Media Made Sport: A History of Sports Coverage in the U.S.

Media Made Sport: A History
of Sports Coverage in the U.S.
Robert McChesney

Symbiotic relationship
• Mass media & sports have a symbiotic
relationship, relying on one another.
Capitalism drives it all, says
McChesney.
• Sports – benefit from ‘enormous’
attention.
• Media – benefit from sales (circulation
and advertising) by covering sports.

“The nature of the sport-mass media relationship
has been distinctly shaped by the merging contours
of American capitalism since the 1830s. On one
hand, much of sport and virtually all of the mass
media have been organized as commercial
enterprises throughout this history. Many of the
specific developments in the sport-mass media
relationship can be fathomed only through the
continual recognition that each of these institutions
has been constituted of individual units first and
foremost striving for economic profit in some level
of competition with each other. On the other hand,
sport emerges as an institution especially well
suited culturally and ideologically, first, to the
emerging capitalism of the century, and, second,
– indeed, far more so– to the mature corporate
capitalistic society of the twentieth century.” (pp. 49-50)

Symbiotic
• “Virtually every surge in the popularity of
sports has been accompanied by a dramatic
increase in the coverage provided by the
media.” (p. 49)
• And each surge was the result of increased
penetration of media
• Capitalism drives success (and relationship)
between sports & the media. Both sides are
striving for economic profits.

Sports well-suited to U.S. capitalism
• Sports were well-suited culturally and
ideologically to the emerging capitalistic
structure of 19th century America.
• Sport also work well with ‘mature
corporate capitalist’ society of 20th
century.

Media history (pre-1830s)
• Most newspapers and magazines were published for
small, wealthy audiences
• Literacy rates gradually increased between
1770s-1830
• 1800-1830 – sharp increase in magazine publishing
(several hundred new mags started)
• Mags (and newspapers) not usually profitable at the
time
• Most mags linked to other professions & interests
(often, political interests)
• Publishers are also usually editors, managers and
primary authors

Early American sports magazines
• 1st American sports magazine in the late 1820s. By
1835, seven more emerged. Only 2 would survive to
1835.
• Dominant sports pubs – American Farmer &
American Turf Register
• At this time, sports considered vulgar and
disreputable among more literate people. So more
respectable sports, like horse racing. Boxing received
less coverage b/c it appealed to lower classes.
• Writers used pseudonyms to protect their real
identities, their reputations.

1830s-40s
• Dramatic social change
• 1st wave of industrialization in Northeast
• Cities swelled (from countryside & immigrants)
• Reading public expanded
• Interest in sports expanded
• Spirit of the Times expanded circulation to 100,000
by 1850s. Mag covered boxing and worked to
establish cricket as national game. When that failed,
he sought to establish baseball as national game in
1850s. He helped establish rules and terminology for
baseball.

1830s-40s
• Birth of modern newspapers. Journalism not yet a real
profession at this time. Modern in that advertising played big
part in profits.
• Decreased printing costs, expanding market.
• Penny press emerged, as a result. Aimed at working class and
middle-class.
• Papers started to cover sports (boxing, horse racing and trotting
races). Publishers, though, are not sure if sports are respectable
enough to cover on its pages. Coverage is sporadic, seasonal and
regional. Mostly horse racing and boxing.
• Sensationalism use to sell papers. Coverage minor, though.

1840s-70s
• Civil War helped introduce baseball, which emerged
as pre-eminent sport. By 1869, first pro baseball
league established.
• Media coverage increased. Boxscores and other
baseball stats created by journalists. Papers asserted
health benefits of athletics.
• Media’s tone changed – started to promote athletics
as way to train for life. Extoled virtues of sport for
American society.
• Press worked to legitimize sports as a cultural
institution. This undermined the Puritan legacy (of
hostility) toward sports.

1880s-90s
• Newspapers replaced magazines as primary medium.
• Mags grew to 48 by 1890s. Police Gazette circulated 150,000 by
1880s. Spiked to 400,000 for some issues.
• But newspaper circulation grew even quicker. Reasons:
technology reduced cost of printing, city populations grew,
expanding businesses needed way to reach customers. Ads
accounted for 1/2 of newspaper revenue.
• Sports could attract readers – and, thus, potential customers
– for advertisers.
• In 1883, Pulitzer created 1st sports department for NY World.
• In 1895, Hearst started 1st sports section at NY Journal.
• Sports journalism emerged as distinct genre.
• Media advancements: Telegraph allowed for more timely sports
info from all over the country.

