this possibility <strong>in</strong>to account (cf. Uriagereka 1992, 1995b, 2004,<br />
Silva-Villar 1996, 1998, 2004).<br />
83
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
61%<br />
39%<br />
Impersonal<br />
Other<br />
Figure 1. Distribution of expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> CORDIAL-SIN:<br />
impersonal constructions vs. other contexts<br />
In what follows, I will consider <strong>in</strong> detail the syntactic distribution of expletive <strong>ele</strong>. First, I<br />
will present the data concern<strong>in</strong>g impersonal constructions where the expletive seems to<br />
have subject-like properties, to turn then to other distributive patterns.<br />
In the last part of this section, I will come back to the geographical distribution of<br />
overt expletive constructions <strong>in</strong> CORDIAL-SIN, which I will consider <strong>in</strong> perspective with<br />
the different syntactic contexts where expletive <strong>ele</strong> occurs.<br />
4.2.1 Subject-like expletive <strong>in</strong> impersonal constructions<br />
Under the label “impersonal constructions”, I consider several types of configurations,<br />
most of them correspond<strong>in</strong>g to well-known contexts for an expletive subject <strong>in</strong> NNSLs<br />
(see chapter 2). Accord<strong>in</strong>gly, besides self-evident cases <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g semantically (and thus<br />
syntactically) impersonal predicates, I will <strong>in</strong>clude <strong>in</strong> this section constructions where<br />
impersonality derives from the syntactic configuration where (otherwise personal)<br />
predicates appear. These ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong>volve clausal subject extraposition and presentative<br />
constructions. In this section, I will also consider the few examples where the overt<br />
expletive occurs <strong>in</strong> subject wh-extraction constructions. Impersonal constructions result<strong>in</strong>g<br />
from <strong>in</strong>def<strong>in</strong>ite subject reference (arbitrary third person plural null subject or impersonal<br />
se) will be postponed until section 4.2.2.2.<br />
84
4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
4.2.1.1 Semantically impersonal predicates<br />
Most occurrences of expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> impersonal contexts <strong>in</strong>volve semantically impersonal<br />
predicates, i.e. predicates which, by their mean<strong>in</strong>g, have no argument occupy<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
subject position. As is well known, this is the case of weather verbs and other natural<br />
predicates, among others. In what follows, I will first take <strong>in</strong>to account expletive<br />
constructions <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g this k<strong>in</strong>d of predicate. Also, I will consider under this section<br />
constructions <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g existential verbs, the verb ser ‘to be’ and other impersonal verbs<br />
(or verbs occasionally used as impersonal).<br />
i. Natural predicates<br />
Typically, the expletive co-occurs with weather verbs such as chover ‘to ra<strong>in</strong>’ and other<br />
predicates referr<strong>in</strong>g natural phenomena, such as time, weather, place, distance, general<br />
ambiance. These may correspond not only to simple verbs but also to different<br />
comb<strong>in</strong>ations of a verb (ser ‘to be’, estar ‘to be’, parecer ‘to seem’, fazer ‘to do’, a.o.) plus<br />
a noun, an adjective or an adverb referr<strong>in</strong>g the natural phenomenon. This is illustrated <strong>in</strong><br />
examples (15)-(20) below, for the CORDIAL-SIN data.<br />
(15) (<strong>ele</strong>) estava a nevar. (PFT11)<br />
EXPL was A snow-INF<br />
‘It was snow<strong>in</strong>g.’<br />
(16) Inq: Amanhã chove?<br />
‘Interviewer: Will it ra<strong>in</strong> tomorrow?’<br />
Inf: Ah, se chover era melhor, mas <strong>ele</strong> não chove amanhã. (MST11)<br />
INTJ if ra<strong>in</strong>-FUT.SUBJ was better but EXPL NEG ra<strong>in</strong>-PRES3SG tomorrow<br />
± ‘Informant: Oh, it would be better if it ra<strong>in</strong>s, but it won’t ra<strong>in</strong> tomorrow.’<br />
(17) Ele tem sido – da forma que eu tenho conhecido isto – todos os anos pior […]<br />
EXPL has been the way that I have known this all the years worse<br />
± ‘As far as I know, th<strong>in</strong>gs are gett<strong>in</strong>g worse year after year.’ (PAL12)<br />
(18) Há quem tenha uma ideia e há quem tenha outra. Ele é assim. (ALV36)<br />
has who has one idea and has who has other EXPL is like.that<br />
± ‘Some people have one ideia and others have a different one.Th<strong>in</strong>gs are <strong>in</strong>deed like that.’<br />
(19) Quando <strong>ele</strong> passa de um dia ou dois, (…) já é vendaval. (ALV45)<br />
when EXPL goes.beyond one day or two already is gale<br />
± ‘When it lasts more than one day or two, then it is a gale.’<br />
(20) Ele podia ser aí (…) uns trezentos metros da m<strong>in</strong>ha. (COV23)<br />
EXPL could be there some 300 meters from m<strong>in</strong>e<br />
± ‘It could be some 300 meters far from m<strong>in</strong>e [=my house].’<br />
85
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
This distribution of expletive <strong>ele</strong> is also frequently represented <strong>in</strong> local monographs:<br />
(21) a<strong>in</strong>da <strong>ele</strong> faz frio no mês d’Abril! (Arronches, <strong>in</strong> Paul<strong>in</strong>o 1959: 168)<br />
still EXPL makes cold <strong>in</strong>.the month of April<br />
‘It is still cold <strong>in</strong> April!’<br />
(22) Ele está calor. (Od<strong>ele</strong>ite, <strong>in</strong> Segura da Cruz 1969: 152)<br />
EXPL is heat<br />
‘It is hot.’<br />
(23) Vou-me qu’ <strong>ele</strong> já é tarde (Terceira, <strong>in</strong> Dias 1982: 329)<br />
leave-PRES.1SG becauseEXPL already is late<br />
± ‘I’m leav<strong>in</strong>g, because it is late.’<br />
(24) Parece qu’ <strong>ele</strong> vai ser ano de milho (ibid.)<br />
seems that EXPL will be-INF year of corn<br />
± ‘It seems that it will be a good year for grow<strong>in</strong>g corn.’<br />
The expletive appears together with other predicates of this k<strong>in</strong>d <strong>in</strong> colloquial EP (see<br />
example (25)) and <strong>in</strong> many written examples taken from A Planície Heróica (Ribeiro 1927,<br />
henceforth).<br />
(25) Ai <strong>ele</strong> é feriado? (female, Ribatejo, age c. 60y, low educ.)<br />
INTJ EXPL is holiday<br />
‘Oh, is it a holiday?’ [talk<strong>in</strong>g about a specific day <strong>in</strong> the week]<br />
(26) mas não o alcancei que <strong>ele</strong> era longe (Ribeiro 1927: 121)<br />
but NEG him reach-PRET.1SG because EXPL was far away<br />
‘I didn’t reach him because it was far away.’<br />
(27) <strong>ele</strong> já faz escuro (id.: 248)<br />
EXPL already makes darkness<br />
± ‘It is already dark.’<br />
ii. Existential verbs<br />
Existential verb haver, etymologically ‘to have’, behaves <strong>in</strong> EP fairly like impersonal<br />
predicates. Accord<strong>in</strong>gly, constructions with existential haver do not have any argument <strong>in</strong><br />
subject position. Nor is the postverbal argument <strong>in</strong> connection with this position. Consider,<br />
for <strong>in</strong>stance, example (28):<br />
86<br />
(28) Há muitos cam<strong>in</strong>hos<br />
has many ways<br />
‘There are many ways.’
4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
In such a sentence, <strong>in</strong> standard EP, the postverbal (plural) argument rather behaves as the<br />
object – it does not agree with the third person s<strong>in</strong>gular verb and it pronom<strong>in</strong>alizes as<br />
accusative (see (29)a and (29)b, respectively).<br />
(29) a. * ? Haviam muitos cam<strong>in</strong>hos<br />
had-3PL many ways<br />
b. Há-os<br />
has-them[CL.ACC]<br />
Even though <strong>in</strong> some varieties of non-standard EP sentences like (29)a happen to be<br />
produced, agreement between the postverbal argument and the verb is only exceptional <strong>in</strong><br />
CORDIAL-SIN data. In fact, <strong>in</strong> this corpus, sentences show<strong>in</strong>g the agreement pattern<br />
found <strong>in</strong> (30) do occur as a rule. 7 Also, the accusative status of the argument is confirmed<br />
by the dialectal data (see example (31)). <strong>Expletive</strong> constructions thus may co-occur with<br />
accusative pronom<strong>in</strong>alized arguments, as <strong>in</strong> example (32):<br />
(30) Havia uns sacos mesmo grandes […] (AAL10)<br />
had-IMPERF.3SG some bags <strong>in</strong>deed big-PL<br />
‘There were some very big bags…’<br />
(31) As pias há-as quadradas (e) há outras redondas, não é? (OUT33)<br />
the s<strong>in</strong>ks has-them[CL.ACCUS] square and has others round NEG is<br />
‘As for s<strong>in</strong>ks, there are square ones and there are others that are round, isn’t it?’<br />
(32) O tempo das quadrilhas já lá ia. Que êle houvera-as (...)<br />
the time of.the gangs already LÁ went QUE EXPL had-them[CL.ACCUS]<br />
±‘The time of the gangs was gone! They had existed...’ (Ribeiro 1927: 136)<br />
Thus, when it appears <strong>in</strong> impersonal haver constructions, expletive <strong>ele</strong> behaves as a<br />
quasi-argumental subject (see chapter 2): it agrees with the verb and it may receive<br />
nom<strong>in</strong>ative Case – the argument of haver has its own accusative Case.<br />
Let us now look at the structural environment where the overt expletive appears <strong>in</strong><br />
existential constructions. First of all, it must be noticed that expletive <strong>ele</strong> may occur <strong>in</strong><br />
embedded contexts (i.e., at least <strong>in</strong> existential constructions, <strong>ele</strong> is not limited to matrix<br />
sentences, contrary to current assumptions – see, <strong>in</strong> particular, Silva-Villar 1998, 2004).<br />
Examples (33) and (34) illustrate this possibility:<br />
7 Verbal agreement with the postverbal argument of haver appears to be a rather urban phenomenon. It is not<br />
unusual to f<strong>in</strong>d it produced by high-educated speakers (usually <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>formal, uncontrolled situations). In<br />
CORDIAL-SIN data, examples that unambiguously show agreement between the argument (plural) and<br />
haver don’t exceed half a dozen cases.<br />
87
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
(33) Isso é o bucho. É o bucho da gal<strong>in</strong>ha. E é os ovários. E é o moela.<br />
that is the stomach is the stomach of.the chicken and is the ovaries and is the gizzard<br />
E… Que eu sei que (<strong>ele</strong> há) /<strong>ele</strong> é\ outra coisa que se tira, aquilo…(ALC31)<br />
and QUE I know that EXPL has EXPL is other th<strong>in</strong>g that SE takes out that<br />
± ‘That is the stomach. It is the chicken’s stomach. And there are the ovaries. And there is<br />
the gizzard. And… I know there is someth<strong>in</strong>g else that you take out, that…’<br />
(34) pois que préstimo teem agora as talhas, se êle não há já v<strong>in</strong>has? (Ribeiro 1927: 28)<br />
POIS what utility have now the ± tubs if EXPL NEG has still v<strong>in</strong>eyards<br />
± ‘So what is the utility of the tubs now, if there are no more v<strong>in</strong>eyards?’<br />
Example (35) equally shows an embedded context and, furthermore, it reveals that<br />
expletive <strong>ele</strong> may occur between two <strong>in</strong>stances of the complementizer que ‘that’, <strong>in</strong> a<br />
recomplementation construction (also known as double complementizer construction):<br />
(35) Mas olhe que eu, eu tenho a impressão (…) que <strong>ele</strong> que havia a<strong>in</strong>da lá disso. (AAL21)<br />
but look that I I have the impression that EXPL that had still there of.that<br />
± ‘But look, I have the impression that there was some of that there.’<br />
This is a fairly unexpected position for an expletive: recomplementation constructions<br />
result <strong>in</strong> a k<strong>in</strong>d of topicalization, whereby the “sandwiched” constituent is made more<br />
prom<strong>in</strong>ent (see Uriagereka 1992, 1995b), just like <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g example:<br />
(36) Eu sei que aquilo que não é por mal, sabe? (VPA15)<br />
I know that that[DEM] that NEG is for <strong>in</strong>jury know-3SG<br />
‘I know that it is not for <strong>in</strong>jury, you know.’<br />
Evidently, expressions which cannot become topics are not usually allowed <strong>in</strong> such a<br />
position, as shown by example (37).<br />
(37) *Acho que n<strong>in</strong>guém que fez isso por mal.<br />
th<strong>in</strong>k-1SG that nobody that made that for <strong>in</strong>jury<br />
Thus, the expletive occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> existential haver constructions seems to have the property<br />
of becom<strong>in</strong>g a k<strong>in</strong>d of topic – at least, it may occur <strong>in</strong> a position which is typical of topics.<br />
Although expletives <strong>in</strong> existential constructions behave <strong>in</strong> some respects like topics,<br />
it is worth not<strong>in</strong>g that they neverth<strong>ele</strong>ss co-occur with different k<strong>in</strong>ds of peripheral<br />
constituents, among which, topicalized and left-dislocated phrases (examples (38) and<br />
(39), respectively). The expletive occupies, <strong>in</strong> this case, a position lower than that occupied<br />
by topics:<br />
88<br />
(38) Olhe, aqui são fêtãos. Isso, <strong>ele</strong> há cá muito – os fêtãos. (FIG12)<br />
look here are ferns that EXPL has here much – the ferns<br />
± ‘Look, these are ferns. Those, there are many here [ferns].’
4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
(39) Os tabuleiros, <strong>ele</strong> também os há de barro, não é? (OUT31)<br />
the trays EXPL also them[CL.ACCUS] has of clay NEG is<br />
± ‘As for trays, there are also some of them which are made out of clay, isn’t it?’<br />
(40) Há algum tempo – agora não –, mas há algum tempo – agora tenho água<br />
has some time now NEG but has some time now have-PRES-1SG water<br />
em casa –, mas naqu<strong>ele</strong> tempo, (<strong>ele</strong>) havia uns canecos que era para vir<br />
at home but <strong>in</strong>.that time EXPL had some mugs QUE was to come<br />
à fonte, uns canecos de madeira, […] (COV13)<br />
to.the founta<strong>in</strong> some mugs of wood<br />
± ‘Some time ago – not now, but some time ago – now I have water at home –, but <strong>in</strong> that<br />
time, there were mugs that we took to the founta<strong>in</strong>, some wooden mugs...’<br />
Keep<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>d the topic-like behavior of expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> examples <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
recomplementation, we might suppose that <strong>in</strong> examples (38) through (40), the expletive<br />
still compares to a topic – <strong>in</strong> fact, EP allows for multiple topics (see Duarte 1987). Yet, <strong>in</strong><br />
other CORDIAL-SIN examples the expletive seems to differ from topics: <strong>in</strong> existential<br />
constructions, expletive <strong>ele</strong> occurs below focused phrases like that <strong>in</strong> example (41), while<br />
topics have to precede such phrases (see examples (42)).<br />
(41) Até aqui nestes olivais, <strong>ele</strong> há ali semeada. (LVR10)<br />
even here <strong>in</strong>.these olive_groves EXPL has there sownF<br />
± ‘Even <strong>in</strong> these olive groves, there is [null object] sown.’<br />
(42) a. *Até aqui nestes olivais, [essa erva]top há.<br />
even here <strong>in</strong>.these olive_groves that grass has<br />
b. [Essa erva]top, até aqui nestes olivais há.<br />
that grass even here <strong>in</strong>.these olive_groves has<br />
Other high positions occupied by discourse markers precede the expletive as well:<br />
(43) É uma manta mas, af<strong>in</strong>al de contas, <strong>ele</strong> há um pano que não tem nome de manta. (PAL24)<br />
is a cover but after all EXPL has a sheet that NEG has name of cover<br />
± ‘This is a cover but, after all, there is a piece of cloth that is not called cover.’<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ally, <strong>in</strong> an example such as (44), the expletive is preceded by the neuter demonstrative<br />
pronoun isto ‘this’, which also acts as an expletive (on the use of demonstratives as<br />
expletives, see section 4.3 below):<br />
(44) Isto, <strong>ele</strong> há coisas (…) … (COV24)<br />
this EXPL has th<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
± ‘There are such th<strong>in</strong>gs (…) …’<br />
89
iii. The verb ser ‘to be’<br />
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
After consider<strong>in</strong>g natural predicates and existential constructions, let us turn now to<br />
expletive constructions with the verb ser ‘to be’. The overt expletive especially occurs with<br />
a particular use of ser, <strong>in</strong> presentative-like constructions, such as (45).<br />
(45) a. São rosas.<br />
are roses<br />
‘These are roses.’<br />
b. Sou eu.<br />
am I<br />
‘It’s me.’<br />
In such sentences, ser behaves much like <strong>in</strong> presentational focus constructions (see Ambar<br />
1997, 1999, Costa 1998a, a.o) or <strong>in</strong> cleft sentences (see Duarte 2000, Costa and Duarte<br />
2001):<br />
(46) - Quem comeu a maçã?<br />
‘Who ate the apple?’<br />
- Fui eu. / Foi o Adão. Presentational focus<br />
was-1SG I / was-3SG the Adam<br />
‘It was me.’ / ‘It was Adam.’<br />
(47) a. Foi o Adão que comeu a maçã. Cleft<br />
was-3SG the Adam that ate-3SG the apple<br />
‘It was Adam who ate the apple.’<br />
b. Fui eu que comi a maçã.<br />
was-1SG I that ate-1SG the apple<br />
‘It was me who ate the apple.’<br />
In (45) as <strong>in</strong> both (46) and (47), ser occurs with a postverbal argument which standardly<br />
controls verbal agreement. As such, this k<strong>in</strong>d of sentence is fairly similar to presentative<br />
constructions <strong>in</strong> general (see chapter 2 and section 4.2.1.3 below), with which it shares the<br />
presentative mean<strong>in</strong>g. An analysis which features a null expletive <strong>in</strong> preverbal subject<br />
position could then also fit ser constructions, as follows:<br />
(48) [[EXPL] i [são [rosas] i ]]<br />
However, <strong>in</strong> ser constructions the postverbal argument has rather properties different from<br />
those displayed by postverbal arguments <strong>in</strong> presentative constuctions <strong>in</strong> EP: it must carry<br />
nom<strong>in</strong>ative case, even if it may never occur <strong>in</strong> subject preverbal position.<br />
90
(49) a. São {elas / *-nas}.<br />
are they / *them[CL.ACCUS]<br />
b. Sou {eu / *-me}.<br />
am I / *me<br />
4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
Furthermore, the sentences <strong>in</strong> (45) have no counterpart where the argument appears <strong>in</strong><br />
preverbal position:<br />
(50) a. *Rosas são.<br />
b. *Eu sou.<br />
This obviously does not hold for presentative constructions <strong>in</strong> general, which usually admit<br />
a preverbal subject variant and which hardly tolerate a postverbal argument show<strong>in</strong>g overt<br />
nom<strong>in</strong>ative case.<br />
However, besides the presentative mean<strong>in</strong>g, this type of ser construction has<br />
someth<strong>in</strong>g more <strong>in</strong> common with other presentative constructions <strong>in</strong> EP. As has been noted<br />
(Costa 2001, Carrilho 2003a), presentative constructions with unaccusative verbs display<br />
<strong>in</strong> non-standard EP the possibility of show<strong>in</strong>g third person s<strong>in</strong>gular verbal <strong>in</strong>flection even<br />
when the postverbal argument is plural. This is also recurrent <strong>in</strong> ser constructions, as the<br />
CORDIAL-SIN data attest:<br />
(51) INQ1 Umas couves?<br />
Interviewer: Some cabbages?<br />
INF Não, não. Ele não é as couves. (COV37)<br />
Informant: no no EXPL NEG is the cabbages<br />
‘Informant: No, no. It’s not cabbage’.<br />
(52) A gente cá, <strong>ele</strong>s empregam cá outro nome disto. […] Ele não é carochas. (ALC42)<br />
the people here they use here other name of.this EXPL NEG is carochas<br />
± ‘People here use a different name for this. It’s not carochas’.<br />
(53) Chocos. A gente chama aqui… A nossa palavra aqui é choco. Mas <strong>ele</strong> é chocos.<br />
cutllefishes the people calls here the our word here is cuttlefish but EXPL is cuttlefishes<br />
(ALV27)<br />
‘Cuttlefishes. We call it… The word we use is cuttlefish. But they are cutllefishes.’<br />
In all these examples, ser displays s<strong>in</strong>gular morphology, even though the postverbal<br />
argument (underl<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the examples) is plural.<br />
Just like it happens <strong>in</strong> existential constructions, expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> ser constructions<br />
may be preceded by another expletive word, such as the neuter demonstrative aquilo ‘that’<br />
<strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g example:<br />
91
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
(54) O borralho que ficava deixava-se (descontrolar) assim um bocad<strong>in</strong>ho,<br />
the embers that rema<strong>in</strong>ed was allowed to lose control so.to.speak a little<br />
senão aquilo <strong>ele</strong> era brasas que enchiam a boca do forno. (LVR35)<br />
otherwise DEM EXPL was coals that filled up the door of.the coal.fire<br />
± ‘We let the embers that were left (fall down), otherwise the entry of the coal fire was<br />
stuffed with coals.’<br />
iv. Other impersonal verbs<br />
<strong>Expletive</strong> constructions may also <strong>in</strong>volve other impersonal verbs (some of which are not<br />
standardly impersonal but happen to be so <strong>in</strong> the k<strong>in</strong>d of data here <strong>in</strong>spected).<br />
First of all, we shall still consider examples <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g the verb ser. In this section,<br />
we present <strong>in</strong>stances of impersonal ser that differ from those previously considered <strong>in</strong><br />
section 4.2.1.1.iii above. Two different cases were found <strong>in</strong> CORDIAL-SIN data. The first<br />
one is illustrated <strong>in</strong> example (55), where ser has a s<strong>in</strong>gle clausal argument (the embedded<br />
clause que não vá lá fora). The mean<strong>in</strong>g of this ser-construction is fairly that of an it<br />
happens that… clause.<br />
(55) "Se <strong>ele</strong> não for lá fora, se <strong>ele</strong> for que não vá lá fora,<br />
if he NEG go-FUT.SUBJ-3SG abroad if EXPL be-FUT.SUBJ-3SG that NEG go-PRES.SUBJ-3SG abroad<br />
dou-te dois contos". (COV11)<br />
give-1SG-to.you two contos<br />
‘If he does not go abroad – if it happens that he does not go abroad – I’ll give you two<br />
contos.’<br />
Remark that <strong>in</strong> this example the expletive appears <strong>in</strong>side an embedded if-clause.<br />
The other case is shown <strong>in</strong> example (56), where the verb ser has a mean<strong>in</strong>g similar<br />
to that of the natural predicates exam<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> section 4.2.1.1.i above:<br />
(56) Coitado do homem. Então estás a ver se lhe morrer o filho lá fora,<br />
poor of.the man so are A see-INF if to.him[CL.DAT] die the son abroad<br />
como <strong>ele</strong> é?! (COV12)<br />
how EXPL is<br />
‘Poor man! So, you see, if his son dies abroad, how will it be?’<br />
This example might well have been considered <strong>in</strong> the mentioned section, as <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
periphrasis of ser+adverb referr<strong>in</strong>g some general ambient conditions. The adverb<br />
corresponds here to the wh-word which heads this exclamative question.<br />
CORDIAL-SIN expletive <strong>ele</strong> examples <strong>in</strong>clude some other verbs which equally<br />
allow for a subject referr<strong>in</strong>g to ambient conditions <strong>in</strong> general. The follow<strong>in</strong>g do not<br />
correspond, however, to impersonal verbs <strong>in</strong> standard EP:<br />
92
4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
(57) E depois, quando estar tudo na maior grandeza, olhe que há-de vir tudo<br />
and then when be-INF everyth<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>.the greater greatness look that will come everyth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
para baixo". Quer dizer, vir outra vez à miséria. Ele vai cam<strong>in</strong>hando para isso. (PAL13)<br />
down means come aga<strong>in</strong> to.the misery EXPL goes go<strong>in</strong>g to that<br />
±‘And then, when everyth<strong>in</strong>g is absolutely great, everyth<strong>in</strong>g will come down, you see.<br />
Th<strong>in</strong>gs are go<strong>in</strong>g that way.’<br />
(58) êle diz que chegara já o men<strong>in</strong>o Joanito. (Ribeiro 1927: 171)<br />
EXPL says that had.arrived already the boy Joanito<br />
‘It is said that little Joanito had already arrived.’<br />
(59) Então como é que é que isto <strong>ele</strong> é feito?! (ALV03)<br />
so how is that is that this EXPL is done<br />
± ‘So, how is it that this may happen?’<br />
The last example was produced dur<strong>in</strong>g a conversation about the money spent by fishers<br />
and the <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g prices of their fish<strong>in</strong>g tools. In this case, expletive <strong>ele</strong> co-occurs with<br />
another expletive, the demonstrative isto ‘this’.<br />
Constructions with the idiom fazer de conta ‘±simulate’ and with the verb<br />
acontecer ‘to happen’, which are both standardly impersonal, also accept the overt<br />
expletive <strong>in</strong> a subject-like position.<br />
(60) Olhe, t<strong>in</strong>ha umas cordas. (Olhe), <strong>ele</strong> faz de conta que o animal (…) estava aqui. (FLF41)<br />
look had some ropes look EXPL simulate that the animal was here<br />
‘Look, there were ropes. (Look), imag<strong>in</strong>e that the animal was here.’<br />
(61) Ele tem acontecido aqui cada uma em m<strong>in</strong>ha casa! (COV22)<br />
EXPL has happenned here such one <strong>in</strong> my house<br />
±‘There happen such th<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> my house!’<br />
Acontecer also enters a different k<strong>in</strong>d of impersonal construction, as illustrated <strong>in</strong> example<br />
(62) which <strong>in</strong>volves a dative argument (experiencer or benefactive):<br />
(62) Ele tem-me acontecido aqui cada uma! (COV23)<br />
EXPL has-to.me[CL.DAT] happenned here such one<br />
±‘I have suffered such th<strong>in</strong>gs here!’<br />
The overt expletive equally appears <strong>in</strong> other dative impersonal constructions, both <strong>in</strong><br />
CORDIAL-SIN data and <strong>in</strong> the regionalist novel (where this expletive context is frequent):<br />
(63) Agora, em abalando a senhora a<strong>in</strong>da quero (ter uma conversa), que <strong>ele</strong><br />
now EM go.away-GER the lady still want-1SG have a conversation ‘cause EXPL<br />
falta-me aqui umas peças do tear, quero saber onde elas estão. (MST16)<br />
miss-3SG-to.me here some pieces of.the loom want-1SG to.know where they are<br />
‘Now, after you go away, I still want (to have a conversation), because some pieces of the<br />
loom are miss<strong>in</strong>g, I want to know where they are.’<br />
93
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
(64) É assim um peixe muito branco, (muito luzidio)… Ele parece-me que há<br />
is so.to.speak a fish very white very glitter<strong>in</strong>g EXPL seems-to.me[CL.DAT] that has<br />
duas raças, há uma que não cresce muito, é assim tamanho de um dedo e há<br />
two species has one that NEG grows.up very.much is so.to.speak size of a f<strong>in</strong>ger and has<br />
outros maiorzitos. (ALV019)<br />
others bigger<br />
±‘It’s a really white, (glitter<strong>in</strong>g) fish, so to speak… It seems to me that there are two<br />
species of them: one that does not grow very much, which is so to speak the size of a<br />
f<strong>in</strong>ger, and there are others a little bigger.’<br />
(65) INF2 Ele vai-lhe calor? Vai-lhe calor (aí)? (CTL26)<br />
Informant2 EXPL goes-to.you[CL.DAT] heat goes-to.you[CL.DAT] heat (there)?<br />
± ‘ Is it hot for you? Is it hot there?’<br />
(66) - Ele já me constava que v<strong>in</strong>ha prior novo.Agora quando chegava é que não sabia.<br />
EXPL already to.me[CL.DAT] was.said that came priest new now when arrived is that NEG knew<br />
(Ribeiro 1927: 20)<br />
‘I had already been told that a new priest would come. Now, what I didn’t know was when<br />
he would arrive.’<br />
(67) Que êle me conste, agora não há aí n<strong>in</strong>guém morto (...) (id.: 239)<br />
QUE EXPL to. me[CL.DAT] is.said now NEG has there nobody dead<br />
‘As far as I know, there’s nobody dead there now.’<br />
(68) Que êle também não se lhe daria apartar-se do mundo (id.: 92)<br />
QUE EXPL also NEG SE to.him/her[CL.DAT]occur-COND separate-INF-himself from.the world<br />
± ‘He/she would appreciate to leave the world.’<br />
(69) e quando êle assim me custa já tanto, não sei o que<br />
and when EXPL <strong>in</strong>.this.way to.me[CL.DAT] is.difficult already so.much NEG KNOW-1SG what<br />
seria se abalasse... (id.: 162)<br />
be-COND if go-IMPERF.SUBJ-1/3SG<br />
‘If it is already so difficult to me <strong>in</strong> this way, I don’t know what it would happen to me if<br />
he/she/I went away…’<br />
In all the examples presented so far, expletive <strong>ele</strong> behaves like the subject of an impersonal<br />
predicate. The verb regularly shows third person s<strong>in</strong>gular <strong>in</strong>flection (which is compatible<br />
with a third person expletive pronoun as the subject) and no other subject seems to be<br />
available. We might well suppose then that expletive <strong>ele</strong> corresponds <strong>in</strong> these cases to the<br />
sort of quasi-argument which usually appears as the subject of such impersonal predicates<br />
(see chapter 2).<br />
94
4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
4.2.1.2 Clausal subject extraposition<br />
Another type of impersonal construction <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g an expletive subject is clausal subject<br />
extraposition, as we have seen <strong>in</strong> chapter 2. The <strong>Portuguese</strong> data considered for the<br />
purpose of this dissertation are fairly parsimonious with respect to overt expletive<br />
extraposition constructions. In fact, there is a s<strong>in</strong>gle example <strong>in</strong> the CORDIAL-SIN data,<br />
which <strong>in</strong>volves a non-standard extraposed clausal subject:<br />
(70) Mas não quer dizer que não haja, mas (<strong>ele</strong>) /é\ é raro quando se vê. (ALV23)<br />
but NEG means that NEG have-PRES.SUBJ.3SG but EXPL is is rare when SE sees<br />
‘But it doesn’t mean that there isn’t [Null Object: that fish], but it is rare to see one of<br />
them.’<br />
Clausal subject extraposition usually takes a f<strong>in</strong>ite that-clause or an <strong>in</strong>f<strong>in</strong>itival clause, as<br />
seen <strong>in</strong> chapter 2. Example (71) from A Planície Heróica shows precisely the overt<br />
expletive <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>f<strong>in</strong>itival subject extraposition:<br />
(71) […] êle é sempre bom contar com êles. (Ribeiro 1927: 243)<br />
EXPL is always good to.count with them<br />
‘It is always good to count upon them.’<br />
Differently, <strong>in</strong> example (70) above, the extraposed clause is a when-clause, which may be<br />
analyzed as a free relative.<br />
As for the general lack of overt expletives <strong>in</strong> clausal subject extraposition, this<br />
should be <strong>in</strong>terpreted as a correlate of the fact that clausal subject extraposition is itself<br />
<strong>in</strong>frequent <strong>in</strong> the data.<br />
4.2.1.3 Presentative constructions<br />
The overt expletive <strong>ele</strong> is not so <strong>in</strong>frequent <strong>in</strong> presentative constructions, another type of<br />
context which usually <strong>in</strong>volves an expletive subject. As presented <strong>in</strong> chapter 2, these<br />
constructions are identified by the postverbal position of an argument that otherwise fills<br />
up the preverbal subject position. This subject position is then occupied by an expletive.<br />
Some sort of mechanism relat<strong>in</strong>g the expletive and the postverbal argument accounts for<br />
the subject properties of the latter (namely the fact that it usually agrees with the verb).<br />
In the observed data, the overt expletive appears <strong>in</strong> such context essentially <strong>in</strong><br />
sentences <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g unaccusative verbs or small clause complements. With transitive and<br />
unergative verbs, expletive <strong>ele</strong> appears fairly exceptional.<br />
95
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
i. Small clause complements and unaccusative verbs<br />
In examples (72)-(74) below, expletive <strong>ele</strong> seems <strong>in</strong> fact to fill the sentence’s subject<br />
position <strong>in</strong> small clause predicative constructions:<br />
(72) Não há quem semeie; não há quem vá fazer esse serviço porque (…)<br />
NEG has who sow-PRES.SUBJ NEG has who go-PRES.SUBJ do-INF that job because<br />
<strong>ele</strong> está tudo muito caro e não há quem faça. (PAL11)<br />
EXPL is everyth<strong>in</strong>g very expensive and NEG has who do-PRES.SUBJ<br />
‘There is not anyone who could sow; there is nobody who could do that job because…<br />
everyth<strong>in</strong>g is very expensive and there is nobody who could do it.’<br />
(73) Eu vou-lhe explicar. A gente tira um enxame – chama aquilo um enxame;<br />
I go-to.him[CL.DAT] expla<strong>in</strong>-INF the people takes.out a swarm.of.bees calls that a swarm.of.bees<br />
<strong>ele</strong> estava (…) o cortiço cheio de abelhas e a gente vê se elas estão em termos de<br />
EXPL was the beehive full of bees and the people sees if they are able of<br />
dar enxame. (COV37)<br />
give-INF swarm.of.bees<br />
± ‘I’ll expla<strong>in</strong> it to you. We take a swarm of bees – we call that a swarm of bees; the<br />
beehive is full of bees, we see if they are able to make a swarm.’<br />
(74) - Ele vai estando tudo cada vez pior, que eu não sei onde a gente há-de chegar.<br />
EXPL goes be-GER everyth<strong>in</strong>g each time worse QUE I NEG know where the people will come<br />
(Ribeiro 1927: 327/8)<br />
±‘Everyth<strong>in</strong>g is gett<strong>in</strong>g worse, I don’t know where we are gett<strong>in</strong>g at.”<br />
(75) Pois se êle está tudo assim! (id.: 126)<br />
POIS if EXPL is everyth<strong>in</strong>g like.that<br />
‘If everyth<strong>in</strong>g is like that!’<br />
In these examples, the expletive always precedes the <strong>in</strong>flected verb while the subject of the<br />
small clause appears postverbally. The sentence’s subject position might as well be null<br />
(see (76), for the r<strong>ele</strong>vant parts of these examples) or otherwise it could be filled by the<br />
subject of the small clause (see (77)):<br />
96<br />
(76) a. … porque está tudo muito caro…<br />
because is everyth<strong>in</strong>g very expensive<br />
b. … estava o cortiço cheio de abelhas…<br />
was the beehive full of bees<br />
c. Vai estando tudo cada vez pior…<br />
goes be-GER everyth<strong>in</strong>g each time worse<br />
d. Pois se está tudo assim!<br />
POIS if is everyth<strong>in</strong>g like.that
4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
(77) a. … porque tudoi está [SC -i muito caro]…<br />
because everyth<strong>in</strong>g is very expensive<br />
b. … o cortiçoi estava [SC -i cheio de abelhas]…<br />
the beehive was full of bees<br />
c. Tudoi vai estando [SC -i cada vez pior]…<br />
everyth<strong>in</strong>g goes be-GER each time worse<br />
d. Pois se tudoi está [SC -i assim]!<br />
POIS if everyth<strong>in</strong>g is like.that<br />
As for unaccusative constructions, CORDIAL-SIN data also provide several examples<br />
where the overt expletive appears <strong>in</strong> presentative constructions <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g unaccusative<br />
verbs such as vir ‘to come’, ir ‘to go’, passar ‘to pass’, aparecer ‘to appear’, among<br />
others:<br />
(78) Ele vem o d<strong>in</strong>heiro aí mas para donde é que vai o d<strong>in</strong>heiro? (CLC02)<br />
EXPL comes the money there but to where is that goes the money<br />
±‘Money is com<strong>in</strong>g, but where does money go to?’<br />
(79) […] eu estou com pressa. Que <strong>ele</strong> vem aí o meu filho e <strong>ele</strong> quer comer. (PFT01)<br />
I am with hurry QUE EXPL comes there the my son and he wants to.eat-INF<br />
‘I am <strong>in</strong> a hurry. My son is com<strong>in</strong>g and he wants to eat.’<br />
(80) Ele lá v<strong>in</strong>ham os rapazes e as raparigas, levavam os tascos para aí para<br />
EXPL LÁ came-3PL the boys and the girls took-3PL the tascos to there to<br />
o meio do barro e acendiam a fogueira, cantavam. (OUT14)<br />
the middle of.the clay.soil and lighted-3PL the fire sang-3PL<br />
‘There came the boys and the girls, they threw the tascos away to the soil and they lighted<br />
a fire, then they sang.’<br />
(81) Depois, às vezes já se empeçam a ver, <strong>ele</strong> vem a chuva…(OUT55)<br />
after sometimes alreadySE beg<strong>in</strong>-3PL A see-INF EXPL comes the ra<strong>in</strong><br />
‘Then, sometimes, we beg<strong>in</strong> to see them, the ra<strong>in</strong> comes…’<br />
(82) Ele vai aí um tempo dos diabos. (Colos, <strong>in</strong> Guerreiro 1968: 351)<br />
EXPL goes there a weather of.the devils<br />
±‘There is such a bad weather.’<br />
(83) Ele há-de vir i uma ventania qu’arrasa tudo... (Od<strong>ele</strong>ite, <strong>in</strong> Segura da Cruz 1969: 153)<br />
EXPL will come there a gale that ravages everyth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
‘There will come a gale that will ravage everyth<strong>in</strong>g.’<br />
(84) […] levantou-se tudo e abalou o povo tôdo p’rás alturas do Sêrro velho,<br />
got up everyth<strong>in</strong>g and went.away the people all to.the altitutesof.the Sêrro velho<br />
que êle v<strong>in</strong>ha um mar de lume da banda das Entradas lavrando por essas corgas<br />
QUE EXPL came a sea of fire from.the side of.the Entradas plough-INF through those gorges<br />
abaixo. (Ribeiro 1927: 121)<br />
down<br />
±‘Everyone got up and everyone went to the high places of Serro velho, because a sea of<br />
fire was com<strong>in</strong>g from the side of Entradas down through those gorges.’<br />
97
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
(85) Ele entrou uma varejeira, mas eu tenho impressão que ela já saiu.<br />
EXPL entered a blowfly but I have impression that she already left<br />
(female, Ribatejo, c. 60 y, low education)<br />
‘A blowfly entered here, but I have the impression that it has already left.’<br />
Presentative constructions <strong>in</strong> EP significantly differ from canonical presentative<br />
constructions <strong>in</strong> NNSLs such as English, especially <strong>in</strong> that they do not show any k<strong>in</strong>d of<br />
<strong>in</strong>def<strong>in</strong>iteness requirement on the postverbal argument. In fact, <strong>in</strong> the examples <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
an overt expletive, the argument that occurs postverbally may be a non-specific <strong>in</strong>def<strong>in</strong>ite<br />
(um tempo dos diabos, uma ventania, um mar de lume, uma varejeira, <strong>in</strong> examples (82)-<br />
(85)) but <strong>in</strong> some cases it corresponds to a def<strong>in</strong>ite/specific expression (o d<strong>in</strong>heiro, o meu<br />
filho, os rapazes e as raparigas, a chuva <strong>in</strong> examples (78)-(81)). This observation is true<br />
for expletive constructions with unaccusative verbs (see examples above) and for those<br />
<strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g small clauses as well (examples (72)-(75) above).<br />
Presentative constructions <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g an unaccusative verb and a def<strong>in</strong>ite postverbal<br />
argument do not necessarily <strong>in</strong>volve a narrow focus <strong>in</strong>terpretation <strong>in</strong> EP. Indeed, such<br />
sentences may very well <strong>in</strong>troduce all new <strong>in</strong>formation, so that they could answer an outof-the-blue<br />
question Que aconteceu? ‘What happened?’. The expletive constructions <strong>in</strong><br />
examples (78) to (81) above correspond <strong>in</strong> fact to such all-focus sentences. Consider, for<br />
<strong>in</strong>stance, example (79). After eu tenho pressa ‘I’m <strong>in</strong> a hurry’, the expletive construction<br />
<strong>in</strong>troduces the all-new <strong>in</strong>formation que <strong>ele</strong> vem aí o meu filho ‘my son is com<strong>in</strong>g’. This<br />
may be read as a justification for the previous sentence ‘I’m <strong>in</strong> a hurry’. The expletive<br />
construction corresponds then to a whole piece of new <strong>in</strong>formation that is added to<br />
discourse. It might well be the complement of acontecer, the same verb that we f<strong>in</strong>d <strong>in</strong> outof-the-blue<br />
questions for all-new <strong>in</strong>formation diagnosis:<br />
(86) […] eu estou com pressa. Acontece que <strong>ele</strong> vem aí o meu filho e <strong>ele</strong> quer comer.<br />
I am with hurry happens that EXPL comes there the my son and he wants to.eat<br />
‘I’m <strong>in</strong> a hurry. It happens that my son is com<strong>in</strong>g and he wants to eat.’<br />
Consider also the follow<strong>in</strong>g example:<br />
98<br />
(87) Eu assentei assim em cima dum cavalete em tijolos, pus ali, <strong>ele</strong>s bebiam a água,<br />
I placed-1SG thus on of.a ±bench <strong>in</strong> bricks put-1SG there they drank the water<br />
e depois eu limpava e <strong>ele</strong> saía por baixo a água. (ALC30)<br />
and after I cleaned and EXPL went.out from the bottom the water<br />
±‘I placed [null object: the s<strong>in</strong>k] on a bench of bricks, I put it there, they [the animals]<br />
drank the water, and then I cleaned it up and the water dropped from the bottom.’
4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
In the expletive construction <strong>ele</strong> saía por baixo a água, the def<strong>in</strong>ite postverbal argument a<br />
água ‘the water’ corresponds to <strong>in</strong>formation that has already been <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong> the<br />
discourse universe (see, <strong>in</strong> the same example, <strong>ele</strong>s bebiam a água ‘they drank the water’).<br />
In fact, this def<strong>in</strong>ite nom<strong>in</strong>al expression rather enters a whole block of new <strong>in</strong>formation,<br />
which roughly means that ‘it happened that the water dropped from the bottom of the s<strong>in</strong>k’.<br />
A similar read<strong>in</strong>g may be found <strong>in</strong> presentative expletive constructions <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
small clause. Consider, for <strong>in</strong>stance, example (73) above, here repeated as (88), for ease of<br />
explanation:<br />
(88) A gente tira um enxame […]; <strong>ele</strong> estava (…) o cortiço cheio de abelhas<br />
the people takes.out a swarm.of.bees EXPL was the beehive full of bees<br />
e a gente vê se elas estão em termos de dar enxame. (COV37)<br />
and the people sees if they are able of give-INF swarm.of.bees<br />
± ‘We take a swarm of bees […]; the beehive was full of bees, we see if they are able to<br />
make a swarm.’<br />
As a first piece of <strong>in</strong>formation, we have an SVO sentence (A gente tira um enxame),<br />
<strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g a VP-focus or an all-focus sentence, both allowed by the SVO order <strong>in</strong> transitive<br />
structures. Remark that the orders VOS or VSO <strong>in</strong> such transitive structures would not be<br />
compatible with such focus structures, but rather <strong>in</strong>volve focus on the subject or <strong>in</strong> both the<br />
subject and the object, respectively (see Costa 2001). By contrast, the expletive<br />
construction <strong>ele</strong> estava o cortiço cheio de abelhas, where the subject (o cortiço) of the<br />
small clause [o cortiço cheio de abelhas] stays <strong>in</strong> a postverbal position, does allow an all-<br />
focus read<strong>in</strong>g. Thus, the def<strong>in</strong>ite postverbal argument o cortiço has not a focused read<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Instead, it is the entire sentence that adds new <strong>in</strong>formation to the universe of discourse.<br />
Before I proceed, allow me to add a couple of observations on the structure of<br />
unaccusative expletive constructions. First, as we have already seen for expletive<br />
constructions with ser ‘to be’ <strong>in</strong> non-standard EP, presentative constructions <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g an<br />
unaccusative verb or a small clause complement also admit some variation with respect to<br />
verbal agreement: standardly, the <strong>in</strong>flected verb agrees with the postverbal argument (see,<br />
for <strong>in</strong>stance, example (80) above); however, occasionally, we f<strong>in</strong>d third person s<strong>in</strong>gular<br />
verbal morphology comb<strong>in</strong>ed with a plural postverbal argument (see also Carrilho 2003a).<br />
It is true that the exam<strong>in</strong>ed data on expletives are for the most part ambiguous with respect<br />
to verbal agreement: most examples <strong>in</strong>clude a s<strong>in</strong>gular postverbal argument, which does<br />
not allow us to unambiguously determ<strong>in</strong>e whether or not the third person s<strong>in</strong>gular<br />
agreement on the verb is controlled by this s<strong>in</strong>gular argument. As an alternative, verb<br />
99
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
agreement could be controlled by the expletive (depend<strong>in</strong>g thus on the expletive’s<br />
agreement properties) or otherwise it may result from some k<strong>in</strong>d of default agreement<br />
(which would be allowed by third person s<strong>in</strong>gular morphology).<br />
An unambiguous example has been collected <strong>in</strong> casual conversation:<br />
(89) Ele anda aí umas constipações ru<strong>in</strong>s. (female, Ribatejo, age c. 60y, low educ.)<br />
EXPL goes there some colds bad<br />
±‘There are some bad colds around.’<br />
In this case, the postverbal argument is clearly plural while the verb displays third person<br />
s<strong>in</strong>gular agreement.<br />
Second, it must be observed that expletives <strong>in</strong> presentative constructions appear to<br />
be allowed <strong>in</strong> embedded contexts. Indeed, <strong>in</strong> the exam<strong>in</strong>ed data, the expletive <strong>ele</strong> appears<br />
also <strong>in</strong> the free-relative part of a cleft construction – example (90) 8 – and <strong>in</strong> adverbial<br />
when-clauses – examples (91) and (92):<br />
(90) […] agora neste tempo, mais ou menos, Fevereiro, Março, é que <strong>ele</strong> ia outra<br />
now <strong>in</strong>.this time more or less February March is that EXPL went-3SG other<br />
máqu<strong>in</strong>a[…] (AAL02)<br />
mach<strong>in</strong>e<br />
±‘It was now, at this time, February, March, that another mach<strong>in</strong>e was used.’<br />
(91) Nós, antigamente, cozíamos quando <strong>ele</strong> v<strong>in</strong>ha o tempo de castanhas –<br />
we <strong>in</strong>.the.past cooked when EXPL came-3SG the time of chestnuts<br />
(que) também dávamos castanhas. (OUT32)<br />
QUE also gave-1PL chestnuts<br />
‘In the past, we used to cook [null object: the pig’s food] when was the chestnuts time – we<br />
also used to give [them] chestnuts.’<br />
(92) De vez em quando tem que se lhe dar uma mexidela.<br />
‘You have to stir it every now and then’<br />
E quando <strong>ele</strong> começa a vir aquela (…), quer dizer, a massa, (…) que ela lá dentro tem<br />
and when EXPL beg<strong>in</strong>s A come-INF that mean-3SG the paste QUE it there <strong>in</strong>side has<br />
aquela coalhada que daqui vai sa<strong>in</strong>do… (MST01)<br />
that curd which from.here goes gett<strong>in</strong>g out<br />
±‘And when that paste beg<strong>in</strong>s to appear – <strong>in</strong>side, it has that curd that one gets from this…’<br />
8 In this case, an“<strong>in</strong>verted é que pseudo-cleft” (Duarte 2000 and Duarte and Costa 2001).<br />
100
ii. Other verbs<br />
4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
Although overt expletive presentative constructions mostly occur with unaccusative verbs<br />
or with small clause complements, the observed data still present examples <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g other<br />
classes of verbs, such as the follow<strong>in</strong>g:<br />
(93) Mas eu t<strong>in</strong>ha até coiso que <strong>ele</strong> que a<strong>in</strong>da funcionava, por ali assim, umas coisas<br />
but I had even ‘coiso’ that EXPL that still functioned-3SG by there some th<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
dessas. (AAL22)<br />
of.those<br />
±‘But I actually had the impression that some of those th<strong>in</strong>gs were still function<strong>in</strong>g, there.’<br />
This example is peculiar <strong>in</strong> that, although the verb funcionar ‘to function’ is not an<br />
unaccusative verb, it displays <strong>in</strong> this example the same k<strong>in</strong>d of agreeement variation that<br />
we have found with unaccusatives and presentative ser, above. The <strong>in</strong>flected verb shows<br />
third person s<strong>in</strong>gular agreement (funcionava), despite the fact that the “subject” (the<br />
postverbal argument umas coisas dessas) is plural. Thus, agreement between the verb and<br />
the subject may not obta<strong>in</strong> when the latter occupies a postverbal position, even with an<br />
<strong>in</strong>transitive verb.<br />
This same example (93) also offers evidence for the presence of expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
recomplementation contexts.<br />
As a side-note, notice that expletive <strong>ele</strong> already appears <strong>in</strong> presentative constructions <strong>in</strong> a<br />
text from the sixteenth century (the present example <strong>in</strong>volves a postverbal argument <strong>in</strong> a<br />
dative construction):<br />
(94) já lhe <strong>ele</strong> pruem os artelhos<br />
already to.him/her[CL.DAT] EXPL itch-3PL the ankles<br />
(Vicente. 1526. Clérigo da Beira. In Correia 1989: 11)<br />
‘His/her ankles are itch<strong>in</strong>g.’<br />
4.2.1.4 Subject wh-extraction contexts<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ally, let us exam<strong>in</strong>e yet another context where the overt expletive seems to occupy the<br />
subject position. Consider the follow<strong>in</strong>g examples:<br />
(95) É aquelas correias grandes que <strong>ele</strong> nasce nas pedras. (ALV46)<br />
is those “straps” big that EXPL ± grows <strong>in</strong>.the stones<br />
‘That’s those big “straps” that grow from the stones.’<br />
101
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
(96) Há outros que (<strong>ele</strong>) não prestam para nada. (COV36)<br />
has others that EXPL NEG are.good for noth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
‘There are others that are good for noth<strong>in</strong>g.’<br />
These are sentences <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g relative clauses, where the wh-constituent que corresponds<br />
to the subject of the relative (hence, sentences <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g subject wh-extraction). In<br />
standard EP, the order “relative pronoun – (negation) – <strong>in</strong>flected verb” obta<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> such<br />
relatives. In the dialectal examples presented above, however, this sequence is <strong>in</strong>terrupted<br />
by the expletive <strong>ele</strong>, which thus seems to occupy the otherwise non-overt subject position<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternal to the relative.<br />
A similar pattern seems to obta<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> example (97) below, even though there is a<br />
discourse reformulation, <strong>in</strong> this case, and the relative is not f<strong>in</strong>ished.<br />
(97) Bem, há um ano que, às vezes, há vacas que <strong>ele</strong> não…<br />
well has one year that sometimes has cows that EXPL NEG<br />
Às vezes, têm um ano sem andar ao touro. (COV33)<br />
sometimes have one year without ±approach to.the bull<br />
‘Well, there is a year that there are sometimes cows which don’t… Sometimes they stay<br />
one year without approach<strong>in</strong>g the bull.’<br />
For the expletive to be <strong>in</strong> [Spec, IP] <strong>in</strong> these examples, the relative subject must have been<br />
extracted from its thematic position and not from the structural subject position filled up by<br />
the expletive. Such an analysis for subject wh-extraction has <strong>in</strong>deed been proposed by<br />
Rizzi 1982 for Italian and by Taraldsen 2002 for French and for Vallader, a Rhaeto-<br />
Romance variety. The follow<strong>in</strong>g examples illustrate the structure of such expletive<br />
constructions <strong>in</strong> these languages (examples adapted from Taraldsen 2002: 31):<br />
(98) [Quali ragazze]i credi [CP che [IP proexpl compreranno+I [VP ti tV quel libro]]]? Ital.<br />
which girls th<strong>in</strong>k-2SG that buy-FUT-3PL that book<br />
(99) [Qualas mattas]i crajast [CP cha [IP i cumpraran+I [VP ti tV quel cudesch]]]? Vallader<br />
which girls th<strong>in</strong>k-2SG that EXPL have.bought that book<br />
(100) [Quelles filles]i crois-tu [CP que [IP i vont+I [VP ti tV acheter ce livre-là]]]? French<br />
which girls th<strong>in</strong>k-you that EXPL will buy this livre<br />
If such an analysis is to be adopted for the expletive examples <strong>in</strong> non-standard EP, we will<br />
have the follow<strong>in</strong>g structures for the r<strong>ele</strong>vant aspects of (95) and (96), respectively:<br />
(101) É [DP aquelas correias grandes [relativeCP quei [IP <strong>ele</strong> nascej [VP ti tj nas pedras]]]]<br />
(102) Há [outros [relativeCP quei [IP <strong>ele</strong> não prestamj [VP ti tj [para nada]]]]]<br />
102
4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
Such expletive constructions would then resemble those seen <strong>in</strong> the previous section <strong>in</strong> that<br />
the argument of the verb is not raised to [Spec, IP]. Furthermore, an example such as (95)<br />
has someth<strong>in</strong>g else <strong>in</strong> common with presentative constructions: the unaccusative verb<br />
<strong>in</strong>side the relative clause, which shows third person s<strong>in</strong>gular morphology, does not agree<br />
with the relative plural “subject” (co-referent to ‘those big straps’). In fact, this lack of<br />
agreement shown by unaccusative verbs is fairly usual <strong>in</strong> presentative constructions, as has<br />
been noted <strong>in</strong> section 4.2.1.3 above.<br />
4.2.1.5 Summary<br />
So far, we have considered examples where the overt expletive <strong>ele</strong> may occupy the subject<br />
position, just like one could expect for a nom<strong>in</strong>ative expletive. Impersonal predicates,<br />
clausal subject extraposition and presentative constructions – which are contexts where<br />
expletives are usually needed <strong>in</strong> NNSLs – all admit the overt expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> non-standard<br />
EP. Moreover, this expletive also appears <strong>in</strong> a likely subject position <strong>in</strong> wh-extraction<br />
contexts, which actually has also been argued to be a position for expletives (see Rizzi<br />
1982, Taraldsen 2002).<br />
Among impersonal constructions <strong>in</strong> the CORDIAL-SIN data, the overt expletive<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ly occurs with impersonal predicates. This k<strong>in</strong>d of predicate is highly frequent <strong>in</strong> the<br />
corpus; accord<strong>in</strong>gly, overt expletives are equally frequent <strong>in</strong> such context. On the contrary,<br />
extraposition constructions are slightly rare <strong>in</strong> the observed data, which makes it very<br />
unlikely to f<strong>in</strong>d overt expletives <strong>in</strong> this type of construction: there is only one example of<br />
such expletive construction <strong>in</strong> the CORDIAL-SIN data. Table 2 presents the total amount<br />
of expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> impersonal constructions and the figures for the different types of<br />
impersonals. The correspond<strong>in</strong>g percentages are represented <strong>in</strong> Figure 2.<br />
103
Type Total<br />
Impersonal predicates 86<br />
Extraposition 1<br />
Presentative 22<br />
Wh-extraction 6<br />
115<br />
Table 2. <strong>Expletive</strong> <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> impersonal<br />
constructions<br />
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
1%<br />
19%<br />
5%<br />
75%<br />
Figure 2.<br />
Impersonal predicates<br />
Extraposition<br />
Presentative<br />
Wh-extraction<br />
In these contexts, the expletive does not seem to be obligatory, however. Of course, this is<br />
not unexpected, given the NSL condition of EP. Thus, for each of the considered<br />
constructions, the occurrence of expletive <strong>ele</strong> competes with a variant <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g no overt<br />
expletive. Some of the examples commented so far <strong>in</strong>clude both options – remember (16),<br />
repeated here as follows:<br />
(103) Ah, se chover era melhor, mas <strong>ele</strong> não chove amanhã. (MST11)<br />
INTJ if ra<strong>in</strong>-FUT.SUBJ was better but EXPL NEG ra<strong>in</strong>-PRES3SG tomorrow<br />
± ‘Oh, it would be better if it ra<strong>in</strong>s, but it won’t ra<strong>in</strong> tomorrow.’<br />
Consider also an additional example:<br />
(104) É a estrela-da-manhã (…) e há a estrela… Bom, <strong>ele</strong> há várias estrelas, não é? (AAL92)<br />
is the morn<strong>in</strong>g star and has the star good EXPL has several stars NEG is<br />
± ‘That’s the morn<strong>in</strong>g star (…) and there is the star… Well, there are several stars, aren’t<br />
there?’<br />
In each of these examples, two different <strong>in</strong>stances of the very same impersonal verb<br />
(chover ‘to ra<strong>in</strong>’, <strong>in</strong> the first example, and haver ‘[existential] to have’, <strong>in</strong> the second one)<br />
behave differently with respect to the occurrence of the overt expletive: the first one has no<br />
overt subject, while the second one is preceded by expletive <strong>ele</strong>.<br />
Now, consider, for <strong>in</strong>stance, the total of occurrences of the existential verb haver,<br />
by far the most frequent among impersonal predicates occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> overt expletive<br />
constructions. If we look at the figures offered by the location where expletive<br />
constructions with this verb are the most frequent (AAL), we f<strong>in</strong>d the follow<strong>in</strong>g contrast:<br />
the overt expletive occurs <strong>in</strong> less than 6% of the total of occurrences of existential haver,<br />
i.e. it appears <strong>in</strong> only 8 cases out of a total of 137 occurrences of this verb. The picture just<br />
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4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
sketched for existential haver constructions may be taken as representative of other<br />
impersonal constructions as well: the overt expletive variant is by far the least usual.<br />
To be more precise, the term variant, which I have been us<strong>in</strong>g just for ease of<br />
exposition, needs some clarification. Above all, it must be noted that what I have been<br />
call<strong>in</strong>g variants do not actually seem to be l<strong>in</strong>guistic objects equivalent <strong>in</strong> all respects.<br />
Rather, as often occurs with seem<strong>in</strong>g syntactic variation, so-called variants are <strong>in</strong>deed<br />
assigned different values on the discourse plan. In fact, the overt expletive <strong>in</strong> EP does not<br />
appear to be strictly optional on a pragmatic/discourse ground. For now, I will leave this<br />
issue aside here to address it separately <strong>in</strong> section 4.4 below.<br />
Concern<strong>in</strong>g the structural environment where the overt expletive appears <strong>in</strong><br />
impersonal constructions, a couple of observations must be recalled: (i) expletive <strong>ele</strong> is not<br />
bounded to <strong>in</strong>dependent/matrix contexts (as we have seen, it may occur <strong>in</strong> embedded<br />
contexts, such as that-clauses, clefts, if- and when-clauses); (ii) the expletive may co-occur<br />
with different k<strong>in</strong>ds of peripheral constituents (topics, focused phrases), <strong>in</strong> which case it<br />
appears <strong>in</strong> a position lower than those occupied by these <strong>ele</strong>ments; and (iii) quite<br />
unexpectedly, the expletive appears <strong>in</strong> recomplementation structures, <strong>in</strong> a position<br />
otherwise characteristic of topic <strong>ele</strong>ments. As will be seen <strong>in</strong> the next subsection, the<br />
similarity between topics and expletives goes well beyond recomplementation structures.<br />
4.2.2 Peripheral expletive<br />
I will now consider a series of overt expletive sentences which manifestly differ from those<br />
exam<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the previous subsection. First of all, the examples under <strong>in</strong>spection now do not<br />
necessarily <strong>in</strong>volve an impersonal construction. That is to say, expletive <strong>ele</strong> also occurs <strong>in</strong><br />
non-impersonal contexts, where it appears comb<strong>in</strong>ed with a subject. Additionally, the<br />
expletive always appears <strong>in</strong> a left-peripheral position, preced<strong>in</strong>g preverbal subjects but also<br />
other types of peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ments. The peripherality of the position where the expletive<br />
stays is thus the crucial characteristic that unifies all the examples presented <strong>in</strong> this<br />
subsection: these will cover examples of (i) sentences <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g a (preverbal) subject; (ii)<br />
several constructions <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g the left-periphery, namely (iia) topic constructions; (iib)<br />
cleft constructions; (iic) affective constructions; (iid) other cases of prepos<strong>in</strong>g. Examples<br />
where the expletive appears (i) <strong>in</strong> the periphery of imperative sentences; (ii) <strong>in</strong> answers to<br />
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EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
yes-no questions; (iii) <strong>in</strong> isolation; or (iv) before an <strong>in</strong>dependent phrase which will be<br />
treated as peripheral as well.<br />
In the CORDIAL-SIN data, cases where the expletive is peripheral constitute the<br />
larger part of the total of expletive constructions, that is, 54.7%, or more precisely, 163<br />
occurrences out of a total of 298 (see Figure 3).<br />
55%<br />
6%<br />
39%<br />
Impersonal<br />
Peripheral<br />
Other<br />
Figure 3. Distribution of expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> CORDIAL-SIN:<br />
peripheral constructions vs. impersonal constructions and other contexts<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>gly, as represented <strong>in</strong> Figure 3, the total of peripheral expletive constructions goes<br />
beyond the total obta<strong>in</strong>ed for impersonal expletives.<br />
4.2.2.1 Peripheral to the subject<br />
We will first look at examples where expletive <strong>ele</strong> appears <strong>in</strong> a position peripheral to the<br />
preverbal subject position. The fact that the expletive co-occurs with a subject is not really<br />
surpris<strong>in</strong>g: <strong>in</strong> chapter 2, we have seen that some languages <strong>in</strong>deed allow multiple subject<br />
constructions (MSCs) where an expletive comb<strong>in</strong>es with a referential subject. It might well<br />
be the case that expletive <strong>ele</strong>, which corresponds to nom<strong>in</strong>ative case morphology, enters<br />
also <strong>in</strong> EP some sort of MSC. It must be noted however that, if this is really the case, such<br />
alleged MSCs behave quite differently from those occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> other languages. In fact, <strong>in</strong><br />
EP, such constructions do not seem to observe any k<strong>in</strong>d of restriction on the type of verb<br />
that is <strong>in</strong>volved nor on the k<strong>in</strong>d of co-occurr<strong>in</strong>g subject. They thus differ from so-called<br />
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4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
Transitive <strong>Expletive</strong> Constructions, which usually <strong>in</strong>volve transitive verbs and obey some<br />
Def<strong>in</strong>iteness Effect on the logical subject.<br />
In fact, CORDIAL-SIN examples <strong>in</strong>clude different classes of verbs (see examples<br />
(105) to (110) below), even <strong>in</strong>transitive ones, such as <strong>in</strong> (110):<br />
(105) “Sapo, sapão, <strong>ele</strong> o castrejo virá ou não?” (CTL08)<br />
toad big_toad EXPL the man from Castro Laboreiro will come or not<br />
‘Toad, big toad [formulaic expression], will the man from Castro Laboreiro come or not?’<br />
(106) Que <strong>ele</strong> eu gosto de socorrer (…) as pessoas, homem! (COV23)<br />
QUE EXPL I like of help-INF the people man<br />
‘I like to help people, man!’<br />
(107) T<strong>in</strong>ham que estar (…) que <strong>ele</strong> os porcos não os vissem. (PFT13)<br />
had-3PL QUE be-INF that EXPL the pigs NEG them[CL.ACCUS] see-IMPERF.SUBJ-3PL<br />
‘They had to be <strong>in</strong> such a way that the pigs would not see them.’<br />
(108) Ele (a) folha do p<strong>in</strong>heiro é em bico. (ALC19)<br />
EXPL the leaf of.the p<strong>in</strong>e-tree is <strong>in</strong> po<strong>in</strong>t<br />
‘P<strong>in</strong>e tree leaves are po<strong>in</strong>ted.’<br />
(109) Então, quando (…) (<strong>ele</strong>) o pão está lêvedo, acende-se o forno. (OUT24)<br />
so when EXPL the bread is leavened lights-SE the oven<br />
‘So, when the bread dough is leavened, we light the oven.’<br />
(110) Lá fui, lá vim para Cabrum, cheguei, <strong>ele</strong> lá dormi, […] (COV27)<br />
LÁ went-1SG LÁ came-1SG to Cabrum arrived-1SG EXPL LÁ/there slept-1SG<br />
±‘I went there, I came to Cabrum, I arrived, I slept there’.<br />
As for the co-occurr<strong>in</strong>g subject, different types of expressions seem to be equally allowed.<br />
Indef<strong>in</strong>ite non-specific expressions are not very frequent as the subject of <strong>Portuguese</strong><br />
expletive constructions – see some examples below (where the <strong>in</strong>def<strong>in</strong>ite is underl<strong>in</strong>ed):<br />
(111) […] e depois vim para casa, vim experimentar – <strong>ele</strong> n<strong>in</strong>guém me era capaz<br />
and after came-1SG to home came-1SG try-INF EXPL nobody to.me was able<br />
de abrir a cabeça para meter aquilo cá na cabeça dentro, dentro da cabeça – […]<br />
of open-INF the m<strong>in</strong>d to put-INF that here <strong>in</strong>.to.the m<strong>in</strong>d <strong>in</strong>side <strong>in</strong>side of.the m<strong>in</strong>d<br />
± ‘… and then I came home, I’ve come to try [that] – actually nobody could open my m<strong>in</strong>d<br />
to conv<strong>in</strong>ce me of that – […]’ (LVR23)<br />
(112) Se (<strong>ele</strong>) /lhe\ alguém disser alguma coisa, (…) diga-lhe que foi à m<strong>in</strong>ha ordem.<br />
if EXPL to.him anybody say-FUT.SUBJ any th<strong>in</strong>g tell-to. him that was to my order<br />
‘If anybody says anyth<strong>in</strong>g, you tell him that it was done under my orders’. (COV13)<br />
(113) Ele uns precisam de milho, outros precisam de centeio, outros precisam de v<strong>in</strong>ho<br />
EXPL some need of corn others need of rye others need of w<strong>in</strong>e<br />
e eu, tenho de sobra, […] dou. (COV40)<br />
and I have-1SG of surplus give-1SG<br />
‘Some people need corn, others need rye, others need w<strong>in</strong>e, and, as I have a surplus of all<br />
these, I give some to them’.<br />
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EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
(114) A charneca era nossa, era dos charnequenhos, que êle n<strong>in</strong>guém na queria<br />
the moor was ours was of.the people.of.the.moor QUE EXPL nobody it wanted<br />
p’ra nada. (Ribeiro 1927: 124)<br />
for noth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
‘The moor was ours, of the people of the moor, because nobody wanted it.’<br />
(115) Eu creei amizade ao sr. prior, que êle tudo se agrada dêle porque tem<br />
I grew friendship to.the priest QUE EXPL everyth<strong>in</strong>g SE pleases of.him because has<br />
boas maneiras (id.: 277)<br />
good manners<br />
‘I became friend of the priest – everyone is pleased by him, because he has good manners’.<br />
(116) Então, mas <strong>ele</strong> um ferrolho não é assim. (AAL89)<br />
so but EXPL a bolt NEG is like.this<br />
±‘But a bolt is not like this.’<br />
In an example such as (117), the <strong>in</strong>def<strong>in</strong>ite co-occurr<strong>in</strong>g with peripheral <strong>ele</strong> has a specific<br />
read<strong>in</strong>g (by means of the restrictor d<strong>ele</strong>s ‘of them’):<br />
(117) Ele qualquer d<strong>ele</strong>s alguma vez havia de morrer. (AAL54)<br />
EXPL any of.them any time would die<br />
±‘Any of them would die one day.’<br />
There are also some examples of generic bare NPs co-occurr<strong>in</strong>g with a peripheral<br />
expletive:<br />
(118) [- Se é paixão de mulher bote-a vossemecê p’ra trás das costas, - tornava a<strong>in</strong>da o<br />
charnequenho.] – Que êle mulheres não faltam e a vida dá Deus Nosso Senhor uma só.<br />
QUE EXPL women NEG are.miss<strong>in</strong>g and the life gives God Our Lord one only<br />
±‘[If that is love for a woman, throw it away – the moor’s man <strong>in</strong>sisted.] – There are many<br />
women but only one life.’ (Ribeiro 1927: 167)<br />
(119) [É verdade que havia a<strong>in</strong>da uma outra em perigo, a daquela desgraçada moça que se queria<br />
perder e perdê-lo a êle, mas Nosso Senhor lhe acudiria, que a scisma havia de passar-lhe,]<br />
que êle males de amores não matam n<strong>in</strong>guém. (id.: 312)<br />
CONJ EXPL pa<strong>in</strong>s of love NEG kill nobody<br />
‘[It is true that there was another one <strong>in</strong> danger, that of that unfortunate girl who wanted to<br />
go mad and to make him go mad, but God would save her, her mania would go away,]<br />
because love pa<strong>in</strong>s kill nobody.’<br />
(120) [Bons tempos esses, ti’ João Lobeira! – r<strong>ele</strong>mbrava o lavrador não sem uma pont<strong>in</strong>ha de<br />
mágoa,] que êle coisas passadas entristecem sempre. (id.)<br />
QUE EXPL th<strong>in</strong>gs past sadden always<br />
± [That was a good time, uncle João Lobeira! – the farmer remembered not without a bit of<br />
grief,] because past th<strong>in</strong>gs always sadden people.’<br />
Full DPs with a generic read<strong>in</strong>g may equally be preceded by expletive <strong>ele</strong> when <strong>in</strong> a<br />
preverbal position:<br />
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4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
(121) - Ai, <strong>ele</strong> as mulheres são ruim gado! (Aquil<strong>in</strong>o Ribeiro, Terras do Demo: 186)<br />
INTJ EXPL the women are bad cattle<br />
±‘Oh, women are such bad cattle!’<br />
(122) Ele (a) folha do p<strong>in</strong>heiro é em bico. (ALC19)<br />
EXPL the leaf of.the p<strong>in</strong>e-tree is <strong>in</strong> po<strong>in</strong>t<br />
‘P<strong>in</strong>e tree leaves are po<strong>in</strong>ted.’<br />
(123) (Pois, <strong>ele</strong>) a esgana, esgana e a sarna, pega. (ALC38)<br />
POIS EXPL the rabies rabies and the itch is catch<strong>in</strong>g<br />
‘Indeed, rabies – rabies and itch – is catch<strong>in</strong>g.’<br />
(124) E <strong>ele</strong> o lagarto, em bem se vendo apertado, volta-se contra a gente. (CBV73)<br />
and EXPL the lizard <strong>in</strong> FP SE see-GER hurted turns-SE aga<strong>in</strong>s the people<br />
±‘And when the lizard is hurted, he turns on us’.<br />
However, it is def<strong>in</strong>ite descriptions that mostly occur as subjects <strong>in</strong> peripheral expletive<br />
constructions, not only <strong>in</strong> CORDIAL-SIN data, but also <strong>in</strong> other written or spoken sources:<br />
(125) [Mas era (…) essa gente que t<strong>in</strong>ha de dar de comer aos animais porque ao depois às seis<br />
horas t<strong>in</strong>ham que sair (…) para o trabalho] e já <strong>ele</strong> os animais t<strong>in</strong>ham que ir comidos.<br />
and already EXPL the animals had QUE go-INF eaten<br />
(SRP02)<br />
±‘[But it was that people that had to feed the animals because later on, at six o’clock, they<br />
had to leave for work] and the animals had already to be fed.’<br />
(126) Ele a m<strong>in</strong>ha nora teve (…) aqu<strong>ele</strong> miudito com quarenta anos. (COV01)<br />
EXPL the my daugher-<strong>in</strong>-law had that child with forty years<br />
±‘In fact, my daughter-<strong>in</strong>-law had that child when she was forty.’<br />
(127) Mas <strong>ele</strong> o nosso governo não protege nada a agricultura.(COV14)<br />
but EXPL the our government NEG protects noth<strong>in</strong>g the agriculture<br />
± ‘But our government doesn’t really protect agriculture.’<br />
(128) E <strong>ele</strong> foi, (…) <strong>ele</strong> o Atalarico começou para o meu pai: "Ó Astrigildo" […] (COV29)<br />
and he went EXPL the Atalarico began to the my father hey Astrigildo<br />
‘And he went, Atalarico began to say to my father: “Hey Astrigildo”…’<br />
(129) Ele o tear do pardo era muito largo. […] Porque (<strong>ele</strong>) aqu<strong>ele</strong> tear era mais largo<br />
EXPL the loom of.the dun [cloth] was very wide because EXPL that loom was wider<br />
que os meus e fui lá tecer a teia de pardo aqui para uma viz<strong>in</strong>ha.<br />
than the m<strong>in</strong>e and went-1SG there weave-INF the tissue of.the dun here for a neighbour<br />
(OUT21)<br />
± ‘The loom for dun cloth was very wide, <strong>in</strong>deed. Because that loom was wider than m<strong>in</strong>e<br />
and I went there to weave this dun cloth for a neighbour of m<strong>in</strong>e.’<br />
(130) INQ1 Sim. Olhe, mas o rodízio, <strong>ele</strong> os rodízios têm uma pedr<strong>in</strong>ha por baixo,<br />
Interviewer yes look but the wheel [of the mill] EXPL the wheels have a little.stone below<br />
onde gira? (OUT40)<br />
where turns<br />
±‘Interviewer: Yes. But do the wheels of the mill have a little stone below them where they<br />
turn?’<br />
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EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
(131) Bom, <strong>ele</strong> os ricos dantes pensavam que os pobres eram uns cães quaisquer.<br />
well EXPL the rich <strong>in</strong>.the.past thought that the poor were any dogs whichever<br />
(Escusa, <strong>in</strong> Baptista 1967: 200)<br />
± ‘Well, <strong>in</strong> the past the rich thought that the poor were any sort of dogs.’<br />
(132) Ele a br<strong>in</strong>cadeira está torta. (Colos, <strong>in</strong> Guerreiro 1968: 351)<br />
EXPL the game is wrong<br />
± ‘The game is wrong.’<br />
(133) Devem de estar a chigar qu’<strong>ele</strong> o sol já se pôs!<br />
must-3PL be-INF A arrive-INF because EXPL the sun already set<br />
(Arronches, <strong>in</strong> Paul<strong>in</strong>o1959: 168)<br />
‘They must be arriv<strong>in</strong>g, because the sun has already set down.’<br />
(134) Ai, qu’ <strong>ele</strong> o bitcho diz que come a gente<br />
INTJ QUE EXPL the worm says that eats the people<br />
‘Oh, they say that the worm eats us.’<br />
(135) [V<strong>in</strong>ha a gente co’o bornal atouchad<strong>in</strong>ho de bons coelhos e lebres,]<br />
que êle a lebre não faz tão bom ensopado como um coelho... (Ribeiro 1927: 124)<br />
QUE EXPL the hare NEG makes so good stew as a rabbit<br />
‘[People came with lots of good rabbits and hare,] – [to tell the truth] hare does not make as<br />
good a stew as rabbit.’<br />
(136) Ele os papéis também nunca mais virão... (Aquil<strong>in</strong>o Ribeiro, Terras do Demo: 297)<br />
EXPL the papers also never more will.come-3PL<br />
± ‘Also, the documents won’t never come.’<br />
(137) Ele os lobos andam com fome (Leite de Vasconcellos 1928: 222)<br />
EXPL the wolves are with hunger<br />
± ‘Wolves are hungry.’<br />
In the follow<strong>in</strong>g examples, the expletive precedes the subject a gente, literally ‘the people’,<br />
which has a pronom<strong>in</strong>al use (cf. Nascimento 1989, Lopes 1999, Menuzzi 1999, Pereira<br />
2003b):<br />
(138) Que êle a gente vê caras, não vê corações! (Ribeiro 1927: 213)<br />
QUE EXPL the people sees faces NEG sees hearts<br />
± ‘[Indeed,] We see faces, we do not see hearts!’<br />
(139) As folhas saíam e a azeitona ficava ali, em cima dum pano limpo, que era para despois<br />
the leaves went.away and the olive rema<strong>in</strong>ed there upon of.a cloth clean QUE was for after<br />
(de) já estar limpa para <strong>ele</strong> a gente pôr dentro duma canastra. (ALC17)<br />
of already be-INF clean for EXPL the people put <strong>in</strong>side of.a basket<br />
± ‘Leaves were thrown away and olives were kept there, on a clean cloth, to be put <strong>in</strong>side a<br />
basket.’<br />
(140) Êl a jante sampre faz cada asneira! (Ervedosa do Douro, <strong>in</strong> Azevedo 1928-29: 160)<br />
EXPL the people SEMPRE makes such mistake<br />
± ‘Indeed, people do such mistake!’<br />
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4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
Other pronouns equally appear as the subject <strong>in</strong> this k<strong>in</strong>d of expletive constructions:<br />
(141) Ele eu fui aí a (…) uma boda, aí abaixo (COV14)<br />
EXPL I went there to a marriage there down<br />
‘I went down there to a marriage.’<br />
(142) Que <strong>ele</strong> eu gosto de socorrer (…) as pessoas, homem! (COV23)<br />
QUE EXPL I like of help-INF the people man<br />
‘I like to help people, man!’<br />
At first glance, examples where the third person s<strong>in</strong>gular mascul<strong>in</strong>e pronoun is repeated are<br />
ambiguous: though we may admit that the sequence <strong>ele</strong> <strong>ele</strong> corresponds to a repetition of<br />
the third person referential subject, it may well be the case that one of the <strong>in</strong>stances of <strong>ele</strong><br />
(namely, the more peripheral one) is actually the expletive (compare with the above<br />
examples <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g the expletive plus a subject pronoun). However, if it really were a<br />
repetition, CORDIAL-SIN transcripts should have it marked up (as [RP| …], follow<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
CORDIAL-SIN transcription norms), which is not the case <strong>in</strong> the examples (143)-(144)<br />
below. 9 I thus take these and similar examples to <strong>in</strong>clude an overt expletive.<br />
(143) Mas <strong>ele</strong> <strong>ele</strong> tem outro nome. (AAL96)<br />
but EXPL he has other name<br />
±‘But he has other name (I’m sure)…’<br />
(144) Ele <strong>ele</strong> disse que era (…) de São João da Madeira, homem! (COV21)<br />
EXPL he said that was from São João da Madeira man<br />
‘(It is true that) he said that he was from São João da Madeira, man!’<br />
In some cases, the subject pronoun is a neuter demonstrative:<br />
(145) Parece impossível, (…) mas <strong>ele</strong> aquilo lá foi feito e n<strong>in</strong>guém deu por isso. (AAL34)<br />
seems impossible but EXPL that there was done and nobody perceived that<br />
‘It seems impossible but that was really done and nobody perceived that.’<br />
(146) Pois olhe <strong>ele</strong> isso, disto (…) dos fiadeiros, era uma alegria, até se faziam bailes. (OUT14)<br />
POIS look EXPL that of.this of.the fiadeiros[sp<strong>in</strong>ners’ party] was a joy even were.done balls<br />
±‘Look, about the fiadeiros, it was such a joy. There were even balls.’<br />
(147) s’<strong>ele</strong> isso é assim; (Quadrazais, <strong>in</strong> Braga 1971: 171)<br />
if EXPL that is like.that<br />
± ‘If that is like that.’<br />
(148) Ele isto é um bitcho... (Ervedosa do Douro, <strong>in</strong> Azevedo 1928-29: 160)<br />
EXPL this is a worm<br />
±‘This is a worm…’<br />
9 The prosodic <strong>in</strong>formation available to the transcriber makes it possible to clearly identify such repetitions<br />
and/or reformulations.<br />
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A s<strong>in</strong>gular (though uncerta<strong>in</strong>) case is the follow<strong>in</strong>g one, where peripheral expletive <strong>ele</strong> co-<br />
occurs with an impersonal expletive – the demonstrative aquilo ‘that’ is used here as an<br />
expletive subject <strong>in</strong> an existential impersonal construction (on the use of demonstratives as<br />
expletives, see section 4.3 below):<br />
(149) INF1 […] Porque há um buraco na parte (do lado) de trás.<br />
Informant 1: Because there is a hole <strong>in</strong> the back.<br />
INF2 (Ele aquilo) há um buraco no forno do lado de lá de trás do forno. (LVR35)<br />
<strong>in</strong>formant2EXPL that has a hole <strong>in</strong>.the oven of.the side of there of back of.the oven<br />
‘Informant2: There is <strong>in</strong>deed a hole <strong>in</strong> the back side of the oven.’<br />
A similar context is reported <strong>in</strong> a dialectal monograph: <strong>in</strong> the yes-no question <strong>in</strong> example<br />
(150), <strong>ele</strong> precedes the demonstrative isto ‘this’ used as the expletive subject of the verb<br />
ser ‘to be’ <strong>in</strong> a cleft construction:<br />
(150) Ele isto é assim que se corta aqui o centeio? (Quadrazais, <strong>in</strong> Braga 1971: 169)<br />
EXPL this is like.this that SE cuts here the rye<br />
±‘Is it like this that people cut the rye here?’<br />
Besides the contexts seen so far, where expletive <strong>ele</strong> precedes a preverbal overt subject, <strong>in</strong><br />
other examples the referential subject co-occurr<strong>in</strong>g with the expletive is non-overt. In such<br />
cases, the expletive may thus precede the <strong>in</strong>flected verb:<br />
(151) Ele boto-lhe assim a água ao meu. (MST35)<br />
EXPL put-1SG-to.it thus the water to.the m<strong>in</strong>e<br />
‘I put water <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>e like this.’<br />
(152) Bom, agora veio um senhor – que <strong>ele</strong> não sei bem o nome d<strong>ele</strong> –, já tem aí uma<br />
well now came-3SG a man QUE EXPL NEG know-1SG well the name of.him already has there a<br />
casa no Porto Santo. (PST07)<br />
house <strong>in</strong>.the Porto Santo<br />
‘Well, a man came now – I don’t know exactly his name; he already has a house <strong>in</strong> Porto<br />
Santo.’<br />
(153) Ele nunca me olhava a nada, nunca t<strong>in</strong>ha medo nenhum! (ALV25)<br />
EXPL never me ±was.frightened-1SG to noth<strong>in</strong>g never had-1SG fear none<br />
±‘I was never frightened by anyth<strong>in</strong>g, I was never afraid of anyth<strong>in</strong>g!’<br />
(154) Ele voltámos lá todos a ver […] (COV32)<br />
EXPL went.back-1PL there all A see-INF<br />
‘We all went back there to see…’<br />
(155) […] eram todos amigos e <strong>ele</strong> andavam lá a serrar […] (COV29)<br />
were all friends and EXPL were-3PL there A saw-INF<br />
‘They were all friends and they were saw<strong>in</strong>g there.’<br />
(156) (Porque não), <strong>ele</strong> não se acreditavam! (COV29)<br />
because NEG EXPL NEG SE believed-3PL<br />
±‘(Because they didn’t), they didn’t believe!’<br />
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(157) (…) esses não morreram. Ele escaparam. (COV32)<br />
those NEG died-3PL EXPL escaped-3PL<br />
±‘Those didn’t die. In fact, they escaped.’<br />
(158) T<strong>in</strong>ham de comb<strong>in</strong>ar era os dias das cozeduras e as horas, para <strong>ele</strong> desencontrarem-se<br />
had-3PL of settle-INF was the days of.the bak<strong>in</strong>gs and the hours to EXPL diverge-3PL<br />
umas das outras. (EXB27)<br />
one from another<br />
±‘They had to agree on the days and the hours for bak<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong> order not to be there at the<br />
same time.’<br />
Examples where the expletive precedes a third person s<strong>in</strong>gular verb deserve some<br />
additional comments. Given the above examples, <strong>ele</strong> appears <strong>in</strong> this case as ambiguous<br />
between an expletive <strong>in</strong> a (mascul<strong>in</strong>e) third person null subject sentence and a referential<br />
pronoun <strong>in</strong> a non-expletive construction. See example (159), for <strong>in</strong>stance:<br />
(159) O campo corta-se donde em donde (…) para <strong>ele</strong> ficar assim um bocad<strong>in</strong>ho raro, para <strong>ele</strong><br />
the field cuts.of-SE here and there to EXPL/it be like.this a bit th<strong>in</strong> to EXPL/it<br />
produzir, para alevantar. (OUT44)<br />
produce to grow<br />
±‘We cut off [the trees <strong>in</strong>] the field, here and there, so that it becomes less dense, so that it<br />
may produce [more trees], so that trees may grow.’<br />
In this example, <strong>ele</strong> occurs <strong>in</strong> two purpose <strong>in</strong>f<strong>in</strong>itive clauses, where it may well correspond<br />
to a referential pronoun, correferr<strong>in</strong>g to the phrase o campo ‘the field’:<br />
(160) O campoi corta-se (…) para <strong>ele</strong>i ficar assim um bocad<strong>in</strong>ho raro, para <strong>ele</strong>i produzir …<br />
On the other hand, it is also conceivable that <strong>ele</strong> act here as an expletive co-occurr<strong>in</strong>g with<br />
a null subject <strong>in</strong>side the purpose clause (see other examples of overt expletives <strong>in</strong> purpose<br />
clauses below):<br />
(161) O campoi corta-se (…) para <strong>ele</strong> [-]i ficar assim um bocad<strong>in</strong>ho raro, para <strong>ele</strong> [-]i produzir …<br />
Other ambiguous examples are (162) and (163):<br />
(162) INF Mas naqu<strong>ele</strong> tempo que nós fomos, o gelo dava por aqui. O ‘snow’, o ‘snow’. […]<br />
Até foi bonito, porque não havia sementeiras não havia batatas. Senão aquilo queimava<br />
tudo.<br />
‘Informant: But <strong>in</strong> that time when we went [there], the ice was high like this. The snow, the snow. It<br />
was beautiful, because there weren’t any sown lands, there weren’t any potatoes [sown].<br />
Otherwise, that would have burned everyth<strong>in</strong>g.’<br />
INQ1 Queimava tudo.<br />
‘Interviewer1: It would have burned everyth<strong>in</strong>g.’<br />
INF Ui Jesus! Ele a<strong>in</strong>da queimou muitas coisas. (VPA43)<br />
Informant INTJ Jesus EXPL still burned many th<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
±‘Informant: Gee, Jesus! In fact, it has burned many th<strong>in</strong>gs.’<br />
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(163) INQ1 E aquelas coisas que elas têm, é os?…<br />
‘Interviewer: And those th<strong>in</strong>gs that they [cows] have, it is the… ?’<br />
INF É os chavelhos.<br />
‘Informant: It’s the chavelhos [name for horns].’<br />
INQ1 Só lhe dão esse nome ou dão-lhe outros nomes?<br />
‘Interviewer1: Do you only use that name or do you have other names for that?’<br />
INF Ou paus. Depois chamam: "É os paus"; "é os chavelhos".<br />
‘Informant: Or paus [another name for horns]. So they call: “It is the paus”; “It is the chavelhos”.<br />
(Ele) não tem mais nome nenhum que é este. (ALC23)<br />
EXPL NEG has more name none that is this.one<br />
‘It has no other name except this one.’<br />
In these examples, <strong>ele</strong> also allows alternative read<strong>in</strong>gs regard<strong>in</strong>g its referential status: both<br />
(162) and (163) may <strong>in</strong>volve an overt expletive before a null subject, or else, they may<br />
have <strong>ele</strong> as a subject. However, the status of such subject is not completely clear: <strong>in</strong> (162),<br />
as a subject, <strong>ele</strong> may be correferential to o gelo / o ‘snow’ ‘the ice / the snow’, but, on the<br />
other hand, it may be a parallel of the neuter demonstrative aquilo ‘that’, which occurs just<br />
before, <strong>in</strong> Senão aquilo queimava tudo ‘Otherwise that would have burned everyth<strong>in</strong>g’. In<br />
example (163) <strong>ele</strong> does not correfer exactly to a previous phrase. Indeed, the possible<br />
candidates (os chavelhos/os paus ‘the horns’, aquelas coisas ‘those th<strong>in</strong>gs’) are all plural.<br />
It is then possible that <strong>ele</strong> displays a use similar to that of the neuter demonstrative seen <strong>in</strong><br />
the previous example. Remark however that the verb ter may have an existential<br />
<strong>in</strong>terpretation <strong>in</strong> some dialects (namely on the data from the location where (163) was<br />
produced, Alcochete). If this is the case <strong>in</strong> the referred example, <strong>ele</strong> may then correspond<br />
to an expletive subject <strong>in</strong> an impersonal construction (the mean<strong>in</strong>g of the sentence be<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
then, ‘There is no other name, except this one’).<br />
Neverth<strong>ele</strong>ss, there are cases where the expletive is unambiguous, such as <strong>in</strong><br />
example (164).<br />
(164) Se ela (…) tiver mestra, larga aqu<strong>ele</strong>s ovitos; se <strong>ele</strong> não tiver mestra, não<br />
if she have-FUT.SUBJ queen.bee r<strong>ele</strong>ases those little.eggs if EXPL NEG had queen.bee NEG<br />
larga nada.(COV37)<br />
r<strong>ele</strong>ases anyth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
‘If it[the hive] has a queen bee, it r<strong>ele</strong>ases those little eggs; if it doesn’t have any queen bee,<br />
it doesn’t r<strong>ele</strong>ase anyth<strong>in</strong>g.’<br />
In this example, the subject of tiver ‘have-FUT.SUBJ’ should be a fem<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>e pronoun, just<br />
like it appears <strong>in</strong> the previous sentence, s<strong>in</strong>ce the pronoun antecedent is the fem<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>e noun<br />
colmeia ‘hive’. Thus, <strong>ele</strong> has to be taken as a peripheral expletive, which co-occurs with a<br />
null subject, <strong>in</strong>side an if-clause.<br />
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4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
Other unambiguous case <strong>in</strong>volves the use of third person as a way of address<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
<strong>in</strong>terlocutor. In the follow<strong>in</strong>g example, the expletive appears as the first <strong>ele</strong>ment <strong>in</strong> a<br />
yes-no question, only preceded by the pragmatic marker e, which <strong>in</strong>troduces the question:<br />
(165) E <strong>ele</strong> sabe o que nós cá também fazemos? (COV07)<br />
and EXPL know-3SG what we here also do<br />
‘And do you know what we also do here?’<br />
Some other examples <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g third person subjects are the follow<strong>in</strong>g:<br />
(166) Até se punha e pode pôr – até pôr… Ele pode pôr um (…) comedouro de cimento.<br />
even SE put and can put even put EXPL can put a feed<strong>in</strong>g.trough of cement<br />
(ALC30)<br />
±‘We even put and we can put – we can even put… We can put a feed<strong>in</strong>g trough <strong>in</strong><br />
cement.’<br />
(167) Quem sabe lá que carne é aquela! […] Ele não sabe! (COV14)<br />
who knows LÁ what meat is that EXPL NEG knows<br />
‘Who knows what k<strong>in</strong>d of meat is that! We don’t know!’<br />
These examples <strong>in</strong>volve third person s<strong>in</strong>gular null subjects with <strong>in</strong>def<strong>in</strong>ite reference, which<br />
<strong>in</strong> standard EP would require the presence of the impersonal clitic se (pode pôr-se and não<br />
se sabe). (This and other standard constructions <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g impersonal reference of the<br />
subject will be addressed below, <strong>in</strong> section 4.2.2.2.)<br />
So far <strong>in</strong> this section, we have considered cases where expletive <strong>ele</strong> occupies a peripheral<br />
position before a subject. I have concentrated on the syntactic characterization of the<br />
contexts where such expletive occurs, from which the follow<strong>in</strong>g generalizations may be<br />
drawn:<br />
(i) peripheral expletive <strong>ele</strong> obeys no special requirement regard<strong>in</strong>g the type of verb<br />
enter<strong>in</strong>g the expletive construction (the expletive appears <strong>in</strong> sentences with<br />
unaccusative verbs, <strong>in</strong>transitives, predicatives, etc.);<br />
(ii) peripheral expletive <strong>ele</strong> shows no constra<strong>in</strong>ts regard<strong>in</strong>g the type of subject with which<br />
it co-occurs (namely, regard<strong>in</strong>g its specificity and grammatical shape).<br />
Furthermore, although most examples <strong>in</strong>volve <strong>in</strong>dependent/matrix contexts, this peripheral<br />
expletive also appears <strong>in</strong> some embedded contexts (purpose <strong>in</strong>f<strong>in</strong>itives, degree clauses, ifand<br />
when-clauses – see examples (139), (107), (112) and (109), respectively).<br />
In the follow<strong>in</strong>g subsections, other peripheral contexts for the overt expletive <strong>ele</strong><br />
will be <strong>in</strong>spected. In some cases, they will compare to those seen <strong>in</strong> this subsection <strong>in</strong> that<br />
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they <strong>in</strong>volve predicates that require an argumental subject. However, this will not be<br />
necessarily so, s<strong>in</strong>ce peripheral expletive <strong>ele</strong> may also appear comb<strong>in</strong>ed with some<br />
peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ment <strong>in</strong> impersonal constructions.<br />
4.2.2.2 Peripheral <strong>in</strong> syntactically impersonal constructions<br />
In this section, I will consider examples where expletive <strong>ele</strong> appears as a peripheral<br />
<strong>ele</strong>ment <strong>in</strong> syntactically impersonal constructions, namely those <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g (i) third person<br />
plural arbitrary null subject; and (ii) <strong>in</strong>def<strong>in</strong>ite se. Differently from the impersonal<br />
constructions seen above <strong>in</strong> section 4.2.1.1, these constructions regularly <strong>in</strong>volve verbs that<br />
require argumental subjects. It is the non-referential mean<strong>in</strong>g of such subjects that creates<br />
the syntactic context for the impersonality of these constructions. 10 Hence, <strong>in</strong> both of them,<br />
the subject position is arguably not vacant, so that, once aga<strong>in</strong>, the overt expletive may not<br />
be analyzed as a subject. It appears however <strong>in</strong> a preverbal position, which leads us to<br />
consider it as a left-peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ment.<br />
i. Third plural arbitrary null subject<br />
Let us first consider constructions where the subject is an antecedentless third plural null<br />
subject. It is well-known that this k<strong>in</strong>d of null subject allows an arbitrary read<strong>in</strong>g (see, i.a.<br />
Rizzi 1986). Thus, the subject <strong>in</strong> an example such as (168) is usually <strong>in</strong>terpreted as<br />
arbitrary, if no antecedent is available for it.<br />
(168) Estão a bater à porta.<br />
are-3PL A knock-INF at.the door<br />
‘Someone is knock<strong>in</strong>g at the door.’<br />
If a more f<strong>in</strong>e-gra<strong>in</strong>ed classification of arbitrary mean<strong>in</strong>g is taken <strong>in</strong>to account (cf. C<strong>in</strong>que<br />
1988, Pesetsky 1995), we may dist<strong>in</strong>guish <strong>in</strong> EP third person plural null subject sentences<br />
the different types of read<strong>in</strong>gs that have been subsumed under the label ‘arbitrary’: (i)<br />
vague existential read<strong>in</strong>g (not temporally anchored); (ii) specific existential read<strong>in</strong>g<br />
(temporally anchored); (iii) <strong>in</strong>ferred existential read<strong>in</strong>g; (iv) corporate read<strong>in</strong>g; (v)<br />
universal read<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
10 On this broad sense of impersonality, cf. Fernández Soriano and Táboas Baylín 1999: 1725-1744.<br />
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4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
(169) a. Enviaram-te um questionário. (i)<br />
sent-3PL-to.you a questionnaire<br />
b. Estão a bater à porta. (ii)<br />
are-3PL A knock-INF at.the door<br />
c. Estiveram aqui a comer. (iii)<br />
were-3PL here A eat-INF<br />
d. Subiram os impostos. (iv)<br />
raised-3PL the taxes<br />
e. Em França falam francês. (v)<br />
<strong>in</strong> France speak-3PL French<br />
At first glance, the overt expletive <strong>ele</strong> seems to occur <strong>in</strong> arbitrary third person plural null<br />
subject sentences <strong>in</strong> general, without any restrictions on their semantics. A (vague)<br />
existential read<strong>in</strong>g is explicitly present <strong>in</strong> example (170): here, the expletive <strong>ele</strong> appears <strong>in</strong><br />
an unf<strong>in</strong>ished sequence (marked [AB|…] <strong>in</strong> CORDIAL-SIN transcripts), which then is<br />
rephrased as an explicit existential construction.<br />
(170) Ah, [AB|consta, <strong>ele</strong> dizem] há quem diga [AB|que] que é diferente uma coisa da outra.<br />
INTJ is.said EXPL say-3PL has who say-PRES.SUBJ that that is different one th<strong>in</strong>g from the.other<br />
‘Well, it is said, people say… there are people who say that, that one th<strong>in</strong>g is different from<br />
the other.’ (AAL56)<br />
Other expletive examples seem to admit the generic/universal read<strong>in</strong>g as well. In the<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g examples, for <strong>in</strong>stance, the mean<strong>in</strong>g ‘people always…’ seems to be preferred to<br />
the existential mean<strong>in</strong>g ‘there are people who…’.<br />
(171) Há uma que faz mal ao gado que não me lembra o nome dela. (…) É a tal erva, uma<br />
espécie de erva-dos-lagartos.<br />
±‘There is one that is bad for the cattle whose name I don’t remember. It is that plant, a sort of<br />
‘erva-dos-lagartos’.’<br />
Ele dão-lhe outro nome –[…]– mas é que eu não me lembro (do) nome dessa erva, agora.<br />
EXPL give-3PL-to.it other name but is that I NEG remember of the name of.that plant now<br />
‘People give it another name – […] – but I really don’t remember the name of that plant<br />
now.’ (AAL95)<br />
(172) Depois ata-se com uma ('rafa'), ou com um junco, ou com um cordel.<br />
±‘Then we tie it with a piece of raffia, or with rush, or with a str<strong>in</strong>g.’<br />
Agora já nem (<strong>ele</strong>) apanham isso. Já não há juncos. (ALC16)<br />
now already not.even EXPL catch-3PL that already NEG has rushes<br />
‘Now people don’t [even] catch that anymore. There is no more rush.’<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>gly, the subject <strong>in</strong>terpretation appears to be <strong>in</strong>compatible with the existence of a<br />
s<strong>in</strong>gle <strong>in</strong>dividual satisfy<strong>in</strong>g the description. Thus, both examples do not seem to be<br />
felicitous when cont<strong>in</strong>ued by sentences such as a Maria chama-lhe … ‘Maria calls it…’ or<br />
a Maria não apanha isso ‘Maria does not catch that’, respectively.<br />
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Although the observed naturalistic data do not give us positive <strong>in</strong>formation on overt<br />
expletives <strong>in</strong> corporate value arbitrary constructions, this may well result from an accident<br />
<strong>in</strong>herent to this k<strong>in</strong>d of data. Indeed, such comb<strong>in</strong>ation appears as possible when we<br />
consider <strong>in</strong>formants’ judgements:<br />
(173) Ele subiram os impostos.<br />
EXPL raised-3PL the taxes<br />
‘They have raised the taxes.’<br />
As for the peripherality of the expletive, these examples show that (i) expletive <strong>ele</strong><br />
precedes the third person plural <strong>in</strong>flected verb, but it does not manifest subject properties,<br />
such as verbal agreement control; (ii) it may be preceded by other <strong>ele</strong>ments, such as<br />
adverbs (agora ‘now’) and focus words (já nem ‘not even more’).<br />
Note also that, just like we have seen for other k<strong>in</strong>ds of expletive, <strong>ele</strong> may also<br />
appear <strong>in</strong> an embbedded clause – <strong>in</strong> this case, a temporal when-clause, where the expletive<br />
appears below the wh-word:<br />
(174) INQ1 Portanto, já há quantos anos é que isso não se faz cá? Já há quantos?<br />
‘Interviewer: So, how many years are there that that is not done anymore? How many years?’<br />
INF Oh! Isso já há muitos anos. A<strong>in</strong>da eu era garota quando <strong>ele</strong> deixaram de...<br />
INTJ that already has many years still I was little.girl when EXPL stopped-3PL of<br />
Deixaram depois de usar estas coisas todas. (MST19)<br />
stopped-3PL after of use-INF these th<strong>in</strong>gs all<br />
‘Informant: Oh, There are many years. I was still a little girl when people stopped… People<br />
stopped us<strong>in</strong>g all these th<strong>in</strong>gs.’<br />
ii. Impersonal se<br />
Look<strong>in</strong>g now at impersonal se constructions, it must be said that the examples where the<br />
overt expletive appears seem to display a universal <strong>in</strong>terpretation, rather than the<br />
existential one. See the follow<strong>in</strong>g examples:<br />
(175) Agora a reforma da Casa do Povo também nunca pode ser muito grande<br />
now the retir<strong>in</strong>. pension from.the Casa do Povo also never may be very big<br />
porque <strong>ele</strong> não se desconta muito – poucach<strong>in</strong>ho d<strong>in</strong>heiro. (AAL33)<br />
because EXPL NEG SE deduct a lot little money<br />
‘Now, the pension from Casa do Povo may not be very big even, because people do not<br />
pay a lot – only a little sum of money.’<br />
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(176) INQ1 Não costuma pôr lá um ovo para elas irem, se habituarem a ir àqu<strong>ele</strong> sítio?<br />
±‘Interviewer1: Don’t you use to put an egg there [<strong>in</strong> the nest], so that they[the chicken] get used to<br />
go to that place?’<br />
INF Não. Ele nunca lá se põe ovos nenhuns. Põe-se é o caixote […] (ALC31)<br />
no EXPL never there SE put eggs any puts-SE is the box<br />
‘Informant: No. People never put any eggs there. What people put there is the box.’<br />
(177) Então, <strong>ele</strong> comprava-se ovelhas. (COV24)<br />
so EXPL bought-SE sheep<br />
‘So, people bought sheep.’<br />
The same is true of data other than those from CORDIAL-SIN:<br />
(178) [talk<strong>in</strong>g about the size of a font <strong>in</strong> a pr<strong>in</strong>ted text]<br />
– Não sei se se vê bem…<br />
‘- I don’t know whether people see it well…’<br />
– Ele vê-se…<br />
EXPL sees-SE<br />
‘As for see<strong>in</strong>g, people see it… [but…]’ (female, Lisbon, age c.40y, high educ.)<br />
(179) Não é que não se coma.Ele come-se...(female, Lisbon, age c.30y, high educ.– on the radio)<br />
NEG is that NEG SE eat-PRES.SUBJ EXPL eats-SE<br />
±‘It is not the case that people don’t eat it. As for eat<strong>in</strong>g, people eat [it].’<br />
(180) – Mudou o rumo à m<strong>in</strong>ha vida.<br />
‘[This] has changed the course of my life.’<br />
- Ele nota-se. (female, Lisbon, age c.30y, high educ. – on the radio)<br />
EXPL notices-SE<br />
‘People notice it.’<br />
Some of the above CORDIAL-SIN examples (namely (176) and (177)) unambiguously<br />
correspond to non-agree<strong>in</strong>g se constructions, that is, the (plural) direct object does not<br />
agree with the verb, which shows third person s<strong>in</strong>gular agreement. Remark however that<br />
the overt expletive equally appears <strong>in</strong> regular agree<strong>in</strong>g se constructions, such as <strong>in</strong> the<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g example:<br />
(181) O que é que <strong>ele</strong> já se usam pouco, agora. (MST26)<br />
± but EXPL already SE use-3PL little now [ploughs]<br />
‘Only, they are little used now.’<br />
Just like arbitrary third person plural null subject sentences, se constructions do not have a<br />
vacant subject position for the expletive to stay there. Whether we assume that [Spec, IP]<br />
conta<strong>in</strong>s se (or its trace) (cf. Raposo and Uriagereka 1996, Mart<strong>in</strong>s 2003) or any other<br />
<strong>ele</strong>ment relat<strong>in</strong>g to the clitic (Burzio 1986, Roberts 1987, C<strong>in</strong>que 1988), the r<strong>ele</strong>vant fact is<br />
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EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
that this position is unavailable for expletive <strong>ele</strong>, which thus must be <strong>in</strong> a left-peripheral<br />
position. 11<br />
4.2.2.3 Before preverbal adverbials<br />
Let us consider now a different peripheral context for expletive <strong>ele</strong>: <strong>in</strong> the examples<br />
presented <strong>in</strong> this subsection, the expletive precedes some adverbial <strong>ele</strong>ment occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a<br />
preverbal position which may precede a preverbal subject. As examples (182) through<br />
(186) illustrate, expletive <strong>ele</strong> may be found before different adverbs occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>itial<br />
position (temporal adverbs and, <strong>in</strong> example (186), a speaker-oriented adverb):<br />
(182) Ele agora já n<strong>in</strong>guém costuma cozer. (OUT32)<br />
EXPL now already nobody uses to bake_bread<br />
‘Now nobody uses to bake bread anymore.’<br />
(183) Tenho dois filhos na França e eu, se estivesse boa, (é que <strong>ele</strong>) hoje estava<br />
have-1SG two sons <strong>in</strong>.the France and I if was good is that EXPL today was<br />
ao pé d<strong>ele</strong>s, não estava aqui. (FIG24)<br />
near them NEG was here<br />
‘I have two sons <strong>in</strong> France and, if I was well, today I would be near them, I would not be<br />
here.’<br />
(184) INQ1 Olhe, e em relação ali à, às ovelhas, portanto, a lã é tratada aqui ou, ou vem um<br />
colaborador?<br />
‘Interviewer: Look, as for sheep, is the wool prepared here or does any collaborator come?’<br />
INF Não, a lã não é tratada aqui.<br />
‘Informant: No, the wool is not prepared here.<br />
Ele agora vem o comprador, depois vende a lã a peso e (depois) levam.<br />
EXPL now comes the buyer after sells the wool by weight and (then) take-3PL it<br />
‘The buyer comes now, then he sells the wool by weight and (then) this is taken.<br />
A lã é amanhada nas fábricas. (MST05)<br />
The wool is prepared <strong>in</strong> factories.’<br />
(185) INQ2 Então e antigamente o que é que se fazia em vez destes, destes?…<br />
‘Interviewer2: So <strong>in</strong> the past what did people make <strong>in</strong>stead of these, of these?…’<br />
INF [AB|Antigamente] Ele antigamente, (…) estes coisos aqui, (…) estes coisos que <strong>ele</strong>s<br />
<strong>in</strong> the past EXPL <strong>in</strong> the past these th<strong>in</strong>gs here these th<strong>in</strong>gs that they<br />
fazem aqui, esta 'chupa', era de fazer o covato mais pequen<strong>in</strong>o. (ALC03)<br />
make here this chupa was of mak<strong>in</strong>g the hole smaller<br />
±‘In the past, these th<strong>in</strong>gs here, these th<strong>in</strong>gs that they make here, this chupa, this was for<br />
mak<strong>in</strong>g smaller holes.’<br />
11 See, however, Duarte and Matos 1984: 525, where expletive <strong>ele</strong> is considered to be able to stay <strong>in</strong> subject<br />
position, as a result of the fact that <strong>in</strong> third plural arbitrary null subject sentences and <strong>in</strong> impersonal se<br />
constructions the subject θ-role is absorbed by verbal agreement or by se, respectively.<br />
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4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
(186) Ele realmente, os brócolos estão uns rijos. (female, from Ribatejo, age c. 60y, low educ.)<br />
EXPL actually the broccoli are some stiff<br />
‘Actually, some broccoli are stiff.’<br />
In other examples, the expletive precedes NPs or PPs which are used as adverbials:<br />
