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REPRESENTATION AND ELECTORAL
SYSTEMS
Section on Representation and Electoral Systems
© The American Political Science Association
Rockefeller College
State University of New York at Albany
135 Western Avenue
Albany, New York 12222
Vol. XXIII, No. 1 Editor: Joseph F. Zimmerman (zimmer@albany.edu) October 2007
SECTION WEB SITE
Webmaster Erik Herron of the University of Kansas reports the Section’s Website
is functioning and can be accessed at http://www.apsanet.org/~res/ The site contains
back issues of Representation and Electoral Systems with the exception of the current
issue which is available only to Section members, and links to related sites in other
nations.
ANNUAL SECTION MEETING
Chairman Andre Blais of the University of Montreal called the Section’s Annual
Business Meeting to order at 12 noon on August 31, 2007, in Chicago. The Nominating
Committee (Shaun Bowler, Erik S. Herron, and Joseph F. Zimmerman, Chairman)
nominated the following members for office:
Executive Committee: Douglas Amy (Mount Holyoke College), Sarah Birch
(University of Essex), Andre Blais (University of Montreal), Gary Cox (University of
California, San Diego) William Crotty (Northeastern University), Jason Kirksey
(Oklahoma State University) Susan Scarrow (University of Houston), and Joseph F.
Zimmerman (University at Albany).
The committee nominated Andre Blais (University of Montreal) to be Chairman.
All nominees were elected unanimously for a two-year term. The bylaws provide
the President appoints the Secretary-Treasurer. Chairman Blais appointed Bonnie M.
Meguid of the University of Rochester as Secretary-Treasurer and expressed his
appreciation to Jason Kirksey for his service as Secretary-Treasurer.
Section awards were presented to the following recipients:
The Hallett Award for the book published more than ten years ago that has made
a lasting contribution to the literature was awarded to Gary Cox of the University of
California, San Diego, for his book entitled Making Votes Count: Strategic Coordination
in the World’s Electoral Systems (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1997). The
Award Committee members were Chairman Paul Abramson (Michigan State University),
Jack Nagel (University of Pennsylvania), and Michael Shamir (Tel-Aviv University).

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In view of the fact Professor Cox is the only two-time winner of the Hallett
Award, we are publishing the statement of the selection committee read by Professor
Paul Abramson of Michigan State University at the award ceremony in Chicago on
August 31, 2007.
“This is the second time in four years that Gary Cox has won the George H.
Hallett Award, which is presented annually to the author of a book published in the last
ten years that has made a lasting contribution to the literature on representation and
electoral systems. In 2003, he received the award for The Efficient Secret, his study of
political parties in Victorian England, published in 1987. Making Votes Count: Strategic
Coordination in the World’s Electoral Systems, published in 1997, also includes a
fascinating discussion of British politics, although it is much broader in scope. It was the
unanimous choice of this year’s selection committee, Jack Nagel, Michal Shamir, and
me. Indeed, in the baseball parlance used for selection into the Hall of Fame, Making
Votes Count was selected in its first year of eligibility.
Gary’s book has won many awards already. In 1978, it won the Woodrow Wilson
Award for the best book published in the United States in the previous year on
government, politics, and international affairs, the most prestigious award of the
American Political Science Association. It was also named as best book by the Political
Economy section of APSA, as well as the Comparative Politics section.
As the Woodrow Wilson award statement reads, “Making Votes Count is an
intellectual tour de force combining the best features of traditional comparative studies
and contemporary formal analysis.” In addition, reviews of Gary’s book lavished fully
warranted praise. For example, in his review in the APSR, Mel Hinich wrote that “every
serious scholar of political systems should read this book. Gary Cox has superbly
organized the theoretical and empirical literature to illuminate the complex interactions
between the rules used to select the winners in a political system and the behavior of
candidates, parties, and voters.” In the Political Science Quarterly, Olga Shevesova wrote
that “this book is of potential interest for readers in all fields of political science. It
epitomizes the balanced use of formal theory and comparative method as an approach to
developing general understanding of diverse political phenomena. Making Votes Count
will certainly become a required reading in many graduate and undergraduate seminars
on comparative political institutions and positive political theory.” And, writing in the
Canadian Journal of Political Science, André Blais wrote, “this is a great book. . . . Cox
powerfully demonstrates the fruitfulness of looking at the impact of electoral systems
from the perspective of formal theory, provided this is combined with solid empirical
analysis.”
Has Gary’s book stood the test of time? If ten years is enough time to test its
endurance, certainly so. Not surprisingly, there have been quibbles raised about some of
its arguments, but it remains the most important book on comparative electoral rules ever
written. It is not at all surprising that eight years after Making Votes Count was published
Gary was inducted into the National Academy of Sciences.
Will his book continue to stand the test of time? Naturally, if democracy
continues to spread throughout the world, and as relatively new democracies gain
political experience, we can expect changes in election rules. Even long-established
democracies can change their rules. For example, New Zealand changed from first-past-

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the-post rules to a mixed proportional representation system four years before Gary’s
book was published, and did not use these new rules until the year before. When Making
Votes Count was published Israel was experimenting with directly electing its prime
minister, a major reform that was subsequently abandoned, but would be well worth
discussing. In 1999, for the first time since the Act of Union in 1707, there was a Scottish
Parliament, a parliament chosen by an additional member system. Surely, Making Votes
Count will need to be updated. That it may be updated, however, does not mean it will
fail to stand the test of time.
Of course, this does not mean that Gary’s book will be important to political
science several centuries from now. Lest we get too carried away we should remember
that in the Quai de Conti in the 6 e arrondissement there is a statue of the Marquis de
Condorcet, although in France he is better known for his theories of progress than for his
work on election rules. Will there be a statue of Gary Cox in Washington, D.C. two
centuries from now? Only time will answer this question.”
The Weaver Award for the best paper presented at a 2006 Section-sponsored
panel was presented to Jean-Benoit Pilet, Universitė Libre de Bruxelles, “Why Do Big
Parties Oppose Majority Systems Satisfaction and Electoral Reform in Belgium.” The
Award Committee members were Chairman Bernard Grofman (University of California,
Irvine),Shaheen Mozaffar (Bridgewater State College), and Henk van der Kolk
(University of Twente).
The Longley Award for the best article published during the previous year was
awarded to Shaun Bowler (University of California, Riverside), Todd Donovan (Western
Washington University), and Jeffrey A. Karp (University of Exeter) for “Why Politicians
Like Electoral Institutions: Self-Interest, Values, or Ideology?” Journal of Politics 68,
2006, pp. 434-46. The Award Committee members were Chairman Kenneth Carty
(University of British Columbia), Bonnie Meguid (University of Rochester), and Antoine
Yoshinaka (University of California, Riverside).
Chairman Blais appointed Professor Matt Golder of Florida State University
Section Program Chair for the 2008 APSA annual meeting. He issued the following Call
for Papers: “The Section welcomes paper, panel, and roundtable proposals on any aspect
of representation and electoral systems that reflect the full range of the field’s empirical,
theoretical, and methodological diversity. While proposals focusing on established
democracies are welcome, particular consideration will be given to proposals addressing
elections, electoral systems, and representation in dictatorships and new democracies. In
keeping with the theme of ‘global inequality’ at the 2008 annual meeting of the American
Political Science Association, proposals exploring how electoral systems influence social,
economic, and political inequality broadly conceived will also be looked upon
favorably.”

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ELECTION LAW COURT DECISIONS
Editor: Richard Winger
Ballot Access News
E-mail: richardwinger@yahoo.com
During the period April 2007 through early October 2007, federal courts were
very active in election law. This is especially true for cases involving the autonomy of
political parties. There were also significant court developments in campaign finance
law, voter ID requirements for voting at the polls, voting rights for felons and ex-felons,
and the First Amendment rights of candidates and political activists.
Political Party Autonomy Cases
The U.S. Supreme Court in 2000 ruled that blanket primaries are unconstitutional,
if a political party dislikes them. Justice John Paul Stevens, in dissent in that case (which
was called California Democratic Party v Jones), had warned that under the principles of
the decision, open primaries are also vulnerable to being invalidated, if political parties
don’t desire them. Stevens’ prediction is being fulfilled. On June 8, 2007, a U.S. District
Court in Mississippi ruled that if the Democratic Party desires to exclude non-members
from its primaries, it may do so. This was the second time that a federal court had
invalidated an open primary (the first instance had been in Virginia, on December 1,
2006). The Mississippi decision is Mississippi State Democratic Party v Barbour,
4:06cv29. Like Virginia, Mississippi has never had registration by party. Therefore, in
both states, any registered voter has always been free to vote in any party’s primary.
Under the decision, the Mississippi Democratic Party must now wrestle with how to
know which voters are Democratic Party members. The court decision suggested that the
state might want to institute registration by party, but the court did not require it.
An oddity of the Mississippi decision was that the decision also required
Democrats to require that voters show identification, when they vote in party primaries at
the polls. Currently Mississippi law does not require voters to show identification at the
polls; voters merely sign in, and elections officials are free to compare the voter’s
signature on the poll register with the voter’s signature on a voter registration form.
Since Democrats in Mississippi and in most states are opposed to requiring voters to
show identification in order to vote, Democrats asked the court to reconsider that part of
its decision. The court declined to modify its original order. Therefore, both the
Democratic Party (which basically won the case), and the state, appealed to the 5 th circuit.
On July 11, a group of 72 Idaho Republican party leaders, legislators, and
activists filed a lawsuit in U.S. District Court, alleging the Idaho Republican Party also

