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Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology
President
Leonard zaichkowsky
Boston University
Past President
Maureen Weiss
University of Oregon
Health Psychology Chair
Carole Oglesby
Temple University
Social Psychology Chair
Bob Brustad
University of North Colorado
Senior Section Head &
Intervention-Performance
Enhancement Chair
John Salmela
University of Ottawa
John M. Silva, Founding President
University of North Carolina-
Chapel Hill
Ronald E. Smith
University of Washington
Robert S. Weinberg
Miami University
Lawrence R. Brawley
University of Waterloo
Daniel Gould
University of North Carolina­
Greensboro
Leonard B. Zaichkowsky
Boston University
Executive Board
Past Presidents' Council
President-Elect
Robin Vealey
Miami University
Secretary-Treasurer
James Whelan
University of Memphis
Publications Director
Dale Pease
University of Houston
Student Representative
Thad Leffingwell
University of Washington
Michael L. Sachs
Temple University
Charles J. Hardy
Georgia Southern University
Jean M. Williams
University of Arizona
Tara K. Scanlan, Chair
University of California,
Los Angeles
Penny McCullagh
University of Colorado
Maureen Weiss
University of Virginia

JOURNAL OF APPUED SPORT PSYCHOUXiY 10, SI-SIO (1998)
What is the Applied in Applied Sport Psychology?:
The Role of Integration
PENNY MCCULLAGH
Univer.ri1)' of Cniorooo-Boulder
It is indeed an honor to serve as the 10th President of the Association
for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology. Of course when you
are in this position. it is necessary to decide what sort of message you
want to send to the members. I was forced to sit down and think why I
decided to volunteer my time to this organization and serve for a second
three year tenn on the Executive Board To reassure my memory. I reviewed
both of the position statements I had submitted for your viewing
upon running for office. and I found that I have been drawn to the same
cause or underlying interest. A key word in both my position statements
was integration. and this is what I would like to focus on in my address.
In particular. I would like to focus upon integration across the three subareas
in AAASP and how I see that this has progressed. and then focus
upon integration across research and practice.
First. let me start with integration across our three areas. For the first
ten years of existence. the three areas within our society operated fairly
independently in terms of how the program was organized for each year's
conference. Each Section Head earnestly developed their program and
with the help of their committees reviewed abstracts and symposia for
their particular section and independently organized the conference program.
When I came on the Executive Board as a Section Head. I did not
particularly like this organizational structure since I saw so much overlap
between the areas. In fact in my position statement for Section Head and
I gave the following example: "If I were to test theoretical predictions
of observational learning using videotapes in a group session to enhance
individual self-efficacy with the hopes of improving adherence to a rehabilitation
program. "-to what section was I to submit my paper?
It was my contention. that all three sub-areas in AAASP should be
interested in this topic. In my own research, I have always been concerned
Address correspondence to: Penny McCullagh, Ph.D., Dept. of Kinesiology, University
of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, mccullagh@colorado.edu, 303-492-8021
S 1 ]()4.]·32OO1981S1--S 10$1.0010
Copyright 1998 by AssociatiOJl for A

52 I McCullagh
about integratiug across more than one specific area. The reality of this
lack of integration at AAASP came at one of the conferences when I was
involved in a symposium in the Social Psychology Section that involved
my own primary research interest in the area of observational learning
or modeling. I along with Mo Weiss, John Noble and Frances Flint presented
a symposium on Modeling: The Forgotten Factor in Psychological
Skill Development. As per our usual style, we presented a conceptual
framework demonstrating how modeling in addition to modifying physical
or sport skills may also impact such psychological factors as selfefficacy,
anxiety and attributions. We noted that a considerable amount
of research had been conducted examining this topic in both the educational
and medical literature but had elusively escaped attention in our
own field. The final paper in the symposium was an application of modeling
techniques to a rehabilitation setting.
We seemed to receive a good feedback on the symposium and I was
pleased with the outcome until I went to a session in the Intervention!
Performance Enhancement Section the next day. This was a workshop
lead by Wayne Halliwell on "Using Videos to Enhance Athletic Performance".
While not labeled so, and although the terminology was not the
same, he was talking from a very practical standpoint, about using cbservational
learning techniques to modify psychological skills of elite
athletes. From my perspective, it was indeed unfortunate that we had not
combined forces and presented a cross-sectional symposium on the topic.
As I continued to serve as the Social Psychology Section Head, we strove
to organize the program so we would have cross-sectional sessions that
addressed concerns from either two or three of our areas. As you will
note, this is also a goal of the recently developed Grant Program and a
look at the current conference program (1995) may have come as a surprise
to many of you. We no longer have sessions designated according
to area. Rather, the submitted papers, symposia and colloquia were organized
according to thematic or topical areas. Even the poster sessions
were grouped according to topics of a like nature, regardless of section
they were submitted to. Hopefully this integration of the program was a
beginning to providing enhanced conununication to individuals with like
interests and one that we will continue to work on in future programs.
The second topic of integration I would like to speak: to this evening,
concerns integration between research and practice. This is by no means
a new topic for AAASP. In fact the society was founded with the purpose
of "promoting the development of psychological theory research and intervention
strategies in sport psychology" and the founding President, Dr.
John Silva stated that "We must work to remove the artificial division
between research and practice". (Silva, 1987, p. 1). Thus, this theme is
by no means a new direction for AAASP, but one that I think we must
continually strive to improve. A survey of the nine previous Presidential
Addresses indicates this concern about research and practice to be of
central importance. Since this is our 10th Anniversary meeting, I would

What is Applied? I 83
like to take a few minutes to highlight and review some of these thoughts
as well as add my own conunents.
Ron Smith the second president, was concerned about research and
practice and thus reviewed the Boulder Model of clinical psychology that
had been developed in an attempt to train clinical psychologists in both
research and practice. He talked about its appropriateness for sport psychologists.
He then went on to call for accountability in our practices
suggesting that "we have an ethical, moral and professional obligation to
ensure the consumer is not presented with exaggerated claims" (Smith,
1989, p. 172) thereby emphasizing the need to assess the effectiveness of
our practices. Smith's address provides some excellent advice on how
sport psychology can be accountable both scientifically and publicly and
although his address was delivered over ten years ago, it still provides a
great deal of insightful advice for us all.
The researchlpractice theme continued with our third President, Bob
weinberg. As he made is speech in Nashua in 1988, he suggested that
one of the challenges of our field was the researchlpractice distinction
suggesting that "the key is that all of us working in applied settings
should strive to live up to the spirit of the scientist-practitioner model by
not only providing the best psychological services possible but also putting
the outcome of our work under rigorous scientific scrutiny" (Weinberg,
1989, p. 191). He suggested that we publish applied articles in
coaching and athletic journals as well as present our applied research
through workshops and presentations.
Dan Gould, in addition to providing us with a nice historical perspective
of sport psychology, in his vision for the 90's, called for "integration
and equal respect for sport psychology research and professional practice"
(Gould, 1990, p. 105). He noted the importance of using a variety
of research techniques in our endeavors and called for documentation
from practitioners about practices and experiences gained from working
with clients. He also called for "further developments of the body of
knOWledge" recognizing that "we need a research base to guide professional
practice" (p. 107) and that AAASP could help facilitate this research
base.
Larry Brawley was heavily into Integration in his Presidential address
delivered in San Antonio. He provided some excellent examples from
both social and health psychology that illustrated the importance of integration
between researchers and clinicians, and a glance through current
mainstream psychology journals, demonstrates that such integration is a
continuing concern. He suggested that "if part of AAASP's philosophy
IS the science-practitioner model," we need to insure "that adequate representation
of that model is presented and published at our conference
and in our Journal" (Brawley, 1992, p. 116).
Similarly our current Past Presidents Jean Williams and Tara Scanlan
have called for the need to integrate across sections, develop the sport
psychology knowledge base by developing models and theories to drive
our research and interventions and thus further the science-practitioner

54 I McCullagh
Basic Research
(Levell)
Applied Research
(Level 2)
Applied Research
(Level 3)
Intimate Goal - Develop theory based
knowledge...with no requirement
to demonstrate relevance for solving
practical problems
Intimate Goal - Develop theory-based
knowledge ...in sport settings with no
requirement to find immediate solutions
to ...problems in sport
Uldmate Goal - Find immediate
solutions to ...problems in sport with no
requirement to demonstrate or develop
theory-based knowledge at either Level
I or 2.
Figure I. Levels of Research. Adapted from Christina (1989).
model. Thus the call for integration of theory, research and practice are
not new. In fact Bert Carron (1993) as one of our previous Coleman
Griffith lecturers entitled his talk "Theory, Research and Practice in Sport
Psychology" and cautioned us that "these three activities were never
intended to be independent". He called for the need for conceptual models
to guide our research and interventions and suggested that integration of
theory, research and practice was both logically and professional sound.
Perhaps, however, we need to examine some conceptual models about
how to integrate theory, research and practice.
As I reviewed the literature on this topic, and indeed there are plenty
of musings available, two papers surfaced in guiding my thoughts on this
topic. The first was by Dr. Bob Christina presented at a Future Directions
symposium held at Arizona State University (Christina, 1989). This paper
serves as a good companion piece to an earlier paper on the concern for
theory testing in sport psychology published by Dan Landers (1983) as
well as a number of other sport psychology papers presented at the ASU
symposium (Feltz, 1989; Landers, 1989; Suinn, 1989).
For this address I would particularly like to draw on Christina's paper.
For those of you who don't know, Dr. Christina started out as a baseball
coach and assistant professor at myoid alma mater, SUNY Brockport,
and in fact I took my first sport psychology class from him. He continued
on as a motor learning professor, department chair and is currently the
Dean of the School of Health and Human Performance at UNC Greensboro.
In his address "Whatever happened to applied research in motor
learning?" he was specifically concerned with research within his own
sub-field but addended his remarks suggesting they were applicable to
many other sub-disciplines. He suggested that there are three types of
research as identified in this Figure l.

86 I McCullagh
vices and do application of sport psychology. My general response iswhat
do you want to apply? My point here is that I think we need to
make a clear distinction between applied research and application and I
instead would prefer to call the use of interventions in sport psychology
as the practice of sport psychology and leave the term application out of
it. However, .if we focus to a large extent on practice, how are we to
develop a body of knowledge specific to sport psychology? Can there
really be a link between basic and applied research and practice?
After reading numerous papers from the clinical, counseling and mainstream
psychology literature, I was attracted to an address by Donald
Peterson presented as a Distinguished Education and Training Contributions
award address at the 98th annual APA Convention (peterson, 1991).
This paper helped address this issue and extended the notions expressed
in Christina's position. In this address, Peterson noted that as a result of
the development of the Boulder Model in psychology, the link between
science and practice was assumed to be direct and unidirectional:
Basic Applied T hn I Professional eli
S cience · -+Research' ec oogy'Appli cation . , ent
The notion here was that once principles were established at the basic
science level, they could then be used at the applied research level to
develop whatever technologies were needed to put the ideas into professional
practice and be delivered to the client. "In this scheme, temporal
priority, generality and social value are ordered from left to right. Attempting
application before the necessary research was done and the laws
of nature were understood was considered dangerous." (peterson, 1991,
p. 425). As we are well aware, some individuals within the field of sport
psychology are quite vociferous in stating this same notion.
However, Peterson suggests that due to psychology's success after
World War Il a more reciprocal relationship between science and practice
was assumed--"a1though it was never assumed that practice and science
were of equal value". However, the rules of basic science still prevailed.
Practitioners, even ifthey did not publish research, were expected to think
scientifically in their approaches to client problems and graduate programs
still focused on traditional research paradigms for solving problems. Peterson
noted that this state of affairs was indeed unfortunate since science
and practice differ in fundamental ways. He noted that whether one is
conducting basic or applied research, the focus of inquiry is determined
by the researcher. The primary goal is to minimize the influence of extraneous
variables and Type I errors. The process begins and ends with
enhancing knowledge about the issue at hand; In professional practice,
however, the focus is not determined by the professional practitioner, but
rather by the client and the practitioner must address rather than ignore
the extraneous variables.
Thus Peterson suggested a model for "Professional Activity as a Disciplined
Inquiry". This model illustrated in Figure 2 helps elevate the
role of practice in contributing to knowledge. Within this model, the needs

88 / McCullagh
assimilation occurs and the knowledge gained is added to the current bank
of information.
The bottom line, according to Peterson is "that if the inquiry or run
of inquiries has been conducted in a systematic way, to allow generalization
of findings, contributions to research or theory may result". Peterson
well recognizes that in professional situations, the interests of the clients
are of primary importance and will prevail over other interests thus making
data collection that meets the rigors of normal science nearly impossible.
He also recognizes that interventions are often delivered in complex
packages to enhance the effectiveness of interventions and are thus not
as cleanly defined as we might want in a standard research paradigm.
Nevertheless, if over time, a practitioner foIlows the scheme advocated
here and takes care in both the assessment and evaluation stages of their
practice, it will probably include some sort of documentation or write-up
of these practices. The documentation phase is very important, but one
that does not seem to occur very often within our field. If the practices
are documented, then individuals carrying out basic and applied research
have access to this knowledge, and the valuable information gained can
contribute to the research/theory base and thus close the circle in our
development of knowledge. The documentation can also serve to help
other practitioners and allows for evaluation of an individuals' practices
by others.
An excellent example demonstrating researcher/practitioner collaboration
was published in the recent issue of The Sport Psychologist (Cogan
& Petrie. 1995). These researchers identified an intervention and target
skills from the first author's experience as a competitive gymnast. Upon
completion of a pilot intervention program, the gymnasts offered feedback
on both the strengths and weaknesses ofthe program. This feedback
was used to hone the intervention. In addition the coach requested assistance
with enhancing team cohesion and leadership. Based on the feedback
the new intervention occurred and the researchers assessed its effectiveness
by measuring anxiety and cohesion over the course of the
season using both group and individual level analyses.
A quote from Peterson with some additions from myself, summarize
my thoughts here; "Basic research, applied research and professional
work are all required, although it is absurd to expect the same people to
do them all. We are likely to serve the public most effectively and to
advance most rapidly as a discipline if basic scientists, applied scientists
and professionals work toward their separate goals in cooperative and
complementary ways" (p. 429) .
So where are we? I think we still have a long way to go but with a
little cooperation, our task is not insurmountable. Let me provide a metaphor
to illustrate my point.
In writing music, a composer works endlessly to design an intricate
and elaborate score that builds on their knowledge of music theory and
past experience. When the composer is satisfied with the anticipated harmony,
the orchestra comes together to practice their already rehearsed

What is Applied? I 89
parts. 1b illustrate the role of cooperation, Peterson used the example of
a string quartet. "When the viola and the cellojoin the violins, the violins
do not stop playing. All blend together in a rich harmony. If dissonance
is heard, it is not useful for the performers to smash the instruments of
their fellow artists. If the cellist hears the viola going fiat, a gentle comment
to the partner is in order. But the best thing all of them can do is
tune their own instruments". (peterson, 1991, p. 429)
To further build on the role of cooperation, take the example of when
a ballet is set to a musical score-the dancers may not be able to meld
their bodies to the tempo of the music or they have their own interpretations
ofthe music and thus the conductor must make some modifications
to the tempo proposed in the original score. Although these modifications
may not have been welcomed or anticipated by the composer, and although
the talented musicians sit in the pit and are not even seen by the
audience, the final product, produced by the conductor, musicians and
ballet dancers clearly convinces us of the need for cooperation at all
levels.'
REFERENCES
Brawley, L. R. (1992). Dealing with reality in order to develop AAASP's future. JOUrrli11
ofApplied Sport Psychology, 4, 102-119.
Carron. A. V. (993). Toward the integration of theory, research and practice in sport psychology.
JOUrrli11 ofApplied Sport Psychology, 5, 201-222.
Christina, R. W. (1989). Whatever happened to applied research in motor learning? In J.
Skinner, C. Corbin, D. Landers, P. Martin, & C. Wells (&is.). Future directions in
exercise and spon science research (pp. 411--422). Champaign, m.: Human Kinetics.
Cogan, K. D., & Petrie, T. A. (1995). Sport consultation: An evaluation of a season-long
intervention with female collegiate gymnasts. The Spon Psychologist, 9. 282-296.
Peltz, D. (1989). Theoretical research in sport psychology: From applied psychology toward
sport science. In J. Skinner, C. Corbin, D Landers, P. Martin & C. Wells (Eds.). Future
directions in exercise and sport science research (pp. 435-452). Champaign, Ill.: Human
Kinetics.
Landers, D. M. (1983). Whatever happened to theory testing in sport psychology? JOUrrli11
ofSport Psychology, 5, 135-151.
Landers, D. M. (1989). Sport psychology: A commentary. In J. Skinner, C. Corbin. 0
Landers, P. Martin & C. Wells (Eds.). Future directions in exercise and sport science
research (pp. 475--486). Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics.
Peterson, D. R. (1991). Connection and disconnection of research and practice in the education
of professional psychologists. American Psychologist. April, 422-429.
Silva, J. (1987). AAASP: Committed to enhancing professional standards and advancing
applied research. AAASP Newsletter, 2(1), 1,13.
Smith, R. E. (1989). Applied sport psychology in an age of accountability. Journal of Applied
Sport Psychology, 1, 166-180.
Suinn, R. M. (1989). Models from behavioral clinical psychology for sport psychology. In
J. Skinner, C. Corbin, D Landers, P. Martin & C. Wells (Eds.). Future directions in
exercise and sport science research (pp. 453-473). Champaign, m.: Human Kinetics.
1 Thanks 10 Kate Hays for her suggestions to modify my original metaphor.

810 ! McCullagh
Weinberg, R. S. Applied sport psychology: Issues and challenges. JouT1IQI ofApplied Sport
Pli)lchology, 1, 181-195.
Author Nores: This talk was delivered as lhe Presidential Address at the 10th Anniversary
Conference of the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology held in
New Orleans from September 25 to October 1, 1995.

IOUIlNAL OF i\PI'UED SPOilT PSYCHOLOGY 10, Sll-S24 (1998)
"Passionate Collaboration": Reflections on the Directions of
Applied Sport Psychology in the Coming Millennium
MAUREEN R. WEISS
University ofVirginia
As with many of my ten distinguished colleagues who stood up here
before me, I struggled from the moment I became president-elect with
what unique vision I could bring to the organization, how I might demonstrate
creativity in my leadership capabilities, and how I could facilitate
achieving the goals stated over the past decade in a new decade ... indeed
a new millenniwn. I started with the idea that I needed to be entirely
original with my thoughts and list several new goals for the future of
AAASP.
So I plunged in head first and pored over each of the presidential
addresses published in the Journal of Applied Sport Psychology (JASP)
and my scribbled notes from their presentations at business meetings past,
and made detailed outlines of the themes and take-home messages contained
within them. Then I sat back and reviewed the issues, goals, and
directions that were offered by the ten presidents before me. I was looking
for an opening, no matter how small, in which I could blaze my own
original words of wisdom for the organization and field of sport psychology.
Well. trying to find that opening-just one unique thought, feeling,
or action statement on which to hang my cap (baseball cap of
course)--was not an easy task. Upon this reflection, I panicked for several
weeks ... and then the solution emerged almost out ofthin air as thoughts
often do in moments of crisis.
I decided that originality in leadership need not only come from adding
to the goals and objectives of an organization, but may also emerge from
!he creativity in synthesizing and consolidating the volume of issues fac­
JOg AAASP in the coming millennium. The process of synthesizing and
consolidating issues could inspire a parsimonious set of themes upon
which we can focus our efforts. But of the enormity of issues identified
Address correspondence to: Maureen R. Weiss. Ph.D., Health and Physical Education,
201 Memorial Gymnasium, University of Virginia, Cberlottesville, VA 22903,
1lifW5d@viIginia.edu
Sll 1041-12OO1981SI1--S24$I.lXW
Copyright 1998 by A'socilllion for AdvaI>

812 I Weiss
in previous presidential addresses, what issues should I focus on and how
could I weave them together into a coherent story?
In his presidential address at the Seattle meeting in 1989, Dan Gould
(1990) mentioned his struggle to compose a presidential address, grappling
with whether to bring up controversial issues or to "stay safe" with
highlighting the progress applied sport psychology has made thus far. He
resolved his personal struggle in a serendipitous manner while he was
reading a chapter on coaching leadership as he prepared for a class lecture.
It's funny that we often commiserate over what to say and how to
say it, and then it comes to you in a flash when you're least thinking
about it. So it was for me too.
In the fall of 1995 as I was embarking on my 15th year as a professional
in the field, I felt a little lost. I engaged in some thoughtful reflection
about where I had been, where I was presently, and where I was
(should be?) going with my career in sport and exercise psychology. Little
did I know that this would mean literally as well as figuratively. A good
friend of mine in the publishing business recommended that I read a book
that he thought would be relevant and meaningful to my recent musings
on my professional existence. The book he recommended was Composing
a Life by Mary Catherine Bateson (1990), writer and professor of anthropology
and English at George Mason University. Little did I know
that the book and its take-home messages would be a crystal ball for not
only helping me understand my current professional situation and stimulating
my decision to evoke discontinuity in my life by leaving the
University of Oregon after 16 years, but more importantly for my immediate
purposes it also sparked the ideas, and the title, for this presidential
address.
The book, as the title "composing a life" implies, documents the lives
of five women who have been successful in both their professional and
personal achievements. It focuses upon how energies toward professional
goals need not be narrowly defined but should be continually refocused
and redefined. It focuses upon the discontinuities in one's lifetime, the
importance and healthiness of change, and the critical theme of interdependence
in one's professional as well as personal life. While Composing
a Life specifically addresses the need for individuals to take the time to
reflect upon their professional and personal commitments, the analogy to
understanding the present and future commitments of an institution, such
as AAASp, was in my opinion logical and timely.
Thus the changes in my own professional career, the honor and privilege
of being president for this proactive and exciting organization, and
the lessons proffered in this book converged. Hence the title of my address,
"Passionate Collaboration." Passionate collaboration is one of the
key themes of the book, referring to the possibilities ofproductivity when
two or more individuals seek a common goal with different but complementary
perspectives. The theme of passionate collaboration was an immediate
attractor for me for, as many of you know, I strongly believe that
passion is the most important quality characterizing one's commitment to,

814 I Weiss
Psychology, for both of these themes-research and practiee-are indeed
applied in nature. But sometimes these themes have been seen more in
conflict than concert among the membership. This is evidenced by Dan
Gould's (1990) premonition that a research-practice schism represents a
major obstacle to advancing applied sport psychology and the goals of
AAASP, a theme that is reinforced by several presidents in their addresses.
Other presidents alluded to the confusion often surrounding the term "applied"
in applied sport psychology.
Larry Brawley (1992) identified as one of AAASP's future realities the
need to define applied sport psychology and determine the boundaries for
research and practice. For example, the majority of graduate school inquiries
and media interview requests I receive assume that sport psychology
is all about performance enhancement, especially in high-level
athletes. Obviously, applied sport psychology extends much more broadly
to issues such as personal development, physical activity and health, and
individuals ranging in age, culture, and racelethnicity. But the lack of a
clear definition of applied sport psychology perpetuates the cloud of uncertainty
many individuals have about our identity. Jean williams (1995),
as one of her goals and issues during her presidency, encouraged that we
"promote the 'applied' in AAASP" and clarified this as providing an
open and interactive environment for those who do consulting work in
the field. The confusion surrounding the term "applied" and the definition
of applied sport psychology prompted Penny McCullagh (1998) to ask in
her address, "What is the 'applied' in AAASP"?
But after all, don't we all do applied sport psychology whether our
efforts are primarily as researchers or consultants, whether our training
emanates from sport science or psychology, or we identify ourselves as
educational or clinical sport psychology specialists? I will certainly argue
this point and strongly urge that we put our artificial boundaries as researchers
and practitioners aside, and collaborate passionately to achieve
the goals of AAASP and the broader field of sport psychology. As a
personal note, I believe that most people would classify me as a sport
psychology researcher, yet it has been my experiences as a practitioneryouth
sport and collegiate coach, coach educator, and director of a largescale
children's sport program-that have inspired my research ideas. Research
findings, in turn, are always translated to practical implications for
youth athletes, coaches, and parents. In my piece, "Who will take care
of the children?" (Weiss, 1989) I argued for sport psychology specialists
to target all developmental levels as a focus of research and practice,
whether it be in the social, health, or intervention areas of sport psychology
(or most likely the integration of these areas). Thus I contend
that the focus of all our efforts-research and practice ... the three areas
within AAASP ... the age and skill level of research participants/clients
... and the social context of our target efforts (competitive sport. exercise,
rehabilitation}--is applied in nature.
The confusion over what is "applied sport psychology" is also easily
understood if we peruse the Directory ofGraduate Programs in Applied

516 I Weiss
plied sport psychology knowledge base" and "Enhance our professional
development and image". How do we get there?-Passionate collaboration.
I
Passionate Collaboration
Lest people misconstrue my urgings for "passionate collaboration" and
to facilitate my discussion of this concept, an operational definition is in
order. There are many definitions for the term "passionate" but for our
purposes here we can use the synonyms of easily moved, excited, and
characterized by passion or intense emotion. "Collaboration" means to
work or act jointly, to share in scientific or other intellectual production;
it certainly implies the themes ofinterdependence, integration, and mutual
respect.
Passionate collaboration is the main theme of Composing a Life. To
further illuminate the concept of and potential for passionate collaboration
let me share with you some of the quotes that were so appealing to me
in translating the theme of passionate collaboration to our goals and vision
for the future. Some of the quotes that, for me, carried analogs between
our personal and professional lives included:
• "one of the striking facts of most lives is the recurrence of threads
of continuity, the re-echoing of earlier themes ... tt
(p. 8)
• "composing a life involves a continual reimagining of the future and
reinterpretations of the past to give meaning to the present" (pp.
29-30)
• "composing a life means integrating one's own commitments with
the differences created by change and the differences that exist between
the peoples of the world with whom we increasingly come
into contact" (p. 59)
• "when we are fortunate...we work alongside many different kinds
of people learning and teaching in complex complementarities" (p.
75)
• "work relationships of any kind are enlivened by difference combined
with mutual commitment" (p. 78)
• "for complementarity to be truly creative, it is not sufficient for need
to run in both directions; it is necessary to acknowledge that both
contributions are of equal value and that both are freely given" (p.
lOD)
• "unless we treasure our differences, we will never achieve interdependence"
(p. 105)
This last quote is my favorite as I believe it is particularly salient to
successfully achieving our goals and dreams within the field and the organization,
as well as in our collegial and personal relationships. So ...
passionate collaboration alludes to mutual commitment, reciprocity, and
interdependence in pursuit of our common goals by celebrating our individual
differences and unique contributions. Our common goal as sport
psychologists is to move the field forward in scientific research and pro-

SI8 J Weiss
we should work to achieve these goals, I now discuss specific issues
within each theme that I believe AAASP and the field of sport psychology
should address as we approach the coming millennium.
Issues Facing the MILlennium: Enhancing the Applied Sport Psychology
Knowledge Base
I've adopted the acronym MIL to represent issues within each theme
that are relevant to both applied sport psychology researchers and practitioners.
For the first theme, "Enhancing the applied sport psychology
knowledge base" MIL is denoted by:
• Measurement
• Intervention
• Lifespan
Measurement Issues. The quality of our work is dependent on the accuracy
with which we measure our psychological constructs and other
salient variables (e.g., physical activity, athletic performance, exercise intensity,
program compliance). While several excellent models of instrument
development exist in both mainstream psychology and sport psychology,
we have not emulated these efforts frequently enough in my
opinion. Perhaps this is a result of primarily focusing our efforts upon
building a scientific knowledge base. In the coming millennium we will
need to keep pace with the number of significant developments in measurement,
design, and statistical analysis. Schutz and Gessaroli (1993)
cogently addressed "use, misuse, and disuse" examples of various statistical
methodologies in sport psychology. Five years later I believe that
we have come a long way in maximizing the appropriate use, and minimizing
the disuse and misuse, of areas such as measurement testing, analysis
of change, and structural equation modeling. Several recent articles
in the 1997 and 1998 volumes of Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology
that focus upon measurement development and validation, as well
as an entire book on sport psychology measurement (Duda, 1998) are
evidence of our progress in this area.
We must continue our efforts to ensure validation of our psychological
measures as well as important behavioral assessments that ultimately signal
the effectiveness of our interventions and model predictions. Such
variables include athletic performance, exercise behavior, and motivated
behavior (e.g., choice, effort, persistence). Additionally, there now exist
many types of research designs (e.g., single-subject, multivariate) and
statistical methodologies (e.g., qualitative, structural equation modeling)
that allow us to answer important research questions and prescribe practical
implications based on these findings. Other major measurement issues
include the behavioral validation of measures (i.e., do scores on a
psychological construct actually predict behavior such as performance or
motivation?), cross-cultural assessment considerations, and cross-validation
of quantitative and qualitative methods.
Intervention Programs. More intervention research is sorely needed in

Passionate Collaboration I Sl9
sport and exercise psychology. While our colleagues in clinical psychology
and other areas of kinesiology (e.g., exercise physiology, biomechanics)
test and document a variety of cognitive and/or behavioral interventions,
the majority of sport and exercise psychology research continues
to be correlational in nature. I'm not only talking about the need
for more traditional experimental designs (e.g., treatment/control differences)
but also alternative methodologies such as single-subject designs
or ideographic methods as advocated by Ron Smith (1989) in his presidential
address. We need more research evidence for the effectiveness of
our psychological methods such as relaxation, self-talk, and imagery on
performance enhancement and anxiety reduction (Vealey, 1994); for social
and psychological interventions designed to enhance self-perceptions.
affective responses, motivation, and physical activity behavior; and, for
physical activity or exercise interventions on socioemotional and physical
health outcomes. Although we can point to a few review articles and
empirical studies that have demonstrated intervention effectiveness, I believe
that the credibility and visibility of the field will be enhanced considerably
as we increase the knowledge base in this area. This research
must be developed and documented not only by the academics of our
group but importantly by the clinicians who work one-on-one with clients
on a variety of interventions to enhance health, performance, and social
psychological outcomes.
I believe that our theoretical and empirical knowledge base is strong
enough to inspire informed intervention programs such as the coach education
research conducted by Smith and Smoll in the last 20 years. I
encourage professionals and students alike to conduct intervention studies
while using the appropriate types of methodologies (nomothetic, ideographic)
that will be most conducive to the purpose, design, and desired
outcomes of the treatment. I think it is also crucial that we document
whether our treatment effectiveness is short-lived or enduring by collecting
follow-up assessments, as well as establishing the meaningfulness of
our findings by calculating and reporting effect sizes or other indicators
of clinical significance. Vealey's (1994) excellent paper on problems and
solutions in intervention research in sport psychology serves as an invaluable
resource as individuals grapple with the number of real-world
issues that confront the successful execution of field-based intervention
studies.
Lifespan Development. The knowledge base in sport psychology over
the last two decades, in particular, provides a strong basis for understanding
psychosocial factors and physical activity (i.e., sport, exercise) behavior
in youth ages 8 to 14 years and in college-age adults (typically 18
to 22 years). We know relatively little, however, about children younger
than 8 years, adolescents between the ages of 14 and 18 years, and middle
and older adults. Given the recent Surgeon General's report (U.S. Department
of Health and Human Services, 1996) on declining physical
activity levels, especially across the adolescent years, it is important that
as sport and exercise psychologists we participate in the tracking of at-

820 I Weiss
titudes, emotions, and behaviors from young childhood through adolescence
and adulthood. As well, worldwide interest in health-related quality
of life in middle and older adulthood begs considerably more efforts in
determining the psychosocial factors that predict quality of life, as well
as the consequences of a physically active lifestyle on socioemotional
health. Salient lifespan-related questions also converge nicely with the
latest statistical technologies available to analyze multiple variables assessed
at multiple data points in terms of the nature and pattern of change,
as well as between- and within-individual variability (Schutz, 1998).
At the 1996 through 1998 AAASP conferences (Williamsburg, San
Diego, Cape Cod), only a handful of papers were devoted to understanding
very young children, adolescents, and older adults. For the knowledge
base to advance we need to focus more research efforts on age groups
that have been understudied and underserved, as well as individuals in
varying social contexts beyond traditional competitive sport. such as
school physical education. unstructured physical activity, and rehabilitation
settings. An excellent example of such efforts is Steven Danish's
"Going for the Goal" (GOAL) and SUPER ("Sports United to Promote
Education and Recreation") programs that target teaching life skills (e.g.,
goal setting, self-responsibility) to at-risk youth within the context of
learning sport skills (Danish & Nellon, 1997). It is time that we more
closely follow Dan Gould's (1990) urging to provide "sport psychology
for all" including very young children just launching into their sport
experiences and older adults who are motivated to be physically active
for social and health reasons.
Issues Facing the MIllennium: Enhancing Our Professional Development
and Image
As with the first theme, I have identified what I believe to be key issues
for the second theme, "Enhancing our professional development and image".
MIL is denoted by:
• Mentoring
• Interdependence
• Leadership
Mentoring. The mentor-protege relationship is one of the greatest treasures
we have in both academic and clinical settings. Thus, to advance the
field we need to put the mentoring role on center stage. Mentoring was
the key theme pervading Charlie Hardy's (1994) presidential address, and
the descriptors he used for defining mentoring are consistent with the
theme of "passionate collaboration." Specifically, Hardy identified passion
for the field of sport psychology as the most important characteristic
of an effective mentor-protege relationship. Moreover he introduced the
concept of "promotive interdependence". a cooperative style in which
the success of one individual improves the probability of the other's success,
as a way to nurture the benefits of mentoring relationships. Many
other words of wisdom were offered by Hardy to those who are com-

822 I Weiss
derstanding females' involvement in physical activity and sport by integrating
knowledge from psychological, physiological, biomechanical, and
sociological perspectives (Harris, 1972). Thus the wisdom of the quote
from Composing a Life, "the recurrence of threads of continuity, the reechoing
of earlier themes.. _"
It seems as if we continually advocate the benefits of interdependence
but do not maximize what it has to offer. Under previous presidents there
have been several areas of integration accomplished: awarding of grants
that integrate two or more areas; liaison with the USOC in the certification
process; and attempts on AAASP's part to integrate services with the
NCAA (with no success yet) to name a few. In light of some of the
recommendations I have offered in this manuscript, I still would like to
see researchers and practitioners collaborate (passionately ofcourse) more
frequently on intervention effectiveness research or documentation, and
on integrated workshops or symposia for the AAASP conference. These
suggestions echo what several previous presidents urged but I reiterate
this plea because I have not seen a great deal of movement toward these
goals. I encourage members to creatively think of ways to implement
some of these ideas of interdependence mentioned by just about every
president in their addresses.
Leadership. Leadership has been the heart and soul of AAASP. It is
absolutely staggering how many individuals contribute directly to the
goals of the organization: 9 executive board members; committee members
for social, health, and performance enhancement areas (about 15
members); 8-10 standing committees and their members (about 40-45
members); dissertation and D.¥. Harris award committees (about 6-8
members); ad hoc committees and their members (about 10-15 members);
past-presidents' council (II members); and journal and newsletter editors,
editorial board members, and reviewers (about 30 members) for well over
100 leadership positions at anyone shot. When we combine these numbers
with over 300 submissions that we receive for the annual conference,
it is clear that the success of the organization is directly attributable to
the individuals who are willing to give oftheir invaluable time to writing,
reviewing, presenting, serving on committees, and running for office.
To sustain this outstanding record, I encourage you to continue to send
your best and most creative work to our conference review committee,
say "yes" when called upon to serve on committees or run for office,
and seek ways in which you can become more involved in the organization.
I really like Larry Brawley's (1992) idea of practical leadership
workshops at our conference where senior members might mentor junior
members in ways they can best contribute their leadership to the organization.
This, of course, would be an excellent way of reinforcing the
interdependence theme, and contribute toward several other goals mentioned
in this paper.
I need to embellish upon two areas of leadership roles. The first is
running for election to the executive board. It has been quite difficult to
secure individuals to run for office in the past several years; this obser-

824 I Weiss
Dreyfuss. L (1996, August 10). Sports psychology: Bull market. or bull? Detroit Free Press.
p.2B.
Duda, J. L. (Ed.) (1998). Advances in sport and exercise psychology measurement. Morgantown,
WV: Fitness Information Technology.
Gould, D. (1990). AAASP: A vision for the 1990's. Journal ofApplied Sport Psychology,
2,99-116.
Hanly, C. J. (1994). Nurturing our future through effective mentoring: Developing roots as
well as wings. Journal ofApplied Sport Psychology, 6. 1%--204.
Harris, D. V. (Ed.) (1972). Women and sport: A national research conference. University
Park, PA: HPER Series, Pennsylvania State University.
Henry, E M. (1978). The academic discipline of physical education. Quest. 29. 13-29.
McCullagh, P. (1998, Supplement). What is the applied in Applied Sport Psychology? Journal
ofApplied Sport Psychology, 10, SI-8IO.
Sachs, M. L., Burke, K. L., & Gomer, S. (Eds.) (1998). Directory ofgraduate programs in
applied sport psychology (5th Ed.). Morgantown, WV: Fitness Infonnation Technology.
Scanlan, T. K. (1994, Fall). Headline headline headline headline. AAASP Newsletter. 9(3),
1-2.
Schutz, R. W. (1998). Assessing the stability of psychological traits and measures. In J. L.
Duda (Ed.), Advances in sport and exercise psychology measurement (pp. 393--408).
Morgantown, WV: Fitness lnfurmation Technology.
Schutz, R. W., & Gessaroli, M. E. (1993). Use, misuse, and disuse of psychometrics in sport
psychology research. In R. N. Singer, M Murphey, & L. K. Tennant (&Is.), Handbook
of research on sport psyclwlogy (pp. 901-917). New York: Macmillan.
Silva, J. M. (1989). Establishing professional standards and advancing applied sport psychology
research. Journal ofApplied Sport Psychology, J, 160-165.
Smith, R. E. (1989). Applied sport psychology in an age of accountability. Journal of
Applied Sport Psychology, J, 166-180.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (1996). Physical cu:tiviry and health; A
report of the surgeon general. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
veatey, R. S. (1994). Current status and prominent issues in sport psychology interventions.
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26, 495-502.
Weinberg, R. S. (1989). Applied sport psychology: Issues and challenges. Journal ofApplied
Sport psychology, 1. 181-195.
Weiss, M. R. (1989, Fall). Who will take care of the children? AAASP Newsletter, 4(3), 7.
wuttams, J. M. (1995). Applied sport psychology: Goals, issues, and challenges. Journal of
Applied Sport Psychology, 7. 81-91.
Wilmore, J. H. (1998). Building strong academic programs for our future. Quest, 50. 103­
107.
Author Notes: I gratefully thank Tony Amorose, Emilio Ferrer Ceja. Penny McCullagh,
and Alan Smith for their helpful and thoughtful comments on this manuscript. This manuscript
is based on my presidential address given at the 11th annual AAASP Conference in
Wtlliamsburg, Virginia in October, 1996.

Jl)l.1ItNAL OF API'UEll SPORT PSYCHOLOGY 10, 525-$67 (1998)
Titles of Invited Presentations
Coleman R. Griffith Lecture
"Embracing Victory. Embracing Defeat: Life Lessons in Competition and
Compassion"
Mariah Burton Nelson
Author, Journalist, and Speaker
Arlington. VA
Health Psychology Keynote
"Health and Active Lifestyle in Diverse Communities: Potentials for Sport
Psychology"
Byllye Y. Avery
Executive Director, National Black Women's Health Project
Philadelphia, PA
Inten'entiolllPerformance Enhancement KeyJlote
"Fruits of Collaboration"
John T. Partington, Ph.D.
Carleton University, Ottawa, ON
Sodal Psychology Keynote
"Self Theories and Goals: Their Role in Motivation
Carol S. Dweck, Ph.D.
Columbia University, New York
Invited Colloquium
"The Big Five in Sport Psychology Questionnaires: Valid, Visionary, Verified,
Veracious and Versatile: or Vacuous, Vulnerable, Vague, Vaporous and
Voluminous?"
Robert W. Schutz, Ph.D.
University of British Columbia
Vancouver, BC
Distinguished Inte.....tional. Sdlolar
"Motivation in Physical Activity and Health"
Stuart Biddle, Ph.D.
Loughborough University, UK
Outstanding Dissertation Award
"Pre-Competition Achievement Goals Within Young Spans Performers"
Chris Harwood
Loughborough University, UK
Presidential Address
"TOWard Inclusive Exclusiveness: Let's Take Sport Psychology for a Spin"
Robin S. Vealey, Ph.D.
Miami University
Oxford, OR
525

S26 I Symposia Abstracts
Symposia
SYMPOSIUM: PosItive and Negative Factors Inftuencing Performance of
U.s. Athletes and Coaches Competing in the 1996 Olympic
Gam..
Daniel Gould, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro. NC
27402; Diane Guinan. The Cooper Institute foc Aerobics Research, Dallas, TX
75230; Christy Greenleaf, University of North Carolina at Greensboro,
Greensboro, NC 27402; Kirsten Peterson, US Olympic Committee, Colorado
Springs, CO 80909; Marc Strickland, University of North Carolina at
Greensboro, Greensboro, NC 27402; Ken Ravizza, California State University
at Fullerton, Fullerton, CA 92834
Though research suggests that some optimal combination of mental states is associated
with superior elite performance (see Hardy, Jones, & Gould, 1996; Williams
& Krane, 1998), little is know about physical, psychological, environmental,
and social factors that influence peak Olympic performance. This symposium
reports findings from a large-scale project designed to examine athletes' and
coaches' perceptions of factors positively and negatively affecting 1996 Olympic
preparation and performance. Data collection involved in-depth interviews with
Olympic athletes and coaches, as well as, survey data from U.S. athletes participating
in the 1996 Games. Interviews were conducted with individual athletes,
groups of athletes, and coaches from teams that either met or exceeded the performance
expectations of their National Governing Body (NGB), and teams that
failed to perfonn up to NGB expectations. Surveys were sent to all 666 U.S.
athletes participating in the 1996 Olympics. 1be results will be presented in three
sections: (a) in-depth interviews with individual Olympic athletes, (b) focus group
interviews with Olympic athletesfm-depth interviews with individual coaches, and
(c) survey data from 298 Olympic athletes. Results suggest that differences did
exist between those who met/exceeded NGB expectations and those who did not.
A critical reaction from a sport psychology consultant will conclude the presentation.
Individualloterviews with 1996 Olympic Athletes
Christy Greenleaf, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC
27402
In-depth phone interviews that focused on factors perceived to have positively
and negatively influenced performance were conducted with five female and three
male 1996 Olympians. Four athletes met or exceeded the performance expectations
of their NGB and four athletes did not. All athletes indicated the importance
of systematic, long-term mental preparation for competition. Athletes that met oc
exceeded expectations reported the following as positive influences on performance:
simulation of Olympic performance, a "my time to shine" attitude, being
prepared (mentally and physically) better than competitors, using mental skills

S28 I Symposia Abstracts
factors; and sport psychology consultation. The discussion will conclude with a
comparison of (a) Olympic medalists (n = 84) and nonmedalists (n = 193), (b)
athletes who performed below (n = 168), at (n = 92), and above expectations (n
= 25), and (c) athletes who varied in their performance satisfaction ratings (low,
medium, and high).
SYMPOSIUM: Measurement Issues in Self-Presentation and Social
Physique Anxiety
David E. Conroy, Robert W. Motl, & Evelyn G. Hall, University of Utah, Salt
Lake City, ill 84112.
Self-presentation and social physique anxiety are two psychological variables
thought to influence exercise experiences and participation. The present symposium
is designed to summarize recent research concerning the measurement of
both self-presentation and social physique anxiety. The first two presentations will
describe the development of the Self-Presentation in Exercise Questionnaire
(SPEQ), an inventory based on Leary and Kowalski's (1990) two-component
model of impression management. First, the two phases of development, which
led researchers to reduce the 125 item pool 10 a factorially-sound 14-item instrument,
wiJl be discussed, The second presentation will discuss evidence of convergent
and discriminant validity which supports the interpretation of these factors
as impression motivation and impression construction. The final presentation will
examine the factor structure and convergent validity of the SPAS in a mixedgender
sample of college students. Results will be discussed in relation to the
current slate of knowledge in this area.
Factorial Validity of the Self-Presentation in Exercise Questionnaire
David E. Conroy, Robert W. MotI, & Evelyn G. Hall, University of Utah, Salt
Lake City, UT 84112.
The Self-Presentation in Exercise Questionnaire (SPEQ) was developed to assess
impression motivation and impression construction (as outlined by Leary & Kowalski,
1990) in exercise environments. In the present study, a total sample of
314 participants from a variety of university exercise classes and an undergraduate
lecture class responded to the 41-item SPEQ. Oblique rotation of the initial factor
solution yielded a two-factor model comprised of 14 items, which appeared to
measure impression motivation (five items}, and impression construction (nine
items). Given the moderate relationship between these factors (r = .34), a confinnatory
factor analysis was conducted and the two-factor model demonstrated
a superior fit in relation 10 the one-factor model. Scores provided by the SPEQ
may be useful for researchers interested in the role of self-presentational processes
in exercise environments. The SPEQ also holds promise as a tool for examining
the potentially mediating role of self-presentational tendencies on psychological
responses to exercise.