(187) "Ah, que tanta sorte e tal! Agora tu, <strong>ele</strong> [NP qualquer dia] o lobo vem e"… (CTL13)<br />
INTJ how much luck and so now you EXPL one day the wolf comes and<br />
‘Oh so much luck! Now you, one of these days the wolf comes and…’<br />
(188) Já estão amarel<strong>in</strong>hos. Mas aqu<strong>ele</strong>s não lhe faço nada.Aqu<strong>ele</strong>s, conforme os ponho,ficam lá.<br />
± [Speak<strong>in</strong>g of cheese]‘They are already yellow. But I do noth<strong>in</strong>g to those. They stay just like I put<br />
them there.’<br />
Porque <strong>ele</strong> [PP ao fim de oito dias] levantam tudo, não é? (MST01)<br />
because EXPL at.the end of eight days raise everyth<strong>in</strong>g NEG is<br />
‘Because, after eight days, they all raise, isn’t it?’<br />
(189) No tempo das v<strong>in</strong>has, depois (…) começa então… Ele [PP em Março], começa a gente (…)<br />
<strong>in</strong>.the time of.the v<strong>in</strong>eyards after beg<strong>in</strong>s then EXPL <strong>in</strong> March beg<strong>in</strong>s the people<br />
a tratar da terra […] (MST30)<br />
A prepare-INF of.the land<br />
‘Dur<strong>in</strong>g the v<strong>in</strong>eyards’ time, after that, we beg<strong>in</strong> then… In March we beg<strong>in</strong> to prepare the<br />
land.’<br />
(190) Tu sabes bem que <strong>ele</strong> [PP em Paçô] <strong>ele</strong>s viram para aqu<strong>ele</strong> lado e a gente encam<strong>in</strong>hava<br />
you know well that EXPL <strong>in</strong> Paçô they turn to that side and the people turned<br />
logo para este lado. (COV28)<br />
immediately to this side<br />
‘You know well that at Paçô they turn to that side and we immediately turn to this side.’<br />
(191) E eu, às vezes, vou lá, (…) nem levo nada disso e elas não me mordem; e se mordem<br />
and I sometimes go-1SG there not.even take noth<strong>in</strong>g of.that and they NEG me bite-3PL and if bite-3PL<br />
– (<strong>ele</strong>) [PP às vezes], mordem-me na cara –, não ligo nada àquilo! (COV37)<br />
EXPL sometimes bite-3PL-to.me <strong>in</strong>.the face NEG m<strong>in</strong>d noth<strong>in</strong>g to.that<br />
‘And sometimes I go there, I don’t even take anyth<strong>in</strong>g of that and they don’t bite me; and if<br />
they bite me – they sometimes bite my face… – , I don’t m<strong>in</strong>d that!’<br />
Adverbial clauses may also be preceded by the expletive:<br />
(192) E depois sai a mestra; só sai uma. […] E vai lá para dentro e a gente tira-a daqu<strong>ele</strong> sítio e<br />
vai levá-la para longe…<br />
‘And then the queen bee leaves; only one leaves. […] And it goes <strong>in</strong>side and we take it from that<br />
place and we take it to far from there…'<br />
Sim, porque (<strong>ele</strong>) […] se for todas, (…) elas ganham (uma corrente) (…) para o<br />
mesmo.<br />
yes because EXPL if be-FUT.SBJ all they create a cha<strong>in</strong> to the same<br />
‘Yes, because if they all leave, they make a cha<strong>in</strong> fly<strong>in</strong>g to the same hive.’ (COV37)<br />
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(193) E eu passei por lá – andava à caça –, <strong>ele</strong> quando alevanta um (…)… "Já andam a tirar<br />
and I went by there was-1SG hunt<strong>in</strong>g EXPL when takes.off one already are A take-INF<br />
as perdizes"! Atirei ao gavião, ao tal gavião. (FIG34)<br />
the partridges shot-1SG to.the sparrowhawk to.the such sparrowhawk<br />
‘And I went there – I was hunt<strong>in</strong>g –; when one takes off… “They are already tak<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
partridges!” I shot the sparrowhawk, to that sparrowhawk.<br />
(194) Então olhe, (<strong>ele</strong>) como agora vai vir o 'maternário' aí, (…) as m<strong>in</strong>has vacas vão ser<br />
so look EXPL s<strong>in</strong>ce now will come the veter<strong>in</strong>ary there the my cows will be<br />
registadas em nome do meu filho. (COV39)<br />
registered under the name of my son<br />
‘So, look, s<strong>in</strong>ce the veter<strong>in</strong>ary will come now, (…) my cows will be registered under the<br />
name of my son.’<br />
The examples seen above <strong>in</strong>volve all some referential subject. Similarly, <strong>in</strong> impersonal<br />
constructions, the overt expletive may also be found <strong>in</strong> a position peripheral to adverbials.<br />
See below some examples on impersonal se and third plural null subject arbitrary<br />
constructions:<br />
(195) Ele aqui nem se diz nublado. Eu cito-lhe até a palavra que aqui se emprega: "nuvrado".<br />
EXPL here not.even SE says nublado I tell-1SG-to.you even the word that here SE uses nuvrado<br />
(AAL69)<br />
‘We do not even call it “nublado” here. I’ll tell you the word that we use here: “nuvrado”.’<br />
(196) Ah, isso é o trigo, que <strong>ele</strong> quando se quer tirar a sêmea, que se quer o trigo<br />
INTJ that is the wheat QUE EXPL when SE wants take.out the bran QUE SE wants the wheat<br />
melhor, peneira-se duas vezes e depois amassa-se a sêmea à parte. (OUT25)<br />
better sifts-SE twice and after kneads-SE the bran aside<br />
‘Oh that is wheat – actually when you want to take out the bran, if you want better wheat,<br />
you sift twice and then you knead the bran separately.’<br />
(197) E depois, (<strong>ele</strong>) em estando lêveda, acende-se o forno. (OUT23)<br />
and after EXPL <strong>in</strong> be-GER leavened lights-SE the oven<br />
‘And then, when it is leavened, we light the oven.’<br />
(198) INQ1 Mas e comem-se, também?<br />
‘Interviewer1: But you also eat them?’<br />
INF1 Comem.<br />
‘Informant1: Yes, you do.’<br />
INF2 Comem. Dantes… Ele antigamente, comiam. (OUT04)<br />
eat-3PL long.ago EXPL <strong>in</strong>.the.past ate-3PL<br />
‘Informant2: You do. Long ago… In fact <strong>in</strong> the past, you ate them.’<br />
Other examples extend over the k<strong>in</strong>d of constructions seen <strong>in</strong> section 4.2.1.1 above, i.e.<br />
constructions with semantically impersonal predicates:<br />
(199) Que <strong>ele</strong>, a<strong>in</strong>da hoje, há essa tradição, cá. (AAL20)<br />
QUE EXPL even today has that tradition here<br />
‘In fact, even today, there is that tradition here.’<br />
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4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
(200) INQ2 Trasfegar, fazer a trasfega, não, não se diz aqui?<br />
‘Interviewer2: Don’t you say here “to decant, to make the decant<strong>in</strong>g”?<br />
INF Bem, alguns dizem. Não, nós aqui não. Ele aqui é passar o v<strong>in</strong>ho a limpo. (PFT39)<br />
± well some say-3PL no we here NEG EXPL here is pass-INF the w<strong>in</strong>e to clean<br />
‘Informant: Well, some people say that. No, here we don’t say so. Here, what we say is “to<br />
make the w<strong>in</strong>e clean”.’<br />
(201) Por causa disso é que eu não concordo muito com isso.<br />
‘It is because of that that I don’t agree with that.’<br />
[…] Que <strong>ele</strong> enquanto não chega lá a tal enxad<strong>in</strong>ha a cavar e a escolher aquilo tudo bem<br />
QUE EXPL while NEG arrives there that hoe A dig-INF and A choose-INF that all well<br />
e a deitar para trás para (se) secar com o sol, cá para mim não vai. (AAL28)<br />
and A throw-INF to back to SE dry with the sun CÁ to me NEG goes<br />
±‘To me, it won’t go until you beg<strong>in</strong> to dig with that hoe and to choose well all that and to<br />
throw that back away to dry under the sun.’<br />
(202) Daqui para cima (…) é tudo roca. (Ele aqui) /Eu, aqui,\ (…) é um pauz<strong>in</strong>ho<br />
from.here up is everyth<strong>in</strong>g sp<strong>in</strong>dle EXPL here I here is a little.stick<br />
para cima, pronto. (OUT16)<br />
up that’s it<br />
‘From here up all this is the sp<strong>in</strong>dle. (±Well, here) /As for me, here\, this is a little stick up,<br />
that’s it.<br />
Besides CORDIAL-SIN data, this k<strong>in</strong>d of context is equally found <strong>in</strong> monographs and <strong>in</strong><br />
occasional naturalistic data:<br />
(203) Deixa cá ver: <strong>ele</strong> hoje está isto pior. (male, Portalegre, age c.60 y., normal educ.)<br />
let here see-INF EXPL today is this worse<br />
‘Let me see: today it is worse.’<br />
(204) Ele hoje está muito frio. (female, Portalegre, age c. 60y, low educ.)<br />
EXPL today is very cold<br />
‘Today is very cold.’<br />
(205) Ele agora não chove (Nisa, <strong>in</strong> Carreiro 1948: 73)<br />
EXPL now NEG ra<strong>in</strong>s<br />
‘Now, it doesn’t ra<strong>in</strong>.’<br />
(206) Ele hoje não chove. (Colos, <strong>in</strong> Guerreiro 1968: 351)<br />
EXPL today NEG ra<strong>in</strong>s<br />
‘Today, it does not ra<strong>in</strong>.’<br />
(207) Ele onte trovejou. (Terceira, <strong>in</strong> Dias 1982: 325)<br />
EXPL yesterday thundered<br />
‘Yesterday it thundered.’<br />
(208) Ele por ora no é preciso. (Quadrazais, <strong>in</strong> Braga 1971: 176)<br />
EXPL by now NEG is needed<br />
‘By now, it is not needed.’<br />
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It seems possible that expletive <strong>ele</strong> precedes the neuter demonstrative isto ‘this’, which<br />
itself precedes an adverbial, as <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g example. Although the expletive is<br />
uncerta<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> this examples, it is neverth<strong>ele</strong>ss highly admitted by transcribers:<br />
(209) E (<strong>ele</strong>) isto no fim do mês que vem, em Abril, isto era Inverno – o Inverno (dura)<br />
and EXPL this <strong>in</strong>.the end of.the month that comes <strong>in</strong> April this was W<strong>in</strong>ter the W<strong>in</strong>ter lasts<br />
estes meses atrás e agora –, e depois diz <strong>ele</strong> assim: […](COV31)<br />
these months back and now and after says he thus<br />
‘And at the end of next month, <strong>in</strong> April, this was the W<strong>in</strong>ter – the W<strong>in</strong>ter (lasts) the last<br />
months and now – and then he says thus:’<br />
Just like <strong>in</strong> the expletive constructions seen <strong>in</strong> previous sections, the expletive appears <strong>in</strong> a<br />
position peripheral to adverbial <strong>ele</strong>ments <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>dependent/matrix contexts and <strong>in</strong> embedded<br />
sentences as well – see example (190) above, repeated as (210):<br />
(210) Tu sabes bem que <strong>ele</strong> [PP em Paçô] <strong>ele</strong>s viram para aqu<strong>ele</strong> lado e a gente encam<strong>in</strong>hava<br />
you know well that EXPL <strong>in</strong> Paçô they turn to that side and the people turned<br />
logo para este lado. (COV28)<br />
immediately to this side<br />
‘You know well that at Paçô they turn to that side and we immediately turn to this side.’<br />
Such peripheral expletive may, however, be preceded by other <strong>ele</strong>ments, such as the<br />
connectors occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g examples:<br />
(211) A gente pegou, dá-lhe até uma molhadela para que fique mol<strong>in</strong>ho, mas <strong>ele</strong>,<br />
the people took gives-to.it even a wett<strong>in</strong>g to that become-PRES.SUBJ soft but EXPL<br />
estando <strong>ele</strong>s bons, não precisam. (OUT55)<br />
be-GER they good NEG need<br />
[speak<strong>in</strong>g of graft<strong>in</strong>g] ±‘We took/jo<strong>in</strong>ed [that], we even wet it so that it becomes soft, but<br />
when they are good, they don’t need it.’<br />
(212) Sim, porque (<strong>ele</strong>) […] se for todas, (…) elas ganham (uma corrente) (…) para o mesmo.<br />
yes because EXPL if be-FUT.SUBJ all they create a cha<strong>in</strong> to the same<br />
‘Yes, because if they [bees] all leave, they make a cha<strong>in</strong> fly<strong>in</strong>g to the same hive.’<br />
(COV37)<br />
We also f<strong>in</strong>d a hang<strong>in</strong>g topic preced<strong>in</strong>g the pre-adverbial expletive – see example (187)<br />
above, repeated here as (213):<br />
(213) "Ah, que tanta sorte e tal! Agora tu, <strong>ele</strong> qualquer dia o lobo vem e"… (CTL13)<br />
INTJ how much luck and so now you EXPL one day the wolf comes and<br />
‘Oh so much luck! Now you, one of these days the wolf comes and…’<br />
As a side-note, remark that the presence of the expletive before an adverbial preced<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
preverbal subject seems to be known very early <strong>in</strong> the history of <strong>Portuguese</strong> (<strong>in</strong> the<br />
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4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g example, the expletive occurs <strong>in</strong>ternally to an if-clause, just like already seen <strong>in</strong><br />
some examples above): 12<br />
(214) E se <strong>ele</strong> per uentura esta u<strong>in</strong>da nõ fur chanthada... 13<br />
and if EXPL by chance this v<strong>in</strong>eyard NEG be-FUT.SUBJ planted<br />
[Most. Chelas, 1296 <strong>in</strong> Mart<strong>in</strong>s 2001: 375]<br />
‘And if by chance this v<strong>in</strong>eyard won’t be planted…’<br />
4.2.2.4 Before other peripheral constituents<br />
Another series of examples where the expletive appears <strong>in</strong> a peripheral position <strong>in</strong>volves<br />
different types of constituents that occur <strong>in</strong> the left periphery of the sentence, such as<br />
topics, affective, exclamative phrases and clefts. <strong>Expletive</strong> <strong>ele</strong> appears there <strong>in</strong> a position<br />
peripheral to all these peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ments. In this subsection, we will also consider cases<br />
where the expletive precedes a dislocated wh-phrase, for which, however, the evidence<br />
provided by the observed data is fairly meager. 14<br />
In the follow<strong>in</strong>g paragraphs I will consider these types of peripheral constituents <strong>in</strong><br />
turn. The expletive preced<strong>in</strong>g the peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ment may appear <strong>in</strong> the different types of<br />
constructions seen so far, namely, <strong>in</strong> (semantically or syntactically) impersonal<br />
constructions and <strong>in</strong> constructions <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g a referential subject as well.<br />
i. Topics<br />
The expletive may precede different types of topics. More specifically, it appears before<br />
topicalized or left-dislocated phrases and before hang<strong>in</strong>g topics as well. As is known, these<br />
topic constructions all <strong>in</strong>volve a functional structure ‘topic-comment’. The connection<br />
between the topic and the comment may be considered to essentially rely on the notion of<br />
‘aboutness’ (cf. Re<strong>in</strong>hart 1982, Duarte 1987): the comment is <strong>in</strong>terpreted as some<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation about the topic, and the topic is taken as the <strong>ele</strong>ment about which the comment<br />
12<br />
However, it is generally assumed that overt expletives <strong>in</strong> Romance NSLs “showed up no earlier than the<br />
16 th C.” (Silva-Villar 2004: 8) (cf. also Ureña 1939).<br />
13<br />
This example was brought to my attention by Ana Maria Mart<strong>in</strong>s (p.c.).<br />
14<br />
Remember that most examples were drawn from naturalistic data collected dur<strong>in</strong>g dialectal <strong>in</strong>terviews,<br />
which means that, most of the time, the <strong>in</strong>formant answers to questions from <strong>in</strong>terviewers rather than mak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
himself questions (which thus rarely occur).<br />
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EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
is construed. In topicalization and <strong>in</strong> left-dislocation, the connection between the topic and<br />
the comment is also fairly syntactic, s<strong>in</strong>ce the topic is syntactically connected with a<br />
position <strong>in</strong>side the comment (an empty category <strong>in</strong> the case of topicalization, a pronoun –<br />
clitic or not – <strong>in</strong> the case of left dislocation) (see Duarte 1987). As for hang<strong>in</strong>g topics, this<br />
connection between the topic and the comment is, on the syntactic side, fairly weak. The<br />
positions occupied by both types of topics also differ: it is normally assumed that the<br />
position for hang<strong>in</strong>g topics is a fairly high one, higher than that occupied by topicalized<br />
and left dislocated <strong>ele</strong>ments. S<strong>in</strong>ce the expletive may precede not only topicalized and leftdislocated<br />
constituents, but hang<strong>in</strong>g topics as well (see examples below), the position it<br />
occupies must be fairly high <strong>in</strong> the left-periphery.<br />
(215) INQ Mas, cada família, chama sempre o mesmo, é sempre a mesma pessoa que vem para<br />
aquela família ou, ou, ou este ano vem um, para o ano vem outro?<br />
‘Interviewer: But, does each family always call the same person? Is it the same person that comes<br />
to that family or does one person come this year and does another one come next year?’<br />
INF Não, não, não. Ele, [HTa nós], também, o meu sabia-os matar e<br />
no no no EXPL to us also the m<strong>in</strong>e knew-them slaughter and<br />
depois, ultimamente, até os matavam os outros. (OUT34)<br />
then lately even them slaughtered the others<br />
‘No, no, no. Also, as for us, my husband could slaughter them [the pigs], and then, lately,<br />
even other people slaughtered them.’<br />
In the example above, the hang<strong>in</strong>g topic a nós is not syntactically related to any specific<br />
position <strong>in</strong>side the comment. In the follow<strong>in</strong>g examples, however, the hang<strong>in</strong>g topic is<br />
rephrased or repeated by a full referential DP <strong>in</strong> the comment sentence (there is thus, <strong>in</strong><br />
this case, some referential connection between the topic and a constituent <strong>in</strong>side the<br />
comment):<br />
(216) Mas é que (<strong>ele</strong>), [HT essa dita massa]i, depois de [a massa]i se estar fabricando, é que vai<br />
but is that EXPL that paste after of the paste SE be-INF mak<strong>in</strong>g is that goes<br />
aparecendo […] o chorrilho […]. (SRP32)<br />
appear<strong>in</strong>g the ± water<br />
±‘But as for that paste, it is after the paste is made that the water beg<strong>in</strong>s to appear […]’<br />
(217) (Ele), [HT o porco]i, [o porco]i quando é pequen<strong>in</strong>o tem uns poucos de nomes. (ALC29)<br />
EXPL the pig the pig when is young has some few names<br />
‘As for the pig, when the pig is still young, it has several names.’<br />
In example (218) below, the topic preceded by the expletive ends up rephrased as an<br />
expanded phrase and the expletive is dropped out:<br />
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(218) Mas [AB|o, <strong>ele</strong> [HT o da Pecuária]] o doutor da Pecuária,(…) eu queixava-me, às vezes, os<br />
but the EXPL the of.the Breed<strong>in</strong>g the doctor of.the Breed<strong>in</strong>g I compla<strong>in</strong>ed myself sometimes the<br />
lavradores, coitados, (…) que andavam três, quatro, c<strong>in</strong>co vezes ou seis vezes a vaca ao<br />
farmers poor that took three four five times or six times the cow to.the<br />
touro.<br />
bull<br />
‘But, the man from the Breed<strong>in</strong>g, the doctor from the Breed<strong>in</strong>g, I compla<strong>in</strong>ed [to him] that<br />
the poor farmers had to take the cow to the bull three, four, five and six times.’ (COV33)<br />
In this case, we may consider that the topic is not exactly a hang<strong>in</strong>g one: <strong>in</strong> fact, the topic<br />
phrase is referentially connected to a vacant position <strong>in</strong> the comment sentence. The verbal<br />
predicate queixar-se ‘to compla<strong>in</strong>’ s<strong>ele</strong>cts an argument that is not overtly realized <strong>in</strong>side<br />
the comment (queixar-se a alguém ‘to compla<strong>in</strong> to someone’). Thus the topic, though not<br />
categorically connected with such a position, is co-referential to it.<br />
The same k<strong>in</strong>d of categorial mismatch<strong>in</strong>g is found <strong>in</strong> other topic expletive<br />
constructions, both from CORDIAL-SIN data and the regionalist novel. In example (219),<br />
the topic is a nom<strong>in</strong>ative pronoun, which is referentially connected to its oblique form<br />
<strong>in</strong>side the comment:<br />
(219) Olhe que aquilo no livro! E <strong>ele</strong> [eu]i, o homem leu aquilo diante [de mimi]! (COV18)<br />
look that that <strong>in</strong>.the book and EXPL I the man read that before me<br />
‘Look, that was <strong>in</strong> the book! And me, the man read that before me!’<br />
In the example below, the <strong>ele</strong>ment connected with the topic, i.e. the clitic lhe ‘to.him’,<br />
appears under a dative form, while the topic is a lexically focused DP:<br />
(220) (...) Atirei a muitos, mas errei muitos, que êle [T até o mais valente]i [lhe]i tremem as<br />
shot to many but failed many QUE EXPL even the more brave to.him tremble-3PL the<br />
pernas quando se dá fé dum diabo dêsses. (Ribeiro 1927: 124)<br />
legs when SE perceive of.a devil of.those<br />
± ‘I shot many, but I failed many times; even the bravest man has his legs trembl<strong>in</strong>g when<br />
he perceives such a bad animal.’<br />
Example (221) below requires some additional comment:<br />
(221) […] quase sempre lhe deitam açúcar. Bom, (<strong>ele</strong>) /eu\, o senhor Amadeu e a senhora, é raro.<br />
almost always to.it put sugar good EXPL I the MisterAmadeu and the wife is rare<br />
‘[they] almost always put some sugar on it. Well, as for Mister Amadeu and his wife, that<br />
is not usual.’ (MST01)<br />
The alleged topic o senhor Amadeu e a senhora ‘mister Amadeu and his wife’ appears to<br />
be referentially connected to some non-overt material <strong>in</strong> the comment. If such comment<br />
consisted only of the overt part é raro ‘is rare’, no such connection would be possible.<br />
However, we may consider that this sort of hang<strong>in</strong>g topic is neverth<strong>ele</strong>ss connected to the<br />
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comment, as far as this means that ‘it is rare [that they do that]’. In this case, they would<br />
then rephrase the hang<strong>in</strong>g topic.<br />
In other examples, the topic is <strong>in</strong> fact a topicalized phrase, that is, a phrase that has<br />
moved out from the comment sentence, <strong>in</strong> which there is an (argumental) gap (marked <strong>in</strong><br />
the follow<strong>in</strong>g examples). The connection is thus <strong>in</strong> this case also a categorial one:<br />
(222) Haver… Ele [a fome]i não havia [-]i! (VPA06)<br />
have-INF EXPL the hunger NEG had<br />
‘As for exist<strong>in</strong>g, the hunger didn’t exist!’<br />
(223) Ele [isso]i aqui a gente chamava [-]i um (…)… Não era gancho, era… Parece que era o<br />
EXPL that here the people called a NEG was hook was seems that was the<br />
pernil que a gente chamava a isto. (ALC30)<br />
pernil that the people called to this<br />
‘That, we called a … It was not hook, it was… It seems that it was the pernil what we<br />
called this.’<br />
(224) Que êle [ co’o filho da m<strong>in</strong>ha mãe]i não manga [-]i nenhum cachorro!<br />
QUE EXPL with the son of.the my mother NEG scoff no dog<br />
‘At the son of my mother no dirty dog scoffs!’<br />
(Ribeiro 1927: 213)<br />
(225) - charnecas é como o outro que diz, que êle [da charneca]i só há o chão [-]i! (id.: 243)<br />
moors is like the other that says QUE EXPL of.the moor only has the ground<br />
± ‘Moors is a way of say<strong>in</strong>g; there is only the ground of the moor!’<br />
The expletive appears <strong>in</strong> the same k<strong>in</strong>d of context also <strong>in</strong> occasional data collected <strong>in</strong><br />
naturalistic conditions:<br />
(226) Ele [frio]i não está [-]i. (female, Ribatejo, age c.60y, low educ.)<br />
EXPL cold NEG is<br />
‘Cold it is not.’<br />
(227) Taxi-driver: - Vamos pela Miguel Bombarda?<br />
‘Shall we go by Miguel Bombarda Avenue?’<br />
Passenger: - Não sei. Tenho alguma pressa. Tenho de lá estar às 10h.<br />
‘I don’t know. I am <strong>in</strong> a hurry. I have to be there at ten o’clock.’<br />
Taxi-driver: - Bem, <strong>ele</strong> pelo tempo dá... [>> pelo trânsito já não sei]<br />
well EXPL for.the time does<br />
‘Well, as for the time we have, it will do.’ [>> as for the traffic, I don’t know…]<br />
In the last example, which has been collected dur<strong>in</strong>g a taxi ride, the expletive precedes a<br />
contrastive non-exhaustive topic: the taxi-driver says that it is possible to reach the<br />
dest<strong>in</strong>ation before the time referred by the passenger but when he says that, he is<br />
consider<strong>in</strong>g only the time left for the ride. Although he does not add anyth<strong>in</strong>g else, the<br />
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passenger may understand that if he takes other factors <strong>in</strong>to account (e.g. the traffic), he<br />
possibly could not say that.<br />
ii. Clefts<br />
Cleft constructions may also <strong>in</strong>clude expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> a peripheral position. The expletive is<br />
present <strong>in</strong> different types of clefts, where it always precedes the member that occurs <strong>in</strong> first<br />
place, be it the cleft constituent (cf. example (228)) or the relative clause (example (229)):<br />
(228) Ele depois de vir do lago é que se amaçava. (FLF17)<br />
EXPL after of come-INF from.the lake is that SE struck-3SG<br />
‘It was after it comes from the lake that we struck the flax.’<br />
(229) Ele quem se casa são <strong>ele</strong>s! (COV13)<br />
EXPL who SE marries are they<br />
‘They are who will marry!’<br />
If we assume an analysis for EP clefts such as that proposed <strong>in</strong> Duarte 2000 and Duarte<br />
and Costa 2001, the expletive appears as peripheral to a peripheral constituent <strong>in</strong> clefts like<br />
that illustrated <strong>in</strong> (228) and <strong>in</strong> the examples that follow:<br />
(230) Mas (<strong>ele</strong>) /eu\ os nomes disso é que eu (…) não me lembro. (ALC04)<br />
but EXPL I the names of.this is that I NEG me rem<strong>in</strong>d<br />
‘But what I don’t remember are its names.’<br />
(231) ('Houvia' <strong>ele</strong>) muitas ervas dessas que se fazia chá, mas <strong>ele</strong> o nome dela é que eu não sei.<br />
had EXPL many plants of.these that SE made tea but EXPL the name of.it is that I NEG know<br />
‘There were many plants of those with which we made tea, but what I don’t know is their<br />
name.’ (ALC44)<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to these authors, the structure for such cleft constructions (‘é que <strong>in</strong>verted<br />
pseudoclefts’, after their terms) would be:<br />
(227’) [Ele [IP [ADVP depois de vir do lago]i [IP pro [I’ é [FP [ti] [F’ té [SC [CP OPi que se amaçava ti]<br />
[ADVP ti]]]]]]]]<br />
(229’) [<strong>ele</strong> [IP [DP os nomes disso]i [IP pro [I’ é [FP [ti] [F’ té [SC [CP OPi que eu não me lembro ti]<br />
[DP ti]]]]]]]]<br />
(230’) [<strong>ele</strong> [IP [DP o nome dela]i [IP pro [I’ é [FP [ti] [F’ té [SC [CP OPi que eu não sei ti] [DP ti]]]]]]]]<br />
The cleft phrase is thus analyzed as an adjunction to IP. Accord<strong>in</strong>gly, the expletive which<br />
precedes it must occupy a position peripheral to such adjunction position.<br />
In other clefts, such as that illustrated <strong>in</strong> (229), the expletive would not be so high<br />
<strong>in</strong> the periphery. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to Duarte 2000 and Duarte and Costa 2001, the free relative <strong>in</strong><br />
such clefts occupies the subject position of a copular sentence:<br />
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(228’) [Ele [IP [ quem se casa] [I’ são [FP [<strong>ele</strong>s] [F’ tsão [SC [DP trelative] [DP tcleft]]]]]]]<br />
Neverth<strong>ele</strong>ss, the expletive that appears before the free relative would still be <strong>in</strong> the<br />
left-periphery, just like <strong>in</strong> other examples where it precedes an overt subject (see<br />
subsection 4.2.2.1 above).<br />
iii. Affective Phrases<br />
The overt expletive is also found <strong>in</strong> the left periphery before a different type of fronted<br />
phrases: so-called “affective” phrases (Raposo 1995, after Klima 1964). Among these, we<br />
may consider the follow<strong>in</strong>g examples which <strong>in</strong>clude a focus operator like até ‘even’, nem<br />
‘not even’:<br />
(232) Que <strong>ele</strong> até com um pau se malha. (MST37)<br />
QUE EXPL even with a stick SE threshs<br />
± ‘Actually we thresh even with a stick.’<br />
(233) êle até o Zé Estrudes estava já noivo! (Ribeiro 1927: 184)<br />
EXPL even the Zé Estrudes was already engaged<br />
‘Even Zé Estrudes was already engaged!’<br />
(234) e êle nem mouco se ficava. (id.: 251)<br />
and EXPL not.even deaf SE became<br />
± ‘And people didn’t even become deaf.’<br />
Other cases of affective phrases <strong>in</strong>volve fronted QPs:<br />
(235) Vai-se lá, compra-se um porco, ou compra-se uma marrã. Estão gordos, é um porco ou<br />
uma marrã.<br />
‘We go there, we buy a pig, or we buy a sow. They are fat; it is a pig or a sow.’<br />
Mas isso, isso (<strong>ele</strong>) tanto faz! (LVR18)<br />
but that that EXPL so.much does<br />
‘But that, it’s all the same to me!’<br />
(236) <strong>ele</strong> alguma coisa fez... (Od<strong>ele</strong>ite, <strong>in</strong> Segura da Cruz 1969: 153)<br />
EXPL some th<strong>in</strong>g made…<br />
± ‘It occurred someth<strong>in</strong>g…’<br />
Such affective phrases have been argued to move to a functional projection FP <strong>in</strong> the<br />
C-doma<strong>in</strong>, which would be present <strong>in</strong> Western Iberian languages such as <strong>Portuguese</strong>,<br />
Galician and Leonese (Uriagereka 1992, 1995a, 1995b, Raposo and Uriagereka 1996 and<br />
subsequent work).<br />
Assum<strong>in</strong>g that such affective phrases occupy the Spec position of an FP projection<br />
above IP, then the expletive shall be <strong>in</strong> a position peripheral to [Spec, FP].<br />
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The same may be said about examples (237) through (240) below, where the<br />
expletive precedes the focus words sempre and lá, which also have been analyzed as<br />
[Spec, FP] <strong>ele</strong>ments (cf. Mart<strong>in</strong>s 1993, 1994a).<br />
(237) Está bem, <strong>ele</strong> lá tem que haver alguém que dom<strong>in</strong>e isto; (Escusa, <strong>in</strong> Baptista 1967: 197)<br />
is well EXPL LÁ has QUE have-INF someone that dom<strong>in</strong>ates this<br />
‘All right, there must be someone who dom<strong>in</strong>ates this.’<br />
(238) Êl sampre há cada burro! (Ervedosa do Douro, <strong>in</strong> Azevedo 1928-29: 160)<br />
EXPL SEMPRE has each ass!<br />
± ‘There is <strong>in</strong>deed such ass!’<br />
(239) Mas, óra!, êle sempre foi assim tôda a vida […] (Ribeiro 1927: 244)<br />
but INTJ EXPL SEMPRE was like.this all the life<br />
‘But, well, it has been like this all my life…’<br />
(240) […] <strong>ele</strong> sempre há mulheres que nasceram com a felícia toda<br />
EXPL SEMPRE has women that were.born with the happ<strong>in</strong>ess complete<br />
(Aquil<strong>in</strong>o Ribeiro, Terras do Demo: 324)<br />
‘Indeed, there are women that were born very fortunate.’<br />
iv. Dislocated wh-phrases<br />
Another case where the overt expletive is peripheral to other peripheral constituents<br />
corresponds to wh-movement contexts. In all the examples below, expletive <strong>ele</strong> precedes<br />
some wh-phrase moved to the left periphery.<br />
Although expletives do not abound <strong>in</strong> this k<strong>in</strong>d of context <strong>in</strong> the CORDIAL-SIN<br />
data, monographs and other written sources provide some examples:<br />
(241) Ele quem foi que pôs aqui o arroz?<br />
EXPL who was that put here the rice<br />
‘Who put the rice here?’<br />
(242) Ele qu’home é este? (Germil, <strong>in</strong> Peixoto 1968: 176)<br />
EXPL what man is this<br />
‘What man is this?’<br />
(243) Ele onde é o seu quartel, sr. prior? (Ribeiro 1927: 74)<br />
EXPL where is the your quarters mister priest<br />
‘Where are your quarters, Father?’<br />
CORDIAL-SIN data provide only the follow<strong>in</strong>g example, where the expletive (which is<br />
uncerta<strong>in</strong>) precedes a wh-word <strong>in</strong> a rhetoric question:<br />
(244) Não sendo no Natal, (<strong>ele</strong>) quem é que os come?! N<strong>in</strong>guém. (OUT50)<br />
NEG be-GER <strong>in</strong>.the Christmas EXPL who is that them eat nobody<br />
‘If it is not by Christmas, who will eat them?! Nobody.’<br />
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Other wh contexts <strong>in</strong>volve exclamative sentences rather than questions:<br />
(245) A gente, quando era pequena, sabe Deus a fome {pp} <strong>ele</strong> como apurava! (OUT08)<br />
the people when was young knows God the hunger [pause] EXPL how ± hurted<br />
±‘God knows how hunger was hurt<strong>in</strong>g, when we were young!’<br />
(246) Ah, pois, se forem habituados, (<strong>ele</strong>) que remédio têm! (OUT32)<br />
INTJ POIS if be-FUT.SUBJ used EXPL what remedy have-3PL<br />
±‘Oh, <strong>in</strong>deed, if they are used to it, they cannot choose!’<br />
4.2.2.5 In imperative sentences<br />
Two examples of imperative sentences also <strong>in</strong>clude the overt expletive <strong>ele</strong>. The expletive<br />
appears <strong>in</strong> these examples immediately before the verb:<br />
(247) Ó senhora Gabriela, <strong>ele</strong> desculpe de lhe eu dizer. (COV35)<br />
INTJ hey Ms Gabriela EXPL forgive-PRES.SUBJ-3SG of to.you I say<br />
‘Ms Gabriela, please forgive that I say it to you.’<br />
(248) INF2 Quer passar por lá (para ver)?<br />
‘Informant2: Do you want to go there (to see it)?’<br />
INF1 Ele vamos embora! (FIG27)<br />
EXPL go-PRES.SUBJ-1PL away<br />
±‘Informant1: Let’s go!’<br />
Remark that <strong>in</strong> these sentences the <strong>in</strong>flected verb is not an imperative form but a<br />
subjunctive one, which is <strong>in</strong> fact a suppletive mode for imperative sentences. (In the<br />
imperative, verbs have <strong>in</strong>flected forms only for 2nd persons, plural and s<strong>in</strong>gular.)<br />
As is well known, subjects are usually absent <strong>in</strong> imperative sentences (see Mateus<br />
et al. 2003: 457, for <strong>European</strong> <strong>Portuguese</strong>). If an overt expression refers to the subject, it<br />
usually corresponds to a vocative, such as the expression ó senhora Gabriela <strong>in</strong> example<br />
(247). Thus, we might suppose that the expletive is <strong>in</strong> these examples a [Spec, IP] subject<br />
<strong>ele</strong>ment. However, as far as the syntax of imperative sentences is concerned, it seems to be<br />
a matter of consensus that the verb ends up <strong>in</strong> the C-doma<strong>in</strong> (see, a.o., Platzack and<br />
Rosengren 1997, Zanutt<strong>in</strong>i 1997, Bennis 2001). Assum<strong>in</strong>g such an analysis thus implies<br />
that the overt expletive, which precedes the imperative verb, is itself <strong>in</strong> the left periphery,<br />
<strong>in</strong> a position that is peripheral to the peripheral position occupied by the verb.<br />
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4.2.2.6 In (negative) answers to yes-no questions<br />
Yet another peripheral context for the overt expletive is found <strong>in</strong> answers to yes-no (YN)<br />
questions (more specifically, <strong>in</strong> negative ones). Although the CORDIAL-SIN data do not<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude a substantial amount of such examples, this type of context may be illustrated by<br />
examples taken from dialectal monographs:<br />
(249) – Vás à vila? – El não! (Arronches, <strong>in</strong> Paul<strong>in</strong>o 1959: 168)<br />
go-PRES.2SG to.the villageEXPL NEG<br />
‘– Are you go<strong>in</strong>g to the village? – No!’<br />
(250) – Quès vender a burra? – Ele nã. (Escusa, <strong>in</strong> Baptista 1967: 206)<br />
want-PRES.2SG sell-INF the donkeyEXPL NEG<br />
‘– Do you want to sell the donkey? – No!’<br />
(251) – Atão a i auga nu) falha?! – Êl não! (Ervedosa do Douro, <strong>in</strong> Azevedo 1928-29: 160n)<br />
so the water NEG misses? EXPL NEG<br />
‘– So isn’t the water miss<strong>in</strong>g? – No!’<br />
(252) – Vás trabalhar? –Ele não! (Colos, <strong>in</strong> Guerreiro 1968: 351)<br />
go-PRES.2SG work-INF EXPL NEG<br />
‘– Are you go<strong>in</strong>g to work? – No!’<br />
The negative word não corresponds to the m<strong>in</strong>imal negative answer to YN-questions <strong>in</strong><br />
EP, which would be realized <strong>in</strong> a peripheral position to IP (on the subject, cf. Mart<strong>in</strong>s<br />
1994a, 1994b). In the examples above, the expletive precedes such negative word,<br />
result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> an emphatic answer (see below, section 4.4).<br />
In the follow<strong>in</strong>g answer, the adjacency between the expletive and the negative word<br />
is broken by a peripheral clause, which acts as a pressupositional marker at the discourse<br />
level.<br />
(253) – Ele qu’ê saiba não. (Terceira, <strong>in</strong> Dias 1982: 325)<br />
EXPL that I know-PRES.SUBJ-1SG NEG<br />
‘No, as far as I know.’<br />
Remark that the correspond<strong>in</strong>g non-expletive answer is possible <strong>in</strong> EP:<br />
(254) Que eu saiba, não.<br />
The effect of the expletive seems to be that of add<strong>in</strong>g some emphasis. In example (255)<br />
below, expletive <strong>ele</strong> also appears <strong>in</strong> an answer which is already emphatic <strong>in</strong> its<br />
non-expletive version: as an expansion of the m<strong>in</strong>imal answer não, this answer <strong>in</strong>cludes the<br />
re<strong>in</strong>forced negation não senhora and a negated form of the verb:<br />
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(255) – el na senhora na fui! (Arronches, <strong>in</strong> Paul<strong>in</strong>o 1959: 153)<br />
EXPL NEG NEG was<br />
± ‘No, I was not.’<br />
A few examples appear <strong>in</strong> CORDIAL-SIN data with a similar emphatic effect:<br />
(256) INQ2 Mas lá para cima para onde? Para Montes de Alvor?<br />
‘Interviewer2: Where up there? To Montes de Alvor?’<br />
INF Ele não. Da parte (…) da praça que chamam a praça de Alvor […] (ALV01)<br />
EXPL NEG from the side of_the place that call-3PL the place of Alvor<br />
‘Informant: NO! From the side of the place that is called the place of Alvor…’<br />
(257) INF E eu, não era por desfazer, mas diz que era muito l<strong>in</strong>da em pequen<strong>in</strong>a!<br />
± ‘Informant: People say that I was very beautiful when I was a child!’<br />
INQ A<strong>in</strong>da agora é.<br />
‘Interviewer: You are beautiful even now.’<br />
INF Ele não. Eu agora já…. Já tenho levado muitos contratempos para criar<br />
EXPL NEG I now already already have suffered many drawbacks to take care<br />
sete filhos. (MIN15)<br />
seven children<br />
± ‘Certianly I am not. I have suffered many drawbacks to take care of seven children.’<br />
(258) INQ2 Nunca, nunca usava assim uma coisa, assim, de madeira?<br />
‘Interviewer2: Did you ever use a th<strong>in</strong>g like this, <strong>in</strong> wood?’<br />
INF (Ele não). (MIN37)<br />
EXPL NEG<br />
‘Informant: (No!)’<br />
4.2.2.7 In question-tag<br />
In a sole example, the expletive appears as part of a question-tag, a context for expletives<br />
also found <strong>in</strong> Galician data (see chapter 2):<br />
(259) Mas esse já conhecem, <strong>ele</strong> já? (OUT40)<br />
but that already know-3PL EXPL already<br />
‘But you already know that one, don’t you?’<br />
This question-tag does not <strong>in</strong>clude a negation, even though question-tags after an<br />
affirmative sentence are usually construed with a negation – see examples <strong>in</strong> (260) (from<br />
Mateus et al. 2003: 478):<br />
(260) a. Vocês lembram-se, não se lembram?<br />
you remember [that] NEG SE remember<br />
‘You remember that, don’t you?’<br />
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b. Vocês lembram-se, não é verdade?<br />
you remember [that] NEG is true<br />
c. … , não é assim?<br />
NEG is thus<br />
c. … , não é?<br />
NEG is<br />
c. … , não?<br />
NEG<br />
Example (259) has the particularity of <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the adverb já, which may be repeated <strong>in</strong><br />
the tag, together with the negative word:<br />
(261) Mas esse já conhecem, não já?<br />
but that already know-3PL NEG already<br />
It is however worth not<strong>in</strong>g that some speakers still allow another strategy for question-tag<br />
formation, namely one <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the confirmative word pois <strong>in</strong>stead of the negative word:<br />
(262) Mas esse já conhecem, pois já?<br />
but that already know-3PL POIS already<br />
Similarly to this confirmative word, thus, the expletive enters the question-tag <strong>in</strong> example<br />
(259), dispens<strong>in</strong>g with the negative word. 15<br />
4.2.2.8 Before an <strong>in</strong>dependent phrase<br />
Under this subsection, I will consider examples where the expletive is not necessarily<br />
<strong>in</strong>tegrated with<strong>in</strong> a sentence, but is neverth<strong>ele</strong>ss <strong>in</strong> a peripheral position – peripheral, <strong>in</strong> this<br />
case, to a phrase with which the expletive creates a prosodic unit. The nature of the phrases<br />
that appear preceded by <strong>ele</strong> is fairly heterogeneous. Their category is not uniform and they<br />
may have diverse syntactic functions. It appears however that the prosodic unit formed by<br />
the expletive and the phrase that follows it acts almost always as an <strong>in</strong>dependent sequence,<br />
either as some sort of unf<strong>in</strong>ished/abandoned fragment or as an appositive or parenthetical<br />
<strong>ele</strong>ment. Examples (263) and (264) below illustrate the fragment context, where the<br />
expletive precedes a phrase marked by non-conclud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tonation:<br />
15 Remember from chapter 2 that the possibilities for an expletive <strong>in</strong> question-tags <strong>in</strong> Galician seem to be<br />
fairly varied (“..., el non?”, “..., “..., el si?”, “..., el V?” <strong>in</strong> the examples presented <strong>in</strong> that chapter).<br />
135
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
(263) INQ Portanto, com esse copo… Isso é mais antigo do que o, a?… (AAL43)<br />
‘Interviewer: So, with this cup… That is older than the, the?…’<br />
INF Não, o copo é mais… Bem, mais antigo, <strong>ele</strong> isto… Sabe a vantagem que há […] ?<br />
no the cup is more… well older EXPL this… know-3SG the advantage that has<br />
‘Informant: No, the cup is more… Well, older, this… Do you know what advantage there<br />
is […]?<br />
(264) Podiam estar até dois ou três dias, que (<strong>ele</strong>) naqu<strong>ele</strong> tempo… (OUT35)<br />
might be-INF even two or three days because EXPL <strong>in</strong>.that time<br />
‘They might be even two or three days, because <strong>in</strong> that time…’<br />
In the follow<strong>in</strong>g examples, on the other hand, the expletive phrase appears as an apposition<br />
to a previous utterance.<br />
(265) INF Bem, isso sempre foi moagem eléctrica,<br />
‘Informant: Well, that was always <strong>ele</strong>ctric mill,’<br />
INQ Sempre foi moagem eléctrica.<br />
‘Interviewer: It was always <strong>ele</strong>ctric mill.’<br />
INF <strong>ele</strong> ali o de Porto da Espada. (AAL22)<br />
EXPL there the.one of Porto da Espada<br />
‘Informant: the one of Porto da Espada.’<br />
(266) Têm mesmo pombo (…) para comer. Está aí tantos, aí!<br />
‘They have even pigeons to eat. There are so many there, there!’<br />
Às vezes, é ao rebanho d<strong>ele</strong>s ali, <strong>ele</strong> a passearem lá! (ALC32)<br />
sometimes is to.the flock of.them there EXPL A walk-INF there<br />
‘Sometimes there are flocks of them there, walk<strong>in</strong>g there!’<br />
In example (267) the expletive and the phrase form a parenthetical sequence:<br />
(267) E depois (…) começou como ontem a nevar e a saraivar e a chover, e a mulherz<strong>in</strong>ha,<br />
coitada,<br />
and then began-3SG like yesterday A snow-INF and A hail-INF and A ra<strong>in</strong>-INF and the woman<br />
poor<br />
(…) – <strong>ele</strong> roup<strong>in</strong>has fracas! – veio por aí fora, chegou aqui acima arreganhou. (COV22)<br />
EXPL clothes th<strong>in</strong> came from there arrived here up chilled<br />
±‘And then, it began to snow, to hail and to ra<strong>in</strong> like yesterday, and the poor woman – her<br />
clothes were th<strong>in</strong>! – came from there, when she arrived up here, she chilled.’<br />
Others examples have the expletive preced<strong>in</strong>g a fairly <strong>in</strong>dependent phrase (a clause, <strong>in</strong><br />
example (268)):<br />
(268) "O André foi fazer a presa". "A presa"?<br />
‘ “André went for the dam.” “The dam?” ’<br />
136<br />
"Pois, <strong>ele</strong> como vomecê diz que já t<strong>in</strong>ha dado (a) ordem". (CBV17)<br />
POIS EXPL as you say that already have given the order<br />
‘Yes, as you say that you have already given the order.’
4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
(269) A gente era pobre, <strong>ele</strong> meu amigo! (MIN35)<br />
the people were poor EXPL my friend<br />
‘We were poor!’ [+ exclamative expression]<br />
(270) INQ1 […] Mas é uma dor muito grande, não é?<br />
‘Interviewer1: […] But it is a hard pa<strong>in</strong>, isn’t it?<br />
INF Oi, (<strong>ele</strong>) dor?! Eu até me atirava a Cristo e ao padre, quanto mais! (OUT48)<br />
INTJ EXPL pa<strong>in</strong> I even myself throw to Christ and to.the priest ±even more<br />
±‘Informant: Oh, pa<strong>in</strong>? I could even throw myself to Christ and to the priest, imag<strong>in</strong>e!’<br />
Even <strong>in</strong> examples (271) through (273), where the phrase preceded by the expletive seems<br />
to have some syntactic connection to what is previously said, there is however a prosodic<br />
break (marked by a comma, a pause {pp} or an <strong>in</strong>terruption [AB| …]) before the expletive,<br />
which thus makes the expletive plus the follow<strong>in</strong>g material look as a fairly <strong>in</strong>dependent<br />
phrasal unit.<br />
(271) O meu pai e os outros começavam {pp} <strong>ele</strong> a botar tudo abaixo aos homens.<br />
the my father and the others b egan [empty pause]EXPL A demean to.the men<br />
(COV29)<br />
± ‘My father and the others began…{pp} to demean the men.’<br />
(272) Pôs-mas cá, (<strong>ele</strong>) uma senhora, aqui, em cima; (OUT48)<br />
put-to.me.them here EXPL a woman here upstairs<br />
‘She put them here – it was a lady – here, upstairs.’<br />
(273) […] puxava-se, metia-se o chambaril [AB|dentro dos ten-] <strong>ele</strong> entre o pé e os<br />
pulled-SE put-SE the ±hook <strong>in</strong>side the s<strong>in</strong>- EXPL between the foot and the<br />
tendões, […] (EXB28)<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ews<br />
‘[…] we pulled that, we put the hook <strong>in</strong>side the s<strong>in</strong>-, between the foot and the s<strong>in</strong>ews[…]’<br />
Besides the CORDIAL-SIN data, the regionalist novel also provides several examples of<br />
this k<strong>in</strong>d of context for the overt expletive:<br />
(274) Deixemo-nos de histórias, sr. compadre prior, que êle uma boa p<strong>in</strong>ga... (Ribeiro 1927: 25)<br />
because EXPL a good ±w<strong>in</strong>e<br />
‘Let’s leave stories aside, my pal, because a good w<strong>in</strong>e…’<br />
(275) A sua lida durava todo o tempo da aceifa, êle dom<strong>in</strong>gos e dias santos, desde o romper<br />
the his work lasted all the time of.the harvest EXPL sundays and hollidays from the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g<br />
da manhã até ao pôr do ar do dia, […] (id.: 89)<br />
of.the morn<strong>in</strong>g till the sunset<br />
‘His work lasted all the harvest time, sundays and hollidays, from sunrise till sunset.’<br />
137
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
(276) […] abri léguas de charneca arrebentando com trabalhar, êle de dia e de noite, êle à<br />
I dug miles of moor break-GER with work-INF EXPL of day and of night EXPL to.the<br />
chuva e à estorreira do sol, […] (id.: 123)<br />
ra<strong>in</strong> and to.the heat of.the sun<br />
‘I dug miles and miles of moor, work<strong>in</strong>g till I dropped, all day and night, under the ra<strong>in</strong> and<br />
under the heat of the sun.’<br />
(277) Nêsses casos é que vossemecê há-de ouvir mais falatórios, êle tudo contra o casmurro<br />
<strong>in</strong>.those cases is that you will heard more talks EXPL everyone aga<strong>in</strong>st the stubborn<br />
do pai (id.: 115)<br />
of.the father<br />
‘It is <strong>in</strong> those cases that you will heard more talks, everyone aga<strong>in</strong>st his stubborn father.’<br />
4.2.2.9 In isolation<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ally, I shall mention two cases where the expletive appears <strong>in</strong> isolation <strong>in</strong> the<br />
CORDIAL-SIN data:<br />
(278) Isto aqui é uma… Ai, <strong>ele</strong>! Eu 'desqueceu-me' o nome disso. (ALC03)<br />
this here is a INTJ EXPL I forgot the name of.that<br />
± ‘This is a… Oh! There now! I forgot its name.’<br />
(279) INF1 Eles não vêm para cá por a gente usar preto daquela maneira, <strong>ele</strong>s não vêm para cá,<br />
mas é aqu<strong>ele</strong> respeito que a gente tem às nossas famílias. Sequer um ano, que não é uma<br />
coisa que não se ande.<br />
‘Informant1 [talk<strong>in</strong>g about wear<strong>in</strong>g black clothes after some relative’s death] They won’t come<br />
back just because we wear black. They won’t come back, but it is a k<strong>in</strong>d of respect that we have<br />
towards our family. At least one year, we can wear black.’<br />
INQ Pois claro. Pois.<br />
‘Interviewer: Of course, yes.’<br />
INF2 Ai <strong>ele</strong>! (TRC62)<br />
INTJ EXPL<br />
INF1 Um ano de preto pelas suas famílias, ah senhora, credo! Mas há muita gente já que<br />
não quer.<br />
‘Informant1: One year wear<strong>in</strong>g black for their families, my god! But there are many people who<br />
don’t want to do that.’<br />
In both examples the expletive occurs <strong>in</strong> an exclamative utterance, comb<strong>in</strong>ed with the<br />
<strong>in</strong>terjection ai!. Remark that this use of the expletive seems to bear some similarity with<br />
other exclamative expressions which <strong>in</strong>clude a demonstrative, such as: olha (que) esta!<br />
‘look (that) thisFEM’, olha que isto! ‘look that this’, isto agora! ‘this now!’). These<br />
expressions all appear to <strong>in</strong>volve some deictic <strong>in</strong>terpretation (allowed by the<br />
demonstrative) relat<strong>in</strong>g to the general speak<strong>in</strong>g situation.<br />
138
4.2.2.10 Summary<br />
4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
In this section, we have seen that, besides impersonal constructions presented <strong>in</strong> section<br />
4.2.1, expletive <strong>ele</strong> significantly appears <strong>in</strong> a wide spectrum of different constructions<br />
<strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g the left periphery. Moreover, <strong>in</strong> the examples we have exam<strong>in</strong>ed, the overt<br />
expletive is itself a peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ment, which stays <strong>in</strong> a position that may precede other<br />
<strong>ele</strong>ments occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the left periphery. Thus, as we have seen, expletive <strong>ele</strong> appears <strong>in</strong> a<br />
peripheral position (i) before preverbal subjects; (ii) <strong>in</strong> third plural arbitrary null subject<br />
constructions and <strong>in</strong> impersonal se constructions; (iii) before peripheral adverbials;<br />
(iv) before other peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ments (topics, clefts, affective phrases, dislocated wh-<br />
phrases); (v) <strong>in</strong> imperative sentences; (vi) <strong>in</strong> answers to yes-no questions; (vii) <strong>in</strong> a<br />
question-tag; (viii) before <strong>in</strong>dependent phrases; and (ix) <strong>in</strong> isolation.<br />
Not unexpectedly, when one considers the corpus data from CORDIAL-SIN, these<br />
constructions are not equally represented – see Table 3 below, where the figures for the<br />
different peripheral constructions are provided. Figure 4 on next page shows the<br />
correspond<strong>in</strong>g percentages.<br />
Type Total<br />
Subject 68<br />
Syntact. Impers. Const. 17<br />
Adverbials 34<br />
Other Peripheral 22<br />
Imperative 2<br />
Yes-No Answers 1<br />
Question-Tag 1<br />
Independent Phrase 17<br />
In isolation 1<br />
163<br />
Table 3. <strong>Expletive</strong> <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> peripheral<br />
constructions<br />
139
13%<br />
21%<br />
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
1%<br />
10%<br />
1%<br />
1% 1%<br />
10%<br />
42%<br />
Subject<br />
Syntact. Impers. Constr.<br />
Adverbials<br />
Other Peripheral<br />
Imperative<br />
Independent Phrase<br />
In isolation<br />
YNAnswer<br />
Question-tag<br />
Figure 4. <strong>Expletive</strong> <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> peripheral constructions<br />
While expletives peripheral to subjects and to peripheral constituents are relatively<br />
frequent (85 and 56 cases, respectively) 16 , expletives <strong>in</strong> question-tags or <strong>in</strong> isolation are<br />
quite rare – <strong>in</strong> fact they are only sporadically represented. 17 I do not take such a contrast as<br />
particularly significant, s<strong>in</strong>ce it may well result from the fact that the different types of<br />
constructions are not equally represented <strong>in</strong> the naturalistic data of the corpus. Evidently,<br />
the total of tags or that of answers to YN questions <strong>in</strong> this corpus is by far less significant<br />
than the total of sentences featur<strong>in</strong>g a preverbal subject. It turns out thus that the contrast<br />
found <strong>in</strong> expletive constructions may well be a correlate of such asymmetry. Indeed, when<br />
one compares the data <strong>in</strong> monographs, the “gap” seems to be overriden. (And the same is<br />
true if we take <strong>in</strong>to account colloquial data.) Neverth<strong>ele</strong>ss, it is the fact that expletives may<br />
appear <strong>in</strong> the range of constructions enumerated above that is r<strong>ele</strong>vant for the purposes of<br />
this work.<br />
The data presented so far corroborate <strong>in</strong> part the empirical basis for some previous<br />
<strong>in</strong>sights <strong>in</strong>to the subject of overt expletives <strong>in</strong> EP (see chapter 2). Furthermore, they also<br />
permit us to enlarge such empirical support. Besides the fairly known cases of overt<br />
16 Here, I take together the data where the expletive is peripheral to a subject and those <strong>in</strong> syntactically<br />
impersonal constructions (arbitrary null subject and impersonal se) as peripheral to the subject (thus, the total<br />
amount of 85, i.e. 68 plus 17). Correspond<strong>in</strong>gly, preverbal adverbials are considered together with other<br />
peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ments.<br />
17 The CORDIAL-SIN subcorpus considered here <strong>in</strong>cludes only one answer to YN questions. Besides the<br />
data from monographs, there are however some sporadic cases of expletives <strong>in</strong> such contexts <strong>in</strong> other data<br />
from CORDIAL-SIN (see examples (257) and (258) above).<br />
140
4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
expletives before a preverbal subject, we have now an important amount of data on<br />
expletives occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the periphery of varied peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ments. Quite importantly,<br />
expletive <strong>ele</strong> also appears <strong>in</strong> answers to YN questions, <strong>in</strong> question-tags, and it may even<br />
precede some <strong>in</strong>dependent phrases or constitute by itself an <strong>in</strong>dependent (expressive)<br />
utterance.<br />
In some of these contexts, namely those <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g a preverbal subject or some<br />
preposed adverbial, expletive constructions may also occur <strong>in</strong> embedded contexts. The<br />
other peripheral contexts present expletive <strong>ele</strong> only <strong>in</strong> matrix/<strong>in</strong>dependent contexts.<br />
Just like the expletive constructions seen <strong>in</strong> section 4.2.1, the examples exam<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong><br />
this section significantly differ from their correspond<strong>in</strong>g non-expletive counterparts. That<br />
is to say, the presence of the expletive does not seem to be strictly optional, but, <strong>in</strong>stead,<br />
adds some value on the pragmatic/discourse plan, as already suggested above. As<br />
mentioned then, the development of this issue is postponed to section 4.4.<br />
4.2.3 Postverbal <strong>Expletive</strong><br />
Although most cases of overt expletive constructions <strong>in</strong> EP dialects <strong>in</strong>volve impersonal<br />
constructions or left peripheral positions, there exists still a different pattern of distribution<br />
for non-referential <strong>ele</strong>. As will become evident, all the data considered <strong>in</strong> this section<br />
present such expletive <strong>in</strong> an immediately postverbal position, such as <strong>in</strong> examples (280)<br />
through (283):<br />
(280) Seja <strong>ele</strong> trigo ou cevada ou aveia. (PAL22)<br />
be-PRES.SUBJ-3SG EXPL wheat or barley or oats<br />
± ‘Be it wheat or barley or oats.’<br />
(281) Alecrim. Aí na estrada também há. Em primeiro era só nalgum jardim ou cá…<br />
‘Rosemary. There is that also near the road. Long ago there was that only <strong>in</strong> gardens or here…’<br />
(Por aí) nas estradas, nas barreiras das estradas há <strong>ele</strong>. [ALEPG, Arraiolos 2 side1: 521] 18<br />
there <strong>in</strong>.the roads <strong>in</strong>.the sides of.the roads has EXPL<br />
± ‘There, near the roads, on the flanks of the roads, there is [rosemary].’<br />
(282) Que importa a casa? Haja <strong>ele</strong> saúde… (female, Beira, age c.80y, low educ.)<br />
what matters the house have-PRES.SUBJ-3SG EXPL health<br />
‘What matters the house? S<strong>in</strong>ce there is health…’<br />
(283) Dantes é que era frio. Agora não é <strong>ele</strong> nada! (female, Portalegre, age c.70y, low educ.)<br />
long.ago is that was cold now NEG is EXPL noth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
‘Long ago it was cold. Now this is noth<strong>in</strong>g!’<br />
18 I owe this example to Gabriela Vitor<strong>in</strong>o.<br />
141
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
That <strong>ele</strong> has <strong>in</strong> these examples no referential content seems to be an uncontroversial issue.<br />
Echo questions repeat<strong>in</strong>g these expletive constructions become awkward when the wh-<br />
expression o quê ‘what’ replaces <strong>ele</strong>, as can be observed <strong>in</strong> (284):<br />
(284) a. *seja o quê trigo ou cevada ou aveia??<br />
b. *nas barreiras das estradas há o quê?? 19<br />
c. *haja o quê saúde??<br />
d. *agora não é o quê nada??<br />
This resistance to <strong>in</strong>terrogative focuss<strong>in</strong>g is thus taken as a diagnosis for non-referentiality.<br />
The behavior of <strong>ele</strong> as a referential pronoun is sharply different, even if referr<strong>in</strong>g to a<br />
[-human, -animate] entity. This is shown by the pair stimulus plus echo question <strong>in</strong> (285).<br />
(285) S: estivesse <strong>ele</strong> [o relógio] certo(, não teria chegado atrasada.)<br />
be-IMPERF.SUBJ-3SG it [the clock] right NEG would.have arrived late<br />
‘If the clock was right, ( I would not have arrived late.)’<br />
EQ: estivesse o quê certo??<br />
The postverbal position is however a slightly unusual context for expletives <strong>in</strong> EP dialects,<br />
which mostly appear <strong>in</strong> preverbal (peripheral or/and impersonal) contexts. 20 With<strong>in</strong> the<br />
totality of the observed CORDIAL-SIN data, the <strong>in</strong>cidence of expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> a position<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g the verb is considerably sparse, as may be observed <strong>in</strong> Figure 5. In fact, out of a<br />
total of 298 expletive constructions, only 20 correspond to postverbal expletive examples.<br />
19<br />
This echo question is possible as a repetition of a sentence with an overt object, such as (i):<br />
(i) nas barreiras das estradas há alecrim.<br />
Remark, however, that <strong>in</strong> the expletive sentence <strong>in</strong> (281) the object is null, as standardly permitted <strong>in</strong> EP.<br />
Neverth<strong>ele</strong>ss, the expletive may co-occur with an overt object (see (ii) below); the correspond<strong>in</strong>g echo<br />
question would then be unambiguous and equivalent to (284)b with respect to the status of the expletive (cf.<br />
(iii)).<br />
(ii) nas barreiras das estradas há <strong>ele</strong> alecrim<br />
(iii) *nas barreiras das estradas há o quê alecrim??<br />
20 In other Romance NSLs, expletives seem to be unknown <strong>in</strong> this k<strong>in</strong>d of context. Remark however the<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g Catalan example, for which I do not have any further <strong>in</strong>formation:<br />
“A Mallorca, en frases negatives és freqüent posar la partícula ell darrera el verb: ‘¿ Que vendré? – No, no<br />
vendràs ell, tu!’ ” (DCVB, IV: 701).<br />
‘In Mallorca, <strong>in</strong> negative sentences it is usual that the particle ell occurs after the verb: ‘¿ QUE<br />
come_FUT.1SG? – No, NEG come_FUT.2SG ell, you!’<br />
142
4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
55%<br />
6%<br />
39%<br />
Impersonal<br />
Peripheral<br />
Postverbal<br />
Figure 5. Distribution of expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> CORDIAL-SIN:<br />
postverbal <strong>ele</strong> vs. peripheral and impersonal constructions<br />
As a slightly impressionistic note, I may add that data from other sources tend to<br />
corroborate this contrast: postverbal expletives appear to be everywhere less common than<br />
the expletive types seen <strong>in</strong> previous sections.<br />
In what follows, I will consider postverbal expletive constructions <strong>in</strong> three different<br />
subsections: (i) the first one <strong>in</strong>cludes those sentences where the verb appears as the <strong>in</strong>itial<br />
<strong>ele</strong>ment (where, thus, the expletive appears as a second position); (ii) the second one<br />
considers those examples where the subject appears before the verb; and, f<strong>in</strong>ally, (iii) the<br />
last one <strong>in</strong>cludes postverbal expletive constructions where some phrase different from the<br />
subject appears before the verb.<br />
4.2.3.1 Verb <strong>in</strong>itial contexts<br />
Postverbal expletive constructions where the verb appears <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>itial position, immediately<br />
followed by the expletive, <strong>in</strong>volve predicates of two different types: (i) impersonal<br />
predicates, where, thus, there is no (overt nor null) argumental subject – hence, where the<br />
subject position could, <strong>in</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>ciple, be filled by a nom<strong>in</strong>ative expletive; (ii) non-impersonal<br />
predicates requir<strong>in</strong>g an argumental subject, for which there must be a position available – a<br />
necessarily postverbal position for overt subjects <strong>in</strong> such V1 structures.<br />
Let us firstly consider the first type, which is illustrated by the follow<strong>in</strong>g data<br />
(examples (286) and (288) are repeated from (282) and (280) above, respectively).<br />
143
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
(286) Que importa a casa? Haja <strong>ele</strong> saúde… (female, Beira, age c.80y, low educ.)<br />
what matters the house have-PRES.SUBJ-3SG EXPL health<br />
‘What matters the house? S<strong>in</strong>ce there is health…’<br />
(287) – Não está muito cansada ? (female, Trás-os-Montes, age c.80y, low educ.)<br />
‘Aren’t you tired?’ [for the v<strong>in</strong>tage]<br />
- Haja <strong>ele</strong> uvas!<br />
have-PRSBJ-3SG EXPL grapes<br />
± ‘Till there are grapes!’ [I can go to the v<strong>in</strong>tage]<br />
(288) Seja <strong>ele</strong> trigo ou cevada ou aveia. (PAL22)<br />
be-PRES.SUBJ-3SG EXPL wheat or barley or oats<br />
± ‘Be it wheat or barley or oats.’<br />
(289) Seja <strong>ele</strong> ao fim do tempo que for (Colos, <strong>in</strong> Guerreiro 1968: 351)<br />
be-PRES.SUBJ-3SG EXPL to.the end of.the time that be-FUT.SUBJ<br />
± ‘Be it after any time.’<br />
(290) […] ou seja <strong>ele</strong> o que for. (male, Quarteira, age c. 50y, high educ.)<br />
or be-PRES.SUBJ-3SG EXPL what be-FUT.SUBJ<br />
±‘… or be it what might be.’<br />
(291) Ou que seja (…) isso, o caramelo. Mas a gente diz é (…): "Um bocado de gelo" –<br />
or QUE be-PRES.SUBJ-3SG that the caramelo but the people says is “a piece of ice”<br />
seja <strong>ele</strong> um bocado de caramelo. (SRP03)<br />
be-PRES.SUBJ-3SG EXPL a piece of caramelo<br />
± ‘Or, it may be that, caramelo. But what we say is “a piece of ice” – it may be a piece of<br />
caramelo.’<br />
(292) INF […] Se for macho, passa a borrego até fazer um ano, (o) que seguiu para os dois anos,<br />
passou o borrego a malato (…) e passou a borrega a malata. […]<br />
‘Informant: If it is a male, it becomes a borrego till it has not one year; when it grows till two years,<br />
the borrego is called malato (…) and the borrega becomes malata.’<br />
INQ1 E depois dos dois anos?<br />
‘Interviewer: And after two years?’<br />
INF Dos dois anos, ovelha! E seja <strong>ele</strong> macho, passar a carneiro! (SRP30)<br />
of.the two years ovelha and be-PRES.SUBJ-3SG EXPL male become-INF carneiro<br />
‘Informant: After two years, ovelha! And if it is a male, it becomes carneiro!’<br />
The above examples <strong>in</strong>volve thus impersonal verbs, more specifically, existential haver ‘to<br />
have’ and presentative ser ‘to be’. All these expletive constructions share the property that<br />
the verb appears under a (present) subjunctive form. As is well known, root subjunctive<br />
clauses often require verb movement above the subject position, also known as<br />
V-(to-I-)to-C movement (Rizzi 1982, Ambar 1988, 1992), just like it happens <strong>in</strong> sentences<br />
(293) and (294):<br />
(293) Lance o agricultor trigo ou cevada ou aveia…<br />
throw-PRES.SUBJ-3SG the farmer wheat or barley or oats<br />
±‘If the farmer throws wheat or barley or oats…’<br />
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(294) Apanhemos nós alecrim, …<br />
pick-PRES.SUBJ-1PL we rosemary…<br />
±‘If we pick some rosemary…’<br />
Thus, we may well admit that the subjunctive expletive examples seen above all <strong>in</strong>volve V<br />
movement to C as well. In that case, s<strong>in</strong>ce the verbs <strong>in</strong> question do not have an argumental<br />
subject, we might suppose that postverbal expletive <strong>ele</strong> stands <strong>in</strong> the canonical subject<br />
position, as an expletive subject – which would make such examples <strong>in</strong> some sort similar<br />
to those exam<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> section 4.2.1.1. This is not however easily tenable: the fact is that<br />
postverbal expletives extend far beyond subjunctive constructions <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g impersonal<br />
verbs. Firstly, with this k<strong>in</strong>d of verbs, they also appear <strong>in</strong> non-subjunctive contexts, such as<br />
those <strong>in</strong> (295) and (296):<br />
(295) Era, era. Era <strong>ele</strong> nas eiras! (TRC70)<br />
was was was EXPL<strong>in</strong>.the thresh<strong>in</strong>gfloors<br />
±‘Indeed it was. It was <strong>in</strong> the thresh<strong>in</strong>gfloors!’<br />
(296) INQ1 […] E para levar… Para levar coisas? Por exemplo, se não fosse para levar pessoas?<br />
‘Interviewer1: […] And to carry… to carry goods? For <strong>in</strong>stance, if it was not to carry people?’<br />
INF1 Era <strong>ele</strong> numa carroça! (MIG14)<br />
was EXPL <strong>in</strong>.a cart<br />
‘Informant1: It was <strong>in</strong> a cart!’<br />
This would not be a problem, if we could derive a peripheral position for the verb, but,<br />
furthermore, postverbal expletives <strong>in</strong> V1 constructions also appear <strong>in</strong> non-impersonal<br />
constructions, as mentioned above. Thus, they may co-occur with an argumental subject <strong>in</strong><br />
both subjunctive and non-subjunctive clauses. This subject (underl<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the examples<br />
below) appears <strong>in</strong> postverbal position. The sequence verb-expletive however is never<br />
<strong>in</strong>terrupted:<br />
(297) A coz<strong>in</strong>ha é como aqui assim, e aqui é uma sala, e aqui é (…) um quarto onde eu durmo<br />
‘The kitchen is like here, and here is a liv<strong>in</strong>g-room, and here is the bedroom where I sleep’<br />
e tem mais (…) dois quartos […] para, às vezes, (vir <strong>ele</strong>) gente de fora, […].<br />
(COV02)<br />
and has more two bedrooms to sometimes come-INF EXPL people from outside<br />
±‘and there is two bedrooms more to receive people that sometimes come here, […]’<br />
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(298) […] fosse <strong>ele</strong> o Inac<strong>in</strong>ho um cavador, pobre como Job,<br />
be-IMPERF.SUBJ-3SG EXPL the Inac<strong>in</strong>ho a digger poor like Job<br />
‘if/even if Inac<strong>in</strong>ho was a digger, as poor as Job’<br />
e me viesse dizer hoje: larga o homem de Aris, não era preciso que mo repetisse três<br />
vezes.”<br />
‘and if he came say<strong>in</strong>g to me: leave the man from Aris, it would not be necessary that he repeat that<br />
to me three times.’ (Aquil<strong>in</strong>o Ribeiro, Terras do Demo, pp. 294-295)<br />
(299) Foi <strong>ele</strong> pequena a confusão! (female, Portalegre, age c. 70y, low educ.)<br />
was EXPL small the tumult<br />
±‘The tumult was not small at all!’<br />
4.2.3.2 Preverbal subject contexts<br />
Postverbal expletives are equally found <strong>in</strong> sentences where the verb does not appear <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>itial position. In this section, I look over the few cases where the verb is preceded by the<br />
subject.<br />
Let us consider the first example, <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g sequence:<br />
(300) INF3 E de que é que se faz um arrocho?<br />
‘Informant3: And what is an arrocho made of?’ [arrocho= curved stick used to help ty<strong>in</strong>g the burden<br />
on a donkey]<br />
INF1 De um pau direito.<br />
‘Informant1: A straight stick.’<br />
INF2 Direito, que torto <strong>ele</strong> já está feito.<br />
‘Informant2: A straight one; if curved, then the arrocho is ready.’<br />
INF1 Torto, <strong>ele</strong> já está feito.<br />
‘Informant1: If it is a curved one, it is ready.’<br />
INF3 Direito, não é? É, sim senhor.<br />
‘Informant3: A straight one, isn’t it? Yes, it is.’<br />
[…]<br />
INF3 Porque o… Porque o…[…] O torto já é <strong>ele</strong> (ali) torto. Agora, estando<br />
because the because the the curved one already is EXPL there curved now be-GER<br />
direito, faz-se o arrocho. (OUT10)<br />
straight make-3SG-SE the arrocho<br />
‘Informant3: Because the… because the… The curved stick is already curved (there). Now,<br />
if it is straight, we make an arrocho from it.’<br />
The sequence o torto já é <strong>ele</strong> (ali) torto is thus taken as a postverbal expletive construction,<br />
for which the non-expletive counterpart would be: o torto já é (ali) torto. The phrase o<br />
torto ‘the curved one/ the curved stick’ stands as the preverbal subject. It is true that <strong>ele</strong>,<br />
which I take here as an expletive, could perhaps allow a referential pronoun read<strong>in</strong>g. One<br />
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should then suppose that it refers back to the mascul<strong>in</strong>e subject mean<strong>in</strong>g ‘the curved stick’.<br />
The same might be said about the follow<strong>in</strong>g example, which is taken from a monograph:<br />
(301) O nosso compade Joã Cegu<strong>in</strong>he vai <strong>ele</strong> stande rique e a gente pobre…<br />
the our pal João Cegu<strong>in</strong>ho is EXPL be-GER rich and the people poor<br />
(Escusa, <strong>in</strong> Baptista 1967: 208)<br />
±‘Our pal João Cegu<strong>in</strong>ho is almost rich and we are almost poor.’<br />
Such examples would, <strong>in</strong> that case, compare to those EP constructions that <strong>in</strong>volve a<br />
postverbal emphatic pronoun correferential to the subject, as <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g example:<br />
(302) [A pastora]i levou [ela]i o rebanho para a pastagem.<br />
the shepherdess moved she the flock.of.sheep to the pastures<br />
±‘It was the shepherdess herself/by herself who moved the flock of sheep to the pastures.’<br />
Both constructions are not equivalent at all, however. For the purposes of this section,<br />
allow me to simply note that the postverbal presence of <strong>ele</strong> would equally be possible if the<br />
subject is not a mascul<strong>in</strong>e third person s<strong>in</strong>gular, as the follow<strong>in</strong>g example illustrates: 21<br />
(303) INQ2 Como é que faziam? Que cestas é que faziam? De que feitios?<br />
‘Interviewer2: How did you make? What k<strong>in</strong>ds of baskets did you make? In what shapes?’<br />
INF (…) Oh, faziam cestas de duas asas, faziam de quatro asas, cestas pequen<strong>in</strong>as,<br />
grandes, […] É. Faziam muito l<strong>in</strong>das. […]<br />
‘Oh, they made two handled, four handled baskets, small baskets, big ones, […]. This was so. They<br />
made such beautiful baskets.’<br />
Eu t<strong>in</strong>ha (<strong>ele</strong>) um irmão, que trabalha de carp<strong>in</strong>teiro também (…).<br />
I had EXPL a brother that works as carpenter also<br />
±‘Even me – I had a brother, who works as a carpenter, [>> who also made them]...’<br />
Também em rapazito novo, quando andava com as ovelhas. Quando andava com as<br />
ovelhas (…) por lá, t<strong>in</strong>ha vagar… (PFT17)<br />
‘Also when he was a young boy, when he went out with sheep. When he was out there with sheep, he<br />
had time…’<br />
Also, a sentence correspond<strong>in</strong>g to (301) where the subject is fem<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>e would allow the<br />
presence of postverbal <strong>ele</strong> as well:<br />
(304) A nossa amiga Joana vai <strong>ele</strong> estando rica e a gente pobre…<br />
theFEM ourFEM friendFEM Joana is EXPL be-GER richFEM and the people poor<br />
±‘Our friend Joana is almost rich and we are almost poor.’<br />
As a side-note, it may be po<strong>in</strong>ted out that such postverbal expletive seems to be already<br />
found <strong>in</strong> sixteenth century <strong>Portuguese</strong>:<br />
21 Remark that <strong>ele</strong> is not even correferential to the direct object, which would be a possibility to consider <strong>in</strong><br />
the present example, where um irmão ‘a brother’ is mascul<strong>in</strong>e (I thank Juan Uriagereka for call<strong>in</strong>g my<br />
attention to this fact). Indeed, examples with a fem<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>e direct object equally allow postverbal <strong>ele</strong>:<br />
(i) Eu t<strong>in</strong>ha <strong>ele</strong> uma irmã...<br />
I had EXPL a sister<br />
See also <strong>in</strong> the next subsection example (312).<br />
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(305) Damião Dias ou alguém // lhe houv’<strong>ele</strong> o negro alvalá.<br />
Damião Dias or someone to.him had EXPL the black warrant<br />
(Vicente. 1533. Romagem de Agravados. <strong>in</strong> Carrilho 1990: 17)<br />
± ‘Damião Dias or someone else had obta<strong>in</strong>ed the black warrant for him.’<br />
4.2.3.3 Preverbal XP contexts<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ally, <strong>in</strong> this section, I will take <strong>in</strong>to account those postverbal expletive constructions<br />
where the verb is preceded by a phrase different from the subject.<br />
Consider the CORDIAL-SIN examples <strong>in</strong> (306) through (312):<br />
(306) INQ Mas os senhores e os de Nisa compreendem-se perfeitamente?<br />
‘Interviewer: But do you and the people from Nisa understand each other perfectly?’<br />
INF Ah, a gente compreende, pois. Isso compreendemos <strong>ele</strong> bem! (AAL79)<br />
INTJ the people understand-3SG POIS that understand-1PL EXPL well<br />
‘Informant: Oh, yes, we understand each other. That we understand well!<br />
(307) INQ1 Uma outra, assim comprid<strong>in</strong>ha.<br />
‘Interviewer1: Another one, which is quite long.’<br />
INF2 Eu não me lembro disso.<br />
‘Informant2: I don’t remember that.’<br />
INQ1 Diz que faz bem aos olhos.<br />
‘Interviewer1: They say that it is good for the eyes.’<br />
[…]<br />
INF2 Ah, bem aos olhos faz <strong>ele</strong> tudo, (…) quando não haver pouca sorte. (PAL28)<br />
INTJ good to.the eyes makes EXPL everyth<strong>in</strong>g when NEG have-INF bad luck<br />
±‘Informant2: Oh, everyth<strong>in</strong>g is good for the eyes, when you do not have bad luck.’<br />
(308) INQ: Tem assim umas florz<strong>in</strong>has rosas, muito pequen<strong>in</strong>as... e que cheira bem. Às vezes até<br />
se... que se queima. Às vezes queima-se, em casa, para cheirar bem.<br />
‘Interviewer: A plant that has some rose litlle flowers, very little… that smells good. You may burn<br />
it <strong>in</strong>side to have a good smell.’<br />
INF: Alecrim. Aí na estrada também há. Em primeiro era só nalgum jardim ou cá...<br />
‘Informant: Rosemary. There is that also near the road. Long ago there was that only <strong>in</strong> gardens or<br />
here…’<br />
(Por aí) nas estradas, nas barreiras das estradas há <strong>ele</strong>. [ALEPG, Arraiolos 2 side1: 521]<br />
there <strong>in</strong>.the roads <strong>in</strong>.the sides of.the roads has EXPL<br />
± ‘There, near the roads, on the flanks of the roads, there is [rosemary].’<br />
(309) INF1 (…) Desta urze há muita grande e há 'riaga' também muito grande.<br />
‘Informant1: There is a very high heather of this and there is also very high ‘riaga’[=name of<br />
plant].’<br />
148<br />
INF2 Pois. Há aí… Às vezes aparece <strong>ele</strong> aí cada 'riaga'! (OUT09)<br />
POIS has there sometimes appears EXPL there such ‘riaga’<br />
‘Informant2: Yes. There is there… Sometimes we f<strong>in</strong>d such a ‘riaga’!’
4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
(310) Olhe que este l<strong>in</strong>ho está bem f<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>ho. […] Pois eu, ao passar o dedo, fica-me (<strong>ele</strong>) /eu\<br />
look that this flax is very th<strong>in</strong> POIS I A.the slide-INF the f<strong>in</strong>ger stays-to.me EXPL I<br />
o coiso cheio (…) de arestas. (OUT13)<br />
the th<strong>in</strong>g full of edges<br />
±‘Look, this flax is very th<strong>in</strong>. And, despite that, when I slide my f<strong>in</strong>ger over it, it becomes<br />
full of edges.’<br />
(311) INF1 Mas aqui se tratavam muito era bacor<strong>in</strong>hos. Bacor<strong>in</strong>hos. "A porca teve tantos<br />
bacor<strong>in</strong>hos"!<br />
± ‘Informant1: But here we called them bacor<strong>in</strong>hos. Bacor<strong>in</strong>hos. “The sow gave birth to x<br />
bacor<strong>in</strong>hos”!<br />
INQ2 E quando eram um bocad<strong>in</strong>ho maiores já eram?…<br />
‘Interviewer2: And when they were a bit older, they were…?’<br />
INF1 Aí já eram (<strong>ele</strong>) marrõez<strong>in</strong>hos. (MIG10)<br />
there already were EXPL marrõez<strong>in</strong>hos<br />
± ‘Informant1: Then they were already marrõez<strong>in</strong>hos.’<br />
(312) As pias há-as quadradas (e) há outras redondas, não é? […] Eu tenho-as aí…<br />
‘As for s<strong>in</strong>ks, there are some of them square and some rond, isn’t it? I have some there…’<br />
[…] Ele aqui debaixo tenho <strong>ele</strong> assim umas pias para os pequen<strong>in</strong>os, para lá comerem,<br />
EXPL here under[this] have-1SG EXPL thus some s<strong>in</strong>ks to the small.ones to there eat-INF-3PL<br />
± ‘Here, under this, I have some s<strong>in</strong>ks for the small ones, for them to eat there.’ (OUT33)<br />
These examples show different k<strong>in</strong>ds of preverbal phrases co-occurr<strong>in</strong>g with a postverbal<br />
expletive <strong>in</strong> constructions with both impersonal and non-impersonal verbs. Take, first, the<br />
expletive example (306) isso compreendemos <strong>ele</strong> bem. The first position demonstrative<br />
(isso ‘that’) appears to be here the direct object of compreendemos ‘understand-PRES-<br />
1PL’. 22 In the case of example (307), the preverbal position is more complex: bem aos<br />
olhos ‘good to the eyes’ <strong>in</strong>cludes part of the verbal predicate fazer bem, lit. ‘to make good’,<br />
and its complement aos olhos ‘to the eyes’. In other examples, the preverbal phrase<br />
corresponds to an adverbial – the adverb aí ‘there’ <strong>in</strong> example (311), and the adverbial<br />
phrase aqui debaixo ‘down here’ <strong>in</strong> example (312) (which is itself preceded by a peripheral<br />
expletive); <strong>in</strong> examples (308) and (309), the <strong>in</strong>itial phrase corresponds to an adverbial PP;<br />
and f<strong>in</strong>ally, <strong>in</strong> example (310), the verb is preceded by the topic eu and the adverbial<br />
<strong>in</strong>f<strong>in</strong>itival clause ao passar o dedo ‘when I slide my f<strong>in</strong>ger [over it]’.<br />
Remark that such <strong>in</strong>itial position does not seem homogeneous on a purely<br />
<strong>in</strong>formational level either: if <strong>in</strong> some examples the preverbal <strong>ele</strong>ment appears to be<br />
22 In fact, the neuter demonstrative isso may appear as rather awkward as referr<strong>in</strong>g back to os de Nisa ‘those<br />
(people) from Nisa’, that has a human reference. Remark however that such neuter forms often appear<br />
connected to a human reference, as tudo <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g example:<br />
(i) E deram lá uma carne que <strong>ele</strong> achou-se tudo doente (COV14)<br />
and gave3PL there a meat that EXPL foundSE everyone sick<br />
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somewhat topical (see examples (306), (307) and (311)), <strong>in</strong> other cases it may correspond<br />
to new <strong>in</strong>formation, as seems to be the case <strong>in</strong> example (312).<br />
<strong>in</strong>side a cleft:<br />
Example (313) below is rather different <strong>in</strong> that the postverbal expletive occurs<br />
(313) A gente o que chama (<strong>ele</strong>) um enxame grande é assim com um cortiço aquase<br />
the people what calls EXPL a swarm of bees big is thus with a beehive almost<br />
cheio de abelhas. (COV37)<br />
full of bees<br />
‘What we call a big swarm of bees is a beehive almost full of bees.’<br />
In this case, the verb is preceded by the relative pronoun required by this type of cleft<strong>in</strong>g<br />
(which is itself preceded by the topic a gente).<br />
As for the subject position, which is necessarily postverbal <strong>in</strong> the constructions<br />
under discussion <strong>in</strong> this subsection, one po<strong>in</strong>t may be stated: the subject always appears <strong>in</strong><br />
a post-expletive position <strong>in</strong> the observed examples. Remember the r<strong>ele</strong>vant expletive<br />
constructions:<br />
(307)’ bem aos olhos faz <strong>ele</strong> tudo<br />
(309)’ às vezes aparece <strong>ele</strong> aí cada ‘riaga’<br />
(310)’ pois eu, ao passar o dedo, fica-me <strong>ele</strong> o coiso cheio de arestas<br />
Intuitively, it is possible to note that the subject cannot <strong>in</strong>tervene between the verb and the<br />
expletive:<br />
(307)’’ *bem aos olhos faz tudo <strong>ele</strong><br />
(309)’’ *às vezes aparece aí cada ‘riaga’ <strong>ele</strong><br />
(310)’’ *pois eu, ao passar o dedo, fica-me o coiso <strong>ele</strong> cheio de arestas<br />
Similarly, <strong>in</strong> the examples <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g a referential null subject, the correspond<strong>in</strong>g overt<br />
subject would be possible only <strong>in</strong> a post-expletive position, as illustrated below:<br />
(306)’ isso compreendemos (*nós) <strong>ele</strong> (nós) bem<br />
(312)’ <strong>ele</strong> aqui debaixo tenho (*eu) <strong>ele</strong> (eu) assim umas pias para os pequen<strong>in</strong>os<br />
Additional examples that further substantiate this description come from monographs and<br />
casual production:<br />
(314) Aqui está <strong>ele</strong> um buréque... (Escusa, <strong>in</strong> Baptista 1967: 145)<br />
here is EXPL a hole<br />
± ‘Here is a hole.’<br />
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(315) Farta d’uma pessoa tar enlojada tá <strong>ele</strong> a gente! (female, Beira, age c.80y, low educ.)<br />
bored of a person be-INF at_ home is EXPL the people<br />
±‘We are bored of be<strong>in</strong>g at home!’<br />
(316) Havia de ser pouco difícil!... Assim sabe <strong>ele</strong> Deus! (male, Portalegre, age c.30y, high<br />
educ.)<br />
would be-INF a.little difficult thus knows EXPL God<br />
±‘It would be so difficult! This way, it is already!’<br />
(317) Só ver a <strong>in</strong>jecção me custa <strong>ele</strong>! (male, Portalegre, age 35y, high educ.)<br />
only see-INF the <strong>in</strong>jection to.me is.difficult EXPL<br />
± ‘Only the fact that I see the <strong>in</strong>jection is already difficult to me!<br />
(318) Quero ver se me deito cedo, assim às 11. Bem, 11 horas devem ser <strong>ele</strong> agora...<br />
want-1SG see-INF if me go.to.bed early thus at 11 well 11 o’clock must be-INF EXPL now<br />
± ‘I want to go to bed early, near <strong>ele</strong>ven o’clock. Well, it must already be <strong>ele</strong>ven<br />
o’clock…’<br />
(319) Dantes é que era frio. Agora não é <strong>ele</strong> nada! (female, Portalegre, age c.70y, low educ.)<br />
long.ago is that was cold now NEG is EXPL noth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
± ‘Long ago, it was cold. Now, this is noth<strong>in</strong>g.’<br />
4.2.3.4 Summary<br />
In this section, we have looked at examples where the expletive occurs <strong>in</strong> a rather unusual<br />
position, immediately after the <strong>in</strong>flected verb (or a verbal complex, as <strong>in</strong> (318)). For the<br />
ease of presentation, we have considered these examples under three different types,<br />
namely (i) those which present the verb <strong>in</strong> first position; (ii) those where the verb is<br />
preceded by the subject; and f<strong>in</strong>ally (iii) those where the verb is preceded by a phrase<br />
different from the subject. S<strong>in</strong>ce the total amount of data for postverbal expletive<br />
constructions is fairly limited, we are not allowed to ascribe any particular significance to<br />
the distribution of the examples over the three patterns (for which neverth<strong>ele</strong>ss you can see<br />
Table 4 and Figure 6 below).<br />
151
Type Total<br />
Verb <strong>in</strong>itial 8<br />
Preverbal Subject 3<br />
Preverbal XP 9<br />
20<br />
Table 4. <strong>Expletive</strong> <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
postverbal position<br />
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
40%<br />
45% Verb <strong>in</strong>itial<br />
15%<br />
Figure 6<br />
Preverb Subject<br />
Preverb XP<br />
The postverbal position of the expletive is thus what the three types most evidently have <strong>in</strong><br />
common. In all of them, the sequence verb-expletive may not be <strong>in</strong>terrupted. Additionally,<br />
when we compare these data to the expletive constructions seen <strong>in</strong> the previous sections, a<br />
worth not<strong>in</strong>g difference is also the fact that postverbal expletives seem to be limited to matrix<br />
contexts. The examples we have considered do not <strong>in</strong>clude any embedded contexts and these<br />
appear to significantly degrade postverbal expletive constructions, as illustrated by the<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tuitive data:<br />
(320) ? *Dizem que era <strong>ele</strong> numa carroça.<br />
say-3PL that wasEXPL <strong>in</strong>.a cart<br />
‘They say that it was <strong>in</strong> a cart.’<br />
(321) ? *Dizem que a pastora vai <strong>ele</strong> estando rica…<br />
say-3PL that the shepherdess is EXPL be-GER rich<br />
‘They say that the sheperdee is almost rich…’<br />
(322) ? *Dizem que nas barreiras das estradas há <strong>ele</strong><br />
say-3PL that <strong>in</strong>.the sides of.the roads has EXPL<br />
‘They say that on the flanks of the roads, there is [rosemary].’<br />
(323) ? *Dizem que bem aos olhos faz <strong>ele</strong> tudo<br />
say-3PL that good to.the eyes makes EXPL everyth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
‘They say that everyth<strong>in</strong>g is good for the eyes.’<br />
Also significantly, most of the examples <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> this section seem to correspond to<br />
exclamative or optative sentences, a fact that will be further developed below, <strong>in</strong> section 4.4.<br />
152
4.2.4 Geographical Spread<br />
4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
After hav<strong>in</strong>g considered the syntactic distribution of expletive <strong>ele</strong> as found essentially <strong>in</strong><br />
CORDIAL-SIN data, let us now take a look at the geographical distribution <strong>in</strong> this corpus of<br />
the three types of expletive constructions presented above.<br />
First, I will consider how the three ma<strong>in</strong> types are represented <strong>in</strong> each CORDIAL-SIN<br />
location. The data are represented <strong>in</strong> Table 5 below. Figure summarizes the relative<br />
proportions for each type of expletive construction <strong>in</strong> each CORDIAL-SIN location<br />
considered.<br />
CTL VPA PFT FIG OUT COV MST AAL CBV<br />
Impersonal 5 2 4 4 15 16 13 14 3<br />
Peripheral 2 3 3 3 33 48 12 14 4<br />
Postverbal 0 0 1 0 6 6 0 1 0<br />
Total 7 5 8 7 53 70 25 29 7<br />
ALC LVR SRP ALV PAL CLC PST FLF Total<br />
Impersonal 11 6 3 13 5 1 0 1 116<br />
Peripheral 23 7 3 7 0 0 0 1 163<br />
Postverbal 1 0 2 1 2 0 0 0 20<br />
Total 35 13 8 21 7 1 0 2 298<br />
Table 5. Types of expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> the CORDIAL-SIN locations<br />
153
154<br />
Impersonal<br />
Peripheral<br />
Postverbal<br />
38%<br />
48%<br />
13%<br />
11%<br />
61%<br />
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE<br />
29%<br />
PFT<br />
OUT<br />
MST<br />
0%<br />
CTL<br />
0%<br />
49%<br />
28%<br />
52%<br />
71%<br />
48%<br />
43%<br />
60%<br />
68%<br />
9%<br />
FIG<br />
0%<br />
COV<br />
AAL<br />
3%<br />
VPA<br />
0%<br />
23%<br />
40%<br />
57%<br />
49%
4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
57%<br />
54%<br />
30%<br />
CBV<br />
0%<br />
LVR<br />
0%<br />
ALV<br />
5%<br />
Figure 7. <strong>Expletive</strong> constructions types <strong>in</strong><br />
CORDIAL-SIN locations<br />
43%<br />
46%<br />
65%<br />
66%<br />
25%<br />
29%<br />
0%<br />
38%<br />
ALC<br />
3%<br />
SRP<br />
PAL<br />
31%<br />
37%<br />
71%<br />
155
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE<br />
Data from the different locations corroborate the general picture we had already sketched<br />
above: peripheral expletive constructions are generally predom<strong>in</strong>ant, closely followed by<br />
impersonal constructions. In fact, <strong>in</strong> some few locations the latter are even more frequent<br />
than the former (<strong>in</strong> CTL, FIG, ALV, PAL). In view of such a fairly uniform distribution,<br />
no particular geographical contrast seems to be found between peripheral and impersonal<br />
expletive constructions.<br />
As for postverbal expletive constructions, which are by far less generalized, they<br />
never appear as the most frequent type <strong>in</strong> any location and they do not occur <strong>in</strong> all the<br />
observed locations. The contrast between those which show such expletive constructions<br />
and those which do not seems not to be geographically motivated, however. In fact, when<br />
we look at the geographical distribution of such locations, we f<strong>in</strong>d that this type of<br />
expletive construction is equally spread over the north as over the center and the south, on<br />
the coast as <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>land – see Map 2:<br />
156<br />
Map 2. Distribution of postverbal expletive constructions <strong>in</strong> CORDIAL-SIN
4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
As for the <strong>in</strong>sular po<strong>in</strong>ts, it is worth remember<strong>in</strong>g that the observed data only provide very<br />
few examples of expletive constructions. Thus, <strong>in</strong> this case, the lack of postverbal<br />
expletives must be <strong>in</strong>terpreted at the light of the general lack of expletive constructions <strong>in</strong><br />
the locations considered <strong>in</strong> this area. 23<br />
4.3 Comparative data: expletive demonstrative pronouns and expletive <strong>ele</strong><br />
In this section, the distribution of expletive <strong>ele</strong> will be compared to that of the neuter<br />
demonstrative pronouns, which may also appear <strong>in</strong> non-argumental positions. Such<br />
comparison will <strong>in</strong> some respects provide further evidence for a typology of expletive <strong>ele</strong><br />
along the l<strong>in</strong>es sketched <strong>in</strong> the previous section.<br />
4.3.1 The distribution of “expletive” demonstratives: impersonal and<br />
peripheral contexts<br />
Just like expletive <strong>ele</strong>, the neuter demonstrative pronouns isto ‘this’, isso and aquilo ‘that’<br />
may also be found <strong>in</strong> some non-argumental, semantically vacuous positions, as <strong>in</strong> the<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g example, referred <strong>in</strong> Leite de Vasconcellos (1911, 1959: 291, n.1):<br />
(324) aquillo naturalmente foram para casa das Gansosas (Eça de Queiroz)<br />
that naturally went-3PL to house of_the Gansosas<br />
±‘Naturally, they went to Gansosas’ house.’<br />
In fact, such use is rather frequent <strong>in</strong> colloquial EP, even <strong>in</strong> the speech of high-educated<br />
speakers (cf. Brauer-Figueiredo 1995, where constructions <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g expletive aquilo are<br />
considered style-marked rather than social-marked).<br />
In what follows, I will briefly consider the general distribution of the neuter forms<br />
of the demonstrative pronouns, when they appear <strong>in</strong> non-argumental positions, for which I<br />
will take as reference the distributional contexts presented for expletive <strong>ele</strong>. As will be<br />
23 This seems however to be accidental <strong>in</strong> the data considered. In fact, <strong>in</strong>sular data more recently <strong>in</strong>tegrated to<br />
CORDIAL-SIN provide more examples of expletive constructions, even postverbal ones, like <strong>in</strong> the<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g example:<br />
(i) A senhora quer <strong>ele</strong> os cestos é à moda antiga, não é? (PIC01)<br />
the lady wants EXPL the baskets is after.the fashion old NEG is<br />
±‘It is after the old way of do<strong>in</strong>g how the lady wants to know how the baskets were made, isn’t it?’<br />
157
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE<br />
shown, the represented contexts broadly correspond to impersonal and peripheral<br />
constructions. Data will essentially be taken from CORDIAL-SIN. 24<br />
4.3.1.1 Impersonal contexts<br />
The neuter demonstrative pronouns may be found <strong>in</strong> different impersonal constructions,<br />
just like expletive <strong>ele</strong>. The examples presented below illustrate impersonal contexts<br />
<strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g: (i) the verb ser (exs. (325) and (326)); (ii) existential haver (exs. (327) and<br />
(328)); (iii) clausal subject extraposition (ex. (329)); and (iv) presentative construction (ex.<br />
(330)).<br />
(325) É que, por exemplos, (…) um comerciante chega ali – até mesmo esses comerciantes de<br />
frutas, que estão ali na praça –, se não tiverem facturas,<br />
‘It is so because, for <strong>in</strong>stance, a trader arrives there – even those fruit traders, those who sell <strong>in</strong> the<br />
market -, if they do not have <strong>in</strong>voices,’<br />
aquilo é uma multa, logo (…) uma coisa (forte). (AAL06)<br />
that is a f<strong>in</strong>e LOGO a th<strong>in</strong>g great<br />
±‘they have to pay a f<strong>in</strong>e, a big one.’<br />
(326) (…) E assim é que é, mas aquilo era um chiadeiro enorme. (AAL42)<br />
and like.this is that is but that was a creak<strong>in</strong>g huge<br />
‘And that is this way that it should be, but it was a huge creak<strong>in</strong>g.’<br />
(327) Estivemos ali em Moscavide, à entrada de Lisboa, à espera (…) que aquilo houvesse<br />
were-1PL there <strong>in</strong> Moscavide at.the entrance to Lisbon wait<strong>in</strong>g that that have-IMPERF.SUBJ<br />
a revolta, mas não houve. (AAL73)<br />
the revolt but NEG had<br />
‘We were there, <strong>in</strong> Moscavide, at the entrance <strong>in</strong>to Lisbon, wait<strong>in</strong>g that the revolt<br />
(effectively) took place, but it didn’t.’<br />
(328) Há cardos. Aquilo há cardos. (AAL75)<br />
has thistles that has thistles<br />
±‘There are thistles. There are thistles.’<br />
(329) Que isso era muito difícil de aparecer uma maçaroca mesmo roxa. (AAL17)<br />
QUE that was very difficult of appear-INF an ear.of.corn even violet<br />
±‘It was difficult that an all violet ear of corn appears’.<br />
(330) Quando aquilo já estava a palha toda tirada, a gente agarrava (...) numa giesta […]<br />
(AAL10)<br />
when that already was the straw all taken.out the people held <strong>in</strong>.a genista<br />
‘When the straw was actually all taken out, we held a stick of genista …’<br />
24 For completeness, I should consider the distribution of each of the neuter demonstratives per se. Although<br />
I suspect that some regularity may be found <strong>in</strong> the distributional patterns of each of these demonstratives, it<br />
would take me too far from the purposes of this section to consider it here. Thus, I will present the general<br />
distribution of isto, isso and aquilo as a whole, leav<strong>in</strong>g that issue aside here.<br />
158
4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
Examples <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g weather predicates seem to be equally possible:<br />
(331) Aquilo choveu toda a noite.<br />
that ra<strong>in</strong>ed all the night<br />
‘It ra<strong>in</strong>ed all night long.’<br />
Remark that the use of the neuter demonstrative with a natural predicate is found very<br />
early <strong>in</strong> the history of <strong>Portuguese</strong>. Huber 1933 notes the follow<strong>in</strong>g example <strong>in</strong> Old<br />
<strong>Portuguese</strong>: 25<br />
(332) Esto era ora de noa (Graal 1, apud Huber 1933, 1986: 194)<br />
this was hour of noa<br />
± ‘It was the n<strong>in</strong>th hour.’<br />
4.3.1.2 Peripheral contexts<br />
Just like expletive <strong>ele</strong>, the neuter demonstrative pronouns isto, isso and aquilo also appear<br />
<strong>in</strong> peripheral positions before a preverbal subject and before peripheral phrases. Examples<br />
(333) to (337) below illustrate this po<strong>in</strong>t – <strong>in</strong> example (333) the demonstrative precedes a<br />
preverbal overt subject, <strong>in</strong> example (334) it appears before an adverbial clause, and <strong>in</strong><br />
examples (335) and (336) before a topic and a cleft, respectively.<br />
(333) Aquilo o forno levava ali três ou quatro tabuleiros, não é, até três ou quatro fregueses, […]<br />
that the oven took there three or four trays NEG is till three or four customers<br />
(AAL18)<br />
±‘The oven took three or four trays, isn’t it, so three or four customers…’<br />
(334) Aquilo se calha aparecer guarda-fiscal no cam<strong>in</strong>ho, sim, na estrada – não é? – <strong>ele</strong>s vão<br />
that if happens appear-INF fiscal.guards <strong>in</strong>.the way yes on.the road NEG is they go<br />
ver aquilo. (AAL06)<br />
see-INF that<br />
±‘If some fiscal guard happens to appear <strong>in</strong> their way, yes, on the road – isn’t it? – they<br />
will see that.’<br />
(335) Aquilo o carneiro, o carneiro tira-se é os 'grões'. (ALC26)<br />
that the sheep the sheep takes.out-SE is the testicles<br />
±‘As for sheep, what we do is to take out the testicles.’<br />
(336) Quer dizer, isso um carp<strong>in</strong>teiro é que pode dizer todos esses nomes […] (LVR26)<br />
mean that a carpenter is that can tell all those names<br />
‘I mean, a carpenter is the one who can tell all those names…’<br />
25 I owe this example to Ana Maria Mart<strong>in</strong>s.<br />
159
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE<br />
These pronouns may equally appear <strong>in</strong> syntactically impersonal constructions, like <strong>in</strong> the<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g third plural arbitrary null subject construction (here embedded <strong>in</strong> a<br />
recomplementation structure):<br />
(337) Mas se soubesse que isto (...) que não nos tiravam (...) o valor ao d<strong>in</strong>heiro ou assim<br />
but if know-IMPERF.SUBJ that this that NEG to.us take.away the value to.the money or<br />
like.that<br />
qualquer coisa, […] eu, agora, vendia algumas propriedades (...) (AAL27)<br />
some th<strong>in</strong>g I now sold some properties<br />
‘But if I knew that they would not take the value of our money or anyth<strong>in</strong>g like that, now, I<br />
would sell some properties.’<br />
Furthermore, it may be noted that the sort of imperative sentences that may <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
expletive <strong>ele</strong> seems to admit the use of the demonstrative isso as well. Remember example<br />
(248) from section 4.2.2.5, here repeated as (338):<br />
(338) INF2 Quer passar por lá (para ver)?<br />
‘Informant2: Do you want to go there (to see it)?’<br />
INF1 Ele vamos embora! (FIG27)<br />
EXPL go-PRES.SUBJ-1PL away<br />
±‘Informant1: Let’s go!’<br />
The correspond<strong>in</strong>g sentence <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g isso appears to be equally possible:<br />
(339) Isso vamos embora!<br />
that go-PRES.SUBJ-1PL away<br />
Intuitively, the use of this demonstrative <strong>in</strong> colloquial EP seems to be quite tolerated <strong>in</strong><br />
some imperative sentences:<br />
(340) Isso tragam lá o bolo!<br />
that br<strong>in</strong>g-PRES.SUBJ-3PL LÁ the cake<br />
± ‘Br<strong>in</strong>g the cake!’<br />
(341) Isso cala-te já!<br />
that shut.up-IMPERAT.2SG-you right.now<br />
± ‘Shut up right now!’<br />
CORDIAL-SIN data provide the follow<strong>in</strong>g example:<br />
(342) "Olhe, isso ponha de parte, agora vamos a experimentar isto". (PAL08)<br />
look that put-PRES.SUBJ-3SG aside now go-PRES.SUBJ-1PL A try this<br />
±‘Look, put that aside, now let’s try this.’<br />
This example has been produced dur<strong>in</strong>g a conversation about medic<strong>in</strong>es. The <strong>in</strong>formant is<br />
report<strong>in</strong>g the speech of a pharmacist to a pacient who goes to the pharmacy compla<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
that the medic<strong>in</strong>e he has been tak<strong>in</strong>g does not seem to have any effect. The imperative<br />
160
4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
sentence isso ponha de parte shows the expletive demonstrative <strong>in</strong> first position and a<br />
subjunctive verbal form for third s<strong>in</strong>gular person address<strong>in</strong>g the hearer. Remark that the<br />
direct object of the transitive verb ponha ‘put’ is here null, as allowed by EP grammar (cf.<br />
Raposo 1986, Duarte 1987). Its reference would be retrieved from the l<strong>in</strong>guistic or<br />
situational context. However, some ambiguity is allowed by this example: alternatively,<br />
isso could correspond to a topic direct object, contrast<strong>in</strong>g with isto ‘this’ <strong>in</strong> the subsequent<br />
clause.<br />
Other peripheral contexts where the neuter demonstratives also seem to compare to<br />
expletive <strong>ele</strong> are <strong>in</strong>dependent phrases (see above, section 4.2.2.8):<br />
(343) {Isto, aquilo, isso} como vomecê diz que já t<strong>in</strong>ha dado a ordem…<br />
this that as you say that already have given the order<br />
‘As you say that you have already given the order.’<br />
(344) A gente era pobre, {isto, aquilo, isso} meu amigo! (MIN35)<br />
the people were poor this that my friend<br />
‘We were poor!’ [+ exclamative expression]<br />
In fact, as an exclamative expression, the comb<strong>in</strong>ation of the demonstrative with the phrase<br />
meu amigo, as <strong>in</strong> (344), is even more usual <strong>in</strong> colloquial EP than that <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g expletive<br />
<strong>ele</strong>.<br />
As seen so far, thus, demonstrative pronouns may parallel the expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> most<br />
peripheral contexts where this is used. However, there are some other peripheral contexts,<br />
where demonstratives do not seem to be allowed or else they result <strong>in</strong> a construction<br />
different from that <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>ele</strong>.<br />
In fact, when one tries to comb<strong>in</strong>e a demonstrative expletive <strong>in</strong> a question-tag, the<br />
result is fairly awkward. Contrast example (345) below, with the example (259) from<br />
section 4.2.2.7, here repeated as (346):<br />
(345) *Mas esse já conhecem, {isto, isso, aquilo} já?<br />
but that already know3PL this that already<br />
‘But you already know that one, don’t you / do you?’<br />
(346) Mas esse já conhecem, <strong>ele</strong> já? (OUT40)<br />
but that already know-3PL EXPL already<br />
‘But you already know that one, don’t you?’<br />
The rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g peripheral uses we have seen for expletive <strong>ele</strong>, that is, <strong>in</strong> isolation and <strong>in</strong><br />
answers to YN questions (sections 4.2.2.6 and 4.2.2.9 above, respectively), all seem to<br />
admit a demonstrative:<br />
161
(347) -Vais trabalhar? – Isso não!<br />
go-2SG to work that NEG<br />
‘Are you go<strong>in</strong>g to work? Not that!<br />
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE<br />
(348) Isto aqui é uma… Ai, isto! Eu esqueci-me do nome disso.<br />
this here is a INTJ this I forgot the name of.that<br />
± ‘This is a… Oh! This now! I forgot its name.’<br />
However, <strong>in</strong> these cases, the result <strong>in</strong>volves some deictic or anaphoric mean<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>gly, the different demonstratives are not equally possible:<br />
(347)’ Vais trabalhar? – *{Aquilo, isto} não!<br />
(348)’ Isto aqui é uma… Ai, {*aquilo, *isso}! …Eu esqueci-me do nome disso.<br />
In example (347), the required demonstrative, isso, is the only one that can anaphorically<br />
refer to what the <strong>in</strong>terlocutor has asked. Therefore, the other neuter demonstratives are<br />
both excluded. As for example (348), the demonstrative isto is the most likely to deictically<br />
refer to the speaker’s general environment. Remark that the use of isso would <strong>in</strong>stead refer<br />
to the object that the speaker is try<strong>in</strong>g to name, just like <strong>in</strong> the phrase o nome disso ‘the<br />
name of that’.<br />
4.3.2 Demonstratives and the postverbal position<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ally, let us consider the behavior of demonstrative pronouns <strong>in</strong> the postverbal contexts<br />
where expletive <strong>ele</strong> may be found (see section 4.2.3 above). First, it must be noted that <strong>in</strong><br />
the observed data, isto, isso and aquilo do not appear <strong>in</strong> such contexts. In fact, all the<br />
<strong>in</strong>stances of postverbal neuter demonstratives correspond to argumental read<strong>in</strong>gs, either as<br />
postverbal subjects (see example (349)) or as direct objects (see examples (350)).<br />
(349) Vai aquilo para uma banheira […] (PST13)<br />
goes that <strong>in</strong>to a bathtub<br />
‘That is put <strong>in</strong>to a bathtub …’<br />
(350) a. Cá não usam isso! (ALC12)<br />
here NEG use-3PL that<br />
‘Here they don’t use that!’<br />
162<br />
b. Os nossos velhos […] diziam que, de facto, que havia aquilo. (CTL37)<br />
the our old.people said that <strong>in</strong> fact that had that<br />
‘Our parents […] said that, <strong>in</strong> fact, there was that.’
