2001 - Bowling Green State University

Association for the Advancement 

ofApplied Sport Psychology 

The Executive Board for the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology (AAASP) 

welcomes you to our 16th annual conference in Orlando, FL. Special thanks to Trent Petrie, the 

Program Chair, Andrew Meyers, Conference Chair, and the rest of the committee for organizing an 

outstanding conference. The lectures, posters, symposia, workshops and invited speakers are 

excellent-the result of you, the membership, submitting only your best work. We thank you for 

making this such a stimulating conference. 

We are very pleased to be your host for this conference and hope you enjoy both the conference and 

the social activities that are planned. Ifwe may be of assistance, please feel free to find us during the 

conference. 

Sincerely, 

AAASP, Executive Board 

Symposia 1 

Colloquia 37 

Lectures 43 

Posters 65 

Workshops 101 

Author Index 113

Association for the Advancement ofApplied Sport Psychology 

2000-2001 AAASP·Committees and Committee Members 

Membership Retention Committee 

Eric LaMott (Chair) 

Vance Tammen 

Justine Reel 

Russ Kagan (St. Rep.) 

Social Issues and Social Policy Committee 

Carole Oglesby (Chair) 

Brenda Bredemeier 

Marty Ewing 

Dave Russell 

Billy Strean 

Craig Wrisberg 

Carolyn Youren (St. Rep.) 

USOC Liaison 

Dan Gould 

APA Division 47 Liaison 

Diane Gill 

APA Division 38 Liaison 

Frank Perna 

BASES Liaison 

Dan Weigand 

Committees Reporting to the 

Professional Standards Division Head 

(Trent Petrie) 

Ethics Committee 

Ed Etzel (Chair) 

Sandra Foster 

Sheryl Harrison 

Kirsten Peterson 

Jack Watson 

Certification Review Committee 

Damon Burton (Chair) 

Heather Barber 

Emily Claspell 

Linda Petlichkoff 

Wes Sime 

Jean Williams (Liaison) 

Graduate Training Committee 

John Silva (Chair) 

David Conroy 

Allen Cornelius 

Heather Deaner 

Joan Duda (ex-officio) 

Erik Dunlap 

Alan Kornspan 

Chris Lantz 

11 

Bart Lerner 

Lynda Mainwaring 

Sean McCann 

Jon Metzler 

Shane Murphy (Liaison) 

Michael Sachs 

Jim Taylor 

Robert Weinberg 

Michelle Colman (St. Rep.) 

Rob Fazio (St. Rep.) 

Michelle Magyar (St. Rep.) 

Certified Consultants Committee 

Sue Ziegler (Chair) 

Judy Goss 

Mary Ann Kane 

TovaRubin 

Craig Wrisberg 

Diversity Committee 

Ruth Hall (Chair) 

Emily Claspell 

Joy Griffin 

Margaret Ottley 

Marcia Wilson 


PublicationslInformation Division Chair 

(Cindy Pemberton) 

JASP Editorial Board 

Bob Weinberg (Editor) 

Graduate Directory 

Mike Sachs and Kevin Burke (Editors) 

FIT, Andy Ostrow (Publisher) 

Web Oversight Committee 

Judy Van Raalte (Chair) 

Wade Gilbert 

Jim Whelan 

Nathan Perry (St. Rep.) 


Professional Development Division Chair 

(Frank Perna) 

Development Committee 

Diane Finley (Chair) 

Debra Ballinger 

Sean McCann 

John Noble 

Eileen Udry 

Josh Avondoglio (St. Rep.)

Organizational Outreach Committee 

Greg Dale (Chair) 

Bob Harmison 

Scott Martin 

Steve Portenga 

Jim Taylor 

International Relations Committee 

Glyn Roberts (Chair) 

Philippe Brunel 

Howard Hall 

MisookKim 

Artur Poczwardowski 

Darren Treasure 


Science and Education Division Head 

(Vicki Ebbeck) 

Social Psychology Committee 

Jeff Martin (Chair) 

Tom Raedeke 

Justin Reel 

DanWann 

Lavon Williams 

Jennifer Walden (St. Rep.) 

iii 

2001 Conference Proceedings 

Health and Exercise Psychology Committee 

Aynsley Smith (Chair) 

Ed Etzel 

Gretchen Kerr 

Edward O'Connor 

Eileen Udry 

Angela Hartman (St. Rep.) 

Performance Enhancement/Intervention Committee 

Scott Martin (Chair) 

Greg Dale 

Laura Finch 

Beth Howlett 

Lois Butcher (Rotating off after 

reviewing conference abstracts) 

Kristen Dieffenbach (St. Rep.) 

Continuing Education Committee 

Leslee A. Fisher (Chair) 

Marty Ewing 

Debbie Rhea 

Mike Sachs 

Dawn E. Stephens 

Emily Roper (St. Rep.)

Symposia 

Self-confidence in Sport: Conceptual and Psychometric 

Advancements 

Robin S. Vealey, Betsy J. Knight, Brad Williams, Melissa A. 

Chase, Miami University, USA 

Research has established that confidence is important to 

athletes' performance (e.g., Feltz 1994; Vealey, 2(01), thus it 

now seems fruitful to examine why and how confidence works 

to enhance performance, The purpose ofthis symposium is to 

overview a multi-phase research project dedicated to 

developing a conceptual framework and valid measurement 

instrumentation to elicit meaningful extensions to the study 

and enhancement of confidence in sport. In the first 

presentation, a reconceptualized model of sport-confidence 

(Vealey, 1986) is presented based on a social-cognitive 

perspective that emphasizes distinctive situation-behavior 

patterns as opposed to dispositional approaches that assess 

athletes' overall levels of innate self-confidence relative to 

others. In the second presentation, the initial conceptual and 

psychometric development of a multidimensional confidence 

measure for athletes, the Sport-Confidence Inventory (SCI), is 

reviewed. This extension to existing unidimensional 

constructions of confidence is supported by emerging 

theoretical arguments that self-confidence/self-efficacy has 

multiple domains that influence behavior (Maddux & Lewis, 

1995). In the third presentation of the symposium, Phases 3 

and 4 of the project are overviewed. Using three hundred 

college and high school athletes as participants in this phase, 

the five-factor structure of sport-confidence was confirmed as 

measured by the SCI, and the various dimensions of sportconfidence 

were related as predicted to the other 

psychological measures. In the fourth presentation, 

conclusions and future directions in self-confidence research 

and interventions are discussed. 

Sport-confidence from a Social-cognitive Perspective: 

Extending and Blending Research and Practice 

Robin Vealey, Miami University, USA 

The purpose of this presentation is to provide a historical 

context to the study of confidence in sport, and to introduce a 

conceptual framework from which research and interventions 

related to confidence in sport may be extended in meaningful 

and integrative ways. Although the original model of sportconfidence 

provided a sport-specific conceptual framework 

for the study of confidence in sport (Vealey, 1986), it did not 

serve as a strong impetus for additional research or 

interventions to enhance confidence. Therefore, a 

reconceptualized model of sport-confidence was developed 

based on a social-cognitive perspective. From this perspective, 

it is more important to know about the kinds of situations that 

enhance or decrease confidence in athletes, as well as the 

1 

strategies used by athletes in different situations, than to 

assess athletes' overall levels of innate confidence relative to 

others. In the revised model, sport-confidence is a dynamic 

multidimensional construct that is influenced by various 

sources of confidence that are developed via social 

interactions with the environment. Thus, athletes possess 

multiple types of confidence, influenced by multiple sources 

of confidence, that influence their affect, behavior, and 

cognitions, and ultimately, their performance and well-being. 

The model also accounts for the sociocultural forces that are 

part of the organizational subculture of competitive sport to 

emphasize that such factors as the goals and structural 

expectations of particular sport programs influence the 

confidence of athletes. Although useful as a research 

framework, the reconceptualized model also provides a 

intervention framework for the development of strategies to 

enhance confidence in sport. 

Initial Development ofthe Multidimensional Sportconfidence 

Inventory (SCI) 

Betsy J. Knight and Robin Vealey, Miami University, USA 

Previous work in the area of sport-confidence (Vealey, 1986) 

conceptualized confidence as a unidimensional sport-specific 

construct that could be dichotomized into dispositional and 

state components. Emerging theory, however, has suggested 

that self-confidence or self-efficacy has multiple domains that 

influence behavior (Maddux & Lewis). Therefore, a multiphase 

research project was undertaken to (a) demonstrate that 

athletes have multiple types of confidence that differentially 

influence sport-related affect, behavior, and cognitions, and 

(b) to operationalize multiple types of sport-confidence 

through the development ofthe Sport-Confidence Inventory 

(SCI). In Phase 1 of the project, six focus groups of athletes 

discussed types of confidence they thought were salient in 

sport, and evaluated dimensions of sport-confidence 

hypothesized by the investigators. Items representing the 

hypothesized dimensions of sport-confidence were developed 

by the investigators and formatted into the initial version of 

the SCI. Minor changes were made in items and inventory 

fonnat based on a content validity analysis by four sport 

psychology experts. In Phase 2 ofthe project, 210 high school 

and college athletes were administered the second version of 

the SCI (SCI-2). A principal components factor analysis with 

varimax rotation elicited five interpretable factors representing 

dimensions of sport-confidence: Team Contribution, Physical 

Skills and Training, Learning Potential, Cognitive Efficiency, 

and CopinglResiliency. Internal consistency was supported 

for all subscales with Cronbach's alpha coefficients of .75 and 

higher. Each of these confidence dimensions are discussed in 

the presentation in relation to current theory and the 

organizational culture of sport.


Confirming Multidimensional Confidence in Sport: 

Concurrent and Construct Validity 

Brad Williams, Robin S. Vealey, Betsy J. Knight, Miami 

University, USA 

Based on theoretical extensions suggesting that confidence is 

a multidimensional construct, the Sport Confidence Inventory 

was developed based on the emergence of six salient 

dimensions of sport-confidence for athletes. The purpose of 

this phase ofthe research was to (a) confirm the factor 

structure ofthe SCI as representative of multidimensional 

sport-confidence, (b) examine the concurrent validity ofthe 

SCI based on hypothesized relationships between the sportconfidence 

dimensions and other psychological constructs, 

and (c) demonstrate the construct validity ofthe SCI. In Phase 

3, 297 college and high school athletes were administered the 

SCI, the Sport Anxiety Scale, and the Athletic Coping Skills 

Inventory - 28. The hypothesized multidimensional factor 

structure ofthe SCI was evaluated by confirmatory factor 

analysis using the covariance matrix as input. Although 

several items were marginal with regard to the amount of 

explained variance, the overall coefficient of determination of 

the inventory was .90, which represents an acceptable 

generalized measure of reliability for the entire model. The 

adjusted goodness of fit was.77, indicating an adequate fit of 

the data to the model. Supporting the multidimensionality of 

sport-confidence, the various SCI subscales were 

differentially related to the competitive anxiety and sport 

coping skills of the athletes. In Phase 4, the SCI was 

administered to two high school basketball teams after eight 

competitive games. The results provide initial support for the 

construct validity ofthe SCI as the competition-related affect, 

cognitions, and performance evaluations of athletes were 

differentially related to the different dimensions of sportconfidence. 

Conclusions and Future Directions in Self-confidence 

Research in Sport 

Melissa A. Chase and Robin S. Vealey, Miami University, 

USA 

The revised model of sport-confidence serves as a viable 

organizational framework from which meaningful research 

questions can be generated as well as the evaluation of 

intervention programs targeted to enhance confidence in sport. 

One seemingly fruitful line of inquiry is research that attempts 

to explain how and why self-confidence facilitates 

performance. The literature contains ample evidence that 

confidence and successful performance are linked (Feltz, 

1994; Vealey, 2001), thus, it seems important to turn our 

attention to an explanation ofthe processes or mechanisms by 

which this occurs. As illustrated in the model, this would 

typically involve examining the affective, cognitive, and 

behavioral concomitants of confidence. Similarly, are certain 

types of confidence more critical to performance, and does 

this differ across sports and individuals? From an intervention 

perspective, different dimensions of confidence may be 

targeted by specific interventions, similar to the "matching 

2 

hypothesis" applied in anxiety interventions to target specific 

types of anxiety. Also, the stability or fluctuation of 

confidence across time should be examined to better 

understand the factors that influence stability and change in 

different dimensions of sport-confidence. Future research 

should begin to account for the complexity ofconfidence as a 

social-cognitive construct by situating the study ofconfidence 

within the unique organizational subculture represented in 

sport. Examples include an examination of organizational and 

social structures that work best to develop confidence in youth 

sport, and how sources and dimensions of confidence change 

over the course of a competitive season in relation to various 

factors in the social climate. 

Human Potential and Resonance via Interactive 

Learning & Technology 

Cal Botterill, Kelly Livesley, Paul Davis, University of 

Winnipeg, Canada; Discussant: Doug Newburg, University of 

Virginia, USA 

The evolution ofinteractive learning possibilities in 

performance psychology and human potential will be 

reviewed. Creative work with dedicated graduate students, 

interns and professional colleagues that takes advantage of 

current interactive possibilities will be outlined. The history of 

experiences at the University ofWinnipeg and the University 

of Calgary will be highlighted. The presenter will provide 

strategies for qualitative interaction and evidence of mastery 

& growth. Content and process improvements include 

Newburg's (1998) concept of Resonance and key personal 

development questions. The development of "perspective" 

(Botterill & Patrick, 1996) seems fundamental to emotional 

management and success with psychological skills. Emotional 

preparation, management and health have often been 

neglected and misunderstood (Goleman, 2000). Peak 

performer insights from a variety of fields have dramatically 

increased learning and understanding regarding key attributes 

and skills (Orlick, 1998). Interdisciplinary experience in sport 

and other fields has revealed critical interactions and 

interdependencies. For sure, it is critical to deeply understand 

physiological psychology and psychological physiology. The 

work of KelImann (in print) has really helped sensitize us to 

recovery- physical, mental and emotional. It is becoming clear 

that total fitness involves more than originally thought and that 

health, happiness and high performance are much more 

closely related than people might have thought. Inner peace 

and "connectedness" appear very related to positive energy 

flow, focus and long term health, happiness and high 

performance. It appears clear that a "want to" vs. "have to" 

approach to life is dramatically superior in terms ofboth 

health and high performance. Knowing who you are, what 

you are about, who is on your "real" team, and how you want 

to live your life are all pretty critical!

Global "Team" Dynamics and Strategies 

Kelly Livesley, University ofWinnipeg, Canada 

Progressive educators in this millennium clearly need to think 

internationally regarding networks and interaction options. 

The University ofWinnipeg's recent course in "Psychological 

Skills in Sport and Life" involved contributions from several 

international experts from around the world. Interaction was 

accomplished via video clips, in-class phone conversations, 

and Internet meetings. Students in the future are more likely to 

select courses and learning experiences that involve a "team" 

of experts vs. a singular source. As technology shrinks the 

world, students and professionals have increasing access to 

knowledge and interaction. "Teams" and networking then 

become critical for "qualitative" interaction! Effective 

interaction strategies include: email, study groups, phone 

contact, chat rooms, Internet meetings, project assignments, 

video reactions, field interviews, mentoring, role playing, and 

team building. Examples of how these different strategies 

have been effective will be described, along with how 

personal and qualitative interaction was accomplished. The 

personal development objectives of the course have really 

helped produce an environment of openness, trust and 

responsibility. Experience with some of Canada's top 

Olympic teams has revealed qualitative differences between 

"real" teams and "pseudo" teams. The concepts oftrust, 

respect, openness, emotional support, and positive rivalries 

playa critical role in environments of excellence. These ideas 

need to be taught to children and mastered by students 

beginning to explore the world. The implications are both 

personal and global. "Team" needs to be a priority for students 

and professionals-- the other options are pretty scary! 

CaseStudy Highlights and Future Possibilities 

Paul Davis, University of Winnipeg, Canada 

Technologyhas the potential to reach learners in a wide range 

of situations, course highlights to date have involved "students 

for life" from a wide range offields. Stars of the winter 200 I 

course at the University ofWinnipeg included a school 

principal, a middle aged homemaker, a pre-medical student, 

an elite rower, a counselor, a hearing impaired student, 

businessleaders, performing artists, athletic therapists, as well 

as teachers, parents and coaches. The range in age, location, 

and situation did not prevent them from accomplishing an 

excitinggrowth experience. Studio and video footage of 

exceptionalcase studies in growth and learning will be 

presentedand discussed. Students identifying top performers 

in the field for guest contributions to the course will be 

featured. The presenter will highlight rich email and chat 

roomdialogue. Impressive examples of personal and 

professional development will be shared. What are the future 

possibilities? How creatively can you think? The authors have 

discovered some incredible strategies over the last few years. 

It leavesthe presenters feeling that the options/possibilities are 

almostlimitless. We are not limited by the technology we use, 

butthe ideas we create. The presenter looks forward to 

highlighting creative directions that intrigue us and 

3 

2001 Conference Proceedings-Symposia 

brainstorming with delegates about further possibilities. 

Internet conferencing is fast becoming a viable option for 

interaction between professionals--and between students and 

professionals--and between students. We need to continue to 

strive for sensitive, personal, qualitative, emotional exchange 

and experiences. 

Switching Midstream: New Professionals' Perspectives 

on Changing Academic Domains for the Doctoral 

Degree 

Douglas M. Hankes, Auburn University, USA; Justine Reel, 

West Chester University, USA; Kirsten Peterson, U.S. 

Olympic Committee, Colorado Springs, USA; Scott Martin, 

University of North Texas, USA 

Graduate training, program accreditation, certification issues, 

licensure, and proficiency proposals in the field of applied 

sport psychology continue to elicit passionate discussions 

from both professionals and graduate students (Silva, 2001). 

In the midst of this maelstrom, undergraduate students, 

graduate students, and faculty advisors must continue to make 

decisions regarding the best graduate program to meet their 

personal and professional goals with an eye toward gainful 

employment after graduation (Anderson, Williams, Aldridge, 

and Taylor, 1997). One important decision is whether to 

pursue a terminal degree in physical education/sport science 

or in psychology. In this symposium, new professionals will 

discuss their personal experiences and the challenges they 

faced in switching academic domains for their doctoral 

degrees. (i.e., B.S./M.S. sport science to Ph.D. psychology or 

B.S./M.S. psychology to Ph.D. sport science). The purpose of 

this symposium is not to revisit the well-trodden path of"why 

my training is better (or worse) than your training." The focus 

will be on the first-person accounts ofnew professionals who 

chose to pursue graduate degrees in both sport science and 

psychology, and how it impacted their professional and 

personal lives. The presenters will (a) briefly describe their 

educational backgrounds and current professional positions, 

(b) overview their own decision-making processes regarding 

their graduate training, (c) identify personal and professional 

challenges that were faced, (d) share transitional issues that 

arose in their own experiences, and (e) describe how their own 

supervision and/or mentoring styles have been affected. 

Forging an Applied Sport Psychology Identity: The 

Passage From Sport Science to Counseling Psychology 

in Graduate Training 

Douglas M. Hankes, Auburn University, USA 

Pursuing graduate training in today's world of applied sport 

psychology is a difficult, imprecise, and perplexing 

proposition. AAASP certification standards offer one 

guideline, but there are many paths that can be taken to meet 

those requirements. In this segment of the symposium, the 

presenter will share the passage and personal challenges he 

faced when transitioning from a master's degree program in 

sport science to a doctoral degree program in counseling 

psychology. A number ofissues will be addressed including


the effort and energy required to maintain a sport science 

identity in a psychology department, faculty and fellow 

students' level of acceptance, cultural climate differences in 

departments, differences in type and intensity of supervision, 

differences in the role ofinterpersonal process in 

communication, and balancing program goals and personal 

goals. Comparisons and contrasts between the other 

presenters" experiences will be made. Finally, the presenter 

will evaluate his dual graduate school preparation on his 

present involvement in applied sport psychology and career. 

When You See a Fork in the Road, Take It: 

Transitioning from Psychology to Sport Science 

Graduate Training 

Justine Reel, West Chester University, USA 

The field of exercise and sport psychology has emerged as a 

discipline with roots in two academic domains, sport science 

and psychology. Blending graduate training to best meet 

professional goals and responsibilities in applied sport 

psychology is a difficult but necessary process for graduate 

students and their mentors. This portion of the symposium 

will focus on one individual's decision-making and 

experiences while pursuing graduate degrees in both sport 

science and psychology and ultimately obtaining a terminal 

degree in sport science. Issues that will be discussed include 

preparation for job placement (e.g., involvement in exercise 

and sport psychology organizations, practicum experiences, 

projects), role conflicts, demands and commitments, and 

negotiating transitions. The pros and cons of this blending of 

graduate training will be discussed. 

The Journey from Physical Education through 

Psychology on The Way to Sport Psychology 

Kirsten Peterson, United States Olympic Committee, 

Colorado Springs, USA 

Developing an expertise in sport psychology-a field 

juxtaposed upon the disciplines of sport science and 

psychology-has been an interestingjoumey for many past and 

present students. While no one academic route has become the 

"industry standard", students typically choose to pursue their 

graduate work in either sport science, psychology, or a hybrid 

of the two. This hybrid approach has gained appeal, since it 

appears to offer the best ofboth worlds: background in the 

sport sciences and a greater understanding of the overall 

functioning ofathletes, coupled with theory and application of 

general psychological principles. This hybrid approach also 

has the advantage ofhelping the individual student appreciate 

the cultures and history of each discipline, which often is a 

source of controversy given the field ofsport psychology's 

diverse professional membership. At the same time, becoming 

proficient in not one, but two distinct disciplines can take a toll 

upon the individual student in several ways. It often takes 

significantly longer to progress through graduate training, and 

there can be a feeling of disconnect during training coupled a 

relative lack of professional identity for those students who do 

not assimilate completely in either one field or the other. This 

presentation will focus on the "hybrid" academic journey 

taken by one student who obtained her masters degree in 

physical education and her doctorate in counseling 

psychology. Decision-making processes, the importance of 

networking and mentoring, and the perceived advantages and 

disadvantages of such a course of action will be discussed. 

Making the Transition from Graduate Student to 

Faculty Member: Decision-Making Strategies, Rewards, 

and Challenges in Sport Psychology 

Scott Martin, University of North Texas, USA 

4 r 

The field of sport psychology is multidisciplinary in nature, 

intermixing academic domains such as kinesiology, 

psychology and counseling. Individuals pursuing careers in 

sport psychology need critical knowledge of these various 

disciplines. In addition, they ought to obtain practical training 

related to these different areas (e.g., coaching, psychological 

assessment and counseling). Matching knowledge and 

training with professional responsibilities is of utmost 

importance for students and young professionals as well as for 

those established professionals who are providing the 

guidance. Several authors have emphasized the importance of 

mentoring in facilitating one's progress into and through a 

career in sport psychology (e.g., Butki & Andersen 1994). The 

influence of mentoring on fostering a quality educational 

experience and the various factors impinging on the 

mentoring process will be discussed from the perspective of 

professionals with disparate degrees. The primary purpose of 

this portion of the presentation will be to examine the 

mentoring process for pursuing a sport psychology tenure 

track kinesiology faculty position. Contextual factors such as 

mentoring systems, community politics, assessment 

standards, and reward and recognition systems are imbedded 

in most university environments (Williamson, 1993). 

Unfortunately, these factors may preclude kinesiology 

scholars from investing time and energy in delivering sport 

psychology services. This segment of the presentation will 

offer suggestions and guidelines for mentoring in kinesiology 

programs regarding (a) organizational structure, (b) workload, 

(c) support systems, and (d) evaluation and feedback. 

Challenges related to graduate training, program 

accreditation, and certification issues will be discussed. 

Psychosocial Outcomes andImplications ofConcussion 

Research in Varsity Sport 

L. Mainwaring, C. Provvidenza, L. Vitullo, & P. Safai, Faculty 

of Physical Education and Health, University of Toronto, 

Toronto, Canada 

Concussions (a.k.a. Mild Traumatic Brain Injury) in sport 

have garnered much attention from the popular press with the 

highly publicized multiple and career-ending blows to the 

heads of professional athletes such as the Lindros brothers in 

hockey and Steve Youngin football. Estimates ofincidence of 

sport-related concussions range from 1% to 20% of athletes in 

contact sports and vary among research studies. It is difficult 

to estimate actual incidence of concussion because of the

numerous methodological and psychosocial implications 

associated with this research. Recently, a number of studies 

that focus on neuro-cognitive assessment of athletes have 

emerged (Collins, Lovell, & McKeag, 1999; Echemendia, et. 

al., 2000; Mainwaring et. al., 2(00). The purpose ofthe 

symposium is to report selected findings from a large-scale 

study on concussions in varsity athletes and a parallel running 

study on injury and the "culture of risk" (Nixon, 1992). 

Psychosocial and clinical implications of conducting 

concussion research in varsity athletes will be discussed from 

multi-disciplinary and multi-perspective viewpoints. 

Participants from various levels of involvement in the 

concussion project (athlete, psychometrist, therapist, 

investigator, and psychologist) will contribute to the 

discussion. 

Emotional Reaction ofVarsityAthletes to Sport-Related 

Concussion 

C. Provvidenza, University ofToronto; L. Mainwaring, 

University of Toronto; Paul Comper, Toronto Rehabilitation 

Institute; Robin Green, Toronto Rehabilitation Institute; Mark 

Antoniazzi.Toronto Rehabilitation Institute; Sean Bisschop, 

TorontoRehabilitation Institute, Vicki Kristman, University of 

Toronto 

The psychological reaction of athletes to orthopedic sport 

injury has been a focus of sport psychology research in the 

past 12 years. Theoretical and empirical work have 

determined that reaction to athletic injury includes a cognitive 

and an emotional component. Much less, if any, research has 

been conducted on the emotional impact of concussion in 

varsity athletes. The purpose of this study was to examine the 

mood states of varsity athletes at pre-season and compare 

them with post-concussion mood states. Three hundred and 

twenty-five contact sport athletes completed the Profile of 

Mood States (POMS) (McNair, Lorr & Doppelman, 1971) at 

pre-season. Twenty-four athletes were concussed and 

readministered the POMS serially (on at least four different 

occasions). A 5x2 repeated measures ANOVA (Time of 

assessment x gender) and post-hoc test determined differences 

between male and female mood states before and after injury. 

Also, pre-injury differences in mood state between the 

concussed group and their corresponding non-concussed 

teammates were evaluated by an independent t-test. Results 

will be discussed in relation to current theory on emotional 

reaction to injury and gender issues. Directions for future 

research will be identified. 

Evaluation Outcome Measures ofConcussion Research 

Elizabeth Vitullo, Tom Deklaj, Lynda Mainwaring, Doug 

Richards, University of Toronto, Canada; Robin Green, Paul 

Comper, Sean Bisshop, Mark Antoniazzi, Toronto 

Rehabilitation Institute, Toronto, Canada. 

The challenge of the clinical care of concussions in sport 

medicine and the need for evidence-based retum-to-play 

guidelines for varsity athletes prompted mandatory baseline 

neurological testing of all athletes in high-risk (for 

5 


concussion) sports at the University of Toronto, Canada. The 

purpose of this paper is to present the findings of a study that 

investigated the efficacy and satisfaction ofthe policy and 

testing. Three objectives for the study were addressed: I) to 

determine the impact of mandatory neurological testing on 

athletes' perceptions of risk of incurring a concussion 2) to 

assess athletes' knowledge about concussions, and 3) to 

generate feedback for the concussion research team about the 

baseline administration protocol. Two groups of athletes were 

surveyed: athletes who have completed baseline testing and 

those varsity athletes at a different University who were not 

exposed to concussion research. The survey was specifically 

designed to assess risk perception and knowledge of 

concussion symptoms. In addition, concussed athletes, 

coaches and therapists were administered a questionnaire at 

the end of the academic year to provide feedback for the 

concussion research team regarding the data collection 

protocol. The information gathered helped to determine that 

educational strategies should be developed prior to baseline 

testing to enhance athletes' and coaches' understanding of the 

rationale for the study, which, in tum, may result in less 

resistance to baseline neurological testing. Results will be 

discussed in relation to a population's readiness to comply 

with a health intervention. 

Healing the Body in the 'Culture ofRisk,'Pain and 

injury. 

Parissa Safai, and Peter Donnelly, Faculty of Physical 

Education and Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, 

Canada. 

A dilemma for both male and female athletes is that, what has 

been termed the "culture of risk" (Nixon, 1992), teaches 

athletes to accept risk-taking in sport and to minimize or 

ignore pain and injuries as much as possible. However, it does 

not protect them from the physically, socially, economically, 

or emotionally debilitating consequences often associated 

with injury. A number of studies have shown that this culture 

is far more complex than Nixon implies, and recognize that 

while there is a widespread acceptance and tolerance of pain! 

injury in competitive sport, there are also complex ways in 

which athletes and others produce and respond to this culture. 

This complexity is quite evident in discussing concussions in 

varsity sport, and emerged in a study that was conducted 

concurrently with research on concussions in varsity athletics. 

Using a combination of semi-structured one-on-one 

interviews and focus groups with student-athletes, coaches 

and sport medicine clinicians, the negotiation of treatment 

between sport medicine clinicians and student-athletes was 

examined. This paper will discuss some of the findings 

including the conflicting responses amongst participants that 

communicated both resistance to playing with concussions, as 

well as the re/production of injury-legitimating norms. The 

latter was seen in the resistance by coaches towards the 

diagnosis and treatment ofconcussions amongst their athletes, 

as well as the concussion study itself. This paper will 

conclude with some of the implications ofsuch resistance on


athletes' perceptions of concussions, as well as the ways in 

which they do or do not negotiate treatment with clinicians. 

Research and Clinical Implications ofInvestigating 

Sport-Related Concussions 

L. Mainwaring, D. Richards, University of Toronto; P. 

Comper, R. Green, S. Bisschop, M. Antoniazzi; B. Melo, 

Toronto Rehabilitation Institute and E. Headley, University of 

Toronto 

Currently sport-related concussions are one of the "most 

compelling challenges in sports medicine" (Collins et. al, 

1999). With an estimate of 1-20% of contact sport athletes at 

risk for concussion, the treatment and management of 

concussions are perplexing for the sport medicine team and 

coaches. There is no universally accepted definition of 

concussion nor are there empirically-based universal 

guidelines for return-to-play. Yet, current research suggests 

that returning athletes to play too early could make them 

vulnerable to subsequent concussion (Cornwall, 1975), and in 

rare cases, second impact syndrome. Also, a history of 

multiple concussions may not only predispose an athlete to 

increased vulnerability for concussion (e.g., a significant 

relationship has been found between number of years playing 

football and total number of concussions), but also to 

decreased cognitive functioning on baseline 

neuropsychological testing (Collins et. aI., 1999). Despite 

these sobering findings, the results of research presented in 

this presentation indicate that athletes often continue to play 

with symptoms ofconcussion because they either fail to know 

the symptoms or definition of concussion or, are entangled in 

a 'culture of risk' that promotes athletes to play while injured. 

Numerous clinical, ethical, and legal issues arose in a current 

study of concussions in varsity athletes. Under reporting of 

concussions was identified in some sports as well as resistance 

to neuropsychological testing. These issues will be discussed 

along with recommendations for addressing such concerns in 

future research. 

Sport Psychology in Coaching: Functional 

Performance Enhancement in Team Ball Sports 

Geir Jordet, Rune Giske, Kaare Lauridsen, and Blake W. 

Miller, Norwegian University ofSport Science, Norway 

Team ball sports are extremely complex and dynamic games 

offering players specific psychological obstacles and 

possibilities often not encountered in other sports. Even 

though sport psychology consultants often gain experiential 

knowledge in each sport when doing their consulting, athletic 

and/or coaching experience is extremely important and often 

difficult to replace. Because coaches arguably are the most 

proficient performance enhancement experts in their sport, 

coaching experience in particular can contribute a lot to 

increase the quality of applied sport psychology services. This 

unique expertise in practical psychology should be built upon 

in applied sport psychology. Similarly, sport psychology 

should contribute with theory and research based guidelines 

for coaching. In the present symposium, functional 

6 

performance enhancement guidelines are provided and 

discussed. The guidelines are directly connected to the 

performance obstacles and possibilities in team ball sport 

situations. More specifically, the symposium includes a) 

developing perceptual expertise in soccer, b) preparing 

mentally for competition in European handball, c) using 

problem-focused stress management strategies when coaching 

volleyball, and d) applying achievement goal theory when 

coaching American football. All symposium presenters work, 

or have been working, as top level coaches, and two of them 

also work as sport psychology consultants with professional 

athletes. In addition, the presenters represent three different 

nations (Norway, Denmark, and USA) to provide an 

international perspective on applied sport psychology. 

Developing Perceptual Expertise in Soccer 

Geir Jordet, Norwegian University of Sport Science, Norway 

Perceptual expertise is conceptualized as the highly skilled 

ability to detect and realize the most important affordances 

(i.e., action possibilities) of a specific domain. This capability 

to perceive critical information in one's surroundings is 

arguably one of the key factors separating world class team 

ball sport players from more average, yet top level players. In 

soccer, superior perception is particularly impressive due to 

the large playing field (up to 70 x 120 meters), the dynamic 

and complex information (constituted by 22 moving players, 

the field, and the ball), and the non-favorable localization of 

this information (most players are fully surrounded by other 

players). Building on relevant theory, ongoing research, and 

applied experience from coaching/consulting, some 

exploratory training strategies are offered and discussed. The 

purpose of the training strategies is to make the development 

of perceptual expertise in soccer more efficient. Two specific 

lines of practice are suggested: (1) Refining exploratory 

search patterns and their relation to ball control technique, and 

(2) making players sensitive to the hierarchy of affordances in 

specific game sequence categories. The rationale behind these 

strategies are explained and a variety of different training 

methods are described. 

Psychological Game Preparations and Individual 

Decision Making: Case Study ofa Goal Keeper at 

International Level European Handball 

Rune Giske, Norwegian University of Sport Science, Norway 

Most of the sport psychology literature concerning mental 

preparation for competition has focused on the emotional 

aspect of performance (e.g., anxiety and arousal). Few studies 

have directed attention to the relationship between mental 

preparations and the athletes' choice of action during the 

game. The results of this case study show, among other things, 

that the goalkeeper's psychological game preparations are 

best described as systematic information searching behavior 

and processing of advance information with an eye to efficient 

game actions. This advance information is processed both by 

mental imagery and by practicing certain more specific 

actions during training. The interview revealed that the

goalkeeper behaves according to information available before 

the game starts, and to information available during the game. 

Both these sources of infonnation may determine the choice 

of action. Information related to the opponent may increase 

the goalkeeper's readiness related to decisions concerning 

questions such as: a) Where in the goal will the attacking 

player place the ball? b) Which action is necessary to prevent 

the ball to pass the goal line? c) When should the chosen 

action be initiated to prevent scoring? The complexity of the 

shooting situation may be reduced if the goalkeeper has 

restricted the number ofchoices from three (a, b, and c) to one 

through her game preparation. 