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wants to close its primaries and to exclude non-members. This case is Beck v
Ysursa,
(07-299). No decision has been reached. Like Virginia and Mississippi, Idaho never has
had registration by party, and any voter always has been able to vote in any party’s
primary. This case is complicated by the fact the Idaho Republican Party itself is not a
plaintiff. The Republican Party state chair supports open primaries and was able to
prevent the state party itself from joining the lawsuit.
On September 25, a U.S. District Court in Arizona ruled in favor of the
Libertarian Party by holding a party that wishes to prevent independent voters from
voting in the Libertarian primary may do so. The case is Arizona Libertarian Party v
Brewer (02-144). Arizona does have registration by party. In 1998, the voters ratified
Proposition 103, placed on the ballot by the legislature, amending the State Constitution
to require all parties to permit independents to vote in their primaries. That amendment is
now unconstitutional, at least as applied to the Libertarian Party. The court pointed out
Libertarians are outnumbered by independents by a ratio of 17,249 to 590,360, and that
the law effectively deprives Libertarian Party members from controlling their own
nomination process. If a major party in Arizona were to file a similar lawsuit, it is not
entirely clear whether it would prevail, since each of the major parties in Arizona has
more members than there are independents in the state. Currently, the only ballot-
qualified parties in Arizona are the Democratic, Republican and Libertarian Parties.
On October 1, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 4 th circuit affirmed a 2006 U.S.
District Court decision from Virginia by opining if the Republican Party wishes to close
its primary to non-members, it may do so. The case is Miller v Brown (06-2334).
However, the 4 th circuit agreed with the U.S. District Court that the party may only enjoy
this right in situations when it is forced to nominate by primary. A unique Virginia law
lets any party decide for itself whether to nominate by convention or primary, except in
cases in which the party has an incumbent who is running for re-election. When the party
has an incumbent running for re-election, the incumbent may decide whether to use a
primary or a convention for his or her own office, and the party loses its choice of
nomination method. Therefore, the ruling only applies to situations in which the party’s
incumbent, not the party itself, has determined that a primary will be used.
On October 5, a U.S. District Court in Florida ruled that if the Democratic
National Committee wishes to deprive Florida Democrats of delegates to the party’s
national convention, it may do so. The Democratic National Committee stripped the
Florida Democratic Party of its delegates because the Florida Democratic Party intends to
choose delegates on January 29, 2008. National party rules permit the Nevada, South

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Carolina, Iowa, and New Hampshire Democratic Party to choose delegates early than
February 5, but do not permit any other state to do so. The lawsuit—DiMaio v
Democratic National Committee, 8:07-cv-1552, Middle district—was filed by a
Democratic Party voter who is also a party official. The court said he did not have
standing, but even if he did, the Democratic Party is a “private actor” and therefore the
14 th amendment has no applicability to this dispute. A somewhat similar lawsuit was
filed by Democratic U.S. Senator Bill Nelson on October 4, 2008 in the U>S> District
Court for the Northern District of Florida.
Thus, political parties have won four lawsuits in the past six months, bolstering
their ability to run their nominations process as they see fit. This trend probably will
accelerate when the U.S. Supreme Court announces its opinions in the Washington state
case in the “top-two” primary lawsuit, and the New York case over how political parties
choose their nominees for State Supreme Court Justice. The Washington case—
Washington State v Washington State Republican Party, no. 06-730—was argued on
October 1, 2008. The New York case, New York State Board of Elections v Lopez
Torres, was argued on October 3, 2008. Observers believe the Court will rule in favor of
political party autonomy in both cases, although predictions are always dangerous.
Still another party autonomy law is pending in the U.s. Court of Appeals for the
9 th circuit. The Alaskan Independence Party desires to prevent a particular candidate
from running in its primaries in the future because he sued the party for $10,000,000 in
damages on the ground the party endorsed his opponent in the primary in 2002. The
party charges the candidate is disloyal to the party and the First Amendment to the U.S.
Constitution protects its decision to bar the candidate from its primaries. The case is
Winkelman v State of Alaska (07-35186). The lower court had ruled against the party.
Campaign Finance Lawsuit
On June 25, 2007, the U.S. Supreme Court handed down its decision in Federal
Election Commission v Wisconsin Right to Life. By a 5-4 vote, the Court ruled the
McCain-Feingold Campaign Finance Law cannot prevent corporations or labor unions
from running broadcast advertisementss within 60 days of an election with their own
funds if the advertisement merely mentions federal candidates who are running for re-
election but does not clearly endorse or oppose them. The Court had upheld the law in
McConnell v Federal Election Commission on December 10, 2003, but that had been a
facial challenge to the law, whereas the more recent case was an as-applied challenge.
The vote in McConnell v FEC also had been 5-4. Justice Sandra Day O’Connor voted to
uphold the law in 2003, but she left the Court and was replaced by Justice Samuel Alito.
Many observers believe that there is unresolved tension between the two

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decisions, and that the difference between them cannot be explained on the merits, but by
the fact the O’Connor was on one side and Alito is on the other side (the Court’s other
change, the replacement of Justice William Rehnquist by Justice John Roberts, is not
relevant since both Rehnquist and Roberts seem to agree with each other about the law).
There will probably be much more litigation over the McCain-Feingold law.
Voter Government-Photo Identification at the Polls
On September 6, a U.S. District Court upheld a Georgia’s law, requiring voters to
show government photo-identification at the polls. The case is Common Cause v Billup,
(4:05-cv-201, Northern District). The same judge struck down a similar law in 2005.
However, the Georgia legislature subsequently amended the law to provide low-income
persons may receive a free state photo-ID. Plaintiffs still fought the law, charging that
some low-income persons have difficult traveling to the state office that provides the ID
card. However, this time they did not prevail.
On September 25, the U.S. Supreme Court agreed to hear the Indiana photo-ID
lawsuit (Indiana Democratic Party v Rokita, 07-25). This case will be the first time the
court has granted a full hearing on this issue. The U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals for the
7 th circuit upheld the law by a vote of 2-1 with the dissenter charging the law was passed
for the illegitimate purpose of discouraging persons of very low income, and persons who
are at the margins of society, from voting. The majority acknowledged Indiana never has
been able to identify a single instance in which someone impersonated another person at
the polls, but nevertheless upheld the law. The court is expected to clarify whether laws
interfering with voting rights must be measured under the “strict scrutiny” standard. The
Court in Burdick v Takushi in 1992 had seemed to rule that the “strict scrutiny” test does
not apply to many restrictions on voting, yet in Bush v Gore in 2000 the Court seemed to
contradict Burdick v Takushi.
Ex-Felon and Felon Voting
On July 26, 2008, the Washington State Supreme Court ruled ex-felons who still
owe fines or restitution may not register to vote. The decision, Madison v State (no.
78598-8) upheld a provision of the State Constitution. The lower court ruled that
requiring ex-felons to have paid off all fines or restitution payments is the equivalent of
an unconstitutional poll tax.
On August 30, 2008, a U.S. District Court in Massachusetts ruled the federal
Voting Rights Act of 1965 as amended does relate to state laws that make it illegal for ex-
felons, or felons, to register to vote. The lawsuit, called Simmons v Galvin (01-11040)
challenges a relatively new Massachusetts law that prevents felons from voting. The
court will hold a trial on whether the Massachusetts law has a disparate impact on racial

8
minorities. Other courts have divided sharply over whether the Voting Rights Act applies
to state laws that disenfranchise felons and ex-felons. The U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals
for the 2 nd and 11 th circuits ruled that it does not apply. But the 9 th circuit has ruled that it
does apply. The Voting Rights Act outlaws state election laws and practices that create
greater barriers to voting by racial minorities than by non-minorities. The criminal
justice system in the United States has tended to imprison disproportionately more racial
minorities in most states and at most times in the nation’s history.
Free Speech for Candidates and Activists
On August 6, 2008, the U.s. Court of Appeals for the 9 th circuit ruled the First
Amendment protects “vote-swapping” web sites. Such a web site is enables people in
different states who do not know each other to meet (electronically) and to work out a
private agreement among themselves to vote strategically in presidential elections. Two
such sites were set up in California in 2000. They were for the purpose of letting Gore
supporters in states known to be uncompetitive (in that year’s presidential election) to
vote for Nader. In exchange, Nader supporters in states known to be highly competitive
would vote for Gore. The California Secretary of State in 2000, Bill Jones, ordered the
web sites to be shut down, threatening them that if they did not shut down, he would
prosecute them for bribery. The 9 th circuit ruled in Porter v Bowen (06-55517) that the
web sites were not engaged in bribery and that their activity cannot be banned.
On October 4, 2008, the Washington State Supreme Court ruled a law making it a
crime for a candidate to make an untrue statement about his or her opponent violates the
First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Although the mainstream press reported on
this decision as upholding a “right to lie”, the candidate who won the lawsuit always
insisted that she had made a factual error when she charged her opponent with voting to
close a facility for the developmentally disabled. The evidence does not show that she
had “lied”. The case is Rickert v State (no. 77769-1). The vote was 5-4. The candidate
who won the case, Marilou Rickert, had been a Green Party candidate for the legislature
in 2002.
CALIFORNIA PRESIDENTIAL ELECTOR INITIATIVE
An initiative campaign was launched in 2007 to change the system of awarding
California’s 55 votes in the Electoral College. Currently, all electoral votes for President
and Vice President are awarded to the presidential-vice-presidential slate of candidates
receiving the largest number of popular votes in the state. The proposed initiative
proposition would award two electoral votes to the slate receiving the largest number of
state-wide popular votes. The remaining Electoral College votes would be awarded to
the slate winning the popular vote in each of the 53 congressional districts. Twenty of the
districts are viewed as safe Republican districts.