Symposia Abstracts / S29
Assessing the Convergent and Discriminant Validity of the Self­
Presentation in Exercise Questionnaire
Robert W. MotI, David E. Conroy. & Evelyn G. Hall, University of Utah, Salt
Lake City, UT 84112.
Based on exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, the Self-Presentation in
Exercise Questionnaire (SPEQ) has been reduced to a 14-item inventory that
appears to measure impression motivation (IM) and impression construction (IC)
in exercise settings. Male (n = 150) and female (n = 127) students completed
the SPEQ a" well as a demographic questionnaire, Impression Rating Form, Marlowe-Crowne
Social Desirability Scale, Physical Self-Efficacy Scale, Social Physique
Anxiety Scale, and Surveillance Subseale of the Objectified Body Consciousness
Scale. Results indicated that IM , IC, and summed total 1M and IC
scores were correlated with the other measures in the expected directions. These
findings provide initial evidence for the convergent and discriminant validity of
the 1M and IC subscales contained within the SPEQ.
Examining the Factorial and Convergent Validity of a 9-item Version of
the Social Physique Anxiety Scale in a Sample of Males and Females
Evelyn G. Hall, David E. Conroy, & Robert W. Motl, University of Utah, Salt
Lake City, UT 84112.
Martin et al. (1997) provided support for a 9-item, single factor solution to the
Social Physique Anxiety Scale (SPAS) based on multiple samples of females.
This study further examined the factorial and convergent validity of a c-nem
version of the SPAS among males (n = 150) and females (n = 127). Participants
completed the SPAS as well as a demographic questionnaire, Impression Rating
Form, Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale, Physical Self-Efficacy Scale
(PSES), and Surveillance Subseale of the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale
(OBC-S). Confirmatory factor analysis revealed that the 9-item solution demonstrated
a better fit for the data than the 12-item model and these results were
consistent within both male and female subsamples. When examining convergent
validity, 9-item SPAS scores correlated with OBC-S, PSES-Perceived Physical
Ability Scale, PSES-Self-Presentation Confidence Scale, and Impression Ratings
as an Exerciser. These findings provide further evidence for the factorial and
convergent validity of the 9-item, unidimensional SPAS in a sample that included
both males and females.

830 I Symposia Abstracts
SYMPOSIUM: Sport Psychology Around the World: Past, Present, and
Future Trends
Daniel Smith, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore; Grant Avanesyan,
Armenian State Institute of Physical Culture, Armenia; Stephanie Hanrahan,
University of Queensland, Australia; Jean Fournier, National Institute of Sport
and Physical Education, France; Mikio Tokunaga, Kyushu University, Japan;
Chung-Hee Chung, Seoul National University, Korea; Sarah Chung, University
of Ottawa, Canada; Harry Tan, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore;
Arthur Toroyan, Armenian Federation of Sport Psychology, Armenia
The field of sport psychology involves different orientations in various countries
around the world. Most AAASP members are familiar with the North American
Model. Other models may have beneficial orientations to the field which have
been tried and tested in their countries. The purpose of this symposium is to
acquaint AAASP members with other orientations to sport psychology in eight
countries outside North America. The questions addressed related to each country
include: How did the field evolve? Are there sport psychology organizations?
Who are the members? How many members are there? Is the field aligned more
with physical education or psychology? What are sources for support? Is the
government involved? Are there consulting opportunities? What are the major
issues? The answers to these questions show that other countries deal with many
of the same issues as in North America (ie. certification). Yet some major issues
in other countries are minor issues in North America (ie. political and propaganda
issues).
Sport Psychology in Armenia: Past, Present and Future Trends
Grant Avanesyan, Armenian State Institute of Physical Culture, Armenia
The development of sport psychology in Armenia dates back to 1945 when the
Institute of Physical Education was established in Yerevan. The chair of this
institution did research, translated educational and scientific literature into the
Armenian Language and taught sport psychology. In 1961 a scientific research
laboratory for sport investigation was established in this institute. Among its'
faculty, there were specialists who were interested in sport psychology. They were
either physicians or physiologists interested in psychological aspects of sport
achievements and training of athletes. In Armenja. a number of conferences were
held on various issues of sport psychology: psychological states in sport, psychology
of coaching and athlete performance. and other applied aspects of sport
psychology. The first public union in this scientific sphere, namely the Federation
of Sport Psychology of Armenia was established in 1988. Since then, the psychologists
in Armenia have been in close professional contact with their colleagues,
not only within the former USSR but in other countries as well.

Symposia Abstracts I S31
sport Psychology in Australia: Past, Present and Future Trends
Stephanie Hanrahan, University of Queensland., Australia
Australia has a strong sporting culture and funds the training of many Olympic
and Commonwealth Games athletes. This training includes the support services
of sport psychology, primarily through the Australian Institute of Sport and various
state sport academies and institutes. The demand for sport psychology services
though. has spread to, not only national teams and professional sports. but
also to state teams, junior sport, masters sport, and club sport. In 1991 Australian
sport psychologists agreed to create a single national body and to place it within
the psychology profession. The Board of Sport Psychologists was established
within the Australian Psychological Society (APS). Since then. the name has
changed to the College of Sport Psychologists. The College has developed documents
related to competency, ethics, professional development and supervision.
Research is a significant facet of sport psychology in Australia. Australian authors
are common in major sport and exercise psychology publications and make up a
significant percentage of presenters at major international conferences.
Sport Psychology in France: Past, Present and Future Trends
Jean Fournier. National Institute of Sport and Physical Education, France
Sport psychology in France was launched in the seventies by a small group of
psychologists. Applied sport psychology per se, really made its appearance in the
last five years. University researchers principally study motor learning in physical
education. Clinical psychologists still adopt a psychoanalytical perspective of intervention.
To reduce the abuse of unqualified "gurus" and unimethod trainers,
certification criteria., ethics, and education of sport psychologists are the current
topics of the French Society of Sport Psychology. Athletes and coaches are generally
unaware of the overseas advances in applied sport psychology. The lack of
consultants has lead researchers of the National Institute of Sports to develop a
politics of knowledge diffusion by: giving seminars to coaches. providing written
infonnation (sport psychology manuals and a newsletter in French), consulting
with national teams, conducting applied research on coach expertise and on mental
training. The research projects are supported by the French Ministry of Youth
Sports and by some federations. The future will see visits from foreign experts
and more francophone student internships.
Sport Psychology in Japan: Past, Present, and Future Trends
Mikio Tokunaga, Kyushu University. Japan
The Japanese Society of Sport Psychology OSSP) was founded in 1973. This
organization holds its annual scientific meetings at various locations in Japan and
publishes an annual edition of the Japanese Journal of Sport PSYChology. This
organization will hold its' 25th meeting in 1998 and publish the 25th edition of
their journal. Most JSSP members are physical education teachers with an interest

S32 / Symposia Abstracts
in psychology. The remainder are either university professors, their assistants, or
researchers. Only a few of the members are trained psychologists. As of March,
1997, there were 422 ISSP members. Currently, many top athletes are utilizing
mental training by sport psychologists. In recent years, top level junior, university.
and business and national games athletes have began to utilize mental training.
It is anticipated that the future orientation of sport psychology in Japan will
include three major issues. First, standardization of diagnostic tools to assess
psychological states before and during competition is needed. Second, specific
methods of implementing mental training will be evaluated. Finally, ISSP will
investigate various systems for certifying mental trainers.
Sport Psychology in KOrell: Past, Present, and Future Trends
Chung-Hee Chung, Seoul National University, Korea
Sport: psychology in Korea is a new but growing area within physical education!
sport science. The Korean Society of Sport Psychology (KSSP), has about 320
members representing (a) motor controlllearning, (b) motor development, and (c)
sport psychology. Among them, about 90 received their doctoral degrees and are
very active in research. They have been strongly influenced by the North American
model of sport psychology. Recently, there has been increasing criticism
regarding how well Western sport psychology knowledge can help optimize sport
performance of Korean athletes. While most of the Korean sport psychology
scholars work at universities, several scholars have their positions in research
institutes. Current research interests include the development of a Korean version
of.sport-specific psychological measures on the basis of qualitative data. An increasing
number of Korean sport psychologists are interested in the modification
of traditional mind-body training techniques to develop psychological skills training
programs for Korean athletes. At this time, the members of KSSP are discussing
the scope of sport psychology research and alternative names for sport
psychology and its related areas.
Sport Psychol0kY in Malaysia: PMt, Present, and Future Trends
Sarah Chung, University of Ottawa, Canada
Sport psychology/mental training was first implemented with Malaysian Athletes
by Canadian Michel Gagne in 1988. Initially he implemented workshops for
coaches and then mental training tor athletes. Sport psychology services were
then offered by the National Sport Council Courses in sport psychology were
first offered by The Agriculture University of Malaysia in·1983 and by the UBi·
versity of Malaya in 1996. Under the Canadian Association of Health, Physical
Education and Recreation and the Canadian International Development Agency,
a Diploma Program in Sport Science was implemented in 1990-1994, where sport
psychology was one of the programs offered, Since 1995, the Malaysian Physical,
Sport Science and Health Education Association started a Diploma Program witb
the same curriculum as their Canadian counterpart. Various mental training pro-

S34 I Symposia Abstracts
SYMPOSIUM: Sport Psychology in 11Igb Sehool: A Description or the Life
EnIuuIcement through Athledc Participation (LEAP)
...........
Gail Solt; Vincent J. Granito, Jr.; Elizabeth Hunter, Sheridan James; Tonya
Jolmston; Ronald D. Noon, John F Kennedy University, Orinda, CA 94563
This symposium will describe the development of a comprehensive sport psychology
program at the high school level. TIle Life Enhancement through Athletic
Participation (LEAP) program uses an educational format, in collaboration with
students. student-athletes. parents, coaches, and school administrators. to promote
individual and team development, and teach performance enhancement and lite
sIdlls. The tint presentation will give an overview of LEAP including, program
components, program administration, demographics of the high school were the
program is employed, and focus of topics for the students, athletes, parents, coaches,
and teachers. Second, there will be a description of the methods employed to
secure funding for the maintenance of the program. The third presentation will
focus on how the LEAP program can function as a fieldwork experience foil
graduate sport psychology students. Finally, a presentation will be made on U.
critical issues facing the LEAP program including: working with high school
administrators, educating coaches, parents, and athletes about sport psychology.
gaining support fum coaches, communication process between all LEAP staft.
and ethical issues related to working with a high school.
An OvervIew of the Life EDlumcement through Athletic Participation
(LEAP) ...........
Gail Solt; Elizabeth Hunter; & Sheridan James, John E Kennedy University,
Orinda, CA. 94563
This presentation will portray an overview of the Life Enhancement through Athletic
Participation (LEAP) program. LEAP is a pilot program at a California high
school that enrolls over a Ihousand culturally diverse students. The program is
endorsed by the California Interscholastic Federation (state high school athletiQ
association). There are three components to LEAP: applied sport psychology,
education, and research. The applied sport psychology portion is addressed by
graduate students who work as interns with every sport team at the high school
The interns teach performance enhancement techniques to athletes, and apply
them skills to other aspects of the students' lives. The education component COD'o
sist of workshops conducted for parents, the entire student body, and school administration.
Topics include, pressures faced by teenagers" nutritionlexen:::ise, anger
management/frustration, positive self-talk, goal setting, improving concentration,
and acting responsibly. 1be third component is the research to measure tho
impact the program has on the students. To this date, the research has included
only evaluations made by the ashletes, but a more fonnal project is planned. PIau
are in the works to expand the program to an inner city high school in the fall
of 1998.

S36 I Symposia Abstracts
Development of a Comprehensive Sport Psychology High Scbool Program:
Critical Issues
Vincent J. Granito, Jr., & Ronald Noon, John E Kennedy University, Orinda,
CA 94563
There are a number of challenges that arise over the course of the pilot phase,
when starting a new program or developing a new curriculum. This presentation
will document a number of critical issues that came up in the first year of operation
for the Life Enhancement through Athletic Participation (LEAP) program.
First, it was important that the program have the support from all school admin_
istrators. This process seemed to work best if the school officials felt as it they
had direct input on the development of the program. A related issue involved
convincing all the coaches to accept an intern working with hislher team. This
was best accomplished by letting coaches keep control over hisIher team and
granting them feedback into the role of the intern. A third issue involved educating
the coaches, parents and athletes about sport psychology. A number of
negative stereotypes about "psychology" needed to be addressed, and an emphasis
placed on the developing of life skills. Finally, a number of ethical issues will
be addressed including confidentiality, working with minorsfmforming the parents,
and avoiding interaction with the policies of the school or team. Several
examples will be provided to illustrate to audience members how. these critical
issues can impact the development of a new sport psychology program.
SYMPOSIUM: Persevering in the Face of Adversity: Examples of Young
Professionals Pursuing their Dreams in Sport Psychology
Robert J. Harmison, Ij.S. Olympic Committee, Colorado Springs, CO 80909
(Organizer); Gregory A. Dale, Wmthrop University, Rock Hill, SC 29733; Scott
B. Martin, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203; Natalie Durand-Bush,
University of Ottawa, ON KIN 6N5; Michael Kellmann, Potsdam University,
14415 Potsdam, Gennany; Sean C. McCann, U.S. Olympic Committee,
Colorado Springs, CO 80909 (Discussant)
The current climate of applied sport psychology can be disconcerting for aspiring
students and young professionals. Questions abound ifour programs are providing
adequate training (Silva et aI., 1996), patience and time is encouraged for those
who want a career (Zaichkowsky, 1997), and unfavorable light has been shed on
the prospects of earning a living (Meyers et al., 1997). The purpose of this symposium.
is to provide students and young professionals with inspiration to continue
to pursue their dreams. Four relatively young professionals will present their
experiences. The first presenter will highlight his strategies used to consult with
individuals and groups. The second presenter will discuss his marketing strategies
and experiences with a physical skills and conditioning camp for young adults;
The third presenter will share her consulting philosophy and the interventions she
has used with national level athletes and teams. The fourth presenter will address
the steps he took to become the sport psychology consultant for the German

S38 I Symposia Abstracts
Concept Mapping: A Valuable Approach to Helping Coosultants and
Athletes Become Better Perfonners
Natalie Durand-Bush, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada KIN 6N5
Accomplished sport psychologists have often discussed their roles, objectives,
personal philosophies and the services they provide in their practice (Orlick. 1989;
Ravizza, 1990). As young professionals in the field, we must also share and draw
lessons from our consulting experiences, and from those of peers and experts in
the field to crystallize our philosophy and to enhance the quality of our Inreractions
with performers. As an evolving graduate student and consultant for the
past five years, I have taken advantage of every opportunity to polish my skills
and personal approach to mental training. Moreover, I have organized and conceptualized
my thoughts and views in a more systematic fashion to gain a deeper
understanding of my role as an educator I helper. In pursuing this endeavor, I
used "concept mapping" to generate, simplify and assign meaning to my ideas,
and to visually present Chem in a concise and attractive way. The objective of
this presentation is to share my consulting philosophy and the interventions I
have used with several teams and athletes, including the Canadian National Table
Tennis team and the Canadian National Junior Women's Water Polo team, through
a conceptual map. lbis map will highlight some of the strategies I have utilized
to initiate and end consulting relationships, assess mental strengths and weaknesses,
and teach specific mental skills to athletes. Lessons regarding my working
relationships with coaches will also be discussed. Finally, the steps involved in
helping athletes develop concept maps to enhance and monitor their own performances
will be addressed. An example of a athlete's concept map will be provided
and debriefed.
Sport Psyclmlogy Consulting fOl' the Genoan Junior National Rowing
Te....
Michael Kellmann, Potsdam University, 14415 Potsdam, Germany
This presentation will focus on how I became the sport psychology consultant for
the German Junior National Rowing Team. Despite having no personal experience
in rowing, I will talk about the different phases of my consulting experience with
the team and the strategies I used to get all the athletes and coaches involved in
my program. These strategies included (a) observing the team, (b) gaining specific
knowledge of rowing, (c) building trust, .(d) participating with the athletes and
coaches during recreational activities, and (e) just being visually present During
the training camp phase, I identified the athletes whose recovery-stress-balance
approach (Kallus & Kellmann, 1994) prevented them from experiencing the negative
effects of overtraining. It was crucial for the coaches, doctors, and myself
to share the medical, psychological and performance data to draw our conclusions
together. After the World Championships, I provided feedback to the athletes
regarding their recovery-stress-balance approach to ensure their commitment to
the program. How I was able to integrate myself into the sport staff and provide
feedback to the athletes will be discussed.

Symposia Abstracts I S39
APJJlied Sport PsychoIoKY Internships at a National Sport Centre
Cal Botterill; Hap Davis; Shawna McGovern; Karen MacNeill; Jen
sununerfeldt; and Fiona Waters, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB TIN·IN4
Canada
Presentations will be based on experiences in a unique "joint" program between
Ibe University of Calgary and the National Sport Centre in Calgary. Interns and
supervisors will report on the structure and detail of their experiences along with
their recommendations for preparation and maximization of services, learning and
growth. Optimal learning and service situations and fonnats will be described,
along with key lessons, topics and skills that have surfaced through "internships"
and the practical research associated with them. Sources of funding and support
will be outlined along with the priorities of National Sport Governing Bodies and
Ibeir elite and developing athletes and coaches. The potential multiple payoffs for
Sport Governing Bodies, the University of Calgary, the Interns, the Supervisors
and the field of Applied Sport Psychology will be discussed. Attempt will be
made to describe the key attributes of "interns", important roles and skills for
"mentors" and ideal situational conditions in which to work and study. As Well,
a list of possible challenges and potential difficulties will be discussed.
Prerequisites, Progressions and PossibWties
Cal Botterill, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB TIN-IN4
Some of the key prerequisite atbibutes, experiences and skills for interns will be
outlined along with progressions to fit the situation and optimally meet the needs
of Clients, interns and mentors. Service, ethics, and responsibility must remain a
priority but internships are a great opportunity to blend service, learning and
applied research- especially qualitative types of research. As well as strong
Dientorship and supervision, it is important to provide a progression in levels of
service and variety in experiential settings. Interns can benefit immensely from
observing one another's work and operating as a "team" in some situations.
Clients also appreciate a practical "team" approach. There is often a range of
POSsibilities for settings, formats and funding of applied sport psychology internships.
Directed studies courses can be made into internships, and teaching or
research assistantships can be focused on internship work, learning, and related
research. Grants, sponsorships and scholarships for internship can often be acquired
and once the "value" and multiple payoffs become clear, clients are often
Willing to pay directly for reasonable "intern" rates and some senior supervision.
Strong internship programming is probably the key to the development of our
field. It is important, though, to insure all partners in the process are reinforced
to optimize growth, service and motivation. Discussing strategies and sharing
CXperiences is a great start!

S40 I Symposia Abstracts
Applied Sport Psychology Internships at the National Sport Centre: The
Role of the MentorlSupervisol'
Hap Davis, Private Practice, Calgary, AB T2P 3C5
The role of the supervisor will be addressed to review what is unique about the
training of the sport consultant in a National Center. The internship being available
to the PhD candidate in psychology and to the Master's degree student in
Kinesiology requires not only that the sport psychology consultant provide an
example or how theory is brought to practice but also teach theory that might
underlie practice that is missing from the individual's acBdemic background. The
mentor should possess special skill sets that will enable the intern to move into
independent practice upon the termination of the internship. While a National
Center can provide the context for team access, the mentor must still ready the
coaches and sometimes the athletes for mutual learning possibilities. Special consideration
must be given not only to theory-to-practice issues but also to the full
range of ethics concerns and to the basis for professional development and selfevaluation
that will guide quality in post-internship consulting. Finally, practitioner
should also have numerous consulting roles with sufficient scope to allow
for direct observation of the mentor and independent work by the intern. Ideally
there would be (minimally) 15-20 athletes to work with, with preferably at more
than one team context, and the opportunity to follow these athletes developmentally
through two season cycles. Age and gender issues need consideration as
well. Appropriate contact with the athletes would require their regular availability.
Factors to Consider when Initiating an Internship Program
Shawna L. McGovern, National Sport Centre- Calgary, Calgary AB TIN-lN4
Properly organized and credible applied sport psychology internship programs are
mutually beneficial for all stakeholders. Those who benefit include the interns
and supervisors; the Sport Governing Bodies (at a National Level); the developmental
Sport Organizations; the institution; and most importantly, the athletes.
The National Sport Centre-Calgary and the University of Calgary has recently
Created an internship program designed to maximize service to the athletes training
at their facility and to foster a developmental program for young professionals
in the field of applied sport psychology. The needs of the sport governing bodies
as well as the specific needs illustrated by the athletes will be discussed. Situational
demands that arose with that athletes competing in the Wmter Olympic
games will also be described. Recommendations for preparation of potential interns
as well as possible challenges and difficulties will also be addressed.
Sport Psychology Consultant Intern: Experiences and Lessons Learned
Karen MacNeill, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB TIN IN4
In many fields, internships programs have provided students with the opportunity
to gain practical experiences. In the area of applied sport psychology, internship

S44 I Symposia Abstracts
revealed there was not a significant difference between athletes and exercisers in
bulimic behaviors and drive for thinness. However, the exercisers had significantly
greater body dissatisfaction than the athletes, while the athletes reported greater
social physique anxiety, striving for perfection, interpersonal distrust, and maturity
fears compared to the exercisers. These results suggest that the athletes' body
image and eating behaviors may be tied to their drive for perfectionism and
maturity fears. The exercisers' eating and exercise behaviors seem to stem from
their dissatisfaction with their bodies compared to the cultural feminine ideal
Why We are Dissatisfied with our Bodies
Villi Krane, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH 43403
This presentation will examine the combined qualitative and quantitative findings
of the athletes and exercisers within the feminist cultural studies framework (HaD,
1996). Overall, the data revealed a high level of body dissatisfaction in all participants.
The muscular athlete must contend with stereotypes about masculinity,
while the exerciser strives for the ideal of femininity. Thus, consistent with a
cultural studies perspective, these athletes and exercisers are dissatisfied with their
bodies for different reasons. Similarly; different antecedents contribute to their
body image; all of which are related to not fitting the culturally sanctioned feminine
ideal. The impact of societal expectations about the female body and the
demands of sport will be discussed as well as implications for consulting with
female atbletes and exercisers.
SYMPOSIUM: Logbooks: Their Role in Mental Training SU«eSS
Damon Bunon and Kristen Dieffenbach, University of Idaho, Moscow, ill
83844; Stephen Bull, University of Brighton, Eastborne, UK, BN20 7SP; Kate
Hays, The Performing Edge, Toronto, ON M5T 1M2; John Hogg, University of
Alberta, Edmonton, AD T6G 2H9; Dennis Hrycaiko, University of Manitoba.
Wmnipeg, MB R3T 2N2; Ken Ravizza, Cal State Fullerton, Fullerton, CA
92634; Connie Wanlin., University of West Virginia. Morgantown, WV 26506.
Because logbooks have received scant attention in both the research and professional
practice literatures, this symposium is designed to provide a variety of
perspectives about logs and their role in mental training. The first presentation
will introduce the topic and highlight some of the key issues to be addressed.
Next a presentation on the role of logbooks in adherence to mental training will
provide a conceptual and empirical understanding of logs in the self-change pr0cess.
The third and fourth presentations will focus on journal-format logs and
how they are used in private consultation as well as with different sports teams
at various levels of competition. The next presentation will investigate the role
of logs in multiple baseline across individuals approaches to mental training, both
in terms of research and consultation. Presentation six will examine the use of
workbooksllogs to develop mental skills with adolescents and children. Finally,
the last presentation will summarize design and implementation issues about log­
. books and provide ideas for future research and consultation applications.

Symposia Abstracts I S45
LogbOOks: An Essential but Unappreciated Component of Mental Training
Kristen Dieffenbach. University of Idaho. Moscow, ill 83844. _
This presentation will introduce the role of logbooks in mental training by highlighting
a range of issues related to logbook design and implementation that may
fmpect mental training effectiveness. The role of logbooks in athlete self-monitoring,
assessment, and program evaluation will be discussed along with the role
of consultants' logs for enhancing the consultation process and monitoring athletes'
progress. A range of design issues such as format, style, length, individualization,
flexibility, and uses will be briefly addressed along with the need for
complementary resources such as needs assessments and performance profiling
in log design. Finally, the need for research to help identify the most effective
design and implementation strategies will be reinforced as well as the importance
of individualization in log design to address the needs of different athletes and
competitive situations.
The Role of Logbooks in Adherem:e to Mental Training
Stephen J. Bull and Christopher J. Shambrook, Cheltenham and Gloucester
College, Swindon Road, Cheltenham, GLSO 4AZ. UK.
Adherence rates to mental skills training may not be anywhere near as high as
sport psychology professionals either claim. or would like (Bull, 1991; Shambrook
& Bull. 1995). Research examining the efficacy of intervention strategies
to enhance adherence has been sparse. Logbooks have the potential to playa
significant part in both investigative research into mental training adherence, as
well as enhancing adherence in applied contexts. From a research perspective.
self-monitoring through logbooks seems to be the most effective way of measuring
adherence levels, although issues relating to concealment do exist. Additionally,
the double-adherence problem (Meichenbaum & Turk, 1987) needs careful
consideration. In applied contexts, straightforward diary-based recording of mental
training behavior may not be favoured by athletes (Shambrook & Bull, 1996).
However. a more focused approach to the use of logbooks in which athletes use
it more as a resource, rather than a diary, may foster greater adherence to mental
training skills.
Performance JournaIing: Penonal Jonrnal Writing to Enhance
Competitive Success
Kate F. Hays, The Performing Edge, Toronto. ON M5T 1M2.
Performance joumaling (PI) has been developed from the extensive literature on
personal journal writing to assist athletes in enhancing personal and sport skills
and competencies. utilizing self-awareness enhancing processes such as recording,
describing, reflecting, exploring and imagining. Through Pl methods, athletes
have the opportunity to understand their own personal and competitive developtnent
and progress more completely. Performance joumaling can be used to COD-

S46 I Symposia Abstracts
cretize many aspects of standard psychological skills training, including: goal
setting, arousal management, imagery, and cognitive reframing. Journaling can
also be used for deeper self-exploration via techniques such as clustering, dialogues,
lists and altered point of view. A sequence and format for Performance
Jownaling will be suggested, and application of the process to individuals, teams,
courses and workshops will be discussed.
The Journal as a Tool to Increase Awareness and Enhance Perfonnance
Kenneth Ravizza, Cal State Fullerton, Fullerton, CA 92634.
This presentation will focus on sharing lessons learned from 20 years of using
journal-keeping as a method of increasing awareness and enhancing performance.
The journal is a tool that allows reflection on human experience and conscious
investigation of pertinent issues surrounding performance. A discussion of the
ways journals can be used to release or bring closure to an experience will be
addressed. Additionally, the use of performance feedback sheets as a more directed
method to learn from competitive experiences also will be highlighted. The
final portion of the presentation will discuss how young practitioners can learn a
wealth of experiential infonnation from reading coaches' and athletes' journals
as well as how to avoid some of the potential pitfalls of the journal-keeping
process.
The Utilization of Logbooks in Multiple Baseline Across Individuals'
Approaches to Mental Training
Dennis W. Hrycaiko, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2; COIUlie
Wanlin, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506.
Results and consulting experiences from seven studies utilizing logbooks and the
multiple baseline across individuals single-subject design are presented. A variety
of sports and a range of age groups were examined across these studies, with
performance change assessed in both practice and competitive settings. The role
of logbooks in the scientific and practical assessment aspects of single-subject
design methodology is discussed. Critical elements of logbook design and use
within the single-subject methodology are outlined. Discussion will highlight the
integral part logbooks play in successful intervention packages, but several potentiallimitations
of logs will also be delineated.
Logbooks for Children and Adolescents
John M. Hogg, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB TOO 2H9.
This presentation provides an overview on the use of workbooks and logs as part
of a cognitive-behavioral approach to developing mental skills with both adolescent
and young performers. The role of workbooksllogs in teaching mental skills
for young athletes will be highlighted as part of a three-part model that (a) teaches

Symposia Abstracts I S47
foundational mental skills, (b) develops an understanding of ideal performance
states, and (c) promotes emotional control. The workbook provides a systematic
aWOach to understanding important concepts, teaching basic skills, integrating
skills into practice and competition, and monitoring, evaluating and refining skills
in a variety of settings. The workbook is interactive and encourages coach-athlete
communication, particularly for younger children. Pertinent research will be highlighted,
effective methods for using the workbooks and logs to teach mental
preparation to young children discussed, and advantages and disadvantages of the
workbook approach detailed.
Logbooks: Where Do we Go from Here?
Damon Burton, University of Idaho, Moscow, In 83&44.
This presentation summarizes logbook issues raised by the panel and attempts to
identify issues for additional discussion, experimentation and research. Key design
issues will be highlighted, and a protocol identified for evaluating the efficacy
of differing or conflicting design strategies. Similarly, overriding implementation
issues will be reviewed and methods suggested to test their comparative effectiveness
for enhancing the mental training process. Finally, the need for creativity,
individualization and overlapping methods will be emphasized, and case studies
outlined to reinforce these points.
SYMPOSIUM: Children's Physical Activity and Sport Involvement:
Conceptual, Theoretical, and Methodological Issues Related
to Parent and Peer InIIuences
Greg Welk., Cooper Institute for Aerobic Research, Dallas, TX 75230; Megan
L. Babkes, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO 80639; Alan L.
Smith, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907
1he purpose of this symposium is to highlight new conceptual, theoretical, and
methodological approaches to examining children's physical activity and sport
Participation with a particular focus on the role that parents and peers play in the
physical domain. The first presentation will introduce a conceptual model pertaining
specifically to children's physical activity which incorporates the contribution
that significant others and self-perceptions make with respect to the environmental
context of the physical domain and children's cognitive and affective
responses to sport and physical activity participation. The second presentation
will focus on extending the theoretically driven knowledge base on parental in­
8uence in sport and physical activity by presenting information on the communication
and interactions between athletes and their parents from a qualitative
perspective. In the final presentation, the role of peer inftuences in sport and
physical activity will be explored in relation to theoretical perspectives and a
Variety of methodological approaches including qualitative paradigms.

S48 I Symposia Abstracts
A Comprehensive Model of Children's Physical Activity
Greg Welk, Cooper Institute for Aerobic Research, Dallas, TX 75230
Many theoretical models have been proposed to understand the factors influencing
physical activity behavior. however, few models have been specifically developed
for children. The purpose of this presentation is to describe a conceptual model
of physical activity promotion in children that is based on the unique developmental.
psychological and behavioral characteristics of children. The model
adapts a social-ecological framework by acknowledging the input of various personal,
social and environmental influences on children's physical activity. The
model also attempts to unite constructs from competing theoretical frameworks
in order to provide a conceptual framework upon which various models can be
compared. It is hoped that this model will serve as a bridge between theory and
practice and enhance the promotion of physical activity among children.
Qualitative Approaches to Understanding Parental Influence on Children's
Physical Activity and Sport Participation
Megan L. Babkes, University of Northern Colorado. Greeley, CO 80639
An overview of the research on parental influence. conducted within theoretical
perspectives, provides valuable empirical evidence supporting the importance of
the role that significant others play in the physical domain [Brustad, 1996; Greendorfer,
19%}. The existing literature on parental influence has established a strong
foundation demonstrating the profound impact that parents have on their children's
socialization in sport and physical activity; however, the majority of these
studies conducted in traditional quantitative methodologies have overlooked important
aspects of the parent-athlete relationship. Most conspicuously, the complex
interactions between parents and their children in the physical domain have
remained virtually unexplored. The purpose of this portion of the symposium is
to review the parent-child relationship in the physical domain from a qualitative
perspective. Focus groups. interviews. and researcher observations Will be introduced
as a worthwhile direction in studying the parent-athlete relationship. Preliminary
findings from interviews with parents of young competitive athletes will
be used to demonstrate the usefulness of examining this area of research through
a qualitative approach.
Theoretical and Methodological Approaches to Understanding Peer
Influence on Children's Sport and Physical Activity Involvement
Alan L. Smith, Purdue University, West Lafayette. IN 47907
Research on sport participation motivation. sources of enjoyment, and sources of
competence information suggests that peers are salient contributors to behavioral,
affective, and cognitive outcomes of youth physical activity involvement (e.g.,
see Gould & Pethchkcff 1988; Scanlan. Stein, & Ravizza, 1989; Weiss. Ebbeck,
& Hom, 1997). Despite the evident importance of peers in the physical activity

Symposia Abstracts I S49
domain. however. little research has specifically focused upon peers as significant
otbeJ'S in the physical activity context. The limited research based that does exist
in the sport and physical activity domain suggests that both friendships and peer
accePtance contribute to psychosocial and behavioral outcomes. Nonetheless.
most of these research efforts provide limited information regarding how friends
ce me peer group contribute to physical activity-related outcomes. It is surprising
- that more efforts have not tackled this issue given the number of theoretical
perspectives on motivation that showcase the role of significant others Ie.g.,
Ames. 1992; Eccles (parsons) et al.• 1983; Harter, 1978, 1981). This portion of
the symposium will examine how peer influence on physical activity involvement
can be explored within theiretical perspectives. Initial attempts at such work in
physical activity settings will be reviewed. Furthermore, a variety of methodological
approaches to studying peer influence on physical activity will be discussed.
SYMPOSIUM: Life Skills aDd Sport Programmiog for Youth: Expandiog
our Reacb
Steven Danish, Life Skills Center; VCU, Richmond, VA 23284; Jeremy
Dugdale, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand; Albert Petitpas,
Springfield College, Springfield, MA 01109; Robert W. McGowan, University
of Richmond, Richmond, VA 23229
This symposium integrates a variety of issues related to youth sports. In the first
presentation, the importance of youth sports as a setting where sport psychologists
can make an impact by adding a life skills component will be discussed. information
about bow one goes about developing interest and community support
will be presented as will suggestions for how to design, implement, and evaluate
the programs. In the second presentation, the adaptation of a sport-based life skills
program for New Zealand youth will be described. The process involved in making
the program sensitive to a different culture. its implementation, and the resulting
changes in self esteem and intrinsic motivation will be detailed. The third
presentation will describe a program sponsored by the National Football League
that focuses on providing select high schools with an academic coach to assist
student-athletes in reaching their athletic, academic, personal, and career potential
Lastly, an independent researcher knowledgeable about youth sports programs
and their application in a variety of settings will serve as a discussant.
DeVeloping Life Skill-Based Youth Sport Programming: A Brief Primer on
How to Do It
Steven Danish, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23284
Following a brief discussion of the rationale for integrating sport and life skills
When developing youth sports program, this presentation will focus on how to
develop such programs. Included in the presentation will be: the process of identifying
populations who need such programs and how such an assessment can be

S50 I Symposia Abstracts
conducted; how to establish contacts and commitments from community groups
to participate in such programming; negotiating with organizations to support and
sponsor the programs; and designing, implementing, and evaluating the programs.
A number of new programs, some developed by the Life Skills Center and some
developed elsewhere, will be described using the information presented. One program
deals with encouraging asthmatic youth to engage in sport and exercise
programs by providing asthmatic athletes as mentors. Another focuses on adding
life skills to golf instruction.
Developing, Implementing and Testing a New Zealand Version of the
GOAL Life Skills Programme in New Zealand
Jeremy Dugdale, University of Otago, Dunedin, New zealand
This presentation will describe the work at the University of Otago to adapt,
implement and evaluate the American version of the sport-based GOAL Pr0gramme.
A pilot-test of its implementation and evaluation at an Intermediate
School (which is equivalent to an American middle school) in New zealand was
completed this year. As with the American version, the programme was taught
by well-trained high school students. These students were enrolled in an advanced
physical education sequence. Some of the issues involved in developing, implementing
and evaluating the programme will be detailed. The effectiveness of the
programme in enhancing intrinsic motivation and self-esteem for adolescent males
was examined using a pre-post-follow up design. Students who received the programme
were contrasted with a group of students who did not receive the intervention.
Preliminary results indicate that participation in the GOAL PrOgramme
led to significant increases in global, academic and physical self-esteem and also
intrinsic motivation for schoolwork. These data will be described in more detail
and the implications for participant's and the leader's athletic and academic performance
will be discussed.
The NFL Foundation Leadership Program
Albert Petitpas, Department of Psychology, Springfield College, Springfield,
MA 01109
As a result of a study undertaken by the NFL to examine the problems experienced
by high school youth who play football, it was decided to develop a leadership
program. in conjunction with Springfield College. The focus of the program
is to provide an "academic coach" who will serve as an academic and athletic
counselor in select high schools initially in the New York City area. This coach
will work with the high school coach to develop resources and deliver a variety
of programs. Among the programs are: teaching the necessary life skills to enable
the student-athletes to reach their academic, personal, athletic, and career potential;
providing opportunities for student-athletes to engage in leadership roles outside
of sport; and designing and implementing a summer camp for these studentathletes
and others to learn football skill instruction and life skills. The processes

Symposia Abstracts I S51
_. involved to institute such a program will be delineated as will the progress to
SYMPOSIUM: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Applied Sport Psychology
Training
J(areIl D. Cogan, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203, John M. Silva,
The University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, NC 27599-8700, Murray, John,
Washington State University, Pullman, 99164, David Yukelson, The
pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802; Jean Williams,
University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721
Sport psychology professionals have long noted the need for interdisciplinary
training for students wishing to enter this field Training programs that offer
coursework in both psychology and the sport sciences are relatively rare, and
often students struggle to find adequate supervised applied sport psychology experiences.
This symposium presents information on four applied sport psychology
training programs in a panel format. Representatives from the University of North
Texas Center for Sport Psychology, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill,
Washington State University, and Pennsylvania State University will discuss the
interdisciplinary nature of their applied sport psychology training. They will outline
the history of their programs, define their philosophies of applied sport psychology
training, and discuss how the program meets the needs of students desiring
applied sport psychology training experiences. Issues related to the future
of applied training in sport psychology will be discussed.
Applied Sport Psychology Training at the University of North Texas
Center for Sport Psychology
Karen D. Cogan, Trent A. Petrie, Peggy Richardson & Scott Martin, University
of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203.
This presentation will focus on the interdisciplinary training in applied sport psychology
available to students at the University of North Texas Center for Sport
Psychology. The Center draws on the expertise of faculty from Psychology, Kinesiology,
and the Counseling Center to give students well rounded training in
sport psychology. Benefits of this type of interdisciplinary training will be addressed,
such as options for students to obtain a Ph.D. in an APA accredited
Counseling Psychology program and be eligible for psychology licensure and
MASp certification. The Center's philosophy related to applied sport psychology
training will be presented. Specifically, students take coursework in theory and
applied sport psychology through the Psychology and Kinesiology Departments.
Students also are required to participate in supervised practica which are offered
through the Center and/or the Counseling Center. Issues in developing this type
Of interdisciplinary training and future directions for applied sport psychology
training will be discussed.