Stress Management in Volleyball: A Coaching 

Perspective 

Kaare Lauridsen, Norwegian University ofSport Science, 

Norway 

Problem-focused coping, emotion-focused coping (Folkman 

& Lazarus, 1980) and avoidance-focused coping (Endler & 

Parker, 1990), are ways to cope with stress during practice and 

competition. Stressors during volleyball games include 

performing playing actions at important scores, breaking a 

serving error streak, playing after error, and setting when the 

hitters perform poorly. Having made a mistake, getting back 

in the game requires good coping and refocusing skills. Much 

of the sport psychology literature seems to focus primarily on 

the athlete's emotions, and secondarily on the actual problem. 

A coaching perspective on stress management often has a 

slightly different focus. Sport psychology is applied to help 

athletes cope with the stressor itself (problem-focused 

coping), rather than the emotional interpretation of the 

stressor (emotion-focused coping). In the present volleyball 

setting, the players and the coach use problem-focused and 

avoidance-focused coping in order to change or remove the 

factorsthat cause stress. Emotion-focused coping is primarily 

used when the players' state of stress seems to be out of 

control.Athletes are taught to identify stressors in game 

situations,and to use appropriate coping strategies. They are 

thenasked to report their experiences using these strategies. 

Subsequently, the strategies are refined and practiced. This 

gives the athlete a framework of established coping strategies 

to rely on in stressful situations. 

Perceived Motivational Climate andAmerican Football 

In Norway: Theory to Application 

BlakeW. Miller, Norwegian University of Sport Science, 

Norway 

Basedon Nicholls (1984, 1989) the perceived climate of the 

achievement setting is believed to have a strong influence on 

adherence in sport. An emphasis on winning is presumed to be 

conducive to heightened tension, and a performance oriented 

climatehas been associated with both tension and worry in the 

sportsetting (Newton & Duda, 1998). A mastery oriented 

climateis more conducive to a positive sport experience, 

enablinga setting for skill development on both an individual 

and team level.Furthermore, the coach is believed to have 

7 


influence over what type of motivational climate is perceived. 

The focus ofthis presentation is the development ofa 

mastery-oriented motivational climate by the head coach of a 

semi-professional American football team in Norway. Specific 

emphasis is devoted to brief case examples to highlight 

successful and less successful mastery climate development, 

and on subsequent individual and team performance, 

Strategies for applying Nicholls' (1984,1989) achievement 

goal theory directly to American football are discussed. The 

author presents individual and team goal setting, feedback, 

player empowerment, and the ideal of democratic coaching. 

In conclusion, suggestions for future investigation are 

addressed concerning the coach's role in building a positive 

motivational climate for his/her team. 

Does Mental Illness Drive Bodybuilders? Exercise 

Dependence and Muscle Dysmorphia in Male and 

Female Bodybuilders 

Bruce D. Hale, University of Maine; David Smith, Chester 

College, UK; Deborah Rhea, Texas Christian University; 

Christopher Lantz, Truman State University; Leslee Fisher, 

University ofTennessee, Knoxville; Michael Sachs, Temple 

University 

Recently several psychiatrists and psychologists have 

suggested that many male and female bodybuilders suffer 

from a debilitating mental disorder labeled 'muscle 

dysmorphia' (MD), that causes bodybuilders to become 

dependent on weightlifting, develop eating and drug 

problems, and neglect social, occupational and medical 

concerns. These clinicians have stated that this 'Adonis 

Complex' (Pope et al., 2000) is rampant in male bodybuilding 

participants, and assert that MD can be measured accurately 

with several un-validated general psychiatric measures. This 

symposium will summarize these findings and review a 

variety of exercise psychology research that examines the 

conceptualization and measurement of MD and exercise 

dependence in bodybuilders and various psychosocial 

variables that operate within the bodybuilding culture. The 

first presenter will review the initial psychiatric evidence and 

critique the methodology used. The second presenter will 

summarize several studies that have examined psychosocial 

variables that have been associated with exercise dependent 

behavior in bodybuilders and pinpoint results differing from 

the initial psychiatric evidence. The third presenters will 

discuss a series of studies that have attempted to clearly 

conceptualize the MD construct and develop a valid 

psychometric measure. The fourth presenter will describe case 

studies of female bodybuilders that identify powerful 

psychosocial forces operating within the culture and society. 

Mental Illness and Muscle Dysmorphia Research in 

Bodybuilders 

Bruce D. Hale, University of Maine, Orono, ME 

Recently Pope, Phillips and other colleagues (Phillips et al., 

1997; Pope et al., 1997; Olivardia et al., 2000) have suggested 

that a new form ofbody dysmorphic disorder, 'muscle


dysmorphia' (MD), is becoming more common among 

bodybuilders, where they become preoccupied with their level 

of muscularity, often irrationally believing they are small and 

ectomorphic. These lifters often become involved in 

compulsive weight training, consumption of anabolic steroids, 

show symptoms of eating disorders, and neglect medical, 

social and vocational concerns in order to bulk up their 

physiques. Several psychiatric case studies and one controlled 

study have investigated possible psychological correlates of 

this hypothesized syndrome. Other clinicians like Hollander 

(2000) are treating it with serotonin-enhancing drugs and 

therapy. Some exercise psychology researchers and 

weightlifting experts have criticized some of the earlier 

psychiatric research methodology involving small, 

nonrandom samples of male bodybuilders with previous 

serious mental and eating disorders. Wagman (2000) has 

questioned whether these MD bodybuilders are really just 

elite athletes who put all of their time and energy into 

weightlifting. Hale (2000) and Lantz & Rhea (2000) have also 

questioned whether reliable, valid measures of exercise 

dependence and MD exist, and whether psychologists can 

accurately assess MD sufferers yet. This symposium will 

address the psychiatric evidence to date and present current 

exercise psychology research on the concept of MD, various 

measurement inventories, and psychosocial antecedents of 

exercise dependence and MD in male and female 

bodybuilders. 

Psychosocial Antecedents ofExercise Dependence in 

Bodybuilders 

David Smith, Chester College, Chester, Ll.K, Bruce D. Hale, 

University ofMaine, Orono, ME, Richard Hurst, Staffordshire 

University, Stoke-on-Trent, U.K., David J. Collins, University 

of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Ll.K; Clare Burrell, Chester 

College, Chester, U.K. 

Early research on the personality of bodybuilders suggested 

that these individuals suffer from feelings of inadequate body 

image and inferior selfworth. Several authors (Darden, 1972; 

Thirer & Greer, 1981) speculate that bodybuilding helps these 

athletes compensate for these feelings of inferiority. 

Anecdotal evidence also suggested that both male and female 

bodybuilders become exercise dependent to the weightlifting 

routines and culture. Several studies were undertaken to 

investigate suspected psychological and social antecedents of 

exercise dependence in bodybuilders and to begin validation 

of the Bodybuilding Dependence Scale (BDS). Bodybuilders 

scored higher on social dependence, weightlifting identity, 

and PSPP body attractiveness and strength scales than 

Olympic weightlifters and fitness lifters. In a second study, 

experienced bodybuilders scored higher on social, training, 

and mastery dependence, (AIMS) weightlifting identity, and 

social support, and lower on social physique anxiety (SPAS) 

than inexperienced bodybuilders and Olympic lifters. The 

results of both studies suggest that exercise dependence 

development in bodybuilders is not solely a prior 

psychological condition, but is a complex psychosocial 

phenomenon within a powerful bodybuilding culture. New 

8 

research findings are reported that are investigating further 

validation of the BDS, the Exercise Dependence 

Questionnaire, and a new measure of muscular dysmorphia, 

and that compare gender and competitive differences in 

bodybuilders. 

Conceptualization and Measurement ofMuscle 

Dysmorphia 

Deborah J. Rhea, Texas Christian University, and Christopher 

D. Lantz, Truman State University, USA. 

The purpose of this presentation is twofold. First, it examines 

the six-factor psycho-behavioral model of MD advocated by 

Lantz, Rhea, and Mayhew (2001). Overall, the research 

suggests that persons who participate in certain kinds of 

physique development activities may exhibit specific 

behavioral and psychological characteristics associated with 

MD. The most recent model indicates that the characteristics 

can be divided into two categories: nutrition and physique 

concerns. The nutrition category includes dietary behavior, 

supplemental use, and pharmacological use. The physique 

concerns category includes body size, exercise dependence, 

and physique protection. The revised model will be 

introduced, the six factors will be defined, and studies testing 

the model will be discussed. A second purpose of this 

presentation is to discuss the development of a scale assessing 

the factors identified within the conceptual model. The 

Muscle Dysmorphia Inventory, developed by Rhea and Lantz, 

has undergone four stages of testing and has demonstrated 

acceptable psychometric properties including construct and 

concurrent validity. The first three stages ofMDI development 

focused on item and subscale refinement through item 

deletions, revisions, and additions. A fourth stage was 

conducted due to unacceptable internal consistencies on two 

of the six subscales. The fourth stage involved ISObody 

builders and dedicated weightlifters. Confirmatory factor 

analysis revealed a 28 item, six-subscale measure with 

acceptable internal consistencies ranging from .78 - .98 

Concurrent validity was demonstrated through moderate 

correlations with three related measures. The results are 

discussed in terms of selecting this questionnaire as an 

appropriate measure of MD and potential factors associated 

with MD. 

Case Studies ofFemale Bodybuilders: Culture Gone 

Awry? 

Leslee A. Fisher, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 

Heywood (1996) suggests that women's bodybuilding is an 

"...in-your-face confrontation with traditional roles...an 

unequivocal self-expression, an indication of women's right to 

be, for themselves,...not for anyone else" (p.171). At the same 

time, it promotes a kind of self-absorption and need for 

approval, not due to conceit, but because of self-doubt and 

insecurity that borders on narcissism (Lasch, 1989), a 

dependence on exercise, and a "picking-apart" of one's 

physique (Fisher, 1997). In contrast to focusing on the ways 

that female bodybuilders are full ofthese strains of disordered

thinking and behavior before coming into bodybuilding, the 

author presents qualitative case studies that examine these 

psychological strains but expands the discussion to include an 

analysis of how the context or subculture ofprofessional 

female bodybuilding (and the power structure of the owners 

and judges) promotes an obsessive need for admiration, a 

managing of impressions toward the "feminine", and an 

"other-directed" orientation. Rather than labeling these 

athletes as "mentally disordered" and locating the problem 

within them, the presenteroffers a critique ofthe subculture of 

bodybuilding and links it to the wider culture of narcissism. 

Implications for sport psychology consultation are discussed 

and suggestions for empowering female bodybuilders through 

changes in the sport structure are also offered. 

Sport and Exercise Psychology in Medical Settings 

Steven B. Finnie, DanAbraham Healthy Living Center, Mayo 

Clinic, USA; Edmund A. O'Connor, Jr., Rehabilitation 

Professionals, USA; Gregory Petersen, Carilion Medical 

Center, USA; Frank M. Perna, Boston University School of 

Medicine, USA; Discussant: Aynsley Smith, Mayo Clinic 

Sports Medicine Center, USA 

Sport psychology can teach "athletes" performance 

enhancement skills to optimize their performance and 

overcome certain "roadblocks", including stress/anxiety, skills 

acquisition. injury, and low self-confidence. Patients in 

medical settings are faced with many psychological obstacles 

similar to athletes, but in medical settings they have a medical 

condition as their "opponent". Often the focus in such 

populations is to improve quality oflife through education and 

teaching certain skills, thus enabling the patient to better 

manage their symptoms. This symposium will highlight the 

application of sports psychology skills to different clinical 

populations. The first presenter will discuss the utilization of 

physical activity as a cost-effective treatment in several 

clinical populations and how Fitness Instructors in such 

medical settings can utilize sports psychology techniques. The 

second presentation will describe how the integration of 

research from the chronic pain and sports psychology 

literature has been used to develop a multidisciplinary 

performance enhancement program for sub-acute pain 

patients. Cardiac rehabilitation will serve as the third 

presentation and will outline how the application of sports 

psychology such skills can help patients gain control of their 

health through the changing oftheir lifestyle habits. The final 

presentation will review current research examining the 

efficacy of exercise in biobehavioral models ofdisease, 

critically review the findings of studies implementing exercise 

as a form ofCognitive Behavioral Intervention, and provide a 

framework for exercise intervention in breast cancer patients. 

Case examples will be given to illustrate the application of 

sports psychology interventions in these diverse medical 

populations 

9 


Incorporating Physical Activity and Sport Psychology 

with Medical Populations 

Steven B. Finnie, Dan Abraham Healthy Living Center, Mayo 

Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA 

The prescription of physical activity is common in the 

treatment of many clinical conditions, including cancer, 

osteoarthritis, obesity, depression, and fibromyalgia. Both 

cardiovascular activity and strength training are prescribed as 

cost-effective treatments in medical populations, and in some 

instances, have been found to have similar benefits to drug 

therapy (Blumenthal et al, 1999). Physical therapists, 

psychologists, physicians, and nurses all interact with patients 

or clients with health concerns, and playa key role in their 

rehabilitation and/or recovery process. Medical personnel 

have the opportunity to implement sports psychology skills 

that may be beneficial to the patient (Smith, 1999), 

particularly physical therapists who may be able develop a 

psycho educational curriculum (Gordon, Potter, and 

Ford, 1998). However, some patients are essentially on their 

own after receiving treatment from medical personnel, or at 

least receive treatment intermittently. For these particular 

patients and those fortunate enough to have access to a health 

and wellness facility the Fitness Instructor serves as main 

source of information and encouragement for them. This 

presentation will focus on the use of physical activity as an 

intervention for specific clinical populations and identify the 

sports psychology skills that can be utilized by the fitness 

instructors, such as goal setting, self talk, imagery, listening 

skills, modeling, and imagery. 

Sport Psychology & Pain: The PEAK Program 

Edmund A. O'Connor, Jr., Rehabilitation Professionals, USA 

Multidisciplinary treatment ofchronic pain has been 

considered one ofthe most important advances in patient care 

since the mid-I96Os (Melzack & Wall, 1982). 

Multidisciplinary Pain Clinics (MPCs) view pain as a 

complex, multidimensional phenomenon that includes the 

patient's sensory, cognitive, affective, and environmental 

experiences. As a result, pain problems are best evaluated and 

treated by a team of specialists, including psychologists and 

biofeedback therapists. What differentiates a MPC from 

conventional treatments is that the goals of treatment are 

rehabilitative, not curative. MPCs focus on education to foster 

the patient's independence in pain management. In addition, 

both the behavioral and cognitive factors of the pain problem 

are addressed. It is in these areas that sport psychology can 

greatly enhance the rehabilitation process. The goal of the 

Performance Enhancement through Activity & Knowledge 

(PEAK) Program is early intervention to prevent chronic pain 

syndromes. It was designed by integrating the research from 

both the chronic pain and sport psychology literature to 

enhance a patient's performance. Sport psychology 

interventions to increase confidence, motivation, focus and 

concentration are routinely employed, as are performance 

enhancement techniques such as self-talk, goal-setting, 

relaxation and imagery. By discussing the interventions that


are used to help athletes improve their performance, the 

negative stigma of psychological counseling is minimized. 

This presentation describes the philosophy and operation of 

the PEAK Program, emphasizing the use of sport psychology 

techniques with a pain population. A case example will be 

discussed to illustrate the interventions used by the 

psychologist. 

Sport Psychology Principles at Work in Cardiac 

Rehabilitation 

Gregory Petersen, Ph.D, Cardiac Rehabilitation Program, 

Carilion Medical Center, Roanoke, VA 

Compelling scientific evidence, including data from recent 

studies in patients with coronary artery disease, demonstrates 

that a comprehensive risk factor intervention can extend 

overall survival, improve quality of life, decrease need for an 

interventional procedure such as angioplasty and bypass 

grafting, and reduce the incidence of subsequent myocardial 

infarction (AHA, 1995). Many of the identified risk factors for 

heart disease are considered modifiable through cognitive and 

behavioral changes. These risk factors include smoking, 

abnormal lipids, hypertension, physical inactivity, depression, 

hostility, social isolation, and weight management. Making 

the necessary behavioral changes often proves challenging for 

patients. Sport psychology performance enhancement 

principles such as goal setting, relaxation training and 

imagery can greatly assist patients in successfully making 

these changes. The cardiac rehabilitation program at Carilion 

Roanoke Memorial Hospital (CRMH) places a strong 

emphasis on recovering and maintaining current abilities as 

well as finding healthier yet enjoyable alternatives to 

previously detrimental habits. Change is discussed in terms of 

making lifestyle improvements in much the same wayan 

athlete works to improve his or her performance. Helping 

patients take a more active role in their health and recovery is 

essential. Performance enhancement principles can help 

patients make the cognitive shift from asking the question: 

what can be done to fix me, to what can I do to help myself? A 

case example will be presented in an effort to illustrate the use 

of sport psychology interventions within this population. 

Exercise as a Cognitive Behavioral Intervention to 

Improve Quality ofLife andAlterDisease Progression 

Among Early Stage Breast Cancer Patients 

Frank M. Perna, Boston University School of Medicine, USA 

Medical models of disease have repeatedly shown the efficacy 

of including exercise as an element of treatment for disorders 

ranging from heart disease to HIV infection. Despite findings 

suggesting improved mood, cardiovascular functioning, 

immune activity, and quality of life (QOL), psychologists 

have typically not included exercise intervention as a 

component of cognitive behavioral intervention (CEI). 

Similarly, exercise scientists may not perceive exercise as a 

CBI or convey the psychobiological benefits of exercise to 

their patients. Although relatively few studies exploring 

psychological and physical effects of exercise have been 

10 

conducted with breast cancer patients, almost all have 

suggested favorable effects on factors related to QOL or 

disease progression and several biobehavioral models of 

cancer have advocated for the use of exercise as part of 

comprehensive cancer treatment. However, the adoption and 

maintenance of exercise behavior involves consideration of 

psychosocial factors that extend beyond simple exercise 

prescription. Yet, typically, only the suggestion to exercise has 

been provided. The presentation will provide a biobehavioral 

perspective of breast cancer and exercise and provide a 

framework for exercise as a CBI for use with breast cancer 

patients. 

Performance Enhancement Consulting with Olympic 

Athletes 

Dan Gould, University of North Carolina Greensboro, USA; 

Jose Buceta, UNED University, Spain; Cristina Fink, Mexican 

Olympic Committee, Mexico; Kristen Dieffenbach, 

University of North Carolina Greensboro, USA; Russ 

Medbury, American Sport Education Program, USA 

This symposium discusses sport psychological Olympic 

athlete performance enhancing consulting efforts conducted 

by four individuals in three countries. In the first paper, a 

Spanish clinical sport psychologist and former national team 

coach will discuss his work with a Mexican Olympic team -its 

athlete's, coaches, administrators, and support staff. He 

will report on how he helped prepare team members to 

anticipate certain elements of the Olympic experience. The 

second paper will be presented by a performance 

enhancement consultant and former Mexican Olympian, who 

consulted extensively with Mexico's modem pentathlon team 

in preparation for the Sydney Games. She will discuss the 

techniques found to be most useful, the process used to assess 

athlete and team needs and how her more focused work with 

the team was integrated with that of the first speaker. In the 

third paper, two performance enhancement consultants will 

discuss their post Olympic assessment of the men's and 

women's USA Water Polo teams. The researchers conducted 

impartial focus group interviews, individual athlete and coach 

interviews, and surveys of the men's and women's team 

members in an effort to determine what the NGB, its staff and 

coaches did effectively and ineffectively relative to preparing 

their teams for the Sydney Games. In addition to summarizing 

factors found to influence performance, they will discuss what 

was learned about conducting post-Olympic performance 

debriefs and guidelines for conducting such services for a 

third party. The symposium will conclude with a discussantan 

experienced sport psychology researcher and practitioner. 

Psychological Preparation in the Immediate Period 

Prior to Top Competitions 

Jose Buceta, UNED University, Spain 

Participation in the Olympic Games is one of the most 

demanding, exciting, and stressful situations of an elite 

athlete's life. Many athletes are only able to participate once 

or perhaps twice in the Games, which means they lack the

experience and understanding of the unique nature of the 

event when they face it. This presentation will focus on the 

strategies used with the Olympic Team of Mexico for the 2000 

Sydney Olympic Games. Prior to preparing for the Games 

some of the Mexican athletes had been working regularly with 

a sport psychologist, while other had not. The specific 

program that was initiated for all athletes in the last few 

months prior the Sydney Olympics to improve psychological 

functioning while preparing for the Games will be discussed. 

The main aspects of this program involved providing 

psychological education, advice, and guidelines to athletes 

and their coaches, doctors, trainers and parents, as well as to 

the directors of the National Federations and the Olympic 

Committee. The effects of the program will be discussed and 

suggestions for improving psychological services with 

Olympic athletes will be offered. 

Psychological Preparation ofthe Mexican Modern 

Pentathletes for the Sydney Olympic Games 

Cristina Fink, Mexican Olympic Committee, Mexico 

The purpose of this intervention was to help the Mexican 

Olympic Modem Pentathletes perform at their best in the 

Sydney Olympic Games. The extensive work before and 

during the Olympic Games involved a series of steps that led 

the athletes to greater levels of consistency in this complex 

sport. Priorities were established through interviews and 

questionnaires developed specifically for the Modem 

Pentathlon. Meetings were scheduled with athletes, coaches, 

and managers in order to determine priorities and goals and a 

specific plan was developed to address self-confidence. Trial 

events helped athletes and coaches develop competition plans 

that included factors such as athlete-coach communication, 

likes and dislikes, self-confidence, best coping strategies 

(Buceta, 1998), and the appropriate use of and timing of 

relaxation and centering skills. To determine stress factors 

(Buceta, 1996), the athletes completed several questionnaires 

that related to their competition. The athletes determined that 

it was important to have a back up plan in case their first plan 

did not work (e.g. not enough time for warm-up). The fact that 

they had rehearsed an alternate plan put the athletes at ease 

during the entire competition. The athletes reported to have 

found the intervention to be extremely useful and beneficial 

and the work with them will continue through the next 

Olympic Cycle. 

Capturing Peak Performance Lessons: The Case ofthe 

USA Men's and Women's Sydney Olympic Water Polo 

Teams 

Kristen Dieffenbach, University of North Carolina 

Greensboro, USA; Russ Medbery, American Sport Education 

Program, USA 

Following the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games, the USA Water 

Polo Association hired two sport psychology researchers to 

perform an independent in-depth review of their teams' 

preparation prior to and their performances at the Games. This 

National Sport Governing Body secured the services ofthe 

11 


consultants to help them better understand why their teams 

performed the way they did and to offer suggestions for 

enhancing preparation and performance in the future. The 

Water Polo assessment protocol was based on U.S. Olympic 

athlete and coach assessments taken after the 1996 Atlanta 

Olympic Games (Gould, Guinan, Greenleaf, Medbery, 

Strickland, Lauer, Chung, & Peterson, 1998) and the 1998 

Nagano Olympic Games (Gould, Greenleaf, Dieffenbach, 

Chung, & Peterson, 1999). Results revealed that it was not a 

matter of participants doing anyone thing right to perform 

well at the Olympics, rather, it was an accumulation of 

numerous actions, strategies, and events that came together to 

benefit the team. While these results are interesting and verify 

recent peak performance research (Gould et al, 1998; 1999; 

Hardy, Jones & Gould, 1996), the primary purpose of this 

consultation study was not to contribute to the body of sport 

psychology knowledge. Difficulties and similarities between 

collecting data for consultation purposes and for conducting 

academic research as well as important consulting lessons 

learned will be explored and discussed. 

Everything You Wanted to Know about Reviewing 

Manuscripts, but Didn't Know How to Ask 

Lavon Williams, Purdue University, USA; Vikki Krane, 

Bowling Green State University, USA; Robert J. Brustad, 

University of Northern Colorado, USA 

This symposium is designed for current and aspiring 

professionals interested in learning more about the manuscript 

review process. In this symposium, we will address four 

issues related to the review process. First, we will discuss the 

format and tone of a review. This is an important topic, as 

reviewers want to keep the authors open to their suggestions. 

Second, we will address the key components ofhigh quality 

manuscripts. Specifically, authors should lead the reviewers 

through a logical progression from the reviewer from the 

significance ofthe study to the concluding statements. Third, 

we will discuss issues specific to manuscripts that have 

employed a qualitative methodology. Many researchers do not 

have formal training in qualitative methodologies, yet are 

asked to review these studies. Suggestions to increase 

reviewer knowledge in this area will be presented. Fourth, 

ethical considerations in the publication process will be 

discussed. Reviewers must be able to recognize a breach of 

ethics and know the protocol for handling such situations. A 

better understanding of these issues by reviewers will result in 

higher quality reviews and published articles. The 

presentation includes ample opportunity for audience-based 

questions and discussion. 

The Constructive Review 

Vikki Krane, Bowling Green State University, USA 

This presentation will address three important issues in 

reviewing manuscripts submitted for publication: (a) the 

format of the review, (b) the tone of the review, and (c) issues 

specific to qualitative manuscripts. First, all reviewers should 

use the same general format. Reviewers highlight major


strengths and weaknesses in a general comments section and 

more specific or editorial concerns are in a specific comments 

section. Second, the overall tone of a review greatly influences 

the way in which it is interpreted by an author. Particularly 

harsh or strongly worded reviews often lose their impact by 

overshadowing the instructional points. More appropriately, 

reviewers will employ an educational, positive, and 

constructive approach. Constructive reviews acknowledge the 

strengths of a manuscript as well as the weaknesses; they go 

beyond the problems by providing suggestions for 

improvement. This presentation will provide specific 

suggestions for reviewers to employ an educational and 

constructive approach to evaluating manuscripts. Third, 

reviewers are often faced with the challenge of reviewing 

qualitative research in which they may have received less 

formal training and in which there are few specific guidelines 

(Eisner & Peshkin, 1990; Locke, 1989). There is much room 

for creativity and flexibility in qualitative research as 

appropriate methods, analytical techniques, and analysis 

strategies vary based on the epistemological approach of the 

researchers and the research question. Thus, when reviewing, 

one must consider whether the methods and analyses are 

appropriate for the particular study, not whether they are 

consistent with a particular paradigm. Specific guidelines for 

reviewing qualitative research will be discussed. 

What to Lookfor When Assessing the Quality of 

Empirical Manuscripts 

Lavon Williams, Purdue University, USA 

Every manuscript should contribute to and extend our 

understanding of an existing body of literature. In so doing, 

every facet of the manuscript must be clear, thorough, 

accurate, and focused. Typically a manuscript consists of four 

sections-the Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussionand 

a good reviewer inspects and dissects each section of a 

manuscript before deciding its fate. In the Introduction, 

reviewers are evaluating the rationale for the study and 

determining if the authors used a conceptual framework to 

discuss previous literature in the area, and how well the author 

led the reviewers through a logical progression ofpoints to the 

purpose statement. In the Methods, the reviewer assesses how 

well the authors describe the participants and measurement 

tools used in the study, explain procedures employed to carry 

out the study, and how the data will be analyzed. In the 

Results, reviewers judge how well the authors state their 

findings relative to the purpose of the study. Finally, in the 

Discussion, the reviewer evaluates ifand how well the authors 

reiterate the purpose of the study, discuss their findings 

relative to the purpose of the study or the hypotheses, 

highlight the conceptual and practical implication of the 

findings, discuss the limitations of the study, and provide 

future research directions. The manuscript should end with a 

concluding paragraph that underscores the authors' take-home 

message. The components ofmanuscripts and how to evaluate 

them will be discussed in more detail during this presentation. 

12 ' 

Ethical Issues in the Manuscript Review Process 

Robert 1.Brustad, University ofNorthern Colorado, USA 

A variety of ethical considerations can be encountered in the 

publication process. Frequently, the reviewer is the first to 

recognize that there may be a possible complication, or 

consideration, that needs to be addressed by the journal's 

editor. The role of the reviewer in such situations will be the 

focus ofthis presentation. Fortunately, most sport and exercise 

psychology research is published in journals that adhere to 

American Psychological Association guidelines on publishing 

ethics which provide a consistent set of standards by which to 

address a variety of ethical concerns. However, even within 

this set of standards there can be "gray areas" for 

interpretation, as well as particular circumstances that are not 

directly addressed by APA policy. Furthermore, APA 

guidelines do not direct much explicit attention to the 

reviewer's role in ethical publication practice. One issue that 

is frequently encountered by reviewers involves knowledge of 

the author's identity, either through previous contact with the 

manuscript or through indications that are disclosed within the 

manuscript. Other important ethical consideration relates to 

concerns by the reviewer that the author may have used the 

same data in other published work, failed to acknowledge the 

existence of simultaneous manuscripts that rely upon the same 

data set, or failed to appropriately cite other work that has 

been relied upon in the present manuscript. The roles and 

responsibilities ofreviewers in addressing these and other 

ethical considerations will be considered in this session. 

Imagery Research in Sport, Exercise, andAthletic 

Injury Rehabilitation: Where Do We Go From Here? 

Carla A. Sordoni, Craig R. Hall, University ofWestern 

Ontario, Canada; Krista J. Munroe, University of Windsor, 

Canada; Kimberley L. Gammage, University of Western 

Ontario, Canada; Discussant: Nichola Callow, University of 

Wales, UK 

The purpose of the symposium is to present a model of 

imagery in sport, exercise, and athletic injury rehabilitation 

and to discuss future avenues for imagery research. The model 

focuses specifically on the functions served by imagery in 

these three situations, desired outcomes ofimagery use in 

these situations, and the possible moderating effect ofimagery 

ability. Some future directions for sport imagery research 

include identifying other functions of imagery, evaluating the 

meaning of the image to the individual, identifying the task 

demands ofthe sport, evaluating the imagery advocated by the 

coach, assessing more fully the specific functions that imagery 

may be serving, developing more effective measures to assess 

imagery ability, examining various cognitions that may be 

associated with each type ofimagery, and researching the 

content of athlete's images. Some future directions for 

exercise imagery research include continuing to explore the 

relationships set forth in the model ofexercise imagery (Hall, 

2001), examining the relationships between imagery and other 

psychological variables related to exercise, investigating 

imagery as an intervention for increasing exercise behaviour,

and a closer examination of appearance imagery. Some future 

directions in imagery research in athletic injury rehabilitation 

include conducting qualitative studies, confirming the factor 

structure of the AIIQ-2, examining the relationship between 

imagery use and pain and level offunctioning, examining the 

meaning of healing images to injured athletes, assessing the 

perceptions of physiotherapists and coaches, and developing 

and evaluating interventions designed to increase imagery use 

in rehabilitation. It is our hope that these suggestions may 

guide and stimulate future imagery research in sport, exercise, 

and athletic injury rehabilitation, and ultimately, help athletes 

and exercisers achieve performance success. 

Our Current Understanding ofWhy Athletes and 

Exercisers Use Imagery 

Craig R. Hall, University ofWestern Ontario, Canada 

Why participants use imagery (i.e., the functions imagery 

serves) has been a topic of considerable interest over the past 

five years in the sport, and to a lesser extent in the exercise 

literature. It also has been the focus of investigation in two 

recent athletic injury rehabilitation studies. This research 

shows is that imagery serves both a motivational and a 

cognitivefunction in each ofthese physical activity situations. 

It has been proposed that for imagery use to be most effective 

in these situations, the function ofimagery being employed 

should match the desired outcome. For example, athletes 

should employ motivational arousal-related imagery to 

control their competitive anxiety, and exercisers should use 

motivational energy-related imagery to get psyched up to 

work out. It is also believed that certain variables (e.g., 

imagery ability) may modify the effectiveness of the imagery 

being used to achieve a desired outcome. While there is some 

supportfor this proposal, especially in sport, further 

examinationof this proposal is warranted. Specific avenues 

for future research in each of the three situations, sport, 

exerciseand athletic injury rehabilitation, will be considered 

in the following presentations. 

Imagery Research In Sport: Where Do We Go From 

Here? 

Krista1. Munroe, University ofWindsor, Canada 

Therehave been over 100 published studies examining the 

relationshipbetween imagery and sport performance with the 

majorityof these studies focusing on how imagery can 

improvea specific skill. However, following Paivio's (1985) 

contentionthat imagery operates on a motivational level as 

wellas a cognitive level, researchers have taken interest in 

examiningother functions ofimagery (e.g., Moritz, Hall, 

Martin,& Vadocz, 1996; Munroe, Hall, Simms & Weinberg, 

1998). As sport imagery researchers, it is essential that we 

continually expand our knowledge in this area. Some 

possibilities for future research are: 1) identifying other 

functions of imagery (Hall, 1998),2) evaluating the meaning 

of theimage to the individual (Martin, Moritz, & Hall, 1999), 

3) identifyingthe task demands of the sport (White & Hardy, 

1998),4) examining additional classification systems in sport 

13 


(Munroe et al., 1998), 5) evaluating the imagery advocated by 

the coach (Munroe et al., 1998), 6) assessing more fully the 

specific functions that imagery may be serving (Munroe, 

Giacobbi, Hall, & Weinberg, 2000), 7) developing more 

effective measures to assess imagery ability for all functions 

of imagery, not just for specific movements (Hall, 1998), 8) 

examining various cognitions that may be associated with 

each type ofimagery, and 9) researching more specifically the 

content of athlete's images (i.e., olfactory imagery). It is our 

hope that these suggestions may guide and stimulate future 

research. By having a better understanding of the roles that 

imagery plays in the sporting context, practitioners can help 

athletes achieve performance success. 

Imagery Research in Exercise: Where Do We Go From 

Here? 

Kimberley L. Gammage, University of Western Ontario, 

Canada 

Compared to the research in sport imagery, exercise imagery 

research is still in its infancy. It is clear that exercisers do use 

imagery related to their activity (Hausenblas, Hall, Rodgers, 

& Munroe, 1999), and that they use it for both motivational 

(i.e., appearance and energy) and cognitive purposes (i.e., 

technique). It is clear that imagery use by exercisers varies 

with gender, frequency of exercise, and type of activity. In 

practice, exercise imagery is also gaining popularity with 

group classes such as spinning, which rely heavily on imagery 

for motivation. However, there is still much to learn about 

exercise imagery, including its relationships with other 

variables and its influence on exercise behavior. This 

presentation will focus specifically on where we are going 

with exercise imagery research and practice. Four major 

issues will be addressed. First, potential moderators of the 

imagery function-outcome relationship must be examined. 

Second, the relationships between imagery and other 

psychological variables related to exercise, such as selfefficacy, 

anxiety, and incentives for exercise must be 

examined. Third, the investigation of imagery as an 

intervention for increasing exercise behaviour should be 

undertaken to determine its potential effectiveness. Finally, 

the use of appearance imagery and its potential risks need to 

be investigated. While we have made some progress in 

understanding exercise imagery, we still have much to learn to 

take full advantage of its potential influence. 

Imagery Research In Athletic Injury Rehabilitation: 

Where Do We Go From Here? 

Carla A. Sordoni, University of Western Ontario, Canada 

Research examining imagery use in athletic injury 

rehabilitation is less developed than in either sport or exercise. 

In fact, only two studies have examined imagery use in this 

context (Sordoni, Hall, & Forwell, 2000; Sordoni, Hall, & 

Forwell, manuscript in preparation). Through the 

administration of questionnaires, these studies have shown 

that athletes use three types of imagery in athletic injury 

rehabilitation: motivational, cognitive, and healing imagery.