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Thomas Hiltachk, leader of an initiative petition campaign in California, resigned
on September 28, 2007, thereby creating doubts whether the campaign will be able to
raise the necessary funds, approximately $2 million, to employ a professional signature
collection firm to collect the required number of signatures. Mr. Hiltachk resigned
because Take Initiative America made a donation of $175,000 to the initiative campaign,
but would not reveal the source of the money. This organization was established by a
Missouri lawyer who has donated funds to Rudolph W. Giuliani’s presidential campaign
committee.
In a related development, an interstate agreement has been drafted to elect the
President and Vice President by national popular vote. The Agreement Among the States
to Elect the President by National Popular Vote draws upon (1) section 10 of Article I of
the United States Constitution, authorizing states to enter into interstate compacts or
agreements, and section I of Article II which stipulates: “Each State shall appoint, in such
Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole
Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the
Congress…” The consent of Congress is not required for the Agreement because it does
not encroach upon the powers of Congress.
The Agreement becomes effective upon enacted by states legislatures with a total
of 270 electoral votes. Additional details are available at www.nationalpopularvote.com
which contains a book: Every Vote Equal: A State-Based Plan for Electing the President
by National Popular Vote by John R. Koza, Barry Fadem, Mark Grueskin, Michael S.
Mandell, Robert Richie, and Joseph F. Zimmerman. The book may be downloaded freeof-charge.
FEDERAL ELECTION COMMISSION
The Commission (999 E Street, NW, Washington, DC 20463, telephone:
800-424-9530) has published The 2007 Campaign Guide for Corporations and Labor
Organizations explaining for each type of committee the complex regulations regarding
the activity of political committees and providing direction to complete Commission
reports and how the law applies to practical situations. The report may be accessed at the
Commission’s website: http://www.fec.gov/info/publications.
The Commission published The Combined Federal/State Disclosure and Election
Directory for 2007 identifying the state and federal agencies responsible for the
disclosure of campaign finances, lobbying, personal finances, public financing,
candidates on ballots, election results, spending on state initiative and other financial
filings. The directory also includes contact information for national and international
associations dealing with campaign finance and elections. The online version
(http://www.fec.gov/pubrec/cfsdd/cfsdd.shhtml) is updated periodically and contains
hyper-links that allows users to access the official home pages of the agencies listed in
the publication. The directory also is available as a PDG or Word file, either of which can
be downloaded and printed in its entirety. A printed version of the directory is available
from the Public Disclosure Division (Telephone: 202-694-1120).
The Commission makes available on its web site (http://query.nictusa.com/pres/)
detailed information from the Commission’s reports of selected presidential
candidates. Viewers quickly and easily can see each candidate’s report information by
categories. In addition to a summary and a detailed summary of each report, the new
function provides an easy-to-read chart showing the candidate’s contribution totals

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allocated by employee, state, zip code, date and election, and by candidate’s
disbursements classified by purpose, payee, and date. The site also will provide
information detailing the state-by state spending of presidential candidates who accept
public funding for primary elections.
Open meetings and public hearings held by the commission are available as
audio recording via the web site. The audio files, and directions on how to subscribe to
the podcasts are available under Audio Recordings through the Commission Meetings tab
at http://sss.fec.gov. The audio files are divided into tracks corresponding to each portion
of the agenda for ease of use. To listen to the open meeting without subscribing to the
podcsts, click the icon next to each agenda item. The service is free, but a person
interested in listening to podcasts must download the appropriate software listed on the
web site. Podcast subscribers automatically will receive the files as soon as they become
available—typically a day or two after the meeting.
An updated and expanded Enforcement Query System (EQS), a web-based
search tool, allows users to find and examine public documents regarding closed
Commission enforcement matters. Using current scanning, optical character recognition
and text search technologies, the system permits intuitive and flexible searches of case
documents and other materials. Users can search for specific words or phrases from the
text of all public case documents. Currently, EQS contains complete public case files for
all matters under review (MURs) closed since January 1, 1999.
Public Funding: The Democratic and Republican Parties each received
$16,356,000 from the United States Treasury for planning and conducting their
respective 2008 Presidential nominating Conventions. The Presidential Election
Campaign Fund Act permits all eligible national committees of major and minor parties
to receive public funds to pay the official costs of their Presidential nominating
conventions.. Each major party convention committee is entitled to receive $4 million
plus an adjustment for inflation since 1974 (26 U.S.C.§9008(b)(1), 11 CFR 9008.4(a).
The Commission on August 28, 2007, certified Senator John McCain of Arizona
as the first presidential candidate eligible to receive matching public funds.. Although he
requested the funds on August 10 th , he has not decided whether he will accept the funds.
The public funding portion of Presidential elections if financed by the Presidential
Election Campaign Fund which receives funds through dollars voluntarily “checked off”
by taxpayers on federal income tax forms.
The 2008 Democratic National Convention Committee, Incorporated, will hold its
convention in Denver, Colorado, August 25-28, 2008. The Committee on Arrangements
for the 2008 Republican National Convention will have its convention in Minneapolis-
Saint Paul, Minnesota, September 1-4, 2008.
Rule Making: The Commission on July 12, 2007, approved a Notice of
Proposed Rule Making (NPRM) seeking public comment on propose rules to add two
additional permissible uses of campaign funds to the regulations’ current list of
permissible uses of such funds. Congress in the Consolidated Appropriations act of 2005
amended the provisions of the Federal Election Campaign Act governing permissible
uses of such funds and the NPRM proposes to conform the Commission’s regulations to
the Act. The amendment allows donations to nonfederal candidates and “any other
lawful purpose.” The text of the NPRM is available in the Federal Register (72 CFR

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39583) and on the Commission’s website: http://www.fec.gov/pdf/nprm/useof
funds/notice__2007-15.pdf
The Commission in September 2007 reported the number of federally registered
political action committees (PACs) declined from 4, 183 on January 1, 2007, to 4,168 on
July 1, 2007. Corporate PACS remained the largest category with 1,586 committees and
was followed by nonconnected PACs with 1,247 committees.
The Commission continues to issue advisory opinions.
Advisory Opinion 2007-01 stipulates United States Senator Claire McCaskill
may raise nonfederal funds to retire debt incurred as a candidate for governor in 2004 and
state auditor of Missouri in 1998.
Advisory Opinion 2007-02 holds that the Arizona Libertarian Party, Incorporated
satisfies the federal requirements for state committee status. The Federal Election
Campaign Act defines a state committee as “the organization which, by virtue of the
bylaws of a political party, is part of the official party structure and is responsible for
day-to-day operation of such political party at the State level, as determined by the
commission” [2 U.S.C. §431 (15).
Advisory Opinion 2007-03 indicates that United States Senator Barack Obama’
2008 presidential campaign may solicit and receive private contributions for the general
election, yet retain the option to refund contributions and accept public financing if he
receives his party’s nomination for President.
Advisory Opinion 2007-04 authorizes Atlatl, Incorporated to offer its simply
Easier Payments credit card processing services to political committees without making
impermissible corporate contributions because it would be acting as a commercial vendor
in providing the services in the ordinary course of business and at the customary charge.
Any processing fees paid by contributors would constitute contributions to the respective
political committees and must comply with the limits established by the Federal Election
Campaign Act.
Advisory Opinion 2007-05 allows Erik Iverson, Chief of Staff to United States
Representative Dennis Rehberg, to raise and spend nonfederal funds as Chairman of the
Montana Republican State Central Committee provided he refrains from raising or
spending nonfederal funds as an agent of Representative Rehberg.
Advisory Opinion 2007-08 authorizes Michael King to make donations to
charitable organizations and establish a 501(c)(3) charitable organization to encourage
voluntary performances by professional entertainers at federal campaign events.
ELECTRONIC VOTING SYSTEMS
The United States Government Accountability Office (GAO) [441 G Street NW,
Room LM, Washington, DC 20548. Telephone; (202) 512-6000. Facsimile: (202)
512-6061] has published GAO-07-741T, a free report containing the testimony of
Randolph C. Hite, Director of Information Technology Architecture and System before
the Subcommittee on Information Policy, Census, and National Archives of the United
States House of Representatives Committee on Oversight and Governmental Reform.
Hite noted that a range of groups knowledgeable about elections or voting
systems have expressed concerns about the security and reliability of electronic voting
systems, including vague or incomplete voting system standards, system design flaws,