4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
Moreover, when we try to change postverbal expletive <strong>ele</strong> for a neuter demonstrative <strong>in</strong><br />
some of the sentences seen above <strong>in</strong> section 4.2.3, the result is strongly ungrammatical:<br />
(351) O torto já é {<strong>ele</strong>, *isto, *aquilo, *isso} ali torto.<br />
the curved.one already is EXPL this that there curved<br />
(352) Eu t<strong>in</strong>ha {<strong>ele</strong>, *isto, *aquilo, *isso} um irmão, que trabalha de carp<strong>in</strong>teiro também (…).<br />
I had EXPL this that a brother who worked as carpenter also<br />
(353) Isso compreendemos {<strong>ele</strong>, *isto, *aquilo, *isso} bem.<br />
that understand-1PL EXPL this that well<br />
(354) Bem aos olhos faz {<strong>ele</strong>, *isto, *aquilo, *isso} tudo…<br />
well to.the eyes makes EXPL this that everyth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
(355) Ele aqui debaixo tenho {<strong>ele</strong>, *isto, *aquilo, *isso} assim umas pias para os<br />
EXPL here under.this have-1SG EXPL this that thus some s<strong>in</strong>ks to the<br />
pequen<strong>in</strong>os<br />
small.ones<br />
(356) Fosse {<strong>ele</strong>, *isto, *aquilo, *isso} o Inac<strong>in</strong>ho um cavador…<br />
be-IMPERF.SUBJ-3SG EXPL this that the Inac<strong>in</strong>ho a digger<br />
(357) Foi {<strong>ele</strong>, *isto, *aquilo, *isso} pequena a confusão!<br />
was EXPL this that small the confusion<br />
The only (apparent) exceptions are examples <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g impersonal predicates, which seem<br />
to admit postverbal neuter demonstratives. However, <strong>in</strong> this case, the neuter demonstrative<br />
rather <strong>in</strong>duces a deictic <strong>in</strong>terpretation, roughly referr<strong>in</strong>g the general situation of speech.<br />
(The demonstratives allowed <strong>in</strong> such sentences relate to the speaker or to the hearer<br />
viewpo<strong>in</strong>t, isto and isso, respectively.)<br />
(358) Seja {<strong>ele</strong>, isto, # aquilo, ? isso} trigo ou cevada ou aveia.<br />
be-PRES.SUBJ-3SG EXPL this that wheat or barley or oats<br />
(359) Seja {<strong>ele</strong>, isto, # aquilo, ? isso} ao fim do tempo que for<br />
be-PRES.SUBJ-3SG EXPL this that to.the end of.the time that be-FUT.SUBJ<br />
(360) ou seja {<strong>ele</strong>, isto, # aquilo, ? isso} o que for.<br />
or be-PRES.SUBJ-3SG EXPL this that what be-FUT.SUBJ<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce these subjunctive sentences <strong>in</strong>volve V movement above IP (see section 4.2.3.1<br />
above), the demonstrative may thus appear as a subject, stand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the canonical subject<br />
position. The same may be said about example (361), which admits the demonstrative isto<br />
as a sort of ambient subject (just like so-called ‘ambient it’ <strong>in</strong> English sentences denot<strong>in</strong>g<br />
time, distance, or atmospheric conditions, such as <strong>in</strong> It was very chilly <strong>in</strong> my bedroom, cf.<br />
Quirk et al. 1985).<br />
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(361) Dantes é que era frio. Agora não é {<strong>ele</strong>, isto, # aquilo, # isso} nada.<br />
long.ago is that was cold now NEG is EXPL this that noth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
In example (362), however, the demonstrative would <strong>in</strong>duce a referential mean<strong>in</strong>g, and it<br />
would be analyzed as the direct object, rather than the subject.<br />
(362) Por aí nas estradas, nas barreiras das estradas há {isto, aquilo, isso}.<br />
there <strong>in</strong>.the roads <strong>in</strong>.the sides of.the roads has this that<br />
± ‘There, near the roads, on the flanks of the roads, there is this/that.’<br />
Remember that the correspond<strong>in</strong>g expletive <strong>ele</strong> example <strong>in</strong>volved a null object (example<br />
(363) is repeated from (281) above):<br />
(363) Alecrim. […] (Por aí) nas estradas, nas barreiras das estradas há <strong>ele</strong>.<br />
‘Rosemary. […] there <strong>in</strong>.the roads <strong>in</strong>.the sides of.the roads has EXPL.<br />
± ‘Rosemary. […] There, near the roads, on the flanks of the roads, there is [rosemary].’<br />
If we <strong>in</strong>clude an overt object, then there will be aga<strong>in</strong> a sharp contrast between expletive<br />
<strong>ele</strong> and the neuter demonstrative pronouns:<br />
(364) Por aí nas estradas, nas barreiras das estradas há {<strong>ele</strong>, *isto, *aquilo, *isso} alecrim.<br />
there <strong>in</strong>.the roads <strong>in</strong>.the sides of.the roads has EXPL this that rosemary<br />
± ‘There, near the roads, on the flanks of the roads, there is rosemary.’<br />
4.3.3 Summary<br />
In this section, we have looked at the distribution of the neuter demonstrative pronouns isto<br />
‘this’, isso and aquilo ‘that’ when they appear <strong>in</strong> non-argumental positions. The<br />
comparison between their distribution and that of expletive <strong>ele</strong> permits us to draw the<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g observations:<br />
(i) <strong>in</strong> impersonal contexts and <strong>in</strong> most peripheral contexts, expletive <strong>ele</strong> may<br />
alternate with a neuter demonstrative pronoun;<br />
(ii) <strong>in</strong> postverbal position, the demonstratives are not allowed and only expletive <strong>ele</strong><br />
may appear there.<br />
From this asymmetry, it results that a sharp division may be drawn between<br />
impersonal and peripheral expletives on the one hand, and postverbal expletives on the<br />
other.<br />
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4.4 On the discourse functions of expletive <strong>ele</strong><br />
Although the focus <strong>in</strong> the previous sections has been on the syntactic distribution of<br />
expletive <strong>ele</strong>, I have observed at several junctures that the expletive examples under<br />
<strong>in</strong>spection do not correspond exactly to their non-expletive counterparts <strong>in</strong> EP. In<br />
particular, more than their propositional mean<strong>in</strong>g, which rema<strong>in</strong>s fairly the same, it is the<br />
non-propositional mean<strong>in</strong>g of the overt expletive examples that differs from the<br />
correspond<strong>in</strong>g non-expletive sentences. Accord<strong>in</strong>gly, it may now be supposed that so-<br />
called expletive <strong>ele</strong> is not really an expletive word, but that it rather plays a role on the<br />
discourse plan, as already suggested <strong>in</strong> Carrilho 2001, 2003b and 2004.<br />
In this section, I will try to elucidate the different discourse effects that appear<br />
correlated to the presence of the expletive <strong>in</strong> non-standard EP.<br />
In standard EP, the expletive is relatively tolerated <strong>in</strong> emphatic impersonal constructions <strong>in</strong><br />
colloquial registers. It is not uncommon to f<strong>in</strong>d it <strong>in</strong> the speech of high-educated speakers<br />
or even <strong>in</strong> writ<strong>in</strong>g (literature, newspapers…) – such expletive always adds a colloquial<br />
emphatic flavor:<br />
(365) Ele há tanta maneira de compor uma estante! (Mário Cesar<strong>in</strong>y. 1991: 15, ‘Pastelaria’)<br />
EXPL has so.many ways of arrange-INF a bookcase<br />
‘There are so many ways of arrang<strong>in</strong>g a bookcase!’<br />
(366) Ele é tanta a fita que tem de se ouvir que… eh pá!...<br />
EXPL is so.much the tape that has of SE listen that INTJ…<br />
[newspaper, Expresso, 25.10.2003]<br />
± ‘There are so many tapes that we have to listen to that… well…’<br />
Such emphasis most often appears related to exclamative sentences:<br />
(367) Ele há coisas! (Terceira, <strong>in</strong> Maia 1965: 61)<br />
EXPL has th<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
‘There are such th<strong>in</strong>gs!’<br />
(368) Pois se êle está tudo assim! (Ribeiro 1927: 126)<br />
then if EXPL is everyth<strong>in</strong>g like.that<br />
‘If everyth<strong>in</strong>g is like that!’<br />
(369) Que êle a gente vê caras, não vê corações! (id.: 213)<br />
que EXPL the people sees faces NEG sees hearts<br />
±‘We see faces, we don’t see hearts!’<br />
(370) - Que êle a gente não sabe quem lhe quere bem nem quem lhe quere mal! ( id.: 248)<br />
que EXPL the people NEG knows who to.him likes nor who to.him dislikes<br />
± ‘We don’t know who likes us nor who does not!’<br />
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(371) - Ai, <strong>ele</strong> as mulheres são ruim gado! (Aquil<strong>in</strong>oRibeiro, Terras do Demo: 186)<br />
INTJ EXPL the women are bad cattle<br />
±‘Oh, women are such bad cattle!’<br />
(372) Ele a<strong>in</strong>da não viera o Inverno! (CTL48)<br />
EXPL yet NEG had.come3SGv the W<strong>in</strong>ter<br />
±‘W<strong>in</strong>ter had not come yet!’<br />
(373) Ele <strong>ele</strong> disse que era (…) de São João da Madeira, homem! (COV21)<br />
EXPL he said that was from São João da Madeira man<br />
‘(It is true that) he said that he was from São João da Madeira, man!’<br />
(374) Que <strong>ele</strong> eu gosto de socorrer (…) as pessoas, homem! (COV23)<br />
CONJ EXPL I like of help the people man<br />
‘I like to help people, man!’<br />
(375) Ele nunca me olhava a nada, nunca t<strong>in</strong>ha medo nenhum! (ALV25)<br />
EXPL never ± avoided anyth<strong>in</strong>g never had fright/fear any<br />
‘I never avoided anyth<strong>in</strong>g, I never was afraid!’<br />
(376) Quem sabe lá que carne é aquela! […] Ele não sabe! (COV14)<br />
who knows lá what meat is that! EXPL NEG knows<br />
‘Who knows what k<strong>in</strong>d of meat is that! We don’t know!’<br />
(377) (Porque não), <strong>ele</strong> não se acreditavam! (COV29)<br />
because not EXPL NEG SE believed<br />
‘(Because not), they don’t believed [<strong>in</strong> that]!’<br />
(378) INQ1 Vão no mesmo baile aqui?<br />
Interviewer: Do you go to the same ball?<br />
INF1 E foi ruim (a) /à\ noite! Ele era velhas e tudo! (OUT43)<br />
Informant1: And was bad (the) /to.the\ night! EXPL was old women and everyth<strong>in</strong>g!<br />
±‘The night was bad [ironic]! Even old women danced!’<br />
In the last example, the f<strong>in</strong>al sequence e tudo has lost its literal mean<strong>in</strong>g (‘and everyth<strong>in</strong>g’).<br />
It rather acts as an emphasizer for affirmative sentences (the counterpart for negative<br />
sentences be<strong>in</strong>g nem nada ‘nor anyth<strong>in</strong>g’).<br />
In some cases, the exclamative read<strong>in</strong>g is ma<strong>in</strong>ly dependent on some lexical means,<br />
such as <strong>in</strong>tensifiers like tanta ‘so many’ <strong>in</strong> example (366) above or cada ‘such’ <strong>in</strong> the<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g examples:<br />
(379) Ele há cada um! (Colos, <strong>in</strong> Guerreiro 1968: 351)<br />
EXPL has such one<br />
± ‘There are such people!’<br />
(380) Êl a jante sampre faz cada asneira! (Ervedosa do Douro, <strong>in</strong> Azevedo 1928-29: 160)<br />
EXPL the people sempre makes such mistake<br />
‘We make such mistakes!’<br />
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In examples (381) and (382) it is the <strong>in</strong>def<strong>in</strong>ite uma ‘a_FEM’ that is used as a sort of<br />
<strong>in</strong>tensifier:<br />
(381) Pois olhe <strong>ele</strong> isso, disto (…) dos fiadeiros, era uma alegria, até se faziam bailes. (OUT14)<br />
so look EXPL that of.this of.the fiadeiros[sp<strong>in</strong>ners’ party] was a joy, even were.done ball<br />
±‘Look, about the fiadeiros, it was such a joy. There were even balls.’<br />
(382) E deram lá uma carne que <strong>ele</strong> achou-se tudo doente. (COV14)<br />
and gave3PL there a meat that EXPL foundSE everyone sick<br />
‘And they gave such a meat there that everyone got sick.’<br />
More precisely, the <strong>in</strong>def<strong>in</strong>ite correlates to an elliptical degree word – tal ‘such’ – which is<br />
responsible for the exclamative nature of such sentences.<br />
(383) … era uma alegria [tal], até se faziam bailes.<br />
was a joy such , even were.done ball<br />
In the second example, the elliptical degree word is itself associated to the degree-clause.<br />
(384) E deram lá uma carne [tal] que <strong>ele</strong> achou-se tudo doente.<br />
and gave3PL there a meat such that EXPL foundSE everyone sick<br />
Note that the overt expletive is <strong>in</strong> this case <strong>in</strong>side the dependent degree-clause.<br />
Other examples <strong>in</strong>clude other <strong>in</strong>def<strong>in</strong>ites or <strong>in</strong>tensifiers, such as alguma vez, ‘some<br />
time’, muito ‘very’ or nada ‘noth<strong>in</strong>g/not at all’ <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g examples:<br />
(385) Ele qualquer d<strong>ele</strong>s alguma vez havia de morrer. (AAL54)<br />
EXPL any of.them any time would die<br />
± ‘Any of them would die one day.’<br />
(386) (Não. Ele era lá agora)! Ele o tear do pardo era muito largo. (OUT21)<br />
Not EXPL was lá now EXPL the loom of.the dun [cloth] was very large<br />
‘No. It wasn’t so! The loom of the dun was <strong>in</strong>deed very large.’<br />
(387) Mas <strong>ele</strong> o nosso governo não protege nada a agricultura.(COV14)<br />
But EXPL the our government NEG protects noth<strong>in</strong>g the agriculture<br />
± ‘But our government doesn’t really protect agriculture.’<br />
In other cases, the exclamative value is amplified by lexical means such as the focussed<br />
phrase até o Zé Estrudes <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g example:<br />
(388) êle até o Zé Estrudes estava já noivo! (Ribeiro 1927: 184)<br />
EXPL even the Zé Estrudes was already engaged<br />
‘Even Zé Estrudes was already engaged!’<br />
The examples <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g postverbal expletive <strong>ele</strong> seem to bear some resemblance to<br />
exclamative sentences. In some cases, the exclamative force of such expletive<br />
constructions is already marked by prosodic means:<br />
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(389) Dantes é que era frio. Agora não é <strong>ele</strong> nada! (female, Portalegre, age c.70y, low educ.)<br />
long.ago is that was cold now NEG is EXPL noth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
‘Long ago it was cold. Now it is noth<strong>in</strong>g!’<br />
(390) Era, era. Era <strong>ele</strong> nas eiras! (TRC)<br />
was was was EXPL<strong>in</strong>.the thresh<strong>in</strong>gfloors<br />
±‘Indeed it was. It was <strong>in</strong> the thresh<strong>in</strong>gfloors!’<br />
(391) INQ1 […] E para levar… Para levar coisas? Por exemplo, se não fosse para levar pessoas?<br />
‘Interviewer1: […] And to carry… to carry goods? For <strong>in</strong>stance, if it was not to carry people?’<br />
INF1 Era <strong>ele</strong> numa carroça! (MIG14)<br />
was EXPL <strong>in</strong>.a cart<br />
‘Informant1: It was <strong>in</strong> a cart!’<br />
Other examples reveal an evaluative value, which appears marked by lexical means (such<br />
as the adverb bem ‘well’ and the <strong>in</strong>def<strong>in</strong>ite cada ‘such’ <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g examples):<br />
(392) INQ Mas os senhores e os de Nisa compreendem-se perfeitamente?<br />
‘Interviewer: But do you and the people from Nisa understand each other perfectly?’<br />
INF Ah, a gente compreende, pois. Isso compreendemos <strong>ele</strong> bem! (AAL79)<br />
INTJ the people understand-3SG POIS that understand-1PL EXPL well<br />
‘Informant: Oh, yes, we understand each other. That we understand well!<br />
(393) INF1 (…) Desta urze há muita grande e há 'riaga' também muito grande.<br />
‘Informant1: There is a very high heather of this and there is also very high ‘riaga’[=name of<br />
plant].’<br />
INF2 Pois. Há aí… Às vezes aparece <strong>ele</strong> aí cada 'riaga'! (OUT09)<br />
POIS has there sometimes appears EXPL there such ‘riaga’<br />
‘Informant2: Yes. There is there… Sometimes we f<strong>in</strong>d such a ‘riaga’!’<br />
In fact, <strong>in</strong> all these examples, the exclamative force and/or evaluative value would also be<br />
evident, even if the expletive was not present:<br />
(394) Agora não é nada!<br />
(395) Era nas eiras!<br />
(396) Era numa carroça!<br />
(397) Isso compreendemos bem!<br />
(398) Às vezes aparece aí cada ‘riaga’!<br />
In other examples, however, it seems that it is the presence of the expletive that adds some<br />
exclamative/evaluative value to the sentence:<br />
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(399) INQ: Tem assim umas florz<strong>in</strong>has rosas, muito pequen<strong>in</strong>as... e que cheira bem. Às vezes até<br />
se... que se queima. Às vezes queima-se, em casa, para cheirar bem.<br />
‘Interviewer: A plant that has some rose litlle flowers, very little… that smells good. You may burn<br />
it <strong>in</strong>side to have a good smell.’<br />
INF: Alecrim. Aí na estrada também há. Em primeiro era só nalgum jardim ou cá...<br />
‘Informant: Rosemary. There is that also near the road. Long ago there was that only <strong>in</strong> gardens or<br />
here…’<br />
(Por aí) nas estradas, nas barreiras das estradas há <strong>ele</strong>. [ALEPG, Arraiolos 2 side1: 521]<br />
there <strong>in</strong>.the roads <strong>in</strong>.the sides of.the roads has EXPL<br />
± ‘There, near the roads, on the flanks of the roads, there is [rosemary].’<br />
(400) INQ2 Como é que faziam? Que cestas é que faziam? De que feitios?<br />
‘Interviewer2: How did you make? What k<strong>in</strong>ds of baskets did you make? In what shapes?’<br />
INF (…) Oh, faziam cestas de duas asas, faziam de quatro asas, cestas pequen<strong>in</strong>as,<br />
grandes, […] É. Faziam muito l<strong>in</strong>das. […]<br />
‘Oh, they made two handled, four handled baskets, small baskets, big ones, […]. This was so. They<br />
made such beautiful baskets.’<br />
Eu t<strong>in</strong>ha (<strong>ele</strong>) /era\ um irmão, que trabalha de carp<strong>in</strong>teiro também (…).<br />
I had EXPL was a brother that works as carpenter also<br />
±‘Even me – I had a brother, who works as a carpenter, [>> who also made them]...’<br />
Também em rapazito novo, quando andava com as ovelhas. Quando andava com as<br />
ovelhas (…) por lá, t<strong>in</strong>ha vagar… (PFT17)<br />
‘Also when he was a young boy, when he went out with sheep. When he was out there with sheep, he<br />
had time…’<br />
(401) INQ1 Uma outra, assim comprid<strong>in</strong>ha.<br />
‘Interviewer1: Another one, which is quite long.’<br />
INF2 Eu não me lembro disso.<br />
‘Informant2: I don’t remember that.’<br />
INQ1 Diz que faz bem aos olhos.<br />
‘Interviewer1: They say that it is good for the eyes.’<br />
[…]<br />
INF2 Ah, bem aos olhos faz <strong>ele</strong> tudo, (…) quando não haver pouca sorte. (PAL28)<br />
INTJ good to.the eyes makes EXPL everyth<strong>in</strong>g when NEG have-INF bad luck<br />
±‘Informant2: Oh, everyth<strong>in</strong>g is good for the eyes, when you do not have bad luck.’<br />
(402) Olhe que este l<strong>in</strong>ho está bem f<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>ho. […] Pois eu, ao passar o dedo, fica-me (<strong>ele</strong>) /eu\<br />
look that this flax is very th<strong>in</strong> POIS I A.the slide-INF the f<strong>in</strong>ger stays-to.me EXPL I<br />
o coiso cheio (…) de arestas. (OUT13)<br />
the th<strong>in</strong>g full of edges<br />
±‘Look, this flax is very th<strong>in</strong>. And, despite that, when I slide my f<strong>in</strong>ger over it, it becomes<br />
full of edges.’<br />
(403) As pias há-as quadradas (e) há outras redondas, não é? […] Eu tenho-as aí…<br />
‘As for s<strong>in</strong>ks, there are some of them square and some rond, isn’t it? I have some there…’<br />
[…] Ele aqui debaixo tenho <strong>ele</strong> assim umas pias para os pequen<strong>in</strong>os, para lá comerem,<br />
EXPL here under[this] have-1SG EXPL thus some s<strong>in</strong>ks to the small.ones to there eat-INF-3PL<br />
± ‘Here, under this, I have some s<strong>in</strong>ks for the small ones, for them to eat there.’ (OUT33)<br />
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If we exclude the expletive <strong>in</strong> all examples (399)-(403), their exclamative/evaluative value<br />
disappears and the result<strong>in</strong>g sentences are not equivalent to their expletive counterparts:<br />
(404) Por aí nas estradas, nas barreiras das estradas há.<br />
(405) Eu t<strong>in</strong>ha um irmão …<br />
(406) Bem aos olhos faz tudo.<br />
(407) Ele aqui debaixo tenho assim umas pias para os pequen<strong>in</strong>os…<br />
Many <strong>in</strong>stances of expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> EP data appear thus closely related to the exclamative<br />
force of a sentence, which is a fairly well-known use for overt expletives <strong>in</strong> other Romance<br />
NSLs, such as Catalan or Galician (see chapter 2).<br />
However, other types of sentences seem to equally allow the overt expletive, even<br />
if the data on these contexts are not so abundant. In the CORDIAL-SIN corpus, a pair of<br />
examples illustrates the use of expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> imperative sentences, as seen above <strong>in</strong><br />
section 4.2.2.5:<br />
(408) Ó senhora Gabriela, <strong>ele</strong> desculpe de lhe eu dizer. (COV35)<br />
INTJ hey Ms Gabriela EXPL forgive-PRES.SUBJ-3SG of to.you I say<br />
‘Ms Gabriela, please forgive that I say it to you.’<br />
(409) INF2 Quer passar por lá (para ver)?<br />
‘Informant2: Do you want to go there (to see it)?’<br />
INF1 Ele vamos embora! (FIG27)<br />
EXPL go-PRES.SUBJ-1PL away<br />
±‘Informant1: Let’s go!’<br />
Just like <strong>in</strong> exclamative sentences, where the expletive contributes to express<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
evaluative/exclamative value, the expletive seems to re<strong>in</strong>force here the pragmatic value of<br />
the sentence. In this case, it is the direction value of the imperative that results amplified.<br />
Remark that the expletive may co-occur with other words that strengthen the value of the<br />
imperative, like já, mesmo or lá:<br />
(410) Ele vamos {já, lá, mesmo} embora!<br />
On the contrary, if we try to comb<strong>in</strong>e the expletive with an expression that weakens the<br />
directive force of the imperative (cf. Mateus et al. 2003: 460), then the result is fairly<br />
awkward:<br />
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(411) # Ele vamos embora {se não se importam, por favor}!<br />
if you don’t m<strong>in</strong>d please<br />
Thus, <strong>in</strong> imperative sentences, expletive <strong>ele</strong> still has an emphatic function similar to that<br />
found <strong>in</strong> exclamative sentences.<br />
Look<strong>in</strong>g now at <strong>in</strong>terrogative sentences, it must be noted that the expletive does not<br />
seem to appear <strong>in</strong> genu<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>formation questions. That is, the k<strong>in</strong>d of <strong>in</strong>terrogatives that<br />
<strong>in</strong>cludes the expletive rather corresponds to Obenauer’s 2004 notion of “non-standard<br />
questions”: those “<strong>in</strong>terrogative wh-constructions which are not <strong>in</strong>terpreted as simple<br />
requests for the value(s) of the variable bound by the wh-quantifier” (p.1). Among these,<br />
Obenauer considers: (i) surprise/disapproval questions; (ii) rhetorical questions; and (iii)<br />
“I-can’t-f<strong>in</strong>d-the-value-of-x” questions, which are illustrated below:<br />
(412) Mas que é que estás a comer? (S/D Q)<br />
but what is that are A eat-INF<br />
‘But what (on earth) are you eat<strong>in</strong>g?’<br />
(413) Que é que posso fazer? (Rh Q)<br />
what is that may do-INF<br />
‘What may I do?’<br />
(414) Mas qual é que é o nome disso? (cfv Q)<br />
but what is that is the name of_this<br />
‘But what is its name?’<br />
The presence of the expletive <strong>in</strong> wh-questions has the effect of exclud<strong>in</strong>g the “standard<br />
request” read<strong>in</strong>g. In the observed data, expletive questions conform to these types – see<br />
below example (415), as a surprise/disapproval question, and example (416) below, as a<br />
rhetorical question:<br />
(415) Ele qu’home é este? (Germil, <strong>in</strong> Peixoto 1968: 176)<br />
EXPL what man is this<br />
‘What man is this?’<br />
(416) Não sendo no Natal, (<strong>ele</strong>) quem é que os come?! N<strong>in</strong>guém. (OUT50)<br />
NEG be-GER <strong>in</strong>.the Christmas EXPL who is that them eat nobody<br />
‘If it is not by Christmas, who will eat them?! Nobody.’<br />
If we consider questions <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g “aggressively non-D-l<strong>in</strong>ked” wh-phrases (like who the<br />
hell <strong>in</strong> English, ou que raio/que diabo <strong>in</strong> EP) (Pesetsky 1987), the effect of the expletive is<br />
quite clear. In fact, <strong>in</strong> simple root questions, this type of wh-phrase allows two<br />
<strong>in</strong>terpretations: (i) a genu<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>formation request, as <strong>in</strong> (417); (ii) a non-standard question<br />
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<strong>in</strong> Obenauer’s sense, i.e. an <strong>in</strong>terrogative which is not <strong>in</strong>terpreted as a simple <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
request (<strong>in</strong> this case, a rhetorical question), as <strong>in</strong> (418).<br />
(417) - Que raio de gente come estes bolos?<br />
what “the hell” people eat these cakes<br />
‘Who the hell eats these cakes?’<br />
- As crianças.<br />
the children<br />
‘Children do.’<br />
(418) - Que raio de gente come estes bolos?<br />
what “the hell” people eat these cakes<br />
‘Who the hell eats these cakes?’<br />
- N<strong>in</strong>guém.<br />
nobody<br />
‘Nobody does.’<br />
Now, if we add an expletive at the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of this “wh-the hell” question, we obta<strong>in</strong> the<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g contrast: <strong>in</strong>terpretation (i), i.e. the genu<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>formation request <strong>in</strong>terpretation is<br />
no longer available (cf. (419)). Only the rhetorical question <strong>in</strong>terpretation cont<strong>in</strong>ues to be<br />
possible (see (420)):<br />
(419) – Ele que raio de gente come estes bolos?<br />
EXPL what “the hell” people eat these cakes<br />
‘Who the hell eats these cakes?’<br />
- # As crianças.<br />
the children<br />
‘Children do.’<br />
(420) – Ele que raio de gente come estes bolos?<br />
what “the hell” people eat these cakes<br />
‘Who the hell eats these cakes?’<br />
- N<strong>in</strong>guém.<br />
nobody<br />
‘Nobody does.’<br />
Thus, the presence of the overt expletive does not seem to be allowed <strong>in</strong> genu<strong>in</strong>e<br />
<strong>in</strong>terrogatives. To be more precise, only those questions that share some<br />
exclamative/expressive force, as it seems to be case of all Obenauer’s “non-standard<br />
questions”, do <strong>in</strong>deed permit the overt expletive (on the relation between rhetorical<br />
question / exclamative sentences, see Ben<strong>in</strong>cà 1995: 129 and Mateus et al. 2002: 481).<br />
Summariz<strong>in</strong>g to this po<strong>in</strong>t, then, we have seen that the overt expletive appears <strong>in</strong> EP<br />
<strong>in</strong> exclamative sentences and <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>terrogatives, just like overt expletives <strong>in</strong> other Romance<br />
NSLs (more precisely, <strong>in</strong> exclamative sentences <strong>in</strong> Catalan dialects, and <strong>in</strong> both<br />
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4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
exclamative and <strong>in</strong>terrogative sentences <strong>in</strong> Galician, as illustrated <strong>in</strong> chapter 2). In<br />
<strong>in</strong>terrogatives, the expletive exclusively appears <strong>in</strong> expressive questions (e.g. rhetorical<br />
questions or surprise/disapproval questions). Thus, <strong>in</strong> both exclamatives and <strong>in</strong>terrogatives,<br />
expletive <strong>ele</strong> appears to re<strong>in</strong>force the (expressive) pragmatic value of these sentence types.<br />
Besides exclamative and <strong>in</strong>terrogative sentences, the expletive is also found <strong>in</strong> imperative<br />
sentences <strong>in</strong> EP data. As we have seen, <strong>in</strong> this case, the effect seems to be a similar one:<br />
that of re<strong>in</strong>forc<strong>in</strong>g a pragmatic value dependent on the sentence type. Thus, <strong>in</strong> imperative<br />
sentences, it is the direction value that is emphazised.<br />
But overt expletive <strong>ele</strong> is not conf<strong>in</strong>ed to expressive and imperative sentences <strong>in</strong> the<br />
observed data. In fact, it also occurs <strong>in</strong> declarative sentences. The discourse effect it<br />
displays <strong>in</strong> such sentences is what will occupy us now.<br />
In many declarative examples, the expletive appears to have also an emphasiz<strong>in</strong>g<br />
function, that of re<strong>in</strong>forc<strong>in</strong>g the assertive value of the sentence where it occurs. Thus, those<br />
declaratives where the expletive appears have <strong>in</strong> most cases an emphatic affirmative<br />
read<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
(421) Ele houve a maioria absoluta nos Açores. Mas na Madeira João Jardim<br />
EXPL had theF majority absolute <strong>in</strong>.thePL Azores But <strong>in</strong>.theF Madeira João Jardim<br />
já leva 32 anos de seguida… (newspaper, O Diabo 17/10/2000)<br />
already stays 32 years un<strong>in</strong>terrupted<br />
± ‘(Indeed) there was the absolute majority <strong>in</strong> the Azores. But <strong>in</strong> Madeira João Jardim has<br />
already stayed for 32 un<strong>in</strong>terrupted years’<br />
(422) Passa todas as semanas, e parecia em perda de criatividade e de bom gosto.<br />
±is.on.TV every theF weeks and seemed loos<strong>in</strong>g criativity and of good taste<br />
Mas <strong>ele</strong> há “zapp<strong>in</strong>gs” felizes. Este de Luís Osório foi-o, seguramente.<br />
but EXPL has zapp<strong>in</strong>gs[TV program’s name] happy.This of Luís osório was-CL.ACCUS surely<br />
(newspaper, Público, 26/01/2003)<br />
± ‘You can see it every week, and it seemed to be loos<strong>in</strong>g criativity and good taste. But<br />
there are good “zapp<strong>in</strong>gs”. Surely, this one, by Luís Osório, was one of them.’<br />
Remark that <strong>in</strong> examples (421) and (422) the presence of <strong>ele</strong>, which effectively adds<br />
someth<strong>in</strong>g to the sentence, might well be compared to that of some stance adverbs or<br />
adverbial expressions which act as re<strong>in</strong>forcers (e. g. realmente, de facto ‘<strong>in</strong> fact’,<br />
efectivamente ‘effectively’, mesmo ‘<strong>in</strong>deed’). Thus, sentences <strong>in</strong> (423) and (424) are not<br />
very dissimilar from the expletive constructions above.<br />
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(423) Houve {de facto, efectivamente, realmente, mesmo} a maioria absoluta nos Açores.<br />
(424) Mas há {de facto, efectivamente, realmente, mesmo} “zapp<strong>in</strong>gs” felizes.<br />
The expletive appears, <strong>in</strong> these cases, to help contrast<strong>in</strong>g the sentence where it occurs. The<br />
contrast, <strong>in</strong>dependently obta<strong>in</strong>ed, by means of the word mas ‘but’, becomes more evident<br />
by the presence of the expletive, which re<strong>in</strong>forces the assertion where it is <strong>in</strong>cluded.<br />
In other cases, there is no contrastive connection <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> expletive<br />
constructions, though the emphatic role is ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed:<br />
(425) Ele há dias assim. Só de reflexão… [newspaper, Expresso, 25/10/2003]<br />
EXPL has days like.that only of reflection<br />
± ‘There are suh days. Only for th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g…’<br />
(426) Ele há casos. (male, Lisbon?, high educ., c. 50-60y, dur<strong>in</strong>g a public presentation)<br />
EXPL has cases<br />
‘There are some cases.’<br />
In the follow<strong>in</strong>g example, which is a fragment from a song, the emphasis result<strong>in</strong>g from<br />
the presence of the expletive seems to go along with the repetition of the existential<br />
construction:<br />
(427) Ele há gente que vive de si / Ele há vícios de que a gente se ri /<br />
EXPL has people who live by themselves EXPL has vices of which the people laughs<br />
Todos me falam nunca os conheci /(…)/ Ele há músicos qu’eu nunca ouvi/<br />
Everybody CL.DAT.1SG speak never CL.ACC.3PL met EXPL has musicians who I never heard<br />
Ele há estilistas qu’eu nunca vesti / Ele há críticas que eu nunca percebi /<br />
EXPL has fashion.designers who I never dressed EXPL has critiques that I never understood<br />
e até managers de quem não recebi / Os meus sentidos pêsames<br />
and even managers from whom NEG received the my felt condolences<br />
[‘Sentidos pêsames’, GNR’s song]<br />
± ‘There are people who live by themlseves/ there are vices at which we laugh/ Everybody<br />
speaks to me I have never met them/ There are musicians who I have never heard / There are<br />
fashion designers whose clothes I have never dressed / There are critiques that I have never<br />
understood / and even managers from whom I have not received / My condolences’<br />
Also <strong>in</strong> CORDIAL-SIN data, where examples of expletive existential constructions<br />
abound, <strong>ele</strong> frequently occurs <strong>in</strong> utterances that <strong>in</strong>volve some sort of enumeration, obta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
by means of repeat<strong>in</strong>g the existential construction. In examples (429) through (431), the<br />
expletive construction closes the sequence with a k<strong>in</strong>d of culm<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g read<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
(428) Ele há o sete-estrelas; há o cacheiro. (AAL93)<br />
EXPL has the Pleiades has the Orion<br />
± ‘There is Pleiades, there is Orion.’<br />
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4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
(429) […] havia aí o Ferro de Engomar e eram Os Charqu<strong>in</strong>hos e <strong>ele</strong> a<strong>in</strong>da havia um<br />
had there the Ferro de Engomar and were Os Charqu<strong>in</strong>hos and EXPL still had one<br />
outro, que eu não me recordo (…) … (AAL72)<br />
other that I NEG me.DAT remember [speak<strong>in</strong>g about restaurants’ names]<br />
± ‘There was the Ferro de Engomar and there was Os Charqu<strong>in</strong>hos and there was still<br />
another, whose name I don’t remember...’<br />
(430) É a estrela-da-manhã (…) e há a estrela… Bom, <strong>ele</strong> há várias estrelas, não é?<br />
Is the morn<strong>in</strong>g star and has the star… good, EXPL has several stars, not is(AAL92)<br />
± ‘That’s the morn<strong>in</strong>g star (…) and there is the star… Well, there are several stars, aren’t<br />
there?’<br />
(431) Porque isto (…) é assim; esta questão (…) de chá, de doenças, disto e daquilo,<br />
Because this is like.this this issue on tea on illness on this and on that<br />
de muita coisa – <strong>ele</strong> (…) há cura para tudo. (PAL08)<br />
on many th<strong>in</strong>g EXPL has cure for everyth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
± ‘Because it is like this; this issue (…) on tea, on illness, on many different th<strong>in</strong>gs… there<br />
is a cure for everyth<strong>in</strong>g.’<br />
Emphasis is present <strong>in</strong> many other expletive existential examples <strong>in</strong> CORDIAL-SIN data,<br />
which could normally be paraphrased by sentences <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g emphatic<br />
expressions/constructions, such as é verdade que ‘it is true that…’, de facto ‘<strong>in</strong> fact’, etc.<br />
or a sort of verb topicalization <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g the repetition of the ma<strong>in</strong> verb <strong>in</strong> its <strong>in</strong>f<strong>in</strong>itival<br />
form <strong>in</strong> a topic position (cf. Bastos 2001, Nunes 2004). See the follow<strong>in</strong>g examples:<br />
(432) Mas, <strong>ele</strong> havia muita fome, naqu<strong>ele</strong> tempo. (VPA06)<br />
But EXPL had much hunger <strong>in</strong>.that time<br />
± ‘But there was a lot of hunger <strong>in</strong> those times.’<br />
(433) Bem, <strong>ele</strong> há diversos. (FIG33)<br />
Well EXPL has several<br />
± ‘Well, there are several.’<br />
(434) Ele havia antigamente. (LVR13)<br />
EXPL hadIMPER long_ago<br />
± ‘Long ago, there was [that, null object]’<br />
Sentence (434), for <strong>in</strong>stance, could be paraphrased by those <strong>in</strong> (435)):<br />
(435) a. De facto, havia antigamente.<br />
b. É verdade que havia antigamente.<br />
c. Haver, havia antigamente.<br />
to.have had long_ago<br />
± ‘As for exist<strong>in</strong>g, long ago there existed [that].’<br />
In other cases, display<strong>in</strong>g a similar emphatic read<strong>in</strong>g, the expletive appears <strong>in</strong> emphatic<br />
affirmative answers. In the follow<strong>in</strong>g example, which has been produced as an answer to a<br />
question about the existence of a specific type of tree, the overt expletive co-occurs with<br />
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EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE<br />
two <strong>in</strong>stances of the same verb – a strategy available <strong>in</strong> EP to produce emphatic affirmative<br />
answers (see Mart<strong>in</strong>s 2004).<br />
(436) Ele há, há. (LVR05)<br />
EXPL has has<br />
The neutral answer would <strong>in</strong>volve a s<strong>in</strong>gle <strong>in</strong>flected verb form (há) (cf. Mart<strong>in</strong>s 1994a,<br />
1994b, 2004).<br />
In such formally neutral answers, it is also possible to f<strong>in</strong>d the expletive. In that<br />
case, the neutral read<strong>in</strong>g disappears and the answer becomes emphatic – see the follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
example, produced <strong>in</strong> the context of a buyer-seller dialogue:<br />
(437) – Brócolos, não tem? [Don’t you have broccoli?]<br />
broccoli NEG have3S<br />
– Ele havia. (male, Lisbon (but from Alentejo?), age c. 60y, grocer)<br />
EXPL had.<br />
± ‘There was some.’<br />
Similarly, the occurrence of the overt expletive <strong>in</strong> negative answers to yes-no questions<br />
seems to have the same effect (see section 4.2.2.6 above):<br />
(438) – Vás trabalhar? –Ele não! (Colos, <strong>in</strong> Guerreiro 1968: 351)<br />
go-PRES.2SG work-INF EXPL NEG<br />
‘– Are you go<strong>in</strong>g to work? – No.’<br />
(439) INQ2 Nunca, nunca usava assim uma coisa, assim, de madeira?<br />
‘Interviewer2: Did you ever use a th<strong>in</strong>g like this, <strong>in</strong> wood?’<br />
INF (Ele não). (MIN37)<br />
EXPL NEG<br />
‘Informant: (No!)’<br />
Here, by means of the expletive, the otherwise neutral negative answer becomes an<br />
emphatic answer. Thus, expletive <strong>ele</strong> has the effect of turn<strong>in</strong>g neutral answers <strong>in</strong>to<br />
emphatic (negative or affirmative) answers.<br />
In declarative sentences, the effect of the expletive is also ak<strong>in</strong> to that of an<br />
emphatic <strong>ele</strong>ment. In fact, a general re<strong>in</strong>forcement of the assertive value of the utterance<br />
where it occurs seems to be obta<strong>in</strong>ed. To the extent that such re<strong>in</strong>forcement <strong>in</strong>dicates how<br />
much the speaker stands for the truth of the statement he makes, the expletive seems <strong>in</strong> fact<br />
to compare to evidentiality markers (more precisely, strong evidentiality markers), as<br />
already suggested by Uriagereka 2004 (see chapter 2).<br />
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4.5 Summary<br />
4. OVERT EXPLETIVES IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS: DATA<br />
This chapter essentially presented the data which serve as the empirical basis for this<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestigation. The occurrence of expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> non-standard EP was discussed, tak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>to account data from EP dialects (drawn from CORDIAL-SIN) and, occasionally other<br />
naturalistic and written data.<br />
These data permitted us to establish (i) the syntactic distribution of expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
EP; (ii) the geographical spread of the different types of expletive constructions; (iii) some<br />
comparative aspects with related constructions, namely with expletive constructions<br />
<strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g neuter demonstrative pronouns; and f<strong>in</strong>ally (iv) the discourse effects displayed<br />
by the presence of the overt expletive.<br />
As for the syntactic distribution of expletive <strong>ele</strong>, it was shown that this expletive<br />
appears not only <strong>in</strong> impersonal constructions traditionally <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g expletives, but, also<br />
importantly, <strong>in</strong> peripheral positions <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g a wide spectrum of constructions. Quite<br />
unexpectedly, expletive <strong>ele</strong> is also found <strong>in</strong> postverbal position. These three types of<br />
expletive constructions were shown to display no r<strong>ele</strong>vant asymmetries when it comes to<br />
their areal distribution <strong>in</strong> Portugal.<br />
The typology thus sketched appears to be further confirmed by the comparison with<br />
expletive constructions <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g demonstratives: both impersonal and peripheral<br />
expletives allow demonstrative substitution, while this is totally impossible with postverbal<br />
<strong>ele</strong>. This contrast was then taken as additional evidence for dist<strong>in</strong>guish<strong>in</strong>g this third type of<br />
expletive constructions.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ally, on the discourse plan, expletive <strong>ele</strong> was shown to display a generalized<br />
emphatic effect, which essentially bears on the pragmatic effect of the different types of<br />
sentences.<br />
177
178<br />
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE
<strong>Expletive</strong> <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>European</strong> <strong>Portuguese</strong> syntax<br />
Just as <strong>in</strong>vestigation of unfamiliar and diverse languages is regularly<br />
illum<strong>in</strong>ated by what is already known about other languages, so the<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestigation of unfamiliar and diverse structures with<strong>in</strong> a s<strong>in</strong>gle language is<br />
regularly illum<strong>in</strong>ated by what is already known about other structures with<strong>in</strong><br />
that language.<br />
Pesetsky and Torrego 2001: 355<br />
5.0 Introduction<br />
Uriagereka’s and Silva-Villar’s recent proposals concern<strong>in</strong>g expletives <strong>in</strong> Romance NSLs<br />
(on which see chapter 2) naturally offer significant predictions about overt expletive<br />
phenomena <strong>in</strong> EP. Now that we have extensively observed a collection of data on EP<br />
expletive <strong>ele</strong> (see chapter 4), I will reconsider such proposals and try to accommodate the<br />
new empirical facts offered by EP to the ma<strong>in</strong> predictions allowed by such analyses. As<br />
will be argued below, neither of these approaches may satisfactorily capture the complex<br />
behavior of expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> non-standard EP. In this sense, <strong>in</strong> the present chapter, I will<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ly concern myself with clarify<strong>in</strong>g the status of this expletive and discuss<strong>in</strong>g its place<br />
<strong>in</strong> the grammar of EP. While I agree with Uriagereka’s and Silva-Villar’s common idea<br />
that overt expletives <strong>in</strong> Romance NSLs are fundamentally peripheral to the IP-doma<strong>in</strong><br />
(thus belong<strong>in</strong>g to the CP-doma<strong>in</strong>), I will argue that peripheral expletive <strong>ele</strong> cannot receive<br />
the unified treatment proposed <strong>in</strong> both analyses. I will thus elaborate on the peripheral<br />
5.<br />
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EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
status of the expletive, to present an alternative proposal attempt<strong>in</strong>g a comprehensive<br />
treatment of expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> EP.<br />
Such proposal will be developed <strong>in</strong> three steps: first, I will focus on the leftperipheral<br />
status of expletive <strong>ele</strong>, to show that EP data on this overt expletive are best<br />
accounted for if we allow it to occupy more than a s<strong>in</strong>gle position <strong>in</strong> the left periphery.<br />
Concomitantly, it will have to be conceded that <strong>in</strong> some residual cases <strong>ele</strong> may occupy an<br />
IP-<strong>in</strong>ternal subject position. Then, I will concentrate on the expletive’s categorial<br />
characterization, to conclude that <strong>ele</strong> cannot be reduced to a s<strong>in</strong>gle category. F<strong>in</strong>ally, I will<br />
consider the <strong>in</strong>terplay of expletive <strong>ele</strong> with different EP constructions <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g the leftperiphery,<br />
to help f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g the precise place(s) for this expletive <strong>in</strong> the left-peripheral space.<br />
In special, the proposal developed <strong>in</strong> this chapter will attempt to account for the expletive’s<br />
non-homogeneous characterization with respect to its (i) positions; (ii) categories; and (iii)<br />
<strong>in</strong>terpretive effects at the discourse level.<br />
The chapter is organized as follows. In section 2, I reconsider Uriagereka’s and<br />
Silva-Villar’s proposals at the light of the new EP data on expletive <strong>ele</strong>. In section 5.2, I<br />
evaluate the expletive’s position with<strong>in</strong> the left periphery. It will be shown that expletive<br />
<strong>ele</strong> may occupy different left-peripheral positions. Section 5.3 deals with some residual<br />
cases where the expletive resists a peripheral analysis. Relat<strong>in</strong>g the form <strong>ele</strong> to a neuter<br />
demonstrative pronom<strong>in</strong>al form, it will be proposed that this form may occupy the<br />
canonical subject position. In section 5.4, the dual characterization of expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> terms<br />
of structural category will be discussed. Some evidence will be considered which permits<br />
us to clearly dist<strong>in</strong>guish the behavior of postverbal <strong>ele</strong> as an X 0 , therefore isolated from<br />
other <strong>in</strong>stances of expletive <strong>ele</strong>, which rather behave as XPs. In section 5.5, the role and the<br />
place of expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> EP syntax will be discussed. The account presented here will<br />
consider recent proposals on the characterization of the left-periphery, together with the<br />
characterization of the r<strong>ele</strong>vant peripheral constructions <strong>in</strong> EP.<br />
Besides the naturalistic corpus data presented <strong>in</strong> the previous chapter, I will also<br />
consider, <strong>in</strong> this chapter, data from my own <strong>in</strong>tuitive judgements on my native dialect<br />
(often confirmed by other speakers’ judgements) – on the covenience of comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g both<br />
types of data, see chapter 3.<br />
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5. EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE SYNTAX<br />
5.1 The peripheral hypothesis revisited<br />
Uriagereka’s and Silva-Villar’s proposals about expletives <strong>in</strong> Romance NSLs essentially<br />
share the idea that these expletives differ from NNSLs’ expletives <strong>in</strong> that the former do not<br />
have to do with the canonical [Spec, IP] subject position but rather relate to the space<br />
above IP, i.e. to the C-doma<strong>in</strong>. In particular, Uriagereka 2004’s proposal is very explicit<br />
about the prediction that the overt expletive should be able to co-occur with a NSL regular<br />
null expletive 1 , such as <strong>in</strong> example (1) (see chapter 2): 2<br />
(1) el (é certo que) proexpl hay Deus<br />
EXPL is certa<strong>in</strong> that has God<br />
‘(It is certa<strong>in</strong> that) God exists.’<br />
If we consider now the EP data on expletive <strong>ele</strong>, we might try to evaluate the validity of<br />
such prediction. Remember, from chapter 4, that we found expletive <strong>ele</strong> (i) <strong>in</strong> impersonal<br />
contexts, thus, at least apparently, <strong>in</strong> “standard” expletive constructions; but also (ii) <strong>in</strong><br />
peripheral positions <strong>in</strong> constructions which are not necessarily impersonal; and, f<strong>in</strong>ally,<br />
(iii) <strong>in</strong> postverbal position, also comb<strong>in</strong>ed with predicates which are not necessarily<br />
impersonal. The three types are illustrated below, for ease of exposition:<br />
(2) a. Ele não é carochas. (ALC42)<br />
EXPL NEG is carochas<br />
± ‘It’s not carochas’.<br />
b. […] <strong>ele</strong> não chove amanhã. (MST11)<br />
EXPL NEG ra<strong>in</strong>_PRES_3SG tomorrow<br />
‘… it won’t ra<strong>in</strong> tomorrow.’<br />
c. Bom, <strong>ele</strong> há várias estrelas, não é? (AAL92)<br />
good EXPL has several stars NEG is<br />
‘Well, there are several stars, aren’t there?’<br />
(3) a. Ele a m<strong>in</strong>ha nora teve (…) aqu<strong>ele</strong> miudito com quarenta anos. (COV01)<br />
EXPL the my daugher-<strong>in</strong>-law had that child with forty years<br />
±‘In fact, my daughter-<strong>in</strong>-law had that child when she was forty.’<br />
b. Haver… Ele a fome não havia! (VPA06)<br />
have_INF EXPL the hunger NEG had<br />
± ‘As for exist<strong>in</strong>g, the hunger didn’t really exist!’<br />
1 On recent proposals to elim<strong>in</strong>ate null expletives, see chapter 2. S<strong>in</strong>ce the discussion about the existence of<br />
such expletives is beyond the scope of this dissertation, I will not dwell on this issue. With Uriagereka, I will<br />
assume the traditional view that NSLs <strong>in</strong>clude null expletives on a pair with null referential pronouns.<br />
2 Such an idea is also compatible with Álvarez (2001: 22) considerations referred to <strong>in</strong> chapter 2 (see p.29 of<br />
this dissertation).<br />
181
(4) a. Era <strong>ele</strong> numa carroça! (MIG14)<br />
was EXPL <strong>in</strong>.a cart<br />
‘It was <strong>in</strong> a cart!’<br />
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
b. […] bem aos olhos faz <strong>ele</strong> tudo […] (PAL28)<br />
good to.the eyes makes EXPL everyth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
±‘…everyth<strong>in</strong>g is good for the eyes…’<br />
At first glance, when we consider the impersonal expletive examples <strong>in</strong> (2), we might well<br />
admit that Uriagereka’s hypothesis is essentially right. In fact, each of those examples<br />
seems to allow a comb<strong>in</strong>ation of a “regular” non-overt expletive with expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> a<br />
more peripheral position.<br />
(5) a. Ele (é certo que) proexpl não é carochas.<br />
EXPL NEG is carochas<br />
b. […] <strong>ele</strong> (é certo que) proexpl não chove amanhã.<br />
EXPL NEG ra<strong>in</strong>_PRES_3SG tomorrow<br />
c. Bom, <strong>ele</strong> (é certo que) proexpl há várias estrelas, não é?<br />
good EXPL has several stars NEG is<br />
On the <strong>in</strong>terpretive side, an analysis along the l<strong>in</strong>es of Uriagereka’s proposal seems to be<br />
compatible with the effect of the expletive <strong>in</strong> these EP sentences: <strong>ele</strong> appears here to<br />
re<strong>in</strong>force the assertive value of the sentence, thus act<strong>in</strong>g as a sort of (strong) evidentiality<br />
marker.<br />
Such expletive would <strong>in</strong> fact parallel the cases where <strong>ele</strong> occurs <strong>in</strong> sentences with a<br />
referential null subject, which were presented <strong>in</strong> section 4.2.2.1 <strong>in</strong> the previous chapter (see<br />
(6) below, for an example).<br />
(6) Ele voltámos lá todos a ver […] (COV32)<br />
EXPL went.back-1PL there all A see-INF<br />
‘We all went back there to see…’<br />
Hence, it is conceivable that, <strong>in</strong> such impersonal sentences, expletive <strong>ele</strong> does not stay <strong>in</strong><br />
the canonical subject position, which would be occupied by a regular expletive subject.<br />
In this way, impersonal expletive constructions would parallel those examples<br />
where the expletive overtly appears <strong>in</strong> a peripheral position; for <strong>in</strong>stance, before a<br />
referential preverbal subject (like <strong>in</strong> example (7)a) or before some peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ments<br />
(like <strong>in</strong> example (7)b):<br />
(7) a. Ele (é certo que) [ SUBJECT a m<strong>in</strong>ha nora] teve (…) aqu<strong>ele</strong> miudito com quarenta anos.<br />
EXPL the my daugher-<strong>in</strong>-law had that child with forty years<br />
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b. Haver… Ele (é certo que) [ TOPIC a fome] proexpl não havia!<br />
have_INF EXPL the hunger NEG had<br />
Just like <strong>in</strong> examples (5)a through (5)c above, a strong evidentiality read<strong>in</strong>g is obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong><br />
these examples by means of the presence of the expletive.<br />
Under such a hypothesis, the examples presented <strong>in</strong> chapter 4 under section 4.2.1,<br />
i.e. those where the expletive occurs <strong>in</strong> impersonal contexts, would better qualify as<br />
examples of peripheral expletives, just like the examples considered under section 4.2.2. In<br />
fact, such expletives occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> impersonal constructions may also precede other<br />
peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ments, <strong>in</strong> which case their peripheral position results unambiguous (see<br />
example (7)b above).<br />
Thus, we might have a unified understand<strong>in</strong>g of both impersonal and peripheral expletive<br />
<strong>ele</strong> as the same peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ment relat<strong>in</strong>g to the expression of evidentiality, as <strong>in</strong><br />
Uriagereka’s recent proposal.<br />
Such an analysis would also be consistent with the idea pursued by Silva-Villar that<br />
Romance NSLs’ expletives uniformly relate to the C-doma<strong>in</strong>.<br />
However, when we consider the third type of expletive construction presented <strong>in</strong><br />
chapter 4, i.e. constructions <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g postverbal <strong>ele</strong>, such as those <strong>in</strong> examples (4) above,<br />
it is hard to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> such a unified account. At first sight, it is not evident why such<br />
postverbal expletive should be paired off with peripheral expletives. First, it rema<strong>in</strong>s to be<br />
seen whether the expletive, which appears after the verb, is still <strong>in</strong> a left peripheral<br />
position. Besides its dist<strong>in</strong>ctive postverbal position, the effect displayed by postverbal <strong>ele</strong><br />
at the discourse level does not seem to be exactly the same displayed by the peripheral<br />
expletive. In fact, postverbal <strong>ele</strong> may hardly <strong>in</strong>troduce the sort of pseudo-cleft proposed for<br />
peripheral expletive constructions under Uriagereka’s analysis:<br />
(8) a. # Era <strong>ele</strong> (é [certo] que) numa carroça!<br />
was EXPL <strong>in</strong>.a cart<br />
b. # […] bem aos olhos faz <strong>ele</strong> (é [certo] que) tudo […]<br />
good to.the eyes makes EXPL everyth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Indeed, the correspond<strong>in</strong>g strong evidentiality read<strong>in</strong>g does not seem to be allowed <strong>in</strong> such<br />
postverbal <strong>ele</strong> sentences.<br />
This sort of contrast between postverbal <strong>ele</strong> and the overt expletive <strong>in</strong><br />
peripheral/impersonal contexts is <strong>in</strong> fact rem<strong>in</strong>iscent of the dist<strong>in</strong>ction already considered<br />
<strong>in</strong> the previous chapter, under section 4.3, on the basis of the expletive’s behavior towards<br />
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demonstrative substitution. Recall that, just like here, we concluded then that postverbal<br />
<strong>ele</strong> should be dist<strong>in</strong>guished from the expletive occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> impersonal and <strong>in</strong> peripheral<br />
contexts.<br />
Hence, the ma<strong>in</strong> objection to both Uriagereka’s and Silva-Villar’s accounts lies on<br />
the fact that both analyses attempt a unified treatment of overt expletives <strong>in</strong> Romance<br />
NSLs, leav<strong>in</strong>g no place for the dissonant postverbal expletive which occurs <strong>in</strong> EP dialects<br />
data.<br />
Before proceed<strong>in</strong>g, I would like to po<strong>in</strong>t out an additional complication. As will become<br />
clear below, the state of affairs described above for expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> impersonal<br />
constructions also deserves further discussion. Even though the examples presented <strong>in</strong> (2)<br />
certa<strong>in</strong>ly admit an analysis along the l<strong>in</strong>es of Uriagereka 2004’s proposal (i.e., the<br />
expletive may be there a peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ment, as represented <strong>in</strong> examples (5)), such an<br />
account may not be generalized to all <strong>in</strong>stances of expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> impersonal contexts.<br />
Recall, for <strong>in</strong>stance, the follow<strong>in</strong>g examples already presented <strong>in</strong> chapter 4:<br />
(9) […] agora neste tempo, mais ou menos, Fevereiro, Março, é que <strong>ele</strong> ia outra<br />
now <strong>in</strong>.this time more or less February March is that EXPL went-3SG other<br />
máqu<strong>in</strong>a […] (AAL02)<br />
mach<strong>in</strong>e<br />
±‘It was now, at this time, February, March, that another mach<strong>in</strong>e was used.’<br />
(10) pois que préstimo teem agora as talhas, se êle não há já v<strong>in</strong>has? (Ribeiro 1927: 28)<br />
POIS what utility have now the ± tubs if EXPL NEG has still v<strong>in</strong>eyards<br />
± ‘So what is the utility of the tubs now, if there are no more v<strong>in</strong>eyards?’<br />
(11) Nós, antigamente, cozíamos quando <strong>ele</strong> v<strong>in</strong>ha o tempo de castanhas –<br />
we <strong>in</strong>.the.past cooked when EXPL came-3SG the time of chestnuts<br />
(que) também dávamos castanhas. (OUT32)<br />
QUE also gave-1PL chestnuts<br />
‘In the past, we used to cook [null object: the pig’s food] when was the chestnuts time –<br />
we also used to give [them] chestnuts.’<br />
(12) De vez em quando tem que se lhe dar uma mexidela.<br />
‘You have to stir it every now and then’<br />
E quando <strong>ele</strong> começa a vir aquela (…), quer dizer, a massa, (…) que ela lá dentro tem<br />
and when EXPL beg<strong>in</strong>s A come-INF that mean-3SG the paste QUE it there <strong>in</strong>side has<br />
aquela coalhada que daqui vai sa<strong>in</strong>do… (MST01)<br />
that curd which from.here goes gett<strong>in</strong>g out<br />
±‘And when that paste beg<strong>in</strong>s to appear – <strong>in</strong>side, it has that curd that one gets from this…’<br />
(13) Mas olhe que eu, eu tenho a impressão (…) que <strong>ele</strong> que havia a<strong>in</strong>da lá disso.<br />
but look that I I have the impression that EXPL that had still there of.that<br />
± ‘But look, I have the impression that there was some of that there’ (AAL21)<br />
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5. EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE SYNTAX<br />
Such examples clearly show the overt expletive <strong>in</strong> different embedded contexts – besides<br />
that-clauses, as <strong>in</strong> (13), also adverbial clauses, such as if and when-clauses <strong>in</strong> (10) and<br />
(11)-(12), respectively, and the (free) relative part of a cleft, <strong>in</strong> (9). However, the proposal<br />
put forth by Uriagereka essentially predicts that the peripheral expletive shall occur as a<br />
root/matrix phenomenon.<br />
The same data equally call <strong>in</strong>to question Silva-Villar’s proposal, which crucially<br />
relies on the supposed matrix/embedded contexts asymmetry <strong>in</strong> expletive constructions<br />
(see chapter 2, section 2.5.4.3 above).<br />
More importantly, there are cases of impersonal constructions where the expletive<br />
does not appear as the leftmost peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ment:<br />
(14) Olhe, aqui são fêtãos. Isso, <strong>ele</strong> há cá muito – os fêtãos. (FIG12)<br />
look here are ferns that EXPL has here much – the ferns<br />
± ‘Look, these are ferns. Those, there are many here [ferns].’<br />
(15) Os tabuleiros, <strong>ele</strong> também os há de barro, não é? (OUT31)<br />
the trays EXPL also them[CL.ACCUS] has of clay neg is<br />
± ‘As for trays, there are also some of them which are made out of clay, isn’t it?’<br />
(16) Até aqui nestes olivais, <strong>ele</strong> há ali semeada. (LVR10)<br />
even here <strong>in</strong>.these olive_groves EXPL has there sownF<br />
± ‘Even <strong>in</strong> these olive groves, there is [null object] sown.<br />
In examples (14) and (15), a topic constituent (respectively, a topicalized and a left<br />
dislocated phrase) occurs before the overt expletive. In example (16), it is a focused phrase<br />
that precedes <strong>ele</strong>.<br />
It thus appears that the position occupied by the expletive <strong>in</strong> the left periphery is not<br />
as clearly def<strong>in</strong>ed as the proposals put forth by Uriagereka and by Silva-Villar<br />
<strong>in</strong>dependently predict. At least, we have some evidence that the expletive does not always<br />
behave <strong>in</strong> the same fashion with respect to the position of other peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ments.<br />
Discussion of this po<strong>in</strong>t will however be postponed to section 5.3 below.<br />
To summarize: Uriagereka’s and Silva-Villar’s proposals seem to be essentially right <strong>in</strong><br />
analys<strong>in</strong>g the overt expletive <strong>in</strong> Romance NSLs as an <strong>ele</strong>ment peripheral to IP. As the EP<br />
data may confirm, at least some cases of expletive <strong>ele</strong> have to be analysed as peripheral<br />
<strong>ele</strong>ments. This appears to be uncontroversial for expletives occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> positions<br />
peripheral to preverbal subjects or to other peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ments. Follow<strong>in</strong>g Uriagereka’s<br />
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EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
analysis, at least some impersonal constructions would also count as <strong>in</strong>stances of<br />
peripheral expletives.<br />
However, the EP data presented <strong>in</strong> chapter 4 do not allow us to fully endorse such<br />
proposals. In particular, these data provide evidence that expletive <strong>ele</strong> does not behave <strong>in</strong> a<br />
uniform fashion <strong>in</strong> several respects, thus resist<strong>in</strong>g a uniform peripheral analysis. First, a<br />
sharp contrast has been found between expletives occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> postverbal position and the<br />
other types of expletives (peripheral and/or impersonal ones). Second, even non-postverbal<br />
expletives may display different behaviors with respect to their peripheral status. More<br />
precisely, while some expletives appear as clearly (the most) peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ments <strong>in</strong> the<br />
sentence, there are other <strong>in</strong>stances of preverbal expletive <strong>ele</strong> occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> necessarily less<br />
peripheral positions, namely, after different types of periphery-related <strong>ele</strong>ments, such as<br />
topics or focused phrases. Importantly also, at least some types of overt expletives <strong>in</strong> EP<br />
may appear <strong>in</strong> embedded contexts, which is not predicted under Uriagereka’s and Silva-<br />
Villar’s approaches.<br />
In the rema<strong>in</strong>der of this chapter, I will reconsider the peripheral status of expletive<br />
<strong>ele</strong> together with the discourse effects it displays to attempt to provide a comprehensive<br />
account of its place <strong>in</strong> EP grammar. In the next section, I will beg<strong>in</strong> by elucidat<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
peripheral status of the postverbal expletive.<br />
5.2 The expletive and the left periphery<br />
5.2.1 The postverbal expletive is peripheral to IP<br />
In the previous section, we have considered Uriagereka’s hypothesis that overt expletives<br />
<strong>in</strong> impersonal constructions occupy a left peripheral position, just like it unequivocally<br />
happens <strong>in</strong> constructions <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g an overt expletive before a preverbal subject or some<br />
peripheral constituent. Although not all cases of expletives may <strong>in</strong>deed conform to such an<br />
analysis (for more on this po<strong>in</strong>t, see below section 5.3), it was suggested above that<br />
impersonal constructions could <strong>in</strong> general allow a peripheral overt expletive. However, the<br />
question now arises whether postverbal expletives like those <strong>in</strong> (4) above, here repeated as<br />
(17), may also be analyzed as left peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ments.<br />
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(17) a. Era <strong>ele</strong> numa carroça! (MIG14)<br />
was EXPL <strong>in</strong>.a cart<br />
‘It was <strong>in</strong> a cart!’<br />
b. […] bem aos olhos faz <strong>ele</strong> tudo […] (PAL28)<br />
good to.the eyes makes EXPL everyth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
±‘…everyth<strong>in</strong>g is good for the eyes…’<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce the expletive occurs after the verb, at least three scenarios seem possible, depend<strong>in</strong>g<br />
on the verb position: (i) the verb stays <strong>in</strong> the IP-doma<strong>in</strong>, rais<strong>in</strong>g not higher than I and the<br />
expletive is necessarily <strong>in</strong> a position below I; (ii) the verb raises to the C-doma<strong>in</strong>, while the<br />
expletive stays <strong>in</strong> the IP-doma<strong>in</strong> (<strong>in</strong> which case, [Spec, IP] would be a natural candidate for<br />
the expletive’s position); (iii) the verb raises to the C-doma<strong>in</strong> high enough for the expletive<br />
to be equally <strong>in</strong> a C-related position. In this section, I will discuss some evidence<br />
suggest<strong>in</strong>g that the postverbal expletive is <strong>in</strong> fact a peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ment.<br />
In an example such as (17)a the expletive is only preceded by the <strong>in</strong>flected verb.<br />
For the expletive to be <strong>in</strong> the periphery, this verb form should naturally also be <strong>in</strong> a<br />
peripheral position. While this is not easily seen <strong>in</strong> this sentence, we may, for <strong>in</strong>stance,<br />
consider the follow<strong>in</strong>g examples, where the expletive is preceded by a subjunctive verb<br />
form:<br />
(18) Seja <strong>ele</strong> trigo ou cevada ou aveia. (PAL22)<br />
be-PRES.SUBJ-3SG EXPL wheat or barley or oats<br />
± ‘Be it wheat or barley or oats.’<br />
(19) Seja <strong>ele</strong> ao fim do tempo que for (Colos, <strong>in</strong> Guerreiro 1968: 351)<br />
be-PRES.SUBJ-3SG EXPL to.the end of.the time that be-FUT.SUBJ<br />
± ‘Be it after any time.’<br />
In this case, it is fairly uncontroversial to assume that such subjunctive forms undergo<br />
rais<strong>in</strong>g to a position <strong>in</strong> the C-doma<strong>in</strong> (traditionally, V(-to-I)-to-C movement) – see Rizzi<br />
1982, Ambar 1988, 1992, a.o.. Thus, if the verb occupies such a peripheral position, it<br />
might well be the case that the expletive also stays <strong>in</strong> the C-doma<strong>in</strong>. In particular,<br />
examples (20) and (21), where a lexical subject appears after the expletive, may suggest<br />
that <strong>ele</strong> occurs above the standard subject position, i.e. [Spec, IP].<br />
(20) Venda <strong>ele</strong> a Maria essas ovelhas e verá…<br />
sell-PRES.SUBJ.3SG EXPL the Maria those sheep and see-FUT.3SG<br />
‘If Maria sells those sheep, she will see…’<br />
(21) Tivesse <strong>ele</strong> o pastor trazido as ovelhas da serra...<br />
have-IMPERF.SUBJ.3SG EXPL the shepherd brought.back the sheep from.the mounta<strong>in</strong><br />
‘If only the shepherd had brought the sheep back from the mounta<strong>in</strong>…’<br />
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The same might be said about the expletive occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>f<strong>in</strong>itival<br />
exclamative sentence:<br />
(22) Vender <strong>ele</strong> a Maria estas ovelhas!<br />
sell-INF EXPL the Maria these sheep<br />
±‘Maria sell<strong>in</strong>g these sheep!’<br />
Likewise, other peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ments may precede postverbal <strong>ele</strong>. In example (17)b above,<br />
the sequence bem aos olhos clearly has topic-like properties. This sentence occurs with<strong>in</strong> a<br />
sequence where the <strong>in</strong>terviewer asks the <strong>in</strong>formant the name of a certa<strong>in</strong> plant. To help the<br />
<strong>in</strong>formant f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g the answer, the <strong>in</strong>terviewer adds a piece of <strong>in</strong>formation about the<br />
r<strong>ele</strong>vant plant: ‘it is good for our eyes’, as transcribed <strong>in</strong> (23). The <strong>in</strong>itial part of the<br />
expletive construction which occurs after this sentence thus picks up this <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
already <strong>in</strong>troduced to the discourse universe.<br />
(23) INQ1 Diz que faz bem aos olhos.<br />
‘Interviewer1: They say that it is good for our eyes.’<br />
[…]<br />
INF2 Ah, bem aos olhos faz <strong>ele</strong> tudo, (…) quando não haver pouca sorte. (PAL28)<br />
INTJ good to.the eyes makes EXPL everyth<strong>in</strong>g when NEG have-INF bad luck<br />
±‘Informant2: Oh, everyth<strong>in</strong>g is good for the eyes, when you do not have bad luck.’<br />
Peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ments act<strong>in</strong>g as topics may thus precede postverbal <strong>ele</strong>. In this case, however,<br />
we have no additional cues for relat<strong>in</strong>g the expletive to the periphery: the postverbal<br />
<strong>in</strong>def<strong>in</strong>ite subject tudo ‘everyth<strong>in</strong>g’ acts here as an <strong>in</strong>formation focus, and, as such, it may<br />
stay <strong>in</strong> a regular postverbal position <strong>in</strong>side IP, assum<strong>in</strong>g with Costa (2000b: 203) the<br />
generalizations <strong>in</strong> (24) and (25) below (see also Costa 1998a, 2000a):<br />
(24) The focus set of constituents of a sentence is the prosodically most prom<strong>in</strong>ent constituent<br />
plus everyth<strong>in</strong>g it c-commands. [based on Re<strong>in</strong>hart 1995]<br />
(25) The prosodically unmarked most prom<strong>in</strong>ent constituent is the rightmost one, follow<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
recursion pattern of a language. [adapted from C<strong>in</strong>que 1993, Zubizarreta 1998, Nash 1995]<br />
Other C-related <strong>ele</strong>ments, such as dislocated affective phrases <strong>in</strong> Raposo’s sense, may also<br />
appear before postverbal expletive <strong>ele</strong>:<br />
(26) [Muitas azeitonas] comeram <strong>ele</strong> os pastores!<br />
many olives ate EXPL the shepherds<br />
±‘The shepherds ate many olives!’<br />
188<br />
(27) [Muitas noites] passaram <strong>ele</strong> os pastores na serra!<br />
many nights passed EXPL the shepherds <strong>in</strong>.the mounta<strong>in</strong><br />
± ‘The shepherds passed many nights at the mounta<strong>in</strong>!’
(28) [Muito] berraram <strong>ele</strong> as ovelhas!<br />
a lot bleated EXPL the sheep<br />
± ‘The sheep bleated a lot!’<br />
5. EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE SYNTAX<br />
If we assume Raposo’s analysis of such sentences, as <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g verb movement to a C-<br />
related position (F <strong>in</strong> his terms) with the postverbal subject <strong>in</strong> the canonical [Spec, IP]<br />
position (see, for <strong>in</strong>stance, Raposo 2000: 276), then, we would have evidence for say<strong>in</strong>g<br />
that the expletive is peripheral to IP.<br />
Conversely, if we try to <strong>in</strong>clude a postverbal expletive <strong>in</strong> affective constructions <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a preverbal subject, as <strong>in</strong> (29)-(31), the result is strongly ungrammatical:<br />
(29) *Muitas azeitonas os pastores comeram <strong>ele</strong>!<br />
many olives the shepherds ate EXPL<br />
(30) *Muitas noites os pastores passaram <strong>ele</strong> na serra!<br />
many nights the shepherds passed EXPL <strong>in</strong>.the mounta<strong>in</strong><br />
(31) *Muito as ovelhas berraram <strong>ele</strong>!<br />
a lot the sheep bleated EXPL<br />
Assum<strong>in</strong>g Raposo’s analysis (ibid.), the verb would stay, <strong>in</strong> this case, <strong>in</strong> I, <strong>in</strong>side IP. The<br />
impossibility of hav<strong>in</strong>g the postverbal expletive <strong>in</strong> such affective sentences would then<br />
count as additional evidence for the peripheral status of this expletive.<br />
To substantiate this hypothesis, we may additionally refer to a standard test<br />
<strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g an IP delimiter, such as the adverb provavelmente ‘probably’ (Belletti 1990,<br />
C<strong>in</strong>que 1999). Assum<strong>in</strong>g that this adverb appears immediately above IP, the relative<br />
position of postverbal <strong>ele</strong> with respect to such IP-delimiter would count as evidence for the<br />
characterization of this expletive as an IP or a CP-related <strong>ele</strong>ment. Thus, if <strong>ele</strong> occupies a<br />
C-related position, it is expected that it appears before the adverb; on the contrary, if the<br />
expletive is to be related to the IP-doma<strong>in</strong>, then we expect that <strong>ele</strong> may occur below the<br />
adverb. Contrast then the follow<strong>in</strong>g data:<br />
(32) a. ? A Maria fez / sabe <strong>ele</strong> provavelmente isso.<br />
the M did knows EXPL probably that<br />
b. *Provavelmente a Maria fez / sabe <strong>ele</strong> isso.<br />
c. *A Maria provavelmente fez / sabe <strong>ele</strong> isso.<br />
189
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
(33) a. ? Isso fez / sabe <strong>ele</strong> provavelmente a Maria.<br />
that did knows EXPL probably the M<br />
b. *Provavelmente isso fez / sabe <strong>ele</strong> a Maria<br />
c. *Isso provavelmente fez / sabe <strong>ele</strong> a Maria<br />
Although the contrast is not very sharp, there seems to be a difference between the (a)<br />
examples, on the one hand, and examples (b) and (c) <strong>in</strong> (32) and (33). Thus, the (b) and (c)<br />
examples where the expletive would occupy a position below the adverb provavelmente<br />
are sharply ungrammatical, which may <strong>in</strong>dicate that the expletive cannot stay <strong>in</strong> a position<br />
<strong>in</strong>side IP. On the contrary, <strong>in</strong> examples (32)a and (33)a the expletive seems to be allowed<br />
<strong>in</strong> a position preced<strong>in</strong>g the adverb, as it would be expected for a periphery-related <strong>ele</strong>ment.<br />
The odditty of these examples is perhaps due to some <strong>in</strong>terpretive <strong>in</strong>compatibility between<br />
the mean<strong>in</strong>g of the adverb provavelmente and the discourse effect of the expletive <strong>in</strong><br />
postverbal position.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ally, let us consider yet another test to exam<strong>in</strong>e the position of the postverbal<br />
expletive with respect to IP. I will beg<strong>in</strong> by recall<strong>in</strong>g a well-known way of identify<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
subject position <strong>in</strong>side IP. For this purpose, Costa 1996, 1998a, 2000a at several <strong>in</strong>stances<br />
<strong>in</strong>vokes sentences <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the adverb bem ‘well’, which is assumed to mark the left edge<br />
of the VP, thus provid<strong>in</strong>g a reliable diagnosis for identify<strong>in</strong>g the subject position with<br />
respect to VP. For <strong>in</strong>stance, <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g examples, (34)d, which sharply contrasts with<br />
(34)a-c, provides evidence for say<strong>in</strong>g that the postverbal subject occurs <strong>in</strong> the [Spec, VP]<br />
position, i.e. immediately below the adverb bem:<br />
(34) a. *Bem comeu o Paulo maçãs. (= Costa 2000a: 99 exs.(21)a-d)<br />
well ate the Paulo apples<br />
190<br />
b. *Comeu o Paulo bem maçãs.<br />
ate the Paulo well apples<br />
c. *Comeu o Paulo maçãs bem.<br />
ate the Paulo apples well<br />
d. Comeu bem o Paulo maçãs.<br />
ate well the Paulo apples<br />
‘Paulo ate apples well.’
5. EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE SYNTAX<br />
Such postverbal subject position receives the <strong>in</strong>formation focus read<strong>in</strong>g, also shared by the<br />
rightmost <strong>ele</strong>ment, the complement maçãs: it thus corresponds to an answer to a question<br />
like (34’):<br />
(34’) Quem comeu bem o quê?<br />
who ate well what<br />
Conversely, <strong>in</strong> the preverbal subject counterpart of sentence (34)d, the subject o Paulo<br />
bears no such focus read<strong>in</strong>g:<br />
(35) O Paulo comeu bem maçãs.<br />
the Paulo ate well apples<br />
‘Paulo ate well apples.’<br />
In this case, the (non-focused) subject may be <strong>in</strong> [Spec, IP]. 3<br />
Now, if we try to comb<strong>in</strong>e the adverb bem <strong>in</strong> postverbal <strong>ele</strong> constructions, we<br />
obta<strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g contrast:<br />
(36) a. Os cães comeram <strong>ele</strong> bem os ossos.<br />
the dogs ate EXPL well the bones<br />
±‘Dogs ate the bones well!’<br />
b. *Os cães comeram bem <strong>ele</strong> os ossos.<br />
the dogs ate well EXPL the bones<br />
As expected, the expletive may not appear below the adverb, i.e. <strong>in</strong> a VP <strong>in</strong>ternal position,<br />
as illustrated by (36)b. On the contrary, it is allowed <strong>in</strong> a position before the adverb. This<br />
thus clearly <strong>in</strong>dicates that the expletive occupies a position outside the VP. But, if the<br />
preverbal subject os cães stays <strong>in</strong> [Spec, IP], then the expletive has to stay below that<br />
position, which seems to run counter other k<strong>in</strong>d of evidence po<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g to the left peripheral<br />
status of this expletive.<br />
We shall however consider an additional example:<br />
(37) Os ossos comeram <strong>ele</strong> os cães bem.<br />
the bones ate EXPL the dogs well<br />
In this case, the subject appears after the verb (and the postverbal expletive) and still before<br />
the adverb bem. Remark that the subject has here a neutral <strong>in</strong>terpretation with respect to<br />
focus, i.e. the subject does not have the <strong>in</strong>formation focus read<strong>in</strong>g characteristic of post-<br />
3 But see Barbosa 1995, 1997, 2000 arguments for a peripheral position of preverbal subjects <strong>in</strong> EP, much<br />
like it has been argued for languages such as Greek and Spanish (see Alexiadou and Anagnostopoulou 1998<br />
and Ordoñez 1997, a.o.).<br />
191
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
bem subjects. 4 Thus, assum<strong>in</strong>g Costa’s analysis, such preverbal subject could <strong>in</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>ciple<br />
occupy the standard subject position, [Spec, IP] for our purposes. Importantly, then, the<br />
expletive must precede such preverbal subject, which appears to <strong>in</strong>dicate its peripheral<br />
position outside the IP-doma<strong>in</strong> – contrast the follow<strong>in</strong>g examples with (37) above.<br />
(38) a. *Os ossos comeram os cães <strong>ele</strong> bem.<br />
the bones ate the dogs EXPL well<br />
b. *Os ossos os cães comeram <strong>ele</strong> bem.<br />
the bones the dogs ate EXPL well<br />
However, we may not rely so confidently on this test. At least for sentences like (37), we<br />
may admit that the subject occurr<strong>in</strong>g before the adverb might be <strong>in</strong> another position<br />
available for the subject of a transitive verb: [Spec, vP]. This would naturally leave us with<br />
a possible expletive position <strong>in</strong>side IP, which does not seem to be compatible with the<br />
result obta<strong>in</strong>ed from other tests seen above. A natural move would then be to try to fill up<br />
such [Spec, vP] with some material different from the subject. In the follow<strong>in</strong>g examples,<br />
this will be done by means of a float<strong>in</strong>g quantifier. Assum<strong>in</strong>g Sportiche 1988 and much<br />
subsequent work, quantifier float would be derived by movement of the DP os cães out of<br />
the QP headed by the quantifier todos ‘all’ <strong>in</strong> these examples.<br />
(39) a. Os cães têm <strong>ele</strong> comido todos bem os ossos.<br />
the dogs have EXPL eaten all well the bones<br />
b. Na rua têm (<strong>ele</strong>) os cães (*<strong>ele</strong>) comido (*<strong>ele</strong>) todos bem os ossos.<br />
<strong>in</strong>.the street have EXPL the dogs eaten all well the bones<br />
The position of the quantifier would then mark, <strong>in</strong> this case, the base position of that QP,<br />
i.e. the subject base position, which I assume to be [Spec, vP].<br />
Thus, example (39)b <strong>in</strong> particular seems to be clear enough: the DP os cães moves<br />
to [Spec, IP], and the float<strong>in</strong>g quantifier stays <strong>in</strong> [Spec, vP]. S<strong>in</strong>ce the only possible<br />
4<br />
Contrast with the follow<strong>in</strong>g examples:<br />
(i) Os ossos comeram (<strong>ele</strong>) bem os cães.<br />
(ii) Comeram ( ?? <strong>ele</strong>) bem os cães os ossos.<br />
The non-expletive variants of these sentences correspond to sentences which typically present an <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
focus read<strong>in</strong>g on the subject (i), or both on the subject and the object (ii). In (i) the expletive does not seem to<br />
<strong>in</strong>terfere with such a read<strong>in</strong>g. The oddity of the expletive <strong>in</strong> (ii) may perhaps have to do with some<br />
<strong>in</strong>compatibility between multiple foci and the effect of postverbal <strong>ele</strong>. Remark that such multiple foci VSO<br />
structures most naturally appear as answers to multiple-wh <strong>in</strong>terrogatives, like (iii), which does not seem to<br />
be an appropriate context for postverbal expletive constructions:<br />
(iii) Quem comeu bem o quê?<br />
who ate well what<br />
192
5. EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE SYNTAX<br />
position for the expletive appears before the DP os cães, we are aga<strong>in</strong> provided with<br />
additional evidence that the expletive perta<strong>in</strong>s to the above IP-space.<br />
The left peripheral status of postverbal expletive <strong>ele</strong> results thus uncontroversially<br />
confirmed by the different tests considered <strong>in</strong> this section. Furthermore, it must be recalled<br />
that the sort of discourse-related effect displayed by this expletive (as a k<strong>in</strong>d of<br />
evaluative/exclamative marker – see chapter 4, section 4.4) fits better the sphere of the left<br />
periphery than the usually proposition-related doma<strong>in</strong> of IP.<br />
Hav<strong>in</strong>g thus determ<strong>in</strong>ed the left-peripheral nature of this expletive, it rema<strong>in</strong>s now<br />
to be decided whether postverbal <strong>ele</strong> may be paired up with so-considered “peripheral”<br />
and/or “impersonal” expletives.<br />
5.2.2 Two different peripheral positions for expletive <strong>ele</strong><br />
Let us then formulate the question whether all types of expletives isolated <strong>in</strong> chapter 4 can<br />
reduce to a s<strong>in</strong>gle expletive. In order to evaluate such a hypothesis, I will compare the<br />
behavior of peripheral/impersonal and postverbal expletives with respect to the follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
aspects: (i) relative position <strong>in</strong> the periphery; (ii) verb adjacency; (iii) distribution <strong>in</strong> matrix<br />
vs. embedded contexts; (iv) demonstrative substitution; (v) discourse effect.<br />
Let us beg<strong>in</strong> by look<strong>in</strong>g at the space that peripheral/impersonal and postverbal<br />
expletives may occupy <strong>in</strong> the left periphery. We have seen <strong>in</strong> chapter 4 that peripheral<br />
expletives may precede different k<strong>in</strong>ds of peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ments, such as <strong>in</strong>itial adverbials<br />
(see examples (40) and (41)), topics (examples (42) and (43)), dislocated affective phrases<br />
(example (44)), clefts (example (45)) and dislocated wh-phrases (example (46)):<br />
(40) Ele agora já n<strong>in</strong>guém costuma cozer. (OUT32)<br />
EXPL now already nobody uses to bake_bread<br />
‘Now nobody uses to bake bread anymore.’<br />
(41) Ele aqui nem se diz nublado. (AAL69)<br />
EXPL here not.even SE says nublado<br />
‘We do not even call it “nublado” here.’<br />
(42) Olhe que aquilo no livro! E <strong>ele</strong> [eu]i, o homem leu aquilo diante [de mimi]! (COV18)<br />
look that that <strong>in</strong>.the book and EXPL I the man read that before me<br />
‘Look, that was <strong>in</strong> the book! And me, the man read that before me!’<br />
(43) Haver… Ele [a fome]i não havia [-]i! (VPA06)<br />
have-INF EXPL the hunger NEG had<br />
‘As for exist<strong>in</strong>g, the hunger didn’t exist!’<br />
193
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
(44) Que <strong>ele</strong> até com um pau se malha. (MST37)<br />
QUE EXPL even with a stick SE threshs<br />
± ‘Actually we thresh even with a stick.’<br />
(45) Ele depois de vir do lago é que se amaçava. (FLF17)<br />
EXPL after of come-INF from.the lake is that SE struck-3SG<br />
‘It was after it comes from the lake that we struck the flax.’<br />
(46) Não sendo no Natal, (<strong>ele</strong>) quem é que os come?! N<strong>in</strong>guém. (OUT50)<br />
NEG be-GER <strong>in</strong>.the Christmas EXPL who is that them eat nobody<br />
‘If it is not by Christmas, who will eat them?! Nobody.’<br />
In all these examples, the expletive appears as the leftmost peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ment occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
a fairly “crowded” periphery. Thus, so-called peripheral <strong>ele</strong> seems to occupy a reasonably<br />
high position with<strong>in</strong> the left periphery, namely a position that may precede the sort of<br />
dislocated topic <strong>in</strong> (42). Remark that <strong>in</strong> this example of topic construction, the connection<br />
between the topic eu and the <strong>ele</strong>ment to which it is l<strong>in</strong>ked <strong>in</strong>side the comment – de mim –<br />
is not strongly marked syntactically (namely their categorial characterization is not the<br />
same), which makes us th<strong>in</strong>k of a fairly high position for this topic. Similarly, if we share<br />
Obenauer 2004’s idea that non-standard questions are encoded “through dedicated<br />
“higher” FPs [functional projections] of the left periphery” (Obenauer 2004: 18), aga<strong>in</strong> we<br />
would have the expletive <strong>in</strong> a higher peripheral position, s<strong>in</strong>ce it may occur before a whphrase<br />
<strong>in</strong> a rhetorical question, as <strong>in</strong> (46).<br />
In another example, however, the expletive appears “sandwiched” between a<br />
preverbal adverbial (nom<strong>in</strong>al) phrase and a higher hang<strong>in</strong>g topic.<br />
(47) "Ah, que tanta sorte e tal! Agora tu, <strong>ele</strong> qualquer dia o lobo vem e"… (CTL13)<br />
INTJ how much luck and so now you EXPL one day the wolf comes and<br />
‘Oh so much luck! Now you, one of these days the wolf comes and…’<br />
Naturally, even if the expletive is peripheral to the (peripheral) adverbial, it occurs <strong>in</strong> this<br />
case lower than the hang<strong>in</strong>g topic (which is normally assumed to occupy a fairly high<br />
position <strong>in</strong> the left periphery – cf. a.o. Ben<strong>in</strong>cà & Poletto 2001).<br />
It is however true that we may f<strong>in</strong>d the expletive below other peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ments.<br />
Remember, <strong>in</strong> particular, the follow<strong>in</strong>g CORDIAL-SIN examples:<br />
(48) Olhe, aqui são fêtãos. Isso, <strong>ele</strong> há cá muito – os fêtãos. (FIG12)<br />
look here are ferns that EXPL has here much – the ferns<br />
± ‘Look, these are ferns. Those, there are many here [ferns].’<br />
194<br />
(49) Os tabuleiros, <strong>ele</strong> também os há de barro, não é? (OUT31)<br />
the trays EXPL also them[CL.ACCUS] has of clay NEG is<br />
± ‘As for trays, there are also some of them which are made out of clay, isn’t it?’
5. EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE SYNTAX<br />
In this case, topicalized and left-dislocated phrases may be followed by expletive <strong>ele</strong>.<br />
In the follow<strong>in</strong>g example, the expletive occurs below a dislocated affective phrase:<br />
(50) Até aqui nestes olivais, <strong>ele</strong> há ali semeada. (LVR10)<br />
even here <strong>in</strong>.these olive_groves EXPL has there sownF<br />
± ‘Even <strong>in</strong> these olive groves, there is [null object] sown.<br />
These examples, however, share the peculiarity of <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g impersonal predicates, i.e.<br />
predicates which have a vacant subject position. In the next section, we will take a closer<br />
look at this type of non-peripheral examples to conclude that they may <strong>in</strong>stantiate a rather<br />
different grammatical <strong>ele</strong>ment <strong>in</strong> EP.<br />
Thus, for the purposes of this subsection, we may put such examples aside and<br />
conclude that peripheral/impersonal expletive <strong>ele</strong> most often occurs <strong>in</strong> a relatively high<br />
position <strong>in</strong> the left periphery of the sentence.<br />
As for the postverbal expletive, its behavior seems to be slightly different. We have<br />
seen above that topics and affective phrases do occur <strong>in</strong> a position preced<strong>in</strong>g the postverbal<br />
expletive:<br />
(51) INQ1 Diz que faz bem aos olhos.<br />
‘Interviewer1: They say that it is good for the eyes.’<br />
[…]<br />
INF2 Ah, bem aos olhos faz <strong>ele</strong> tudo, (…) quando não haver pouca sorte. (PAL28)<br />
INTJ good to.the eyes makes EXPL everyth<strong>in</strong>g when neg have_INF bad luck<br />
±‘Informant2: Oh, everyth<strong>in</strong>g is good for the eyes, when you do not have bad luck.’<br />
(52) Muitas azeitonas comeram <strong>ele</strong> os pastores!<br />
many olives ate EXPL the shepherds<br />
±‘The shepherds ate many olives!’<br />
(53) Muitas noites passaram <strong>ele</strong> os pastores na serra!<br />
many nights passed EXPL the shepherds <strong>in</strong>.the mounta<strong>in</strong><br />
± ‘The shepherds passed many nights at the mounta<strong>in</strong>!’<br />
Interest<strong>in</strong>gly, if we try to force the postverbal expletive (thus, necessarily accompanied by<br />
the verb) <strong>in</strong>to a pre-topic or pre-affective position, these peripheral constituents lose their<br />
topic/affective read<strong>in</strong>gs. Consider, for <strong>in</strong>stance, the follow<strong>in</strong>g sentences:<br />
(54) Comeram <strong>ele</strong> muitas azeitonas os pastores!<br />
ate EXPL many olives the shepherds<br />
(55) Passaram <strong>ele</strong> muitas noites os pastores na serra!<br />
passed EXPL many nights the shepherds <strong>in</strong>.the mounta<strong>in</strong><br />
195
(56) Berraram <strong>ele</strong> muito as ovelhas!<br />
bleated EXPL a lot the sheep<br />
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
Although the expletive seems to be possible <strong>in</strong> such sentences, the phrases muitas<br />
azeitonas, muitas noites, and muito are no longer <strong>in</strong>terpreted as dislocated affective<br />
phrases. Instead, the word order found <strong>in</strong> such sentences appears to manifest the<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation articulation found <strong>in</strong> their non-expletive counterparts (on such <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
articulation, see Costa 1998a, 2000a, 2000b):<br />
(57) Comeram muitas azeitonas os pastores.<br />
ate many olives the shepherds<br />
(58) Passaram muitas noites os pastores na serra.<br />
passed many nights the shepherds <strong>in</strong>.the mounta<strong>in</strong><br />
(59) Berraram muito as ovelhas.<br />
bleated a lot the sheep<br />
In (54) just like <strong>in</strong> (57), muitas azeitonas has a neutral object read<strong>in</strong>g and os pastores is a<br />
focused subject; <strong>in</strong> (55) just like <strong>in</strong> (58), muitas noites has a neutral object read<strong>in</strong>g and both<br />
the subject os pastores and na serra have foci read<strong>in</strong>gs; f<strong>in</strong>ally, <strong>in</strong> (56) just like <strong>in</strong> (59), the<br />
subject as ovelhas is focused.<br />
Hence, from the comparison between postverbal <strong>ele</strong> and peripheral/impersonal<br />
expletives with respect to the positions they may occupy <strong>in</strong> the left periphery, we may<br />
conclude that these types of expletives manifest a dissimilar behavior: while peripheral<br />
(and thus peripheral-like impersonal) expletives most often appear <strong>in</strong> high left peripheral<br />
positions, postverbal <strong>ele</strong> is not allowed <strong>in</strong> such positions, occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>stead <strong>in</strong> a lower<br />
peripheral position.<br />
The examples seen above partly illustrate another difference separat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
peripheral/impersonal expletives and postverbal expletive <strong>ele</strong>: their position with respect to<br />
the verb position. From those examples we may <strong>in</strong>fer that the peripheral/impersonal<br />
expletive has a relatively loose relation with the verb: as <strong>ele</strong> occurs <strong>in</strong> the periphery,<br />
several phrases may <strong>in</strong>tervene between the expletive and the verb; naturally, the expletive<br />
always precedes the <strong>in</strong>flected verb. As for postverbal expletives, the connection with the<br />
verb is of a different k<strong>in</strong>d. As the label “postverbal” <strong>in</strong>dicates, these expletives always<br />
occur after the verb, and, more importantly, adjacency between the <strong>in</strong>flected verbal form<br />
and the expletive is always required:<br />
196
5. EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE SYNTAX<br />
(60) Bem aos olhos (*<strong>ele</strong>) faz (<strong>ele</strong>) tudo (*<strong>ele</strong>)!<br />
good to.the eyes makes EXPL everyth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
(61) Isso (*<strong>ele</strong>) compreendemos (<strong>ele</strong>) bem (*<strong>ele</strong>)!<br />
that understand EXPL well<br />
(62) Muitas azeitonas (*<strong>ele</strong>) comeram (<strong>ele</strong>) os pastores(*<strong>ele</strong>)!<br />
many olives ate EXPL the shepherds<br />
(63) Muitas noites (*<strong>ele</strong>) passaram (<strong>ele</strong>) os pastores (*<strong>ele</strong>) na serra!<br />
many nights passed EXPL the shepherds <strong>in</strong>.the mounta<strong>in</strong><br />
(64) Muito (*<strong>ele</strong>) berraram (<strong>ele</strong>) as ovelhas (*<strong>ele</strong>)!<br />
a lot bleated EXPL the sheep<br />
We have thus verb adjacency as another important difference between<br />
peripheral/impersonal and postverbal expletives: while this is an obligatory requirement for<br />
the latter, the former do never comply with such a requirement.<br />
Now, we will look at the distribution of these expletives <strong>in</strong> embedded contexts. As all the<br />
examples seen above illustrate, both peripheral/impersonal and postverbal expletives occur<br />
<strong>in</strong> matrix/<strong>in</strong>dependent contexts. As for embedded contexts, we may remember some data<br />
from chapter 4 (see also section 5.1 above):<br />
(65) […] agora neste tempo, mais ou menos, Fevereiro, Março, é que <strong>ele</strong> ia outra<br />
now <strong>in</strong>.this time more or less February March is that EXPL went-3SG other<br />
máqu<strong>in</strong>a […] (AAL02)<br />
mach<strong>in</strong>e<br />
±‘It was now, at this time, February, March, that another mach<strong>in</strong>e was used.’<br />
(66) pois que préstimo teem agora as talhas, se êle não há já v<strong>in</strong>has? (Ribeiro 1927: 28)<br />
POIS what utility have now the ± tubs if EXPL NEG has still v<strong>in</strong>eyards<br />
± ‘So what is the utility of the tubs now, if there are no more v<strong>in</strong>eyards?’<br />
(67) Nós, antigamente, cozíamos quando <strong>ele</strong> v<strong>in</strong>ha o tempo de castanhas –<br />
we <strong>in</strong>.the.past cooked when EXPL came-3SG the time of chestnuts<br />
(que) também dávamos castanhas. (OUT32)<br />
QUE also gave-1PL chestnuts<br />
‘In the past, we used to cook [null object: the pig’s food] when was the chestnuts time –<br />
we also used to give [them] chestnuts.’<br />
(68) De vez em quando tem que se lhe dar uma mexidela.<br />
‘You have to stir it every now and then’<br />
E quando <strong>ele</strong> começa a vir aquela (…), quer dizer, a massa, (…) que ela lá dentro tem<br />
and when EXPL beg<strong>in</strong>s A come-INF that mean-3SG the paste QUE it there <strong>in</strong>side has<br />
aquela coalhada que daqui vai sa<strong>in</strong>do… (MST01)<br />
that curd which from.here goes gett<strong>in</strong>g out<br />
±‘And when that paste beg<strong>in</strong>s to appear – <strong>in</strong>side, it has that curd that one gets from<br />
this…’<br />
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(69) Mas olhe que eu, eu tenho a impressão (…) que <strong>ele</strong> que havia a<strong>in</strong>da lá disso.<br />
but look that I I have the impression that EXPL that had still there of.that<br />
± ‘But look, I have the impression that there was some of that there’ (AAL21)<br />
Besides the impersonal constructions illustrated by these examples, peripheral expletives <strong>in</strong><br />
non-impersonal constructions are also allowed <strong>in</strong> different types of embedded contexts:<br />
(70) As folhas saíam e a azeitona ficava ali, em cima dum pano limpo, que era para<br />
the leaves went.away and the olive rema<strong>in</strong>ed there upon of.a cloth clean QUE was for<br />
despois (de) já estar limpa para <strong>ele</strong> a gente pôr dentro duma canastra. (ALC17)<br />
after of already be-INF clean for EXPL the people put <strong>in</strong>side of.a basket<br />
± ‘Leaves were thrown away and olives were kept there, on a clean cloth, to be put <strong>in</strong>side<br />
a basket.’<br />
(71) T<strong>in</strong>ham que estar (…) que <strong>ele</strong> os porcos não os vissem. (PFT13)<br />
had-3PL QUE be-INF that EXPL the pigs NEG them[CL.ACCUS] see-IMPERF.SUBJ-3PL<br />
‘They had to be <strong>in</strong> such a way that the pigs would not see them.’<br />
(72) Se (<strong>ele</strong>) /lhe\ alguém disser alguma coisa, (…) diga-lhe que foi à m<strong>in</strong>ha ordem.<br />
if EXPL to.him anybody say-FUT.SUBJ any th<strong>in</strong>g tell-to. him that was to my order<br />
‘If anybody says anyth<strong>in</strong>g, you tell him that it was done under my orders’. (COV13)<br />
(73) Então, quando (…) (<strong>ele</strong>) o pão está lêvedo, acende-se o forno. (OUT24)<br />
so when EXPL the bread is leavened lights-SE the oven<br />
‘So, when the bread dough is leavened, we light the oven.’<br />
(74) Tu sabes bem que <strong>ele</strong> em Paçô <strong>ele</strong>s viram para aqu<strong>ele</strong> lado e a gente encam<strong>in</strong>hava<br />
you know well that EXPL <strong>in</strong> Paçô they turn to that side and the people turned<br />
logo para este lado. (COV28)<br />
immediately to this side<br />
‘You know well that at Paçô they turn to that side and we immediately turn to this side.’<br />
Contrast<strong>in</strong>g with the peripheral/impersonal expletive’s behavior, however, postverbal <strong>ele</strong><br />
seems to have a more constra<strong>in</strong>ed distribution <strong>in</strong> non-matrix contexts.<br />
As we have seen <strong>in</strong> chapter 4, under section 4.2.3.1, this expletive may occur <strong>in</strong><br />
dependent subjunctive clauses <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g verb movement to the C-doma<strong>in</strong>, as <strong>in</strong> the<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g example:<br />
(75) […] fosse <strong>ele</strong> o Inac<strong>in</strong>ho um cavador, pobre como Job,<br />
be-IMPERF.SUBJ-3SG EXPL the Inac<strong>in</strong>ho a digger poor like Job<br />
‘if/even if Inac<strong>in</strong>ho was a digger, as poor as Job’<br />
e me viesse dizer hoje: larga o homem de Aris, não era preciso que mo repetisse três<br />
vezes.”<br />
‘and if he came say<strong>in</strong>g to me: leave the man from Aris, it would not be necessary that he repeat that<br />
to me three times.’ (Aquil<strong>in</strong>o Ribeiro, Terras do Demo, pp. 294-295)<br />
Another example corresponds to a peripheral gerund adjunct clause, also <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g verb<br />
movement to the C-doma<strong>in</strong> (cf. Lobo 2001, 2003):<br />
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(76) Querendo (<strong>ele</strong>) /eu\ – por exemplo –, querendo (<strong>ele</strong>) /eu\ fazer uma teia de sacos,<br />
want-GER EXPL I for example want-GER EXPL I make-INF a tissue for sackcloth<br />
tira-se-lhe a estopa… (OUT12)<br />
take.out-SE-to.it the tow<br />
‘If one wants to make a tissue for sackcloth, one has to take the tow from it.’<br />
Remark that this type of clauses does not seem to display a uniform behavior with respect<br />
to the peripheral expletive:<br />
(77) *Ele fosse o Inac<strong>in</strong>ho um cavador, […] não era preciso que mo repetisse três vezes.<br />
(78) Ele querendo fazer uma teia de sacos, tira-se-lhe a estopa…<br />
Another example of postverbal <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> embedded contexts <strong>in</strong> the CORDIAL-SIN data<br />
<strong>in</strong>volves a free relative with<strong>in</strong> a cleft construction:<br />
(79) A gente o que chama (<strong>ele</strong>) um enxame grande é assim com um cortiço aquase<br />
the people what calls EXPL a swarm of bees big is thus with a beehive almost<br />
cheio de abelhas. (COV37)<br />
full of bees<br />
‘What we call a big swarm of bees is a beehive almost full of bees.’<br />
In this case, the peripheral expletive would also be allowed to occur <strong>in</strong>ternally to the free<br />
relative:<br />
(80) a. A gente o que <strong>ele</strong> chama um cortiço…<br />
b. O que <strong>ele</strong> a gente chama um cortiço…<br />
Remark that postverbal expletives are equally allowed <strong>in</strong> non-embedded wh-clauses, like <strong>in</strong><br />
the question <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g example:<br />
(81) INF 1 Chegou aqui, a mulher: “Ah”! – com as pernas (todas de rojo) às costas do homem.<br />
Diz: “Ó Arquibaldo”! Disse: “Que é”? “Acode a esta mulher que ela morre”.<br />
‘Informant 1: The woman arrived here: “Ah”! – the man was carry<strong>in</strong>g her on his back, her legs<br />
trail<strong>in</strong>g along the ground. He said: “Hey Arquibaldo”! The other said: “What is it?” “Help this<br />
woman because she is dy<strong>in</strong>g”.<br />
INF2 E quem era <strong>ele</strong>?<br />
and who was EXPL<br />
‘And who was she?’<br />
INF1 Era a de Riba de Agualva!<br />
‘She was the woman from Riba de Agualva!’<br />
As we have seen <strong>in</strong> chapter 4, <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>terrogatives, a peripheral expletive must precede the<br />
wh-word:<br />
199
(82) a. *E quem <strong>ele</strong> era?<br />
b. E <strong>ele</strong> quem era?<br />
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
The <strong>in</strong>terrogative <strong>in</strong> (81) deserves careful consideration. As it stands, it seems quite<br />
uncontroversial to say that such <strong>in</strong>terrogative corresponds to a standard wh-question. At<br />
least, the ma<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>formant (INF1) understands it as a standard <strong>in</strong>terrogative, s<strong>in</strong>ce he<br />
answers to it with the r<strong>ele</strong>vant new <strong>in</strong>formation. Thus, the postverbal expletive seems to<br />
differ from the peripheral one <strong>in</strong> that the latter is restra<strong>in</strong>ed to non-standard questions, as<br />
discussed <strong>in</strong> chapter 4, section 4.4. However, we shall also consider examples like the<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g, which <strong>in</strong>volve a non-impersonal predicate:<br />
(83) Quem { comerá, comeu } <strong>ele</strong> estes bolos?<br />
who eat-FUT-3SG eat-PERF-3SG EXPL these cakes<br />
(84) a. *Quem <strong>ele</strong> {comerá, comeu} estes bolos?<br />
b. Ele quem {comerá, comeu} estes bolos?<br />
As already mentioned above, the peripheral expletive must precede the wh-word. As for<br />
the <strong>in</strong>terrogative <strong>in</strong>terpretation, there seems to be a difference between (83) and the<br />
question <strong>in</strong> (81). The presence of the postverbal expletive <strong>in</strong> (83) appears to block the<br />
standard wh-question read<strong>in</strong>g: this <strong>in</strong>terrogative would then be <strong>in</strong>terpreted as a rhetorical<br />
question (especially, when <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the verb <strong>in</strong>flected for the Future) or as a<br />
surprise/disapproval question (<strong>in</strong> particular, when the verb is <strong>in</strong>flected for the Perfect).<br />
Thus, just like the peripheral expletive, postverbal <strong>ele</strong> also appears to <strong>in</strong>duce a<br />
non-standard question read<strong>in</strong>g, contrary to what is suggested by example (81). I would like<br />
to suggest that the crucial difference which plays a role here is the impersonal nature of the<br />
verb <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the question considered <strong>in</strong> (81). As will be discussed below, <strong>in</strong> section<br />
5.3, impersonal predicates display some peculiarities with respect to the position of the soconsidered<br />
expletive. Discussion of this po<strong>in</strong>t is thus postponed to that section. For the<br />
purposes of this subsection, it would be more accurate to discard example (81), while<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g that postverbal expletives are allowed <strong>in</strong> wh-questions, as (83) <strong>in</strong>dependently<br />
confirms.<br />
Return<strong>in</strong>g to embedded contexts, it must be noted that postverbal <strong>ele</strong> seems to be<br />
excluded from that-clauses:<br />
(85)<br />
200<br />
? *{Dizem, acho} que bem aos olhos faz <strong>ele</strong> tudo.<br />
say-3PL th<strong>in</strong>k-1SG that good to.the eyes makes EXPL everyth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
‘{They say, I th<strong>in</strong>k} that everyth<strong>in</strong>g is good for the eyes.’