Findings indicated that athletes use imagery to a lesser extent 

than in both sport and exercise, and that elite injured athletes 

utilize more imagery than do their less elite counterparts. 

Other findings included that elite injured athletes utilize 

significantly more cognitive imagery than their recreational 

counterparts, females use significantly more healing imagery 

than males, and that females competing at a recreational level 

had significantly less self-efficacy than their competitive 

counterparts. While we have some preliminary evidence 

regarding athletes' use of imagery in injury rehabilitation, 

many possibilities for future research exist. Specifically, I) 

qualitative studies should be conducted to provide us with a 

more complete understanding of imagery use in rehabilitation, 

2) future research is required to confirm the factor structure of 

existing questionnaires, and 3) the relationships between 

imagery use and pain and 4) imagery use and level of 

functioning need to be explored. Future research should also 

examine 5) the meaning of healing images to injured athletes, 

6) the perceptions of physiotherapists and coaches regarding 

imagery use in rehabilitation, and finally, 7) the utility and 

effectiveness of interventions designed to increase imagery 

use in this context. 

Sport and Exercise Psychology: Far EastAsian 

Perspectives 

Mi-Sook Kim, San Francisco State University, USA; Zhong 

Qui Zhang, National Research Institute of Sports Science, 

China; Yoichi Kozuma, Tokai University, Japan 

As a continuing effort of the AAASP to extend its support to 

international developments in sport and exercise psychology, 

there have been several symposia examining advances in 

psychological research and applied practice in sport around 

the world. This current symposium will discuss about research 

and professional practices in sport and exercise psychology 

and its future in Far East Asian countries/regions (e.g., China, 

Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan). Representatives from each 

country will participate in a panel discussion in which they 

will address the following topics; a) Sport and exercise 

psychology organizations in the country of their origin (e.g., 

major activities of the organization nationally and 

internationally, demographic information such as the number 

of members, members' education/training, and occupational 

opportunities), b) the status of research in each country (e.g., 

extent and nature of research being conducted, major research 

topics, dominating theories and research methodologies, 

controversies), c) the status ofprofessional practice in each 

country (e.g., the extent of consulting, major techniques and 

methods employed, controversies), d) knowledge and 

practices in their country that have potential to contribute to 

the growth ofsport and exercise psychology in other parts of 

the world, e) media recognition of sport and exercise 

psychology in their country (e.g., how media portray sport 

psychology), f) the future of sport and exercise psychology in 

their country. There will be time reserved for questions 

addressed to the panel members. Finally, the organizer ofthe 

symposium will offer concluding remarks. 

14 

Sport and Exercise Psyhcology in Taiwan 

Likang Chi, Ph.D., National College of Physical Education 

and Sports, Taipei, Taiwan 

Society for Sport and Exercise Psychology of Taiwan 

(SSEPT) was formally found in 2000. As the field of sport 

psychology has been expanding rapidly in Taiwan, SSEPT has 

more than 150 members and shows the great potential in the 

future. SSEPT holds the SeminarlForum twice a year 

(November and June) and publishes newsletter and books 

regularly. Regarding the academic programs in sport 

psychology, there are two universities offer the doctoral 

program in sport psychology. National Taiwan Normal 

University is the first university provides doctoral program. 

National College of Physical Education and Sports started 

offering doctoral program in 1999. A large number of colleges 

and universities in Taiwan offer sport psychology courses at 

the master's level. There is no any organization at this time 

can offer certification of sport psychologist. As one of the 

sport science area, sport psychology has played an important 

role on helping coaches and athletes to improve performance. 

Average 3 or 4 sport psychologists involve in Sport Science 

Committees and work on psychological skill training and 

counseling for top athletes. Few sport psychologists have also 

involved in the professional sports such as professional 

basketball team and professional baseball team for helping 

professional players' psychological skill training. Regarding 

the research publication in the field of sport and exercise 

psychology, two hundred and forty-five research papers have 

been published since 1987 to 1996. The major topics ofthe 

research papers include Motivation, Personality, Mental Skill 

Training, Motor Learning, and Leadership. 

Sport and Exercise Psychology in Korea 

Nae-Sook Pyo, Ph.D. Pusan National University, Pusan, 

Korea 

Since the birth of the Korean Society of Sport Psychology 

(KSSP) in 1989, the KSSP has grown tremendously from a 

total of 30 members in its first year to now 350 members who 

are mostly from academic field. The KSSP publishes its own 

journal, Korean Journal ofSport Psychology twice a year and 

holds various professional meetings (i.e., congress, seminar, 

and workshops) each year. The KSSP will be hosting The 4th 

Asian-South Pacific Association of Sport Psychology 

Congress in Seoul, June, 2003. The major research areas in 

Korea encompass motor control/learning/development, and 

sportlhealth psychology emphasizing on oriental movement 

and indigenous cultural perspectives. The Korean sport 

psychology has been influenced by Western sport psychology 

in its beginning years. Recently greater attention has been 

placed on the unique mentality of the Korean as studying 

indigenous understanding of the Korean athletes to be used 

the Korean athletic performance enhancement. This line of 

research will provide different ways of applying our 

knowledge to advance athletic performance in other cultures. 

The media recognition of the field in Korea is very sparse and 

so does applied practice in contrary to the blossom of the

academic field. The KSSP has been putting its enormous 

effort to take responsibility for producing qualified sport 

psychology consultant in Korea. The future of the field in 

Korea is very bright as the importance of sport psychology in 

physical activities and sport is increasing in Korea. The KSSP 

puts its best effort to promote the field in both academics and 

professional services. 

The Current Trends ofSport and Exercise Psychology 

in Japan 

Yoichi Kozuma, Ph.D., Tokai University, Kanagawa, Japan 

There are two major organizations of sport psychology in 

Japan. First, there is the JSSP or the Japanese Society of sport 

Psychology. This organization is under the auspices of the 

International Society ofSport Psychology and the Asian and 

South Pacific Society of Sport Psychology. The second 

organization is a division of Physical Education Psychology 

and it is under the guidance of Japanese Society of Physical 

Education. These two organizations have generated numerous 

studies in the research field of sport psychology, but most of 

the findings are not applicable for practical use. To help the 

athletes and coaches, new and more specific organizations 

have been created. The Japanese Society of Mental Training 

and Applied Sport Psychology, the Japanese Society ofMotor 

Learning, the Japanese Society of Clinical Sport Psychology, 

and the Japanese Society of Social Psychology (JSSP) are just 

a few examples that now exist. Realizing that there is a 

potential market, many commercial businesses have also 

entered the field of performance enhancement without a 

foundation or background in sport psychology. To counter this 

movement, in the year 2000, the JSSP initiated a certification 

process. Called the License of Mental Training Instructor and 

the License of Mental Training Assistant Instructor, this two 

tiered certified consultant system is a move to increase the 

quality and the professionalism of the field of applied sport 

psychology in Japan. 

Application ofSport Psychology in China 

Zhong Qiu Zhang, Ph.D., National Research Institute of 

Sports Science, Beijing, China 

In China sports psychology researchers are organized by 

China Society of Sports Psychology, which has formed a 

system including more than 20 province society. In recent 

years, there are four main fields of sport psychology: 1) put 

more attention to strengthen psychological techniques; 2) put 

more emphasis on the applied systematic trace studies; 3) use 

more modernized equipment and software to enforce the 

application ofpsychological training 4) give more attention to 

high level athletes' mental training. In practice, the 

researchers put forward psychological interventions depend 

on the software of Psychological State Monitor and Survey 

System. Moreover, the researchers imposed special 

psychological interventions on them in order to improve 

athletes' special skills and competition abilities, such as 3 

lines relaxation, idea-ball program (the methods of Chinese 

Qigong), cognition-regulation training, imagery training. On 

15 


the other hand, the researchers also develop the system of 

multimedia software of mental regulation for important 

games. Athletes can do psychological regulation before 

competition by using this multimedia software. In the contents 

of mental regulations, there are guidance of essential factors 

of competition mental purification and the program of optimal 

competition mental purification. All these professional 

practices promoted athletes with good competitive condition 

to taking part in the important Games. Of cause, there is a 

good tendency of the researches of sport psychology in China, 

more and more young people from psychology and sports 

fields are taking part in many sports psychological researches 

continuously, such as motivation, self-conscious, cognition, 

stress, and so on. 

Expanding Capacities for Reaching Ideal Performance 

State in Sport: A Modelfor Competitors, Coaches, and 

Sport Psychology Consultants 

Mark H. Anshel, James E. Loehr, and Garth W. Weiss, LGE 

Performance Systems, 9757 Lake Nona Road, Orlando, 

Florida 32827 

The focus of this symposium is to describe and apply a 

multidimensional model that facilitates the process of 

reaching and sustaining an ideal performance state (IPS) in 

competitive sport in the face of ever-present pressure and 

rapid change. While athletes are capable of performing at 

relatively high levels intermittently, they cannot perform to 

their full potential or without cost of energy, motivation, and 

skill over time. The capacity to mobilize energy on demand 

under pressure, by eliminating negative habits and generating 

new 'positive rituals' is the foundation of reaching and 

sustaining IPS. The LGE multidimensional model addresses 

each of four components that are required to reach an ideal 

performance state (IPS), in ascending order, physical, 

emotional, mental, and spiritual capacities. This symposium 

will consist of three presentations. First, the performance 

pyramid will be described, followed by the ways in which 

elite athletes manage and expand their energy, referred to as 

oscillation and positive rituals. Finally, strategies of the model 

for use by athletes, coaches and sport psychology consultants 

will be explained. 

Expanding Capacities for Reaching Ideal Performance 

State: A Modelfor Athlete Consultation 

James E. Loehr, LGE Performance Systems, 9757 Lake Nona 

Road, Orlando, Florida 32827 

The purpose of this presentation is to present a model that 

incorporates four requisite dimensions (capacities) that allows 

the athlete to reach full ignition in obtaining and sustaining 

their ideal performance state (IPS) under pressure. These 

capacities are, in ascending order, physical, emotional, 

mental, and spiritual. Physical capacity refers to recognizing 

the importance of exercise, nutrition, and sleep as inherent in 

reaching and sustaining IPS. Emotional capacity entails 

replacing fear, anger, threat, frustration and disappointment 

with challenge, enthusiasm, inspiration, and the ability to self-


regulate positive emotional states. Mental capacity reflects the 

athletes' cognitions that influence desirable requisite 

psychological characteristics (e.g., confidence, optimism) and 

performance through the use of positive self-talk, 

visualization, and mental preparation. Spiritual capacity refers 

to connecting the athlete's participation in sport with their 

deepest values and beliefs about who they are and what is 

really important in reaching their full potential. Connecting 

sport to the player's deeper purpose makes them physically, 

mentally, and emotionally stronger. This is an area that is 

particularly neglected in sport psychology consultation. 

Application ofthe LGE Modelfor Coaches and Sport 

Psychology Consultants 

Mark H. Anshel, LGE Performance Systems, 9757 Lake 

Nona Road, Orlando, Florida 32827 

The purpose of this presentation is to indicate cognitive and 

behavioral strategies for coaches and sport psychology 

consultants to apply the Ideal Performance State model with 

competitive athletes. The LGE model (pyramid) each consists 

of helping athletes reach their capacity in each of four 

dimensions, physical, emotional, mental, and spiritual. 

Expanding the athlete's physical capacity includes addressing 

ways to promote and maintain proper exercise habits, provide 

proper nutritional habits, and to develop healthy sleep 

patterns. Guidelines for reaching each of these outcomes will 

be provided. Expanding emotional capacity consists of 

replacing a negative internal climate (e.g., perceptions of 

threat, anger, fear, frustration, disappointment) with a positive 

mind set (e.g., optimism, challenge, enthusiasm, inspiration). 

Mental capacity is expanded by deepening the player's 

moment-to-moment concentration and to focus selectively 

during competition. Mental skills are applied such as 

visualization, mental preparation, self-talk, and time 

management, executed during and between competition. 

Finally, spiritual capacity combines mind, body, and spirit in 

reaching IPS. We help the player to connect their deepest 

values and purpose to their actions. Matters of spirit include 

honesty, justice, respect, courage, bravery, and character. This 

component is where true inspiration is spawned. This 

presentation will provide interventions and strategies with 

which coaches and sport psychology consultants can help 

each athlete reach their IPS. 

Examples ofAthlete Consultations Using the LGE 

Multidimensional Model 

Garth W. Weiss, LGE Performance Systems, USA 

The purpose of this section of the symposium is to show how 

the LGE performance model is applied to skilled competitive 

athletes. Practical applications drawn from consultations with 

elite athletes will highlight how the model encompasses all 

aspects of their lives. This model fully integrates each 

dimension of an athlete; physical, emotional, mental, or 

spiritual. To effectively ignite talent and skill under 

competitive pressure, athletes need to acquire positive rituals. 

Without trained rituals, athletes are often negatively 

16, 

influenced by circumstances they cannot control; playing 

conditions, bad luck, referees decisions, cheating by 

opponents, or distractions. They may resort to old behaviors 

and cognitive patterns. Instituting precise and specific rituals 

allows athletes learn to overcome adversity. Repetition of the 

proper physical, emotional, mental, and spiritual rituals 

eventually brings them under automatic control. Rituals can 

become powerful triggers for mobilizing the physiological 

mechanisms that underlie the specific emotions that lead to 

the Ideal Performance State (IPS). Rituals activate the 

emotions of challenge, enjoyment, and relaxation that are 

associated with IPS. Rituals at the physical level include 

establishing a nutritionally sound diet, acquiring sleep 

routines that restore energy, and an exercise program that 

balances the need for stress (energy expenditure) and recovery 

(energy restoration). Emotional rituals and mental rituals 

focus on trained responses to situations that lead to the ability 

to reach IPS on demand. Spiritual rituals serve to connect 

athletes to their deepest values and beliefs. They reconnect on 

a regular basis with the purpose for participating and 

competing. This segment concerns the application of the LGE 

model in my experience as a sport psychology consultant. 

Adolescent Issues in Sport Injury Rehabilitation 

Eileen Udry, Indiana University Purdue University 

Indianapolis, USA; K. Donald Shelbourne & Tinker Gray, 

Methodist Sports Medicine Center, USA; Dean A. Tripp, 

Acadia University, Canada; Michael J. L. Sullivan, William D. 

Stanish, Gerald Reardon, & Catherine Coady, Dalhousie 

University, Canada; Allen E. Cornelius, Britton W. Brewer, 

Judy L. Van Raalte, & Albert J. Petitpas, Springfield College, 

USA; Joseph H. Sklar, Mark H. Pohlman, & Robert J. 

Krushell, New England Orthopedic Surgeons, USA; Terry D. 

Ditmar, Baystate Outpatient Rehabilitation, USA; R. Renee 

Newcomer & Frank M. Perna, Boston University School of 

Medicine, USA. 

An estimated 3 to 6 million children and adolescents sustain 

sport- and recreation-related injuries in the United States each 

year (Bijur et aI., 1995). Despite recent advances in research 

on psychological aspects of sport injury rehabilitation, little is 

known about the psychological functioning of children and 

adolescents undergoing sport injury rehabilitation. The 

purpose of this symposium is to present preliminary data 

specific to adolescents on selected psychological aspects of 

sport injury rehabilitation. One presentation uses the 

transtheoretical model (Prochaska, DiClemente, & Norcross, 

1992) to describe and compare the readiness for anterior 

cruciate ligament (ACL) surgery of adolescent and adult 

recreational athletes. A second presentation compares 

adolescents and adults on pain, affective distress, 

catastrophizing, and pain medication consumption following 

ACL reconstructive surgery. A third presentation examines 

age-related differences in predictors of adherence to 

rehabilitation following ACL reconstructive surgery. A fourth 

presentation explores posttraumatic distress in adolescents 

who have experienced sport injuries. The presentations 

provide a springboard for further empirical inquiry on

psychological aspects of sport injury rehabilitation for 

adolescents. 

Recreational Athletes' Readiness for ACL Surgery: 

Describing and Comparing the Adolescent andAdult 

Experience 

Eileen Udry, Indiana University Purdue University 

Indianapolis, USA; K. Donald Shelboume & Tinker Gray, 

Methodist Sports Medicine Center, USA 

Research usingthe transtheoretical model (TM) to understand 

injured athletes' readiness for anterior cruciate ligament 

(ACL) surgery is limited, as has been this model's application 

to adolescent populations. Thus, the first purpose of this 

investigation was to describe recreational athletes' readiness 

for surgery by using an adaptation of the TM. The second 

purpose was to examine differences between injured 

adolescent (15-19 years) and adult (>30 years) athletes 

relative to the TM and related constructs. Participants (N=98) 

pre-operatively completed self-report assessments of: 

demographics, stage of readiness, processes of change, 

decisional balance (i.e., pros versus cons), self-efficacy, and 

mood. Relative to the first purpose, participants reported more 

pros than cons associated with surgery and high levels of selfefficacy. 

Relative to the second purpose, we used a MANOVA 

to examine differences between adolescents and adults on the 

dependent variables. The group main effect was significant 

(Wilks' lambda=.58; p


Features ofPosttraumatic Distress AmongAdolescent 

Athletes 

R. Renee Newcomer & Frank M. Perna, Boston University 

School of Medicine, USA 

Common features ofposttraumatic distress accompany 

athletic injury in adult athlete samples (Newcomer et at, 

1998; Peck et at, 1996; Shuer & Dietrich, 1997), and levels of 

posttraumatic distress are similar to those of other medical 

populations following physical trauma (i.e., motor vehicle 

accidents). However, little is known regarding children and 

adolescent athletes' response to athletic injury. The literature 

suggests they are at greater risk than adults for psychological 

distress following a traumatic event, and severity of the event 

does not seem to be predictive of subsequent psychological 

disturbance (Shaw et al., 1996; Stallard, Velleman, & 

Baldwin, 1998; Weisenberg, Schwarzwald, Waysman, 

Solomon, & Klingman, 1993). The present study examined 

intrusive thoughts and avoidance behaviors, two common 

features of posttraumatic distress, among a healthy adolescent 

athlete sample as well as among injured and matched control 

athletes following injury. Results indicated that similar to 

adult athlete samples, adolescents also exhibit common 

features ofposttraumatic distress following injury. Moreover, 

injury-related distress may persist beyond physical recovery, 

which is consistent with reports of other medical populations 

(Blanchard et al., 1997; Holbrook, Anderson, Sieber, 

Browner, & Hoyt, 1998; Kiecolt-Glaser et al., 1998; Leddy et 

al., 1994). In comparison to older athletes, younger athletes 

may be more susceptible to social and environmental 

influences characteristic ofsport, which have been suggested 

to reinforce avoidance ofinjury-related distress (Nixon, 1992, 

1993, 1996). Findings are discussed in terms of the course of 

posttraumatic distress following medical trauma as well as 

future trauma research with adolescent athletes. 

Reconceptualizing the Sport Psychology Certification 

Process within AAASP 

Organizer: Richard H. Cox, University ofMissouri-Columbia, 

65211 

The initial presentation ofthe symposium focuses upon 

historical contributions of the discipline ofphysical education 

to applied sport psychology. In this presentation, we seek to 

demonstrate the critical importance of the exercise and sports 

sciences in the preparation of a fully qualified sport 

psychologist. Significant preparation in the biological 

sciences is a necessary component of a sport psychology 

curriculum. The second presentation focuses upon the 

importance of psychology to the preparation of the sport 

psychologist. More specifically, this presentation seeks to 

enlighten members of AAASP of the breadth and depth of 

academic training necessary to become a licensed counseling! 

clinical psychologist. The capstone of this training is a 2000 

hour internship, generally in an APA approved site, where the 

individual works full-time as a psychology intern. The third 

presentation focuses upon the legal and ethical implications of 

using the title "sport psychologist." This thoughtful and 

18 

insightful presentation will enlighten members ofAAASP of 

laws governing the use of the term "psychologist" within 

different states. This issue must be addressed before AAASP 

certification issues can be resolved. The final presentation will 

focus upon a specific proposal for certification of applied 

sport psychologists by the association. The certification and 

training proposal departs significantly from the current "one 

certification for all" approach to AAASP certification. Rather, 

we propose that the multidisciplinary nature of AAASP 

requires multiple approaches to certification. 

The Role ofPhysical Education in the Development of 

Sport Psychology in North America 

Chris D. Bernuth, Richard H. Cox, Rick McGuire, University 

of Missouri-Columbia, MO 65211 

An early application ofsport psychology is traced to the work 

of Norman Triplett (1897). Triplett analyzed the performance 

ofcyclists under conditions of social facilitation and 

concluded that the presence of others often facilitates 

improved performance. While Triplett was one of the first 

individuals to conduct sport psychology research, he was not 

the first to systematically carry out sport psychology research 

over a long period oftime. This distinction is given to 

Coleman Roberts Griffith (1930), often referred to as the 

father of sport psychology in North America. The interesting 

thing about Griffith's applied research was that he was a 

psychologist hired by the chair of a physical education 

department to develop the first applied sport psychology 

research laboratory. Thus, the historical trend for the next 60 

years was established in this early event. Physical education, a 

cross-disciplinary entity, would provide the academic home 

for the application of psychology to sport and athletics (Cox, 

2(00). As the field of sport psychology continues to emerge, 

and contributions from traditional psychology are blended in, 

it is important that we not lose focus of our fundamental roots. 

It is also important that we not lose focus of the need for the 

sport psychologist to be knowledgeable in the body of 

knowledge that comes from the field of physical education 

(kinesiology). The overarching purpose of this symposium is 

to find ways in which individuals coming from diverse 

academic backgrounds can work together to foster 'inclusion' 

rather than 'exclusion' and strengthen the emerging discipline 

ofsport psychology. 

Academic Preparation Required to be a Counseling or 

Clinical Psychologist 

Matt P. Martens, Niels C. Beck, S. Nicole Webber, University 

of Missouri-Columbia 65211 

The American Psychological Association (APA) has 

developed guidelines and principles necessary for 

accreditation of programs in 'professional psychology' 

meaning psychological services delivered to the general 

public. APA requires that accredited programs meet several 

training standards in their coursework offered, including 

a) knowledge of the breadth of scientific psychology, 

b) knowledge of the scientific, methodological, and theoretical

foundations ofprofessional psychological practice, 

c) knowledge regarding assessment, diagnosis, measurement, 

and implementation ofintervention strategies, and d) a focus 

on cultural diversity. To satisfy APA accreditation standards, 

students can expect to take several courses in each of the 

aforementioned areas. In addition to required coursework, a 

major component of training in clinical and counseling 

psychology involves actual training as a counselor/therapist. 

The capstone ofthis training is a 2000 hour internship, 

generally at an APA approved site, where the individual works 

full-time as a psychology intern. Before most students reach 

internship, however, they have generally accumulated at least 

1000hours of direct and indirect work with clients in a 

therapeutic setting, including several hundred direct therapy 

contact hours. Sport psychology work can count as hours 

toward this internship, but it is counted as indirect hours, and 

thus are not considered direct therapeutic contact hours. These 

counseling and clinical practicums form the core of a 

student's clinical training prior to internship. Thus, sport 

psychology students in counseling and clinical programs 

should expect to spend a good portion oftheir time addressing 

issues that are not specific to sport psychology. 

The Legal and Ethical Implications ofthe Title 'Sport 

Psychologist' 

D. Gant Ward, Scott D. Sandstedt, Neils C. Beck, University 

of Missouri-Columbia, MO 65211 

One topic of debate that has long existed within the field of 

sport psychology is who may call himself or herself a 

psychologist. The debate will continue as long as opinions and 

ethical standards are the evidences for arguments. 

Interestingly, regulatory laws exist in every state that 

explicitly define who may legally use the term 'psychologist' 

in his or her title. In this section ofthe symposium, a complete 

presentation ofthe laws regulating use of the title 

'psychologist' in the state of Missouri will be made. In 

addition, the laws of a state with differing regulations 

concerning use of the title 'psychologist' will be presented. 

The major goal ofthe presentation will be to bring to attention 

the fact that different states have different laws concerning 

titleusage. Sport psychology professionals are encouraged 

and directed to conform to their respective state laws 

concerning use of the title 'psychologist.' Once one has 

confirmedthat he or she may legally use the title 

'psychologist' the decision to expand the title to include 

'sport' becomes an ethical one. A psychologist must be able to 

demonstrate competence in sport psychology to ethically 

include 'sport' in his or her title of 'sport psychologist.' The 

title 'sport psychologist' will then unambiguously 

communicate to the athlete-client that the professional is 

competentto deliver both performance enhancement and 

psychotherapeutic services. 

19 


A Proposed Modelfor AAASP Certification ofApplied 

Sport Psychology Consultants 

Richard H. Cox & Steve Portenga, University of Missouri 

Columbia, 65211 

The proposed model is a based upon a foundation of required 

course work and experiences. An individual who satisfies the 

requirement of the foundation courses and experiences may 

receive an AAASP performance enhancement endorsement. 

This endorsement qualifies the recipient to provide mental 

skills training for the purpose of enhancing athletic 

performance. Having satisfied foundation course work and 

experiences, the individual who goes on to obtain the Ph.D. in 

counseling or clinical psychology, and completes 400 hours of 

supervised work with an athletic team may apply for the title 

Licensed and AAASP Certified Counseling/Clincial Sport 

Psychologist. This individual is qualified to provide 

performance enhancement services and counseling or clinical 

psychology services consistent with their licensure and 

training. Having satisfied foundation course work and 

experiences, the individual who goes on to obtain the 

doctorate in kinesiology, with a specialization in sport 

psychology, and 400 hours ofsupervised work with an athletic 

team may apply for the title AAASP Certified Performance 

Enhancement (Sport Psychology) Consultant. This individual 

is qualified to serve as an AAASP certified consultant, provide 

performance enhancement services, but must take personal 

and ethical responsibility for referring to themselves as a 

'psychologist'. The different categories of certification and 

endorsement as described above provide recognition for the 

hard work and efforts of all members ofAAASP. It is a model 

that features inclusion rather than exclusion, acknowledges 

the contributions of diverse disciplines, and recognizes that 

one set of standards can not adequately address the needs of 

the majority. 

An Athlete-Centered Sport Model: From Theory to 

Practice 

Patricia S. Miller, Gretchen Kerr, Leith Drury, Nicole S. 

Beaulieu, University ofToronto, Canada 

Previous research indicates that competitive sport has the 

potential to develop self-awareness, perseverance, 

interpersonal skills, and overall positive health. However, 

there is also evidence to show that competitive sport 

environments have the potential for injury occurrence, 

disordered eating patterns, harassment, and retirement 

transition difficulties due to a singular identity. One important 

distinguishing factor between these two sets of possible 

outcomes is the way in which the power held by coaches and 

others in positions of authority is used. In this symposium, we 

will propose a model of athlete-centered sport as a way to 

guide the appropriate use ofpower and maximize the potential 

benefits to be gained from sports participation. The first 

presentation will describe the theoretical premise of an 

athlete-centered sport model and some practical issues that 

inhibit its implementation. The second section will present 

examples of best practices. More specifically, interview data


from a World Triathalon Champion will be shared to illustrate 

the nature of a real-life athlete-centered coach-athlete 

relationship and the growth potentials provided to both parties 

as a result ofthis approach. The third section will describe the 

development of a questionnaire to solicit athlete feedback on 

the nature and delivery of their sport programs. And the final 

presentation will expand on the implications of an athletecentered 

sport model for coaches and sport psychology 

consultants. Here, questions about the roles, expectations and 

training of coaches and sport psychology consultants will be 

raised with specific emphasis on the proposal of a new model 

ofcoach education. 

Athlete-Centered Sport: Theoretical Framework and 

Practical Barriers 

Gretchen Kerr, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada, M5S 

2W6 

This presentation will address the theory and practice of an 

athlete-centered sport model. An athlete-centered model 

represents both a philosophical stance and a way ofdelivering 

sport programs, where the athlete's short and long-term health 

and well being is of primary importance, above and beyond 

performance. Decisions are based upon the best interests of 

the athlete both as an athlete as well as an individual long after 

the sport career is over. As such, a developmental approach is 

adopted where sport is viewed as a vehicle by which athletes 

learn about themselves, others and the world around them. 

This sport model is advocated as it is presumed to enhance 

overall development ofyoung people in addition to preventing 

or reducing experiences ofinjury, disordered eating, 

retirement difficulties, and misuses ofpower. Coaches who 

adopt this approach teach the technical aspects ofthe sport as 

well as life skills: how to persevere through frustrations, set 

goals and priorities, motivate, communicate and work with 

others. The athlete-coach relationship is a partnership, thus 

reducing the power differential between the two parties. And 

while many adults in sport support such an approach, barriers 

exist to its implementation, including as some examples, 

traditional views about the roles of the coach, a sport system 

that encourages and reinforces performance above all else, 

and the ways in which coaches are educated, rewarded and 

promoted. This presentation will examine both the practical 

implications and potential barriers to implementing an athletecentered 

sport model. 

Implementing an Athlete-Centered Sport Model: 

Implications for Coaching and Sport Psychology 

Leith Drury, University ofToronto, Toronto, Canada, M5S 

2W6 

Working within the theoretical framework of an athletecentered 

model outlined in the first presentation, and building 

on the case-study of an exceptional high-level coach featured 

in the second presentation, this section of the symposium 

addresses the practical implications of adopting an athletecentered 

philosophy for coaches. The impact ofimplementing 

an athlete-centered model on contextual variables such as 

20 

relationships with sport organizations, media, and support 

staffincluding medical personnel and sport psychologists will 

be summarized. Information will then be shared on how 

coaches can introduce an athlete-centered model into planning 

and organization, training, and competition. Emphasis will be 

placed on how coaches can develop technically competent 

athletes who are at the same time self-actualizing human 

beings, and how athletic goals can be accomplished alongside 

the goal of developing physically, psychologically, and 

socially healthy athletes. The bulk of the presentation will 

focus on how coaches can foster partnerships with athletes, 

and introduce and sustain balanced power dynamics and 

shared decision-making in coach-athlete relationships. This 

approach raises very important questions, namely: how do we 

rethink basic assumptions about coach and athlete roles, 

responsibilities, expectations and boundaries? How can 

coaches elicit, listen for and hear feedback from athletes, 

particularly young athletes? Finally, the implications of an 

athlete-centered model on coaching education will be 

addressed. A coaching education program that incorporates 

the components ofan athlete-centered model and translates 

the philosophy into best practices will be outlined. 

Providing Athletes with a Voice: The Student-Athlete 

Questionnaire 

Patricia S. Miller, University ofToronto, Toronto, Ontario, 

Canada M5S 2W6 

Balanced power relationships and shared decision-making are 

underlying elements of an athlete-centered sport system. Yet, 

the literature suggests most athletes have little power in 

relationships with coaches and administrators, and limited 

input in decisions that directly influence their opportunities 

and athletic experiences. Armstrong-Doherty (1995) 

examined the distribution ofpower in university athletics and 

found student-athletes had very little influence on the 

operations and decision-making within athletic departments, 

and although they did have avenues for involvement through 

formal and informal meetings with athletics directors and 

coaches, these were rarely explored. The purpose ofthis 

presentation is to introduce a viable means of providing 

university student-athletes with a voice in the administration 

of intercollegiate athletic programs. The Student-Athlete 

Questionnaire (SAQ) consists of 124 questions in six 

categories: athletic, academic, social, personal, and healthrelated 

experiences, and program administration and athletics 

policies. The SAQ is to be completed by student-athletes 

immediately following the completion of their athletic 

seasons. Cross-sectional data collections allow researchers 

and administrators to compare the responses of athletes by 

year, sport, and sex. Longitudinal data collections allow 

researchers to map trends and changes over time, as well as 

gauge student-athletes' progress in several critical 

developmental areas. The SAQ provides student-athletes with 

an opportunity to critically evaluate their experiences and has 

the potential to affect positive changes within intercollegiate 

athletics programs.

Best Practices: A Modelfor Coaching in Athlete 

Centered Sport 

Nicole S. Beaulieu, University ofToronto, Toronto, Canada, 

M5S2W6 

The athlete's experience with sport and how it affects his or 

her overall growth is influenced by a number of individuals. 

The coach-athlete relationship is particularly important given 

the great deal of time spent together and the tremendous 

impact coaches' often have on athletes. The purpose of this 

presentation is to share the results of a study exploring the 

experiences of a high-level competitor with three skilled 

coaches.Within a grounded theory framework, three semistructured 

interviews were conducted with a female athlete. 

Each interview focused on the athlete's relationship with one 

of three coaches with whom she worked as a world-class triathlete.The 

interviews probed the participant's involvement in 

decisions related to her training and competition, her athletic 

development, and her personal development as outcomes of 

the coach-athlete dyad. Each interview lasted approximately 

one hour, was tape-recorded and transcribed verbatim. The 

data was analysed following procedures established in the 

literature.The results revealed that only one of the three 

veterancoaches had developed an athlete-centered coaching 

style.The remaining two coaches were authoritarian and 

engagedin very autocratic decision-making, rarely 

incorporating the athlete or her input in decisions. The 

participantrecognised that her greatest athletic achievements 

concurredwith her most important personal achievements, 

whichboth took place during her collaborative relationship 

withthe first coach. The coach's attention to the participant's 

personalsuccesses outside the athletic setting facilitated her 

excellencewithin the athletic setting. The implications of this 

athlete-centeredcoach-athlete relationship for future 

theoreticaland practical work will be discussed. 

Psychological Talent and Its Development in Olympic 

Champions 

DanielGould, Kristen Dieffenbach, Aaron Moffett, University 

of North Carolina Greensboro, USA 

Althoughconsiderable research has been conducted on the 

psychological characteristics of more versus less successful 

eliteathletes (see Hardy, Jones, & Gould, 1996, and Williams 

& Krane, 2000, for detailed reviews), less is known about how 

these skills are cultivated and developed. Hence, this 

colloquium discusses a study designed to examine the process 

of psychological talent development in Olympic medal 

winning athletes. Ten U.S. Olympic champions with 

outstanding performance records were interviewed, as were 

one of their coaches, and a parent, guardian, or significant 

other.In-depth interviews were conducted with all 

participants, with questions focused on the psychological and 

emotional attributes and characteristics ofthe athlete, the 

process by which these attributes developed, and the culture 

supportingtheir development. A battery ofpsychological 

inventorieswas also administered to identify the individual's 

psychological strengths. In the first paper, the project rationale 

21 


is discussed with emphasis placed on describing the sample of 

athletes studied and the rationale for the methods employed. 

The second paper will focus on the psychological 

characteristics of these athletes. The third paper examines the 

question of how these psychological characteristics were 

developed with particular emphasis placed on the role coaches 

and family members played in this process. Finally, the 

colloquium will finish with a general discussion of the 

findings and their implications relative to the athlete talent 

development (Bloom, 1985; Csikszentmihalyi, Rathunde, 

Whalen, & Wong, 1993; Cote, 1999; and Salmela & Cote, 

2001) and psychology ofpeak performance research (Hardy, 

Jones, & Gould, 1995). 