S52 I Symposia Abstracts
lntentisci.pIinary Approaches to Training in Applied Sport Psychology at
the University of North Carolina Chapel HOI
John M. Silva, 1be University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, NC 27599-8700
The importance of interdisciplinary training in the development of applied spot'\
psychology has been underscored by professionals for years. The requirements
set forth in the AAASP certification document carefully balance formal course
experiences from both the Exercise and Sport Sciences and Psychology. Recently,
students and Professionals alike have attempted to provide equal emphasis and
concern for the importance of interdisciplinary supervised practicum experiences
with athletes. 1be purpose of this presentation is to provide an overview of the
practi.cum experiences offered at the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill.
This interdisciplinary model is based upon providing diversity of experience and
interaction. Graduate students in the UNC program experience two AAASP certified
consultant supervised prncticums working with individual athletes, one supervised
prncticum working with small groups or an intact team, and either a two
semester rotation through UNC Student Health's Athletes Coming Together
(ACf) peer mentoring program. The nature, objectives and benefits of these programs
to young professionals in training will be explored and detailed.
AppUed Sport Psychology Traioing at Washington State University
John Murray, Washington State University, Pullman, 99164 & Jim Bauman.
Wasbington State University, Pullman. 99164
Opportunities to practice sport psychology and sport consulting work at the intercollegiate
levels are without limits. However, the actual employment opportunities
currently existing at the intercollegiate levels are limited. Washington State
University (WSU) is one of only a few universities that employs a full-time Sport
Psychologist or Sport Consultant. The full-time Sport Psychologist position at
WSU was created in 1986. Over the past eleven years, the services provided by
the Sport Psychologist have changed significantly. Initial services were primarily
psychoeducational and counseling-related. The Athletic Department's continuing
support of this position has resulted in an increase in funding and the creation of
a diverse set of additional and developmental services. One of the more exciting
developments includes graduate internship opportunities that are supervised by
the Sport Psychologist. This presentation will provide a brief history of how the
full time position developed, keys to creating and maintaining a strong working
relationship with an Athletic Department, the services and programming that are
currently being provided, and the year-long internship opportunity.
Applied Sport Psychology Training at Penn State University
David Yukelson, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802
In conjunction with the theme of the symposium, the purpose of this presentation
is to provide an overview of the applied sport psychology internship at Penn Stale

Symposia Abstracts I S53
University. Areas to be covered include acclimation processes the intern goes
thrOugh while fitting into the university and athletic environment, role boundaries
and expectations, supervisory training, dealing with multiple demands and personalities
effectively, individual and team mental training sessions, the importance
of visibility and follow up, how and when it is appropriate to make referrals, and
interrelationships that exist with other departments in the university (e.g., counseling
center, academic support services, sports medicine, etc.) From a developmental
perspective, psychosocial issues pertaining to the special news of intercollegiate
srudent-erhletes will be discussed, along with the practical realities of
delivering applied sport psychology services to a large number of coaches, student-athletes,
and support personnel. In addition, issues related to how internship
hours contribute to AAASP Certification requirements will be discussed.
SYMPOSIUM: Pre-injury Intervention and Post-injury Psychologkal
, Evaluation among Competitive CoUegiate Athletes
Frank M. Perna, Joni L. Rob, R. Renee Newcomer, and Edward E Etzel, West
Virginia University, Morgantown WV 26506; Bill Thierfelder, Joyner Sports
Medicine Institute
This symposium reports findings from two independent research projects. The
first paper in the symposium provides data from a randomized controlled study
documenting the efficacy of a psychological intervention to reduce iIlnessfinjury
among competitive athletes. The paper also provides the theoretical basis and the
basic design for the second ongoing project which explored the psychological
impact of injury. The second paper presents results from a controlled longitudinal
study of injured and non-injured collegiate athletes with pre-injury and post-injury
mood state data. The third paper reports the extent of intrusive thoughts and
avoidance, which are thought to maintain negative affect following injury, that
healthy and injured athletes experience. The last paper reports data regarding the
presence of clinical depression, as determined by a clinician administered rating
scale, among injured an non-injured athletes. A university athletic department
sport psychologist and a certified athletic trainer who directs a nationally recognized
athletic training program will serve as discussants.
PsYchological Intervention Prevents lnjurylIlIness among Athletes
Frank M. Perna, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, Mike
Antoni, Neil Schneiderman, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33124.
The purposes of this study were to determine the efficacy of a Cognitive-Behavioral
Stress Management (CBSM) intervention to reduce illness/injury among
competitive athletes in a randomized controlled study. At pre-season, collegiate
rowers completed measures of training intensity, mood state, and life-stress, Rowers
(N = 34) were then randomly assigned to a control or a 4-week CBSM group.
Number of officeltraining room visits and the number of injuryfJ.Ilness days as
documented by physicians and athletic trainers, who were blinded to CBSM*

S54 / Symposia Abstracts
group assignment, served as the primary outcome variables. A group by gender
ANCOVA with initial life-event stress as a covariate indicated that CBSM athletes
(M = .60, SO = .90) had significantly fewer injury/illness days as compared to
control group athletes (M = 2.75, SD = 3.50) , F (1,29) = 6.17, P = .017.
Depressive Mood States among College Athletes: Pre- and Post-injury
Joni L. Roh, R. Renee Newcomer, Frank M. Perna, Edward E Etzel, West
Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506
The current study assessed depressed mood, via the short Profile of Mood States
(POMS), among injured (non season ending (NSE) and season ending (SE) injury)
and a control group of healthy college athletes (N = 20) from NCAA
Division I and II programs. Assessments occurred at pre-injury, l-week, and 1month
post-injury. Repeated measures ANOVA for POMS-D revealed a significant
group-by-time interaction F (4,34)=3.19, p= .025. Follow-up linear contrasts
indicated that depression was significantly higher among the injured groups as
compared to control athletes at I-week, FO,23) = 4.14, P = .047, but not at
preseason or at I -month follow-up. Our findings provide evidence of mood. disturbance
following athletic injury that can not be easily attributed to other sources.
Injury as a Traumatic Experience: Intrusive Thoughts and Avoidance
Behavior Associated with Injury among College Student-Athletes
R Renee Newcomer, Joni L. Roh, Frank M. Perna. Edward F. Etzel, West
Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506-6116
Although nearly half of college student-athletes will experience an injury that will
limit sport participation at some point during their career, little research exists
examining injury as a potential traumatic experience for athletes. The purpose of
the present study was to identify the extent Varsity athletes (N=260) deemed
physically able to participate were concerned about injury at the onset of their
season. In addition, injured (N=25) and non-injured teammates (N=19) were
compared at two postinjury time points on intrusive thoughts and avoidance behavior
which are common responses to traumatic events. Results suggest that
competing athletes who have recently experienced a major injury exhibit significantly
more intrusive thought and avoidance behavior than their teammates. Purthennore,
athletes who sustain an injury report more intrusive thoughts and avoidance
behavior than their teammates who continue to participate, however both
symptoms subside with time.
Clinical Depression among :Injured Athletes: An Empirical Assessment
Frank M. Perna, Joni L. Roh, R. Renee Newcomer, Edward F. Etzel, West
Virginia University, Morgantown WV 26506
Extent of reactive clinical depression, as determined by clinician administered
Hamilton rating for depression, was assessed among non-injured athletes (n =

Symposia Abstracts I S55
19) and athletes incurring either a season-ending (SE) (n = 9) or a non-seasonending
(NSE) (n = 16) injury at I-week and I-month post injury. A group by
time (3 x 2) repeated measures ANOVA with follow-up One-way Anovas with
linear contrasts indicated that injured athletes were significantly more depressed
than control athletes at I-week, F (1, 41) = 7.65, P < .001, but not at I-month
follow-up, F (I, 41) = .46, P >.70. Further analyses indicated that only 5.3% of
control athletes obtained scores above the clinical cutting score at I-week and 1month,
whereas 24% and 8% of injured athletes were above the cutting score at
I-week and I-month respectively.
SYMPOSIUM: A Psychoneuromuscular and Physiological Approach to the
Protection and Rehabilitation of Injured Athletes
Aynsley M. Smith, Mayo Clinic Sports Medicine Center, Rochester, MN 55905,
USA; Edward R. Laskowski, Mayo Clinic Sports Medicine Center; Michael A.
Morrey, Mayo Clinic Healthy Living Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
55905
The purpose of this symposium is to integrate knowledge from the sports science
disciplines of medicine, physiology and sports psychology and apply it to the
protection and rehabilitation of athletic injuries. The role of proprioception will
be discussed from the standpoint of a psychoneuromuscular template. Most athletes
prior to injury, flourish in training regimens devoted to fitness and performance.
When injury occurs, the posrinjury mood disturbance often attributed to
cognition may be influenced by decreased neuroendocrine secretion (neurotransmitters).
For example, neurotransmitters enhance both kinesthetic sense and response
time but this effect decreases in the presence of depression and exercise
reduction; effects common to sports injuries. The postinjury depression associated
with some athletic injuries, is presented in context with the Wiese-Bjornstal and
Smith response to injury model. Psychology Skills Training (PST) strategies and
emphasis on a prompt resumption of the pre-injury fitness regimens (using creating
alternative strategies) are discussed and integrated with the information discussed
by the previous discussants.
Proprioception: How Input Affects Output
Edward R. Laskowski, M.D., Mayo Clinic Sports Medicine Center, Rochester,
Minnesota 55905
Proprioception is one of the somatic senses-nervous system functions that collect
sensory information from the body but are not one of the special senses of
sight, hearing, taste, touch, smell, or vestibular equilibrium. Classically, three
somatic senses are described: pain, thermal receptivity, and mechanoreceptivity,
the latter of which include tactile and position sense. Proprioception relates primarily
to the position sense of mechanoreceptive sensation. Although definitions
of proprioception may vary, its importance in protecting and rehabilitating athletic
injury remains constant. Restoring proprioception after injury allows the body to

556 I Symposia Abstracts
maintain stability and orientation during static and dynamic activities. Any typlil
of joint activity can interrupt position sense. Proprioceptive programs need to be
tailored to the individual patient, but exercise can include balance training, kinetic
chain exercise, and sports specific training. Current research has shown how in.
terventions such as the balance board can positively affect the proprioceptive:
system.
The Role of Neurotransmitters in Proprioception of Injury and Injury
Recovery
Michael Morrey, Ph.D., Mayo Medical Center, Rochester, MN 55905
It has previously been proposed that the nature of sport injury needs to be examined
from a multi disciplinary perspective. Such a perspective would address
the psycho-neuromuscular responses operant when injury occurs and during injury
rehabilitation. One aspect of this relationship that may contribute to our
understanding of the dynamics of sports injury and rehabilitation is the role of
neurotransmitters and neuro-endocrine mechanisms. Although, no empirical studies
in the psychology realm have reported investigations into this process, authors
have proposed theories to elucidate this mechanism (Hell; 1993). This symposium
will propose that this dimension is integral to om understanding of sport injury.
Topics of discussion for this presentation will focus on the role of neurotransminers
in enhancing kinesthetic awareness (proprioception), the effect of injury
on neurotransmitters, and the effect of exercise on neurotransmitters (Etnier &
Landers; 1996). Additionally. neurotransmitters as they relate to acute post injury
depression and the time of mood disturbance affected by factors such as lack of
activity and the psychosocial issues surrounding acute injury will be discussed,
Finally, although little research has been conducted, theoretical possibilities addressing
the psycho-neuromuscular link of long-term rehabilitation and mood disturbance
will be presented.
Can Sports Psychology Interventions be Integrated with the
Neuromusadar and Physiological Template Appropriate to the
Rehabilitation of Injured Athletes?
Aynsley M. Smith, Mayo Clinic Sports Medicine Center, Mayo Clinic,
Rochester, MN, USA 55905
Sports psychologists working with injured athletes must ensure that psychological
skills training strategies introduced to injured athletes are integrated with the
objectives of rehabilitation. The sports psychologist must address the variables m
the psychoneuromuscular and physiological template and be cognizant of how
each is affected by injury and which interventions are appropriate to specific
stages of the rehabilitation protocol. Communication between the sports medicine
physicians, the physical therapist and the sports psychologist is key to the integration
process. Because there may be a decrease in neuroendocrine secretion that
occurs in the presence of postinjury depression and exercise cessation, creative

S58 I Symposia Abstracts
about decision making models which can be used to make ethical decisions. AIL
argument will also be made for the implementation of formal ethical trainina
within all sport and exercise psychology programs.
Ethical Considerations In Conducting Graduate Research in Sport and
Exen:ise Psychology
Christopher D. Lantz, Tnunan State University, Kirksville, MO 63501
Ethics are an important but often underemphasized component of the research
education of graduate students (Petitpas, Brewer, Rivera & Van Raalte, 1994)
The purpose of this presentation is to introduce the graduate student to a number
of ethical considerations and their relationship to conducting graduate research.
This presentation will provide a brief historical overview of the development of
ethics in research and will discuss major issues such as misconduct in science
and using humans as subjects in research. Particular emphasis will be paid to
ethical considerations in the formation, conduct, analysis, and presentation of the
research problem. Case studies will be introduced to help develop sensitivity
toward ethical issues in research and to assist in the development of ethical thinking.
Ethics and AAASP Certified ConsuItants
Bart S. Lerner, The Citadel, Charleston, SC 29409
This presentation will be based on learning to deal with the professional and
ethical issues that most affect the actual practice of consulting as one becomes
an AAASP certified consultant. The goal is both to provide a body of information
and to educate graduate students on a process of dealing with the basic ethical
issues they may face throughout their careers as certified consultants. Case studies
and definitive ethical standards will be presented to stimulate discussion and reflection.
Also, views will be presented in order to challenge students and current
professionals to formulate their own positions. Specifically, discussion will center
on what should be taught in the classroom and how to handle specific situations
and confrontations from coaches, parents, and athletes as an AAASP certified
consultant. The ethical code and requirements that a consultant adheres to will
be discussed. Also, these guidelines will be explored in order to decide how
accepted ethical standards apply in the specific cases that are encountered.
AAASPs statement of ethics and the role it plays in governing the consultation
process will be presented.
The Supervisory Relationship: Ethical Dilemmas Eucouutered by the
So"""""
RandaU Cockshott, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL. 32306
Future sport psychology practitioners have an ethical obligation to become competent
in the services they intend to provide. Becoming a competent practitioner

Symposia..Abstracts I SS9
necessitates supervision. Through supervision, graduate students can better ensure
the delivery of appropriate services to their clients. The supervisor-supervisee
relationship is important to students' education, and often serves as a forum for
modeling professional behavior. Ethical dilemmas likely to be encountered by the
student will be discussed, and case studies will be presented. Utmost of importance
is the question of receiving adequate supervision. Students should only
engage in services for which their supervisors are qua1ified by training, education,
and/or experience. Finally, the need for individuals to prepare themselves to be
supervisors for future generations of professionals will be addressed. Individuals
should leave this discussion with an understanding of the ethical principles surrounding
the supervisory relationship.
SYMPOSIUM: On-site Sport Psychology Provision Ilt International Events:
Beyond the Textbook and Conventional Mental SkiDs
, TI'llInIng
Stephen J. Bull, Jocelyne E. Brooks, Christopher J. Shambrook, Cheltenham
and Gloucester College, Swindon Road, Cheltenham, GL50 4AZ, UK. Peter C.
Terry, Brunei University, Osterley Campus, Borough Road, Islewoctb,
Middlesex, TW7 SDU, UK.
This symposium focuses on issues relating to the provision of on-site sport psychology
services. The first presenter, an experienced consultant., reDects on 15
years of on-site provision and describes six potential models of operation. The
second presenter, also an experienced consultant, describes the special challenges
of providing an on-site service at one specific event-a World Cup tournament
in India. The third presenter, a newly qualified consultant, reDects on the key
challenges involved in stepping into the shoes of an experienced consultant and
the demands of having to provide an on-site service at a World Championship
without any previous experience of doing so. The fourth presenter, a trainee consultant,
reflects on the benefits, and challenges, of learning about on-site sport
psychology provision by working alongside an experienced professional. 'Iextbook
models of professional delivery are challenged throughout the symposium.
DeUvery of Applied Sport Psychology: Lessons Learned over 15 Years
Peter C. Terry, Brunel University, Dept. of Sport Sciences, Osterley Campus,
Borough Road, Isleworth, Middlesex TW7 SDU, U. K.
The current presentation reflects upon the delivery of applied sport psychology
to elite performers, based on experiences during 15 years as a traveling sport
psychologist. Lessons learned by the presenter at more than 40 global events,
including the Olympic Games of Albertville, Barcelona, Lillehammer, Atlanta and
Nagano are presented. Six potential models for interactions between sport psycbologist,
athletes, coaches and sport organizations are discussed. 'The presentation
describes how the content of mental training programs evolves over time,
and addresses issues of a philosophical, organizational, and professional nature.

S60 I Symposia Abstracts
The specific challenge of functioning effectively in the Olympic environment W
considered. The central question posed by these experiences is whether sport
psychology consultancy with elite.performers is art or science, or a subtle combination
of both.
On the Road in India: Special CbalIenges lor the Travelling Sport
Psychologist
Stephen J. Bull and Jocelyne E. Brooks, Cheltenham and Gloucester College,
Swindon Road, Cheltenham, GUO 4AZ, UK.
In 1997, the England Women's Cricket Team defended the status of World Champions
in the World Cup which took place in India where touring is viewed as a
particularly challenging prospect. As the senior and trainee sport psychologists
on the staff to accompany the team we had spent many months tackling issues
relating to touring stress in India. Nevertheless, a package of seven particular
challenges emerged which tested reliance on the ubiquitous "control the controllables"
advice so often advocated by travelling sport psychologists (Miller, 1997).
(I) Organisational issues. (2) Cultural issues. (3) Poverty issues. (4) Food and
hygiene issues. (5) Climate and claustrophobia issues. (6) Travel itinerary issues.
(7) Fanatical spectator support: Preparing players to deal with these srreasors was
a challenging task and proved to be an experience of notable professional development
where important lessons were learned.
Sport PsychOlogy Consultancy at a World Championships: Challenges 01 a
New Kid on the Block
Christopher J. Shambrook, Cheltenham and Gloucester College, Leisure and
Sport Research Group, Francis Close Hall. Swindon Road, Cheltenham,
Gloucestershire, GL50 4AZ, U.K.
Several authors have written about the challenges relating to the delivery of sport
psychology services to a new sporting group (Ravizza, 1988). These reflections
typically relate to a consultant gaining entry to a team for the first time. 1be
current presentation relates to the experiences of a young sport psychologist replacing
an experienced sport psychologist, and shortly after travelling with the
team to a wodd championships. The presentation will address issues relating to
becoming integrated into the team, following in the consultancy footsteps of a
considerably more experienced consultant, and joining the team at the world
championships with limited previous exposure. These issues will be considered
in relation to initial, and continued consultant effectiveness.
Tbe Trainee Sport Psychologist: Learning on Site Tools of tbe Trade
Jocelyne E. Brooks and Stephen J. Bull, Cheltenham and Gloucester College,
Swindan Road, Cheltenham. GL50 4AZ.
This presentation reviews the experience of a trainee sport psychologist learning
about on-site sport psychology provision by working alongside an experienced

Symposia Abstracts I S61
consultant. The trainee had been working with her supervisor for a Period of five
years and this was to be the first time she would assume significant responsibility
at an international competition-a World Cup in India. The senior sport psycbologist
accompanied the squad for the first 10 days of the tour, taking the lead
in delivering the sport psychology program. The trainee observed much of this
activity and then, for the remaining 14 days, assumed the role of on-site consultant.
The presentation focuses on the mechanics of how the transition of responsibility
was carried out wben the senior consultant left India and concludes with
practical recommendations relating to how this learning experience could be replicated
in other situations.
SYMPOSIUM: A Multidisciptinary Model to Solve the Mystery of the
"Yips" in Golf: A Focal Dystonia?
Aynsley M. Smith, Susan A. Malo, & Edward R. Laskowski, Mayo Clinic
Sports Medicine Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905; Debra J. Crews,
Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, 85287
The purpose of this symposium is to consider the "yips", a phenomenon unique
to golf, from a multidisciplinary perspective. This involuntary disturbance, defined
as a focal dystonia impedes execution of fine, motor behavior.skills sucb
as putting in golf. Although not attributed solely to anxiety, this phenomenon is
believed to be exacerbated by anxiety (McDaniel, Cummings and Shain, 1989).
It is hypothesized that Selye's stress model is integral to understanding the complex
relationship of cognitions to emotions to behavioral response that occurs in
the "yips". Presentations will emphasize the normal biomechanics of golf and
putting and the relationship of cognitions, attentional states, cardiac deceleration
and fitness to putting performance. The final presentation will conclude the symposium
by advancing the multidisciplinary research model (based on 1030 re,
sponses to a "yips" survey) that will use a matched pair design of "yips" affected
and non "yips" affected golfers in a putting tournament designed to evoke the
"yips" response.
The Biomechanics and Kinematics of the Golf Swing: Kinetic Chain
Implications for the "Yips" Phenomena
Edward R. Laskowski, Mayo Clinic Sports Medicine Center, Rochester, MN
55905
Like the baseball pitch, the golf swing is a highly integrated kinetic chain movement
pattern. "Force funneling" of ground reaction force transferred through the
legs, back, shoulders, elbows, wrists, and finally to the club head is essential for
optimal swing mechanics. Inefficient transfer of force or a "weak link" in the
movement chain increases the risk of musculoskeletal injury. Five phases of the
golf SWing have been identified: take away, forward swing, acceleration, early
fellow through, and late follow through. Improper kinematics at each stage can
PI"ed.ispose to injury which can include wrist tendinitis, elbow epicondylitis, ro-

S62 I Symposia Abstracts
tator cuff tendinopathy, and low back pain. An analysis of kinetic chain mechanics
for putting has not been completed in an extensive manner, but such a study may
have significant implications for the Yips phenomena. Possible kinetic chain implications
of the Yips phenomena will be discussed.
A Cognitive Approach to Understanding the Devastating "Yips" In Golf
Susan A. Malo, Mayo Clinic Sports Medicine Center, Rochester, MN 55905
The "yips" is described as a focal dystonia characterized by jerking and spasms,
and is most evident during putting (McDaniel, Cummings, & Shain, 1989; Batt,
1993). From 1028 tournament players who responded to a "yips" questionnaire,
data were retained for males with a handicap

Symposia Abstracts I S63
though, the "yips", described as a focal dystonia, impedes execution of fine motor
skills, such as putting in golf it is not believed to be caused solely by anxiety,
but rather may be exacerbated by stress. The psychoneuromuscular and physiological
model advanced to test the "yips" response integrates assessment of psychological,
neurological, neuroendocrine, musculoskeletal and physiological variables
and determines their relationship to performance. This matched pair research
design will examine interactions and differences in these variables between subjects,
randomly selected from a pool of 359 "yips" affected and 286 "non-yips"
affected golfers who agreed to participate in this sequential investigation. The
putting tournament designed to evoke the yips response has a leader board, elimination
after the required testing round, prize money, television crews and a gallery.
SYMPOSIUM: Developing Effective Mental Skills Training Strategies in
Junior Tennis
Daniel Gould, University of North Carolina Greensboro, Greensboro, NC
27402; Nicole Damarjian. University of Connecticut, Storrs, cr 06238; Russell
Medbery and Larry Lauer, University of North Carolina Greensboro,
Greensboro, NC 27402
This symposium reports findings from studies designed to understand why mental
skills training information is nol being used by coaches and to identify ways to
more effectively convey this information. The first presentation will report findings
from a qualitative study involving focus group interviews conducted with 20
junior tennis coaches of elite players. One of the major findings was that the
coaches identified a need for more mental skills training. In the second presentation,
a related investigation surveyed 153 junior tennis coaches to determine
their opinions relative to the importance of mental skills training. Findings indicated
the most important mental skills for tennis, the mental skills they found to
be most difficult to leach, and the need for practical mental skills, forms, and
exercises. In the third presentation, the results from the Iwo previous studies are
used to develop an interactive framework model for coaching mental skills. The
model has implications for the use of mental skills training in tennis.
A Qualitative Investigation of Mental Skills Training in Junior Tennis
Coaches
Nicole Damarjian, Uni.versity of Connecticut, Storrs, cr 06238
In the last decade, considerable attention has been paid to the development of
mental skills training for tennis athletes (Braden & Wool, 1993; Loehr, 1990;
1991; 1992; 1994; Loehr & Striegel, 1994; Taylor, 1993; Weinberg, 1988). lbis
investigation was designed to understand why menial skills training information
is not being used by junior tennis coaches and to identify ways to more effectively
convey this information. Four focus-group interviews were conducted with 20 (4
female and 16 male) junior tennis coaches. The coaches had a mean of 15 years

SYMPOSIUM: Approaches to Helping Athletes Create Future
Performances
Symposia Abstracts I S65
Sandra Foster, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305; Richard Gordin, Utah
State University, Logan, UT 84322; and William Straub, Life University,
Marietta, GA 30060
This symposium offers three different approaches to assisting athletes in the creation
and enactment of future performances that will meet their goals. Each speaker
draws upon years of experience and present his or her unique style in an applied
case study format. The first presenter will describe his intervention which is based
upon the utilization of hypnosis. Hypnotic trance states allow the athlete to mentally
construct and imagine extensions of existing skills in order to create new
future performances. The second presenter will present his Athlete-Centered approach,
which proposes that mental training programs must be individually designed
in order to meet specific needs of each person; these programs involve
observation, testing, and possibly using technology, such as videotape feedback.
The third presenter, an experienced executive coach, brings the methodology of
strategic visioning to sport psychology consulting. This technique, which allows
leaders in the corporate world to envision and risk new behaviors, is brought to
athletes who wish to extend their existing skill repertoires.
SYMPOSIUM: From Obstacles to Allies: Working with Families of
Athletes
Charles H. Brown, Jr., FPS Performance, Charlotte, NC 28204; Kate F. Hays,
The Performing Edge, Toronto, ON M5T 1M2; David B. Ccppel, Private
Practice, Seattle WA 98112; Sean C. McCann, USOC, Colorado Springs, CO
80909.
Sport Psychologists are traditionally trained in individual techniques of performance
enhancement. As such, they are often ill-prepared to address the involvement
of family members within a performance enhancement program. This symposium
will provide specific frameworks, tools and examples for the educational
sport psychologist to better deal with families as pan of a total performance
enhancement strategy. The first program discusses the rationale for applying systems
concepts to performance enhancement, and the contributions from systems
theory for dealing with resistance and power struggles. Both the second and third
presenters are seasoned sport psychologists who provide case examples of the
importance of systemic issues in performance enhancement efforts. The first presenter
employs Bowen's concepts of triangulation; the second uses cognitivebehavioral
techniques with both athlete and family members. Our discussant is a
sport psychologist known for his work with elite athletes competing at the highest
level of international competition.

S66 / Symposia Abstracts
Basic Systems Theory for the Sport Psychologist
Charles H. Brown, Jr., FPS Performance, Charlotte, NC 28204
Our theoretical orientations serve as cognitive maps from which we identify key
elements in any given situation, and chart our course to desired destinations.
Traditional sport psychology training offers excellent "maps" for dealing with
individuals, coaches and teammates; yet provide little assistance for performance
situations that are influenced by family members and significant others. The conceptual
framework of a systems perspective can provide the educational sport
psychologist with a valuable resource in developing performance enhancement
programs. Drawing from family/systems theory, this program will offer specific
suggestions for dealing with both "power struggles" and the phenomena known
as resistance. It will provide examples of how changing a cognitive map, or
"reframing" a situation, can unblock problem situations and generate new alternatives.
These tools can be helpful in dealing with any member of the "athlete
system"-parents, spouses, coaches or teammates.
Working with Families: A Delicate Balance
Kate F. Hays, The Performing Edge, Toronto, ON MST 1M2
The athlete's family of origin plays a pivotal role, whether in terms of developmental
background or current life. 'lliangulation involves the ways in which a
third entity becomes drawn in as a buffer to tension between two others. Detriangulation
involves staying calm, staying out, and hanging in. 'lliangular situations
in sport include: the coach-athlete-parent triad; parents' differing attitudes
about sport; sibling skills and sport; symptomatic development, including eating
disorders or substance abuse; or the span psychologist-athlete-parent. The consultant
knowledgeable about systemic issues need not become "family therapist:'
but may be able to help de-pathologize the system. By joining with those aspects
of all people intending to support the child's development toward increased skill,
autonomy, and connection, the sport psychologist can effectively assess and help
guide all parties.Case examples illustrate the functional utility of attention to,
rather than discounting of, the parents' "voice."
Family Context: An hnportant Source of lofonnation and Interventions
with Athletes
David B. Coppel, Ph.D. Private Practice, Seattle, WAi University of
Washington
Sport Psychology has recognized the importance of parents and family in sports
participation and involvement; however, little attention has been given to exploring
the ways in which this important social context impacts actual sports performance.
A case example is described which depicts the importance of inquiring
about and understanding the athlete within the family context; cognitive-behavioral
interventions with both athlete and parents are described. Thought records

Symposia Abstracts I S67
obtained from the athlete revealed that much of her discontent in her sport was
related to issues relating to her family system. Parental behaviors, which at one
time were perceived as supportive, had evolved to being triggers for anxiety.
Approaches and strategies for working with the athlete within a family context
will be discussed.

S68 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
Colloquia. Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
Athletes' Interpretation of Competence Information
Lavon Williams and Jenny Parker, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL
60115, USA; Capri Foy, University of North Carolina, Greensboro, NC
27412, USA
Athletes evaluate their competence relative to their goal orientations (Nicholls,
1989, Duda, 1992). Additionally, individuals with different goal orientations prefer
different information sources when evaluating their ability (Williams, 1994).
Researchers, however, have not investigated how information from different
sources is interpreted relative to goal orientations. Thus, two research questions
were asked: (a) how do athletes interpret information from competence information
sources'), and (b) is there a correspondence between athletes' interpretations
and their goal orientations? Goal orientations of 13 middle school basketball
athletes were assessed using the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire
(TEOSQ; Duda, 1992). Private semi-structured interviews were conducted with
each athlete to determine how they interpreted competence information. During
the interview athletes ranked the importance of 12 sources of competence information
and explained how each source let them know whether or not they were
competent. Overall athletes interpreted information primarily in a self- and normreferenced
manner. Regardless of goal orientations, athletes interpreted information
in a self-referenced more than a norm-referenced manner. Females made
proportionately more self-referenced and less norm-referenced statements than
males. Occasionally, athletes interpreted information in a socially-referenced manner,
indicating that approval by significant others let them know they were competent.
It appears that athletes interpret information that lets them know {hey are
learning, improving, and trying hard because these qualities can serve as ends in
themselves, as means of attaining an above average performance, or as means for
gaining social approval.
Youth Coaches and Sport Psychology: From Challenges to Professional
Growth
Wade Gilbert, Pierre Trudel, & Jenelle Gilbert, University of Ottawa, Canada
KIN 6N5
The purpose of this study was to examine how youth sport coaches learn strategies
to resolve sport psychology related challenges. The sample comprised two focus
groups and six case studies of youth soccer and ice hockey coaches. The coaches
were interviewed and observed over an entire season and the data were analyzed
inductively. The results indicate that whcn the coaches encountered sport psychology
challenges they engaged in a reflective process to construct strategies of
action. Stages in the reflective process include: problem setting, strategy development,
experimentation, and evaluation. The role of sport psychology consultants
in the youth sport context may need to be re-examined in light of these

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts! S69
findings. The results also contribute to theories of learning that suggest that professional
knowledge is constructed through practical experience (Schon, 1983).
Examining the Relationship Between Life Stress, Skating-Specific Stress
and Figure Skating Performance during the Competitive Season
Kavira Prakash and Diane Ste-Marie, University of Ottawa, Canada. KIN 6N5
This study was the second part of an investigation examining the relationship
between life stress and skating-specific stress on figure skating performance during
both practice and competition. Competitive figure skaters were assessed during
a six week time frame which encompassed their peak competitive season and
academic school. Bi-weekly measures of hassles, skating-specific stress and practice
performance evaluations were obtained. Single measures were obtained for
major life stress, perceived social support, coping abilities and competitive performance.
The results revealed total practice performance to be significantly predicted
by total hassles (distress) and use of task coping. Competitive performance
was predicted by total skating-specific distress, competitive skating-specific distress
and competitive hassles (distress). Evidence for the buffering hypothesis of
moderating variables was not obtained, but support for the 'carryover' effects of
stress did emerge. The implications of these results will be discussed in terms of
their importance to sport psychology consulting.
COLLOQUIUM: Girls in the Game: How Exercise and Sport is Used to
Enhance the Psychological, Physical and Social WeDbeing
of Urban Adolescent Females
Doreen L. Greenberg, Cabrini College, Radnor, PA 19087; Marjorie Snyder,
Women's Sports Foundation East Meadow, NY 11554; Diane Wiese-Bjornstahl,
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455.
Research has shown that girls are more likely than boys to be depressed, to
attempt suicide, to have a negative body image, and to be physically inactive.
Then there are the real dangers for urban girls-substance abuse, violence and
pregnancy. This presentation is based on the research findings of The President's
Council on Physical Fitness and Sport's report-Physical Activity & Sport in the
Lives of Girls (1997) and Sport in the Lives of Urban Girls, a report from the
Women's Sports Foundation (1998). Successful intervention strategies with this
population have often been difficult to implement. This presentation discusses the
use of exercise and sport as an alternative intervention for reducing the symptoms
of anxiety and depression, as an anecdote to violence and substance abuse, and
promotion of health in adolescent females. The presenters share the documented
research and anecdotal evidence from innovative and successful programs across
the country.

S70 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
Aging and Physical Activity: Exploring Stereotypes
Ann M. Clarke and Sandy Gordon, Department of Human Movement, The
University of Western Australia, Nedlands, W. A. 6907
Younger (20-39 years) and older adults (65-85 years) completed open ended
statements about participation of older adults in physical activity. Transcripts were
produced using voice recognition software from 496 handwritten returns and QSR
Nud.ist software aided qualitative data analysis. In general, the data presented a
negative view of older adulthood in relation to involvement in physical activity.
Despite considerable encouragement and advice about what older adults should
be doing, all respondents and particularly young men, portrayed over 65 year olds
as mostly inactive, needing to recognise a growing number of physicallirnitations,
and requiring permission to exercise from a doctor. In addition, vigorous or strenuous
activity was seen as neither appropriate or safe and, consistent with this
view, there was a perception that over 65 year olds "deserve" to take it easy.
Social cognitive models will provide the context for discussion of both results
and applied implications for health promotion strategists.
The Use of Exerc:ise in Therapy with Women of Color
Ruth L. Hall., The College of New Jersey, Ewing, NJ 08628
This paper examines how exercise can be integrated into therapy with women of
color, specifically African American women and Larinas. Factors that must be
considered by the therapist include the client's: 1) attitude toward therapy, exercise,
and physical health; 2) socioeconomic status; 3) diagnosis; 4) support system;
5) styles of coping with stress; 6) attitude toward self care; 7) body image;
and 8) exposure to realistic role models who exercise. The therapist's sensitivity
to a woman of ector's cultural context and toward exercise are also critical to
successful therapy with women of color. Examples are discussed of using exercise
in therapy and professional experiences with women of color. Recommendations
are suggested.
Psychological Determinants of Children's Physical Activity Bebavior: The
Role of Perceived Competence in the Theory of Planned Behavior
Martin S. Hagger and Lorraine A. Cale, Loughborough University,
Loughborough, LEU 3TU, UK
Recent studies have identified the utility of the Theory of Planned Behavior (fPB;
Ajzen, 1985) in explaining children's physical activilY intention and behavior
(Craig et al., 1996). This study aimed to extend this research by examining the
usefulness of children's perceived competence in the physical domain within the
framework of the TPB. 181 school children aged 12-14 years completed an inventory
which measured direct and indirect attitudes (Aact), subjective norms
(SN), perceived difficulty in engaging in physical activity (PO), sum of the perceived
barriers to physical activity (Sbar) and perceived competence (PC). Phys-

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I 571
ical activity behavior was assessed by a self-report measure at a later time. A
structural equation model indicated that directly measured Aact and Sbar contrib,
uted most to the explanation of intention while intention, PD and indirectly mea,
surcd Aact were the most important predictors of behavior. PC was significantly
and positively related to attitudes, but had negligible direct influence on intention.
In conclusion, the PC variable is a viable predictor of physical activity intention
but only through the mediating effect of attitudes. This research supports other
studies highlighting the usefulness of the TPB in explaining the influences of
physical activity behavior in children.
Oeeoer and Personality Characteristics Associated with HealthlFitness
Variables
Glenn R. West, Georgetown College, Georgetown, KY 40324 USA
The purpose of this study was to explore possible relationships among psychosocial
and health/fitness (HIF) variables and gender of students enrolled in a
required course in health/fitness promotion. Four classes of approximately 20
students comprised the population (N = 72; 41 women, 33 men). After IRB
approval, SUbjects provided self-report data on blood pressure, estimated aerobic
power, strength, weight, body composition, and nutrient intake. Psychosocial measures
were obtained on the Self-Motivation Index (SM!), Self-Efficacy Scale
(SES), and the Interpersonal Dependency Inventory (IDI), Findings indicated that:
I) Six health variables were significantly associated with psychosocial variables
in women compared to 2 in men. 2) In women Lack of Confidence and Total
Dependency significantly declined with age, while the Total Dependency of men
increased. It is recommended that HIP courses be designed for women with lower
SES (and HIP status) and higher Dependency to emphasize empowerment and
personal growth through positive lifestyle changes.
PANEL DISCUSSION: Mentors on Mentoring: Issues and hnplications for
the Graduate Training Process
Thad Leffingwell, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195; Anthony
Amorose, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22903; Andrew Meyers,
University of Memphis, Memphis, TN; Maureen Weiss, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, VA 22903; Jean Williams, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ
85721; Shelley Wiechman, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
This panel discussion will address issues around a critical component of the scientist-practitioner
training model-the mentoring process. The panel consists of
veteran mentors and advanced students with diverse mentoring experiences from
both exercise science and psychology training models. Panelists will present some
issues and perspectives on mentoting and respond to a prepared list of questions.
Specific issues to be addressed will include "What is tile role of mentoring in
your training program?," "What are some of the keys to an effective mentoring
relationship"," "What are the expectations of a mentor/mentee in the relation-

S72 / Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
ship?;" "How has the mentoring process changed over the last several years?;"
and "How might the mentoring process be different in exercise science vs. psychology
training models?" Audience participation in the panel discussion will be
encouraged and a substantial amount of time will be devoted to address questions
or issues raised by the audience.
COLLOQUIUM: Reflections of a 10 Year (Sport Psychologist) Veteran of
the National Hockey League
Frank L. Gardner, New York Rangers Hockey Club, USA
This paper will detail an ongoing 10 year career as a sport psychologist in the
National Hockey League. Reflections on mistakes made, useful and irrelevant
techniques, lessons learned, unexpected professional and ethical issues and requirements
for effective long tenn consultation will be presented. In addition,
comparison will be made between issues in career development faced by both
sport psychologists and professional athletes such as selectionidraft, career entry/
rookie season, career options/free agency, coach/management induced role
changes, etc. This will provide a frame of reference by which to understand the
unique tssues/stressors faced by anyone working in professional sports, as well
as provide a take off point for further discussion of within career developmental
issues in sports and how they may effect performance.
The Sorcerer's Apprentice?--or Reflections on Consulting with a National
and Olympic Team as a Graduate Student
Peter Haberl, Boston University, Boston, MA 0221S and Leonard Zaichkowsky,
Boston University, Boston, MA 0221S
This presentation gives an overview of an intensive consulting engagement over
the span of two seasons with the USA National and Olympic Women's Ice-hockey
Team. The presenter had the unique opportunity as a graduate student to work
closely and on an ongoing basis wirh the Women's National Team in their preparation
for the 1997 World championships and in their quest for a gold medal at
the 1998 Olympic Games in Nagano. Issues addressed range from the process of
getting entry, philosophical orientation, working within a team setting as part of
the support staff, and individual interventions and teambuilding activities. Ethical
concerns regarding such questions as competence, confidentiality, peer consulting
and working as a male consultant with female athletes are addressed. Data concerning
the consultant's effectiveness are presented based on fonnal evaluations
utilizing a modified version of Partington and Orlick's (1987) consultant evaluation
form and informal feedback from the athletes and coaching staff.
Philosophical Consulting in Elite Sport: Norwegian Soccer Players
Pursuing Meauing, Values, Fulfillment and Excellence
Geir Jordet, University of Sport and Physical Education, Oslo, Norway
Several highly respected sport psychology consultants are explicitly using philosophical
concepts, theories, and ideas as important elements in their consulting

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I S73
with elite athletes (e.g. Balague, 1997; Orlick, 1990; Ravizza, 1995; Rotella,
1996). Considering the apparent impact and effect these consultants have with
their athletes, it is unfortunate that philosophical factors in consulting are virtually
unstudied by sport psychology researchers (Hardy, Jones & Gould, 1996). As a
point of departure for further research and practice, attempts to integrate philosophy
into sport psychology consulting should consider: a) methods from applied
philosophy (c.g. philosophical counseling and, existential analysis); b) knowledge
derived from literature in the philosophy of sport; and c) an ecologically informed
theoretical and practical framework for integration of athletic philosophical skills
into regular practice and competition. The elements are explained and illustrated
through several single cases with elite Norwegian soccer players.
A Qualitative Investigation on the Mental Aspects Associated with
Professional Cross Country Mountain Bike Racing
Timothy A. Hamel, California State University, Fullerton, Fullerton, CA 92834
Alternative research methodologies will enhance the knowledge base in sport
psychology (Martens, 1987). This qualitative presentation will discuss the mental
skills associated with professional cross country mountain bike racers. The sport
has numerous physical demands; however, one question remains, "What goes on
in the mind of a professional racer 7" Currently, no research on the mental skills
of the professional racer exists. This pioneering investigation identified several
mental skills the rider exhibits. To analyze the information, inductive content
analysis was performed. The emergent general themes included: confidence, associative
and disassociative strategies, focus and refocus strategies, visualization,
pre-race mental preparation, routines and self-talk. A qualitative research methodology
was chosen for three reasons: 1) to acquire and preserve rich representations
of the athlete's experience (Gould, Eklund & Jackson, 1992),2) it accounts
for the "real" environment (Martens, 1987), 3) the phenomenological interview
seeks to describe what is happening from a first person experiential point of view
(Dale, 1996).
An Exploratory Examination of Psychological Techniques Employed by
Triathletes
Barbara J. Walker, The Union Institute, Cincinnati, OH 45206, USA
This study was designed to examine the use of psychological skills, cognitive
strategies, and goal-setting behaviors by triathletes. Participants were 161 national
and international triathletes who completed a questionnaire 13 to 16 hours prior
to competing in a half-ironman distance race. Questions consisted of inquiries
about training schedules, distractions they experience, and psychological skills
they utilize prior to and during races. Results indicated that 95% of the athletes
in the study set goals for themselves during the training season, and reported
using a performance oriented approach. They used an associative style as their
dominant attention focus. Anxiety and weather were reported as the biggest dis-

$74 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
tractors prior to and during a race. All psychological skills listed in the questionnaire
were endorsed by at least one athlete, but none were significantly associated
with reported finish time. Further results and implications for intervention as
consultation as well as for future research arc explored.
Towards a Motivational Model of Flow: Testing Relationships from the
Hierarchical Model of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
John Kowal & Michelle S. Fortier, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario,
Canada KIN 6N5
The purpose of this investigation was to propose and test a motivational model
of flow based on vallerand's (1997) Hierarchical Model of Intrinsic and Extrinsic
Motivation. One hundred and four master's level swimmers completed questionnaires
on two separate occasions, Time 1 and Time 2. At Time I, situational
measures of distal motivational determinants (perceptions of success and perceptions
of the motivational climate), proximal motivational determinants (perceptions
of autonomy, perceptions of competence, and perceptions of relatedness),
self-determined motivation, and flow were assessed immediately following a
swim practice. At Time 2, one week later, contextual measures of these same
variables were measured with the exception of flow. Results of a path analysis
supported a number of links in the proposed model. Findings are discussed in
light of research and theory on motivation and flow. Directions for future research
are also proposed and practical implications are addressed.
Relationships between Coping Strategies, Trait Anxiety, and Motivational
Orientations in Youth Sport Athletes
Laura Finch, Western Illinois University, Macomb, II.., USA 61455
Recent sport psychology research has focused on the coping strategies of elite,
adult athletes but little is known about how younger athletes cope with sport
stress and how these strategies are related to anxiety and motivational orientations.
Adolescent female athletes (n = 108) served as participants. The most prevalent
coping strategies were adaptive and problem focused coping strategies. Maladaptive
strategies were used least frequently. Higher trait anxiety was positively related
to maladaptive and emotion-focused coping. Higher task-orientation was
positively related to adaptive, problem focused coping whereas higher ego-orientation
was positively related to maladaptive, emotion focused coping. Thus,
significant relationships existed between coping strategies, trait anxiety, and goal
orientations. Future research should examine when and how these coping strategies
are developed in athletes, the relationship between achievement motivation
and coping styles, and the best ways to assist younger athletes in developing
adaptive coping strategies and using them consistently.

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I 575
Motives for and Barriers to Exerdse in the Elderly
Paul A. Estabrooks & Albert V. Carron, The University of Western Ontario,
London Ontario, N6A 3K7
The purpose of our investigation was to utilize qualitative methods to detennine
motives and barriers for exercise in elderly exercisers (n = 200). The barriers
listed fell into 4 components. Physical Barriers (35% of responses) was derived
primarily from 2 categories, Illness and Medical Commitments. Activities (30%)
was derived primarily from, Competing Activities and Travel. Situational Barriers
(26.3%) was comprised of Weather and Transportation while Psychological Barriers
(8.7%) included one large category, Nurturing Others. The motives for exercise
fell into 5 components, two of which accounted for 80% of all responses.
Health Motives (49.9%) included two large categories, Functional Health and
HealthlFitness. Psychological Reasons (31.4%) was the second largest component
and included 7 categories, the largest of which were Social Interaction and Wellbeing.
Based on the frequency of responses it was concluded that elderly exercisers
participate in regular exercise primarily for the prevention of hypokinetic
ailments, promotion of general fitness, and social interaction. Poor weather conditions,
illness, and family needs attenuate participation. Program design implications
for the elderly are discussed.
Psychological and Social Determinants of Physical Activity Involvement in
Youths: A Qualitative Inquiry
Michelle Fortier & John Kowal, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario,
Canada, KIN 6N5
The purpose of this study was to examine psychological and social determinants
of physical activity involvement in youths. A qualitative methodology was used.
More specifically, 8 focus groups were conducted with Canadian youths (11-15
years of age) from various community centers. A number of questions pertaining
to participants' attitudes, beliefs, motives, perceptions of social support and behaviors
were included in the interview protocol. Results from inductive content
analyses using the NUDIST program indicated that social agents and mainly
friends play an important role in affecting youths' involvement in physical activity.
A number of motives for participation and barriers for non participation were
also revealed. Results are discussed in light of past literature, practical applications
are offered and ideas for future research are suggested.
Sport Orientation, Motivational Orientation, and Coping With
Performance Slumps
N. Paul Heard, J. Robert Grove, and Robert C. Eklund; The University of
Western Australia, Perth
Individual differences in Sport Orientation and Motivational Orientation were
examined as correlates of slump-related coping among athletes. Study 1 involved

S76 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
300 athletes who completed the Sport Orientation Questionnaire (Gill & Deeter,
1988) and a slump-specific version of the COPE (Eklund, Grove & Heard, in
press). Study 2 involved 174 athletes who completed the Task and Ego Orientation
in Sport Questionnaire (Duda & Nicholls, 1989) as well as the slump-specific
COPE. MANOVAs revealed significant main effects for WIN and GOAL (both
ps < .025) as well as a significant main effect for TASK (p < .01). Follow-up
comparisons indicated that: Acceptance was used more often by athletes low in
WIN than those high in WIN, F (I, 184) = 10.70, P < .014; Planful Action,
Positive Reinterpretation, Seeking of Social Support, Suppression of Competing
Activities, and Turning to Religion were used significantly more by athletes high
in GOAL than those low in GOAL [all Fs (1, 184) > 10.30, all ps < .01]; athletes
high in TASK utilized significantly more Planful Action and significantly less
Behavioral Disengagement than athletes low in TASK [both Fs (1, 68) > 18.00,
both ps < .001]. In general, these findings suggest that athletes who rely heavily
on self-referenced standards are inclined to use active strategies to cope with
persistent declines in performance. Discussion emphasizes the similarities and
differences in the WIN, GOAL, TASK, and EGO constructs as well as the possible
costs and benefits of these dispositional tendencies for athletes confronted
with domain-specific stressors such as a performance slump.
A Season-long Team Building Program with a Division I InteccoUegiate
Equestrian Team
Diane E. Mack, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC
27599; Gordon A. Bloom, California State University, Fresno, Fresno, CA
93740
Aside from a few empirical studies (e.g., Cogan & Petrie, 1995; Prapavessis,
Carron, & Spink, 1997), reports of season-long team building programs with elite
athletes are scarce. A direct team building approach was taken with coaches and
members of a NCAA Division I intercollegiate equestrian team. The goal of the
intervention program was to facilitate improvement in team effectiveness and
perceptions of cohesiveness among team members. Following preliminary interviews
with the coaching staff, team members (N = 37) were administered the
Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ; Carron, Brawley, & Widmeyer, 1985)
to assess team cohesion. Results revealed perceptions of cohesion to be low,
particularly with respect to Attraction to Group---Social and Group Integration­
Task. Based on the results of the GEQ, interviews with small groups of team
members were conducted to further identify potential areas of intervention. Results
of these quantitative and qualitative procedures revealed specific areas for
intervention. These included: improved athlete leadership, the establishment of
team norms, greater accountability for one's actions, improved coach-athlete communication,
and social interaction. These themes fonned the basis for the intervention.
At the end of the season, team members completed the GEQ and a final
interview was conducted. Procedures and results of the intervention are discussed
in terms of improvement in team effectiveness and cohesion, as well as challenges
incurred during the team building process.