(86)<br />
(87)<br />
(88)<br />
(89)<br />
(90)<br />
(91)<br />
5. EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE SYNTAX<br />
? *Sabemos que muitas azeitonas comeram <strong>ele</strong> os pastores.<br />
know-1PL that many olives ate EXPL the shepherds<br />
‘They say that the shepherds ate many olives.’<br />
? *Dizem que muitas noites passaram <strong>ele</strong> os pastores na serra!<br />
say-3PL that many nights passed EXPL the shepherds <strong>in</strong>.the mounta<strong>in</strong><br />
‘They say that the shepherds passed many nights at the mounta<strong>in</strong>.’<br />
? *Dizem que muito berraram <strong>ele</strong> as ovelhas!<br />
say-3PL that a lot bleated EXPL the sheep<br />
‘They say that the sheep bleated a lot.’<br />
? *Dizem que era <strong>ele</strong> numa carroça.<br />
say-3PL that wasEXPL <strong>in</strong>.a cart<br />
‘They say that it was <strong>in</strong> a cart.’<br />
? *Dizem que a pastora vai <strong>ele</strong> estando rica…<br />
say-3PL that the shepherdess is EXPL be-GER rich<br />
‘They say that the shepherdess is almost rich…’<br />
? *Dizem que nas barreiras das estradas há <strong>ele</strong><br />
say-3PL that <strong>in</strong>.the sides of.the roads has EXPL<br />
‘They say that on the flanks of the roads, there is [rosemary].’<br />
Remember, however, that these were perfect contexts for a peripheral/impersonal<br />
expletive:<br />
(92) Tu sabes bem que <strong>ele</strong> em Paçô <strong>ele</strong>s viram para aqu<strong>ele</strong> lado e a gente encam<strong>in</strong>hava<br />
you know well that EXPL <strong>in</strong> Paçô they turn to that side and the people turned<br />
logo para este lado. (COV28)<br />
immediately to this side<br />
‘You know well that at Paçô they turn to that side and we immediately turn to this side.’<br />
(93) Acho que <strong>ele</strong> a pastora vai estando rica…<br />
th<strong>in</strong>k-1SG that EXPL the shepherdess is be-GER rich<br />
‘I th<strong>in</strong>k that the shepherdess is almost rich…’<br />
(94) Dizem que <strong>ele</strong> era numa carroça.<br />
say-3PL that EXPL was <strong>in</strong>.a cart<br />
‘They say that it was <strong>in</strong> a cart.’<br />
From the facts presented above, we may conclude that peripheral/impersonal expletives<br />
and postverbal <strong>ele</strong> also differ <strong>in</strong> their distribution <strong>in</strong> embedded contexts: while the former<br />
do not display any significant asymmetry oppos<strong>in</strong>g matrix and embedded contexts, the<br />
distribution of the latter is much more restra<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> embedded contexts than <strong>in</strong> matrix<br />
sentences.<br />
Before compar<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>terpretive effects of these two types of expletives, let us recall<br />
another dist<strong>in</strong>ctive feature already discussed <strong>in</strong> chapter 4: the behavior of<br />
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peripheral/impersonal expletives versus that of postverbal <strong>ele</strong> with respect to alternation<br />
with a neuter demonstrative pronoun. As we have seen, while peripheral and impersonal<br />
expletives may normally be commuted <strong>in</strong>to neutral demonstrative pronouns (see examples<br />
(95) through (101), where a demonstrative occurs <strong>in</strong> contexts usual for impersonal and<br />
peripheral <strong>ele</strong>), postverbal expletives do not admit such a substitution, as illustrated by<br />
examples (102) and (103):<br />
(95) (…) E assim é que é, mas aquilo era um chiadeiro enorme. (AAL42)<br />
and like.this is that is but that was a creak<strong>in</strong>g huge<br />
‘And that is this way that it should be, but it was a huge creak<strong>in</strong>g.’<br />
(96) Há cardos. Aquilo há cardos. (AAL75)<br />
has thistles that has thistles<br />
±‘There are thistles. There are thistles.’<br />
(97) Que isso era muito difícil de aparecer uma maçaroca mesmo roxa. (AAL17)<br />
QUE that was very difficult of appear-INF an ear.of.corn even violet<br />
±‘It was difficult that an all violet ear of corn appears’.<br />
(98) Quando aquilo já estava a palha toda tirada, a gente agarrava (...) numa giesta […]<br />
when that already was the straw all taken.out the people held <strong>in</strong>.a genista<br />
‘When the straw was actually all taken out, we held a stick of genista …’ (AAL10)<br />
(99) Aquilo o forno levava ali três ou quatro tabuleiros, não é, até três ou quatro fregueses, […]<br />
that the oven took there three or four trays NEG is till three or four customers<br />
±‘The oven took three or four trays, isn’t it, so three or four customers…’ (AAL18)<br />
(100) Aquilo o carneiro, o carneiro tira-se é os 'grões'. (ALC26)<br />
that the sheep the sheep takes.out-SE is the ‘grões’<br />
±‘As for sheep, what we do is to take out the testicles.’<br />
(101) Quer dizer, isso um carp<strong>in</strong>teiro é que pode dizer todos esses nomes […] (LVR26)<br />
means that a carpenter is that can tell all those names<br />
‘I mean, a carpenter is the one who can tell all those names…’<br />
(102) Bem aos olhos faz {<strong>ele</strong>, *isto, *aquilo, *isso} tudo…<br />
good to.the eyes makes EXPL this that everyth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
(103) Isso compreendemos {<strong>ele</strong>, *isto, *aquilo, *isso} bem.<br />
that understand-1PL EXPL this that well<br />
Thus, as far as demonstrative substitution is concerned, the evidence is also fairly<br />
compell<strong>in</strong>g for a dist<strong>in</strong>ction between peripheral and impersonal expletives on the one hand,<br />
and the postverbal expletive on the other.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ally, let us reconsider the discourse effects of these two types of expletives. As seen <strong>in</strong><br />
chapter 4, the peripheral/impersonal expletive has the generalized effect of re<strong>in</strong>forc<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
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pragmatic value of the sentence where it appears. In fact, we have seen that <strong>in</strong> exclamative<br />
sentences like those <strong>in</strong> (104), it is the expressive value that is emphasized by the expletive:<br />
(104) a. Ele nunca me olhava a nada, nunca t<strong>in</strong>ha medo nenhum! (ALV25)<br />
EXPL never ± avoided anyth<strong>in</strong>g never had fright/fear any<br />
‘I never avoided anyth<strong>in</strong>g, I never was afraid!’<br />
b. Quem sabe lá que carne é aquela! […] Ele não sabe! (COV14)<br />
who knows LÁ what meat is that EXPL NEG knows<br />
‘Who knows what k<strong>in</strong>d of meat is that! We don’t know!’<br />
c. Ele tem-me acontecido aqui cada uma! (COV23)<br />
EXPL has-to.me[CL.DAT] happenned here such one<br />
±‘I have suffered such th<strong>in</strong>gs here!’<br />
Similarly, <strong>in</strong> imperative sentences allow<strong>in</strong>g the expletive, it is the command value of the<br />
imperative that is strenghtened. Accord<strong>in</strong>gly, as shown <strong>in</strong> chapter 4 (section 4.4), the<br />
expletive may co-occur with other imperative re<strong>in</strong>forcers (such as já, lá, mesmo), but it<br />
may not be comb<strong>in</strong>ed with mitigation expressions (such as se não se importam ‘if you<br />
don’t m<strong>in</strong>d’, por favor ‘please’):<br />
(105) a. Ele vamos {já, lá, mesmo} embora!<br />
EXPL go-PRES.SUBJ-1PL JÁ LÁ MESMO away<br />
b. # Ele vamos embora {se não se importam, por favor}!<br />
EXPL go-PRES.SUBJ-1PL away if you don’t m<strong>in</strong>d please<br />
In <strong>in</strong>terrogative sentences, the expletive appears rather related to exclamatives. In fact, it<br />
appears to re<strong>in</strong>force the expressive value shared by the type of questions where it is<br />
allowed: non-standard questions, i.e. questions which do not really search for the value of a<br />
variable (for <strong>in</strong>stance, rhetorical questions, as <strong>in</strong> (106)).<br />
(106) Não sendo no Natal, (<strong>ele</strong>) quem é que os come?! N<strong>in</strong>guém. (OUT50)<br />
NEG be-GER <strong>in</strong>.the Christmas EXPL who is that them eat nobody<br />
‘If it is not by Christmas, who will eat them?! Nobody.’<br />
In declarative sentences, <strong>in</strong> turn, it is the assertive value of the utterance that is<br />
emphasized, the expletive act<strong>in</strong>g as a sort of strong evidentiality marker. In fact, with such<br />
expletive constructions the speaker appears to <strong>in</strong>dicate that he strongly stands for the truth<br />
of the statement he is mak<strong>in</strong>g. In this sense, such sentences are easily followed by a<br />
question-tag. Although a tag may pragmatically act as a real confirmation request for the<br />
content of the sentence which it follows, another type of tags may actually signal the<br />
“speaker confidence <strong>in</strong> the content for which confirmation is be<strong>in</strong>g requested” (see, for<br />
<strong>in</strong>stance, Fraser 1996: 177-178). Thus, the tag <strong>in</strong> example (107) below appears to be<br />
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EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
consistent with the expletive construction that precedes it, <strong>in</strong> that both the expletive and the<br />
tag-question signal that the speaker is relatively confident of what he is say<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
(107) Bom, <strong>ele</strong> há várias estrelas, não é? (AAL92)<br />
good EXPL has several stars NEG is<br />
‘Well, there are several stars, aren’t there?’<br />
To the same effect, consider the follow<strong>in</strong>g contrast:<br />
(108) A: Os cães comeram os ossos, não foi?<br />
‘A: The dogs ate the bones, didn’t they?’<br />
B: Não(, não comeram).<br />
no NEG ate-3PL<br />
‘No, they didn’t.’<br />
(109) A: Ele os cães comeram os ossos, não foi?<br />
‘A: EXPL + The dogs ate the bones, didn’t they?’<br />
B: # Não(, não comeram).<br />
no NEG ate-3PL<br />
The contrast between the responses <strong>in</strong> (108) and (109) seems <strong>in</strong> effect to confirm that the<br />
expletive re<strong>in</strong>forces the assertive value of a declarative sentence. In fact, if we add a tag to<br />
a non-expletive sentence, as <strong>in</strong> (108), the confirmation request may be <strong>in</strong>terpreted as a real<br />
request that the addressee confirms the content of the previous sentence (although, it may<br />
also alternatively signal the speaker’s confidence <strong>in</strong> that content). Accord<strong>in</strong>gly, a negative<br />
answer may be given by the addressee. In contrast, however, the tag after the expletive<br />
construction <strong>in</strong> (109) appears to allow only the strong confidence signal effect. Thus, a<br />
negative response would not be felicitous <strong>in</strong> such context (at least, the speaker would not<br />
expect it), which might be the corollary of the effect of the peripheral expletive.<br />
As for the postverbal expletive, its discourse effect seems to be slightly different.<br />
As will become clearer below, the postverbal <strong>ele</strong> appears to <strong>in</strong>duce a particular pragmatic<br />
value. Consider, aga<strong>in</strong>, the follow<strong>in</strong>g declarative sentence, with an assertive pragmatic<br />
value:<br />
(110) Os cães comeram os ossos.<br />
the dogs ate-3PL the bones<br />
‘The dogs ate the bones.’<br />
If we add a peripheral expletive to this sentence, its pragmatic value does not seem to be<br />
changed. Quite on the contrary, the assertive value results re<strong>in</strong>forced, as we have seen<br />
above.<br />
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5. EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE SYNTAX<br />
Now, if we try to add a postverbal expletive to sentence (110), the assertive value<br />
appears to be no longer available. Accord<strong>in</strong>gly, a question-tag after such expletive<br />
construction would orig<strong>in</strong>ate a non-felicitous example, as <strong>in</strong> (111):<br />
(111) Os cães comeram <strong>ele</strong> os ossos, # {não foi, não comeram}?<br />
the dogs ate-3PL EXPL the bones NEG was NEG ate-3PL<br />
We may confirm such a behavior with some attested CORDIAL-SIN examples, which <strong>in</strong><br />
fact do not seem to allow for a question-tag: 5<br />
(112) Bem aos olhos faz <strong>ele</strong> tudo, # {não é, não faz}?<br />
good to.the eyes makes EXPL everyth<strong>in</strong>g NEG is NEG makes<br />
(113) Ele aqui debaixo tenho <strong>ele</strong> assim umas pias, # {não é, não tenho}?<br />
EXPL here under[this] have-1SG EXPL thus some s<strong>in</strong>ks NEG is NEG have-1SG<br />
Remark that such question-tags would be felicitous, if the expletive was not present:<br />
(114) Bem aos olhos faz tudo, {não é, não faz}?<br />
good to.the eyes makes everyth<strong>in</strong>g NEG is NEG makes<br />
(115) Ele aqui debaixo tenho assim umas pias, {não é, não tenho}?<br />
EXPL here under[this] have-1SG thus some s<strong>in</strong>ks NEG is NEG have-1SG<br />
Assum<strong>in</strong>g with Costa 2002 and Duarte apud Costa 2002 that the impossibility of such<br />
question-tag may <strong>in</strong>dicate the non-assertive value of the sentence to which the tag is added,<br />
I take then this resistance to receiv<strong>in</strong>g a tag as an <strong>in</strong>dication that postverbal expletive<br />
constructions do not <strong>in</strong>volve any assertive value.<br />
In fact, constructions <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g postverbal <strong>ele</strong> rather compare to exclamative<br />
sentences. Recall, for <strong>in</strong>stance, the follow<strong>in</strong>g example:<br />
5<br />
An apparent counter-example comes from CORDIAL-SIN data transcribed more recently (not <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong><br />
the subcorpus considered for the present work):<br />
(i) A senhora quer <strong>ele</strong> os cestos é à moda antiga, não é?<br />
the lady wants EXPL the baskets is after.the fashion old NEG is<br />
±‘It is after the old way of do<strong>in</strong>g how the lady wants to know how the baskets were made, isn’t it?’<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce this sentence <strong>in</strong>volves a peculiar way of cleft<strong>in</strong>g (cf. Costa and Duarte 2001’s “basic<br />
semi-pseudocleft”), and the expletive appears <strong>in</strong>side the part correspond<strong>in</strong>g to a free relative (compare (ii)), I<br />
would not pair off this case with those considered above, which <strong>in</strong>volve matrix contexts.<br />
(ii) [Como] a senhora quer os cestos é à moda antiga<br />
how the lady wants the baskets is after the old way of do<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Remark that the tag after the cleft does not repeat the verb occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>side the free relative but the verb ser<br />
‘to be’ from the cleft construction:<br />
(iv) Como a senhora quer os cestos é à moda antiga, {não é, # não quer}?<br />
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EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
(116) Às vezes aparece <strong>ele</strong> aí cada 'riaga'! (OUT09)<br />
sometimes appears EXPL there such ‘riaga’<br />
‘Sometimes we f<strong>in</strong>d such a ‘riaga’!’<br />
In this case, the postverbal expletive does not change the value of the sentence. Remark<br />
that, if the expletive was not present, this sentence would equally qualify as an exclamative<br />
– the exclamative value is here essentially dependent on the use of the <strong>in</strong>def<strong>in</strong>ite cada<br />
‘literally, each’. The postverbal expletive, thus, is not <strong>in</strong>compatible with such a value. On<br />
the contrary, constructions which have been argued to be exclamative or evaluative, like<br />
Raposo’s “affective” constructions (see Ambar 1999, Costa 2002), easily accept the<br />
postverbal expletive:<br />
(117) Muitas flores recebeu <strong>ele</strong> a Maria!<br />
many flowers received EXPL the Maria<br />
Other exclamative sentences <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g the expression of an evaluation by the speaker (see<br />
Ambar 1999: 42) also admit postverbal <strong>ele</strong>:<br />
(118) a. L<strong>in</strong>da casa comprou <strong>ele</strong> a Maria!<br />
beautiful house bought EXPL the Maria<br />
b. Isso sabe <strong>ele</strong> a Maria!<br />
that knows EXPL the Maria<br />
As already noted above, <strong>in</strong> affective / exclamative sentences which allow either a<br />
postverbal or a preverbal subject, the expletive is only possible when the subject occurs<br />
postverbally: 6<br />
(119) Muitas flores a Maria recebeu (*<strong>ele</strong>)!<br />
(120) L<strong>in</strong>da casa a Maria comprou (*<strong>ele</strong>)!<br />
Exclamative / evaluative sentences <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g a postverbal subject thus generally appear to<br />
allow a postverbal expletive.<br />
In other exclamative sentences, postverbal <strong>ele</strong> equally appears to be generally<br />
allowed. Its effect <strong>in</strong> exclamative sentences seems to be merely emphatic: it only re<strong>in</strong>forces<br />
6 Exclamatives which do not <strong>in</strong>volve a quantified expression or an evaluative <strong>ele</strong>ment <strong>in</strong> the dislocated<br />
phrase, as (118)b, seem to be more strict with respect to the subject position, to the extent that they usually<br />
require a postverbal subject. Accord<strong>in</strong>gly, <strong>in</strong> a sentence like (i) the exclamative/evaluative value seems to be<br />
lost, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> an assertive utterance:<br />
(i) Isso a Maria sabe(, não sabe?)<br />
that the Mary knows NEG knows<br />
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5. EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE SYNTAX<br />
an expressive value already manifested by the sequence where it appears. In this sense,<br />
postverbal <strong>ele</strong> bears some resemblance to the peripheral expletive occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> exclamative<br />
sentences, modulo a different position.<br />
In sentences which do not present such expressive import by themselves, the effect<br />
of the postverbal expletive seems however to be that of add<strong>in</strong>g precisely such exclamative<br />
or evaluative value, as we have seen above. Thus, <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g CORDIAL-SIN data,<br />
the expressive force of the r<strong>ele</strong>vant sentences is allegedly dependent on the presence of<br />
postverbal <strong>ele</strong>.<br />
(121) Dantes é que era frio. Agora não é <strong>ele</strong> nada! (female, Portalegre, age c.70y, low educ.)<br />
long.ago is that was cold now NEG is EXPL noth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
‘Long ago it was cold. Now it is noth<strong>in</strong>g!’<br />
(122) Era, era. Era <strong>ele</strong> nas eiras! (TRC70 )<br />
was was was EXPL<strong>in</strong>.the thresh<strong>in</strong>gfloors<br />
±‘Indeed it was. It was <strong>in</strong> the thresh<strong>in</strong>gfloors!’<br />
(123) INQ1 […] E para levar… Para levar coisas? Por exemplo, se não fosse para levar pessoas?<br />
‘Interviewer1: […] And to carry… to carry goods? For <strong>in</strong>stance, if it was not to carry people?’<br />
INF1 Era <strong>ele</strong> numa carroça! (MIG14)<br />
was EXPL <strong>in</strong>.a cart<br />
‘Informant1: It was <strong>in</strong> a cart!’<br />
(124) INF: Alecrim. Aí na estrada também há. Em primeiro era só nalgum jardim ou cá...<br />
‘Informant: Rosemary. There is that also near the road. Long ago there was that only <strong>in</strong> gardens or<br />
here…’<br />
(Por aí) nas estradas, nas barreiras das estradas há <strong>ele</strong>. [ALEPG, Arraiolos 2 side1: 521]<br />
there <strong>in</strong>.the roads <strong>in</strong>.the sides of.the roads has EXPL<br />
± ‘There, near the roads, on the flanks of the roads, there is [rosemary].’<br />
(125) INQ1 Uma outra, assim comprid<strong>in</strong>ha.<br />
‘Interviewer1: Another one, which is quite long.’<br />
INF2 Eu não me lembro disso.<br />
‘Informant2: I don’t remember that.’<br />
INQ1 Diz que faz bem aos olhos.<br />
‘Interviewer1: They say that it is good for the eyes.’<br />
[…]<br />
INF2 Ah, bem aos olhos faz <strong>ele</strong> tudo, (…) quando não haver pouca sorte. (PAL28)<br />
INTJ good to.the eyes makes EXPL everyth<strong>in</strong>g when NEG have-INF bad luck<br />
±‘Informant2: Oh, everyth<strong>in</strong>g is good for the eyes, when you do not have bad luck.’<br />
(126) Olhe que este l<strong>in</strong>ho está bem f<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>ho. […] Pois eu, ao passar o dedo, fica-me <strong>ele</strong><br />
look that this flax is very th<strong>in</strong> POIS I A.the slide-INF the f<strong>in</strong>ger stays-to.me EXPL<br />
o coiso cheio (…) de arestas. (OUT13)<br />
the th<strong>in</strong>g full of edges<br />
±‘Look, this flax is very th<strong>in</strong>. And, despite that, when I slide my f<strong>in</strong>ger over it, it becomes<br />
full of edges.’<br />
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EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
(127) As pias há-as quadradas (e) há outras redondas, não é? […] Eu tenho-as aí…<br />
‘As for s<strong>in</strong>ks, there are some of them square and some rond, isn’t it? I have some there…’<br />
[…] Ele aqui debaixo tenho <strong>ele</strong> assim umas pias para os pequen<strong>in</strong>os, para lá comerem,<br />
EXPL here under[this] have-1SG EXPL thus some s<strong>in</strong>ks to the small.ones to there eat-INF-3PL<br />
± ‘Here, under this, I have some s<strong>in</strong>ks for the small ones, for them to eat there.’ (OUT33)<br />
A related context where postverbal <strong>ele</strong> may also appear corresponds to non-standard<br />
(expressive) questions. As mentioned above, <strong>in</strong> a sentence like (83), here repeated as (128),<br />
the postverbal expletive seems to have the effect of block<strong>in</strong>g a true question <strong>in</strong>terpretation,<br />
rather re<strong>in</strong>forc<strong>in</strong>g the expressive read<strong>in</strong>g of the rhetorical / surprise-disapprov<strong>in</strong>g question:<br />
(128) Quem { comerá, comeu } <strong>ele</strong> estes bolos?<br />
who eat-FUT-3SG eat-PERF-3SG EXPL these cakes<br />
We may thus conclude that with respect to their effect at the discourse level,<br />
peripheral/impersonal expletives and postverbal <strong>ele</strong> must also be dist<strong>in</strong>guished: while the<br />
latter appear essentially related to an expressive pragmatic value, which they may re<strong>in</strong>force<br />
or create by themselves, the former act as re<strong>in</strong>forcers of other pragmatic values besides the<br />
expressive one, namely <strong>in</strong> assertions and commands.<br />
Summ<strong>in</strong>g up: I have begun this subsection by consider<strong>in</strong>g the hypothesis that all types of<br />
expletive <strong>ele</strong> may reduce to a s<strong>in</strong>gle category. However, when we compare the behavior of<br />
peripheral, impersonal and postverbal expletives <strong>in</strong> EP dialects, as it was done <strong>in</strong> this<br />
subsection, we f<strong>in</strong>d significant and systematic differences which lead us to dist<strong>in</strong>guish<br />
peripheral/impersonal <strong>ele</strong>, on the one hand, and postverbal <strong>ele</strong>, on the other. In this<br />
subsection we discussed evidence on: (i) the position of the expletive <strong>in</strong> the left periphery;<br />
(ii) its position with respect to the <strong>in</strong>flected verb; (iii) its distribution <strong>in</strong> embedded contexts;<br />
and (iv) alternation between an expletive and a neuter demonstrative pronoun. The ma<strong>in</strong><br />
differences between both types of expletives are summarized below <strong>in</strong> Table 1:<br />
208<br />
PERIPHERAL/<br />
IMPERSONAL<br />
EXPL<br />
POSTVERBAL<br />
EXPL<br />
position <strong>in</strong> the periphery high low<br />
distribution <strong>in</strong> embedded contexts<br />
less<br />
restricted<br />
more<br />
restricted<br />
verb adjacency - +<br />
demonstrative substitution + -<br />
Table 1. Contrast<strong>in</strong>g peripheral/impersonal expletives with postverbal <strong>ele</strong>
5. EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE SYNTAX<br />
Another difference between these two types of expletives concerns their effect on the<br />
discourse level. While peripheral/impersonal <strong>ele</strong> acts as a k<strong>in</strong>d of re<strong>in</strong>forcer for different<br />
pragmatic values <strong>in</strong> different sentence types (namely, the expressive value of certa<strong>in</strong><br />
exclamatives and non-standard questions, the command effect of imperatives and the<br />
assertive value of declaratives), postverbal <strong>ele</strong> is more strictly connected with expressive<br />
utterances. More specifically, it may act as a sort of evaluative marker, to the extent that<br />
this k<strong>in</strong>d of expressive value may be dependent on the presence of a postverbal expletive.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ally, there is an additional argument for ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g that we cannot subsume all cases<br />
of expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong>to a s<strong>in</strong>gle unit: the peripheral expletive may co-occur with postverbal<br />
<strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> the same sentence, as <strong>in</strong> (129), which would be unexpected if they were members of<br />
a s<strong>in</strong>gle class.<br />
(129) As pias há-as quadradas (e) há outras redondas, não é? […] Eu tenho-as aí…<br />
‘As for s<strong>in</strong>ks, there are some of them square and some rond, isn’t it? I have some there…’<br />
[…] Ele aqui debaixo tenho <strong>ele</strong> assim umas pias para os pequen<strong>in</strong>os, para lá comerem,<br />
EXPL here under[this] have-1SG EXPL thus some s<strong>in</strong>ks to the small.ones to there eat-INF-3PL<br />
± ‘Here, under this, I have some s<strong>in</strong>ks for the small ones, for them to eat there.’ (OUT33)<br />
Given the evidence discussed <strong>in</strong> this subsection, we may thus conclude that, just like the<br />
peripheral/impersonal expletive, postverbal <strong>ele</strong> is also to be related to the left periphery of<br />
the sentence <strong>in</strong> EP; and that the former and the latter may not be subsumed <strong>in</strong>to a s<strong>in</strong>gle<br />
category, a po<strong>in</strong>t to which I will return <strong>in</strong> section 5.5 below.<br />
5.3 The expletive and [Spec, IP]<br />
So far, there is ample reason to adhere to the idea that overt expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> EP is <strong>in</strong> fact<br />
very different from NNSL’s subject expletives. In fact, the evidence presented <strong>in</strong> the<br />
previous sections po<strong>in</strong>ts out to an expletive relat<strong>in</strong>g to positions <strong>in</strong> the left periphery, which<br />
actually fits well the characterization of an <strong>ele</strong>ment bear<strong>in</strong>g some discourse-related import.<br />
Although <strong>in</strong> chapter 4 we have presented some examples of expletive constructions<br />
as correspond<strong>in</strong>g to “regular” expletive contexts, i.e. constructions where the expletive<br />
could <strong>in</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>ciple occupy the subject position (see above section 4.2.1 “Subject-like<br />
expletive <strong>in</strong> impersonal constructions”), we subsequently admitted that such expletives<br />
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EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
might well correspond to peripheral-like expletives occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the periphery of a null<br />
expletive subject, as proposed by Uriagereka 2004 (see section 5.1 above). Thus, just like<br />
overtly peripheral expletives, the expletive occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> impersonal constructions may<br />
occupy a position different from the structural subject position (for the purposes of the<br />
present work, we may take such subject position as simply [Spec, IP]). As for postverbal<br />
<strong>ele</strong>, section 5.2.1 above also provides evidence that this expletive cannot occupy the<br />
subject position either, rather perta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g to the C-doma<strong>in</strong>.<br />
In this subsection however we will discuss some cases which seem to complicate such an<br />
analysis. In fact, as we have already noted above (see <strong>in</strong> particular section 5.1), the<br />
peripheral analysis does not extend to all <strong>in</strong>stances of expletive <strong>ele</strong> without problems.<br />
Let us consider then the first set of problematic examples. These correspond to cases where<br />
some peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ment appears to the left of the expletive, as <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g examples:<br />
(130) Olhe, aqui são fêtãos. Isso, <strong>ele</strong> há cá muito – os fêtãos. (FIG12)<br />
look here are ferns that EXPL has here much – the ferns<br />
± ‘Look, these are ferns. Those, there are many here (ferns)’<br />
(131) Os tabuleiros, <strong>ele</strong> também os há de barro, não é? (OUT31)<br />
the trays EXPL also them has of clay NEG is<br />
± ‘As for trays, there are also some of them made out of clay, isn’t it?’<br />
(132) Há algum tempo – agora não –, mas há algum tempo – agora tenho água<br />
has some time now NEG but has some time now have-PRES-1SG water<br />
em casa –, mas naqu<strong>ele</strong> tempo, (<strong>ele</strong>) havia uns canecos que era para vir<br />
at home but <strong>in</strong>.that time EXPL had some mugs QUE was to come<br />
à fonte, uns canecos de madeira, […] (COV13)<br />
to.the founta<strong>in</strong> some mugs of wood<br />
± ‘Some time ago – not now, but some time ago – now I have water at home –, but <strong>in</strong> that<br />
time, there were mugs that we take to the founta<strong>in</strong>, some wooden mugs...’<br />
(133) Até aqui nestes olivais, <strong>ele</strong> há ali semeada. (LVR10)<br />
even here <strong>in</strong>.these olive_groves EXPL has there sownF<br />
± ‘Even <strong>in</strong> these olive groves, there is [null object] sown.<br />
Thus, as we have already mentioned, expletive <strong>ele</strong> may be preceded by topicalized<br />
constituents, clitic left dislocated phrases, sentence <strong>in</strong>itial adverbials and dislocated<br />
focused phrases, which typically occur as left peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ments. As suggested above,<br />
wh-questions may also present a similar pattern, with the dislocated wh-phrase before the<br />
expletive:<br />
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5. EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE SYNTAX<br />
(134) ? Em que olivais <strong>ele</strong> há essa erva?<br />
<strong>in</strong> which olive_groves EXPL has that plant<br />
Hence, different k<strong>in</strong>ds of peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ments may <strong>in</strong> fact precede this otherwise peripheral<br />
expletive.<br />
A simple way to derive this word order would naturally be to assume that the<br />
expletive stays <strong>in</strong> [Spec, IP]. S<strong>in</strong>ce these examples all <strong>in</strong>volve impersonal predicates (more<br />
precisely, existential haver), there is no available argument which may occupy such subject<br />
position. [Spec, IP] would then be a good candidate position for the expletive – <strong>ele</strong> would<br />
<strong>in</strong> that case stay <strong>in</strong> a position otherwise filled up by a null expletive.<br />
A compell<strong>in</strong>g argument to consider these cases of expletive <strong>ele</strong> as different from<br />
the cases of peripheral expletives relies on the possible (and attested) co-occurrence of<br />
both types of expletive:<br />
(135) Isto, <strong>ele</strong> há coisas (…) … (COV24)<br />
this EXPL has th<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
± ‘There are such th<strong>in</strong>gs(…) …’<br />
(136) O borralho que ficava deixava-se (descontrolar) assim um bocad<strong>in</strong>ho,<br />
the embers that rema<strong>in</strong>ed was allowed to lose control so.to.speak a little<br />
senão aquilo <strong>ele</strong> era brasas que enchiam a boca do forno. (LVR35)<br />
otherwise DEM EXPL was coals that filled up the door of.the coal_fire<br />
± ‘We let the embers that were left (fall down), otherwise the entry of the coal fire was<br />
stuffed with coals.’<br />
In these CORDIAL-SIN examples, the neuter demonstrative would act as a peripheral<br />
expletive occurr<strong>in</strong>g before the (expletive) subject position <strong>in</strong> impersonal constructions. 7<br />
Ele would then occupy such subject position. In particular, the fact that both peripheral<br />
isto/aquilo and <strong>ele</strong> may co-occur provides strong evidence for claim<strong>in</strong>g that they<br />
correspond <strong>in</strong> fact to different positions <strong>in</strong> the sentence. I leave these cases here for now to<br />
return to them only after present<strong>in</strong>g a second set of alleged problematic examples.<br />
As I have already mentioned <strong>in</strong> section 5.1 above, some examples call <strong>in</strong>to question<br />
Silva-Villar’s assumption that expletive <strong>ele</strong> is banned from embedded contexts. Likewise,<br />
such examples appear to compromise the prediction allowed by Uriagereka’s proposal that<br />
7<br />
The reverse order would be equally possible:<br />
(i) Ele isto há coisas<br />
(ii) Ele aquilo era brasas...<br />
Such possibility would <strong>in</strong> fact confirm that, just like peripheral <strong>ele</strong>, (truly) impersonal expletives may also<br />
alternate with a neuter demonstrative pronoun (see section 4.4).<br />
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EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
the peripheral expletive occurs essentially as a root/matrix phenomenon. Below, I recall<br />
some of these examples:<br />
(137) […] agora neste tempo, mais ou menos, Fevereiro, Março, é que <strong>ele</strong> ia outra<br />
now <strong>in</strong>.this time more or less February March is that EXPL went-3SG other<br />
máqu<strong>in</strong>a […] (AAL02)<br />
mach<strong>in</strong>e<br />
±‘It was now, at this time, February, March, that another mach<strong>in</strong>e was used.’<br />
(138) pois que préstimo teem agora as talhas, se êle não há já v<strong>in</strong>has? (Ribeiro 1927: 28)<br />
POIS what utility have now the ± tubs if EXPL NEG has still v<strong>in</strong>eyards<br />
± ‘So what is the utility of the tubs now, if there are no more v<strong>in</strong>eyards?’<br />
(139) Nós, antigamente, cozíamos quando <strong>ele</strong> v<strong>in</strong>ha o tempo de castanhas –<br />
we <strong>in</strong>.the.past cooked when EXPL came-3SG the time of chestnuts<br />
(que) também dávamos castanhas. (OUT32)<br />
QUE also gave-1PL chestnuts<br />
‘In the past, we used to cook [null object: the pig’s food] when was the chestnuts time –<br />
we also used to give [them] chestnuts.’<br />
(140) De vez em quando tem que se lhe dar uma mexidela.<br />
‘You have to stir it every now and then’<br />
E quando <strong>ele</strong> começa a vir aquela (…), quer dizer, a massa, (…) que ela lá dentro tem<br />
and when EXPL beg<strong>in</strong>s A come-INF that mean-3SG the paste QUE it there <strong>in</strong>side has<br />
aquela coalhada que daqui vai sa<strong>in</strong>do… (MST01)<br />
that curd which from.here goes gett<strong>in</strong>g out<br />
±‘And when that paste beg<strong>in</strong>s to appear – <strong>in</strong>side, it has that curd that one gets from this…’<br />
(141) Parece qu’ <strong>ele</strong> vai ser ano de milho (Terceira, <strong>in</strong> Dias 1982: 325)<br />
seems that EXPL will be-INF year of corn<br />
± ‘It seems that it will be a good year for grow<strong>in</strong>g corn.’<br />
In fact, it becomes clear from such examples that expletive <strong>ele</strong> may occur embedded <strong>in</strong><br />
that-clauses (example (141)), <strong>in</strong> free relatives <strong>in</strong>side cleft constructions (see example<br />
(137)), and <strong>in</strong> different adverbial clauses (when-clauses <strong>in</strong> (139) and (140), and an if-clause<br />
<strong>in</strong> example (138)).<br />
In all these examples, expletive <strong>ele</strong> appears below the complementizer (que and se)<br />
or other material belong<strong>in</strong>g to the C-doma<strong>in</strong> (wh-words, such as quando). Remark however<br />
that the above sentences all <strong>in</strong>volve impersonal predicates. Thus, just like for the first set of<br />
examples exam<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> this subsection, it is conceivable that the expletive may fill here the<br />
canonical subject position, which otherwise would be vacant. This, of course, would<br />
weaken the peripheral expletive hypothesis, to the extent that the number of cases of nonperipheral<br />
(and non-postverbal) <strong>ele</strong> would be substantially <strong>in</strong>creased. But, on the other<br />
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hand, it would support a generalization disallow<strong>in</strong>g peripheral expletives from embedded<br />
contexts. The facts about expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> embedded contexts are not so simple, however.<br />
First, note that the expletive occurr<strong>in</strong>g with impersonal verbs, such as existential<br />
haver <strong>in</strong> the example below, may <strong>in</strong> fact occur <strong>in</strong> an embedded position which overtly<br />
differs from the subject position:<br />
(142) Mas olhe que eu, eu tenho a impressão (…) que <strong>ele</strong> que havia a<strong>in</strong>da lá disso. (AAL21)<br />
but look that I I have the impression that EXPL that had still there of.that<br />
± ‘But look, I have the impression that there was some of that there.’<br />
In this example, <strong>ele</strong> is “sandwiched” between two <strong>in</strong>stances of the complementizer que <strong>in</strong> a<br />
recomplementation structure. This context naturally leaves the expletive <strong>in</strong> a peripheral<br />
position, assum<strong>in</strong>g, as seems uncontroversial, that both <strong>in</strong>stances of the complementizer<br />
appear <strong>in</strong>side the C-doma<strong>in</strong>. Recall that such recomplementation structures at several<br />
<strong>in</strong>stances have served as evidence for posit<strong>in</strong>g an enlarged structure for the left periphery<br />
of (at least certa<strong>in</strong>) embedded clauses (formerly, CP-recursion). Work by Uriagereka and<br />
Uriagereka and Raposo, for <strong>in</strong>stance, often suggests that the availability of such structures<br />
<strong>in</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> Romance languages depends on the syntactic and morphological properties of an<br />
extra C-related head, F <strong>in</strong> their terms (cf. Uriagereka 1992, 1995a, 1995b, 2004, Raposo<br />
and Uriagereka 1996, 2004).<br />
Such “sandwiched” position of the expletive is itself peculiar <strong>in</strong> that this is a<br />
position usually occupied by topical <strong>ele</strong>ments, among which we may f<strong>in</strong>d subjects:<br />
(143) Eu sei que aquilo que não é por mal, sabe? (VPA15)<br />
I know that that[DEM] that NEG is for <strong>in</strong>jury know-3SG<br />
‘I know that is not for <strong>in</strong>jury, you know.’<br />
Thus, <strong>in</strong> examples like (142), either <strong>ele</strong> corresponds to an (expletive) overt subject of an<br />
impersonal verb which has moved to a topic-like position or otherwise this <strong>ele</strong>ment may be<br />
analyzed as a case of peripheral <strong>ele</strong> which happens to occur between two <strong>in</strong>stances of the<br />
complementizer.<br />
The hypothesis that a peripheral expletive may <strong>in</strong> fact appear <strong>in</strong> embedded contexts<br />
is not so unconceivable. We know that (at least certa<strong>in</strong>) embedded sentences may allow the<br />
same k<strong>in</strong>d of peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ments as matrix ones. Among Germanic languages, for<br />
example, Verb-second phenomena <strong>in</strong> embedded contexts have often been related to the<br />
availability of CP-recursion (cf. Vikner 1995, Holmberg and Platzack 1995) or of an<br />
expanded structure of the C-doma<strong>in</strong> (cf. Holmberg 2000a). In asymmetric V2 languages<br />
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such as German and Danish, which generally have V2 as a property of matrix clauses,<br />
some subord<strong>in</strong>ate clauses like those <strong>in</strong> (144) and (145) may display V2 <strong>in</strong> embedded<br />
contexts (examples from Roberts and Roussou 2002: 146).<br />
(144) Er glaubt [diesen Film haben die K<strong>in</strong>der gesehen]. (Ge)<br />
he th<strong>in</strong>ks this film have the children seen<br />
‘He th<strong>in</strong>ks that the children have seen this film.’<br />
(145) Vi vet [at denne bog har Bo ikke læst]. (Da)<br />
we know that this book has Bo not read<br />
‘We know that Bo has not read this book.’<br />
In these languages, such possibility seems to be restra<strong>in</strong>ed to a limited group of verbs,<br />
among which epistemic verbs (as other declarative-type verbs). However, so-called<br />
symmetrical V2 languages, such as Icelandic and Yiddish, exhibit <strong>in</strong> subord<strong>in</strong>ate clauses a<br />
matrix-like pattern regard<strong>in</strong>g the position of the <strong>in</strong>flected verb, i.e. the <strong>in</strong>flected verb must<br />
appear as the second overt constituent also <strong>in</strong> embedded clauses (Dies<strong>in</strong>g 1990,<br />
Rögnvaldsson and Thrá<strong>in</strong>sson 1990, Santor<strong>in</strong>i 1989, 1992, Thrá<strong>in</strong>sson 1986, a.o.).<br />
Assum<strong>in</strong>g that the verb is <strong>in</strong> C (or <strong>in</strong> a C-related position) when <strong>in</strong> a second position,<br />
naturally some additional C-structure is needed below the complementizer <strong>in</strong> embedded<br />
clauses display<strong>in</strong>g V2 effects, such as <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g Icelandic examples:<br />
(146) Prófessor<strong>in</strong>n sagði að í gær hefði e<strong>in</strong>hver lokið ritgerð<strong>in</strong>ni. (ex. from Vangsnes 2002: 47)<br />
professor.the said that yesterday had someone f<strong>in</strong>ished thesis.the<br />
(147) Ég spurði hvort þegar hefði Maria lesið þessa bók. (= Card<strong>in</strong>aletti & Roberts 2002 (1c))<br />
I asked whether already had Mary read this book<br />
(148) sú staðreynd að þegar hefur Maria lesið þessa bók. (= Card<strong>in</strong>aletti & Roberts 2002 (1d))<br />
the fact that already had Mary read this book<br />
(149) bók<strong>in</strong> sem þegar hefur Maria lesið. (= Card<strong>in</strong>aletti & Roberts 2002 (1e))<br />
book.the that already had Mary read<br />
As these examples illustrate, <strong>in</strong> such languages embedded V2 is not sensitive to the nature<br />
of the s<strong>ele</strong>ct<strong>in</strong>g predicate, with the correlate that all k<strong>in</strong>ds of embedded clauses can be V2.<br />
Hence, different k<strong>in</strong>ds of embedded clauses may have the enlarged C-structure required for<br />
V2 to occur.<br />
Return<strong>in</strong>g to EP facts, we may also observe that f<strong>in</strong>ite embedded clauses, such as<br />
those where a recomplementation structure is found, may allow other phenomena usually<br />
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related to the C-doma<strong>in</strong>, such as topicalization (see Duarte 1987, 1996) 8 , as illustrated by<br />
the follow<strong>in</strong>g examples (from Duarte 1996: 328 (3a-b)):<br />
(150) Juro-te que, pisc<strong>in</strong>a, não sabia que t<strong>in</strong>ha.<br />
swear-1SG_to.you that swimm<strong>in</strong>g pool NEG knew-1SG that had-3SG<br />
±‘I swear that I didn’t know that he/she/it had a swimm<strong>in</strong>g pool.’<br />
(151) Podes crer que, a esse político, nunca darei o meu voto.<br />
can-2SG believe-INF that to that politician never give-FUT.1SG the my vote<br />
‘You can believe it that Iwill never give my vote to that politician.’<br />
Thus, <strong>in</strong> structural terms, hav<strong>in</strong>g a peripheral expletive <strong>in</strong> embedded contexts <strong>in</strong> EP could<br />
<strong>in</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>ciple be straightforward.<br />
In fact, some CORDIAL-SIN examples cast no doubt about the peripheral status of<br />
the expletive occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> some embedded contexts. In the follow<strong>in</strong>g example, for <strong>in</strong>stance,<br />
the neuter demonstrative pronoun occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a recomplementation structure may not be<br />
analyzed as an impersonal subject, s<strong>in</strong>ce the embedded clause <strong>in</strong>volves a third plural<br />
arbitrary null subject:<br />
(152) Mas se soubesse que isto (...) que não nos tiravam (...) o valor ao d<strong>in</strong>heiro ou assim<br />
but if know-IMPERF.SUBJ that this that NEG to.us take.away the value to.the money or like.that<br />
qualquer coisa, […] eu, agora, vendia algumas propriedades (...) (AAL27)<br />
some th<strong>in</strong>g I now sold some properties<br />
‘But if I knew that they would not take the value of our money or anyth<strong>in</strong>g like that, now, I<br />
would sell some properties.’<br />
Yet another example displays the expletive <strong>in</strong> an embedded context where it follows the<br />
complementizer but appears before (i) a preposed adverbial; and (ii) a preverbal overt<br />
subject:<br />
(153) Tu sabes bem que <strong>ele</strong> em Paçô <strong>ele</strong>s viram para aqu<strong>ele</strong> lado e a gente encam<strong>in</strong>hava<br />
you know well that EXPL <strong>in</strong> Paçô they turn to that side and the people turned<br />
logo para este lado. (COV28)<br />
immediately to this side<br />
‘You know well that at Paçô they turn to that side and we immediately turn to this side.’<br />
Thus, assum<strong>in</strong>g that such embedded clauses allow for a fairly extended C-projection would<br />
leave a natural space for plac<strong>in</strong>g a peripheral expletive.<br />
Concern<strong>in</strong>g the discourse effect of an expletive occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> such an embedded<br />
context, it must be noted that, after all, the strong evidentiality marker analysis (à la<br />
Uriagereka) could still be ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed. In fact, <strong>in</strong> the examples presented above, those<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g a clearly peripheral expletive (i.e. those where no impersonal predicate occurs<br />
8 Under Duarte’s analysis embedded topicalization is however analysed as IP-adjunction.<br />
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<strong>in</strong>side the embedded clause) <strong>in</strong>volve the verb saber ‘to know’ (the ambiguous example<br />
(142) <strong>in</strong>volves a similar predicate, ter a impressão ‘lit. have the impression’). Such verb<br />
(like ter a impressão) implies the existence of a claim to truth (i.e. an assertion) <strong>in</strong> its f<strong>in</strong>ite<br />
complement. The expletive appears to be equally possible <strong>in</strong> embedded clauses depend<strong>in</strong>g<br />
on other assertive predicates (cf. Torrego and Uriagereka 1993):<br />
(154) Eu disse-te que <strong>ele</strong> em Paçô <strong>ele</strong>s viraram para aqu<strong>ele</strong> lado.<br />
I said-1SG to.you that EXPL <strong>in</strong> Paçô they turned-3PL to that side<br />
‘I told you that at Paçô they turned to that side.’<br />
(155) Eu acho que <strong>ele</strong> em Paçô <strong>ele</strong>s viraram para aqu<strong>ele</strong> lado.<br />
I th<strong>in</strong>k-1SG that EXPL <strong>in</strong> Paçô they turned-3PL to that side<br />
‘I th<strong>in</strong>k that at Paçô they turned to that side.’<br />
In such assertive complements, the effect of the peripheral expletive would<br />
straighforwardly follow: just like peripheral <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> declarative ma<strong>in</strong> clauses, it would<br />
emphasize an assertive value.<br />
There are however other examples which <strong>in</strong>clude peripheral expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> nonassertive<br />
embedded contexts:<br />
(156) T<strong>in</strong>ham de comb<strong>in</strong>ar era os dias das cozeduras e as horas, para <strong>ele</strong> desencontrarem-se<br />
had-3PL of settle-INF was the days of.the bak<strong>in</strong>gs and the hours to EXPL diverge-3PL<br />
umas das outras. (EXB27)<br />
one from another<br />
±‘They had to agree on the days and the hours for bak<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong> order not to be there at the<br />
same time.’<br />
(157) As folhas saíam e a azeitona ficava ali, em cima dum pano limpo, que era para<br />
the leaves went.away and the olive rema<strong>in</strong>ed there upon of.a cloth clean QUE was for<br />
despois (de) já estar limpa para <strong>ele</strong> a gente pôr dentro duma canastra. (ALC17)<br />
after of already be-INF clean for EXPL the people put <strong>in</strong>side of.a basket<br />
± ‘Leaves were thrown away and olives were kept there, on a clean cloth, to be put <strong>in</strong>side a<br />
basket.’<br />
(158) INQ1 Portanto, já há quantos anos é que isso não se faz cá? Já há quantos?<br />
‘Interviewer: So, how many years are there that that is not done anymore? How many years?’<br />
INF Oh! Isso já há muitos anos. A<strong>in</strong>da eu era garota quando <strong>ele</strong> deixaram de...<br />
INTJ that already has many years still I was little.girl when EXPL stopped-3PL of<br />
Deixaram depois de usar estas coisas todas. (MST19)<br />
stopped-3PL after of use-INF these th<strong>in</strong>gs all<br />
‘Informant: Oh, There are many years. I was still a little girl when people stopped… People<br />
stopped us<strong>in</strong>g all these th<strong>in</strong>gs.’<br />
(159) Se (<strong>ele</strong>) /lhe\ alguém disser alguma coisa, (…) diga-lhe que foi à m<strong>in</strong>ha ordem.<br />
if EXPL to.him anybody say-FUT.SUBJ any th<strong>in</strong>g tell-to. him that was to my order<br />
‘If anybody says anyth<strong>in</strong>g, you tell him that it was done under my orders’. (COV13)<br />
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A problem for consider<strong>in</strong>g the expletive occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> such embedded clauses (<strong>in</strong>flected<br />
<strong>in</strong>f<strong>in</strong>itival purpose clauses, an <strong>in</strong>terrupted when-clause and an if-clause) as a peripheral<br />
expletive seems to be the fact that these clauses usually don’t allow the sort of enlarged C-<br />
doma<strong>in</strong> seen above for that-clauses (but see the Icelandic example (149) above, which<br />
<strong>in</strong>volves a relative clause, just like it may be argued for when-clauses as <strong>in</strong> (158) – more<br />
precisely, when-clauses would <strong>in</strong>volve a free relative – cf. Móia 2001). Accord<strong>in</strong>gly, they<br />
usually don’t allow topicalization:<br />
(160) *… para, os turnos, os aldeãos poderem cumprir…<br />
( <strong>in</strong> order) to the turns the peasants may follow<br />
± ‘…so that the peasants may follow their turns…’<br />
(161) *… quando, estas coisas, deixámos de usar…<br />
when these th<strong>in</strong>gs stopped-1PL of use-INF<br />
± ‘…when we stopped us<strong>in</strong>g these th<strong>in</strong>gs…’<br />
However, if we consider constructions with <strong>in</strong>def<strong>in</strong>ite se, which arguably would <strong>in</strong>volve<br />
positions peripheral to IP (cf. Raposo and Uriagereka 1996), then we may consider that<br />
such embedded clauses must also <strong>in</strong>volve some peripheral structure after para, se and after<br />
the wh-word. More precisely, the agree<strong>in</strong>g DP <strong>in</strong> such se-constructions, which Raposo and<br />
Uriagereka argue occupies a peripheral (<strong>in</strong> fact, topic) position when it appears before the<br />
verb, may <strong>in</strong> fact occur <strong>in</strong> preverbal position <strong>in</strong> such embedded constructions:<br />
(162) … para essas salsichas se comprarem no talho …<br />
to those sausages SE buy-INF-3PL at.the butcher.shop<br />
‘…so that people buy those sausages at the butcher shop…’<br />
(163) … quando essas salsichas se compravam no talho …<br />
when those sausages SE bought-3PL at.the butcher.shop<br />
‘… people bought those sausages at the butcher shop…’<br />
(164) … se essas salsichas se comprassem no talho …<br />
if those sausages SE buy-IMPERF.SUBJ.3PL at.the butcher.shop<br />
‘… if people could buy those sausages at the butcher shop…’<br />
Such possibility of hav<strong>in</strong>g peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ments <strong>in</strong>side embedded clauses headed by para,<br />
quando and also se certa<strong>in</strong>ly opens the space for a peripheral <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> an analogously<br />
enlarged periphery.<br />
In that case, we may aga<strong>in</strong> hypothesize a uniform analysis for peripheral and<br />
impersonal <strong>ele</strong>, also <strong>in</strong> embedded contexts: if a peripheral expletive may generally be<br />
allowed <strong>in</strong> such contexts, there seems to be no special reason for postulat<strong>in</strong>g an impersonal<br />
expletive just <strong>in</strong> case the <strong>in</strong>volved predicate happens to be impersonal. Just like for matrix<br />
contexts, we may still ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> that <strong>in</strong> impersonal embedded clauses a peripheral expletive<br />
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occurs <strong>in</strong> the periphery of the embedded clause, while the subject position is filled up by a<br />
null expletive.<br />
If such an analysis may be ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed, then, the second set of problematic<br />
examples which we have considered does not <strong>in</strong> fact challenge the peripheral analysis<br />
adopted for peripheral/impersonal expletives <strong>in</strong> EP.<br />
A problematic set of examples still rema<strong>in</strong>s, however. Recall from the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of<br />
this subsection that we f<strong>in</strong>d <strong>in</strong>stances of non-postverbal expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> matrix contexts <strong>in</strong><br />
positions after peripheral constituents. Recall examples (130)-(133) above, repeated below<br />
for ease of discussion:<br />
(165) Olhe, aqui são fêtãos. Isso, <strong>ele</strong> há cá muito – os fêtãos. (FIG12)<br />
look here are ferns that EXPL has here much – the ferns<br />
± ‘Look, these are ferns. Those, there are many here (ferns)’<br />
(166) Os tabuleiros, <strong>ele</strong> também os há de barro, não é? (OUT31)<br />
the trays EXPL also them has of clay NEG is<br />
± ‘As for trays, there are also some of them made out of clay, isn’t it?’<br />
(167) Há algum tempo – agora não –, mas há algum tempo – agora tenho água<br />
has some time now NEG but has some time now have-PRES-1SG water<br />
em casa –, mas naqu<strong>ele</strong> tempo, (<strong>ele</strong>) havia uns canecos que era para vir<br />
at home but <strong>in</strong>.that time EXPL had some mugs QUE was to come<br />
à fonte, uns canecos de madeira, […] (COV13)<br />
to.the founta<strong>in</strong> some mugs of wood<br />
± ‘Some time ago – not now, but some time ago – now I have water at home –, but <strong>in</strong> that<br />
time, there were mugs that we take to the founta<strong>in</strong>, some wooden mugs...’<br />
(168) Até aqui nestes olivais, <strong>ele</strong> há ali semeada. (LVR10)<br />
even here <strong>in</strong>.these olive_groves EXPL has there sownF<br />
± ‘Even <strong>in</strong> these olive groves, there is [null object] sown.<br />
Given the characterization of EP as a language allow<strong>in</strong>g for multiple topics (see Duarte<br />
1987, 1996), one could th<strong>in</strong>k of contexts such as those <strong>in</strong> (165) through (167) as <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
multiple topics. However, as it has been noted, <strong>in</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> clauses topics occur to the left of<br />
affective phrases such as that <strong>in</strong> (168) (cf., for <strong>in</strong>stance, Raposo and Uriagereka 1996:<br />
763-764). This would of course preclude such topic <strong>in</strong>terpretation for <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> the last<br />
example.<br />
Instead, it seems to me that an analysis <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g the subject position as the real<br />
position for this expletive is to be prefered. The fact that the verbs <strong>in</strong>volved essentially<br />
correspond to impersonal verbs would allow us to consider this expletive as a<br />
quasi-argumental subject, hav<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> fact some properties which differ from those of pure<br />
subject expletives. In this sense, this would not mean that EP, despite be<strong>in</strong>g a NSL, does<br />
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have expletives, s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>ele</strong> would not qualify, even <strong>in</strong> this case, as a true subject expletive<br />
(cf. dist<strong>in</strong>ction between quasi-arguments and pure expletives <strong>in</strong> chapter 2).<br />
On the other hand, the possible alternation between an overt quasi-argumental<br />
subject and its null correspond<strong>in</strong>g subject would be an <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g correlate, <strong>in</strong> a NSL, for<br />
the alternation found <strong>in</strong> NNSLs between an overt expletive (i.e. quasi-argument) and<br />
another pronoun drawn from the demonstrative paradigm (cf. Cabredo Hofherr 2004):<br />
(169) Il / ça pleut (French)<br />
EXPL that ra<strong>in</strong>s<br />
(170) Es / das regnet (German)<br />
We might even consider the possible relation between the form <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> EP and other<br />
demonstratives. As is well known, <strong>in</strong> other Iberian languages, ello corresponds to a neuter<br />
demonstrative (cf. Álvarez 2000). In EP, we f<strong>in</strong>d the correspond<strong>in</strong>g accusative form <strong>in</strong><br />
sentences like those <strong>in</strong> (171), whose usual subject counterpart is a neuter demonstrative<br />
pronoun (cf. Matos 1985):<br />
(171) a. O Pedro é um homem honesto porque a mãe o obrigou a sê-lo.<br />
the Pedro is a man honest because the mother him obliged A be it<br />
‘Pedro is a honest man because his mother has obliged him to be so.’<br />
b. O assunto é com o João e sempre o foi.<br />
the issue is with the João and always it was<br />
‘The issue concerns João and it always did so.’<br />
c. O Pedro comprou todos os artigos expostos e a Maria disse-o a toda a gente.<br />
the Pedro bought all the articles exposed and the Maria told it to all the people<br />
‘Pedro bought everyth<strong>in</strong>g that was exposed and Mary told that to everyone.’<br />
Remark that some uses of <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> dialectal data often seem to correspond to a neuter<br />
demonstrative use. In the follow<strong>in</strong>g examples, for <strong>in</strong>stance, <strong>ele</strong> could hardly be <strong>in</strong>terpreted<br />
as a mascul<strong>in</strong>e pronoun – <strong>in</strong> fact no mascul<strong>in</strong>e antecedent seems to be available <strong>in</strong> the<br />
preced<strong>in</strong>g context:<br />
(172) INF Os molhos despois era carregados. Fazia-se aqui um monte – chamava-se um relheiro<br />
–, depois calculava-se ali outro, fazia-se outro para o relheiro. Depois v<strong>in</strong>ha-se por ali fora,<br />
outra parte, outro relheiro, que era para ficar para os carros depois pegarem dali e levar<br />
para a eira.<br />
‘Informant: The sheaves were carried after. We made here a pile – it was called relheiro – and then<br />
we counted on another sheaf, we made it for the relheiro. After, we came along work<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> other<br />
parte, we made another relheiro, so that the charts might take them from there to the<br />
thresh<strong>in</strong>gfloors.’<br />
Que <strong>ele</strong> nunca ficava espalhado; nunca ficava espalhado! [ALC07]<br />
QUE ELE never was spread never was spread<br />
‘ That was never spread over the floor; it was never spread!’<br />
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(173) INF (…) Também lá temos uma 'agibreira'. Está lá acima no alto.<br />
‘Informant: We also have a algibreira [fem.]. It is high up.<br />
INQ2 E a cor do fruto qual é?<br />
‘Interviewer2: And what is the colour of its fruit?’<br />
INF (Até) /Então\ <strong>ele</strong> deitava assim umas bagazitas, mas n<strong>in</strong>guém ligava… (FIG14)<br />
even then ELE produced thus some little berries but nobody took care of that<br />
‘It produced some little berries, mas nobody took care of that…’<br />
5.4 On the phrasal status of expletive <strong>ele</strong><br />
In this section, we will reconsider the expletive’s non-homogeneous behavior, which will<br />
be correlated with its plural phrasal status. Some differences between<br />
peripheral/impersonal <strong>ele</strong> and postverbal <strong>ele</strong>, which were discussed <strong>in</strong> subsection 5.2.2<br />
above, will be argued to correlate with an important difference <strong>in</strong> the phrasal status<br />
manifested by expletive <strong>ele</strong>: while peripheral/impersonal <strong>ele</strong> behaves like a phrase,<br />
postverbal <strong>ele</strong> shows properties typically associated to heads. In this sense, this section will<br />
be a natural extension of section 5.2.2 above, <strong>in</strong> that it will provide an additional argument<br />
for dist<strong>in</strong>guish<strong>in</strong>g between two types of expletive <strong>ele</strong>.<br />
From the differences between peripheral/impersonal expletives and postverbal <strong>ele</strong><br />
seen above, I will recall here those correspond<strong>in</strong>g to: (i) demonstrative substitution; (ii) the<br />
expletive’s position with respect to the <strong>in</strong>flected verb.<br />
Let us reconsider first the expletive’s behavior with respect to what we have called<br />
demonstrative substitution. As presented <strong>in</strong> chapter 4, section 4.3, and recalled <strong>in</strong> section<br />
5.2.2 above, expletive <strong>ele</strong> may be commuted <strong>in</strong>to a neuter demonstrative pronoun (isto<br />
‘this’, isso or aquilo ‘that’). The r<strong>ele</strong>vant fact for the dist<strong>in</strong>ction of more than one s<strong>in</strong>gle<br />
type of expletive is the non-universality of such possibility. In fact, only <strong>in</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> contexts<br />
may this commutation give place to a felicitous result. Remember the contrast, here<br />
illustrated as follows:<br />
(174) {Ele, aquilo} a Maria trouxe o livro.<br />
EXPL that the Mary brought the book<br />
(175) {Ele, isto, isso} há muitas opções.<br />
EXPL this has many options<br />
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(176) A Maria trouxe {<strong>ele</strong>, *isto, *isso, *aquilo} o livro.<br />
the Mary brought EXPL that the book<br />
As these examples show, only the peripheral/impersonal expletive <strong>in</strong> (174) and (175) may<br />
successfully be substituted by a demonstrative. Such a substitution is never allowed <strong>in</strong><br />
postverbal contexts as the one illustrated <strong>in</strong> (176). Now, consider<strong>in</strong>g the phrasal status of<br />
expletive <strong>ele</strong>, such behavior may be taken as evidence for identify<strong>in</strong>g the phrasal<br />
characterization of peripheral/impersonal <strong>ele</strong>.<br />
It seems fairly uncontroversial to assume that demonstratives correspond to phrasal<br />
units <strong>in</strong> a syntactic tree, usually orig<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a specifier position (cf. Giusti 1993, Brugè<br />
1996, Bernste<strong>in</strong> 1997, a.o.). Under such an assumption, it straightforwardly follows that<br />
those <strong>in</strong>stances of expletive <strong>ele</strong> which allow for demonstrative substitution must also<br />
correspond to phrasal units. In this sense, it may be assumed that peripheral/impersonal <strong>ele</strong><br />
corresponds to an XP. As for postverbal <strong>ele</strong>, however, its phrasal status may not be decided<br />
on the basis of the impossibility of demonstrative substitution. Indeed, although such<br />
impossibility may result from the diverse phrasal status of postverbal <strong>ele</strong> and<br />
demonstratives, it may also be the case that this impossibility derives from any other<br />
substantial difference bear<strong>in</strong>g no connection with their phrasal characterization.<br />
Let us then consider another dist<strong>in</strong>ction between peripheral/impersonal <strong>ele</strong> and the<br />
postverbal expletive. Concern<strong>in</strong>g their position with respect to the <strong>in</strong>flected verb, we have<br />
seen, <strong>in</strong> section 5.2.2 above, that while peripheral/impersonal <strong>ele</strong> displays no need for verb<br />
adjacency, postverbal <strong>ele</strong> necessarily occurs <strong>in</strong> the position that immediately follows the<br />
verb. This is illustrated <strong>in</strong> (177) below.<br />
(177) a. Ele (nesse dia) (a Maria) trouxe o livro.<br />
EXPL <strong>in</strong>.that day the Mary brought the book<br />
b. Ele (aqui) há muitas opções.<br />
EXPL here has many options<br />
c. A Maria trouxe ({*também, *mesmo}) <strong>ele</strong> o livro.<br />
the Mary brought also <strong>in</strong>deed EXPL the book<br />
As (177)c illustrates, the l<strong>in</strong>ear adjacency between the <strong>in</strong>flected verb and the expletive<br />
cannot be disrupted. As such, this adjacency requirement may correlate with the structural<br />
status of postverbal <strong>ele</strong>. Remark that the same sort of requirement is found when one<br />
considers the syntactic relation hold<strong>in</strong>g, for <strong>in</strong>stance, between a stem and its affix(es). In<br />
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this case, two (or more) different X 0 categories are <strong>in</strong>volved, and end up form<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
complex head derived <strong>in</strong> the syntax. Although <strong>in</strong> the case of the sequence verb–postverbal<br />
expletive we do not have evidence for a unique morphological word, these <strong>ele</strong>ments do<br />
form a unit on the prosodic level. Accord<strong>in</strong>gly, no pause may disrupt this sequence, and<br />
sandhi phenomena regurlarly obta<strong>in</strong> between both <strong>ele</strong>ments – see (178).<br />
(178) a. A Maria trouxe (*//) <strong>ele</strong> (//) o livro.<br />
b. A Maria fe[z] <strong>ele</strong> isso.<br />
the Mary did EXPL that<br />
b’. *A Maria fe[S] <strong>ele</strong> isso.<br />
Remark that, <strong>in</strong> this respect, postverbal <strong>ele</strong> sharply differs from the peripheral/impersonal<br />
expletive. For <strong>in</strong>stance, <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g example, the expletive occurs as an <strong>in</strong>dependent<br />
prosodic unit <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>itial position, s<strong>in</strong>ce it appears separated from the subject by an empty<br />
pause, represented by “{pp}” <strong>in</strong> CORDIAL-SIN transcripts:<br />
(179) Ele {pp} eu fui aí a (…) uma boda, aí abaixo (COV14)<br />
EXPL I went there to a marriage there down<br />
‘I went down there to a marriage.’<br />
Recall also that CORDIAL-SIN data provides us with some examples where <strong>ele</strong> appears <strong>in</strong><br />
isolation (after an <strong>in</strong>terjection), thus <strong>in</strong>equivocally as an <strong>in</strong>dependent prosodic unit:<br />
(180) Isto aqui é uma… Ai, <strong>ele</strong>! Eu 'desqueceu-me' o nome disso. (ALC03)<br />
this here is a INTJ EXPL I forgot the name of.that<br />
± ‘This is a… Oh! I forgot its name.’<br />
Peripheral <strong>ele</strong> thus appears to have phrase-like properties also at the prosodic level.<br />
Differently, postverbal <strong>ele</strong> displays some properties which, on the phonological level, have<br />
been argued to be characteristic of clitic <strong>ele</strong>ments (cf. Zwicky 1985, Card<strong>in</strong>aletti and<br />
Starke 1996, 1999): they cannot be <strong>in</strong>dependent prosodic units, but rather form a s<strong>in</strong>gle<br />
prosodic unit with the preced<strong>in</strong>g verb form, under adjacency; they are <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong><br />
phonological processes such as sandhi. I will thus take these facts as evidence for the clitic<br />
character of postverbal <strong>ele</strong>. As a (phonological) clitic, the postverbal expletive is a<br />
prosodically defective word, which may not be assigned lexical stress. Consequently, it<br />
must attach to an adjacent word at PF, more precisely to the <strong>in</strong>flected verb which precedes<br />
it – s<strong>in</strong>ce its direction of attachment is thus from right-to-left, postverbal <strong>ele</strong> corresponds to<br />
an enclitic <strong>ele</strong>ment. This evidently expla<strong>in</strong>s why this expletive may never appear <strong>in</strong> the<br />
<strong>in</strong>itial position of the sentence, differently from peripheral <strong>ele</strong>.<br />
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5. EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE SYNTAX<br />
Turn<strong>in</strong>g back to the postverbal expletive’s phrasal status, we may take its clitic<br />
nature and the requirement of adjacency to the <strong>in</strong>flected verb, which corresponds to an X 0<br />
category, as <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g the X 0 status of postverbal <strong>ele</strong> (cf. Card<strong>in</strong>aletti and Starke 1999 on<br />
the characterization of clitic pronouns – and, expectedly, also other clitic categories – as<br />
heads).<br />
As a head, postverbal <strong>ele</strong> thus contrasts with peripheral/impersonal <strong>ele</strong> which <strong>in</strong><br />
turn behaves like phrases. The XP status of the latter is, <strong>in</strong> fact, compatible with most of<br />
their syntactic properties, already presented above <strong>in</strong> this chapter and <strong>in</strong> chapter 4. Recall,<br />
for <strong>in</strong>stance, the ability to appear <strong>in</strong> recomplementation structures: this is usually a<br />
property of phrases, which, as we have seen, is also displayed by peripheral <strong>ele</strong> (see<br />
example (13) above).<br />
Thus, we arrive at a dual characterization of expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> terms of its phrasal<br />
status, which provides us with an additional argument for dist<strong>in</strong>guish<strong>in</strong>g between two<br />
different types of expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> EP: peripheral/impersonal <strong>ele</strong>, on the one hand, which<br />
9, 10<br />
have phrase-like properties, and postverbal <strong>ele</strong>, on the other, behav<strong>in</strong>g as a clitic head.<br />
5.5 Peripheral positions for expletive <strong>ele</strong><br />
5.5.1 Prelim<strong>in</strong>aries<br />
From what has been said so far, we are naturally led to formulate the question whether socalled<br />
“expletive” <strong>ele</strong> may really be considered an expletive, given what we know about<br />
expletives <strong>in</strong> natural languages. It is a fact that the cluster of properties displayed by this<br />
9 This argument would however lose force with<strong>in</strong> a framework where the notions ‘head’ and ‘phrase’ have no<br />
<strong>in</strong>herent real status, like the one proposed by Carnie 2001, who defends that the phrasal status of a given<br />
phrase marker is rather determ<strong>in</strong>ed by its behavior than the other way around. I leave open this issue, while<br />
for the purposes of this work I follow the standard assumption that such notions are <strong>in</strong>deed primitives <strong>in</strong><br />
syntactic theory.<br />
10 Remark that this dual status of expletive <strong>ele</strong> concern<strong>in</strong>g its phrase structure characterization is to be<br />
dist<strong>in</strong>guished from Chomsky 1994, 1995’s view that pronom<strong>in</strong>al clitics qualify both as m<strong>in</strong>imal and maximal<br />
syntactic categories, X 0 /XP (cf. Chomsky 1995: 249). In fact, when consider<strong>in</strong>g expletive <strong>ele</strong>, we<br />
systematically f<strong>in</strong>d two different behaviors correlat<strong>in</strong>g with differences <strong>in</strong> the type of construction <strong>in</strong>volved.<br />
Thus, expletive <strong>ele</strong> occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> peripheral and impersonal constructions consistently differs from expletive<br />
<strong>ele</strong> enter<strong>in</strong>g constructions where it must occur postverbally. Namely, the former systematically behaves like a<br />
non-clitic phrasal entity, while the latter systematically behaves like a clitic non-phrasal head. Such a<br />
behavior thus clearly differs from that of pronom<strong>in</strong>al clitics which arguably behave both like a phrase and<br />
like a head <strong>in</strong> any type of construction: “[U]nder the DP hypothesis, clitics are Ds. Assume further that a<br />
clitic raises from its θ-position and attaches to an <strong>in</strong>flectional head. In its θ-position, the clitic is an XP;<br />
attachment to a head requires that it be an X 0 (on fairly standard assumptions).” (Chomsky 1995: 249)<br />
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EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
<strong>ele</strong>ment <strong>in</strong> EP dialects would make it a fairly special expletive. It seems to me that the<br />
most strik<strong>in</strong>g of them would be the dual phrase structure status at which we arrived <strong>in</strong> the<br />
previous subsection. <strong>Expletive</strong>s <strong>in</strong> natural languages usually qualify as XP categories – or,<br />
at least, it is a def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g property of expletives to be <strong>in</strong>serted <strong>in</strong> a Spec position, which<br />
uncontroversially qualifies as an XP position (see chapter 2). If, on the one hand, this is a<br />
characterization compatible with the phrasal status of peripheral/impersonal <strong>ele</strong>, on the<br />
other, it seems hard to understand how head-like postverbal <strong>ele</strong> would compare to<br />
expletives <strong>in</strong> general. Thus, I will leave constructions <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g postverbal <strong>ele</strong> aside for a<br />
while, to first have a further look at peripheral/impersonal <strong>ele</strong> constructions. Postverbal <strong>ele</strong><br />
will concern us <strong>in</strong> subsection 5.5.4 below.<br />
Indeed, there is still another question, which seems hard to avoid when compar<strong>in</strong>g<br />
(peripheral/impersonal) expletive <strong>ele</strong> to other expletives. This question concerns the<br />
associate of the expletive. Pure expletives normally have an associate, 11 as <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
example (where underl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g marks the associate):<br />
(181) There is a child <strong>in</strong> the street.<br />
The postverbal arguments <strong>in</strong> the Icelandic and F<strong>in</strong>nish examples below seem to behave<br />
alike:<br />
(182) a. Það hafði e<strong>in</strong>hver nemandi fallið á próf<strong>in</strong>u. (Ic.) (ex. from Vangsnes 2002: 52)<br />
EXPL had some student flunked on exam.the<br />
b. Sitä leikkii lapsia kadulla. (F<strong>in</strong>.) (ex. from Holmberg and Nikanne 2002: 75)<br />
EXPL play children <strong>in</strong>-street<br />
Associates thus roughly correspond to phrases that <strong>in</strong> the non-expletive counterparts of<br />
these sentences may appear <strong>in</strong> the position occupied by the expletive:<br />
(183) a. A child is <strong>in</strong> the street.<br />
b. E<strong>in</strong>hver nemandi hafði fallið á próf<strong>in</strong>u.<br />
c. Lapsia leikkii kadulla.<br />
Remember that under the usual analysis of expletive constructions, merg<strong>in</strong>g the expletive<br />
<strong>in</strong>to a Spec position satisfies a requirement otherwise fulfilled by movement of a phrase.<br />
Although this phrase is usually taken to be the associate <strong>in</strong> the expletive construction (as it<br />
11<br />
Although the expletive occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> impersonal passives may be po<strong>in</strong>ted out as an exception (cf. chapter<br />
2).<br />
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5. EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE SYNTAX<br />
happens <strong>in</strong> examples <strong>in</strong> (183) w.r.t. those <strong>in</strong> (181) and (182)), it must be noted that <strong>in</strong><br />
languages such as Icelandic and F<strong>in</strong>nish a phrase different from a postverbal argument<br />
(even if non-argumental) may move to the r<strong>ele</strong>vant Spec to satisfy the requirement<br />
otherwise fulfilled by the expletive. 12 Recall from chapter 2 the follow<strong>in</strong>g F<strong>in</strong>nish<br />
examples, where temporal and locative adverbials appear <strong>in</strong> such a position:<br />
(184) a.Tänään leikkii lapsia kadulla.<br />
today play children <strong>in</strong>-street<br />
b.Tromssassa leikkii lapsia kadulla.<br />
<strong>in</strong>-Tromsø play children <strong>in</strong>-street<br />
The same may be illustrated for Icelandic:<br />
(185) Í gær hafði e<strong>in</strong>hver nemandi fallið á próf<strong>in</strong>u.<br />
yesterday had some student flunked on exam.the<br />
In fact, it might be thought that the relation expletive-associate is not as tight <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish<br />
and Icelandic as it is <strong>in</strong> English. A significant difference between expletives <strong>in</strong> these<br />
languages consists <strong>in</strong> the fact that the English expletive is <strong>in</strong>serted with<strong>in</strong> the IP-doma<strong>in</strong>,<br />
where propositional relations are encoded, while F<strong>in</strong>nish and Icelandic expletives arguably<br />
appear outside this doma<strong>in</strong>. Recall from chapter 2 that the relation expletive-associate<br />
typically illustrated for English appears as a sort of escape hatch to legitimate the expletive<br />
at the <strong>in</strong>terpretative component, <strong>in</strong> compliance with the Pr<strong>in</strong>ciple of Full Interpretation.<br />
Furthermore, other relations between the expletive and the associate (<strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g Case and<br />
agreement) typically concern the IP-doma<strong>in</strong>. Thus, it might be supposed that such<br />
expletive-associate relation is not applicable to outside-IP expletives, such as the F<strong>in</strong>nish<br />
and the Icelandic ones. Likewise, this relation would not concern the peripheral expletive<br />
<strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> EP.<br />
In this section, we shall turn to the ma<strong>in</strong> question which still rema<strong>in</strong>s to be<br />
answered: where does expletive <strong>ele</strong> stay? Or, to put the same question differently: which<br />
position does expletive <strong>ele</strong> occupy? In fact, sections 5.1 and 5.2 above only supply a partial<br />
answer to this question: expletive <strong>ele</strong> occupies a position with<strong>in</strong> the sentential left<br />
12 This possibility seems to be allowed <strong>in</strong> English sentences such as (i), where the phrase down the hill would<br />
occupy the same position as the expletive <strong>in</strong> (ii) (see Hoekstra and Mulder 1990 – but see Chomsky 2004: 15<br />
on a different view, doubt<strong>in</strong>g that locative <strong>in</strong>version may target the subject position <strong>in</strong> English):<br />
(i) Down the hill rolled the baby carriage.<br />
(ii) There rolled a baby carriage down the hill.<br />
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periphery. The follow<strong>in</strong>g subsections will further develop and substantiate this <strong>in</strong>cipient<br />
answer.<br />
Before proceed<strong>in</strong>g, recall aga<strong>in</strong> the case of other peripheral expletives, such as<br />
those occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Icelandic and <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish. As seen <strong>in</strong> section 2.5.2, Icelandic það has<br />
been argued to specifically appear <strong>in</strong> a (high) Spec position with<strong>in</strong> the C-doma<strong>in</strong>, where it<br />
would satisfy a V2-related visibility structural requirement (cf. Platzack 1998, Holmberg<br />
2000c), bear<strong>in</strong>g no additional import. At first sight, such an explanation may not carry over<br />
to EP expletive <strong>ele</strong>, s<strong>in</strong>ce such a V2 requirement would hardly be operative <strong>in</strong> a non-V2<br />
language like EP. Hence, it seems reasonable to enterta<strong>in</strong> the idea that EP <strong>ele</strong> must be a<br />
different k<strong>in</strong>d of peripheral expletive. In fact, differently from what is normally assumed<br />
for the Icelandic expletive, it is not the case that expletive <strong>ele</strong> has no semantic/pragmatic<br />
import. Quite on the contrary, as it has been demonstrated above, EP expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong>deed<br />
has an effect on the discourse level (see chapter 4, <strong>in</strong> special section 4.4).<br />
Such discourse-related expletive <strong>in</strong> an arguably discourse-oriented language 13 thus<br />
seems to be somewhat rem<strong>in</strong>iscent of the k<strong>in</strong>d of expletive found <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish. In fact, sitä,<br />
which may be considered a “topic expletive”, rather operates on a discourse-related level <strong>in</strong><br />
F<strong>in</strong>nish, a topic prom<strong>in</strong>ent language. Remember that the position occupied by this<br />
expletive qualifies as a topic position, where sitä is <strong>in</strong>serted to check a [-foc] feature<br />
(Holmberg and Nikanne 2002, on which see chapter 2, section 2.5.3). In EP, however, the<br />
discourse effects relat<strong>in</strong>g to expletive <strong>ele</strong> do not seem to depend on such a straightforward<br />
relation to the <strong>in</strong>formational structure of the sentence. This po<strong>in</strong>t will be further developed<br />
<strong>in</strong> subsection 5.5.3 below, where I will formulate a specific proposal concern<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
position occupied by peripheral <strong>ele</strong>. Before mov<strong>in</strong>g on, however, some words about<br />
current views on the structural space above IP (where the expletive’s position is to be<br />
found) are still <strong>in</strong> order.<br />
13 On the characterization of EP as a discourse-oriented language, see Duarte 1987, 2001 and Costa 1998a.<br />
226
5.5.2 Views on the left periphery<br />
5. EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE SYNTAX<br />
Over the last decades, a substantial amount of l<strong>in</strong>guistic <strong>in</strong>quiry with<strong>in</strong> the Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples &<br />
Parameters framework has addressed issues concern<strong>in</strong>g the syntactic codification of<br />
discourse properties. The left peripheral space of the sentence, i.e. the area immediately<br />
above IP, has been taken as the doma<strong>in</strong> par excellence where such discourse properties<br />
appear codified. 14<br />
Just like the lower IP and VP projections have come to stand for different doma<strong>in</strong>s,<br />
each conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g several different projections (see Pollock 1989, Larson 1988, Hale and<br />
Keyser 1993, Pesetsky 1995, and Chomsky 1995, a.o.), the former CP projection has been<br />
split <strong>in</strong>to more than a s<strong>in</strong>gle projection s<strong>in</strong>ce the late eighties (Rizzi and Roberts 1989,<br />
Laka 1990, Culicover 1991, Uriagereka 1992, 1995b, Mart<strong>in</strong>s 1993, 1994a, Rizzi 1997,<br />
a.o.). That such left-peripheral C-doma<strong>in</strong> conta<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong>formation l<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g the propositional<br />
content of the clause to discourse seems to be a matter of generalized consensus. However,<br />
there is currently considerable dissent with respect to the <strong>in</strong>ternal organization of this<br />
doma<strong>in</strong>. Two alternative views may be contrasted: (i) on the one hand, an approach<br />
defend<strong>in</strong>g a m<strong>in</strong>imal CP-structure, which assumes that the same projection may encode<br />
different values (Uriagereka 1992, 1995a, 1995b and subsequent work, Zubizarreta 1998;<br />
see also Mart<strong>in</strong>s 1994a, Costa 1998a, 1998b, Duarte 1996, 1997); (ii) on the other hand, a<br />
different approach suggest<strong>in</strong>g that the C-doma<strong>in</strong> is composed of several functionally<br />
specialized projections, which make this doma<strong>in</strong> a much richer space than traditionally<br />
assumed (Rizzi 1997, C<strong>in</strong>que 1997: 225n25, Ambar 1997, 1999, a.o.).<br />
The approach to the <strong>in</strong>terface between discourse and grammatical form mediated by<br />
CP thus differs along similar l<strong>in</strong>es. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the the first approach, a s<strong>in</strong>gle projection<br />
with<strong>in</strong> the C-doma<strong>in</strong> may be dedicated to several discourse values:<br />
[…] I do accept the empirical fact that discourse affects configurations.<br />
Hence, as a consequence of the ground-rules I set up for myself, I am<br />
virtually forced to posit a syntactic category that encodes<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation-theoretic issues. […] I have not found any conclusive evidence<br />
that there are separate functional categories to express matters of topic,<br />
14 This is not meant to imply that all discourse-related properties must be encoded with<strong>in</strong> the left periphery.<br />
As is well known, notions as Focus, with undeniable discourse import, have been conv<strong>in</strong>c<strong>in</strong>gly separated<br />
from the structure of the left periphery (cf. C<strong>in</strong>que 1993, Zubizarreta 1998, Costa 1998a, 2000b). In a<br />
different ve<strong>in</strong>, Belletti 2001, 2002 argues for what she calls the “clause <strong>in</strong>ternal periphery” immediately<br />
above VP, where discourse properties would also allegedly be codified (I thank Tarald Taraldsen for br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g<br />
this to my attention).<br />
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EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
focus, emphasis, contrast, etc. All of these have an aspect <strong>in</strong> common: they<br />
encode the po<strong>in</strong>t of view of a speaker or some other subject, <strong>in</strong> a manner to<br />
be clarified immediately. I therefore assume that one category alone serves<br />
as an all-purpose device to encode a po<strong>in</strong>t of view.<br />
I will call the category <strong>in</strong> question “F”. Uriagereka (1988) borrows<br />
the <strong>in</strong>sight beh<strong>in</strong>d this category from Chomsky (1977). I explicitly took F to<br />
merely stand for “functional”, and <strong>in</strong> other places I used F as a mnemonic<br />
for a “further” projection, or “focus” with the vague import of emphasis,<br />
contrast, <strong>in</strong>formation-encod<strong>in</strong>g device, etc. All I mean is this: F encodes<br />
po<strong>in</strong>t of view. The claim is that all <strong>in</strong>formation theoretic operations need to<br />
be mediated through a po<strong>in</strong>t of view. That is, when emphasis appears <strong>in</strong> a<br />
sentence, someone is responsible for that emphasis. Old or new <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
is old or new for someone.<br />
Uriagereka 1995b: 155<br />
[…] although it is <strong>in</strong>deed possible that there are further functional<br />
projections to host a variety of clause-peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ments […], it is not<br />
clear that any projections other than F are actually needed.<br />
[…] We may th<strong>in</strong>k of F as a po<strong>in</strong>t of <strong>in</strong>terface at LF between the<br />
competence levels of syntax and the performance levels of pragmatics. It is<br />
due to this <strong>in</strong>terface that a number of <strong>ele</strong>ments may end up <strong>in</strong> F, even if they<br />
perform different grammatical functions there.<br />
Uriagereka 1995a: 93<br />
This view thus makes use of an essentially double-headed structure of CP, as represented<br />
<strong>in</strong> (186)a, although some enlargement of this structure has been admitted <strong>in</strong> order to host<br />
topics above FP, as <strong>in</strong> (186)b (cf. Raposo and Uriagereka 1996: 767-777):<br />
(186) a. CP<br />
ru<br />
C’<br />
ru<br />
C FP<br />
ru<br />
F’<br />
ru<br />
F IP<br />
4<br />
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5. EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE SYNTAX<br />
b. CP<br />
ru<br />
C’<br />
ru<br />
C TopP 15<br />
ru<br />
Top’<br />
ru<br />
Top FP<br />
ru<br />
F’<br />
ru<br />
F IP<br />
4<br />
On the other hand, analyses of the C-doma<strong>in</strong> developed with<strong>in</strong> the second approach have<br />
proposed and multiplied functional projections especially dedicated to s<strong>in</strong>gle discourse<br />
notions, such as Focus and Topic (Brody 1990, Hoekstra 1992, Puskas 1996, Rizzi 1997,<br />
Kiss 1998, a.o.). Such discourse categories have thus been <strong>in</strong>tegrated <strong>in</strong>to the clausal<br />
architecture as functional features, head<strong>in</strong>g dist<strong>in</strong>ct functional projections. These peripheral<br />
projections thus create an enlarged space to which the r<strong>ele</strong>vant constituents can move to<br />
satisfy check<strong>in</strong>g-related requirements on those functional features. Such an approach to the<br />
structure of CP, significantly developed after Rizzi’s 1997 <strong>in</strong>itial cartography of the left<br />
periphery, and further pursued <strong>in</strong> subsequent work (a.o., Poletto 2000, Poletto and Pollock<br />
2000, Ben<strong>in</strong>cà 2001, Ben<strong>in</strong>cà and Poletto 2001, Rizzi 2001a, 2001b), <strong>in</strong> fact <strong>in</strong>tegrates a<br />
more general “cartographic” program for clause structure (cf. C<strong>in</strong>que 2002, Belletti 2004,<br />
Rizzi 2004b).<br />
Under Rizzi’s <strong>in</strong>itial proposal, the C-doma<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>cludes two basic systems: (i) the<br />
first one provid<strong>in</strong>g the upper and lower bounds for this doma<strong>in</strong>, encod<strong>in</strong>g relationships<br />
between CP and the higher structure or the articulation of discourse, on the one hand, and<br />
between CP and the “<strong>in</strong>side”, i.e. the IP embedded under it, on the other; and (ii) a second<br />
system relat<strong>in</strong>g to the <strong>in</strong>formational articulation of topic-comment and of focuspresupposition,<br />
traditionally <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g the left periphery. The crucial heads to the former<br />
system are Force and F<strong>in</strong>iteness, encod<strong>in</strong>g respectively the specification of Force or clausal<br />
15 The authors alternatively admit an adjunction type analysis for topicalization: “Alternatively, we might<br />
adopt Duarte’s (1987) proposal that topics adjo<strong>in</strong> to a maximal projection – IP <strong>in</strong> her analysis [for the<br />
embedded contexts with which Raposo and Uriagereka 1996 are concerned at this po<strong>in</strong>t, EC], FP <strong>in</strong> ours”<br />
(Raposo and Uriagereka 1996: 767, n.25).<br />
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EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
Type of a sentence and the relationship to certa<strong>in</strong> properties of the verbal system of the<br />
clause. Such Force-F<strong>in</strong>iteness system is taken as the essential (and ubiquitous) part of the<br />
C-doma<strong>in</strong>, while the second system, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the Topic and Focus heads, is assumed to be<br />
present <strong>in</strong> a structure only if needed, i.e. if some topic or focus phrase appears <strong>in</strong> the left<br />
periphery. When activated, such Topic-Focus system appears “sandwiched” <strong>in</strong> between<br />
Force and F<strong>in</strong>iteness, which gives the follow<strong>in</strong>g basic structure:<br />
(187) ForceP<br />
ru<br />
Force’<br />
ru<br />
Force TopP*<br />
ru<br />
Top’<br />
ru<br />
Top FocP<br />
ru<br />
Foc’<br />
ru<br />
Foc TopP*<br />
ru<br />
Top’<br />
ru<br />
Top F<strong>in</strong>P<br />
ru<br />
F<strong>in</strong>’<br />
ru<br />
F<strong>in</strong> IP<br />
4<br />
230<br />
Several dedicated positions split the s<strong>in</strong>gle head C, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g positions<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g the Force of the follow<strong>in</strong>g clause and its F<strong>in</strong>(itness). As<br />
extensively discussed <strong>in</strong> Rizzi (1997) and related work, between Force and<br />
F<strong>in</strong> various other CP <strong>in</strong>ternal positions are identified: crucially a Focus<br />
position surrounded by (possibly iterated) Topic positions. Processes of<br />
Focalization and Topicalization are thus analyzed as <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g movement of<br />
a phrase to the dedicated position <strong>in</strong> the left periphery [omitted footnote,<br />
EC]. In this view, the different <strong>in</strong>terpretations of the peripheral constituent<br />
either as a topic or as a focus with respect to the follow<strong>in</strong>g sentence, is an<br />
automatic reflex of the derived configuration. Under the general idea that a<br />
relation which closely recalls an agreement relation, and which is often<br />
assimilated to it, is established between the head of a phrase and the<br />
constituent fill<strong>in</strong>g its Spec [omitted footnote, EC], a focus head and the<br />
phrase <strong>in</strong> its specifier will share the focus feature/<strong>in</strong>terpretation; an identical<br />
relation will account for the topic <strong>in</strong>terpretation of a phrase <strong>in</strong> the specifier<br />
of the topic projection. These by now fairly standard assumptions provide a<br />
very simple and straightforward way of express<strong>in</strong>g the mechanisms grant<strong>in</strong>g
5. EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE SYNTAX<br />
the possible different <strong>in</strong>terpretations related to different configurations. The<br />
<strong>in</strong>terpretation as focus or topic of an <strong>ele</strong>ment <strong>in</strong> the left periphery is an<br />
automatic consequence of it fill<strong>in</strong>g the specifier of different heads. A simple<br />
conclusion of the sort could not be as easily drawn <strong>in</strong> a CP projection not<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternally analyzed and split <strong>in</strong> the different positions discussed <strong>in</strong> the<br />
references quoted. The relation between syntax and the <strong>in</strong>terpretative<br />
<strong>in</strong>terface (LF) is expressed <strong>in</strong> an optimally simple way: the <strong>in</strong>terpretation is<br />
read off the syntactic configuration.<br />
Belletti 2002: 1<br />
Somewhat react<strong>in</strong>g to the weakness of the topic recursivity allowed by Rizzi’s <strong>in</strong>itial<br />
model (<strong>in</strong>dicated with an asterisk “*” <strong>in</strong> the structure above), Ben<strong>in</strong>cà and Polleto 2001<br />
further propose a more detailed analysis for the Topic-Focus system. Adopt<strong>in</strong>g the general<br />
view that functional projections have specialized properties and host different types of<br />
<strong>ele</strong>ments, as also proposed <strong>in</strong> C<strong>in</strong>que 1999 for the IP layer, their proposal for the Topic-<br />
Focus space <strong>in</strong>cludes “a f<strong>in</strong>ite set of dist<strong>in</strong>ct FPs [functional projections] each of which can<br />
be labelled on the basis of the type of <strong>ele</strong>ment it can host” (Ben<strong>in</strong>cà and Poletto 2001: 1).<br />
A crucial difference with respect to Rizzi’s <strong>in</strong>itial system is the impossibility for topics to<br />
occur below Focus phrases (follow<strong>in</strong>g Ben<strong>in</strong>cà 2001) 16 . The crucial po<strong>in</strong>t support<strong>in</strong>g such<br />
a claim has to do with the operator-like behavior of all the projections that occur lower that<br />
Rizzi’s higher Topic projection, namely the fact that “their trace behaves as a variable<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g sensitive to weak crossover” (id.: 2), follow<strong>in</strong>g Ben<strong>in</strong>cà’s 2001 arguments. The<br />
Topic-Focus system is thus depicted as a space <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g two different “fields”, “a higher<br />
Topic field host<strong>in</strong>g non-operator <strong>ele</strong>ments, and a lower Focus field host<strong>in</strong>g operator-like<br />
<strong>ele</strong>ments” (ibid.), which constitute “two sets of contiguous and semantically related<br />
projections, one for Topics and the second for Focus projections” (ibid.). The map that<br />
Ben<strong>in</strong>cà and Poletto 2001 sketch for the Topic-Focus system may thus be represented as<br />
follows (slightly adapted from Ben<strong>in</strong>cà and Poletto 2001: 34 (58)):<br />
(188)<br />
[Hang. Topic [Scene Sett. [Left disl. [List <strong>in</strong>terpr. [ [ CONTR. CP1 adv/obj [ CONTR. CP2 circ.adv. [ INFORM. CP ]]]<br />
|_____FRAME_______| |_____ THEME _____|<br />
|_______________TOPIC________________| |______________ FOCUS_________________|<br />
16 On a similar ve<strong>in</strong>, Haegeman 2002: 148, 151 suggests, on the basis of English data, that the lower topic<br />
position proposed by Rizzi 1997 might not be universally available.<br />
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EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce Rizzi’s Topic-Focus system appears sandwiched between the Force and the<br />
F<strong>in</strong>iteness projections, we may thus conceive that Ben<strong>in</strong>cà and Poletto’s 2001 model<br />
should also be <strong>in</strong>cluded between an upper ForceP and a lower F<strong>in</strong>itenessP, as sketched <strong>in</strong><br />
(189):<br />
(189) ForceP<br />
ru<br />
Force’<br />
ru<br />
Force ...<br />
Topic Field<br />
...<br />
...<br />
Focus Field<br />
...<br />
F<strong>in</strong>P<br />
ru<br />
F<strong>in</strong>’<br />
ru<br />
F<strong>in</strong> IP<br />
4<br />
More accurately, however, the higher part of the Topic field <strong>in</strong> (188), i.e. those projections<br />
correspond<strong>in</strong>g to the Frame, have been considered as positions higher than ForceP, thus<br />
yield<strong>in</strong>g the follow<strong>in</strong>g representation, accord<strong>in</strong>g to Poletto (2002: 1):<br />
(190)<br />
[Hang. Topic [Scene Sett. [ForceP [Left disl. [List [ContrastiveFocus [Information Focus [F<strong>in</strong>P [IP]]]]]]]]]<br />
Anyway, although a Topic “subfield” may be found higher than Force <strong>in</strong> such a<br />
representation, there is still a Topic-Focus system between Force and F<strong>in</strong>iteness.<br />
Other extensions of the CP doma<strong>in</strong> have further expanded what one might call the “Force<br />
field”. To refer but a few examples, Poletto and Pollock 2000 and Obenauer 2004, for<br />
<strong>in</strong>stance, <strong>in</strong>dependently elabore on the Force of <strong>in</strong>terrogatives, while Haegeman 2002,<br />
2004 expands Rizzi’s ForceP on the basis of the <strong>in</strong>ternal structure of adverbial clauses. If<br />
we look more closely at Obenauer’s work on non-standard <strong>in</strong>terrogatives, for <strong>in</strong>stance, we<br />
232
5. EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE SYNTAX<br />
are led to a high CP structure where dedicated projections correlate to the wh-phrases<br />
occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> such non-standard questions 17 :<br />
I analyzed the <strong>in</strong>itial appearance of bare wh-phrases <strong>in</strong> SDQs [i.e.<br />
‘surprise/diasapproval questions’] as occupancy of a higher FP [functional<br />
projection], namely SDP (mnemonic label). Recall that SDP is one of the 3<br />
dedicated FPs (cf. RP [RhetoricalP], cfvP [‘I-can’t-f<strong>in</strong>d-the-value-of-x’P])<br />
whose Specs are “higher”land<strong>in</strong>g sites for wh-phrases.<br />
Obenauer 2004: 16<br />
The positions for these wh-phrases thus appear higher than the projection of Force, as<br />
represented below:<br />
(191) a. SDP<br />
ru<br />
SDP’<br />
ru<br />
SD<br />
...<br />
ForceP<br />
ru<br />
Force’<br />
ru<br />
Force ...<br />
4<br />
A different expansion of the “Force field” may be found <strong>in</strong> Haegeman’s (2002, 2004) work<br />
on adverbial clauses. By and large, one of Haegeman’s r<strong>ele</strong>vant proposals concern<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
higher CP-positions consists <strong>in</strong> splitt<strong>in</strong>g up Rizzi’s 1997 ForceP, so that subord<strong>in</strong>ate<br />
17<br />
The non-standard <strong>in</strong>terrogatives taken <strong>in</strong>to account <strong>in</strong> Obenauer’s 2004 analysis are: (i)<br />
“surprise/disapproval questions” (SDQs); (ii) “rhetorical questions” (RQs); and (iii) “ ‘I-cant’-f<strong>in</strong>d-the-valueof-x’<br />
questions’ (cfvQs), here illustrated by some examples drawn from Bellunese (a group of dialects<br />
spoken <strong>in</strong> the region of Belluno – Northern Veneto):<br />
(i) Cossa sé-tu drìo magnar?! (ex. (8) of Munaro and Obenauer (1999) apud Obenauer 2004: 2)<br />
what are-cl beh<strong>in</strong>d eat<br />
‘What on earth are you eat<strong>in</strong>g?!’ (SDQ)<br />
(ii) U-tu che i sielde chi? (id.: 5, ex. (51))<br />
want-cl that cl chooseSUBJUNCT who<br />
‘There is no one they can/could choose/worth to be chosen.’ / ‘It is clear who they (will)<br />
choose.’ (RQ)<br />
(iii) Andé l’à- tu catà? (id.: 6, ex. (60))<br />
where cl have-cl found<br />
‘Where (the hell) did you f<strong>in</strong>d it?’ (cfvQ)<br />
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EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
clauses may count with two different heads (and respective projections), namely Sub and<br />
Force. In other words, Force (<strong>in</strong> Rizzi’s terms) is here divided <strong>in</strong>to a head that serves to<br />
subord<strong>in</strong>ate the clause and another head that encodes ‘force’ or clause type, as also<br />
proposed <strong>in</strong> Bhatt and Yoon 1992 18 , <strong>in</strong> Alexiadou 1997: 74-78 or Roussou 2000: 79.<br />
The structural hierarchy which I elaborate splits up the CP doma<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>to<br />
three components (i) the subord<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g head Sub, (ii) the lower area, the F<strong>in</strong>field<br />
or extended projection of F<strong>in</strong> […], and (iii) the Force field, which<br />
conta<strong>in</strong>s ‘Force-related’ projections.<br />
Haegeman 2002: 162<br />
Haegeman further elaborates on an alleged dependency of topicalisation and focalisation<br />
on Force, so that <strong>in</strong> her terms the “Force field” actually conta<strong>in</strong>s Topic and Focus<br />
projections. 19<br />
In this subsection, we have thus seen how a fairly <strong>in</strong>flated structure of the left periphery<br />
has come to closely encode specific pragmatic features, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a much more detailed<br />
mapp<strong>in</strong>g between syntax and discourse. In particular, besides focus/presupposition and<br />
topic/comment articulations, other pragmatic notions have ga<strong>in</strong>ed a space with<strong>in</strong> the left<br />
periphery. This is the case of several aspects relat<strong>in</strong>g to speech acts systems, like those<br />
<strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the projections proposed by Obenauer 2004. 20<br />
The proposal for the position(s) of expletive <strong>ele</strong> that I will put forth <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
subsections will <strong>in</strong> part appeal to an enlarged structure of the left periphery. This is not<br />
meant however to imply that I adhere to the view that different projections can do best than<br />
18 Cf. Rizzi 1977, note 6, mention<strong>in</strong>g Bhatt and Yoon’s “dist<strong>in</strong>ction between type markers (our force heads)<br />
and simple subord<strong>in</strong>ators, heads which make a clause available for (categorial) s<strong>ele</strong>ction <strong>in</strong>dependently of its<br />
force. If this proposal is comb<strong>in</strong>ed with ours, a tripartite system would result (subord<strong>in</strong>ator, force,<br />
f<strong>in</strong>iteness).”<br />
19 Furthermore, to account for such dependency, Haegeman proposes to assign a Force feature to Focus and<br />
to Topic, “which will require check<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> (hence the presence of) Force” (Haegeman 2002: 163). The<br />
r<strong>ele</strong>vant heads are represented below (adapted from Haegeman 2002: 162 (73)):<br />
(i) (Sub) Force Top[+FORCE]* Focus[+FORCE] […]<br />
As an alternative to this feature check<strong>in</strong>g proposal, Haegeman proposes “that there is a lower head <strong>in</strong> the CP<br />
doma<strong>in</strong> whose presence is required to license the projection of the Force field, i.e. FocusP, TopP and ForceP”<br />
(ibid.). Such lower head is ultimately identified as Force, as represented below:<br />
(ii) (Sub) Top* Focus Force […] (adapted from Haegeman 2002: 164 (74)).<br />
20 Explor<strong>in</strong>g this same philosophy, Speas 2004 strongly suggests the syntactic codification of pragmatic<br />
features relat<strong>in</strong>g to evidentiality and logophoricity.<br />
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5. EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE SYNTAX<br />
a s<strong>in</strong>gle one <strong>in</strong> syntactic structures, and <strong>in</strong> the structure of the left periphery <strong>in</strong> particular.<br />
More generally, it does not mean that I conceive that syntactic structure necessarily mirrors<br />
(all) discourse properties. In fact, on a purely conceptual ground, I would rather be<br />
sympathetic to a division of labour between the syntactic encod<strong>in</strong>g of discourse properties<br />
and <strong>in</strong>terface strategies govern<strong>in</strong>g such properties of language use, along the l<strong>in</strong>es<br />
suggested <strong>in</strong> Re<strong>in</strong>hart 1995.<br />
Suppose we observed, empirically, that a certa<strong>in</strong> structure S is associated<br />
with a set U of possible uses. This could, <strong>in</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>ciple be expla<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> three<br />
ways: a. The properties necessary for U are directly encoded <strong>in</strong> S, through<br />
the computational system, as syntactic features, as specific structural<br />
configurations, or as specific conditions on derivations. b. There is no direct<br />
relation between the syntactic properties of S and U. Rather, the set U is<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>ed solely by the systems of use. c. There are some <strong>in</strong>terface<br />
strategies associat<strong>in</strong>g S and U, us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dependent properties of the CS, and<br />
of the systems of use.<br />
Most likely, all three options exist, <strong>in</strong> fact, govern<strong>in</strong>g different aspects<br />
of the relations of structure and use. But the one actually favoured <strong>in</strong><br />
syntactic practice is the first – that of syntactic encod<strong>in</strong>g. Many of the<br />
properties now encoded <strong>in</strong> the syntax got there <strong>in</strong> order to guarantee the<br />
correct <strong>in</strong>terface with the systems of use. […] Although lists of features (like<br />
any lists) may not be an optimal theoretical choice, they are still more<br />
explicit and precise than the vacuous narratives that one sometimes f<strong>in</strong>ds <strong>in</strong><br />
discourse theory. […]<br />
Keep<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>d that we cannot know <strong>in</strong> advance what belongs<br />
where, I will focus here on the division of labour between the first and the<br />
third options above: which properties necessary for language use are<br />
directly encoded <strong>in</strong> the CS and which are governed by <strong>in</strong>terface strategies.<br />
Re<strong>in</strong>hart 1995: 1<br />
Work<strong>in</strong>g out an account for the <strong>in</strong>terface strategies <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the use of expletive<br />
constructions is however beyond the scope of the present dissertation. The more modest<br />
goal of this work is to propose effective syntactic codifications for expletive <strong>ele</strong><br />
constructions. In a sense, I will then essentially be explor<strong>in</strong>g the first option enumerated by<br />
Re<strong>in</strong>hart, at least for the time be<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
In the follow<strong>in</strong>g subsections, we will thus look more closely at the structure that may be<br />
<strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> EP expletive constructions. In order to elucidate these diverse and till now<br />
fairly unfamiliar structures <strong>in</strong> EP, we will consider not only what we already know about<br />
other structures with<strong>in</strong> this language, but also what we know about related structures <strong>in</strong><br />
other languages. The first approximation to this purpose has already been presented <strong>in</strong><br />
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EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
section 5.2 above. In that section, we determ<strong>in</strong>ed that both peripheral/impersonal <strong>ele</strong> and<br />
postverbal <strong>ele</strong> occupy a position with<strong>in</strong> the left periphery of the sentence. Furthermore, we<br />
concluded that peripheral/impersonal <strong>ele</strong> and postverbal <strong>ele</strong> must stand <strong>in</strong> different<br />
(peripheral) positions. Now that we have briefly <strong>in</strong>spected what we know about the left<br />
peripheral space, we will turn to the EP facts, to concentrate aga<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> expletive<br />
constructions <strong>in</strong> this language.<br />
5.5.3 The high position of peripheral expletive <strong>ele</strong><br />
In this subsection, we will be concerned with peripheral expletive <strong>ele</strong> constructions like the<br />
one illustrated <strong>in</strong> (192), which, as suggested above, may <strong>in</strong> general be parall<strong>ele</strong>d by so-<br />
considered impersonal <strong>ele</strong> constructions, as found <strong>in</strong> (193):<br />
(192) Ele o tear do pardo era muito largo. (OUT21)<br />
EXPL the loom of.the dun [cloth] was very wide<br />
± ‘The loom for dun cloth was <strong>in</strong>deed very wide.’<br />
(193) Há quem tenha uma ideia e há quem tenha outra. Ele é assim. (ALV36)<br />
has who has one idea and has who has other EXPL is like.that<br />
± ‘Some people have one ideia and others have a different one. Th<strong>in</strong>gs are <strong>in</strong>deed like that.’<br />
Naturally, I exclude from the scope of this subsection, the cases discussed <strong>in</strong> section 5.3<br />
above, which were argued to <strong>in</strong>volve a quasi-argumental subject.<br />
In the <strong>in</strong>troduction to this section (cf. 5.5.1 above), it was suggested that, to the<br />
extent that peripheral/impersonal <strong>ele</strong> is related to certa<strong>in</strong> discourse effects, the EP expletive<br />
could be compared to the F<strong>in</strong>nish expletive sitä, which has been connected to specific<br />
discourse-related requirements (as presented <strong>in</strong> chapter 2 of this dissertation). The<br />
similarity between the EP and the F<strong>in</strong>nish expletives does not go far beyond this threshold,<br />
however. In fact, while the F<strong>in</strong>nish expletive relates to a discourse level <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
distribution of <strong>in</strong>formation <strong>in</strong> the sentence (i.e. the level r<strong>ele</strong>vant for notions such as focus-<br />
presupposition or topic-comment), the <strong>Portuguese</strong> expletive seems to be out of the scope of<br />
such level.<br />
This may not seem evident, at first sight, we must concede. Consider, for <strong>in</strong>stance,<br />
example (192) above. The expletive construction <strong>in</strong> question <strong>in</strong>volves a preverbal subject,<br />
which is preceded by the expletive. In a non-expletive construction, such preverbal subject<br />
would normally correspond to a (non-marked) topic read<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> EP (cf. Duarte 1987, 1997,<br />
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5. EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE SYNTAX<br />
Mart<strong>in</strong>s 1994a, Costa 1998a). Thus, the phrase o tear do pardo ‘the loom for dun cloth’<br />
would establish the entity for which the comment era muito largo ‘was very wide’ is<br />
r<strong>ele</strong>vant, which <strong>in</strong> Kuroda’s 1972 terms would result <strong>in</strong> a categorical judgement<br />
correspond<strong>in</strong>g to the topic-comment articulation. At first glance, we might speculate that<br />
the expletive has the effect of creat<strong>in</strong>g a ‘detopicaliz<strong>in</strong>g’ effect on the preverbal subject.<br />
That is, just like the F<strong>in</strong>nish expletive, it would become itself a k<strong>in</strong>d of topic, while the<br />
rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g sequence would correspond to a sort of thetic judgement. Such a speculation<br />
would of course face a serious problem when we consider the distribution of peripheral <strong>ele</strong>,<br />
as presented <strong>in</strong> chapter 4: <strong>in</strong> EP, this expletive may precede different k<strong>in</strong>ds of topics and <strong>in</strong><br />
no way they seem to loose their topic read<strong>in</strong>gs. Furthermore, the example just considered<br />
above provides additional evidence for discard<strong>in</strong>g such speculation. In fact, the expletive<br />
construction <strong>in</strong> question occurs as an answer to a question about the dimensions of the<br />
loom:<br />
(194) INQ Mas o tear era igual ou era mais largo?<br />
‘Interviewer: But the loom had the same width or was it wider?’<br />
INF (Não. Ele era lá agora!) Ele o tear do pardo era muito largo. (OUT21)<br />
no EXPL was LÁ now EXPL the loom of.the dun [cloth] was very wide<br />
± ‘(No. Sure it wasn’t!) The loom for dun cloth was <strong>in</strong>deed very wide.’<br />
In such answer, the expletive does not seem to affect the regular distribution of<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation: o tear do pardo has a topic read<strong>in</strong>g allowed by reference to it <strong>in</strong> the preced<strong>in</strong>g<br />
question (as o tear – <strong>in</strong> a wider context, the loom is actually the topic of the conversation at<br />
that moment of the <strong>in</strong>terview); era muito largo actually acts as the piece of new<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation which answers the question. Thus, if we tried to transpose the analysis<br />
proposed by Holmberg and Nikanne 2002 for F<strong>in</strong>nish expletive sitä to expletive<br />
constructions <strong>in</strong> EP, we would face serious difficulties: <strong>in</strong> an expletive construction like the<br />
one <strong>in</strong> (194), there is <strong>in</strong> fact a part of the sentence which is [+focus] (namely, era muito<br />
largo) and, consequently, there is already some [-focus] <strong>ele</strong>ment (namely, o tear do<br />
pardo). Consequently, there would be no po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>sert<strong>in</strong>g expletive <strong>ele</strong>, if this expletive<br />
was to be related to such [-focus] feature check<strong>in</strong>g. We must thus conclude that expletive<br />
<strong>ele</strong> does not affect the distribution of <strong>in</strong>formation properly, but rather operates with<strong>in</strong> a<br />
different discourse-related doma<strong>in</strong>.<br />
In fact, we may recall, from the last part of chapter 4 above, the sort of discourse<br />
effects displayed by peripheral expletive <strong>ele</strong>. The corpus of examples considered <strong>in</strong> this<br />
work led us to conclude that the most generalized effect of this expletive is a sort of<br />
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EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
emphasis on the pragmatic value of the sentence where the expletive appears. Thus, <strong>in</strong><br />
sentences like those <strong>in</strong> (195) through (197) the expletive would re<strong>in</strong>force an expressive<br />
value (<strong>in</strong> the exclamative <strong>in</strong> (195)), a command value (<strong>in</strong> the imperative <strong>in</strong> (196)) or an<br />
assertive value (<strong>in</strong> the declarative <strong>in</strong> (197)):<br />
(195) Ele nunca me olhava a nada, nunca t<strong>in</strong>ha medo nenhum! (ALV25)<br />
EXPL never ± avoided anyth<strong>in</strong>g never had fright/fear any<br />
‘I never avoided anyth<strong>in</strong>g, I never was afraid!’<br />
(196) INF1 Ele vamos embora! (FIG27)<br />
EXPL go-PRES.SUBJ-1PL away<br />
±‘Informant1: Let’s go!’<br />
(197) É a estrela-da-manhã (…) e há a estrela… Bom, <strong>ele</strong> há várias estrelas, não é?<br />