Champions: Project Overview 

Daniel Gould, University of North Carolina Greensboro, 

Greensboro, NC 27412 

Bloom (1985) was one ofthe first to study talent development 

in world-class performers at the top of their fields. Results 

revealed that in addition to financial support and 

transportation, parents found ways to provide social emotional 

support (e.g., facilitating disciplined involvement while 

avoiding excessive expectations and pressure). More recently, 

Csikszentrnihalyi, Rathunde, Whalen, and Wong (1993) 

chronicled the development of outstanding high school 

students identified as having strong talent in art, athletics, 

mathematics, music, or science. It was found that talent 

development involves the acquisition of a mature personality 

during the teenage years; a personality that allows the 

individual to cope with all the opportunities and obstacles that 

they will face in their chosen endeavor. Cote (1999), studying 

elite athletes and their families, found that families play an 

important role in elite athlete development. The present study 

was designed to examine the process of psychological talent 

development in Olympic medal winners. Given the 

exploratory nature of the topic, the primary method used was 

in-depth qualitative interviews with questions focused on the 

psychological and emotional attributes and characteristics of 

the athlete, the process by which these attributes develop, and 

the culture supporting this psychological talent development. 

A coach familiar with the athletes full career and a parent, 

guardian or significant other was interviewed as well. The 

additional interviews were used to triangulate themes 

identified by the athletes. Additionally, athletes completed 

psychological assessments of mental skills and attributes 

theorized to be important in the development ofathletic talent 

and performance excellence. 

Psychological Characteristics ofOlympic Champions 

Aaron Moffett, University of North Carolina Greensboro, 


A primary purpose of this study was to determine the 

psychological characteristics and attributes of 10 ofthe United 

States most successful Olympic champions (six females and 

four males). This was accomplished by interviewing the


athletes, one coach who was most familiar with each athlete's 

career, and a parent, guardian, or significant other. To achieve 

this objective, all participants were asked to describe the 

psychological strengths and characteristics of each athlete. 

The interview findings were then content analyzed using a 

three-investigator consensus procedure. In addition to the 

qualitative interview results, the athletes completed a battery 

of psychological inventories designed to identify the 

psychological strengths of each athlete. Descriptive statistics 

were used to examine this data and psychological strengths 

and limitations were determined by examining the magnitude 

of the participant's responses. In cases where elite athlete 

norms existed, participant scores were compared to existing 

norms for elite athletes. The findings identify key 

psychological characteristics (e.g., confidence, ability to cope 

with adversity) and verify current sport psychological 

research on psychological characteristics associated with peak 

performance (Hardy, Jones, & Gould, 1996; Williams & 

Krane, 2(00). They also suggest that adaptive perfectionism 

and high levels of intrinsic motivation are especially 

important. Finally, while results summed over the 10 athletes 

show general patterns relative to previous research, the 

qualitative findings clearly showed that each athlete was 

unique and combined these characteristics in their own 

idiosyncratic ways. 

The Development ofPsychological Talent in Olympic 

Champions 

Kristen Dieffenbach, University of North Carolina 

Greensboro, Greensboro, NC 27412 

While several studies have provided insight into the 

psychological make-up of elite athletes (Orlick & Partington, 

1988; Gould, Eklund, & Jackson, 1992), relatively little is 

understood about factors that facilitate the development ofthe 

psychological make-up that helps these athletes achieve high 

levels of success. This portion ofthe study was designed to 

examine the individuals and experiences that influenced 

Olympic medal winners' psychological development during 

the early years, when they first got involved in the activity, the 

middle years, when they first became serious about their sport 

and engaged in systematic long term training, and the elite or 

later years, when they became World class (Bloom, 1985). Indepth 

interviews were conducted with the Olympians, a coach 

familiar with their development, and a parent, guardian, or 

significant other identified by the athlete in order to explore 

their influences on individual development. Interview 

questions were based on talent research done across a variety 

of domains (Bloom, 1985; Csikszentmihalyi, Rathunde, 

Whalen, & Wong, 1993; Friedman & Rogers, 1998) and 

Snyder's (1999) work on the importance of hope and the 

ability to handle adversity in achieving success. Relative to 

the questions asking what factors influence the psychological 

development of these champion athletes, four major themes 

emerged. These included: coach influence, family influence, 

exposure to high-level athlete models, and personal growth! 

maturity. Each major theme demonstrated both direct and 

indirect influences on athletes' psychological development. 

22 

Results are discussed relative to previous talent development 

research and implications for practice derived. 


Champions: General Discussion, Practical 

Implications, and Future Research Directions 

Daniel Gould, University of North Carolina Greensboro, 


This colloquium discussed an in-depth investigation designed 

to examine the process ofpsychological talent development in 

Olympic medal winning athletes. Previous research on 

psychological characteristics of successful athletes (Hardy, 

Jones, & Gould, 1996; Orlick & Partington, 1988; Williams & 

Krane, 2(00) was supported in that the ability to cope with 

and control anxiety, confidence, the ability to concentrate and 

block out distractions, competitiveness, high levels ofintrinsic 

motivation, hard work ethic, and the ability to set and achieve 

goals were found to characterize these champions. In addition, 

high trait hope (the ability to begin and continue along 

selected goal pathways) and adaptive versus maladaptive 

perfectionism (Rice & Mirzadeh, 2(00) were new variables 

identified as important. It was also found that four major 

categories offactors influenced these athletes' psychological 

talent development. These factors included coaches, family, 

exposure to high-level athlete models, and personal growth! 

maturity. These results support earlier work (e.g., Bloom, 

1985; Csikszentmihalyi et al., 1993) and clearly show that 

talent development is a long-term process that involves both 

the talented person and a strong support system. However, 

while sport psychology researchers have focused considerable 

attention on psychological skills training, the influence of 

family and coaches has been less well considered. Thus, 

coaching, sport parenting, and sport psychological consulting 

implications of these findings will be discussed. Additionally, 

the study's strengths and weaknesses will be addressed in the 

interpretation ofthese findings. 

Failures ofMental Control andAttempts to Self 

Regulate in Sport 

Peter Giacobbi, ChristopherJanelle, Robert Singer, University 

of Florida, USA 

The purpose of this symposium is to elaborate on the 

conditions under which mental control is likely to falter, and 

to provide recommendations for improvement in mental 

control based on contemporary empirical work in the areas of 

self-regulation and coping. The theory ofironic processes of 

mental control will provide the conceptual framework for the 

first part ofthe discussion. According to the theory, the 

imposition of cognitive loads leads to an increased tendency 

to think, feel, and behave in ways that are often completely 

opposite of intent. Efforts to overcome these dysfunctional 

states may result in overly exaggerated corrective adaptations 

that lead to equally ineffective responses. Following this 

discussion, current views concerning the interaction of 

individual differences and situational considerations that 

mediate the coping responses of athletes will be presented. A

primary emphasis will be on the importance of considering 

the athlete's personality as it interacts with the competitive 

sport environment. Finally, a review of modem notions 

regarding the attainment of automaticity and the capability of 

maintaining an automatic performance state in self-paced 

tasks will be presented. Empirical research over the past 15 

years supporting the effectiveness of Singer's (1988; 2000) 

Five Step Strategy will be reviewed. Highlighted will be the 

effectiveness of the strategy in optimizing many of the selfregulatory 

skills required for peak performance. The 

symposium will close by offering practical recommendations 

concerning the need to create awareness ofinstances when 

mental control will fail, as well as what strategies to employ to 

overcome these failures. 

Failures ofMental Control: Ironic Processes and 

Overcompensation 

Christopher M. Janelle, Peter R. Giacobbi, Robert Singer, 

University of Florida, USA 

Despite efforts to self-regulate and maintain an optimal 

performance state, even the most accomplished athletes 

occasionally fail, with many of these failures attributable to 

breakdowns in mental control. Of interest here will be a 

discussion of typical failures in mental control, with the 

primary emphasis on describing the conditions under which 

athletes are more prone to fail. The theory of ironic processes 

of mental control (Wegner, 1989, 1994, 1997) will provide a 

conceptual framework to guide much of the discussion. 

According to the theory, failures in mental control are more 

likely when cognitive loads (in the form of information, 

emotions, and distractions), consume attentional resources 

while ironically accentuating affective, cognitive, and 

behavioral states that are inconsistent, and oftentimes 

opposite, of intent. As a result, performers find themselves 

thinking, acting, and feeling in dysfunctional ways, and 

attempts at recovery often prolong the negative or detrimental 

state.Alternatively, efforts are made to overcome these 

maladaptive states through an overemphasis on compensatory 

behaviors; potentially resulting in overly exaggerated 

corrective adjustments that lead to equally ineffective 

responses. Highlighted will be the internal (cognitive and 

emotional) and external (environmental) loads that may 

predispose performers to these failures. Likewise, 

recommendations will be provided for how to deal with 

internaland external loads to minimize their potential negative 

impact. 

TheAthlete in Context: Personality and Situational 

Determinants ofCoping Responses 

Christopher M. Janelle, Peter R. Giacobbi, Robert N. Singer, 


Although sport psychology research continues to provide 

important information, recent theoretical discussions in the 

general psychology literature have questioned the practical 

utility of much of the stress/coping research literature 

(Somerfield & McCrae, 2000). Gould (1995) and Smith 

23 


(1999) made similar arguments about teaching coping skills to 

athletes. In addition, it seems likely that temporal and sportspecific 

challenges influence the effectiveness of an athlete's 

coping responses. The demands of self-paced tasks (e.g., 

hitting a golf ball) are much different from the challenges of 

continuous, externally paced or timed events (e.g., swimming 

a relay) and require different types of cognitive and behavioral 

responses under stressful circumstances. Therefore, sport 

psychologists are faced with enormous challenges when 

making recommendations regarding how to cope with stress. 

It is unlikely that relaxation techniques will be effective with a 

highly anxious individual or during externally paced sport 

events but rather, positive reinterpretation and self-talk 

strategies may be more appropriate since these skills are more 

easily transferred to performance contexts. Other skills, like 

hitting a golfball, offer the performer more time to implement 

physical relaxation skills and may be more appropriate for use 

by some athletes. The present discussion will focus on specific 

recommendations that are suggested from both empirical and 

theoretical work in the sport and general psychology 

literature. Of particular concern will be how sport 

psychologists can account for an athlete's personality as well 

as the demands of specific performance contexts when 

intervening to help athletes cope with stress. 

Self-Regulation and the AttainmentofAutomaticity in 

Performing Self-Paced Events 

Robert Singer, University of Florida, USA 

To execute flawlessly and automatically in a situation is the 

goal of any serious competitive athlete. Automaticity suggests 

non-conscious attention to the act itself while executing, and 

not being aware of and therefore vulnerable to external and 

internal distractors. Self-paced sports (e.g., bowling, golf) and 

events in sports (e.g., serving in tennis, free-throw shooting in 

basketball) allow time to prepare to perform in a stable and 

predictable situation. Performance outcome is measured 

easily and accurately. In more recent years, cognitive, 

behavioral, and psychophysiological measures associated 

with developing and realizing proficiency in such acts have 

been increasingly identified. The acquisition of skill as well as 

the nature of expertise are of interest. Many themes associated 

with these topics appear in the scholarly literature: conscious 

vs. non-conscious, controlled vs. automatic, voluntary vs. 

involuntary, explicit vs. implicit, systematic vs. heuristic, 

willed vs. non-willed, aware vs. non-aware, internal vs. 

externally-oriented, and intentional vs. unintentional 

behaviors. Implications are being made about ways to 

influence the learning process by modeling expertise 

behaviors, as well as enhancing the performance of high-level 

athletes. Ofparticular importance is the immediate preperformance 

and during-performance routine that serves as a 

mechanism for self-regulation of arousal level, thoughts, 

performance expectancy, and attentional focus. The Five-step 

Strategy (e.g., Singer, 2000) that contains five components 

(readying, imagery, focusing attention on an external cue, 

executing with a quiet mind, and evaluating if time permits) is 

an example of such a routine.


Changing the Way We View OurAthletes: Diversifying 

Sport Psychology Through Cultural Studies 

Leslee A. Fisher, Noah Gentner, Emily Roper, Ted McGraw, 

Melissa McMaster, Ashwin Patel, Dan Czech, University of 

Tennessee; Ted Butryn, San Jose State University, USA 

Very little research has applied the cultural studies paradigm 

to the field of sport psychology - most of the research is 

sociological in nature (Hall, 1996). Such a model does exist at 

the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, where the sport 

psychology program is housed within the cultural studies unit. 

Many courses and seminars within the program focus on the 

interaction of sport, psychology, and culture. The purpose of 

this symposium is to introduce participants to the cultural 

studies framework as applied to sport psychology research 

and practice. The following topics will be discussed: 1) how 

does one do applied sport psychology within a cultural studies 

framework? 2) feminist cultural studies; 3) homophobia and 

sexual orientation within the sport context; 4) whiteness and 

deconstructing white privilege; 5) ethnicity and cultural 

identity; 6) the importance of understanding religious 

subcultures in sport; and 7) athletes as agents for social 

change. We will also highlight the importance of praxis - the 

integration of theory, research and practice that serves as a 

link between academia and applied work. Moreover, we 

challenge those within the field to consider ways in which 

they produce knowledge that is valuable to those outside of 

academia and how such knowledge can be used to promote 

social change. 

Diversifying Sport Psychology Through Cultural 

Studies 

Noah Gentner, University of Tennessee, USA 

According to Martens, Mobley, and Zizzi (2000) there is 

currently little emphasis placed on training Sport 

Psychologists to provide culturally appropriate and sensitive 

applied services for multicultural populations. Additionally, 

this problem may be compounded by the predominance of 

white, male, middle-class professionals within the field of 

Sport Psychology (Rotella & Lee, 1991). In order to best 

serve our athletes, we must learn to integrate our knowledge 

ofSport Psychology with knowledge of multiculturalism and 

social justice issues; this means taking into account how class, 

race, ethnicity, sexual orientation and religious beliefs shape 

individuals. One such program Sport Psychology in Cultural 

Studies at the University of Tennessee - provides us with a 

model that helps students analyze culture and the social 

practices of individuals and groups. Applied to sport, such a 

cultural studies perspective challenges and critiques existing 

sport norms and practices and how they impact sport 

participants (Hall, 1996). This knowledge can help us better 

serve athletes from a variety of cultures and subcultures. The 

purpose of this paper is to examine this critical relationship 

between cultural studies and Sport Psychology, provide 

students and professionals with perspectives on the impact 

that cultural studies can have on Sport Psychology practice, 

and discuss how the University of Tennessee program is 

24 i 

structured. Additionally, I discuss obstacles that consultants 

may face in their attempts to become more socially conscious. 


Studies 

Emily Roper, University of Tennessee, USA 

How does gender analysis contribute to understanding the 

culture? How does gender reproduce gender inequality? How 

do we go about changing forms and practices of power and 

inequality? These questions, adapted from Hall (1996) will be 

explored in the context of sport and exercise psychology. 

Additionally, I will address the 'herstory' of feminist cultural 

studies, its definition(s) and meanings, and its application and 

place in sport psychological research and practice. More 

specifically, I will initially examine the sport research which 

has integrated a feminist cultural studies perspective, most of 

which is sociological in nature (Hall, 1996). While there are 

few overtly feminist studies in our sport psychology literature 

(Fisher & Bredemeier, 2000; Gill, 1994; Krane, 1994; Roper, 

in press), I will discuss the implications of a feminist cultural 

studies perspective on the psychological exploration of 

gender. Such a presentation may be of particular relevance to 

sport and exercise psychology researchers and practitioners 

whose goal is to investigate the role of sport and culture in the 

reproduction of gender inequality and work to change the 

forms and practices of power and inequality which exist in 

sport. 


Studies 

Ted McGraw, University of Tennessee, USA 

Homophobia will be presented as an issue that sport 

psychology professionals need to understand. Sport Sociology 

research suggests that homophobia is used in our maledominant 

society as a means of maintaining male and female 

sexual stereotypes. This presentation will bring this research 

into applied sport psychology and argue that everyone will 

benefit from the eradication of homophobia. Homophobia will 

be defined as an irrational fear or hatred of lesbians or gay 

men, which leads to discrimination. In addition, the effect 

homophobia has on sport will be examined. Irrational 

stereotypes of lesbians and gay men will be critically analyzed 

to show that they all stem from sexist propaganda meant to 

maintain certain gender roles. Throughout American history, 

sport has been a male dominated sphere. In the last thirty 

years, female athletes have made great strides to overcome the 

anti-feminine stigma of sport. This presentation will offer 

homophobia as a specific tool used to keep women from 

advancing further in sport. In addition, homophobia's effect 

on all athletes, coaches, researchers, and consultants will be 

examined. In keeping with the Association for the 

Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology's (AAASP) goal 

of enhancing well-being and personal development, it will be 

argued that all sport psychology professionals should take the 

time to question their own beliefs about sexual orientation to 

ensure that they do not counteract with AAASP's goals.

Ultimately, lesbian and gay issues cannot be explored or 

understood in isolation from gender, race, ethnicity, and 

religion. As a result, it will be contended that cultural studies 

offers a powerful and effective framework to examine 

homophobia in sport. 


Studies 

Melissa McMaster, University ofTennessee, USA 

What is whiteness and white privilege? How do we 

deconstruct white privilege? What is our role in understanding 

these issues as practicing sport psychology professionals? 

These questions will be examined in the context of sport 

psychology application. Whiteness and white privilege will be 

presented as two issues that sport psychology professionals 

need to be aware of. Deconstructing our own white privilege 

is very important to sport psychology professionals who are 

white. Specifically within the presentation, I will define 

whiteness (Frankenburg, 1998; Kincheloe & Steinberg, 1998) 

and white privilege (McIntosh, 1989; Rains, 1998) and 

address some ways of deconstructing white privilege (Rains, 

1998). Lastly, I will discuss our role in understanding these 

issues as practicing sport psychology professionals using 

current research. Within this discussion, I will reference the 

Association for the Advancement ofApplied Sport 

Psychology (AAASP) Ethical Guidelines presented by Sachs 

(1993), the American Psychological Association (APA) 

Ethical Principals (1992), research done by Martens, Mobley 

and Zizzi (2000) on Multicultural Training in Applied Sport 

Psychology and other research conducted on multicultural 

athletes and multicultural counseling. In sport, as in society at 

large, we encounter individuals with a diverse array of 

demographic characteristics, including race. Many of the 

athletes sport psychology professionals will work with will 

come from multicultural backgrounds. Ultimately, it is 

beneficial to the sport psychology professional from the 

standpoint ofboth ethics and competence, to be 

knowledgeable and sensitive to these diversity issues relevant 

to race (Sachs, 1993). 


Studies 

Ashwin Patel, University of Tennessee, USA 

In our extremely race-conscious society, all minority athletes 

enter the sports arena burdened with a certain racial-ethnic 

baggage (Harry Edwards, 1973). Ethnicity refers to the 

cultural heritage of a particular group based on characteristics 

related to culture and cultural background (Coakley, 1998). 

Unfortunately, one's ethnicity in its relation to sport has not 

been commonly discussed among sport researchers and 

psychologists over the years. In lieu of the increasing number 

of ethnic diversity within athletics the importance of 

understanding the individual's actions in relation to their 

cultural heritage needs to be addressed. In several cases, the 

media and other athletes have failed to understand the 

importance of the actions exhibited by various ethnic athletes. 

25 


To best understand the complexity that are prevalent within 

both ethnicity and sport, a cultural studies approach will be 

implemented as one encompasses the field best and does the 

most comprehensive work if one takes into account multiple 

disciplines (Wright, 1998). What appears to be lacking in the 

sport psychology literature is a systematic examination of 

these ethnic practices within sport. In this paper, I hope to 

discuss some of the issues facing the ethnic athlete. These 

issues will include the use of religious observations, 

celebration practices, and the often problematic responses by 

the media, fans and other athletes when these expressions 

criticize or conflict with what is deemed normal by U.S. 

standards. In doing so, not only do we become better educated 

about cultural studies but we can better understand various 

situations that might help/hinder the athlete and therefore, call 

on us as sport psychologists to assist them. 


Studies 

Dan Czech, University of Tennessee, USA 

Discussing one's faith and observing one's religious practices 

in sport was not very common among athletes in the late 

1970's and early 1980's. Many times, the media as well as 

other athletes ridiculed the religious athlete (Nixon & Fray, 

1996). However, in today's society, many religious athletes 

are turning to faith for answers. From the prayer circles 

performed before and after games, to the spiritual observances 

conducted before and after performances, to the religious 

overtones of a post-game interview, athletes are using 

religious observances as performance enhancement 

techniques. Although the phenomenon of religion is popular 

in today's sport, Eitzen and Sage (1993) point out that very 

little is known about the actual extent to which individual 

athletes use religion in conjunction with their participation. 

What appears to be lacking in the current sport psychology 

literature is a systematic examination of religion in sport. In 

this paper, I hope to discuss some of the issues facing the 

religious athlete. These issues will include the use of religious 

observances, more specifically prayer before, during, or after 

a sporting contest, the large volume of religious sport 

organizations currently on college campuses and in the 

professional ranks, and the conflict between the religious 

identity and the athletic identity. 


Studies 

Ted Butryn, San Jose State University, USA 

In this paper, I explore the general concept of athlete agency 

and empowerment, More specifically, I examine how sport 

psychology consultants and researchers operating within a 

cultural studies framework might reconceptualize or expand 

the notion of working with the 'athlete-as-person' to include a 

consideration of athletes' social consciousness, political 

awareness and democratic engagement. Following sport 

sociologist George Sage's (1993) call for all those within sport 

studies to strive towards greater social justice, I contend that


treating the 'athlete-as-citizen' is a valuable part of a wider 

movement towards an applied field that acknowledges its 

place within the larger sociocultural and political spheres of 

society. I begin by revisiting the spirit of the late athleteactivist 

Jack Scott, focusing on his early thoughts on the social 

role of sport psychology, and attempt to weave in more recent 

writings of sport critic Murray Sperber (2000), who offers 

some useful commentary on contemporary athletes and their 

awareness and understanding ofpolitics. I also sketch out the 

arguments for and against sport as a public, rather than a 

private, practice, and the tensions between athlete's rights to 

individual expression and their obligations to team and other 

communities. Finally, I highlight the results of a qualitative 

investigation of intercollegiate athletes' perceptions and 

experiences ofpolitics and power within and outside of sport, 

and conclude with practical suggestions for AAASP members 

interested in undertaking this endeavor of 'blurring the 

boundaries' between our roles as professionals and social 

activists. 

Group Dynamics: Research to Practice 

Albert V. Carron, Michelle M. Colman, MarkA. Eys, Todd M. 

Loughead, University ofWestern Ontario, Canada 

A half a century ago, Kurt Lewin (1951) argued that "there is 

nothing so practical as a good theory" (p. 81). Subsequently, 

writers in both social psychology (e.g., Fisher, 1980) and sport 

and exercise psychology (e.g., Carron, 1993) have echoed this 

theme-- interventions should be based on theory and/or the 

findings from research. The general purpose ofthis seminar is 

to outline how we have attempted to use group dynamics 

research and theory to implement group-oriented 

interventions. Our symposium is comprised of five individual 

presentations. The first presentation outlines the group 

dynamics bases for the various interventions. In the second 

presentation, research that has focused on team norms is 

discussed and then an intervention program that has as its 

objective the establishment of positive team norms is 

introduced. In the third presentation, research is introduced 

that has focused on role ambiguity and then an intervention 

program that has as its objective the establishment of role 

clarity is outlined. In the fourth presentation, research that has 

focused on coaching behaviors is summarized and then an 

intervention program that has as its objective the 

establishment of optimal coach behavior is outlined. In the 

fifth and final presentation, research on goal setting is 

summarized and then an intervention program based on that 

research is outlined. 

Team Norms: Research to Practice 

Michelle M. Colman, University of Western Ontario, Canada 

The general purpose of this presentation is to outline a team 

norm intervention program based on theory and research. 

Specifically, the nature of team norms in sport is described, 

the theory and research used to guide the development of the 

team norm intervention program is provided, and the details 

of the team norm intervention program are discussed. Group 

26 

norms represent the standards for behavior that are expected 

of group members (Carron & Hausenblas, 1998). In a 

comprehensive study by Munroe, Estabrooks, Dennis & 

Carron (1999), it was determined that sport teams develop an 

extensive set of group norms (e.g. norm for attendance, norm 

for productivity) in different contexts. Research examining the 

relationship between team norms and group effectiveness, has 

primarily focused on the norm for productivity (Kim, 1995, 

1992; Prapavessis & Carron, 1997). That research has 

demonstrated that the norm for productivity is positively 

associated with team cohesion and team success. Furthermore 

research examining cohesion and conformity to team norms 

has found when cohesion is higher, conformity to team norms 

is greater (Prapavessis & Carron, 1997; Shields, Bredemeier, 

Gardner & Boston; 1995). An intervention program is 

introduced based on guidelines for the establishment and 

support of group norms (Johnson, 1970). The guidelines 

suggest that for members to accept group norms, they must 

recognize that they exist, understand their relevance to the 

group's task, and see other members conform to them. The 

intervention program will assist coaches and/or practitioners 

to develop positive team norms, and establish appropriate 

sanctions for nonconformity. 

Role Ambiguity: Research to Practice 

Mark A. Eys, University ofWestern Ontario, Canada 

The general purpose of this presentation is to outline an 

intervention program based on theory and research to reduce 

role ambiguity in sport. One specific purpose is to outline the 

conceptualization ofrole ambiguity in a sport setting. Another 

is to provide an overview ofresearch and theory used to 

develop the role ambiguity intervention strategies. A third is to 

describe the specifics of the program. Role ambiguity has 

been defined as the lack of clear, consistent information 

regarding the actions associated with a particular position 

(Kahn et al, 1964). Role ambiguity is conceptualized as a 

multidimensional construct comprised offour components: 

scope ofresponsibilities, behavioural responsibilities, 

evaluation of performance, and consequence of not fulfilling 

responsibilities. In a sport domain, where anecdotal testimony 

provides evidence for the importance of the development, 

communication, and understanding ofroles, only a limited 

number of studies have examined role ambiguity (i.e., Bray, 

1998; Eys & Carron, 2001; Grand & Carron, 1982). Two 

studies (Eys & Carron, 2001; Grand & Carron, 1982) have 

found a negative relationship between role ambiguity and 

individual perceptions oftask cohesion Consequently, for the 

coach trying to work on the development ofteam cohesion (an 

important variable in the team's performance), the clear 

communication of role responsibilities to his or her players is 

an important component ofthis endeavour. A role ambiguity 

intervention program is introduced that is based on theory and 

research. This intervention program is comprised ofthree 

techniques to reduce an individual's perception of role 

ambiguity.

Coaching Behaviors: Research to Practice 

Todd M. Loughead, University of Westem Ontario, Canada 

The general purpose of this presentation is to outline a 

coaching behavior intervention program based on theory and 

research. One specific purpose is to outline the nature of 

coaching behaviors in sport. The second is to provide an 

overview of the theory and research used to guide in the 

development of a coach behavior modification program. The 

final purpose is to describe the specifics of the program. 

Leadership can be defined as "a process whereby an 

individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a 

common goal" (Northouse, 2001, p. 3). Chelladurai and Saleh 

(1980) identified five dimensions ofleader behavior (e.g., 

training and instruction, democratic behavior, autocratic 

behavior, social support, and positive feedback) that influence 

athletic performance and satisfaction. Research also shows 

that coaching behavior also influences team. Specifically, 

coaches who are perceived by athletes as displaying the 

behaviors oftraining and instruction, social support, 

democratic behavior, and positive feedback have teams that 

are more cohesive (Gardner et aI., 1996; Pease & Kozub, 

1994;Westre & Weiss, 1991). An intervention program 

designed to increase team cohesion through the mediating 

effect of coaching behavior is introduced. This intervention 

program is based on two behavioral modification techniques: 

behavioral feedback and self-monitoring. 

Team Goal Setting: Research to Practice 

Albert V. Carron, University of Westem Ontario, Canada 

The general purpose ofthis presentation is to outline a team 

goal-setting program based on theory and research. One 

specificpurpose emanating from this general purpose is to 

outlinethe nature of team goal setting in sport. Another is to 

providean overview of theory and research used to guide the 

development of a team goal-setting program. A third is to 

describethe specifics of the program. A group goal is a "future 

stateof affairs desired by enough members of a group to 

motivate the group to work toward its achievement" (Johnson 

& Johnson, 1987, p. 132). Group and individual goals differ in 

theirnature, antecedents and consequences (e.g., Carron & 

Colman,2000). Research supports five generalizations about 

groupgoal setting: (1) group goals are superior to individual 

goalsfor team success, (2) athlete participation in team 

decision-makingis positively associated with increased task 

cohesiveness, goal influence, goal clarity, and more effective 

performance, (3) team goals should be set in specific 

behavioral terms, (4) a team goal setting program should 

combine short and long term goals, (5) support from the 

coach/manageris essential for team goal setting effectiveness. 

A team-goalsetting intervention program is introduced that is 

basedon these five generalizations. 

27 


The Influence ofthe Singapore Sports Council on Sport 

Psychology Interventions, Education, andResearch in a 

Small SoutheastAsian Country 

Daniel Smith & Ang Yen, Physical Education and Sport 

Science, National Institute of Education, Nanyang 

Technological University, Lai Fook Fatt Stevenson, Center for 

Mental Training, Singapore Sports Council, David Shepherd, 

United World College of Southeast Asia, Singapore 

The Singapore Sports Council (SSC) was formed in 1973. 

This symposium focuses on the influence generated by the 

SSC on sport psychology intervention programs, education 

for coaches, and on research support. The first presenter 

discusses the organization and development of the Center for 

Mental Training (CMT) in 1998. Specific mental training 

techniques utilized at the Southeast Asian Games and at the 

Olympics will be discussed. The SSC also promotes the 

education of coaches through their National Coaching 

Accreditation Program (NCAP). The NCAP offers courses 

initially at three levels of certification, theory, technical 

aspects, and a coaching attachment. The Elite Performance 

Level (EPL) course, with a strong sport psychology 

component, is designed for coaches who have completed level 

three. The specific sport psychology curriculum taught in 

these programs will be emphasized. The following research 

project was supported by the SSe. Fifty to 100 participants 

were surveyed at regional fitness centers, using the Social 

Physique Anxiety Scale (Hart, Leary, & Rejeski, 1989). 

Exercise adherence was tracked over twelve lessons. The 

relationship between the independent variable (social 

physique anxiety level) and the dependent variable (exercise 

adherence was measured. Results will be presented at the 

conference. This is the first such study done with Asians and 

the implications ofthe findings will be of interest for crosscultural 

comparison with previous North American research. 

The Influence ofthe Singapore Sports Council on the 

Application ofPsychological Skills Training Programs 

with Elite Athletes 

Lai Fook Fatt Stevenson, Center for Mental Training, 

Singapore Sports Council, & Daniel Smith, National Institute 

of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. 

Since its' inception, in 1973, the Singapore Sports Council 

(SSC) has always promoted performance enhancement with 

their various national team athletes. The purpose ofthis 

presentation is to discuss how the concept ofpsychological 

skills training has grown and what specific techniques are 

currently being utilized. Today two full-time and several parttime 

sport psychologists are employed in the Center for 

Mental Training (CMT). They implement various group 

interventions with national teams and provide counseling for 

individual athletes. One current project involves the use of 

mental training in injury rehabilitation. The CMT also has the 

"Performance Feedback System" and a flotation tank. Various 

software programs like "Think Fast", "Brain Hemisphere", 

and the TAIS are available to the Singapore athletes. The 

CMT is located in the national stadium so it is convenient to


the athletes who train there. The South-east Asian (SEA) 

Games take place every two years. One or two CMT sport 

psychologists travel with the teams to the SEA Games and 

consult with coaches, individual athletes and with teams 

during this competition. One of the CMT sport psychologists 

accompanied the small contingent of Singapore National 

Team Athletes to the Olympic games last year. Specific 

mental training skills utilized at the SEA Games and at the 

Olympics will be discussed in this presentation. 

The Relationship Between Social Physique Anxiety and 

Exercise Adherence in Singapore Sports Council 

Fitness Centers 

Ang Yen & Daniel Smith, School of Physical Education and 

Sport Science, National Institute of Education, Nanyang 

Technological University, Singapore 

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship 

between social physique anxiety and exercise adherence in a 

group of aerobic dance class participants from Singapore 

Sports Council (SSC) regional fitness centers, situated in the 

government subsidized housing estates all around the island. 

As part of the national effort to promote healthy living, the 

Singapore government engaged in a multi-million dollars 

project recently to build 12 such neighborhood fitness centers 

to make physical activity accessible and affordable to the 

masses at subsidized rates. The following is an example of an 

exercise psychology research project supported by the SSe. 

Fifty to 100 participants were surveyed from these centers 

using the Social Physique Anxiety Scale (Hart, Leary & 

Rejeski, 1989). Exercise adherence was tracked over 12 

lessons, either in 6 weeks or 12 weeks, depending on the type 

of course the participants were registered for. As participants 

in aerobic classes are predominantly females and since 

females are known to be more critical and self-conscious 

about their bodies (Cash, 1986; Garner et al. 1980), this study 

focused on women. A simple Pearson coefficient of 

correlation was used to determine the relationship between the 

independent variable, social physique anxiety level, and the 

dependent variable, exercise adherence (as measured by the 

number of lessons they attended). Results will be presented at 

the conference. 

The Influence ofthe Singapore Sports Council on 

Coaching Psychology Educational Programs 

Daniel Smith, School of Physical Education, National 

Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, 

Singapore, Lai Fook Fatt Stevenson, Center for Mental 

Training, Singapore Sports Council, & David Shepherd, 

United World College of Southeast Asia, Singapore 

The Singapore Sports Council (SSC) sponsors the National 

Coaching Accreditation Program (NCAP). It offers courses 

initially at three levels of certification. The courses are geared 

toward coaches of developing and elite athletes and contain 

three main components at each level. These components 

include: theory (general principles of coaching), technical 

(sport skills, techniques and strategies), and a coaching 

28 , 

attachment (internship). Levels one to three certify individuals 

as competent coaches ofschool, community and club sport 

programs. Level one helps coaches understand why athletes 

participate in sport, and prepares them to teach skills and to 

design safe, enjoyable and challenging practices. Level two 

teaches the coaches how to help prepare their athletes for 

competition. Level three completes the training required for 

coaches working with developing athletes by tying the first 

two levels together. The Elite Performance Level (EPL) 

course is designed for coaches who have completed level 

three. It covers topics in physical, psychological, technical 

preparation, season planning, and the treatment and care of 

athletic injuries. The sport psychology component at this 

advanced level is extensive. Coaches are taught how to 

implement imagery training, goal setting, biofeedback, and 

cognitive and somatic precompetitive anxiety regulation. They 

are also taught basic counseling strategies as well as cohesion 

development through team building exercises. 