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts! S77
WORKSHOP: Working With Native American Athletes
Joy Griffin, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131
Native Americans (NA) define success and failure and interpret sport experiences
according to their cultural values. NA athletes associate success with family!
group, cooperation, interpersonal concerns, and traditions. NA athletes stress
strong group and process orientations, whereas Anglo American (AA) athletes
respond in a more individualistic, product focused way. AA athletes perceive
success and failure as more internal and controllable than do NA athletes. NA
athletes have greater preference for a social approval sport orientation Ihan do
other ethnic groups. Therefore, Sport Psychologists need to become aware of
diverse meanings. Part I of the presentation will provide information on NA
cultural beliefs and values, and examine possible interventions LO optimize the
sport experience. Part 2 will follow an interactive round table format Ihat allows
questions and provides professional insight through group discussion.
Social Physique Anxiety and Disturbed Eating Attitudes
Harry Prapavessis and Anne M. Haase, University of Auckland, Auckland,
New Zealand.
The study compared social physique anxiety scores among four different agematched
female groups (self-presentational athlete-i.e., aerobics; n = 31:weight
restricted alhlete-i.e., rowers; n = 50: alhlcte control-i.e., soccer; n = 37: and
non-athlete control-university students; n = 47), In addition, the study examined
relations between social physique anxiety and disturbed eating attitudes among
these four groups. Participants completed the Social Physique Anxiety Scale
(Hart, Leary & Rejeski, 1989), the Eating Attitude Test (Garner & Garfinkel,
1979) and the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (Reynolds, 1982). A
Body Mass Index also was calculated from the hcight and weight measurements
of Ihe participants. An ANCOVA with social desirability and body mass as the
covariates and social physique anxiety as the dependent measure, failed to reach
significance [F(3, 168) = 1.67, P > 05]. Hierarchical regression analyses were
computed for each group with EAT scores as the dependent measure. The variables
were entered in the following order: social desirability and body mass! social
physique anxiety. Results showed that the unique increment in variance accounted
for by social physique anxiety for each group was: self-presentational alhlete 4%;
weight restricted athlete 2%; athlete control 28%; and non-athlete control 30%.
Implications of these findings are discussed within Leary and Kowalski's (1990)
impression management framework.
The Drive for Size: Characteristics and Influences of Muscular
Dysmorpbia Disorder
Christopher D. Lantz, Truman State University, Kirksville, MO 63501 USA
Muscular dysmorphia has recently been identified as a disorder which lies at the
opposite end of the body image/distortion continuum from anorexia ncrvosa.

S78 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
Whereas anorexics have a distorted image of fatness, muscular dysmorphics have
a distorted image of thinness with a need to gain muscular size. While anorexia
has received considerable attention from the sport and exercise psychology community,
muscular dysmorphia remains largely unexamined. The purpose of this
presentation is to introduce muscular dysmorphia to the sport and exercise psychology
community as an important area of scholarly inquiry. Diagnostic criteria
and characteristics associated with the disorder will be discussed. In addition,
potential negative outcomes will also be addressed. Particular emphasis will be
placed on the use and abuse of pharmacological aids such as steroids, diuretics,
and nutritional supplements. Several suggestions for research direction are offered
including assessment, relationship to steroid use, and correlates with other cognitive
variables.
A Thin Line: Weight Pressures, Social Physique Anxiety, and Weight Loss
Strategies among College Female Dancers
Justine J. Reel, The University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro,
NC,27412
The purpose of the current study was to investigate body image concerns and
weight-related pressures among 107 female college dancers. The dancers completed
the Social Physique Anxiety Scale (SPA), the Eating Disorder Inventory
(EDI), and the Weight Pressures in Dance (WPD) questionnaire. WPD, with alpha
= .88, was created by the investigator to determine the types of weight-related
pressures in dance. Specifically, the majority (75.7%) of dancers reported that
weight pressures exist in dance, with (he most frequently cited pressures being
the dance costume, performance advantages associated with lower body weight,
the mirror and comparison with other dancers' bodies, and the perception that the
thinnest dancers are chosen for the best performance roles. Responses on WPD
and SPA were strongly correlated (r = .67), suggesting that dancers who reported
more weight pressures tended to exhibit higher social physique anxiety. Weight
loss strategies (e.g., working out starvation/anorexia) reported by dancers will
also be discussed.
COLLOQURJM: QuaHtative Methodologies in Applied Sport Psychology:
A Phenomenological Research Model
Greg A. Shelley, Ithaca College, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA; Artur
Poczwardowski, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
The purpose of this colloquium is to provide a model for conducting qualitativephenomenological
research in sport psychology. Specific methodological procedures
are presented as a means to studying people in context, for it is there that
the person's values and true experiences become known. This program focuses
on developing and structuring appropriate interview guide questions, establishing
rigor (i.e., commitment and adherence to established rules for conducting qualitative
inquiry), and triangulating qualitative data (i.e., using multiple informants

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I S79
and multiple methods of data collection). The roles of a study auditor and a peer
debriefer are discussed in relationship to establishing methodological rigor. Emphasis
is placed on the management and analysis of qualitative data as outcome
data are provided and examined according to an eight step analytical procedure.
Recommendations are made for the implementation of such a model in the advancement
of applied sport psychology research and intervention.
A Portrait of Qualitative Research Articles Published in Three Sport
Psychology Journals
Diane Culver and Pierre Trudel, University of Onawa, Ottawa, Ontario,
Canada, KIN 6N5
The lack of specific criteria for conducting and evaluating qualitative research
leaves researchers with more questions than answers. What are the most valid
methods for the collection of data? Is it possible to combine qualitative and quantitative
data? How is trustworthiness best accounted for? How should results be
presented? Based on Trudel and Donohue (1993), the answers to these questions
will vary depending on the field of sport research (sociology, pedagogy, administration,
psychology). The purpose of this study is to portray how researchers in
sport psychology collect, analyse and present their data and results. This portrait
should shed light on the accepted paradigm for qualitative research in sport psychology.
Qualitative studies published in three sport psychology journals have
been analysed for the period ranging from 1990 to 1998. Results indicate that
qualitative articles are still very much in the minority of those published, but that
there are considerable differences in the percentages of qualitative vs. quantitative
articles published in the three journals (The Sport Psychologist, 22%; Journal of
Applied Sport Psychology, 9%; Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 8.5%).
Resuhs indicate that the interview is nearly the only method used for data collection,
and on occasion combined with one or more psychometric tests. Reliability
checks seem to be used frequently as a way to demonstrate the accuracy
of the coding procedure. Finally, researchers often use a combination of extracts
and descriptive statistics to present their results.
Multicultural Training in Applied Sport Psychology
Matthew P. Martens, University of Missouri-Columbia, Columbia, MO 65203;
Amuel J. ZIzi, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26505
The topic of multicultural training has become extremely prevalent in the field of
psychology, as witnessed by the most recent APA ethical codes mandating that
psychologists have some form of multicultural training (American Psychological
Association, 1992), and the focus multicultural issues are receiving in other subdisciplines
of psychology (i.e. Ridley, Mendoza, & Kanitz, 1994). Unfortunately,
the field of applied sport psychology appears to be doing a poor job addressing
multicultural issues. When conducting a literature search to try to find articles
addressing multicultural issues in sport psychology, the authors could locate no

S80 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
published reports. To alleviate this lack of awareness regarding multicultural issues,
it is suggested that multicultural training be incorporated at all levels of an
existing modcl of applied sport psychology training (Barney, Anderson, & Riggs,
1996).
Factor Analysis of the Attitudes toward Seekiug Sport Psychology
Consultation Quesetennatee (ATSSPCQ): A Replication and Extension
Robert J. Harmison, U.S. Olympic Committee, Colorado Springs, CO 80909;
Trent A. Petrie, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203
The purpose of the study was to replicate and extend Martin ct al.'s (1997) attempts
to develop the 50-item ATSSPCQ. Principal factor analysis with oblique
rotarion produced a three-factor solution that accounted for 28.7% of the overall
variance: (1) confidence in sport psychology (19 items), (2) stigma tolerance (8
items), and (3) preference for racial similarity (4 items). The remaining 19 items
failed to obtain loadings greater than .40 on any of the factors. Estimates of
validity revealed the ATSSPCQ to have good concurrent and adequate construct
validity. Additional analyses revealed that female, non-contact sport, and Division
I athletes possessed more confidence in sport psychology, females reported more
stigma tolerance, and athletes of color preferred a racially similar consultant. Also,
previous consultant experience and confidence in sport psychology were found to
predict willingness to see a consultant. The results of the present study provide
support for a revised version of the ATSSPCQ (i.e .• items reworded. combined,
or eliminated) to better assess athletes' attitudes toward sport psychology. Theoretical
and empirical support for the proposed changes along with practical applications
will be discussed.
Experiences of FootbaU Players with a Sports PSychology Program
Lynn Lavallee, University of Toronto. Toronto, Ontario, Canada, M5S 317
Gretchen Kerr, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, M5S 317
The purpose of this study was to qualitatively explore the experiences of football
players with a sport psychology program. While previous studies have implemented
intervention programs of sport psychology for performance enhancement
and injury reduction, none havc assessed the athletes' experiences with these
programs. It has been difficult, if not impossible, for previous researchers to
ascertain which components of a multi-faceted program were helpful. This study
explored the experience of football players with a sport psychology program implemented
throughout the football season. Qualitative analysis of the sport psychology
programme was performed at the end of the season (N = 8). A key
recommendation is the implementation of such a program in the off-season due
to the intense nature of the football season. Many themes emerged from the
qualitative analysis that will benefit future sport psychology programs, particularly
for the sport of university football.

Colloquia. Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts! S81
Athletes' Assessment of a Mental Skills Program
Emily A Roper and Gretchen Kerr, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON MSS 3P7
This investigation examined athletes' experiences with a mental skills program,
Five intercollegiate swimmers (3 male, 2 female) participated in Sill individual
sessions geared to enhancing such skills as cognitive restructuring, anentional
training, competition planning, and imagery. Following the program, semi-structured
interviews were conducted. The data were analyzed inductively from a topdown
approach. Six higher order categories emerged including perceived benefits,
application of skills, suggestions and specific preference of techniques. Suggestions
from the participants and their preferred strategies will be discussed. The
findings have implications for coaches and sport psychology consultants interested
in learning about athletes' experiences with a mental skills program.
Recruiting Intercollegiate Athletes in the Canadian Context,
Patricia S. Miller, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, M5S lAl; and John
H. Salmela, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, KIN 6N5
It is widely believed that Canadian university coaches commit little time to recruiting
student-athletes, especially in comparison (0 their American counterparts
(Curtis & Mc'Ieer; 1990). This study sought to explore the perceptions of Canadian
university coaches regarding the recruitment of student-athletes. In-depth
interviews were conducted with four male and four female university team sport
coaches, and later analyzed inductively (COte, Salmela & Russell, J995}. The
analysis revealed that recruiting was an important organizational task which included
several subtasks: including early identification of potential recruits, information
distribution, home and campus visits. The process was facilitated by the
quality of the academic offerings of the participants' university and success of
their athletic program. Constraints emerging included time and financial demands,
and the loss of athletes to other programs. These findings suggest that recruiting
is an integral function of Canadian university coaches, and should be considered
in future research on university sport.
In the Practice Room or in the Locker Room-c-Pre-perfermance Anxiety
Exists
Cheryl L. Weiss, Boston University, Boston, MA 02062
Much research has been conducted to measure pre-performance anxiety experienced
by athletes. In contrast, there has been scant research regarding the affect
of this type of anxiety on performing artists. This pilot study has utilized the
Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (Martens, Burton, Vealey, Bump & Smith,
1990), testing 35 music majors at Boston University's School for the Arts prior
to their solo jury examination performances. The results of the CSAI-2, coupled
with post-jury interviews with 20 of the musicians, indicate that a positive correlation
exists between the level of cognitive and somatic anxiety experienced

S82 J Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
prior to the jury and the success of the actual jury performance. Results also
suggest that further, more extensive investigations be conducted paralleling the
pre-performance anxiety experienced by both athlctes and performing artists.
Introduction of Quantum Bebaviors in Sport Psychology
Don J. Milham, Sportlogic Performance Enhancement Consulting, Philadelphia,
PA 19031
Quantum Behavior Theory (QBT) (Milham, 1998) facilitates a wholistic approach
to sport psychology through simplifying athletic performance and its environment.
Quantum behavior is an identifiable particle of behavior, which when integrated
with other quantum, may influence performance outcome. Reducrlonist in nature,
it separates performance components by isolating and assigning values to less
than obvious behaviors. Quantum behavior exist in a variety of categories, and
each has an independent identity in existence and function. Quantum behavior
may function synchronous to other quantum, be identified as "detractors" or
"activators" (Milham, 1997), are dependent on hierarchical order, and may
change during emergence. QBT augments behavior analysis, and identities specific
target areas for enhancement, thus expediting application of current sport
psychology performance enhancement methods.
COLLOQUIUM: Performance Enhancement x 2: A Unique Collaberatton
Between Sport Psychology Practitioners
Ken Ravizza, Cal State Fullerton, CA 92634; Burt Gigcs, Springfield College,
Springfield, MA 01109
Ibis colloquium will describe the collaborative process between two performance
enhancement practitioners, one from an educational, sport science background,
the other from a clinical background, as they work concurrently with a professional
golfer. The collaboration began in April 1997, when the first author, after
working with the athlete intensively for two years, suggested the inclusion of an
additional consultant who had a psychological orientation. Following an extended
first interview, the second author has been involved in telephone discussions with
the athlete alone, with the other consultant, and with both together in "conference
call" sessions. The colloquium will include descriptions of the content of each
consultant's work with the golfer, as well as examples of the three-way conversations.
A brief history will also be given of the athlete's background and performance
difficulties. The lessons learned, and insights gained will be discussed
to help other practitioners working in similar situations.
The Ropes Course Experience: A Quasi-Experimental Examination
Barbara B. Meyer & Darci O. Grochowski, University of Wisconsin­
Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI 53201
In answering the call for empirical documentation of the effects of ropes and
challenge course (RC) participation on the psychosocial function and sport per-

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts J S83
fonnance of athletes and teams, descriptive studies (Meyer, 1997; Meyer & Wenger,
in press) have identified significant time effects for the social aspects of
cohesion as well a" various aspects of achievement orientation. The purpose of
the current study was to utilize a quasi-experimental design, whereby some members
of a girls tennis team participated in a pre-season RC experience and other
members did not, to expand the depth and breadth of knowledge in this area.
Team members completed the Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ) and the
Sport Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ) four days prior to (TI), and two days after
(T2), the RC experience. A series of 2 x 2 (treatment X time) repeated measures
ANOVAs were run on the four GEQ subscales. A significant time by treatment
interaction was found (F(l, 33) = 4.74, P = .037J on the ATG-S. Post hoc tests
revealed that athletes who participated in the RC had significantly higher ATG-S
scores at T2 than athletes who did not participate. A series of 2 x 2 (treaunent
x time) repeated measures ANOVAs revealed a significant main effect for position
on the goal orientation [F(1,33) = 6.402, P = .0161, win orientation [F(I,33)
= 5,902, P = .021], and competitiveness [F(1,33) = 4.609, P = .039] subscales
of the SOQ. For all position effects, post hoc analyses indicated that athletes who
participated in the RC experience had significantly higher scores at T2 than those
who did not participate. In addition, a significant main effect for time was detected
on the goal orientation subscale. Post hoc tests revealed a significant decrease in
goal orientation between T1 and T2 for those who did not participate in the RC.
Discussion will focus on comparisons to previous studies as well as implications
for sport psychology practice and research.
Increasing Role Clarity for Intercollegiate Basketball Players
Elizabeth L Shoenfelt, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY
42101
This study presents an objective, quantified approach to increasing role clarity for
the 14 members of a NCAA Division I basketball team. The intervention included
the completion of an instrument by the head coach and each player which enabled
a quantified assessment of individual role agreement on a comprehensive list of
required team roles. The coach and psychologist then met with each player to
discuss her roles and differences in role perceptions. The coach and player then,
again, independently completed the instrument. This procedure was followed on
three occasions throughout the season. Rates of role agreement between coach
and player showed continued improvement across the season from an initial preseason
average of 63.21% (SD = 10.57) to an average of 88.21% (SD = 7.75)
toward the end of the season. Questionnaire responses indicated a similar pattern
of increases in role understanding, acceptance, and commitment. Results indicate
this is an effective method of increasing role clarity for intercollegiate basketball
players.

584 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
Division I Athletes' Preferences for Perfonnance Enhancement
Interventions
Sameep D. Maniar, John Sommers-Flanagan, Lewis A. Curry, and Scott D.
Sandstedt, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812
The present study investigated athletes' willingness to use various performance
enhancement interventions as wen as the effects of job title on willingness to
seek help. Data were collected on 67 Division I athletes (42 men, 25 women)
from ten sports to assess their willingness to: (a) seek help, (b) seek help from
various-titled professionals and non-professionals, (c) seek help if recommended
by a coach, and (d) participate in performance enhancement interventions. Using
an analog design, subjects' treatment preferences were evaluated for three different
scenarios: midseason slump, return from injury, and desire to perform more
optimally. A priori comparisons, collapsed across all scenarios, indicated: (1)
female athletes were significantly more willing to seek help (t = 2.032, P < .05);
(2) subjects were more willing to see a sport psychologist than a counselor or
clinical psychologist (t = 8.944, P < .001; t = 8.186, P < .001, respectively);
(3) athletes were more willing to seek help from a "performance enhancement
specialist" than a "sport psychologist" {t = 2.429, P < .02); (4) a willingness 10
seek help "from a trained professional" significantly increased with a coach's
recommendation (t = 8.344, P < .(01); and (5) preferences were given for more
traditional (i.e., familiar) interventions such as goal setting and imagery as more
acceptable than unfamiliar interventions such as hypnosis (t = 9.694, P < .001;
t = 8.966, P < .001, respectively). These results support the importance of developing
educational programs for athletes who may be resistant to seeking professional
treatment due to misconceptions of psychology, sport psychology, and
hypnosis.
WORKSHOP: Low Ropes Course Experiential Activities: The Importance
of Processing
Jerry Sandberg, Maria Newton, Leslie Carnahan, University of New Orleans,
New Orleans, LA 70118
There has been a recent upsurge of interest in low ropes course activities (Rohnke.
1977) as an intervention for a variety of areas within sports psychology. These
areas include team building, group cohesion, and character development. Despite
its proven effectiveness as an experiential learning activity, some people have
questioned its effectiveness as a mechanism for retention or transfer. One area of
concern has been the instructor's decision to focus on the novelty of the experience
rather than focusing on the central components of the activity, that of facilitating
(Morris & Stiehl, 1989) and processing (Nadler & Luckner, 1992). The
purpose of this workshop will be to focus on expanding the skills of the facilitator
in low ropes course-type of experiential activities. The learning objectives are as
follows: I) to increase the understanding of the role of the facilitator in experiential
activities., 2) to understand the critical role of processing experiential activities,
3) to explore avenues to enhance retention and transfer of skills and

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I 585
insights of the participants. These objectives will be accomplished by a combination
of 'hands-on" learning, presentation and discussion, Participants will be
given an introduction to ropes courses and their philosophy, discuss a sample day,
walk through a session, attempt the obstacles, discuss how to process, followed
by presentation and discussion of a reference packet. The packet will include
guides on ropes course philosophy, effective facilitating, theories and practical
knowledge on processing and information on specific obstacles.
COLLOQUIUM: A Preventative Educational Program for Female Athletes
at Risk of Developing Eating Disorders
Gayelene J. Clews, Australian Capital Terrirory Academy of Sport, Canberra,
2617, Australia. John Gross Ph.D., University of Canberra, 2617, Australia.
Carol Kayrooz, University of Canberra, 2617, Australia.
This study examined the effectiveness of a multi-dimensional education program
in facilitating attitude changes in adolescent female athletes away from restrictive
eating behaviours and body image. Participants were 18 registered female long
distance runners, aged between 13 and 19 years, The study was a quantitative
and qualitative investigation employing a pre and post test design and using the
process of triangulation to increase the study's validity, It was proposed that a
multi-dimensional education program comprising of psychological, medical, nutritional,
anthropometric and elite athlete experiences, might be effective in steering
attitudes away from restrictive eating behaviours and body image. Results
showed that education proved to be a successful tool in facilitating attitudinal
changes in a positive direction, across a number of variables such as menstrual
functioning, nutritional understanding, flexibility, strength, and a general awareness,
on what constitutes a balanced, healthy, athletic body..
COLLOQUIUM: Self Concept, Exercise Dependence and Aggression in
Weight Lifters and Body Builders: Phannacology,
Socioll)gy or Both?
Bruce Hale, Staffordshire University, Stoke-on-Trent, U.K. ST4 2DP; Dave
Collins, Manchester Metropolitan University, Alsager, U.K. ST7 2HL; Martin
Sharp and David Smith, Manchester Metropolitan University; Richard Hurst,
Staffordshire University
Research continues to report an association between the use of anabolic-androgenic
steroids (hereafter AS), exercise dependence, psychological disturbance and
aggressive constructs such as anger and hostility. However, while emphasis has
been placed on this 'causative' association, there is also a wide ranging literature
which reports a contrasting diverse pattern of psychiatric and behavioral effects,
The first presenter reports on two studies examining relationships between exercise
dependency, social physique anxiety, physical self perception, social support,
and weightlifting identity in weight lifters and inexperienced and experienced
bodybuilders. No behavioral differences were found between AS users and non-

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I S87
plied research for the purpose of academic credit, professional presentation, and
publication will be mentioned.
WORKSHOP: Personal and Social Implications of Sensitive Gender Issues
Candice E. Zientek, Shippensburg University, Shippensburg, PA 17257; Jodi
Yambor, Thomas College, Thomasville, GA 31792; Burt Giges, Springfield
College, Sprinffield, MA 01109; Kristen Diffenbach, University of Idaho,
Moscow, ID 83844
The primary purpose of this workshop is to define and discuss the personal and
social implications of sensitive gender issues. Specifically, the presenters will: 1)
define and identify sexual harassment, including two types of sexual harassment,
with an emphasis on sensitive issues such as frequent jokes about sex, sexually
suggestive gestures or sounds, sexual innuendoes, and sexual favoritism; 2) discuss
the scope of the problem in sport settings; 3) examine the personal and social
implications of gender sensitive issues in sport; 4) discuss the specific responsibilities
of the sport psychology consultant in dealing with these sensitive issues
including: APA guidelines, record-keeping, and complaint procedures; 5) role
play and discuss case studies to determine whether each case constitutes sexual
harassment, and to discuss the psychological and social implications of each case.
COLLOQUIUM: Developing the Complete Sport Psychologist through Life
Skills Training
Steven Danish, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, 23284­
2018, USA; AI Petitahs, Springfield College, Springfield, MA 01109, USA;
Robert McGowan, University of Richmond, VA 23173, USA
Functional theorists have maintained that through sport participation participants
acquire vital skills that transfer to life beyond sports. Life Skills programs such
as the "Going for the Goal" program (Danish, 1990), the United States Olympic
Committee's Career Assistance Program for Athletes (Petitpas, Danish, Mc­
Kelvain, & Murphy, 1992) and the NCAA's "Life Skills Program" are designed
help individuals generalize life skills acquired through sport and game (0 nonsport
settings. This symposium will explore the significance of practitioners possessing
"Life Skills" enabling them to exemplify, practice, and teach Life Skills
to others. Specifically, participants will be invited to explore their own Life Skills
in areas of goal setting, planning, resources identification and use, commitment,
personal awareness, and growth. Issues of professional training, self-awareness,
and intervention will be discussed, modeled, and explored.
COLLOQUIUM: Family Systems Theory as a Model for Applied
Interventions with Teams
Jay A. Deiters, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO 80639
Theories of intervention in applied sport psychology have traditionally been individually-centered
and structured according to cognitive-behavioral theory (Mur-

588 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
phy, 1995). Alternative models 1O sport psychology interventions have been proposed
and have grown in popularity. In recent years, a systems model of intervention
has been utilized with athletic teams (Schindler-Zimmerman, Washle, &
Protinsky, 1990; Zimmerman & Devoe, 1993; Zimmerman & Protinsky, 1993;
Zimmerman, Protinsky, & Zimmerman, 1994). Using a systems consultation perspective
involves the entire athletic team, emphasizes social psychological processes
and utilizes family therapy interventions. In this colloquium, a family systerns
perspective will be presented in detail, and relevant research relating to this
theory and interventions with teams will be discussed. Family systems concepts
are relevant to sport psychology team interventions as consultants are interested
in the nature of hierarchical structures, the patterns of communication and the
development of roles within members of that system. This perspective differs
from the traditional individual-centered view of applied sport psychology due to
its emphasis on group processes.
WORKSHOP: A Comprehensive, Multidisciplinary Approach to
Performance Enhancement in the 21st Century
David A. Striegel and James E. Loehr, LGE Sport Science, Inc., 9757 Lake
Nona Road, Orlando, FL 32827.
The primary objective of this workshop is to present a comprehensive, multidisciplinary
model for the delivery of performance enhancement services. Historically,
performance enhancement has been viewed independently from nutritional
education and physical fitness training. The presenters propose that a multidisciplinary
approach is needed. The specific workshop objectives are to; (I) explain
the presenters' vision of performance enhancement and the creation of the LGE
Sport Science center, (2) describe how the center reflects this multidisciplinary
focus, (3) outline the center's services that include sport psychology consulting,
nutrition education and physical fitness training, (4) demonstrate how these services
are integrated into a seamless training system, (5) share assessment and
intervention protocols. Participants will be given samples of tools designed to aid
in the assessment of an athlete's mental toughness, nutritional habits, and physical
fitness levels. Workshop objectives will be achieved through in-depth interaction
and discussion between the presenters and participants.
COLLOQUllJM: Discussion and Practical Application of the Development
of a Conceptual Model and Definition of "Quality
Practice" from the Perspective of Five Expert Coaches
Kevin Sverduk, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO. 80631; Glen
Albaugh, University of the Pacific, Stockton CA 95211.
"Quality practice" is a term often used in connection with expert performance
in sport, however it has remained relatively undefined in the sport psychology
literature. Research has suggested that expert performers routinely engage in practice
regimens that are qualitatively different than most performers (Orlick & Par-

S90 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
tivities, and everyday activities according to dimensions of relevance to improving
perfonnance, effort and concentration required to perform the activity, and how
enjoyable they considered their participation in these activities. Results indicated,
contrary to the Ericsson definition, that the most relevant activities were also rated
as the most enjoyable activities. Also, highly effortful practice in middle distance
track was also perceived as enjoyable. Additionally, results confirmed that concentration
was a distinct factor from physical effort in sport. Further analyses
compared activity ratings between three skill groups (elite group, less 5% group,
less 15% group) and found no significant differences in terms of their perceptions
of track, track-related, and everyday activities. Finally, a set of deliberate practice
activities for middle distance track was identified according to a modified conception
of deliberate practice in sport. In conclusion, the definition of deliberate
practice in sport appears to be qualitatively different from music.
Development of Expert Performance in Biathlon
Jamie F. Kallio and John H. Salmela, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, On, KIN
6N5, Canada
Work with musicians by Ericsson, Krampe and Tesch-Romer (1993) concluded
that expertise is a result of deliberate practice. In order to reinforce the notion of
development of expertise through deliberate practice in sports, three groups of
biathletes, male and female, (n = 45) from the provincial level to international
caliber recalled the number of hours they spent practicing biathlon from the time
that they started to the present. Data was collected during the competitive season
at scheduled biathlon races. All groups had begun sports at approximately 13
years of age or earlier, while several did not begin specific training for biathlon
until later in their career. Participants rated biathlon and non-biathlon activities in
regard to how relevant they were to improving performance, the level of physical
effort required, the level of concentration (mental effort) and the degree of enjoyment
experienced. International level biathletes showed to have accumulated
a significant number of more total hours and higher number of hours at high
intensity combined with shooting practice than the lower skilllevel groups. Other
differences between skill levels were apparent in the amount and type of shooting
training particularly during the non-competitive phase of the season.
Individual Differences in Imagery Ability and the effect on Motor' Skill
Acquisition
Vicki de Prazer. Australian Institute of Sport, PO Box 176 Belconnen
Australian Capital Territory, 2616 Auslralia
The use of imagery or mental rehearsal is universally postulated throughout sport
perfonnance literature as an essential component in the cognitive repertoire of
elite athletes. This study highlights the need to understand individual differences
in athletes cognitive styles and ability to use imagery, when attempting to enhance
motor performance via cognitive intervention. Individual differences in cognitive

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I S9l
style, and information processing capacity were examined by manipulating the
utilization of visuomotor imagery in the acquisition of golf putting skill, with the
hypothesis being that High Imagers would perform better than Low Imagers.
Subjects were selected as High and Low Imagers (N = 42) using the Betts,
Gordon and VVI.Q. Subjects in Condition I were instructed to use visuomotor
imagery during the entire acquisition phase. Subjects in Condition II were instructed
to use Visuomotor imagery at a later stage of the acquisition period,
hypothesised to represent the procedural phase. Condition III was a control condition.
A series of 3 X 2 ANOVA'S supported OUI first hypothesis. However, a
very important finding in terms of the application of mental training programmes
was that Low Imagery ability novice golfers, actually showed a deceleration in
their acquisition rate,when asked to use imagery, which was not apparent when
left to utilise their usual learning strategies, i.e. their preferred cognitive style.
The second hypothesis, suggesting rate of acquisition would be influenced by at
what stage of skill acquisition imagery rehearsal instructions were introduced,
was not supported.
The Role of Fear in Competitive State Anxiety among a Group of Female
High School Swimmers
David S. Kemler, Pam Hutchinson, Southern Connecticut State University, New
Haven, CT 06515
Research has confirmed that athletes are often anxious during competition and
that emotional states can affect performance. Few studies, however, have assessed
which specific emotions comprise the experience of anxiety. The purpose of this
study was to determine whether the emotion fear played a significant role in
producing competitive state anxiety among a group of female high school swimmers.
Subjects (n = 20) completed an emotion/anxiety scale (DES+A) to determine
state anxiety levels minutes before an important meet. The same scale was
administered 72 hours later to assess emotional state in a non-competitive setting.
In addition, each athlete completed a self-report that provided insights into her
behavior and performance during the competition, and the head coach wrote a
separate assessment of each swimmer. A discriminate function analysis was then
used to determine which emotions affected swimmers during this particular competition.
The discriminant function analysis revealed that the variables of (a) fear,
(b) how often a swimmer experienced anxiety, (c) whether fear was a recurring
emotion felt during competition, and (d) the swimmer's self confidence were
related most highly to successful swims. It was concluded that fear was central
to producing anxiety among this group of swimmers, but that self-confidence (p
< 0.01) was the most important variable in determining their emotional state
during competition. The information was used by the coach to develop strategies
for dealing with anxiety and improving swimmers' self-confidence throughout the
season.

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I S93
of sport specific examination for the development of applied anxiery interventions
for the sport psychologist.
Factors Influencing Competitive State Anxiety in Sport and Exercise: A
Research Synthesis
Monica Andres, Bradley Green, Arnold LeUnes, Stephanie Pane, and Anthony
Bourgeois, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843-4235
A meta-analysis was conducted across twenty-five studies using the Competitive
State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2; Martens, Vealey, and Burton, 1990) administered
to participants in both aerobic and anaerobic sports. The CSAI-2 assesses
competitive state anxiety across the three component scales of somatic anxiety,
cognitive anxiety and self-confidence. The twenty-five studies provided CSAI-2
data that was compared to population norms to calculate effect sizes. Effects of
six moderator variables (time, gender, type, setting, level, and intensity) were
examined. General effects were found for type of exercise (coactive, interactive,
mixed), intensity (aerobic versus anaerobic), and timing of data collection (related
versus unrelated to performance). Hypotheses were continned through multivariate
and univariate analysis conducted on effect sizes calculated with Cohen's d.
Life Stress and Health Symptoms in Competitive Rowers
Adrienne H. Kovacs, and Frank M. Perna, West Virginia University,
Morgantown, WV, 26506-6116
Anderson and Williams (1988) postulated that the relationship between negative
life event stress (NLES) and athletic injury is mediated by a variety of physiological
symptoms such as muscular tension and attentional deficits. However, the
health symptoms hypothesized to precede a stress-induced injury have not been
empirically documented. This study was a prospective examination of the relationship
between NLES and health symptomatology. Specifically, muscular, cognitive,
emotional, autonomic, and immunological health symptoms were examined
in college and elite rowers (N = 43) who had completed an NLES measure
one month earlier, After controlling for training intensity, negative affect, and
demographics, NLES was significantly positively associated with all five symptom
domains (all p-values < ,01). This finding provides preliminary evidence
supporting the association between NLES and proximal health symptomatology
which may playa mediating role in the relationship between NLES and athletic
injury.
An Investigation of the Relationship between Life Stress and Changes in
Mood States and Stress Symptoms in NCAA Division I Women's Athletics
Team Members
Rebecca L. Ahlgren, Edward F. Etzel, Samuel J. Zizzi, Frank M. Perna, West
Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506-6116
The purpose of this investigation was to examine the association between selfreported
recent life events, mood states and stress responses over the course of a

S94 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
competitive season for members of an NCAA Division I women's basketball
team. Participants (N = 13) completed the Life Events Scale for College Athletes
(Petrie, 1992) before the onset of the
basketball season and at the end of the season. Athletes also completed a monthly
Quick Stress Questionnaire (Otani, 1985) and a weekly Profile of Mood Slates
(POMS) (McNair, LoIT, & Droppelman, 1971) over the course of the competitive
season. Results will provide insight into the relationship between a wide range of
srressors common to college student-athletes and cognitive, affective, behavioural
and physical stress symptoms.
The Effect of Imagery during Arousal and Relaxation Conditions OD
Imagery Quality and Cricket Batting Performance
Jason Wright and Alex McKenzie, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
This study investigated the effect of mental imagery training under arousal and
relaxation conditions, on the imagery quality and performance of Iwo batting
strokes in cricket. Using a single-subject multi-element design, four male cricket
players who were assessed as 'paratelic dominant' according to Apter's (1982)
Theory of Psychological Reversals, received relaxation task imagery instructions,
and self-perception (arousal) task imagery instructions on alternative days over a
six week period following an initial baseline period. Irrunediate1y following imagery
rehearsal, the players performed the two batting strokes. Results showed
thai the imagery instructions were effective in altering the players arousal levels
in the desired directions, and that the quality of the players' imagery was higher
under the self-perception (arousal) condition. All players indicated that they enjoyed
the self-perception (arousal) condition more than the relaxation condition.
It was concluded that individual differences may exist in imagery training with
respect to the conditions under which imagery is rehearsed. Conditions thai approximate
the individual's ideal performance state may need to be created prior
to imagery use if imagery quality is to be maximised.
Intensity and Interpretation of Competitive State Anxiety: Relationship to
Performance and Repressive Coping Style
Gerald J. Jerome, University of Arizona, Tucson. AZ 85719; and Jean M.
Williams, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85719
This study revealed that a repressive coping style influences the relationship to
performance for an athlete's intensity of anxiety symptoms and interpretation of
those symptoms as debilitative or facilitative to performance. Persons with a repressive
coping style typically deny having elevated levels of anxiety even though
their behavior and physiological responses suggest otherwise (e.g., Weinberger,
Schwanz, & Davidson, 1979). Recreational and semi-professional bowlers (N =
158) completed the modified Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (Jones &
Swain, 1992). Intra-individual scores measured performance. Repressive coping
styles were identified by low competitive trait anxiety and high social desirability

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I S95
scores. Regression analysis showed the cognitive intensity and somatic direction
subscales explained 4.1 and 3% (p < .05) of the performance variance respectively.
Cognitive intensity had an inverted-U relationship with performance and
somatic direction had a positive linear relationship. After removal of bowlers with
repressive coping styles, analysis showed that cognitive and somatic intensity
explained 12.6 and 6.1% (p < .05) of the performance variance respectively.
Cognitive intensity had an inverted-U relationship with performance and somatic
intensity a negative linear relationship. This study expands upon the findings of
Williams and Krane (1989,1992) and indicates the need to control for individuals
with repressive coping styles when using the modified CSAI-2.
Cultural Comparison of What Motivates Children to Participate io Sports
A.J. Ploszay, University of Richmond, VA 23173, USA; Robert McGowan,
University of Richmond, VA 23173, USA
Weiss and Chaumeton (1992) pointed out most of the research in sport psychology
has depended on subjects of European descent. Considering the high percentage
of athletes of African descent participating in sport throughout the world, especially
professional sports (Coakley, 1998) it seems logical that research examining
the foundation of their success needs to be explored. An examination of
motives for sport participation in children of non-European descent is to be investigated.
Subjects are African American children enrolled in inner city high
schools in the southeastern area of the United States and high school age children
that are native West Africans. Subjects were asked to write a one-page theme
discussing the reasons why they participate in sports. Using a content analysis to
summarize the subject's reasons for participation it was concluded that cultural
differences do exist in each group's motivations as to why they participate in
sports. Conclusions for cultural differences in motivation are investigated.
Students' Perceptions of Motivational Climate aod Differential Treatment
in Physical Education
Athanasios Papaioannou, Konstantinos Nikolopoulos, Democritus University of
Thrace, Komotini, 69100, Greece and Konstantinos Bagiatis, University of
Thessaly, Trikala, 52100, Greece
It was hypothesized that students' perceptions of physical education teachers favoring
high ability students would be (1) positively related to their perceptions
that these teachers emphasize social comparison in class (ego-involving goal),
and (2) negatively related to their perceptions that these teachers try to develop
the abilities of all children (task-involving goal). 271 Greek high school students
answered on a series of questionnaires. Based on factor and reliability analyses
6 scores were computed measuring differential treatment of high and low athletic
ability students. Two scale scores were calculated measuring task-involving and
ego-involving climate respectively. The correlation analysis confirmed the hy-

S96 / Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
potheses. Teachers should create a task-involving climate in order to motivate
their low ability students.
Students' Perceptions of the Influence of Sex-Role Stereotypes on
Participation in Outdoor Recreation
Robin Farrell, University of Ottawa. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada KIN 6N5
Tom Stevens, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada P7B SEl
The purpose of the present study was to determine whether current outdoor recreation
programs aid in the abolishment of sex-role stereotypes present in traditional
sport. Participants in this study were 208 undergraduate students from an
academic outdoor recreation program. A questionnaire was administered in order
to assess gender differences on the following components: motivation for participation
in outdoor activities, responses to societal, general, and attributed stereotypical
statements, stereotypes surrounding choice of gender of outdoor leader,
and the prevalence of sex-role stereotypes within the existing program. Generally,
respondents felt that stereotypes predominant in traditional sport do not carry
over into the outdoor recreation field, however, both genders in the sample specifically
indicated different motives for participation, used sex-role ideologies to
identify male and female attributes, and chose outdoor leaders based on perceived
proficiency in sex-typed activities/situations. Results are discussed in light of past
literature, and practical implications arc addressed.
Achievement Motivation among Older Adult Supervised and Unsupervised
Exercise Participants: A Social Cognitive Approach
Katie M. Culp and Carl T. Hayashi, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX
79409
The purpose of this study was to examine the nature of achievement motivation
among supervised and unsupervised older adult physical activity participants.
Specifically, the present study examined the nature of individual differences (i.e.,
personal incentives, sense of self, and perceived options) and social contextual
factors (i.e., goal/reward structure) among male and female aerobics and mall
walking participants. Semi-structured interviews were conducted among male
mall walking participants (n = 5), female mall walking participants (n = 5), male
aerobics participants (n = 5) and female aerobics participants (0 = 5). Results
revealed that respondents identified positive experiences through task and social
orientations. Male and female aerobics participants and female mall walkers also
defined positive experiences via an ego orientation. Respondents identified negative
experiences through task oriented goals. Gender and activity type differences
were also detected as male aerobics and mall walking participants described negative
experiences via an ego orientation while male and female aerobics participants
identified negative experiences based on a sense of competence. Finally,
respondents perceived the climate of their respective activity through individualistic,
cooperative and social goal/reward structures. Male and female aerobics

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts! S97
and female mall walking participants also perceived the environment of their
physical activity to be competitive in nature. Study findings suggest the need to
further examine the influence of gender and activity type related to the achievement
motivation of older adult physical activity participants.
Predicting Intrinsic Motivation in Youth Sport from Perceived Competence
and Achievement Goals
Jean whitehead, University of Brighton, Eastbourne, East Sussex, BN20 7Sp'
UK; and Kirsten Piroth, Western Consortium for Public Health, San Francisco,
CA 94709.
Markland and Hardy (1997) tested the structure of the IMI (McAuley, Duncan &
Tammen, 1989) and noted ambiguity in the relation of the perceived competence
scales to others in the instrument. They found support for a causal influence model
but noted that longitudinal data is needed to determine whether intrinsic motivation
is better predicted by absolute measures or measures of change. This study
analyses longitudinal data to predict relative and absolute measures of intrinsic
motivation in year 2 from similar measures of perceived competence and achievement
goals. III track and field athletes aged 11 to 17 years completed measures
of dispositional and situational goal perspectives, and intrinsic motivation in successive
years (Andree & Whitehead, 1995; Whitehead & Andree, 1996). Multiple
regression analyses showed better prediction of Year 2 scores from absolute measures,
but of change scores from relative measures.
The Relationship of Intrinsic Motivation to Moral Development in Youth
Sport Participants
Joseph E. Davis and Richard H. Cox, University of Missouri-Columbia,
Columbia, MO 65201
The issue of moral growth through psychosocial development has been addressed
by Brendemeir and Shields (1987). However, the underlying factors contributing
to moral development in youth sport participants have yet to be identified. In an
attempt to establish whether moral development can be predicted by intrinsic
motivation, the following study has been conducted. Male and female participants
(N = 63), aged 14-18 years old, were administered the Survey of Values in Sport
(SYS) (Simmons & Dickinson, 1986) and a modified version of the Intrinsic­
Extrinsic Sport Motivation Scale (IESMS) (Weiss, Brendemeier & Shewchuk,
1985). The overall omnibus R.tcst yielded a non-significant value of F = 1.283,
P > .2841. However, correlational analyses showed a significant positive correlation
(r = .25391, P > .(446) between the dependent variable, moral development,
and one of the independent variables, curiosity-a subscalc from the
IESMS. Results of the multiple regression analysis fail to support the proposed
relationship between intrinsic motivation and moral development. Discussion of
results occurs in light of related empirical findings and implications for the proposed
model of moral development.