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poorly developed security controls, incorrect system configurations, inadequate testing,
and poor overall security management.
State and local governments’ responses to GAO surveys regarding the 2004
national elections revealed they did not always ensure that important life cycle and
security management practices were employed for their respective electronic voting
systems. In particular, responses indicated the most current standards were not always
adopted and applied, security management practices and controls were employed to
varying degrees, and certain types of system testing were not commonly performed.
Furthermore, the responses reveal the governments did not consistently monitory the
performance of their systems.
These problems are complicated by other conditions such as the distribution of
responsibilities among various organizations and funding opportunities and constraints.
Given the diffused and decentralized allocation of voting systems roles and
responsibilities across all levels of government, addressing these challenges will require
the combined efforts of all levels of government under the leadership of the Election
Assistance Commission (EAC). To assist EAC in executing its leadership role, GAO has
offered recommendations aimed at better planning the ongoing and future activities
relative to, for example, system standards and information sharing. EAC agreed with the
recommendations, but reported its ability to effectively execute its role is constrained by
a lack of adequate resources.
MILITARY AND OVERSEAS CITIZENS VOTING
The United States Government Accountability Office has published GAO-07-774,
a free report entitled Elections: Action Plans Needed to Fully Address Challenges in
Electronic Absentee Voting Initiatives for Military and Overseas Citizens. The
Uniformed and Overseas Citizens Absentee Voting Act protects the rights of military
personnel, their dependents, and overseas citizens to vote by absentee ballot.
Congress in 2004 required the U.S. Department of Defense to develop an Internetbased
absentee voting demonstration project and required the Election Assistance
Commission, which reviews election procedures, to develop guidelines for the
Department’s project. Congress in 2006 required the Department to report by May 15,
2007, on plans for expanding its use of electronic voting technologies and required the
U.S. Government Accountability Office to assess efforts by (1) by the Department to
facilitate electronic absentee voting, and (2) the Commission to develop Internet voting
guidelines and the Department to develop plans to expand its use of electronic voting
technologies.
The Office found (1) the Department had developed several initiatives, but some
exhibited weaknesses or had low participation rates that might hinder their effectiveness,
(2) the Election Assistance Commission has not developed the guidelines for the
Department’s use, and (3) the Department was developing, but had not completed plans
for expanding the future use of electronic voting technologies.
FAIR VOTE
Fair Vote (6930 Carroll Avenue, Takoma Park, MD 20912, tel: 301-270-4616
www.fairvote.org) has published four issues of its FairVote Policy Perspective in recent
months: (1) “Fuzzy Math: Wrong Way Reform for Allocating Electoral College Votes”

13
by Monideepa Talukdar, Rob Richie, and Ryan O’Donnell, August 9, 2007, (2) “A
Survey and Analysis of Statewide Election Recounts: 1980-2006” by Monideepa Talukar
and Rob Richie, July 27, 2007, (3) “International Snapshot: Scotland 2007: A Dry Run
for Proportional Voting” by Dan Tessier, July 11, 2007, and (4) “Assessing Instant
Runoff Voting in Takoma Park (MD): Executive Summary of Exist Poll Findings of
January 30, 2007” by Adam Bartoanzo, March 29, 2007.
IDEA
The International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (IDEA)
[Strömborg SE-103-34, Sweden; E-Mail: infor@idea.int; Website: www.idea.int] has
published Electoral Management Design: The International IDEA Handbook by Alan
Wall, Andrew Ellis, Ayman Ayoub, Carl W. Dundas, Joram Rukambe, and Sara Staino,
and Engaging the Electorate: Initiatives to Promote Voter Turnout From Around the
World by Andrew Ellis, Maria Gratschew, John H, Pammett, and Erin Thiessen.
The first study, which may be downloaded free of charge from Idea’s website,
shares best practices and know-how from around the world on financing, structuring, and
evaluating electoral management bodies. The handbook attempts to address issues from
a practical point of view, by bringing together global experiences in electoral
administration and by presenting best-practice solutions in a non-prescriptive and userfriendly
way. The volume examines the different models of electoral administration and
the management design issues that may have an impact on confidence in and the scope
for independent action by election administrators. In addition, the handbook takes into
account the entire electoral cycle, not only the highly visible time close to polling, and
highlights the importance of post-election audit and evaluation. Of particular interest are
short case studies focusing on various nations including Norway, Zimbabwe, Spain,
Georgia, India, Costa Rica, Iraq, and Afghanistan.
Engaging the Electorate: Initiative to Promote Voter Turnout from Around the
World examines statistics and some of the strategies currently being tested around the
word that aim to reverse the decline in voter turnout and to increase popular participation
in all types of elections. This publication maps out a large number of existing activities
and programs promoting voter participation in elections. This report also includes voter
turnout data in close to 200 national and territorial elections worldwide in the period
1945-2006. The report may be assessed at Idea’s website: www.idea.int/vt
GOVERNMENT IS GOOD
Professor Douglas Amy of Mount Holyoke College, a long-time Section member,
has established a free web resource for politic students containing original essays
chronicling and critiquing the conservative attacks on government, and demonstrating
how government plays a crucial role in improving the common good and improving the
levels of all Americans.
The first essay is entitled “Why Defend Government? Four essays focus on “The
Ward on Government,” and twelve essays answer the question “Why Government is
good.” The website is governmentisgood.com

14
BOOK REVIEWS
Richard Vergroff, Editor
Kennesaw State University
E-Mail: rvergrof@kennesaw.edu
Section members with forthcoming books should notify the book editor to
facilitate the speedy review of their books.
Anne Tiernan. Power Without Responsibility. Coogee, NSW: University of New South
Wales Press, 2007. AUS$34.95.
This volume updates James Water’s book entitled The Minister’s Minders:
Personal Advisers in National Government (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1986)
and documents the growing size and influence of ministerial staff and the reduced role of
career civil servants, especially departmental secretaries, during the previous three
decades. Her study raises fundamental questions of democratic accountability in the
Australian parliamentary system that is modeled on the traditional Westminster system.
This system is based upon the Government (Cabinet) being responsible to
parliament whose members are responsible to and elected by voters. Under this system,
the department secretary was the principal adviser to a minister with a departmental
portfolio. The book documents the fact the system has been modified and “secretaries
must share the advisory space with the new legions of ministerial staff” (p. 3). This staff
is larger than counterpart staffs in Canada and the United Kingdom and led the author to
draw a conclusion in Chapter 1: “There is thus growing awareness that personal staff are
an awkward fit in Westminster-style systems.” (p. 13).
Chapters 2 and 3 present an overview of the growth of ministerial staffing
concomitant with a more presidential media style. Ministers and their staff work in their
parliamentary offices and thus are isolated from the staff of their respective portfolio
department. The 1973 parliamentary election produced a Labor Government distrustful of
civil servants and an expanded ministerial staff to ensure ministers would control policy
making and implementation. The report of the Royal Commission on Australian
Government and Administration is noted.
Tiernan in chapter 4 traces ministerial staffing under Prime Ministers Whitlam,
Hawkes, Keating, and Fraser in the period ending in 1996 and refers to a 1984
amendment of the Public Service Act relating to civil servants seconded to ministerial
offices and their roles, including policy advice and their accountability. The amendment
also provides for the rotation of departmental secretaries every five years and in 1993
term limits for secretaries were established.
Chapter 5 focuses upon the agenda of Prime Minister John Howard who became
leader of the Library Party in January 1995 and led the party to victory in the 1996
general election. The new coalition Government had been in opposition for thirteen years
and was suspicious of civil servants. Howard terminated the contracts of six
departmental secretaries and appointed a political figure as cabinet secretary, a post
historically held by a civil servant. Howard continued to reside in Sydney instead of
Canberra which gave his Government “independence from the Canberra mandarins” (p.
89). Although the staff for the twenty-eight Ministers initially was reduced from 364 to

15
292, it increased to 325 in April 1998. This staff was composed of activists who relied
heavily upon E-mail and the telephone in communicating with agencies.
Chapter 6 emphasizes that Howard’s appointees were personally loyal and kept a
profile lower than that of Ministers who suffered little interference from the Prime
Minister’s Office. His media unit was astute in communicating directly with the public
rather than through the press gallery. Tiernan concludes the ministerial staff supports
“overburdened ministers, but” does “so in a framework within which the scope of their
responsibilities is poorly defined, their relationship with the bureaucracy is often fraught,
and the capacity of ministers to manage staff conduct and performance is questionable”
(p. 150).
Chapters 7 and 8 deal, respectively, with the “Travel Rorts Affair” in which there
was role confusion relative to ministerial staff and public servants, and the “Children
Overboard Affair” (involving illegal immigrants on a boat) where the ministerial staff
undermined the integrity of advice to ministers” (p. 191).
The 9 th Chapter is devoted to “Power Without Responsibility?” and highlights
Australian parallels to White House scandals and the increasing distance between a
departmental secretary and the minister. The author concludes “there has been limited
attention to developing a robust governance framework for ministerial staff” although the
need for reform is great (p. 231).
The concluding chapter—“Reforming the Staffing System”— reports few
ministers believe there is a problem. The author summarizes the four major
recommendations reform advocates submitted to the Senate Finance and Public
Administration Committee Inquiry:
• making ministerial staff more accountable;
• clarifying the respective roles and responsibilities of ministerial staff and
public servants, and addressing interrelationships between staff and senior
public servants.
• developing a code of conduct for ministerial staff; and
• providing training and professional development opportunities for ministerial
staff.
She concludes prospects for implementation of outlined reforms are slim.
The research undertaken by Tiernan is impressive and she documents thoroughly
the growth of ministerial staff and their impact on the traditional governance system. The
book would have been strengthened by an expanded section on the recommended reforms
and her conclusions as to the desirability of each reform.
Joseph F. Zimmerman
University at Albany