A Good Theory is the Most Practical Tool in Sport 

Psychology - A Series ofApplied Simulations 

Gershon Tenenbaum, Jamal Bindarwish, Alex Cohen, Jasmin 

Hutchinson, Theresa Johnson, Chisoo Kim, Peter Ormsby, 

David Sacks, Florida State University, USA; Jack Watson, 

University ofWest Virginia, USA 

The presentations in this symposium demonstrate how 

theoretical conceptualizations can link real-life issues and 

behavioral symptoms, which athletes and coaches encounter 

and exhibit in sport-related situations, to establish 

psychological services through which appropriate 

interventions can be constructed. The symposium uses theorypractice 

linkage principles to demonstrate the inherent 

advantages of this approach. It views the client as a system 

within the task-environment milieu. Accordingly, cognitive, 

social, and emotional-behavioral theories are applied to 

specific situations in order to guide the practitioner in shaping 

the sessions and interviews so that appropriate interventions 

are chosen. Four cases are brought to illustrate the utility of 

this scientific-practical approach. The scenarios in the cases 

are as follows: (1) a high school-level cross country runner 

sees a decline in performance despite improved fitness, (2) an 

elite soccer player experiences difficulty functioning with 

teammates, (3) a newly appointed national team member 

doubts her ability to play netball at the elite level, and (4) a 

high jumper presents symptoms consistent with an eating 

disorder. Each of the cases presented in the symposium 

follows identical sequences employed by the practitioners: (a) 

gaining a clear description of the problem, (b) delineating 

observed and unobserved symptoms, (c) selecting a 

conceptual framework to guide sessions, (d) generating 

questions through triangulation of evidence, and (e) 

considering possible solutions and interventions. The need for 

a holistic view of the theory-practice linkage is required to 

stimulate comprehensive and constructive interventions that 

share ecological validity and reliability. The presentations 

within the symposium exemplify such a view.

'They Won't Pass Me the Ball'-A Team Cohesion 

Problem 

Jamal Bindarwish and Chisoo Kim, Florida State University, 

USA 

This hypothetical case study involves a national soccer team 

player complaining of difficulty working with his teammates 

in the field. He expresses confusion regarding his present 

situation, claiming that the other players are not passing him 

the ball. He relates a feeling of being ignored by his 

teammates, which he does not understand. The player has 

approached the team sport psychologist to seek assistance in 

understanding these problems with his teammates. The focus 

of the initial session is on trying to understand the player's 

concerns, feelings, and thoughts regarding the problem. To 

achieve this purpose, Carron's (1982) team effectiveness 

model is utilized as a theoretical frame of reference to guide 

the client-practitioner discussions. This model involves four 

main assessment areas: situational, personal, team, and 

leadership. The sport psychologist, therefore, addresses these 

four areas by asking the player questions concerning role 

clarity,team position satisfaction, interaction with teammates, 

and coach leadership style. Based on the initial information 

collected during this first meeting, the sport psychologist 

decides to conduct further assessments in order to obtain a 

more accurate understanding ofthe client's present 

difficulties, as well as the causes of, and history behind, the 

current problem. The sport psychologist considers, as possible 

activities and interventions, (a) close observation ofthe player 

interacting with his teammates on and offthe field, (b) seeking 

the coach's input on the team cohesion issues discussed by the 

client, (c) group intervention with client and teammates, (d) 

team-building activities/interventions with the players and 

coaching staff. 

Athletes and Eating Disorders: Working with Anorexia 

Nervosa 

Jack Watson, University ofWest Virginia, USA, and Alex 

Cohen, Florida State University, USA 

In this presentation, a high jumper has been referred to the 

universitycounseling center to work with a sport 

psychologist. His coach and team trainer have advised him to 

seek help, as his performance is starting to suffer. The trainer 

suspectsthat the high jumper has an eating disorder. The 

athleteis aware of his eating problem, but doesn't know what 

to do about it. It is interfering with his ability to train, stay 

healthyand injury free, and perform in his event. He is also 

concerned about losing his place on the team and his 

scholarship.The guidelines for outpatient management 

establishedat Northern Illinois University (Hotelling & 

Liston, 1998) describe most modalities for treating eating 

disordersas being individualistic in nature. However, a 

cognitive-behavioral approach will be used to guide this 

interviewand develop a treatment strategy. The general format 

for the questioning and treatment strategy will resemble the 

structure established by Fairburn (1985). Issues of concern 

includerestoration of healthy eating patterns; restoration of 

29 


weight; amelioration of dysfunctional thoughts, feelings, and 

beliefs in order to produce positive feelings and effective and 

healthy behaviors; promotion of the understanding of the 

connections between predisposing, precipitating, and 

perpetuating factors; treatment of deficits in self-concept; 

improvement ofbody image disturbances; prevention of 

relapse; and improvement in associated psychological, family 

and social difficulties (Anderson, 1990). Specific techniques 

will include psycho-education, confrontation, and cognitive 

therapy. A team approach that utilizes psychologists, 

physicians, nutritionists, and trainers will be stressed. 

The RunnerWho Thinks She Can't 

Teresa Johnson and Peter D. Ormsby, Florida State University, 

USA 

Since 'Jill' began running on the varsity high school crosscountry 

team, she has had what it takes to be a captain. 

However, during her second season she and her coach noticed 

that her times and places had been slipping, despite her 

improved fitness level. During practice, she is able to 'hit' all 

intervals on the track and out-run all ofher teammates, as well 

as many of the boys' team members. However, during actual 

races, she 'goes out' conservatively and then tries to pick up 

her pace during the course of the race, at which point she can 

only pick up a few spots. She and her coach know that she can 

run better, and she has expressed great displeasure in the fact 

that she has not been able to do better late in the season, in 

terms of her times, than she did earlier. In fact the times she 

has been achieving during her sophomore season are slower 

than those earned during her freshman year. Using a 

cognitive/behavioral model, our consultant will attempt to 

determine what it is that may be causing the problems that are 

hampering her performance. Questions and statements 

through which the consultant will work will be generated 

through reality therapy. Possible solutions and subsequent 

interventions will also be discussed. 

The Best and Luckiest Player 

Jasmin Hutchinson and David Sacks, Florida State University, 

USA 

In this scenario, Fiona, who was recently named to her 

country's senior national netball team after earning the 'Most 

Valuble Player' award in the junior national tournament, seeks 

assistance from a sport psychologist concerning her confusion 

and discomfort regarding her new status. Fiona reports that 

she has always dreamed ofmaking the senior team, but 

thought she was not quite talented enough. She was surprised 

to receive this recent recognition, believing she was lucky to 

have some breaks go her way. This presenting problem leads 

to several concerns. First, Fiona believes she will disappoint 

her new team and coaches. Second, this client reveals low 

efficacy and motivation to play effectively at the senior level. 

Third, because Fiona finds herselfuncomfortable in a position 

that she has long desired, her identity as a dedicated netball 

player may be threatened. Additionally, her statements 

regarding her 'luck' and 'good fortune' in being named MVP


suggest a problematic attributional style. While not 

discounting the possibility that Fiona is expressing an 

underlying fear of success, the sport psychologist elects to 

employ Weiner's (1979) attribution theory to guide his 

inquiries. During the course of this role play, the practitioner 

queries the client to determine if her attributions represent the 

underlying cause of her present difficulties. In discussing her 

past performances, Fiona reveals a tendency to attribute her 

successes externally, while internalizing her failures. 

Suggestions are offered to help the client move towards more 

internal, controllable attributions for both her present and 

future successes. 

Towards an Understanding ofPerfectionism in Sport: 

Just W hat is it, Where Does it Come From, and What 

Influence Does it Have on Performance andAffect? 

Bervyn P. H. Lee, Nanyang Technological University, 

Singapore; Beverly M. Walker, University ofWollongong, 

Australia; A. M. Haase, R. G. Owens, Harry Prapavessis, 

University ofAuckland, New Zealand; Jim Taylor, Alpine! 

Taylor Consulting, USA; Mark H. Anshel, LGE Performance 

Systems, USA; Hossein Monsouri, Texas Tech University, 

USA 

The study ofperfectionism has received considerable interest 

in recent years, particularly in the fields of clinical and 

counseling psychology. Several significant developments in 

our understanding of the personality disposition include its 

conceptualization as a multidimensional construct and its 

relationship with both positive (e.g., achievement orientation) 

and negative (e.g., obsessive-compulsive tendencies) 

behavioural patterns. In sport, research has linked 

perfectionism with burnout, achievement goals, anxiety, and 

reactions to mistakes in competition. However, there is still 

much we do not know and this symposium aims to address 

some critical issues raised in current research, as well as 

present perspectives from applied sport psychology. The first 

presentation examines perfectionism in the light of whether it 

is a domain-specific or global personality construct. Results 

yielded significant differences between five domains of work, 

relationships, physical activity, domestic environment, and 

appearance, which suggest that perfectionist behaviours might 

be domain-specific. The second and third presentations 

discuss perceived sources of perfectionism, from the 

perspectives of criterion-selected perfectionist athletes and a 

sport psychologist consultant, respectively. Specifically, 

parents, society, and the nature of certain sports have been 

identified as possible contributors of perfectionistic thinking 

and attitudes. Finally, the fourth presentation will focus on a 

study that examined the influence of perfectionism on affect, 

motor performance, and attributions in response to critical 

feedback. Results revealed that perfectionism is a mediator of 

motor performance and selected cognitions and emotions in 

response to critical feedback. 

30 

Positive and Negative Perfectionism in Elite Athletes: 

Domain-Specific or Global Construct? 

A. M. Haase, R. G. Owens, and Harry Prapavessis, University 

ofAuckland, New Zealand 

The aim of the study was to conduct a preliminary assessment 

of Positive and Negative Perfectionism across five domains 

within 40 elite athletes. Five different domains were 

examined; work, relationships, physical activity, domestic 

environment and appearance. Participants completed a 

reduced form of the Positive and Negative Perfectionism 

Scale for each of the five domains. An ANOYA showed that 

there was a significant difference between Positive 

Perfectionism (F(4,184) =15.07, P < 0.(01) and Negative 

Perfectionism (F(4,184) =6.45, P< 0.(01) among groups. For 

Positive Perfectionism, post-hoc Tukey's tests identified 

significant differences (p < 0.(01) between the work domain 

and relationships, domestic environment and appearance 

domains for Positive Perfectionism. In addition, the physical 

domain was also significantly higher (p < 0.(01) than the 

relationships, domestic environment and appearance domains 

for Positive Perfectionism. For Negative Perfectionism, posthoc 

tests identified significant differences (p < 0.05) between 

the work domain and the domestic environment domain. In 

addition, the physical domain was also significantly higher (p 

< 0.(01) than the relationships, domestic environment and 

appearance domains for Negative Perfectionism. These 

findings have implications for the conceptualisation of a 

domain-specific perfectionism as a personality characteristic 

or style of behaviour. 

Perceived Sources and Contributing Factors to the 

Development ofPerfectionism: Perspectives of 

Criterion-selected Perfectionist Athletes 

Bervyn P. H. Lee, Nanyang Technological University, 

Singapore; and Beverly M. Walker, University of 

Wollongong, Australia 

The psychological literature on perfectionism has identified 

parents and societal influences as being possible sources and 

contributors to the development of perfectionistic thinking 

and attitudes. For example, an authoritarian parenting style 

where parents are punitive, restrictive and controlling, has 

been associated with neurotic perfectionism (Flett, Hewitt, 

and Singer, 1995). Further, it has been suggested that 

perfectionism is often facilitated by an achievement-oriented 

society (Ferguson and Rodway, 1994). In competitive sport, 

such an achievement-orientation is apparent, yet little is 

known of who, how or what may contribute to the 

development of perfectionist tendencies among such athletes. 

This study examines the sources and contributing factors of 

perfectionism from the viewpoint of criterion-selected 

perfectionist athletes. Nine perfectionist athletes were selected 

based on two criteria. First, the athletes scored within the 90th 

percentile (from a larger group of 298 athletes) on the total 

score of the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale 

(Frost, Marten, Lahart, and Rosenblate, 1990). Second, the 

athletes agreed to a description of perfectionism as an

accurate portrayal of themselves. Semi-structured interviews 

were conducted, recorded, and transcribed verbatim. 

Independent analysts adopted inductive content analysis 

procedures (Patton, 1990), which yielded a total of 40 raw 

data themes. From the themes, 14 higher order themes 

emerged, clustering to reflect eight possible sources and 

contributors to the development of perfectionistic tendencies 

in sport. These included parents, coaches, the nature of the 

sport, God, significant others, and previous successes. 

The Causes and Development ofPerfectionism: A 

Consultant's Perspective 

Jim Taylor, Alpineffaylor Consulting, USA 

This presentation will focus on the causes of perfectionism 

and how it develops in young people from the perspective of a 

sport psychology consultant. Emphasis will be placed on three 

areas that contribute to the emergence of perfectionism in 

children. First, the role of parents in instilling perfectionistic 

qualities in their children will be explored. Issues that will be 

addressed include self-esteem, conditional love, bottom-line 

parenting, inappropriate expectations, and unhealthy praise 

and punishment. How parents can counter and retrain 

perfectionistic attitudes and behavior in their children will 

also be considered. Second, the presentation will examine the 

impact that society has on the development ofperfectionism 

in children. Topics to be looked at include narrow definitions 

of success and failure, unrealistic images of success, and the 

ubiquitous and unrelenting force of society on children 

through the diverse media. Finally, the presentation will 

consider children themselves in terms of how they internalize 

the destructive perfectionistic attitudes, make these unhealthy 

beliefs their own, and perpetuate them above and beyond the 

influence of their parents and society. 

The Influence ofPerfectionism on Motor Performance, 

Affect, and Causal Attributions in Response to Critical 

Verbal Feedback 

Mark H. Anshel, LGE Performance Systems, USA; and 

Hossein Monsouri, Texas Tech University, USA 

The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to 

which high and low perfectionists differed on their quality of 

motor performance (a total body balancing task), positive and 

negative affect, and causal attributions explaining the causes 

of failure outcomes in response to critical verbal feedback. 

Participants (N =27) were categorized as high and low 

perfectionists and performed 30 trials ofthe balancing task 

under either oftwo conditions, receiving critical feedback or 

no feedback. A 2 (conditions) x 2 (high and low 

perfectionism) MANOVA with repeated measures on the first 

factor was computed using the total perfectionism score and 

positive and negative affect (difference scores) as dependent 

variables. Results indicated a significant main effect (p< .01). 

For the total perfectionism score, the performance of high 

perfectionists was, in fact, superior under the critical feedback 

conditions than for low perfectionists (p< .0I). In addition, 

high perfectionists revealed greater negative affect under the 

31 


critical feedback condition, while no other group differences 

on affect were found. A second 2 x 2 repeated measures 

MANOYA, comparing groups and conditions on the four 

attribution scores (attributing outcomes to ability, effort, task 

difficulty, or luck), revealed that high perfectionists, as 

compared to low perfectionists, attributed failure to low ability 

(p< .00 I). However, no group differences were found under 

the control condition (P> .05). It was concluded that 

perfectionism is a significant mediator of motor performance 

and selected cognitions and emotions in response to critical 

conditions. Implications for coaching and consulting with 

athletes, exercisers, and rehabilitation patients will be 

discussed. 

Theory to Practice: Experiences ofProviding 

Psychological Support To a Range ofHigh-level 

Performers 

Tara Edwards, Sports Council for Wales, UK; Nichola Callow, 

University of Wales, UK; Alison White, and Lynne Evans, 

Strathclyde University, UK 

Despite the major developments in sport psychology over the 

past two decades, there remains a dearth of published 

intervention and case studies that focus on the application of 

such theoretical advancements to various sporting contexts. It 

is the purpose of this symposium to provide examples of good 

practice, that is, theoretically underpinned interventions that 

draw on the research developments. Each presentation 

provides an insight into the integration of theory to practice 

across a range of sports and sporting contexts. Although there 

are a number of similarities in the presentations, for example, 

gaining entry, building rapport, equal expertise, and 

communication issues (Orlick, 1990; Ravizza, 1993), 

differences are also evident due to the unique nature of the 

sports. The presenters explore various aspects of the 

psychological support they provided for: an individual 

competitor; a squad of individual competitors; a squad of 

individual and team competitors; and a team sport squad. 

Each presentation outlines the challenges presented to the 

sport psychologist, and the strengths and limitations in 

providing psychological support. More specifically, the 

different aspects addressed include; preparing competitors for 

their first Olympics; adapting mental skills for high level nine 

to 13 year olds; communication issues for teams that include 

competitors whose ages range from 12 to 32; and issues in 

providing support to an amateur National team. Implications 

are drawn from the cases examined that may serve to facilitate 

and guide best practice. 


Psychological Support To an Elite Level Racket Sport 

Player 

Tara Edwards, Sports Council for Wales, UK 

This presentation examines the provision of psychological 

support to an individual elite competitor over a four-year 

period. The support began when the player was competing 

internationally as a junior (age 17) and has continued through

Association for the AdvancementofApplied Sport Psychology 

to his more recent achievements of reaching the Top lOin the 

World. The support process involved a period to gaining entry 

(Ravizza, 1993) with the national squad. Once the sport 

psychologist was accepted a workshop was conducted which 

provided an overview of sport psychology, followed by a 

performance profiling (Butler, 1989; Butler & Hardy, 1992; 

Kelly, 1955) brainstorming session. The players then had the 

option to pursue individual support voluntarily. The individual 

presented in this case study subsequently sought further 

support. In the early stages the underpinning model of equal 

expertise between the player, sport psychologist, and coach 

was reinforced. The performance profile formed the basis of 

the support and has continued to be the basis for identifying 

and improving very specific skills (mental, physical, tactical, 

and technical), and thus provides the foundation for goal 

setting. Specific areas that have been addressed include the 

fundamental mental skills of awareness training, 

concentration, coping with stressful events, building 

confidence, and visualisation; in addition to other 

psychological support for overcoming a serious injury and 

communication skills. Conscious processing (Masters, 1992) 

and self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977) theories are presented in 

terms oftheir specific application to the interventions 

appropriate to this performer. Some of the barriers and 

limitations experienced are also addressed. 


Psychological Support to High Level 9 to 13 Year Old 

Competitors 

Nichola Callow, University ofWales, Bangor, UK 

This presentation examines the psychological support 

provided to a squad of high level young sailors since 1998. A 

cognitive behavioural approach is discussed with respect to 

the delivery of mental skills education during workshops 

conducted at training weekends. Specific reference is made to 

the basic mental skill of imagery (Hardy & Jones, 1990), and 

the significance of integrating learning from mental skills 

workshops into physical training sessions. Consideration is 

given to the importance ofclearly explaining the concepts 

behind the skills, and that the skills themselves are taught, 

adapted, simplified, and communicated in a language that 

young competitors can understand (Orlick & MacCaffrey, 

1991). Furthermore, it is stressed that the skills are developed 

in a psychologically healthy environment (Weiss, 1991) that is 

sensitive to the competitors developing self-esteem (Harter, 

1988). It is recognised that the role of a sport psychologist 

working with young competitors is largely educational (Hardy 

& Parfitt, 1994). However, a model of equal expertise between 

the competitor, coach, and sport psychologist is stilI 

advocated, along with the inclusion of individual 

consultations based on the performers' perceived needs 

(Butler & Hardy, 1992). In addition, reference is made to the 

importance of educating and soliciting parents, so that they 

are in a position to reinforce the mental skills being taught 

(Orlick & MacCaffrey 1991), and provide the appropriate 

type of support needed (if any) by the competitor (Rees & 

Hardy, 2000; Rook, 1992). 

32 

Theory into Practice: Experiences ofProviding 

Psychological Support To an Elite Sports Acrobatic 

Gymnastics Squad 

Alison White, Strathclyde University, Scotland, UK. 

The provision of psychological support to a sport involving 

both individual and team performers presents a number of 

challenges, particularly when athletes aged 12 to 32 perform 

in the same team. Hardy and Parfitt (1994) described how 

psychological support to a national gymnastics squad evolved 

over a ten-year period from a traditional expert approach to an 

equal expertise approach. This change of approach was 

attributed to the changing nature of support required and the 

variety of roles adopted by the sport psychologist. This 

presentation describes the delivery of psychological support to 

an elite sports acrobatic gymnastics squad using an equal 

expertise approach. Performance profiling is a technique that 

has been used to gain an understanding of an athlete's or 

coach's perspective on a problem, to create an open 

atmosphere for communication, to facilitate goal setting and 

to enhance team cohesion (Butler, 1989; Butler & Hardy, 

1992; Dale & Wrisberg, 1996). The efficacy of a performance 

profiling technique to explore the unique psychological issues 

associated with sports acrobatic gymnastics, such as 

communication issues, lost moves, group transitions, and 

injuries are presented. The practical limitations of this 

approach, the importance of working with coaches to identify 

sport specific demands, and the need for education programs 

that encourage coaches to implement mental skills training 

within physical practice sessions are also highlighted. 


Psychological Support To an Elite Netball Team 

Lynne Evans, University ofWales Institute, Cardiff, UK. 

Hardy, Jones, and Gould (1996, p. 290) suggested "the 

consulting process is a complex social interaction which 

actively involves athletes and coaches ..." Within a team sport 

environment, in particular, the complexity of the social 

interactions plays an important role in determining the 

approach to the provision ofpsychological support. The 

presentation describes the approach adopted in the provision 

ofpsychological support to an elite amateur sports team. A 

move from a phased model of performance enhancement (cf. 

Boutcher & Rotella, 1987; Thomas, 1990) toward one more 

performer driven is described. Individual choice and 

commitment are essential to enhanced team performance 

(Whitaker, 1999). Performers' identities, value systems, and 

the meaning ofsport and competition playa central role in 

individual choice and commitment (Balague, 1999; Crace & 

Hardy, 1997). The presentation describes the need to establish 

trust and accountability, as building blocks for making 

progress and overcoming a number of psychological barriers 

(cognitive, affective, and behavioral), including those of 

choice and commitment (cf. Giges, 2(00). The practical 

application ofSteiner's theory (1972) of group productivity is 

explored in relation to psychological barriers and process 

losses. In addition, the presentation outlines the variety of

support roles and functions fulfilled (cf. Gardner, 1995, Rees 

& Hardy, 2(00). Finally the presentation includes a personal 

reflection on the success of the two-year programme of 

psychological support, the barriers to progress, and the 

lessons learnt. 

'l'd Do It If They Would!' - Moral Atmosphere and 

Aggression in Sport 

Dawn E. Stephens, Christina Johnson, University of Iowa, 

Iowa City, lA, USA, 52240; Shaharudin Abd. Aziz, Universiti 

Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia; Marta Guivemau, 

University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA, 46556; 

Steven DeVries, Cornell College, Mt. Vernon, lA, USA, 

52314 

Aggression in sport has stimulated considerable theoretical 

and empirical interest. One theoretical approach has been the 

field of moral reasoning and development, based on 

Kohlberg's (1981) theory. Early research in this area utilized a 

micro, or individual approach, where moral behavior was 

examined with respect to an individual's cognitions in terms 

of development of moral reasoning. Later research took a 

macro approach (Higgins, Power, & Kohlberg, 1984) which 

involved the climate or atmosphere ofthe context in which the 

moral behavior took place. Moral atmosphere, or group 

norms, has been proposed to have a profound impact on the 

moral decision-making of individuals, especially in terms of 

moral action. Recent research on aggression in sport has 

focused on understanding predictors of aggression in sport; 

these predictors can be categorized into those relating to the 

individual (e.g., goal orientation, moral reasoning) and those 

representative of the context of the situation (e.g., team norm 

for pro-aggression, goal orientation of coach). While studies 

have focused on predictors related to one of the two sets of 

categories, recent research has attempted to examine the 

relative contributions of each category in predicting 

aggression in sport. The purpose of this symposium is to 

present the theoretical underpinnings of this research as well 

as the empirical evidence that supports the significant role 

played by contextual factors, including moral atmosphere, in 

predicting self-described likelihood to aggress in sport. 

Moral Atmosphere: Theoretical and Empirical 

Foundations 

Christina Johnson, University of Iowa, Iowa City, lA, USA, 

52242 

To date, very few sport scholars have examined moral 

behavior in sport in terms of social norms and conventions. 

Previous work has focused on the moral reasoning capacity of 

athletes, both on and off the field. Using Kohlberg's (1981) 

constructivist theory of moral development, Bredemeier and 

colleagues found that certain groups of athletes tended to 

reason about sport dilemmas at a lower, more egocentric, level 

than when they reasoned about daily life dilemmas. These 

findings led to some interesting questions within the realm of 

sport. The sporting context might act as a subculture apart 

from mainstream culture. In fact, Bredemeier and Shields 


suggested that some athletes use a type of 'bracketed 

morality' in sport, reflecting sport's egocentric nature. They 

suggested that sport was set apart form everyday life in a 

number of ways; this removed world egocentric reasoning 

was deemed acceptable. While this early research focused on 

the individual, where moral behavior was examined with 

respect to an individual's cognitions in terms of development 

of moral reasoning, later research took a more contextual 

approach (Higgins, Power, & Kohlberg, 1984) which involved 

the climate or atmosphere of the context in which the moral 

behavior took place. Recently scholars begun to examine the 

social norms surrounding sport participation. Drawing heavily 

on Bredemeier and Shields' conclusions, Stephens and 

colleagues have begun a program ofresearch to examine the 

'moral atmosphere' surrounding sport participation. The 

purpose ofthis presentation is to introduce the theoretical and 

empirical underpinnings of the research on moral atmosphere 

in sport. 

Moral Atmosphere in Sport: Examining the 

Contribution ofContextual and Individual Variables in 

Predicting the Likelihood to Aggress 

Dawn E. Stephens, University of Iowa, University of Iowa, 

Iowa City, lA, USA, 52242 

Several studies have examined both individual and contextual 

variables in an attempt to understand aggressive tendencies in 

sport. Early work by Duda and Huston (1995) found ego 

orientation to be significantly and positively correlated with 

perceptions of legitimacy ofinjurious acts. Goal orientation 

(an individual variable), but not competitive level and 

experience (contextual variables), emerged as a significant 

predictor of the endorsement of aggressive actions. In 

contrast, a program ofresearch by Stephens and colleagues 

(Stephens, in press, 2000; Stephens & Bredemeier, 1996; 

Stephens & Kavanagh, 1997) has found sport participants' 

perceptions ofthe context to be the most influential predictor 

of aggressive tendencies. Specifically, when faced with a 

decision whether to aggress against an opponent, players' 

perceptions of the number of their teammates who would 

aggress in the same situation consistently emerged as the 

strongest predictor ofthe players' own self-described 

likelihood to aggress. This contextual predictor alone 

explained between 25 and 40% of the variance in aggressive 

tendencies young female soccer players (Stephens & 

Bredemeier, 1996), coed youth soccer players (Stephens, 

2(00), Canadian youth ice hockey players (Stephens & 

Kavanagh, 1997), and beginning and advanced basketball 

skill camp attendees (Stephens, in press). In adult samples 

team norm emerged the strongest predictor of self-described 

tendency to aggress, explaining 33% ofthe variance for 

female and 38% for male basketball players. Thus, contextual 

variables, particularly that representing the team norm, have 

proven more useful in predicting self-described likelihood to 

aggress than those variables representing the individual.


Moral Atmosphere in Malaysian Youth Soccer 

Shaharudin Abd. Aziz, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, 

Malaysia; Dawn E. Stephens, University of Iowa, Iowa City, 

lA, USA, 52242 

Previous research in youth sport has examined the role of 

moral atmosphere, or team norm, in predicting an individual's 

self-described likelihood to aggress against an opponent. The 

purpose of this study was to further this program of research 

by examining the role of specific individuals within the team 

in predicting this aggressive tendency in Malaysian youth 

soccer players. Participants in the study were Malaysian male 

(N = 892) soccer players who represented their schools in 

interschool competition at the U-12 (N = 210), U-15 (N = 

336), & U-18 (N = 346) age groups. Questionnaires included 

a modified JAMBYSQ, the TEOSQ, and a demographic 

questionnaire. All questionnaires were translated into the 

Malaysian language Bahasa Melayu using the backtranslation 

technique. The modified JAMBYSQ included 

three aggression scenarios, each depicting a different act. Six 

new questions were added to each scenario to assess the 

influence of specific others in the participant's decision to 

aggress. Specifically, players were asked to indicate the 

influence of: their best friends, popular players, best players, 

coach, team captain, and their parents. Stepwise regressions 

indicated a developmental trend in influence of significant 

others. The younger players' primary predictors included their 

best friend on the team and the most popular players; the 

middle group's predictors included the best players and 

parents. The oldest group's primary predictor was the team 

captain. Cultural differences will be addressed and results will 

be discussed within the moral atmosphere literature. 

Moral Atmosphere andAthletic Aggressive Tendencies 

in Youth Soccer 

Marta Guivernau, The University of Notre Dame, Notre 

Dame, IN 46556, and Joan L. Duda, The University of 

Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, Bl5 2IT, UK 

The major purpose of this study was to examine the 

relationship of the moral atmosphere of athletic teams to 

athletes' self-described likelihood to aggress (SLA). Moral 

atmosphere was operationalized as the athletes' perception of 

their teammates and significant others' norms (i.e., mother, 

father, coach) for cheating and aggression (Power, Higgins, & 

Kohlberg, 1989). Two additional purposes of this investigation 

were: first, to determine whether there was a predominant 

figure most influential to athletes' SLA, and second, to 

examine potential gender differences in athletes' perceived 

team moral atmosphere, their self-described likelihood to 

aggress, and the most influential person affecting their SLA. 

Participants in this study consisted of 194 young male (N 

=135) and female (N = 59) soccer players ranging from 13 to 

15 years of age. Results unveiled that the athletes' perceptions 

of their team pro-aggressive norms were the most consistent 

predictor of their self-described likelihood to aggress, 

Moreover, regardless of gender, the athletes' reported that 

they would be more likely to aggress if they thought their 

34 

coach and/or their team captain supported such behavior. The 

findings shed light on the influence that significant others have 

in shaping the moral atmosphere operating on youth sport 

teams and highlight the importance of the social context to 

young athletes' reported moral behaviors. 

Approval ofAggressive Act in Wrestling: Individual and 

ContextualVariabks 

Steven DeVries, Cornell College, Mt. Vernon, IA, USA, 

52314 

This study utilized moral and motivational constructs to 

examine relationships between college wrestlers' approval of 

aggressive acts in wrestling and individual and contextual 

factors ofthe competitive wrestling setting. Subjects were 221 

wrestlers of fourteen NCAA Division III teams. The 

Wrestling Aggression Questionnaire (WAQ) was developed 

and used to assess approval of aggressive acts in the sport, 

perceptions of coach and teammate approval of aggressive 

acts, and motives for likelihood to commit aggressive acts in 

competition. Wrestlers were found to be less approving of 

action depicted in a WAQ scenario depicting controlling 

aggression than they were of scenarios representing scoring 

aggression. Stepwise multiple regression analysis revealed 

that wrestler approval ofcontrolling aggression was predicted 

by perceptions of teammates' and coaches' approval ofthe 

aggressive act, likelihood to commit the act to win, and season 

win percentage. Approval of scoring aggression was predicted 

by perceptions of coach and teammate approval of the 

aggressive acts and likelihood to commit aggressive acts to 

win, for retaliation, and for coach and teammates approval. 

Wrestlers reported that they were more likely to commit 

aggressive acts for pre-conventional motives, to win the match 

and for retaliation, than for the conventional motives of coach 

and teammate approval. Results suggest that wrestlers' 

approval of aggression was related to moral atmosphere 

factors including perceptions ofteammate and coach approval 

of aggressive acts and to moral motives for aggression in the 

sport. 

Sport Psychology Training DuringAPA Internships: 

Myths and Realities 

Sameep D. Maniar, West Virginia University, USA; Matthew 

P.Martens, University of Missouri-Columbia, USA; Jack C. 

Watson II, West Virginia University, USA 

As individuals make the transition from graduate student to 

professional, many quickly realize the limited job 

opportunities in sport psychology. This has prompted some 

students to consider graduate training in counseling or clinical 

psychology in addition to work in sport psychology. Students 

meeting requirements for both sport psychology and 

counseling/clinical psychology coursework place themselves 

in the unique position of being able to work with athletes with 

performance as well as clinical concerns. Additionally, these 

students have a wider range ofjob opportunities available to 

them. For students involved in any field of applied 

psychology, the internship should be thought of as an integral

part of the training process. For those individuals who are 

interested in obtaining licensure as a psychologist, the predoctoral 

internship is a virtual necessity. To be licensed in 

several states, having one's pre-doctoral internship site 

accredited by the American Psychological Association (APA) 

is also a necessity. This presentation will address three aspects 

of the APA internship application process, with a specific 

focus on obtaining applied sport psychology opportunities. 

First, the process of finding, selecting, and applying for 

internship sites with sport psychology opportunities will be 

discussed. Second, the interview and decision-making process 

thatrevolve around internship selection will be presented. 

Third, opportunities to conduct sport psychology work while 

on internship, while managing the core requirements set by 

APA, will be discussed. 

SelectingandApplyingfor a Counseling/Clinical 

PsychologyInternship 

Sameep D. Maniar, West Virginia University, Morgantown, 

WV26506 

The application process for APA internships can be stressful 

andconfusing. This may especially be true for candidates 

interested in 'rotations' or specialty training in sport 

psychology. Applicants are faced with the difficulty of finding 

thesesites and learning how to communicate an interest in 

sportpsychology without minimizing one's interest in 

traditionalpsychology. This presentation will address four 

aspectsof the application process for an APA pre-doctoral 

psychology internship in clinical or counseling psychology. 

First,the benefits of counseling/clinical psychology programs 

overtraditional sport psychology training will be discussed. 

Presentation attendees will be provided with a rationale for 

completing graduate training in both traditional psychology 

and sport psychology. Second, the respecialization process in 

clinicalor counseling psychology for those students trained in 

sport psychology will be briefly discussed. Third, the process 

of findingAPA internship sites that have sport psychology 

trainingopportunities will be discussed, and a list of currently 

knownsites with such training opportunities will be provided. 

Fourth,the application process will be discussed. 

Interviewing and Finalizing Your Rankings For a 

Counseling/Clinical Psychology Internship 

Matthew P. Martens, University ofMissouri-Columbia, 

Columbia, MO 65201 

The purpose of this presentation will be to discuss issues 

relatedto the interviewing and ranking process for counseling/ 

clinical psychology internships. All counseling, clinical, and 

school psychology doctoral students are required to complete 

a 2000-hour psychology internship before receiving their 

doctoral degree. Further, graduates with a doctoral degree in 

sportpsychology who are respecializing in either counseling 

or clinical psychology are also eligible to apply for these 

internships. The bulk of this presentation will focus on 

interviewing during the internship-selection process, 

including the following general areas: a) on-site versus 

35 


telephone interviews, b) what kind of questions to expect 

during the interview, and c) how to integrate one's interest in 

sport psychology into the interview. Specific information that 

interviewees should have prepared for the interviews will be 

presented, such as one's theoretical orientation, most difficult 

case, and reasons for being interested in a particular site. 