S98 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
The Role of Sport Confidence in Predicting Attributional Style: An
Optimistic Approach
Samuel J. Zizzi, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26505; John M,
Silva, III, UNC-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599; Matthew P. Martens,
University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65203
In recent years, the concept of attributional style has broadened the area of attributional
research to include a dispositional or trait approach. Individuals higher
in confidence (i.e., usually perceived competence) have traditionally exhibited
different styles of attributional processing by taking more responsibility for success
via internal attributions, The present study was designed to examine comprehensively
the relationship between sport confidence and attributional style by
including perceived competence and dispositional optimism in the model. It was
hypothesized that those individuals with higher total confidence scores would
score higher on internal and controllable attributional dimensions. The sample
consisted of 109 varsity and club athletes at a large Southeastern university. While
total confidence failed to replicate this finding, individuals higher in dispositional
optimism reported significantly more internal and controllable attributions following
both success and failure, Recommendations will be made for future research
and suggestions for the applied sport psychology setting will be offered.
Relationships between perceptions of competence, perceptions of autonomy
and perceptions of relatedness and different types of sport motivation
Lynne LeBlanc & Michelle Fortier, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario,
Canada, KIN 613
The aim of this study was twofold: 1) to examine the relationships between the
three proximal determinants of motivation (perception of competence, of autonomy
and of relatedness) and the different types of motivations postulated by Deci
& Ryan (1985) and Vallerand (1997) which are intrinsic motivation towards
knowledge, towards accomplishment and towards stimulation, identified regulation,
intrcjected regulation, external regulation and amotivation; and 2) to determine
which of these perceptions is the most salient in the sport context, that is,
the one which will have the greatest influence on sport motivation. A questionnaire
composed of several previously validated scales, including the Sports Motivation
Scale (Pelletier & al., 1995) was administered to 235 university intramural
volleyball players. Results from the correlational analyses indicated that
competence had the strongest relationship with the different types of motivation.
These findings are discussed and practical implications are mentioned.
The Effects of Motivational versus Instructional Self-talk on Improving
Performance Accuracy
Yannis Thecdorakis, Democritus University of Thrace. 69100, Komotini,
Greece; Robert Weinberg, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, 45056 USA; Petros
Natsis, Democritus University of Thrace. 69100, Komotini, Greece
This study examined the effectiveness of different self-talk strategies on increasing
performance in a soccer shooting task. The participants were 75 soccer players

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I S99
ages 12-16) who performed 6 blocks of trials in a task measuring the accuracy
of their kicking ability. The first experimental group was instructed to use a
motivational self-talk strategy, the second to use an instructional self-talk strategy
and the third group served as a control condition. Results indicated that only the
participants in the instructional self-talk condition improved their performance
significantly more than the other two groups. Results are discussed in terms of
the type of matching the specific type of self-talk to the specific requirements of
the task to maximize performance effects.
Physical Activity Involvement: Contrasting Theoretical Predictions
Alexis Bouffard and Robert Brustad, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley,
CO 80639
A variety of conceptual perspectives have been employed to examine physical
activity involvement and adherence. Prominent perspectives have focused upon
individuals' cognitive and self-perception characteristics, identity strength, selfpresentational
concerns, and affective responses to the physical activity experience.
The purpose of this study was to examine physical activity involvement in
an adult population while assessing the relative contribution of self-perception,
identity, self-presentational and affective influences. Participants, 113 adults (39
males, 74 females), between the ages of 18 and 50 years were recruited from a
local university and fitness clubs. The criterion variable was physical activity level
which was assessed through the Canada Fitness Survey (Stephens, Craig, & Ferris,
1986). Predictor variables, included exercise self-efficacy, exercise identity,
self-presentational concerns, and enjoyment. All measures demonstrated adequate
internal reliability. An initial MANOVA revealed significant gender differences
on all variables except enjoyment. Therefore, separate multiple regression analyses
were run for males and females. For the females, exercise identity and exercise
self-efficacy were the two significant individual predictors of physical activity
levels. For the males, no significant relationship was present between the
set of four predictor variables and the criterion variable. This research provides
support for the role of exercise identity and self-efficacy in explaining the physical
activity involvement of adult females. Further research should contrast the relative
contribution of varied predictors of physical activity in relation to theoretical
perspectives.
Validity of the Perceived Purposes of Sport Questionnaire- Version 2
Candice E. Zientek, Shippensburg University, Shippensburg, PA 17257; Sally
White, lllinois State University, BloomingtonINormal, Illinois 61701
This study examined the construct and predictive validity of the Perceived Purposes
of Sport Questionnaire-version 2, or PPSQ-2. Young athletes (N = 266, M
age = 14.9 ± 1.55 years) participating in basketball, volleyball, and football
summer camps completed questionnaires assessing goal orientations and perceived
purposes of sport. In model A, a first order factor model, the latent vari-

Sloo I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
abies were comprised of the five subscales of the PPSQ-2. Confirmatory factor
analysis results indicated that four of the five PPSQ-2 subscales showed a good
fit to the model. In Model B, a second order factor model, confirmatory factor
analyses specified two subscales: "End in Itself" and "Means to an End". Fit
indices for Model B revealed an inadequate fit of the model to the data. Finally,
canonical correlation analysis which tested the predictive validity of the PPSQ-2
showed the emergence of two functions: 1) task orientation and 2) ego orientation.
Results will be discussed relative to current research.
Norms for Aggression/Cheating, Goal Orientations, Beliefs, Perceived
Motivational Climate, and Athletic Aggression: Potential Gender Difference
Marta Guivemau and Joan L. Duda, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN
47907
The integration of motivational (c.g., Nicholls, 1989) and moral theories (e.g..
Haan, 1991; Kohlberg, 1984) have been shown to have utility in the understanding
and prediction of moral behavior in sport (Stephens & Bredemeier, 1996; Guivernau
& Duda, 1998). The purpose of this investigation was to examine whether
variations in goals, motivational climate, beliefs about success, norms for aggression/cheating,
and self-reported likelihood to aggress and their interdependencies
existed as a function of gender. Participants were 135 male and 59 female
(M Age = 15.1 years) from a national level soccer camp organized by a large
Midwestern university. Athletes were administered a multi-section questionnaire
assessing the variables of interest with three different scenarios tapping aggression.
In terms of the motivational variables, multivariate analyses of variance
revealed a significant gender difference in perceived motivational climate, goals
and beliefs. With regard to the moral variables, no gender differences appeared
in the athletes' perceptions of their team norms for cheating and aggression.
However, for one of the three scenarios tapping aggressive intentions, females
reported a higher perception of potential aggression than males. Furthermore, the
coach was seen as the most influential person on the athletes' decision to aggress
for both groups. Multivariate regression analyses also suggested gender differences
in relation to the predictors of aggression. Specifically, males belief that
effort leads to sport success was shown to be negatively associated with their
likelihood to aggress for the first aggressive scenario. For females, perceptions of
team norms for cheating! injuring, perceptions of a task-involving climate and
task orientation were significant predictors of their self-reported likelihood to
aggress.
Cognitive Correlates of Dispositional Goal Orientation in Young Athletes
Marcia A.Wilson, Shannon M. Guest, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52240,
Sally A. White, Maria Kavussanu, & Kevin McCarthy, Illinois State University,
Normal, lL 61790.
The purpose of the study was to determine which of the perceived parental beliefs,
mother or father, was the most significant predictor of the child's dispositional

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I S 101
goal orientation. Also, we examined whether children's perceptions of their parents'
beliefs in sport were conceptually related to their goal orientation. Finally,
this study identified which parent was most influential in the sport experience of
the child. A total of 204 female athletes completed the 13-item TEOSQ and a
modified version of the BACSSQ. One-way MANOVA indicated that the mother
was the most influential parent in the athletes' sport experience. Canonical correlation
analysis revealed that ego-oriented athletes perceived that their parents
attributed sport success to superior ability, external factors, and taking an illegal
advantage. In contrast, task-oriented athletes perceived that their parents endorsed
effort as a precursor to sport success. A stepwise multiple regression indicated
that the perceived parental belief that ability leads to success was a significant
predictor of ego-orientation. As expected, the perceived parental belief that effort
leads to success emerged as a significant predictor of task orientation. These
findings suggest that parents may play an important role in the socialization process
of their children.
Satisfaction as a Mediator of the Relationship between Goal Orientations
and Team Cohesion.
Stephen A. Kozub, De Montfort University, Bedford, United Kingdom MK40
2BZ and Dale G. Pease, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204.
This study investigated the relationship between athletes' goal orientations and
perceptions of team cohesion. Based on Widmeyer and Williams' (1991) conceptual
model of team cohesion, satisfaction was examined as a mediator of the
relationship between goal orientations and cohesion. Two hundred and three high
school varsity basketball players (113 males and 90 females) participated in the
study. Participants completed the TEOSQ (Duda & Nicholls, 1991), {he Group
Environment Questionnaire (Widmeyer, Brawley, & Carron, 1985) and a fouritem
satisfaction measure (Chelladurai, 1984). Multiple regression results revealed
a significant positive relationship between task orientation and cohesion and a
significant negative relationship between ego orientation and cohesion. Through
path analyses, satisfaction was found to mediate the relationship between task
orientation and cohesion, but not the association between ego orientation and
cohesion. The results partially supported Widmeyer and Williams' (1991) model
of team cohesion.
A Comparison of Goal Setting Strategies between Three Levels of Umpires!
Referees in Singapore
Abdul Nasir B. Abdul Razzak and Daniel E. Smith, Nanyang Technological
University, Singapore 259756
This investigation explored umpires/referees responses regarding the frequency
of goal setting strategy usage in Singapore. The 84 officials were classified as
Level I (Advanced), Level 2 (Intermediate) or Level 3 (Beginner). Each respondent
completed the questionnaire detailing their perceptions regarding the fre-

SI02 / Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
quency and usage of selected goal setting strategies. Analysis of Variance was
used to determine the differences in each of the questions between each of the
three levels. ANOVA revealed that there were significant differences between the
levels in all but two of the questions. A multiple comparison test compared differences
in each factor for the officiating levels. Post hoc analyses showed significant
differences between level I and level 3 officials in all factors. Likewise,
when comparing level 2 and level 3, significant differences were found in all
except two factors. However, when comparing level I and level 2 officials, significant
differences were recorded in slightly more than half of the factors.
Implementing Team Goals with Professional Athletes: Reflections on
Reality
Daryl B. Marchant. Victoria University of Technology, Melbourne, Victoria,
Australia.
Goal setting is a key performance enhancement strategy in the armory of applied
sport psychology practitioners. Ironically, researchers have frequently examined
goal setting outcomes (i.e., do they produce a significant increase in performance)
at the expense of process (i.e., how to do goal setting). The present paper summarizes
how team goal setting was successfully implemented with a professional
Australian Rules football team. The first purpose is to demonstrate how the program
was implemented and problems obviated. The second purpose is to communicate
that successful goal setting is as much about organisation, timing, creative
thinking, and overcoming logistical limitations as about well honed micropsychology
skills and knowledge of research findings in the academic literature.
This goal setting program was underpinned by what I call "triad synchronicity",
that is, the role that coaches, players and sport psychologist play in turning goals
into reality must be intermeshed. Implications as they relate to applied practitioners
and training for postgraduate students are discussed.
Tbe Effects of Goal Setting and Personality Type on Endurance
Perfonnance
Deane Webb, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203; Robert S.
Weinberg, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056; Allen W. Jackson, & Scott B.
Martin, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203
The present study was designed to determine the relationship between goal difficulty
and personality type preference with endurance performance. Subjects (34
males and 38 females) completed the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and
maintained an isometric contraction on a hand-held dynamometer at 30% of their
maximum force until exhaustion. Subjects were then randomly assigned to one
of the following conditions: (a) do your best, (b) improved by 40 s, (c) improve
by 80 s, and (d) improve by 160 s and completed the hand-held dynamometer
task again. No difference was found between the groups for gender and personality
type preference. Thus, a 4 (Group) x 2 (Trial) repeated-measures MANOVA

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I S103
was performed, Results indicated a significant goal-by-trials interaction (p < .05).
The "do your best" group exhibited a moderate decrease in performance (ES =
.52) while the groups setting a goal improved performance or maintained their
performance. Personality type, task relevancy, and the goal setting-perfonnance
relationship are discussed.
Team Goal Setting and its Influences on Team Cohesion: A
Phenomenological Study
Kathleen C. Butler and Greg A. Shelley, Ithaca College Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
The purpose of this study was to provide an in-depth analysis of the influences
of team goal setting on group cohesion within a Division III, intercollegiate,
women's lacrosse team. A phenomenological qualitative research design, using a
semi-structured interview format, was utilized to assess the head coach's (N =
1) and her athletes' (N = 6) experiences with a team goal setting program. Interviews
were content analyzed and data formulated into significant, higher-order
themes indicating the following results: (1) positive communication and interaction
between the athletes on and off the field, open discussions regarding the team
goals, participation in goal setting meetings, and recognition were directly related
to enhancing team cohesion and, (2) team goal setting resulted in greater cohesion
as athletes felt a part of the team, respected and motivated teammates, cared about
other's successes, and worked together towards achieving the agreed upon goals.
Interpretation of results and recommendations for future study are provided.
A Comparison of Optimism and Pessimism and the Effects of a Goal
Setting Intervention on Selected Golf Skills with College Golfers: A Singlesubject
Design
Matthew J. Wilson, Kevin L. Burke, A. Barry Joyner, Charles J. Hardy,
Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA 30460-8076
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a goal setting intervention
on selected golf skills over the course of a competitive collegiate golf season. A
secondary purpose of this study was to investigate optimism and pessimism as
measured by the OptimismlPessimism Scale (Dember, 1985) in relationship to
goal setting and attainment. Subjects were eight golfers from a southeastern university
men's golf team. A two-month goal setting intervention was implemented
consisting of the individual golfers selecting three skills from six different areas
(fairways in regulation, greens in regulation, total puns. sand saves, up and downs
from around the green, and putts per green in regulation) to set and implement
short and long term goals. A multiple-baseline, single-subject design was used
with baseline data gathered through statistical charting of the six categories during
practice and competition rounds. Goal setting data was collected from the practice
and competitive rounds during the golf team's spring season. Data will be presented
comparing the male golfers' results on the golf skills chosen by the subjects.

SI04 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
A Comparison of Optimism and Pessimism and the Effects of a Goal
Setting Intervention on Selected Golf Skills with CoUege Golfers: A Singlesubject
Design Enhancing Moral and Motor Development through Physical
Activity
Gloria Solomon, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, Texas 76129, USA
The purpose of this presentation is to share the application of a model for the
enrichment of children's sociomoral growth through physical activity and sport.
This model integrates children's cognitive and motor skill development in order
to create activities deemed optimal for stimulating sociomoral growth. Four
phases have been completed and presented. Phase I consisted of assessing childrcn's
capacity to comprehend sociocognitive concepts; Phase II explored children's
motor skill acquisition; Phase III mapped the relationship between sociomoral
and motor skills; Phase IV served to identify and create physical activities
that stimulate both sociomoral and motor growth. Phase V, in-progress, involves
model implementation. Children (Grades I and 2) at a Lab School for learning
disabled children were assessed on four factors fitness, motor skills, moral reasoning,
and perceived competence. The children are currently being taught using
this curriculum. The intervention and testing outcomes will be presented in
Sport Spectators and Confidence in their Team: The Importance of Time,
Game Features, and Team Identification
Matthew Wiggins and Daniel L. wann, Murray State University, Murray, KY
42071
Three factors that were believed to playa role in spectators' confidence were
examined: time until the competition began, the importance of the competition,
and the fans' level of team identification. To test the impact of the three variables,
31 college student subjects were asked to complete the Confidence Subscale of
the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI - 2) 3 days before, 12 hours
before, 3 hours before, immediately prior to, and at half-time of two basketball
contests. Items on the Confidence Subscale were re-worded to reflect team confidence.
Subjects also completed the Sport Spectator Identification Scale during
the first testing session. The first game (Game A) was selected because the home
school's opponent was a conference powerhouse (7-1 conference record). The
second contest (Game B) was selected because the opponent was experiencing a
losing season (3--8 conference record). The half-time score of Game A was 28­
28; the home team led 41-28 at half-time of Game B. Repeated measures analyses
of variance indicated that the subjects' team confidence changed significantly as
the competition approached, but only for the important contest. Specifically, subjects'
team confidence dropped at half-time of the tied game. Because highly
identified fans had reported an increase in team confidence as this game approached,
a trend not found among those low in identification, the pre-game to
half-time decrease in confidence was most prominent among highly identified
individuals.

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I S105
An Investigation or the Use of a Competitive Training Program on Raising
Female Youth Soccer Players' Levels of Competitiveness and Win
Orientation
Eliot Perkins and Bart Lerner, The Citadel, Charleston, SC 29409
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a competitiveness
training program on youth female soccer players in a practice environment. In
the initial part of the investigation male and female participants (N = 90) were
administered the Sport Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ; Gill & Deeter, 1988). In
the second part of the study fifteen female soccer players were administered the
SOQ and took part in a "recording the scores" process in which they completed
exercises in practice which forced them to compete against each other. The results
of the initial study showed that male athletes tested significantly higher on the
SOQ for both competitiveness and win orientation, whereas the female athletes
scored significantly higher on goal orientation. In the next section of the study,
the results found that using the "recording the scores" program the scores for
competitiveness, win orientation, and goal orientation significantly increased. Future
directions were discussed.
Participation in Regular Exercise and Its Social-Cultural Correlates in
White and Mexican-American Female University Students
Zenong Yin and Todd A. Ryska, University of Texas at San Antonio,
San Antonio, Texas 78249
Although contemporary research has attempted to identify the biological, social
and psychological factors which underlie exercise behavior, oUI current knowledge
base remains inadequate to promote culturally sensitive exercise programs
(Dishman, 1985, 1988; Powell, 1988; Rejeski, 1992). The present study examined
how various socio-cultural factors were related to participation in regular exercise
among 311 Mexican-American (n = 141) and white (n = 170) female university
students. Non-exercisers (n = 208) and regular exercisers (n = 103) were determined
by ACSM exercise guidelines. Logistic regression revealed that ethnicity,
age and social roles were not significantly related to exercise status. Among white
females, regular exercise status was significantly associated with being feminine
(OR = .77). Among Mexican-American females, regular exercise status was significantly
associated with being feminine (OR = .88), beliefs in the hot-cold
illness relationship (OR = .77), acceptance of folk health beliefs (OR = 1.47),
positive attitudes towards exercise (OR = 1.05), and less health risk behaviors
(OR = .1.35). All findings were adjusted for subject's age and social roles.
A Comparison of Optimism and Pessimism and Sport Orientation among
NCAA Division I College Athletes
Daniel R. Czech, Kevin L. Burke, A. Barry Joyner, Charles J. Hardy, Georgia
Southern University, Statesboro, GA 30460--8076
The purpose of this exploratory investigation was to examine the relationship
between optimism and pessimism and sport orientation (competitiveness, win ori-

5106 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
entation, and goal orientation) in intercollegiate athletes from a southeastern university.
A secondary purpose was to detennine whether optimism, pessimism,
and sport orientation differ between gender, race, age, athletic grade classification,
type of sport, and scholarship type. University athletes (N = 259) from 15 different
sports were administered the Life Orientation Test-Revised (Scheier, Carver,
& Bridges. 1994) and the Sport Orientation Questionnaire (Gill & Deeter,
1988). Due to recent discussions in the optimism and pessimism (DIP) literature,
DIP scores were calculated using two separate scoring techniques. One scoring
technique allows an individual to be classified on both characteristics, while the
other treats the trait as a bipolar dimension. Results will be presented comparing
the athletes' scores on alP and sport orientation on the variables of interest.
Games People Play: A Taxonomic Approach (Stage I)
Deana Liddy, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, Nebraska 68124
U.S.A.
This Stage I taxonomic study proposes a new way of analyzing people's attraction
to and persistence in participation in games and sports based upon the demand
characteristics of the structural rules. Based upon mathematical game theory, attributes
of games can be identified and a typology developed which provides a
basis for the empirical study of who plays what and why. Of particular interest
are those games which are difficult to learn and/or to play well, those where
persistence is part of what distinguishes novice from intermediate from expert.
The physical requirements of the game are also considered as Stage I structural
parameters.
Assessing The Organizational Climate in Rugby Union Football Clubs
Paul J. Carpenter, De Montfort University, Bedford, UK MK40 2BZ, Darren C.
Treasure, Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville, IL 62026; Keith T.O.
Power, The Performance Edge, Middlesex, UK HA6 2NP
Organizational climate is a perceptual phenomenon reflecting shared group beliefs.
These beliefs shape individuals' organizational experiences and often vary
at different hierarchical levels. The advent of professionalism in English rugby
has possibly changed the way players at different competitive levels view their
sport. The purpose of the current study was to assess possible differences in rugby
players' perceptions of the climate in professional and amateur clubs. Participants
(N = 179; Mage = 27.65 years; SD = 6.64) completed a modified version of
DeCotiis and Keys" (1980) 4O-item multidimensional organizational climate measure.
Six factors with eigenvalues > 1.0 emerged from a principal components
factor analysis with an oblique rotation. Factor one reflected fairness, innovation,
and support, Factor Two cohesion, Factor Three autonomy, and Factor Four role
clarity. Factors Five (recognition) and Six (pressure) were dropped due to poor
reliability. A MANOVA revealed a significant difference between professional
(N = 73) and amateur (N = 106) players' perceptions of the climate Wilks' =
-

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I S107
.91 fF(4,16l) = 4.00, P < .004]. Follow-up univariate analyses indicated that
professional players scored higher (p < .05) on role clarity but lower on autonomy.
The findings provide some support for the suggestion that perceptions of
the organizational climate vary as a function of competitive level.
Relation of Selected Socio-psychological Factors to Peer Leadership
Behavior of Female Volleyball Players,
Dale G. Pease, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204; Deborah J. Rhea,
Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011; and James 1. Zhang, University of
Houston, Houston, TX 77204
Leadership studies in sport have primarily focused on the leadership behaviors
and styles of coaches with very limited attention given to player leadership within
the sports team (Horn, 1992). It was the purpose of this study to investigate the
association of several selected socio-psychological variables (intrinsic motivation,
goal orientation, self-monitoring, locus of control, and affiliation) to player's task
and social leadership behaviors a" judged by their team peers. Subjects, ranging
in age from 14-18, were 142 female high school varsity volleyball players from
14 teams. Stepwise multiple regression analyses revealed that affiliation and perceived
competence from the Intrinsic Motivation Scale were significantly related
(p < .05) to the players' social leadership assessment of peers. For task leadership
behaviors affiliation was the only significant predictor. Discussion of these findings
will be in accordance with the expected theoretical predications, especially
focusing on the variable of affiliation.
A Multivariate Analysis of Leadership Style, Program Goals. and Job
Burnout among Intercollegiate Athletic Directors
Todd A. Ryska and Zenong Yin, University of Texas at San Antonio, San
Antonio, TX 78249 and Dean Cooley, Umiversity of Tasmania, Lanceston,
Australia
The interaction between perceived job demands and personal abilities contributes
more to occupational stress than personal or organizational factors alone (Argyle
& Little, 1972, Kelly & Gill, 1993). The present study sought to determine the
relationship among leadership style, program goal importance, and the degree of
bumout among male (n = 191) and female (n = 130) collegiate athletic directors.
Canonical analyses revealed that males reporting higher levels of emotional exhaustion
(.811), daily stress (.601), and a lack of personal accomplishment (-.539)
had a supportive (.672) and bureaucratic (.810) leadership style and perceived
financial (.844), entertainment (.713), and public relations (.629) program goals
as most important. For females, a bureaucratic (.839) and low collaborative (­
.581) leadership style as well as achieved excellence (.511), financial (.720), and
public relations (.491) program goals were related to greater depersonalization
(.423), emotional exhaustion (.781), and daily stress (.583). These results are

S108 ! Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
discussed in terms of person-environment fit theory (French & Caplan, 1972;
Harrison, 1978).
An Assessment of the Relationship between Participation in Intercollegiate
Athletics and the Dynamics of Romantic Relationships
Cheryl L. Goldman, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506; John
M, Silva, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599
The present exploratory study examined the relationship between participation in
intercollegiate athletics and the dynamics of romantic relationships. A sample of
college-aged individuals from the student-athlete population at two different Division
I southeastern universities completed a series of inventories addressing
their demographic background in addition to the quality of their romantic relationships.
Findings indicated that perceptions of support, conflict, and depth experienced
in romantic relationships were greater in-season than out-of-season for
both female and male student-athletes, Furthermore, a number of independent
variables were assessed for their ability to predict the criterion variables support,
conflict, and depth. Future research efforts need to explore in greater detail the
intricacies surrounding student-athletes' interpersonal relationships to gain a better
understanding of the whole student-athlete.
Women and the Meaning of Competition: A Qualitative Investigation
Susan Levy, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331
The purpose of the present study was to investigate the personal meaning of
competition to the female athlete, using a qualitative design. Interviews were
conducted with nine female mountain bike racers of varying levels of experience,
and were designed to elicit information relevant to the athlete's understanding of
her experience of competition as well as the personal meaning she attached to
that experience. The codification of participant responses resulted in the identification
of seven main themes including self-esteem/fulfillment, personal challenge,
social support, personal control, improvement, winning, and task enjoyment.
The findings of the study were, in general, supportive of the components
of meaning posited by Personal Investment Theory (MaehI & Braskamp, 1986),
particularly personal incentives and sense of self. Practical implications from this
study include developing strategies for increasing the meaningfulness of {he competitive
experience for females in order to promote participation in physical activity.
A Qualitative Investigation of Factors Underlying Sport Participation
among Elite Athletes with Disabilities
Stephen J. Page, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996; Kirk E.
Peterson, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996; Eddie O'Connor,
The Chicago Institute of Rehabilitation, Chicago, Il, 60616
Authors have hypothesized that athletes with disabilities should exhibit differential
levels of achievement motivation, but have allowed for no first-hand infor-

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I S109
marion from the athletes themselves concerning why they actually participate in
sport, how their own histories have influenced their decisions, or which pedagogical
techniques they actually prefer. In light of the stigma that is often attached
to being disabled, we began to wonder what the meaning of sport participation
is for individuals with disabilities and why these individuals choose to participate.
By adapting each of the subscales of the Sport Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ)
into interview questions, six elite athletes with disabilities were interviewed concerning
their reasons for participating in sport. Thematic analysis suggested that
participation provided a means of: affinning competence and being considered a
serious competitor, providing a common social outlet, and of promoting fitness
and delaying the effects of disability. Results indicate the acceptability of various
motivational pedagogies although additional qualitative research is warranted with
this population.
The End of an Era: An Investigation on Forced Transition of Boston
University Football Players
Donna Duffy, Ayla Nascimento, Elaine SChwager, and Leonard Zaichkowsky,
Boston University, Boston, MA 02215
1997 marked the end of 113 years of intercollegiate football for Boston University.
It was expected that when the administration eliminated the I-AA program,
transition problems would occur and would result in identity foreclsoure. Part one
of the study investigated athletic identity (Brewer, etl., 1993) using a modified
version of AIMS (Athletic Identity Measurement Scale). The data (n = 30) were
consistent with previous findings in that older athletes experienced less athletic
identity foreclosure. Part two of the study (n = 30) was qualitative in nature and
asked opened ended questions about transitions and support services to former
Boston University football players who were on the team roster during the final
season. Results suggested that younger players (in class standing), viewed themselves
foremost as athletes, whereas older players had already begun to make the
transition from sport into other areas of their lives (i.e. academic, family). Interviews
with the football players illustrated their beliefs thta they felt abandoned
by the administration at the University suggesting that the support services offered
to the athletes were inadequate.
Effects of Negative Scoring Pattern and Task Cohesion on the Perception
of Psychological Momentum
Kevin S. Spink, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5C2 and
Laurie Eisler, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H9
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a negative scoring pattern
and team cohesion on perceptions of psychological momentum (PM). Members
of existing volleyball teams were asked to report PM perceptions after reading
two scenarios describing a volleyball game between their current team and an
equal-ability hypothetical opponent wherein the game score was tied 13-13. One

SIlO! Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
scenario described a negative scoring pattern (opposing team scored five quick
points to tie the score 13-13) while the other described a neutral scoring pattern
(there was never more than a one-point lead). Participants also rated the cohesiveness
of their current volleyball team by completing the Group Environment
Questionnaire. Two extreme cohesion groups were created by selecting those
individuals whose scores were one standard deviation above (high cohesion) and
below (low cohesion) the mean in their rating of ATG-Task or Gl-Task. To examine
the effects of ATG-Task and score pattern on PM, a 2 x 2 Score pattern
(negative score/neutral score) x Cohesion (high ATG-Task/low ATG-Task) ANO­
VA, with repeated measures on the first factor, was used. A similar 2 x 2 repeated
measures ANOVA was conducted using 01-Task as the cohesion variable. Results
indicated a significant main effect for both score pattern (p < .05) and ATG-Task
(p < .05). Mean values revealed that the negative scoring pattern resulted in lower
PM while the high cohesion (i.e., ATG-Task) groups perceived greater PM. Results
for GI-Task were similar. These results are important as they extend previous
research examining positive scoring patterns to negative scoring patterns (Eisler
& Spink, in press) and provide preliminary evidence that even when the opposing
team gets a scoring run those on high versus low task cohesive teams perceive
more PM.
Justification of Aggression in Sport versus Social Scenarios
Jason Parker,_Tony Bourgeois, Arnold LeUnes, Texas A & M University,
College Station, TX 77843--4235, and Michael Meyers, University of Houston,
Houston, TX 77204-5331
Cohen and Nesbit (1997) reported regional differences in the justification of violence,
and stated that a "Culture of Honor" exists in southern and western
regions of the United States. Eighty-six undergraduate volunteers completed a
battery including the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire and the Sport-Social
Aggression Justification scale. This scale consists of 14 matched statements depicting
aggressive provocation in seven sport and seven social scenarios. Subjects
indicated the extent to which various levels of aggressive response were justified.
Interestingly, aggressive responses in most social situations were viewed as significantly
more justified than in most sport scenarios. Significant gender differences
in justification were also observed. Lastly, strong relationships were found
between the BUSS-Perry subscales and justification of aggression in the above
scenarios.
Violent and Delinquent Behavior of Rural High School Athletes and Nonathletes
Deborah J. Rhea, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 5OOl1; Christopher D.
Lantz, Truman State University, Kirksville, MO 63501
In recent years, the incidence of severity of violent and delinquent behavior
among adolescents has become a major concern (Issac, 1992; Koop & Lundberg,

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I SIll
1992). While much attention has been focused on factors associated with violent
and delinquent behavior among youth, an important demographic characteristic
which has yet to be considered is the environment in which the child develops.
Studies typically utilize urban populations where the importance of high school
sports may be occluded by the existence of professional or collegiate sports and
other civic opportunities. In rural areas however, high school sports teams often
serve as a focal point for the entire community thus elevating the status of the
athlete. The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which rural high
school varsity athletes engage in violent and delinquent behavior, and to determine
if these behaviors occurred at a different rate than in their non-athletic peers.
Students (n = 347), attending rural high schools in the Midwest, completed the
Conflict Behavior Scale (Rosenfeld & Richman, 1995), a modified version of the
Youth Behavioral Risk Surveillance System (YBRSS; Center for Disease Control,
1995), and demographics questions including gender, race, age, and athletic status.
Respondents were classified as contact sport, non-contact sport, or non-athlete
participants. Separate 2 x 3 (gender x athletic status) ANOVAs revealed males
were significantly more likely to exhibit delinquent and violent behaviors than
females (assauh, p < .001; trouble at school, p < .001; carrying a weapon, p <
.001; damaging property, p < .001; substance abuse, p < .001). Significant differences
were not evidenced for males or females when partitioned by athletic
status (i.e., contact spon athletes, non-contact sport athletes, non-athletes (p >
.05). However, a 2 x 3 (gender X athletic status) MANOVA revealed that female
contact sport athletes and non-athletes were significantly more aggressive than
female non-contact sport athletes, p < .01, but were still significantly less aggressive
than the rural male population (p < .01). These results do not support
previous research which has linked contact sports with violent and delinquent
behavior of other adolescent populations. However, the findings that girls may be
endorsing a more aggressive style of behavior in contact sports is worthy of
further empirical investigation. Implications for future research will be discussed.
The Recruiting Profile: An Investigation of the Relationship between
NCAA Division I Intercollegiate Athlete Demographics and Their Reasons
for University Selection
Christopher A. Myers, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611; Laura A.
Fox, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611; Jamy D. Champenoy,
University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611; Milledge Murphey, University of
Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611; Keith Carodine. University of Florida,
Gainesville, FL 32611
Data was obtained from a sample of incoming athletes at the University of Florida
during 1997 (N = 45) concerning the athletes' perceptions of their reasons for
choosing to enroll at the university. Demographic, sport, and recruitment specific
data included sport(s), position(s), evenns], age, gender, year of eligibility, redshirt
status, geographic distance from hometown, ethniciry, socio-economic status
(SES), scholarship status and percentage, and number of Division I scholarship
offers. The researchers analyzed the relationship and found significant correlations

S1l2 ! Colloquia. Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
between the number of scholarship offers, SES, and parental influence variables
within the 54 recruitment items surveyed. Recommendations for future investigation
at the University of Florida and other universities are suggested.
Ethnicity in Sport Psycbology Literature
Kellie P Walrath, University of Richmond, VA 23173, USA; Robert McGowan,
University of Richmond, VA 23173, USA
Several authors have noted the paucity of research in the Sport Psychology literature
that addresses the effects of ethnicity. Duda and Allison (1989) noted that
"over 96 percent of the empirical papers published in JSP did not report the racial
or ethnic composition of their subjcct population" (See also: Anshe1 1990; Biddle,
1993; Jackson, 1989). Each of these authors encouraged fellow researcher to
include ethniciry in the description of subjects and to initiate studies examining
the effects of ethnicity on perfonnance variables. This study was designed to reexamine
the proportion of empirical studies in the Sport Psychology literature
completed from 1990 to present that included ethnicity data. Eleven of the 315
studies (3.5%) included raceJethnicity in the description of the subjects and in thc
results section, 34 (10.8%) included race/ethniciry in the description of the subjects
only, and the remaining 270 (85.8%) did not mention racelethnicity. The
data indicates that there has been no change in the proportion of studies examining
the effects of ethnicity on perfonnance variables. Ramifications of continued neglect
are explored.
Cross-cultural Attitudes toward Participation in Sport by Women
Diane L. Finley, Ph.D., Towson University, 'towson MD 21114; Dr. Patricia
Wightman, Olympic Training Center, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Nelly Giscafre,
Metropolitan Association of Sport Psychology, Buenos Aires Argentina
Differential rates of sport participation by women and men are still reported in
surveys conducted recently. Studies of attitudes towards sport participation help
to explain these differences. Few such studies have been conducted cross-culturally.
The current research examines attitudes towards sport participation by women
by in the United States and Argentina. One hundred and eighty-seven participants
rated the appropriateness of participation by women in 15 sports. Gender
and cultural differences were found in the sports rated appropriate for participation
by women. Soccer participation showed the greatest cultural difference. Rugby
was rated as least appropriate although the strength of inappropriateness varied
by gender and culture. Implications of the findings for international sport are
discussed.

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I SIB
A Cross-cultural Analysis of Motivation for Youth Participation in Sport
and Physical Activity
Alex McKenzie, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand; Robert
Weinberg, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056, USA; Gershon Tenenbaum,
University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, Queensland 4350, Australia;
Susan Jackson, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072,
Australia; Mark Anshel, University of Wollongong, New South Wales 2522,
Australia; Robert Grove, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western
Australia 6009, Australia; Jerry Fogarty, University of Southern Queensland,
Queensland 4350, Australia.
The present investigation compared participation motives of youth in competitive
sport versus physical activity from a cross-cultural perspective. Participants were
1,472 males and females (13-18 years) from Australia, New Zealand and the
USA. All participants completed three self-report inventories that assessed the
amount and frequency of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, as well as participation
motives for sport and physical activity. A principal component factor
analysis of the participation motives revealed different factor structures for sport
and physical activity, although little cultural variation was evident. Separate 3 X
2 X 3 (Physical Activity Frequency X Gender X Culture) MANOVAs were conducted
on the physical activity and competitive sport questionnaires. Significant
main effects were found for all three each independent variables for each questionnaire.
Results indicated a need to identify areas of similarity and differences
across cultures regarding participation motivation so interventions can be developed
to maximize participation in sport and physical activity.
Mike Tyson in Cultural Perspective: A Longitudinal Field Study
J. Robert Grove, Michelle Paccagnella and Robert Weinberg*, University of
Western Australia, Nedlands, WA, 6907, Australia, *Miami University, USA
This longitudinal study investigated perceptions of prominent boxer Mike Tyson
in Australia and the USA while he was imprisoned on rape charges, after his
release and return to the ring, and after he regained his world heavyweight title.
Sport consumers (N = 536) assessed Tyson's perceived personality characteristics,
social desirability and degree of guilt. MANOVA results indicated significant
differences for country and gender. Americans viewed Tyson as less arrogant,
more caring, rule-oriented, likeable, integritous and socially desirable than Australians.
Post-hoc tests found no differences between Australian and American
females in their ratings of Tyson. However, American males saw Tyson as more
friendly, trustworthy, honest, more socially desirable, less guilty and less punishable
than Australian males. This study provides some insight into cross-national
perceptions of a high-profile sport performer who has received considerable media
attention. The results will be discussed in relation to mediating factors on cultural
perceptions of sport stars.

S1l4 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
Talent Development of Elite Athletes in Asian Countries
Katsuro Kitamura, Tohoku University, Sendai, 980-8576, Japan and John H.
Salmela, University of Ottawa, KIN6N5, Canada
The development of exceptional performance is believed result from prolonged
deliberate practice (Ericsson, 1996; Salmela, 1996). The study focused on the
developmental patterns of 12 talented table tennis players (three Japanese, three
Korean and six Chinese players). In-depth interviews were conducted with each
player. Interviews focused on the athletes' process of deliberate practice from
early childhood to late adolescence. Results indicated three factors which were
crucial for the acquisition of exceptional performance.L) motivational power, 2)
support of human and physical resources, and 3) strong commitment to daily
effortful practice. For example, strong societal forces for the initiation into sport
was important for fueling the motivational resources during early childhood, both
in China and Korea Social and moral influences were a source of an effortful
continuous training in Japan, China and Korea. Social status was also increased
through their status of expert athletes in these Asian countries.
An Exploration of Identity, Normative ExpedatioDS, and the Eating, Pain,
and lDjury Risk Behaviors of Competitive Gymnasts
Michelle L. Ritter-Taylor, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO 80639
An interactionist framework was used in this study to examine variables related
to gymnastics commitment, normative expectations within the gymnastic subculture
concerning weight and physique concerns and acceptance of pain and injury
risk, and eating and pain and injury risk behaviors. To gain indepth information
about these variables and their relationships 18 competitive female gymnasts were
interviewed concerning cognitions about their sport involvement. Through inductive
processes from the transcribed interviews, and in relation to pre-existing
theoretical frameworks, four higher-order dimensions emerged from the interview
data: (a) gymnast identity, (b) subculture, (c) physique/eating, (d) participation.
Each dimension also included several higher and lower order themes which allowed
for an indepth exploration of the various facets of the dimension. The
patterns of relationships identified in the interviews also indicated that identity
strength and normative expectations influence gymnasts' tendencies to participate
in pain and risk injury. Discussion will focus on the meaning and dimensions of
each theme which emerged from the data.
The Effects of the Gymnast's Body Shape on the Judging of Gymnastics
Sheri M. Valiquette & Margaret Downey, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
H2W IS4
The goal of this study was to discover whether the judges' perceptions of the
gymnasts' body shape related to the gymnasts' performance scores. A second
goal was to discover whether performance scores differed when given by judges

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I S115
with two levels of experience (experienced and novice). Eighteen judges, nine
novice and nine experienced, evaluated the routines on videotape. They also rated
their perception of the aesthetic appeal of the 16 gymnasts' body shape. Each
gymnasts' body mass index (8MI) was calculated to quantify body shape. The
results showed a significant main effect of 8MI on judges' perception of gymnasts'
body shape scores. The results also showed a significant main effect of
BMI on performance scores. The effect of judge experience was very close to
significant in relation to performance scores. Although all judges preferred smaller
body shape, this preference did not affect the performance scores awarded by the
judges.
Relationship of Locus of Control and Self-Monitoring to Body Image in
Athletic Populations
Richard Stratton, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061--0313, and Vicki
Wyke, Hampton, Virginia
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships of locus of control
and self-monitoring to perceptions of body image and predisposition to eating
disorders among male and female college athletes. A secondary purpose was to
examine the relationship between body image and change in body weight. Fortythree
college athletes (male basketball players, n = 13; female basketball players,
n = 11; male swimmers, n = 9; female swimmers, n = 10) participated in the
study. Two administrations (early season, late season) of four self-report questionnaires
was completed. Instruments used were the Rotter Locus of Control
Scale, the Self-Monitoring Scale, the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations
Questionnaire, and the Eating Disorder Inventory-2. Body weight was also recorded
during both sessions. Males tended to have lower drive for thinness linked
with lower fat anxiety as compared to females. Females associated body dissatisfaction
with perception of weight. In females, self-monitoring was correlated
with feelings of physical attractiveness. The findings support previous literature
proposing that women attach negative feelings to the body in relation to a cultural
thin ideal.
Exercise Partner Preferences, Social Physique Anxiety, and Social
Discomfort in Exercise Settings Among University Wellness Center Patrons
Nancy S. Diehl, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29401;
Britton W. Brewer and Judy L. Van Raalte, Springfield College, Springfield,
MA 01109; Darlene Shaw and Patricia L. Fiero, Medical University of South
Carolina, Charleston, SC 29401; Marit Sorensen, The Norwegian University for
Sport and Physical Education, 0806, Oslo, Norway.
Although social support is considered an important contributor to involvement in
regular exercise (King, 1991), the desire for the social support of exercise partners
may be moderated by psychological constructs. The purpose of the current study
was to evaluate the relationships among social physique anxiety (SPA; Hart,

5116 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
Leary, & Rejeski, 1989), exercise partner preferences, and social discomfort in
exercise settings. Participants were 206 patrons of a wellness center who were
asked to complete brief questionnaires which included the Social Physique Anxiety
Scale (SPAS; Hart er aI., 1989), and the Perception of Social Discomfort
Scale (PSDS; Sorensen, in press). A 2 (gender) X 3 (preferred number of exercise
partners: 0, 1, > 1) MANOVA performed-on SPAS and PSDS scores indicated
that women scored significanl1y higher than men on the SPAS, although there
were no gender differences on the PSDS. Post-hoc analysis of a significant twoway
interaction for SPAS scores indicated that although exercise partner preference
was unrelated to SPAS scores for men, women who preferred to exercise
with one partner had significantly higher SPAS scores than women who preferred
to exercise alone and women who preferred to exercise in a group (> 1 partner).
These results suggest that women high in SPA prefer partners for exercise and
suggest that exercise patterns may be moderated by the availability of a consistent
exercise partner.
High Rollers: College Atbletes and their Addictions
Victoria L. Bacon, Katrina Lee, and John A. Calicchia, Bridgewater State
College, Bridgewater, MA 02325
Studies report that college athletes are at higher risk for substance abuse, eating
disorders, gambling, and other addictive behaviors. Specifically, gambling in athletics
is a major concern in higher education (Curry & Jiobu, 1995; Lapchick &
Malekoff, 1987; Leseur, 1991). Ninety-nine male and eighty-six female Division
III athletes between 18 and 22 years of age completed a survey instrument designed
to measure five addictive behaviors patterns: alcohol, drugs, eating disorders,
gambling, and exercise addiction. Study resuns show a concerning number
of these athletes report problematic gambling behavior concurrently with other
addictive behaviors. A preliminary factor analysis showed gambling, substance
abuse, and alcohol abuse were highly correlated in the one cluster and eating and
exercise addictions clustered in a separate factor. 'It-tests showed that females
reported a significantly higher (p = .(01) prevalence of eating related addictive
behaviors and males reported a significantly higher (p = .02) prevalence of substance
abuse addictions. Although males reported a higher level of gambling
behaviors this result only approached significance (p = .07) suggesting that gambling
behavior with females college athletes is on the rise. The resuhs are discussed
in light of co-morbid addictive behavior patterns.
Examining the Effects of the Sports Media on Young Female Athletes and
their Self-perceptions.
Julia M. Leonhardt, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA 18015 and Heather
Barber. University of New Hampshire. Durham, NH 03824
Content analyses of sports media have documented the trivialization of female
athletes. Duncan and Brummett (1993) identified two common assumptions of
•

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts / Sl17
researchers conducting these studies. The first assumption is that the sexist content
of the sports media must disempower female athletes. The second assumption is
that the text of the media is univocal, that there are no other possible interpretations
of the intended message. This qualitative study sought to examine the
validity of these assumptions by looking at how the sports media affects young
female athletes' self-perceptions. The participants (N = 14) were players on an
under-IS Olympic Development Program girls' soccer team. Analysis of in-depth
interviews indicated that these athletes did not feel the sports media negatively
impacted their perceptions of their ability, the importance of their participation,
the importance of their sport, or their perceptions of females in sport. Instead,
they demonstrated an ability to use their "perceived expertise" to intensively
critique, or filter, the sports media's presentations of women in sport and particularly
soccer. These girls also recognized that most individuals do not have the
same level of expertise to filter through misinformation. These findings did not
support the assumptions identified by Duncan and Brummett (1993), however,
they do support the previous theoretical predictions proposed by Harter (1978)
and Bandura (1986). This study would suggest that a positive participation experience
is far more influential on self-perceptions than media portrayals.
The Influence of Revenue Status on Student-Atbletes' Self-perceptions
Scott D. Sandstedt, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59801; Lewis A.
Curry, University of Montana; and Sameep D. Maniar; University of Montana.
The purpose of this study was to bring awareness to how the relationship between
student-athletes and their athletic department administrators, through the vehicle
of support, can negatively influence student-athletes' domains of Hope, Self-efficacy,
and Sport-Confidence. Sixty-nine (69) Division 1 athletes completed a
questionnaire that contained the Hope Scale (Snyder, 1991), Rosenberg's Selfesteem
Scale (Rosenberg, 1965), and the Trait Sport-Confidence Inventory (Vealey,
1986). Results of an omnibus one-way ANOVA indicated a significant difference
by revenue status for the domain of Sport-Confidence only, F (2, 66) =
8.78, P < .0001. A "TUckey's post hoc test revealed significant differences in sportconfidence
between male revenue athletes and both male non-revenue (p < .021)
and women non-revenue athletes (p < .00(1). These results provide support for
the speculation that revenue athletes may experience higher degrees of confidence
in their ability to be successful in their respective sports than non-revenue athletes.
Recommendations to increase equality in support for administrators are suggested.
Perception of Tennis Players: The Effects of Self-Presentational Self-talk
Judy L. Van Raalte, Britton W. Brewer, and Albert J. Petitpas, Springfield
College, Springfield, MA 01109
Sport psychologists have suggested that athletes who appear positive and confident
to their opponents may gain a competitive edge (Loehr, 1991; Weinberg,
1988). But are athletes who use positive self-talk actually perceived as better

Sll8 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
competitors than those who use other strategies? To explore how athletes using
self-talk are perceived, 94 undergraduate students were shown segments of tennis
matches in which athletes used positive self-talk, negative self-talk, or no selftalk.
Positive and negative self-talk videotapes were created for each match by
dubbing in either positive or negative statements. For example, 38 sec into one
tape a player missed a short ball. On the positive self-talk tape, "hey, that's all
right, good hustle!" was dubbed. On the negative self-talk videotape, "ugh! you
are so slow, you should have gotten that" was dubbed. Control videotapes were
shown with no sound. Participants viewed the videotapes and rated the tennis
players' ability level, competitiveness, concentration, aggressiveness, consistency,
effort, enjoyment, and likelihood of winning the match. Using a composite of
these ratings (alpha = 0.89) as the dependent measure, a oneway ANOYA was
conducted. Results indicated that ratings of the athletes depended on the self-talk
used, P(2,93) = 6.77, P < .002. Post hoc analyses revealed that players who used
positive self-talk were perceived significantly more favorably than players who
used negative self-talk or no self-talk. Similar results were found when the question
"How well did the athlete play in the points that you saw?" served as the
dependent measure, F(2,93) = 4.99, P < .01. The results of this study demonstrates
thai athletes who use positive self-talk may be seen as better players than
those who use other strategies.
COLLOQUIUM: It Takes a Village: A Model for Developing
Sportsmanship within Youth Sport Contexts
Charmaine DeFrancesco & Laura Blitzer, Florida International University,
Miami, FL 33199
The development of good sportsmanship and citizenship in children and youth
must be fostered through the directed and collaborative efforts of classroom and
physical education teachers, youth sport program administrators, coaches, parents
and sport psychology consultants. This paper focuses on a model that emphasizes
such efforts. The model was conceptualized using constructs from social-learning
and developmental theories and highlights the sports psychology consultant as
the catalyst to effect positive behavioral changes among youth sport stakeholders.
Strategies of the model include processes that may be applied across a variety of
settings and include but are nOI limited to: defining sportsmanship and citizenship;
developing behavioral objectives and interventions; forming related goal-orientations
for sport, classroom learning and interacting within the community; examining
personal and situational variables related to learning and human development
(e.g., knowledge, skills and dispositions of primary adult influences, cultural
backgrounds of participants, program/curricular philosophies etc.); and
evaluating the efforts of individuals responsible for cultivating change within
school and sport environments.