16
Bibliography on Representation and Electoral Systems
(March 2007-September 2007)
Erik S. Herron, University of Kansas (eherron@ku.edu)
As I have noted in the past, I welcome requests to include specific publications in the bibliography. This
semester, I am writing from Ukraine and do not have all of my notes regarding recent requests with me. If
I neglected to include a publication, please contact me and I will publish it in the Spring edition of the
newsletter.
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From 1996 to 2006. Sarajevo: Promocult.
Bickerstaff, Steve. 2007. Lines in the Sand: Congressional Redistricting in Texas and the Downfall of Tom
DeLay. Austin, Tex: University of Texas Press.
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Mangling the Party-List System: A Reader on the Philippine Elections. Quezon City, Philippines: Center
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Choudhary, Satinath and Indian Social Institute. 2007. Reservation for Women and SC/ST in Elections.
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Convergence. New York: Oxford University Press.
Cwiek-Karpowicz, Jaroslaw, Piotr Ka zmierkiewicz, and Magdalena Pucyk. 2007. The Polish Members of
the European Parliament Their Activities and Impact on the Polish Political Scene. Warsaw: Institute of
Public Affairs.
DeBardeleben, Joan. 2007. Democratic Dilemmas of Multilevel Governance: Legitimacy, Representation
and Accountability in the European Union. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Déloye, Yves and Michael Bruter. 2007. Encyclopedia of European Elections. New York: Palgrave.
deVreese, C. H. 2007. The Dynamics of Referendum Campaigns: An International Perspective. New York:
Palgrave Macmillan.
Emerson, Peter. 2007. Designing an All-Inclusive Democracy: Consensual Voting Procedures for Use in
Parliaments, Councils and Committees. New York: Springer.
Espino, Rodolfo, David L. Leal, and Kenneth J. Meier. 2007. Latino Politics: Identity, Mobilization, and
Representation. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press.
Farrell, David M. and Roger Scully. 2007. Representing Europe's Citizens? Electoral Institutions and the
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Future. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Green, John C. 2007. The Faith Factor: How Religion Influences American Elections. Westport, Conn:
Praeger Publishers.
Greene, Kenneth F. 2007. Why Dominant Parties Lose: Mexico's Democratization in Comparative
Perspective. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Gunther, Richard, Hans-Jürgen Puhle, and José R. Montero. 2007. Democracy, Intermediation, and Voting
on Four Continents. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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New York: Cambridge University Press.
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Milton New York: Routledge.
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Case of Term Limits. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Levine, Stephen I. and Nigel S. Roberts. 2007. The Baubles of Office: The New Zealand General Election

17
of 2005. Wellington N.Z.: Victoria University Press.
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1654-1659. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lundberg, Thomas C. 2007. Proportional Representation and the Constituency Role in Britain. New York:
Palgrave Macmillan.
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Palgrave.
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Economic Conditions and Elections in Fifteen Countries. New York: Cambridge University Press.
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Français. Paris: Lignes de repères.
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Guillemaut, André. 2007. Le Jeu Des 7 Familles Politiques Extrême Gauche, Parti Communiste, Les Verts,
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18
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Pennings." Electoral Studies 26(1):130-135.

19
———. 2007. "Estimating Party Policy Positions: Comparing Expert Surveys and Hand-Coded Content
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Benton, Allyson L. 2007. "The Strategic Struggle for Patronage: Political Careers, State Largesse, and
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Buckley, Fiona, Neil Collins, and Theresa Reidy. 2007. "Ballot Paper Photographs and Low-Information
Elections in Ireland." Politics 27(3):174-81.
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Bringing Time into a Comparative Perspective." Electoral Studies 26(1 ):168-79.
Budge, Ian and Paul Pennings. 2007. "Do They Work? Validating Computerised Word Frequency
Estimates Against Policy Series." Electoral Studies 26(1):121-29.
———. 2007. "Missing the Message and Shooting the Messenger: Benoit and Laver's 'Response'."
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Burwitz, Bernd. 2007. "The 2005 Elections in Afghanistan." Electoral Studies 26(1):215-19.
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Mexico." American Journal of Political Science 51(2):283-99.
Clemens, Clay. 2007. "Two Steps Forward, One Step Back: Merkel's CDU/CSU and the Politics of
Welfare State Reform." German Politics 16(2):222-46.
Clough, Emily. 2007. "Strategic Voting Under Conditions of Uncertainty: A Re-Evaluation of Duverger's
Law." British Journal of Political Science 37( 2):313-32.
Coffe, Hilde, Bruno Heyndels, and Jan Vermeir. 2007. "Fertile Grounds for Extreme Right-Wing Parties:
Explaining the Vlaams Blok's Electoral Success." Electoral Studies 26(1):142-55.
Colomer, Josep M. 2007. "On the Origins of Electoral Systems and Political Parties: The Role of Elections
in Multi-Member Districts." Electoral Studies 26(2):262-73.
Cooper, Duane A. 2007. "The Potential of Cumulative Voting To Yield Fair Representation." Journal of
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Crum, Ben. 2007. "Party Stances in the Referendums on the EU Constitution: Causes and Consequences of
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Curtice, John. 2007. "STV Goes Tartan: A Preliminary Analysis of Its Use in the 2007 Scottish Local

20
Elections." Representation 43(3):209-16.
Cusack, Thomas R., Torben Iversen, and David Soskice. 2007. "Economic Interests and the Origins of
Electoral Systems." American Political Science Review 101(3):373-91.
Cutts, David, Edward Fieldhouse, Kingsley Purdam , David Steel, and Mark Tranmer. 2007. "Voter
Turnout in British South Asian Communities at the 2001 General Election." British Journal of Politics
and International Relations 9(3):396-412.
Dahlerup, Drude. 2007. " Electoral Gender Quotas: Between Equality of Opportunity and Equality of
Result." Representation 43(2):73-92.
Dahlstedt, Magnus and Fredrik Hertzberg. 2007. "Democracy the Swedish Way? The Exclusion of
_Immigrants in Swedish Politics." Scandinavian Political Studies 30(2):175-203.
Dalton, Russell J. 2007. "Partisan Mobilization, Cognitive Mobilization and the Changing American
Electorate." Electoral Studies 26(2):274-86.
de Lange, Sarah L. 2007. "A New Winning Formula?: The Programmatic Appeal of the Radical Right."
Party Politics 13(4):411-35.
DeCanio, Samuel. 2007. "Religion and Nineteenth-Century Voting Behavior: A New Look at Some Old
Data." The Journal of Politics 69(2):339-50.
Diskin, Abraham, Andrea Eschet-Schwarz, and Dan S. Felsenthal. 2007. "Homogeneity, Heterogeneity and
Direct Democracy: The Case of Swiss Referenda." Canadian Journal of Political Science 40(2):317-42.
Diwakar, Rekha. 2007. "Duverger's Law and the Size of the Indian Party System." Party Politics
13(5):539-61.
Doerschler, Peter and Lee A. Banaszak. 2007. "Voter Support for the German PDS Over Time:
Dissatisfaction, Ideology, Losers and East Identity." Electoral Studies 26(2):359-70.
Dunphy, Richard and Tim Bale. 2007. "Red Flag Still Flying?: Explaining AKEL -- Cyprus's Communist
Anomaly." Party Politics 13 (3):287-304.
Edwards, Martin S. and Frank C. Thames. 2007. "District Magnitude, Personal Votes, and Government
Expenditures." Electoral Studies 26(2):338-45.
Elff, Martin. 2007. "Social Structure and Electoral Behavior in Comparative Perspective: The Decline of
Social Cleavages in Western Europe Revisited." Perspectives on Politics 5(2):277-94.
Epstein, Gil and Raphael Franck. 2007. "Campaign Resources and Electoral Success: Evidence From the
2002 French Parliamentary Elections." Public Choice 131(3):469-89.
Evans, Jocelyn A. J. and Jonathan Tonge. 2007. "Unionist Party Competition and the Orange Order Vote in
Northern Ireland." Electoral Studies 26(1):156-67.
Evans, Thomas. 2007. "An Empirical Test of Why Incumbents Adopt Campaign Spending Limits." Public
Choice 132(3):437-56.
Feld, Scott L. and Bernard Grofman. 2007. "The Laakso-Taagepera Index in A Mean and Variance
Framework." Journal of Theoretical Politics 19(1):101-6.
Flickinger, Richard S. and Donley T. Studlar. 2007. "One Europe, Many Electorates?: Models of Turnout
in European Parliament Elections After 2004." Comparative Political Studies 40(4):383-404.
Forestiere, Carolyn. 2007. "Assessing Patterns of Executive Representation in Parliamentary Systems."
Representation 43(3):167-77.
Francia, Peter L. and Paul S. Herrnson. 2007. "Keeping It Professional: The Influence of Political
Consultants on Candidate Attitudes Toward Negative Campaigning." Politics & Policy 35(2):246-72.
Freire, Andrea and Eftichia Teperoglou. 2007. "European Elections and National Politics: Lessons From
the Southern European Democracies." Journal of Elections, Public Opinion & Parties 17 (1):101-22.
Gabel, Matthew and Kenneth Scheve. 2007. "Mixed Messages: Party Dissent and Mass Opinion on
European Integration." European Union Politics 8(1):37-59.
Gamble, Katrina L. 2007. "Black Political Representation: An Examination of Legislative Activity Within
U.S. House Committees." Legislative Studies Quarterly 32(August):421-47.
Garcia-Rivero, Carlos and Hennie Kotze. 2007. "Electoral Support for Islamic Parties in the Middle East
and North Africa." Party Politics 13(5):611-36.
Garry, John. 2007. "Making 'Party Identification' More Versatile: Operationalising the Concept for the
Multiparty Setting." Electoral Studies 26(2):346-58.
Gay, Claudine. 2007. "Legislating Without Constraints: The Effect of Minority Districting on Legislators'
Responsiveness to Constituency Preferences." The Journal of Politics 69(2):442-56.
Gerrity, Jessica C., Tracy Osborn, and Jeanette M. Mendez. 2007. "Women and Representation: A
Different View of the District?" Politics & Gender 3(2):179-200.