Finally, tips on how to address one's interest in sport 

psychology will be provided, including how to balance a 

desire to be active in sport psychology with the understanding 

that the primary purpose of the internship is general 

psychology, not sport psychology. The remainder of the 

presentation will be devoted to dealing with the post-interview 

process. Specifically, suggestions will be provided in terms of 

making decisions regarding one's rank-ordering of sites (e.g., 

decision making grid), appropriate procedures for following 

up with sites, and actually submitting one's rank-order 

internship preferences. 

APA Pre-doctoral Internships: A Survivor's Guide for 

Students Interested in Sport Psychology 

Jack C. Watson II, West Virginia University, Morgantown, 

WV26506 

For students involved in sport psychology and other fields of 

applied psychology, the internship should be thought of as an 

integral part ofthe training process. For those individuals who 

are interested in obtaining licensure as a psychologist, the predoctoral 

internship is a virtual necessity. To be licensed in 

several states, having one's pre-doctoral internship site 

accredited by the American Psychological Association (APA) 

is also a necessity. Once an individual is matched with an 

internship site, the next important step involves striving to 

make this experience as rewarding as possible. Based upon 

the training criteria established by the APA, most activities at 

an internship site are inflexible (i.e., contact hours, 

supervision, and training). However, the majority of sites also 

have outreach and external rotations that allow interns to gain 

training and experience in activities that interest them. To 

make the best use of this 'free time,' it is the intern's 

responsibility to find the opportunities and make the 

connections that will allow him/her to gain the experiences 

that will be most beneficial for the future. The purpose of this 

presentation is to provide a guide to help students who are 

interested in the field of sport psychology to survive and thrive 

in anAPA accredited pre-doctoral internship. Issues discussed 

will include a standard description of an intern's duties, the 

use of sport psychology principles in therapy with non-sport 

clients, making connections between clinical work and 

performance enhancement, and the development of 

opportunities for working with athletes and other performers.

Colloquia 

The Development and Implementation ofAn On 

Campus Performance Enhancement Centre: 

Implications for Graduate Students and Professors 

James Galipeau, Kelly Doell, Jessica Fraser, Alex 

Lamontagne, Louise Friend, Kristin Marvin, Lisa Arthurs, 

Sean Rea, Paul Sealy, University ofOttawa, Canada 

The purpose ofthis presentation is to discuss the development 

and implementation of a performance enhancement Centre 

and the implications this has had for graduate students and 

professors. The graduate students in the Sport Psychology 

Applied Intervention program at the University of Ottawa 

have recently undertaken the exciting task of developing a 

consulting Centre on campus geared toward the enhancement 

of performance and quality of life. The Centre is being 

developed as part of the curriculum in the Intervention 

program and will provide students with the opportunity to 

gain valuable consulting experience in a structured and 

supervised environment. These students will provide 

performance enhancement consulting services to University 

of Ottawa students and faculty at no cost. In return, they will 

accumulate some of the internship hours required to obtain 

theirmaster's degree. It is our hope that this performance 

enhancement Centre will serve as a model for other 

universities with similar applied sport psychology programs. 

Individual Learning Styles, Critical Thinking, 

Competency-Based Programs, andMultiple Intelligence 

Learning: Missing Pedagogical Links in Applied Sport, 

Health,and Exercise Psychology 

BettyC. Kelley, The Performance Enhancement Group, USA 

Thefields of Sport, Health, and Exercise Psychology have 

advancedand exceeded expectations with the number of 

professionalpositions available, the quantity and quality of 

researchthat has direct implications for practice, the 

installationof the Certification and Recertification process for 

AAASPConsultants, and in many other aspects. One area, 

however, has fallen behind and has lacked the attention 

necessary to keep pace with the elevated expectations of our 

orotessional fields of endeavor. That area is the development 

)f a strong Pedagogical grounding within the discipline. We 

MIl do a grave disservice to the educators and consultants of 

tomorrow if we fail to fully prepare them for the effective 

dissemination of knowledge, techniques, and strategies to 

their students and clients. Researchers estimate that the body 

ofknowledgeis doubling every year or less and 90% of what 

we knowabout the human brain has been discovered in the 

last 10years. This session will focus on the 3 primary ways 

we processincoming information, the 7 distinct intelligences 

every individual processes, the 8 aspects that form the 

elements of thought in the critical thinking process, and the 

37 

importance and process of developing leveled, competencybased 

programs. The outcome of the session will be the 

integration of the preceding facets of learning into an 

organized and practical approach to enhancing teaching and 

consulting performance in the areas ofSport, Health, and 

Exercise Psychology. 

The Coach as a Service Provider: The Pros and Cons of 

Servicing Your Own Team 

Erik Dunlap, University ofIdaho, Moscow ID 83844; John M. 

Silva, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599; 

Damon Burton, University of Idaho, Moscow ID 83844; Jon 

Metzler, Penn State University, State College, PA, 16803. 

Coaching and sport psychology share a close and interactive 

relationship. Many professionals trained in the field ofsport 

psychology have experience as coaches and many coaches 

have obtained specialized training and graduate degrees in 

sport psychology. Such knowledge is extremely beneficial for 

coaches, and some coaches have added the role of sport 

psychology consultant to the multitude tasks already required 

of them. Taking on both roles simultaneously is attractive to 

some coaches given that both the sport psychologist and coach 

have similar performance and development objectives. The 

issue of whether an individual can perform both roles 

simultaneously has been a controversial topic in the field of 

Sport Psychology. Yet, many sport psychology professionals 

teach psychological skills to coaches so the coach may relay 

this information to the players on the team. The purpose of 

this symposium is to discuss this interesting question with two 

certified sport psychology consultants who have extensive 

experience coaching. The consultants will present the ethical 

and practical aspects ofthe issues as they discuss the pros and 

cons of a coach attempting to function as a sport psychologist 

with the team they coach. Two sport psychology graduate 

students with experience in the areas ofcoaching and high 

level participation in sport will react to the consultants. 

The Sport Psychology Consultant: Self-Care and 

Maintaining High Performance 

Douglas P. Jowdy, United States Olympic Complex, USA 

Professionals who practice applied sport psychology utilize 

several skills to enhance the personal and athletic performance 

of athletes and coaches. However, the literature in the area of 

the helping professions suggests that the health ofthe therapist 

is a crucial aspect ofthe efficacy ofthe interventions. 

Recently, the publication, Professional Psychology: Research 

and Practice has dedicated a section ofthe journal to the 

health of the therapist. This section, the Self-Care Comer, 

offers 1-2 page articles that address ways to maintain physical, 

emotional, and spiritual health. Noteworthy is how the work


in applied sport psychology has many similarities with the 

practice of other mental health professionals, but in addition 

has unique demands that can potentially put the professional 

at risk for stress related conditions and burnout. As is clearly 

evident, the demands of the job combined with an eager desire 

to help can leave the professional at risk to many of the issues 

they help athletes with (i.e. sleep disturbance, anxiety, weight 

gain, dysphoric mood, substance use). These various 

conditions left unaddressed can lead to burnout and "overuse 

injuries" that can impact the professional's performance. The 

focus of this presentation will be three fold: I) addressing the 

factors that can make applied work in sport psychology a 

potentially high stress occupation; 2) identifying warning 

signs that can help prevent movement in the direction of 

burnout; and 3) strategies to assist with self-care and 

maintaining high performance. 

Sport Psychology in Argentina 

Diane L. Finley, Prince George's Community College, USA; 

Patricia Wightmann, National Training Center for Elite 

Athletes, Argentina; Nelly Giscafre, National Training Center 

for Elite Athletes, Argentina; Carlos Giesnow, National 

Training Center for Elite Athletes, Argentina; Albert Fenilli, 

National Training Center for Elite Athletes, Argentina 

As international boundaries shrink and sport psychology 

becomes global. it is important for practitioners, researchers 

and educators to become familiar with the state of the field in 

these diverse cultures. Such knowledge allows students and 

professors to incorporate a global perspective into their 

curriculums (a goal of many university general education 

requirements), practitioners to gain insight into diverse 

practices and researchers to share what they have learned. At 

past conferences, the international perspective and 

experiences from many countries including Singapore, Korea, 

Australia, England, and France have been shared with 

conference attendees. In this colloquium, the presenters will 

discuss the state of sport psychology in Argentina. The 

presenters will discuss the history ofsport psychology in 

Argentina including the establishment of the Sport 

Psychology Department at the National Training Center in 

1991 and the establishment ofthe Metropolitan Association of 

Sport Psychology. Other topics to be explored will include 

research conducted, training methods used, and the impact of 

sport psychology on the athletes. The education of sport 

psychologists will be discussed and compared to that in other 

countries. In addition, the future of sport psychology in 

Argentina will be examined. The specific relationship 

between sport psychology and football (soccer) will be 

explored in depth to show the interplay among practice, 

research and performance. The presenters include the Director 

of Sport Psychology at the National Training Center and the 

President of the Metropolitan Association. In addition, two 

licensed sport psychologists who work at the Training Center 

will share their experiences. 

38 

Dissociation: The Components Sports Psychology 

Forgot 

Keith A. Wilson, Wilson Center for Sport, Business and Life 

Performance, 4625 Alabama St. El Paso, Texas 79930 

The term dissociation is used extensively in the field ofsport 

psychology. However, I believe it is used incorrectly since the 

normal use does not recognize the research that has been done 

on the dissociative state. Colin Ross among others in the 

dissociative disorders research field (Ross, Joshi, & Currie, 

1991) show that there are three component parts to the 

dissociative state. It is as the sport psychology field 

understands the differentions of these three states then the 

research and intervention of performance enhancement will 

be improved. Keith Wilson (Wilson 2000) describes these 

three states that are important for the field ofsport psychology 

to understand. These three components of dissociation help us 

understand why a cyclist can survive a seven hour ride ofpain 

and suffering and still have the feeling that they were in 

control of this athletic experience. Dr. Wilson has worked in 

the dissociative disorder field for 12 years and will bring 

material from the clinical world to the sport psychology field. 

The discussion of the containment of dissociation in the 

clinical population will help develop strategies for the 

teaching of dissociative skills to athletes who want to improve 

their athletic performance. Examples of these three 

dissociative states will be presented and explored. The 

relationship of the hypnotic state to dissociation will also be 

presented. 

BriefInterventions in Sport Psychology: Theory and 

Practice 

Burt Giges and Albert Petipas, Springfield College, MA 

Sport psychology consultants are often called upon to provide 

consultation without an opportunity for extended 

interviewing. These situations may occur on the field, during 

practice, at competitions, or during travel with a team. The 

unique challenge in offering such service is to address the 

athlete's need with only limited time and background 

information available. Care must be exercised to remain 

focused on performance issues rather than psychopathology. 

In this colloquium, practical and theoretical considerations in 

brief interventions will be presented and discussed. The 

theory behind such interventions derives from both traditional 

and strategic therapeutic approaches. The strategies are 

action-oriented, present focused, and limited to issues 

identified by the athlete. Principles from counseling 

psychology, gestalt therapy, and cognitive therapy contribute 

significantly to the theoretical basis for the strategies. Each of 

these will be discussed more specifically in the presentation. 

In practical terms, the consultant follows the athlete's lead, 

stays focused on his or her abilities and options in the present, 

and assists in creating a shift in the athlete's perception of the 

situation. Examples of these principles and strategies will be 

drawn from the consultants' experiences in sport psychology 

consultation. The audience will have the opportunity for 

questions, comments, and discussion.

Taking Performance Enhancement to the Next Level: 

21st Century Warriorship 

Dave Czesniuk, Nathaniel Zinsser, Sarah Naylor, United 

States Military Academy, West Point, NY 

Psychological skills training has been applied to competitors 

in every conceivable arena. Teaching these skills has been 

tailored for age, competitive level, learning style, and time 

availabilityof performance enhancement to individuals from 

all walks of life. Thus, it is important to consider what lies 

beyond traditional training protocols. Taking individuals to 

the "next level" of performance enhancement requires both a 

special type of individual and the consultant's willingness to 

explore the possibilities. The Center for Enhanced 

Performance (CEP) training model consists of 5 protocols: 

cognitivefoundations, goal setting, attention concentration, 

stressmanagement and imagery/visualization. The order and 

depth in which each is taught are determined by participants' 

needsand desires. Typically, participants become proficient in 

all5 areas, as well as in their application to the chosen area of 

concentration. However, there are participants for whom the 

basicCEP model is merely the beginning. At this time, the 

trainingshifts to an exploration of the meaning behind 

"enhanced performance" and human potential. "Mastery," 

"lifelong learning" and "warriorship" emerge as focal points. 

Throughthis training, participants redefine their concepts of 

achievementand discover unexplored potential. This 

presentationwill outline how training in fundamental 

psychologicalskills can unfold into an individual's heightened 

awareness of self and their surroundings. Case studies will 

exhibitthe path followed by participants in this training. In 

addition, an explanation ofthe internalization process to allow 

thetransference of psychological skills to lifelong leadership 

willbe offered. 

Qualitative (In vivo) Assessment ofCollege and 

ProfessionalCoaches'Attitudes Toward Sport 

Psychology: Insider's Report on Voodoo (stigma) versus 

Strength and Conditioning ofthe Mind Objectively 

Wesley E. Sime, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA 

Theculture of some sport environments (American Football 

andBaseball among Latin Players) is counter-intuitive 

regarding sport psychology services. Common superstitions 

maybe harmless, but NCAA Division I athletes are known to 

stigmatize sport psychology consultants (Martin, et. al, 1997). 

Thisoccurs particularly among males and by African 

American athletes. In this presentation, several coaches and 

athletes will be interviewed (some live some by taping) for the 

purpose of sharing a qualitative assessment of the attitudes 

"oldguard" coaches hold for new age sport psychology. Each 

willcontribute their personal viewpoint while also 

representing the stereotypical attitudes of their peers in each 

respective sport ranging from professional baseball to female 

rifle shooters.While there are small pockets of success in 

NCAA Division I Football (Ravizza and Osborne, 1991), the 

vast majorityof programs still do not utilize these services to 

thefullestextent possible. Adding objectivity to sport 

39 

2001 Conference Proceedings-Colloquia 

psychology services occurs naturally with the use of 

biofeedback (heart rate, GSR, EMG) as an integral part of 

mental training. Still there have been very few programs using 

technology in sport psychology. In this session, coaches and 

athletes will offer candid reactions to biofeedback in relation 

to their preparation for performance. In particular, methods 

for assessing attentional focus and concentration will be 

considered in contrast and comparison to video stimulated 

recall of past performances (via imagery and visualization). 

Providing instant signal detection of subtle distractibility as 

well as signs and symptoms of stress may provide objectively 

and de-stigmatize the process of sport psychology 

consultation. 

The Seven Secrets ofSuccessful Coaches: A Modelfor 

Developing Effective, Respected, and Credible Coaches 

Gregory A. Dale, Duke University; Jeff Janssen, The 

University ofArizona 

What distinguishes the great coaches from the rest of the 

crowd? What are the intangibles they possess that allow them 

to be consistently successful? How do some coaches get 

athletes to willingly follow them while for others it's like 

'pulling teeth' to get their athletes to do anything? How do 

some coaches inspire loyalty for a lifetime while others have 

athletes who create a mutiny and secretly try to get their coach 

fired? To answer these questions, the presenters conducted 

semi-structured interviews with 10 highly successful coaches 

at the university and professional levels in the United States. 

Semi-structured interviews were also conducted with 125 

athletes (twenty of which currently play or have played for the 

coaches involved in this study) regarding characteristics they 

respect in a coach. Results of the study revealed seven 

characteristics these coaches possess and athletes respect in a 

coach. These characteristics include: a) character; b) 

consistency; c) communicator; d) caring; e) confidence 

builder; f) committed; and g) competent. This presentation 

will focus on three key areas related to the education of 

coaches. These areas include: 1) identification and discussion 

of characteristics of highly effective coaches; 2) identification 

and discussion ofcharacteristics that athletes respect in a 

coach; and 3) provision of a model for credible coaching that 

sport psychology practitioners can use in their consultation 

with coaches. A discussion of successful implementation of 

the credibility model will conclude the presentation. 

From Play to Commitment: Developmental Changes in 

the Youth Sport Experience From Childhood Through 

Adolescence 

Robert J. Brustad and Julie A. Partridge, University of 

Northern Colorado, USA 

The sport experiences ofchildren and adolescents have been 

commonly discussed under the single, umbrella term of 

"youth sport." However, marked differences exist in the nature 

of sport involvement for youngsters relative to their 

developmental status and stage ofinvolvement. From this 

perspective, the initial years of sport involvement can be


characterized as more "playful" whereas later involvement 

becomes more "serious", with increasing commitment 

required from the young athlete. These changes in the nature 

of involvement should be examined within a developmental 

framework that considers youngsters' cognitive, emotional, 

and social development. In tum, understanding processes of 

developmental change can be very influential in our ability to 

address major issues in youth sport research, such as 

motivation, sport specialization, sport attrition, and "burnout". 

This session will examine developmental processes that affect 

the psychological and social dimensions ofsport involvement. 

We will draw from the knowledge bases in educational and 

developmental psychology, in additional to the sport-related 

literature. Types of developmental influences to be discussed 

include changes in youngsters' understanding ofthe causes of 

achievement outcomes, emotional responses to these 

outcomes, self-perception characteristics, and social relational 

patterns. In addition, we will discuss how the nature of youth 

sport changes over time in accordance with the tendency for 

parents and coaches to increasingly emphasize the 

achievement aspects of sport as children age and develop. In 

sum, a developmental or "stage-like" analysis will be applied 

to the youth sport experience that should assist us in 

addressing primary youth sport issues and concerns and in 

structuring our intervention efforts. 

Balanced Excellence: From Sport Psychology to 

Performance Psychology 

Bill Moore, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, USA; Nicole 

Webber, University of Missouri - Columbia, USA 

As sport psychologists, we understand a great deal about the 

challenges that effect human performance such as the effects 

of stress, the difficulty in achieving consistent performances, 

the importance of a balanced approach to training and life, and 

the use of mental training techniques to help athletes compete 

under intense pressure. Currently, sport psychologists are 

finding new avenues to employ these valuable skills in venues 

such as in the business world, performing arts, and life skills 

enhancement. We believe that this is an exciting trend, and we 

believe that we are in a position to help people in various 

performance domains to better control their innerexperiences, 

which not only affects the quality of their performance, but 

also affects the quality of their lives. We propose a theoretical 

model of Balanced Excellence that can be used by 

performance enhancement specialists, involving the 

application offundamental psychological skills across 

performance domains. This model represents the 

conceptualization of how to help individuals develop the skills 

necessary to be fully engaged in the activities that are 

important to them. This colloquium will provide a rationale 

for the model, in addition to presenting specific strategies for 

training engagement, transitioning, recovery, and 

organization. Parallels will be drawn between skills employed 

in sport settings and those that are valuable to other 

performance situations. Finally, an opportunity will be 

presented for students and professionals to discuss the roles 

and responsibilities that exist for performance psychology 

40 

specialists to serve individuals outside ofsport, who are 

seeking excellence and balance in their lives. 

Selecting the Appropriate Sport Psychology Graduate 

Program 

Kevin L. Burke, Georgia Southern University; Michael L. 

Sachs and Diana C. Schrader, Temple University, USA 

This presentation is designed to meet the needs of prospective 

Master's and Doctoral level graduate students and advisors in 

sport psychology. Two of the speakers have served as coeditors 

ofsix editions ofthe "Directory of Graduate Programs 

in Applied Sport Psychology" and current certified 

consultants in AAASP. A comprehensive approach to 

selecting the 'best fit' graduate program will be presented. A 

"checklist" handout will be provided to assist in obtaining the 

proper information in making this very important decision. 

Some aspects for consideration will be the flexibility of the 

program, the research interests of the faculty who are involved 

in the program, available graduate assistantships or 

fellowships, and tips for presentation of oneself as a qualified 

applicant (i.e., writing a goal statement). General issues 

concerning sport psychology programs will be discussed 

based on their orientation toward exercise psychology, 

intervention/performance enhancement, social psychology, 

and clinical psychology. The choice of a program will be 

considered in relation to state psychology licensing laws, and 

the AAASP certification requirements. Positive and negative 

aspects of matriculating through kinesiology, psychology, 

counseling departments, or a combination of the above (i.e., 

Master's degree in psychology and Doctorate in kinesiology) 

will be discussed. The goal of this colloquium is to help 

prospective students, and their advisors, to ask the important 

questions and obtain critical information while searching for 

the appropriate graduate program in sport psychology. This 

informative colloquium will help participants in developing an 

educated search strategy for a graduate program that 

represents a very important lifetime decision. 

Collegial Consultation As Strategy for Managing Selfin 

Consulting Process: How Effectively Call You Deliver 

Sport Psychology Services in Isolation? 

Artur Poczwardowski, St. Lawrence University, USA; Gloria 

Balague, University of Illinois-Chicago, USA; Ralph 

Vemacchia, Western Washington University, USA; Robert 

Nideffer, Enhanced Performance Systems, USA 

Optimizing the delivery ofsport psychology services is 

fundamental in enhancing credibility of the field of sport 

psychology as well as consultants' professional performance 

and satisfaction. Serving this goal. Poczwardowski, Sherman, 

and Henschen (1998) proposed a heuristics of an effective 

consulting practice. Among crucial ingredients of successful 

sport psychology practice, they identified "managing self as 

intervention instrument" (p. 199). In their practice, 

consultants face a number of limitations that include biases, 

fatigue, frustration, mistakes, attraction to their clients, and 

dual roles. From among multiple self-management strategies

that help sport psychologists to maintain a productive 

professional, ethical, and personal perspective on their work, 

peer supervision has been widely recommended (e.g., 

Andersen & Williams-Rice, 1996; Sachs, 1993). Not 

surprisingly, experienced consultants often use consultations 

with a trusted colleague (Simons & Andersen, 1995). During 

this presentation, three practicing professionals will share 

their experiences concerning problematic issues (i.e., ofboth 

performance and clinical nature) that they encountered in their 

practice. The addressed topics include: forming a productive 

relationship with significant professional others, maturing into 

professional "egolessness", timing in sharing sensitive issues, 

types of consultation (e.g., in person, phone, e-mail), ethical 

dilemmas (e.g., confidentiality), expanding the circle of peer 

consultants, and benefits of collegial consultation. The 

dynamics of practice with collegial consultation as well as 

practice with no peer supervision will be thoroughly 

illustrated by examples. Implications for sport psychology 

professional education and training and consulting practice 

will be offered. 

Fun in Youth Sport: Perspectives from Coaches' 

Conceptions and Participants' Experiences 

William B. Strean & Enrique Garcia Bengochea, Faculty of 

Physical Education and Recreation, University ofAlberta, 

Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2H9. 

Fun and enjoyment in youth sport continue to be central 

concerns for researchers and practitioners. Both the 

importance of fun as it relates to the quality of participants' 

experiences and the motivational consequences of enjoyment 

have been raised. This colloquium will present findings from 

an ongoing three-year research project that addresses teaching 

'the why' before 'the how' in sport and physical education, 

with emphasis on the relation of instruction to affect. The 

focus in this session will be on both how coaches 

conceptualize fun and what adults recall about their 

experiences in youth sport. Data from participants' (N =45) 

interviews and written accounts will be presented. We will 

describe coaches' implicit and explicit understandings of fun 

as achievement related or non-achievement related (cf, 

Scanlan, Carpenter, Lobel, & Simmons, 1993). Furthermore, 

and paralleling the literature on sources of sport enjoyment 

(e.g., Scanlan & Simmons, 1992) coaches made an implicit 

distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic sources of fun. We 

will also consider adults' memories of their coaches and sport 

experiences. There seems to be many untested assumptions 

about the relationships among childhood experiences in sport 

and later life participation in physical activity. Anecdotal 

evidence suggests that particular coaches have influenced 

lifetime physical activity and sport behavior patterns. 

Furthermore, if some instructors have a lasting positive impact 

on individuals, it would be useful to understand how the 

attitudes, behaviors, and qualities of these instructors are 

remembered. Key findings, in this segment, include the 

importance of coaches' interpersonal characteristics. 

41 

2001 Conference Proceedings-Colloquia 

Lessons Learned in Neurofeedback Peak Achievement 

Training: Technological and Practical Issues in 

Research and Consultation 

Wesley E. Sime, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA; 

Jacqueline Savis, Patsy Tremany, University ofWestern 

Sydney, Australia; Catalina Fazzano, Private Practice, Coral 

Springs, USA 

Based on results of several pilot studies, we have discovered 

many practical applications of technology used in 

performance enhancement. The assessment of heart rate, 

muscle tension, brainwave activity and other relevant 

psychophysiological variables has become valuable in 

developing awareness of both somatic and cognitive 

manifestations of confidence as well as anxiety. One set of 

studies focussed on how trait anxiety and cognitive strategy 

influenced relaxed attention. In other preliminary work we 

have discovered that cognitive strategies (e.g., imagery cues, 

self-talk cues, visual/auditory distractions can serve to 

condition the athlete's level of concentration. Since trait 

anxiety yielded no significant results when comparing EEG 

frequencies across low, moderate, and high anxious groups, 

we are pursuing more salient indicators oftrophotropic states 

that are conducive optimum performance. During 

neurofeedback sessions (peak achievement training) 

participants face the challenge of handling eyeblink reflexes 

as both an artifact as well as a useful indication of arousal/ 

anxiety. Other research considerations include the use ofcasel 

control subjects; decisions on how much data and what 

sampling speed to use when collecting data; a need to 

counterbalance conditionslinstructions given to participants; 

and the problems associated with an eyes-closed condition 

(i.e.; EEG patterns indicating drowsiness and/or conversely 

participant discomfort with eyes closed and experimenters 

nearby). Alternative approaches using EEG frequency 

compared across generic and sport-specific cognitive 

strategies and the incorporation ofplanned distractions to test 

how training strategies 'work under pressure.' Our purpose is 

to develop new methods of training and conditioning ordinary 

concentration and attentional focus using modem technology 

not commonly used in sport psychology.

Lectures 

Collegiate Coaches' Perceptions ofTheir Goal-Setting 

Practices: A Qualitative Investigation 

Robert Weinberg, Joanne Butt, Betsy Knight, Nicole Perritt. 

Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056 

The purpose of the present investigations was to assess the 

perceptions ofcollegiate coaches regarding the process of 

goal setting using a qualitative methodology. Participants 

were 14 NCAA Division 1 collegiate coaches from the 

Midwestern part ofthe U.S. representing both team and 

individual sports. All participants were head coaches and 

asked to respond to the interview lasting about 45-60 min. The 

interview guide was developed based on previous empirical 

goal setting research as well as interviews with coaches. The 

interview focused on team and individual goals within both 

practice and competition. Standard qualitative techniques 

were employed to ensure reliability, credibility and 

trustworthiness ofthe data. Results revealed that coaches 

employed goal setting extensively for both individual and 

team goals. In addition, many interesting findings regarding 

the process of goal setting emerged including (a) coaches 

tended to set short-term goals although there were some 

nebulous long-term goals, (b) coaches only inconsistently 

wrote down their goals, (c) goals were both dictated by 

coaches and set in collaboration with players with a focus on 

collaboration, (d) the primary function ofgoals was to provide 

direction and focus, (e) goal commitment was related to 

enjoyment/fun, (f) process, performance, and outcome goals 

were set but coaches focused on performance and outcome 

goals, and (g) physical, psychological, and time baniers 

impeded goal attainment. These findings are discussed in 

relationto the current empirical/theoretical goal-setting 

literatureand suggestions for best practice by sport 

psychology researchers are offered. 

PartnerPerceptions and Self-reported Intensity and 

DirectionofAchievement Goals among Sports Acrobats 

ChrisHarwood and Kathryn Lacey, Loughborough 

University, UK; Sheldon Hanton, University ofWales Institute 

Cardiff. UK 

Taking the lead from recent research advancements in anxiety 

(Jones, 1995), the purpose of this study was to explore the 

intensity and directional interpretations of achievement goals 

within a group ofelite sports acrobats. This also included the 

examination of levels of compatibility and perceptual 

agreementbetween each individuals reported goal 

orientations and their partners perception of that individuals 

goalorientations The study consisted of72 elite sport acrobats 

comprising 36 pairs of 'tops' (m=13.9 years; S.D. =1.56) and 

36 'bases' (m= 19.1; S.D. =2.41) who completed one original 

andone partner perception version of the Perceptions of 

43 

Success Questionnaire (POSQ; Roberts et at, 1998). Each 

questionnaire also contained a directional subscale that asked 

acrobats to rate on a scale of +3 'very positive' to -3 'very 

negative' the degree to which they felt that their motivationrelated 

response to each POSQ item had a positive or negative 

affect on their performance as a pair. A series ofpaired t-tests 

revealed significant differences between 'bases' and 'tops' on 

both the intensity and direction ofactual and perceived partner 

goal orientations. Specifically, bases reported lower levels of 

ego orientation and higher levels oftask orientation than their 

respective partners. They also perceived their level of task 

orientation to be more positive to the performance as a pair 

than their respective tops. These selected findings demonstrate 

the importance of performer education about achievement 

goals in team sport or small group settings. They also 

reinforce the significance of the coach's role in both 

identifying and helping performers understand both 

compatibility and individual differences in the performance 

motives of athletes working together as a team. 

Training Motivation in Rugby: The Player's Perspective 

Natasha McCarroll & Ken Hodge, University of Otago, PO 

Box 56, Dunedin, NEW ZEALAND 

Previous research, while limited, has shown that athletes who 

adhere to their fitness training programmes do so for a number 

of reasons. While there is considerable research in sport 

psychology on motivation for performance, motivation for 

participation (Weiss & Chaumeton, 1992), and exercise 

motivation (Dishman & Buckworth, 1997), there has been 

little research completed in the area oftraining motivation. 

This longitudinal study investigated elite rugby players' 

perceptions of what influenced their training motivation over 

the length of a four month season. In order to address this 

issue qualitative methodologies were employed. Eight (n = 8) 

elite players from a professional rugby team in New Zealand 

were interviewed using a semi-structured interview guide. 

These players had considerable rugby playing experience (M 

= l6.6yrs; range 1O-21yrs). Each player participated in three 

in-depth interviews over the course ofthe season for the Super 

12 league: pre-season, mid-season and immediately prior to 

the end of the season. The interviews were transcribed 

verbatim and then content analysed using the procedures 

recommended by Cote, Salmela, Baria, and Russell (1993). 

Independent case studies were written for each player, 

followed by a cross-case analysis. Preliminary results revealed 

six consistent themes influencing players' training motivation: 

(1) Training Ethic; (2) Social Support; (3) Social 

Environment; (4) Extrinsic Factors; (5) Commitment Issues; 

and (6) Life Skills. These themes are discussed in light of 

existing research and motivational theory in the sport and 

exercise domain.


Athletic Scholarships andIntrinsic Motivation Revisited 

Vance Tammen, Russ Kagan, Kelly Halleckson, Amy 

Hutchings, Ball State University, USA 

It is now over 20 years since E. D. Ryan (1977; 1980) 

produced his seminal work on the effect of athletic 

scholarships on intrinsic motivation. In this body of work the 

research showed that football players on scholarship were less 

intrinsically motivated than wrestlers and volleyball players 

on scholarship. The purpose ofthis presentation was to 

replicate and extend that work with a current population. The 

extension ofthis research is to compare athletes at Division I 

NCAA schools that are on and not on scholarship with 

athletes at Division III NCAA schools that are not on 

scholarship. We used both cognitive evaluation and selfdetermination 

(Deci and Ryan, 1980, 1985, 1991) 

perspectives to guide this research. 170 athletes participants 

participated in this study (Div I = 121, Div III = 49). 

Participants completed the Sport Motivation Scale (Pelletier, 

et. al. 1995) to assess 7 dimensions of self-determination as 

the competence and enjoyment sections of the Intrinsic 

Motivation Inventory (McAuley, Duncan, & Tammen, 1989). 

Results showed no significant differences between Div I and 

Div III athletes on the perceptions of competence and 

enjoyment. Results also showed that Div I athletes on 

scholarship reported the highest levels of external regulation 

as compared to Div I athletes not on scholarship and Div III 

athletes. Results revealed no significant differences between 

males and females who are on scholarship. The self-report 

data report that many freshman athletes perceive the 

scholarship as information about their skills, whereas more 

upper classmen report the scholarship puts constraints on their 

behavior. Results are discussed in relation to selfdetermination 

theory and cognitive evaluation theory. 

A Theoretical Discussion on the Barriers to Measuring 

Intimidation in Sport 

Kelly A. Barnes, Josh Leal, and Mike Mrazek, Mayo Clinic 

Sports Medicine Center 

This presentation is to discuss and eventually define 

intimidation in sport and introduce measures ofintimidation. 

Barriers that arise when attempting to measure intimidation 

will be discussed. Intimidation and aggression will be 

compared. Presently, there is no clear definition of 

intimidation in sport psychology. While most researchers 

separate verbal intimidation from acts of violence (Trudel, 

Jean-Paul, & Dany, 1992), and examine verbal and physical 

intimidation separate from physical violence (Shields, 1999), 

others argue that injury and intimidation are caused by acts of 

aggression (Widmeyer & Birch, 1984). Most researchers 

agree that aggression is "behavior designed to harm another" 

(Widmeyer & Birch, 1984). Based upon Widmeyer's 

definition, it seems that intimidation and aggression are 

separate entities. For example, intimidation may be defined as 

the expression, with or without intent, to dominate and/or 

cause fear in an opponent by either exciting physical or 

psychosocial dominance with or without physical force. 

44 

Conversely, to be intimidated one might feel fear, weakness, 

frustration, and the inability to succeed in dominating 

opponents. We will discuss the efficacy of measuring 

intimidation in sport as expressed through recording of 

intimidating behaviors via video analysis, real time recording, 

and listening and observing in the locker room. Potential 

barriers that will arise during the measurement phase will be 

addressed. Furthermore, we will introduce a theoretical model 

to help guide future investigators interested in measuring 

intimidation. 

Problem Gambling: What's the Big Deal? 

Diane Davis Ashe, Valencia Community College, USA 

The issue of problem gambling has been largely neglected in 

the psychological literature when compared to the research, 

education, and treatment information available on other 

addictive behaviors. For this reason, many professionals 

would be unable to recognize a gambling problem should an 

athlete present the symptoms. Largely due to high-profile 

cases in recent years, the NCAA has begun to promote 

education on the dangers ofgambling with regard to potential 

penalties to the athlete or institution. This approach, however, 

does not address the reality that many ofthese athletes may 

meet the criteria for a compulsive gambling diagnosis. The 

purpose of this presentation is to provide an overview ofthe 

signs and symptoms of problem gambling. 