Is the morn<strong>in</strong>g star and has the star… good, EXPL has several stars, not is(AAL92)<br />
± ‘That’s the morn<strong>in</strong>g star (…) and there is the star… Well, there are several stars, aren’t<br />
there?’<br />
In a sense, emphasis always implies a certa<strong>in</strong> degree of <strong>in</strong>volvement of the speaker. The<br />
presence of the speaker is self-evident <strong>in</strong> expressive acts like those typically expressed by<br />
exclamatives (even if the expletive is not present). In imperatives and <strong>in</strong> declaratives, the<br />
expletive appears <strong>in</strong> contexts where there is a strong <strong>in</strong>volvement of the speaker. In this<br />
sense, <strong>in</strong> assertive acts, the expletive looks like a strong evidentiality marker, to the extent<br />
that it <strong>in</strong>dicates the speaker’s strong commitment as to the truth of the statement he is<br />
mak<strong>in</strong>g. 21 In a related way, the peripheral expletive occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>terrogatives displays the<br />
particular effect of forc<strong>in</strong>g a non-standard question read<strong>in</strong>g. Thus, expletive <strong>ele</strong> occurs <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>terrogative questions shar<strong>in</strong>g the expressive value of exclamatives, like the rhetorical<br />
question <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g example:<br />
(198) Não sendo no Natal, (<strong>ele</strong>) quem é que os come?! N<strong>in</strong>guém. (OUT50)<br />
NEG be-GER <strong>in</strong>.the Christmas EXPL who is that them eat nobody<br />
‘If it is not by Christmas, who will eat them?! Nobody.’<br />
These facts about the discourse effects displayed by peripheral <strong>ele</strong> already suggest a<br />
particular syntactic codification for this expletive <strong>in</strong> the left periphery. Remember from the<br />
previous section that many structural analyses for this periphery <strong>in</strong>clude a space dedicated<br />
to the encod<strong>in</strong>g of aspects relat<strong>in</strong>g to the force of a sentence (cf. Rizzi 1997 and subsequent<br />
work developed with<strong>in</strong> the cartographic approach). It would thus be fairly natural to f<strong>in</strong>d a<br />
21 Thus, expletive constructions of the sort analyzed here would correspond to a possible means of codify<strong>in</strong>g<br />
evidentiality <strong>in</strong> syntactic structure, as suggested by Uriagereka 2004 (cf. Rooryck 2001, Speas 2004 for<br />
discussion of other issues concern<strong>in</strong>g the syntactic cod<strong>in</strong>g of evidentiality). For the issue of evidentiality <strong>in</strong><br />
general, see Chafe and Nichols 1986.<br />
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place for expletive <strong>ele</strong> with<strong>in</strong> that space. The speaker commitment found <strong>in</strong> expletive<br />
constructions would accord<strong>in</strong>gly be expla<strong>in</strong>ed, assum<strong>in</strong>g Haegeman’s 2002 proposal: 22<br />
I propose that the presence of the functional head Force […] directly<br />
correlates with what is referred to as ‘illocutionary force’, the fact that the<br />
speaker takes on the proposition as part of a speech act (assertion,<br />
prediction, question, etc.).<br />
To be licensed, Force, be<strong>in</strong>g about speaker commitment, must be<br />
anchored to a speaker or a potential speaker.<br />
Haegeman 2002: 159<br />
As I understand this proposal, this is not necessarily <strong>in</strong>compatible with the view that the<br />
sentential force, follow<strong>in</strong>g Chierchia and McConnell-G<strong>in</strong>et 1990 (the one r<strong>ele</strong>vant for<br />
clause typ<strong>in</strong>g), must be dist<strong>in</strong>guished from the illocutionary force result<strong>in</strong>g from the use of<br />
a sentence as a speech act (Searle 1965). We may well take this Force projection to<br />
“correlate with the illocutionary force” without assum<strong>in</strong>g that it directly encodes the force<br />
that a sentence assumes <strong>in</strong> a particular speech act.<br />
Hence, let us suppose that the high left-peripheral position where<br />
peripheral/impersonal <strong>ele</strong> is <strong>in</strong>serted is <strong>in</strong> fact [Spec, ForceP]. Then, let us see how this<br />
proposal would work for the sort of data that we may found <strong>in</strong> EP. In the follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
paragraphs, I will beg<strong>in</strong> by evaluat<strong>in</strong>g this proposal with respect to ma<strong>in</strong> clauses (naturally<br />
<strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g different types of sentences). <strong>Expletive</strong>s <strong>in</strong> embedded clauses will be discussed<br />
at the end of this subesection.<br />
First of all, let me say that we need not assume that the head Force is present <strong>in</strong> any<br />
sentence. The proposal specifically concerns emphatic sentences result<strong>in</strong>g from the use of<br />
the expletive <strong>ele</strong>. In this case, <strong>in</strong> fact, I am propos<strong>in</strong>g that a projection headed by Force<br />
must be present and that the expletive occupies its Spec position.<br />
When we look at the expletive constructions <strong>in</strong> examples (192) and (193) above,<br />
their syntactic structures appear quite straightforward: there is a projection ForceP (whose<br />
Spec is filled by the expletive) <strong>in</strong> the left periphery of an unmarked preverbal subject<br />
sentence (which we may assume to correspond to IP):<br />
22 Remark that the speaker commitment generally associated to expletive constructions could <strong>in</strong> part expla<strong>in</strong><br />
the stylistic variation correlated to the use of this l<strong>in</strong>guistic means: expletive constructions appear most<br />
frequently <strong>in</strong> non-formal / less formal styles, normally associated to the expression of some<br />
expressivity/emotivity. In standard EP, the most tolerated uses of this expletive bear precisely on some<br />
expression of speaker commitment.<br />
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EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
(199) [FORCEP [Ele] [ FORCE 0 [IP o tear do pardo era muito largo] ] ]. (OUT21)<br />
EXPL the loom of.the dun [cloth] was very wide<br />
± ‘The loom for dun cloth was <strong>in</strong>deed very wide.’<br />
(200) [FORCEP [Ele ] [ FORCE 0 [IP proexpl é assim] ] ]. (ALV36)<br />
EXPL is like.that<br />
± ‘Th<strong>in</strong>gs are <strong>in</strong>deed like that.’<br />
In exclamative and imperative sentences like those illustrated <strong>in</strong> (195) and (196), the<br />
expletive construction would <strong>in</strong>volve the same sort of visibility for the ForceP projection,<br />
without affect<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>ternal structure of the rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g sentence. Such an analysis could<br />
of course be compatible with the idea that Force may correspond to the different types of<br />
sentential force, <strong>in</strong>dependently from our assumptions about the way this is codified <strong>in</strong><br />
syntactic structure (either by means of posit<strong>in</strong>g different Force 0 features for the different<br />
sentential types (e.g. [+excl], [+<strong>in</strong>t], [+imp]) or by assum<strong>in</strong>g that different configurations<br />
<strong>in</strong> the rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g structure yield the different sentence types). We may then speculate that<br />
what the expletive does with respect to the discourse value of the sentences where it<br />
appears is to limit the spectrum of possible illocutionary forces that may be assumed by a<br />
given clause type. To clarify: it is well known that each clause type may assume different<br />
values of illocutionary force, given the appropriate context. For <strong>in</strong>stance, a sentence<br />
formally associated with the force of ask<strong>in</strong>g, such as the <strong>in</strong>terrogative Could you open the<br />
w<strong>in</strong>dow?, may (<strong>in</strong> fact, usually does) have the illocutionary force associated with order<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
For another example, a declarative sentence does not necessarily correlate to an assertion: I<br />
want you to do this job today would normally correspond to a command, an illocutionary<br />
force typically associated to imperatives. What I am suggest<strong>in</strong>g is that the expletive <strong>in</strong><br />
[Spec, ForceP] <strong>in</strong> fact forces a special (or perhaps a very limited set of) illocutionary force<br />
for each clause type. Accord<strong>in</strong>gly, declarative sentences <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g a peripheral expletive<br />
may hardly assume a command value such as the one illustrated above. That is, a sentence<br />
such as (201) would preferably be read as an assertion:<br />
(201) Ele (eu) gostava que fizesses este trabalho hoje.<br />
EXPL I would like that do-IMPERF.SUBJC this work today<br />
Similarly, (202) could hardly express a request, while its non-expletive counterpart<br />
corresponds to a usual way of ask<strong>in</strong>g for a coffee.<br />
240
(202) Ele (eu) queria um café.<br />
EXPL I want-IMPERF a coffee<br />
5. EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE SYNTAX<br />
Thus, we could conjecture that the expletive <strong>in</strong> [Spec, ForceP] <strong>in</strong>duces the follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
correspondances: declarative sentence-assertion, exclamative-expressive act, <strong>in</strong>terrogative-<br />
expressive act, imperative-command. In fact, I am treat<strong>in</strong>g the sort of <strong>in</strong>terrogative<br />
sentences where the expletive may appear as exclamatives, follow<strong>in</strong>g suggestions <strong>in</strong><br />
Ben<strong>in</strong>cà 1995: 129 and Mateus et al. 2002: 481 (recall that the expletive only appears <strong>in</strong><br />
non-standard <strong>in</strong>terrogatives, such as the rhetorical questions, surprise/disapproval questions<br />
and “I-can’t-f<strong>in</strong>d-the-value-of-x” questions po<strong>in</strong>ted out by Obenauer 2004). The result of<br />
this “s<strong>ele</strong>ction” among the potential illocutionary forces assumed by a sentence is<br />
somewhat emphatic for the s<strong>ele</strong>cted assertive/expressive/command value.<br />
In structural terms, such an analysis would correctly predict the sort of <strong>in</strong>teractions<br />
that the expletive may display with<strong>in</strong> the left periphery. Recall from chapter 4 (see also<br />
sections 5.1 and 5.2 of the present chapter) that the peripheral expletive may co-occur with<br />
other left-peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ments, which it normally precedes. I repeat here some examples to<br />
ease the exposition:<br />
(203) Ele agora já n<strong>in</strong>guém costuma cozer. (OUT32)<br />
EXPL now already nobody uses to bake_bread<br />
‘Now nobody uses to bake bread anymore.’<br />
(204) Que <strong>ele</strong> até com um pau se malha. (MST37)<br />
QUE EXPL even with a stick SE threshs<br />
± ‘Actually we thresh even with a stick.’<br />
(205) Haver… Ele a fome não havia! (VPA06)<br />
have-INF EXPL the hunger NEG had<br />
‘As for exist<strong>in</strong>g, the hunger didn’t exist!’<br />
(206) Olhe que aquilo no livro! E <strong>ele</strong> eu, o homem leu aquilo diante de mim! (COV18)<br />
look that that <strong>in</strong>.the book and EXPL I the man read that before me<br />
‘Look, that was <strong>in</strong> the book! And me, the man read that before me!’<br />
Thus, adverbials, focalized phrases, topicalized phrases and other topic constituents<br />
occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the left periphery all appear after the peripheral expletive. This, of course, is<br />
correctly predicted if the expletive occupies the Spec position of ForceP, above other<br />
projections with<strong>in</strong> the left periphery. It seems to me that the present proposal for the syntax<br />
of peripheral expletives would essentially be compatible with most current analyses for<br />
these peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ments <strong>in</strong> EP. As for topicalization, for <strong>in</strong>stance, which is illustrated <strong>in</strong><br />
example (205), we could either analyze it as adjunction to CP or IP (see Duarte 1987,<br />
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EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
1996) or treat this construction as movement to a Spec position with<strong>in</strong> a dedicated Topic<br />
projection (see Ambar 1997, 1999), <strong>in</strong> any case the expletive would necessarily f<strong>in</strong>d its<br />
place <strong>in</strong> a higher projection with<strong>in</strong> the C-doma<strong>in</strong>, as proposed above. Such higher<br />
projection would equally be compatible with a lower FP position whose Spec receives the<br />
k<strong>in</strong>d of focalized phrase found <strong>in</strong> example (204) (cf. Uriagereka 1992, Mart<strong>in</strong>s 1994a,<br />
Raposo 1995, Raposo and Uriagereka 1996, 2004). The relative order with respect to the<br />
expletive is correctly derived.<br />
Consider now the case of <strong>in</strong>terrogative sentences <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g a wh-phrase. The<br />
peripheral expletive precedes the wh-phrase, which also may be argued to move to the left<br />
periphery (cf. Ambar et al. 1998, Ambar 2000, and also Uriagereka 1992, 1995b, Raposo<br />
and Uriagereka 1996, 2004). 23 In an example like the follow<strong>in</strong>g, the expletive has been<br />
argued to force a non-standard question read<strong>in</strong>g (for <strong>in</strong>stance, surprise/disapproval):<br />
(207) Ele que livro estás a ler?<br />
EXPL what book are A read-INF<br />
‘What (k<strong>in</strong>d of) book are you read<strong>in</strong>g?!’<br />
If we extended Obenauer’s analysis to EP data, we would have the wh-phrase <strong>in</strong> nonstandard<br />
questions stay<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a higher Spec position than the one it occupies <strong>in</strong> standard<br />
<strong>in</strong>terrogatives – <strong>in</strong> fact, a position higher than Force <strong>in</strong> Obenauer’s proposal. In our terms,<br />
the non-standard wh-phrase could <strong>in</strong> non-expletive constructions move to [Spec, ForceP] to<br />
legitimate some feature relat<strong>in</strong>g to a possible/necessary expressive illocutionary force<br />
[+expressive]. In expletive constructions, no wh-movement would be required s<strong>in</strong>ce the<br />
<strong>in</strong>sertion of the expletive would legitimate the [+expressive] feature <strong>in</strong> question. This<br />
would then be a case <strong>in</strong> EP expletive constructions where expletive <strong>ele</strong> would act much<br />
like “regular” IP expletives: the expletive is <strong>in</strong>serted <strong>in</strong> a Spec position as an alternative to<br />
movement of a phrase to that same Spec, for some feature to be checked.<br />
A major problem for this analysis would be the fact that expletive <strong>ele</strong> also appears<br />
<strong>in</strong> a significant variety of embedded clauses. Some examples are repeated below:<br />
(208) Mas olhe que eu, eu tenho a impressão (…) que <strong>ele</strong> que havia a<strong>in</strong>da lá disso.<br />
but look that I I have the impression that EXPL that had still there of.that<br />
± ‘But look, I have the impression that there was some of that there’ (AAL21)<br />
23 But see Barbosa’s 2001 arguments for analyz<strong>in</strong>g wh-constructions <strong>in</strong> Romance as IPs.<br />
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5. EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE SYNTAX<br />
(209) Tu sabes bem que <strong>ele</strong> em Paçô <strong>ele</strong>s viram para aqu<strong>ele</strong> lado e a gente encam<strong>in</strong>hava<br />
you know well that EXPL <strong>in</strong> Paçô they turn to that side and the people turned<br />
logo para este lado. (COV28)<br />
immediately to this side<br />
‘You know well that at Paçô they turn to that side and we immediately turn to this side.’<br />
(210) pois que préstimo teem agora as talhas, se êle não há já v<strong>in</strong>has? (Ribeiro 1927: 28)<br />
POIS what utility have now the ± tubs if EXPL NEG has still v<strong>in</strong>eyards<br />
± ‘So what is the utility of the tubs now, if there are no more v<strong>in</strong>eyards?’<br />
(211) Nós, antigamente, cozíamos quando <strong>ele</strong> v<strong>in</strong>ha o tempo de castanhas –<br />
we <strong>in</strong>.the.past cooked when EXPL came-3SG the time of chestnuts<br />
(que) também dávamos castanhas. (OUT32)<br />
QUE also gave-1PL chestnuts<br />
‘In the past, we used to cook [null object: the pig’s food] when was the chestnuts time –<br />
we also used to give [them] chestnuts.’<br />
(212) As folhas saíam e a azeitona ficava ali, em cima dum pano limpo, que era para<br />
the leaves went.away and the olive rema<strong>in</strong>ed there upon of.a cloth clean QUE was for<br />
despois (de) já estar limpa para <strong>ele</strong> a gente pôr dentro duma canastra. (ALC17)<br />
after of already be-INF clean for EXPL the people put <strong>in</strong>side of.a basket<br />
± ‘Leaves were thrown away and olives were kept there, on a clean cloth, to be put <strong>in</strong>side<br />
a basket.’<br />
The first problem raised by such subord<strong>in</strong>ate contexts concerns the co-occurrence of the<br />
expletive with a subord<strong>in</strong>ator of the type represented <strong>in</strong> (208) - (210) (que ‘that’ and se ‘if’).<br />
These are a typical complementizer and a subord<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g conditional conjunction,<br />
respectively. They would thus most likely appear as Force heads, if we characterize Force<br />
as <strong>in</strong> Rizzi 1997. However, such an analysis would yield the wrong word order <strong>ele</strong> –<br />
complementizer/conjunction:<br />
(213) … [FORCEP [<strong>ele</strong> ] [ que [ … ] ] ].<br />
In fact, this is not a real problem, s<strong>in</strong>ce we may well conceive of an additional projection,<br />
<strong>in</strong> fact, more directly connected to subord<strong>in</strong>ation, as <strong>in</strong>dependently proposed by Bhatt and<br />
Yoon 1992, Alexiadou 1997, Roussou 2000 and Haegeman 2002. Follow<strong>in</strong>g Haegeman<br />
2002, I will call the head of such projection “Sub” as a mere mnemonic.<br />
(214) … [SUBP que [FORCEP [<strong>ele</strong> ] [ FORCE 0 [ … ] ] ].<br />
Thus the order complementizer/conjunction – <strong>ele</strong> is correctly derived. Similarly, other<br />
embedded clauses such as relatives (and free relatives like the one <strong>in</strong> (211)), may equally<br />
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EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
<strong>in</strong>volve the projection of Sub. 24 Peripheral expletive <strong>ele</strong> could thus provide evidence for<br />
separat<strong>in</strong>g the heads Force and Sub.<br />
A second (apparent) problem has to do with the presence of a head such as Force<br />
(and consequently, its projection) <strong>in</strong> embedded contexts. Remember that we have related<br />
the projection of Force to the expression of illocutionary force. This typically corresponds<br />
to a property of ma<strong>in</strong> clauses. However, some embedded clauses <strong>in</strong>clude the expletive,<br />
even when we don’t expect ForceP to be projected <strong>in</strong> embedded doma<strong>in</strong>s. In fact, it may be<br />
argued that there are embedded clauses that allow for a ForceP projection. This seems<br />
fairly uncontroversial for those embedded clauses that depend on assertive predicates like<br />
those illustrated <strong>in</strong> (208) and (209). As for adverbial clauses, I speculate that the presence<br />
of the expletive correlates with important differences that have <strong>in</strong>dependently been isolated<br />
with respect to their structure. Namely, it has beed argued that a major dist<strong>in</strong>ction may be<br />
drawn between peripheral and central adverbials (Haegeman 2002, see also Lobo 2003):<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternally, the structure of the former group is essentially root-like (except for the presence<br />
of a subord<strong>in</strong>ator), while the structure of the latter is truncated. Thus, peripheral adverbials<br />
like the one illustrated <strong>in</strong> (210) could without problems allow for a complete structure for<br />
the left periphery, which would make the presence of the overt expletive fairly<br />
understandable.<br />
Remark, furthermore, that recomplementation, which <strong>in</strong>volves an expanded<br />
periphery, may be found, although quite unexpectedly, <strong>in</strong> the periphery of <strong>in</strong>flected<br />
<strong>in</strong>f<strong>in</strong>itival clauses headed by para <strong>in</strong> CORDIAL-SIN data from the Azores (S. Miguel):<br />
(215) INQ2 E aquilo, quando ela está a começar a dar semente dá um quê?<br />
‘Interviwewer 2: And when it beg<strong>in</strong>s to produce seeds, what does it produce also?’<br />
INF1 (Ele) quando está a começar, a gente aqui usam: se é um pé para dar semente, a gente<br />
deixam aqu<strong>ele</strong> pé para dar semente. Não mexem n<strong>ele</strong>. (…)<br />
‘Informant1: Well, when it beg<strong>in</strong>s [produc<strong>in</strong>g seeds], people here use to – if it is a stem for seeds,<br />
we use to leave that stem for seeds. We don’t touch it.’<br />
INF3 Para semear a couv<strong>in</strong>ha.<br />
‘Informant3: To plant the cabbage.’<br />
INF1 Para (<strong>ele</strong>) para dar a semente, para <strong>ele</strong> para a gente tirar a couv<strong>in</strong>ha, tem que colher…<br />
<strong>in</strong> order to EXPL to give the seed <strong>in</strong> order to EXPL to we have the cabbage, have to catch<br />
24 I am follow<strong>in</strong>g here a suggestion formulated <strong>in</strong> Haegeman 2002: 159, n.31: “relative pronouns need not be<br />
taken to move to the specifier of ForceP, as proposed <strong>in</strong> Rizzi (1997), but they could target the specifier of<br />
Sub.”<br />
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5. EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE SYNTAX<br />
Thus, although the extensive <strong>in</strong>spection of the correlation between peripheral expletives<br />
and adverbial clauses is outside the reach of this dissertation, it is worth not<strong>in</strong>g that even<br />
adverbial clauses may not be a problem for the proposal presented here concern<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
peripheral position of peripheral/impersonal <strong>ele</strong>.<br />
In this subsection I have proposed that the peripheral/impersonal expletive <strong>ele</strong> makes<br />
visible the projection of Force <strong>in</strong> the C-doma<strong>in</strong>, which is assumed to mediate the mapp<strong>in</strong>g<br />
between the sentential force and the illocutionary force that a sentence may have as a<br />
speech act. Relat<strong>in</strong>g this expletive to the Force projection permits us to straighforwardly<br />
account for the discourse effects displayed by this expletive <strong>in</strong> EP, which were argued to<br />
operate at the level of the illocutionary force assumed by a sentence. Furthermore, the high<br />
peripheral position posited for this projection (follow<strong>in</strong>g Rizzi 1997, and many others after<br />
him) allows the correct predictions with respect to the <strong>in</strong>teraction of this expletive with<br />
other peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ments: peripheral <strong>ele</strong> may precede different k<strong>in</strong>ds of phrases occurr<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> the left periphery, like preposed adverbials, topics, dislocated affective phrases,<br />
dislocated wh-phrases. The presence of such a peripheral expletive <strong>in</strong> embedded contexts<br />
was further related to the availability of Force, which was thus assumed to differ from an<br />
additional subord<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g head Sub, follow<strong>in</strong>g Bhatt and Yoon 1992, Alexiadou 1997,<br />
Roussou 2000 and Haegeman 2002.<br />
The proposal put forth for EP data could, <strong>in</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>ciple, be extended to overt<br />
expletives found <strong>in</strong> other Romance NSLs (cf. data summarized <strong>in</strong> chapter 2). Galician, for<br />
<strong>in</strong>stance, seems to largely conform to the EP pattern, with the expletive be<strong>in</strong>g connected to<br />
illocutionary values relat<strong>in</strong>g to expressivity <strong>in</strong> exclamative and <strong>in</strong>terrogative clause types,<br />
but also (strong) assertion <strong>in</strong> declarative clause type. In Catalan dialects allow<strong>in</strong>g for the<br />
expletive, however, ell would only legitimate the expressive force related to exclamative<br />
sentences – hence ell is currently understood as an “exclamatory particle”.<br />
In a wider context, peripheral/impersonal expletive <strong>ele</strong> and the other Romance overt<br />
expletives would <strong>in</strong>stantiate a discourse-related expletive occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the left periphery.<br />
Although <strong>ele</strong> may be connected to other discourse-related expletives, such as F<strong>in</strong>nish sitä<br />
(Holmberg and Nikanne 2002) 25 , the discourse doma<strong>in</strong> where these expletives are r<strong>ele</strong>vant<br />
is clearly dist<strong>in</strong>ct: while F<strong>in</strong>nish-type expletives have some import for the distribution of<br />
25<br />
Or, si and e <strong>in</strong> Old Italian, which were argued to be CP expletives, relat<strong>in</strong>g to Topic and Focus (Poletto<br />
2002).<br />
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EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
the <strong>in</strong>formation <strong>in</strong> the sentence (thus relat<strong>in</strong>g to notions such as Topic and Focus), the EP<br />
expletive bears a role <strong>in</strong> the expression of the Force assumed by a sentence.<br />
5.5.4 The low peripheral position of postverbal <strong>ele</strong><br />
F<strong>in</strong>ally, let us turn now to constructions <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g postverbal <strong>ele</strong>, like those repeated below<br />
<strong>in</strong> (216).<br />
(216) a. Era <strong>ele</strong> numa carroça! (MIG14)<br />
was EXPL <strong>in</strong>.a cart<br />
‘It was <strong>in</strong> a cart!’<br />
b. […] bem aos olhos faz <strong>ele</strong> tudo […] (PAL28)<br />
good to.the eyes makes EXPL everyth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
±‘…everyth<strong>in</strong>g is good for the eyes…’<br />
As discussed <strong>in</strong> section 5.4 above, postverbal <strong>ele</strong> displays a set of properties that easily<br />
make him behave like a head, despite its homophony with peripheral/impersonal expletive<br />
<strong>ele</strong> analyzed <strong>in</strong> the previous subsection. The proposal that I will put forth for this <strong>in</strong>stance<br />
of non-referential <strong>ele</strong> has thus to differ from that of peripheral/impersonal <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> a radical<br />
way: while the latter occupies a Spec position, the former must appear <strong>in</strong> a head position.<br />
Furthermore, peripheral/impersonal <strong>ele</strong> and postverbal <strong>ele</strong> also differ with respect to the<br />
position they occupy with<strong>in</strong> the left periphery. This seems fairly evident <strong>in</strong> an example<br />
where the two forms of <strong>ele</strong> co-occur:<br />
(217) As pias há-as quadradas (e) há outras redondas, não é? […] Eu tenho-as aí…<br />
‘As for s<strong>in</strong>ks, there are some of them square and some rond, isn’t it? I have some there…’<br />
[…] Ele aqui debaixo tenho <strong>ele</strong> assim umas pias para os pequen<strong>in</strong>os, para lá comerem,<br />
EXPL here under[this] have-1SG EXPL thus some s<strong>in</strong>ks to the small.ones to there eat-INF-3PL<br />
± ‘Here, under this, I have some s<strong>in</strong>ks for the small ones, for them to eat there.’ (OUT33)<br />
The first one corresponds to the higher expletive <strong>in</strong> the structure of the left periphery –<br />
occupy<strong>in</strong>g a position that we have identified as [Spec, ForceP] <strong>in</strong> the previous subsection:<br />
(218) ForceP<br />
ru<br />
Ele Force’<br />
ru<br />
Force ...<br />
4<br />
aqui debaixo tenho <strong>ele</strong> assim umas pias para os pequen<strong>in</strong>os ...<br />
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5. EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE SYNTAX<br />
Now remember that we have <strong>in</strong>dentified postverbal <strong>ele</strong> as a peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ment (cf. section<br />
5.2.1 above). Thus, it must f<strong>in</strong>d a (head) position with<strong>in</strong> the left periphery, above IP:<br />
(219) ForceP<br />
ru<br />
Ele Force’<br />
ru<br />
Force .. .<br />
...<br />
aqui debaixo tenho <strong>ele</strong> ...<br />
IP<br />
4<br />
Recall from chapter 4 and from section 5.2.2 that this postverbal <strong>ele</strong> may be preceded by<br />
constituents with a topic read<strong>in</strong>g like <strong>in</strong> the example (216) above. This, of course, places<br />
the postverbal expletive <strong>in</strong> a position below the position for topics.<br />
Regard<strong>in</strong>g the discourse effects <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> postverbal <strong>ele</strong> constructions, it has been<br />
noted <strong>in</strong> chapter 4, under section 4.4, that this expletive appears exclusively related to<br />
sentences <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g a certa<strong>in</strong> evaluative/expressive value. Accord<strong>in</strong>gly, question-tags do<br />
not apply successfully to such constructions, a result that may be taken as a sign of the lack<br />
of assertive force (cf. section 5.2.2 above).<br />
(220) Os cães comeram <strong>ele</strong> os ossos, # {não foi, não comeram}?<br />
the dogs ate-3PL EXPL the bones NEG was NEG ate-3PL<br />
(221) Ele aqui debaixo tenho <strong>ele</strong> assim umas pias, # {não é, não tenho}?<br />
EXPL here below have EXPL thus some s<strong>in</strong>ks<br />
Importantly, exclamative sentences <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g the expression of an evaluation by the<br />
speaker (see Ambar 1999: 42) and sentences <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g dislocated affective phrases (<strong>in</strong> the<br />
sense of Raposo 1995) also admit postverbal <strong>ele</strong>:<br />
(222) a. L<strong>in</strong>da casa comprou <strong>ele</strong> a Maria!<br />
beautiful house bought EXPL the Maria<br />
b. Isso sabe <strong>ele</strong> a Maria!<br />
that knows EXPL the Maria<br />
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EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
c. Muitas flores recebeu <strong>ele</strong> a Maria!<br />
many flowers received EXPL the Maria<br />
I will essentially capitalize on this evidence to propose that postverbal <strong>ele</strong> may appear as<br />
the head <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the expression of such evaluative/expressive value. Ambar 1997, 1999<br />
provides us with some <strong>in</strong>sights <strong>in</strong>to the structure of such sentences:<br />
Suppose we assume that there exists a projection <strong>in</strong> the syntactic<br />
representation of the sentence where EVALUATIVE-LIKE <strong>ele</strong>ments are licensed<br />
(checked) sitt<strong>in</strong>g above IP but below CP, as <strong>in</strong> (46):<br />
(46) [CP [C’ [EvaluativeP [Evaluative’ [TopicFocusP [TopicFocus’ [IP ]]]]]]]<br />
Assume that the features of E(valuative)P have to be checked aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />
evaluative features of lexical items. If EP is projected, then the appropriate<br />
lexical constituent […] has to raise to it for check<strong>in</strong>g reasons.<br />
Ambar 1999: 43<br />
Hence, if we adapt Ambar’s (1997, 1999) proposal concern<strong>in</strong>g these constructions, we<br />
have already found a place for postverbal <strong>ele</strong> with<strong>in</strong> the (low) left-periphery. Suppose then<br />
that postverbal <strong>ele</strong> appears as the morphological head Evaluative and that the constituents<br />
headed by evaluative words (such as muitas flores, l<strong>in</strong>da casa) move to the Spec position<br />
of this projection (as proposed by Ambar 1997, 1999). Then, <strong>in</strong> constructions like those <strong>in</strong><br />
(222) we will have to say that the verb also raises to the head position of this head, as<br />
represented below:<br />
(223) EvalP<br />
ru<br />
L<strong>in</strong>da casa Eval’<br />
ru<br />
Eval IP<br />
ty 5<br />
comprou <strong>ele</strong> a Maria<br />
Although the subject may appear between the evaluative phrase and the verb <strong>in</strong> this k<strong>in</strong>d of<br />
construction if no expletive occurs, as <strong>in</strong> example (224), the postverbal <strong>ele</strong> counterparts to<br />
these sentences do not allow for such word order<strong>in</strong>g (cf. ):<br />
(224) L<strong>in</strong>da casa a Maria comprou!<br />
beautiful house the Maria bought<br />
(224’) *L<strong>in</strong>da casa a Maria comprou <strong>ele</strong>!<br />
Such impossibility would straightforwardly derive if we assume that the expletive must be<br />
<strong>in</strong> Eval as <strong>in</strong> (223).<br />
248
5. EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE SYNTAX<br />
Mov<strong>in</strong>g the verb up to Eval does not seem however to be a reasonably economical<br />
measure. If the [evaluative] features of the head may be checked by movement of a phrase<br />
<strong>in</strong>to its Spec, how come does the verb raise up to Eval? At this po<strong>in</strong>t, I will suggest that it<br />
is the clitic nature of postverbal <strong>ele</strong> (cf. section 5.4 above) that requires that another head<br />
be moved to Eval, so that postverbal <strong>ele</strong> becomes a legitimate object.<br />
Postverbal expletive constructions <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g no phrase prepos<strong>in</strong>g would thus only<br />
<strong>in</strong>volve movement of the verb to legitimate clitic <strong>ele</strong>:<br />
(225) EvalP<br />
ru<br />
Eval’<br />
ru<br />
Eval IP<br />
ty 5<br />
era <strong>ele</strong> nas eiras<br />
Other postverbal <strong>ele</strong> constructions <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g no formally evaluative phrase may also result<br />
<strong>in</strong> an evaluative construction by means of the same structure:<br />
(226) EvalP<br />
ru<br />
os cães Eval’<br />
ru<br />
Eval IP<br />
ty 5<br />
comeram <strong>ele</strong> os ossos<br />
As for the example <strong>in</strong> (217), which also <strong>in</strong>volves a peripheral expletive, the structure above<br />
would have to comb<strong>in</strong>e to ForceP:<br />
(227) ForceP<br />
ru<br />
Ele Force’<br />
ru<br />
Force EvalP<br />
ru<br />
4 Eval’<br />
aqui debaixo ru<br />
Eval IP<br />
ty 5<br />
tenho <strong>ele</strong> assim umas pias...<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ally, we may add that the fact that this construction appears much more restricted <strong>in</strong><br />
embedded contexts must be connected to the fact that <strong>in</strong> this case the sort of illocutionary<br />
force allowed by the syntactic codification results necessarily expressive. Peripheral<br />
249
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
expletives, on the other hand, were argued to also correlate to assertive values, by and large<br />
<strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g a wider distribution <strong>in</strong> embedded contexts.<br />
250
6.<br />
Conclusion<br />
This dissertation <strong>in</strong>vestigates the status of expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> non-standard <strong>European</strong><br />
<strong>Portuguese</strong>. More specifically, it is concerned with the syntax of constructions <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
expletive <strong>ele</strong>, whose properties it attempts to expla<strong>in</strong>, both at the syntactic and at the<br />
discourse levels.<br />
In this f<strong>in</strong>al chapter, I will first present a summary of the motivation beh<strong>in</strong>d the<br />
choice of this topic and report on the ma<strong>in</strong> f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs of this dissertation. Then, I will discuss<br />
their significance for our understand<strong>in</strong>g of specific areas of <strong>Portuguese</strong> grammar, <strong>in</strong><br />
particular, and of the properties of grammar <strong>in</strong> general. In a wider context, I will present<br />
some of the new perspectives that have been opened by the research underly<strong>in</strong>g the present<br />
work, po<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g out to new avenues for future research.<br />
The status of expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> non-standard EP is <strong>in</strong>vestigated <strong>in</strong> this dissertation from the<br />
perspective of the syntactic properties and discourse effects displayed by the constructions<br />
where <strong>ele</strong> occurs. The aim of this <strong>in</strong>vestigation was twofold: (i) to present a comprehensive<br />
account of overt expletive constructions <strong>in</strong> EP; and, concomitantly, (ii) to contribute to a<br />
better understand<strong>in</strong>g of the status and function of expletives <strong>in</strong> natural language <strong>in</strong> general.<br />
This research is developed with<strong>in</strong> the Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples and Parameters framework of generative<br />
syntax (Chomsky 1981 and subsequent work), under its m<strong>in</strong>imalist version (Chomsky<br />
251
EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
1993, 1994, 1995 and subsequent work). The empirical basis for this work has been<br />
provided by the Syntactically Annotated Corpus of <strong>Portuguese</strong> <strong>Dialects</strong> (CORDIAL-SIN),<br />
a l<strong>in</strong>guistic resource recently developed at Centro de L<strong>in</strong>guística da Universidade de<br />
Lisboa and especially conceived for the enhancement of dialect syntax.<br />
<strong>Expletive</strong>s have motivated torrents of l<strong>in</strong>guistic discussion for the special and mysterious<br />
status they have <strong>in</strong> languages <strong>in</strong> general. To paraphrase Georg Kaiser’s words at the<br />
clos<strong>in</strong>g session of a recent workshop on <strong>Expletive</strong>s <strong>in</strong> Romance and Germanic Languages 1 ,<br />
expletives seem to be noth<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> language – and, to this extent, this dissertation would be<br />
about noth<strong>in</strong>g. However, it is precisely because they appear to bear on noth<strong>in</strong>g else but<br />
grammar that they are so fasc<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
L<strong>in</strong>guistic research on expletives of English-type languages has explored this aspect<br />
almost to its limits. <strong>Expletive</strong>s have thus been seen as pure manifestations of syntax, s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
they appear to be related to purely syntactic designs, such as satisfy<strong>in</strong>g a structural<br />
visibility requirement on a specific syntactic position (traditionally, the subject position).<br />
More recently, it has been argued that, <strong>in</strong> some other languages, expletives may be<br />
operative outside the structural doma<strong>in</strong> traditionally connected to a proposition, i.e. IP,<br />
where English-type expletives seem to belong. More precisely, expletives have also been<br />
located with<strong>in</strong> the doma<strong>in</strong> which typically relates to the <strong>in</strong>terface with discourse, i.e. CP.<br />
What the precise role of the expletive is, <strong>in</strong> this case, still appears to me to be an open<br />
question. Proposals have been made which tend to compare the function of CP-expletives<br />
to the usual role of IP-expletives: both would serve some sort of visibility requirement,<br />
either by means of check<strong>in</strong>g an EPP-feature on the <strong>in</strong>flectional head with<strong>in</strong> the IP doma<strong>in</strong>,<br />
or by check<strong>in</strong>g an analogous “P-feature” on a given projection <strong>in</strong> the left periphery (cf.<br />
Platzack 1998 and Holmberg 2000c, on Icelandic expletive það). Incursions <strong>in</strong>to a<br />
discourse-oriented language revealed that the EPP feature checked by expletives may not<br />
only vary with respect to the position where it appears but also assume a somewhat related,<br />
but still different, shape (cf. Holmberg and Nikanne 2002 on F<strong>in</strong>nish sitä, which is argued<br />
to check a [-Foc] feature).<br />
Such proposals thus widen up the limits with<strong>in</strong> which expletives may be<br />
understood. In particular, it seems to me that they pave the way for new approaches to the<br />
1 Held at the University of Konstanz (Germany), 11-13 November 2004.<br />
252
6. CONCLUSION<br />
fact that overt expletives occur <strong>in</strong> several Romance NSLs, which till now has rema<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
fairly unexpla<strong>in</strong>ed, despite the significant <strong>in</strong>sights brought up by some recent studies (cf.<br />
Silva-Villar 1998, 2004, and Uriagereka 1992, 1995b and especially 2004).<br />
The choice of the subject of this dissertation was thus <strong>in</strong> part motivated by the fairly<br />
general design of explor<strong>in</strong>g a new approach to the analysis of overt expletives <strong>in</strong> a NSL.<br />
Naturally, this choice was also motivated by a more specific design, that of elucidat<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
fairly obscure area <strong>in</strong> <strong>Portuguese</strong> l<strong>in</strong>guistics.<br />
As a non-standard language phenomenon, expletive <strong>ele</strong> has not been given almost<br />
any attention <strong>in</strong> theoretical syntactic work. The few studies that mention it, however, most<br />
often conform to the traditional view that <strong>ele</strong> plays <strong>in</strong> EP the role that it or there play <strong>in</strong><br />
English or il plays <strong>in</strong> French. That is, expletive <strong>ele</strong> is most often seen as an expletive<br />
subject. (Remarkable exceptions are however found <strong>in</strong> Uriagereka 1992, 1995a, 1995b,<br />
2004, Mart<strong>in</strong>s 1993, Raposo 1995, Raposo and Uriagereka 1996, 2004, Silva-Villar 1998,<br />
2004.) This dissertation thus attempts to fill up this gap and contribute to a better<br />
understand<strong>in</strong>g of this aspect of non-standard EP.<br />
Chapter 2 reveals the theoretical environment for this approach to the study of expletive <strong>ele</strong><br />
and places this dissertation <strong>in</strong> the wider context of the l<strong>in</strong>guistic research concern<strong>in</strong>g overt<br />
expletives <strong>in</strong> languages which allow for null expletives.<br />
First of all, it is the notion of ‘expletive’ itself that is elucidated. This move is<br />
pla<strong>in</strong>ly justified by the term<strong>in</strong>ological ambiguity characteristic of the word expletive.<br />
Generative syntactic research has specialized this term for the specific notion of ‘syntactic<br />
filler for the subject position’, and, even more, for a particular case of such syntactic filler<br />
(“pure expletives” of the there-type, which correspond to noth<strong>in</strong>g else than the feature that<br />
they must check <strong>in</strong> the subject position). Given the hypothesis underly<strong>in</strong>g this dissertation<br />
that EP expletives <strong>in</strong>stantiate a different type of non-subject expletive, such a specific<br />
notion could not serve the purposes <strong>in</strong>tended here. In this work, the term expletive is rather<br />
used <strong>in</strong> a less restrictive sense that goes beyond the notion of ‘subject filler’.<br />
Neverth<strong>ele</strong>ss, a brief characterization of “pure” expletives is given <strong>in</strong> chapter 2, so<br />
that the properties displayed by expletive <strong>ele</strong> may be subsequently compared to those of<br />
pure expletives. Besides their lack of features, it is the dependency of pure expletives on<br />
their associate that is strengthened here.<br />
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EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
Furthermore, chapter 2 reviews some generalizations concern<strong>in</strong>g the absence of<br />
expletive subjects <strong>in</strong> natural language. Above all, besides review<strong>in</strong>g the well-known<br />
empirical generalization that NSLs usually lack overt expletives (cf. Rizzi 1982, Burzio<br />
1986, Jaeggli and Safir 1989, i.a.), it underl<strong>in</strong>es the fact that even NNSLs may allow for<br />
non-overt expletive subjects. In this context, it seems to be a fairly unexpected property of<br />
natural language that those languages where subjects may normally be non-overt display<br />
overt expletive subjects.<br />
To this respect, chapter 2 <strong>in</strong>cludes evidence for the recurrence and complexity of<br />
so-considered exceptional overt expletives, i.e. expletives that occur <strong>in</strong> (varieties of)<br />
languages allow<strong>in</strong>g for non-overt subjects <strong>in</strong> general or for non-overt expletive subjects <strong>in</strong><br />
particular. American Spanish varieties, Catalan varieties from the Balear Islands and<br />
Galician provide examples from Romance NSLs; Icelandic, German and Yiddish illustrate<br />
the case of NNSLs allow<strong>in</strong>g for non-overt expletive subjects which neverth<strong>ele</strong>ss may use<br />
overt expletives. The last part of chapter 2 presents some recent analyses of such<br />
exceptional overt expletives. All of them strongly suggest that these expletives are best<br />
characterized as left-peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ments, even though they vary as to the position they<br />
propose for the expletive <strong>in</strong> the structure of the left periphery. It is argued that <strong>in</strong> a Verb-<br />
second language like Icelandic the expletive það satisfies a visibility requirement on a high<br />
Spec position with<strong>in</strong> the C-doma<strong>in</strong> ([Spec, ForceP] for Platzack 1998 and [Spec, CP] for<br />
Holmberg 2000c). In a Topic-prom<strong>in</strong>ent language like F<strong>in</strong>nish, expletive sitä is argued to<br />
satisfy a k<strong>in</strong>d of visibility requirement on the Topic position, [Spec, FP]. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the<br />
proposal put forth by Holmberg and Nikanne 2002, this expletive would check a [-Foc]<br />
feature of F when no constituent is moved to [Spec, FP]. Concern<strong>in</strong>g Romance NSLs’<br />
overt expletives, recent analyses also propose that they are to be related to the space above<br />
IP. The proposals put forth by Uriagereka 1992-2004 and by Silva-Villar 1996-2004 are<br />
presented and briefly discussed with respect to some of their implications for the analysis<br />
of expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> EP. Specifically, it is suggested that these proposals make the right<br />
predictions concern<strong>in</strong>g the peripheral status of this expletive, but fail to expla<strong>in</strong> other<br />
properties displayed by expletive constructions, as they appear <strong>in</strong> the data <strong>in</strong>spected <strong>in</strong> this<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestigation.<br />
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6. CONCLUSION<br />
Insofar as the subject of this study consists of a phenomenon of non-standard language, the<br />
approach here developed specifically explores the field of dialect syntax, here focused <strong>in</strong><br />
EP dialects.<br />
Although syntax has traditionally been a neglected doma<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> dialect studies, recent<br />
developments <strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>guistics (such as the conceptual shift operated by the Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples and<br />
Parameters framework <strong>in</strong> generative syntax) have paved the way for this still emerg<strong>in</strong>g<br />
field of l<strong>in</strong>guistic studies. Insofar as one of the aims of l<strong>in</strong>guistic theory today is to provide<br />
a pr<strong>in</strong>cipled way for expla<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g language variation <strong>in</strong> general, the place of <strong>in</strong>tral<strong>in</strong>guistic<br />
variation may well be compared to that of crossl<strong>in</strong>guistic variation. To this extent, the<br />
comparative approach, which has been fundamental to the development of the Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples<br />
and Parameters framework, has ga<strong>in</strong>ed a new dimension. In particular, it permitted the<br />
development of new approaches to the study of syntax, such as the one represented by<br />
microparametric syntax. From the comparison between different but related languages we<br />
have then turned to the consideration of different varieties with<strong>in</strong> a s<strong>in</strong>gle language. Data<br />
from non-standard varieties tend today to have a place <strong>in</strong> the study of Universal Grammar<br />
<strong>in</strong> all aspects similar to that formerly exclusive to standard varieties.<br />
The field of dialect syntax is only emerg<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the doma<strong>in</strong> of the EP language.<br />
Syntax has almost always been absent from <strong>Portuguese</strong> dialect studies, which <strong>in</strong> general do<br />
not <strong>in</strong>clude more than some sparse descriptive observations on certa<strong>in</strong> aspects of<br />
<strong>Portuguese</strong> syntax. An important step to the enhancement of this new field has been<br />
achieved with the development of the Syntactically Annotated Corpus of <strong>Portuguese</strong><br />
<strong>Dialects</strong> (CORDIAL-SIN), at Centro de L<strong>in</strong>guística da Universidade de Lisboa. This widespectrum<br />
l<strong>in</strong>guistic resource, which is available on the <strong>in</strong>ternet<br />
(http://www.clul.ul.pt/english/sectores/cordials<strong>in</strong>/projecto_cordials<strong>in</strong>.html), provides<br />
researchers with a significant amount of data (aim<strong>in</strong>g at 500,000 words) drawn from<br />
dialectal (atlases-oriented) <strong>in</strong>terviews. The importance of such a resource appears fairly<br />
evident when one envisages the study of dialect syntax. If <strong>in</strong>trospection and grammaticality<br />
judgements have played a central role with respect to the empirical basis for theoretical<br />
studies <strong>in</strong> generative syntax, one may well wonder how this k<strong>in</strong>d of data could work for<br />
non-standard syntax. Even if the l<strong>in</strong>guist is familiar with different varieties of his language,<br />
one could hardly imag<strong>in</strong>e the degree of reliability of his judgements with respect to these<br />
varieties. To this respect, it appears that only judgements on his native (or native-like)<br />
dialect may offer some reliability. S<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>in</strong>trospection alone may hardly be a source for<br />
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EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
mak<strong>in</strong>g hypotheses <strong>in</strong> dialect syntax, the role of dialect descriptions <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g syntactic<br />
r<strong>ele</strong>vant <strong>in</strong>formation is thus evident. Likewise, natural observation may be seen as an<br />
important source of hypotheses-motivat<strong>in</strong>g data. In the absence of any comprehensive<br />
descriptive syntactic studies for EP dialects, CORDIAL-SIN represents the source par<br />
excellence of non-standard naturalistic data. In this context, it constitutes an essential<br />
means to approach the <strong>in</strong>itial hypothesis-mak<strong>in</strong>g step of dialect syntax.<br />
The <strong>in</strong>itial empirical basis for the work presented <strong>in</strong> this dissertation has thus<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ly been a collection of data drawn from CORDIAL-SIN at its state of 200,000 words.<br />
<strong>Expletive</strong> constructions were collected from a total of seventeen locations <strong>in</strong> Portugal<br />
(Azores and Madeira Archipels <strong>in</strong>cluded).<br />
This natural first step <strong>in</strong> the study of any non-standard EP issue has <strong>in</strong> fact provided<br />
the ma<strong>in</strong> empirical basis for the <strong>in</strong>vestigation here presented. The collected data have<br />
proven to be amply rich and complex, so that other methods for obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g data (such as<br />
judgements’ test<strong>in</strong>g), which were <strong>in</strong>itially previewed, have been postponed for future<br />
evaluation. Instead, the analysis here presented counted with the author’s judgements on<br />
her own native-dialect (occasionally validated by judgements from other speakers of the<br />
same dialect).<br />
Chapter 3 of this dissertation discusses and develops these issues on dialect syntax<br />
methodology.<br />
The collection of data drawn from CORDIAL-SIN, occasionally comb<strong>in</strong>ed with data from<br />
other sources (such as daily spontaneous speech, and written sources like dialect<br />
monographs, newspapers and novels), provides a general picture of the distribution of<br />
overt expletives, <strong>in</strong> special of expletive <strong>ele</strong>, <strong>in</strong> non-standard EP.<br />
Chapter 4 of this dissertation presents a comprehensive description of the<br />
distribution of expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> these data. <strong>Expletive</strong> constructions are first considered from<br />
the perspective of the syntactic distribution of expletive <strong>ele</strong>. On the basis of such<br />
distribution, three different types of expletive <strong>ele</strong> have been identified:<br />
(i) so-considered subject-like expletive (specifically, the expletive occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> all<br />
the constructions which <strong>in</strong>volve an obligatory expletive subject <strong>in</strong> NNSLs: constructions<br />
with impersonal predicates; constructions with clausal subject extraposition; presentative<br />
constructions; and also <strong>in</strong> constructions <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g subject wh-extraction);<br />
256
6. CONCLUSION<br />
(ii) peripheral expletive (which <strong>in</strong>cludes different <strong>in</strong>stances of expletive <strong>ele</strong><br />
occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> an overtly peripheral position, namely before preverbal subjects and other<br />
peripheral constituents);<br />
(iii) postverbal <strong>ele</strong> which <strong>in</strong>variably occurs immediately after the <strong>in</strong>flected verb<br />
(allow<strong>in</strong>g for a certa<strong>in</strong> degree of variation with respect to the preverbal position, which<br />
may be empty or occupied by a phrase).<br />
The data <strong>in</strong>vestigated <strong>in</strong> this dissertation thus significantly permit us to widen up<br />
the traditional empirical basis upon which expletive <strong>ele</strong> has been analyzed. Interest<strong>in</strong>gly,<br />
these data provide strong evidence suggest<strong>in</strong>g that the spectrum of distribution of expletive<br />
<strong>ele</strong> goes well beyond impersonal constructions, i.e. those contexts where expletive <strong>ele</strong><br />
could be analyzed as a subject. In fact, the <strong>in</strong>spected data favor the hypothesis that<br />
expletive <strong>ele</strong> may behave as a non-subject expletive.<br />
Importantly, <strong>in</strong> CORDIAL-SIN data, impersonal contexts do not correspond to the<br />
most frequent context for expletive <strong>ele</strong>: this corresponds <strong>in</strong>stead to peripheral constructions<br />
(55% cases of peripheral expletives vs. 39% of impersonal ones). Among the three types of<br />
expletives, postverbal <strong>ele</strong> is much less frequent (only 6% of the total occurrences). Neither<br />
of these types of expletive <strong>ele</strong> shows any significant correlation with spatial distribution.<br />
Comparative data with respect to the syntactic distribution of the neuter<br />
demonstrative pronouns isto ‘this’, isso, and aquilo ‘that’ further substantiates a dist<strong>in</strong>ction<br />
between peripheral and impersonal <strong>ele</strong>, on the one hand, and postverbal <strong>ele</strong>, on the other:<br />
while demonstratives share the distributional properties of the former, they may never<br />
appear <strong>in</strong> the same position where postverbal <strong>ele</strong> occurs.<br />
One important tenet of the analysis here presented is the discourse-related import of<br />
EP expletive <strong>ele</strong>. In the last part of chapter 4, the discourse effects displayed by this<br />
expletive are discussed. Briefly, it is argued that the effect of expletive <strong>ele</strong> by and large<br />
operates at the level of the illocutionary force that a sentence may assume as a speech act.<br />
On the basis of the empirical data provided by EP dialects, it is shown that peripheral and<br />
impersonal expletive <strong>ele</strong> act as a k<strong>in</strong>d of re<strong>in</strong>forcer of the expressive, command or assertive<br />
value that exclamatives or non-standard <strong>in</strong>terrogatives, imperatives and declaratives,<br />
respectively, may assume. Postverbal <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> turn is shown to have the effect of add<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
particular evaluative (expressive) value to any sentence where it occurs.<br />
The account of expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> EP dialects presented <strong>in</strong> this dissertation is thus<br />
based on this background of data, which has permitted to enlarge the empirical basis of<br />
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EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
previous studies on the subject of overt expletives <strong>in</strong> Romance NSLs (namely Uriagereka<br />
1992, 1995b, 2004 and Silva-Villar 1996, 1998, 2004).<br />
The analysis developed <strong>in</strong> chapter 5 is <strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e with the basic idea underly<strong>in</strong>g both<br />
Uriagereka’s and Silva-Villar’s work: overt expletives <strong>in</strong> Romance NSLs must be<br />
dist<strong>in</strong>guished from NNSLs-type expletives – the former are clearly not dependent on any<br />
k<strong>in</strong>d of visibility requirement on the subject position <strong>in</strong>side the IP-doma<strong>in</strong>; more precisely,<br />
Romance NSLs’ overt expletives are essentially <strong>ele</strong>ments perta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g to the C-doma<strong>in</strong>.<br />
Chapter 5 thus restates this peripheral hypothesis, which underlies the present work.<br />
The analysis here presented further assumes Uriagereka’s 2004 suggestion that expletives<br />
correspond<strong>in</strong>g to the “impersonal” and “peripheral” types are basically undist<strong>in</strong>ct. That is,<br />
expletives <strong>in</strong> impersonal constructions should rather be <strong>in</strong>terpreted as peripheral expletives<br />
co-occurr<strong>in</strong>g with an empty expletive subject. Accord<strong>in</strong>gly, peripheral/impersonal<br />
expletive <strong>ele</strong> will most of the time be treated as undist<strong>in</strong>ct.<br />
Besides direct evidence from the attested data, which <strong>in</strong>dicates the peripheral status<br />
of expletive <strong>ele</strong>, several syntactic tests are presented which also confirm that expletive <strong>ele</strong><br />
occupies a position with<strong>in</strong> the left periphery. In special, the peripheral status of postverbal<br />
<strong>ele</strong> is put under scrut<strong>in</strong>ity, so that we are led to conclude that this expletive also occupies a<br />
position peripheral to IP.<br />
The contrast between peripheral/impersonal <strong>ele</strong>, on the one hand, and postverbal<br />
<strong>ele</strong>, on the other, is further substantiated <strong>in</strong> this chapter. Although both of them occupy a<br />
space <strong>in</strong> the left periphery, it is demonstrated that they must be dist<strong>in</strong>guished, on the basis<br />
of their different behavior with respect to the follow<strong>in</strong>g aspects, <strong>in</strong> part summarized <strong>in</strong><br />
table 1 below: (i) mobility <strong>in</strong> the periphery; (ii) distribution <strong>in</strong> embedded contexts; (iii)<br />
verb adjacency; (iv) demonstrative substitution; (v) discourse value.<br />
258<br />
PERIPHERAL/<br />
IMPERSONAL<br />
EXPL<br />
POSTVERBAL<br />
EXPL<br />
position <strong>in</strong> the periphery high low<br />
distribution <strong>in</strong> embedded contexts<br />
less<br />
restricted<br />
more<br />
restricted<br />
verb adjacency - +<br />
demonstrative substitution + -<br />
Table 1. Contrast<strong>in</strong>g peripheral/impersonal expletives with postverbal <strong>ele</strong>
6. CONCLUSION<br />
The differences concern<strong>in</strong>g the aspects (iii) and (iv) are further correlated with a<br />
significative difference <strong>in</strong> the expletive’s phrasal status: it is argued that<br />
peripheral/impersonal <strong>ele</strong> corresponds to an XP category, while postverbal <strong>ele</strong> has head-<br />
like properties.<br />
The discourse value of expletive <strong>ele</strong> seems to be <strong>in</strong>variable <strong>in</strong> the case of postverbal<br />
<strong>ele</strong> (which is argued to be connected with the evaluative/expressive value of the sentence<br />
where it occurs) and allows for a certa<strong>in</strong> degree of variation <strong>in</strong> the case of<br />
peripheral/impersonal <strong>ele</strong> (which <strong>in</strong> fact may re<strong>in</strong>force the expressive, command or<br />
assertive values of exclamatives and non-standard <strong>in</strong>terrogatives, imperatives and<br />
declaratives, respectively).<br />
On the basis of such differences, it is argued that what has been called “expletive <strong>ele</strong>” is <strong>in</strong><br />
fact an ambiguous <strong>ele</strong>ment <strong>in</strong> EP grammar. First of all, the <strong>in</strong>stances of<br />
peripheral/impersonal <strong>ele</strong> and postverbal <strong>ele</strong> must be dist<strong>in</strong>guished from cases where <strong>ele</strong><br />
appears to behave more like a typical subject. These are suggested to correspond to<br />
residual uses where <strong>ele</strong> would have a neuter demonstrative read<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
While postverbal <strong>ele</strong> significantly differs from traditional expletives, namely by its<br />
alleged X 0 character, peripheral/impersonal <strong>ele</strong> behaves much like expletives <strong>in</strong> natural<br />
language <strong>in</strong> that it occupies a Spec position. The latter seems <strong>in</strong> fact to correspond to the<br />
sort of expletive <strong>in</strong>vestigated by Uriagereka and Silva-Villar. It may be characterized as a<br />
peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ment which actually occurs high <strong>in</strong> the structure of the left periphery, as it<br />
may precede several peripheral <strong>ele</strong>ments, such as topics, dislocated wh-phrases, or<br />
dislocated affective phrases. Given its XP nature, this position must correspond to a Spec<br />
position. On the discourse plan, this expletive is argued to display not only the evidentiality<br />
read<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>ted out <strong>in</strong> Uriagereka 2004, but also other effects on the pragmatic level, all of<br />
them <strong>in</strong> complementary distribution. Namely, it is argued that this expletive serves as a<br />
general re<strong>in</strong>forcer of the pragmatic value that different sentence types may assume.<br />
Specifically, this re<strong>in</strong>forcement may result <strong>in</strong> an emphatic effect on the expressive or<br />
command value of exclamatives and non-standard <strong>in</strong>terrogatives or of imperatives,<br />
respectively. Concern<strong>in</strong>g the declarative type sentence, it is argued that the strong<br />
evidentiality effect po<strong>in</strong>ted out by Uriagereka may <strong>in</strong> fact be derived from the possibility of<br />
re<strong>in</strong>forc<strong>in</strong>g the assertive value that may be associated to declarative sentences.<br />
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EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>gly, it is proposed that this peripheral/impersonal expletive <strong>ele</strong> makes<br />
visible the projection of Force <strong>in</strong> the C-doma<strong>in</strong>, which is proposed to mediate the mapp<strong>in</strong>g<br />
between the sentential force and the illocutionary force that a sentence may have as a<br />
speech act. The presence of such a peripheral expletive <strong>in</strong> embedded contexts was further<br />
related to the availability of Force <strong>in</strong> such embedded contexts. The co-occurrence of<br />
expletives and subord<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g <strong>ele</strong>ments was taken as evidence for posit<strong>in</strong>g a subdivision<br />
between Force and an additional subord<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g head Sub, follow<strong>in</strong>g Bhatt and Yoon 1992,<br />
Alexiadou 1997, Roussou 2000 and Haegeman 2002.<br />
Although the naturalistic data are much scarcer with respect to postverbal <strong>ele</strong>, the<br />
analysis could count on the author’s <strong>in</strong>trospective judgements on her native dialect, which<br />
<strong>in</strong>cludes this k<strong>in</strong>d of expletive. It is thus suggested that postverbal <strong>ele</strong> corresponds to the<br />
morphologically overt counterpart of an Evaluative head (cf. Ambar 1997, 1999) occurr<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> the low periphery.<br />
This dissertation thus contributes, first of all, to a better knowledge of an area almost<br />
unknown <strong>in</strong> <strong>Portuguese</strong> l<strong>in</strong>guistics. On a fairly descriptive move, different constructions<br />
were <strong>in</strong>spected which all <strong>in</strong>volve some form of “expletive” <strong>ele</strong>. Although, <strong>in</strong> most cases,<br />
the expletive proved to straightforwardly comb<strong>in</strong>e with structures which have been<br />
<strong>in</strong>dependently analyzed <strong>in</strong> the doma<strong>in</strong> of <strong>Portuguese</strong> l<strong>in</strong>guistics, some new aspects of EP<br />
grammar have been suggested by the present <strong>in</strong>vestigation:<br />
260<br />
(i) non-referential <strong>ele</strong> does not generally correspond to an overt expletive subject<br />
comparable to those of NNSLs;<br />
(ii) non-referential <strong>ele</strong> behaves as an ambiguous <strong>ele</strong>ment <strong>in</strong> EP grammar;<br />
(iii) non-referential <strong>ele</strong> is a grammatical <strong>ele</strong>ment with discourse-related import,<br />
correlated to structural positions <strong>in</strong> the left periphery of the sentence;<br />
(iv) the discourse effect of this <strong>ele</strong>ment operates at the level of the illocutionary<br />
force assumed by sentences <strong>in</strong> use;<br />
(v) the form <strong>ele</strong> may also correspond to a neuter demonstrative-like pronoun, to<br />
correlate with the accusative form of a demonstrative clitic -o (studied by Matos<br />
1985);<br />
(vi) the head Eval <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> exclamative-avaliative clauses, which was<br />
<strong>in</strong>dependently proposed by Ambar 1997, 1999, may be morphologically filled<br />
up with (postverbal) <strong>ele</strong>;
6. CONCLUSION<br />
(vii) emphasis on the pragmatic value that a sentence assume may be structurally<br />
encoded <strong>in</strong> the high periphery of the sentence.<br />
The implications of the last po<strong>in</strong>t have a more general scope, which goes beyond the<br />
sphere of <strong>Portuguese</strong> grammar. The ma<strong>in</strong> proposal put forth <strong>in</strong> this dissertation, that<br />
ForceP is to be related to the encod<strong>in</strong>g of pragmatic values and that expletive <strong>ele</strong> occupies<br />
a position with<strong>in</strong> that projection, <strong>in</strong> fact develops and gives new content to ideas recently<br />
enterta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> syntactic research:<br />
(i) to the extent that dedicated positions <strong>in</strong> the left periphery have been proposed to<br />
bear special relations to discourse-r<strong>ele</strong>vant notions, the specific effects<br />
correlated to the EP expletive widen up the limits with<strong>in</strong> which the <strong>in</strong>terface<br />
discourse-syntax must be discussed;<br />
(ii) although the proposal presented <strong>in</strong> this work makes use of a split CP system,<br />
from which it uses a dedicated position to encode aspects relat<strong>in</strong>g to specific<br />
discourse-related notions (namely, the projection ForceP relat<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
illocutionary force), it is suggested that some syncretism may be <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the<br />
characterization of such a projection: <strong>in</strong> fact, an <strong>ele</strong>ment stay<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> that<br />
projection is argued to be <strong>in</strong>volved with different illocutionary values and,<br />
especially, it may be correlated to the syntactic codification of different<br />
discourse notions, such as (but not exclusively) evidentiality (the present<br />
proposal thus dispenses with postulat<strong>in</strong>g a dedicated position with<strong>in</strong> the left<br />
periphery dedicated to the encod<strong>in</strong>g of evidentiality, contra Speas 2004);<br />
(iii) with respect to our understand<strong>in</strong>g of expletives <strong>in</strong> natural language, the present<br />
dissertation re<strong>in</strong>forces the idea that expletives are not exclusively related to the<br />
[Spec, IP] position, but may <strong>in</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> languages occur <strong>in</strong> the C-doma<strong>in</strong>;<br />
moreover, it is suggested that besides those positions related to the articulations<br />
of topic and focus, expletives may also be connected to other pragmatically<br />
related positions, specifically, <strong>in</strong> the case of EP, positions r<strong>ele</strong>vant for the<br />
codification of illocutionary force.<br />
The proposal put forth for EP data could, <strong>in</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>ciple, extend to overt expletives found <strong>in</strong><br />
other Romance NSLs (cf. data summarized <strong>in</strong> chapter 2). Galician, for <strong>in</strong>stance, seems to<br />
largely conform to the EP pattern, with the expletive be<strong>in</strong>g connected to illocutionary<br />
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EXPLETIVE ELE IN EUROPEAN PORTUGUESE DIALECTS<br />
values relat<strong>in</strong>g to expressivity <strong>in</strong> exclamative and <strong>in</strong>terrogative clause types, but also<br />
(strong) assertion <strong>in</strong> declarative clause type. In Catalan dialects allow<strong>in</strong>g for the expletive,<br />
however, ell (which is currently understood as an “exclamatory particle”) would only<br />
legitimate the expressive force related to exclamative sentences.<br />
Many questions raised by the present <strong>in</strong>vestigation deserve to be addressed <strong>in</strong> more detail,<br />
which however would be beyond the scope of this dissertation. I only s<strong>in</strong>gle out a couple<br />
of them, which to my m<strong>in</strong>d appear as pivotal.<br />
The first question concerns other manifestations of the structural projection of<br />
ForceP. It is argued <strong>in</strong> this dissertation that ForceP is the locus of codification for <strong>in</strong>terface<br />
relations mapp<strong>in</strong>g clause type and illocutionary force. One knows that such a mapp<strong>in</strong>g is<br />
far from simple <strong>in</strong> natural language. Neverth<strong>ele</strong>ss, it was proposed that expletive <strong>ele</strong> could<br />
make some connections between clause type and illocutionary force become stronger, to<br />
the extent that it has the effect of emphazis<strong>in</strong>g a given illocutionary value for each sentence<br />
type. A natural question then arises concern<strong>in</strong>g the type of <strong>ele</strong>ments that (may) stay with<strong>in</strong><br />
this projection. It is conceivable that expletives may <strong>in</strong> fact be an alternative to movement<br />
of other constituents. It was suggested that such a possibility could be <strong>in</strong>stantiated by<br />
rhetorical questions, with wh-phrases <strong>in</strong> such questions mov<strong>in</strong>g to [Spec, ForceP] when no<br />
expletive is present. A natural move now would be to try to further elucidate the content of<br />
ForceP <strong>in</strong> other alternatives to the expletive constructions here analyzed, <strong>in</strong> the sort of nonstandard<br />
data here considered as <strong>in</strong> data from standard EP.<br />
A different though related question concerns the possible connection between the<br />
two types of expletive <strong>ele</strong>. The analysis here proposed dist<strong>in</strong>guishes between<br />
peripheral/impersonal <strong>ele</strong> and postverbal <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> terms of both their structural positions and<br />
their discourse effects. It must however be acknowledged that, though different, <strong>in</strong> a sense,<br />
the discourse effects displayed by both types of <strong>ele</strong> are related. In fact, they are both<br />
connected to illocutionary force, although the peripheral/impersonal expletive may be<br />
related to several values while postverbal <strong>ele</strong> only relates to some expressive (namely<br />
evaluative) value. The question relat<strong>in</strong>g to the preced<strong>in</strong>g one thus concerns the way how<br />
the codification of certa<strong>in</strong> illocutionary values (or only of certa<strong>in</strong> sentence types?) may be<br />
spread along the structure of the left periphery. A different question is the relation that may<br />
262
6. CONCLUSION<br />
be established between the Force projection and lower positions relat<strong>in</strong>g to the same effect,<br />
among which EvaluativeP.<br />
Hopefully, the present dissertation further illustrates how syntax and dialectology may<br />
comb<strong>in</strong>e to elucidate those obscure constructions often ignored <strong>in</strong> the study of (a)<br />
language. Here, just like anywhere else <strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>guistics, one has to face the unavoidable<br />
tension between descriptive adequacy and explanatory efficiency.<br />
[…] the search for descriptive adequacy seems to lead to ever greater<br />
complexity of rule systems, vary<strong>in</strong>g among grammatical constructions and<br />
across languages, whereas the search for explanatory adequacy leads to the<br />
conclusion that language structure is largely <strong>in</strong>variant.<br />
Chomsky 2000: 92.<br />
263
APPENDIX – CONTENTS<br />
1 SUBJECT-LIKE EXPLETIVE ELE IN IMPERSONAL CONSTRUCTIONS....... 271<br />
1.1 CONSTRUCTIONS INVOLVING SEMANTICALLY IMPERSONAL PREDICATES................ 271<br />
1.1.1 Meteorological verbs................................................................................................. 271<br />
CORDIAL-SIN .................................................................................................................................271<br />
Monographs.......................................................................................................................................272<br />
1.1.2 Other natural predicates ( referr<strong>in</strong>g a natural phenomenon – time,<br />
weather, place, distance, general ambiance) ............................................................. 272<br />
CORDIAL-SIN .................................................................................................................................272<br />
Monographs.......................................................................................................................................274<br />
A Planície Heróica.............................................................................................................................275<br />
1.1.3 Existential verbs........................................................................................................ 276<br />
CORDIAL-SIN .................................................................................................................................276<br />
Monographs.......................................................................................................................................285<br />
A Planície Heróica.............................................................................................................................285<br />
1.1.4 The verb ser .............................................................................................................. 287<br />
CORDIAL-SIN .................................................................................................................................287<br />
A Planície Heróica.............................................................................................................................296<br />
1.1.5 Other impersonal verbs ............................................................................................. 297<br />
CORDIAL-SIN .................................................................................................................................297<br />
Monographs.......................................................................................................................................300<br />
A Planície Heróica.............................................................................................................................300<br />
1.2 CLAUSAL SUBJECT EXTRAPOSITION.......................................................................... 302<br />
CORDIAL-SIN .................................................................................................................................302<br />
A Planície Heróica.............................................................................................................................302<br />
1.3 PRESENTATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS .............................................................................. 302<br />
1.3.1 Small clause complements........................................................................................ 302<br />
CORDIAL-SIN .................................................................................................................................302<br />
A Planície Heróica.............................................................................................................................304<br />
1.3.2 Unaccusative verbs ................................................................................................... 304<br />
CORDIAL-SIN .................................................................................................................................304<br />
Monographs.......................................................................................................................................307<br />
A Planície Heróica.............................................................................................................................308<br />
1.3.3 Other verbs................................................................................................................ 308<br />
CORDIAL-SIN .................................................................................................................................308<br />
1.4 SUBJECT WH-EXTRACTION CONTEXTS ...................................................................... 310<br />
CORDIAL-SIN .................................................................................................................................310<br />
2 PERIPHERAL EXPLETIVE ELE ............................................................................... 312<br />
2.1 PERIPHERAL TO THE SUBJECT ................................................................................... 312<br />
2.1.1 Before an overt pronom<strong>in</strong>al subject .......................................................................... 312<br />
CORDIAL-SIN .................................................................................................................................312<br />
Monographs.......................................................................................................................................315<br />
2.1.2 Before a DP subject................................................................................................... 315<br />
CORDIAL-SIN .................................................................................................................................315<br />
Monographs.......................................................................................................................................322<br />
A Planície Heróica.............................................................................................................................322<br />
2.1.3 Indef<strong>in</strong>ite subject....................................................................................................... 323<br />
CORDIAL-SIN .................................................................................................................................323<br />
Monographs.......................................................................................................................................325<br />
A Planície Heróica.............................................................................................................................325<br />
2.1.4 <strong>Expletive</strong> subject....................................................................................................... 326<br />
CORDIAL-SIN .................................................................................................................................326<br />
Monographs.......................................................................................................................................327<br />
2.1.5 Null subject ............................................................................................................... 327<br />
269
270<br />
CORDIAL-SIN .................................................................................................................................327<br />
Monographs.......................................................................................................................................338<br />
2.1.6 Arbitrary 3 rd p. pl. null subject .................................................................................. 339<br />
CORDIAL .........................................................................................................................................339<br />
2.1.7 Impersonal se <strong>in</strong> syntactically impersonal constructions .......................................... 340<br />
CORDIAL-SIN .................................................................................................................................340<br />
Monographs.......................................................................................................................................345<br />
A Planície Heróica.............................................................................................................................345<br />
2.2 PERIPHERAL TO PREVERBAL ADVERBIALS................................................................ 345<br />
2.2.1 In referential subject contexts ................................................................................... 345<br />
CORDIAL-SIN .................................................................................................................................345<br />
2.2.2 In syntactically impersonal constructions ................................................................. 353<br />
CORDIAL-SIN .................................................................................................................................353<br />
2.2.3 In semantically impersonal constructions ................................................................. 355<br />
CORDIAL-SIN .................................................................................................................................355<br />
Monographs.......................................................................................................................................359<br />
2.3 BEFORE OTHER PERIPHERAL CONSTITUENTS ............................................................ 359<br />
2.3.1 In referential subject contexts ................................................................................... 359<br />
CORDIAL-SIN .................................................................................................................................359<br />
Monographs.......................................................................................................................................365<br />
A Planície Heróica.............................................................................................................................365<br />
2.3.2 In syntactically impersonal constructions ................................................................. 366<br />
CORDIAL-SIN .................................................................................................................................366<br />
Monographs.......................................................................................................................................366<br />
A Planície Heróica.............................................................................................................................367<br />
2.3.3 In semantically impersonal constructions ................................................................. 367<br />
CORDIAL-SIN .................................................................................................................................367<br />
Monographs.......................................................................................................................................368<br />
A Planície Heróica.............................................................................................................................368<br />
2.4 IN IMPERATIVE SENTENCE ........................................................................................ 370<br />
2.5 HEADING A PHRASE................................................................................................... 370<br />
CORDIAL-SIN .................................................................................................................................370<br />
A Planície Heróica.............................................................................................................................374<br />
2.6 IN ISOLATION............................................................................................................. 376<br />
CORDIAL-SIN .................................................................................................................................376<br />
2.7 IN ANSWERS TO YES-NO QUESTIONS........................................................................ 376<br />
CORDIAL-SIN .................................................................................................................................376<br />
Monographs.......................................................................................................................................377<br />
2.8 IN QUESTION-TAG...................................................................................................... 377<br />
CORDIAL-SIN .................................................................................................................................377<br />
3 POSTVERBAL EXPLETIVE ELE .............................................................................. 378<br />
3.1 VERB INITIAL CONTEXTS........................................................................................... 378<br />
CORDIAL-SIN .................................................................................................................................378<br />
Monographs.......................................................................................................................................381<br />
A Planície Heróica.............................................................................................................................381<br />
3.2 PREVERBAL XP CONTEXTS ....................................................................................... 382<br />
CORDIAL-SIN .................................................................................................................................382<br />
Monographs.......................................................................................................................................385<br />
3.3 PREVERBAL SUBJECT CONTEXTS............................................................................... 385<br />
CORDIAL-SIN .................................................................................................................................385<br />
Monographs.......................................................................................................................................387
1 Subject-like expletive <strong>ele</strong> <strong>in</strong> impersonal constructions<br />
1.1 Constructions <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g semantically impersonal predicates<br />
1.1.1 Meteorological verbs<br />
CORDIAL-SIN<br />
(1)<br />
INQ1 Mas agora a<strong>in</strong>da está bom para as batatas, ou não?<br />
INF1 Está, está.<br />
INQ1 Ou é muito tarde?<br />
INF1 Não, {PH|nu�=não} é tarde. Mas [AB|mas {PH|nu�=não} {PH|nu�=não}] veio agora<br />
quando {PH|nu�=não} havia de vir. Havia de vir já antes, repartida.<br />
INF2 Não, agora [AB|a<strong>in</strong>da] a<strong>in</strong>da havia de vir muita (água). (Agora faz bem).<br />
INF3 Mas olha que [AB|{PH|nu�=não} há] {PH|nu�=não} {PH|aj=há} muitas águas. (…)<br />
INF1 Eh! Como <strong>ele</strong> vai haver? Ele {PH|nu�=não} tem chovido nada. Mas diziam-nos os<br />
antigos, diziam assim: [AB|se-] a<strong>in</strong>da se que {PH|nu�=não} chova em todo o ano, se chover<br />
em Abril e Maio, que chegava bem.<br />
[CTL48]<br />
(2)<br />
E eu, está claro, um dia disse assim: "Ai, ó Almira, tu {PH|nu�=não} te demores a ir<br />
{CT|p�=para o} forno que {fp} é preciso acarrar a água". Que ela, ela a{fp} ladrona, botase<br />
à… {fp} Se vou acarrar a água, tenho que ir buscá-la à fonte, e ela cá faz a fateixa. (Ele)<br />
estava a nevar, nevava muito, <strong>ele</strong>s {PH|nu�=não} {PH|pu�d��u=puderam} ir. Eu peguei e<br />
digo: "Bem". (Depois) dizia-me ela: "Vai buscar a água. Vai buscar a água, que é preciso.<br />
Vem outro freguês para cozer". Ela (o que) queria era que me eu desandasse.<br />
[PFT11]<br />
(3)<br />
INQ1 Amanhã chove?<br />
INF Ah, se (chover) /chovera\ era melhor, mas <strong>ele</strong> {PH|nu=não} chove amanhã.<br />
INQ2 Desde, desde aquela altura que esteve sempre o tear aqui, agora, é?<br />
[MST11]<br />
(4)<br />
INQ2 Olhe, e como é que ela caía? Como é que?…<br />
INF [AB|Primei-] Primeiramente começou a cair em coisa pouca aquelas past<strong>in</strong>has.<br />
Parecia past<strong>in</strong>has de algodão. {pp} Aquela coisa pouca, aquela coisa pouca, e volta e meia<br />
a 'rajar' mais e a 'rajar', até que chegou a pontos {fp} tapou-se tudo. A gente já deixava de<br />
ver os terrenos, de se vermos uns {PH|�z=aos} outros, já começou a cair aqu<strong>ele</strong>s 'trojões'<br />
271
grandes já <strong>ele</strong>s diziam: "Tal não é os 'trojões' de neve que já cai"! Pareciam pastas de<br />
algodão, já quase tamanho da mão de um homem! (É que <strong>ele</strong>s) /Aquilo\ {fp} a ficarem<br />
(ligados) um {PH|�=ao} outro, um homem chega a pontos que o campo põe-se tudo<br />
direito. Não se sabe por onde é que um homem há-de passar e as ruas não se conhecia<br />
nada.<br />
INQ1 Por exemplo, quando se cai diz que?…<br />
INF {IP|ta=Está} a chover neve.<br />
INQ1 Não se diz doutra maneira? Caiu um grande?…<br />
INF Nevoeiro. {pp} Pois.<br />
INQ1 Não é, não é nevão?<br />
INF Não. (A gente, pois), "neve". "Choveu muita neve". "(Ele) choveu muita neve". "Os<br />
terrenos estão tapados de neve". Pois.<br />
[SRP03]<br />
272<br />
(5)<br />
MONOGRAPHS<br />
I<strong>ele</strong> tchobe tanto! (Soajo, <strong>in</strong> Pereira 1970: 194)<br />
(6)<br />
El choverá hoije? (Ervedosa do Douro, <strong>in</strong> Azevedo 1928/29: 160)<br />
(7)<br />
mas atão <strong>ele</strong> chove? (Nisa, <strong>in</strong> Carreiro 1948: 73)<br />
(8)<br />
Ele vai chover. (Arronches, <strong>in</strong> Paul<strong>in</strong>o 1959: 168)<br />
(9)<br />
S’<strong>ele</strong> não chove, é’ma desgraça pegada. (Colos, <strong>in</strong> Guerreiro 1968: 351)<br />
(10)<br />
Tã si <strong>ele</strong> chover já nã vás... (Od<strong>ele</strong>ite, <strong>in</strong> Segura da Cruz 1969: 153)<br />
1.1.2 Other natural predicates ( referr<strong>in</strong>g a natural<br />
phenomenon – time, weather, place, distance, general ambiance)<br />
CORDIAL-SIN<br />
(11)<br />
INF Toda a m<strong>in</strong>ha vida, {pp} ouvi falar {pp} que o mundo, {pp} antes dos dois mil anos,<br />
que acabava. E muita gente diz: "{PH|na=Não} acaba". Ele tem sido – da forma que eu<br />
tenho conhecido isto – todos os anos pior, todos os anos pior, todos os anos pior. E as
coisas, como os profetas diziam, assim tem ido. {fp} Sim, [AB|tem-se ido] tem-se ido {pp}<br />
passando. {fp} E então, quer dizer, o mundo, {pp} [AB|isto (…)] isto, isto {PH|na=não}<br />
acaba. Mas isto {PH|n��=não} teve nem pr<strong>in</strong>cípio nem fim. Mas quero dizer o segu<strong>in</strong>te: é<br />
de nossa vida – {pp} bem, eu {pp} penso nisto [AB|porque os outros] {pp} porque tenho<br />
ouvido dizer – a nossa vida acaba. {pp} Ou seja em fome, ou seja em guerra, ou seja lá<br />
como for, acaba. E depois, o passar disto; e depois, vem outra geração {pp} fazer vida<br />
novamente. É claro. E esta vida que nós estamos aqui, agora – que há mil e tantos anos,<br />
bem, que temos esta vida – virá outra {pp} doutra família, [AB|doutra] doutra geração,<br />
formar isto novamente. E isto vai-se aproximando. Tudo quanto os profetas disseram e<br />
escreveram, aquilo {pp} [AB|tem] tem-se aproximado tudo.<br />
[PAL12]<br />
(i)<br />
Eu {PH|nu�=não} (o) encontro, tenho que eu [AB|ag-] aguentar. Pois (se) eu<br />
[AB|{PH|nu=não}, {PH|nu=não}] {PH|nu�=não} acho pessoal.<br />
INQ Pois, pois.<br />
INF Tenho que eu aguentar a coisa.<br />
INQ Claro.<br />
INF (A gente) /Ele\ {IP|�ta=está} assim desta maneira. (Depois) /Pois\ no campo, n<strong>in</strong>guém<br />
quer saber do campo. A vida agrícola, n<strong>in</strong>guém quer saber dela.<br />
[MST06]<br />
(12)<br />
INF Cá no Algarve é assim. Uma pessoa, a gente é pobre aqui. Juntar para umas cas<strong>in</strong>has,<br />
ah! Corri o arrasto, nada ganhei. E (daqui <strong>ele</strong>) /daquilo\ também só dava andar do arrasto.<br />
(Bom), andei a contramestre. {pp} Ganhava mais que uma parte {pp} e sempre<br />
{PH|�f�vur�si�=favorecia}, além de ajuntar mais que um camarada. Sempre v<strong>in</strong>ha uns<br />
patacos. Os outros ganhavam uma parte, eu ganhava duas. Quer dizer, comia igual a <strong>ele</strong>s e<br />
aquela parte era para forrar. Se desse para <strong>ele</strong>s, também davam para mim. Por exemplo,<br />
ganhava num ano dez ou doze contos, ou qu<strong>in</strong>ze contos, ou dez ou doze – não era nada –<br />
ou qu<strong>in</strong>ze contos, que ganhava-se pouco, agora é que ganham mais. Quer dizer, com os dez<br />
ou doze contos comia igual a <strong>ele</strong>s {pp} e podia forrar c<strong>in</strong>co ou seis num ano; {CT|p�=para<br />
o} outro ano forrava sete ou oito, e para o outro ano… E assim forrado, já dava mais que<br />
uma parte, que uma parte só. E também andei em enviados, também dava mais uma parte e<br />
fui ajuntando os períodos. Há quem tenha uma ideia e há quem tenha outra. Ele é assim. A<br />
gente tem uma ideia que há-de chegar, e tem umas casas para morar; e outros {PH|n��=não}<br />
têm, a gente {PH|n��=não} pode (vir-lho dar). Agora quem {PH|n��=não} tem nunca (<strong>ele</strong>)<br />
/{PH|l�=lhe}\ pode comprar.<br />
INQ Pois é.<br />
[ALV36]<br />
(13)<br />
INQ1 E às vezes há aí uns períodos que costumam ser ou em Agosto ou em Setembro …<br />
em que o mar está muito bravo…<br />
INF1 (…) Quando o mar {IP|ta=está} bravo, dizem assim: "Eh! Que maresia que está aí"!<br />
(Tal e qual).<br />
273
INQ1 Pois. Mas um período, aí uma semana, em Setembro ou Agosto…<br />
INF1 Isso é vendaval. Já se chama vendaval.<br />
INF2 Já se chama vendaval.<br />
INF1 Quando <strong>ele</strong> passa de um dia {pp} ou dois, [AB|já] já é vendaval. O mar<br />
{IP|ta=está}… "[AB|{IP|ta=Está} i-] {IP|ta=Está} aí um vendaval".<br />
INF2 Quando deixa do mar para aqui, [AB|já] já é um vendaval.<br />
INQ1 Mas estas são umas que dão todos os anos, regularmente.<br />
[ALV45]<br />
274<br />
(14)<br />
INF1 Fui levá-lo {PH|�=ao} cam<strong>in</strong>ho da Lomba. Ia eu para baixo, ia o meu filho para<br />
cima,<br />
INQ2 Pois.<br />
INF1 de {PH|l��valu=levar o} outro. Viemos ambos os dois para cima, disse: "Olha, sabes<br />
onde estás"? "Sei que estou no cam<strong>in</strong>ho da Lomba". "Olha que tu {PH|nu�=não} te percas<br />
agora"!<br />
INQ1 Pois.<br />
INF1 Que era pert<strong>in</strong>ho. Ele podia ser aí [AB|um{fp}] {pp} uns trezentos metros da m<strong>in</strong>ha.<br />
INF2 Era já pert<strong>in</strong>ho!<br />
INF1 Disse: "Olha que tu {PH|nu�=não} te percas"! "{PH|nu�=Não} perco". Eu fui lá leválo.<br />
Ele tem-me acontecido aqui cada uma! Que <strong>ele</strong> eu gosto de socorrer [AB|quem {fp}] as<br />
pessoas, homem!<br />
INQ1 Pois. Claro.<br />
[COV23]<br />
(15)<br />
INF Olhe, aqui em cima, aonde está uma cruz, foi um cunhado desta senhora que está aqui,<br />
que é o Ático… [AB|Ele quando] Ele fez-se uma…(Ele) /Ele lá\ formou-se uma trovoada<br />
muito grande! Eu até andava com as vacas a mais um tio meu aqui nesta costeira aqui. E<br />
depois [AB|fez-se aque-] armou-se aquela trovoada. E o rapaz andava lá longe, perto da<br />
Albergaria com o gado e uma irmã m<strong>in</strong>ha que está na Macieira e uma velhota que morreu<br />
– que até era coxa duma perna – ali [AB|de] de Lugar e um rapaz que morreu [AB|que era]<br />
que era Atilano – também era mais pequenito, mais ou menos como (é) este –, e (<strong>ele</strong>) o<br />
rapaz era maior – já t<strong>in</strong>ha os dezassete anos –, e abalou adiante: "Txó, txó, txó, txó"!<br />
Quando " txó, txó, txó", o gado encarreirava todo atrás daquela pessoa. Tal e qual, tal e<br />
qual atrás daquela pessoa, que aquilo é… [AB|Ca-] Cam<strong>in</strong>hava! (Tal e qual).<br />
[COV32]<br />
MONOGRAPHS<br />
(16)<br />
a<strong>in</strong>da <strong>ele</strong> faz frio no mês d’Abril! (Arronches, <strong>in</strong> Paul<strong>in</strong>o 1959: 168)<br />
(17)<br />
Ele está calor. (Od<strong>ele</strong>ite, <strong>in</strong> Segura da Cruz 1969: 152)
(18)<br />
vou-me qu’<strong>ele</strong> já é tarde. (Terceira, <strong>in</strong> Dias 1982: 329)<br />
(19)<br />
Parece qu’<strong>ele</strong> vai ser ano de milho. (Terceira, <strong>in</strong> Dias 1982: 325)<br />
(20)<br />
Parece qu’<strong>ele</strong> vai botar água! (Terceira, <strong>in</strong> Dias 1982: 325)<br />
(21)<br />
A PLANÍCIE HERÓICA<br />
Mas, p’ra’qui estou eu a badalar, e a m<strong>in</strong>ha Felizarda lá sòz<strong>in</strong>ha má-los moços na aceifa!<br />
Deixa-me ir que êle é já quasi meio-dia. (p.69)<br />
(22)<br />
O tempo das quadrilhas já lá ia. Que êle houvera-as, de uma pessôa se benzer, quando tudo<br />
era andorrial e charneca brava, dando batida aos montes das herdades, que são baix<strong>in</strong>hos e<br />
é só tirar as telhas para se lhes entrar dentro,e sa<strong>in</strong>do à frente dos almocreves que abalam<br />
de noite para estar com pouco sol em Beja, e êle são bôas quatro horas bem andadas de<br />
jornada. (p.136)<br />
(23)<br />
O mais era tudo charneca pegada. Por essas ribeiras abaixo, p’rá Madruga, p’ra Balfanado;<br />
p’ros Louriçais, p’ra Val Travessos, p’ra qualquer banda que uma pessôa se vol/tasse era<br />
um mato fechado, um n<strong>in</strong>heiro de zorras e de lobos que até chegavam às v<strong>in</strong>has, e um vi eu<br />
ao poço dos Fonta<strong>in</strong>has que lhe joguei um tiro, mas não o alcancei que êle era longe.<br />
(pp.120-1)<br />
(24)<br />
Havia-os, mais remediados, que t<strong>in</strong>ham trazido burros e mach<strong>in</strong>hos para as trouxitas e para<br />
sentirem menos o cam<strong>in</strong>ho, que êle era longe, lá pr’o cabo do mundo nessas serras<br />
escondidas; mas quási tudo jordaneava a pé. (p.128)<br />
(25)<br />
O pároco via as pobres árvores vencidas [...]. Era a vida! Mas êle fazia-se tarde e o sr.<br />
Joaquim Castilho largou. (p.118)<br />
(26)<br />
- Vossemecê reparou quem era? – <strong>in</strong>quiriu o pároco, <strong>in</strong>quieto.<br />
- Eu não sr., que o bruto ia zun<strong>in</strong>do que nem um raio, e êle já faz escuro. Mas aquilo por<br />
força era maltês, que êle dês que a guarda abalou, até há já p’rá’í quadrilhas! (248)<br />
275
276<br />
(27)<br />
- Lá p’ra semente já chega e sobra... – E admirando-se muito: - Ora o nosso compadre<br />
prior! Ele até parece mentira, que há dois dias a<strong>in</strong>da vossemecê estava todo teimoso e nem<br />
queria nem à mão de Deus Padre que lhe falassem nisso! Que êle não podia deixar de ser.<br />
(p.173)<br />
1.1.3 Existential verbs<br />
CORDIAL-SIN<br />
(28)<br />
INQ1 Mas agora a<strong>in</strong>da está bom para as batatas, ou não?<br />
INF1 Está, está.<br />
INQ1 Ou é muito tarde?<br />
INF1 Não, {PH|nu�=não} é tarde. Mas [AB|mas {PH|nu�=não} {PH|nu�=não}] veio agora<br />
quando {PH|nu�=não} havia de vir. Havia de vir já antes, repartida.<br />
INF2 Não, agora [AB|a<strong>in</strong>da] a<strong>in</strong>da havia de vir muita (água). (Agora faz bem).<br />
INF3 Mas olha que [AB|{PH|nu�=não} há] {PH|nu�=não} {PH|aj=há} muitas águas. (…)<br />
INF1 Eh! Como <strong>ele</strong> vai haver? Ele {PH|nu�=não} tem chovido nada. Mas diziam-nos os<br />
antigos, diziam assim: [AB|se-] a<strong>in</strong>da se que {PH|nu�=não} chova em todo o ano, se chover<br />
em Abril e Maio, que chegava bem.<br />
[CTL48]<br />
(29)<br />
INF Mas, <strong>ele</strong> havia muita fome, naqu<strong>ele</strong> tempo. A fome, m<strong>in</strong>ha senhora… [AB|Nós<br />
passá… A ver…] Ele a fome {PH|nu�=não} havia! Havia muita comida com abundância,<br />
mas {PH|nu�=não} se podia comer. Olhe, as batatas v<strong>in</strong>ham, iam {CT|pa=para a} panela<br />
desta cor, com tona e tudo. Peixe, o peixe, {PH|saw��au�=salgavam-no} assim [AB|num<br />
{pp}] num cabaz.<br />
[VPA06]<br />
(30)<br />
INF E [AB|essas, essas, essa, essa] esse peixe chegou a vir dentro do nosso port<strong>in</strong>ho.<br />
Cargas e cargas! Daí, desse ano, {PH|nu�=não} apareceu mais aqui uma.<br />
INQ1 Foi para despedida.<br />
INF Para onde é que foi [AB|essa, essa, essa] essa espadilha?<br />
INQ2 Pois, pois…<br />
INF [AB|Lá… Ela emi-, Ela] Ele há espadilha no mar. Há, porque uma pessoa às vezes<br />
vai{fp} à sard<strong>in</strong>ha – [AB|vai à] vai à sard<strong>in</strong>ha {CT|kw��=com as} peças, com aquelas<br />
redes – a<strong>in</strong>da (vem) /vêm\ algumas. Mas assim tanta porção, nunca vi na m<strong>in</strong>ha vida!<br />
Tenho sessenta e [AB|qua-] sete anos, nunca, desde aí.<br />
[VPA53]
(31)<br />
INQ Portanto há c<strong>in</strong>quenta anos que isto não funciona.<br />
INF2 Ai, já [AB|que isto funci-]. Ou mais. Oh, isto já funciona há mais de cento e tal anos.<br />
INQ Não. Que deixou de funcionar há c<strong>in</strong>quenta anos.<br />
INF2 Ah{fp} que deixou de funcionar, (<strong>ele</strong>) deve haver {CT|p�a�i=para aí}<br />
[AB|alguns{fp}] alguns quarenta. {pp} Para aí quarenta anos.<br />
INF1 Eu {PH|nu�=não} sei. Eu quando o comprei, [AB|já] eu já estava… Eu comprei as<br />
casas, a ela.<br />
INF2 Eu a<strong>in</strong>da era novita quando comecei…<br />
[PFT02]<br />
(32)<br />
INF1 Pois é, agora é tudo assim. Ah, dizem que é tudo, mas a<strong>in</strong>da {PH|nu�=não} é bem<br />
tudo. A gente vai a Vila Real, a igreja está {RC|ch-=cheia} [AB|re-]. Outro dia fui lá –<br />
chei<strong>in</strong>ha de gente!<br />
INF2 Está cheia [AB|mas vai lá p-] mas vai lá povo [AB|para]{fp} para v<strong>in</strong>te igrejas como<br />
aquela.<br />
INF1 [AB|Chei-] E então <strong>ele</strong> há muitas. Lá há{fp} mais do que uma e que duas, é pelo<br />
menos três – que eu conheço-as, já estive nelas todas três – e está tudo chei<strong>in</strong>ho. E tudo<br />
vai, o mais de tudo, {pp} vai, tudo vai à comunhão.<br />
[PFT24]<br />
(33)<br />
INQ Pelo menos, <strong>ele</strong>s perguntaram-nos, a gente perguntou e não, disseram que por ali já<br />
não havia.<br />
INF Talvez fosse as {PH|ta�z=tais} azenhas. As azenhas é que (naturalmente) não havia.<br />
Agora, os mo<strong>in</strong>hos é outra coisa. É que uma azenha tem uma roda muito grande e coisa; e<br />
um mo<strong>in</strong>ho é uma (da) coisa… Cai a água assim, de frente {pp}<br />
INQ Pois.<br />
INF e{fp} faz moer as mós. {pp} Faz rodar, faz...<br />
INQ Pois, mas a gente, amanhã, pode lá perguntar outra vez mas não… Não sei.<br />
INF É boa! Mas olhe que eu, {pp} eu tenho a impressão [AB|que] que <strong>ele</strong> que havia a<strong>in</strong>da<br />
lá disso.<br />
[AAL21(Sapeira)]<br />
(34)<br />
E a<strong>in</strong>da fui ali algumas duas vezes à Central procurar [AB|por a, por] {CT|p�=por a}<br />
encomenda – [AB|por a, por a, por a] por a encomenda dos fusos. Af<strong>in</strong>al, dá-se o caso...<br />
E{fp} dizia-me assim [AB|o{fp}] o homem da Central: "Não, não há lá nada, amigo<br />
Alb<strong>in</strong>o, não há lá nada". [AB|Não há] (Ele) não há lá nada, mas havia! Paguei cento e<br />
setenta escudos [AB|de] de estar lá uma coisa tão pequena, uma caix<strong>in</strong>ha assim, de estar lá<br />
só, parece-me, c<strong>in</strong>co ou seis dias. Digo assim: "Olha{fp} já (me abala). Jurei de nunca<br />
mais"! [AB|Com um ca-] Têm custado a gastar. Eu vou-os gastando assim, agora…<br />
[AAL46]<br />
277
278<br />
(ii)<br />
INQ1 Olhe, como é que se chama aí uma terra que fica aí durante um ano sem ser<br />
trabalhada?<br />
INF Embraviada.<br />
INQ2 Como?<br />
INQ1 Não, mas é de propósito.<br />
INF {fp} Sendo de propósito, {PH|a��vez��=às vezes} (ou) /<strong>ele</strong>\ não há aí [AB|quem]<br />
quem a fabrique {pp} e depois a terra embraviou-se.<br />
[AAL61]<br />
(35)<br />
INF Tanta coisa, {pp} tanta coisa que a gente viu. (Depois) /Pois\ havia aí o Ferro de<br />
Engomar e {PH|���i�=eram} Os Charqu<strong>in</strong>hos e <strong>ele</strong> a<strong>in</strong>da havia um outro, {pp} que eu não<br />
me recordo [AB|mas era]… (Parece-me) que eram três {pp} restaurantes. E era para ali<br />
que v<strong>in</strong>ha a estúrdia… A estúrdia de Lisboa {pp} era precisamente para esses, Quebra-<br />
Bilhas e companhia. [AB|Como é] Ah, era o Ferro de Engomar. Havia um restaurante<br />
também ali em Benfica que era o Ferro de Engomar.<br />
[AAL72]<br />
(36)<br />
(iii)<br />
INQ E além do, da lua e do sol, de noite, da lua, de, o que é que se vê de noite no céu?<br />
INF As estrelas.<br />
INQ Há uma que, que é a que aparece…<br />
INF É a estrela-da-manhã [AB|e há] e há a estrela… Bom, <strong>ele</strong> há várias estrelas, não é?<br />
INQ Então diga lá as que conhece.<br />
INF Conheço!? É por ouvir dizer! Conheço: há a estrela-popular; há a estrela-da-manhã;<br />
[AB|há a estrela] há o sete-estrelas. Bem, <strong>ele</strong> (há lugar) que há [AB|tantas] {pp} tanta<br />
estrela!<br />
[AAL92]<br />
(37)<br />
INQ1 Olhe, e a, e no Verão vê-se assim a, a, no céu assim uma coisa branca, parece uma<br />
nuvem mas é de estrelas. Vê-se de noite.<br />
INF De noite, {pp} uma coisa branca?<br />
INQ2 É quando o céu…<br />
INQ1 Esbranquiçada. Parece uma nuvenz<strong>in</strong>ha.<br />
INQ2 Quando a noite está toda limpa, a, a gente vê assim…<br />
INF [AB|É o carrei-] É o carreiro-de-santiago.<br />
INQ2 Mas espere. E há outra que estão assim, que são três, três estrel<strong>in</strong>has juntas… Não<br />
dá um nome?<br />
INF {fp} Ele há o sete-estrelas; há o cacheiro.<br />
INQ2 Diga?<br />
INQ1 O quê?<br />
INF Cacheiro, não é?<br />
INQ1 Cacheiro?<br />
INQ1 Não sei qual é essa. [AAL93]
(38)<br />
(39)<br />
INF Conheço a salva-brava. Conheço a pimp<strong>in</strong>ela. Conheço erva-de-são-roberto. Conheço<br />
a das sete sangrias. {pp} Conheço a salva-brava. {pp} Bom, em ervas… [AB|erva] Ervacidreira.<br />
{pp} Ah, <strong>ele</strong> há tanta qualidade de erva! Conheço a erva-das-sete-sangrias. Ele há<br />
muita qualidade de ervas que a gente…<br />
INQ Há aquela… Depois é ervas e… Macela, também conhece?<br />
INF Ah, conheço a marcela.<br />
[AAL95]<br />
(40)<br />
INQ E aquelas árvores que estão aí perto dos rios, que têm assim os ramos a cair assim<br />
para dentro da água?<br />
INF Bom, isso próximo dos rios {pp} pode haver freixo, pode haver a faia, [AB|pode<br />
haver] pode haver o choupo.<br />
INQ Sim.<br />
INF [AB|Há o] Há o amieiro. Ele há [AB|tant- isso, ess-]... Isso [AB|é tudo] é tudo árvores<br />
que {IP|t��=estão} à roda das ribeiras.<br />
INQ E o salgueiro?<br />
INF Há o salgueiro.<br />
[AAL97]<br />
(41)<br />
INF Por acaso, {pp} tenho-me defendido {pp} daquilo que sei. {pp} Assim, uma doença,<br />
[AB|um, um{fp}] um chá, uma coisa. Porque isto [AB|é muito] é{fp} assim; esta questão<br />
[AB|de{fp}] {pp}, de chá, {pp} de doenças, disto e daquilo, de muita coisa – {fp} <strong>ele</strong><br />
[AB|há] há cura para tudo. O que é preciso é a gente dar com elas. Agora, muitas vezes, é<br />
entregarmo-nos {pp} só às mãos do doutor. Não. Isto {PH|n�=não} é condenar o doutor.<br />
INQ Pois.<br />
[PAL08]<br />
(42)<br />
INF2 O pano? É uma manta.<br />
INF1 É as tais mantas.<br />
INF3 Não é.<br />
INF2 Não.<br />
INF1 É uma manta.<br />
INF2 É uma manta. E depois (…).<br />
INQ1 Olhe, quando, quando se monta um cavalo…<br />
INF1 É uma manta mas, af<strong>in</strong>al de contas, <strong>ele</strong> há um pano que {PH|n�=não} tem o nome de<br />
manta.<br />
INF2 {IP|ta=Está} bem, mas [AB|a gente aqui] a gente aqui nunca tem isso.<br />
INQ1 Como é que é?<br />
INF2 Isso é na tropa, isso é na tropa.<br />
INF1 Não me recordo. Não me recordo.<br />
INF2 Na tropa é que têm.<br />
279
INQ1 Suadouro, um suadouro.<br />
[PAL24]<br />
280<br />
(43)<br />
INF Olhe, aqui é o {PH|�f�t��w�=fêtão}.<br />
INQ É o?…<br />
INF Aqui são fêtãos. {pp} Olhe, aqui são fêtãos. Isso, <strong>ele</strong> há cá muito – {pp} os fêtãos.<br />
INQ E… E uma coisa que é parecida com o fêtão, mas que é mais nos poços que aparece?<br />
[FIG12]<br />
(44)<br />
INQ1 Olhe, no, no café onde a gente foi, estava lá um empalhado que é assim um muito<br />
grande, que tem duas orelh<strong>in</strong>has, estava assim com as asas abertas…<br />
INF Hum…<br />
INQ2 Parece um mocho também mas é muito grande.<br />
INQ1 Maior do que o mocho.<br />
INF {fp} Bem, <strong>ele</strong> há diversos.<br />
INQ1 Nunca ouviu falar no bufo?<br />
INF No bufo? {fp}<br />
INQ1 Diga?<br />
[FIG33]<br />
(45)<br />
INQ1 E as l<strong>in</strong>das, os marcos costumavam ter umas pedr<strong>in</strong>has por baixo?<br />
INF1 Os marcos {PH|���e�j�=eram} metidos na terra. Uma pedra assim comprida, aí<br />
[AB|suponhamos] suponhamos ao coiso desta bengala.<br />
INF2 (Então) é de pedra desta. Ele há aí pedra… Há aí pedra (…/ADJ).<br />
INF1 (…) Era pois destas pedras assim {fp} bravas. E então {pp} {PH|���e�j�=eram} uns<br />
marcos [AB|e era].<br />
[CBV01]<br />
(46)<br />
INQ1 E dava algum nome àqu<strong>ele</strong> v<strong>in</strong>ho que a<strong>in</strong>da era doce, quando a<strong>in</strong>da nem… Nos<br />
primeiros dias?<br />
INF [AB|O, o pa-] O palheto ou{fp} água-pé, [AB|ou{fp}, ou qual-] ou qualquer coisa<br />
assim. Ele havia tantos nomes assim nesse feitio.<br />
INQ1 Não havia nada que chamasse o mosto?<br />
INF Ah! O mosto, [AB|ah, isso era o] isso era o{fp} bagaço, a parte do bagaço. Quando<br />
era [AB|aqu<strong>ele</strong>{fp}] aqu<strong>ele</strong>s restos do bagaço {pp} – sim, aquilo tem mesmo o nome de<br />
bagaço –{fp} é que é que {fp} chamavam-{PH|l�=lhe} o mosto.<br />
[CBV31]<br />
(47)<br />
INQ1 E na, e aquela de São Pedro de vir, de vir a corça também contavam qualquer coisa,<br />
não contavam?
INF Pois contavam. [AB|Isso já, at-] Até (<strong>ele</strong>) {CT|p�a�i=para aí} há livros já feitos disso.<br />
{pp} (Essa coisa). Uns chamam (…). {pp} Contavam que{fp} t<strong>in</strong>ha sido {pp} um eremita<br />
qualquer que ali viveu, e<br />
[MST03]<br />
(48)<br />
Quem sofre muito dos <strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>os, a<strong>in</strong>da pode beber um bocad<strong>in</strong>ho de l<strong>in</strong>haça, mas (ela já<br />
aparece pouco). Mas vão à farmácia, sempre há.<br />
INQ Pois, pois.<br />
INF A<strong>in</strong>da compram a l<strong>in</strong>haça{fp} – l<strong>in</strong>haça, umas malvas {pp} – [AB|para] para quem<br />
sofre dos <strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>os. Que até é muito bom! [AB|Mas para… muito] Era muito aplicada a<br />
maça {fp}… Aquela l<strong>in</strong>haça, muito aplicada [AB|{CT|pa�=para as} {CT|pa�=para as}]<br />
{CT|pa�=para as} pneumonias de antigamente. (Que <strong>ele</strong>) /Aquilo\ {PH|nu�=não} havia<br />
<strong>in</strong>jecções, {PH|nu�=não} havia nada. [AB|Era só cu-] Era só curada [AB|{CT|ku�=com<br />
os}] {CT|ku�=com os} (beberes) /barbeiros\! {fp} Nós tínhamos que (operar com)<br />
/procurar\ aquelas cois<strong>in</strong>has todas {pp}. T<strong>in</strong>ha muito préstimo, a l<strong>in</strong>haça. Então não t<strong>in</strong>ha!<br />
[MST17]<br />
(49)<br />
INQ Pois. Então, quando o senhor acabar, quando o senhor já não puder trabalhar, quem é<br />
que trabalha aqui?<br />
INF1 Ah! Fica fechado. (Ele) {PH|nu�=não} há cá n<strong>in</strong>guém quase que trabalhe.<br />
INF2 N<strong>in</strong>guém. {pp} Fica logo fechado.<br />
INF1 Quem é que há-de trabalhar?<br />
INF2 N<strong>in</strong>guém aprende a arte.<br />
[MST24]<br />
(50)<br />
INQ1 Uma árvore parecida ao sobreiro mas que não dá cortiça?<br />
INF É az<strong>in</strong>heira. Há a az<strong>in</strong>heira [AB|e há a c-] e há o [AB|c-] carvalho. O carvalheiro.<br />
[AB|É u, é uma es-] É tipo de az<strong>in</strong>heira [AB|entre] entre o chaparro e a az<strong>in</strong>heira. Chamase-{PH|l�=lhe}<br />
os carvalheiros.<br />
INQ2 Também dá boleta?<br />
INF Dá boleta também. Aí {CT|p�=para o} norte há muito. {CT|p�=Para o} norte há muito<br />
disso.<br />
INQ2 Mas dá outra… Mas dá uma outra coisa. Além das boletas dá umas coisas, umas<br />
bolas assim redondas… O carvalheiro, não dá? Umas, umas… Aquilo não presta para<br />
nada, não é fruto. É uma coisa que…<br />
INF Pois. Mas, {IP|p��=espere} aí… Ele há, há. Eu já tenho visto. Já vi. Deita uma<br />
bolaz<strong>in</strong>ha.<br />
INQ2 Rhum-rhum.<br />
INF Mas isto {PH|n��=não} é… Isso é o… Há outro{fp}… Cá na nossa área não há disso.<br />
Isso é (um pouco) [AB|o tal] o tal de carvalho, a madeira de carvalho, que há muito boa,<br />
muito boa, no norte.<br />
INQ2 Ah! Duma árvore grande.<br />
281
INF Que é no norte é que há muito. Até aí – a senhora conhece melhor isto que eu, com<br />
certeza… {fp} E há uma árvore que é… Ali [AB|em{fp} c-] no coiso, [AB|na] em<br />
Portalegre, lá na praça, em Portalegre, há lá uma árvore (montes de grande)!<br />
[LVR05]<br />
282<br />
(51)<br />
INQ Portanto¸ é milho e depois?…<br />
INF Grão, e fica a terra… Arranca-se aquilo, fica a terra {fp} sem uma erva, sem nada; mal<br />
aparece umas ervazitas, que é isso que o gado lá vai comer – (aquelas folhas daquelas<br />
coisas); e depois para (se) semear trigo ao depois logo ali em Setembro. (Pois é assim).<br />
Chama-se-{PH|l�=lhe} isso 'barbeto'.<br />
INQ Sim senhor. Olhe e nunca acontecia, por exemplo, deitarem para lá uma erva, para<br />
uma, para uma terra de, semearem erva para o gado lá ir comer de propósito?<br />
INF Sim senhora. [AB|Chamam-lhe (…)]<br />
INQ Chamam-lhe o quê?<br />
INF Isso é mesmo próprios. É mesmo próprios. (Semeiam). Até aqui nestes olivais, <strong>ele</strong> há<br />
ali semeada. {fp} Chama-se-{PH|l�=lhe} (a) essa erva, chamam-se-{PH|l�=lhe}: azevém!<br />
[LVR10]<br />
(52)<br />
INQ1 Olhe, aqu<strong>ele</strong>… Há bocad<strong>in</strong>ho falou-me naqu<strong>ele</strong>s que iam à frente, a levar o<br />
rebanho…<br />
INF O boi… É os da guia. Chamam-{PH|l�=lhe} os bois da guia.<br />
INQ1 O boi da guia. Só nos, nas, nos bois é que há isso?<br />
INF É. [AB|Nesses m-] Nesses tipos que [AB|têm {pp}] têm gado bravo {pp} é que<br />
{PH|�te�e�nu�=têm os} bois {CT|p�a=para a} guia mesmo. (Que é onde estão que estão<br />
acostumados)…<br />
INQ1 Da guia? Mas portanto, nos carneiros?… Nos carneiros não há nunca?<br />
INF Hum…<br />
INQ1 Não se via nada?<br />
INF Ele havia antigamente. (Ele… Eu) /Ele eu\ vou-{PH|l�=lhe} dizer uma coisa:<br />
antigamente havia, mas <strong>ele</strong> (deixou)… Há é 'emparadeiros'. O que é os 'emparadeiros'? É:<br />
isso era uma ovelha. Isso era nas {RC|orde-=ordenhas}. Nas ordenhas das ovelhas é que<br />
havia uma ovelha que chamavam-{PH|l�=lhe} a 'emparadeira', que ia sempre {PH|�=ao}<br />
lado… A gente vai aqui; {fp} é o aprisco – é o coiso das cancelas (onde as ovelhas vão)<br />
metidas dentro…<br />
INQ1 Sim, sim, sim. Chamava-se o aprisco?<br />
INF Um aprisco. E depois ia, a gente ia aqui {fp} a ordenhar as ovelhas e ia a outra, ia a<br />
acompanhar.<br />
[LVR13]<br />
(53)<br />
INF Esses é os gamos, os veados. Mas, <strong>ele</strong> há aqui umas coisas… Olhe, o que a gente cá<br />
usou, o que se viu cá, houve cá muitos e a<strong>in</strong>da houve – aqui há poucos anos a<strong>in</strong>da havia – é<br />
desta {RC|c-=cor}. Assim malhados. Quer dizer, estes, (não sei), podem ser a mesma<br />
coisa, (que é) do mesmo tipo, mas…<br />
INQ1 Mas t<strong>in</strong>ham assim os cornos muito grandes?