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I S119
Athletic Identity in Marathon Runners
Robert S. Horton, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC
27599; Diane E. Mack, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel
Hill, NC 27599
Athletic identity (AI) in marathon runners and its relationship to commitment to
running, social network, life priorities, and effects of running were investigated.
Two hundred and twenty-five runners who recently finished a marathon completed
a questionnaire that included the Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (AIMS), a
scale for measuring commitment to sport, a life-roles inventory, and questions
regarding social network, injury experience, running motivation, and running experience.
AI was negatively correlated with a runner's personal best time for the
marathon and was predictive of commitment to running, enjoyment of running,
involvement in running, investment in running, and perceived social constraints
to running. AI was also positively correlated with proportion of good friends
identified as runners and with the relative priority given to the athlete role relative
to other important life roles. Benefits and detriments of the athletic identity for
both the athlete and those close to the athlete are discussed.
Getting the Axe: Adjustment Process of Delisted Australian Rules
Footballers
Yanda Fortunato, Victoria University, Melbourne 8001, Australia
The research design used in this study was a grounded theory qualitative approach.
This approach was selected because of the limited knowledge concerning
the topic and the need to collect rich textual data to identify issues for further
research. In-depth interviews allowed a rich source of information to be gathered
about the lives, the football careers, and the retirement processes of the informants.
All interviews were tape-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Data analysis
then centred around identifying key issues and themes from the transcripts. Consistent
with sampling requirements for qualitative research (Minichiello, Aroni,
Timewell, & Alexander, 1995), 15 informants who had been recently delisted
(less than 18 months) were interviewed. At the time of their interviews, all players
were employed either in a non-playing job in football or completely out of the
sport. Nine themes emerged from the data: (a) reason for retirement, (b) football
identity, (c) satisfaction with football, (d) length of retirement, (e) continual involvement
in football, (f) social support, (g) career outside football, (h) preparation
for retirement, and (i) age at retirement. This study has highlighted the difficulties
that elite footballers face once they are delisted. The issues that were
raised by this study have resulted in the Australian Football League addressing
the problems of players who have been delisted.
The Effect of Nonnative Expectations and Role Commitment of
Competitive Gymnasts on Gymnastic Behavior
Michelle L. Ritter-Taylor, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley CO 80639
An interacrionist approach was used to test a social psychological model in which
normative expectations regarding the weight and eating practices of gymnasts play

S120 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
a mediational role between gymnastic commitment and eating behavior. The participants
were 100 female competitive adolescent gymnasts ranging in age from
9 to 18 years and participating at competitive leve1s4 through 10. Through the
use of structural equation modeling, the directional relationships between commitment,
normative expectations, and eating behaviors were confirmed (CF1 =
.98). This fit indicated that highly committed gymnasts will be more likely to
assimilate subcultural norms, and thus behave in a manner appropriate for those
norms. A cluster analysis revealed four distinct subgroup profiles of gymnasts
based upon the variables within the study. This finding indicated that information
generated from an entire sample may not be consistent for all subjects in the
sample, nor can those findings be generalized to other samples. The interrelationships
existing among the variables in the study suggested that understanding sport
behavior cannot occur without the simultaneous consideration of both social and
psychological factors.
I Think therefore I Act (Maybe)
Trish Gorely & David Bruce, University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072,
Australia
This longitudinal investigation employed the Transtheoretical Model to examine
whether self-efficacy and decisional balance at baseline predicted the adoption of
regular exercise within the following 6 months. Participants were 118 adults who
were initially in contemplation and who returned two mailed out questionnaires
6 months apart. Two groups were formed based on the 6 month data: a "nochange"
group (n = 41) and an "adopted exercise" group (n = 64). The MAN­
OVA main effect for group was significant, Wilks 1 = .909, F(3,101) = 3.34, P
< .OS. Follow-up univariate analyses showed that the "adopted exercise" group
had, at baseline, significantly lower cons scores (F = 9.14, P < .OS) and a strong
tendency towards higher self-efficacy (F = 3.91, P < .06). No other differences
were found. Assisting adults in contemplation reduce the perceived importance
of negative aspects of exercise and work directed at increasing their self-efficacy
for exercise are likely to be important steps in the facilitation of active lifestyles.
WORKSHOP: Enjoyment-Profiling: Bringing Theory onto the Playing
Field
Bruce A. Pinel and Alex D. McKenzie, University of Otago, Dunedin, New
Zealand
The primary objective of this workshop is to introduce the Enjoyment-profiling
(Pinel, 1996) intervention, which is a modification of BUller's (1989) performance-profiling
self-awareness intervention. The focus of the intervention is on
enhancing enjoyment and intrinsic motivation, rather than performance. The process
of Enjoyment-profiling allows participants to explore and communicate personal
sources of enjoyment through self- and group-awareness activities, while
generating personal enjoyment-profiles. As a communication tool, it allows sport

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I SI21
psychology consultants, coaches and athletes to discuss and plan for important
sources of enjoyment that may otherwise be overlooked. Therefore, the specific
objectives of the Enjoyment-profiling workshop are to (i) highlight its theoretical-applied
relationship; (ii) highlight its transferability to other sport/physical
activity contexts; and (ill) provide evidence supporting its effectiveness. These
objectives will be accomplished through an interactive discussion that allows participants
to experience the intervention first hand while learning the key steps to
its delivery.
COLLOQUllJM: Development of the Feelings Profile: A Short Technique
for Measuring Affect and Mood Swings
Charles W. Jackson, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA 23529--0196, USA
The Feelings Profile (FP) evolved from nineteen original adjectives of the Profile
of Moods States (POMS). The FP like the POMS measures six mood dimensions
and a global measure of mood disturbance. The POMS (65-adjectives) meets
necessary psychometric criteria. Short techniques seem necessary with time constraints,
i.e., during exercise testing, rehabilitation or when counseling clinical or
elderly patients. Several investigators have explored POMS downsizing efforts.
This presentation will describe the development and analyses of the FP (19-adjectives)
based upon data of 900 subjects. The FP has been verified and validated
by content, concurrent, and construct validity, and by intraclass reliability methods.
Also test-retest reliability estimates within a few minutes without intervention
have been quite bigb. Four equal test forms are available for repeated measurements.
A Japanese version with approximate scoring is also available. Several
field studies using the instrument will also be cited as to its practicality.
The Heart Rate-Perceived Exertion Relationship Changes during Five
Consecutive Days of High-Intensity Interval Training
Robert W. Motl, Stephen C. Jobnson, Evelyn G. Hall, James A. Walker,
Andrew W. Subudhi, and Carter Davis, University of Utah, Salt Lake City,
84112.
To identify a practical marker of training status, we examined the relationship
between Hcart Rate (HR) and Rate of Perceived Exertion (RPE) in response to a
recovery exercise test (RET) during five consecutive days of high-intensity interval
training (INT). Male competitive cyclists (N = 8) performed eight morning
RET sessions (5 min. @ 250 watts) and seven evening INT sessions (10' 2 min.
@ 9()

SI22 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
RPE ratio differed across the eight RET sessions. The HR:RPE ratio declined
steadily across the week of training. The HR:RPE ratio returned to baseline levels
in the recovery week. These findings demonstrate that measuring HR and RPE
responses to a constant workload may help in monitoring the training status of
competitive cyclists during periods of intensified training.
Mood Alterations with a Single Bout of Physical Activity and the Effects of
Personality Style
Patsy Tremayne, University of Western Sydney, Macarthur, Sydney, NSW,
Australia; and Sharon Burden, University of Western Sydney, Macarthur,
Sydney, NSW, Australia.
Research into the relationship between exercise and mood states suggests that
exercise type and personality style play a role in determining the parameters
required to elicit a positive mood state in response to exercise. Ninety university
students completed a 12 minute run test, and 81 students participated in a circuitJ
aerobic class. Each group completed the Profile of Mood States before and after
exercise, and a post-exercise Rating of Perceived Exertion Scale (RPE) was completed.
Prior to data analysis participants were divided into different personality
styles based on levels of defensiveness and trait anxiety. Results indicated that
there were significant differences in positive mood enhancement between the exercise
groups, RPE, pre-exercise mood state, gender, and personality style. Preexercise
mood state, exercise type, moderate intensity of exercise, and high trait
anxiety are the most significant contributors to positive mood change after a single
bout of exercise.
Ideal Performance State IPS Induced by a Conditioned Olfactory Cue
Vicki A. de Prazer, Australian Institute of Sport, PO Box 176 Belconnen
Australian Capital Territory, 2616 Australia
This research explored the proposition that odour can be used to elicit an Ideal
Performance State in Sport Performance (IPS). IPS referring to an optimum physical
and mental state, often said to have been attained when outstanding performances
are executed. Considerable evidence suggests the olfactory system plays
a significant role in memory and cognition (Richardson 1989, Engen 1973). In
the quest for IPS, athletes have successfully utilized a variety of sensory cues
other than olfactory, e.g. kinesthetic, auditory and visual. In this research a technique
extending the concept of classical conditioning to the relationship between
odour and IPS was examined with Olympic Athletes. Subjects were placed in one
of three treatment conditions, I) relaxation, II) relaxation and video modeling and
III) relaxation, video modeling and olfactory conditioning. Pre and POSt measures
of performance were assessed on three tasks, a fine motor skill task, a golf putting
task and a concentration task. Evidence of the conditioning of IPS via odour
cueing was apparent in the pilot, and athletes from archery and shooting who
continued to utilize this technique reported gains in their performance. While

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I S123
analysis of the research results showed significant improvement in all conditions,
inspection of the data showed a trend suggesting subjects in the odour condition
had made greater gains. Further development and practical application of this
technique is discussed.
Winning and Losing: Does it Affect Mood After a Competitive Event?
Bonnie G. Berger, Kathleen Brook, & Patrick S, Leuschen, University of
Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82070; David Owen, Brooklyn College, CUNY,
Brooklyn, NY 11210
This study investigated the relationship between competition (winning and losing)
and acute mood changes. We also examined the influence of gender and league
(League A was a higher skill level than B) on this relationship. Basketball players
(N = 286) completed a demographic questionnaire, a Lie scale, and a shortened
version of the POMS before competition as well as a second POMS after competition.
A repeated measures 2 (Time: pre, post) X 2 (Outcome: win, lose) X 2
(Gender) X 2 (League: A, B) MANOVA on the vector of the 6 POMS subscales
indicated the Time X Outcome X Gender interaction was significant (F6,273 =
3.65, p < .002). Next, we conducted simple effect analyses on women and men
separately. The simple Time X Outcome for women was significant- (F6,81 =
3.94, P < .002). Women who won or lost indicated a significant effect for Time
(F6,42 = 5.62, P < .0003; F6,34 = 11.94, P < .0001 respectively). For winners,
no single subscale showed significant changes; losers indicated negative changes
on Anger, and Fatigue. Similarly for men, the simple Outcome X Time interaction
was significant (F6,19l "" 14.77, P < .00(1). Male winners or losers also indicated
a significant Time effect (F6,96 = 9.09, P < .0001; F6,90 = 23.03, P <
.0001 respectively). wtneers reported negative changes on Fatigue; losers indicated
negative changes on Anger, Depression, Fatigue, Vigor, and Confusion. In
conclusion, male and female basketball participants generally reported mood decrements
after losing and small changes after winning. In conclusion, exercisers
in search of mood benefits probably should avoid competitive physical activity.
WORKSHOP: Creativity, Part IV: Improvisational Acting for Sport Psych
Consultants
Patricia Latham Bach, Peak Performance Associates, Loomis, CA. 95650; Lois
A. Butcher, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pa. 19122
As a continuing effort to enhance creativity, spontaneity and efficacy in sport
psych consulting, we introduce improvisational acting as a medium through which
individuals may identify and develop unique skills. Known as "theater sports",
improvisational acting assists individuals in several ways: it facilitates trust in
self and others, reinforces a positive attitude, rewards risk taking, and demonstrates
the power of true, centered engagement. it energizes participants in a
manner that leads to an openness in acquiring new skills and knowledge sets. An
ability to be present focused is fundamental to creating a successful consulting

S124 / Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
relationship. It is also critical to athletes in their quest for success. Loehr (1995)
deals with this issue in his discussion of the "Competitor As Actor", providing
valuable insight into the mindset of winning athletes. Our goal is to maximize
that quality of presence, while finding the "fun" in a fundamental. The purposes
of this interactive workshop are to: 1.) provide a brief, general overview of improvisational
acting and its merits for sport psychologists, 2.) introduce a variety
of improvisational exercises which will enhance consulting skills, 3.) demonstrate
the efficacy of improv exercises in facilitating team esprit de corp, 4.) demonstrate
the power of creative risk taking, and 5.) provide a take home menu of resources
for your "Creativity Library"
WORKSHOP: Successful Job Search Strategies-Part n
Kristen Wells Davidson, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22903; Bart
Lerner, Citadel, Charleston, SC; Shane Murphy, Gold Medal Psychological
Consultants, Monroe, CT; David Streigel, LGE Sport Science Inc., Orlando, FL
In an effort to better prepare advanced graduate students, this workshop is designed
to aid students in preparation for the interview process, with a special
emphasis on preparation for careers other than those in academia. Topics to be
addressed include: (1) initial networking (e.g., finding a job, where to look); (2)
writing a cover letter; (3) preparing a resume (e.g., strategies for resume construetion);
(4) networking (e.g., who to contact); (5) preparation for the interview (e.g.,
gaining background information on the origin of the position, discovering sources
that may aid in acquiring information about the organization, typical interview
procedures); (6) "job talk" (e.g., how to "sell" yourself); and, (7) follow-up
procedures (e.g., negotiating strategies). The format of the workshop will be as
follows: the presider will ask each panel member specific questions related to the
topics above. Immediately following each set of panel answers, workshop participants
will question panel members. After all topics have been covered, the last
IS minutes of the workshop will be allotted for open discussion between participants
and panel members. In addition, sample resumes and cover letters will be
available.
Goal Setting Practices of Olympic Athletes: An Exploratory Investigation
Robert Weinberg, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, 45056; Damon Burton,
University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho, 83844, David Yukelson, Pennsylvania
State University, State College, Pennsylvania, 16802; Daniel Weigand, De
Montfort University, Bedford, England MK40 2BZ
The purpose of the present investigation was to explore Olympic athletes' perceptions
concerning the frequency and effectiveness of goal setting strategies as
well as perceived barriers and commitment to achieving these goals. Participants
were 185 male and 143 female Olympic athletes from a variety of individual and
team sports. All athletes completed an extensive questionnaire detailing their perceptions,
use, and effectiveness of different goal setting strategies with a return

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I 5125
rate of 77%. Descriptive results revealed that all the Olympic athletes practiced
some type of goal setting to enhance performance and they found their goals to
be highly effective. Athletes also reported that improving overall performance,
winning, and having fun were the three most important goals. The major barriers
to goal attainment included lack of time to train properly, lack of confidence to
reach their goals, and lack of feedback. One-way MANOVAs comparing subgroups
For example, males set goals to improve perfonnance significantly more
than females, higher ability athletes set daily goals more often and found them
to be more effective than lower ability athletes, and individual sport athletes used
goals to maintain motivation and self-confidence significantly more often than
team sport athletes Results are discussed in terms of practical implications for
goal setting practices with different subgroups of athletes emphasizing the need
to consider individual differences. Future directions for research are also offered
including focusing on developmental differences and coach versus athlete perceptions.
The Impact of Social Competence in Sport Development: A Multi-cultural
Perspective in Sweden
Rolf R. Carlson, University College of Physical Education and Sport,
Stockholm, Sweden
The population of Sweden consists of about 10% immigrants. In the last decade
the amount of immigrants persecuted by ethnic, social and cultural reasons have
increased. A group of 32 immigrant children, aged 10-14 were matched in pairs
in variables age, sex and residence area with a group of children born and raised
in Sweden. The main purpose was to analyze the function of organized sport in
a multi-cultural perspective. Two major aspects were of particular interest-s-the
process of socialization to organized sport and if this process improves life qualities
from a developmental-learning point of view. Immigrant children were to a
greater extent members of sport clubs and preferred sports with body contact.
Swedish children did more often drop out from sport but did to a greater extent
take part in other leisure-time activities. Soccer and swimming were the most
common debut sports. Organized sport emphazises the participation of children
no matter ethnic, social or cultural tradition. The results indicate that the involvement
in organized sport during early adolescence must be regarded as an important
contributor to socialization- and upbringing processes among immigrant children.
WORKSHOP: Competition as ChaUenge: A Positive Approach to Athletic
Development
Jim Taylor, Alpine/Taylor Consulting, Aspen, CO 81612
This workshop examines the recently observed phenomenon of young athletes
viewing Competition as Threat, in which competition is experienced as negative
and aversive and to be avoided. The causes of Competition as Threat are discussed

5126 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
and the symptoms most commonly associated with this response are described.
It is suggested that the solution to this response is to create Competition as Challenge,
in which competition is experienced as fun and positive and to be pursued.
The development of Competition as Challenge requires several steps in working
with young athletes. First, educating parents and coaches of the dangers of Competition
as Threat. Second, helping young athletes develop a healthy perspective
on winning and losing. Third, describing the importance of creating not just athletes,
but competitors who thrive on the pressure of athletic participation. Fourth,
showing young athletes the importance of staying positive and motivated when
they are going through down periods. Finally, emphasizing the value of love to
sports competition.
COLLOQUIUM: Emotional Response to lujury: Issues and Controversies
John Heil, Lewis-Gale Clinic, Roanoke, VA 24012
The goal of this presentation is to provide a unifying perspective on emotion and
injury (I) as a process unfolding over the course of injury, and (2) as a factor in
performance through rehabilitation and return to play. Stage theories of injury
will be critically reviewed, and a model presented which integrates stage theory
and cognitive appraisal perspectives. Hanin's zone of optimal functioning theory
will be utilized to examine the impact of four critical emotional states (denial,
pain, fear, and culpability) on injury rehabilitation. The affective cycle of injury
is presented and its linkages to medically grounded stage theory are elaborated.
Denial, which has been the focus of much debate, and culpability, which has
relatively neglected, will be reviewed in greater detail.
Psychosocial Precursors to Athletic Injury not Supported in Adolescent
Competitive Athletes
Joy D. Bringer, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403; and Eileen M. Udry,
Indiana University Purdue University at Indianapolis, IN 46202
Recent research within Andersen and Williams' (1988) model of athletic injury
antecedents has underscored the need to examine the: (a) contribution of daily
hassles on an ongoing basis, and (b) role of personality factors beyond those in
the original model. This investigation attempted to address these needs. Participants
(N = 133) included gymnasts, swimmers, and tennis players ages 14-19
years competing at the intermediate to advanced level. At the outset of the 7 week
study, participants completed assessments of daily hassles, perfectionism, negative
life event stress, social support, and coping skills. Additionally, daily hassles were
assessed biweekly. These psychosocial measures were then compared to athletes'
self-reported injuries. Discriminant function analysis did not support the hypothesis
that athletes scoring higher on perfectionism, daily hassles, and negative life
event stress measures, and lower on the social support and coping skills measures
would be more likely to be classified as injured. These results are in contrast with
much of the previous research; however, the lack of support did not appear to be

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I S127
the result of insufficient statistical power. One possible explanation for these findings
is that, although previous researchers have called for the repeated measurement
of daily hassles, there was a high correlation of daily hassles across time (r
= .81 to .92). Moreover, there was a high correlation between daily hassles and
negative life stress (r = -.68). The limitations of the study as well as the implications
are discussed.
The Relationships between Athletic Identity, Coping Skills, Social Support,
and the Psychological Impact of Injury
Scott L. Green, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23284;
Robert S. Weinberg, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056
The purpose of the present investigation was to assess the relationship between
athletic identity, coping skills, and social support on individuals' mood states
following injury. Thirty individuals, who had sustained an injury that prohibited
physical activity participation for at least 6--8 weeks, completed a packet of inventories
within a week of their first visit to their orthopedic surgeon. The packets
included the Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (Brewer, Van Raabe, & Linder,
1993), Athletic Coping Skills Inventory (Smith, Smoll, & Schutz, 1993), the Social
Support Questionnaire (Sarason, Levine, Basham, & Sarason, 1983), and the
Profile of Mood States (McNair, Lorr, & Droppleman, 1971). Multiple regression
and correlational results revealed that athletic identity and coping skills were not
significantly related to mood state following the occurrence of an injury. However,
a significant relationship was found between perceived satisfaction of an individual's
social network and mood state following injury. Specifically, individuals
who were more satisfied with their social network had less total mood disturbance
following an injury. In addition, the independent variables accounted for only
19.6% of the variance in total mood disturbance. The results are discussed in
terms of cognitive appraisal theory.
Atbletic Injury: Mood Disturbances and Hardiness of Intercollegiate
Atbletes
William N. Miller, Westfield State College, Westfield, MA 01086
In a prospective study, posunjury mood disturbances, in addition to levels of
hardiness, and the relationship between hardiness and mood disturbances, were
examined. Among 244 male and 92 female intercollegiate athletes from the sports
of lacrosse and track and field, 24 sustained injuries lasting a minimum of two
days. The participants completed a demographic form, the Profile of Mood States
(PDMS) (McNair, LoIT, & Droppleman, 1971), and the Personal Views Survey
(PVS) (Maddi, 1987) during the first three weeks of their respective preseasons.
Following injury of at least two days in length, the PDMS was completed again
by the injured athletes in addition to noninjured athletes selected to serve as
comparisons. Following a multiple comparison analysis for a significant 2 x 2
mixed factorial MANDVA interaction, injured athletes were found to incur de-

S128 / Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
creased levels of 'Vigor' from pretest to posttest, in addition to lower levels than
noninjured athletes at posrtest. Injured athletes also incurred increased levels of
'Anger' from pretest to posrtest. However, the noninjured group reported similar
scores on these constructs from pretest to posttest assessments. No differences
were found in levels of hardiness, or the three subscalcs of hardiness for injured
and noninjured athletes. Regarding the relationship between hardiness and mood
disturbances, as individual levels of hardiness increased levels of mood disturbance
decreased for the total sample (n = 336).
Attributions for Recovery and Adherence to Rehabilitation (ollowing
Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction
Britton W. Brewer, Springfield College, Springfield, MA Ot 109; Allen E.
Cornelius, University of Hartford, West Hartford, CT 06117-l599; Judy L. Van
Raalte and Albert J. Petirpas, Springfield College, Springfield, MA 01109;
Joseph H. Sklar, Mark H. Pohlman, and Robert J. Krushell, New England
Orthopedic Surgeons, Springfield, MA 01104; Terry D. Ditmar, NovaCare
Outpatient Rehabilitation, Springfield, MA 01104
This study was a prospective examination of the relationship between attributions
for recovery and adherence to a clinic-based sport injury rehabilitation protocol.
Participants were 55 men and 25 women who had undergone anterior cruciate
ligament reconstruction. Approximately five weeks postsurgery, participants made
open-ended attributions for their rate of recovery and rated these attributions on
the Revised Causal Dimension Scale (CDSH; McAuley, Duncan, & Russell,
1992). Adherence was assessed in terms of the proportion of rehabilitation sessions
attended to rehabilitation sessions scheduled and rehabilitation practitioner
ratings of participant adherence on the Sport Injury Rehabilitation Adherence
Scale (SIRAS; Brewer, Van Raalte, Peritpas, Sklar, & Ditmar, 1995) at each rehabilitation
appointment after participants had made their attributions for recovery.
Multiple regression analyses revealed that causal dimension ratings predicted
attendance at rehabilitation sessions, but not SIRAS scores. A MANOVA performed
on CDSII subscale scores indicated that participants who perceived themselves
as recovering rapidly tended to attribute their rate of recovery to more
internal factors than participants who perceived themselves as recovering slowly.
The findings demonstrate the relevance of cognitive factors to behavioral responses
to sport injury.
PANEL DISCUSSION: Finding a Balance: Issues in Career and Family
Planning for Sport Psychology ProCessionals
Thad Leffingwell, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195; Britt Brewer,
Springfield College, Springfield, MA 01109; Karen Cogan, University of North
Texas, Denton, TX 76203; Robert Harmison, United States Olympic Training
Center, Colorado Springs, CO 80909; Trent Petrie, University of North Texas,
Denton, TX 76203; and Judy Van Raalte, Springfield College, Springfield, MA
01109
Receiving training in applied sport psychology and developing a career, whether
in academia or practice, both require significant time, energy, and focus. The

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I Sl29
decision to pursue a professional career often requires that one make choices and
use careful planning regarding other important personal goals, including having
a family. This panel includes young professionals and graduate students in sport
psychology who have experience dealing with issues regarding the balance between
career and family goals. The panelists will describe some of the issues
involved in career and family planning, share their personal experiences and lessons
learned, and answer questions from the audience. Some specific issues addressed
will include "When might be the best time to start a family for a young
professional?," "What strategies have you found effective at balancing career
and family demands'!", and "What have you learned about the demands of career
and family that you didn't know or hadn't considered prior to having a family'!"
WORKSHOP: Action! Hands-On Demonstrations of How Expert
Consultants Teach Mental Skills to Athletes
Natalie Durand-Bush (Organizer), University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON KIN 6N5',
Kenneth Ravizza, California State University, Fullerton, Fullerton, CA 92634­
9480; Wayne R. Halliwell, University of Montreal, Montreal, PO H3C 3J7; Cal
Botterill, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N IN4
Every year, consultants and researchers talk about the relevance of refining and
personalizing mental skills training to enhance athletic performance. However,
seldom have we seen individuals in action, clearly demonstrating how these skills
can be taught and used in different competitive settings. The purpose of this
workshop is to provide a forum for participants to observe how experienced
consultants teach athletes to perfect a variety of mental skills such as relaxation,
imagery, focusing, refocusing, positive self-talk, emotional preparation and team
building. For example, one consultant will demonstrate how he teaches a team of
athletes how to relax and do imagery before an important competition. Another
consultant will show how to help an athlete gain control over intricate aspects of
her performance through the use of positive self-talk, more precisely, the use of
specific cue words that generate positive emotions and physical sensations. The
final consultant will reveal how he helps athletes develop perspective and unity,
and how they emotionally prepare themselves for high-level competition. All
exercises will be performed live, in some cases with individual athletes, in others
with the entire audience. Consultants will debrief each exercise with workshop
participants and provide opportunities for discussion. A handout outlining the
approaches and steps used by the consultants to teach the mental skills will be
provided to participants.
WORKSHOP: What Coaches Want from Sport Psychology
Ralph A. Vernacchia, Western Washington University, Bellingham, WA 98225,
USA; Rick McGuire, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65205, USA.
The primary objective of this workshop is to provide an overview of the role and
function of the sport psychology professional within the athletic environment,

SI30 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
especially in relation to consultations with coaches. In many cases, the coach is
the gatekeeper to the initial and ongoing relationships between the sport psychology
consultant, athletes and teams. The specific objectives of this workshop
will be: (I) to provide an understanding of the cornerstones of effective coachinganticipation,
preparation, communication, and dedication; and (2) to identify and
describe specific performance enhancement strategies and interventions which are
generally acceptable to coaches. Case studies depicting typical consulting issues
with coaches will be presented and workshop participants will be asked to suggest
appropriate performance enhancement!intervention strategies. Small group interactions
will provide workshop participants with the opportunity to develop and
review the potential effectiveness of their suggested performance enhancement!
intervention strategies.
Athletic Identity and Psychosocial Development among Male NCAA
Division I Student-Athletes in Revenue-Producing Sports
Kenneth Tubilleja, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26505; Britton
W. Brewer, Delight E. Champagne, and Albert J. Petitpas, Springfield College,
Springfield, MA 01109
Differences were investigated in measures of psychosocial development and athletic
identity as a function of ethnicity (African American fAfA] vs. European
American [EA)) and academic class. Participants were 93 male student-athletes
in NCAA Division I revenue-producing sports. Psychosocial development was
assessed using three measures (AA, MIR, and PUR tasks) of college student
development from the Student Developmental Task and Lifestyle Inventory
(SDTLI). Athletic identity was measured using the Athletic Identity Measurement
Scale (AIMS). Multiple 2 x 4 (Ethnicity x Class) ANOVAs revealed significant
Ethnicity X Class interactions for AIMS and PUR scores (p < .05). Post hoc
analyses revealed significant class differences with AfA participants on AIMS
and PUR scores (p < .05), such that seniors had significantly higher AIMS scores
and significantly lower PUR scores than freshmen. No class differences were
found for EA participants. A significant, inverse correlation was found between
AIMS and PUR scores among BAs (r = -.383, P < .01), but not among AfAs
(r > -.105, p > .05). The findings suggest that separate, ethnicity-specific programs
addressing psychosocial development may not need to be designed. Also,
a strong and exclusive athletic identity may be detrimental to particular aspects
of psychosocial development for male EA student-athletes in revenue-producing
sports at NCAA Division I institutions.
Comparison of Traditional Physical Education and Alternative Movement
Education on the Moral Development of Underserved Youth
Jerry Sandberg, Maria Newton, University of New Orleans, LA 7DJ)8
Traditionally, one goal of school physical education programs has been the development
of moral principles or sportpersonship (Weiss & Bredemeier, 1986).

S132 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
Predictors of Aggression In Basketball: Examination of Beginning and
Advanced Participants in a Girls' Summer Skill Camp
Dawn E. Stephens, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242-1111
Previous research has examined likelihood of aggressive acts using the Judgments
About Moral Behavior in Youth Sport Questionnaire (JAMBYSQ) in both girls'
(Stephens & Bredemeier, 1996) and coed (Stephens, 1995) soccer and boys' ice
hockey (Stephens & Kavanagh, 1997) youth sport leagues. Results of these previous
studies have identified participants' perceptions of their teammates' aggressive
tendencies (moral atmosphere) as the best predictor of participants' own
self-described likelihood to aggress. The purpose of this study was to extend this
research in three ways: a) to examine participants' views about the causes of
success, b) to include their perceptions of their likelihood to aggress iftheir coach
wanted them to, and c) to utilize participants of a summer youth sport skill camp
as subjects. Subjects were 147 span camp participants from either a beginning
camp (n = 94; mean age = 12.46 yrs) or an advanced camp (n = 53; mean age
= 15.25 yrs). Results indicated that, for the beginning campers, likelihood to
aggress was best predicted by what they perceived their teammates would do in
the same situation, followed by the use of what Nicholls proposed to be a differcntiation
between ability and effort, and, finally, their willingness to injure their
opponent if their coach requested. Predictors were the same for the advanced
campers, except that the variable representing differentiation between effort and
ability failed to enter the equation. These findings are in line with previous research
in establishing the tcam norm as a significant predictor for self-described
likelihood to aggress in a sport situation. The results of this study add to our
knowledge by establishing the link between likelihood to aggress and the differentiation
of effort and ability aspect of Nicholls' theory along with the impact of
following the coach's request to perfonn an injurious act.
Confidence as a Source of Expectancy Information: Implications for
Performance
Gloria B. Solomon and Andrea R. Beauchamp, Texas Christian University, Fort
Worth, Texas 76129
Expectancy theory predicts that coaches influence athlete ability, via communicated
feedback. There is ample documentation of the existence of differential
feedback based on expectations (Rejcski. Darracott, & Hutslar, 1979; Sinclair &
Vealey, 1989). The next step is to identify what specific sources of infonnation
inform coach expectations and how expectations relate to athlete performance.
The purpose of this study was to test the relationships among coach expectancies,
coach perceptions of athlete confidence, and athlete performance. Coaches from
nine Division 1 intercollegiate athletic teams were invited to participate and completed
the Trait Sport Confidence Inventory (Vealey, 1986) and the Expectancy
Rating Scale (Solomon, 1993) for each athlete. Objective performance statistics
for an entire season were obtained. Multiple regression analyses were performed.
Results indicated that (a) coach expectancy level served to predict perceptions of

Colloquia. Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I S133
athlete trait confidence and (b) perceptions of athlete trait confidence predicted
actual performance. The implications of these results indicate that coaches' perceptions
of athlete confidence may be a primary source of information in expectancy
formation.
PANEL DISCUSSION: Rookie Mistakes: Lessons Learned by Young Sport
Psychology Professionals.
Thad Leffingwell, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195; Greg Dale,
Winthrop University 29733; Chris Janelle, University of Florida, Gainesville,
FL 32611; Jeff Janssen, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721; Scott
Martin, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203; Kirsten Peterson, United
States Olympic Training Center, Colorado Springs, CO 80909
Although graduate school often provides adequate training in the discipline and
practice of sport psychology, it is unreasonable to expect a graduate school curriculum
alone to provide one with all the lessons necessary when starting a career
in the "real world." This informal panel discussion will address lessons learned
by young professionals that they felt graduate school could not or did not prepare
them. Since the setting and activities of graduate school may more adequately
prepare individuals for careers in primarily academia or research, the participants
on this panel were chosen because of their interest in applied work, either solely
or in conjunction with an academic career. Specifically, discussants will address:
(a) the match between graduate training and professional responsibilities; (b) the
many roles sport psychology professionals face in post-secondary education; (c)
constraints related to academic life and consulting; (d) post doctoral training while
searching for a tenure track position; (c) expectations, evaluation, and feedback;
(f) support systems and the role of mentors; (g) expectations and reality in consulting
work; and (h) important factors for maintaining a positive mental state.
Recommendations for preparing and dealing with these issues arc given.
WORKSHOP: The Process of Assessment in Sport Psychology Consulting:
Part 1: Intake
Organizer: Cynthia Adams, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215; Mary Ann
Kane, MindPowcr Resources, Cambridge, MA 02138; Dave Collins,
Manchester Metropolitan University, Alsager, ST72HL, England; Celinc
McNelis-Kline, University of Denver, Denver, CO 80210; Albert Petitpas,
Springfield College, Springfield, MA 01109; Katherine Kilty, MindPower
Resources, Cambridge, MA 02138; Susan Langdon, Colby-Sawyer College,
New London, NH 03257
The purpose of this workshop is to demonstrate the process of initial assessment
in a sport psychology consultation. Gathering the appropriate information in the
intake session creates the foundation and direction for further intervention. The
opportunity to witness professionals conducting an intake procedure is rare. Participants
will observe interactions between four sport psychology consultants and

S134 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
clients. What is unique about this workshop is that both clients, an athlete and a
coach, will meet with two different consultants who will then present their individual
evaluations. The objectives for this workshop are to: I) present possible
interview questions, 2) demonstrate ways to obtain pertinent information, and 3)
synthesize information obtained into a diagnostic whole. This workshop will enable
participants to reflect on and further develop their assessment skills.
Effects of a Season-long PST Program on Gymnastic Performance and on
Psychological Skills
Jean F. Fournier; Institut National du Sport et de l'Bducarion Physique, Paris,
75012, France; Claire Calmels, Universite de Paris-X, Nanterre, 92001 France.
This presentation reports findings of an evaluation of the effects of a 10 month
PST program on psychological and performance indicators. Ten nationally ranked
female gymnasts (m = 12 years old) trained physically 25 hours per week followed
a group mental skills program for half an hour per week. The 5-step intervention
consisted of relaxation, self-talk, goal setting, focusing and visualisation.
Performance scores were obtained using results in competitions. Psychological
indicators were appraised individually by the OMSAT (Durand-Bush & Salmela,
in press). Data were recorded before the intervention to establish a baseline
(Hrycaiko & Martin, 1996) and 5 times during the course of the competitive
season. Interpretation of the effects of the different phases of the program on the
performance and mental indicators will be discussed on an individual basis. Psychometric
properties of the OMSAT will be reported for the present participant
sample.
Major Competitive Themes of Female Soccer Players in the 1997 NCAA
Women's Soccer National Championships
Michael J. Navarre, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC
27599
Seven Division I female soccer players with Olympic and National Team experience
were interviewed following the NCAA Women's Soccer quarterfinal, semifinal,
and Championship game in order to investigate pre-competitive affect, mental
states during competition, and individual perceptions of performance. Players
were also asked to describe the characteristics necessary to win a national championship
and succeed at elite levels of competition. Excitement, task focus, and
nervousness, were the primary themes associated with pre-competitive affect.
Confidence in the ability and talent of the team characterized the mental state of
the athletes during competition; however, feelings of fear or doubt emerged after
the opposition scored. Athletes reported overcoming these doubts through positive
self-talk and cognitive restructuring. Athletes listed courage, commitment, and
work ethic as the predominant characteristics necessary to win a national championship
and succeed at intemationallevels of competition. Results are discussed

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I S135
according to their implications for understanding competitive states of elite athletes
and the psychological factors associated with success in elite competition.
The Ellect of a Motivational-Mastery Imagery Intervention on the Sport
Confidence of Three Elite Badminton Players
Nichola Callow, University of Wales, Bangor, UK; Lew Hardy, University of
Wales, Bangor, UK; Craig Hall, University of Western Ontario, Canada.
The effect of imagery on sport confidence has important applied implications due
to the influential role thar sport confidence has on performance (e.g., Vealey,
1986). Recent research has associated high sport confidence wnh mastery forms
of imagery e.g., Moritz, Hall, Martin and Vadocz (1996). However, such research
has been correlational in nature, so that causality can not be inferred. The present
study used a multiple baseline single subject design, to examine the effect of a
Motivational General-Mastery imagery intervention upon sport confidence.
The participants were three British junior county badminton players (two male,
and one female; mean age IS). Once a week, prior to a match, vealeys" (1987)
State Sports Confidence Inventory was administered to assess the participants'
confidence. A baseline was established and the imagery intervention implemented
at weeks five, seven and nine, respectively. The intervention period lasted for two
weeks, with three sessions per week. The study period totaled 20 weeks.
Visual inspection of the graphed data indicates that the intervention had a facilitative
effect on the sport confidence of participant one and two, but not on three.
However, the sport confidence scores for participant three, who moved up to the
top division of the badminton circuit during the intervention, became more stable.
The results suggest that a motivational-mastery imagery intervention can have
a facilitative effect upon sport confidence. This study has important implications
at a theoretical, applied and methodological level.
A System of Psychological Management in Sport Games
Valery Malkin, Ural University, Ekaterinburg, Russia, 620055.
Sport practice requires innovative approaches for the inculcation of psychological
methods in the process of team preparation in sport. The first program includes
leading the team towards a psychological level of stability. The main principle
during this phase is that of limitation of stressful situations. The second program
includes the management of psychological stability during the competitive season,
which is based upon giving athletes the permission to make mistakes. The third
program is directed towards the selection of particular sport situations which keep
in mind the anticipated mental strains of competition. The fourth program is based
upon the mental rcliabilty of the athlete to perform in extreme stress situations
as indicated by the rule: "There is only one chance". The fifth principle is that
the athlete is trained to prepare for a season filled with stress and the key element
is preparedness for the long struggle. The sixth program is directed towards training
the coach to handle stresses in extreme match conditions under the direction

S136 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
of the rule that "if the game is not over, it is not lost". Experience in Russia has
shown this program to be effective if properly supervised.
Psychological Momentum in Target Shooting: Behavioral, Affective, and
Brain Responses
Scott E. Kerick, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742; Seppo E.
Iso-Ahola, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742; Brad D. Hatfield,
University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742; and Kerry A. Gruber,
University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742
This study examined the association between perceived psychological momentum
and target shooting performance across four levels of manipulated feedback (negative,
neutral, positive, and no feedback) using a within-subjects design. Measures
of actual and perceived shooting performance, affect, and electroencephalographic
responses were compared between conditions. Results indicated no significant
differences in mean shot scores across conditions despite higher ratings of performance
in positive compared to negative feedback. EEG results revealed greater
relative right frontal hemispheric activation in the negative compared to the positive
feedback condition and reinforced the self-report data. Overall, these findings
support the antecedents-consequences model of psychological momentum, which
predicts that momentum is derived from perceptions of increased performance
(real or imaginary), but actual performance is not necessarily enhanced as a consequence.
1\vo remaining hypotheses remain tenable for explaining the results of
the present study: positive inhibitionJnegative facilitation; or misperceived performance
based on random variability around a mean performance level.
Relationship between Self-Efficacy and Perfonnance In Tennis
Douglas Eng, Tufts University, Medford MA 02155, Camilo Pereira, Tufts
University, Medford MA 02155, Leonard Zaichkowsky, Boston University,
Boston MA 02215
The relationship between self-efficacy and level of achievement in tennis was
investigated. Developed inventories included the Tennis Self-Efficacy Scale
(TSES) and the On-Court Tennis Self-Efficacy Scale (OCTSES). TSES was designed
to measure beliefs about self-confidence, ability self-efficacy, and motivation
self-efficacy. Reliability and validity of these two instruments were good.
Additional instruments included Ryckman's (1982) Physical Self-Efficacy Scale
(PSES) and the National Tennis Rating Program (NTRP) which measures skill
level. Predictor variables characterizing subjects (N = 93, F = 51, M = 42, Age
= 18--64 years) were NIRP rating, age, sex, experience, and frequency. Selfefficacy
in tennis was correlated with physical self-efficacy. Beliefs in performance
accomplishments and physiological states were correlated with NTRP ratings.
Ability self-efficacy and NTRP ratings were also highly correlated. Motivation
self-efficacy was correlated with frequency of play. Elevations in perceived
physical ability, not physical self-presentation confidence, were found for various

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I SI37
subpopulations. On OCTSES, self-efficacy was affected more by perceived performance
than actual outcome. Highest losses of self-efficacy were found after
highest levels of self-doubt and dissatisfaction. Winning did not significantly increase
self-efficacy. Finally, college-aged subjects were compared with varsity
athletes from other sports.
The Influence of Chronic Martial Arts Participation on Self.efficacy,
Anger, and Pain Perception
Brian C. Focht, Lester J. Bouchard, and Milledge Murphey, University of
Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611
It has been acknowledged that martial arts participation contributes to the positive
development of physical attributes. Less, however, is known regarding the psychological
and perceptual effects associated with participation. The purpose of
this investigation was to examine the effects of chronic martial arts participation
on selected psychological variables and pain perception in novice participants.
Thirty volunteers (MA = 15, Control = 15) completed assessments of self-efficacy
(PSES), anger (STAXI), pain threshold (PT), and pain ratings (PR) prior to
and following 15 weeks of martial arts participation or a control condition. Data
were analyzed with a 2 X 2 (Groups X Sessions) repeated measures ANOVA.
Results indicated significant increases in PSES and PT (P < . 05) and a significant
decrease in PR (P < . 05) following martial arts participation. It is concluded that
chronic martial arts participation is associated with improvements in self-efficacy
and pain perception of novice participants.
Changes in Self.Efficacy and Effort Sense wtth Resistance Training in
Older Adults: An Exploratory Investigation
Edmund O. Acevedo, Southeastern Louisiana University, Hammond, LA 70402:
Gayle Appel Doll, Kansas Health Department, Topeka, KS.
The physical activity patterns of older adults can be influenced by task relevant
cognitive appraisals. In particular an individual's self-efficacy can influence
choice, effort and persistence of behavior whereas perceptions of greater effort
can lead to lower persistence. The purpose of this study was to examine the
changes in self-efficacy toward and effort sense during functional tasks prior to
and following two resistance training programs with older adults. Two groups of
elderly adults participated in one of two eight-week resistance training programs,
one using traditional weight training (n = 8) and the other, calisthenics (n = 9).
Results revealed that subjects in both groups significantly improved in their ability
to perform six functional tasks; lifting five pounds over head, getting down on
and up from the floor, climbing and descending stairs, carrying groceries, getting
out of the bathtub and walking speed. In addition, self-efficacy increased and
ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) decreased. These results suggest that resistance
training can improve functional capabilities and influence self-efficacy and
effort sense.