1880s-90s cont’d
• Sports departments and regular sports sections
enhanced interest in sport. readers did not have to
attend sports – or participate – to enjoy sports.
Sports-media symbiotic relationship crystallizes.
• The newly formed baseball writers association
recognized this in 1887, writing: “All sides now
recognize that their interests are identical. The
reporters have found in the game a thing of beauty
and a source of actual employment. The game has
found in the reporters its best ally and most powerful
supporter.

1900-18
• Sports consolidated position
• By 1910, virtually every paper gave prominent
play to major sporting events.
• World Series started in 1903 (the last time the
Cubs won the Series? :)
• Sports popularized among WWI soldiers

1920s
• Golden Age of Sports
• Sports emerged as primary source of entertainment –
thanks, perhaps, to increased coverage and to what
may have also been the Golden Age of Sportwriting
• Corporate capitalism established as political power
• Newspapers declined but circulation grew by 25%
• Corporate capitalism elevated advertising to primary
mode of competition
• Ads increased to 75% of newspaper revenues. Fuled
the newspaper boom of ’20s.

1920s –newspaper trends
3 dominant editorial trends emerged
• No. 1 – papers decreased hard news coverage
and, instead, emphasized escapist and
sensational stories to attract more readers.
Sports fit into this idea perfectly.
• 25% of all newspapers sold b/c of sports
sections.

1920s – newspaper trends
3 dominant editorial trends emerged
• No. 2 – Papers standardized presentation to reduce
costs.
• Wire services started. Syndicated material cheaper to
run than staff copy. 1920s AP started sports dept.
• Press agents wrote copy for free, but this was really
PR. As much as 50-60% of all stories may have been
generated by these press agents.
• Sports promoters paid expenses to gain coverage – or
even made payoffs for coverage.

1920s – newspaper trends
3 dominant editorial trends emerged
• No. 3 – deemphasized strident political
partisanship. Did not want to offend
people based upon their political views.
Sports was ‘safe’ ideologically. Did not
antagonize. Sports led to civic
boosterism as well.

Increased coverage in ’20s
• In 1880 – .04% of all editorial content addressed sports.
• In 1900 – 4%
• 1920s – 12 to 20%
• Coverage was typically colorful and excitement. Created
romance between sports and the public.
• Writers – Grantland Rice, Paul Gallico, Damon Runyon.
Cliché-ridden.
• Writers tended to glorify sport heroes, presenting them as
larger than life.
• Newspapers promoted sports

Radio
• Radio contributed to popularity of college
football.
• But MLB owners thought it would kill
attendance. Teams hired own broadcasters,
soon called ‘homers.’ radio increased
attendance.

TV (1940s-50s)
• Boxing perfect for TV but killed local clubs.
• 300 clubs in 1952 but only 50 by 1960.
• Pro boxers declined by 50% as a result.
• Sluggers more popular on TV so promoters developed
that style more. Affected the sport.
• NCAA and MLB at 1st declined but then saw financial
benefits; plus, TVs became a mass medium across
U.S.

TV (late ‘50s to 60s)
• TV penetration increased
• Technology allowed for colorinstant-replay
• Sports Broadcasting Act (1961) enabled leagues to negotiate as
one
• Networks purchased broadcast rights directly from teams, then
sold time to advertisers who liked access to blue-collar market.
(Same reason golf is attractive for other advertisers today
despite lower ratings.)
• NFL leaped into TV and even created ‘TV timeouts.’
• Wide World of Sports created in 1961

TV (‘70s-80s)
• Monday Night Football created
• Sports increased on networks in 1970s fro 787 hours to 1,356.
• By 1984, annual hours at 1,700.
• Advertisers loved because could reach 18-49 males, a tough to
reach demographic. (6 times as many watched NFL than the
top show, Dallas, in 1981.)
• By mid-80s, networks selling $1 billion in advertising
• TV affected print journalism. Less words spent describing action
in games. Instead, analysis, background and stats emphasized.
More quotes used.
• The symbiotic relationship between spors and the various media
continues to change.