INF Estes têm. Têm, sim senhor. (As corças) – os veados! Os veados!<br />
[LVR31]<br />
(54)<br />
INQ Olhe, os carros que se, que se parecem mais com estas carretas de cá, são os do<br />
Alentejo ou são os dali da zona de S<strong>in</strong>tra? Se o senhor já tem reparado…<br />
INF Aquilo, os carros para ali {PH|ko��pa�i�s�=comparam-se} mais com o Alentejo.<br />
INQ Os daqui é os que dão mais com os do Alentejo…<br />
INF [AB|Porque] Bem, mas a gente aqui, também há poucos que se dê com o Alentejo. O<br />
carro do Alentejo é muito diferente deste daqui.<br />
INQ É?<br />
INF É. E de S<strong>in</strong>tra também {pp} é outro modelo. Palmela também é outro modelo.<br />
INQ Ai é?<br />
INF É.<br />
INQ Tantos modelos.<br />
INF É. Palmela t<strong>in</strong>ha… Aquela carroça m<strong>in</strong>ha, em Palmela faz-se muito daqu<strong>ele</strong> modelo.<br />
Mas 'houvia' cá um homem – já morreu –, [AB|em] cá em Alcochete, que era carp<strong>in</strong>teiro,<br />
isso não 'houvia' aí nenhum que fizesse uma carroça tão jeitosa daqu<strong>ele</strong> feitio como aqu<strong>ele</strong>.<br />
Mas de Palmela, [AB|é] aqu<strong>ele</strong> feitio é o mesmo mas, o que é, é: aqui era mais engraçado –<br />
{pp} aquelas 'falés' que o homem fazia. É.<br />
INQ Mas porque é que era?<br />
INF (Ele) 'houvia' aqui dois tipos de carroça: 'houvia' [AB|daquela] daquela m<strong>in</strong>ha e<br />
'houvia' outra que era só os varais e era os taipais corridos, {pp} aparafusados [AB|às f-] às<br />
'fueiras', e era toda corrida. {PH|n��=Não} t<strong>in</strong>ha caixa. 'Houvia' assim. A<strong>in</strong>da há aí carroças<br />
dessas. A<strong>in</strong>da há aí.<br />
INQ Que é no género dessa que está aqui desenhada, aqui neste sítio?Essa que já esteve a<br />
ver há bocad<strong>in</strong>ho. Já a perdi outra vez. Não era assim, não? Não.<br />
[ALC10]<br />
(55)<br />
INQ2 Olhe, e aquela parte que a gal<strong>in</strong>ha tem aqui assim por baixo?…<br />
INF Isso é o papo.<br />
INQ2 E aquelas partes lá de dentro, que, que quando se mata uma gal<strong>in</strong>ha também?…<br />
INF Ah! E [AB|tem] tem os ovários. Tem os ovários. Tem…<br />
INQ2 Sim. Aquela parte para onde vai a comida?…<br />
INF É. E tem o… Isso [AB|é o] é o bucho. É o bucho da gal<strong>in</strong>ha. E é os ovários. E é o{fp}<br />
moela. E… Que eu sei que (<strong>ele</strong> há) /<strong>ele</strong> é\ outra coisa que se tira, aquilo… Mas aquilo tudo<br />
tira-se da gal<strong>in</strong>ha e tudo se come.<br />
INQ2 Pois. Está bem.<br />
[ALC31]<br />
(56)<br />
Ela e <strong>ele</strong>, {PH|su�po��muz=suponhamos}, ela estava dentro duma casa – porque temos<br />
mais que uma, duas, três casas –, e às vezes t<strong>in</strong>ha que ir fazer qualquer coisa numa casa e<br />
<strong>ele</strong> sabia que ela que estava e <strong>ele</strong> {PH|nu�=não} entrava lá. Há algum tempo – agora não –,<br />
mas há algum tempo – agora tenho água em casa –, mas naqu<strong>ele</strong> tempo, (<strong>ele</strong>) havia uns<br />
canecos {pp} que era para vir à fonte, uns canecos de madeira, e <strong>ele</strong> depois (dizia) /dizer\:<br />
283
"Eu quero beber". E ela ia-{PH|l�=lhe} buscar a água para beber e <strong>ele</strong> {PH|nu�=não}<br />
pegava da mão dela.<br />
[COV13]<br />
284<br />
(57)<br />
INF1 Fomos lá comprar ovelhas. (Eu) /Ele\ {PH|nu�=não} t<strong>in</strong>ha nenhumas e fui lá comprar<br />
umas ovelhas. Fui lá comprar umas ovelhas a mais <strong>ele</strong> e lá tudo correu bem. Viemos,<br />
saímos de lá, [AB|ch-] viemos ficar a Reiriz. Chegamos lá a uma loja, nem t<strong>in</strong>ha pão,<br />
nem… Só t<strong>in</strong>ha figos! E nós mortos de fome! Diz o homem assim… Ele pediu o (…/N)<br />
para guardar o gado; trazíamos algumas c<strong>in</strong>quenta reses, e era ovelhas. Diz <strong>ele</strong> assim: "E<br />
agora"? O outro para mim: "E agora"? Diz <strong>ele</strong>: "Ó senhor, ai" – diz <strong>ele</strong> – "<strong>ele</strong><br />
{PH|nu�=não} há [AB|u-] uma corte" – aqui é um curral; noutro lado é umas cortes [AB|é<br />
um] – "para meter o gado"? Diz <strong>ele</strong>: "Há aqui". Mas a gente duvidou duns gajos que lá<br />
estavam.<br />
[COV24]<br />
(58)<br />
INF1 "{fp} Empresta-nos quatro mantas que o meu companheiro vem doente e está muito<br />
mal [AB|e eu] e você veja lá se (sabe)"… Diz <strong>ele</strong> assim: "Olhe, eu {PH|nu�=não} posso<br />
mas o meu irmão pode". O homem, o rapaz depositou quatro contos e trouxe quatro<br />
mantas. Depositou quatro… Como fossem <strong>ele</strong>s duvidar de a gente fugir com a roupa.<br />
INQ2 Pois, pois.<br />
INQ1 Pois claro.<br />
INF2 Então?!<br />
INF1 Isto, <strong>ele</strong> há coisas [RP|há coisas]… E eu sem… Ia eu sem e ia <strong>ele</strong> sem comer! Chega<br />
lá, oiçam, diz assim: "O senhor [AB|{PH|nu�=não}] {PH|nu�=não} t<strong>in</strong>ha aí nada para se<br />
comer"? Diz <strong>ele</strong>: "Não". "(Então,olhe), faça-nos aí {fp} ferver um bocadito de água e pôr-<br />
{PH|l�=lhe} açúcar" {pp} – porque eu era para eu beber.<br />
[COV24]<br />
(59)<br />
INQ1 Ah, e como é que se chama isso?<br />
INF (Há dest<strong>in</strong>o) para os tabuleiros. Formas. Umas formas. Há umas de barro, há outras de<br />
alumínio.<br />
INQ1 Mas o tabuleiro é a mesma coisa que a forma?<br />
INF Os tabuleiros, <strong>ele</strong> também os há de barro, não é? E {PH|�aju�=há-os} de alumínio.<br />
INQ2 Ah, mas isto era outra coisa, não era?<br />
INF {fp} Mas também os folares tanto os fazemos… Eu tenho aí umas latas, assim em<br />
redondo. Mas também a m<strong>in</strong>ha nora tem-nos em de alumínio assim sobre o comprido; é<br />
chamado tabuleiros. {pp} É conforme calha.<br />
[OUT31]<br />
(60)<br />
INQ Chama-se a isso desfazer o porco ou desmanchar?<br />
INF Desfazer os porcos. Desfazer, nós dizemos desfazer os porcos.<br />
INQ Desfazer.
INF Depois tira-se-{PH|l�=lhe} (<strong>ele</strong>) à parte: a l<strong>in</strong>guiça, vai para um lado; o salpicão, que é<br />
o lombo, vai para outro; os presuntos, vai para outro; a espádua, vai para outro. Quer dizer,<br />
[AB|depois, na] aqui até costumamos… Agora já não, mas – porque eu <strong>ele</strong> já há muito<br />
tempo que {PH|nu�=não} crio porcos –, mas nós costumávamos: partia-se o porco ao<br />
meio… Às vezes, até andava a gente a ver qual era o que t<strong>in</strong>ha o touc<strong>in</strong>ho maior – Agora<br />
quem é que quer o touc<strong>in</strong>ho? – e o que t<strong>in</strong>ha mais unto! Que eu a<strong>in</strong>da tenho ali taças de não<br />
sei já de quando. E já dei algumas [AB|para, {CT|p��=para o}] {CT|p���=para os} cães do<br />
gado. Depois comprei (a<strong>in</strong>da) um porqu<strong>in</strong>ho em Bragança e ao fim arrependi-me e nem lhe<br />
comi a carne gorda, [AB|nem, nem] nem o (touc<strong>in</strong>heiro), nem nada, pronto, [AB|{PH|j�=e<br />
o}] {PH|j�=e o} unto a<strong>in</strong>da aí está. {fp} Mas antigamente, <strong>ele</strong> sabia mesmo bem essa carne<br />
gorda: {CT|�kum�=com uma} salada {pp} e pão de centeio era mesmo boa.<br />
[OUT35]<br />
MONOGRAPHS<br />
(61)<br />
Iel <strong>in</strong>d’há munta giente que num sabe lei (Soajo, <strong>in</strong> Pereira 1970: 194)<br />
(62)<br />
Bom, <strong>ele</strong> não há homens para trabalhar (Escusa, <strong>in</strong> Baptista 1967: 201)<br />
(63)<br />
Ele há cada um! (Colos, <strong>in</strong> Guerreiro 1968: 351)<br />
(64)<br />
Ele há coisas! (Terceira, <strong>in</strong> Maia 1965: 61)<br />
(65)<br />
Bamos qu’iel’ié por i algu)a men<strong>in</strong>a... (Soajo, <strong>in</strong> Pereira 1970: 194)<br />
(66)<br />
... e <strong>ele</strong> é uma cerca velha / com os tanganhos à porta<br />
(Od<strong>ele</strong>ite, <strong>in</strong> Segura da Cruz 1969: 153)<br />
(67)<br />
Ele t<strong>in</strong>ha mai campo pra levar... [=Havia espaço para mais]<br />
(Od<strong>ele</strong>ite, <strong>in</strong> Segura da Cruz 1969: 153)<br />
(68)<br />
A PLANÍCIE HERÓICA<br />
Leva-se para o qu<strong>in</strong>tal uma talha ou duas, pois que préstimo teem agora as talhas, se êle<br />
não há já v<strong>in</strong>has? (p. 28)<br />
285
286<br />
(69)<br />
- Um homem com olho para enregar aí meia légua duma folha sem lhe errar a diferença<br />
dum palmo. Isto é modo de falar, bem entendido, que êle já não há fartura de terra como<br />
havia d’an/tes. (pp. 65/66)<br />
(70)<br />
Mas vá que êle haja aqui pouca devoção, como vossemecê diz, quem é que tem a culpa<br />
d’isso? (p.116)<br />
(71)<br />
- Isto é como quem arranca dentes! – exclamava o lavrador encantado. – Num dia<br />
desbasta-se um montado. Mas êle há aí árvore que parece que tem raízes nas profundas dos<br />
<strong>in</strong>fernos e dá que fazer. (p.118)<br />
(72)<br />
- Sim, lá bom foi p’ra quem teve sorte... – cont<strong>in</strong>uava o velho – Que êle nunca mais torna a<br />
haver um tempo assim. (...) E se êle fosse só isto? (p.122)<br />
(73)<br />
Ele havia tornas da comedorias, quasi ametade que se não comera e t<strong>in</strong>ha que ser rebatida<br />
em moeda. (p.126)<br />
(74)<br />
O tempo das quadrilhas já lá ia. Que êle houvera-as, de uma pessôa se benzer, quando tudo<br />
era andorrial e charneca brava, dando batida aos montes das herdades, que são baix<strong>in</strong>hos e<br />
é só tirar as telhas para se lhes entrar dentro,e sa<strong>in</strong>do à frente dos almocreves que abalam<br />
de noite para estar com pouco sol em Beja, e êle são bôas quatro horas bem andadas de<br />
jornada. (p.136)<br />
(75)<br />
Ela estava crente que entre a moça e o padre prior qualquer coisa havia, porque as vozes<br />
eram muitas e êle não há fumo sem fogo. (p.274)<br />
(76)<br />
Estava o mundo perdido, e esperassem-lhe p’la pancada que êle ia haver ali o bom e o<br />
bonito! (p. 288)<br />
(77)<br />
O que ela é, é uma moça de truz, e quem a levar não vai mal servido... Ele não há por aí<br />
muitos que lhe quadrem, não! (p.328)
1.1.4 The verb ser<br />
(78)<br />
CORDIAL-SIN<br />
INQ1 Não sabe o que é a francela?<br />
INF [AB|A 'pran'] Isso! [AB|e-] Era isso.<br />
INQ1 Como é que é?<br />
INF Uma 'pracela' ou {PH|n�=não} sei quê, ou uma francela ou… Ele era qualquer coisa<br />
assim. A m<strong>in</strong>ha mãe toda a vida fez queijo. (Mas eu) já me {PH|n�=não} recordo.<br />
[AAL85]<br />
(iv)<br />
INF1 Sendo uma pipa grande, lhe chamam a pipa, mas (estas) /esta\ chama-se é cartolas –<br />
<strong>ele</strong> são mais (…)...<br />
[PST06]<br />
(79)<br />
(80)<br />
INQ2 Fica muito para dentro depois da estrada ou fica mesmo à beir<strong>in</strong>ha da estrada?<br />
INF Quer dizer, [AB|o] o prédio, assim o prédio, [AB|o] é um olival assim muito grande<br />
mesmo. [AB|E <strong>ele</strong>, ou mais{fp}] Não sei o sítio onde é que <strong>ele</strong> anda. Mas quer dizer, nas<br />
Rasas anda.<br />
INQ1 Pois, pois.<br />
INF O sítio das Rasas, <strong>ele</strong>, ou mais aqui ou mais ali, <strong>ele</strong> anda. Eu sei que <strong>ele</strong> que anda nas<br />
Rasas.<br />
INQ2 Tem um rebanho grande, é?<br />
INF É. [AB|Ele se-] Ele é muito. {pp} Ele são muitas ovelhas.<br />
INQ1 Já sabemos que ontem foram tosquiadas.<br />
[MST02]<br />
(81)<br />
INQ2 Foi a sua mãe que o mandou fazer? Ou foi a sua mãe…<br />
INF Este já foi a m<strong>in</strong>ha avó. Que (a) m<strong>in</strong>ha avó ficou viúva muito nova. E ficou [AB|com]<br />
com quatro filhas {pp} e só um filho. E o filho apenas começou a ganhar pão foi-se<br />
embora. Nunca mais quis saber. E elas, coitadas, passaram muita miséria. E t<strong>in</strong>ham então<br />
dois teares. {fp} (Ele) eram dois teares. [AB|Trabalhav-] M<strong>in</strong>ha mãe trabalhava num {pp}<br />
e a m<strong>in</strong>ha avó trabalhava noutro. E depois começou<br />
[MST14]<br />
(82)<br />
INF1 Bom, mas <strong>ele</strong>s {CT|p�a�ki=para aqui} vieram alguns men<strong>in</strong>os a fazer esse serviço.<br />
Eles sabem onde <strong>ele</strong> está. (Porque) /Que\ <strong>ele</strong> estava (metido) aqui no tear.<br />
INF2 Eu não.<br />
INF1 Bom! Agora {PH|nu�=não} foi nenhum.<br />
INF2 (…)<br />
287
INF1 Bom, mas <strong>ele</strong> {PH|nu�=não} foi nenhum. [AB| Mas <strong>ele</strong>s r-, r-] Aqui {PH|nu�=não}<br />
está. Ele tem de estar nalgum lado. Eles de cá {PH|nu�=não} abalaram, sem os (levar)<br />
/levarem\, não abalavam de cá.<br />
[MST16]<br />
288<br />
(83)<br />
INQ2 E isto aqui é onde põem as coisas em cima?<br />
INF Ele era isto aqui. Isto aqui chamávamos nós o {PH|t���d�ru=chedeiro}.<br />
INQ2 E neste carro, já não chamam chedeiro?<br />
INF Pois, neste carro {pp} chamamos-{CT|lu=lhe um} (carroço).<br />
[MST29]<br />
(84)<br />
INQ1 Não. Quando já estava pronta, diz que já estava quê? Quando ela t<strong>in</strong>ha chegado até à<br />
altura dos quatro dedos, diz que já estava quê?<br />
INF1 [AB|Já est-] Pronto, já estava boa [AB|para] para tender.<br />
INQ1 Não dizem que estava f<strong>in</strong>ta?<br />
INF1 Já {IP|�tav�=estava} f<strong>in</strong>ta. Por isso, {IP|�tav�=estava} a f<strong>in</strong>tar. Já {IP|�tav�=estava}<br />
f<strong>in</strong>ta. Ia-se acender o forno. Quando o pão chegava àqu<strong>ele</strong> limite dali, ia-se acender o<br />
forno. {CT|p��=Para o} forno querem saber {pp}<br />
INQ1 Rhum-rhum!<br />
INF1 as ferramentas que se usavam?<br />
INQ1 Sim senhora. Como é que faziam?<br />
INF1 Primeiro era o forcado para meter a lenha lá para dentro. [AB|E ace-, e tira-]<br />
Acendia-se, não era? Era o forcado. Depois era o esborralhador, que era um pau {pp}<br />
comprido, para se espalhar {pp} a lenha por todos os cantos do forno. Quando o forno<br />
{IP|�tav�=estava} branco, é porque já estava quente. O tecto do forno todo branqu<strong>in</strong>ho! Aí<br />
de assim já t<strong>in</strong>ha que ser o rodo {pp}, para puxar as brasas todas {CT|p�a=para a} boca do<br />
forno. O borralho que ficava deixava-se (descontrolar) assim um bocad<strong>in</strong>ho, senão aquilo<br />
<strong>ele</strong> era brasas que {CT|e���i��w�n�=enchiam a} boca do forno. Era o rodo para puxar. Depois<br />
havia as barbas. {pp} Era sempre umas calças de cotim, velhas, atado ali de assim<br />
[AB|num{fp}] numa vara, não era?…<br />
[LVR35]<br />
(85)<br />
INQ1 E a<strong>in</strong>da sabe?… A<strong>in</strong>da sabe palavras de alemão?<br />
INF Não. Palavras de alemão, isso (não) é (mui) difícil{fp} (um) fulano {pp} procurar<br />
{fp}assim uma ideia.<br />
INQ1 Já não se lembra?<br />
INF Pois{fp}.<br />
INQ2 Como é que se diz bom dia, em alemão?<br />
INF Eles lá{fp} bom dia, (<strong>ele</strong> é) em alemão é {FR|��t��ta�="guten tag"}, {pp}<br />
{FR|��t��ta�="guten tag"}.<br />
[SRP01]
(86)<br />
INQ1 Olhe, e como é que se chama assim a porção de trigo que um, que um ceifador?…<br />
INF [AB|A porção] A porção de trigo chama-se-lhe… {fp}<br />
INQ1 Que agarra com a mão?<br />
INF {fp} Que a mão… É a mancheia.<br />
INQ2 Olhe, e isso é num, num ceifador, não é?<br />
INF Sim senhor.<br />
INQ2 Mas uma, uma ceifadeira?<br />
INF Ceifadeira, pois, que é (o) ceifador… Pois claro, (<strong>ele</strong> é uma) ceifadeira porque é em<br />
fêmea…<br />
INQ2 Mas as mulheres, a mancheia das mulheres é mais pequen<strong>in</strong>a?<br />
INF Mais pequena, sim.<br />
[SRP14]<br />
(87)<br />
INF Nós aqui, {fp}(<strong>ele</strong>) /eu\ é a mesma coisa. Há umas abelhas pretas {pp}, isso então<br />
a<strong>in</strong>da (é) pior.<br />
INQ É aquelas da terra, ou não? É as que fazem o n<strong>in</strong>ho nas, na terra?<br />
INF Eu sei lá onde é que elas… Não, não. Isso são os abelhões.<br />
INQ Ai não? Ai esses são os abelhões.<br />
INF [AB|Estas abe-] Estas abelhas pretas são perigosas.<br />
[FIG36]<br />
(88)<br />
INQ E em cima de quê é que peneirava? Não se punha um…<br />
INF1 Uma masseira e{fp} uma cernideira.<br />
INQ Diga: e uma?…<br />
INF1 Cernideira.<br />
INQ Sim senhor. E depois quando, quantos… O que é que caía para a masseira?<br />
INF1 A far<strong>in</strong>ha. Então o que é que (<strong>ele</strong>) há-de ser?<br />
INQ E o que é que ficava dentro da… O que é que ficava dentro…<br />
INF1 O farelo.<br />
[FIG25]<br />
(89)<br />
INQ1 E aquela coisa onde estava preso o, o, o burro?<br />
INF O burro? Isso era a vara. Era a vara [AB|e <strong>ele</strong>, e <strong>ele</strong>, e o, e a]. (Ele) era uma vara e<br />
[AB|t<strong>in</strong>ha] t<strong>in</strong>ha {CT|p�=para o} burro pôr ali {fp}os tirantes, com a coelheira, engatavase<br />
os tirantes e o burro puxava.<br />
INQ1 E onde é que os alcatruzes despejavam a água?<br />
INF {CT|p�=Para o} {PH|�t��ku=tanque}.<br />
INQ1 Era directamente para o tanque?<br />
INF {CT|p�=Para o} {PH|�t��ku=tanque}. Andava à roda e ia despejando {CT|p�=para o}<br />
tanque. {pp} Depois, do tanque, é que era transportadas despois {CT|pa�=para as} terras.<br />
Largava-se lá do tanque, v<strong>in</strong>ha por o rego, punha-se a travadoira e regava-se {CT|k�=com<br />
a} pá [AB|e co-] ou com o cabaço. Antigamente era assim.<br />
[ALC04]<br />
289
290<br />
(90)<br />
INQ1 Como é que se chama?<br />
INF [AB|Mula-] 'Mulares', a gente chama é{fp}…<br />
INQ1 Já não é canga?<br />
INF {PH|n��=Não} é canga. É engatar. É engatar [AB|a] a parelha. Mas a<strong>in</strong>da 'houvia' uma<br />
parelha… A<strong>in</strong>da há parelhas lá {CT|p�=para o} Alentejo {pp} que é também de canga.<br />
INQ1 Ai sim?<br />
INF É também tal e qual como os bois. {pp} Tal e qual como os bois. Andam uma de cada<br />
lado e a vara {PH|�=ao} meio do carro e {PH|�l�vi�=levam} a canga também em cima do<br />
pescoço. E despois os cangalhos [AB|enfi-] {PH|i��fii�=enfiam} em cima dum molim – um<br />
molim! [AB|Que é]<br />
INQ1 Aqui não há?<br />
INF Aqui não há. Aqui {PH|n��=não} se usa isso. O molim [AB|é{fp}, é para] é como a<br />
espécie da coelheira.<br />
INQ1 Rhum-rhum.<br />
INF Tem um enfeito aqui em cima, assim comprido, e aquilo é enfiado pela cabeça.<br />
INQ1 Pois.<br />
INF E depois [AB|o] isto e (aquilo) /aqui\ {PH|tr��ba�i�=trabalham} {fp} em cima daqui.<br />
Só com uma besta! Agora {CT|k��=com as} duas é isto, tal e qual. [AB|É, é{fp}] É tal e<br />
qual como (é) aí. O que é, é: <strong>ele</strong> [AB|não é de-] não é deste género dos bois. É{fp} mais<br />
'embaloado'. É assim isto redondo.<br />
INQ1 Olhe, e quando se leva os animais só assim com uma corda a puxar, como é que se<br />
chama essa corda?<br />
[ALC09]<br />
(91)<br />
INQ1 Está tudo a acabar. É o mo<strong>in</strong>ho…<br />
INF Acaba tudo. {fp} Aqui, agarrado aqui, (isso juntava-se) /se juntava\ sempre gente aí a<br />
fazer fornos de carvão. 'Houvia' aí dois homens que vendiam carvão com duas parelhas de<br />
mulas {pp} – como esses carros lá do Alentejo –, 'houvia' aí dois: <strong>ele</strong> era o Arnaldo e era<br />
o… – chamava-se Aret<strong>in</strong>o. T<strong>in</strong>ha uma parelha de mulas cada um e {PH|���davi�=andavam}<br />
sempre a carregar carvão aí da charneca, para venderem aqui em Alcochete.<br />
{PH|���davi�=Andavam} à roda da vila a vender às sacas e t<strong>in</strong>ham casas a vender mesmo de<br />
propósito {PH|��=aos} quilos.<br />
INQ2 Rhum-rhum!<br />
INF Isso acabou tudo!<br />
INQ2 Rhum-rhum!<br />
INQ1 Pois.<br />
INF E {PH|n��=não} se vê já um homem aqui perto fazer um forno de carvão – {pp}<br />
mesmo dentro da charneca. {PH|n��=Não} se vê. Já{fp}, agora, mesmo o carvão {pp}, se<br />
há algum, é lá {CT|p�=para o} Alentejo {pp}! Que {IP|ta=está} aí dois carvoeiros:<br />
{fp}aqu<strong>ele</strong> ali nem tem carvão, aquase nunca tem; e {IP|ta=está} aí outro ali… {pp} É<br />
mesmo pouco que vem para aí. {pp} É mesmo pouco que vem para aí!<br />
[ALC20]
(92)<br />
INQ1 Pois. Mas senhor Anselmo, a<strong>in</strong>da voltando à comida, essa comida que preparavam<br />
não lhe chamavam nome nenhum? Não lhe diziam, olhe, ou por exemplo: "Está na hora de<br />
ir levar"…<br />
INF "O comer {PH|��=aos} porcos".<br />
INQ1 Comer. Não lhe davam outro nome? Nem a lavagem, nem?…<br />
INF Ou o lavagem. {pp} (…) (Ele é): "Vamos dar o {PH|l��va�=lavagem} {PH|��=aos}<br />
porcos"!<br />
INQ1 Lavagem?<br />
INF O {PH|l��va�=lavagem}.<br />
INQ1 O lavagem.<br />
INF Mas isso é {fp}, (–ai –, é) quem t<strong>in</strong>ha um porco ou dois dentro [AB|dum] dum<br />
pocilgo. "Eu (vou dar)"… "Vou tratar dos {RC|po-=porcos}". "Vou dar o<br />
{PH|l��va�=lavagem} {PH|��=aos} porcos".<br />
[ALC30]<br />
(v)<br />
INQ2 Não, esta não é verde. É assim preta e maior que a mosca vareja. E, e tem mesmo<br />
pêlo. É como, é como…<br />
INF Não conheço.<br />
INQ1 Há assim no campo…<br />
INQ2 Não conhece?<br />
INQ1 Qualquer coisa que seja o besouro, ou assim, não conhece?<br />
INF O besouro [AB|não tem a-] não tem pêlo.<br />
INQ2 Não tem pêlo?<br />
INF [AB|O besouro] O besouro anda a arrastar pelo chão mas [AB|é{fp}] é como a<br />
carocha.<br />
INQ1 Ah!<br />
INF A casca d<strong>ele</strong> [AB|é como a] é como a carocha. O que é, é maior.<br />
INQ1 Sim.<br />
INF Tem a cabeça maior e tudo {PH|ka=que a} carocha. Mas esse, esse o besouro, {fp}<br />
avoa, mas <strong>ele</strong> é rente {PH|�=ao} chão. Abre as asas e depois [AB|é ren-] é rente<br />
{PH|�=ao} chão; não anda a avoar pelo ar.<br />
INQ2 Mas o besouro tem asas também?<br />
INF Tem. Abre as asas e avoa daqui para ali.<br />
[ALC40]<br />
(93)<br />
(94)<br />
INQ2 Aquilo anda no meio da água, assim umas coisas. Sabe como é que se chama isso?<br />
São pretos.<br />
INF Pretos? {pp} Conheço esse bicho, mas não sei o nome.<br />
INQ2 Peixe-sapo, não é?<br />
INF É… Peixe-sapo, não é.<br />
INQ2 Não?<br />
INF É um{fp}…<br />
291
INQ2 Peixe-cabeçudo?<br />
INF A gente cá, <strong>ele</strong>s empregam cá outro nome disto.<br />
INQ1 Mas não é aqui na água do Tejo, é nas outras águas.<br />
INF {fp}Ele é [AB|dos{fp}, é dos, é dos, dos, é dos, dos, dos]<br />
INQ2 Mas conhece as poças?<br />
INQ1 Das poças do sapo?<br />
INF das poças. [AB|Das águas] Das águas podres é que está isso.<br />
INQ2 Exacto.<br />
INF Das águas podres é que {IP|ta=está} esses bichos.<br />
INQ1 Isso, isso.<br />
INF Ele não é carochas. É{fp}…<br />
INQ2 Não. Tem este rab<strong>in</strong>ho comprido e…<br />
INF Tem o rabo comprido e anda sempre [AB|a, ca] a coiso.<br />
INQ2 Sim.<br />
INF É… Como é que se chama o nome?<br />
INQ2 Colherz<strong>in</strong>ha, também não?<br />
INF Dourad<strong>in</strong>ha não é.<br />
INQ2 Hã?<br />
INF Dourad<strong>in</strong>ha não é!<br />
[ALC42]<br />
292<br />
(95)<br />
INF1 E nós {pp}, a sacrificar, vamos à isca. A m<strong>in</strong>ha mulher é como vê a trabalhar. E<br />
trabalha de noite e de dia! E de noite também. Levanta-se às c<strong>in</strong>co horas da manhã {pp}<br />
para ajudar a vida, {CT|pa=para a} gente {fp} resgatar a vida. E {IP|t��w�=estão} a<br />
atravessar a vida {pp} do pobre… E fazer mal ao estado! (Ele) é o estado… [AB|O rio] O<br />
estado, <strong>ele</strong> pode pagar {PH|��=aos} qu<strong>in</strong>hentos escudos por ano… Vá que <strong>ele</strong> pague a um<br />
conto e qu<strong>in</strong>hentos. A um conto e qu<strong>in</strong>hentos, a gente, se calhar a coisa bem… A gente<br />
[AB|pode-] podemos (pôr) /perder\ as nossas artes – vê tanta arte que a gente tem aí…<br />
Tantos contos réis (que) {IP|tavu�=estavam} aí já empregados. {PH|n��=Não} julgue o<br />
senhor, uma arte destas já custa quase três contos. Quase. Este anzol<strong>in</strong>ho está – não havia<br />
de estar mas está… {IP|�tav�=Estava} a seis escudos, o ano passado, seis e qu<strong>in</strong>hentos,<br />
[AB|este a-], agora {IP|ta=está} a v<strong>in</strong>te nove escudos! Uma madeixa de sedela destas {pp}<br />
{IP|�tav�=estava} {fp} [AB|a cen- a, a nov-] a oitenta {pp} e c<strong>in</strong>co escudos – há quatro<br />
anos! Subiu, subiu.<br />
[ALV03]<br />
(96)<br />
INQ Olhe, aqui, aqui a maior parte das pessoas trabalham na, na pesca. Mas há algumas…<br />
INF A maior parte é pescadores, exactamente. É pescadores… E é claro, a classe da gente<br />
nova {pp} {IP|ta=está}-se a ocupar dos hotéis, muitos (é) empregados de hotéis. Mas<br />
assim já mais {pp} de quarenta anos, de tr<strong>in</strong>ta e tal, já vai tudo pescadores. Não quer dizer<br />
que um ou dois rapazes, ou c<strong>in</strong>co ou seis ou dez ou doze, ou qu<strong>in</strong>ze ou v<strong>in</strong>te, {PH|n��=não}<br />
(tenham) /têm\ o seus empregos de ofício…<br />
INQ Pois.
INF É claro, em escritórios, (e coiso). Mas, quer dizer, a maior parte – a maioria – das três<br />
partes – (uma tira-se pela outra) –, o ofício é [RP|é], a maior parte, é pescador. Tra<strong>in</strong>eiras,<br />
às vezes há um (desarrumo), vêm {CT|pa�=para as} lanch<strong>in</strong>has {pp} para pescar. A gente<br />
aqui, produz-se também peixe [AB|que vai {CT|p a=para a}{fp}] que vai {CT|p a=para<br />
a} Alemanha, vai para Itália e vai para Lisboa, e vai [AB|para] para Setúbal. Daqui vai<br />
besugos, vai fanecas. E consome peixe pelos arredores, porque Alvor consome muito<br />
peixe. Não é só o valor que dá, também, para contribuições do estado [AB|e<br />
{CT|p a�=para as}], (<strong>ele</strong>) é a área que satisfaz com o peixe. De Inverno, às vezes{fp}, a<br />
gente atira-se com um pedac<strong>in</strong>ho de tempo. As tra<strong>in</strong>eiras, às vezes, não apanha peixe, as<br />
coisas (dão) mal. (Mas também) há pouca pesca e a gente, às vezes (astreve-se a mal).<br />
Temos uma barra muito má, muito ruim. N<strong>in</strong>guém olha. Salva-vidas, não temos em Alvor!<br />
Porque (<strong>ele</strong>) havia-se de ter um salva-vidas com quarenta cavalos para ir{fp} ajudar a<br />
gente. Além disso, temos e {PH|n��=não} fazem caso de ir lá. Que um barqu<strong>in</strong>ho de<br />
borracha não serve.<br />
[ALV04]<br />
(97)<br />
INQ Olhe e um parecido com a cavala, mas tem os olhos mais pequen<strong>in</strong>os?<br />
INF1 Sarda.<br />
INF2 Sarda.<br />
INF1 Exactamente, é a sarda. {pp} A sarda é (bestial). Ele é um peixe {pp}, é gordo {pp},<br />
mas é um peixe que num <strong>in</strong>stante faz-se mole.<br />
[ALV018]<br />
(98)<br />
INQ1 Um só é um?…<br />
INF1 Chocos. Chocos. A gente chama aqui {fp}… A nossa palavra aqui é choco. Mas <strong>ele</strong><br />
é chocos. A gente, cá, o Algarve é choco. Chocos. Chama-se chocos.<br />
INQ2 Pois. Quando <strong>ele</strong>s são muito pequen<strong>in</strong>os, como é que lhe chamam?<br />
INF1 A gente chama-se aqui choqu<strong>in</strong>ho. Choqu<strong>in</strong>hos pequen<strong>in</strong>os.<br />
INQ2 Pois. Olhe e aquela espécie de pern<strong>in</strong>has que <strong>ele</strong> tem, como é que se chama<br />
aquelas…<br />
INF1 {fp} É as campa<strong>in</strong>has. A gente chama as campa<strong>in</strong>has. Os raios com as campa<strong>in</strong>has.<br />
INF2 T<strong>in</strong>ha aí muito disso.<br />
[ALV27]<br />
(99)<br />
Agarrei-me então à agricultura, fiz {fp} uma qu<strong>in</strong>ta, olhe, dacolá daquesses, em direcção<br />
daqu<strong>ele</strong> posto de{fp} t<strong>ele</strong>fone, [AB|naqu<strong>ele</strong>] naqu<strong>ele</strong> corte que tem aquela… Chamam<br />
aquilo…<br />
INQ1 Não estou a ver. Aonde?<br />
INF {fp} Aqui à nossa frente.<br />
INQ1 Aqui mesmo?<br />
INF À frente daqu<strong>ele</strong> meu bocado grande, em cima, cá em cima. {PH|nu�=Não} tem na<br />
frente{fp} daqu<strong>ele</strong> bocado grande, {PH|nu�=não} tem ali uma [AB|u-, u-]?…<br />
INQ1 Umas couves?<br />
293
INF Não, não. Ele {PH|nu�=não} é as couves. As couves é a<strong>in</strong>da mais para cima. É [AB|cá<br />
fo-] lá fora da parede, {PH|nu�=não} tem ali<br />
INQ1 Sim.<br />
INF um [RP|um]?… Chamam a gente aquilo uns carrasqueiros.<br />
[COV11]<br />
294<br />
(100)<br />
INF Começou a conversar, diz ela assim: "Olhe"… {IP|�tiv�=Estive} eu a contar-<br />
{PH|l�=lhe}, que era só aqu<strong>ele</strong> filho e que t<strong>in</strong>ha só aqu<strong>ele</strong> filho [AB|e{fp} que] e que é que<br />
havia de ser de mim a ({PH|�majl�=mais a}) m<strong>in</strong>ha mulher que era uma mulher doente – e<br />
é. E aonde diz ela assim: "Mas {PH|nu�=não}, então eu que faço"?! Mas ela ouviu, ouviu,<br />
ouviu e eu tanto {PH|l�=lhe} pedi, e ela, diz ela assim: "Olhe, você vai hoje embora"? E eu<br />
disse: "Não, senhora Berenice". "Você onde é que vai ficar"? Disse: "Olhe, eu fico aqui<br />
nessa pensão da senhora Bernardete". Diz ela assim: "Olhe, você logo quando for dez e um<br />
quarto ou dez menos um quarto apareça aqui, que eu, eu digo-{PH|l�=lhe} qualquer coisa".<br />
Eu já fiquei todo contente! Já [AB|a m<strong>in</strong>ha] o meu coração parece que ficou mais à<br />
vontade.<br />
INQ2 Pois.<br />
INF Depois {pp} eu fui para dentro e [AB|e o meu] a m<strong>in</strong>ha comida estava lá e o padre<br />
a<strong>in</strong>da estava a comer. Diz a{fp} cachopa: "Então"? Disse: "Olha, foi assim, assim". "Já<br />
{PH|nu�=não} vai lá fora. {pp} Você vai ver que o seu filho {PH|nu�=não} vai lá fora".<br />
Digo assim: "Se <strong>ele</strong> {PH|nu�=não} for lá fora, se <strong>ele</strong> for que {PH|nu�=não} vá lá fora, doute<br />
dois contos". Diz ela: "Estão ganhos". Digo eu assim: "Pois [AB|e-, e eu] e eu que tos<br />
dou já"! Diz ela: "Não, não. Você, logo, então, ela mandou-o lá ir, você logo vai lá".<br />
[COV11]<br />
(101)<br />
INF Ela ouviu, ouviu, ouviu e virou-se para <strong>ele</strong> e diz assim: "Olha, ou tu obedeces a este<br />
pedido, ou nunca mais aqui tornas". Ela para <strong>ele</strong>: "Ou tu obedeces a este pedido, ou nunca<br />
mais aqui tornas. Coitado do homem. Então {IP|taz=estás} a ver se {PH|l�=lhe} morrer o<br />
filho lá fora, como <strong>ele</strong> é"?! Morria a gente nossa lá fora!<br />
INQ1 Claro.<br />
INQ2 Pois.<br />
[COV12]<br />
(102)<br />
INF2 Aquilo são como {PH|��sukr�=açúcar}!<br />
INF1 Ah!<br />
INF2 Como quem come {PH|��sukr�=açúcar}!<br />
INQ1 Pois é.<br />
INF1 Mas (<strong>ele</strong>), meu amigo…<br />
INF2 Doces! E então é um v<strong>in</strong>h<strong>in</strong>ho que {PH|nu�=não} tem remédio, {PH|nu�=não} tem<br />
nada.<br />
INQ1 Pois, pois.<br />
INF1 Nada! É só próprio da videira!
INF2 Se quiser, {fp} quem for doente pode-o beber! [AB|É só] Ele é só da videira!<br />
INF1 Pode, pode, pode. {fp} É próprio de…<br />
INF3 É só da videira.<br />
[COV29]<br />
(vi)<br />
INQ2 Também lhes chamam enxame, a esses pequen<strong>in</strong>os?<br />
INF1 Enxame, mas é pequen<strong>in</strong>o.<br />
INQ1 Pois.<br />
INF1 E os outros são enxames bons. A gente o que chama (<strong>ele</strong>) um enxame {pp} grande é<br />
assim com um cortiço aquase cheio de abelhas.<br />
INF2 (Ele é).<br />
INF1 E as abelhas só duram, ou dizem que duram… {PH|nu�=Não} duram mais que dois a<br />
três meses.<br />
[COV37]<br />
(103)<br />
INQ1 Que nome é que o senhor dá a estes?<br />
INF3 {fp} Há aí muitas terras que lhe dão muitos nomes.<br />
INF1 Pois há.<br />
INF2 (Põe lá).<br />
INQ2 Não mas aqui.<br />
INQ1 Aqui.<br />
INF3 Para os lados de Parada {pp} chamam-lhe…<br />
INF1 Níscaros.<br />
INF3 Não.<br />
INF1 Há níscaros.<br />
INQ1 Há uns, há uns que são míscaros.<br />
INF3 Há aí uns que são níscaros. Mas chamam-lhe… Tem um espécie de um… {fp} É<br />
n<strong>in</strong>hos ou… Ele é assim uma espécie, eu não sei…<br />
INQ2 Mas aqui?<br />
INQ1 Aqui?<br />
INQ2 Aqui comem-se ou não?<br />
INF1 Nós comemos.<br />
INF2 Comem-se.<br />
INQ2 E então, comem o quê?<br />
INQ1 Sim.<br />
INF1 'Cardelas'. Chamamos-lhe 'cardelas'.<br />
[OUT06]<br />
(vii) Excl<br />
INF E depois nós no tear, nos nossos teares, [AB|temos a] a lançadeira é só assim<br />
pequen<strong>in</strong>a e chega alevantarmos para correr o fio para ir outra vez por a teia afora, mas<br />
aquela não. Eu estava habituada a fazer com a m<strong>in</strong>ha, não é, e não com aquelas grandes, e<br />
chegava (e truz). Ia lá a outra já doente e tudo – a tia Augusta, coitada: "Não é assim! Isso<br />
mal meto eu! {PH|nu�=Não} se levanta a lançadeira"! Pronto, mas eu estava educada no<br />
outro tear.<br />
INQ Mas o tear era igual ou era mais largo?<br />
295
INF (Não. Ele era lá agora)! Ele o tear do pardo era muito largo. Eu a<strong>in</strong>da teci teias de<br />
pardo no meu tear mas era estreito, para fazerem calças. {pp} Olhe que um ano eu estava a<br />
tecer – chamam-{CT|l�=lhe a} carvalha –, dia dois de Maio, e uma grande nevada a cair e<br />
eu a tecer pardo, (<strong>ele</strong> aqui) num{fp}… Porque (<strong>ele</strong>) aqu<strong>ele</strong> tear era mais largo que os meus<br />
e fui lá tecer a teia de pardo aqui para uma viz<strong>in</strong>ha.<br />
[OUT21]<br />
296<br />
(104)<br />
INF Depois de se amassar na masseira, {pp} (em) /<strong>ele</strong>\ estando assim já um pouco enxuta,<br />
corta-se aos rolos [AB|e] e dá-se assim… {fp} Por exemplo, (<strong>ele</strong>) é esta a margem e o pão<br />
vira-se para aqui, vira-se para ali, vira-se para aqui, fazem-se assim uns rol<strong>in</strong>hos. Depois<br />
põe-se na esqu<strong>in</strong>a da masseira três ou quatro rolos, conforme a gente quiser, depois tapa-se<br />
{CT|ku�=com um} lençol, depois {PH|ku�=com} uma outra roupa em cima, depois leveda.<br />
[OUT22]<br />
(105)<br />
INQ1 Vão no mesmo baile aqui?<br />
INF1 Oh! Oh!<br />
INQ1 Hum!<br />
INF1 E foi ruim (a) /à\ noite! Ele era velhas e tudo!<br />
INQ2 Hum!<br />
INQ1 É assim é que é!<br />
INF1 E eu é porque não me foram chamar, senão também dançava.<br />
[OUT43]<br />
A PLANÍCIE HERÓICA<br />
(106)<br />
- Sim, lá bom foi p’ra quem teve sorte... – cont<strong>in</strong>uava o velho – Que êle nunca mais torna a<br />
haver um tempo assim. (...) E se êle fosse só isto? (p.122)<br />
(107)<br />
Ora se é por via de mim, não quero já saber de nada, seja o que Deus quiser, que o que tem<br />
de ser tem muita força e êle não é o primeiro caso que se dá. (p.240)<br />
(108)<br />
-Lá p’ra semente já chega e sobra... – E admirando-se muito: - Ora o nosso compadre<br />
prior! Ele até parece mentira, que há dois dias a<strong>in</strong>da vossemecê estava todo teimoso e nem<br />
queria nem à mão de Deus Padre que lhe falassem nisso! Que êle não podia deixar de ser.<br />
O que lhe dão os lavradores, careiro como tudo está, mal lhe chega para tapar a cova dum<br />
dente, e lá co’a ca<strong>in</strong>çalha miùda não pode vossemecê contar com coisa nenhuma, que nem<br />
lhes chega o pano p’rás mangas. (p.173)
(109)<br />
- Ora!, - replicou o sacristão –não há meada que se não desenleie nem teia que se não<br />
desteça. Contractos fazem-e e desfazem-se, e quando um homeme não pode co’a<br />
carga,arreia!<br />
- Que quere vossemecê dizer?<br />
- Quero dizer que se o ofício lhe não quadra, / ponha o ofício de banda. Pelo <strong>in</strong>terêse que<br />
êle lhe dá! Êle é o que se vê mais hoje...<br />
Aquêle ultrage que tantas vezes recebia ali o sacerdócio, qualificado de ofício,[...] (p.245)<br />
1.1.5 Other impersonal verbs<br />
CORDIAL-SIN<br />
(110)<br />
INF1 Agora, em abalando a senhora a<strong>in</strong>da quero (ter uma conversa), que <strong>ele</strong> falta-me aqui<br />
umas peças do tear, quero saber onde elas estão.<br />
INQ Agora espere aí só um bocad<strong>in</strong>ho.<br />
INF1 [AB|Houve] Bem que <strong>ele</strong>s {CT|p�a�ki=para aqui} v<strong>in</strong>ham br<strong>in</strong>car [AB|pá-]<br />
{CT|pa�ki=para aqui}, (por) isso é que me faltam aqui as coisas do tear. Eu quero aqui<br />
saber de uma caixa que aqui andava [AB|e um] e um can<strong>ele</strong>iro.<br />
[MST16]<br />
(111)<br />
INF E depois aquilo então {fp}, aquela lã v<strong>in</strong>ha fiada, [AB|só] só fiada e (preparava)<br />
aquelas maçarocas. {fp} M<strong>in</strong>ha mãe já {PH|nu�=não} fazia mais nada. E v<strong>in</strong>ha trazê-las.<br />
[AB|Estav-] Estava (um homem) {pp} {CT|ku�=com um} tear – {pp} também cá estava na<br />
vila. E o tear era doutra maneira. {PH|nu�=Não} era como este. Era mais grande. Era um<br />
tear grande e t<strong>in</strong>ha pentens e tudo como este. O que é que <strong>ele</strong> já me {PH|nu�=não}... Eu<br />
lembra-me a<strong>in</strong>da de lá ir de garota mas {PH|nu�=não} dou conta já (de como <strong>ele</strong> urdia).<br />
Eles t<strong>in</strong>ham uma{pp}… Chamam-lhe uma urdideira. {pp} Mas {PH|nu�=não} era como a<br />
nossa. Era uma coisa (era) (cois<strong>in</strong>ha) à roda. Era uma coisa assim quase mais pequena do<br />
que isto, {pp} mas era: {fp} tocavam aquilo à roda e aquilo andava à roda.<br />
[MST19]<br />
(112)<br />
INF2 [AB|No nosso, no n-] Aqui, foi uma coisa horrível, horrível. Mas esta noite como<br />
faz algo de fumo!<br />
INF1 [AB|Mas depois]<br />
INQ2 É por causa do vento. É o vento.<br />
INF2 Ele vai-lhe calor? Vai-lhe calor (aí)?<br />
INQ2 Vai muito.<br />
INF2 Então passe outra vez o pote aí.<br />
INQ2 Acho melhor. Antes que me queime as pernas. [CTL26]<br />
297
298<br />
(113)<br />
INF E aquela mulherz<strong>in</strong>ha dizia: "Ai men<strong>in</strong>as! Isto {pp} há-de vir esse tempo; (há-de vir<br />
essa) grande grandeza. E depois, quando estar tudo na maior grandeza, olhe que há-de vir<br />
tudo para baixo". Quer dizer, vir outra vez à miséria. Ele vai cam<strong>in</strong>hando para isso. Pelo<br />
menos, os campos {fp} [AB|na-] já {PH|n�=não} produzem nada, já {PH|n�=não}<br />
produzem nada. [AB|E is-] A fome tem que vir. E de maneira: "Olhe, há-de vir tempo {pp}<br />
que as mulheres {pp} hão-de andar com os homens, como os galos {PH|���d��j�=andam}<br />
com as gal<strong>in</strong>has". Realmente. E é assim. "Olhe, {PH|n�=não} há-de se conhecer os homens<br />
das mulheres"! Pois, muitas vezes, {PH|n�=não} se conhece. Vão aí, {fp} (vêm) {fp}<br />
quatro,<br />
[PAL13]<br />
(114)<br />
INF1 (…).<br />
INF2 Olhe, t<strong>in</strong>ha umas cordas. (Olhe), <strong>ele</strong> faz de conta {CT|ku=que o} animal [AB|d-]<br />
{IP|�tav�=estava} aqui.<br />
INF1 [AB|E, E] V<strong>in</strong>ha uma corda [AB|vi-]…<br />
INQ1 Sim.<br />
INF2 E t<strong>in</strong>ha umas cordas a chegar a uma canga o pescoço do animal – {IP|ta=está}<br />
entendendo?<br />
INF1 Eu vou num <strong>in</strong>stante ao palheiro buscar uma para ver.<br />
INF2 Olhe, [AB|uma] uma daqui, outra dali. (E) uma por um lado do animal e a outra pelo<br />
outro.<br />
[FLF41]<br />
(viii)<br />
INF1 Eu escalo ela. Depois de ela (estar) escalada, alanho. Faço o lanho nela. Salgo. Deixo<br />
de um dia para o outro, para deitar [AB|aquela{fp}] aquela moira fora, deitar aqu<strong>ele</strong><br />
sangue fora. Depois lavo-{PH|l�=lhe} bem lavado para deitar aqu<strong>ele</strong> sal. E depois pego<br />
[AB|na-] no peixe, ponho dentro de um saco de plástico e ponho no frigorífico. [AB|Que é<br />
para{fp}]<br />
INQ1 E quanto tempo é que dura? Quanto tempo é que dura assim?<br />
INF1 ({fp} Dura) /Ele dura\ bastante tempo [AB|para ela, para, {CT|pa=para a} cavala]. A<br />
cavala sendo gorda, {pp}ela dá um ranço. Então, {pp} para não dar esse ranço, ela<br />
{IP|ta=está} no frigorífico.<br />
[CLC10]<br />
(115)<br />
INF1 Bem, tem que ter uma percentagem, a gente sabe disso, as coisas estão caras, <strong>ele</strong>s<br />
também… Um homem já ganha nove ou dez contos. A gente sabe bem disso. Mas as<br />
coisas é tudo normal. [AB|Aumenta este] {fp} Foram aumentados cem, {IP|ta=está} a<br />
v<strong>in</strong>te nove escudos os anzóis, {CT|p��=para o} mês que vem está a tr<strong>in</strong>ta, {CT|p�=para o}<br />
outro mês… Então como é que é que isto <strong>ele</strong> é feito?!<br />
INF2 E não há!
INF1 [AB|E não] E não há que se (fechem). {PH|n��=Não} pode ser assim. A gente<br />
conhece que têm que ganhar. Eles estão ali… Eu ganhar da m<strong>in</strong>ha vida e <strong>ele</strong>s ganharam da<br />
d<strong>ele</strong>s! Mas não poderá ser assim tudo à barrigada. Que mais tarde quem tem fome morre.<br />
{fp}E a coisa prolonga-se pelo lado do mal… Sempre a gente explorar o outro, matar o<br />
outro, (explorar, explorar)!<br />
[ALV03]<br />
(116)<br />
INQ Olhe e o caboz, o que é?<br />
INF1 O caboz? Pois o caboz é um peix<strong>in</strong>ho que nunca cresce muito. É sempre pequeno, é<br />
sempre pequeno.<br />
INF2 É sempre do mesmo tamanho.<br />
INF1Quer dizer, isso já se sabe, ao nascer é mais pequeno. Há no rio, há nas pedras e há lá<br />
fora. Variamente, há por todo o mar, o caboz. Mas o que não cresce é mais daquela conta.<br />
[AB|Aí com]<br />
INQ E é bom para comer?<br />
INF1 [AB|Aí] É bom para comer. {pp} É bom para comer, mas o que é, a gente, (olha),<br />
como é pequen<strong>in</strong>o… É assim um peixe muito branco, (muito luzidio)… Ele parece-me que<br />
{pp} há duas raças, há uma que não cresce muito, é assim tamanho de um dedo e há outros<br />
maiorzitos. Mas que <strong>ele</strong> é bom para comer, é. Nos rios é que cresce mais um bocad<strong>in</strong>ho.<br />
[AB|Na] Fora da barra nunca crescem muito.<br />
[ALV019]<br />
(117)<br />
INF Cá no Algarve é assim. Uma pessoa, a gente é pobre aqui. Juntar para umas cas<strong>in</strong>has,<br />
ah! Corri o arrasto, nada ganhei. E (daqui <strong>ele</strong>) /daquilo\ também só dava andar do arrasto.<br />
(Bom), andei a contramestre. {pp} Ganhava mais que uma parte {pp} e sempre<br />
{PH|�f�vur�si�=favorecia}, além de ajuntar mais que um camarada. Sempre v<strong>in</strong>ha uns<br />
patacos. Os outros ganhavam uma parte, eu ganhava duas. Quer dizer, comia igual a <strong>ele</strong>s e<br />
aquela parte era para forrar.<br />
[ALV36]<br />
(118)<br />
INF1 Uma senhora de Agualva veio a cam<strong>in</strong>har – v<strong>in</strong>ham a cam<strong>in</strong>har – da Felgueira para<br />
cima. E chegou ali diante – adiante daquelas nossas terras –,<br />
INQ1 Rhum-rhum.<br />
INF1 a mulher reganhou. Um senhor de Agualva trouxe-a às costas até aqui a m<strong>in</strong>ha casa.<br />
INF2 A<strong>in</strong>da era perto.<br />
INF1 [AB|E <strong>ele</strong> tem] Ele tem acontecido aqui cada uma em m<strong>in</strong>ha casa! Chegou aqui, a<br />
mulher: "Ah{fp}"! – com as pernas (todas de rojo) às costas do homem. Diz: "Ó<br />
Arquibaldo"! Disse: "Que é"? "Acode a esta mulher que ela morre".<br />
[COV22]<br />
(119)<br />
INF1 Fui levá-lo {PH|�=ao} cam<strong>in</strong>ho da Lomba. Ia eu para baixo, ia o meu filho para<br />
cima,<br />
INQ2 Pois.<br />
299
INF1 de {PH|l��valu=levar o} outro. Viemos ambos os dois para cima, disse: "Olha, sabes<br />
onde estás"? "Sei que estou no cam<strong>in</strong>ho da Lomba". "Olha que tu {PH|nu�=não} te percas<br />
agora"!<br />
INQ1 Pois.<br />
INF1 Que era pert<strong>in</strong>ho. Ele podia ser aí [AB|um{fp}] {pp} uns trezentos metros da m<strong>in</strong>ha.<br />
INF2 Era já pert<strong>in</strong>ho!<br />
INF1 Disse: "Olha que tu {PH|nu�=não} te percas"! "{PH|nu�=Não} perco". Eu fui lá leválo.<br />
Ele tem-me acontecido aqui cada uma! Que <strong>ele</strong> eu gosto de socorrer [AB|quem {fp}] as<br />
pessoas, homem!<br />
INQ1 Pois. Claro.<br />
[COV23]<br />
300<br />
(120)<br />
INF1 E a gente, se tiver mestra, pronto!, já pode tirá-lo embora que é um enxame; se<br />
{PH|nu�=não} tiver mestra, que {PH|nu�=não} tenha mestra lá, [AB|já {PH|nu�=não}] já<br />
aquilo (mal anda). Já pode [AB|levá-] deixá-las lá estar que [AB|que no pa-] no prazo daí<br />
de um quarto de hora elas passam todas outra vez {CT|pa=para a} mãe.<br />
INQ1 Outra vez para o mesmo.<br />
INF1 {CT|pa=Para a} mãe!<br />
INQ1 Para a mãe.<br />
INF1 Chama-se a mãe…<br />
INQ2 É o… Aquela é a mãe, a primeira?<br />
INF1 É [AB|aque-] a primeira. E se for enxame é [AB|o] o que se tira.<br />
INQ1 Pois.<br />
INF1 Se não, elas fogem logo, logo, imediatamente.<br />
INQ2 Olhe, e às vezes não aparece um enxame pequeno?<br />
INF1 Aparece [AB|um {fp}] um enxame fora, na terra [AB|ou] ou numa árvore ou em<br />
qualquer sítio, já tenho agarrado muitos desses. É, <strong>ele</strong> aparece. E a gente vai (em torno)<br />
das abelhas, mas {IP|ta=está} lá uma mestra.<br />
INQ2 Rhum-rhum.<br />
INF1 Porque se {PH|nu�=não} ({PH|ti�v�l�=tiver a}) /{PH|ti�v�l�=estiver a}\ mestra, <strong>ele</strong><br />
{PH|nu�=não} (fogem) /foge\.<br />
INQ1 Pois.<br />
[COV37]<br />
MONOGRAPHS<br />
(121)<br />
Ele já só falta um mês (Nisa, <strong>in</strong> Carreiro 1948: 73)<br />
(122)<br />
A PLANÍCIE HERÓICA<br />
- Ele já me constava que v<strong>in</strong>ha prior novo. Agora quando chegava é que não sabia. (p.20)
(123)<br />
E olhando o scenário em volta, tão desolado e penhascoso, lembrava-se que deviam ser<br />
assim os êrmos onde os velhos santos anacoretas t<strong>in</strong>ham gasto, à força de contemplação do<br />
céu, suas memórias das coisas do mundo. Que êle também não se lhe daria apartar-se do<br />
mundo. (p.92)<br />
(124)<br />
Abalára pela manhã sem almoçar, e êle nem à merenda nem à ceia! Uma coisa assim! Por<br />
fim lembraram-se de que podia estar para os Cardeais, êle diz que chegara já o men<strong>in</strong>o<br />
Joanito. (p.171)<br />
(125)<br />
- Seja muito bem aparecido, sr. José M<strong>in</strong>gorra. Então que novidades traz?<br />
O sacristão fazia rodar nas mãos calejadas o grosso abeirão de charnequenho.<br />
- Que êle me conste, agora não há aí n<strong>in</strong>guém morto, mas não sei se àmanhã se poderá<br />
dizer o mesmo. (p.239)<br />
(126)<br />
E por um dever de caridade, como pároco e porque era bom de natureza, preguntou com<br />
um apêrto no coração, pelo estado de saúde da sua filha Conceição. Ele já lhe constára que<br />
a rapariga passava mal, mas os males na mocidade tão depressa véem como vão... (p.314)<br />
(127)<br />
- Mas o que lá vai, lá vai, que águas passadas não moem moínhos, e o que a gente quere é<br />
saúde e a ajuda de Nosso Senhor.<br />
- Ele até parece que foi milagre, compadre! (p.329)<br />
301
1.2 Clausal subject extraposition<br />
302<br />
(128)<br />
CORDIAL-SIN<br />
INQ É, é. Tem aqu<strong>ele</strong>s buraqu<strong>in</strong>hos aqui assim…<br />
INF2 Agarra-se nos barcos.<br />
INF1 Agarra-se sim, agarra-se… Mas aqui é pouco, lá na costa norte é que há mais. Mas<br />
não quer dizer que não haja, mas (<strong>ele</strong>) /é\ é raro quando se vê. E é a lampreia.<br />
[ALV23]<br />
(129)<br />
A PLANÍCIE HERÓICA<br />
E assim Deus me ajude e p’la luz dêstes que a terra hade comer, que é por lhe querer a<br />
vossemecê como a filho, e p’ra que não aconteça alguma desgraça à outra que lá tenho, que<br />
estou já por tudo e não queria dobrar as unhas sem os deixar amparados e com o seu<br />
conchêgo de vida, p’ra vossemecês e p’ra quem Deus Nosso Senhor cá mandar, que êle é<br />
sempre bom contar com êles. (p.243)<br />
1.3 Presentative constructions<br />
1.3.1 Small clause complements<br />
CORDIAL-SIN<br />
(130)<br />
INF Não há quem semeie; {pp} não há quem vá fazer {pp} esse serviço {pp} porque<br />
{pp} [AB|o{fp}] {pp} <strong>ele</strong> {IP|ta=está} tudo muito caro {pp} e não há quem faça.<br />
Mesmo pagando o d<strong>in</strong>heiro, {pp} não há quem queira ir fazer. {pp} Só porque querem<br />
trabalhar aí [AB|nas] nas coisas, {pp} nas obras, {pp} aí na construção. {fp}<br />
{PH|t���ba�e�j�=Trabalham} mais do que trabalhavam aí no campo. {pp} Mas<br />
consideram <strong>ele</strong>s {pp} o trabalho aí nas obras. Consideram aquilo um emprego [AB|d-]<br />
de estado.<br />
[PAL11]<br />
(ix)<br />
INQ O que é que <strong>ele</strong> fazia com as cardas?<br />
INF {CT|ku��=Com as} cardas? [AB|Era para] Era para cardar a lã. Cardava então.<br />
[AB|Aque-] Aquela lã também t<strong>in</strong>ha uma carda: uma mais grossa {pp} e outra mais<br />
f<strong>in</strong>a. Passava-a primeiro [AB|{PH|�p���=pela}] {PH|�p���=pela} carda mais grossa {pp}<br />
e depois passava-a [AB|{PH|�p���=pela}] {PH|�p���=pela} carda… Ficava aquela lã toda
cardada. Mas (aquilo) /é que <strong>ele</strong>\ ficava toda muito l<strong>in</strong>da, muito l<strong>in</strong>da, a lã! A que ia<br />
apanhando, tornava a cardar.<br />
[MST18]<br />
(131)<br />
INQ1 Mas, portanto, chama uma sobreira?<br />
INF Não. A<strong>in</strong>da é um sobreiro.<br />
INQ1 A<strong>in</strong>da é um sobreiro.<br />
INF As sobreiras são aquelas sobreiras – chama-{PH|l�=lhe} a gente… Já {IP|ta=está} o<br />
nome de sobreiro para sobreira, que é aquelas árvores mais velhas, muito grossas, muito<br />
grossas, muito grossas e já com cortiça, já… (Se calhar), já {PH|l�=lhe} tiram pouca<br />
cortiça porque (<strong>ele</strong>) começa [AB|a] a árvore a {IP|ta�=estar} velha… [AB|Aqui à] Aqui<br />
à Amoreira, no cam<strong>in</strong>ho de Vendas Novas {pp}, há ali uma, mesmo logo à ponta do<br />
olival. Se passarem por aquela estrada, quando vão para lá é vão ver.<br />
INQ1 Quando formos para Vendas Novas passamos…<br />
INF Vão? Vão.<br />
[LVR01]<br />
(132)<br />
INF1 Eu vou-{PH|l�=lhe} explicar. A gente tira um enxame – chama aquilo um<br />
enxame; {fp} <strong>ele</strong> {IP|�tav�=estava} [AB|o cort-] o cortiço cheio de abelhas e a gente vê<br />
se elas estão em termos de dar enxame. Bate, bate, bate assim noutro e põe um cortiço<br />
aquase sem nada. É como está a senhora{fp} Gabriela e o cortiço está ali assim; e a<br />
gente põe aquilo no chão, o outro, com a boca encostada um {PH|�=ao} outro, e começa<br />
a bater no que {PH|�t��j�n�z=tem as} abelhas: tumba, tumba, tumba, tumba, e as abelhas<br />
começam a correr {CT|p�=para o} cortiço sem nada. Quando elas estão para dar mestra!<br />
E depois sai a mestra; só sai uma.<br />
[COV37]<br />
(133)<br />
INF1 Grijós!<br />
INF2 Grijós!<br />
INF1 Grijós!<br />
INF2 Grijós!<br />
INQ1 Grijós!<br />
INQ2 Ah, grijós!<br />
INF2 Grijós!<br />
INF1 São grijós, que <strong>ele</strong>s os porcos são doidos por <strong>ele</strong>s.<br />
INF2 E eu?! Eu também bem gostava… {fp} Olha{fp}, agora não, mas nalgum<br />
tempo…<br />
INF3 [AB|E…] E comendo uma porção d<strong>ele</strong>s, põe-se a gente quase…<br />
INF2 Emborracha. {pp} Emborracha a gente.<br />
INQ1 Olhe, mas também são assim, parecem uma…<br />
INQ2 São uns que parecem batatas?<br />
INF1 Pois.<br />
INF3 Sim.<br />
INF2 É. Isso emborracha a gente com <strong>ele</strong>s.<br />
303
INQ2 Parecem batatas.<br />
INF1 Olhe, são tal e qual como os…<br />
INQ2 Nunca vi.<br />
INF1 Conhecem o dente do alho, não é?<br />
INQ2 Sim.<br />
INF1 Assim (essa) espécie, pois (<strong>ele</strong>) são assim quase os grijós.<br />
INF2 Eles emborracham a gente, comendo muitos.<br />
[OUT08]<br />
304<br />
(134)<br />
A PLANÍCIE HERÓICA<br />
- Eu êste ano também não fiz coisa capaz em feiras. Em Aljustrel é que vendi umas<br />
rezes, quási à má cara, que os diabos dos marchantes faziam-se<br />
- Ele vai estando tudo cada vez pior, que eu /não sei onde a gente hade chegar.<br />
(pp.327-8)<br />
(135)<br />
Tome, vossemecê, muito cuidado ti’João Lobeira, disse um que p’los modos me<br />
conhecia, não seja caso que se lhe apanhe a esp<strong>in</strong>garda, e vá parar à cadeia a<strong>in</strong>da por<br />
cima. E lá se me foram com a lebre, que a mamaram à m<strong>in</strong>ha custa, os<br />
desavergonhados! Pois se êle está tudo assim! (p.126)<br />
1.3.2 Unaccusative verbs<br />
CORDIAL-SIN<br />
(136)<br />
INQ2 Pois, pois, agora o que há.<br />
INF1 {IP|ta=Está} (a ver)? [AB|Es-, essa] Essa escravidão [AB|que o-] que os governos<br />
{IP|t��w�=estão} a fazer, (hem)! Esse negócio [AB|de], o negócio do mando! Vamos<br />
assim, é o negócio do mando! Ele vem o d<strong>in</strong>heiro aí mas para donde é que vai o<br />
d<strong>in</strong>heiro? N<strong>in</strong>guém vê. [AB|O] O desgraçado {pp} [AB|não vê, não] não vê o d<strong>in</strong>heiro.<br />
Esse é o negócio do mando.<br />
[CLC02]<br />
(137)<br />
INF1 Mas {PH|nu�=não} está a chover? Está a chover, (está).<br />
INQ1 Está, está.<br />
INF1 Ai Jesus!<br />
INF2 Deixe chover {CT|p�a�i=para aí}.<br />
INF1 Nós deixamos, deixamos, {PH|k�=(ca) /que\} {PH|nu�=não} podemos removê-la.<br />
INF2 Sim. Mas a gente dizia que…<br />
INF3 (Ai), faz falta.
INF2 Pois, a gente dizia que {PH|nu�=não} chovia [AB|mas]…<br />
INF1 Ele a<strong>in</strong>da {PH|nu�=não} {PH|�i�����=viera} o Inverno!<br />
INF2 Mas agora é que vai vir.<br />
INF1 [AB|Há-de vir quando] Vem quando faz mais mal.<br />
INF2 É.<br />
INF3 Agora a<strong>in</strong>da não faz mal. {fp}<br />
[CTL48]<br />
(138)<br />
INF1 Ela lá depois lá compõe. Ela está a perceber, está a perceber…<br />
INQ Isto aqui é que eu não sei como é que é.<br />
INF2 [AB|E isto é] E isto é o pio que ia piar os milhos e {PH|a=a} tábua [AB|te-] {pp}<br />
tem que chegar mais aqui adiante um bocad<strong>in</strong>ho.<br />
INF1 (Que) a tábua é esta…<br />
INF1 Mas {fp} depois elas lá compõem que eu estou com pressa. {fp} Que <strong>ele</strong> vem aí o<br />
meu filho e <strong>ele</strong> quer comer. [AB|A, a tábua era com-] Por exemplo, [AB|o] esta tábua, o<br />
pau {pp} era aqu<strong>ele</strong> que v<strong>in</strong>ha assim, e {PH|a=a} tábua era pregada {pp} em cima do<br />
pau.<br />
INF2 Em cima do pau…<br />
[PFT01]<br />
(139)<br />
Quando era [AB|no] no segundo – que era para ver se deitava mais algumas ervas<br />
bravas, algumas coisas para, sim, para a terra ficar mansa, por completamente<br />
irrompida, assim barrada, como lhe {PH|���m��j�=chamam}, não é?... E de forma que,<br />
depois, quando era {CT|p��=para o} ano, aí ao São Miguel, ao São Miguel, aí [AB|à]<br />
em Fevereiro, agora neste tempo, mais ou menos, Fevereiro, Março, é que <strong>ele</strong> {pp} ia<br />
outra máqu<strong>in</strong>a – outra máqu<strong>in</strong>a ou à mão {fp} – abria-se outra vala, tudo assim al<strong>in</strong>hado<br />
e{fp} plantava-se [AB|o] o bacelo, como a gente lhe chama, o bacelo.<br />
[AAL02]<br />
(140)<br />
INQ Olhe, e quando está muito vento, como é que se diz?<br />
INF Cá no nosso sítio, é um {PH|e�d��va�='andaval'} de vento [AB|é um, é um]. A<strong>in</strong>da<br />
esta noite, <strong>ele</strong> passou um grande [AB|a-] {pp} ar de vento. {PH|n�=Não} sei se foi {pp}<br />
toda a gente que o ouviu, mas houve [AB|uma] uma hora ou hora e meia que foi uma<br />
grande {PH|��d��va�='andaval'} de vento, esta noite.<br />
[AAL74]<br />
(141)<br />
INQ1 Olhe, como é que chama a isto que vai sa<strong>in</strong>do do…<br />
INF1 O soro.<br />
INQ1 O soro.<br />
INF1 É o soro.<br />
INQ1 E isto…<br />
INF1 E depois coze-se, m<strong>in</strong>ha senhora. Depois coze-se e até se faz requeijão. Por<br />
exemplo, aqu<strong>ele</strong> {pp} soro – este é {CT|p��=para os} porcos, que está mais sujo, mas<br />
305
aqu<strong>ele</strong> a<strong>in</strong>da {IP|ta=está} limp<strong>in</strong>ho. A gente, agora, se o puser a cozer, fica requeijão.<br />
[AB|Fica] Fica aquela coalhada {pp} rija, que {PH|l�=lhe} chamam requeijão.<br />
INQ1 Como é que faz? Põe a cozer e deixa ficar lá a ferver?<br />
INF1 [AB|Põ-] A gente [AB|põe {CT|�=ao}] põe {CT|�=ao} lume… Não, não se pode<br />
deixar porque (<strong>ele</strong> pega-se) /apega-se\. De vez em quando tem que se {PH|l�=lhe} dar<br />
uma mexidela. E quando <strong>ele</strong> começa a vir aquela{fp} [AB|o, o], quer dizer{fp}, a<br />
massa, [AB|que lá dentro] que ela lá dentro tem aquela coalhada que daqui vai sa<strong>in</strong>do.<br />
INQ1 Pois.<br />
INF1 (E depois) /Depois\ a gente, quando já está a vir assim acima, já se {PH|nu�=não}<br />
mexe. Deixa-se ferver {pp} e depois fica então aqu<strong>ele</strong> requeijão assim mesmo duro,<br />
assim bom. É bom mesmo! Que há pessoas que até gostam muito {pp} de requeijão.<br />
[MST01]<br />
(142)<br />
INF A selha é em cimento. E{fp} tive lá uma pia em pedra, mesmo em pedra. Sabe do<br />
que era? Era dum guarda-loiça, dum {RC|guarda-co-=guarda-copos}, dum lava-copos.<br />
INQ2 Ah! Pois. É o dezasseis.<br />
INQ1 Pois, pois.<br />
INF T<strong>in</strong>ha o buraco por baixo.<br />
INQ2 Claro.<br />
INF Eu assentei assim em cima dum cavalete em tijolos, {pp} pus ali, <strong>ele</strong>s<br />
{PH|����ii�=bebiam} a água, e depois eu limpava e <strong>ele</strong> saía por baixo a água.<br />
INQ1 Pois claro.<br />
INF Era uma pia, mas era em pedra! Era isso [AB|dum, dum] dum lava-copos.<br />
[ALC30]<br />
306<br />
(143)<br />
INF Ele vem aí um senhor aqui vender roupas – {pp} é lá [AB|de] de Vilar Formoso.<br />
Até fica, em v<strong>in</strong>do, sempre em m<strong>in</strong>ha casa. Mas (como <strong>ele</strong>) começou por aí a andar<br />
[AB|a] a vender roupas, mantas, cobertores e{fp}… E depois, um dia à noite, chega aí,<br />
mais a mulher [AB|e dois fi-] e dois miuditos, e [AB|di-] pediu [AB|para {PH|l�=lhe}<br />
dar de] se {PH|l�=lhe} dávamos (bebida) /comida\ – mas que dormiam no carro, mas se<br />
{PH|l�=lhe} dávamos comida –, [AB|se] se {PH|l�=lhe} vendíamos pão e{fp} batatas e<br />
v<strong>in</strong>ho.<br />
[COV07]<br />
(144)<br />
INF Por exemplo, [AB|eu] eu metia quatro ou c<strong>in</strong>co espadadeiras, que eu a<strong>in</strong>da as meti<br />
muita vez, mesmo aqui. [AB|E] E depois: {fp} "Ó senhora Arteia, 'dai-nos' os tascos"?<br />
"Dou". Ele lá v<strong>in</strong>ham os rapazes e as raparigas, {PH|l��vav��w�nu�=levavam os} tascos<br />
para aí {CT|p��=para o} meio do barro e acendiam a fogueira, cantavam. E se houvesse<br />
castanhas, até assavam castanhas e bebiam a p<strong>in</strong>ga. Depois contavam 'lhonas'. Olhem,<br />
(<strong>ele</strong>) /<strong>in</strong>da\ fazem-me lembrar o…<br />
INQ1 'Lhonas'?<br />
INF Sim, 'lhonas', quer dizer, histórias. Histórias, não é? Histórias {pp} e adiv<strong>in</strong>has e<br />
assim umas coisas para fazer rir as pessoas. Que o meu <strong>ele</strong> era… O meu era um d<strong>ele</strong>s,<br />
coitad<strong>in</strong>ho. [OUT14]
(145)<br />
INQ1 E aquilo que se prepara para dar ao porco, é preciso cozer aquilo e misturar a?…<br />
INF Bem, {fp} há-os que… Ele agora já n<strong>in</strong>guém costuma cozer. Nós, antigamente,<br />
cozíamos quando <strong>ele</strong> v<strong>in</strong>ha o tempo de castanhas – (que) também dávamos castanhas.<br />
V<strong>in</strong>ha o tempo [AB|de, de eng-] de engordar os porcos {CT|p���=para os} matar, ou<br />
dois meses antes, cozia-lhe a gente vianda: batatas e castanhas, beterraba ou assim essas<br />
coisas.<br />
[OUT32]<br />
(146)<br />
INF [AB|De{fp}, por exemplo, {fp} esta] Por exemplo, [AB|esta é{fp}] (além) aqu<strong>ele</strong><br />
campo é todo meu, por exemplo,<br />
INQ2 Sim.<br />
INQ1 Sim.<br />
INF este campo todo. Eu semeio e depois [AB|ela] <strong>ele</strong> medra, vai medrando, medrando,<br />
medrando, medrando. Depois, é arrarado. Arrara-se. O campo corta-se donde em donde<br />
[AB|para f-] para <strong>ele</strong> ficar {pp} assim um bocad<strong>in</strong>ho raro, para <strong>ele</strong> produzir, para<br />
alevantar.<br />
INQ1 Rhum-rhum.<br />
INF Depois, se a gente precisa [AB|para o{fp}] para assoalhar {pp} uma casa ou para<br />
qualquer coisa, depois a gente vende… Vende… A gente, (<strong>ele</strong>) vêm compradores…<br />
Agora, vieram para aí, {pp} cortaram tudo. (Havia) /Haviam\ muitos p<strong>in</strong>hais aqui e<br />
vieram pessoas aí a cortar… Pagam-nos, {PH|n�=não é}?<br />
INQ1 Pois.<br />
INF E cortaram e (<strong>ele</strong>) levam para madeira {pp} para a Espanha e para donde calha.<br />
INQ2 Rhum-rhum.<br />
[OUT44]<br />
(147)<br />
INQ1 Ai, tapa tudo, isso fica tudo debaixo da terra.<br />
INF2 Fica tudo.<br />
INF1 [AB|Depois] Tudo debaixo da terra!<br />
INQ1 Ah, não sabia!<br />
INF1 Depois, às vezes já se empeçam a ver, <strong>ele</strong> vem a chuva…<br />
INQ1 Rhum-rhum.<br />
INF1 Empeçam-se a ver, a gente vai lá dar uma volt<strong>in</strong>ha.<br />
INQ1 Rhum-rhum.<br />
INF1 E tapa-se. E também se podem {pp}… Pode também (isto) depois daqu<strong>ele</strong>s<br />
montões endurecerem a terra.<br />
[OUT55]<br />
(148)<br />
MONOGRAPHS<br />
Ele vai aí um tempo dos diabos. (Colos, <strong>in</strong> Guerreiro 1968: 351)<br />
(149)<br />
Ele há-de vir uma trovoada, nã demora nada. (ibid.)<br />
307
308<br />
(150)<br />
Ele há-de vir i uma ventania qu’arrasa tudo... (Od<strong>ele</strong>ite, <strong>in</strong> Segura da Cruz 1969: 153)<br />
(151)<br />
A PLANÍCIE HERÓICA<br />
Havia noite que se abrasava o céu com fogo, e um ano, logo passada a feira de Santa<br />
Maria, vossemecê hade estar lembrado, lavrador, seria p’la meia noite, levantou-se tudo<br />
e abalou o povo tôdo p’rás alturas do Sêrro velho, que êle v<strong>in</strong>ha um mar de lume da<br />
banda das Entradas lavrando por essas corgas abaixo... (p.121)<br />
(152)<br />
Quando adrega andar por aí pranto-me parvo a olhar p’rás portas e cuido que lá estão<br />
dentro a<strong>in</strong>da, aquêles que eu aí conheci. Mas é uma scisma, que êle já lá vai tudo, já lá<br />
vai tudo... (p.156)<br />
(153)<br />
O sr. João Custódio estava concertado na grande herdade dos Falcões. Pastoreava gados<br />
desde moço pequeno e fôra ajuda do ti’Zé Charuto, um velho revelho que já lá ía há um<br />
rôr d’anos e que sabia a história de Carlos Magno e dos dôze Pares de França, da<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>ceza Magalona, da Branca-Flôr e outras histórias que êle contava muito bem<br />
contadas. Aprendera-as também, mas enganava-se, não encarreirava já com elas, porque<br />
quási que não falava com pessôa nenhuma, raro ia ao povo e já n<strong>in</strong>guem fazia caso<br />
disso. Ele ía tudo agora com um pensar diferente e algum caso de que se falava era<br />
coisa dos papeis. (169)<br />
1.3.3 Other verbs<br />
(154)<br />
CORDIAL-SIN<br />
INF Chama-se rio cá mais abaixo, não é? [AB|ma-] Mas é (a) ribeira de Marvão.<br />
INQ Pois.<br />
INF Mas eu t<strong>in</strong>ha até{fp} coiso que <strong>ele</strong> que a<strong>in</strong>da {pp} funcionava, por ali assim, umas<br />
coisas dessas.<br />
INF Pois, não sei.<br />
[AAL22]
(155)<br />
(156)<br />
INF1 Era, pois. Mas foram para ir pôr uma filha {CT|p�=para o} Berardo, que era<br />
{CT|p�=para o} pé da Bertília, (isso aí) perderam-se aí nos salgueiros, [AB|atrás do]<br />
atrás do (Sarroeiro). E perderam-se [AB|e o t-, e o ma-].<br />
INF2 Pois, pois, pois, pois. Era tudo na serra.<br />
INF1 Pois. E o Ascânio, do Benv<strong>in</strong>do, deu com <strong>ele</strong>s no Cuco Mau, [AB|naqu<strong>ele</strong>s ca-]<br />
nos calhaus grandes.<br />
INF2 Pois foi.<br />
INF1 Ali depois já estavam ambos os dois a gritar. Quer dizer, um já {PH|nu�=não}<br />
falava, e o outro a gritar. O genro a gritar e <strong>ele</strong> já {PH|nu�=não} falava.<br />
INF2 Já {PH|nu�=não} estava o Berardo.<br />
INF1 Estava, <strong>ele</strong> estava o Berardo; (<strong>ele</strong>) /quem\ não estava era o Bernardim! Lá o<br />
Ascânio, do Benv<strong>in</strong>do, pegou-{PH|l�=lhe} às costas e trouxe-o para aqui, para m<strong>in</strong>ha<br />
casa. Lá o aqueci, lá arranjei, esteve cá desde a tarde até {PH|�=ao} outro dia de manhã.<br />
E o meu filho [AB|naquela n-], à{fp} noite foi {PH|l��valu=levar o} outro à Macieira –<br />
que é aqui abaixo; esta sabe bem –, {pp} à Macieira.<br />
[COV23]<br />
(157)<br />
INF Eu já tenho 'ouvisto' dizer… E (<strong>ele</strong>) disse-me logo [AB|um tipo {pp}] um tipo<br />
[AB|que tra-] que {IP|ta=está} no grémio, disse-me: "Ó Ápio! Eu tenho [AB|li-] lido<br />
vários livros". E disse-me (…): {fp} "Ó Ápio! O período do tempo dará outras coisas<br />
{pp} que a gente {PH|n��=não} imag<strong>in</strong>a. Assim como acaba com umas, nasce outras". E<br />
eu {IP|�to=estou} convencido que é.<br />
[ALV47]<br />
(158)<br />
INF Depois tira-se-{PH|l�=lhe} (<strong>ele</strong>) à parte: a l<strong>in</strong>guiça, vai para um lado; o salpicão,<br />
que é o lombo, vai para outro; os presuntos, vai para outro; a espádua, vai para outro.<br />
Quer dizer, [AB|depois, na] aqui até costumamos… Agora já não, mas – porque eu <strong>ele</strong><br />
já há muito tempo que {PH|nu�=não} crio porcos –, mas nós costumávamos: partia-se o<br />
porco ao meio… Às vezes, até andava a gente a ver qual era o que t<strong>in</strong>ha o touc<strong>in</strong>ho<br />
maior – Agora quem é que quer o touc<strong>in</strong>ho? – e o que t<strong>in</strong>ha mais unto! Que eu a<strong>in</strong>da<br />
tenho ali taças de não sei já de quando. E já dei algumas [AB|para, {CT|p��=para o}]<br />
{CT|p���=para os} cães do gado. Depois comprei (a<strong>in</strong>da) um porqu<strong>in</strong>ho em Bragança e<br />
ao fim arrependi-me e nem lhe comi a carne gorda, [AB|nem, nem] nem o (touc<strong>in</strong>heiro),<br />
nem nada, pronto, [AB|{PH|j�=e o}] {PH|j�=e o} unto a<strong>in</strong>da aí está. {fp} Mas<br />
antigamente, <strong>ele</strong> sabia mesmo bem essa carne gorda: {CT|�kum�=com uma} salada<br />
{pp} e pão de centeio era mesmo boa.<br />
[OUT35]<br />
309
1.4 Subject wh-extraction contexts<br />
310<br />
CORDIAL-SIN<br />
(159)<br />
INQ1 Pois. E umas que parecem até um chicote, que são assim compridas?<br />
INF3 Oh! Eu sei o nome disso e agora não me recorda.<br />
INF1 São alforrecas.<br />
INF3 Parece umas correias.<br />
INQ1 Também há umas que parecem umas correias.<br />
INF1 Umas correias. A gente chama gamões. É aquelas correias grandes que <strong>ele</strong> nasce<br />
nas pedras. A gente chama gamões.<br />
INQ2 Gamões?<br />
INF1 Gamões. E o mar tem [AB|várias] várias ervas, várias plantas, igual. O mar tem<br />
{pp} g<strong>in</strong>jas.<br />
[ALV46]<br />
(160)<br />
INF Aqui, ia-se para ali trabalhar, era à semana. Quando chegava {PH|�=ao} sábado, se<br />
não precisasse de todos, despedia. Ficava lá só com aqu<strong>ele</strong>s que <strong>ele</strong> entendia.<br />
INQ1 Pois.<br />
INF E aqui a trabalhar dentro das fazendas, também aquase sempre era à semana. E<br />
{PH|l��vavi�=levavam} depois mais do que uma semana, conforme o trabalho que lá<br />
'houvia'. [AB|Nunca, nunca] E aqui [AB|só se f-, só] só ia por um dia [AB|quando era<br />
assim à {pp}] quando era algum fazendeiro mais pequen<strong>in</strong>o, que era trabalho pouco, ia<br />
um dia ou dois. {fp}<br />
INQ1 E então esses que iam um dia ou dois, dava-lhe algum nome, a esses<br />
trabalhadores que vão só por um dia ou dois?<br />
INF (Ele) o nome que <strong>ele</strong> se dava [AB|é] era dois trabalhadores.<br />
INQ2 E eram pagos?<br />
INQ1 Jornaleiros não?…<br />
INF Não. [AB|Jornaleiro é{fp} é o] O jornaleiro [AB|não] não se emprega aqui.<br />
[ALC34]<br />
(x)<br />
INQ1 Olhe, e uma vaca que nunca pega?<br />
INF1 Que nunca pega é man<strong>in</strong>ha.<br />
INQ1 Dão-lhe algum nome?<br />
INF1 É man<strong>in</strong>ha.<br />
INQ1 Rhum-rhum.<br />
INF1 Rhum-rhum. É man<strong>in</strong>ha.<br />
INQ1 E a que um ano não pegou? Os outros pega mas há um ano que não pega?<br />
INF1 Bem, há um ano que, às vezes, há vacas que <strong>ele</strong> não… Às vezes, têm um ano sem<br />
andar {PH|�=ao} touro.<br />
INQ1 Rhum-rhum.
INF1 Mas lá vem que (<strong>ele</strong>) às vezes pega; outras vezes anda mais desencarreirada mas<br />
pega. Olhe, eu costumo, aqui {fp} no meu curral, quando vem [AB|uma tou-] uma vaca<br />
(e) anda mais que uma vez ou duas, pôr-{PH|l�=lhe} um bocado de aguardente na boca.<br />
[COV33]<br />
(161)<br />
INQ1 Olhe, e o galo que é bom para cobrir as gal<strong>in</strong>has, diz-se que é bom quê?<br />
INF É um [RP|um] galo bom. É um galo bom. Há outros que (<strong>ele</strong>) {PH|nu�=não}<br />
prestam para nada. [AB|{IP|ta=Está} aí] Nós temos aí uns garnisés, só<br />
{PH|ku�bri��w�n��=cobriam as} garnisés, e as gal<strong>in</strong>has {PH|nu�=não}… Iam para cima<br />
delas, {PH|nu�=não} faziam nada. E a gente foi obrigados {pp} a matá-los; porque <strong>ele</strong>s,<br />
esses, os garnisés, podem mais que estes grandes.<br />
[COV36]<br />
(162)<br />
INF1 É o pau de zimbro que nós lhe 'chamemos' aqui. Nunca ouviste falar?<br />
INQ1 Pau de zimbro.<br />
INF2 Já sei.<br />
INF1 Pau de zimbro.<br />
INQ2 Pau de zimbro.<br />
INF1 Diz que é muito bom [RP|muito bom] para esfregar uma besta que estivesse com<br />
dores de barriga. Revoltam-se muita vez. (Estão <strong>in</strong>comodadas) e assim, t<strong>in</strong>ham dores de<br />
barriga, e a gente socorria a quem tivesse esse pau, que havia… Cá dantes havia-o. E<br />
a<strong>in</strong>da haverá {PH|�ke�jnu=quem o} tenha. Mas {pp} agora quem sabe lá quem (<strong>ele</strong>) é? E<br />
passavam-lhe pelo peito [AB|do] do bicho.<br />
INQ1 Pois.<br />
INQ2 É engraçado.<br />
INF1 É o tal pau de zimbro.<br />
[OUT05]<br />
(xi)<br />
INF Eu também lhe disse: "Olhe, os senhores merecem louvores. Os senhores merecem<br />
louvores". Seis filhos! {PH|nu�=Não} se vê agora.<br />
INQ1 Pois não.<br />
INF Onde é que se vê agora? Um e dois e e!… Um e é um pau! Onde é que <strong>ele</strong>… [AB|<br />
Os me-] Eu não tenho mais netos.<br />
[OUT15]<br />
(163)<br />
INF2 Eu tenho ali o assador.<br />
INF1 Ele também tem um. Com uns buraqu<strong>in</strong>hos. A labareda assim se coisa por baixo e<br />
a gente {pp} faz assim e assam-se. Viram-se.<br />
INQ Rhum-rhum.<br />
INF1 E quem (<strong>ele</strong>) /lhe\ quiser fazer uma fogueira, {pp} com muita lenha,<br />
INQ Sim.<br />
INF1 a gente põe-lhe lá; põe a lenha e põe as castanhas em cima, assam-se também na<br />
mesma.<br />
[OUT42]<br />
311
2 Peripheral expletive <strong>ele</strong><br />
2.1 Peripheral to the subject<br />
2.1.1 Before an overt pronom<strong>in</strong>al subject<br />
312<br />
(164)<br />
CORDIAL-SIN<br />
{PH|m���da�e�=Mandaram}-{PH|l�=lhe} arrumar a camioneta ali ao lado. {pp} [AB|Que]<br />
{PH|m���da�e�=Mandaram}-no parar; e tudo a passar, cada um para um lado, para o<br />
outro, e (vêem) ali os <strong>in</strong>divíduos a coiso, a roubarem o homem.<br />
{PH|ro�ba�i�=Roubaram} tudo quanto t<strong>in</strong>ha. {PH|ro�ba�i�=Roubaram(-{PH|l�-lhe})} tudo<br />
quanto lá t<strong>in</strong>ha.<br />
INQ Imag<strong>in</strong>e.<br />
INF Não {PH|l��va�i�=levaram} a carga da camioneta, nem a camioneta, mas d<strong>in</strong>heiro,<br />
relógio; tudo, tudo quanto t<strong>in</strong>ha, levou tudo. {PH|l��va�i�=Levaram} tudo.<br />
INQ Parece que nas cidades e nos sítios grandes é mais fácil agora.<br />
INF {IP|ta=Está} a ver? Ali num sítio daqu<strong>ele</strong>s! Parece impossível, [AB|mas com-] mas<br />
<strong>ele</strong> aquilo lá foi feito {fp} e n<strong>in</strong>guém deu por isso.<br />
[AAL34]<br />
(165)<br />
INQ1 Mas tem picos essa que a gente está a dizer…<br />
INF1 Tem picos, tem. [AB|O esfru-] A gente aqui [AB|é] chama-lhe o esfrunhador. Sei<br />
lá.<br />
INF2 Ah, (é essa mesmo).<br />
INF1 Mas <strong>ele</strong>, <strong>ele</strong> tem outro nome.<br />
[AAL96]<br />
(166)<br />
INQ1 Olhe, aqu<strong>ele</strong>… Há bocad<strong>in</strong>ho falou-me naqu<strong>ele</strong>s que iam à frente, a levar o<br />
rebanho…<br />
INF O boi… É os da guia. Chamam-{PH|l�=lhe} os bois da guia.<br />
INQ1 O boi da guia. Só nos, nas, nos bois é que há isso?<br />
INF É. [AB|Nesses m-] Nesses tipos que [AB|têm {pp}] têm gado bravo {pp} é que<br />
{PH|�te�e�nu�=têm os} bois {CT|p�a=para a} guia mesmo. (Que é onde estão que estão<br />
acostumados)…<br />
INQ1 Da guia? Mas portanto, nos carneiros?… Nos carneiros não há nunca?<br />
INF Hum…<br />
INQ1 Não se via nada?<br />
INF Ele havia antigamente. (Ele… Eu) /Ele eu\ vou-{PH|l�=lhe} dizer uma coisa:<br />
antigamente havia, mas <strong>ele</strong> (deixou)… Há é 'emparadeiros'. O que é os 'emparadeiros'?<br />
É: isso era uma ovelha. Isso era nas {RC|orde-=ordenhas}. Nas ordenhas das ovelhas é<br />
que havia uma ovelha que chamavam-{PH|l�=lhe} a 'emparadeira', que ia sempre
{PH|�=ao} lado… A gente vai aqui; {fp} é o aprisco – é o coiso das cancelas (onde as<br />
ovelhas vão) metidas dentro…<br />
[LVR13]<br />
(167)<br />
INF Ora, aquilo que vendem é aquela carne que vem de fora e {PH|nu�=não} é como a<br />
de cá! Vem [AB|con-] congelada, vem lá de fora, vem… Quem sabe lá que carne é<br />
aquela!<br />
INQ2 Claro.<br />
INF Ele {PH|nu�=não} sabe! Ele {pp} eu fui aí a [AB|um] uma boda, aí abaixo, {pp} a<br />
(…/NPR). E deram lá uma carne que <strong>ele</strong> achou-se tudo doente.<br />
INQ2 Ah!<br />
INQ1 Ah, veja lá!<br />
INF Sabe? Tudo o que lá foi achou-se doente. Achou-se mal porque a carne… Bem, eu<br />
até só tirei um bocadito, <strong>ele</strong>, por acaso, eu {PH|nu�=não} me achei mal, mas houve<br />
pessoas…<br />
[COV14]<br />
(168)<br />
INQ2 Isso já lá vai quantos anos, senhor, senhor Arquibaldo?<br />
INF Ah, isso já vai {pp} lá perto de duzentos anos. Duzentos anos, não, porque [AB|o<br />
outro] o homem morreu já se recusava. Ora o homem já morreu quando foi [AB|o<br />
ciclone] um ciclone muito grande…<br />
INQ1 Sim.<br />
INF Que <strong>ele</strong> nós {RC|fo-=fomos}… Olhe que eu fui a mais [AB|um] um primo meu<br />
buscar o caixão a Gatão, {CT|p�=para o} homem ir {CT|pa=para a} sepultura. E olhe<br />
que a gente v<strong>in</strong>ha um atrás outro adiante, com o caixão {PH|�=ao} ombro. E quando tal,<br />
caiu um p<strong>in</strong>heiro, {fp} que o vento jogava o p<strong>in</strong>heiro abaixo.<br />
INQ1 Sim.<br />
INF E a gente, depois, v<strong>in</strong>hamos aqui acima a chegar à Felgueira e depois então… Foi<br />
no tempo do m<strong>in</strong>ério! As senhoras recordam-se do m<strong>in</strong>ério?<br />
[COV18]<br />
(169)<br />
INF1 "Você, nós vamos ver se conseguimos a virar-lhe o carro. Se lhe nós conseguir a<br />
virar o carro, muito bem; se lhe {PH|nu�=não} conseguir a virar o carro, você vai para<br />
baixo {CT|pa=para a} povoação para onde a mim. {CT|pa=Para a} m<strong>in</strong>ha casa"!<br />
INQ1 Pois.<br />
INF1 O homenzito, coitado, lá…<br />
INF2 E <strong>ele</strong> donde era, Arquibaldo?<br />
INF1 Ele {pp} <strong>ele</strong> disse que era [AB|de] {pp} de São João da Madeira, homem!<br />
INQ1 Rhum-rhum!<br />
INF2 Muito longe, muito longe!<br />
INF1 São João da Madeira! Depois eu andei lá mais o meu filho e <strong>ele</strong> e 'andemos' e<br />
{PH|vi�remulu='viremos' o} carro e depois <strong>ele</strong> botou-o a trabalhar e o homem (já) {pp}<br />
queria-nos pagar.<br />
[COV21]<br />
313
314<br />
(170)<br />
INF1 Fui levá-lo {PH|�=ao} cam<strong>in</strong>ho da Lomba. Ia eu para baixo, ia o meu filho para<br />
cima,<br />
INQ2 Pois.<br />
INF1 de {PH|l��valu=levar o} outro. Viemos ambos os dois para cima, disse: "Olha,<br />
sabes onde estás"? "Sei que estou no cam<strong>in</strong>ho da Lomba". "Olha que tu {PH|nu�=não} te<br />
percas agora"!<br />
INQ1 Pois.<br />
INF1 Que era pert<strong>in</strong>ho. Ele podia ser aí [AB|um{fp}] {pp} uns trezentos metros da<br />
m<strong>in</strong>ha.<br />
INF2 Era já pert<strong>in</strong>ho!<br />
INF1 Disse: "Olha que tu {PH|nu�=não} te percas"! "{PH|nu�=Não} perco". Eu fui lá<br />
levá-lo. Ele tem-me acontecido aqui cada uma! Que <strong>ele</strong> eu gosto de socorrer [AB|quem<br />
{fp}] as pessoas, homem!<br />
INQ1 Pois. Claro.<br />
INQ2 Pois claro.<br />
INF1 Gosto de socorrer as pessoas que é pecado, homem! Eu não tenho {RC|peca-<br />
=pecado}. Então e se morresse um homem ou morresse uma mulher ou morresse uma<br />
pessoa e{fp} eu…<br />
INF2 E a gente em {PH|l�=lhe} podendo valer…<br />
INQ1 Pois claro.<br />
INQ2 Pois claro. Pois.<br />
INF1 Podendo-{PH|l�=lhe} valer e {PH|nu�=não} {PH|l�=lhe} acode?!<br />
[COV23]<br />
(171)<br />
INF1 E depois, (começou a fazer), a m<strong>in</strong>ha mulher chegou à noite, diz assim: "Ó<br />
Arquibaldo, olha que {pp} eu nunca mais vou às uvas à Lomba". "Então porquê"?<br />
"Olha, foi assim, assim, <strong>ele</strong> o velho do (Quelho)". [AB|An-] Até estava cá um filho a<br />
servir aqui em m<strong>in</strong>ha casa. Um filho, nos pr<strong>in</strong>cípios da m<strong>in</strong>ha vida {PH|nu�=não}<br />
t<strong>in</strong>ha{fp}… Pronto! Trazia-o… (Que eu) precisava de um criadito para me guardar o<br />
gado; o meu filho era pequenito! E eu disse: "{PH|nu�=Não} tornas lá mais!<br />
{PH|nu�=Não} tornas lá mais"! "{PH|nu�=Não} torno, Arquibaldo, {PH|nu�=não} torno<br />
mais, que <strong>ele</strong> eu (é que) tive vergonha e <strong>ele</strong> a fazer mangação de nós"! "{IP|ta=Está}<br />
bem"! Hoje, queria que <strong>ele</strong> fosse vivo e dizer-lhe assim: "Olha, tenho o dobro, três<br />
dobros do v<strong>in</strong>ho a mais que a ti"!<br />
[COV30]<br />
(172)<br />
INQ1 E a parte de fora da roda, como é que lhe chamava?<br />
INF A parte de fora?<br />
INQ1 Onde t<strong>in</strong>ha aqu<strong>ele</strong> ferro. Aqu<strong>ele</strong> ferro que se punha à volta da roda.<br />
INF Então isso é… Era o rodado. Era o rodado {pp} em ferro. {pp} Era o rodado em<br />
ferro. {pp} Mas (<strong>ele</strong>) aquilo só chamava-se o aro – o aro!<br />
INQ1 Portanto, o rodado o que é que era?<br />
INF O rodado é aqu<strong>ele</strong> conjunto todo, mas só o ferro é o aro. É o aro [AB|da] da roda.<br />
Só o ferro! – o arco. O arco é o aro [AB|da] da roda. {pp} [ALC12]
(173)<br />
INF Porque o meu era muito engraçado (com histórias). Contava-lhe coisas, não é?<br />
[AB|E{fp}] Mas depois{fp}, tocavam às almas – tocam aqui às almas neste s<strong>in</strong>o –, iam<br />
a tocar às almas, o meu fazia-os rezar, rezava e fazia-os rezar tudo. Mas olhe que hoje já<br />
não se dá isso.<br />
INQ2 Rhum-rhum.<br />
INF Hoje já não se dá isso. E é assim. Pois olhe <strong>ele</strong> isso, disto [AB|da] dos fiadeiros, era<br />
uma alegria, até se faziam bailes.<br />
INQ1 Portanto os fiadeiros não era para fiar o l<strong>in</strong>ho?<br />
INQ2 Não.<br />
INF Não era [AB|para queimar] para queimar os tascos que deitava o l<strong>in</strong>ho {pp} é<br />
{PH|�k����w�nu�=que eram os} fiadeiros.<br />
[OUT14]<br />
(174)<br />
MONOGRAPHS<br />
Ele isto é um bitcho... (Ervedosa do Douro, <strong>in</strong> Azevedo 1928-9: 160)<br />
(175)<br />
s’<strong>ele</strong> isso é assim; (Quadrazais, <strong>in</strong> Braga 1971: 171)<br />
2.1.2 Before a DP subject<br />
(xii)<br />
CORDIAL-SIN<br />
Eu nasci em 19. Porque o meu pai, o meu falecido pai, foi {CT|pa=para a} guerra de 14.<br />
E foi daqui, [AB|fo-] foi mobilizado {pp} em 16. Em 16 foi <strong>ele</strong> mobilizado. [AB|E, e<br />
eu, <strong>ele</strong>] A guerra acabou em 18 {pp}, e eu nasci em 19, mas {IP|�tiv�=estive} um ano<br />
[AB|sem me, sem, sem,] sem baptizar, sem registar.<br />
[VPA04]<br />
(176)<br />
Espreitou por o buraco da fechadura. E ela que t<strong>in</strong>ha na borralheira? {CT|kma�li=(Como<br />
ali) /Como há ali\} no (…/N) – chamava-lhe <strong>ele</strong>s a borralheira – {fp} t<strong>in</strong>ha um sapo.<br />
Então estava a picar o sapo {CT|ku�=com um{fp}} garavato – um garavato que é<br />
daquilo; chamam-lhe <strong>ele</strong>s garavato um pau daqu<strong>ele</strong>s. ({fp}) Picava o sapo e dizia assim:<br />
"Sapo, sapão, <strong>ele</strong> o castrejo virá ou não"? E estava [AB|ca- naquela{fp}] naquilo –<br />
naquela festa – {CT|ku=com o} sapo.<br />
[CTL08]<br />
(177)<br />
Quando <strong>ele</strong>s v<strong>in</strong>ham {CT|p���=para os} matarem, não era preciso andar atrás d<strong>ele</strong>s. Eu<br />
chamava só: "Pequerruchos, pequerruchos, pequerruchos". E <strong>ele</strong>s então v<strong>in</strong>ham<br />
315
{CT|p��=para o} qu<strong>in</strong>tal. Chegavam, {fp} mas os homens {PH|nu�=não} estavam lá.<br />
T<strong>in</strong>ham que estar {pp} [AB|que] que <strong>ele</strong> os{fp} porcos {PH|nu�=não} os<br />
{PH|�vis i =vissem}. {fp} Agarrava logo um numa perna, outro noutra, outro no rabo,<br />
outro [AB|na-]{fp} nas orelhas – toca para cima do banco. Às vezes, (<strong>ele</strong>) até botava<br />
pouco sangue, porque aquilo era de súbito.<br />
[PFT13]<br />
316<br />
(178)<br />
INQ E o caracol tem aqui por cima o quê? Um…<br />
INF {fp} O caracol traz a casa atrás.<br />
INQ Olhe, aqui… Aqui estão três quê? Estão três…<br />
INF E [AB|em bem] em bem {PH|l�=lhe} part<strong>in</strong>dem a casa, <strong>ele</strong>s morrem. Porque (<strong>ele</strong>)<br />
/{fp}\ os gajos são criados dentro da casa. {pp} Em {PH|l�=lhe} faltando a casa,<br />
morrem.<br />
[CBV72]<br />
(179)<br />
INQ1 Eles nuns sítios chamam bicha-cadela, gata, gata-bichaneira… Mas pode ser a<br />
rapa…<br />
INQ2 Bicha-tesoura.<br />
INQ1 Bicha-tesoura.<br />
INF [AB|Pode ser, po-]<br />
INQ1 Mas aqui conhece pela…<br />
INF Pode ser [AB|ou-] outra qualidade de bicho que eu não {IP|�to=estou} visto n<strong>ele</strong>. E<br />
como {PH|n��=não} estou visto n<strong>ele</strong>… Eu tenho sido sempre um observador de quando<br />
vejo um bicho, {pp} <strong>in</strong>speccioná-lo… {fp} Eu {CT|ku�=com os} lagartos pegava até<br />
muito com <strong>ele</strong>s. {fp}E{fp} <strong>ele</strong> o lagarto, {pp} em bem se vendo apertado, volta-se {pp}<br />
contra a gente.<br />
INQ2 Rhã-rhã.<br />
[CBV73]<br />
(180)<br />
INQ É o calmeiro.<br />
INF {IP|t��w�=Estão} {PH|�=ao} calmeiro. Recolhem-se {CT|p�=para o} calmeiro. Dali<br />
das nove e meia, dez horas até às seis, seis e tal da tarde, {IP|t��w�=estão} {PH|�=ao}<br />
calmeiro. Depois, cá está, {IP|t��w�=estão} todas essas horas sem comer – {pp} porque é<br />
de Verão, não há estes dias (de pôr lã) e aquela coisa toda e comer – e depois lá se tem<br />
que se andar de noite para elas encherem a barriguita. {pp} Que é luxo que isso já não<br />
se faz! E sabe porque é que não se faz? É muito simples. É uma coisa muito simples.<br />
Todo o Verão… {fp} Dantes {PH|n��=não} havia mais nada senão só o trigo {pp} e<br />
cevadas, e pronto. Hoje {pp} já não é assim. Hoje, em todo o Verão, mesmo na força do<br />
Verão, há terrenos {pp} próprios, com sementeiras, com coisas, para (<strong>ele</strong>) os animais<br />
irem comer. {pp} Verde! (Durante um temp<strong>in</strong>ho têm de estar sempre arr<strong>in</strong>cando). Tem<br />
esses que largam de cevadas, largam de pastagens de terras [AB|do] do arroz, enfim…<br />
[LVR15]
(181)<br />
INQ1 E essa estrela da manhã não chamam outra, doutra maneira qualquer? Estrelaboieira,<br />
ou outro nome assim?<br />
INF Bom, isso quem tem esse hábito de chamar a estrela-boieira é propriamente quem<br />
lida com esses gados, que aquilo era um relógio que <strong>ele</strong>s t<strong>in</strong>ham. Que ela nasce ali às<br />
quatro horas da manhã, regulavam-se [AB|quando] quando não havia relógios. Saíam à<br />
rua, se o ar estava limpo e se ela já v<strong>in</strong>ha fora, (diziam): "Já cá está a estrela-boieira, que<br />
são horas de dar de comer aos bois". É essa a razão que esses se regulavam por essa<br />
estrela. Mas era [AB|esse] essa gente que t<strong>in</strong>ha de dar de comer {PH|�z=aos} animais<br />
porque ao depois às seis horas t<strong>in</strong>ham que sair [AB|{CT|p�a=para a}] {CT|pr�=para o}<br />
trabalho e já <strong>ele</strong> os animais t<strong>in</strong>ham que ir comidos. Darem aquelas rações.<br />
INQ1 Olhe. Pois. E há umas estrelas que aparecem… sempre todas juntas, umas ao pé<br />
das outras, não há?<br />
INF Há. [AB|Essas] Essas miud<strong>in</strong>has [AB|que] que (se) chama a gente: "é o seteestrelas".<br />
[SRP02]<br />
(xiii)<br />
INQ1 E não há mais nenhum bicho que se chame escaravelho, sem ser o da batata?<br />
INF Não, sem ser o da batata.<br />
INQ1 É só o da batata, esse nome?<br />
INF Só o da batata. Por qualquer coisa, até se chama {pp} a uma pessoa que seja muito,<br />
[RP|muito,] quer-se dizer, muito aborrecida, diz-se-lhe: "Pareces o escaravelho da<br />
batata". Porque <strong>ele</strong>, a gente está sempre a {CT|�ej�talu= (deitar o) /deitar-lhe o\} veneno<br />
e <strong>ele</strong> sempre a aparecer!<br />
[CTL36]<br />
(182)<br />
INF1 Eu por mim digo, [AB|se m-] {fp} se me entrasse, como {PH|�diz�=dizem} que<br />
(entram) /entro\, o fim do mundo – eu, por mim, {PH|nu�=não} devo lá chegar – mas,<br />
que dizem que: "Queres {pp} ser desta lei, ou queres aquela, ou queres a lei de Deus"?,<br />
eu preferia {pp} que me matassem mas queria a lei de Deus, {PH|nu�=não} queria cá…<br />
Então, (<strong>ele</strong>) a gente vai à igreja e vê o Nosso Senhor morto, crucificado. Viveu e morreu<br />
{pp} por os pecadores e {PH|a=a} gente {fp} {PH|nu�=não} há-de querer essa lei? Eu<br />
quero, quero sim senhor.<br />
[PFT24]<br />
(183)<br />
INF Não senhor. {fp} Em se acabando de colher, prontos! Se fica às vezes algum, fica.<br />
INQ Mas antes não se fazia voltar, portanto, não se costumava ver?<br />
INF Não. {pp} (Ele) a gente começa a colher e [AB|aquilo] aquilo, <strong>ele</strong> (o) que vai (é) às<br />
l<strong>in</strong>has. {pp} [AB|Va-] Vai uma pessoa ou duas em cada l<strong>in</strong>ha, por aí fora, por aí fora.<br />
Chegava {CT|�=ao} cabo da l<strong>in</strong>ha voltam para outra. [AB|Acaba-se] Acaba-se-lhe de<br />
chegar {CT|�=ao} fundo, {CT|�=ao{fp}} acabamento da v<strong>in</strong>ha, pronto! {pp}<br />
{IP|ta=Está} a v<strong>in</strong>ha colhida.<br />
[MST35]<br />
317
318<br />
(184)<br />
INQ1 Nunca se punham uns panos?<br />
INQ2 Uns panos.<br />
INF Nada. [AB|Aceirava-se a] Aceirava-se a oliveira {pp} por baixo…<br />
INQ1 Enceirava-se? Aceirava-se?<br />
INF "Aceirava-se" [AB|é, é] é tirar as ervas. Aquilo chama-se o aceirar. E despois<br />
varria-se. {pp} Varria-se tudo para fora da capota [AB|da] da oliveira. Depois a oliveira<br />
deixava cair [AB|a, a] as folhas, ou a azeitona, e folhas e tudo que ia batido; despois<br />
aquilo ia tudo varrido {CT|p�=para o} monte. Depois ia {fp} mandado ao vento, com<br />
um crivo. {pp} Enchia-se o crivo e mandava-se assim {PH|�=ao} vento. As folhas<br />
{PH|s��ii�=saíam}…<br />
INQ1 Ah! Claro!<br />
INQ2 Não sabia que se fazia assim.<br />
INF {fp} As folhas {PH|s��ii�=saíam} e a azeitona ficava ali, em cima dum pano limpo,<br />
que era para despois (de) já estar limpa para <strong>ele</strong> a gente pôr dentro duma canastra.<br />
[ALC17]<br />
(185)<br />
INQ1 E o que é que se come? Assa-se a p<strong>in</strong>ha e o que é que se come?<br />
INF {fp}Assa. {fp} Come-se os p<strong>in</strong>hões. {pp} Tira-se os p<strong>in</strong>hões, bate-se com um<br />
martelo ou com uma pedra e tira-se aquilo lá de dentro. O p<strong>in</strong>hão. [AB|O p-, o p-] O<br />
p<strong>in</strong>hãoz<strong>in</strong>ho, o p<strong>in</strong>hãoz<strong>in</strong>ho. E chama-se o p<strong>in</strong>hão.<br />
INQ1 A folha do p<strong>in</strong>heiro não é como a das outras árvores.<br />
INF Não. Ele (a) folha do p<strong>in</strong>heiro é em bico. {fp}[AB|É um] É um bico.<br />
INQ1 E como é que chama àquela coisa quando está?…<br />
INF É o pico.<br />
INQ1 O pico.<br />
INF Chama-se o pico. Cá a gente é pico.<br />
[ALC19]<br />
(186)<br />
INQ1 Olhe, uma doença que os cães têm às vezes que é muito perigosa, que têm de ser<br />
vac<strong>in</strong>ados?…<br />
INF É sarna.<br />
INQ1 Mas uma outra que os cães?…<br />
INF [AB|E da] E depois há [RP|há] outra que é a…<br />
INQ1 Que é mais perigosa.<br />
INF Que é a… Que é a coisa. Que é a{fp}…<br />
INQ2 Olhe, quando o cão começa a babar-se todo?…<br />
INF É a{fp} esgana. Esgana.<br />
INQ1 A<strong>in</strong>da há uma outra!<br />
INQ2 Quando <strong>ele</strong> está a babar-se todo, assim…<br />
INF É esgana. {pp} É a esgana.<br />
INQ2 E o cão está a morder?<br />
INF Quando <strong>ele</strong> se está a babar (de) todo, (aí), e a cair {CT|p�=para o} chão, é a esgana.<br />
É da garganta.