Reliability and Validity ofthe Drinking Motives 

Measure with Collegiate Athletes 

Matthew P. Martens and Richard H. Cox, University of 

Missouri-Columbia, Department of Educational and 

Counseling Psychology, Neils C. Beck, University of 

Missouri-Columbia School of Medicine, Department of 

Psychiatry and Neurology 

Research consistently indicates that college student-athletes in 

the United States consume more alcohol than their nonathlete 

counterparts (e.g., Leichliter et al., 1998; Wechsler et al., 

1997). While several theorists have attempted to explain this 

phenomenon (Marcello et al., 1989; Tricker et al., 1989), little 

empirical research has been conducted in this area. Cooper 

and her colleagues (1992; 1994) have demonstrated that a 20item, 

four-subscale, self-report measure of drinking motives, 

the Drinking Motives Measure (DMM), was useful in 

predicting alcohol use and abuse. It is possible that such a 

measure might be useful in research involving student 

athletes. The purpose of this study, then, was to assess the 

psychometric properties ofthe DMM on a sample of college 

student-athletes at a NCAA Division I university. Data were 

collected on 302 student-athletes at a large, Midwestern 

university. Internal consistency estimates for the four 

subscales ofthe DMM ranged from.77 to .92, indicating good 

internal consistency. A confirmatory factor analysis on the 

DMM indicated a good fit of the hypothesized model: 

Normed Fit Index = .96, Comparative Fit Index = .97, Root 

Mean Square Error ofApproximation = .08. Support for the 

predictive validity of the DMM was demonstrated via

hierarchical multiple regression analyses where the DMM 

factors yielded a significant increment in variance accounted 

for on four alcohol use variables, ranging from 13.2% to 

20.2%. The DMM, then, displayed sound psychometric 

properties on a sample of collegiate student-athletes, and 

appears to be a useful tool in alcohol research with this 

population. 

Working With Elite College Gymnasts: Defining our 

Role to Create a Win- Win situation 

Doug Hirschhorn, Heather Deaner, Tom Hill, West Virginia 

University, USA; Nicole Webber, Steve Portenga, University 

of Missouri - Columbia, USA 

Sport psychology consultants face a variety of challenges and 

opportunities, especially when working with female elite 

college gymnasts. Based upon the time we have spent with 

gymnasts and their coaches, we have expanded our 

perspective of what is helpful to be an effective consultant for 

this particular group of athletes. First, it is necessary to 

become comfortable with the ambiguity concerning our role 

and place on the team. We will discuss several important 

points to consider during this period of role clarification. 

Second, working with and through the coaches has facilitated 

some of our most effective work. By recognizing the strengths 

and needs of coaches, and by making our knowledge, our 

skills, and ourselves readily accessible to them, we have found 

that our work with coaches often results in more enduring 

positive experiential and performance outcomes for individual 

athletes as well as for the team. Third, our training and 

experience in counseling methods and performance 

excellence has been invaluable. Deficits in performance 

commonly result from coaching issues such as 

communication difficulties and conflict management; they 

also result from athlete issues such as self-esteem problems, 

relationship problems with parents and significant others, 

response to injury, burnout, and career termination. By 

combining our foundation in counseling with our skills as 

performance consultants, we have been able to effectively 

address these inevitable by-products of elite competition. 

Testing the Mediational Relationship ofClass Leader 

Behavior, Cohesion, andAdherence in Older Adult 

Exercisers 

Michelle M. Colman, Todd M. Loughead, and Albert V. 

Carron, University of Westem Ontario, London, Ontario, N6A 

3K7 

The purpose of this study was to determine if cohesion 

mediates the role that class leader behaviors play in exercise 

class adherence of older adult exercisers. Class leader 

behavior was operationalized as exercisers' perceptions of 

their instructors' enthusiasm, ability to motivate class 

members, availability outside of class, and class instruction 

(cf. Remers, Widmeyer, Williams, & Myers, 1995). Cohesion 

was operationalized as a multidimensional construct 

comprised of individual and group aspects, each of which has 

a task and social orientation (ct. Physical Activity Group 

2001 Conference Proceedings-Lectures 

Environment Questionnaire, Estabrooks & Carron, 2000). 

Adherence was operationalized as a multidimensional 

construct comprised of attendance and effort exerted. 

Participants included 117 older adult exercisers enrolled in 

various recreational programs. Barron and Kenny's (1986) 

prescription for testing for mediation effects were followed. A 

series of analyses supported the conclusion that the 

relationship between the behavior of an instructor and a class 

member's adherence is mediated by perceptions of class 

cohesiveness. Specifically, the results provided support for the 

following conclusions: (a) individual attractions to the grouptask 

served as a mediator between class leader motivation and 

perceived exertion, (b) individual attractions to the group-task 

served as a mediator between class leader availability and 

perceived exertion, (c) individual attractions to the group-task 

served as a mediator between class leader enthusiasm and 

attendance, and (d) group integration-task served as a 

mediator between class leader enthusiasm and attendance. 

The results are discussed in terms of their implications for 

understanding the adherence of older exercisers. 

The Impact ofPlaying Position on Perceptions of 

Horizontal Interpersonal Power in Sport 

Daniel L. Wann, Murray State University, USA 

Wann, Metcalf, Brewer, and Whiteside (2000) recently 

published their work on the development of the Power in 

Sport Questionnaire (PQS) which assesses five forms 

interpersonal power: reward, coercive, referent, legitimate, 

and expert. The current investigation extended the Wann et al. 

research by investigating perceptions of horizontal power 

among teammates. The theoretical model proposed by 

Whetten and Cameron (1984) was used to guide the 

predictions. They theorized that five characteristics of 

positions within an organizational system lead to increased , 

power among those occupying the positions: centrality, 

criticality, flexibility, visibility, and relevance. This prediction 

was tested using intramural flag football teams by 

hypothesizing that players would perceive their team's best 

quarterback as possessing greater amounts of power than their 

team's best offensive lineman. Participants completed a 

questionnaire packet containing two versions of the PSQ. In 

the first version of the PSQ, the respondents named their 

team's best quarterback and then completed the PSQ-O for 

this individual. The second version asked subjects to repeat 

the process for the individual they believed to be their team's 

best offensive lineman. A 2 (Target: quarterback and offensive 

lineman) x 5 (PSQ-O Subscale) within-subjects ANOVA 

yielded a significant target effect. As expected, quarterbacks 

were perceived of as possessing greater amounts of power 

than offensive linemen. The PSQ-O subscale effect was also 

significant, indicating that the targets were viewed as 

possessing differential levels of the forms of power. The main 

effects were qualified by a significant two-way interaction. 

Quarterbacks were viewed as possessing greater levels of 

reward, legitimate, and expert power than offensive linemen.


Expert Coaches' Perceptions ofTeam Building 

Gordon A. Bloom, McGill University, Montreal, PQ, Canada, 

H2W IS4; Diane E. Mack, Brock University, St. Catharines, 

ON, Canada, L2S 3AI; Tamara L. Wickwire, McGill 

University, Montreal, PQ, Canada, H2W IS4. 

Practitioners have adopted a strategy known as team building 

to promote consistent and effective teamwork in 

organizational settings. While team building intervention 

programs have received a great deal of support in business and 

industry, a small number of studies have assessed the benefits 

ofteam building intervention programs in a sport and exercise 

setting. To date, most of these programs have assessed 

athletes' perceptions of improved team functioning. However, 

the coach plays an invaluable role in the development of a 

team. Consequently, the perceptions of coaches should not be 

ignored. The purpose of this study was to: I) assess the 

perceptions of expert team sport coaches on the social 

environment of their team, specifically those related to the 

topic of team building, and 2) to create an understanding of 

team building strategies specific to elite sports. Focus group 

methodology was implemented in the current investigation 

with a group of intercollegiate coaches. Focus groups are a 

particularly appropriate procedure to use when the goal is to 

explain how people regard an experience, idea, or event. Five 

separate focus group sessions were carried out, with 5-7 

individuals participating in each session. The data were 

analyzed inductively using content analysis to determine the 

major themes and sub-themes (Krueger, 1998). Results are 

discussed in relation to the following topics that emerged from 

the analysis: the importance ofteam building, gender 

differences, the strategies used by coaches, the relationship 

between talent and cohesion, and sources of team building 

ideas. 

Leader Behaviors in PhysicalActivity Groups: An 

Application ofChelladurai's Multidimensional Model 

ofLeadership 

Paul Estabrooks, Jennie Hill, Sara Rosenkranz, Kansas State 

University, USA; Krista J. Munroe, University of Windsor, 

Canada 

Chelladurai (1990) proposed the Multidimensional Model of 

Leadership that included 5 five critical leader behaviorspositive 

feedback, social support, training/instruction, and 

democratic and autocratic leadership. The purpose of this 

study was to determine the relationship of participant 

perceptions and preference for the behaviors of a physical 

activity group leader with attendance and satisfaction. Based 

on previous research it was hypothesized that participant 

satisfaction and attendance would (1) be related to their 

perceptions of leader behavior, (2) would not be related 

participant preference for leader behavior, and (3) have the 

strongest relationships with the differential between 

participant perceptions and preferences. The participants were 

125 undergraduate students (82% female) participating in 4 

physical activity classes. The participants completed the 

Leader Behavior in Physical Activity Groups Survey and the 

Physical Activity Class Satisfaction Scale during the first 

week of classes. Class attendance was monitored for the 8weeks. 

Three regression analyses were performed for each 

dependent variable to test the study hypotheses. Regression 

analysis showed participant perceptions of leader behavior 

explained significant variance in attendance (R2=.06; 

F(I,1l6)=6.69, p

(TWSAS, Chuo & Lu, 2(00)prior to a regional Tug of War 

tournament in the southern Taiwan. Next, participants tested 

pulling performance both under individual and group 

conditions. Further, Tug of War's performance was assessed 

based on each team's competition records. Following a 

median split of reported GEQ and TWSAS values, 

participants were divided into high and low team cohesion and 

collective efficacy. A 2 by 2 ANOYA analyses found that 

participants high in collective efficacy exhibited high in Tug 

of War's performance but low in social loafing. However, 

participants' team cohesion was found to be no influence 

either on social loafing or Tug of War's performance. The 

authors discussed the implications in terms ofsocial 

psychology theories and psychometrics properties of the 

measurements. 

Knowledge and Perceptions ofSport Psychology 

Consultation in Trinidad and Tobago 

Margaret Ottley, Purdue University, Lafayette, IN, 

USA,47907-1239; Carole Oglesby, Temple University, 

Philadelphia, PA, USA, 19122 

The purpose of the study was to investigate the knowledge 

and perceptions of selected Trinidad and Tobago coaches and 

athletes regarding sport psychology consultation. Participants 

for the study, 18 years of age and older, were drawn from the 

following six major sports identified by the Trinidad and 

Tobago Olympic Committee (TIOC): cycling, field hockey, 

football (soccer), netball, rifle, and rugby. They were asked to 

complete two questionnaires: the Ottley Demographic 

Questionnaire (ODQ) and the Sullivan and Hodge (1991) 

Coaches and Athletes Survey (SHCAS). Descriptive analysis 

revealed that coaches and athletes varied in their knowledge of 

sport psychology. Coaches and athletes showed an overall 

need for knowledge based and culturally sensitive 

developmental programs in sport psychology. There was a 

perception that sport psychology services would contribute to 

the improvement of their sport performance. Despite some of 

the cultural issues, which will be suggested implications for 

sport psychology practitioners were generally encouraging. 

There was an overwhelming belief that sport psychology 

services were needed in Anglo-Caribbean. Possible 

explanations for these findings will be suggested. 

Professional Women Working in Sport Psychology: A 

Feminist Perspective 

Most sport psychology students and professionals would have 

a difficult time citing prominent women who have impacted 

the history and development of our field (Gill, 1995). While 

Gill (1995), in a provocative paper, outlined the research 

endeavors of various notable female scholars within the fields 

of psychology, physical education, and motor learning, no 

research has specifically explored women's experiences 

working in the field of sport psychology. Moreover, there is 

little overtly feminist research in the area of sport psychology 

(Fisher & Bredemeier, 2001, Gill, 1994, Krane, 1994; Roper, 

in press). Therefore, the purpose ofthis study was to explore 

47 


the specific factors that stimulated professional women's 

entrance into the field, their personal experiences working in 

the sport domain, any obstacles or barriers confronted during 

career development, and their alignment within feminism. The 

co-participants consisted of ten "professional" women 

working in the area ofsport psychology. The co-participants 

were interviewed using a semi-structured interview format 

(Patton, 1990). All of the interviews were transcribed 

verbatim and were then thematized according to Patton's 

criteria (1990). Such a study not only brings attention to the 

missing voices of women within sport psychology, but also 

provides a format within which to critically explore and 

challenge the patriarchal sport and educational systems that 

impact the future of our field. 

Cross-cultural Sport and Exercise Psychology: Still a 

Void in Research and Practice? 

Nilam Ram, University ofVirginia, Charlottesville, YA 

22903; Joanna Starek, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 

80309; Jay Johnson, Pratt Community College, Pratt, KS 

67124 

The impact of race, ethnicity, and culture on values, attitudes, 

group dynamics, and communication styles has been well 

documented in the sociology, psychology, and counseling 

literature. The sport and exercise psychology literature, 

however, has minimized the importance of these variables. A 

decade ago, in an attempt to identify and describe the crosscultural 

research in sport and exercise psychology, Duda and 

Allison (1990) analyzed the content of manuscripts published 

in the Journal ofSport Psychology between 1979 and 1987. 

They found that 96.2% ofempirical papers failed to report the 

race/ethnic composition ofthe study sample and that only one 

of 13 theoretical papers addressed the influence of race/ 

ethnicity on physical activity. In light of these findings the 

purpose of the current study was to determine how race, 

ethnicity, and culture have been addressed in the sport and 

exercise psychology literature during the last decade. The 

present study replicated and extended Duda and Allison's 

(1990) research by analyzing the content of 921 manuscripts 

published in the Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, the 

Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, and The Sport 

Psychologist between 1987 and 1999. Overall, we found that 

21% ofmanuscripts included references to race, ethnicity, 

culture, or sexual orientation. Detailed results demonstrate 

that, despite an increase in cross-cultural research and 

practice, there continues to be a void in the field. Researchers 

and practitioners are encouraged to incorporate appropriate 

questions, reporting, and sensitivity with regard to race, 

ethnicity, culture, and sexual orientation into their work. 

Sport Psychology Practitioners Attitudes Towards 

Multicultural Competencies in Working with Athletes 

David E. Marshall, University of Florida, USA 

Promoting the need for multicultural training within the 

framework of sport psychology training programs requires 

determining if exposure to multicultural concepts has an


influence upon the attitudes ofpractitioners. This presentation 

reports the results of a 34-item, 6-point Likert-type survey 

conducted upon sport psychology students and practitioners 

(N=202) attending the 2000 AAASP conference in Nashville. 

Items explored participants attitudes, knowledge, and 

experiences with multicultural competencies. Principle 

components analysis ofthe survey resulted in seven factors 

being retained for analysis. The retained factors were defined 

as l)communication style, 2)knowledge & skills, 3)athletic 

culture, 4)self-knowledge, 5)on-field behavior, 6)mental skills 

of minority athletes, 7)questionnaire comfort. An omnibus 

hypothesis test revealed significantly more pro-multicultural 

attitudes of practitioners coming from a mental health 

background as opposed to those from sport science training 

programs. Subsequent post-hoc tests also revealed 

professional experience in working with athletes contributed 

to more positive multicultural orientations across several 

factors. No significant differences were found between white 

practitioners and minority counterparts. Discussion relating to 

these results supports the position that multicultural training 

and experiences need to be incorporated into the certification 

criteria for sport psychology practitioners intending to work 

with athletes in applied settings. 

Electroencephalographic Measures ofImagery 

Perspectives in Expert and Novice Golfers During a 

Putting Task 

Cremades, J.G. Barry University, Miami Shores, USA 

A strategy being used by athletes to enhance their 

performance is imagery. In previous research studying 

imagery, Lang's (1979) Information-Processing Theory states 

two types ofpropositions: stimulus propositions (SP) and 

response propositions (RP). The beneficial use of imagery 

scripts emphasizing these propositions may depend on the 

skill level of the performer. The purpose of this study was to 

investigate differences in lower (8-10 Hz) and upper (10-13 

Hz) alpha activities during imagery emphasizing SP and 

imagery emphasizing RP as related to the skill level of the 

subjects. Twenty-two right-handed male subjects were 

assigned to either an "expert" (n=11) or a "novice" (n=l1) 

group. Lower and upper alpha activities from 6 active sites 

were recorded during imagery of a golf-putting task. After 

subsequent Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) analysis of results, 

mean lower and upper alpha power values were entered into 

separate repeated measures mixed model designs. Results 

revealed significant differences in skill level at the occipital 

sites in the lower alpha band. Significant differences were 

found in imagery perspective at the parietal, temporal, and 

occipital sites in the lower alpha band. Moreover, a significant 

interaction effect imagery perspective by hemisphere was 

found in the upper alpha band at the parietal site. In addition, a 

significant interaction between imagery perspective and skill 

level was found in the lower alpha band at the occipital site 

and in the upper alpha band at the parietal site. Conclusions 

are discussed based on the results and future research is 

suggested. 

48 

Application ofthe Biological Retroactive Connection in 

The Process ofCompetitive Stress Control 

Karapet Gevorgyan, Harutiun Babayan Scientific Center of 

Physical Culture and Sport, Armenian State Institute of 

Physical Culture, Yerevan, Armenia 

In our investigation the stress reactions were considered to 

take place in these systems: vegetative, behavior and 

cognitive. The work was carried out at a combined-team of 

wrestlers of 25 persons. In the process the athlete's 

psychological training for the competitions we applied 

variants of verbal methods of suggestion and autosuggestion: 

aimed at over coming the training tasks and adapting to the 

competitive situation. The psycho regulation was carried out 

combined with the biological retroactive connection (BRC), 

the exponents of which reflected the efficiency of each 

suggestion stage: Each psycho regulation stance consisted of 

3 stages a) Relaxation-inclination (5-7 min.). b) The 

respective state suggestion (10-12 min.), c) mobilizationinstruction 

(3-5 min.). The BRC complex included the 

following parameters: electro skin resistance, alpha rhythm, 

electromyography, skin temperature and pulse. All the 

exponents were fixed on the light-table at the same time. On 

the screams the apparatus visually gave were fixed 

immediately before the relaxation and after each abovementioned 

stance stages. The result of the combination ofthe 

BRC with psycho regulation stance in the progress of the 

athlete's psychological training enabled us to conclude: The 

BRC parameters are the indicators of the relaxation stance 

efficiency for the athlete. 

Effects ofAlpha Wave Biofeedback Training on Air 

Pistol Shooting Performance 

Jingu Kim Kyungpook National University, Korea, & Shane 

G. Frehlich, State University of New York, College at 

Cortland, USA 

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness 

of an alpha brain wave training device on shooting 

performance in novice air pistol shooters. The alpha wave 

training device (Q-jumpr alpha wave biofeedback, Changsei, 

Korea) is designed to monitor the participant's frontal brain 

activity (e.g., F7, F8, Fpl, and Fp2), and contains a series of 

programs designed to help the subject stimulate and regulate 

their own alpha brain wave activity. Forty-five university 

students were randomly assigned to one ofthree experimental 

conditions: (1) alpha wave biofeedback training (using the Qjumpr 

device), (2) GSR training, or (3) a control group. 

Subjects in each experimental group received 10 min of 

respective training 4 times per week for 3 weeks. The task 

used in this experiment was an air pistol shooting task to a 

target positioned 5m from the participant. As each participant 

completed their respective training programs, they performed 

4 trial blocks of 5 shots in the acquisition phase of the 

experiment, and 2 trial blocks of 5 shots during the retention 

phase of the experiment. It was hypothesized that subjects in 

the alpha brain wave training group would outperform those 

in the biofeedback training and control conditions. Results

indicated that participants who used the alpha brain wave 

training device did indeed demonstrate a significant decrease 

in both the variable error and absolute error aspects of their 

performance, The findings support the notion that regulation 

of alpha brain wave activity is positively related to 

performance enhancement in an air pistol shooting task. 

Metamotivational Style Profiles ofElite-women Foil 

Fencers and Implications for Performance 

Enhancement and Coaching 

Jay T. Lee, Lamar University, USA; Dale G. Pease, University 

of Houston, USA; John Heil, Lewis-Gale Clinic, USA; Lee 

Branum-Martin, Danny Hughes, University of Houston, USA 

This study, examining the metamotivational styles of elite 

fencers, was part of a larger study that examined the cognitive 

and affective substrates of psychological states linked to 

successful fencing in elite fencers during competitive bouts. 

Metamotivational profiles were developed from the Apter 

Motivational Style Profile c (AMSP). Several weeks prior to a 

national tournament, six elite-women foil fencers volunteered 

to participate. A month prior to the tournament the athlete's 

completed the AMSP. The resulting data identified individual 

state dominance (relative preference for one state of a pair 

versus the other state) and salience (facility ofreversal). The 

metamotivational pairs include; I) telic/paratelic; 2) 

negativism/conformist; 3) auticlalloic master, and; 4) auticl 

alloic sympathy. Spider charts were created allowing 

researchers to portray dominance scores within a pair ofstates 

as two points along a single axis. Additionally, each axis of the 

four pairs is displayed within a single graph, resulting in a 

dominance "profile" of each fencer. Some interesting 

comparisons revealed that the three highest ranked fencers 

exhibited strikingly similar dominance profiles, especially 

when compared to the three lower ranked fencers. The 

dominance and salience profiles reflect a balance across all 

states except for remarkably low scores on the paratelic and 

the negativistic dimensions. The fencers' profiles will be 

presented as well as conjecture on how the profiles are related 

to fencing performance. The implication of AMSP profiles for 

coaching and consulting for performance enhancement will be 

detailed. 

Influences on Women's Maintenance ofVigorous and 

Moderate Physical Activity 

Marie Dacey, Boston University, USA 

The purpose of this descriptive study was to explore 

differences in influences on women's long-term maintenance 

of vigorous versus moderate physical activity. Participants 

were a community sample of 92 healthy women (mean age 47 

years) in the maintenance stage of physical activity behavior 

(six months to more than five years). Fifty-four women who 

met the ACSM criteria of aerobic activity three times weekly 

were assigned to the 'vigorous' group, and thirty-eight women 

who met the current ACSM/CDC guidelines ofmoderate 

activity five days weekly comprised the 'moderate' group. All 

participants completed Processes ofChange and Self-Efficacy 

'49 


scales, and t-test comparisons were made between the two 

groups. Overall results support previous findings for 

maintenance stage process utilization in vigorous exercise 

(Marcus et al. 1992, 1996). Processes reported most often 

used by both groups were Counterconditioning, Selfliberation, 

and Self-reevaluation. Also, a high degree of 

exercise specific self-efficacy was reported by both groups. 

However, vigorous participants reported a significantly higher 

use of Counterconditioning (p=.OO4), and a higher degree of 

self-efficacy (p=.009) compared to moderate participants. 

Follow-up open-ended interviews (4 vigorous, 4 moderate) 

were conducted with a purposeful sampling. The interview 

findings support the quantitative results, and they also suggest 

that immediate gratification rather than consideration of the 

long-term health benefits may be a primary influence upon 

maintenance. Further, vigorous participants reported notable 

determination associated with exercise, while the moderate 

participant reported adopting physical activity as a choice to 

maintain general well-being. Implications for exercise modespecific 

interventions to increase maintenance will be 

discussed. 

Lazarus' Model ofEmotion as a Frameworkfor 

Examining the Antecedents ofCompetitive State selfconfidence 

with Endurance Athletes 

Jon Hammermeister, Eastern Washington University, USA; 

Damon Burton, University of Idaho, USA 

Most existing research on antecedents of self-confidence 

(Bandura, 1977; Vealey, Hayashi, Garner-Holman, & 

Giacobbi, 1998) has focused on long-term self-confidence 

development processes rather than acute antecedents ofselfconfidence 

in a particular competition. This exploratory 

investigation examined the value of using Lazarus' (1991; 

Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) stress model, (i.e., primary 

appraisal, secondary appraisal, and perceived coping) to 

identify the antecedents of self-confidence for endurance 

athletes. The Lazarus' model of emotion seems to be a viable 

framework for examining the antecedents of self-confidence 

in endurance competitions for two reasons. First, Lazarus' 

model has been shown to be particularly useful in specifying 

the antecedents of endurance athletes' competitive anxiety 

(Hammermeister & Burton, 200 1). Second, Martens, Burton, 

and Vealey (1990) have demonstrated a significant 

relationship between competitive anxiety and self.-confidence. 

This study also assessed whether endurance athletes with 

qualitatively similar levels of self-confidence demonstrate 

differential antecedent profiles. Participants were 175 

triathletes, 70 distance runners, and 70 cyclists who completed 

stress and self-confidence related questionnaires 1-2 days 

prior to competition and the CSAI-2 approximately one hour 

before competing. Results revealed that all three components 

of Lazarus' stress model predicted self-confidence better than 

did individual model components. Moreover, perceived threat 

accounted for a greater percentage of variance in selfconfidence 

score than did perceived control or coping 

resources. Cluster analyses revealed distinct antecedent 

profiles for high, moderate, low, and "repressed" confidence


endurance athletes, suggesting that multiple antecedent 

profiles may exist for self-confidence in athletes competing in 

endurance sports. 

The Sport Grid-Revised as a Measure ofFelt Arousal 

and Cognitive Anxiety 

D. Gant Ward and Richard H. Cox, University of Missouri 

Columbia, Columbia, MO, USA, 65203 

Studies that have tested catastrophe theory in an applied 

setting have utilized short versions ofthe CSAI-2 to measure 

cognitive and somatic anxiety. This practice, however, has 

been fraught with problems as the two constructs are not 

independent. A promising inventory for measuring cognitive 

anxiety and arousal is the Sport Grid. A shortcoming, 

however, of the Sport Grid is its inability to measure cognitive 

anxiety as a construct independent of self-confidence. To 

address this shortcoming, the Sport Grid was revised (Sport 

Grid-R) to measure cognitive anxiety and felt arousal as 

independent constructs. The purpose of this investigation was 

to measure the concurrent validity of the Sport Grid and the 

Sport Grid-R relative to the CSAI-2, and to investigate the 

construct validity of the two inventories. Two hundred and 

twelve college-age male and female intramural athletes 

(basketball and volleyball) completed the Sport Grid or the 

Sport Grid-R and the CSAI-2 approximately 10-min prior to 

competition. Results showed that felt arousal as measured by 

the Sport Grid and the Sport Grid-R are not related to somatic 

anxiety. Furthermore, cognitive anxiety (CSAI-2) was 

observed to be moderately correlated with worry (r = .41) as 

measured by the Sport Grid-R, but not with thoughts/feelings 

as measured by the Sport Grid. In terms ofscale 

independence, results showed that the Sport Grid constructs of 

felt arousal and thoughts/feelings were correlated (r = .35), 

whereas the Sport Grid-R constructs of felt arousal and worry 

were not (r= .11). 

The Effects ofSport and Fitness Advertising on Social 

Physique Anxiety Among Females 

Catherine Sabiston and Krista Munroe, University of 

Windsor, Canada 

The purpose of this investigation was to examine the effects of 

sport and fitness advertising on females' self-reported social 

physique anxiety. Social physique anxiety is the apprehension 

that individuals report pertaining to public observation or 

evaluation of their figures or physiques (Petrie, Diehl, Rogers, 

& Johnson, 1996). Female undergraduate students (N=230, 

mean age 20.31, sd 2.64) were randomly assigned to three 

groups: product-only advertising exposure, model-only sport 

advertising exposure, or a no exposure control group. 

Participants completed the 9-item Social Physique Anxiety 

Scale (SPAS; Martin, Rejeski, Leary, McAuley, & Bane, 

1997) during a pre-test. This modified scale has been deemed 

a unidimentional model representing an adequate fit to the 

original 12-item SPAS (Hart, Leary, & Rejeski, 1989). One 

month following the pre-test the participants were 

conditionally exposed to the product-only sport advertising, 

50 

model-only sport advertising, or the no exposure control, and 

again completed the SPAS. The results of the repeated 

measures analysis indicated a main effect for time (F=8.633, p 

< 0.005) and a main effect for group (F==4.885, p < 0.01), 

however there was no significant interaction effect. 

Implications for exercise and health psychology include the 

importance of considering the influence of the pervasiveness 

of sport and fitness advertisements on measures of body 

consciousness, including but not limited to public and private 

aspects of the physical self. It is important to study the effects 

of sport advertising images on the physical self to determine 

whether sport and fitness advertising is enhancing lifestyles 

and health or acting as a potential deterrent to current and 

prospective participants. 

Toward an Understanding ofthe Development ofAnger 

in Sport Using a Soccer Example 

Russell Medbery, The American Sport Education Program 

(ASEP), Champaign, IL, USA 61821-5076 

Emotions are an integral aspect of sport participation (Hanin, 

2000; Gould & Tuffey, 1996; Vallerand, 1983). In many ways 

the role of the sport psychology consultant is to teach athletes 

how to control, harness, and direct emotions. This workshop 

focuses specifically on the emotion of anger and its 

developmental changes in the context ofsport. The workshop 

is based on research of the main author in the context of 

soccer. Specifically, an adaptation of Dupont's (1994) model 

of emotional development will be presented. This model is 

used as a framework to describe the events, appraisals, 

feelings, and behaviors associated with anger. The specific 

components of anger will be discussed from a developmental 

perspective using soccer specific examples. The workshop 

will culminate with a strategy for teaching athletes to 

understand and use their emotions in a constructive manner. 

Athletes-as-citizensZ:A Qualitative Investigation of 

Athletes' Perceptions and Experiences ofPower and 

Politics 

Ted M. Butryn, San Jose State University, USA 

Ingham, Blissmer, and Wells Davidson (1999) have argued 

that those working within applied sport psychology should 

consider the sociocultural and political environments in which 

athletes exist. Butryn (2000) further suggested that a "critical 

sport psychology" might contribute to greater athlete agency. 

In response to the above concerns, the purpose of this study 

was to qualitatively examine how intercollegiate athletes 

perceive and experience power and politics in both sport and 

society, and how their views of these interrelated phenomena 

contribute to a greater or lesser sense of agency and 

democratic engagement. In-depth interviews (McCracken, 

1988) were conducted with 20 Division I college studentathletes 

(ten men and ten women) from several sports. 

Interview transcripts were returned to athletes for review and 

for any additional comments, and then subjected to critical, 

interpretive analysis (Sparkes, 1992). The following themes 

emerged regarding athletes' general political views: 1)

atomistic detachment, 2) superficial engagement: soundbytes 

and bylines, and 3) substantive engagement: active/vocal 

participation. With respect to their sporting experiences, 

themes included: I) self-centered expression/suppression, 2) 

"message" expression/suppression, and 3) hegemonic 

conformity. The results of this study will contribute to the 

applied field's knowledge of the ways that athletes perceive 

and experience power and politics within the context of sport. 

Results will also allow consultants to more confidently treat 

the "athlete-as-person" while hopefully facilitating their 

efforts in becoming socially aware and politically active 

members of a democratic society. Finally, this study 

represents an attempt to address the disconnect between sport 

psychology and sport sociology. 

Awareness and Use ofSport Psychology in Professional 

Athletics 

Edmund A. O'Connor, Jr., Rehabilitation Professionals, USA; 

Dan Kirschenbaum, Center for Behavioral Medicine, USA 

Critical themes emerging from every AAASP conference 

include the importance of educating athletic organizations 

about sport psychology and marketing AAASP Certification. 

Ninety team administrators from the NFL, NBA, and NHL 

were contacted via multiple mailings with information about 

sport psychology and how to find a qualified sport psychology 

consultant. A survey investigating their knowledge ofsport 

psychology, AAASP, and AAASP Certification as well as 

their desired and current utilization of services was also 

included. All respondents indicated that they were familiar 

with sport psychology, but only 21.4% were familiar with 

AAASP or AAASP Certification. None of the organizations 

that have employed a consultant indicated that he or she was 

Certified by AAASP. These team officials wanted help from 

sport psychologists mostly with recovery from injury and 

assistance with adjustment (e.g., depression, anxiety). The 

psychological aspect of performance most often endorsed as 

needing improvement was consistency. Services were 

preferred as individual meetings, at the practice site or training 

facility, during the season, by a consultant to the team. 

Suggestions for increasing the visibility of AAASP and 

AAASP Certification are discussed. 

The Marketing ofSport Psychology: An Ethical 

Dilemma? 

AJ. Ploszay and Doug Molnar, University of Tennessee, USA 

Sport psychology has made strides in the course of its limited 

history to gain respect and acceptance. However, the 

professional preparation of the sport psychologist has been 

directed toward a university-based career (DeFrancesco & 

Cronin, 1988). The growing interest in the academic and 

athletic worlds for applied sport psychology work has 

highlighted the need to change how we educate and promote 

ourselves to the public. One ofthe means through which sport 

psychology can address this issue is by utilizing marketing. 

Sport psychology, it appears, has a narrow view of marketing. 

There are three basic reasons for this assertion. One, 

51 


marketing classes are not a requirement in the vast majority of 

curriculums. Two, there is a dearth ofresearch on the 

application of marketing in sport psychology; only one article 

has been published to date (DeFrancesco & Cronin, 1988). 

Finally, the current AAASP ethical guidelines treat marketing 

superficially. Perceptions of sport psychology's current target 

markets appear to be quite favorable (Silva, 1984). 

Nonetheless, if people do not know about the service or are 

not aware ofwhere to get help, this limits the marketability of 

the discipline. In order to succeed, the professional service 

provider needs to accept marketing as part of his or her 

practice philosophy (Crane, 1993). This is a point that should 

not be lost on the sport psychology community. However, 

ethics dictate that only actual problems be diagnosed and 

treated (Kotler, 1984). Without more detailed ethical 

guidelines the use of marketing will continue to be 

problematic. 

When the Cheering Stops: Adjustmentto LifeAfter 

College Basketball 

Andrew Kolbasovsky, M.A. University of Hartford, & Allen 

E. Cornelius, Ph.D., Center for Performance Enhancement 

and Applied Research, Springfield College 

This study's purpose was to examine mood changes in male 

college basketball players and male college students related to 

leaving college and to examine whether male basketball 

players experience greater negative mood changes than male, 

non-athlete, college students. Athletic identity, income level, 

and other life events (not related to leaving college/basketball) 

were examined to determine whether they were related to the 

mood changes of college basketball players after leaving 

college. Participants were 26 Division I, male, college 

basketball playing seniors and 19 male, college seniors 

enrolled in Division I schools. Participants completed a 

battery of questionnaires during the last semester of college 

and again the following August. Results of a 2 x 2 mixed 

factorial MANCOVA (athlete/non-athlete x assessment time 

with life stress as a covariate) indicated that the mood changes 

exhibited by college basketball players were not significantly 

different from those of college students. However, both groups 

of students showed significantly lower levels ofpositive affect 

after finishing college than they did during their senior year 

(F(l,42)= 9.92, p


An In-Depth Analysis OfThe Development Of 

Professional Ice Hockey Players 

Peter Soberlak and Jean Cote, Queen's University, Canada 

The purpose of this study was to analyze the development of 

four 20 year-old professional hockey players through an indepth 

examination oftheir sporting activities. The theoretical 

framework of deliberate practice (Ericsson, Krampe & Tesch 

Romer, 1993) and the notion of deliberate play (Cote" 1999) 

served as the theoretical foundations for the design of the 

methodology. Interviews were conducted to provide a 

longitudinal and detailed account of each participant's 

involvement in various sporting activities (Cote, Beamer, & 

Ericsson 2001). The interviewer also asked questions about 

the conditions and sporting activities for each year of 

development, such as the number of hours spent in each type 

of sporting activity and parental involvement in each activity. 