21
Gershtenson, Joseph. 2007. "Primaries, Parties, and Candidate Positioning in US Senate Elections."
Journal of Elections, Public Opinion & Parties 17(2):165-79.
Gidengil, Elisabeth, Allison Harell, and Bonnie H. Erickson. 2007. "Network Diversity and Vote Choice:
Women's Social Ties and Left Voting in Canada." Politics & Gender 3(2):151-77.
Gilmour, James. 2007. "Detailed Description of the STV Count in Accordance With the Rules in the
Scottish Local Government Elections Order 2007." Representation 43(3):217-29.
Gimpel, James G., Joshua J. Dyck, and Daron R. Shaw. 2007. "Election-Year Stimuli and the Timing of
Voter Registration." Party Politics 13(3):351-74.
Gimpel, James G., Karen M. Kaufmann, and Shanna Pearson-Merkowitz. 2007. "Battleground States
Versus Blackout States: The Behavioral Implications of Modern Presidential Campaigns." The Journal
of Politics 69(3):786-97.
Gomez, Brad T., Thomas G. Hansford, and George A. Krause. 2007. "The Republicans Should Pray for
Rain: Weather, Turnout, and Voting in U.S. Presidential Elections." The Journal of Politics
69(3):649-63.
Hansen, Martin E. 2007. "Party Members and Party Voters: Candidate Selection and Election at the Local
Level." Representation 43(3):141-50.
Heath, Roseanna M. 2007. "Presidential and Congressional Elections in Chile, December 2005 and January
2006." Electoral Studies 26(2):516-20.
Hee Park, Jong and Nathan Jensen. 2007. "Electoral Competition and Agricultural Support in OECD
Countries." American Journal of Political Science 51(2):314-29.
Helms, Ludger. 2007. "The German Federal Election, September 2005." Electoral Studies 26(1):223-27.
Herron, Erik S. 2007. "State Institutions, Political Context and Parliamentary Election Legislation in
Ukraine, 2000-2006." Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics 23(1):57-76.
Herron, Michael C. and Jonathan Wand. 2007. "Assessing Partisan Bias in Voting Technology: The Case
of the 2004 New Hampshire Recount." Electoral Studies 26(2):247-61.
Hesli, Vicki L. 2007. "The 2006 Parliamentary Election in Ukraine." Electoral Studies 26(2):507-11.
Hill, Lisa and Sally Young. 2007. "Protest or Error? Informal Voting and Compulsory Voting." Australian
Journal of Political Science 42(3):515-21.
Hillygus, D. S. 2007. "The Dynamics of Voter Decision Making Among Minor-Party Supporters: The 2000
Presidential Election in the United States." British Journal of Political Science 37(2):225-44.
Hix, Simon and Michael Marsh. 2007. "Punishment or Protest? Understanding European Parliament
Elections." The Journal of Politics 69(2):495-510.
Holcombe, Randall and Lawrence Kenny. 2007. "Evidence on Voter Preferences From Unrestricted Choice
Referendums." Public Choice 131(1):197-215.
Horiuchi, Yusaku, Kosuke Imai, and Naoko Taniguchi. 2007. "Designing and Analyzing Randomized
Experiments: Application to a Japanese Election Survey Experiment." American Journal of Political
Science 51(3):669-87.
Huckfeldt, Robert, Edward G. Carmines, Jeffery J. Mondak, and Eric Zeemering. 2007. "Information,
Activation, and Electoral Competition in the 2002 Congressional Elections." The Journal of Politics
69(3):798-812.
Hug, Simon and Tobias Schulz. 2007. "Left--Right Positions of Political Parties in Switzerland." Party
Politics 13(3):305-30.
Jackson, Robert A. and Thomas M. Carsey. 2007. "US Senate Campaigns, Negative Advertising, and Voter
Mobilization in the 1998 Midterm Election." Electoral Studies 26(1):180-195.
Jagers, Jan and Steffan Walgrave. 2007. "Populism As Political Communication Style: An Empirical Study
of Political Parties' Discourse in Belgium." European Journal of Political Research 46( 3):319-45.
Johns, Robert and Mark Shephard. 2007. "Gender, Candidate Image and Electoral Preference." British
Journal of Politics and International Relations 9(3):434-60.
Johnston, Ron, Kelvyn Jones, Carol Propper, and Simon Burgess. 2007. "Region, Local Context, and
Voting at the 1997 General Election in England." American Journal of Political Science 51(3):640-654.
Johnston, Ron and Charles Pattie. 2007. "Funding Local Political Parties in England and Wales: Donations
and Constituency Campaigns." British Journal of Politics and International Relations 9(3):365-95.
Jolly, Seth K. 2007. "The Europhile Fringe?: Regionalist Party Support for European Integration."
European Union Politics 8(1):109-30.
Karol, David. 2007. "Does Constituency Size Affect Elected Officials' Trade Policy Preferences?" The
Journal of Politics 69(2):483-94.

22
Karol, David and Edward Miguel. 2007. "The Electoral Cost of War: Iraq Casualties and the 2004 U.S.
Presidential Election." The Journal of Politics 69(3):633-48.
Karvonen, Lauri. 2007. " Legislation On Political Parties: A Global Comparison." Party Politics
13(4):437-55.
Kelly, Norm. 2007. "Australian Electoral Reforms: A Threat to Democratic Principles?" Representation
43(1):35-44.
Kelsall, Tim. 2007. "The Presidential and Parliamentary Elections in Tanzania, October and December
2005." Electoral Studies 26(2):525-29.
Keman, Hans. 2007. "Experts and Manifestos: Different Sources - Same Results for Comparative
Research?" Electoral Studies 26(1):76-89.
Kestila, Elina and Peter Soderlund. 2007. "Local Determinants of Radical Right-Wing Voting: The Case of
the Norwegian Progress Party." West European Politics 30(3):549-72.
Khemani, Stuti. 2007. "Party Politics and Fiscal Discipline in a Federation: Evidence From the States of
India." Comparative Political Studies 40(6):691-712.
Knuckey, Jonathan. 2007. "Moral Values and Vote Choice in the 2004 U.S. Presidential Election." Politics
& Policy 35(2):222-45.
Kostadinova, Tatiana. 2007. "Ethnic and Women's Representation Under Mixed Election Systems."
Electoral Studies 26(2):418-31.
Kousser, Thad, Jeffrey B. Lewis, and Seth E. Masket. 2007. "Ideological Adaptation? The Survival Instinct
of Threatened Legislators." The Journal of Politics 69(3):828-43.
Kriesi, Hanspeter. 2007. "The Role of European Integration in National Election Campaigns." European
Union Politics 8(1):83-108.
Kristin Birnir, Johanna. 2007. "Divergence in Diversity? The Dissimilar Effects of Cleavages on Electoral
Politics in New Democracies." American Journal of Political Science 51(3):602-19.
Krook, Mona L. 2007. "Candidate Gender Quotas: A Framework for Analysis." European Journal of
Political Research 46(3):367-94.
Kuenzi, Michelle and Gina M. S. Lambright. 2007. "Voter Turnout in Africa's Multiparty Regimes."
Comparative Political Studies 40(6):665-90.
Lacroix, Justine. 2007. "A Liberal Defence of Compulsory Voting." Politics 27(3):190-195.
Ladner, Matthew and Christopher Wlezien. 2007. "Partisan Preferences, Electoral Prospects, and Economic
Expectations." Comparative Political Studies 40(5):571-96.
LaFrance, T. C. and Brian Frederick. 2007. "Economic Status Versus Same-Sex Marriage Referenda in the
2004 Democratic Presidential Vote in "Appalachian" Counties." Politics & Policy 35(2):298-317.
Lago, Ignacio and Ferran Martinez. 2007. "The Importance of Electoral Rules: Comparing the Number of
Parties in Spain's Lower and Upper Houses." Electoral Studies 26(2):381-91.
Lebo, Matthew J., Adam J. McGlynn, and Gregory Koger. 2007. "Strategic Party Government: Party
Influence in Congress, 1789-2000." American Journal of Political Science 51(3):464-81.
Leggett, Will. 2007. "British Social Democracy Beyond New Labour: Entrenching a Progressive
Consensus." British Journal of Politics and International Relations 9(3):346-64.
Leighley, Jan E. and Jonathan Nagler. 2007. "Unions, Voter Turnout, and Class Bias in the U.S. Electorate,
1964-2004." The Journal of Politics 69(2):430-441.
Leyenaar, Monique and Jantine Oldersma. 2007. "The (In)Compatibility of Institutional Reform and
Inclusiveness: The Case of the Netherlands." Representation 43(2):93-109.
———. 2007. "Introduction: Representation and Inclusion." Representation 43(2):65-71.
Liddle, R. W. and Saiful Mujani. 2007. "Leadership, Party, and Religion: Explaining Voting Behavior in
Indonesia." Comparative Political Studies 40(7):832-57.
Lien, Pei-te, Dianne M. Pinderhughes, Carol Hardy-Fanta, and Christine M. Sierra. 2007. "The Voting
Rights Act and the Election of Nonwhite Officials." PS: Political Science & Politics 40(3):489-94.
Linek, Lukas and Stepan Pechacek. 2007. "Low Membership in Czech Political Parties: Party Strategy or
Structural Determinants?" Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics 23(2):259-75.
Lopez, Edward and R. Jewell. 2007. "Strategic Institutional Choice: Voters, States, and Congressional
Term Limits." Public Choice 132(1):137-57.
Lubbers, Marcel and Ayse Guveli. 2007. "Voting LPF: Stratification and the Varying Importance of
Attitudes." Journal of Elections, Public Opinion & Parties 17(1):21-47.
Macdonald, Jason A. 2007. "The U.S. Congress and the Institutional Design of Agencies." Legislative
Studies Quarterly 32(August):395-420.