INQ2 Que até tem… Olhe, antigamente até se matavam. Para <strong>ele</strong>s não morderem,<br />
porque aquilo pegava-se. Eles mordiam ao dono.<br />
INF (Pois, <strong>ele</strong>) a esgana, esgana e a sarna, {pp} {fp} pega.<br />
INQ1 Mas a sar-, a sarna é na p<strong>ele</strong>.<br />
INF [AB|A sa-, a sa-, a sa-] A sarna é da p<strong>ele</strong>, pega. Inté pega à gente!<br />
INQ1 Sim.<br />
INF E a esgana é da garganta. Começa o cão a deixar de comer {pp} e começa a mirrarse,<br />
(e) morre. Mas, sendo vac<strong>in</strong>ado a tempos e a horas, salva.<br />
[ALC38]<br />
(187)<br />
É claro, há pessoas mais {pp} judias que outras, judeus que outras. Era muito judeu e<br />
não se queria crer em nada. Ele um dia teve umas falas com uma mulher e a mulher diz<br />
assim: "Deixa estar que há-de pagares"! Diz <strong>ele</strong> assim: "Há-de pagar eu? Pago sim. Dizse<br />
que és bruxa mas comigo {PH|n��=não} tens entrada. {PH|n��=Não} há bruxas; nem<br />
há bruxos nem há bruxas". E <strong>ele</strong> andou, andou – porque <strong>ele</strong> o homem saiu de casa {pp}<br />
a umas tantas horas da noite {pp} –, e o homem saiu de casa [AB|e se-, e o] e sentiu um<br />
empurrão. Sentiu um empurrão: "Mas o que é isto? Mas o que é isto? Mas então o que é<br />
isto"? (As palavras não eram ditas), levar chapadas da cara! Deram-{PH|l�=lhe} tantas e<br />
tão poucas que até um empurrão {PH|l�=lhe} deram, foi contra uma porta {pp} e ficou<br />
estendido. {PH|�fo�e�=Foram} dar com <strong>ele</strong> (estando) /estendido\ quase morto.<br />
[ALV48]<br />
(188)<br />
INF A m<strong>in</strong>ha mulher guarda [AB|as ove-] as vacas no monte – as senhoras quando<br />
chegarem ali, olhem por aquela (barra lá) para fora, elas lá andam. Ela anda lá com elas.<br />
[AB|O{fp}] É eu e o meu filho e a m<strong>in</strong>ha nora. [AB|Veio] Temos lá um netito, a<strong>in</strong>da vai<br />
fazer {CT|p�=para o} dia v<strong>in</strong>te e nove deste mês nove anos.<br />
INQ1 Ah! Pois.<br />
INQ2 A<strong>in</strong>da é pequen<strong>in</strong>o! Anda a estudar?<br />
INF Olhe quando a m<strong>in</strong>ha [RP|a m<strong>in</strong>ha] {RC|no-=nora}… Hã?<br />
INQ2 Anda a estudar?<br />
INF Anda. Oh, anda a estudar?! Anda na escola. Ele a m<strong>in</strong>ha nora teve [AB|aqu<strong>ele</strong>]<br />
aqu<strong>ele</strong>{fp} miudito com quarenta anos.<br />
INQ1 Ah! Que giro!<br />
INF E casou-se {CT|ku=com o} meu filho [AB|com {pp}] com v<strong>in</strong>te.<br />
INQ2 Hi!<br />
INF Já n<strong>in</strong>guém contava com <strong>ele</strong> – que viesse nada…<br />
[COV01]<br />
(189)<br />
INQ2 Então mas há cá coisas que <strong>ele</strong>s… Eles mandam vir de fora coisas que se<br />
produzem cá e que <strong>ele</strong>s, que os homens têm aí todos os anos!<br />
INF E melhor que lá!<br />
INQ2 Pois.<br />
INQ1 Claro.<br />
INF Olhe, {PH|su�po��muz=suponhamos}, o v<strong>in</strong>ho, fruta, {fp} o leite…<br />
INQ2 Pois.<br />
319
INF Então cá é o melhor!<br />
INQ2 Claro!<br />
INF Cá é o melhor!<br />
INQ1 Claro!<br />
INF Mas <strong>ele</strong> o nosso governo {fp} {PH|nu�=não} {PH|pru�tu��=protege} nada a<br />
agricultura.<br />
INQ2 Pois não.<br />
INQ1 Pois não.<br />
INF E a agricultura está em baixo. Olhe, o lavrador {pp} – lembre-se duma coisa –, o<br />
lavrador {fp}, para meu entender é isto: só está a fazer agora {pp} para consumo d<strong>ele</strong>.<br />
INQ2 Pois, pois.<br />
INF [AB|E quem é] E <strong>ele</strong> (têm) /tem\ que mandar vir de fora para manter o outro povo<br />
que {PH|nu�=não} trabalha.<br />
INQ2 Claro.<br />
[COV14]<br />
320<br />
(190)<br />
INF {PH|�=Ao} ombro! Olhe como eu sou a mais esta senhora e{fp} botamos um pau,<br />
e o caixão entre nós, e outro aí atrás e levamos assim acolá, ali abaixo à Lomba, à cova.<br />
Que <strong>ele</strong> dizia que <strong>ele</strong> nos… Dizia (aquilo). Ele uma vez a ler, ali atrás com as vacas, eu<br />
era rapazote pequeno, e <strong>ele</strong> disse {PH|�=ao} (acaso) – que diziam lá no livro – que<br />
havia de haver uma guerra – não! [AB|que havia{fp}] –, que os homens que haviam de<br />
voar mais alto que os passaritos. O livro lá, <strong>ele</strong> {PH|nu�=não} se constavam aviões –<br />
nunca n<strong>in</strong>guém fala (em) aviões. E o livro dizia que [AB|o{fp}] os homens que haviam<br />
de voar mais alto que os passaritos. E quando nós visse [AB|estas t-] estas serras todas<br />
cortadas, de estradas e tudo do homem, que o mundo que era um paraíso – e já está! –,<br />
que <strong>ele</strong> que o mundo que durava pouco.<br />
INQ1 Ah!<br />
INF Que a terra que havia de ser pólvora, {pp} a água que havia de ser gás {pp} [AB|e<br />
a, e o] e as pedras ser enxofre.<br />
INQ1 Hum!<br />
[COV18]<br />
(191) DP<br />
INF1 E eu mais o meu pai – eu era pequen<strong>in</strong>o, mais ou menos como este, mas nunca<br />
mais me esqueceu –, e o meu pai foi a pôr um mo<strong>in</strong>ho {pp} de água que nós temos lá<br />
em baixo. Ele foi levar o milho, um saco de milho, e eu também levei um bocadito – o<br />
que eu podia! –, e fomos lá, e depois o meu pai era muito amigo com <strong>ele</strong>s e veio até lá.<br />
E <strong>ele</strong> foi, [AB|esse{fp}] <strong>ele</strong> o Atalarico começou {CT|p�=para o} meu pai: "Ó<br />
Astrigildo" – onde estava o velho do Atamante, aqu<strong>ele</strong>, o tal que eu vos já falei que<br />
t<strong>in</strong>ha uns livros muito bons…<br />
INQ1 Sim.<br />
INF2 T<strong>in</strong>ha, t<strong>in</strong>ha.<br />
INF1 Também lá estava esse homem. E o sogro desta. O sogro? Pois, era o sogro!<br />
[COV29]<br />
(192)<br />
INF Olhe, aqui em cima, aonde está uma cruz, foi um cunhado desta senhora que está<br />
aqui, que é o Ático… [AB|Ele quando] Ele fez-se uma…(Ele) /Ele lá\ formou-se uma
trovoada muito grande! Eu até andava com as vacas a mais um tio meu aqui nesta<br />
costeira aqui. E depois [AB|fez-se aque-] armou-se aquela trovoada. E o rapaz andava lá<br />
longe, perto da Albergaria com o gado e uma irmã m<strong>in</strong>ha que está na Macieira e uma<br />
velhota que morreu – que até era coxa duma perna – ali [AB|de] de Lugar e um rapaz<br />
que morreu [AB|que era] que era Atilano – também era mais pequenito, mais ou menos<br />
como (é) este –, e (<strong>ele</strong>) o rapaz era maior – já t<strong>in</strong>ha os dezassete anos –, e abalou<br />
adiante: "Txó, txó, txó, txó"! Quando " txó, txó, txó", o gado encarreirava todo atrás<br />
daquela pessoa. Tal e qual, tal e qual atrás daquela pessoa, que aquilo é… [AB|Ca-]<br />
Cam<strong>in</strong>hava! (Tal e qual).<br />
[COV32]<br />
(193)<br />
(194)<br />
INF Pois eu ao passar o dedo, fica-me (<strong>ele</strong>) /eu\ o coiso cheio [AB|de te-] de arestas.<br />
Chamamos-{PH|l�=lhe} arestas [AB|ao] ao que cai, assim mais f<strong>in</strong>o – arestas.<br />
INQ1 Pois, pr<strong>in</strong>cipalmente é a parte do l<strong>in</strong>ho junto à raiz, exactamente.<br />
INF E aquilo {fp} (<strong>ele</strong>) o l<strong>in</strong>ho está dentro [AB|da] daquela can<strong>in</strong>ha, [AB|da] da cana<br />
do l<strong>in</strong>ho, não é? É espécie duma can<strong>in</strong>ha, porque fica dentro.<br />
INQ1 Pois, pois.<br />
INF E depois, maça-se e depois esfrega-se e é que se espada.<br />
INQ1 Sim senhor.<br />
INF Depois a gente (<strong>ele</strong>) {fp} o l<strong>in</strong>ho f<strong>in</strong>o é conforme o quiserem. Até podem assedá-lo<br />
três ou quatro vezes para ser… Quanto mais assedarem, mais f<strong>in</strong>o quando (se coze).<br />
[OUT13]<br />
(195)<br />
(196)<br />
INQ Mas o tear era igual ou era mais largo?<br />
INF (Não. Ele era lá agora)! Ele o tear do pardo era muito largo. Eu a<strong>in</strong>da teci teias de<br />
pardo no meu tear mas era estreito, para fazerem calças. {pp} Olhe que um ano eu<br />
estava a tecer – chamam-{CT|l�=lhe a} carvalha –, dia dois de Maio, e uma grande<br />
nevada a cair e eu a tecer pardo, (<strong>ele</strong> aqui) num{fp}… Porque (<strong>ele</strong>) aqu<strong>ele</strong> tear era mais<br />
largo que os meus e fui lá tecer a teia de pardo aqui para uma viz<strong>in</strong>ha.<br />
[OUT21]<br />
(197)<br />
INF [AB|Depois de] Então, quando [AB|o, o] (<strong>ele</strong>) o pão está lêvedo, acende-se o forno.<br />
Depois, quando o forno está já quase rojo, f<strong>in</strong>ge-se outra vez para o estrado – da<br />
masseira para o estrado. Parte-se às… Conforme a gente quiser os pães de grandes. Põese<br />
lá…<br />
[OUT24]<br />
(198)<br />
INF1 Não. Mas esse é diferente. Esse é eléctrico. É diferente.<br />
INF3 Este é de… É a <strong>ele</strong>ctricidade. Mas esse já conhecem, <strong>ele</strong> já?<br />
INQ2 Gostávamos de saber os rodízios? Sim.<br />
321
INQ1 Sim. Olhe, mas o rodízio, <strong>ele</strong> os rodízios têm uma pedr<strong>in</strong>ha por baixo, onde gira?<br />
INF1 Têm, uma jogu<strong>in</strong>ha. Uma jogu<strong>in</strong>ha que é donde é que <strong>ele</strong> se põe a boqueja e ao<br />
depois é que <strong>ele</strong> anda.<br />
INF2 É onde tem o [AB|o, o]…<br />
INF3 (Pois, isso)…<br />
INF1 A senhora também já sabe do mo<strong>in</strong>ho!<br />
[OUT40]<br />
322<br />
(199)<br />
MONOGRAPHS<br />
Êl a jante sampre faz cada asneira! (Ervedosa do Douro, <strong>in</strong> Azevedo 1928-9: 160)<br />
(200)<br />
Iel’a fertuna ié pauca... (Soajo, <strong>in</strong> Pereira 1970: 166)<br />
(201)<br />
Ele o d<strong>in</strong>hêr só é de cem escudes pra cima. (Escusa, <strong>in</strong> Baptista 1967: 197)<br />
(202)<br />
Bom, <strong>ele</strong> os ricos dantes pensavam que os pobres eram uns cães quaisquer.<br />
(Escusa, <strong>in</strong> Baptista 1967: 200)<br />
(203)<br />
Ele a br<strong>in</strong>cadeira está torta. (Colos, <strong>in</strong> Guerreiro 1968: 351)<br />
(204)<br />
Devem de estar a chigar qu’<strong>ele</strong> o sol já se pôs! (Arronches, <strong>in</strong> Paul<strong>in</strong>o 1959: 168)<br />
(205)<br />
Ai, qu’<strong>ele</strong> o bitcho diz que come a gente<br />
(206)<br />
Iel’o home já sabe disso... (Quadrazais, <strong>in</strong> Braga 1971: 171)<br />
(207)<br />
A PLANÍCIE HERÓICA<br />
eu não sei p’ra que é que êstes fomenicas forram quanto alcançam – tornou o velho. –<br />
Que êle a terra que lá teem é serra brava que não vale dez réis de mel coado, pior que<br />
quantos arrifes p’r’ái há. (p.89)<br />
(208)<br />
E a caça que eu sei lá! V<strong>in</strong>ha a gente co’o bornal atouchad<strong>in</strong>ho de bons coelhos e lebres,<br />
que êle a lebre não faz tão bom ensopado como um coelho... (p.124)
(209)<br />
Que êle a gente vê caras, não vê corações! (p.213)<br />
(210)<br />
- Que êle a gente não sabe quem lhe quere bem nem quem lhe quere mal! (p.248)<br />
2.1.3 Indef<strong>in</strong>ite subject<br />
(211)<br />
CORDIAL-SIN<br />
INF E depois, morreu a mãe. {pp} Morrendo a mãe, {PH|fi�ka��i�=ficaram} os dois, {pp}<br />
um que estava a casa do pai, do padr<strong>in</strong>ho, e outro estava {pp} a casa [AB|da, {pp} da]<br />
da mãe. [AB|A] A rapariga é que estava a casa da mãe; o rapaz é que foi para casa do<br />
padr<strong>in</strong>ho. E depois, pensou <strong>ele</strong>, {PH|pe��sa�i�=pensaram} <strong>ele</strong>s os dois, depois que<br />
{PH|mu��e�i�=morreram} {pp} o pai d<strong>ele</strong>s os dois, o pai e a mãe,<br />
{PH|��u��ta�i�s=(ajuntaram-se) /ajuntarem-se\} os dois irmãos. O outro veio lá de casa do<br />
padr<strong>in</strong>ho – o{fp} padr<strong>in</strong>ho também faleceu, de qualquer maneira –,<br />
{PH|��u��ta�i�s=ajuntaram-se} os dois. {fp} Estandem juntos os dois, lá<br />
{PH|pe��sa�i�=pensaram} <strong>ele</strong>s {pp} a fazer o segu<strong>in</strong>te: a fazerem {pp} um ass<strong>in</strong>ado,<br />
[AB|um, um] (um ass<strong>in</strong>ado) à maneira de um testamento, um ass<strong>in</strong>ado qualquer, {pp}<br />
para quando… Ele qualquer d<strong>ele</strong>s alguma vez havia de morrer. Ou um ou outro, não<br />
era? Até, por acaso, podia-se dar o caso de (morrer) /morrerem\ no mesmo dia. Mas<br />
não, {PH|n�=não} se deu. Ora, {PH|n�=não} se dando, e morreu – (e [AB|f-] lá<br />
{PH|fi�z����j�=fizeram}) /e foi lá {PH|fi�z����j�=fazerem}\ a tal escritura {fp}, ass<strong>in</strong>ada<br />
pelos dois –, morreu {pp} a rapariga primeiro. {fp} Ele, com o desgosto, lá foi ao<br />
acompanhamento [AB|da, da] da irmã e tal e tal.<br />
[AAL54]<br />
(212)<br />
INQ1 É aqu<strong>ele</strong> destas portas, aqu<strong>ele</strong> que desce. Mas há…<br />
INF Pois, a<strong>in</strong>da tem o que tem de cima.<br />
INQ1 Parecido com aqu<strong>ele</strong>, portanto, que corre assim numas coisas, mas que faz um<br />
corte ali.<br />
INF Esse {PH|n�=não} sei; esse {PH|n�=não} sei como é.<br />
INQ1 Não é o ferrolho?<br />
INF Então, mas <strong>ele</strong> um ferrolho não é assim. O ferrolho não é assim! Cá, um ferrolho é<br />
dum portão. {pp} Mas não é assim que se fecha!<br />
[AAL89]<br />
(213)<br />
INQ Portanto, aquilo que dá s-, uva é a cepa?<br />
INF É a cepa.<br />
INQ Olhe, e às vezes não costuma pôr assim uns arames altos para fazer uma…<br />
INF [AB|Isso é para] Isso é para fazer um{fp} caramachão.<br />
323
INQ Caramanchão.<br />
INF Caramachão, pois, que [AB|abri-] é para fazer sombra e aí a gente cá chama uma<br />
parreira.<br />
INQ É isso que eu quero que o senhor me diga.<br />
INF É. A gente, a gente cá chama [AB|uma] uma parreira. Tem então os cachos das<br />
uvas pendurados.<br />
INQ Olhe, e quando está aquilo tudo, aqu<strong>ele</strong> campo é um campo de quê?<br />
INF É uma v<strong>in</strong>ha – {pp} uma fazenda! (Ele) qualquer nome destes [AB|se] se emprega.<br />
{pp} [AB|Em v<strong>in</strong>ha] Se [AB|tem] tem cepas, é uma v<strong>in</strong>ha, {pp} que tem lá v<strong>in</strong>ha.<br />
[AB|E se tem, e se {PH|n��=não}] E se {IP|ta=está} nua para semear outras searas, uma<br />
fazenda.<br />
[ALC15]<br />
324<br />
(214)<br />
INQ1 É ditados que se dizem. Era só para saber se aqui também se dizia?<br />
INF1 [AB|E às vezes até podem] Às vezes, até pode ser verdade mesmo.<br />
INQ2 Pois.<br />
INF1 Às vezes, até pode ser verdade. Que há coisas que a gente {pp} diz e que ouve-as<br />
contar e depois diz assim: "Ah, isso {PH|n��=não} pode ser"! E mais tarde {pp} acredita<br />
nelas.<br />
INQ1 Pois.<br />
INF1 Que eu a<strong>in</strong>da {pp} aqui há uns anos ouvi [AB|uma, uma] uma conversa, {pp} e<br />
depois vim para casa, vim experimentar – <strong>ele</strong> n<strong>in</strong>guém me era capaz de abrir a cabeça<br />
para meter aquilo cá na cabeça dentro, dentro da cabeça – e eu {pp}: "Não pode ser!<br />
Isto é impossível"! E vim experimentar e deu resultado. É, {pp} por exemplos – as<br />
senhoras podem até pensar que isso que é mentira também –, {pp} aqui temos plástico,<br />
plástico, ponho uma pouca de água dentro, ato, depois ponho-o em cima dumas brasas,<br />
aquece a água e {PH|n��=não} queima o plástico.<br />
[LVR23]<br />
(215)<br />
Vim por lá e disse {PH|�=ao} padre, (diz) o padre: "Agora vai estar três dias em sua<br />
casa! {pp} Três dias"! [AB|E se houver]<br />
INQ2 Que é para compensar.<br />
INF É. "E se houver alguma… Se (<strong>ele</strong>) /lhe\ alguém disser alguma coisa, [AB|diga]<br />
diga-lhe que foi à m<strong>in</strong>ha ordem. {pp} Deixe lá estar a Senhora de Fátima".<br />
[COV13]<br />
(216)<br />
INF Vêm outros que querem: "Olha, eu precisava de um alqueire de centeio". Eu dou-<br />
{CT|lu=lho} dado. "Eu precisava de (lhe pedir) um alqueire de milho". Eu dou-<br />
{CT|lu=lho} dado. "Eu precisava de v<strong>in</strong>ho". Eu dou-{CT|lu=lho} dado. Ora bem,<br />
aquela gente recompensa e diz assim: "(Bom) {fp}, fulano precisa, temos que lá ir<br />
ajudá-lo". E vêm-me dar. Quer dizer, eu pago sem sentir.<br />
INQ1 Pois.<br />
INF Em d<strong>in</strong>heiro corrente, aquase nunca pago. Nunca pago!<br />
INQ1 Pois, pois, pois.
INF Nunca pago. Porque depois vêm-me ajudar mas é gente mais pobre… Ele uns<br />
precisam de milho, outros precisam de centeio, outros precisam de v<strong>in</strong>ho {pp} e eu,<br />
tenho de sobra, {pp}<br />
INQ2 Dá.<br />
INQ1 E dá.<br />
INF Dou.<br />
[COV40]<br />
(217)<br />
MONOGRAPHS<br />
Ele uma [pulga] fugiu là prò cerro. (Colos, <strong>in</strong> Guerreiro 1968: 351)<br />
(218)<br />
A PLANÍCIE HERÓICA<br />
Ou então porque a terra tem medo a<strong>in</strong>da, não levante o compadre prior José Dias a<br />
cabeça da cova, por riba do muro. Que êle tudo lhe t<strong>in</strong>ha respeito! (p. 63)<br />
(219)<br />
- charnecas é como o outro que diz, que êle da charneca só há o chão! – e que mal<br />
soletrei duas letras em moço pequeno, que êle tudo se me varreu já (p.243)<br />
(220)<br />
É um transtorno que um padre tem p’rá sua vida. Que êle um padre devia poder casar...<br />
(p.177)<br />
(221)<br />
- Se êle fosse só isto? (...) Enfim já quero que se pagasse uma renda jeitoz<strong>in</strong>ha, que êle<br />
cada um tam/bém precisa, seja pobre ou rico. (pp.122/123)<br />
(222)<br />
A charneca era nossa, era dos charnequenhos, que êle n<strong>in</strong>guém na queria p’ra nada.<br />
(p.124)<br />
(223)<br />
- Se é paixão de mulher bote-a vossemecê p’ra trás das costas, - tornava a<strong>in</strong>da o<br />
charnequenho. – Que êle mulheres não faltam e a vida dá Deus Nosso Senhor uma só.<br />
(p.167)<br />
(224)<br />
Agora já me não dá tantas fezes o ir-se vossemecê da nossa casa. Que êle o que me<br />
ralava mais era o meu compadre prior abalar sem govêrno nenhum e ver-se sòz<strong>in</strong>ho e<br />
desamparado, sem n<strong>in</strong>guém que lhe quisesse e o aconselhasse p’ra seu bem. (p.175)<br />
325
326<br />
(225)<br />
- Sòz<strong>in</strong>ho?<br />
- Ele, por enquanto, de portas a dentro não está n<strong>in</strong>guém. (...) Mas êle, o que se rosna é<br />
que o padre andou por Beja a tramar a saída da guarda, para apanhar a casa e ajuntar-se<br />
depois co’a moça do sacristão. (p.200)<br />
(226)<br />
Essa é que foi a desgraça, que êle um e outro são duas crianças, e muitas graças não ter<br />
acontecido coisa pior (p.213)<br />
(227)<br />
Aquilo, p’los modos, o pai desconfiára ou dera fé de qualquer coisa e assanhára-se e<br />
viera tomar as contas ao deriço, que êle tudo à boca cheia o dizia que era o soberbo do<br />
homem que não queria dar a moça ao padre. (p.250)<br />
(228)<br />
Não é mistério nenhum, que êle tôda a gente o diz. (p.276)<br />
(229)<br />
Eu creei amizade ao sr. prior, que êle tudo se agrada dêle porque tem boas maneiras<br />
(p.277)<br />
2.1.4 <strong>Expletive</strong> subject<br />
(230)<br />
CORDIAL-SIN<br />
INQ1 De meter o pão. Portanto, o problema de meter o pão no forno com o forno muito<br />
quente qual era?<br />
INF1 Queimava.<br />
INQ1 Queimava o pão?<br />
INF1 Porque a far<strong>in</strong>ha, conforme caía lá, {pp} ficava preta. Pois. {IP|�tav�=Estava}<br />
quente demais {CT|p��=para o} pão, não era?<br />
INQ1 Rhã- rhã!<br />
INF1 E depois [AB|o] metia-se o pão; se o pão {IP|�tav�=estava} branco e se não<br />
ganhava cor, havia uma (porta) em madeira, ou uma lata…<br />
INF2 Lá do lado de trás, do forno.<br />
INF1 [AB|Até m-] Até mesmo com o mexerico dava para segurar.<br />
INQ1 Essa porta? Tapava-se um bocad<strong>in</strong>ho…<br />
INF1 Para tapar… Para tapar. {pp} E se o pão {IP|�tav�=estava} a ganhar cor demais, ia<br />
lá atrás. Porque há um buraco na parte (do lado) de trás.<br />
INF2 (Ele aquilo) há um buraco no forno do lado de lá de trás do forno. Aquilo [AB|é<br />
ta-] ou é tapado ou é destapado, conforme. Punha-se-{PH|l�=lhe} um tijolo…
INF1 Então, [AB|abri-] ia-se lá, tirava-se-{PH|l�=lhe} o tijolo. Era assim um trapo<br />
grande e com um tijolo; a gente puxava pelo trapo, tirava o tijolo, que era {CT|p��=para<br />
o} forno arrefecer mais depressa.<br />
INQ1 Rhã-rhã!<br />
[LVR35]<br />
(231)<br />
MONOGRAPHS<br />
Ele isto é assim que se corta aqui o centeio? (Quadrazais, <strong>in</strong> Braga 1971: 169)<br />
2.1.5 Null subject<br />
(xiv)<br />
CORDIAL-SIN<br />
INF Mas naqu<strong>ele</strong> tempo que nós fomos, o gelo dava por aqui. O {FR|si�n�='snow'}, o<br />
{FR|si�n�='snow'}.<br />
INQ1 Pois, pois.<br />
INF Como caiu aqui há dias. Vocês, {PH|nu�=não} caiu lá em Lisboa?<br />
[...]<br />
INF Bem, aquilo, para nós {pp}, bonito [AB|{PH|nu�=não}] {PH|nu�=não} há nada.<br />
[AB|Mas] Mas naquela ocasião foi bonito. Caiu – sabe porque é que caiu… Até foi<br />
bonito, porque {PH|nu�=não} havia sementeiras, {PH|nu�=não} havia batatas. Senão<br />
aquilo queimava tudo.<br />
INQ1 Queimava tudo.<br />
INF Ui Jesus! Ele a<strong>in</strong>da queimou [AB|mu-, m-] muitas (coisas).<br />
INQ1 As árvores, não?<br />
INF Não, as árvores não. [AB|Agora est-] Frutos, frutos. Mas agora está tudo, agora<br />
{PH|nu�=não}… Por aqui {PH|nu�=não} era muito frio. Mas havia farrapas que era isto!<br />
Pedaços de farrapas, daquelas (…). Ai que alegria!<br />
[VPA43]<br />
(xv)<br />
INF1 Mas essa água é dum senhor [AB|de{fp}] de Lisboa. Veio aqui [AB|umas, umas]<br />
umas máqu<strong>in</strong>as por conta [AB|de] do governo {pp}; (veio e) andaram aí a experimentar<br />
a água. Mas depois condenaram a água, que a água diz que era muito salgada. {pp}<br />
Condenaram, a água. {pp} Bom, agora veio um senhor – que <strong>ele</strong> {PH|n��=não} sei bem<br />
o nome d<strong>ele</strong> –, {pp} já tem aí uma casa no Porto Santo. É um homem, um senhor muito<br />
rico, tem [AB|um bocadi-] um bocad<strong>in</strong>ho de fazenda e agora{fp} tem andado aí a<br />
explorar a água.<br />
[PST07]<br />
(232)<br />
327
INF Depois começaram a vir os de ferro, a gente começou a comprar. Comprámos<br />
depois (…). Agora os de ferro, isto já há muitos anos {pp} que [AB|cá] a gente os cá<br />
usa.<br />
INQ2 Pois.<br />
INF O que é que <strong>ele</strong> já se usam pouco, agora. Porque os homens velhos [AB|já] já vão<br />
acabando e estes já não precisam de trabalhar. Agora só as máqu<strong>in</strong>as é que trabalham.<br />
[MST26]<br />
328<br />
(233)<br />
INF {fp} Aquilo{fp}, se a gente (…): "Bom, o v<strong>in</strong>ho a<strong>in</strong>da {IP|ta=está} doce"! {fp} A<br />
gente depois bota-{PH|l�=lhe} a água {pp} no pio. Bom{fp}, [AB|a gente depois<br />
também] {pp} há{fp} assim uns preparos para ver [AB|quando] quando já tem a água.<br />
O v<strong>in</strong>ho também é pesado. Bom, eu {PH|nu�=não} o peso. Ele boto-{PH|l�=lhe} assim a<br />
água {CT|�=ao} meu. {fp} Boto-{PH|l�=lhe} a que me parece. Mas assim as casas ricas<br />
têm {PH|n��si�=assim} um (pesador), que é para pesarem, {pp} para verem a coisa da<br />
água, se tem ou {PH|nu�=não} tem.<br />
[MST35]<br />
(234)<br />
INQ E o que é que se dá ao porco para <strong>ele</strong> engordar?<br />
INF Para engordar, há [AB|'diferentas'] 'diferentas' comidas, conforme o{fp} dono<br />
queira o tempo em que <strong>ele</strong> leve a engordar. Pode ser com far<strong>in</strong>has próprias, só de uma<br />
qualidade, que seja milho, como pode ser o milho feito em far<strong>in</strong>ha, como pode ser a<br />
fava, só por si, deitada de molho para não escaldar {pp} a boca. Porque chega a pontos<br />
que faz doer o dente {PH|�=ao} animal. É um bocad<strong>in</strong>ho deitada de molho, (<strong>ele</strong>) /aí\<br />
torna-se mais macio, o animal come mais – ouviu? Como pode ser o 'gramijo', como<br />
pode ser com (a) cevada, como pode ser com um{fp} trigo [AB|que] que {fp} seja ruim,<br />
que tenha muitas {PH|i�p�u�ez��=impurezas}, que não seja aceitado no c<strong>ele</strong>iro – que<br />
mandam fazer em far<strong>in</strong>has, juntamente, aquelas sementilhas e aquilo desfaz aquilo tudo,<br />
trás!<br />
[SRP33]<br />
(235)<br />
INQ1 E aquelas coisas que elas têm, é os?…<br />
INF É os chavelhos.<br />
INQ1 Só lhe dão esse nome ou dão-lhe outros nomes?<br />
INF Ou paus. Depois chamam: "É os paus"; "é os chavelhos". (Ele) não tem mais nome<br />
nenhum que é este. Estes dois nomes pode-se empregar: ou chavelho ou pau.<br />
INQ2 Pronto. Mas a<strong>in</strong>da tem outro nome.<br />
INQ1 Tem outro nome, que é assim menos bonito, não?<br />
INF Quê?<br />
INQ1 Outro nome.<br />
INF Não tem mais nome…<br />
INQ1 … Não?<br />
INQ2 Não…<br />
INF Não tem mais nome nenhum, [AB|que é] que é chavelho e que é pau.<br />
[ALC23]
(xvi)<br />
INQ1 E como é que lhe chama? É um cangalho ou é uma canga?<br />
INF [AB|Isto é] {fp} Isto que {IP|ta=está} aqui é uma canga. {fp} Isto aqui é o<br />
cangalho. É o cangalho.<br />
INQ1 Não. Só… Pois. Se for para um animal só?<br />
INF É um cangalho.<br />
INQ1 Também?<br />
INF Pois.<br />
INQ1 Então e se for para muares é diferente. É igual àqu<strong>ele</strong>?<br />
INF [AB|Se for] Se for para 'mulares', é diferente.<br />
INQ1 É aqu<strong>ele</strong> que a gente viu hoje de manhã?<br />
INF Pois, (<strong>ele</strong>) é diferente. Para 'mulares' é diferente.<br />
INQ1 Como é que se chama?<br />
INF [AB|Mula-] 'Mulares', a gente chama é{fp}…<br />
INQ1 Já não é canga?<br />
INF {PH|n��=Não} é canga. É engatar. É engatar [AB|a] a parelha. Mas a<strong>in</strong>da 'houvia'<br />
uma parelha… A<strong>in</strong>da há parelhas lá {CT|p�=para o} Alentejo {pp} que é também de<br />
canga.<br />
[ALC09]<br />
(xvii)<br />
INQ1 Aqui não faziam queijo mesmo com uma coisa que se apanha no campo?<br />
INF Não.<br />
INQ1 Para fazer isso. Para… Essa coisa que se põe no leite…<br />
INF (No) /O\ quê? Esteve aí um cá, {IP|�tev=esteve} aí {fp} duma casa aí que t<strong>in</strong>ha<br />
umas cabras, e (<strong>ele</strong>) fazia-{PH|l�=lhe} queijos em casa a mulher, mas [AB|era] era<br />
como isto que eu {IP|�to=estou} a dizer.<br />
INQ1 Pois.<br />
[ALC27]<br />
(236)<br />
INQ2 E não havia assim umas coisas redondas de pedra?<br />
INF Não. A gente aqui não usava isso, de pedra. {fp} Era um comedouro, {pp} t<strong>in</strong>ha<br />
uma divisão {PH|�=ao} meio, uma tábua: desta parte aqui era a água e daqui era o<br />
comer. E despois <strong>ele</strong>s já {PH|kum��savi�=começavam} [AB|a] a roer aquilo e a coisa, a<br />
gente agarrava, fazia em cimento, {pp} para <strong>ele</strong>s beberem a água. {fp} (A gente) às<br />
vezes <strong>in</strong>té era duma cova mesmo do chão, fazia-se o cimento e punha-se ali a água, que<br />
<strong>ele</strong>s bebiam.<br />
INQ1 E essa do cimento, dava outro nome ou não?<br />
INF Não. Era [AB|uma] uma caixa de cimento. {pp} Até se punha e pode pôr – até<br />
pôr… Ele pode pôr um [RP|um] comedouro de cimento.<br />
INQ1 Pois. E não havia nada a que soube-, a que chamassem pia?<br />
INF Uma pia? Pia chamava-se mas era uma pia de dar água {PH|�=ao} gado. Uma pia<br />
para (darem-{PH|l�=lhe}) /dar <strong>ele</strong>\ água. Por exemplo, ou cavalos [AB|ou {pp}] ou<br />
{PH|a=às} vacas [AB|ou]. "Vai (ali) levar à pia"! [AB|E ou-] E outros é uma selha!<br />
[ALC30]<br />
329
330<br />
(237)<br />
A sard<strong>in</strong>ha {IP|ta=está} doente. Ela tem (aqu<strong>ele</strong> dest<strong>in</strong>o). A ova {PH|l�=lhe} aperta,<br />
abrem, a sard<strong>in</strong>ha anda com a cabeça em cima e dirige-se do mar fora, vem à cá à borda<br />
de água, mesmo à borda de água. É onde (é que) <strong>ele</strong>s fazem a matança. (Morre tantos)<br />
centos de sard<strong>in</strong>ha, os primeiros dois meses. Se uma tra<strong>in</strong>eira durante um ano pára um<br />
mês e meio, quando calha hoje, já não param amanhã; pára (a) outra. {CT|pa=Para a}<br />
reparação, (pois <strong>ele</strong> paravam) /pois <strong>ele</strong>s paravam\ dois meses. Todas iguais! Para a ova<br />
sair e se criar. "Porquê"? O mar é grande, a gente diz que não faz falta, mas (temos)…<br />
Há abundância.<br />
[ALV09]<br />
(238)<br />
Quando quis orientar a m<strong>in</strong>ha vida – porque nada t<strong>in</strong>ha, é claro, as coisas são assim, e<br />
eu fui um escravo –, eu cheguei [AB|a d-] a me deitar ao mar, de noite, ir daqui {pp} a<br />
remo. Ia-me deitar além à barra, de noite, ao mar, com água pelos peitos, nu, {pp} para<br />
vencer a maré, para vencer a vida, para não voltar para trás, por causa que a maré não<br />
deixava a gente seguir. Porque {PH|n��=não} t<strong>in</strong>ha-se motores, {PH|n��=não} t<strong>in</strong>ha nada.<br />
Cheguei a ir nu. Chegava de fora da barra, dentro do (Hugo), a tremer com o frio,<br />
[AB|quase] quase a rilhar com a frieza. A gente chegávamos ao (Hugo), que<br />
{PH|n��=não} t<strong>in</strong>ha medo nenhum. Pois, e agora, agora, a pessoa já vai mais {pp} tendo<br />
mais tremor, mais medo! Ele nunca me olhava a nada, nunca t<strong>in</strong>ha medo nenhum! E<br />
mesmo… {fp} Então, que eu, eu andei vários anos aqui à vela, {PH|�=ao} dia. Ia<br />
{PH|�=ao} dia. Mas o senhor agora pode perguntar, pode calhar ali, ou pode perguntar a<br />
qualquer pessoa: (o tio) Aprígio, o rapaz que está lá abaixo, que já foi contramestre.<br />
[ALV25]<br />
(239)<br />
INF Foi mesmo assim! "Olha lá! Assim, olha, eu vou dar à tua sobr<strong>in</strong>ha, {PH|nu�=não}<br />
é? Ah, pois, então?! Pois dou à tua sobr<strong>in</strong>ha"?! Quer dizer que o meu filho nem nunca<br />
teve nada do pai nem da mãe. Faz de conta que nem tem pai nem mãe. Com tanto que<br />
eu trabalhei! Comecei a m<strong>in</strong>ha vida sem nada e hoje sou um grande lavrador, e agora<br />
(dar pão e árvores que tenha)… "Olha"… Eu disse-{PH|l�=lhe} assim: "Olha, men<strong>in</strong>a,<br />
um dia, um dia – se eu o desse –, um dia eu [AB|e a, e a] e a tua sogra éramos uns cães<br />
ali na casa. Tu e o teu homem eram os criados e <strong>ele</strong>s é que {PH|��r�nu�=eram os}<br />
patrões. Ouviste? E então assim, deixai-me morrer e deixai {PH|mu��el�=morrer a{fp}}<br />
velha e depois vocês dai-o, vendei-o, dai-o a quem vocês quiserem porque nada disso<br />
me <strong>in</strong>comoda".<br />
INQ2 Pois.<br />
INQ1 Rhum-rhum.<br />
INF "Mas agora {PH|nu�=não} dou! {PH|nu�=Não} dou {fp}! O que é meu é<br />
{CT|p�=para o} meu filho, pronto"!<br />
INQ1 Claro.<br />
INF E ela foi e (<strong>ele</strong>) aborreceu-se toda e eu{fp}… A comida que estava diante de mim,<br />
mandei com ela {PH|�=ao} chão, parti tudo – parti louça, (parti tudo) – e fui<br />
{CT|pa=para a} cama. Meti-me no meu quarto… [AB|Só esta-{fp}] A coz<strong>in</strong>ha é como
aqui assim, e aqui é uma sala, e aqui é [AB|um] um quarto onde eu durmo e tem mais<br />
[AB|um, um] dois quartos para {pp} {CT|pa�=para, às} vezes, INQ1 Ó cãoz<strong>in</strong>ho!<br />
INF – <strong>ele</strong> {PH|nu�=não} faz mal nenhum – [AB|para] {CT|pra�=para, às} vezes, (vir<br />
<strong>ele</strong>) gente de fora, que <strong>ele</strong>s, às vezes, ficam lá. E depois, [AB|passando] passando ali<br />
dois – dois anos, dois anos e pouco – vem ela com o miudito.<br />
[COV02]<br />
(240)<br />
INQ1 E não é raspado?<br />
INF É raspado {CT|kum�=com uma} faca.<br />
INQ1 Com o quê? Com uma faca.<br />
INF Com uma faca. Com uma faca é ali todo raspad<strong>in</strong>ho! {PH|nu�=Não} se conhece um<br />
cabel<strong>in</strong>ho, {PH|nu�=não} se conhece nad<strong>in</strong>ha! Ficam, ficam… Em tempo, antes de o<br />
meu sobr<strong>in</strong>ho andar a estudar, aquilo era {fp}… Aquilo era queimado a carqueja, às<br />
vezes, a<strong>in</strong>da ficava uns cabelos grandes e (aquilo tudo)!<br />
INQ2 Pois, pois, pois.<br />
INF Agora não senhor. Porque agora vem aí gente grande – <strong>ele</strong> traz gente grande a<br />
m<strong>in</strong>ha casa e (é muito). E <strong>ele</strong> sabe o que nós cá também fazemos? É botar presuntos<br />
{PH|�=ao} fumeiro.<br />
INQ2 Ah!<br />
[COV07]<br />
(xviii)<br />
INF Põe-se em cima. Tem em cima… {fp}O grão, (têm <strong>ele</strong> em {RC|ci-=cima}).<br />
Chamam aquilo a moega. E [AB|tem] tem uma quelha, assim [AB|como a] como a mão<br />
e tem aqui um… Chamam aquilo o tramelo. E depois aquilo bate na mó e treme com<br />
aquilo e aquilo vai para baixo. Vai à{fp}…<br />
INQ1 Vai ca<strong>in</strong>do. O grão.<br />
INF Se <strong>ele</strong> vai ca<strong>in</strong>do? O grão vai ca<strong>in</strong>do.<br />
INQ1 Rhum-rhum.<br />
INF E cai para dentro [AB|do] do olho da mó e depois a mó é que mói o outro – (aqu<strong>ele</strong><br />
que cai).<br />
[COV05]<br />
(241)<br />
INQ2 Então mas há cá coisas que <strong>ele</strong>s… Eles mandam vir de fora coisas que se<br />
produzem cá e que <strong>ele</strong>s, que os homens têm aí todos os anos!<br />
INF E melhor que lá!<br />
INQ2 Pois.<br />
INQ1 Claro.<br />
INF Olhe, {PH|su�po��muz=suponhamos}, o v<strong>in</strong>ho, fruta, {fp} o leite…<br />
INQ2 Pois.<br />
INF Então cá é o melhor!<br />
INQ2 Claro!<br />
INF Cá é o melhor!<br />
INQ1 Claro!<br />
INF Mas <strong>ele</strong> o nosso governo {fp} {PH|nu�=não} {PH|pru�tu��=protege} nada a<br />
agricultura.<br />
331
INQ2 Pois não.<br />
INQ1 Pois não.<br />
INF E a agricultura está em baixo. Olhe, o lavrador {pp} – lembre-se duma coisa –, o<br />
lavrador {fp}, para meu entender é isto: só está a fazer agora {pp} para consumo d<strong>ele</strong>.<br />
INQ2 Pois, pois.<br />
INF [AB|E quem é] E <strong>ele</strong> (têm) /tem\ que mandar vir de fora para manter o outro povo<br />
que {PH|nu�=não} trabalha.<br />
INQ2 Claro.<br />
INF Que {PH|nu�=não} trabalha na terra, {PH|nu�=não} acha? E se <strong>ele</strong> protegesse a<br />
agricultura, na vez de vir de fora, gastava o de cá.<br />
INQ2 Pois claro.<br />
INQ1 Então, mas é evidente. Exactamente! Pois.<br />
INF Ah! Eu acho! Então a gente criava… Olhe lá, as far<strong>in</strong>has {pp} – bem, que eu<br />
{PH|nu�=não} compro; [AB|mas] compro pouco –, mas {fp}as far<strong>in</strong>has se estivessem<br />
baratas, criava-se porcos, criava-se vacas, {pp} criava-se vitelas.<br />
[COV14]<br />
332<br />
(242)<br />
INF Ora, aquilo que vendem é aquela carne que vem de fora e {PH|nu�=não} é como a<br />
de cá! Vem [AB|con-] congelada, vem lá de fora, vem… Quem sabe lá que carne é<br />
aquela!<br />
INQ2 Claro.<br />
INF Ele {PH|nu�=não} sabe! Ele {pp} eu fui aí a [AB|um] uma boda, aí abaixo, {pp} a<br />
(…/NPR). E deram lá uma carne que <strong>ele</strong> achou-se tudo doente.<br />
INQ2 Ah!<br />
INQ1 Ah, veja lá!<br />
INF Sabe? Tudo o que lá foi achou-se doente. Achou-se mal porque a carne… Bem, eu<br />
até só tirei um bocadito, <strong>ele</strong>, por acaso, eu {PH|nu�=não} me achei mal, mas houve<br />
pessoas… Eu quando vi aquela carne e fui a prová-la, disse: "Não, não. Eu<br />
{PH|nu�=não} quero"! Comi lá um bacalhauzito, mas aquilo nem prestou!<br />
[COV14]<br />
(243)<br />
INF Ora, aquilo que vendem é aquela carne que vem de fora e {PH|nu�=não} é como a<br />
de cá! Vem [AB|con-] congelada, vem lá de fora, vem… Quem sabe lá que carne é<br />
aquela!<br />
INQ2 Claro.<br />
INF Ele {PH|nu�=não} sabe! Ele {pp} eu fui aí a [AB|um] uma boda, aí abaixo, {pp} a<br />
(…/NPR). E deram lá uma carne que <strong>ele</strong> achou-se tudo doente.<br />
INQ2 Ah!<br />
INQ1 Ah, veja lá!<br />
[COV14]<br />
(xix)<br />
INF Ora bem, uma pessoa foi pagar um d<strong>in</strong>heirão e {PH|nu�=não} comeu nada!<br />
INQ2 Pois.
INF Pch, {PH|nu�=não} presta para nada! {PH|nu�=Não} presta para nada! E se a<br />
agricultura estivesse mais desenvolvida, os adubos… A gente vai comprar os adubos<br />
caros, ah, [AB|a o que] o que a gente vende!… Então, uma vaca, a gente agora quer<br />
vender uma vaca, então e <strong>ele</strong> se <strong>ele</strong> {PH|nu�=não} {IP|ti�v�r=estiver} registado,<br />
{PH|nu�=não} a pode vender.<br />
[COV14]<br />
(xx)<br />
INF1 Olhe, eu uma vez fui [AB|à] à coisa [AB|fui à{fp}]. Então, <strong>ele</strong> comprava-se<br />
ovelhas. Íamos <strong>ele</strong> ali {PH|�=ao} Castro de Aire {pp} – não sei se as senhoras sabe o<br />
que (são)?<br />
INF2 Ao Castro, pois.<br />
INQ1 Sei.<br />
INQ2 Sei, sim senhora.<br />
INF1 [AB|A{fp}] A Castro de Aire e eu fui mais o Asdrúbal a{fp} comprar… (Mal<br />
compra-se) – conheces o Bernard<strong>in</strong>o?<br />
INF2 Sei, sei. As senhoras {PH|nu�=não} conhecem mas a gente aqui conhece.<br />
INF1 Fomos lá comprar ovelhas. (Eu) /Ele\ {PH|nu�=não} t<strong>in</strong>ha nenhumas e fui lá<br />
comprar umas ovelhas. Fui lá comprar umas ovelhas a mais <strong>ele</strong> e lá tudo correu bem.<br />
Viemos, saímos de lá, [AB|ch-] viemos ficar a Reiriz. Chegamos lá a uma loja, nem<br />
t<strong>in</strong>ha pão, nem… Só t<strong>in</strong>ha figos! E nós mortos de fome!<br />
[COV24]<br />
(244)<br />
INF1 Outra vez, fui {PH|�=ao} conselho de família do meu primo de Cabrum – [AB|do]<br />
do Benigno.<br />
INF2 Sim.<br />
INF Foi quando morreu o Bernardo.<br />
INF2 (…)<br />
INF1 [AB|E] E depois cheguei a Santa Cruz, olhe que de Santa Cruz para riba, já<br />
{PH|nu�=não} rompia carro nenhum.<br />
INF3 Com neve! Olha a neve [AB|onde] onde ela chegou!<br />
INQ1 Santa Cruz?…<br />
INF1 Santa Cruz. Ali para cima donde vocês {RC|fi-=ficaram} [AB|fi-].<br />
INQ2 Sim.<br />
INQ1 Sim, sim. Eu sei. Eu sei onde é que é Santa Cruz.<br />
INF1 Pois. Ali era uma camada de neve por aí fora, ai Jesus! Nós vínhamos c<strong>in</strong>co – que<br />
o conselho de família são c<strong>in</strong>co, vínhamos c<strong>in</strong>co –, viemos a pé. Até Santa Cruz viemos<br />
de carro, de Santa Cruz para cima viemos a pé. E eu queria vir embora, <strong>ele</strong>s<br />
{PH|nu�=não} me deixaram: "Não. Vais para Cabrum, vais ficar a mais nós", que <strong>ele</strong>s<br />
era tudo de Cabrum, só eu é que era (a<strong>in</strong>da) lá de cima. Lá fui, lá vim para Cabrum,<br />
cheguei, <strong>ele</strong> lá dormi, e {PH|�=ao} outro dia quando era de dia – dia já, sol alto, para aí<br />
às oito horas –, saí de Cabrum – olhe que a neve dava-me pelo peito! {pp} Sabe? Olhe<br />
que a neve… V<strong>in</strong>ha assim com umas botas como estas e a neve metia aqui por baixo<br />
[AB|desta] da coisa, chegava-me até por cima do joelho.<br />
[COV27]<br />
333
334<br />
(245)<br />
INF1 Também lá estava esse homem. E o sogro desta. O sogro? Pois, era o sogro!<br />
INF2 Pois era, pois era.<br />
INF1 O teu sogro. E estavam lá todos a conversar, eram todos amigos e <strong>ele</strong> andavam lá<br />
a serrar – a serrar madeira para esteios {CT|pa=para a} v<strong>in</strong>ha! E depois diz <strong>ele</strong> assim:<br />
"Ó Astrigildo" – {CT|p�=para o} meu pai –, "Ó Astrigildo! Vocês porque é que não<br />
prantam videiras aqui"? "Ai, aqui {PH|nu�=não} dá", dizia o sogro desta – porque este, o<br />
sogro desta, t<strong>in</strong>ha muitas qu<strong>in</strong>tas.<br />
[COV29]<br />
(246)<br />
INF1 E depois: "Oh, aqui {PH|nu�=não} dá! Ó senhor Atalarico, aqui {PH|nu�=não} dá".<br />
Dizia (<strong>ele</strong>): "Ah, burros! Ah, burros! Olha que aqui dava v<strong>in</strong>ho bom. Vocês é que<br />
{PH|nu�=não} prantam. Vocês 'sendes' uns burros"! O meu pai e os outros começavam<br />
{pp} <strong>ele</strong> a botar tudo abaixo {PH|�z=aos} homens. Mas agora eu gostava que esses<br />
homens a<strong>in</strong>da (fossem) /fosse\ vivos.<br />
INQ2 Pois.<br />
INQ1 Pois.<br />
INF1 Para {PH|�velu=ver o} v<strong>in</strong>ho e agora… (Porque não), <strong>ele</strong> {PH|nu�=não} se<br />
acreditavam!<br />
INF2 Ah, pois não!<br />
[COV29]<br />
(247)<br />
INF E depois o rapaz v<strong>in</strong>ha, veio aquela faísca {pp} matou setenta cabeças de gado<br />
donde <strong>ele</strong> estava! E <strong>ele</strong> morreu na frente do gado – tão longe como está aqui a Gabriela<br />
de mim –, <strong>ele</strong> caiu assim {pp} com o pauzito na mão, o chapéu caiu e o gado começou a<br />
morrer todo em carreira até lá cima. O que estava dum alto para cá, {PH|nu�=não}<br />
escapou uma. O que estava do alto para trás e <strong>ele</strong>s que v<strong>in</strong>ham de trás, esses<br />
{PH|nu�=não} morreram. Ele escaparam. Mas tudo o que estava do alto… Eu queria que<br />
as senhoras vissem. É logo aqui em cima.<br />
INQ1 Ah!<br />
INF Morreu tudo! Lá está! Olhe que foi em 1919! 19 ou 29, {PH|nu�=não} estou bem<br />
certo,<br />
INQ1 Rhum-rhum.<br />
INF que o rapaz morreu. Sabe? E aquilo morreu tudo. Setenta cabeças de gado!<br />
[COV32]<br />
(248)<br />
INF Morreu tudo! Lá está! Olhe que foi em 1919! 19 ou 29, {PH|nu�=não} estou bem<br />
certo,<br />
INQ1 Rhum-rhum.<br />
INF que o rapaz morreu. Sabe? E aquilo morreu tudo. Setenta cabeças de gado!<br />
INQ1 Que horror!<br />
INF Porque depois até… Eu, eu era pequeno, como este, e depois fui dos primeiros que<br />
lá cheguei. Porque aquilo v<strong>in</strong>ha só… Depois começou a vir só uma cabeça de gado,
outra, outra, outra, começou tudo a gritar. Porque os dueiros {PH|nu�=não}<br />
apareciam!… {fp} Ele voltámos lá todos a ver, eu a mais [AB|esse Beni-, Benigno]<br />
esse senhor Benigno que era daqui, metemos lá a (Maçoiros). Fomos os primeiros a<br />
chegar lá. Chegamos lá, o rapaz<strong>in</strong>ho estava assim caído com o pau na mão direita, o<br />
chapéuzito assim, e <strong>ele</strong> [AB|d-] a deitar sangue pela boca, pelos ouvidos, pelo nariz, a<br />
deitar sangue, e <strong>ele</strong> assim caíd<strong>in</strong>ho e o gado todo estendido atrás: era um para aqui,<br />
outro para acolá, todo caído. Isso foi horrível! Isso foi (uma coisa)!<br />
[COV32]<br />
(xxi)<br />
INF1 Chamei {fp}… Veio cá o médico. Era um de Vale de Cambra, que era o Atílio e<br />
viu-o. Viu-o… Chamei-o e diz <strong>ele</strong> assim: "Ó Arquibaldo" – chamou-me cá fora –, "Ó<br />
Arquibaldo, {pp} eu vou dar um remédio aqui {PH|�=ao} teu irmão mas olha que isso<br />
(é capaz de) {PH|nu�=não} ({PH|l�=lhe}) valer nada. Olha que {pp} os 'impulmões' d<strong>ele</strong><br />
estão como é… Tudo em ferida! E agora, olha, eu vou-{PH|l�=lhe} receitar isto. [AB|Se<br />
os] Os 'empulmões' d<strong>ele</strong> estão assapados: se <strong>ele</strong>s abrirem {pp}, temos homem; se <strong>ele</strong><br />
[AB|{PH|nu�=não} se a-] {PH|nu�=não} abrir, amanhã até às três horas <strong>ele</strong> morre".<br />
[COV35]<br />
(249)<br />
INF1 E há que… E a gente, quando, às vezes, bate, bate e {PH|�pas��w�n�z=passam as}<br />
abelhas e {PH|nu�=não} vê {PH|p��sal�=passar a} mestra, {PH|nu�=não} a vê passar<br />
{CT|p�=para o} outro cortiço,<br />
INQ2 Sim.<br />
INF1 sabe o que eu faço? Um lenço preto, desses das mulheres, [AB|da] na cabeça, ou<br />
um pano qualquer preto, ponho-o no chão, [AB|da, da] da que eu bati {fp} à colmeia<br />
para lá, sim, [AB|da-] daquelas que {PH|�for��w�n�z=foram as} abelhas,<br />
INQ2 Sim.<br />
INF1 volto-a com a boca para baixo, e se ela tiver mestra, põe assim umas cois<strong>in</strong>has,<br />
uns ov<strong>in</strong>hos, comprid<strong>in</strong>hos, umas cois<strong>in</strong>has, e a gente toca-{PH|l�=lhe} e aquilo saem<br />
tudo em água. Que ela… Eu chamo aquilo varejar, {pp} sabe? Chamo àquilo varejar. Se<br />
ela [AB|tiver] tiver mestra, larga aqu<strong>ele</strong>s ovitos; se <strong>ele</strong> {PH|nu�=não} tiver mestra,<br />
{PH|nu�=não} larga nada.<br />
INQ2 E chama-se àquilo varejar?<br />
INF1 Varejar.<br />
[COV37]<br />
(250)<br />
(251)<br />
INF1 E a gente, se tiver mestra, pronto!, já pode tirá-lo embora que é um enxame; se<br />
{PH|nu�=não} tiver mestra, que {PH|nu�=não} tenha mestra lá, [AB|já {PH|nu�=não}] já<br />
aquilo (mal anda). Já pode [AB|levá-] deixá-las lá estar que [AB|que no pa-] no prazo<br />
daí de um quarto de hora elas passam todas outra vez {CT|pa=para a} mãe.<br />
INQ1 Outra vez para o mesmo.<br />
INF1 {CT|pa=Para a} mãe!<br />
335
INQ1 Para a mãe.<br />
INF1 Chama-se a mãe…<br />
INQ2 É o… Aquela é a mãe, a primeira?<br />
INF1 É [AB|aque-] a primeira. E se for enxame é [AB|o] o que se tira.<br />
INQ1 Pois.<br />
INF1 Se não, elas fogem logo, logo, imediatamente.<br />
INQ2 Olhe, e às vezes não aparece um enxame pequeno?<br />
INF1 Aparece [AB|um {fp}] um enxame fora, na terra [AB|ou] ou numa árvore ou em<br />
qualquer sítio, já tenho agarrado muitos desses. É, <strong>ele</strong> aparece. E a gente vai (em torno)<br />
das abelhas, mas {IP|ta=está} lá uma mestra.<br />
INQ2 Rhum-rhum.<br />
INF1 Porque se {PH|nu�=não} ({PH|ti�v�l�=tiver a}) /{PH|ti�v�l�=estiver a}\ mestra, <strong>ele</strong><br />
{PH|nu�=não} (fogem) /foge\.<br />
INQ1 Pois.<br />
INF1 A mestra é a que, se for preciso, foge… Porque (tendo) /{IP|�t��du=estando}\ mais<br />
que uma mestra num cortiço, (<strong>ele</strong>) {PH|nu�=não} se dão.<br />
INQ2 Pois.<br />
INF1 Uma tem que sair com as abelhas. Se o dono lá vai e bate-as {pp} e tira-<br />
{CT|l�=lhe a} mestra, pronto, ela {PH|nu�=não} foge. Se um homem não… Se [AB|o<br />
me-] o dono – o dono ou uma pessoa qualquer –{PH|nu�=não} vá lá tirá-las, elas {pp}<br />
saem – com licença –, fogem com qualquer {fp} punhado de abelhas. Fogem e saem<br />
estes pequen<strong>in</strong>os que a senhora está a acabar de dizer.<br />
[COV37]<br />
(252)<br />
INF É assedado. Por exemplo, se quiser {pp} tirar o l<strong>in</strong>ho f<strong>in</strong>o, faz-se desta maneira:<br />
{pp} asseda-se duas vezes, tem que ser duas vezes assedado. [AB|Tira-se o] Asseda-se<br />
o l<strong>in</strong>ho e tira-se-{CT|l�=lhe a} estopa. Fica a estopa. Querendo (<strong>ele</strong>) /eu\ – por exemplo<br />
–, querendo (<strong>ele</strong>) /eu\ fazer uma teia de sacos, tira-se-{CT|l�=lhe a} estopa… Tira-se a<br />
estopa para (<strong>ele</strong>) tapar os sacos e o l<strong>in</strong>ho é [AB|para] para urdir, não é? Mas quando se<br />
quer fazer uma teia de l<strong>in</strong>ho f<strong>in</strong>o, tira-se-{CT|l�=lhe a} estopa, fica aqu<strong>ele</strong> l<strong>in</strong>ho e<br />
depois fazem-se estrigas – {pp} ou até nem se podem fazer, querendo. Põe-se assim<br />
num crivo, outra assim em cruz – um assim, outro assim, como se põe sempre o l<strong>in</strong>ho –,<br />
e depois até se ata às dúzias antes [AB|de o] de o assedar, até o atamos assim [AB|ao] ao<br />
espadar. E depois então, {fp} a gente, {pp} querendo então fazer o l<strong>in</strong>ho f<strong>in</strong>o, volta-se a<br />
assedar.<br />
[OUT12]<br />
(253)<br />
INF Por exemplo, [AB|eu] eu metia quatro ou c<strong>in</strong>co espadadeiras, que eu a<strong>in</strong>da as meti<br />
muita vez, mesmo aqui. [AB|E] E depois: {fp} "Ó senhora Arteia, 'dai-nos' os tascos"?<br />
"Dou". Ele lá v<strong>in</strong>ham os rapazes e as raparigas, {PH|l��vav��w�nu�=levavam os} tascos<br />
para aí {CT|p��=para o} meio do barro e acendiam a fogueira, cantavam. E se houvesse<br />
castanhas, até assavam castanhas e bebiam a p<strong>in</strong>ga. Depois contavam 'lhonas'. Olhem,<br />
(<strong>ele</strong>) /<strong>in</strong>da\ fazem-me lembrar o…<br />
INQ1 'Lhonas'?<br />
336
INF Sim, 'lhonas', quer dizer, histórias. Histórias, não é? Histórias {pp} e adiv<strong>in</strong>has e<br />
assim umas coisas para fazer rir as pessoas. Que o meu <strong>ele</strong> era… O meu era um d<strong>ele</strong>s,<br />
coitad<strong>in</strong>ho.<br />
[OUT14]<br />
(xxii)<br />
INQ Sim. Portanto, as cardas servem para?<br />
INF Para cardar a lã.<br />
INQ Pois.<br />
INF Eu a<strong>in</strong>da fiei… A<strong>in</strong>da 'fiemos' aqui oh, oh, oh… Porque o senhor Arcádio, (<strong>ele</strong>) era<br />
daqui de Outeiro – já morreu, morreu o ano passado – e (<strong>ele</strong>) trouxe para cá muita<br />
fiadeira da lã, mas era outras qualidades de lã. Enfiávamos aquela lã no meio [AB|como<br />
um] – numas máqu<strong>in</strong>as –, no meio de dois fios brancos. E (aí) /<strong>ele</strong>\ ganhávamos bem<br />
d<strong>in</strong>heiro nessas máqu<strong>in</strong>as.<br />
[OUT22]<br />
(254) [‘a massa’]<br />
(xxiii)<br />
INQ1 Quando se põe o fermento na massa, tem que se, para ela ficar lêveda, diz-se que<br />
a massa está ali a, a quê?<br />
INF A dormir. {IP|ta=Está} a dormir duas horas ou assim.<br />
INQ A dormir.<br />
INF Conforme o fermento que se {PH|l�=lhe} mete. Se (se) {PH|l�=lhe} mete muito<br />
fermento, {pp} <strong>ele</strong> leveda mais depressa, acorda mais depressa, não é? Se (se)<br />
{PH|l�=lhe} mete pouco, (pronto), dorme mais.<br />
INQ1 Ah que engraçado! Ah!<br />
INF Olhe, nós, na casa dos meus pais, numa ocasião, foram lá cozer [AB|uns] uns<br />
padeiros de Bragança.<br />
INQ1 Vai dizer outra coisa.<br />
INF Nunca (eu) /<strong>ele</strong>\ t<strong>in</strong>ha visto fazer aquilo. E amassaram só com o fermento <strong>in</strong>glês. E<br />
amassaram com água fria, foram-se embora para Bragança, e só depois ao outro dia é<br />
que vieram a acender o forno.<br />
[OUT26]<br />
(xxiv)<br />
INQ1 E as tabafeias como é que são?<br />
INF Até tenho aqui isto um pouco <strong>in</strong>chado de tanto chouriço encher este ano. Enchi<br />
para a m<strong>in</strong>ha nora, três vezes, tabafeias; l<strong>in</strong>guiças, por duas vezes; chouriças, por duas<br />
vezes. Para a m<strong>in</strong>ha irmã, na mesma. Aqui à viz<strong>in</strong>ha, igual. E para mim também. Olhe,<br />
(eu) /<strong>ele</strong>\ dei cabo aqui disto (com tanta coisa).<br />
INQ1 E como é que são as tabafeias?<br />
INF As tabafeias são{fp}: bota-se carne a cozer – de porco e gal<strong>in</strong>has – e depois {pp}<br />
corta-se o pão para uma caldeira, depois coze-se aquela carne bem cozid<strong>in</strong>ha, pica-se<br />
logo ali (<strong>ele</strong> picad<strong>in</strong>ha) /em picad<strong>in</strong>ho\, bota-se por cima do pão. Quando a água fica<br />
[AB|bem a-] bem adubad<strong>in</strong>ha, bota-se-{PH|l�=lhe} pimento e alho, amolece-se aquelas<br />
sopas, mexe-se, mexe-se e enchem-se.<br />
[OUT39]<br />
337
338<br />
(255)<br />
INF [AB|De{fp}, por exemplo, {fp} esta] Por exemplo, [AB|esta é{fp}] (além) aqu<strong>ele</strong><br />
campo é todo meu, por exemplo,<br />
INQ2 Sim.<br />
INQ1 Sim.<br />
INF este campo todo. Eu semeio e depois [AB|ela] <strong>ele</strong> medra, vai medrando, medrando,<br />
medrando, medrando. Depois, é arrarado. Arrara-se. O campo corta-se donde em donde<br />
[AB|para f-] para <strong>ele</strong> ficar {pp} assim um bocad<strong>in</strong>ho raro, para <strong>ele</strong> produzir, para<br />
alevantar.<br />
INQ1 Rhum-rhum.<br />
INF Depois, se a gente precisa [AB|para o{fp}] para assoalhar {pp} uma casa ou para<br />
qualquer coisa, depois a gente vende… Vende… A gente, (<strong>ele</strong>) vêm compradores…<br />
Agora, vieram para aí, {pp} cortaram tudo. (Havia) /Haviam\ muitos p<strong>in</strong>hais aqui e<br />
vieram pessoas aí a cortar… Pagam-nos, {PH|n�=não é}?<br />
INQ1 Pois.<br />
INF E cortaram e (<strong>ele</strong>) levam para madeira {pp} para a Espanha e para donde calha.<br />
INQ2 Rhum-rhum.<br />
[OUT44]<br />
(256)<br />
INF1 Olha uma lagartixa, olha, além.<br />
INQ Ah, pois é!<br />
INF2 É da qualidade que quer!<br />
INQ Uma lagartixa que vai além.<br />
INF1 [AB|E] E pega, corta-se [AB|com três g-, com, com três gro-, com] com dois<br />
gromos; fica com duas gemas.<br />
INF2 Ah, coitad<strong>in</strong>ha!<br />
INQ Sim.<br />
INF2 Olhem acolá, filhos, (<strong>ele</strong>) não vêem uma lagartixa?!<br />
INF3 Eu vi.<br />
INF2 ({PH|nu�=Não}) viste?<br />
INF1 E coloca-se. Com a navalha corta-se o bravo, por exemplo, aqui assim. Cavaca-se<br />
o que se lhe mete, escavaca-se e depois aí mete-se-lhe a puia.<br />
INQ Sim.<br />
INF1 E mete-se-lhe depois um 'refia'.<br />
[OUT54]<br />
(257)<br />
MONOGRAPHS<br />
Os irmês o que term<strong>in</strong>érim? Forimno a matar pa le terérim nas bol<strong>in</strong>has[de ouro]. E <strong>ele</strong><br />
matarim-no. (Escusa, <strong>in</strong> Baptista 1967: 211)
2.1.6 Arbitrary 3 rd p. pl. null subject<br />
(258)<br />
CORDIAL<br />
INQ Quando há uma trovoada, como é que se chama aquela luz?<br />
INF {fp} A gente dá-{PH|l�=lhe} cá uns poucos de nomes. É um<br />
{PH|�r��l��p�du=relâmpago}, é uma faísca, é um{fp} corisco, é um raio, (é… Enfim,)<br />
diversos nomes.<br />
INQ Mas é tudo a mesma coisa?<br />
INF Ah, [AB|consta, <strong>ele</strong> dizem] há quem diga [AB|que] que é diferente {pp} uma coisa<br />
da outra. Que há aí algumas que são diferentes. [AB|Agora, se] Agora eu é que<br />
{PH|n�=não} sei se são diferentes nem se {PH|n�=não} são.<br />
[AAL56]<br />
(259)<br />
INQ Olhe, e há uma outra que, que faz mal ao gado, quando, quando o gado come, até<br />
parecido com a…<br />
INF [AB|Há] Há uma que faz mal ao gado {pp} que não me lembra o nome dela. [AB|É<br />
É erva, é uma, uma] É a tal erva, uma espécie de erva-dos-lagartos. [AB|Ele dão-<br />
{PH|l�=lhe}] Ele dão-{PH|l�=lhe} outro nome – que faz muito mal {pp} ao gado, que<br />
está às vezes no meio do feno, que <strong>ele</strong>s até têm medo de gadanhar aqu<strong>ele</strong> feno – mas é<br />
que eu {PH|n�=não} me lembro (do) /o\ nome dessa erva, agora.<br />
[AAL95]<br />
(xxv)<br />
INQ Está tudo abandonado, não é?<br />
INF1 É. E qualquer dia é só, olhe, carvalhos ou{fp} p<strong>in</strong>heiros ou giestas.<br />
INF2 É, é. Vai ser uma segunda Angola, vai. (Pessoal {PH|nu�=não} há, os novos<br />
também já não estão para aturar coisas)…<br />
INF1 Então, pois {PH|nu�=não} estão para estarem a aturar isto.<br />
INF2 [AB|Anda, anda] Anda a estudar muita malta, aqui, a estudar.<br />
INF1 Oh! Então!<br />
INF2 É tudo a estudar, tudo a estudar.<br />
INF1 É estudar, é! (Não) /Ele\ haviam de {PH|l�=lhe} dar mas era uma enxada para<br />
irem {CT|pa=para a} serra cavar alqueves!<br />
INF2 É, é.<br />
INF1 {PH|nu�=Não} era estudar [AB|Era para] para [AB|se]<br />
INQ Pois.<br />
INF1 estarem assentados! O trabalho que há-de fazer um, estão ali uma dúzia d<strong>ele</strong>s!<br />
INQ Rhã-rhã.<br />
INF2 Quer passar por lá (para ver)?<br />
INF1 {fp} Vamos embora. Ele, [AB|qu-] se lá quisesse ir ver {fp}…<br />
INQ Não, não vou, não vou. Não é preciso ir ao mo<strong>in</strong>ho. Não, não, obrigado.<br />
INF1 Não? Vamos embora, então. Vamos.<br />
339
INQ Obrigado. Ó senhora Ascensão, diga-me o que eram… A senhora disse: "Haviam<br />
de andar por lá a cavar o alqueve". O que era o alqueve?<br />
[FIG27]<br />
340<br />
(260)<br />
INQ1 Portanto, já há quantos anos é que isso não se faz cá? Já há quantos?<br />
INF Oh! Isso já há muitos anos. A<strong>in</strong>da eu era garota quando <strong>ele</strong> deixaram de...<br />
Deixaram depois de usar estas coisas todas. Isto não. Isto a<strong>in</strong>da {PH|nu�=não} há muitos<br />
anos, que ([AB|eu]) /<strong>ele</strong>\ foi quando eu deixei de tecer. {pp} É como digo, já há-de<br />
haver… Foi quando cá veio o senhor Américo Tomás. {pp} Eu parece-me que [AB|a<br />
casa d-] reformaram até a Casa do Povo o outro ano adiante {pp}. Há oito… Deve haver<br />
uns nove, dez anos, {pp} que eu deixei de tecer.<br />
[MST19]<br />
(261)<br />
INQ1 O que são as voltas?<br />
INF É aquelas vides que a gente deixa para dar assim a volta, que é para arrebentar os<br />
'pompos'para dar os cachos das uvas. {pp} E o atarraque é cortado com uma tesoura,<br />
[AB|e fi-] assim deste tamanho {pp}, {PH|�=ao} lado da volta. Nasce também…<br />
INQ1 Portanto, a volta é aq-, são os noz<strong>in</strong>hos da videira?<br />
INF [AB|A{fp}] A volta é a videira. {pp} Dá-se assim a volta, espreme-se {pp} e<br />
depois ata-se {PH|�=ao} tronco do braço da videira. Depois ata-se com uma ('rafa')<br />
/{PH|��af�=ráfia}\, ou com um junco, ou com um cordel. Agora já {PH|ni�=nem} (<strong>ele</strong>)<br />
{PH|��p��i�=apanham} isso. Já não há juncos. Agora é com cordéis, compreende, e{fp}<br />
('rafa') /{PH|��af�=ráfia}\. Depois aquilo é atado {PH|�=ao} tronco [AB|da, da] da<br />
videira.<br />
[ALC16]<br />
2.1.7 Impersonal se <strong>in</strong> syntactically impersonal constructions<br />
(262)<br />
CORDIAL-SIN<br />
Eles mesmo, lá na Caixa, é que é que foi que me {PH|e�si�na�e�=ens<strong>in</strong>aram} {pp} aquela<br />
coisa; portanto, {IP|to=estou} a descontar {CT|pa�=para as} duas. Agora a reforma da<br />
Casa do Povo também nunca pode ser muito grande porque <strong>ele</strong> não se desconta muito –<br />
poucach<strong>in</strong>ho d<strong>in</strong>heiro.<br />
[AAL33]<br />
(xxvi)<br />
INQ Como é que chamava?<br />
INF Era uns cocões.<br />
INQ E, e nos cocões o que é que entrava?
INF ({fp}) /Ele\ punha-se-{PH|l�=lhe} o eixo. De cima dos cocões, amarrados<br />
{CT|kum�=com uma} coisa {fp} – pelo eixo, que (era) /é\ o que enfiava assim nas<br />
rodas.<br />
[MST28]<br />
(263)<br />
INQ2 E o lugar onde dorme o pastor quando anda no campo com o gado?<br />
INF É a barraca d<strong>ele</strong>.<br />
INQ1 Este funcionava…? A rede, perguntaste a rede?<br />
INF Chama-se a barraca [AB|e chama-se o ap-, e chama] e chama-se o aposento d<strong>ele</strong>.<br />
INQ2 Ah, isso é a rede?! Eu julguei que era a malhada.<br />
INQ1 Uma rede, uma rede, ou então uma vedação que se faz no meio das, do, quando se<br />
quer que o gado, que o, que as ovelhas não saiam dali daqu<strong>ele</strong> sítio? Ou até para as<br />
proteger de…<br />
INF (Ele) faz-se uma tapada.<br />
INQ1 Uma tapada?<br />
INQ2 Uma tapada. Que é como? Que é com?…<br />
INF Uma tapada com arame.<br />
[ALC26]<br />
(264)<br />
INQ1 Olhe, o sítio onde as gal<strong>in</strong>has vão pôr o ovo?<br />
INF Isso pode-se pôr aí dum caixote<br />
INQ2 E como é que se chama?<br />
INF [AB|u-] uma mancheia de palha e{fp} [AB|ali] dali é que elas vão pôr.<br />
INQ2 Portanto, dão nome a esse sítio?<br />
INF É só caixote, (a) esse sítio. [AB|Ali {PH|�=ao}] A gente diz assim: "Eh! (Olha), lá<br />
{IP|ta=está} aqu<strong>ele</strong> canto do caixote, onde a gal<strong>in</strong>ha põe os ovos".<br />
INQ1 Não costuma pôr lá um ovo para elas irem, se habituarem a ir àqu<strong>ele</strong> sítio?<br />
INF Não. Ele nunca lá se põe ovos nenhuns. Põe-se é o caixote, que elas quando vêem<br />
o caixote vão logo lá.<br />
INQ2 Pois.<br />
INQ1 Mas assim um ovo, a imitar um ovo ou um ovo velho, um ovo goro.<br />
INF Não. Nunca lá se põe ovos porque elas, {pp} quando é a primeira vez de lá ir o<br />
ovo, tem que (não) lá {IP|ta�=estar} (novo) /não ovo\ nenhum, que é por causa de elas<br />
não se acostumarem a picar e a comer.<br />
[ALC31]<br />
(265)<br />
INQ1 Como é que o senhor, como é que o senhor encontra?<br />
INF Ah, encontra-se bem. A gente arranja… Eu até tenho aí umas cacheiraz<strong>in</strong>has<br />
preparadas para isso. E a gente vai com a cacheiraz<strong>in</strong>ha com um bico dum lado e tem<br />
uma cacheiraz<strong>in</strong>ha do outro lado.<br />
INQ1 Uma cacheira? O que é uma cacheira?<br />
INF Uma cacheira? Pode ver uma. É aquilo que {IP|ta=está} além naquela, naquela…<br />
Aqu<strong>ele</strong>s paus que {IP|t��w�=estão} além no coiso.<br />
INQ1 Ali?<br />
341
INF Pois. Mas aquelas são preparadas logo para isso. Depois a gente bate assim, onde<br />
{IP|ta=está} a túbara, toca a oco.<br />
INQ1 Então mas o senhor bate no campo todo?<br />
INF Todo. Vou sempre batendo.<br />
INQ1 Ou só bate nalguns sítios?<br />
INF Troz-troz-troz-troz-troz! Troz-troz-troz-troz-troz! (Ele) acha-se. Mas eu agora já<br />
não uso isso assim. Sabe porquê? Porque eu não oiço.<br />
INQ2 Ah!<br />
INF Já não oiço. (Oiço muito)…<br />
INQ1 Pois, pois.<br />
INF [AB|Ma-] Agora já eu usei outra técnica: é {CT|ku�=com um} pau {CT|ku�=com<br />
um} biqu<strong>in</strong>ho {pp}, onde a gente vê aqu<strong>ele</strong>s altoz<strong>in</strong>hos: "Oh, uma túbara"! Ali<br />
{IP|ta=está} um outro altoz<strong>in</strong>ho, {fp} uma túbara. Porque donde {IP|ta=está} a túbara, a<br />
terra {IP|ta=está} macia, vai abaixo.<br />
[LVR24]<br />
(266)<br />
INQ1 Olhe, e assim nas noites de claridade no Verão costuma aparecer uma, u-, uma<br />
coisa que vai de lado a lado do céu, assim branca…<br />
INF Os raios?<br />
INQ1 Não. São muitas estrelas juntas, é assim parece leite, tudo branco… São<br />
cam<strong>in</strong>hos.<br />
INF [AB|Um] Um cam<strong>in</strong>ho. É. Chama-lhe a gente a estrada-de-Santiago {pp}.<br />
INQ2 De?…<br />
INF Estrada-de-Santiago {pp}.<br />
INQ1 Olhe, e, e depois há outra coisa que é uma estrela que as pessoas se servem para<br />
se orientar. Sabe como é que se chama?<br />
INF Chama-lhe a gente [AB|a{fp}] a estrela-do-mar<strong>in</strong>heiro. {pp} É a guia do<br />
mar<strong>in</strong>heiro.<br />
INQ1 Diga.<br />
INF [AB|Quando] Quando deixar de ver aquela estrela, também [AB|dei-] <strong>ele</strong> deixa-se<br />
(de) regular no mar.<br />
INQ1 E como é que?… O que é que aquela estrela <strong>in</strong>dica?<br />
INF Do norte {PH|�=ao} sul {pp}.<br />
[SRP02]<br />
342<br />
(267)<br />
De Inverno, às vezes{fp}, a gente atira-se com um pedac<strong>in</strong>ho de tempo. As tra<strong>in</strong>eiras, às<br />
vezes, não apanha peixe, as coisas (dão) mal. (Mas também) há pouca pesca e a gente,<br />
às vezes (astreve-se a mal). Temos uma barra muito má, muito ruim. N<strong>in</strong>guém olha.<br />
Salva-vidas, não temos em Alvor! Porque (<strong>ele</strong>) havia-se de ter um salva-vidas com<br />
quarenta cavalos para ir{fp} ajudar a gente. Além disso, temos e {PH|n��=não} fazem<br />
caso de ir lá. Que um barqu<strong>in</strong>ho de borracha não serve.<br />
[ALV04]<br />
(268)<br />
INQ1 Mas o orvalho é água e às vezes aparece uma coisa que é?… A cobrir também as<br />
coisas…
INF1 Pois. Pois, é a neve. A neve juntamente {CT|ku=com o} orvalho. Porque a neve<br />
faz água. Desde a hora que a neve derrete, é água. O gelo, o senhor põe o gelo, desde a<br />
hora que <strong>ele</strong> derreteu, o gelo, {pp} torna-se em água. Portanto, o que é que cai é a neve<br />
e da neve faz água. Ou a orvalheira. A orvalheira já não é (<strong>ele</strong>) o branco. (Ele diz-se):<br />
"Água de Verão, cai orvalheira" – quando v<strong>in</strong>ham tempos do mar. {pp} Molhado, só!<br />
Não é frio mas é molhado.<br />
[ALV39]<br />
(269)<br />
INF E depois iam muito homens, muitos que andavam no m<strong>in</strong>ério, por aí abaixo – a<br />
chover! – e <strong>ele</strong>s eram para mim e para [AB|um] mais um primo meu que vínhamos com<br />
o caixão – mas nem à mão o podíamos trazer, {PH|tr��zi�muzu='trazíamos-o'}<br />
{PH|�=ao} ombro, um atrás, outro adiante –, (diz assim): "Ó homem, vocês [AB|vão]<br />
vão-se botar a matar por quem já morreu"? Porque aquilo era: volta e meia caía um<br />
p<strong>in</strong>heiro, da banda diante da gente, outros [AB|a b-], às vezes, da banda de trás, e a<br />
gente… Meu amigo, o homem t<strong>in</strong>ha que ir {CT|pa=para a} cova… Lá viemos. Fomos<br />
só quatro pessoas [AB|ao], quatro homens a levá-lo [AB|à co-, à{fp}], o homem, à cova.<br />
{pp} {PH|�=Ao} ombro!<br />
INQ2 Pois, pois.<br />
INQ1 Rhum-rhum.<br />
INF {PH|�=Ao} ombro! Olhe como eu sou a mais esta senhora e{fp} botamos um pau,<br />
e o caixão entre nós, e outro aí atrás e levamos assim acolá, ali abaixo à Lomba, à cova.<br />
Que <strong>ele</strong> dizia que <strong>ele</strong> nos… Dizia (aquilo). Ele uma vez a ler, ali atrás com as vacas, eu<br />
era rapazote pequeno, e <strong>ele</strong> disse {PH|�=ao} (acaso) – que diziam lá no livro – que<br />
havia de haver uma guerra – não! [AB|que havia{fp}] –, que os homens que haviam de<br />
voar mais alto que os passaritos. O livro lá, <strong>ele</strong> {PH|nu�=não} se constavam aviões –<br />
nunca n<strong>in</strong>guém fala (em) aviões. E o livro dizia que [AB|o{fp}] os homens que haviam<br />
de voar mais alto que os passaritos. E quando nós visse [AB|estas t-] estas serras todas<br />
cortadas, de estradas e tudo do homem, que o mundo que era um paraíso – e já está! –,<br />
que <strong>ele</strong> que o mundo que durava pouco.<br />
[COV18]<br />
(270) [<strong>in</strong>ício de ficheiro]<br />
INF1 Olhe, eu uma vez fui [AB|à] à coisa [AB|fui à{fp}]. Então, <strong>ele</strong> comprava-se<br />
ovelhas. Íamos <strong>ele</strong> ali {PH|�=ao} Castro de Aire {pp} – não sei se as senhoras sabe o<br />
que (são)?<br />
INF2 Ao Castro, pois.<br />
INQ1 Sei.<br />
INQ2 Sei, sim senhora.<br />
INF1 [AB|A{fp}] A Castro de Aire e eu fui mais o Asdrúbal a{fp} comprar… (Mal<br />
compra-se) – conheces o Bernard<strong>in</strong>o?<br />
INF2 Sei, sei. As senhoras {PH|nu�=não} conhecem mas a gente aqui conhece.<br />
INF1 Fomos lá comprar ovelhas. (Eu) /Ele\ {PH|nu�=não} t<strong>in</strong>ha nenhumas e fui lá<br />
comprar umas ovelhas.<br />
[COV24]<br />
343
344<br />
(271)<br />
INF Agora aqui{fp}, então, isto pertence tudo à roca, não é? Daqui para cima [AB|é, é]<br />
é tudo roca. (Ele aqui) /Eu, aqui,\ [AB|é] é um pauz<strong>in</strong>ho para cima, pronto. É amparo de<br />
pôr o manelo. Por exemplo, agora, a gente tem a estriga, {fp} põe-na assim na mão,<br />
começa assim com um pouqu<strong>in</strong>ho, zás, zás, zás, zás, zás, zás, enrosca, enrosca até que<br />
se enrosca. Depois de {IP|�ta�=estar} enroscado, bate-se isto. Vai-se assim<br />
{CT|�kum�=com uma} mão e{fp} uma parte bota-se para acá, outra para alá, vai-se<br />
{CT|ku=com o} cartapaço, (<strong>ele</strong>) põe-se por cima…<br />
[OUT16]<br />
(272)<br />
INQ Aqu<strong>ele</strong>s, os, os liços são aquilo onde passa?…<br />
INF Onde {PH|�pas��w�nu�=passam os} fios. Eu também os faço, os liços. Fiz muitos.<br />
{pp}<br />
INQ E, e…<br />
INF Fazem-se do próprio l<strong>in</strong>ho, os liços. Os liços são fiados com l<strong>in</strong>ho bom, bom!<br />
L<strong>in</strong>ho puro! E depois de fiado, {fp} (<strong>ele</strong>) encama-se dois fios e depois passa-se-<br />
{PH|l�=lhe} cera e depois é que se fazem… Porque também tenho o pau de fazer os<br />
liços.<br />
INQ Também é uma arte que sabe fazer.{pp} Já n<strong>in</strong>guém sabe fazer os liços.<br />
INF Pois. Eu sei. Eu já há bem tempo que (eu) o não fiz, mas se me puser a fazê-los, sei.<br />
Sei-os fazer.<br />
[OUT19]<br />
(273)<br />
INQ1 E aquilo que se prepara para dar ao porco, é preciso cozer aquilo e misturar a?…<br />
INF Bem, {fp} há-os que… Ele agora já n<strong>in</strong>guém costuma cozer. Nós, antigamente,<br />
cozíamos quando <strong>ele</strong> v<strong>in</strong>ha o tempo de castanhas – (que) também dávamos castanhas.<br />
V<strong>in</strong>ha o tempo [AB|de, de eng-] de engordar os porcos {CT|p���=para os} matar, ou<br />
dois meses antes, cozia-lhe a gente vianda: batatas e castanhas, beterraba ou assim essas<br />
coisas. Mas agora já tudo <strong>ele</strong> se está a dar de cru. E é bem melhor, que não é tanto o<br />
trabalho [AB|e{fp}] e não se come carne…<br />
INQ1 Claro. Mas e <strong>ele</strong>s comem na mesma?<br />
[OUT32]<br />
(274)<br />
INF1 Não. Mas esse é diferente. Esse é eléctrico. É diferente.<br />
INF3 Este é de… É a <strong>ele</strong>ctricidade. Mas esse já conhecem, <strong>ele</strong> já?<br />
INQ2 Gostávamos de saber os rodízios? Sim.<br />
INQ1 Sim. Olhe, mas o rodízio, <strong>ele</strong> os rodízios têm uma pedr<strong>in</strong>ha por baixo, onde gira?<br />
INQ2 Gostávamos de saber os rodízios? Sim.<br />
INQ1 Sim. Olhe, mas o rodízio, <strong>ele</strong> os rodízios têm uma pedr<strong>in</strong>ha por baixo, onde gira?<br />
INF1 Têm, uma jogu<strong>in</strong>ha. Uma jogu<strong>in</strong>ha que é donde é que <strong>ele</strong> se põe a boqueja e ao<br />
depois é que <strong>ele</strong> anda.<br />
INF2 É onde tem o [AB|o, o]…<br />
INF3 (Pois, isso)…<br />
INF1 A senhora também já sabe do mo<strong>in</strong>ho!<br />
[OUT40]
(275)<br />
MONOGRAPHS<br />
<strong>ele</strong> nunca se soube quem foi! (Arronches, <strong>in</strong> Paul<strong>in</strong>o 1959: 168)<br />
(276)<br />
<strong>ele</strong> nunca se soube quem o matou. (S.Jorge, <strong>in</strong> Faria 1007: 38)<br />
(277)<br />
Ele vê-se tanta gente...” (Terceira, <strong>in</strong> Maia 1965: 61)<br />
(278)<br />
<strong>ele</strong> nunca se soube quem roubou! (Terceira, <strong>in</strong> Dias 1982: 325)<br />
(279)<br />
pâ qu’<strong>ele</strong> se no perca o preço da Redenção (Quadrazais, <strong>in</strong> Braga 1971: 169)<br />
(280)<br />
A PLANÍCIE HERÓICA<br />
Amanhã vou eu ao monte levar uma cevada e era boa ocasião de decidirmos isso, se o<br />
compadre prior sempre quere o barr<strong>in</strong>ho, mesmo p’ra governo do lavrador, que êle<br />
vai-se passando o tempo. (132)<br />
(281)<br />
Pois conservava-se, está bem de ver, e começava a fazer pela vida, que êle até não se<br />
falava agora noutra coisa senão no derriço do padre prior com a filha do José M<strong>in</strong>gorra.<br />
(199)<br />
2.2 Peripheral to preverbal adverbials<br />
2.2.1 In referential subject contexts<br />
CORDIAL-SIN<br />
(282)<br />
INF1 Foi o segu<strong>in</strong>te… {pp} Até foi uma sorte! Que a m<strong>in</strong>ha mulher… {pp} (Fomos a)<br />
/Temos\ uma propriedade lá em cima; e costumamos ir levá-las lá, [AB|todos os] quase<br />
todos os dias. E{fp} já até há quem lhe diga às vezes: "Ah, que tanta sorte e tal! Agora<br />
tu, <strong>ele</strong> qualquer dia o lobo vem e"… Porque <strong>ele</strong>, enquanto tiver que matar, mata. {pp} E<br />
345
se {PH|nu�=não} podem sair os animais para fora, <strong>ele</strong> [AB|{PH|nu�=não} é]<br />
{PH|nu�=não} é: chega e agarra um e foge. Mata sempre, {pp} o lobo.<br />
[CTL13]<br />
346<br />
(283)<br />
INQ1 E também costumam a comer com açúcar isto, ou não?<br />
INF1 Também é bom! Com açúcar {fp}! O requeijão é bom!<br />
INQ1 Pois, depois de cozido.<br />
INF1 Depois de cozido, é muito bom com açúcar! Há pessoas que comam com açúcar,<br />
outras sem açúcar. Mas (<strong>ele</strong>) /eu\, por acaso, quem cá costuma a comer quase sempre<br />
lhe deitam açúcar. Bom, (<strong>ele</strong>) /eu\, o senhor Amadeu e a senhora {pp}, é raro {pp}.<br />
{PH|nu�=Não} comem. Mas, por exemplo, têm um sobr<strong>in</strong>ho – diz que é médico – e<br />
assim mais pessoas, gostam muito. E, às vezes, quando estão, eu já tenho feito, já tenho<br />
'fazido'. {pp} E é bom.<br />
[MST01]<br />
(284)<br />
INQ2 Quer dizer, mas todos os dias não, não costuma virar ao contrário? Quer dizer…<br />
INF1 Não. Até que {pp}, por exemplo aqu<strong>ele</strong>s, como é para casa, no dia anterior até<br />
costumam levar um bocad<strong>in</strong>ho de soro, que é {CT|p��=para os} passar. Que é para <strong>ele</strong>s<br />
{fp}… Não é para se porem como são aqu<strong>ele</strong>s que além estão no meio.<br />
INQ1 Ah pois!<br />
INF1 Já estão amarel<strong>in</strong>hos. Mas aqu<strong>ele</strong>s não {PH|l�=lhe} faço nada. Aqu<strong>ele</strong>s, conforme<br />
os ponho, ficam lá. Porque <strong>ele</strong> ao fim de oito dias levantam tudo, não é?<br />
INQ1 Pois, pois.<br />
INF1 [AB|{PH|nu�=Não}, {PH|nu�=não}] Daqu<strong>ele</strong>s {PH|nu�=não{fp}} faço nada.<br />
Conforme estão, <strong>ele</strong>s ao sábado, se vierem no sábado, levam-nos conforme estão. O que<br />
é que se {PH|l�=lhe} tiram as formas. Já vão desenformados.<br />
[MST01]<br />
(285)<br />
INQ1 Olhe, e em relação ali à, às ovelhas, portanto, a lã é tratada aqui ou, ou vem um<br />
colaborador?<br />
INF Não, a lã {PH|nu�=não} é tratada aqui. Ele agora vem o comprador {pp}, depois<br />
vende a lã {pp} a peso e (depois) levam. A lã {pp} é amanhada nas fábricas.<br />
[MST05]<br />
(286)<br />
INF Depois começa a gente as (cavas) das v<strong>in</strong>has. Se já estão podadas, a gente começa<br />
{fp} então a cavá-las. E depois quando é {CT|p�=para o} mês de Maio, a gente<br />
esborralha-as. [AB|E p-] No tempo das v<strong>in</strong>has, depois [AB|começa a{pp}] começa<br />
então… Ele em Março, começa a gente [AB|a ca-] a tratar da terra{pp}: (a meter)<br />
batata, ou{fp} a amanhá-las, ou a cavá-las ou{fp} amanhá-las {CT|kum��=com umas}<br />
máqu<strong>in</strong>as, ou{fp} (de toda) /de qualquer\ maneira. Depois semeia-as a gente. Quando é<br />
ali por o fim de Março, vai a gente semeando. Depois muda a gente para outras coisas,<br />
para estes trabalhos que assim vão aparecendo. Que é preciso a gente {pp} cont<strong>in</strong>uar a<br />
(fazê-los). [MST30]
(xxvii)<br />
INQ1 O milho, depois, como é que se debulhava?<br />
INF O milho depois, se a gente quer, leva-o para uma eira. Logo além está uma {pp}<br />
[AB|cá] cá na qu<strong>in</strong>ta. Aqui atrás [AB|da ga-] daquesta qu<strong>in</strong>ta, {CT|pra�i=para aí}, está<br />
outra. A gente leva-o para uma eira e tem a gente um mangual ou um pau. A<strong>in</strong>da<br />
{PH|nu�=não} viu o mangual? Já? [AB|(Depois dá-lhe a gente uma)]<br />
INQ2 Eu cá não vi.<br />
INQ1 Ah, aqui a<strong>in</strong>da não.<br />
INF [AB|Dá-lhe a gente] Eu tenho lá. (Eu,) /Ele\ na m<strong>in</strong>ha casa, tenho lá. Tem lá a<br />
gente assim… Malha. [AB|Até] Que <strong>ele</strong> até com um pau se malha. A gente assim<br />
{CT|ku�=com um} pauz<strong>in</strong>ho pequeno: tuca-tuca-tuca. A gente malha.<br />
[MST37]<br />
(xxviii)<br />
INQ Pois. Olhe, e quando faziam o trato, como é que… Havia alguma… Como é que<br />
era?<br />
INF {PH|nu�=Não} havia. Quando a gente fazia o trato: "Bom, a terra é tua, mas<br />
[AB|dás-me] dás-me tantos alqueires". Mas era só aqu<strong>ele</strong> ano. {CT|p��=Para o} outro<br />
ano, se se tornava a fazer, (fazia) /fazia-se\. Se {PH|nu�=não} tornava a fazer, já<br />
{PH|nu�=não} fazia. [AB|M-] Bom, mas aqu<strong>ele</strong> ano t<strong>in</strong>ha que pagar a renda. Se<br />
{PH|nu�=não} pagava a renda, {PH|nu�=não} a tornava a fazer. E {PH|nu�=não}<br />
{PH|l�=lhe} podia dar nada {PH|�=ao} senhorio. Mas <strong>ele</strong> depois a terra já nunca mais…<br />
Nem me arrendava aquela nem mais nenhuma já.<br />
[MST40]<br />
(287)<br />
INQ E é sempre de… E é de cá? Sempre trabalhou por cá? E sempre no mo<strong>in</strong>ho?<br />
INF1 Olhe, eu [AB|t-] tenho pena em aqui estar.<br />
INQ Rhum-rhum.<br />
INF1 Tenho dois filhos na França e eu, se estivesse{fp} boa, (é que <strong>ele</strong>) /aqu<strong>ele</strong>\ hoje<br />
estava {PH|�=ao} pé d<strong>ele</strong>s, {PH|nu�=não} estava aqui.<br />
INQ Pois.<br />
INF1 Se {PH|nu�=não} fosse este filho meu {pp},<br />
INF2 (Está melhor a gente aqui).<br />
INQ Também.<br />
INF1 eu já t<strong>in</strong>ha até desertado, nem estaria cá neste lugar, aqui onde estou, senhor.<br />
[FIG24]<br />
(288)<br />
INQ O gavião é m-, é mais pequeno ou é maior do que o, do que o peneireiro?<br />
INF É capaz de ser… A diferença não deve ser muito grande, mas é capaz de ser maior.<br />
INQ Rhum-rhum.<br />
INF Porque <strong>ele</strong>s, se (se) der o caso, chegam aí e apanham uma gal<strong>in</strong>ha pequena…<br />
INQ Rhum-rhum.<br />
INF Andam aí gal<strong>in</strong>has pequenas e <strong>ele</strong>s {pp} fazem uma baixada e…<br />
INQ E apanham.<br />
347
INF (Quando querem)…<br />
INQ Sim senhor.<br />
INF Quando foi? Aqui há um tempo, lá em cima na serra sentia-se perdizes {fp} bravas<br />
e coisa {pp}. E eu passei por lá – andava à caça –, <strong>ele</strong> quando alevanta um [AB|um<br />
{fp}]… "Já andam a tirar as perdizes"! Atirei ao gavião, ao tal gavião. {fp} Quando<br />
deixou uma perdiz – {fp} já levava uma perdiz!<br />
[FIG34]<br />
348<br />
(289)<br />
INQ E a essas chamava-se um 'barbeto'?<br />
INF Um 'barbeto'. As que t<strong>in</strong>ham sido tratadas – que já t<strong>in</strong>ha sido semeadas! {fp}<br />
INQ Mas é, será o mesmo que noutros sítios chamam o alqueve, ou não?<br />
INF Bom, o alqueve chama-se {fp}… Isto há umas pequenas diferenças – <strong>ele</strong> cá na<br />
gente, cá na nossa l<strong>in</strong>guagem… {fp} Um alqueve é dentro dum chaparral. {pp}<br />
Portanto, [AB|terras] terras de mato são alquevadas. [AB|Hoje, hoje]<br />
INQ E portanto deixam só, só para?…<br />
INF Hoje já é tudo é passado à grade {pp} com tractores. Mas chama-se-{PH|l�=lhe}<br />
um alqueve à mesma. Enquanto isso o 'barbeto' já é outra maneira: chama-se terra que<br />
deu uma seara.<br />
[LVR10]<br />
(290)<br />
INF [AB|Esses, esses] Esses coisos é modernos. (Isso) é moderno.<br />
INQ2 É?<br />
INF É.<br />
INQ2 Então e antigamente o que é que se fazia em vez destes, destes…?<br />
INF [AB|Antigamente{fp}] Ele antigamente, [AB|e-, estes] estes coisos aqui,<br />
[AB|estes, estes] estes coisos que <strong>ele</strong>s fazem aqui, esta 'chupa', era de fazer {pp} o<br />
covato mais pequen<strong>in</strong>o.<br />
INQ1 Rhum-rhum.<br />
INF {PH|vi��avi�=Viravam} {PH|�=ao} contrário, {PH|f��zii�=faziam} assim, mais<br />
pequen<strong>in</strong>o. {pp} Agora isto que está aqui {pp}, isto que {IP|ta=está} aqui [AB|é uma, é<br />
uma], a gente chamava cá uma 'sachadeira'.<br />
[ALC03]<br />
(291)<br />
INQ1 As, os relheiros a<strong>in</strong>da é no campo?<br />
INF É.<br />
INQ1 Ou é já na, na eira?<br />
INF Faz-se do campo. Há um que {IP|ta=está} ceifado. Faz-se uns relheiros<br />
{CT|p��=para os} pássaros não entrar com <strong>ele</strong>. E despois, carrega-se despois<br />
{CT|ku�=com um} carro {CT|pa=para a} eira, aonde {IP|ta=está} a debulhadeira para<br />
debulhar.<br />
INQ1 Mas olhe, senhor Anselmo, quando anda a ceifar… Veja lá se eu digo bem que<br />
pode ser dou-…<br />
INF Não.<br />
INQ1 Eu estar-lhe a dizer o uso de outra terra.
INF Não. Bem, deixe estar que o uso, [AB|(eu {PH|l�=lhe} digo)] pode dizer doutra<br />
terra que eu despois digo cá desta.<br />
INQ2 Pois. Exactamente.<br />
INQ1 Pois. Mas olhe, na, noutras lá mais por baixo para o Alentejo, as pessoas andam a<br />
ceifar, pegam nisto e depois põem no chão. E depois vai um… Não! Não põem nada. E<br />
depois atam-lho com o próprio mi-, trigo, fazem assim que é para poder caber mais na<br />
mão.<br />
INF Pois. É. Não. [AB|Eles] Ele lá {CT|p�=para o} Alentejo, quando {PH|���di�=andam}<br />
a ceifar, conforme vão ceifando, e vão fazendo os molhos.<br />
INQ1 Exacto.<br />
INF E aqui não.<br />
INQ2 Rhum-rhum.<br />
INQ1 Aqui põe-se logo no chão?<br />
INF Aqui é do chão… Despois de {IP|ta�=estar} do chão ali dois dias é que vai-se<br />
depois atar.<br />
[ALC07]<br />
(xxix)<br />
INQ1 As pás servem para quê?<br />
INF As pás era para mandar [AB|o{fp}] o pão {CT|p�=para o} vento.<br />
INQ2 Rhum-rhum.<br />
INQ1 Isso não era com a forquilha?<br />
INF Isso é primeiro. De primeiro {pp} é [AB|a f-] a forquilha a tirar a palha. Despois de<br />
aquilo {IP|ta�=estar} já a palha fora, {IP|ta=está} tudo junto e {IP|ta=está} o trigo com<br />
a mo<strong>in</strong>ha, que é{fp} aquela coisa mais miud<strong>in</strong>ha. Depois aquilo é mandado {PH|�=ao}<br />
vento. Aquilo sai tudo fora. Fica ali o trigo…<br />
INQ1 Também se diz mandar ao vento?<br />
INF Pois.<br />
INQ2 E aí já não usa a forquilha?<br />
INF Aí já não é a forquilha porque (<strong>ele</strong> aqui) [AB|já nã-] já {PH|n��=não} pega. É<br />
{CT|kum�=com uma} pá.<br />
INQ1 E depois com…<br />
INF A gente chamava-se cá 'pás de pejo'.<br />
[ALC08]<br />
(292)<br />
INQ Mas a gente, a gente estava…Pois esse de Porto da Espada sei que arranjou,<br />
portanto, fez, t<strong>in</strong>ha, mas já, já é mais antigo.<br />
INF Bem, isso sempre foi moagem eléctrica,<br />
INQ Sempre foi moagem eléctrica.<br />
INF <strong>ele</strong> ali o de Porto da Espada. [AB|Ele isso] (Ele) /Ali,\ ali até nem passava o rio,<br />
não passava nada. Que <strong>ele</strong> até ali a<strong>in</strong>da não é bem… Sim, é o rio mas [AB|ch-] chamase<br />
a ribeira de Marvão. O rio (em) depois começa (aqui) /que{fp}\…<br />
[AAL22]<br />
349
350<br />
(293)<br />
INQ1 Portanto, o senhor sabe aqui que fala duma maneira diferente, por exemplo de,<br />
das pessoas aqui dos Montes de Alvor, ou das pessoas ali de Portimão…<br />
INF Pois, nós falamos… É claro, isto aqui há {pp} [AB|t-] três tons de fala: há na<br />
baixa… Eu é que fui criado na baixa, mas eu não sei. Eu não me responsabilizo à m<strong>in</strong>ha<br />
fala; não sei, quer dizer, [AB|não] significa que a m<strong>in</strong>ha fala não oiço. Mas <strong>ele</strong>, às<br />
vezes, eu cheguei a Lisboa e diziam que eu não t<strong>in</strong>ha fala de Alvor. E posso ter tal<br />
bastante. Mas aqui a baixa é mais carregado; no meio {pp} é menos carregado e lá para<br />
cima parece outra fala. E a gente temos de ter estas…<br />
INQ2 Mas lá para cima para onde? Para Montes de Alvor?<br />
INF {fp}Não. {fp} Da parte [AB|da praça de] da praça que {PH|���mi�=chamam} a<br />
praça de Alvor para cima já tem outro tom de fala. E somos três tons de fala. Aqui em<br />
baixo é que é mais carregado. E nós, mesmo que tenham outro tom de fala, mas vai<br />
buscar sempre {pp} o carregado porque nós estamos habituados aqui.<br />
[ALV01]<br />
(294)<br />
INF Ora, aquilo que vendem é aquela carne que vem de fora e {PH|nu�=não} é como a<br />
de cá! Vem [AB|con-] congelada, vem lá de fora, vem… Quem sabe lá que carne é<br />
aquela!<br />
INQ2 Claro.<br />
INF Ele {PH|nu�=não} sabe! Ele {pp} eu fui aí a [AB|um] uma boda, aí abaixo, {pp} a<br />
(…/NPR). E deram lá uma carne que <strong>ele</strong> achou-se tudo doente.<br />
INQ2 Ah!<br />
INQ1 Ah, veja lá!<br />
INF Sabe? Tudo o que lá foi achou-se doente. Achou-se mal porque a carne… Bem, eu<br />
até só tirei um bocadito, <strong>ele</strong>, por acaso, eu {PH|nu�=não} me achei mal, mas houve<br />
pessoas… Eu quando vi aquela carne e fui a prová-la, disse: "Não, não. Eu<br />
{PH|nu�=não} quero"! Comi lá um bacalhauzito, mas aquilo nem prestou!<br />
[COV14]<br />
(295)<br />
INF1 O meu pai começou a chorar e a dizer assim: "E{fp} os meus filhos"? Diz <strong>ele</strong><br />
assim: "Eu {PH|nu�=não} quero saber dos teus filhos. Empresto-te o d<strong>in</strong>heiro e"… Mas<br />
<strong>ele</strong> queria era as terras.<br />
INQ2 Pois.<br />
INF1 Eu já era um rapaz<strong>in</strong>ho com os meus dezasseis anos {pp} – mas era novito! Ele<br />
com dezasseis anos era novo, naqu<strong>ele</strong> tempo. Um homem com dezasseis anos… Eu<br />
t<strong>in</strong>ha catorze anos e a<strong>in</strong>da ia {CT|pa�=para as} festas descalço, homem.<br />
[COV20]<br />
(296)<br />
INF1 O (de) Tondela chegou ali… Chegou e disse {CT|p�=para o} meu pai – falava<br />
assim –: "Ó Astrigildo, vamos embora"? E o meu pai: "Vamos. O senhor abade"… O<br />
meu pai: "O senhor abade, então {PH|nu�=não} pode ir de carro até Santa Cruz"? "Não,<br />
Astrigildo, {PH|nu�=não} vou. O melhor cam<strong>in</strong>ho ia pagar e o mais mau cam<strong>in</strong>ho então<br />
ia a pé?! Então, olha, o d<strong>in</strong>heiro que… Vou por aí fora. Vamos [AB|mais] mais tu na
conversa e vamos embora". E veio mais nós até Santa – até Santa Cruz, até Paçô! Tu<br />
sabes bem que <strong>ele</strong> em Paçô <strong>ele</strong>s viram para aqu<strong>ele</strong> lado e a gente encam<strong>in</strong>hava logo<br />
para este lado.<br />
INF2 Sei. É!<br />
[COV28]<br />
(xxx)<br />
INF Olhe, aqui em cima, aonde está uma cruz, foi um cunhado desta senhora que está<br />
aqui, que é o Ático… [AB|Ele quando] Ele fez-se uma…(Ele) /Ele lá\ formou-se uma<br />
trovoada muito grande! Eu até andava com as vacas a mais um tio meu aqui nesta<br />
costeira aqui. E depois [AB|fez-se aque-] armou-se aquela trovoada. E o rapaz andava lá<br />
longe, perto da Albergaria com o gado e uma irmã m<strong>in</strong>ha que está na Macieira e uma<br />
velhota que morreu – que até era coxa duma perna – ali [AB|de] de Lugar e um rapaz<br />
que morreu [AB|que era] que era Atilano – também era mais pequenito, mais ou menos<br />
como (é) este –, e (<strong>ele</strong>) o rapaz era maior – já t<strong>in</strong>ha os dezassete anos –, e abalou<br />
adiante: "Txó, txó, txó, txó"! [COV32]<br />
(297)<br />
INQ1 Olhe, e uma vaca que nunca pega?<br />
INF1 Que nunca pega é man<strong>in</strong>ha.<br />
INQ1 Dão-lhe algum nome?<br />
INF1 É man<strong>in</strong>ha.<br />
INQ1 Rhum-rhum.<br />
INF1 Rhum-rhum. É man<strong>in</strong>ha.<br />
INQ1 E a que um ano não pegou? Os outros pega mas há um ano que não pega?<br />
INF1 Bem, há um ano que, às vezes, há vacas que <strong>ele</strong> não… Às vezes, têm um ano sem<br />
andar {PH|�=ao} touro.<br />
INQ1 Rhum-rhum.<br />
INF1 Mas lá vem que (<strong>ele</strong>) às vezes pega; outras vezes anda mais desencarreirada mas<br />
pega. Olhe, eu costumo, aqui {fp} no meu curral, quando vem [AB|uma tou-] uma vaca<br />
(e) anda mais que uma vez ou duas, pôr-{PH|l�=lhe} um bocado de aguardente na boca.<br />
[COV33]<br />
(298)<br />
INF1 Eu vou-{PH|l�=lhe} explicar. A gente tira um enxame – chama aquilo um<br />
enxame; {fp} <strong>ele</strong> {IP|�tav�=estava} [AB|o cort-] o cortiço cheio de abelhas e a gente vê<br />
se elas estão em termos de dar enxame. Bate, bate, bate assim noutro e põe um cortiço<br />
aquase sem nada. É como está a senhora{fp} Gabriela e o cortiço está ali assim; e a<br />
gente põe aquilo no chão, o outro, com a boca encostada um {PH|�=ao} outro, e começa<br />
a bater no que {PH|�t��j�n�z=tem as} abelhas: tumba, tumba, tumba, tumba, e as abelhas<br />
começam a correr {CT|p�=para o} cortiço sem nada. Quando elas estão para dar mestra!<br />
E depois sai a mestra; só sai uma.<br />
INQ1 Pois.<br />
IN1F E vai lá para dentro e a gente tira-a daqu<strong>ele</strong> sítio e vai levá-la para longe… Sim,<br />
porque{fp} (<strong>ele</strong>)<br />
INQ2 Pois.<br />
351
INF1 se for todas, [AB|elas ga-] elas ganham (uma corrente) [AB|para] {CT|p�=para o}<br />
mesmo. E a gente [AB|mo-] muda-as – como eu tenho-as aqui em baixo, naquela qu<strong>in</strong>ta<br />
que temos em baixo –, e muda-as para onde (não possam)… Nós tivemo-las mais para<br />
baixo, {CT|pa=para a} qu<strong>in</strong>ta que eu disse. Mudo-as para lá e elas começam a trabalhar<br />
e ali estão até… E criam-se ali colmeias [AB|e fi-] e fica ali o coiso.<br />
[COV37]<br />
352<br />
(299)<br />
INF1 E as abelhas só duram, ou dizem que duram… {PH|nu�=Não} duram mais que<br />
dois a três meses.<br />
INQ1 Ai é?<br />
INF1 Porque a abelha, durante aqu<strong>ele</strong> tempo, ela cria-se. E depois, essa doença que veio<br />
é disso: porque veio e as velhas morrem, [AB|e a] e depois elas [AB|fazem uma] têm<br />
criança. Criança é: (é) /<strong>ele</strong>\ o que {RC|faz-=fazem}… Chamam criança é: [AB|nos<br />
próprios] na própria cera, aquilo fica fechado e (<strong>ele</strong>) ali naqu<strong>ele</strong>s buraqu<strong>in</strong>hos cria como<br />
uns bich<strong>in</strong>hos; e aqu<strong>ele</strong>s bichitos é as abelhas.<br />
INQ2 Rhum-rhum.<br />
INF1 E aquilo cria; de três em três meses, aquelas abelh<strong>in</strong>has saem novas e as velhas<br />
morrem; mas {PH|�fik��w�n��=ficam as} novas, nunca morrem.<br />
[COV37]<br />
(300)<br />
INQ2 Não lhe faz reacção?<br />
INF1 Não senhor! E há outros que ficam logo {fp}… Eu não, {PH|nu�=não} ligo nada<br />
àquilo.<br />
INQ2 Pois é.<br />
INF {PH|nu�=Não} ligo nada àquilo. [AB|Elas] Parece que elas até me conhecem. Olhe<br />
que eu vou para lá… A gente tem um peneiro – chama àquilo um peneiro: é uma rede,<br />
INQ1 Sim.<br />
INF1 mas que {PH|nu�=não} passa – e, com uma saca, mete aquilo na cabeça, põe um<br />
chapéu por cima e a gente vê-as e{fp} está a ver. E eu às vezes vou lá, [AB|nem] nem<br />
levo nada disso e elas {PH|nu�=não} me mordem; e se mordem, (<strong>ele</strong>) às vezes, mordemme<br />
na cara {fp}… {PH|nu�=Não} ligo nada àquilo!<br />
INQ2 Não dói nada!<br />
INF Nada! (…)<br />
[COV37]<br />
(301)<br />
INF1 Tanto é que as vacas, as m<strong>in</strong>has vacas agora já estão registadas no nome do meu<br />
filho.<br />
INQ1 Pois.<br />
INF1 Sabe porquê? Porque eu estou a receber a tença e <strong>ele</strong>s {PH|nu�=não} me<br />
{PH|�dav��w�nu=davam o} {fp} subsídio das vacas.<br />
INQ1 Se o tivesse?<br />
INF2 É{fp} verdade.<br />
INF1 E assim pu-lo no meu filho, e o meu filho agora recebe a tença das vacas, sabe?<br />
INQ1 Pois. Sim senhor.