S 138 I Colloquia. Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
Athletes' Perceptions of Parents' Expectations: Influences on Competitive
Anxiety, Goal Orientations, and Perfonnance Expectancies
Karen E. Collins and Heather Barber, University of New Hampshire, Durham,
NH 03824
Eccles and Harold's (1991) Expectancy-Value Model provides a framework for
examining relationships between parental expectancies and children's achievement
perceptions and behaviors. This study sought to investigate the relationship
between athletes' perceptions of their parents' beliefs and expectancies and competitive
anxiety and performance expectancies. Participants at the Field Hockey
National Futures Tournament (N =" 416), an elite high school tournament, completed
measures of goal orientations (lEOSQ), competitive anxiety (CSAI-2) and
expectancies as well as perceptions of their parents' goal orientations (adapted
TEOSQ) and expectancies. A canonical correlation between goal orientations and
competitive anxiety indicated that task involvement was positively related to confidence,
and ego involvement was positively related to cognitive anxiety. NlAN­
OVAs indicated that athletes who placed greater importance on and who had
higher expectations for doing wen at the tournament revealed higher levels of
confidence than those athletes who placed less importance and had fewer expectations
for success. Athletes who believed their pareDfs placed greater importance
on success showed higher levels of both confidence and cognitive anxiety than
those athletes who believed tbeir parents placed less importance on doing well.
Parental expectancies were generally viewed positively and were interpreted as
evidence of belief in ability. Consequently, parents can be a positive influence on
their children's participation in sport.
Parental Involvement in the Planning of Youth Sport Programs: A
Comparison of Two Cities
Bart S. Lerner, The Citadel, Charleston, SC 29409, Jack C. Watson, Florida
State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306.
This study compared and contrasted the interests of parents from two separate
cities regarding the development of an instructional program that emphasizes
teaching fundamental motor skills to children. Participants from these cities (n =
234) and (n = 196) consisted of parents who were randomly selected from a
variety of parentJchild interactive activities occurring throughout each community.
Participants completed the Skills Interest Survey, which has been designed to
examine the development and perceived need for an individualized youth sport
program. Results from both samples were extremely similar. Parents supported
the institution of fundamental skills programs for younger children, assuming that
they as parents could be involved in the teaching process. Beyond instruction in
basic motor skills such as throwing, catching and kicking, parents also placed a
high value on the development of sportsmanship, cooperation, and fun. Other
important issues discussed include the optimal age of child participants, as well
as the length, frequency and cost of such a program. This study confirmed Wankel
and Kreisel's (1985) recommendations that each youth participant should be given

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I SI39
a chance to develop the basic skills necessary for a particular sport, be provided
with a realistic challenge, and be afforded an opportunity for personal accomplishment
and satisfaction.
Physiotherapists' and Professional Athletes' Views on Psychological Skills
for Rehabilitation
Susan R. Francis and Mark B. Andersen, Victoria University, Melbourne 8001,
Australia; Paul Maley, National Basketball League, Melbourne, Australia
Wiese, Weiss, and Yukelson (1991) sought trainers opinions on the role of psychological
techniques in injury rehabilitation. This study replicated the Wiese et
at. (1991) study with Australian physiotherapists (Study 1) and extended it to
include the viewpoints of professional basketball players (Study 2). One hundred
and fifteen surveys were sent to physiotherapists working in sport medicine clinics
in Melbourne and 57 were returned completed. Sixty surveys were forwarded to
professional basketball players in the Australian National Basketball League.
Twenty-eight responded by returning the completed survey. The results indicated
that a great deal of importance was attached to communication and motivation
by both physiotherapists and athletes in the rehabilitation process. Physiotherapists
placed more emphasis Oil communication, and athletes believed motivation
to be the most important characteristic for injury recovery. Interestingly, both
athletes and physiotherapists did not think relaxation or imagery techniques to be
useful tools in the recovery process. These beliefs could indicate a lack of experience
with these techniques, and this may be an area that psychologists can
contribute to Facilitating athletic injury recovery.
A Psychophysiological Intervention in Athletic Injury Rehabilitation: A
Case Study
David Scott, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB. Canada E3B 5A3
and Chcra Jarrett, Brock University, St. Catharines, ONT. Canada L2S 3A1.
The intent of this case study was to develop a physical and psychological intervention
that would aid in the accelerated rehabilitation of athletic injury. The
patient was a national level basketball player with a third degree anterior cruciatc
ligament (ACL) injury. Psychological interventions were carefully combined with
and tailored to meet the individual needs of the patient and specific goals were
set for the psychological component of thc rehabilitation program. In addition to
using objective measures to assess the rate of recovery detailed interviews were
held with the patient, doctor, and athletic therapist. The role and importance of
each mental skill at every stage of the rehabilitation process was determined and
effective delivery systems developed. The patient returned 10 full competition two
months sooner than was initially forecast and the results of this case study would
suggest that a well designed psychological intervention protocol, when combined
with physical therapy, can produce rapid and effective rehabilitation.

S140 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
Psychological Factors of Athletic Injury in School Life
Hirohisa Isogai, Kyushu Institute of Techology, Iizuka 820-8502, Japan, Mikio
Tokunaga, Kimio Hasimoto, Kyushu University, Kasuga 816-8580, Japan,
Toyoki Taki, Daiich University of Economic, Dazaifu 816, Japan
The purpose of this investigation was to clarify the psychological factors that
influence athletic injury in school life. Elementary school students (N = 1933),
junior high school students (N = 3525), high school students (N = 3615) were
administered a questionnaire evaluating the frequency and time of injury, and
psychological characteristics (based on 30 items from pre-examination). A factor
analysis of the source of psychological items revealed four factors that have acceptable
internal reliability: life stress, personality characteristics, confidence for
sports, and consciousness of safety. Students not injured at all and frequently
injured students were compared with regard to the four factors. The results
showed that latter students had significantly higher scores in all these four factors,
but the facters varied for each age group.
Satisfaction with Social Suppor-t as a Guiding Principle in Sport Injury
Research
Theresa M. Bianco, University of Western Australia, Nedlands, Western
Australia 6907.
Sport injury researchers have shown a growing interest in the role of social support
as a coping resource in recovery from athlenc injury (e.g., Udry, 1997; Ford,
1993). Several advances have been made in the area and it is evident that social
support is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon. It is also clear that satisfaction
with support received is a key issue to understanding the impact of social
support on coping. The present discussion proposes an integrative theory of satisfaction
with social support and considers the relevance and applicability of this
theory to sport injury research and practice. A program of research examining
social support exchanges between injured athletes and their coaches will be presented.
Also discussed, will be the practical issue of developing intervention programs
to increase satisfaction with social support and, therefore, maximize the
benefits of support with respect to coping with sport injury.
The Psychological WeD-Being and Health-Related Quality Of Life of People
Living with HIV: The Influence of Physical Activity
Mark A. Stoove and Mark B. Andersen, Victoria University, Melbourne 8001,
Australia
This study was designed to describe the relationships between psychological wellbeing,
health-related quality of life, and physical activity in a group of HIV positive
people. Forty-six HIV positive individuals completed a battery of questionnaires
assessing depression, anxiety, positive and negative affect, physical selfefficacy,
and health-related quality of life. Participants were also asked (0 recall

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I SI41
their physical activity patterns over the previous no weeks. The mean age of
participants was 38.2 (S.O = 8.8). with an average time since serostarus notification
of 6.6 (S.O = 3.83). Regression analysis indicated that positive affect and
depression accounted for 59% of variance in energy/fatigue. In addition. the number
of sessions of vigorous recreational activity undertaken accounted for 10% of
variance in depression scores and 29% of variance in positive affect. Further
analysis revealed that positive affect. depression. and the number of sessions of
physical activity accounted for 46% of variance in reurological symptomatology.
Overall, results indicated that health-related quality oflife was closely related to
psychological well-being in HIV positive individuals. Furthermore, level of physical
activity was both directly and indirectly (via improved psychological wellbeing)
related to aspects of health-related quality 01 life.
Enjoyment of Recreational Swimming: Possible Moderating Influences of
Age and Gender
Bonnie G. Berger. Robert W. Mon, & Patrick S. Leuschen, School of Physical
and Health Education. University of Wyoming. Laramie. WY 82071
We examined whether age and gender moderated enjoyment of exercise in adult
swimmers. Male (n = 76) and female (n = 70) recreational swimmers between
19 and 82 years of age completed a demographics inventory and Lie-scale before
exercising. Irrunediately after swimming, participant> completed the Physical Activity
Enjoyment Scale (PACES). Swimmers were trichotomized into age groups:
young (19-39 years; n = 72), middle-aged (40-59 years: n = 34), and older (60­
82 years; n = 40) adults. Results of a 3 (Age group!' 2 (Gender) ANOYA indicated
that the three age groups differed on PACES scores, F (2,140) = 3.01, p
= .052; but that there were no gender differences. Older swimmers reported
significantly higher mean PACES scores than the younger adults. Calculation of
effect sizes (ES) demonstrated a moderate differerce in PACES scores between
the older and younger adults (ES = .50). When resting for possible demand
influences on enjoyment scores, no evidence of a relationship was obtained between
Lie-scale and PACES scores (r = .01. P > .88). In addition, single sample
t-tests indicated that the overall mean PACES score reported by swimmers (M =
104.21, SO = 14.49) was significantly higher than reported by both cyclists (M
= 84.26, SO = 18.71) and joggers (M = 87.95, SO = 19.74; Kendzierski &
DeCarlo, 1991). In conclusion, older adults reported significantly higher enjoyment
scores than young adult swimmers, and the recreational swimmers exhibited
higher enjoyment scores than previously reported b! exercisers in other activities.
Depression and Trait Anxiety of Female NCAA [)i.visioD I Athletes
Trent A. Petrie, University of North Texas, Denton. IX 76203, Britton W.
Brewer, Springfield College, Springfield. MA 01 1OJ. Allen E. Cornelius,
University of Hartford, West Hartford, CT 06117
Unfortunately, almost no information exists concerning the prevalence rates of
depression and trait anxiety among female college athletes (Brewer & Petrie,

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I SI43
an associative, dissociative, or control group from triads matched for MAP. Results
showed that the associative group reported greater changes over baseline in
RPEs during the experimental run than the control group, F(Z, 30) = 9.60, P <
.05. Neither the dissociative nor the control participants reported significant
changes in RPE. Run time to exhaustion for the association group declined significantly
in comparison to the dissociative and control groups, F(2, 30) = 10.12,
P < .05. It was concluded that an internal focus of attention enhanced perceived
exertion and resulted in a deterioration in performance. These results have implications
for less experienced runners who do not know how to vary pace in
response to somatic signals. The discussion also centres around the manipulations
and measurements of dissociation and association.
Male and Female Rugby Players 011 the Field: Evaluating Psychomotor
Skills,
Clare Mac Mahon*, Gabriel Leonard, Rhonda Amsel**, Mary Hynes, and
Karen Becker
*University of Ottawa, Canada, KIN 6N5, Montreal Neurological Institute, *
*McGill University, Montreal, Canada
It is generally acknowledged that physical activity has many benefits, both mental
and physical (Berger & Mclnman, 1993). As an activity, rugby is a fast paced,
open skilled sport in which recall and mental planning seem to play an important
role. Do these skills, however, transfer to contexts other than the sport? Male and
female varsity rugby players were ordinally ranked by their respective coaches
before being tested on cognitive tasks. The test battery included verbal recall,
visuospatial recall, and the Tower of London test of mental planning. Overall
performance on the cognitive tasks was not related to coaches' rankings. Researchers
have often examined whether a predictive link exists between sport
proficiency and generalized psychological skills (Allard & Burnett, 1985; Secunda,
Blau et al, 1986). These results support previous findings which reveal the
domain specificity of cognitive skills. Abilities specifically related to the sport
context correlate with performance in a given sport, however, more general rneasures
of cognitive abilities do not reveal the same trend (Starkes, 1987; Starkes
& Deakin, 1984; Garland & Barry, 1990; Garland & Barry, 1991).
Team-Level Influences on Athletes Self-Regulation: Cross-level Analyses
Gilad Chen, Stephen J. Zaccaro, Sheila Simsanan Webber, Stephanie C. Payne,
and Sean M. Marsh; George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030-4444.
While many athletes perform in interdependent team settings, very little is known
regarding how team-level variables (i.e., team characteristics and processes) influence
athletic self-regulation at the individual-level in such settings. This study
examined 146 athletes from 25 community league basketball teams who perfonned
over the course of a 10-14 game season. Hierarchical linear modeling
lechniques (HLM) were employed to examine cross-level relationships within

SI44 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
teams. Results presented in this paper reflect the influences of (a) team composition
variables on the formation of task self-efficacy beliefs, and (b) team cognitive
and motivational processes on athletic self-regulatory processes in team
setting. These results are discussed with regard to both theoretical and practical
contributions.
Relationship among Achievement Goal Orientations and Multidimensional
Trait Anxiety in Intercollegiate and College Age Recreational Athletes
Chris A. Eisenbarth, Boise State University, Boise, ID 83725; Linda M.
Perlichkoff Boise State University, Boise, ID 83725
The purpose of this study was to determine whether an athlete's goal orientation
varied as a function of gender and level of sport group involvement, and whether
an individual's goal orientation related to competitive trait anxiety (CTA). Subjeers
included college-age male (n = 201) and female (n = 128) athletes. Achievement
goal orientations were assessed via the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport
Questionnaire (Duda & Nicholls, 1992). Trait anxiety was measured multidimensionally
using the Sport Anxiety Scale by Smith, Smoll, and Shutz (1990). In
general, males were more ego-oriented than females, whereas females were more
task-oriented and likely to experience cognitive CTA than males. No level main
effect or interaction was found to be significant. Canonical correlation analysis
revealed that task orientation was negatively related with cognitive CTA, and
positively related to somatic anxiety. These results provided further evidence for
gender differences in regard to goal orientations and CTA, but indicated further
theory development is needed regarding the relationship between goal orientations
with competitive anxiety.
A Comparison of Intensity and Direction of State and Trait Anxiety among
NCAA Division I College Athletes
Jennifer Gordon, Kevin L. Burke, A. Barry Joyner, Charles J. Hardy, Georgia
Southern University, Statesboro, GA 30460-8076
Previous research on anxiety in sport has focused on determining differences
between groups of individuals such as youth versus adults and sport participants
versus non-sport participants. Overall, little research has been performed to determine
state anxiety differences among athletes at the college level. Furthermore,
a majority of anxiety research has focused on how differing levels of anxiety
influence performance, rather than on how individuals perceive their own anxiety.
Research does show a relationship between performance and facilitative or debilitative
perceptions of anxiety. Facilitative and debilitative anxiety research findings,
however, have focused on state anxiety more so than trait anxiety. The main
purpose of this investigation was to determine differences in the amount and
direction of perceptions of anxiety among college athletes by gender, age, grade
point average, academic classification, participation status, scholarship status, and
team versus individual sport participants will also be examined. Male (n = 65)

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I S145
and female (n = 55) collegiate athletes from a southeastern university completed
directionally modified versions of the Sport Competition Anxiety Test and Competitive
State Anxiety Inventory-2 (Martens, Vealey, & Burton, 1990). Both inventories
were given prior to a practice, and the CSAI-2 was re-administered
within 48 hours of a competition. Data will be presented comparing the athletes'
results on the variables of interest.
The Effects of a Social-environmental and Task-based Intervention
Programme on the Achievement Goals of Elite Junior Tennis Players
Chris Harwood, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, LEI 1 3TU, United
Kingdom; and Austin Swain, Applied Psychology Research Unit, Lane 4
Management Group, Maidenhead, Berkshire, United Kingdom.
Recent research in achievement goal theory has allocated more attention to the
antecedents of task and ego involvement in competitive youth sport (e.g. Harwood
& Swain, 1997) as opposed to the behaviours associated with each goal perspective.
Such research provides the foundation and framework for social-cognitive
interventions within a youth sport context. The present study adopted a singlesubject
design approach to investigate the effects of such an intervention on the
pre-match task and ego involvement levels of four national standard junior tennis
players. Using a sport-specific idiographic measure, baseline assessments of prematch
task and ego involvement were gathered prior to a 3-month field-based
intervention programme. This consisted of several player tasks including tennis
education, cognitive restructuring, goal setting, performance evaluation and match
reporting. Environmental re-programming also forrned a major component of the
process with cognitive-behavioural tasks for parents and coaches designed to reshape
aspects of the player's motivational climate. Re-assessments of {ask and
ego involvement prior to the same match contexts revealed increases in personal
task involvement, maintenance of personal ego involvement, but substantial decreases
in social-approval oriented ego involvement. This study reinforces both
the importance and productivity of applying theory to practice, particularly when
considering the need for young performers to develop and maintain optimal
achievement goal profiles in sport.
A Psychometric Comparison of Inexperienced and Professional BasebaU
Umpires
Al Guarnieri, Tony Bourgeois, and Arnold LeUnes, Texas A & M University,
College Station, TX 77843-4235
The purpose of this study was to contrast psychological characteristics of individuals
attending professional umpire training schools, individuals selected for
further training at development schools, and professional umpires. Participants,
180 umpires of varying experience, completed an assessment battery consisting
of a demographic questionnaire, a 20-item umpire scale measuring attitudes towards
umpiring, a perfectionism scale, the NEO-FFI version of the Big-S Per-

SI46 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
sonality scale, a scale measuring anxiety during regular and championship games,
a scale measuring umpires' reactions to judgment errors, and a measure of the
respect of umpires towards field/office personnel. Analyses revealed that professional
umpires were less confrontational, less neurotic and more extroverted than
others. Development students showed the most negative thinking of the groups.
Interestingly, professional baseball umpires scored lower on indices of professionalism
than the other groups. Additional comparisons between the three groups
of umpires will be presented.
Applying Sport Psychology to Clinical Populations: Enhancing Patient
Performance
Edmund A. O'Connor, Salem Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Salem, VA
24153
Psychological skills training (PST) has improved the performance of many athletes.
These skills and techniques (e.g., goal-setting, relaxation, imagery, positive
self-talk, and arousal regulation) have helped athletes cope with aversive situations,
increase their confidence, and maintain their motivation for high levels of
performance. The psychological skills used for sport performance enhancement
can he applied to virtually any scenario where an individual wishes to perform
at his or her best. Individuals with medical and psychological problems frequently
struggle to perform in their daily lives, and their performance is often limited in
many life roles (e.g., occupation, recreation). The process of recovery can he
filled with hopelessness, lack of motivation, and treatment setbacks. This poster
presents three clinical case examples (cardiac rehabilitation, obesity, substance
abuse) illustrating how the psychological skills used for sport performance enhancement
may he applied to patients in clinical settings.
COLLOQUIUM: The Black Belt of Baseball
Lance B. Green, Thlane University, New Orleans, La. 70118
The Black Belt of Baseball is intended to address the philosophical foundation
of sport participation as well as the training and skills needed for peak performance.
In the final analysis, these components of one's game should be transferred
to the larger 'game' of life-indeed, a way of being outside of sport. Peak performance
in baseball is pursued by mirroring, in a somewhat oblique manner, the
general paradigm of martial art training. That is, there is a progressive sequence
of skills that must be mastered which begin with the 'physicality' of the game
and move toward the 'mental' aspects of performance. This progression is depicted
by five levels of training: Level One----Conditioning, Level Two--Basic
Skills, Level Three----Competition, Level Four---Coordinating Breathing with
Skill Execution, and Level Five-No Thought.

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I S147
Investigating the Relationship between Focused Attention and Peak
Performance
Jeremy R. Dugdale, and Alex D. McKenzie, University of Otago, Dunedin,
New Zealand.
This exploratory investigation examined three elite New Zealand athletes = perspectives
regarding focused attention and peak performance. The interview results
suggested that there was a relationship between focused attention and peak performance
and provided support for researchers (e.g., Eklund, 1994, 1996) who
have shown that identifiable and different patterns of cognition and affect were
associated with different levels of performance. A comparison of the three athletes
= performances also revealed that their all-time best performances were not characterised
by a complete absence of conscious thought, and that the majority of
these thoughts were strategy and/or tactic related. There was also evidence to
support those researchers (e.g., Jackson, 1996; Kimiecik & Stein, 1992) who have
argued that peak moments such as peak performance, flow and peak experience
were caused by an interaction between personal and situational factors rather than
one or more factors operating in isolation. The results also supported researchers
such as Hardy (1996), Hardy and Parfitt (1991) and Kerr (1985) who have
claimed that the way in which an athlete interpreted his or her arousal and state
anxiety levels was more important than the actual amount of arousal or state
anxiety he or she experienced.
A Mental Training Program for a University Soccer Team in Japan
Yoichi Kozuma, Kinki University, Osaka 577 Japan; Kirnihiro Inomata, Chukyo
University, Toyota, 470--03 Japan; Junichi Miyazaki & Hidekazu Naito,
Aoyamagakuin University, Kanagawa 223 Japan.
Back in 1995, the Japanese University National Soccer Team received a gold
medal at the Unlversiad Games that were held in Fukuoka, Japan. At that time,
Japanese sport psychologists provided the soccer team with an opportunity to
receive training and advice to improve their menral skills. In 1997, the mental
training program that was administered to the national team was adapted and
administered to a university soccer team for one season. The mental training
program consists of five stages: 1) a basic mental training workshop for 15 hours;
2) application of mental training for daily practice and games for step one; 3) an
intermediate mental training workshop for 15 hours; 4) application of mental
training for daily practice and games for step two; and 5) preparation for competition.
This presentation has been designed to identify the background and support
of sport psychology with a Japanese university soccer team. As a result, the
university team became the Kanto Regional Champion and the University Division
II Kaura Regional Champion for the competition season. In addition, the
data from a sport psychological test (Taikyo Sport Motivation Inventory) shows
significant improvement of motivational factors during the soccer season.

S148 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
Why Smart Talk and Opti-Psych Work: Examining the Impact of
Learning Styles and Component Skills on Program Effectiveness
Damon Burton, Kristen Dieffenbach, Bernard Holliday, and Sarah Naylor,
University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83844-2401
The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of learning styles and
component skills on the effectiveness of self talk and arousal control programs.
Participants consisted of 36 students in applied sport psychology courses who
completed j z-day self talk and 6-day arousal control projects based on Burton's
({997) "smart talk" and "opti-psych" protocols. A questionnaire was designed
to investigate (a) participants' learning styles, (b) the perceived overall effectiveness
of each project, and (c) the perceived contribution of component skills to
project efficacy. Results confirmed that the opn-psych project was perceived as
more effective than the smart talk program, although both were rated as highly
beneficial. Although learning styles were nOI significantly related to the effectiveness
of either mental training program, MANOVA results demonstrated significant
effectiveness group differences on imagery and logs for arousal control
and scripts, counterarguments and logs for self talk. Discussion focused on implications
for practitioners.
A SuppleMENTAL Basketball Guide
Nicole J. Detling, Beth A. Howland, and Greg A. Shelley, Ithaca College,
Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
The purpose of this poster presentation is to provide an overview of a mental
training program (MTP) model. This MlP is specifically geared toward the sport
of basketball, but could be adapted and applied 10 other sports. This program
provides athletes with the opportunity to learn and develop basic psychological
skills required to consistently achieve peak performances. The MlP emphasizes
the application and enhancement of the following psychological skills: imagery
and visualization, attention and concentration, communication, goal setting, rclaxation,
arousal and anxiety, and confidence. These skills are then creatively
applied to the various components of the game of basketball. Psychometric and
sociometric tests as well as precompetition, competition, and postcomperition asscssments
are utilized for evaluation purposes. In addition to the manual, an audiotape
is provided to further develop and apply mental training techniques.
Expectations of Athletes aod Nooathletes about Sport Psychology
Consulting
Scott B. Martin, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203; Craig A.
Wrisberg; University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996; P. Jason Leslie, and
Larson Liedig, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203
The purpose of this study was to explore expectations about spon psychology
consulting of athletes and nonathletes. A sport psychology specific version of the

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts! 5149
Expectations about Counseling-Brief Form (Tinsley, 1982) was developed and
administered to 244 college students (78 athletes and 166 nonathletes). vanmax
factor analysis revealed 17 distinct factors. Thus, a 2 (Gender) X 2 (Sport Involvement)
X 17 (Factor) MANOVA and follow-up discriminant function analyses
were performed. Results indicated significant main etteas for gender (p <
.001) and college sport involvement (p < .01). Females were more likely than
males to be motivated to continue consultation and willing to work on concerns
outside the consulting interviews. Males, as compared to females, expected that
the consultant would know how the client feels. Also, athletes expected to enjoy
consulting sessions and were more likely to be honest about personal Issues than
nonathletes. Recommendations for marketing and providing sport psychology services
are offered.
The Effect of Humor on Collegiate Tennis Playecs' Performance OR a
Tennis SkiDs Test
Christopher D. Bernuth, Lewis A. Curry, and Scott D. Sandstedt, University of
Montana, Missoula 59812
Humor has been proven to have beneficial effects on health (DiJJon ct. al., 1985),
hope (Fry, 1987), relaxation (Prerost & Ruma, 1987), learning (Ziv, 1988), and
academic task performance (Laurence & Siegel, 1984). Since little research exists
regarding the effect of humor on athletes' sport performance, the purpose of this
study was to determine differences in varsity men (n = 8) and women (n = 5)
tennis players' performance on the Purcell (1981) Tennis Forehand and Backhand
Drive Test across three conditions: a control condition (sitting quietly) and two
experimental conditions (watching a neutral videotape, watching a humorous videotape).
No significant findings emerged from a two-way (condition X gender)
repaeated measures ANOVA. However, pretest and posuesr measurement of the
Brief Assessment of Mood (Whelan & Meyers, unpublished manuscript) for each
of the three conditions (t-tests) revealed a significant decrease in women's level
of negative feelings after viewing the humorous video (t "" 3.41, P < .02). Further
experimentation with a larger sample size is suggested.
Specific Psychological Preparation for Different Sports Competitions
Gayane Kirakosyan and Tigran Marabyan, Armenian State Institute of Physical
Culture, Armenia
Competition activity of sportsmen in group (team, pairs, crew, etc.) from poeiucm
of psychology quite differs from this out of command (individual championships),
and obviously, the structure of personal activity is comprised in the structure of
groups, as one of its components. We surveyed the psychological specifications
of competition activity in sports which have individual (single) and team (commands,
groups) competitions (fencjng, tennis, gymn1lstics and others) and the
ripifications of sportsmen was studied according to this.
Analyses of activity condition differences, the dynamics of mental states of the

S150 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
individual psychological peculiarities of a sportsmen personality. Allowed to
specify the ways of psychological training for competitions, accounting the specialty
of sports. The method to definite the signed typical sportsmen groups became
the modifying experiment, and the organizing of it supposed either the using
of ttainergers. or special organization of training conditions. In both cases the.
main factor is the properly formed aiming for result (individual or group) and its
concrete mark (time. point.etc.). Such a model of activity conditions came into
training process as an essential fragment of sportsmen psychological training for
the concrete competitions. The registration of noted factors promotes to objectivation
the process of psychological training and to select the sportsmen for the
successful in concrete cornpetltions.Here, it is necessary to sign that the selection
of teams' players is connected with the probability prognostication of those results.
which the sportsmen can reach in coming competitions.
Exercise Imagery: How Meaningful is It?
Krista Munroe and Craig Hall. University of Western Ontario, London, Canada,
N6A 3K7; Wendy Rodgers. University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada.
This study investigated the role of exercise imagery and its relation to behavior,
behavioral intention, self-efficacy, and attitude. Participants were 408 male and
female aerobic participants from two Canadian universities. Forward hierarchical
stepwise regression analysis revealed that behavioral intention. self-efficacy, attitude,
and imagery account for more variance in actual behavior (R2 = .43) than
behavioral intention (R2 = .18). Bandura (1986) and Maddux (995) suggested
that imagery is a determinant of self-efficacy and therefore could be expected to
share significant variance with self-efficacy. However, the forward stepwise entry
in this study demonstrates that imagery accounts for variance over and above that
accounted for by self-efficacy and attitude in both behavior and behavioral intention.
This finding suggests that imagery may be an important vehicle for intervention
in improving exercise motivation. Further research is needed in nonexercising
samples to support this potential.
PACT Program-An Individualized Appl'Uacb to Increasing Pbysical
Activity Adoption and Maintenance
Beth A. Warren. Michael A. Morrey, Katherine M. Vana, Alicia B. Kruger,
Mona H. Geise, Mayo Medical Center, Rochester, .MN 55905
The objective of this :>rudy was to examine the effectiveness of an individualized
approach to adopting and maintaining a physical activity program for sedentary
individuals. One hundred twenty six sedentary employees (22 >=< M; 104 = F) at
a hospital based wellness center enrolled iota Physical Activity Consultation and
Training (PACT) program, a 12 week lifestyle intervention designed to enhance
adherence to physical activity. Baseline measures including height'-weight (BM\).
resting blood pressure, resting heart rate, and body composition were collected.
Participants met with a Health and Wellness Specialist every 2 weeks for 12

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I S151
weeks (6 sessions) to design and continuously modify a personalized program
which emphasized goal setting, self-reward, relapse prevention, progress checks,
self-regulation and positive reinforcement. At program conclusion (post 3
months), adherence rates among participants were 65%. Short-term results indicate
that this individualized approach positively affects adherence to the participant's
goals. Baseline measure changes, in addition to longer-term adherence, will
be presented.
The Effects of Social Support on Exercise Adherence in a Walking
Program
Wyatt Inman and David Scott, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB,
Canada E3B 5A3
The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of social support on exercise
adherence in a walking program. A multiple baseline design across four participants
was implemented with baseline and intervention scores for exercise frequency
and duration being recorded, During baseline participants were asked to
walk alone as often as possible during the week, and record all exercise bouts of
at least 20 minutes in duration. In the intervention phase subjects were sequentially
encouraged to walk with a significant other or in a group. Frequency and
duration of exercise bouts, and average duration per exercise bout were plotted
for each week for each participant. Intervention effects were assessed by means
of visual inspection and by the split middle technique. Results revealed that the
intervention had produced an increase in performance during intervention and
that it was effective in arresting the decline in performance experienced by participants
during baseline.
Developing a Reflective Practice Model to Evaluate Applied Sport
Psychology
Ailsa G. Anderson and Andrew Miles, Worcester College of Higher Education,
Henwick Grove, Worcester, England, WR2 6AJ
Anderson and Miles (1998) proposed a model for the evaluation of applied sport
psychology incorporating four factors. The present research addresses the factor
consultant effectiveness and proposes that an interpretive reflective practice
framework would enable a consultant to effectively self-evaluate, thus increasing
their accountability and enhancing their practice.
Interpretive reflective practice is concerned with 'tacit knowledge', which develops
through experience and is constructed by the knower. Reflective practice
involves examining tacit knowledge, enabling the practitioner to develop a deeper
understanding of their practice and take steps to improve it (Schon, 1983). The
present research employed Johns (1993) model of reflective practice incorporating
structured reflection, supervision and a diary. A trainee sport psychologist adopted
the model for a period of 6 months. The subject's and supervisor's experiences
of and developments with reflective practice were recorded. These experiences

Sl52 / Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
and the structured reflection scripts demonstrated the model's value and appropriateness
for increasing the consultant's accountability and enhancing practice.
Effects of Sport Psychology Consultant Athletic Experience, Similarity, and
Academic Training on Division I-A Athletes' Perceptions of Effectiveness
Douglas M. Hankes, University of Tennessee, Martin, TN 38238 and Trent
Petrie, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203.
This investigation assessed the effects of sport psychology consultant's (SPC)
previous personal athletic experience, SPC-athlete sport similarity, and SPC academic
training. Division I-A athletes (N = 93) read a written description of a
SPC's previous athletic background and academic training and viewed a videotaped
vignette of the SPC conducting a consultation with an athlete. Participants
completed the Sport Psychology Consultant Evaluation FOOD, the Counselor Rating
Form-Short, and questions assessing willingness to work with the SPC. A 2
(level of SPC previous athletic background: elite, recreational) X 2 (athlete participant
sport: volleyball, coacting team sport) X 2 (level of SPC academic training:
Ph.D., B.A.) MANOVA was used to analyze the dependent variables, Significant
main effects were found for previous SPC athletic experience, F(8, 82)
= 3.51, P < .01 and athlete participant sport, F(8, 82) = 7.65, P < .001. Athletes
rated SPC's with an elite athletic background similar to their own sport as more
effective. -
The Athlete's Experience of Being Coached: An ExistentiaI­
Phenomenological Investigation
Matthew S. Johnson, University of Tennessee-Knoxville, Knoxville, TN 37916,
USA
Most research on the coach-athlete relationship has been quantitative in nature.
Various researchers (Dewar and Hom, 1992; Martens, 1987) have discussed the
need to investigate phenomena within sport psychology from a qualitative perspective.
In a recent article, Dale (1996) outlined the existential-phenomenological
research approach to interviewing and developing the thematic structure of
a phenomenon and described its utility within the field of applied sport psychology.
In this study, the existential-phenomenological research method was used to
examine Division I collegiate athletes' experiences of being coached. The thematic
structure of the experience of being coached was found to involve certainty/
uncertainty, familiarity/confusion, feeling special/supported, closeness/distance,
love/hate of sport, coach as a source of resistance/assistance, and coach-focused
vs. playing focused. These results can be useful to researchers in conducting
future causational studies on the coach-athlete relationship and to consultants in
their menta] training activities with athletes.

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I SI53
Preliminary Validation of the Power in Sport Questionnaire:
Understanding the Power of Coaches and Officials
Daniel L Wann, Murray State University, Murray, KY 42071
French and Raven (1959) identified five different sources of power that have
relevance for sport settings: reward, coercive, referent, legitimate, and expert power.
The current investigation was designed to develop a psychometrically sound
instrument for use in assessing these bases of power (labeled the Power in Sport
Questionnaire, PSQ) and to use the instrument to examine the power of sport
coaches and officials. Two I5-itcm forms of the PSQ were constructed. Form
PSQ-O (i.e., other) involved perceptions of the power of others while the PSQ-S
(Le., self) involved perceptions of one's own power. Data were collected from
college varsity athletes, coaches, and officials, and college intramural athletes,
coaches, and officials. Confirmatory factor analyses revealed that the hypothesized
five factor model was highly consistent with the data for each group and
for both forms of the PSQ. Further, Cronbach's reliability analyses revealed that
the scales were internally consistent. The validity of both forms was demonstrated
by successfully predicting differences between the power of a) coaches and officials,
b) head coaches and assistant coaches, and c) varsity and intramural levels
of competition.
Ethical and Professional Issues Concerning the Supervision of and
Participation in Sport Psychology Practicum and Internship Experiences
Bruce G. Klonsky, Stale University of New York College at Fredonia,
Fredonia, NY 14063
The present paper will discuss some of the major ethical and professional issues
concerning the supervision of and participation in sport psychology internship
and practicum experiences at graduate and undergraduate levels. The American
Psychological Association's (1992) Ethical Guidelines will provide the underpinning
for such discussion. The recent work of Andersen and his colleagues te.g.,
Andersen, 1994) will also be integrated into the paper. The issues to be highlighted
are (a) the competencies of the supervisor and the student, (b) multiple or dual
relationships, and (c) confidentiality. Recommendations will be made with regard
to educating supervisors and students concerning such ethical issues and relevant
risk management procedures.
Termination of the Coach-Athlete Relationship: Effects on the Coach
Deborah B. Colgan, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, 55455, USA
Figure skating coaches and their students may develop an intense relationship due
to the year-round a"pec{ of the sport, the one-to-one style of teaching, and the
possibility that a skater may stay with a single coach for many years. The question
of what happens to the coach after this relationship is terminated formed the basis
of this pilot study. Through a retrospective, open-ended questionnaire 69 coaches

S154 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
were surveyed. Their responses showed that this was indeed a traumatic event
eliciting anger, pain, helplessness and lowered self-esteem. Problems were exacerbated
by having the termination initiated by someone else, such as a parent or
another coach. They coped by talking to other coaches and family, avoiding the
issue, and focusing on other tasks. Coaches also distanced themselves from the
athlete. The work environment was often hostile including rink gossip and solicitation
of students by other coaches. Most coaches were resilient and had moved
on within a year of the breakup. From this questionnaire a second, more specific
one was developed for future use.
The Importance of the Coach's Interpersonal Characteristics for
Explaining the Process of Coaching Team Sports
Gordon A. Bloom, California State University at Fresno, Fresno, CA, 93740;
John H. Salmela, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, KIN 6N5
In-depth open-ended interviews were conducted with 16 expert Canadian coaches
from the team sports of basketball, field hockey, ice hockey, and volleyball. The
purpose of the interviews was to examine the characteristics, knowledge, and
strategies of high level team sport coaches regarding their activities in the central
and peripheral components of their profession. All coaches' interviews were transcribed
verbatim and the data were inductively analyzed following the procedures
and techniques outlined by C6te, Salmela, and Russell (1995). This process allowed
the meaning units of the interview transcripts to be grouped into six categories,
which were labeled as organization, training, competition, coach-centered
processes, athlete-centered processes, and contextual factors. Coach-centered
knowledge represented 26.5% of the data base and provided a starting point by
outlining the coaches' attitudes and beliefs about growing. learning, maturing as
a coach, and ways of nurturing this growth process. It also helped the coaches
develop their unique coaching styles and identify the interpersonal variables that
set them apart from their peers. The goal of this presentation is to explain the
importance of the coach-centered processes category for running a successful
athletic team.
Stress and Recovery of Coaches in Elite Sports
Michael Kellmann, Porsdarn University, 14415 Potsdam, Germany; K.
Wolfgang Kallus, Wiirzburg University, 97070 wuraburg, Gennany; Hans
Bberspacher, Hans-Dieter Hermann, Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg,
Germany.
Focusing on reasons for coaches burnout a clear distinction should be made between
professional coaches who work on a full time basis, earning their money
by the job of coaching, and those, who work as semi-professionals on a part time
basis. 46 professional and 9& semi-professional coaches completed the Recovery­
Stress-Questionnaire for Coaches (Kallus & Kellmann, 1995). Results of an univariate
MANOVA revealed that professional coaches describe themselves as more

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I SI55
stressed, experience less recovery, and see themselves as less lit in comparison
to their counterparts who do their job as coach in addition to their normal occupation
(F(36,125) = 1,72; p < 0.043). Professional coaches seem to lose their
hobby by coaching as a career. Simultaneously, they often lose the continuous
contact to their athletes and spend much time driving between training camps.
The compensation of occupational stress by being a coach in one's free time
seems to be lost by working as main occupation.
Relatiomhip or Demographic and Psychological Variables to Career
Maturity of Junior Couege Student-Athletes
Alan S. Kornspan, University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325; Edward R Etzel,
West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26505
Recently, investigators have started to research the career maturity of studentathletes
(Riffe & Alexander, 1991). Although sparse, available career maturity
literature suggests that some student-athletes may be less career mature than nonathletes
(Kennedy & Dimick, 1987; Smallman & Sowa, 1996). Thus the purpose
of this study was to identify variables that may predict lower career maturity in
some student-athletes. Participants were 259 junior-college student-athletes who
completed a survey packet consisting of a demographic information questionnaire,
the Career Maturity Inventory, the Athletic Identity Measurement Scale, the Career
Decision Making Self-Efficacy Scale, and the Career Development Locus of
Control Scale. Results revealed that the chosen variables predicted a significant
proportion of the variance in career maturity scores (R2 = .26, F (7, 251) =
12.43, P < .OCXH). Future research should examine if these demographic and
psychological variables are related to career maturity in other samples of college
student-athletes.
Concurrent Validity of the Feelings Profile and the Multiple Affect Attitude
Check List-Revised
Christina Jackson, Collegc of William and Mary, Williamsburg, VA 23187­
8795 and Charles W. Jackson, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA 23529­
0196, USA
The purpose of this study was to further validate the emerging Feelings Profile
(FP) as a viable measure of mood states in a concise and unobtrusive manner.
Prior validation has shown that FP derived items (tension, depression, anger, vigor,
fatigue, confusion and total mood disturbance) are highly related to specific
domains of the Profile of Mood States. Fifty-nine subjects were administered the
FP (19 items) along with the independently devised Multiple Affect Adjective
Check List-Revised (MAACL-R, 120 items). Significant coefficients (.42 to .87)
indicated concurrent validity as follows: MAACL-R anxiety, depression, hostility,
and dysphoria were highly related with FP items tension, depression, anger, confusion
and total mood disturbance, while sensation seeking and PASS (positive
affect + sensation seeking) were highly related to FP's vigor. Overall these 00-

S156 / Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
ditional data suggest that the FP is a solid short measure of mood state which
can be used in clinical interventions or experimental manipulations.
Attitudes of Adolescent Non-anabolic Steroid Users about Anabolic
Steroids
Shawn Chillag, Robert C. Byrd Health Sciences Center, Charleston, WV,
25304; John Hell, Lewis-Gale Clinic, Roanoke, VA, 24012; and Jane Cormier;
Private Practice, Tallahassee, FL, 32308
From five to ten percent of high school students have used anabolic steroids (AS).
A voluntary anonymous questionnaire survey of high school students was conducted
at the time of preparticipation physical examinations in Salem, Virginia
and Charleston, West Virginia. Only nine of 1,025 students reported AS use. A
major barrier to AS use was that anabolic steroids were considered "unfair"
(80.5%). Of those non-AS users who used other drugs, 49% said that they would
use AS if AS were not so dangerous compared to only 22% of non-drug users
who would use AS (p = 0.001). A sports advantage of AS use was felt to be
present by 51.2% of males vs. 36% of females (p < 0.05); 55.9% of males
reported that {hey could obtain AS compared to 33.8% of females (p < 0.05).
The lack of an association of AS use with performance in athletics has been
demonstrated.
High School Athletes' Attitudes toward Seeking Sport Psychology Services
Scott B. Martin, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203
Most studies assessing athletes' perceptions of sport psychology services have
focused on the attitudes of college and/or elite athletes. Therefore, the purpose of
the present study was to determine high school athletes' attitudes toward seeking
sport psychology services. The Attitudes Toward Seeking Sport Psychology Consultation
Questionnaire (ATSSPCQ) developed by Martin, Wrisberg, Beitel, and
Lounsbury (1997) was administered to 505 high school athletes (211 males and
294 females). Principal components factor analysis followed by varimax orthogonal
rotation confirmed the original factor structure. A MANOVA and follow-up
univariate analyses were then performed on the three factors (i.e., stigma tolerance,
confidence/recognition of need, and personal openness) to identify which
ones maximized differences for males and females. A significant difference in
stigma tolerance was found for males and females. Female athletes were more
comfortable seeking sport psychology consultation than were male athletes. These
findings are consistent with previous research assessing athletes' attitudes toward
sport psychology.