23
Manow, Philip and Simone Burkhart. 2007. "Legislative Self-Restraint Under Divided Government In
Germany, 19762002." Legislative Studies Quarterly 32(May):167-91.
Mansergh, Lucy and Robert Thomson. 2007. "Election Pledges, Party Competition, and Policymaking."
Comparative Politics 39(3).
Marietta, Morgan and David C. Barker. 2007. "Values As Heuristics: Core Beliefs and Voter Sophistication
in the 2000 Republican Nomination Contest." Journal of Elections, Public Opinion & Parties
17(1):49-78.
Marks, Gary. 2007. "Introduction: Triangulation and the Square-Root Law." Electoral Studies 26(1):1-10.
Marks, Gary, Liesbet Hooghe, Marco R. Steenbergen, and Ryan Bakker. 2007. "Crossvalidating Data on
Party Positioning on European Integration." Electoral Studies 26(1):23-38.
Marsh, Michael. 2007. "Candidates or Parties?: Objects of Electoral Choice in Ireland." Party Politics
13(4):500-527.
Marshall, Bryan W. and Brandon C. Prins. 2007. "Strategic Position Taking and Presidential Influence in
Congress." Legislative Studies Quarterly 32(May):257-84.
Masket, Seth E. 2007. "It Takes an Outsider: Extralegislative Organization and Partisanship in the
California Assembly, 1849-2006." American Journal of Political Science 51(3):482-97.
Mayer, William G. 2007. "The Swing Voter in American Presidential Elections." American Politics
Research 35(3):358-88.
McDonald, Michael D., Silvia M. Mendes, and Myunghee Kim. 2007. "Cross-Temporal and Cross-
National Comparisons of Party Left-Right Positions." Electoral Studies 26(1):62-75.
McElroy, Gail. 2007. "Legislative Politics As Normal?: Voting Behaviour and Beyond in the European
Parliament." European Union Politics 8(3):433-48.
Medvic, Stephen K. 2007. "Old Democrats in New Clothing?: An Ideological Analysis of a Democratic
Party Faction." Party Politics 13(5):587-609.
Merolla, Jennifer L. and Laura B. Stephenson. 2007. "Strategic Voting in Canada: A Cross Time Analysis."
Electoral Studies 26(2):235-46.
Milkis, Sidney M. and Jesse H. Rhodes. 2007. "George W. Bush, the Republican Party, and the New
American Party System." Perspectives on Politics 5(3):461-88.
Millard, Frances. 2007. "The 2005 Parliamentary and Presidential Elections in Poland." Electoral Studies
26(1):210-215.
Miller, Nicholas R. 2007. "The Butterfly Effect Under STV." Electoral Studies 26(2):503-6.
Mishler, William, Steven Finkel, and Pradeep Peiris. 2007. "The 2005 Presidential and 2004 Parliamentary
Elections in Sri Lanka." Electoral Studies 26(1):205-9.
Moraski, Bryon J. and William M. Reisinger. 2007. "Eroding Democracy: Federal Intervention in Russia's
Gubernatorial Elections." Democratization 14(4):603-21.
Morrill, Richard, Larry Knopp, and Michael Brown . 2007. "Anomalies in Red and Blue: Exceptionalism in
American Electoral Geography." Political Geography 26(5):525-53.
Netjes, Catherine E. and Harmen A. Binnema. 2007. "The Salience of the European Integration Issue:
Three Data Sources Compared." Electoral Studies 26(1):39-49.
Norpoth, Helmut and Jerrold G. Rusk. 2007. "Electoral Myth and Reality: Realignments in American
Politics." Electoral Studies 26(2):392-403.
O'Neill, Jeffrey. 2007. "Choosing a Runoff Election Threshold." Public Choice 131 (3):351-64.
Odmalm, Pontus. 2007. "One Size Fits All? European Citizenship, National Citizenship Policies and
Integration Requirements." Representation 43(1):19-34.
Oliver, J. E. and Shang E. Ha. 2007. "Vote Choice in Suburban Elections." American Political Science
Review 101(3):393-408.
Olsen, Jonathan. 2007. "The Merger of the PDS and WASG: From Eastern German Regional Party to
National Radical Left Party?" German Politics 16(2):205-21.
Oscarsson, Henrik. 2007. "A Matter of Fact? Knowledge Effects on the Vote in Swedish General Elections,
1985-2002." Scandinavian Political Studies 30(3):301-22.
Patty, John W. 2007. "Incommensurability and Issue Voting." Journal of Theoretical Politics 19(2):115-31.
Pelizzo, Riccardo. 2007. "The Cartel Party and the Rise of the New Extreme Right." Comparative
European Politics 5(July):226-42.
Pettitt, Robin T. 2007. "Challenging the Leadership: The Party Conference As a Platform for Dissenting
Membership Voice in British and Danish Parties of the Left." Scandinavian Political Studies
30(2):229-48.

24
Pickup, Mark and Richard Johnston. 2007. "Campaign Trial Heats As Electoral Information: Evidence
From the 2004 and 2006 Canadian Federal Elections." Electoral Studies 26(2 ):460-476.
Pilet, Jean-Benoit. 2007. "Strategies Under the Surface: The Determinants of Redistricting in Belgium."
Comparative European Politics 5(July):205-25.
Power, Timothy J. and James C. Garand. 2007. "Determinants of Invalid Voting in Latin America."
Electoral Studies 26(2):432-44.
Pridham, Geoffrey. 2007. "Legitimating European Union Accession?: Political Elites and Public Opinion in
Latvia, 2003 2004." Party Politics 13(5):563-86.
Quinn, Dennis P. and A. M. Toyoda. 2007. "Ideology and Voter Preferences As Determinants of Financial
Globalization." American Journal of Political Science 51(2):344-63.
Rakner, Lise, Lars Svasand, and Nixon S. Khembo. 2007. "Fissions and Fusions, Foes and Friends: Party
System Restructuring in Malawi in the 2004 General Elections." Comparative Political Studies
40(9):1112-37.
Ray, Leonard. 2007. "Validity of Measured Party Positions on European Integration: Assumptions,
Approaches, and a Comparison of Alternative Measures." Electoral Studies 26(1):11-22.
Remmer, Karen L. 2007. "The Political Economy of Patronage: Expenditure Patterns in the Argentine
Provinces, 1983-2003." The Journal of Politics 69(2):363-77.
Reynaert, Herwig and Kristof Steyvers. 2007. "Towards a Direct Election of Mayors in Belgium: Giving
Up Representation or Giving in to Political Renewal?" Representation 43(2):123-36.
Rickershauser, Jill and John H. Aldrich. 2007. ""It's the Electability, Stupid" - or Maybe Not? Electability,
Substance, and Strategic Voting in Presidential Primaries." Electoral Studies 26(2):371-80.
Roberts, Jason M. 2007. "The Statistical Analysis Of Roll-Call Data: A Cautionary Tale." Legislative
Studies Quarterly 32(August):341-60.
Rose, Richard. 2007. "Going Public With Private Opinions: Are Post-Communist Citizens Afraid to Say
What They Think?" Journal of Elections, Public Opinion & Parties 17(2):123-42.
Ruiz-Rufino, Ruben. 2007. "Aggregated Threshold Functions or How to Measure the Performance of an
Electoral System." Electoral Studies 26(2):492-502.
Salgado, Susana. 2007. " Parliamentary and Presidential Elections in Portugal, 2005 and 2006." Electoral
Studies 26(2):512-16.
Sanders Romero, Francine. 2007. "The Impact of Direct Election on Reform Votes in the U.S. Senate*."
Social Science Quarterly 88(3):816-29.
Sater, James N. 2007. "Changing Politics From Below? Women Parliamentarians in Morocco."
Democratization 14(4):723-42.
Sawer, Marian. 2007. "Property Voting in Local Government: A Relic of a Pre-Democratic Era?"
Representation 43(1):45-52.
Schaffner, Brian F. 2007. "Political Parties and the Representativeness Of Legislative Committees."
Legislative Studies Quarterly 32(August):475-97.
Schoen, Harald. 2007. "Campaigns, Candidate Evaluations, and Vote Choice: Evidence From German
Federal Election Campaigns, 1980-2002." Electoral Studies 26(2):324-37.
Schoen, Harald and Siegfried Schumann. 2007. "Personality Traits, Partisan Attitudes, and Voting
Behavior. Evidence From Germany ." Political Psychology 28(4):471-98.
Schofield, Norman and Gary Miller. 2007. "Elections and Activist Coalitions in the United States."
American Journal of Political Science 51(3):518-31.
Seely, Jennifer C. 2007. "The Presidential Election in Benin, March 2006." Electoral Studies
26(1):196-200.
Shephard, Mark. 2007. "Multiple Audiences, Multiple Messages? An Exploration of the Dynamics
Between the Party, the Candidates and the Various Constituencies." Journal of Elections, Public Opinion
&Amp; Parties 17(2):181-201.
Shin, Michael E. and John Agnew. 2007. "The Geographical Dynamics of Italian Electoral Change,
1987-2001." Electoral Studies 26(2):287-302.
Singer, Matthew M. 2007. "The Presidential and Parliamentary Elections in Bolivia, December 2005."
Electoral Studies 26(1):200-205.
Smirnov, Oleg and James H. Fowler. 2007. "Policy-Motivated Parties in Dynamic Political Competition."
Journal of Theoretical Politics 19(1):9-31.
Soberg, Morten and Thomas P. Tangeras. 2007. "Voter Turnout in Small Referendums." Electoral Studies
26(2):445-59.