INQ2 Pois.<br />
INF1 Então olhe, (<strong>ele</strong>) como agora vai vir o 'maternário' aí, [AB|vai, vai] as m<strong>in</strong>has<br />
vacas vão ser registadas em nome do meu filho.<br />
INQ1 Pois, pois.<br />
INF1 E <strong>ele</strong> pergunta: "E então, mas o{fp} seu pai"? Virou para mim, eu disse: "Eu deias<br />
{PH|�=ao} meu filho".<br />
[COV39]<br />
(302)<br />
INQ1 E aquilo que se prepara para dar ao porco, é preciso cozer aquilo e misturar a?…<br />
INF Bem, {fp} há-os que… Ele agora já n<strong>in</strong>guém costuma cozer. Nós, antigamente,<br />
cozíamos quando <strong>ele</strong> v<strong>in</strong>ha o tempo de castanhas – (que) também dávamos castanhas.<br />
V<strong>in</strong>ha o tempo [AB|de, de eng-] de engordar os porcos {CT|p���=para os} matar, ou<br />
dois meses antes, cozia-lhe a gente vianda: batatas e castanhas, beterraba ou assim essas<br />
coisas. Mas agora já tudo <strong>ele</strong> se está a dar de cru. E é bem melhor, que não é tanto o<br />
trabalho [AB|e{fp}] e não se come carne…<br />
[OUT32]<br />
(303)<br />
INF1 A gente cortou, pronto, cortou. A gente (vai-lhe) /vai\ cortar à v<strong>in</strong>ha, traz [AB|um]<br />
um enxerto que é este, que é este já o enxerto verdadeiro. Rachou-o aqui, aqui assim,<br />
rachou-o até a este ponto.<br />
INQ1 Rhum-rhum.<br />
INF1 E aqui escavacou-se dum lado e doutro.<br />
INQ1 Dum lado e doutro.<br />
INF1 Dum lado e doutro, bem escavacad<strong>in</strong>ho, a ficar muito, muito coiso. A gente<br />
pegou, dá-{PH|l�=lhe} até uma molhadela para que fique mol<strong>in</strong>ho, mas <strong>ele</strong>, estando <strong>ele</strong>s<br />
bons, não precisam. A gente colocou-o ali, no meio, <strong>ele</strong> entrou para baixo e fica ali fixe.<br />
[OUT55]<br />
2.2.2 In syntactically impersonal constructions<br />
CORDIAL-SIN<br />
(304)<br />
INQ Quando há a<strong>in</strong>da umas maiores, uma coisa a<strong>in</strong>da mais carregada do que a nebl<strong>in</strong>a,<br />
portanto, que nós, que se deixa de ver o sol, diz-se que está?<br />
INF [AB|Isso já são] Já está o céu nublado. São nuvens: {fp} "{fp} [AB|Hoje] Hoje há<br />
nuvens; hoje {IP|ta=está} o céu nublado". Ele aqui nem se diz {PH|nu�bladu=nublado}.<br />
Eu cito-lhe até a palavra que aqui se emprega: " {PH|e�nu�v�adu=nuvrado}". O pessoal<br />
aí, o corrente é : "Ah, o céu hoje está {PH|e�nu���adu=nuvrado}; {fp} hoje está<br />
{PH|e�nu�v�adu=nuvrado}".<br />
[AAL69]<br />
353
354<br />
(305)<br />
INQ1 O milho, depois, como é que se debulhava?<br />
INF O milho depois, se a gente quer, leva-o para uma eira. Logo além está uma {pp}<br />
[AB|cá] cá na qu<strong>in</strong>ta. Aqui atrás [AB|da ga-] daquesta qu<strong>in</strong>ta, {CT|pra�i=para aí}, está<br />
outra. A gente leva-o para uma eira e tem a gente um mangual ou um pau. A<strong>in</strong>da<br />
{PH|nu�=não} viu o mangual? Já? [AB|(Depois dá-lhe a gente uma)]<br />
INQ2 Eu cá não vi.<br />
INQ1 Ah, aqui a<strong>in</strong>da não.<br />
INF [AB|Dá-lhe a gente] Eu tenho lá. (Eu,) /Ele\ na m<strong>in</strong>ha casa, tenho lá. Tem lá a<br />
gente assim… Malha. [AB|Até] Que <strong>ele</strong> até com um pau se malha. A gente assim<br />
{CT|ku�=com um} pauz<strong>in</strong>ho pequeno: tuca-tuca-tuca. A gente malha.<br />
[MST37]<br />
(306)<br />
INQ2 Inventam aquelas bombas horríveis, como a bomba atómica e aquela coisa toda…<br />
INF É! Aquelas bombas. Olhe lá, e diz que [AB|se cair] se cair uma bomba atómica em<br />
Lisboa que a gente aqui que também morre.<br />
INQ1 Claro. Tudo!<br />
INQ2 Claro.<br />
INF Então, está a ver?<br />
INQ1 Aqui e até em Espanha.<br />
INF Então, quer ouvir: {IP|ta=está} provável [AB|que] que o mundo acabe.<br />
INQ2 Pois. Pode ser que o homem tome juízo.<br />
INF Porque <strong>ele</strong> {PH|nu�=não} se compõe. Ele {PH|nu�=não} se compõe. Em todas as<br />
nações há [AB|estas, estas] estas poucas-vergonhas. (Onde) /A<strong>in</strong>da\ <strong>ele</strong> {pp} há<br />
INQ1 É. Andam sempre a embirrar uns com os outros.<br />
INF algum tempo nunca se constava disto! Lembra-me, já do meu tempo, a guerra de<br />
14.<br />
INQ1 Pois.<br />
INF Em 14, foi aquela guerra grande<br />
INQ1 Sim.<br />
INF [AB|na, na] na França. Um primo meu andou lá desde o pr<strong>in</strong>cípio {PH|�=ao} fim.<br />
[COV19]<br />
(307)<br />
INQ E há um… Não há um que, que se peneira segunda vez e que serve para fazer<br />
um?…<br />
INF Ah, isso é o trigo, que <strong>ele</strong> quando se quer tirar a sêmea, que se quer o trigo melhor,<br />
peneira-se duas vezes e depois amassa-se a sêmea à parte. E também sabe bem, a<br />
sêmea, {pp} sempre dá o gosto ao trigo.<br />
[OUT25]<br />
(xxxi)<br />
(308)<br />
INF Depois de se amassar na masseira, {pp} (em) /<strong>ele</strong>\ estando assim já um pouco<br />
enxuta, corta-se aos rolos [AB|e] e dá-se assim… {fp} Por exemplo, (<strong>ele</strong>) é esta a
margem e o pão vira-se para aqui, vira-se para ali, vira-se para aqui, fazem-se assim uns<br />
rol<strong>in</strong>hos. Depois põe-se na esqu<strong>in</strong>a da masseira três ou quatro rolos, conforme a gente<br />
quiser, depois tapa-se {CT|ku�=com um} lençol, depois {PH|ku�=com} uma outra roupa<br />
em cima, depois leveda.<br />
INQ E não se faz uma cruz?<br />
INF Faz-se-lhe uma cruz também.<br />
INQ E o que é que se diz aí?<br />
INF Em nome do Pai, do Filho e do Espírito Santo. (Ámen). É isso que nós fazemos.<br />
Faz-se sempre uma cruz. E depois, (<strong>ele</strong>) em estando lêveda, acende-se o forno. Roja-se<br />
com lenha. Há [AB|uns ro-] uns paus para ranhar os ladrilhos. (Chamamos-{PH|l�=lhe})<br />
ladrilhos [AB|ou ro-] ao chão do forno. Eu também tenho aí um forno, bem grande.<br />
{pp} [AB|E{fp}] E depois em estando rojo e o pão lêvedo, varremos o forno, bem<br />
varrido…<br />
[OUT23]<br />
(309)<br />
INQ2 Mas olhe e de que tamanho são essas bagu<strong>in</strong>has?<br />
INF2 São pequen<strong>in</strong>as.<br />
INQ2 É muito pequen<strong>in</strong>o?<br />
INF2 É.<br />
INQ2 E pret<strong>in</strong>ho?<br />
INF2 [AB|Há os] Há-os em maiores e há-os pequen<strong>in</strong>os.<br />
INQ2 Ah! Se calhar, é…<br />
INQ1 Mas e comem-se, também?<br />
INF1 Comem.<br />
INF2 Comem. Dantes… Ele antigamente, comiam.<br />
INQ1 Mas não se põe na aguardente ou põe-se?<br />
INF1 Põe.<br />
INF2 Põe. Eu pus este ano.<br />
INQ1 Ai sim?<br />
INF2 'Apanhemos', pus, {pp} e com canela.<br />
[OUT04]<br />
2.2.3 In semantically impersonal constructions<br />
(310)<br />
CORDIAL-SIN<br />
INQ2 Não há nada que o senhor diga trasfegar?<br />
INF [AB|Engarrafar, (depois é)] Hã?<br />
INQ2 Trasfegar, fazer a trasfega, não, não se diz aqui?<br />
INF Bem, alguns dizem. Não, nós aqui não. Ele aqui é passar o v<strong>in</strong>ho a limpo. Ou<br />
engarrafar ou passar a limpo. [AB|Quando a gente di-] Como agora, vou ter uma pipa<br />
d<strong>ele</strong> engarrafado, agora tenho lá outra {pp}<br />
[PFT39]<br />
355
356<br />
(xxxii)<br />
INQ Aqui há bom mel?<br />
INF1 É bom o mel, porque aqui é natural.<br />
INQ E onde é que se compra?<br />
INF1 Olhe, agora, já {PH|aj=há} quem venda. Agora, já {PH|aj=há} quem venda. Mas<br />
antigamente só havia aqui um senhor que é que t<strong>in</strong>ha muitas abelhas. Mas agora já<br />
vende{fp}…<br />
INQ Qualquer pessoa.<br />
INF1 Vende qualquer pessoa.<br />
INF2 (Ele hoje é pouco para)… [CTL11]<br />
(xxxiii)<br />
INQ Mas a gente, a gente estava…Pois esse de Porto da Espada sei que arranjou,<br />
portanto, fez, t<strong>in</strong>ha, mas já, já é mais antigo.<br />
INF Bem, isso sempre foi moagem eléctrica,<br />
INQ Sempre foi moagem eléctrica.<br />
INF <strong>ele</strong> ali o de Porto da Espada. [AB|Ele isso] (Ele) /Ali,\ ali até nem passava o rio,<br />
não passava nada. Que <strong>ele</strong> até ali a<strong>in</strong>da não é bem… Sim, é o rio mas [AB|ch-] chamase<br />
a ribeira de Marvão. O rio (em) depois começa (aqui) /que{fp}\…<br />
[AAL22]<br />
(311)<br />
INQ E, mas essa, essa das papas dos, portanto, de fazer papas de milho nos Santos,<br />
a<strong>in</strong>da, a<strong>in</strong>da se lembra de comer ou o senhor já…?<br />
INF1 Então, mesmo hoje a<strong>in</strong>da se faz.<br />
INQ Ah, a<strong>in</strong>da é normal?<br />
INF2 Olhe, deitamos nós um (pacote só para)…<br />
INF1 {fp} Deixe lá ver que em depois fica lá tudo, homem. Fica uns dum lado e depois<br />
não se entende.<br />
INF2 Então vá.<br />
INF1 {fp} Que <strong>ele</strong>, a<strong>in</strong>da hoje, há essa tradição, {pp} cá. [AB|Nós] {fp} Bem, nós cá,<br />
no tempo da m<strong>in</strong>ha mãe, quando nós éramos miúdos, (era) sempre as papas do dia dos<br />
Santos. Era sempre o almoço do dia dos Santos era papas.<br />
[AAL20(Sapeira)]<br />
(312)<br />
INQ Tanto faz mais às mondas como também deve fazer mal à, à planta.<br />
INF Pois. Pois, [AB|eu não concordo com] eu não concordo com a monda química (…).<br />
Pelo menos nas v<strong>in</strong>has, só com Ervax é que eu a<strong>in</strong>da já tenho aí feito. Mas o Ervax<br />
[AB|não] não mata todas as ervas. Mata só aquelas ervas mais (manhosas). Aquelas<br />
ervas mais (manhosas) é aquelas que a gente a<strong>in</strong>da aproveita {CT|p�=para o} gado e<br />
que não fazem tanto mal.<br />
INQ Pois.<br />
INF Pois, {fp} havia de matar mas era as bravas. As que mata as bravas mata as<br />
parreiras! Ah, já {IP|ta=está} a ver que aquilo também não…{fp} Por causa disso é que<br />
eu não concordo muito com isso.<br />
INQ Pois.
INF Que <strong>ele</strong> enquanto não chega lá a tal enxad<strong>in</strong>ha{fp} a cavar e a escolher aquilo tudo<br />
bem e a deitar para trás para (se) secar com o sol, {fp} cá para mim não vai. E isso custa<br />
muito d<strong>in</strong>heiro.<br />
[ AAL28 (Sapeira)]<br />
(313)<br />
INQ1 Portanto, a<strong>in</strong>da há esse nome de ajuda?<br />
INF Pois. A<strong>in</strong>da há esse nome de ajuda. [AB|E, e tem… {fp} Das, da] Das cabras, às<br />
vezes, também tem um [RP|um] rapazito atrás para ajudar {PH|�=ao} homem – que é o<br />
que chamavam só… Esse nome é o ajuda. Mas é: às vezes [AB|não] {pp} tem, outras<br />
vezes {PH|n��=não} tem.<br />
INQ2 E o que é que fazia o 'descontra-moiral'?<br />
INF O 'descontra-moiral' é abaixo do moiral. É o que mandava também da manada do<br />
gado.<br />
INQ2 Mas eram as manadas muito grandes? São três pessoas…<br />
INF Ah, era então! (Ele) ali [RP|ali]… Aqui desta herdade aqui da barroca, era<br />
{PH|��=aos} duzentos bois!<br />
INQ2 Ah!<br />
INF {pp} Vacas, [AB|era] era às duzentas! Aquilo era uma casa {PH|�mu�t�=muito}<br />
rica!<br />
[ALC21]<br />
(314)<br />
INQ2 E um carneiro capado, dão-lhe algum nome?<br />
INF É um carneiro que já {IP|ta=está} capado. "Olha, aqu<strong>ele</strong> carneiro já {IP|ta=está}<br />
capado".<br />
INQ2 E isto é o que se?… É o… Isto é o quê?<br />
INQ1 É o que se tira.<br />
INQ2 E o que se tira quando se corta, quando se capa o, tem algum nome?<br />
INF Aquilo o carneiro, o carneiro tira-se é os 'grões'. Os 'grões', é torcidos. (…) Aquilo<br />
{PH|n��=não} se tira. E é metidos para dentro. Depois é atado com um cordel.<br />
INQ2 Ah! Sim, senhor. Olhe, e quando há… Quando vai o rebanho, há um carneiro que<br />
vai à frente, chamam-lhe algum nome? Que vai a conduzir o rebanho. Vai a guiar o<br />
rebanho, quando…<br />
INF Ah, (<strong>ele</strong>) às vezes é o… Chama-se a guia. É a guia.<br />
INQ1 É uma ovelha ou é um?…<br />
INF É uma ovelha ou um carneiro. Pode ir {fp} à frente {fp} e chamar a guia (porque)<br />
vai a guiar os outros todos.<br />
[ALC26]<br />
(xxxiv)<br />
INF Ah, o p<strong>in</strong>ga-azeite? [AB|É muito] É muito poucos. (Encontra-se) /Encontram-se\ às<br />
vezes dois, três, e passa-se semanas sem se ver nenhum p<strong>in</strong>ga-azeite, que anda sempre<br />
aí a apanhar o peix<strong>in</strong>ho do rio. É um passar<strong>in</strong>ho azul, muito bonito. [AB|Acho que] Ele,<br />
até, parece-me que {PH|n��=não} tem rabo. {pp} O pássaro (que se vê além) sem rabo é<br />
aqu<strong>ele</strong>. {pp} Há o maçarico-real e há o maçarico-marreco, o maçarico pequeno. {pp}<br />
INQ1 Um é o real, e o outro é o?…<br />
[ALV32]<br />
357
358<br />
(xxxv)<br />
INQ1 Agora já não, já não há casas cobertas com palha, pois não?<br />
INF Não. (A<strong>in</strong>da) /Ele\ lá [AB|no] no Covo a<strong>in</strong>da…<br />
INQ1 A<strong>in</strong>da há?<br />
INF Não. Já acabou. A<strong>in</strong>da o ano passado lá havia uma, lá um palheiro lá (donde digo).<br />
(O telhado que tem agora) é telha.<br />
INQ2 Então e aqui também era? Aqui neste?…<br />
INF Era. Tem outra casita. Olhe, acolá era a coz<strong>in</strong>ha e aqui era [AB|outra, outra] outra<br />
casita que era melhor, mais melhorzita [AB|d-] do que o coiso.<br />
[COV18]<br />
(315)<br />
INF Olhe que eu cheguei a romper três num ano! Num Inverno, três! E uma vez, eu<br />
mais um velhote – que [AB|é, é padri-] era padr<strong>in</strong>ho do homem desta senhora que<br />
esteve aqui,<br />
INQ1 Sim.<br />
INF que era o tio Benigno – e depois já tínhamos rompido duas, já andávamos com as<br />
outras – umas pequen<strong>in</strong>as, só aqui assim por cima das costas, pequen<strong>in</strong>as, só aquela<br />
coisita por cima, o outro já t<strong>in</strong>ha acabado tudo. E ali em baixo, onde eu andei com as<br />
vacas hoje, mais para cá um bocadito – nunca me isto esquece; quando me chego lá<br />
lembra-me –, éramos quatro que lá andávamos: três e (<strong>ele</strong>) /eu\ quatro. E (<strong>ele</strong>) isto – no<br />
fim do mês que vem, em Abril – isto era Inverno – o Inverno (dura) estes meses atrás e<br />
agora –, e depois diz <strong>ele</strong> assim: "Eh, rapazes" – (começava) – "Eh, rapazes! Acabou o<br />
Inverno"! "Estou a cortar aqui assim (e isto está mal). Ah, o tempo frio acabou"!<br />
Agarrou-se a nós e partiu-nos as palhoças todas.<br />
[COV31]<br />
(316)<br />
INQ1 E o que é que lhe aconteceu a essa roca? Acabou-se.<br />
INF Sei lá. A casa era lá para cima, aquilo (…)…<br />
INQ2 Rhum-rhum.<br />
INQ1 Olhe, como é que a senhora chama a esta parte de cima, que fica para cima da<br />
roca? Ou não tem nome nenhum? Se não tiver nome nenhum…<br />
INF Aqui é o roquilho. Aqui no meio é o roquilho.<br />
INQ1 No meio? A parte mais grossa? Ou, ou é esta, este, esta rodela?<br />
INF Aqui, aqui, aqui esta parte é o roquilho, assim.<br />
INQ1 A parte da barriga.<br />
INF Agora aqui{fp}, então, isto pertence tudo à roca, não é? Daqui para cima [AB|é, é]<br />
é tudo roca. (Ele aqui) /Eu, aqui,\ [AB|é] é um pauz<strong>in</strong>ho para cima, pronto. É amparo de<br />
pôr o manelo. Por exemplo, agora, a gente tem a estriga, {fp} põe-na assim na mão,<br />
começa assim com um pouqu<strong>in</strong>ho, zás, zás, zás, zás, zás, zás, enrosca, enrosca até que<br />
se enrosca. Depois de {IP|�ta�=estar} enroscado, bate-se isto. Vai-se assim<br />
{CT|�kum�=com uma} mão e{fp} uma parte bota-se para acá, outra para alá, vai-se<br />
{CT|ku=com o} cartapaço, (<strong>ele</strong>) põe-se por cima…<br />
[OUT16]
(317)<br />
MONOGRAPHS<br />
Êl sampre há cada burro! (Ervedosa do Douro, <strong>in</strong> Azevedo 1928-9: p.160)<br />
(318)<br />
[penar cá em baixo para se estar bem lá em cima] Está bem, <strong>ele</strong> lá tem que haver<br />
alguém que dom<strong>in</strong>e isto; isso até aí está de acordo (Escusa, <strong>in</strong> Baptista 1967: 197)<br />
2.3 Before other peripheral constituents<br />
2.3.1 In referential subject contexts<br />
(319)<br />
CORDIAL-SIN<br />
INF Bem, <strong>ele</strong>, uma pessoa, para desengatar [AB|se {PH|nu�=não} tiver f-]… Uma<br />
pessoa, quando afundeia o barco, [AB|nes-] {CT|kw�=com a} âncora, bota {pp}<br />
[AB|uma] um filame, um filame {pp} de corda, agarrado à unha [AB|e com uma] e com<br />
uma bóia. Se o ferro encaixou e {PH|nu�=não} solta, que no barco {PH|nu�=não} solta,<br />
[AB|vai-] apanha-se [AB|aquela] aquela bo<strong>in</strong>ha {pp} e puxa-se por o filame. Ela já<br />
desencaixa.<br />
[VPA27]<br />
(320)<br />
INF {fp} Isso é uma{fp}… Chamam-lhe aqui (assim) a abelha do gado. Isso, o gado,<br />
{pp} em bem… Essa mosca persegue muito os animais é, mais ou menos, {pp} dentro<br />
de Abril e Maio – é que é [AB|o pio-] o pior mês para isso. Isso {pp} quando dá nos<br />
animais, não há diabos que segurem o animal. Ele o animal o que quer é fugir.<br />
[CBV71]<br />
(321)<br />
INF Não senhor. {fp} Em se acabando de colher, prontos! Se fica às vezes algum, fica.<br />
INQ Mas antes não se fazia voltar, portanto, não se costumava ver?<br />
INF Não. {pp} (Ele) a gente começa a colher e [AB|aquilo] aquilo, <strong>ele</strong> (o) que vai (é) às<br />
l<strong>in</strong>has. {pp} [AB|Va-] Vai uma pessoa ou duas em cada l<strong>in</strong>ha, por aí fora, por aí fora.<br />
Chegava {CT|�=ao} cabo da l<strong>in</strong>ha voltam para outra. [AB|Acaba-se] Acaba-se-lhe de<br />
chegar {CT|�=ao} fundo, {CT|�=ao{fp}} acabamento da v<strong>in</strong>ha, pronto! {pp}<br />
{IP|ta=Está} a v<strong>in</strong>ha colhida.<br />
[MST35]<br />
(xxxvi)<br />
INF2 (Isso é verdade, é).<br />
INQ Parece que já está tudo, aquilo que o senhor sabe e… fora o resto.<br />
359
INF2 [AB| A vida tem sido] Muito dura a gente! Muito dura a gente! (A) /Ele\<br />
trabalhar toda a vida nisto, muito a gente dura!<br />
[MST25]<br />
360<br />
(322)<br />
INQ2 Pois. Mas nem tudo, nem toda essa massa se aproveita, pois não?<br />
INF Aproveita-se toda.<br />
INQ1 Então, mas há uma parte que fica molhada.<br />
INF [AB|É, a ma-, a massa] A massa aproveita-se toda, agora…<br />
INQ2 Mas há uma parte do coalho que não se aproveita.<br />
INF Mas… Pois{fp}! Mas é que (<strong>ele</strong>) essa dita massa, depois de a massa se<br />
{IP|ta�=estar} fabricando, é que vai aparecendo {pp}<br />
INQ2 O quê?<br />
INF o chorrilho – que se chama o chorrilho. {pp} É que enquanto a massa está ali,<br />
[AB|que {PH|n��=não}] que {PH|n��=não} se está mexendo, {PH|n��=não} tem água<br />
nenhuma separada. A água só se vê despois de a gente a fabricar. {pp} Quando se está<br />
fazendo os queijos é que a água começa a aparecer.<br />
[SRP32]<br />
(323)<br />
INF1 Ele depois de vir do lago é que se amaçava. Amaçava-se bem amaçado. E<br />
estendia-se na rua…<br />
INQ1 Amaçava-se com o quê?<br />
INF1 {CT|ku��=Com a} maça. [AB|Um] Um pau assim grosso numa ponta e a outra<br />
ponta delgad<strong>in</strong>ha. A gente pegava e 'dia' batendo {CT|p��=para o}… Olha, assim<br />
{CT|ku�ma=como a} senhora está pegando. Mas aqui era mais grosso. [AB|Esta ponta]<br />
Esta ponta grossa…<br />
[FLF17]<br />
(324)<br />
INQ2 Olhe, e o que é um leitão?<br />
INF Um leitão? É um porco pequen<strong>in</strong>o.<br />
INQ1 É o mesmo que o bácoro?<br />
INF É. (É) um leitão.<br />
INQ2 Ou é só quando já está, quando é para matar?<br />
INF (Ele), o porco, o porco quando é pequen<strong>in</strong>o {pp} tem uns poucos de nomes.<br />
INQ2 Pois, é isso que a gente quer.<br />
INQ1 Ah! Então diga lá.<br />
INF [AB|É] É leitão, é bácoro e é marrã. Todos estes nomes <strong>ele</strong> tem, {pp} quando é<br />
pequen<strong>in</strong>o.<br />
[ALC29]<br />
(325)<br />
INQ2 Olhe, é assim uma coisa, assim como esta?<br />
INF É. [AB|isto é-, isto era] Isto que está aqui {pp} era como a gente fazia cá: metia-se<br />
(…), um pernil aqui e outro daqui; e depois era aqui atado a corda, aqui à escada.<br />
INQ1 E como é que se chama isto?<br />
INF Isto aqui {fp}era o [RP|o]… Ai!
INQ2 Chambaril?<br />
INF Hum… Ele isso aqui a gente chamava um [RP|um]… Não era gancho, era…<br />
Parece que era o pernil que a gente chamava a isto. Pois.<br />
INQ1 Chambaril não?<br />
INF Chambaril? Não era {RC|cha-=chambaril}.<br />
INQ1 Não.<br />
INF "Traz lá o pau{fp} do pernil"! {pp} Era este pau.<br />
INQ2 O pau de pernil?<br />
INF Rhum. Porque{fp} este pau {pp} é que era de entalar dentro dos 'perniles' das<br />
pernas do porco.<br />
[ALC30]<br />
(326)<br />
INF Aqui, ia-se para ali trabalhar, era à semana. Quando chegava {PH|�=ao} sábado, se<br />
não precisasse de todos, despedia. Ficava lá só com aqu<strong>ele</strong>s que <strong>ele</strong> entendia.<br />
INQ1 Pois.<br />
INF E aqui a trabalhar dentro das fazendas, também aquase sempre era à semana. E<br />
{PH|l��vavi�=levavam} depois mais do que uma semana, conforme o trabalho que lá<br />
'houvia'. [AB|Nunca, nunca] E aqui [AB|só se f-, só] só ia por um dia [AB|quando era<br />
assim à {pp}] quando era algum fazendeiro mais pequen<strong>in</strong>o, que era trabalho pouco, ia<br />
um dia ou dois. {fp}<br />
INQ1 E então esses que iam um dia ou dois, dava-lhe algum nome, a esses<br />
trabalhadores que vão só por um dia ou dois?<br />
INF (Ele) o nome que <strong>ele</strong> se dava [AB|é] era dois trabalhadores.<br />
INQ2 E eram pagos?<br />
INQ1 Jornaleiros não?…<br />
INF Não. [AB|Jornaleiro é{fp} é o] O jornaleiro [AB|não] não se emprega aqui.<br />
INQ1 Não?<br />
INQ2 Mas esses que trabalhavam um dia ou dois, não eram pagos à semana?<br />
INF Não. Recebiam logo o d<strong>in</strong>heiro [AB|assim que, que] à noite.<br />
[ALC34]<br />
(327)<br />
INQ1 Olhe e uma, uma erva que servia para fazer chás, contra a sarna?<br />
INF Uma erva que serve para fazer chás?<br />
INQ1 Sim. Tomava-se chá contra a sarna.<br />
INF Isso há{fp} aí muitos…<br />
INQ2 Essa pergunta é qual?<br />
INQ1 Esta. Está aqui explicado, como explicação.<br />
INF [AB|Há um, há{fp}] ('Houvia' <strong>ele</strong>) muitas ervas dessas que se fazia chá, mas <strong>ele</strong> o<br />
nome dela é que eu não sei.<br />
[ALC44]<br />
(328)<br />
A m<strong>in</strong>ha mulher {PH|nu�=não} queria que <strong>ele</strong> casasse com ela. Vai [AB|e, e] e <strong>ele</strong> disseme<br />
aquilo e eu fui-me enfiar na cama, que estivemos a conversar eu mais ela, e eu disselhe:<br />
"Olha, {PH|nu�=não} adianta nada; o Arquimedes vai casar com a Beatriz". "Ai, e o<br />
que ela fez"! "Pscht, cala-te! Tu também {PH|nu�=não} eras uma criada de servir? E<br />
361
{PH|nu�=não} te querias casar e {PH|nu�=não} te casaste? Então deixa-o lá.<br />
{PH|nu�=Não} quero que {PH|l�=lhe} digas nada. (É) à vontade d<strong>ele</strong>, e se é à vontade…<br />
E <strong>ele</strong> quer {fp} aquela, muito bem. Se quisesse outra, era a mesma coisa, pronto! É à<br />
vontade d<strong>ele</strong>s. Ele quem se casa são <strong>ele</strong>s"!<br />
INQ1 Pois.<br />
INF "{PH|nu�=Não} somos nós, pronto"! Vai {pp}, e <strong>ele</strong> foi comb<strong>in</strong>ou a mais {fp}o<br />
sogro – que hoje é sogro d<strong>ele</strong> – comb<strong>in</strong>ou, naqu<strong>ele</strong> tempo, dar-{PH|l�=lhe} c<strong>in</strong>quenta<br />
contos, {pp} à filha, e <strong>ele</strong> casar com ela.<br />
[COV13]<br />
(329)<br />
INF Olhe que o homem leu isso lá diante de mim e eu nunca mais me [AB|esq-] passou<br />
de ideia. Eu já era um rapazote aí com os meus onze (dos) doze anos ou treze. E <strong>ele</strong><br />
disse que havia de haver uma guerra {fp} em Portugal, que há-de ser vencida pelos<br />
homens de sessenta anos [AB|em{fp}] no Campo de Ourique em Lisboa, que já<br />
{PH|nu�=não} havia de haver (era) mocidade nenhuma.<br />
INQ1 Ai, meu Deus!<br />
INF Que os homens de sessenta anos que é que haviam de fazer uma guerra! E que as<br />
mulheres, nestas aldeias, quando vissem um homem – quer dizer, cá como os<br />
'aciprestes', quer dizer, como os padres – e quando vissem um homem que haviam de<br />
dizer assim: "Louvado seja o Senhor, lá vem um homem"!<br />
INQ2 Meu Deus!<br />
INF Olhe que aquilo no livro! E <strong>ele</strong> eu, o homem leu aquilo diante de mim!<br />
INQ2 Pois, pois, pois, pois.<br />
INF Diante de mim e um tio meu, dois tios meus. E eu era miudito fiquei com aquilo na<br />
ideia, depois [AB|bem queria] bem andei até às voltas dos sobr<strong>in</strong>hos d<strong>ele</strong> a ver se lhe<br />
caçava esse livro. De coiro, hoje, {PH|nu�nu=não o} dava antes que me dessem<br />
c<strong>in</strong>quenta contos.<br />
[COV18]<br />
362<br />
(330)<br />
INF1 Sabe? [AB|Quem me deu] Quem me deu essa coisa foi [AB|o] o doutor<br />
'maternário' da Pecuária de Aveiro. (Por causa que) os meus bois eram da Pecuária;<br />
agora já [RP|agora]… Eram da Pecuária, eram meus! Foi sempre [AB|com] do meu<br />
d<strong>in</strong>heiro. Mas [AB|o, <strong>ele</strong> o da Pecuária] o doutor da Pecuária, {fp} [AB|não houve-] eu<br />
queixava-me, às vezes, os lavradores, coitados, [AB|que] que andavam três, quatro,<br />
c<strong>in</strong>co vezes ou seis vezes a vaca {PH|�=ao} touro. E depois eu dizia… Queixei-me um<br />
dia {PH|�=ao} doutor: "Ó senhor doutor! Aquilo {PH|nu�=não} está bem. Os homens<br />
queixam-se [AB|que] que as vacas que {PH|nu�=não} pegam e como é que vai ser"? Diz<br />
<strong>ele</strong> assim: "Tu que é que {PH|l�=lhe} fazes"? "Ó senhor doutor, {PH|nu�=não} faço<br />
nada. Ponho-{PH|l�=lhe} o boi e{fp} pronto"!<br />
[COV33]<br />
(xxxvii)<br />
INF1 E as abelhas só duram, ou dizem que duram… {PH|nu�=Não} duram mais que<br />
dois a três meses.<br />
INQ1 Ai é?
INF1 Porque a abelha, durante aqu<strong>ele</strong> tempo, ela cria-se. E depois, essa doença que veio<br />
é disso: porque veio e as velhas morrem, [AB|e a] e depois elas [AB|fazem uma] têm<br />
criança. Criança é: (é) /<strong>ele</strong>\ o que {RC|faz-=fazem}… Chamam criança é: [AB|nos<br />
próprios] na própria cera, aquilo fica fechado e (<strong>ele</strong>) ali naqu<strong>ele</strong>s buraqu<strong>in</strong>hos cria como<br />
uns bich<strong>in</strong>hos; e aqu<strong>ele</strong>s bichitos é as abelhas.<br />
[COV37]<br />
(331)<br />
INF1 Não, não senhor. Não é o veneno da… Mesmo das 'cardelas'… As 'cardelas' não<br />
são nada venenosas, nem os níscaros dos p<strong>in</strong>heirais, nem… Já tem morrido gente,<br />
também, já eu tenho 'ouvisto' no rádio e até oiço contado por aqui: "Olha, morreu {pp}<br />
[AB|u-, u-] uma família quase em tal sítio com os tais níscaros dos p<strong>in</strong>heirais {fp} e<br />
assim". Mas não é porque…<br />
INF2 "Uma família em tal sítio, tal (assim) [AB|uma]"… O meu não me dá a comer<br />
desses do p<strong>in</strong>heiral.<br />
INQ1 Ai não?<br />
INF1 Não é porque <strong>ele</strong>s são…<br />
INF2 Não. E as 'cardelas'… {fp} Bem, <strong>ele</strong>{fp} eu é que (isto) sou teimosa e vou a elas e<br />
lá escaldo-as muito {pp} e coisa.<br />
INF1 Eu como-as sem esse (comprimido). {pp} Para comer a 'cardela' {fp}…<br />
INF2 Mas os níscaros [AB|não mos deixa ir a] não me deixa ir a <strong>ele</strong>s, porque depois a<br />
ur<strong>in</strong>a é tal e qual como <strong>ele</strong>s. A ur<strong>in</strong>a amarela, amarela, amarela!<br />
INF1 É.<br />
INF2 Ele depois uma vez comeu e disse assim: "A mim não me tragas mais que eu não<br />
te quero cá mais isso em casa". É verdade! A ur<strong>in</strong>a é tal e qual como <strong>ele</strong>s. Uma ur<strong>in</strong>a<br />
amarela!<br />
[OUT07]<br />
(332)<br />
INQ1 Mas não vêm para fora da terra, ficam lá dentro então?<br />
INF3 Não, não. [AB|T- Botam] Botam uma flor.<br />
INF2 Não. Botam a florz<strong>in</strong>ha branca. Dão um pez<strong>in</strong>ho e uma flor branca.<br />
INF3 Uma flor branca.<br />
INF1 [AB|Estão sempre] Estão sempre [AB|na] na terra.<br />
INF2 Mas todos [AB|{PH|nu�=não}, {PH|nu�=não}] {PH|nu�=não} saem para fora.<br />
INQ2 Pois.<br />
INF2 Está tudo ali… Só que a gente os escava muito fundo… A gente, quando era<br />
pequena, sabe Deus a fome {pp} <strong>ele</strong> como apurava! E andava sempre a saber d<strong>ele</strong>s {fp}<br />
e bem que os mamava e {fp} marchava.<br />
INF1 Eu também andei contigo…<br />
INF2 Não t<strong>in</strong>ha o lombo que tenho hoje!<br />
[OUT08]<br />
(333)<br />
INQ1 Coz<strong>in</strong>hados. Pois. Será o nabo?<br />
INF Quando é com o polvo,<br />
INQ1 Sim.<br />
363
INF no Natal, que é quando <strong>ele</strong>s se comem… É quando <strong>ele</strong>s se comem é na véspera do<br />
Natal. No Natal mesmo! Quase n<strong>in</strong>guém… Não sendo no Natal, (<strong>ele</strong>) quem é que os<br />
come?! N<strong>in</strong>guém.<br />
INQ1 É que os come. Pois.<br />
INF Já são próprios para isso.<br />
[OUT50]<br />
364<br />
(334)<br />
INF Eles abraçaram-me (logo ali), tanto <strong>ele</strong> como ela, e beijaram-me.<br />
INQ1 O mundo é muito mais pequen<strong>in</strong>o que o que a gente pensa.<br />
INF É verdade. [AB|E en-] E então uma criança das mais pequen<strong>in</strong>as {pp} foi-me a<br />
dizer adeus. {pp} Pronto, beijou-me, foi-me a dizer… Falava tanto! Ai, que (<strong>ele</strong>) /eu\ se<br />
eu gostei da garota! E ao ir-se embora, lá {PH|l�=lhe} esqueceu qualquer coisa: "Olhe,<br />
m<strong>in</strong>ha senhora, a<strong>in</strong>da se me esquecia uma coisa: {PH|nu�=não} {PH|l�=lhe} disse para<br />
passar muito bem a Páscoa. Passe muito bem a Páscoa"! Ora a garota! Ora esta! Todos<br />
tão educados, os men<strong>in</strong>os!<br />
INQ1 Que engraçado!<br />
[OUT15]<br />
(335)<br />
INQ1 E aquilo que se prepara para dar ao porco, é preciso cozer aquilo e misturar a?…<br />
INF Bem, {fp} há-os que… Ele agora já n<strong>in</strong>guém costuma cozer. Nós, antigamente,<br />
cozíamos quando <strong>ele</strong> v<strong>in</strong>ha o tempo de castanhas – (que) também dávamos castanhas.<br />
V<strong>in</strong>ha o tempo [AB|de, de eng-] de engordar os porcos {CT|p���=para os} matar, ou<br />
dois meses antes, cozia-lhe a gente vianda: batatas e castanhas, beterraba ou assim essas<br />
coisas. Mas agora já tudo <strong>ele</strong> se está a dar de cru. E é bem melhor, que não é tanto o<br />
trabalho [AB|e{fp}] e não se come carne…<br />
INQ1 Claro. Mas e <strong>ele</strong>s comem na mesma?<br />
INF Ah, pois, se forem habituados, (<strong>ele</strong>) que remédio têm!<br />
INQ2 E ficam à mesma bons?<br />
INF Ficam melhores, até.<br />
[OUT32]<br />
(336)<br />
INQ É um homem especial? É sempre o mesmo?<br />
INF {fp} Não. Sempre o mesmo, não. Olhe, [AB|o] o meu, que Deus tem, [AB|matou]<br />
aqui aos viz<strong>in</strong>hos, {PH|m��tav�luz=matava-lhos} a todos. {pp} Ha! (Ai, eu) /Ele eu\!<br />
Bem, [AB|há muit-] há várias pessoas que {PH|�mat��w�nu�=matam os} porcos,<br />
{PH|nu�=não} é? Mas [AB|{PH|nu�=não}] {PH|nu�=não} é toda a gente [AB|que] que<br />
sabe.<br />
INQ Mas, cada família, chama sempre o mesmo, é sempre a mesma pessoa que vem<br />
para aquela família ou, ou, ou este ano vem um, para o ano vem outro?<br />
INF Não, não, não. Ele, a nós, também, o meu sabia-os matar e depois, ultimamente,<br />
até os {PH|m��tav��w�nuz=matavam os} outros.<br />
[OUT34]
(337)<br />
Ele quem foi que pôs aqui o arroz?<br />
(338)<br />
MONOGRAPHS<br />
Ele qu’home é este? (Germil: 176)<br />
(339)<br />
<strong>ele</strong> quem foi que pôs aqui o saco (Quadrazais, <strong>in</strong> Braga 1971: 171)<br />
A PLANÍCIE HERÓICA<br />
(340)<br />
Lá um ou outro caso n<strong>in</strong>guém no pode evitar, já se deixa ver, que êle onde está o mel aí<br />
estão as abelhas. (p.115)<br />
(341)<br />
(...) Atirei a muitos, mas errei muitos, que êle até o mais valente lhe tremem as pernas<br />
quando se dá fé dum diabo dêsses. (p.124)<br />
(342)<br />
O que havia de fazer já está feito. Que êle, quando uma pessôa chega a esta desgraça,<br />
sem ter nada, o melhor é o diabo levar-nos, Deus Nosso Senhor nos perdôe. (p.154)<br />
(343)<br />
Enleadas de bacoreiras, pois que hade ser? Que êle cada vez mais são mais as zorras<br />
nêste excomungado povo! (p.210)<br />
(344)<br />
Esta Catr<strong>in</strong>a Amoja, rascôa de Beja que tanto escandalizava o povo, tomára-a o padre<br />
Dionísio por diligências dum bom paroquiano das hortas, o que pudera alcançar para<br />
um remedeio, que êle andando tudo na lida das suas casas, n<strong>in</strong>guém se encontrava que<br />
quisesse ir servir para a casa do padre prior. (p.249)<br />
(345)<br />
- Sr. prior, eu cá o que tenho a dizer, digo logo, que êle, graças a Deus, sapos não tenho<br />
na língua, nem sou homem de reservas. (p.239)<br />
365
366<br />
(346)<br />
Lá porque o pobre do padre não t<strong>in</strong>ha onde cair morto, o dia d’amanhã n<strong>in</strong>guém no vira<br />
a<strong>in</strong>da, que êle casa, vissem como tivera artes de a alcançar, e terra t<strong>in</strong>ha-a quanta<br />
quisesse do sr. lavrador Joaquim dos Cardeais que engraçára com êle (p.235)<br />
(347)<br />
Que êle co’o filho da m<strong>in</strong>ha mãe não manga nenhum cachorro! (p.213)<br />
(348) cleft<br />
Só o que sei é que rompi charneca até aos qu<strong>in</strong>tos <strong>in</strong>fernos, que êle aqui há tr<strong>in</strong>ta anos o<br />
que havia mais era mato bravo, e sameava-se só à roda do povo e das herdades, como<br />
vossemecê bem sabe. (p.120)<br />
(349)<br />
Ele onde é o seu quartel, sr. prior? (p.74)<br />
2.3.2 In syntactically impersonal constructions<br />
CORDIAL-SIN<br />
(350)<br />
Depois havia senhorios que semeavam aí v<strong>in</strong>te e tr<strong>in</strong>ta moios, era v<strong>in</strong>te ou tr<strong>in</strong>ta<br />
(qu<strong>in</strong>teiros) que metiam. Depois aquilo era tudo debulhado assim nos ('vais'), tudo<br />
assim com gado, tudo à roda. {fp} Aqui arranjava um bocado. Ou andava aqui {fp} o<br />
gado a talhar naqueste… {fp} [AB|Alimp-] Moíam aqueste, estendiam logo além outro,<br />
que era {CT|p�=para o} gado nunca parar. Quando moíam naqu<strong>ele</strong>, os homens andavam<br />
aqui a limpar aqueste; depois moíam naqu<strong>ele</strong>, estendiam outro – ou aqui, ou noutro lado<br />
–, passava o gado para aqu<strong>ele</strong>, limpavam aqu<strong>ele</strong>. Era sempre assim.<br />
INQ1 E como é que chamava a cada bocado que se punha ali para debulhar? Que n-,<br />
que não se punha a seara toda, de uma vez…<br />
INF Ah{fp} pois! {fp} (Ele a<strong>in</strong>da lá ficava). Bom, (que <strong>ele</strong> aquilo) {PH|nu�=não} se<br />
punha toda.<br />
INQ1 Como é que se chamava a cada bocado que se punha na eira, ant-, para começar a<br />
debulhar?<br />
[MST33]<br />
MONOGRAPHS<br />
(351)<br />
O Santo mais festejad’aqui? Ele agora já nã festejom santes nenhuns, nem resguardom<br />
nada!... (Od<strong>ele</strong>ite, <strong>in</strong> Segura da Cruz 1969: 152)
(352)<br />
A PLANÍCIE HERÓICA<br />
A<strong>in</strong>da me lembra, nos bons tempos, as festas que se faziam tôdos os anos, que até se<br />
juntavam moios de trigo, e mais êle então colhia-se pouco. (p.50)<br />
(353)<br />
- Lobos! Diga-me vossemecê cá! Ele só por obra dum acaso se pilhava um ladrão<br />
dêsses.<br />
(354)<br />
Berraria o velho, mas ora!, de chacut<strong>in</strong>as n<strong>in</strong>guém morria, e êle nem mouco se ficava.<br />
(p.251)<br />
2.3.3 In semantically impersonal constructions<br />
CORDIAL-SIN<br />
(355)<br />
INF Mas, <strong>ele</strong> havia muita fome, naqu<strong>ele</strong> tempo. A fome, m<strong>in</strong>ha senhora… [AB|Nós<br />
passá… A ver…] Ele a fome {PH|nu�=não} havia! Havia muita comida com<br />
abundância, mas {PH|nu�=não} se podia comer. Olhe, as batatas v<strong>in</strong>ham, iam<br />
{CT|pa=para a} panela desta cor, com tona e tudo. Peixe, o peixe,<br />
{PH|saw��au�=salgavam-no} assim [AB|num {pp}] num cabaz.<br />
[VPA06]<br />
(356)<br />
INQ1 E também costumam a comer com açúcar isto, ou não?<br />
INF1 Também é bom! Com açúcar {fp}! O requeijão é bom!<br />
INQ1 Pois, depois de cozido.<br />
INF1 Depois de cozido, é muito bom com açúcar! Há pessoas que comem com açúcar,<br />
outras sem açúcar. Mas (<strong>ele</strong>) /eu\, por acaso, quem cá costuma a comer quase sempre<br />
lhe deitam açúcar. Bom, (<strong>ele</strong>) /eu\, o senhor Amadeu e a senhora {pp}, é raro {pp}.<br />
{PH|nu�=Não} comem. Mas, por exemplo, têm um sobr<strong>in</strong>ho – diz que é médico – e<br />
assim mais pessoas, gostam muito. E, às vezes, quando estão, eu já tenho feito, já tenho<br />
'fazido'. {pp} E é bom.<br />
[MST01]<br />
(357)<br />
INQ1 A marrã, já com filhos?<br />
INF Não. Pode ser uma marrã sem ter filhos.<br />
INQ1 Então…<br />
INF É uma marrã à mesma.<br />
INQ1 Então diga lá.<br />
367
INF Por exemplos, quando a gente vai matar um {RC|p-=porco}, {PH|�vajmu�=vamos}<br />
[AB|à, ao, ao] à engorda, (ao campo,) em casa do lavrador. Tem lá porcos – engordou<br />
durante o Inverno – e é agora neste tempo, já foi no mês passado, geralmente é sempre<br />
ali em Janeiro, {pp} e alguns é em Fevereiro, mas é quase sempre (ali no mês do<br />
Natal)… Vai-se lá, compra-se um porco {pp}, ou compra-se uma marrã.<br />
{IP|t��w�=Estão} gordos, {pp} é um porco ou uma marrã. Mas isso, isso (<strong>ele</strong>) tanto faz!<br />
INQ1 Tanto faz. É um porco ou uma marrã. A fêmea do porco é a marrã?<br />
INF (Pois. Pois). A marrã. Pois.<br />
[LVR18]<br />
368<br />
MONOGRAPHS<br />
(358)<br />
Ele agora não chove (Nisa, <strong>in</strong> Carreiro 1948: 73)<br />
(359)<br />
Ele hoje não chove. (Colos, <strong>in</strong> Guerreiro 1968: 351)<br />
(360)<br />
Ele onte trovejou. (Od<strong>ele</strong>ite, <strong>in</strong> Segura da Cruz 1969: 153)<br />
(361)<br />
<strong>ele</strong> por ora no é preciso (Quadrazais, <strong>in</strong> Braga 1971: 176)<br />
(362)<br />
<strong>ele</strong> alguma coisa fez... [Aconteceu alguma coisa]<br />
(Od<strong>ele</strong>ite, <strong>in</strong> Segura da Cruz 1969: 153)<br />
[verbo fazer impessoal com o sentido de “acontecer”]<br />
A PLANÍCIE HERÓICA<br />
(363)<br />
Pois sim sr., sr. prior, sim sr., pela m<strong>in</strong>ha parte já sabe que da melhor vontade. E estou<br />
que não hade ser preciso falar a muita gente, que êle aí na aldeia, graças a Deus, há<br />
pouca pobreza que necessite de escola. (p.49)<br />
(364)<br />
- E a respeito de caça, a<strong>in</strong>da mata o seu coelh<strong>in</strong>ho? – preguntava o lavrador gostando de<br />
o ouvir. – Que êle agora pouca caça há. (p.126)<br />
(365)<br />
Nêsses casos é que vossemecê hade ouvir mais falatórios, êle tudo contra o casmurro do<br />
pai, e da banda dos pomb<strong>in</strong>hos já se vê, que o merecem quási sempre, que êle aqui,<br />
como lhe eu disse a vossemecê, é coisa rara haver poucas-vergonhas e quando uma
moça deixa a casa dos pais por via dum rapaz é por se / quererem bem e p’ra se<br />
encasalarem p’ra toda a vida. (pp.115/6)<br />
(366)<br />
- Esta é uma dos diabos! – arremetia o aldeão. – Que êle ou não há Deus, ou então não<br />
olha cá p’ra baixo, Nosso Senhor me perdôe! (p.123)<br />
(367)<br />
- Que êle, por enquanto, não ha nada que se veja! (p.199)<br />
(368)<br />
Bebedanas ! Que êle dês que se foi a guarda é um desassossêgo nêste povo! (p.248)<br />
(369)<br />
- charnecas é como o outro que diz, que êle da charneca só há o chão! – e que mal<br />
soletrei duas letras em moço pequeno, que êle tudo se me varreu já (p.243)<br />
(370)<br />
Mas, óra!, êle sempre foi assim tôda a vida e nem por isso as igrejas fecharam nem<br />
deixou de haver gente cristã. (p.244)<br />
(371)<br />
... Mas aquilo por força era maltês, que êle dês que a guarda abalou, até há já p’rá’í<br />
quadrilhas! (p.248)<br />
(372)<br />
E muito contente e azougado, gritou para as mulheres que assassem uma l<strong>in</strong>güiça, que<br />
êle com a ralação da tarde tirára-se-lhe a vontade e não comera com jeito. (p.173)<br />
(373)<br />
E voltava aos bons tempos da charneca, que êle, p’ra quem fôra caçador como o tio<br />
João Lobeira, dava pena ter acabado de tôdo o mato. (p.123)<br />
(374)<br />
- Pois se o trigo lh’o deram a vossemecê!... Ele com pouco mais de outro tanto já lhe<br />
chegava p’ro barr<strong>in</strong>ho que lhe quere dar o lavrador dos Cardeais. (p.146)<br />
(375)<br />
- Ora, mas não é a mesma coisa, e quando êle assim me custa já tanto, não sei o que<br />
seria se abalasse... Nem eu sei o que faria! (p.162)<br />
(376) cfr.<br />
... e t<strong>in</strong>ham pena dos M<strong>in</strong>gorras, que êle bem certo é o que se diz – quem para o mal<br />
alheio não é, não espere no seu n<strong>in</strong>guém ao pé. (p.287)<br />
369
2.4 In Imperative Sentence<br />
370<br />
(377)<br />
INF2 Quer passar por lá (para ver)?<br />
INF1 Ele vamos embora! [AB|Ele que-] Se lá (queres) /quisesses\ ir ver {fp}…<br />
INQ Não, não vou, não vou. Não é preciso ir ao mo<strong>in</strong>ho. Não, não, obrigado.<br />
INF1 Não? Vamos embora, então. Vamos.<br />
INF2 (…)<br />
INQ Obrigado.<br />
[FIG27]<br />
(378)<br />
INF1 Porquê? Ó senhora Gabriela, <strong>ele</strong> desculpe de {PH|l�=lhe} eu dizer.<br />
INQ1 Não, não. Diga, diga.<br />
INF1 Mas {pp} {PH|nu�=não} faz bem a n<strong>in</strong>guém.<br />
INQ1 Pois não. É péssimo. Só faz mal.<br />
INF1 {PH|nu�=Não} faz bem. Olhe que a morte do meu irmão foi o tabaco.<br />
INQ2 Rhum-rhum.<br />
INF1 Olhe que o meu irmão fumava, naqu<strong>ele</strong> tempo, sete onças de tabaco por semana.<br />
INQ1 Hi!<br />
INF1 Sete livros de papel! {pp} Até fumava de noite!<br />
[COV35]<br />
2.5 Head<strong>in</strong>g a phrase<br />
CORDIAL-SIN<br />
(379)<br />
INQ Portanto, com esse copo… Isso é mais antigo do que o, a…?<br />
INF {fp} Não, o copo é mais{fp}… Bem, mais antigo, <strong>ele</strong> isto… Sabe a vantagem que<br />
há, a diferença que há? Porque todo este que é torneado, {pp} m<strong>in</strong>ha senhora, que é<br />
torneado ao torno, {pp} os gajos {PH|��plike�=aplicam} o copo. {pp} E todo esse que é<br />
feito à mão, {pp} quer dizer, já [AB|não] não {PH|��plike�=aplicam} o copo.<br />
[AAL43( Sapeira)]<br />
(380)<br />
INQ Mas a gente, a gente estava…Pois esse de Porto da Espada sei que arranjou,<br />
portanto, fez, t<strong>in</strong>ha, mas já, já é mais antigo.<br />
INF Bem, isso sempre foi moagem eléctrica,<br />
INQ Sempre foi moagem eléctrica.<br />
INF <strong>ele</strong> ali o de Porto da Espada. [AB|Ele isso] (Ele) /Ali,\ ali até nem passava o rio,<br />
não passava nada.<br />
[AAL22]<br />
(381)<br />
INQ1 As árvores, não?
INF Não, as árvores não. [AB|Agora est-] Frutos, frutos. Mas agora está tudo... Agora<br />
{PH|nu�=não}… (Ele não)... Por aqui {PH|nu�=não} era muito frio. Mas havia farrapas<br />
que era isto! Pedaços de farrapas, daquelas (…). Ai que alegria!<br />
[VPA43]<br />
(382)<br />
Porque a água quando chegava aqu<strong>ele</strong> sítio voltava {CT|p�=para o} ribeiro. "Eu<br />
{PH|n��=não} quero lama dentro do ribeiro. Se lá cair a lama para dentro do ribeiro,<br />
vocês depois têm que a ir tirar". "Pode largar a água à vontade". Eu tiro a rolha, a água<br />
vai. E {PH|k��m�si�=começam} <strong>ele</strong>s assim: "Eh! Eh pá, (olha lá a) /já lá a\ água que<br />
vem"! Bem, a terra, uma foi {CT|p�=para o} ribeiro, outra foi para fora. É claro.<br />
(Aquilo era uma base de conversa). "Eh pá! Essa é boa! Então a nossa terra daqui parece<br />
muito mais alto! Essa é boa! Então, hem? Então {PH|n��=não} viam vocês"?! Bem {pp},<br />
quando foi à noite, chegou o patrão. Foi logo a ver do Ângelo que era [AB|o{fp}] o<br />
guarda. "Então, Ângelo, então [AB|quem tem andado] o que é que andou o pessoal a<br />
fazer"? "Uns foram para aqui, outros foram para além, outros foram para outro lado, e<br />
tal. O André foi fazer a presa". "A presa"? "Pois, <strong>ele</strong> como vomecê diz que já t<strong>in</strong>ha dado<br />
(a) ordem". "Onde é que <strong>ele</strong> {IP|ta=está}"? "{IP|ta=Está} lá na casa lá em baixo". "Vai<br />
lá chamá-lo". {pp} Eu em vez de ir lá para o lado donde <strong>ele</strong> me chamou, não. Fui assim:<br />
à roda havia ali uma capoeira, fui à roda da capoeira.<br />
[CBV17]<br />
(383)<br />
INQ1 Portanto e… Olhe, e se é um rebanho muito pequen<strong>in</strong>o, com muito poucas<br />
ovelhas, como é que chama aqui?<br />
INF {fp} Isso, quando é mais pequen<strong>in</strong>o, a gente diz é: "{fp}Uma mancheia de<br />
ovelhas"!<br />
INQ2 Não lhe chama outra coisa?<br />
INF Não. Mas também {PH|i��pr��i�=empregam}, se quiserem, um rebanho. É<br />
pequen<strong>in</strong>o, mas é: "(Ele) mais pequen<strong>in</strong>o"; "é um rebanho mais pequen<strong>in</strong>o".<br />
[ALC22]<br />
(384)<br />
INQ1 Isso. Portanto, um é pombo. E se for a, a fêmea é uma?<br />
INF É uma pomba.<br />
INQ1 E um filho d<strong>ele</strong>s?<br />
INF (É um) pomb<strong>in</strong>hos. Pomb<strong>in</strong>hos.<br />
INQ1 Dão só esse nome ou dão outro nome?<br />
INF Não. Só uso só esse nome. Pomb<strong>in</strong>ho. "Olha aqu<strong>ele</strong> pomb<strong>in</strong>hoz<strong>in</strong>ho"!<br />
INQ1 Quando acaba de nascer?…<br />
INF E depois [AB|tem ou-] tem outro nome que dá-se: é os borrachos.<br />
INQ2 E esses também se costuma ter junto das casas?<br />
INF Tem! Então, {IP|ta=está} aí tantos!<br />
INQ2 Assim para comer?<br />
INF {IP|ta=Está} aí tantos que têm [AB|que, e-] esses pombos.<br />
INQ2 Mas sem ser de correio? Pombos para, para comer?<br />
371
INF Têm mesmo pombo [AB|para] para comer. {IP|ta=Está} aí tantos, aí! Às vezes, é<br />
{PH|�=ao} rebanho d<strong>ele</strong>s ali, <strong>ele</strong> a passearem lá!<br />
INQ1 E o sítio onde <strong>ele</strong>s estão quando?…<br />
INF É um pombal.<br />
[ALC32]<br />
372<br />
(385)<br />
INF1 Ele era viz<strong>in</strong>ho dela! É ali de Agualva! Eram viz<strong>in</strong>hos! E v<strong>in</strong>ham da feira de Vale<br />
de Cambra.<br />
INQ1 Ah!<br />
INQ2 Ah!<br />
INF2 Cá há algum tempo era tudo a pé!<br />
INF1 A pé! A pé, para cima! Ora, a senhora faça uma ideia…<br />
INQ1 Claro!<br />
INF2 Pois era. Foi.<br />
INF1 A pé! E depois [AB|um, um] começou como ontem a nevar e a saraivar e a<br />
chover, {pp} e a mulherz<strong>in</strong>ha, coitada, {fp} [AB|quem já{fp}] – <strong>ele</strong> roup<strong>in</strong>has fracas! –<br />
veio por aí fora, chegou aqui acima arreganhou.<br />
INF2 Descalças. Descalças. Diz que há algum tempo era tudo descalço!<br />
[COV22]<br />
(386)<br />
INF2 Aquilo são como {PH|��sukr�=açúcar}!<br />
INF1 Ah!<br />
INF2 Como quem come {PH|��sukr�=açúcar}!<br />
INQ1 Pois é.<br />
INF1 Mas (<strong>ele</strong>), meu amigo…<br />
INF2 Doces! E então é um v<strong>in</strong>h<strong>in</strong>ho que {PH|nu�=não} tem remédio, {PH|nu�=não} tem<br />
nada.<br />
INQ1 Pois, pois.<br />
INF1 Nada! É só próprio da videira!<br />
[COV29]<br />
(387)<br />
INF2 Aquilo são como {PH|��sukr�=açúcar}!<br />
INF1 Ah!<br />
INF2 Como quem come {PH|��sukr�=açúcar}!<br />
INQ1 Pois é.<br />
INF1 Mas (<strong>ele</strong>), meu amigo…<br />
INF2 Doces! E então é um v<strong>in</strong>h<strong>in</strong>ho que {PH|nu�=não} tem remédio, {PH|nu�=não} tem<br />
nada.<br />
INQ1 Pois, pois.<br />
INF1 Nada! É só próprio da videira!<br />
INF2 Se quiser, {fp} quem for doente pode-o beber! [AB|É só] Ele é só da videira!<br />
INF1 Pode, pode, pode. {fp} É próprio de…<br />
INF3 É só da videira.<br />
INQ1 Mas, realmente, pois, os antigos também não sabiam essas coisas, sabiam outras.
INF2 (Ele) /Era\ sim, pois era.<br />
INQ1 Pois.<br />
INF2 Pois também não.<br />
[COV29]<br />
(388)<br />
INF1 E depois, (começou a fazer), a m<strong>in</strong>ha mulher chegou à noite, diz assim: "Ó<br />
Arquibaldo, olha que {pp} eu nunca mais vou às uvas à Lomba". "Então porquê"?<br />
"Olha, foi assim, assim, <strong>ele</strong> o velho do (Quelho)". [AB|An-] Até estava cá um filho a<br />
servir aqui em m<strong>in</strong>ha casa. Um filho, nos pr<strong>in</strong>cípios da m<strong>in</strong>ha vida {PH|nu�=não}<br />
t<strong>in</strong>ha{fp}… Pronto! Trazia-o… (Que eu) precisava de um criadito para me guardar o<br />
gado; o meu filho era pequenito! E eu disse: "{PH|nu�=Não} tornas lá mais!<br />
{PH|nu�=Não} tornas lá mais"! "{PH|nu�=Não} torno, Arquibaldo, {PH|nu�=não} torno<br />
mais, que <strong>ele</strong> eu (é que) tive vergonha e <strong>ele</strong> a fazer mangação de nós"! "{IP|ta=Está}<br />
bem"! Hoje, queria que <strong>ele</strong> fosse vivo e dizer-lhe assim: "Olha, tenho o dobro, três<br />
dobros do v<strong>in</strong>ho a mais que a ti"!<br />
[COV30]<br />
(389)<br />
INF1 E depois: "Oh, aqui {PH|nu�=não} dá! Ó senhor Atalarico, aqui {PH|nu�=não} dá".<br />
Dizia (<strong>ele</strong>): "Ah, burros! Ah, burros! Olha que aqui dava v<strong>in</strong>ho bom. Vocês é que<br />
{PH|nu�=não} prantam. Vocês 'sendes' uns burros"! O meu pai e os outros começavam<br />
{pp} <strong>ele</strong> a botar tudo abaixo {PH|�z=aos} homens. Mas agora eu gostava que esses<br />
homens a<strong>in</strong>da (fossem) /fosse\ vivos.<br />
INQ2 Pois.<br />
[COV29]<br />
(xxxviii)<br />
INQ É um homem especial? É sempre o mesmo?<br />
INF {fp} Não. Sempre o mesmo, não. Olhe, [AB|o] o meu, que Deus tem, [AB|matou]<br />
aqui aos viz<strong>in</strong>hos, {PH|m��tav�luz=matava-lhos} a todos. {pp} Ha! (Ai, eu) /Ele eu\!<br />
Bem, [AB|há muit-] há várias pessoas que {PH|�mat��w�nu�=matam os} porcos,<br />
{PH|nu�=não} é? Mas [AB|{PH|nu�=não}] {PH|nu�=não} é toda a gente [AB|que] que<br />
sabe.<br />
INQ Mas, cada família, chama sempre o mesmo, é sempre a mesma pessoa que vem<br />
para aquela família ou, ou, ou este ano vem um, para o ano vem outro?<br />
[OUT34]<br />
(390)<br />
INQ E penduram-no aonde?<br />
INF Põem-no, às vezes, por uma trave para baixo. Outras vezes arranjam, [AB|um{fp}]<br />
{pp} por exemplo, um pau e põem-lhe assim [AB|um] {pp} um canamão para cima, no<br />
foc<strong>in</strong>ho [AB|e, e, e espe-], e põem um pau à beira [AB|du-] duma esqu<strong>in</strong>a e fica ali a<br />
escorrer. Outras vezes, com… O meu fazia assim: t<strong>in</strong>ha aí umas cornagens das crias e<br />
(<strong>ele</strong>) prendia-o assim ao canamão e prendia-o assim {CT|ku=com o} cornal [AB|à] à<br />
trave. Ficava assim um dia. Depois eram desfeitos, {pp} para o outro dia em que se<br />
373
matavam ou para outro [AB|quando <strong>ele</strong>]… Podiam estar até dois ou três dias, que (<strong>ele</strong>)<br />
naqu<strong>ele</strong> tempo…<br />
INQ Chama-se a isso desfazer o porco ou desmanchar?<br />
INF Desfazer os porcos. Desfazer, nós dizemos desfazer os porcos.<br />
[OUT35]<br />
374<br />
(391)<br />
INQ1 E como é que são as tabafeias?<br />
INF As tabafeias são{fp}: bota-se carne a cozer – de porco e gal<strong>in</strong>has – e depois {pp}<br />
corta-se o pão para uma caldeira, depois coze-se aquela carne bem cozid<strong>in</strong>ha, pica-se<br />
logo ali (<strong>ele</strong> picad<strong>in</strong>ha) /em picad<strong>in</strong>ho\, bota-se por cima do pão. Quando a água fica<br />
[AB|bem a-] bem adubad<strong>in</strong>ha, bota-se-{PH|l�=lhe} pimento e alho, amolece-se aquelas<br />
sopas, mexe-se, mexe-se e enchem-se.<br />
[OUT39]<br />
(392)<br />
INF Quando uma mulher anda doente… {pp} Eu sabia{fp} a pessoa porque t<strong>in</strong>ha<br />
andado até ao meio-dia à beira da tal pessoa,<br />
INQ1 Sim.<br />
INF a v<strong>in</strong>dimar. E eu fui depois da parte da tarde {pp} a desmontar. Aquilo (<strong>ele</strong>) lá<br />
subiu pela perna acima, ou sei lá como foi…<br />
INQ1 Pois.<br />
INF Foi mesmo (uma ruim). Deu-me mesmo {PH|�=ao} pé das partes. E uma senhora<br />
de Paçó diz: "Olha, se sabes (donde) uma mulher que ande doente e tal, (daqu<strong>ele</strong><br />
derrame), vai lá, que {PH|nu�=não} tenha arreceio, que te dê [AB|as] as bragas dela –<br />
[AB|as ca-, as] as calças, não é? –<br />
INQ1 Pois. Sim.<br />
INF que não se importe… {pp} {IP|�tav��w�=Estavam} alagad<strong>in</strong>has mesmo. [AB|A<br />
senho-] Pôs-mas cá, (<strong>ele</strong>) uma senhora, aqui, em cima; 'pôse-as' cá, {pp} logo eu<br />
adormeci até.<br />
[OUT48]<br />
(393)<br />
INQ1 Pois. Mas é uma dor muito grande, não é?<br />
INF Oi, (<strong>ele</strong>) dor?! Eu até me atirava a Cristo e ao padre, quanto mais! E mordeu-me<br />
em dois sítios. Depois, pus cá [AB|as] as cuecas [AB|da mu-] da senhora, ligadas,<br />
porque senão depois manchava a outra roupa, não é?<br />
[OUT48]<br />
(394)<br />
sequer o que seja um padre! Que êle dezasseis anos sem prior... (p.24)<br />
A PLANÍCIE HERÓICA<br />
(395)<br />
Deixemo-nos de histórias, sr. compadre prior, que êle uma boa p<strong>in</strong>ga... (p.25)
(396)<br />
Onde é que estava uma herdade que se vendesse? Se êle nem um ferragealito, nem uma<br />
parede velha, nem um chaparr<strong>in</strong>ho em pé! (p.45)<br />
(397)<br />
A sua lida durava todo o tempo da aceifa, êle dom<strong>in</strong>gos e dias santos, desde o romper<br />
da manhã até ao pôr do ar do dia, quando não metiam pela noite adeante em havendo<br />
lua, que se enxergasse. (p.89)<br />
(398)<br />
Aqui não se trata n<strong>in</strong>guém mal. Estas joldas ajustam-se por um tanto em d<strong>in</strong>heiro e mais<br />
as comedoiras, êle tantos alqueires de far<strong>in</strong>ha e de grãos, tantos arrates de toic<strong>in</strong>ho,<br />
tantas canadas d’azeite e o resto; (p.89)<br />
(399)<br />
Assim que deram em dar terra – que a davam de graça, sim sr., por uns poucos de anos!<br />
– o povo ala-se nos matos, êle vá de queimar, arrotear, desmoitar... Ardia tudo! (p.121)<br />
(400)<br />
E se não são os pegos da ribeira que teem mão no fogo, que êle aceiros nem pensar<br />
nisso, ardia aí tudo, que não se lhe aproveitava nada.<br />
(401)<br />
Pensar eu, sr. prior, que desde que me entendo há um rôr d’anos, ando aí a afoc<strong>in</strong>har na<br />
terra, e que abri léguas de charneca arrebentando com trabalhar, êle de dia e de noite,<br />
êle à chuva e à estorreira do sol, e que chego a esta idade que nem um cão cansado, sem<br />
ter um palmo de chão que se diaga meu, senão a cova que me hade comer! (p.123)<br />
(402)<br />
Viu-se, como os outros, agrilhoado a essa terra, atormentado pela febre da seara, com<br />
suas quezílias e desesperos, êle das canseiras nos amanhos, da labuta nas ceifas, nas<br />
eiras, nas debulhas, e das ânsias da cobiça, das raivas dos lucros, enfrenizado e<br />
enlouquecido na barafunda e no atordoamento <strong>in</strong>fernal que era a vida ali. (p.133)<br />
(403)<br />
Tempos êsses de reboliço e desassossêgo, êle do temor das quadrilhas de ladrões, êle<br />
dos bons sustos dos lobisomens, alvcjões, almas do outro mundo e bruxas. (p.137)<br />
(404)<br />
Na bocada duma quelha, despertou-os a chafranafra dum magote de homens que iam<br />
num sêrro vigiando a marcha vagarosa duma debulhadora arrastada por juntas de bois.<br />
- Ele com tanto engenho agora e nem por isso se come o pão melhor e mais barato –<br />
considerou o charnequenho olhando a máqu<strong>in</strong>a. (...) Diz que há grandes fortunas p’r’aí,<br />
grandes casas... (p.155)<br />
375
376<br />
(405)<br />
Abalára pela manhã sem almoçar, e êle nem à merenda nem à ceia! Uma coisa assim!<br />
Por fim lembraram-se de que podia estar para os Cardeais, êle diz que chegara já o<br />
men<strong>in</strong>o Joanito. (p.171)<br />
(406)<br />
Padre Dionísio ficou espantado da extensão e largueza da horta, estendida por um vale<br />
abaixo, viçòsaz<strong>in</strong>ha e fresca do plantío e do arvoredo frondoso, êle figueiras,<br />
nespereiras, alfarrobeiras e amendoeiras; êle árvores de pomar de tôda a casta, seu<br />
bocado de bacêlo, um grande meloal, e o hortejo/miùdo para a panela, só por graça, que<br />
o legume é que re<strong>in</strong>ava mais, e colhiam-se famosas semeaduras de grãos de muito bom<br />
cozer. E flores! Pois havia flores! (p.261/2) [narrador / visão de João lobeira?]<br />
(407)<br />
Nêsses casos é que vossemecê hade ouvir mais falatórios, êle tudo contra o casmurro do<br />
pai, e da banda dos pomb<strong>in</strong>hos já se vê, que o merecem quási sempre (p.115/6)<br />
(408)<br />
Agora um pobre, êle careiro como tudo se pôs, não podia assujeitar-se à despeza d’ir à<br />
cidade p’ra casa/mento ou baptizado, ou mandar vir o padre p’ra um defunto. (p.117)<br />
2.6 In isolation<br />
CORDIAL-SIN<br />
(409)<br />
INF Isto aqui é uma… {pp} Ai, <strong>ele</strong>! Eu 'desqueceu-me' o nome disso. [AB|É de <strong>ele</strong>s] É<br />
de <strong>ele</strong>s [AB|é] bicarem.<br />
INQ1 Rhum-rhum.<br />
INF [AB|Esses, esses] Esses coisos é modernos. (Isso) é moderno.<br />
INQ2 É?<br />
INF É.<br />
[ALC03]<br />
2.7 In answers to Yes-No Questions<br />
(410)<br />
INQ2 Mas lá para cima para onde? Para Montes de Alvor?<br />
INF Ele não. Da parte (…) da praça que chamam a praça de Alvor […]<br />
[ALV01]<br />
CORDIAL-SIN
(411)<br />
MONOGRAPHS<br />
Ele qu’ê saiba não. (Terceira DIAS 325)<br />
(412)<br />
el na senhora na fui! (Arronches, <strong>in</strong> Paul<strong>in</strong>o 1959: 153)<br />
(413)<br />
el não!<br />
(414)<br />
Vás à vila? El não! (Arronches, <strong>in</strong> Paul<strong>in</strong>o 1959: 168)<br />
Quès vender a burra? - Ele nã. (Escusa, <strong>in</strong> Baptista 1967: 206)<br />
(415)<br />
-Atão a i auga nu) falha?!- Êl não! (Ervedosa do Douro, <strong>in</strong> Azevedo 1928-9: 160n)<br />
(416)<br />
-Vás trabalhar? –Ele não! (Colos, <strong>in</strong> Guerreiro 1968: 351)<br />
(417)<br />
Ficas aqui um bocado? – Ele nunca. (não) (Colos, <strong>in</strong> Guerreiro 1968: 366)<br />
2.8 In question-tag<br />
(418)<br />
CORDIAL-SIN<br />
INF1 Não. Mas esse é diferente. Esse é eléctrico. É diferente.<br />
INF3 Este é de… É a <strong>ele</strong>ctricidade. Mas esse já conhecem, <strong>ele</strong> já?<br />
INQ2 Gostávamos de saber os rodízios? Sim.<br />
INQ1 Sim. Olhe, mas o rodízio, <strong>ele</strong> os rodízios têm uma pedr<strong>in</strong>ha por baixo, onde gira?<br />
[OUT40]<br />
377
3 Postverbal expletive <strong>ele</strong><br />
3.1 Verb <strong>in</strong>itial contexts<br />
378<br />
(419)<br />
CORDIAL-SIN<br />
INQ Pois, pois. Sim senhor. Olhe, portanto, quando o, quando <strong>ele</strong>s andam a deitar<br />
aquilo na terra, diz que estão, a deitar o trigo para a terra, diz que estão a quê?<br />
INF1 À mão-cheia. [AB|Quando a gente jo-]<br />
INQ À mão-cheia é o quê?<br />
INF2 Semear à mão-cheia.<br />
INF1 Assim, é à mão-cheia. Conforme vai jogando, joga à mão-cheia.<br />
INF2 Seja trigo, seja cevada (…).<br />
INF1 Seja <strong>ele</strong> trigo ou cevada ou aveia.<br />
INQ Hã?<br />
INF1 Seja trigo ou cevada ou aveia. Joga-se à mão-cheia.<br />
INF2 Semeia-se à mão-cheia.<br />
INF1 E quando é o rego, é à l<strong>in</strong>ha.<br />
INQ Mas isso é para o, só para o trigo?<br />
[PAL22 (ALTE)]<br />
(420)<br />
INQ1 E, e depois quando a água fica, fica coalhada, como é que se lhe chama? Já não se<br />
chama água, pois não?<br />
INF Não. [AB|Quando, quando] Dês que fica coalhada, a gente chama-lhe gelo.<br />
INQ1 E quando aparece assim?…<br />
INQ2 Chamam-lhe o quê?<br />
INF Gelo.<br />
INQ1 Nos tanques e na, na, por cima das folhas…<br />
INF Isso chama-lhe a gente coalhada.<br />
INQ1 Como é que se chamam esses bocados de gelo?<br />
INF Esses bocados, chama-lhe a gente: "É um bocado de gelo" – água coalhada.<br />
INQ1 Não lhe chamam doutra maneira?<br />
INF Não.<br />
INQ1 Caramelo?<br />
INF Ou que seja [AB|o ca-, o cara-] isso, o caramelo. Mas a gente diz é (…): "Um<br />
bocado de gelo" – seja <strong>ele</strong> um bocado de caramelo. {pp} Isto tanto [AB|se] se aplica<br />
duma maneira como se aplica doutra. Pois. Qualquer das maneiras que uma pessoa diga<br />
para outra, percebe o que é – o que quer dizer aquilo [AB|que se-] {pp}. Que seja: "Um<br />
bocado de caramelo", como seja: "A água está coalhada".<br />
[SRP03]<br />
(421)<br />
INQ2 Portanto, primeiro é borregu<strong>in</strong>ho, depois é borrego…<br />
INF Borregu<strong>in</strong>ho quando nasce e ali enquanto é pequen<strong>in</strong>o, a gente: "Ai, o borregu<strong>in</strong>ho!<br />
Ai, o borregu<strong>in</strong>ho! Ai, o borregu<strong>in</strong>ho"! Ao depois, vai-se desenvolvendo, a gente já<br />
começa a alomear a um borrego.
INQ2 Depois já passa a quê?… Passa a um borrego ou?…<br />
INF Mais ou menos, já [AB|pa-] passa {fp}a borrego, até,<br />
{PH|su�po��mu��=suponhamos {fp}}, até a passar [AB|u-] uma Primavera por cima.<br />
Passou uma Primavera por cima, [AB|passa a] se for fêmea, passa a borrega.<br />
INQ2 Borrega?<br />
INF Borrega – ouviu? –, até a fazer um ano. Se for macho, passa a borrego até fazer um<br />
ano, (o) que seguiu {CT|pr��=para os} dois anos, passou o borrego a malato {pp}<br />
[AB|e] e passou a borrega a malata. As duas letras são iguais. Só a diferença é o da<br />
palavra ser dita um para macho, e outro para fêmea.<br />
INQ1 E depois dos dois anos?<br />
INF Dos dois anos, ovelha! E seja <strong>ele</strong> macho, passar a carneiro!<br />
[SRP30]<br />
(xxxix)<br />
INQ2 E não havia assim umas coisas redondas de pedra?<br />
INF Não. A gente aqui não usava isso, de pedra. {fp} Era um comedouro, {pp} t<strong>in</strong>ha<br />
uma divisão {PH|�=ao} meio, uma tábua: desta parte aqui era a água e daqui era o<br />
comer. E despois <strong>ele</strong>s já {PH|kum��savi�=começavam} [AB|a] a roer aquilo e a coisa, a<br />
gente agarrava, fazia em cimento, {pp} para <strong>ele</strong>s beberem a água. {fp} (A gente) às<br />
vezes <strong>in</strong>té era duma cova mesmo do chão, fazia-se o cimento e punha-se ali a água, que<br />
<strong>ele</strong>s bebiam.<br />
INQ1 E essa do cimento, dava outro nome ou não?<br />
INF Não. Era [AB|uma] uma caixa de cimento. {pp} Até se punha e pode pôr – até<br />
pôr… Ele pode pôr um [RP|um] comedouro de cimento.<br />
INQ1 Pois. E não havia nada a que soube-, a que chamassem pia?<br />
INF Uma pia? Pia chamava-se mas era uma pia de dar água {PH|�=ao} gado. Uma pia<br />
para (darem-{PH|l�=lhe}) /dar <strong>ele</strong>\ água. Por exemplo, ou cavalos [AB|ou {pp}] ou<br />
{PH|a=às} vacas [AB|ou]. "Vai (ali) levar à pia"! [AB|E ou-] E outros é uma selha!<br />
INQ1 Sim. Mas a pia?…<br />
INF Eu já lá tive uma pia em pedra {pp} para dar {pp} a água. E eu já tive uma selha.<br />
Selhas então, já lá (vão) /há\… Já se partiu algumas três!<br />
[ALC30]<br />
(422)<br />
INQ1 Olhe e uma, uma erva que servia para fazer chás, contra a sarna?<br />
INF Uma erva que serve para fazer chás?<br />
INQ1 Sim. Tomava-se chá contra a sarna.<br />
INF Isso há{fp} aí muitos…<br />
INQ2 Essa pergunta é qual?<br />
INQ1 Esta. Está aqui explicado, como explicação.<br />
INF [AB|Há um, há{fp}] ('Houvia' <strong>ele</strong>) muitas ervas dessas que se fazia chá, mas <strong>ele</strong> o<br />
nome dela é que eu não sei.<br />
[ALC44]<br />
(423)<br />
INF E ela foi e (<strong>ele</strong>) aborreceu-se toda e eu{fp}… A comida que estava diante de mim,<br />
mandei com ela {PH|�=ao} chão, parti tudo – parti louça, (parti tudo) – e fui<br />
379
{CT|pa=para a} cama. Meti-me no meu quarto… [AB|Só esta-{fp}] A coz<strong>in</strong>ha é como<br />
aqui assim, e aqui é uma sala, e aqui é [AB|um] um quarto onde eu durmo e tem mais<br />
[AB|um, um] dois quartos para {pp} {CT|pa�=para, às} vezes,<br />
INQ1 Ó cãoz<strong>in</strong>ho!<br />
INF – <strong>ele</strong> {PH|nu�=não} faz mal nenhum – [AB|para] {CT|pra�=para, às} vezes, (vir<br />
<strong>ele</strong>) gente de fora, que <strong>ele</strong>s, às vezes, ficam lá. E depois, [AB|passando] passando ali<br />
dois – dois anos, dois anos e pouco – vem ela com o miudito. E (este)… Eu<br />
{PH|�vi�z=via-os} andar… Todos os qu<strong>in</strong>ze dias iam para Vale de Cambra, com a<br />
médica – chamavam-{PH|l�=lhe}) a Basilissa, que era a que… Bem, quando uma<br />
mulher fica grávida,<br />
INQ1 Pois.<br />
INF ela cuida daquilo para {pp} coiso.<br />
[COV02]<br />
380<br />
(424)<br />
INF1 Olhe, eu uma vez fui [AB|à] à coisa [AB|fui à{fp}]. Então, <strong>ele</strong> comprava-se<br />
ovelhas. Íamos <strong>ele</strong> ali {PH|�=ao} Castro de Aire {pp} – não sei se as senhoras sabe o<br />
que (são)?<br />
INF2 Ao Castro, pois.<br />
INQ1 Sei.<br />
INQ2 Sei, sim senhora.<br />
INF1 [AB|A{fp}] A Castro de Aire e eu fui mais o Asdrúbal a{fp} comprar… (Mal<br />
compra-se) – conheces o Bernard<strong>in</strong>o?<br />
INF2 Sei, sei. As senhoras {PH|nu�=não} conhecem mas a gente aqui conhece.<br />
INF1 Fomos lá comprar ovelhas. (Eu) /Ele\ {PH|nu�=não} t<strong>in</strong>ha nenhumas e fui lá<br />
comprar umas ovelhas. Fui lá comprar umas ovelhas a mais <strong>ele</strong> e lá tudo correu bem.<br />
Viemos, saímos de lá, [AB|ch-] viemos ficar a Reiriz. Chegamos lá a uma loja, nem<br />
t<strong>in</strong>ha pão, nem… Só t<strong>in</strong>ha figos! E nós mortos de fome!<br />
[COV24]<br />
(425)<br />
INF1 E depois fomos lá ficar {pp} {PH|�=ao} curral onde ficou o gado. Saímos de<br />
manhã cedo. Olhe, comemos [AB|aí às] para aí às duas horas da tarde e só comemos<br />
{PH|�=ao} outro dia {pp} para aí às dez horas do dia, ou onze horas. Viemos ficar à<br />
Macieira. Viemos ficar…<br />
INF2 Às Macieiras.<br />
INF1 À Macieira, à Macieira. {PH|nu�=Não} é Macieiras. É a Macieira.<br />
INF2 Sim.<br />
INF1 Ali abaixo do São Macário.<br />
INF2 Sei.<br />
INF1 Ali [AB|àqu<strong>ele</strong>] à povoação. Mas encontra-se gente boa.<br />
INQ2 Pois.<br />
INF1 Chegamos lá, eu já não podia cam<strong>in</strong>har. Eu já não podia cam<strong>in</strong>har com a fome! E<br />
depois, chegamos lá, à noite, já eram <strong>ele</strong> {fp} já umas dez horas da noite, chegamos<br />
lá… Eu v<strong>in</strong>ha com uma febre, com uma dor-de-cabeça e febre, pronto! {fp} V<strong>in</strong>ha<br />
doente, pronto! Depois digo eu assim para <strong>ele</strong>:"Olha, ficamos em qualquer sítio;<br />
{PH|nu�=não} se solta as ovelhas; [AB|eu já] eu {PH|nu�=não} cam<strong>in</strong>ho mais". Vai,
fomos lá bater à porta duma pessoa, dum homem, e <strong>ele</strong> disse: "Olhe, (é que) eu estou<br />
casado há pouco; {PH|nu�=não} tenho roupas para vos deitar. Olhe, a responsabilidade<br />
do gado eu tomo, que eu meto-o onde está o meu. Mas eu {PH|nu�=não} tenho roupas<br />
para vos deitar".<br />
INF2 Nalgum tempo havia miséria!<br />
[COV24]<br />
(426)<br />
INF É assedado. Por exemplo, se quiser {pp} tirar o l<strong>in</strong>ho f<strong>in</strong>o, faz-se desta maneira:<br />
{pp} asseda-se duas vezes, tem que ser duas vezes assedado. [AB|Tira-se o] Asseda-se<br />
o l<strong>in</strong>ho e tira-se-{CT|l�=lhe a} estopa. Fica a estopa. Querendo (<strong>ele</strong>) /eu\ – por exemplo<br />
–, querendo (<strong>ele</strong>) /eu\ fazer uma teia de sacos, tira-se-{CT|l�=lhe a} estopa… Tira-se a<br />
estopa para (<strong>ele</strong>) tapar os sacos e o l<strong>in</strong>ho é [AB|para] para urdir, não é? Mas quando se<br />
quer fazer uma teia de l<strong>in</strong>ho f<strong>in</strong>o, tira-se-{CT|l�=lhe a} estopa, fica aqu<strong>ele</strong> l<strong>in</strong>ho e<br />
depois fazem-se estrigas – {pp} ou até nem se podem fazer, querendo.<br />
[OUT12]<br />
(xl)<br />
INF A gente, e coisa… Mas se (se) ver que a gente que é para mal… {pp} Porque<br />
{PH|aj=há} vezes que pessoas que, {pp} mesmo por vezes, podem querer assaltar uma<br />
pessoa [AB| ou{fp}esp-] ou espancá-la e o cão [AB|pode (aí)] pode auxiliar [AB|o]<br />
{pp} o dono.<br />
INQ2 Rhum-rhum.<br />
INQ1 Claro.<br />
INF E {PH|aj=há} cães porque {PH|aj=há} cães que se atiram<br />
INQ2 Pois.<br />
INF às outras pessoas {pp}<br />
INQ2 Rhum-rhum.<br />
INF para se (defenderem) /defender <strong>ele</strong>\ o{fp} dono.<br />
[OUT46]<br />
MONOGRAPHS<br />
(427)<br />
Seja <strong>ele</strong> ao fim // do tempo que for (Colos, <strong>in</strong> Guerreiro 1968: 351)<br />
A PLANÍCIE HERÓICA<br />
(428)<br />
Seremos uns brutos, mas em franqueza, pareça êle mal louvor em boca própria, em<br />
franqueza não queremos meças com n<strong>in</strong>guém. (p.111)<br />
381
3.2 Preverbal XP contexts<br />
382<br />
(429)<br />
CORDIAL-SIN<br />
INQ E assim parecido com Alpalhão não há nada?<br />
INF Parecido com Alpalhão, [AB|eu que{fp}] que eu (acho) /ache\ é Montalvão.<br />
Montalvão é que é assim um bocad<strong>in</strong>ho parecido aqui com Alpalhão. Se (houver aí)<br />
/{PH|o�v��i=houverem}\ de falar mais mal, talvez (seja) /sejam\ a<strong>in</strong>da <strong>ele</strong>s, {pp} [AB|os<br />
de, os de{fp}] os de Montalvão.<br />
INQ Parece-se muito com isto?<br />
INF Parece-se com isto.<br />
INQ Mas mais diferente daqui qual é?<br />
INF O mais diferente daqui? {pp} Deve de ser Nisa. Nisa deve de ser o mais diferente<br />
daqui.<br />
INQ Mais diferente que os de Portalegre?<br />
INF {fp} Mais diferente e bem mais. Bem, os de Portalegre {PH|�fali�=falam} melhor do<br />
que nós, não é?<br />
INQ Mas os senhores e os de Nisa compreendem-se perfeitamente?<br />
INF Ah, a gente compreende, pois. Isso compreendemos <strong>ele</strong> bem.<br />
[AAL79 (Alpalhão)]<br />
(430)<br />
INQ1 E há uma que é assim cor-de-laranja,<br />
INF2 Pois. Isso é pequeno.<br />
INQ1 comprida.<br />
INF2 Pois.<br />
INQ1 Mas como é que se chama essa que é cor-de-laranja? Que é assim a modos que<br />
amarela?<br />
INF2 [AB|É o ja-] É o nabo {pp} e há [AB|o na-] o{fp} rabanete.<br />
INQ1 Uma outra, assim comprid<strong>in</strong>ha.<br />
INF2 Eu {PH|n��=não} me lembro disso.<br />
INQ1 Diz que faz bem aos olhos.<br />
INF2 Hã?<br />
INQ1 Diz que faz bem aos olhos.<br />
INF2 Ah, bem aos olhos faz <strong>ele</strong> tudo, [AB|quando {PH|n��=não} haver] quando<br />
{PH|n��=não} haver pouca sorte.<br />
INQ2 Os coelhos comem essa, que você quer.<br />
INQ1 É.<br />
INF2 Os coentros?<br />
INQ2 Os coelhos gostam muito de comer isso.<br />
INF2 Os coelhos comem tudo. O coelho come tudo seja o que for.<br />
[PAL28 (Alte)]
(431)<br />
INF1 [AB|E <strong>ele</strong> tem] Ele tem acontecido aqui cada uma em m<strong>in</strong>ha casa! Chegou aqui, a<br />
mulher: "Ah{fp}"! – com as pernas (todas de rojo) às costas do homem. Diz: "Ó<br />
Arquibaldo"! Disse: "Que é"? "Acode a esta mulher que ela morre".<br />
INF2 E quem era <strong>ele</strong>?<br />
INF1 Era a de riba de Agualva! E era o gordo, o peru que queria a tua cunhada, {pp} é<br />
que a trouxe às costas!<br />
INF2 Ah! (Isso era). Ai!<br />
[COV22]<br />
(432)<br />
INF1 [AB|E] E depois cheguei a Santa Cruz, olhe que de Santa Cruz para riba, já<br />
{PH|nu�=não} rompia carro nenhum.<br />
INF3 Com neve! Olha a neve [AB|onde] onde ela chegou!<br />
INQ1 Santa Cruz?…<br />
INF1 Santa Cruz. Ali para cima donde vocês {RC|fi-=ficaram} [AB|fi-].<br />
INQ2 Sim.<br />
INQ1 Sim, sim. Eu sei. Eu sei onde é que é Santa Cruz.<br />
INF1 Pois. Ali era uma camada de neve por aí fora, ai Jesus! Nós vínhamos c<strong>in</strong>co – que<br />
o conselho de família são c<strong>in</strong>co, vínhamos c<strong>in</strong>co –, viemos a pé. Até Santa Cruz viemos<br />
de carro, de Santa Cruz para cima viemos a pé. E eu queria vir embora, <strong>ele</strong>s<br />
{PH|nu�=não} me deixaram: "Não. Vais para Cabrum, vais ficar a mais nós", que <strong>ele</strong>s<br />
era tudo de Cabrum, só eu é que era (a<strong>in</strong>da) lá de cima. Lá fui, lá vim para Cabrum,<br />
cheguei, <strong>ele</strong> lá dormi, e {PH|�=ao} outro dia quando era de dia – dia já, sol alto, para aí<br />
às oito horas –, saí de Cabrum – olhe que a neve dava-me pelo peito! {pp} Sabe? Olhe<br />
que a neve… V<strong>in</strong>ha assim com umas botas como estas e a neve metia aqui por baixo<br />
[AB|desta] da coisa, chegava-me até por cima do joelho. A neve por baixo das botas! E<br />
nevoeiro junto!<br />
INF3 Nalgum tempo eram colmadas, agora já não!<br />
INQ1 Agora já não …?<br />
INF3 Agora já não.<br />
INF1 Nevoeiro junto! Não. Agora…<br />
INF3 Até este Inverno (nevou <strong>ele</strong>) /não 'veu' <strong>ele</strong>\ nenhum.<br />
INF1 Não. Nevoeiro junto – está a ouvir?–, ia o nevoeiro junto e eu por ali fora… E eu<br />
cam<strong>in</strong>hava assim um bocadito…<br />
[COV27]<br />
(433)<br />
INQ2 Também lhes chamam enxame, a esses pequen<strong>in</strong>os?<br />
INF1 Enxame, mas é pequen<strong>in</strong>o.<br />
INQ1 Pois.<br />
INF1 E os outros são enxames bons. A gente o que chama (<strong>ele</strong>) um enxame {pp}<br />
grande é assim com um cortiço aquase cheio de abelhas.<br />
INF2 (Ele é).<br />
INF1 E as abelhas só duram, ou dizem que duram… {PH|nu�=Não} duram mais que<br />
dois a três meses.<br />
[COV37]<br />
383
384<br />
(434)<br />
INQ2 Mas ela é tão pequen<strong>in</strong>a, como é que consegue pôr-se por baixo?<br />
INQ1 Ela não se pode estar por baixo.<br />
INF1 [AB|É peque-] É pequena {pp} onde é que é pequena! [AB|Que há ur-] Desta urze<br />
há muita grande e há 'riaga' também muito grande.<br />
INF2 Pois. Há aí… Às vezes aparece <strong>ele</strong> aí cada 'riaga'!<br />
INQ2 Ai há?<br />
INF1 E há 'riaga' também muito grande. A 'riaga' é branca e tem ela também a ramagem<br />
mais branca que esta.<br />
[OUT09]<br />
(435)<br />
INF {fp} Depois antes de ir então… Antes até de o espadar, desde que sai do<br />
maçadeiro, nós {PH|��f�����mu�u=esfregamo-lo} com as mãos, muito bem<br />
esfregad<strong>in</strong>ho, que é para que o tasco caia. Depois, põe-se [AB|na] na fiteira; por<br />
exemplo, está aqui a fiteira, a gente agarra aqui [AB|no, no] no l<strong>in</strong>ho: "zás, zás" – Eu<br />
gostava tanto de espadar! Gostava. Eu gosto de tudo do l<strong>in</strong>ho! –, até que cai o tasco<br />
deste lado. Depois vira-se {pp} {CT|p�u=para o} outro. Depois vira-se <strong>ele</strong> o que tenho<br />
na mão para baixo. Tem que se virar umas quantas vezes até que fica só a febra. Cai o<br />
tasco e, depois de cair o tasco, fica aquelas mãoz<strong>in</strong>has de febra que parecem cabelos.<br />
Assim, muito amoroz<strong>in</strong>ho.<br />
INQ Não há nada a que chame estriga?<br />
INF Estriga, depois eu já {PH|l�=lhe} vou dizer. Depois é assedado.<br />
[OUT12]<br />
(436)<br />
INQ1 É aquela parte do l<strong>in</strong>ho que fica junto à raiz, o tasco?<br />
INF {fp} É à raiz e a tudo. {pp} E a tudo lá para cima.<br />
INQ1 E a tudo.<br />
INF Olhe que este l<strong>in</strong>ho está bem f<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>ho.<br />
INQ1 Pois está.<br />
INQ2 Rhum-rhum.<br />
INF Pois eu ao passar o dedo, fica-me <strong>ele</strong> o coiso cheio [AB|de te-] de arestas.<br />
Chamamos-{PH|l�=lhe} arestas [AB|ao] ao que cai, assim mais f<strong>in</strong>o – arestas.<br />
INQ1 Pois, pr<strong>in</strong>cipalmente é a parte do l<strong>in</strong>ho junto à raiz, exactamente.<br />
INF E aquilo {fp} (<strong>ele</strong>) o l<strong>in</strong>ho está dentro [AB|da] daquela can<strong>in</strong>ha, [AB|da] da cana do<br />
l<strong>in</strong>ho, não é? É espécie duma can<strong>in</strong>ha, porque fica dentro.<br />
[OUT13]<br />
(xli)<br />
INQ2 Portanto, o fiadeiro era a fogueira que se fazia com os tascos?<br />
INF Pois é{fp}. Era a fogueira {CT|ku�=com os} tascos. Pois (é isso) /é <strong>ele</strong> assim\.<br />
INQ1 Ah! Está bem!<br />
[OUT14]
(437)<br />
INQ1 E é, e é alguma coisa assim, que pareça isto, assim? [mostra uma imagem]<br />
INF {fp} As pias {PH|�aj��=há-as} quadradas (e) há outras redondas, não é? Conforme<br />
(é) /<strong>ele</strong>\… Eu tenho-as aí… Que eu também a<strong>in</strong>da criei [AB|uns] uns leitões assim,<br />
{pp} a<strong>in</strong>da fiz umas quantas criações. E tenho… Ele aqui debaixo tenho <strong>ele</strong> assim umas<br />
pias {pp} {CT|p��=para os} pequen<strong>in</strong>os, para lá comerem, assim compridas, [AB|e são]<br />
e são assim largas.<br />
[OUT33]<br />
MONOGRAPHS<br />
(438)<br />
Aqui está <strong>ele</strong> um buréque... (Escusa, <strong>in</strong> Baptista 1967: 145)<br />
3.3 Preverbal subject contexts<br />
CORDIAL-SIN<br />
(439)<br />
INQ2 Como é que faziam? Que cestas é que faziam? De que feitios?<br />
INF [AB|Faziam ce-] Oh, {PH|f��ziu=faziam}{fp} cestas de duas asas,<br />
{PH|f��ziu�=faziam} de quatro asas, cestas pequen<strong>in</strong>as, grandes, para {pp} as mulheres,<br />
as raparigas (fazerem {PH|n�=a}) /fazer na\ meia. {PH|f��ziu=Faziam} de {pp} diversas<br />
madeiras, de cor… É. {PH|f��zi u =Faziam} muito l<strong>in</strong>das. É umas madeiras que havia,<br />
ficavam amarel<strong>in</strong>has. Eu t<strong>in</strong>ha (<strong>ele</strong>) um irmão, que trabalha de carp<strong>in</strong>teiro também<br />
[AB|era]. {fp} Também em{fp} rapazito novo, quando andava com as ovelhas. Quando<br />
andava com as ovelhas [AB|no] {pp} por lá, t<strong>in</strong>ha vagar… Fazia-se rocas {CT|pa�=para<br />
as} mulheres (fiarem) /fiar\. {fp} A gente de primeiro [AB|{PH|nu�=não}] {PH|nu�=não}<br />
estava a ver t<strong>ele</strong>visão. A gente agora {pp} tem a t<strong>ele</strong>visão, passa o tempo na t<strong>ele</strong>visão.<br />
[PFT17]<br />
(xlii)<br />
INQ1 Olhe, às vezes, assim nos currais e isso, há uma coisa que corre, como é que se<br />
chama?<br />
INF Isso {PH|n�=não} sei como se {PH|���mej=chama}.<br />
INQ2 Não tem esse fecho-pedreiro, aqui?<br />
INF Agora assim como aqu<strong>ele</strong> além, é o fecho-pedreiro. A m<strong>in</strong>ha (tem) /tem <strong>ele</strong>\<br />
/{PH|�t��j��=tem-na}\. [AB|Tem]<br />
INQ1 É aqu<strong>ele</strong> destas portas, aqu<strong>ele</strong> que desce. Mas há…<br />
INF Pois, a<strong>in</strong>da tem o que tem de cima.<br />
[AAL89]<br />
385
386<br />
(440)<br />
INQ1 Olhe, esta é uma que dá, que aparece, que tem as patas verdes e o bico comprido.<br />
INF {fp} É o coiso. É [AB|a] a tarambola. Não é, uma tarambola?<br />
INQ2 Talvez.<br />
INQ1 Olhe, eu acho que tem outro nome.<br />
INF Há a tarambolas [AB|e há os] e há as coisas.<br />
INQ2 Que também aparece nas lagoas, assim nas albufeiras e isso…<br />
INF Pois, pois. Aparece nisso. {fp} A gente chama-lhe mais é tarambolas, as<br />
tarambolas, mas…<br />
INQ1 Não é a mesma coisa que a gal<strong>in</strong>hola?<br />
INF A gal<strong>in</strong>hola, {pp} isso é no mato – a gal<strong>in</strong>hola.<br />
INQ1 Ai, a gal<strong>in</strong>hola é no mato?<br />
INF É. E também <strong>ele</strong> dá muito ares a esse a gal<strong>in</strong>hola. E isto é… Isto é abibes.<br />
INQ1 Exactamente.<br />
INF Então, e a gal<strong>in</strong>hola também é assim naqu<strong>ele</strong> género, não é?<br />
INQ1 É.<br />
INF Mas… Também é daqu<strong>ele</strong> género, pronto, (como isso).<br />
INQ1 Pois.<br />
INF E pode ser até que seja, mas como {IP|�ta=está} [AB|aga-] agachada.<br />
INQ1 Agachada não se vê bem.<br />
INF Pois.<br />
INQ2 Pois é.<br />
INF Esse é que eu não sei (o) que é (<strong>ele</strong>).<br />
INQ1 Ah! Sabe, sabe!<br />
INQ2 Sabe!<br />
[LVR32]<br />
(441)<br />
INF Cá no Algarve é assim. Uma pessoa, a gente é pobre aqui. Juntar para umas<br />
cas<strong>in</strong>has, ah! Corri o arrasto, nada ganhei. E (daqui <strong>ele</strong>) /daquilo\ também só dava andar<br />
do arrasto. (Bom), andei a contramestre. {pp} Ganhava mais que uma parte {pp} e<br />
sempre {PH|�f�vur�si�=favorecia}, além de ajuntar mais que um camarada. Sempre<br />
v<strong>in</strong>ha uns patacos. Os outros ganhavam uma parte, eu ganhava duas. Quer dizer, comia<br />
igual a <strong>ele</strong>s e aquela parte era para forrar. Se desse para <strong>ele</strong>s, também davam para mim.<br />
Por exemplo, ganhava num ano dez ou doze contos, ou qu<strong>in</strong>ze contos, ou dez ou doze –<br />
não era nada – ou qu<strong>in</strong>ze contos, que ganhava-se pouco, agora é que ganham mais. Quer<br />
dizer, com os dez ou doze contos comia igual a <strong>ele</strong>s {pp} e podia forrar c<strong>in</strong>co ou seis<br />
num ano; {CT|p�=para o} outro ano forrava sete ou oito, e para o outro ano… E assim<br />
forrado, já dava mais que uma parte, que uma parte só. E também andei em enviados,<br />
também dava mais uma parte e fui ajuntando os períodos. Há quem tenha uma ideia e há<br />
quem tenha outra. Ele é assim. A gente tem uma ideia que há-de chegar, e tem umas<br />
casas para morar; e outros {PH|n��=não} têm, a gente {PH|n��=não} pode (vir-lho dar).<br />
Agora quem {PH|n��=não} tem nunca (<strong>ele</strong>) /{PH|l�=lhe}\ pode comprar.<br />
INQ Pois é.<br />
INF Sim, quem {PH|n��=não} tem nunca pode comprar. E as ideias {PH|n��=não} são<br />
iguais. Há quem diga assim: "{fp} Ah, isto é comer e beber enquanto são novos. E a<br />
gente (cada qual tem a sua ideia)". E eu digo então: "Comer e beber é depois de ir mais
{CT|pa=para a} idade". Sendo novos, forramos e depois quando se chegar à idade mais<br />
avançada, já {PH|n��=não} se pode trabalhar, temos então é que comer e beber…<br />
[ALV36]<br />
(442)<br />
INF3 E de que é que se {PH|�faj=faz} um arrocho?<br />
INF1 De um pau direito.<br />
INF2 Direito, que torto <strong>ele</strong> já está feito.<br />
INF1 Torto, <strong>ele</strong> já está feito.<br />
INF3 Direito, não é? É, sim senhor.<br />
INF1 Já {PH|nu�=não} (é) preciso.<br />
INF3 Porque o… Porque o…<br />
INF2 O Augias sai com cada uma!<br />
INF3 [AB|O torto já] O torto já é <strong>ele</strong>, (ali) torto. Agora, {pp} estando direito, faz-se o<br />
arrocho.<br />
INQ Torto já é <strong>ele</strong>.<br />
INF2 Pois.<br />
INF3 É, sim senhor. Agora uma sobrecarga é feita de cabedal.<br />
[OUT01]<br />
MONOGRAPHS<br />
(443)<br />
O nosso compade Joã Cegu<strong>in</strong>he vai <strong>ele</strong> stande rique e a gente pobre… Com’é qu’<strong>ele</strong><br />
arranjô isto?” (Escusa, <strong>in</strong> Baptista 1967: 208)<br />
387
ALE Atlas L<strong>in</strong>guarum Europae. Assen Maastricht: Van Gorcum.<br />
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