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I S157
Identifying the Sport Psychology Consultant: Education, Expertise, and
Needs for Professionalization
Paul Wylleman and Paul De Knop, Vrije Universiteit Brussel. Belgium, & Yves
Vanden Auweele, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium
In order to chart the status of sport psychology consulting in Belgium, 18 consultants
were surveyed regarding academic background, sport psychology training
and consultation expertise. 61 % of consultants had a clinical psychology formation
with a limited training in sport psychological consulting. Consultations focused
in general on athletes' interpersonal relationship skills and communication,
and fear of failure, while stress management techniques, enhancement of relationship
and communication skills, and visualization and goal-setting were used
as intervention techniques. Specialization in sport psychology at academic level,
continued sport psychology consultation training, and a better profiling of sport
psychology consultants toward the world of sports, were identified as recommendations
for enhancing the development of applied sport psychology.
WORKSHOP: Resonance: A Conceptual Framework for Perfonnance
Education
Doug Newburg, Resonance, Inc., Charlottesville, VA 22940; William B. Strean,
University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2H9; Kris Krueger,
University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904; Jay Kimiecik, Miami
University, Oxford, OH; Tom Hanson, Resonance, Inc., Charlottesville, VA
22940
The purpose of this workshop is to provide an experiential introduction to the
Resonance Performance Model. The model, developed from interviews with hundreds
of top performers, is a process-oriented conceptual framework designed to
help performers consistently create the feelings that lead to optimal performance
and personal fulfillment. Participants will engage in self-reflective exercises and
group experiential activities to gain personal understanding of "resonance" as
the key to peak performance. The workshop concludes with a discussion of how
the model has been successfully implemented with sport teams, businesses, and
hospitals.
WORKSHOP: Fresh Air: Bnathing Energy, Creativity and Life into Sport
Psychology Education and Training
Pat Latham Bach, Peak Performance Associates, Loomis, CA 95650; Lois A.
Butcher, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA. 19122; and Jane C. Henderson,
John Abbott College, Quebec, Canada H9X 3L9.
If asked, most sport psych graduate students, faculty and even practicing professionals
would admit that not every class, every presentation, every consultation
is a flow experience. Occasionally, lectures, labs, meetings and consultations are
less than scinttillating, peak performance moments. Alternatively, despite best

S158 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
efforts, perhaps the deeper meaning, the essence of the lessons, the "take home"
messages just don't register. These experiences present a dilemma...how to "kindle
the fire" of stakeholder interest while accomplishing the goal of education
and training.-In truth, these are not mutually exclusive tasks. Despite the fact
that learning is serious business, it is possible to infuse enthusiasm, color and
enjoyment into traditional sport psych curriculum and training experiences. Yeats
said: "Education is not filling a bucket but lighting a fire". The path to success
for sport psychology educators and practitioners is to find creative alternatives to
meet these challenges, to facilitate and enhance the "teachable moments". The
purpose of this workshop is to bring a fresh perspective, a whiff of fresh air, to
make sport psychology education and training a more user friendly and enjoyable
experience for all involved. Goals for this interactive session include: I.) a multimedia
"show and tell" presentation of non-traditional resources, 2.) small group
think: tank exercises to determine best and worst case anecdotal experiences, 3.)
a participant generated list of resources for use in future classroom and consulting
endeavors, 4.) dialogue regarding creativity and its place in sport psych education,
and 5.) a "take home" menu of resources for your Creativity Library developed
by the presenters.
A DevelopmenlaJ Study on Goal Setting Strategies of High School Baseball
Players
Jim Skclton, California State University Fullerton, Fullerton, CA 92634
The purpose of this research was to identify developmental differences in goalsetting
strategies of high school baseball players. The participants in this study
were male high school baseball players (n = 274) from six Orange County programs.
Subjects completed a goal-setting questionnaire specifically designed for
this investigation. The findings suggested that there is some difference in goalsetting
strategies of high school baseball players. These results further indicated
that changes concur with the maturation and physical development of the individuals.
Specifically, the goal-setting strategies used by individuals to enhance
athletic development appear to change over time as they mature and develop.
Recommendations for future research include examining the goal-setting strategies
of females in comparison to those of males, administering the questionnaire
to athletes of different sports, and using qualitative data to supplement the findings
of the questionnaire.
An Empirical Test of the Full Catastrophe Model in the Anxiety-Athletic
Performance Relationship
Chung-Hee Chung, Seoul National University, Seoul, 151-742, Korea; Eun­
Kyu Choi, Konyang University, Nonsan, Chungchong-do, 320-711, Korea;
Won-Bae Kim, Seoul National University, Seoul, 151-742, Korea; Jun-Hce
Hong, Seoul National University, Seoul, 151-742, Korea
This study tested the prediction of a cusp catastrophe model in anxiety-athletic
performance relationship on the collected performance plane through the optimal

5160 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
Canadian master's level swimmers completed a questionnaire immediately following
a swim practice. Situational measures of perceptions of a mastery motivational
climate, perceptions of a perfonnance motivational climate, and flow were assessed.
Results revealed that a mastery motivational climate was positively and
significantly related to the experience of flow. No significant link was obtained
between perceptions of a performance motivational climate and the flow state.
Findings are discussed in light of research and theory on motivation and flow,
directions for future research are presented, and practical implications are addressed.
Concurrent Validity of the Revised Anxiety Rating Scale
Richard H. COX and Marshall Robb, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO,
65211
The Anxiety Rating Scale (ARS) is a shortened version of the Competitive State
Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2). Subsequent use of the ARS led to the suggestion
that minor modifications in the ARS might enhance the concurrent validity of the
instrument. It was the purpose of this investigation to compare the concurrent
validity of the original ARS with two revisions of the ARS. Participants in the
investigation were 180 college age intramural volleyball participants. Results revealed
that for females, revision two yielded the largest correlations with CSAI­
2 subscales; for males, revision two again yielded the largest correlations relative
to cognitive and somatic anxiety, but not for self-confidence.
Collapsing across gender, revision two yielded the highest correlations for cognitive
anxiety, somatic anxiety, and self-confidence. These correlation coefficients
were .71, .70 and .75 respectively. It was concluded that revision two exhibited
the highest level of concurrent validity when research participants were intramural
volleyball players.
Sensation Seeking and Strategy Choice among Elite Traditional Three
Event Waterskiers
John K. Meis, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306; David Pargman,
Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306
Sensation seeking tendencies, as measured by Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking
Scale (SSS) (form V) were compared among athletes in the three traditional waterskiing
events: slalom, trick, and jump. The relationship between sensation seeking
score and strategy choice as measured by the Strategic Ball Toss (SBT) (Clementi
& Pargman, 1990) was also examined. The SSS was administered to male
(n = 58) and female (n = 33) athletes competing at the 1996 Eastern Regional
Waterski Championships. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and 'Iukey's Honestly
Significant Difference analyses examined differences in event and gender variables
on overall SSS scores. Slalom and jump scores were not significantly different,
and trick scores were significantly lower than both. No significant gender
differences in SSS scores were found. Pearson correlations examined the rela-

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I S 161
tionship between SSS scores and SBT strategy selection for males, females and
the combined group. Although the correlation for females was not significant,
both the male and combined correlations were positive and significant.
WORKSHOP: The Process or Assessment in Sport Psychology Consulting:
Part 2: Supervision
Organizer: Cynthia Adams, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215; Gloria
Balague, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607; Hap Davis,
Private Practice, Calgary, Alberta, T2P 3C5, Canada; Mary Ann Kane,
MindPower Resources, Cambridge, MA 02138; Katherine Kilty, MindPower
Resources, Cambridge, MA 02138; Dave Collins, Manchester Metropolitan
University, Alsager, ST72HL, England; Albert Petitpas, Springfield College,
Springfield, MA 01109
Recognition of the importance of supervision in sport psychology consulting has
received considerable attention recently (c.g..; Anderson & Williams-Rice, 1996;
Anderson, Van Raalte & Brewer, 1994; Hale & Collins, 1996). Unfortunately,
many practicing consultants receive little supervision and even less training in
how to be a supervisor (e.g. Pentpas, Brewer, Riviera, & Van Raalte, 1994;
Barney, Anderson & Riggs, 1996). The purpose of this workshop is to demonstrate
the importance of supervision and to show skilled sport psychology supervisors
in action, Each supervisor will model a small group supervision session
with two consultants, who vary in experience levels and theoretical approach. The
consultants will discuss their work with either an athlete or coach. The objectives
of the workshop are to: I) highlight some of the typical issues addressed in
supervision; 2) demonstrate appropriate supervisory styles; 3) show a variety of
consulting and supervisory styles.
WORKSHOP: Au Academic Course Specific to Student-Athlete Needs:
Enhancing Sport Confidence, Self-Esteem, and Hope
Through Active Learning Experiences
Lewis A. Curry, Sameep D, Maniac, Scott D. Sandstedt, & John Sommers­
Flanagan, University of Montana, Missoula 59812
An academic course was implemented at an NCAA Division I university with
the goal of introducing life-skills and performance enhancement strategies specific
to the needs of student-athletes, The goal of the proposed workshop is to demonstrate
active-learning strategies conducted in this class. Pre-post data were collected
on 62 student-athletes enrolled in the class across four years and control
groups of 36 student-athletes. Results for athletes taking the class revealed a
significant pre-post increase in trait self-esteem (t = 3.12, P < .01), trait sport
confidence (t = -2.87, P < .02), and trait hope (t = -4.57, P < .01). No significant
pre-post differences were found in the control group. Learner objectives
for workshop participants include participation in demonstrated active learning

SI62 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
techniques and gained appreciation for active learning strategies. An outline of
the class notebook athletes generate in the class will be handed out.
WORKSHOP: An Exploratory Study on EEG Biofeedback
(Neurofeedback) with Elite Athletes
Gayelene 1. Clews, Psychologist, Australian Capital Territory Academy of
Sport, Canberra, 2611, Australia; and Barbara J. Walker, M.A., Union Institute,
Cincinnati, OH 45206, USA.
This study examined the effectiveness of neurofeedback on arousal and concentration
levels used in conjunction with mental imagery. Participants were ten elite
Australian athletes from various sports aged between 17 and 30. Each participant
in the study had identified experiencing anxiety prior to entering the study, and
was given a rating scale developed by the authors to assess present sleep patterns,
menstrual regularity, and reactions to varying competitive situations while under
pressure. Measurement of EEG signals were taken for all ten session with a single
electrode at points C3 and C4 (parietal lobe). Beta (15-18 Hz), sensory motor
rhythm (SMR; 12-15 Hz), and theta (4-7 Hz) range of frequencies were studied.
Results indicate that neurofeedback training enhances the awareness of the individual
to access and maintain different states of physiological arousal, enhances
and supports the mechanisms by which the brain manages cortical hyperexcitability,
and it reinforces equilibrium states, i.e. homeostasis.
W.ORKSHOP: Psychological Skills Training and Practice Regimens for
Perfonnance in Golf and Related Self-paced Sports
Glen Albaugh, University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA 95211; Bill Moore, East
Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27858; Beth Kane, University of Kansas,
Lawrence, KS 66045
The primary objective of the workshop will demonstrate psychological skills
training and practice strategies used extensively in golf performance workshops
and consultations. There will be an emphasis on closed skill movements, specific
10 golf and other self-paced sport skills, including: 1) concentration routines, 2)
trust, 3) kinesthetic and visualization awareness, 4) practice regimens and 5) emotional
intelligence. Interactive and innovative small group sessions will allow
participants to view demonstrations and to learn from three experienced golf perfonnance
consultants of the role applied sport psychologist consultants play in
the enhancement of golf experiences. Handouts will include worksheets and questionnaires
applicable to the consultant and client relationship.
Insight into Coaches' Thoughts: Factors that Influence the Interactive
Decisions of Youth Ice Hockey Coaches During Practices
St6phane Gaumond, Wade Gilbert, Pierre Trudel and Leon Larocque, University
of Ottawa, Canada, KIN 6N5
The purpose of this study was to provide a descriptive analysis of the factors that
influence the interactive decisions of youth ice hockey coaches during practices.

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I 5163
Eight coaches of boys competitive youth ice hockey teams (age 10 -15) participated
in the study. Each coach was videotaped during three practices and interviewed
before and after each one. In addition, a stimulated recall interview was
conducted with the coaches following each practice. A total of 24 stimulated
recall interview transcripts were inductively analyzed, revealing 5 types of decisions,
6 types of goals and 19 types of factors. Overall, 168 interactive decisions
were discussed. An average of 2.3 factors were cited for each interactive decision.
The three most often cited factors by the coaches were: (I) player(s) habits and
history (18.2%), (2) player(s) performance on ice (15.1 %), and (3) coach's history
and experience (l0.1%). This study extends the findings of a similar study conducted
with ice hockey coaches during games (Gilbert, Trudel & Haughian, 1997).
When viewed in conjunction, the results of these two studies provide consultants
and researchers with valuable insight into the cognitive component of coaching.
Fun in Youth Sport: Perspectives of Children, Parents, and Coaches
William B. Strean, Gina Arena, Shannon Bredin, and Kim Senecal, University
of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2H9
Having fun is the primary participation motive in youth sport (Ewing & Seefeldt,
1990). Yet there is relatively little information about the specific characteristics
that may increase children's fun in their youth sport participation. Using concept
maps (Novak & Gowan, 1984), and interviews, this study explored children's,
parents', and coaches' perceptions about what enhances and detracts from children's
fun during their youth sport experiences. All participants (N = 164) were
involved with a youth sport program at the time of data collection.We interviewed
15 participants (3 coaches,S parents, and 7 children) and 149 participants completed
concept maps (11 coaches, 21 parents, and 117 children). The participants
were involved with boys' and girls' soccer, boys' and girls' curling, boys' volleyball,
and boys' hockey. Results are reported in light of Deci and Ryan's (1985)
Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination Theory, supporting the importance
of interpersonal relatedness, perceptions of competence, and self-determination.
Confirmatory Factor Analysis 01 the Social Support Survey
Tim Rees; Lew Hardy, University of Wales, Bangor; and Lynne Evans,
University of Wales Institute, Cardiff
Assessment of social support in sport has been hampered by inadequate measurement.
The Social Support Survey (555), validated by Richman, Rosenfeld
and Hardy (1993), is a multidimensional self-report measure of social support,
tested with student athletes. The SS5 contains eight dimensions and four qualifying
statements regarding number of people, satisfaction, difficulty of obtaining
more, and importance of support. The present study reports continnatory factor
analyses of the S5S on 416 University of Wales athletes. Analyses revealed poor
fits to the models for the eight-factor model of support, and for the four-factor
model. Fits could have been improved by allowing measurement errors to covary,

Sl64 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
however, this would have violated the assumptions of the models. The SSS may
therefore be a useful tool for practitioners, but it has psychometric limitations.
Further, possibly qualitative research is needed to explore the nature and structure
of social support for sportspeople.
Examining the Interaction between Goal Perspectives and Other Motivated
Behaviors
Sarah L. Price, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078; and L. Keith
Tennant, State University of West Georgia, Carrollton, GA 30117
Recent achievement motivation literature has questioned whether goal orientations
are linked to other motivated behaviors. This investigation was designed to assess
the interaction between goal perspectives, self-efficacy (SE), intrinsic motivation
(1M), and attribution (AB) when success, failure, or no feedback was provided
during practice and competitive settings. Success groups were expected to report
more task or ego feelings for their respective goal orientation and to have greater
SE, 1M, and more functional ABs during practice and competition. Sixty-eight
males, assigned to six groups stratified by two goal orientations, received their
respective feedback during basketball practice and competition settings. Analyses
revealed that during practice task and ego control groups and the ego success
group had more SE than the task failure group. Additionally, 1M data revealed
that control groups felt more competent than all other groups. During competition
winners had more SE than losers and ego control and ego success group winners
had greater SE than all others. All groups experienced lower SE during competition
when compared with their baseline and practice responses. Ego control
winners felt more competent than task failure losers. No changes were observed
for ABs among any of the groups during practice or competition. Overall findings
seem to indicate an interaction between goal orientations and the accompanying
feedback based upon reported SE and 1M, but not with AB.
Observational Learning: Is a Pidu['c Really Worth a Thousand words?
John M. Noble, University of Nebraska, Omaha, NE 68182, Penny McCullagh,
University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309
Following Bendure's (1986) social cognitive framework, this study compared the
effects of visual demonstration and verbal description on the performance of the
motor and cognitive components of an ann sequencing task (Carroll & Bandura,
1982, 1985, 1987, 1990). To test the primary research question, a 2 X 2 X 12
(Demonstration Type X Order of Testing X Trial) multi-factorial design was instituted.
University students (N = 64) were randomly assigned to receive either
visual demonstrations or verbal descriptions of the task. During live acquisition
trials and two retention trials, half the subjects performed the motor component
of the task and the other half of the subjects performed the cognitive components.
Following retention, subjects switched to the opposite task component for live
transfer trials. Either visual demonstration or verbal description preceded each

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I 5165
acquisition and transfer trial. Self-efficacy was assessed just before performance
for each trial. Judges were trained in the appropriate techniques for scoring the
task and assessed motor performance via videotaped replays. A doubly multivariate,
repeated measures analysis of variance (OM MANOVA) was applied to the
data (Schutz & Gessaroli, 1987), to determine the effects of the different demonstration
interventions and order of testing on the outcome measures. The results
of the OM MANOVA analyses indicate that, whereas performances of the motor
task and picture (a cognitive task) tests are enhanced by visual demonstrations,
word test (another cognitive task) performance is best enhanced by verbal description.
These results question the experimental practice of only assessing performance
in terms of motor skill and pictorial represenl.ation. It is very possible
that knowledge is being gained as a result of verbal descriptions that is not readily
conveyed in the motor format.
Athletes' Interpersonal Perceptions of the "Parent-coach" in Competitive
Sport
Paul Wylleman & Paul De Knop, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium.
The perceptions of 15 athletes (M = 17.1 yrs, national level) coached by their
parent was investigated using a semi-structured interview and the Sport Interpersonal
Relationships Questionnaire. 67% of parent-coaches (PC) started due to a
lack of sport club coaches (53.2%), coaching subjects during the initiation phase
in athletes' sport careers. 80% of PC's competed in high-level sport. Major advantages
of a PC were the guidance during non-training hours (52%), a stronger
interest in athletes' sport career (28%), and a lack of parent-coach conflicts (20%).
Subjects' interpersonal perceptions revealed positive and constructive relationships
with the PC and with the other parent. 30% perceived the PC to spend more
time with them than with their siblings, while 43.5% assessed PC's to be more
strict and demanding for them than for other athletes. Finally, 50% found PC's
to have a more positive attitude toward them than did other coaches, while 20%
assessed PC's to be more negative.
WORKSHOP: Diversifying Your Practice: Transferring Your Performance
Enhancement Skills to Other Populations
Sandra Poster, Stanford University, CA 94305; Kate Hays, The Performing
Edge, Toronto, Ontario M5TIM2
A major concern to consultants is me expansion of their practices and how to
accomplish this by diversifying their services. The prime objective of this workshop
is to demonstrate the practical skills that allow the consultant to achieve this
practice diversification. The first premise shared with participants is that performance
enhancement skills add considerable value to the outcomes of people in
many different domains including business and performing arts. A second premise
is that there exist ethical and legal means by which those trained in sport psychology
and sport science can expand their scope of practice beyond me discipline

Sl66 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
of sport. A third premise is that marketing of diversified services can be done in
a manner consistent with those recommended by professional organizations, such
as the Practice Directorate of the American Psychological Association. The two
presenters draw upon their experience of successful practice diversification and
share the strategies that allowed them to expand their service delivery quickly
and effectively to other populations.
COLLOQUUJM: The Role of the Sport Psychologist in the Assessment and
Management of Head Injury in Sports
Frank L. Gardner, New York Rangers Hockey Club, USA; Pamela Karp, St.
Johns University, USA
Head injuries, particularly mild traumatic brain injuries (MTBI) or concussions
pose a significant problem for athletes. At all levels of sport participation, concussion
is receiving increased public and general media attention. The National
Collegiate Athletic Association via its injury surveillance system has suggested
that head injuries account for 2-4.5% of all injuries to college athletes (NCAA,
1992). There is some indication that in some sports the incidence of concussion
during a career could be well over 50% (Echemendia. 1998). High profile athletes
in both professional football and hockey have had highly successful careers prematurely
cut short as the result of MTBI, a situation which has received a great
deal of media attention. The diagnosis and management of MTBI is often frustrating
to the sports medical team as traditional radiology techniques (MR!, CT)
are typically unable to accurately assess structural, chemical or symptomatic
changes that result. Neuropsychological assessment techniques, intended to assess
a broad range of neuro-cognitive functioning including reaction time, fluency,
attention, memory and problem solving have been shown to be highly effective
in accurately evaluating mild head injuries (Lezak, 1996; Barth et al, 1989). This
presentation will: 1. provide information relating to incidence, epidemiology, and
diagnosis of MTBI, including recent classification systems, 2. provide relevant
recent research from high school, college and professional (NFL) levels regarding
the use of neuropsychological procedures in MTBI assessment/management, 3.
provide a detailed description of the background and procedures utilized in the
National Hockey League Concussion Project, 4. provide guidelines for both the
psychologist and non-psychologist in the proper use of neuropsychological assessment
in the evaluation and management of MTBI. This will include brief
sideline assessment procedures as well as formal testing protocols, criteria and
discussion of return to play decisions,S. discuss the role of the psychologist in
the sports medicine team including training-expertise, ethics and team setting!
issues.
WORKSHOP: Crossing the Human Diversity Barrier Using a Case Studies
Approach
Tova Rubin, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC 27403 and
Joy Griffin, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131.
Addressing the need to train individuals to be aware of and sensitive to issues of
human diversity can be difficult task. The basic methodology used has been the

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts / 5167
traditional readings and discussion route which leaves much to be desired when
intervention application is the favored outcome. The primary focus of this workshop
is the demonstration of a case studies approach to familiarize individuals to
the issues involved with human diversity. The specific objectives of this workshop
are to: (I) review the basic skills needed in dealing with human diversity concerns,
(2) demonstrate how human diversity concerns can be addressed through
the use of case studies, and (3) give the participants of the workshop an experience
with case studies involving human diversity concerns. These objectives will
be met through a discussion and hands-on interactive approach. The facilitators
will share personal experiences on working with diverse populations in exercise
and sport psychology related cases.
WORKSHOP: Adventure Therapy: A Team Building Intervention in Sport
Teresa B. Fletcher and Justine J. Reel, University of North Carolina at
Greensboro, Greensboro, NC 27412
Adventure Therapy has a basic philosophy of learning through direct experience
with the goal of promoting change by placing people outside of positions of
comfort and into states of dissonance (Guss, 1993). Although adventure therapy
has been primarily used in counseling dysfunctional clients (e.g. Youth at risk,
survivors of violence, families, etc.), there are far-reaching implications as a team
building intervention with athletes. The goals of Ibis presentation are to: (I) define
adventure therapy; (2) use a small group activity to demonstrate adventure therapy;
and (3) to process the meaning of the activity. Adventure therapy will be
explained as related to applied sport psychology. Handouts will be provided to
workshop participants.
WORKSHOP: The Sport Psychologist's Influence on Character
Development: Highly Valued yet Rarely Examined
John Yeager, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215; Cindy Adams, Boston
University, Boston, MA 02215
The primary objective of this workshop is to address the role that an athlete's
character development has on motivation and performance. Although there are
psychological and social considerations that influence athletic performance. the
development of an athlete's character is an essential dynamic. Good character, for
purposes of this workshop, is the acquisition/development of desirable and admirable
traits that are highly valued in sport. These positive traits include, but
are not limited to respect, responsibility, integrity (consistency of action), courage,
(founded in self-discipline and patience), moderationlbalance and care and compassion.
As a result of this workshop, participants will be able to: I) develop and
apply working definitions of good character to the field of sport psychology; 2)
examine the relationship between psychosocial and character-based dynamics; 3)
investigate the influence of the development of character habits on achievement
motivation. The character development of youth, secondary, collegiate, and pro-

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts I SI69
WORKSHOP: NHL Light the Lamp: A Multimedia Life SkiDs Program
Michael A. Simon, The Sporting Mind, New York, NY 10024; Kenneth M.
Yaffe, National Hockey League, New York, NY 10020.
The objective of this workshop is to introduce NHL Light the Lamp, a multimedia
program that utilizes hockey to teach a variety of life skills lessons to North
American youth who participate in the National Hockey League's grassroots street
hockey program. Initial discussion will focus on the league's rationale for creating
such a program, the demographics of the program, and the design of the multimedia
curriculum. Workshop participants will then have an opportunity to watch
the video and review the instructor's guide and youth workbook. Discussion of
the entire video and print curriculum, coupled with an explanation of the present
state of the program, will allow workshop participants to gain personal insight
into Light the Lamp's development, implementation and assessment.
WORKSHOP: Psychological Barriers to Excellence in Sport Performance
Burton Giges, Springfield College, Springfield, MA 01109 USA
Most interventions in performance enhancement in sport involve mental skills
training. Techniques such as goal setting, relaxation, visualization, self-talk, and
concentraton are among those usually described. The purpose of this presentation
is to describe an alternative approach to performance enhancement, namely, the
identification and removal of psychological barriers to performance excellence.
By including this approach, sport psychology practitioners will have an additional
method to help athletes deal with performance difficulties. The first half of the
workshop will consist of a didactic presentation describing several psychological
barriers, and the process of helping to remove them. Examples of this process
will be presented from my work with athletes. The second half of the workshop
will consist of an interview with an athlete who is experiencing a psychological
banier to performance excellence. Time will be provided to allow for comments
and questions from the workshop participants.
WORKSHOP: Making Sport Psychology Consulting Effective:
Demonstrations from Applied Sport Psychology Classes
Artur Poczwardowski, Clay Sherman, Keith Henschen, University of Utah, Salt
Lake City, UT 84112, USA; Rich Gordin, Utah State University, Logan, UT
84322, USA; Ken Ravizza, California State University, Fullerton, CA 92634,
USA; Grcg Shelley, Ithaca College, NY 14850, USA.
Sport psychology service delivery is in a developmental stage where looking for
standards of practice is critical in establishing credibility for the field. This workshop
will provide an opportunity for its participants to gain insights into their
sport psychology consulting selves. Based on a model of sport psychology service
delivery (Poczwardowski, Sherman, & Henschen, in press) and the collective
experinces of the workshop facilitators in teaching this model to sport psychology

S170 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
graduate students, the participants will explore, explicate, discuss, compare, and
integrate their personal views and consulting experiences with regard to the critical
elements of effective sport psychology service delivery identified in the modeL
The explored issues will include (I) professional boundaries, (2) professional
philosophy, (3) assessment, (4) managing oneself as an instrument of the intervention,
and (5) reflection---conclusions and implications. The leaders will argue
that the model and its five factors discussed can be used (a) as a resource for the
participants' own practice as current and emerging sport psychology consultants
in an effort to maximize an effective and satisfying practice, (b) as educational
goals while developing a graduate curriculum, and (c) as a voice in the discussion
of sport psychology practice standards. As a result of the hands-on experiences
provided during the workshop, the participants will be able to see these factors
as pieces of a developmental process that the sport psychology practitioner may
consider and address over time. The participants will obtain written materials that
will further direct their exploration of their professional selves with regard to
optimizing the development of their sport psychology practice.
WORKSHOP: Critical Points in the Path of an Elite Athlete: Psychological
Stress and Adaptation
Gloria Balague, U. of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL; Ralph Vemacchia,
Western Washington University, Bellingham, Washington; Rich Gordin, Utah
Stale University, Logan, UT; Jim Reardon, Columbus Traumatic Stress Center,
Columbus, OH
This workshop will analyze the pathway of elite athletes, from junior years to
competitive maturity. The authors propose that there are several critical points in
the pathway followed by an elite athlete. AI these times psychological stress is
greatly increased and the athlete must be able to adapt, otherwise there is a major
risk of drop out or of significant decrements in perfonnance. Hobfolls' stress
model, linking stress to the perception of loss of resources will be used as a
framework. The main points described in the workshop will be: the transition
from successful junior athlete to competing at the senior level, often coinciding
with the switch from high school to college; the post-collegiate phase, where the
athlete may find him or herself without clear support or avenues; the stress of
being a champion, being expected to always produce successful performances;
the recovery from an injury; and career termination. Specific descriptions of the
sources of stress and concrete recommendations for interventions will be given
by the presenters, drawing from their experience with high level competitors.
WORKSHOP: Evolution versus Intervention: The Athlete Evolution Model
Don J. Milham, Sportlogic Performance Enhancement Consulting, Philadelphia,
PA 19031 and Lois A. Butcher, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19122
This workshop will introduce the concept of evolution as opposed to intervention
within the context of sport psychology consulting. Traditionally, counseling psy-

Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts! S171
chologists have employed interventions as a means of altering the client's behavior
or perceptions, implying the behavior needs to be changed or stopped. We
propose introduction of enhancement skills as behavioral evolution leading to
desired performance. Part I of this workshop looks at the athlete's concept of the
counseling process, including stereotypic views, expectations and values as a
springboard for discussion. Video clips and small group problem-solving will be
the focus for an interactive experience. Part II examines application of Athlete
Evolution Model (AEM) techniques designed to develop the complete athlete.
Utilization of more standard techniques in conjunction with AEM techniques will
be discussed in the context of potential treatment plans for hypothetical case
studies.
WORKSHOP: The Nine Mental Skills of Successful athletes: A Holistic
Model for Assessing and Teaching Mental SkiUs to Athletes
Jack J. Lesyk, Ohio Center for Sport Psychology, Beachwood, OH 44122
This is a practical model for systematically integrating the many diverse techniques
used in perfonnance enhancement. The author proposes a hierarchical
model in which nine mental skill groups are defined. Both the model itself and
the definition of the skills are intended to be easily understood and used by
athletes and coaches. The nine skills are presented in three, sequential levels:
Level Lc-skills that constitute a broad base necessary for achieving long-range
goals, learning and developing as an athlete, and sustaining daily practice (attitude,
motivation, goals and commitment, people skills). Level Il-c-skills that are
used inunediately before perfonnance (self-talk, mental imagery), and Levelillskills
that are used during actual performance (dealing with anxiety, dealing with
emotions, and concentration). Each level incorporates and is based upon skills
learned at the preceding levels. The purpose of the workshop is to introduce this
new model to participants and to teach them how to use it in the assessment and
planning of mental skills training programs with their own clients. The author
has used this model successfully and will illustrate its application with an assessment
interview, case examples and audiovisual materials. Handouts wi11 enable
interested participants to apply these concepts to their own work. Finally,
this model provides a framework for applying mental skills learned through sports
participation to other areas of life.
WORKSHOP: Reinventing the Wheel: A New Spin on Addressing Ethical
Dilemmas in Sport
Diana Schwartz, Westfield State College, 'westfield, MA 01086; Teresa
Connelly, Springfield College; Lenny Wiersma, Springfield College
The purpose of this workshop is to provide individuals with an opportunity to
learn techniques to actively engage students, athletes, and coaches in discussions
of ethical issues in sport. The specific objectives of the workshop are to have
participants: I) appreciate the need for ethics education in sport; 2) acquire the

5172 I Colloquia, Lectures, Posters & Workshops Abstracts
knowledge necessary to utilize a variety of techniques to engage students, coaches,
and athletes in addressing ethical issues; and 3) participate in ethical skills
training activities. Following an introduction of past and current ethical concerns
in sport, attendees will participate in interactive and small group activities that
will provide an opportunity for creative problem solving and decision-making
regarding various ethical dilemmas in sport.

S174 I ABSTRACT INDEX
Collins, D. S85, S133, SI61
Collins, K. E. S 138
Connelly, T. S171
Conroy, D. E. S28, S29
Cooley, D. S107
Coppel, D. B. S65, S66
Cormier; J. S156
Cornelius, A. E. S128, S141
Cox, R. H. S97, S160
Crews, D. S61, S62
Culp, K. M. S96
Culver, D. S79
Curry, L. A. S84, S117, S149, S161
Czech, D. R. SlO5
Dale, G. A. S36, S37, S133
Damarjian, N. S63
Danish, S. S49, S87
Davidson, K. W. Sl24
Davis, C. S121
Davis, H. S39, S40, SI61
Davis, J. E. S97
de Prazer, V. A. S90, S122
De Knop,P. S157, S165
DeFrancesco, C. S118
Deiters, J. A. S87
Detling. N. J. S148
Dieffenbach, K. S44, S45, S148
Diehl, N. S. S115
Diffenbach, K. S87
Ditmar, T. D. S128
Doll, G. A. S137
Downey, M. S114
Duda, J. L. $100
Duffy, D. $109
Dugdale, J. S49, $50, S147
Durand-Bush, N. S36, S38, S129
Dweck, C. S. S25
Eberspacher, H. S 154
Eisenbarth, C. A. Sl44
Eisler, L. S 109
Eklund, R. C. $75, $92
Eng, D. S136
Estabrooks, P. A. $75
Etzel, E. F. S53, S54, S57, S93, S155
Evans, L. S163
Farrell, R. S96
Fiero, P. L. S115
Finch, L. $74
Finley, D. L. S112
Fletcher, T. B. S167
Focht, B. C. S137
Fogarty, J. SIB
Fortier, M. S. S74, S75, S98, S159
Fortunato, V. S 119
Foster, S. S65, S165
Fournier, J. F. S30, S31, S134
Fox, L. A. S111
Foy, C. S68
Francis, s. R. S139
Gardner, F. L. S72, S166
Gaumond, S. S162
Geise, M. H. S150
Giges, B. S82, S87, SI69
Gilbert, J. S68
Gilbert, w. S68, S162
Giscafre, N. S112
Goldman, C. L. SlO8
Gordin, R. S65, S169, S170
Gordon, J. Sl44
Gordon, s. S70
Gorely, T. S120
Gould, D. S26, S27, S63, S64
Granito, V. J., Jr. S34, S35, S36
Green, B. S93
Green, L. B. S146
Green, S. L. S127
Greenberg, D. L. S69
Greenleaf, C. S26
Griffin, J. S77, Sl66
Grisham, W. $159
Grochowski, D. O. S82
Gross, J. S85
Grove, J. R. $75, SIB
Gruber, K. A. S 136
Guarnieri, A. S 145
Guest, S. M. sroo
Guinan, D. S26, S27
Guivemau, M. sioo
Haase, A. M. S77
Haberl, P. S72

5176 / AB5TRACT INDEX
LeBlanc, L. 598
Lee, K. 5116
Leffingwell, T. 571,5128,5133
Leonard, G. 5143
Leonhardt, J. M. 5116
Lerner, B. 5. 557,558,5105,5124,
5138
Leslie, P. J. 5148
Lesyk, J. J. 5171
LeUnes, A. S93, SIlO, 5145
Leuschen, P. 5. 5123,5141
Levy, 5. 5108
Liddy, D. SI06
Liedig, L. S 148
Loehr, J. E. 588
Mack, D. E. 576, S119
Mac Mahon, C. 5143
MacNeill, K. 539, 540
Maley, P. 5139
Malkin, v. 5135
Malo, 5. A. 561, 562
Maniar, 5. D. 584,5117,5161
Marahyan, T. 5149
Marchant, D. B. 5102
Marsh, S. M. 5143
Martens, M. P. 879, 598
Martin, J. J. 592
Martin, 5. B. 536,537,551,5102,
5133,5148,5156
McCann, 5. C. 536, 565
McCarthy, K. 5100
McCullagh, P. 51,5164
McGovern, 5. 539, 540
McGowan, R. W. 549,587,595,
5112
McGuire, R. 5129
McKenzie, A. D. 594,5113,5120,
S147
McNelis-Kline, c. 5133
Mcdbery. R. 563, S64
Meis, J. K. 5160
Menickelli, J. 5159
Meyer, B. B. 582
Meyers, A. 571
Meyers, M. 5110
Michalenok, J. 542
Miles, A. SI51
Milham, D. J. 882,5170
MilJer, P. 5. 581
Miller, W. N. 5127
Miyazaki, J. 5147
Moore, B. 5162
Moraes, L. C. S89
Morrey, M. A. 555,556,5150
Motl, R. W. 528,529,5121,5141
Munroe, K. 5150
Murphey, M. Sill, 5137
Murphy, 5. 5124
Murray, J. 551,552
Myers, C. A. 5111
Naito, H. S 147
Nascimento, A. 5109
Nasir, A. 5101
Natsis, P. 598
Navarre, M. J. 5134
Naylor, 5. 5148
Nelson, M. B. 525
Newburg, D. 5157
Newcomer, R. R. 553, 554
Newton, M. 5130
Nikolopoulos, K. 595
Noble, J. M. 5164
Noon, R. D. 534, S36
O'Connor, E. A. 5108,5146
Olrich, T. W. 5131
Oswald, P. L. 5142
Owen, D. 5123
Paccagnella, M. 5113
Page, 5. J. 5108
Pane, 5. 593
Papaioannou, A. 595
Pargman, D. 5160
Parish, T. 5159
Parker, J. 568,5110
Partington, J. T. 525
Payne, 5. C. 5143
Pease, D. G. 5101,5107
Pereira, C. 5136
Perkins, E. 5105
Perna, F. M. 553, 554, 593

Peterson, K. 526, 5133
Peterson, K. E. S 108
Petitahs, A. 587
Petitpas, A. J, 549,550,5117,5128,
S130, 5133, S161
Petlichkoff, L. M. Sl44
Petrie, T. A 537,551,580,5128,
5141,5152
Pinel, B. A. 5120
Pirorh, K. 597
Ploszay, A. J. 595
Poczwardowski, A. S78, S169
Pohbnan, M. H. 5128
Power, K. T. D. 5106
Prakash, K. S69
Prapavessis. H, 577
Price, S. L. Sl64
Ravizza, K. 526, 544, 546, S82,
5129, $169
Razzak, B. A. 5 101
Reardon, J. 5170
Reel, J. J. S78,5167
Rees, T. SI63
Rhea, D. J. S107, SIlO
Richardson, P. A. 537,557
Ritter-Taylor, M. L. S114, S119
Robb, M. 5160
Rodgers, W, 5150
Roh, J. L. 553, 554
Roper, E. A. S81
Rubin, T. S166
Ryska, T. A. 5105, S107
Sachs, M. L. 586
Salmela, J, H. 581, S89, S90, 5114,
S154
Sandberg, J. 584, S130
5andstedt, S. D. 584,5117,5149,
S161
Schneiderman, N. 553
Schurz, R. W. S25
Schwager, E. S109
Schwartz, D. S171
Scott, D. 5139, S151
Senecal, K. SI63
Shambrook, C. J. S45, S59, S60
ABSTRACT INDEX I SI17
Sharp, M. S85
Shaw, D. SI15
Shelley, G. A. S78, 5103, 5148, S169
Shennan, C. S169
5hoenfelt, E. L. 583
Silva, J. M. 551, S52, 5108
Silva, J. M., III 598
Simon, M. A. SI69
Skelton, J. SI58
Sklar, J. H. S128
Smith, A. L. S47,548
Smith, A. M. S55, 556, 561, 562
Smith, D. 585
Smith, D. E. S30, S101
Smith, N. D. S86
Snyder, M. S69
Solomon, G. B. 5104,5132
Solt, G. 534, S35
Sommers-Flanagan, J. 584,5161
Sorensen, M. S115
Spink, K, 5. S109
Ste-Marie, D. 569
Stephens, D, E. S132
Stevens, T. S96
Stiles-Shipley, J. S42, 543
Steeve, M. A. 5140
Stratton, R. S 115
Straub, W. S65
Strean, W. B. S157, S163
Streigel, D. SI24
Strickland, M. S26, S27
Striegel, D. A. S88
Subudhi, A, W. 5121
Summerfeldt, J. S39, S41
Sverduk, K. S88
Swain, A. S145
Taki,T. 5140,S142
Tan, H. 530, 533
Taylor, J. 5125
Tenenbaum, G. SI13
Tennant, L. K. Sl64­
Terry, P. C. S59
Theodorakis, Y. S98
Thierfelder, B. S53
Tokunaga, M. S30, S31, 5140, S142
Toroyan, A. 530, S33

5178 I AB5TRACT INDEX
Treasure, D. C. 5 I06
Tremayne, P. 5122
Trudel, P. 568,579,5162
Tubilleja, K. 5130
Udry, E. M. 5126
Valiquette, 5. M. 5114
Van Raa1te, J. L. 5115, 51l7, 5128
vana, K. M. 5150
Vanden Auwee1e, Y. 5157
Vealey, R. 5. 525
Vemacchia, R. A. 5129,5l70
Waldron, J. 542
Walker, B. J. 573,5162
Walker, J. A. 5121
Walrath, K. P. 5112
Wanlin, C. 544, 546
Wann, D. L. 5104,5153
Warren, B. A. 5150
Waters, F. 539, 541
Watson, J. C. 5138
Watson, J. c., II 557
Webb, D. 5102
Webber, 5. 5. 5143
Weigand, D. 5124
Weinberg, R. 5. 598, 5102, 5113,
5124,5127
Weiss, C. L. 581
Weiss, M. R. 511,571
Welk, G. 547,548
West, G. R. 571
White, 5. A. 599,5100
Whitehead, J. 597
Wiechman, 5. 571
Wiersma, L. 5171
Wiese-Bjomstahl, D. 569
Wiggins, M. 5104
Wightman, P. 5112
Williams, J. 551,571,594
Williams, L. 568
Wilson, M. A. 5100
Wilson, M. J. S103
Wright, J. S94
Wrisberg, C. A. 5148
Wyke, V. 5115
Wylleman, P. S157, S165
Yaffe, K. M. 5169
Yambor, J. S87
Yeager, J. 5167
Yin, Z. S 105, 5107
Young, B. W. 589
Yukelson, D. 551,552,5124
Zaccaro, 5. J. S143
Zaichkowsky, L. S72, S109, 5136
Zhang, J. J. 5107
Zientek, C. E. 587, 599
Zizi, A. J. 579
Zizzi, 5. J. 593, 598