25
Staton, Jeffrey K., Robert A. Jackson, and Damarys Canache. 2007. "Dual Nationality Among Latinos:
What Are the Implications for Political Connectedness?" The Journal of Politics 69(2):470-482.
Stromback Jesper and Bengt Johansson. 2007. "Electoral Cycles and the Mobilizing Effects of Elections: A
Longitudinal Study of the Swedish Case." Journal of Elections, Public Opinion & Parties 17(1):79-99.
Sussman, Gary. 2007. "Are Party Ballots Approximating National Referendums?" Representation
43(1):1-18.
Szajkowski, Bogdan. 2007. "The Parliamentary Election in Albania, July-August 2005." Electoral Studies
26(1):227-31.
Szczerbiak, Aleks. 2007. "Social Poland Defeats Liberal Poland? The September - October 2005 Polish
Parliamentary and Presidential Elections." Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics
23(2):203-32.
Taylor-Robinson, Michelle M. 2007. "Presidential and Congressional Elections in Honduras, November
2005." Electoral Studies 26(2):521-24.
Thames, Frank C. 2007. "Discipline and Party Institutionalization in Post-Soviet Legislatures." Party
Politics 13(4):456-77.
———. 2007. "Searching for the Electoral Connection: Parliamentary Party Switching In the Ukrainian
Rada, 1998-2002." Legislative Studies Quarterly 32(May):223-56.
Trechsel, Alexander H. 2007. "Inclusiveness of Old and New Forms of Citizens' Electoral Participation."
Representation 43(2):111-21.
Tremblay, Manon. 2007. "Democracy, Representation, and Women: A Comparative Analysis."
Democratization 14(4):533-53.
Tucker, Joshua A. 2007. "Enough! Electoral Fraud, Collective Action Problems, and Post-Communist
Colored Revolutions." Perspectives on Politics 5(3):535-51.
Valen, Henry and Hanne M. Narud. 2007. "The Conditional Party Mandate: A Model for the Study of Mass
and Elite Opinion Patterns." European Journal of Political Research 46(3):293-318.
———. 2007. "The Storting Election in Norway, September 2005." Electoral Studies 26(1):219-23.
Van Heerde, Jennifer and Shaun Bowler. 2007. "Parties in an Anti-Party State: The Case of California."
Journal of Elections, Public Opinion & Parties 17(2):143-63.
Volkens, Andrea. 2007. " Strengths and Weaknesses of Approaches to Measuring Policy Positions of
Parties." Electoral Studies 26(1):108-20.
Wang, Chin-Shou and Charles Kurzman. 2007. "Dilemmas of Electoral Clientelism: Taiwan, 1993."
International Political Science Review 28(2):225-45.
Wang, Yu. 2007. "The Incumbent Advantage in Japanese Lower House Elections: An Empirical Study of
1960-1990." Representation 43(3):199-208.
Whitefield, Stephen, Milada A. Vachudova, Marco R. Steenbergen, Robert Rohrschneider, Gary Marks,
Matthew P. Loveless, and Liesbet Hooghe. 2007. "Do Expert Surveys Produce Consistent Estimates of
Party Stances on European Integration? Comparing Expert Surveys in the Difficult Case of Central and
Eastern Europe." Electoral Studies 26(1):50-61.
Wilhelm, Teena. 2007. "The Policymaking Role of State Supreme Courts in Education Policy." Legislative
Studies Quarterly 32(May):309-33.
Wirls, Daniel. 2007. "The "Golden Age" Senate And Floor Debate in the Antebellum Congress."
Legislative Studies Quarterly 32(May):193-222.
Wolak, Jennifer. 2007. " Strategic Retirements: The Influence of Public Preferences On Voluntary
Departures From Congress." Legislative Studies Quarterly 32(May):285-308.
Zaquete, Jose P. 2007. " Portugal: A New Look at the Extreme Right." Representation 43 (3):179-98.
Zucco Jr., Cesar. 2007. "Where's the Bias? A Reassessment of the Chilean Electoral System." Electoral
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Government Documents
United States, Congress, House, and Committee on House Administration. 2007. Hearing on Verification,
Security, and Paper Records for Our Nation's Electronic Voting Systems Hearing Before the Committee
on House Administration, House of Representatives, One Hundred Ninth Congress, Second Session,
Hearing Held in Washington, DC, September 28, 2006. Washington: U.S. G.P.O. For sale by the Supt. of
Docs., U.S. G.P.O.
United States, Congress, House, Committee on House Administration, and Subcommittee on Elections.
2007. Election Reform Machines and Software: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Elections of the

26
Committee on House Administration, House of Representatives, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First
Session, Meeting Held in Washington, DC, March 15, 2007 . Washington: U.S. G.P.O. For sale by the
Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O.
United States, Congress, House, Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, and Subcommittee on
Information Policy, Census, and National Archives. 2007. Ensuring Fairness and Accuracy in Elections
Involving Electronic Voting Systems Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Information Policy, Census,
and National Archives of the Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, House of
Representatives, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, April 18, 2007. Washington: U.S. G.P.O.
For sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O.
United States, Congress, House, and Committee on the Judiciary. 2007. District of Columbia House Voting
Rights Act of 2007 Hearing Before the Committee on the Judiciary, House of Representatives, One
Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, on H.R. 1433, March 14, 2007. Washington: U.S. G.P.O. For
sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O.
———. 2007. Protecting the Right to Vote Election Deception and Irregularities in Recent Federal
Elections: Hearing Before the Committee on the Judiciary, House of Representatives, One Hundred
Tenth Congress, First Session, March 7, 2007. Washington: U.S. G.P.O. For sale by the Supt. of Docs.,
U.S. G.P.O.
United States, Congress, Senate, and Committee on Armed Services. 2007. Military Voting and the
Federal Voting Assistance Program Hearing Before the Committee on Armed Services, United States
Senate, One Hundred Ninth Congress, Second Session, September 28, 2006. Washington: U.S. G.P.O.
For sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O.
United States, Congress, Senate, and Committee on Foreign Relations. 2007. Post-Palestinian Election
Challenges in the Middle East Hearing Before the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States
Senate, One Hundred Ninth Congress, Second Session, March 15, 2006. Washington: U.S. G.P.O. For
sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O.
United States, Congress, Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, and Subcommittee on the Constitution, Civil
Rights, and Property Rights. 2007. Reauthorizing the Voting Rights Act's Temporary Provisions Policy
Perspectives and Views From the Field : Hearing Before the Subcommittee on the Constitution, Civil
Rights, and Property Rights of the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, One Hundred
Ninth Congress, Second Session, June 21, 2006. Washington: U.S. G.P.O. For sale by the Supt. of Docs.,
U.S. G.P.O.
———. 2007. Renewing the Temporary Provisions of the Voting Rights Act Legislative Options After
Lulac V. Perry : Hearing Before the Subcommittee on the Constitution, Civil Rights, and Property Rights
of the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, One Hundred Ninth Congress, Second Session,
July 13, 2006. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office. For sale by the Superintendent of
Documents.