The data obtained was validated through independent 

interviews conducted with three parents of three different 

players. The results were consistent with Cote's three stages of 

development in sport: the sampling (age 6-12), specializing 

(age 13-15), and investment (age 16+) years. During the 

sampling years the hockey players were involved in a variety 

of different sports and a high amount of deliberate play 

activities. The specializing years were characterized by 

athletes' increased involvement in deliberate practice activity 

and reduction of deliberate play activities. The investment 

years marked a period of full commitment to hockey and 

athletes' devotion to deliberate practice activities. 

Developing Positive Coach-Athlete Relationships With 

Male and Female Athletes: Approaches Used by 

Successful Collegiate Coaches 

Nicole Kulikov and Wade Gilbert, California State University, 

Fresno, USA 

The purpose of this study was to describe the coaching 

approaches used by successful collegiate coaches who coach 

male and female athletes concurrently. A qualitative multiple 

case study approach was used with four cross-country/track & 

field teams. The 12 participants included four coaches (two 

male/ two female) and eight athletes (four male/ four female). 

The coaches had between 16 and 41 years of experience, and 

had numerous prestigious coaching awards, including 

conference and region Coach of the Year, and held high 

leadership roles in NCAA and USA Track & Field. Data were 

collected using semi-structured interviews, team documents, 

and the Leadership Scale for Sports (LSS). Validity was 

addressed through peer debriefing, triangulation of 

participants and data, and member checks. Data were 

organized into five categories: (1) personal philosophy on 

being a successful coach, (2) the coach-athlete relationship, 

(3) athlete gender differences, (4) leadership style, and (5) 

characteristics of successful athletes. Two of these categories, 

the coach-athlete relationship and athlete gender differences, 

will be discussed. The coaches cited open communication 

with their athletes and getting the athletes to trust them and 

their system as two of the main components of a positive 

52 

coach-athlete relationship. Although the coaches 

acknowledged psychosocial gender differences in their male 

and female athletes, they rarely adapted their coaching 

approaches to accommodate these differences. Furthermore, 

coach and athlete gender differences for desired coaching 

approach were evident. 

Coaches' and Performers' Attributionsfor Significant 

Sport Outcomes: Potentialfor Compatibility or 

Conflict? 

Stuart J.H. Biddle, Loughborough University, UK; 

Christopher N. Sellars, University of Huddersfield, UK 

Little research has considered the compatibility of attributions 

made by sports coaches and performers. The purpose of this 

study was to examine the pattern of attributions made by 

coaches and their performers for real life sport outcomes. 

Attributions can be classified along a number of causal 

dimensions (Hewstone, 1989: Causal Attribution. Oxford: 

Blackwell), with these dimensional qualities having been 

shown to influence subsequent emotions, cognitions and 

behaviours (Weiner, 1992: Human Motivation. Calif.: Sage). 

Attributions made by 8 track & field, coach-performer dyads 

were collected over 9 months using post-event attribution logs 

and monthly, semi-structured interviews. Coding ofinterview 

data was undertaken using methods proposed by Stratton and 

colleagues (Stratton et al., 1988: Leeds Attributional Coding 

System (LACS) Manual. Leeds: LFTRC). Group data did not 

support the actor-observer difference suggested by Rejeski's 

(1979: Journal ofSport Behavior, 2, 156-166) model of 

attributional conflict. However, at the level of the individual 

dyad, members of a number ofdyads differed in relation to the 

use ofseveral causal dimensions (primarily stability, globality, 

and locus of causality). These findings are discussed in 

relation to the differential selection of causal agents and 

targets (Munton et al., 1999: Attributions in Action: A 

Practical Approach to Coding Qualitative Data, Chichester: 

Wiley). 

The Role ofParents in the Development ofYoung 

Brazilian Athletes in Soccer 

Andre Scotti Rabelo, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, 

Belo Horizonte, Brazil, 31.310-250; Luiz Carlos Moraes, 

Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, 

Brazil, 31.310-250; John H. Salmela, Ottawa University, 

Ottawa, KIN 6N5. 

The purpose of this study was to investigate the role ofparents 

in the development of young Brazilian soccer athletes, during 

initial and middle development stage. Thirteen parents of 

soccer athletes, age 15-18, ofthe three best state teams, 

participated in this study. Data were collected through semistructured, 

in-depth interview, face-to-face and individually 

and a form with various possible levels of parents involvement 

in their children sports, similar to Davidson et al (1996). The 

research's results with parents were: 57% had no involvement 

with classes, after age 11 it raised to 87%, 94% declared their 

children entirely self-motivated to play soccer; 70% only

asked about practice session; 50% were present in 

competition in the initial phase, and then watched on TV, if 

broadcasted; 82% declared that their children entirely 

dedicated to play soccer in free time; 90% didn't modify 

family schedules and priorities. These results are accorded to 

Moraes, Salmela, Rabelo, & Vianna Junior (2000), where the 

athletes, declared lack of support. Davidson et al (1996) with 

musicians and Cote (1999), with sports, observed a high 

parent's involvement during initial and middle stage of 

development, what seems to be a middle class sport 

characteristics in Brazil, as in rhythmic gymnastic (Vianna 

Junior, Moraes, Salmela e Mourth., 2001). Soccer is a sport of 

passion in the Brazilian culture, and a way to climb the social 

and economical aspects, for poor families. 

Relationships among Psychological Skills, Athletic 

Performance, and Flow Experiences 

Joe Chiao-Ling Nieh and Frank Jing-Homg Lu, National 

College of Physical Education and Sports, Taiwan 

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships 

among psychological skills, athletic performance, and flow 

experiences. This study sampled 216 intercollegiate athletes 

(males::::132; females::::84)withmean age of 21.58 (SD::::2.08). 

Participants completed Athlete Coping Scale Inventory-28 

(ACSI-28, Smith, Schutz, Smoll, & Ptacek, 1995) and 

demographic data one month ago prior to an intercollegiate 

athletic meet in Taiwan. After competition, participants 

completed Flow State Scale (FSS, Jackson & Marsh, 

1996)and reported their competition results. Correlative 

analyses indicated that psychological skills, athletic 

performance, and flow experiences were all positively 

correlated. Further, stepwise regression analysis also found 

goal setting was the strongest predictor of athletic 

performance. Moreover, canoical correlation analyses 

revealed that three psychological skills (coping with adversity, 

peaking under pressure, and confidence) were associated with 

four factors of flow experiences (concentration, feedback, 

autotelic experience, loss of self-consciousness, and 

transformation oftime.) This study suggested that 

strengthening in psychological skills can not only enhance 

athletic performance but also facilitate flow experience. 

Cohesion and the U.S. Women's Olympic Ice Hockey 

Team 

Peter Haberl, U.S. Olympic Committee, Colorado Springs, 

CO 80901, USA; Leonard Zaichkowsky, Boston University, 

Boston, MA 02215 

The purpose ofthis study was to investigate the perceived 

level of cohesion, the sources of cohesion and the perceived 

effect of cohesion on performance on the 1998 U.S. Women's 

Olympic Ice Hockey Team. To gain a better understanding of 

cohesion at the Olympic level, in-depth interviews using a 

structured interview guide were conducted with all 20 team 

members. Hierarchical content analysis procedures were used 

to analyze the qualitative interview data. Method 

triangulation, source triangulation, analyst triangulation and 

53 


member checking were utilized to strengthen the credibility of 

the interview data. Results showed that the U.S. Women's 

Olympic Ice Hockey Team was a highly cohesive unit during 

the 1998 Olympic Winter Games, both from a social and from 

a task perspective. This high level of cohesion was 

significantly different from the levels of cohesion achieved by 

previous Women's National Ice Hockey Teams. Perceived 

sources ofcohesion included the commitment to the common 

goal, mutual trust and acceptance, the team make-up, shared 

sacrifice, team-building activities and coaching actions. From 

the team members' perspective, this high level of cohesion 

played a crucial role in performance success. The cohesive 

atmosphere on the team fostered mutual support and 

dedication to the team goal, nurtured a winning attitude, a 

sense of determination, and positively affected trust and 

confidence. 

The Use ofImagery in Indoor Group Cycling 

Kim Thompson, Natalie Durand-Bush, Tracey O'Sullivan, 

University of Ottawa, Canada 

Indoor group cycling has become a popular type of group 

exercise (IDEA Health and Fitness Source, July-Aug. 2000). 

With the use of music, an instructor leads the group on 

stationary bicycles by making suggestions about varying 

terrain or the intensity and duration of workout bouts. The use 

of imagery in indoor group cycling is an integral part of many 

instructor-training programs (Cycle Reebok Instructor 

Manual, 1996; Johnny G. Spinning Instructor Manual, 1999), 

although there is little research to suggest which type of 

imagery is mostly used and deemed effective by instructors. 

The purpose of this study was to determine the type of 

imagery cues given by two different indoor group cycling 

instructors, and their perceived effectiveness for enhancing the 

exercise experience. Each instructor completed an initial 

questionnaire, conducted three indoor group cycling classes 

that were recorded on videotape, and participated in a final 

interview. Results revealed that many types ofimagery cues 

were given by the instructors. They pertained to (a) effort / 

intensity, (b) motivation, (c) situational context, (d) body 

awareness, (e) skill orientation, (f) concentration, (g) 

association / dissociation, and (h) relaxation / recovery. Within 

the motivation category, additional sub-categories ofcues 

related to mastery sensations, peak performance, and efficacybuilding. 

The cues that were given most frequently were those 

pertaining to effort / intensity and motivation. To our 

knowledge, our study is the first to be conducted on the use of 

imagery in indoor group cycling. Implications for instructortraining 

programs and future research will be discussed. 

Evaluating the Delivery, Content, andEffectiveness ofa 

Season-Long Sport Psychology Program With a 

National Champion Intercollegiate Ice Hockey Team: 

The Athletes' Perspective 

John G.H. Dunn & Nicholas L. Holt, University ofAlberta, 

Canada


This study examined athletes' perceptions of a season-long 

sport psychology program that was delivered to a men's 

national championship-winning varsity hockey team. Twenty 

seven athletes (Mean age =22.37 years) voluntarily 

participated in semi-structured post-season interviews. 

Interviews were transcribed and analyzed using the tenets of 

grounded theory methodology (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). This 

paper focuses exclusively on athletes' responses pertaining to 

the weekly team meetings that they experienced throughout 

the season. Results are presented in the form of a process 

model that provides: (a) a description of actual team meeting 

content; (b) athletes' perceptions ofthe delivery (i.e, format), 

content (i.e., focus) and effectiveness (i.e., outcome) of 

regular-season and play-offmeetings; (c) athletes' perceptions 

of the delivery, content, and effectiveness ofteam meetings 

held during five days at the national tournament; and (d) 

athletes' recommendations for future programs. A processvariable 

describing how athletes "got on board" or "bought 

into" the program emerged from the data and is embedded 

within the model. Examples of higher order inductivelyderived 

themes describing program delivery factors include 

perceptions ofcoaches' involvement at team meetings and the 

time demands of team meetings. Examples of higher order 

themes pertaining to the effectiveness (i.e., outcome) of 

meetings include enhanced individual and team confidence, 

enhanced awareness/understanding ofpersonal and team 

issues, and enhanced team cohesion. A number ofthe delivery 

and effectiveness categories are discussed in the context of 

Hardy's (1990) recommendations for counteracting social 

loafing in team sport settings. 

The Influence ofan Imagery Workshop on Patterns of 

Imagery Use by Basketball Players 

Jennifer Cumming, Carla Sordoni, Craig Hall, Chris 

Shambrook, University ofWestern Ontario, Canada 

The purpose of the study was to examine the influence of an 

imagery workshop on patterns ofimagery use with 36 female 

basketball players from three different levels of a high school 

league: bantam, midget, and juvenile. The basketball players 

participated in a workshop designed to teach them how to use 

mental imagery and effectively incorporate their imagery 

skills within their daily training routine. Two different types of 

self-report measures were used to assess patterns ofimagery 

use over a 6-week period following the imagery workshop. 

The Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ; Hall, Mack, Paivio, & 

Hausenblas, 1998) was given to the players prior to the start of 

the workshop, and three weeks and six weeks following the 

workshop. The players also recorded the frequency, duration, 

content, and effectiveness oftheir imagery use in a training 

diary. Analysis ofthe SIQ revealed that the basketball players 

significantly increased their imagery use for the six week 

period following the imagery workshop, and higher level 

players used more imagery than lower level players. 

Conversely, analysis ofthe imagery diaries revealed that lower 

level players reported using imagery more frequently and of a 

longer duration than the higher level players. An open-ended 

questionnaire given to the players following the completion of 

54 

the study provided insight into the players' perceptions of the 

barriers ofincorporating imagery into their daily training, as 

well as the improvements that resulted in their performance. 

The Effectiveness ofa Goal Setting Intervention in 

Enhancing Women's Self-Efficacy to Overcome 

Exercise Barriers 

Kimberly S. Hurley, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 

USA, 47907; Laura Finch, Western Illinois University, 

Macomb, IL, USA, 61455 

Personal goal setting for exercise participation may impact a 

person's sense of control by fostering activity persistence and 

facilitating the development of new or alternative strategies to 

reach one's goals (Locke & Latham, 1985). The purpose of 

this study was to determine ifgoal-setting educational 

sessions would enhance women's self-efficacy to overcome 

exercise barriers. Three educational sessions were developed 

to teach effective goal setting techniques (Gould, 1998). 

Women participants (N =34) were recruited from a 

community running program. The treatment group (n =17) 

received three goal-setting sessions while the control group (n 

=17) received generic exercise information. The Efficacy for 

Exercise Barriers Scale (EEBS) was administered to all 

participants at baseline, the final program meeting, and four 

weeks post-program to assess changes in efficacy due to the 

goal-setting intervention, the running program, or both. The 

participants' weekly exercise goals were assessed for the 

effectiveness criteria that were presented in detail to the 

treatment group. Results from 2 (group) x 3 (time) repeated 

measures ANOVAS revealed no between group differences 

for self-efficacy or goal effectiveness criteria. However, a 

significant time effect for self-efficacy was observed, F (2, 32) 

=8.95, P < .001. Women's self-efficacy scores improved 

across the three measurement intervals. Although the goalsetting 

intervention did not provide enhancement in selfefficacy 

over that of the control setting, several women in the 

intervention group expressed satisfaction with the educational 

sessions. 

The Influence ofTask Value and Expectancies for 

Success on Athletes'Achievement Behaviors 

Anne E. Cox and Diane E. Whaley, University ofVirginia, 

USA 

This study examined the relationships among male and female 

athletes' expectancies for success, subjective task value, 

achievement behaviors and athletic identity using Eccles' 

(1983) expectancy-value model of achievement behaviors. 

High school varsity basketball players (n =99 males, 90 

females) and their coaches participated in the study. Athletes 

completed questionnaires that assessed expectancies for 

success, incentive value (intrinsic and extrinsic rewards), 

attainment value, utility value, cost and basketball identity. 

The coaches rated each of their players on levels ofeffort and 

persistence based on their behavior in practice and games 

throughout the season. Higher expectancies for success, 

intrinsic rewards, and utility value were related to greater

levels of effort and persistence in males and females. Higher 

attainment value was related to more effort and persistence in 

males, and less effort and persistence in females. Basketball 

identity moderated the relationships among self- and task 

beliefs and effort/persistence for females, but not for males. 

The study supported and extended the use of Eccles' model in 

a competitive sport context. Also, gender differences existed 

in the relative predictive quality of self- and task beliefs and 

the role of basketball identity. The true source of these 

differences may lie in how athletes interpret their 

environment, their perceptions of coach feedback and the 

influence of significant others. Explanations for the gender 

differences that emerged are discussed in terms ofpotential 

sources of self- and task beliefs as well as the outcomes that 

are associated with these beliefs and with possessing a 

basketball identity. 

Goal Orientations and Self-leadership Strategies of 

Adolescent Females in Sport 

T. Michelle Magyar & Deborah L. Feltz, Michigan State 

University, East Lansing, MI48824 

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship 

between athletes' goal orientations and self-leadership 

strategies in sport. lt was hypothesized that athletes with a 

predominance in task orientation would utilize more selfleadership 

strategies than athletes with a stronger ego 

orientation. Participants were 105 female competitive 

volleyball players ages 13-18 years (M = 15.13, SD = 1.36). 

Using a modified version of the Self-Leadership Scale (Manz, 

1992), the following strategies were assessed: behaviorfocused, 

natural-reward, and constructive-thought. Goal 

orientations were assessed using the Task and Ego Orientation 

in Sport Questionnaire (Duda & Nicholls, 1992). Athletes 

were divided into four goal profile groups based on median 

split scores on task and ego orientation dimensions. The data 

were analyzed using MANOVA with goal profile as the 

between-subjects factor and behavior-focused, natural-reward, 

and constructive-thought strategies as the dependent variables. 

The result produced a significant main effect for goal profile 

group, Wilks' lambda =.76, F (9, 238.657) =3.14, P =.001. 

Post-hoc analysis indicated that athletes in the high taskllow 

ego group were more likely to use behavior-focused and 

natural-reward strategies. Athletes in the high tasklhigh ego 

group were more likely to use constructive-thought strategies. 

These findings delineate the differential utilization of selfleadership 

strategies based on goal orientation profile. 

Implications for coaches and sport psychology consultants on 

the development of self-leadership in female athletes will be 

discussed. 

The Multiple Goal Orientations in Sport Questionnaire: 

Construction and Validation 

Kevin Stefanek, Lori Gano-Overway, Sean Cumming, Martha 

Ewing, Michigan State University, E. Lansing, MI 48824. 

The purpose was to establish the validity of the Multiple Goal 

Orientations in Sport Questionnaire (MGOSQ). In study one, 

55 


124 undergraduate students completed a survey consisting of 

the MGOSQ, athletic competence, and attributions to test 

construct validity. Hypotheses were that effort attributions 

would be positively related to task and social approval while 

ability attributions would be related to self-enhancing and 

self-defeating ego. Perceived competence was predicted to be 

positively associated with task and self-enhancing ego and 

negatively related to self-defeating ego and work avoidance. 

Study 2 examined the predictive validity by administering the 

MGOSQ, along with effort, enjoyment, and anxiety measures 

to 104 undergraduate students. Hypotheses were that effort 

and enjoyment would be positively related to task, selfenhancing 

ego, and social approval and negatively related to 

self-defeating ego and work avoidance, while anxiety would 

be positively correlated to self-defeating ego and work 

avoidance and negatively related to task and self-enhancing 

ego. The MGOSQ was found to be internally reliable. In 

general, study 1 results were in line with the hypothesized 

relationships supporting construct validity. In study 2, the 

correlations revealed that enjoyment and effort were 

positively associated with task and negatively related to work 

avoidance while self-defeating ego was positively related to 

trait worry. Discussion centers on the validity ofthe MGOSQ 

and future directions on testing its psychometric properties. 

Achievement Goals and Moral Functioning in Sport: a 

Quadrant Analysis 

P.Nicolas Lemyre, Glyn C. Roberts, and Yngvar Ommundsen, 

Norwegian University of Sport Science, OSLO, Norway. 

Sport federations around the planet are reacting to numerous 

cheating scandals. In order to develop efficient preventive 

measures to lower the incidence of cheating in sport, it is 

necessary to analyse the problem from its roots and find out 

the motivational parameters leading to low moral behaviour. 

Recent evidence (Roberts et al., 2000) has revealed that 

achievement goals influence moral functioning and behaviour 

of youth sport participants in competitive sport. Research has 

also indicated that when young male sport participants are 

high in ego orientation they express lower level of moral 

reasoning and are more likely to endorse cheating behaviours 

in order to win (Lemyre et al., 2000). In attempting to 

understand the contribution of orthogonal achievement goals 

profiles, the purpose of the current study was to provide a 

more complete picture ofthe relationship between 

achievement goal orientations and sportspersonship. 

Participants were 1023 young Norwegian soccer players, from 

age 13 to 16, competing in the Norway Cup International 

Soccer tournament. Achievement goals and moral functioning 

were measured with the POSQ (Roberts et aI., 1998) and the 

Multidimensional Sportspersonship Orientations Scale 

(MSOS; Vallerand & Provencher, 1997) respectively. The 

scales demonstrated acceptable reliability. Results from a 

quadrant analysis indicated a strong relationship between the 

distinct motivational profiles and the sportspersonship 

dimensions. Clearly, high ego-low task oriented male youth 

soccer players expressed lower levels of sportspersonship than 

players with any other motivational profiles. These new


findings strongly support the suggestion that different 

achievement goal dispositions generate qualitatively different 

patterns of moral functioning. 

Identifying Perfectionism Profiles in Young Talented 

Athletesfrom a Motivational Perspective 

Siobhan McArdle, Joan L. Duda, University of Birmingham, 

UK; Howard K. Hall, De Montfort University, UK 

The main objective of this study was to examine whether 

young, talented athletes could be differentially classified with 

respect to facets of perfectionism and their motivational 

characteristics (i.e., their achievement goal orientations and 

degree of intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivation). A second 

purpose was to determine whether athletes varying in 

motivation-related and perfectionistic tendencies could be 

further distinguished in terms of indices of psychological 

well-being (i.e., level of and degree of fluctuation in selfesteem) 

and perceptions ofthe achievement goals emphasized 

by their parents. 296 British talented young athletes between 

the ages of 12 and 17 years completed a multi-section 

inventory designed to assess perfectionistic tendencies, 

motivational characteristics (goal orientations, intrinsic / 

extrinsic motivation, and amotivation), perceived parental 

goal orientations, self esteem, and labile selfesteem. The 

interdependencies between perfectionism and indices of 

motivation were examined via hierarchical cluster analysis. 

Results revealed a four-cluster solution comprised of an 

Achievement-Driven Unhealthy Perfectionist type (N=29), an 

Amotivated Unhealthy Perfectionist type (N=65), a Motivated 

Non-Perfectionist type (N=22) and a Healthy Perfectionist 

type (N=79). Each cluster demonstrated a unique motivational 

profile with respect to task and ego goals. Consistent with the 

current literature, more self-determined patterns ofmotivation 

were found in the profiles identified as Motivated Non 

Perfectionists and Healthy Perfectionists. The cluster groups 

significantly differed in level ofand reported vacillation in self 

esteem and views about their parents' emphasis on task and 

ego goals. The theoretical and applied implications of these 

findings for understanding the antecedents and consequences 

of perfectionistic 'types' in young athletes are discussed. 

Physical Education: A Specific Life Context in its Own 

Nicolas Hauw, Philippe C. BruneI & Yves Chantal, Universit, 

de Limoges, LECEP, Limoges, France 

In line with the Hierarchical Model top-down effect 

(Vallerand, 1997) past research has shown that contextual 

motivation (i.e., motivational orientation toward a given set of 

activities) will affect situational motivation (state motivation 

toward a specific activity at a specific point in time) only if 

contextual motivation is perceived as being relevant to the 

specific activity being performed (Vallerand et al., 2(00). The 

purpose ofthis study was to determine the relevant context 

(education vs. sport) which primarily influence situational 

motivation toward physical education. During a first phase, 

285 adolescents completed the Academic Motivation Scale 

(Vallerand et al., 1989) and the Sport Motivation Scale (Bri_re 

56 

et al., 1995) during academic courses. One week later, they 

filled out the Situational Motivation Scale (Guay et al., in 

press) after a PE session. Because PE teachers focus more on 

skill improvement than on normative performance, it was 

predicted that situational motivation of students who regularly 

engaged in sport activities outside school would be predicted 

by contextual motivation toward education. Conversely, that 

of sedentary students would be mainly determined by sport 

contextual motivation. Results from path analyses supported 

these hypotheses. However, with regard to the whole sample, 

results indicated that situational motivation toward PE 

appeared relevant to both life contexts. In sum, the present 

findings suggest that PE represents a life context akin to sport 

and education while remaining slightly different in itself. 

College Student-Athletes' Experience ofLiving With 

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) 

Charles G. Palmer and Lewis A. Curry, University of 

Montana, USA 

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is the 

single most common chronic behavior disorder of childhood, 

with prevalence rates estimated between 3-10% of the total 

population (McGee, et al., 1991; Brandenburg, et al., 1990). 

The disorder is comprised of a pattern ofbehaviors 

manifested by developmentally inappropriate levels of 

inattention, impulsivity, and/or hyperactivity. While research 

has been prolific on children with ADHD, much less 

investigation has been done examining the adult outcomes of 

those with the disorder. Research focusing specifically on 

college student-athletes has been extremely scarce. However, 

it has been recognized that due to the increasing frequency of 

ADHD diagnosis, it is highly likely that in the future many 

competitive athletes will be diagnosed with the condition 

(Hickey & Fricker, 1999). In order to gain information on this 

issue, six student-athletes from a variety of Division I 

institutions took part in qualitative interviews. These 

interviews were transcribed, then subjected to a six-step data 

distillation process as part of a phenomenological analysis. 

Discussion focuses on such topics as academic challenges, 

usage of medication, impact of the disorder on athletic 

performance, relationships with peers and teammates, and 

coaching issues. Results help provide insight into the 

experience of living with ADHD from the viewpoint of a 

college student-athlete with the disorder. These findings will 

be ofbenefit to athletes with ADHD and those who work with 

them. 

Athletic Participation and Exercise among Individuals 

with Eating Disorders 

James K. Madison and Sarah Ruma, Creighton University, 

USA 

This study explores the relationship of eating disorders to 

athleticism and exercise. Medical records were used to 

identify 346 females diagnosed with anorexia, bulimia, or an 

atypical eating disorder that met most of the criteria for one of 

these disorders and for whom information on athletic

participation was available. The 11 scales of the Eating 

Disorders Inventory-2 provided measures of the severity of 

the eating disorder and personality components related to 

eating disordered behavior. EDI-2 variables were entered into 

a 2(Low versus High Exercise) x 3(non-athletes versus casual 

athletes, versus athletes) multivariate analysis of covariance in 

a stepwise manner with age as the covariant. After entering 

Drive for Thinness, Perfectionism, and Asceticism, no other 

variables contributed to group differences. Both main effects 

and the interaction term were significant beyond the .05 level. 

Drive for thinness was strongly associated with high levels of 

exercise for the non-athlete and occasional athlete groups, but 

not for the athletes. The strong association between high 

levels of exercise and perfectionism was not mediated by 

sport involvement with only the difference between nonathlete 

low-exercisers and athlete high exercisers reaching 

significance in univariate tests. Asceticism showed a strong 

association with level of exercise among non-athletes, but, 

like Drive for Thinness, this was modified by athletic 

participation. Explanations for these findings and their 

implications for assessment, treatment, and research will be 

discussed. 

Sport and Physical Activity Socialization ofYouth with 

Moderate Cognitive Disabilities: An Expectancy-Value 

Perspective on Parental Influence 

Megan Babkes, International Center for Talent Development 

UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA, 90095-1563 

This presentation will introduce recent research conducted on 

the sport and physical activity socialization of youth with 

moderate cognitive disabilities using Eccles et al' s (1983) 

expectancy-value theory. Existing literature supports the view 

that positive outcomes such as increased social competence 

and improved physical fitness result from participation in 

Special Olympics and adapted physical activity programs 

(Gibbons & Bushakra, 1989; Wright & Cowden, 1986; 

Zoerink & Wilson, 1995). This engagement may, however, 

depend on the values and expectations of significant others, 

particularly parents (Eccles et.al, 1983). This study examined 

parental expectations and values on the opportunities provided 

for their children with moderate cognitive disabilities in the 

physical domain. Inductive analyses of interviews with 

mothers and fathers were used to examine parental influence. 

Results from this study supported a modified version of 

Eccles et al.'s (1983) expectancy-value model. Parental 

expectations were found to be oriented towards the social 

development and facilitation of independence among their 

children. The sport and physical activity values identified 

suggested that the physical domain was viewed as beneficial 

for their children's social, psychological, emotional, and 

physical development. This colloquium will conclude with a 

discussion of directions for continued research on the impact 

that significant others have on the physical domain 

participation of youth with mental retardation. 

57 

Stress and Recovery in Volleyball 


Michael Kellmann and Martin Fritzenberg, University of 

Potsdam, Germany 

The Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes (RESTQ 

Sport, Kellmann & Kallus, 2(00) is recommended to monitor 

training. The RESTQ-Sport systematically enlightens the 

recovery-stress state, indicating the extent to which someone 

is physically and/or mentally stressed, whether the person is 

capable of using individual strategies for recovery and which 

strategies are to be used. A professional German Volleyball 

Team (n =12) completed the RESTQ-Sport two days before 

and two days after six matches during the regular season. 

While a high training load in the beginning of the season was 

reflected in the physical oriented RESTQ-Sport scales, these 

scores declined when a specific jumping program was 

completed. In addition, two days after the matches the athletes 

rated themselves lower on stress and higher on recovery, 

compared to the scores before the matches. Results confirmed 

findings of prior research, however, they are in contradiction 

to a study with the German National Sitting Volleyball Team. 

Nine athletes completed the RESTQ-Sport in the beginning 

and end of four National Team training camps, plus at the 

Paralympics in Sydney. Results indicated that stress was high 

and recovery was low when athletes arrived at camp. During 

the training camps all RESTQ-Sport scales improved, 

meaning recovery was higher and stress was lower at the end. 

Results further indicated that these athletes experienced more 

stress in life and the use of individual strategies for recovery 

was limited in their personal context. 

Broken Clubs and Expletives: Sources ofStress and 

Ways ofCopingfor Recreational Golfers 

Brady Foore, Peter R. Giacobbi, University of Florida, USA; 

Robert S. Weinberg, Miami University, USA 

There has been a large growth of sport psychology stress/ 

coping research in the last decade. However, recreational 

golfers have not received much research attention. Therefore, 

the purposes of this qualitative, descriptive study were to 

assess the sources of stress and coping responses of 

recreational golfers. In addition, this study was concerned 

with making comparisons between the interpretations and 

experiences of high versus low trait anxious individuals as 

measured by the Sport Anxiety Scale (SAS: Smith, Smoll, & 

Schutz, 1990). Semi-structured interviews were conducted 

with 16 recreational golfers who played a minimum of 10 

rounds of golfduring the current golf season and represented 

a range of scores on the SAS. Using the analytic strategies of 

grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967), a research team 

performed inductive analysis that revealed three categories of 

perceived stress labeled as performance challenges, selfpresentation 

concerns, and anxiety/worry. The participants 

reported a number of different strategies used to cope with 

stressful encounters. These coping responses were labeled as 

ignoring the stressor, positive reinterpretation, outward 

expression of emotion, and increasing one's efforts. In 

addition, a content analysis ofthe adjectives used by the high


and low trait anxious participants revealed that high trait 

anxious golfers described their experiences with more 

negatively toned emotional terms and phrases. A variety of 

practical recommendations are presented to aid sport 

psychologists, golf teachers, and coaches in their work with 

recreational golfers. 

Sources ofStress andAcute Coping Strategies of 

Division I Basketball and Soccer Officials 

Mike Voight and John Callaghan, University of Southern 

California, USA 

Numerous empirical studies have been conducted to 

investigate the sources of stress among sport officials. 

Although these studies provide valuable information 

regarding the frequency and intensity of the major sources of 

stress experienced, no research has attempted to determine 

how sport officials cope or attempt to cope with these 

stressors. Obtaining this feedback regarding the ways that 

referees, especially experiened referees, cope with the 

common stressors associated with their profession can be 

important lessons for current and future referees, and 

implemented into referee training seminars. Through athletic 

conferences (basketball) and a national referee organization 

(soccer), questionnair packets were administered to over 150 

basketball and 300 soccer referees. Descriptive, correlational, 

and multivariate statistics were conducted which yielded 

numerous significant results, including the predominant 

sources of stress (e.g., work/family conflict, making a wrong 

call, verbal abuse) and acute ways of coping with these 

stressors (e.g., asked fellow officials, increase the quality, 

talked to partners, thought hard about steps to manage). 

Differences between the demographic variables and the 

different sports were also determined. Implications ofthe 

results will also be forwarded. 

Multidimensional Measurement ofFear ofFailure 

David E. Conroy, Jason P. Willow, Jonathan N. Metzler, 

Jordan T. Ciambrone, The Pennsylvania State University, 

University Park, PA, USA, 16802 

The Performance Failure Appraisal Inventory (PFAI; Conroy, 

2000) is a 41-item, multidimensional measure of fear of 

failure grounded in the cognitive-motivational-relational 

theory of emotion (Lazarus, 1991). Two samples of college 

students (N =544) completed the PFAI. In addition, 

participants in the first sample completed the Sport Anxiety 

Scale and Fear of Success Scale; participants in the second 

sample completed the Defensive Pessimism Questionnaire, 

State Hope Scale, Life Orientation Test, and Carolina Sport 

Confidence Inventory. Calibration sample analyses reduced 

the 41-item PFAI to 25 items measuring five appraisals in a 

higher-order factor structure that demonstrated tight crossvalidity 

in data from the remaining participants. In this model, 

the five aversive consequences offailure assessed by the PFAI 

included (a) experiencing shame and embarrassment, (b) 

devaluing one's self-estimate, (c) having an uncertain future, 

(d) important others losing interest, and (e) upsetting 

58 

important others. Internal consistency estimates for each scale 

were acceptable, ranging from .74 to .81. A short-form 

comprising the most representative item from each appraisal 

scale also demonstrated tight cross-validity. Internal 

consistency estimates for both the long-form higher-order 

general FF factor and the short-form were comparable (alphas 

=.82). General FF was associated with (a) increased defensive 

pessimism, worry, somatic anxiety, cognitive disruption, and 

overall sport anxiety, and (b) decreased optimism (trait and 

state); general FF was unrelated to either sport confidence or 

fear of success. At the appraisal level, the pattern of 

relationships with external measures was more complicated. 

The nature of appraisals may influence FF effects. 

Patterns ofSelf-talk Associated with Sport Anxiety and 

Fears ofFailure and Success 

Jonathan N. Metzler, David E. Conroy, Jason P. Willow, 

Jordan T. Ciambrone, The Pennsylvania State University, 

University Park, PA 16802 

The present study investigated whether sport anxiety (SA), 

fear of failure (FF) and fear of success (FS) were associated 

with defined self-talk patterns. Self-talk was operationally 

defined using the Structural Analysis of Social Behavior 

(SASB; Benjamin, 1974, 1996), a circumplex model of 

communication. College students (N =440) completed a 

battery ofquestionnaires: the Performance Failure Appraisal 

Inventory, Sport Anxiety Scale, FearofSuccess Scale, and the 

medium-form SASB Intrex questionnaire for self-talk. 

Participants provided separate ratings for their (a) self-talk 

while failing, (b) self-talk while succeeding, (c) wished for 

self-talk, and (d) feared self-talk. Self-talk within the four 

response sets were then regressed onto scores for FF, SA, and 

FS. FF and SA were associated with well-defined patterns of 

self-talk. In order ofrelative strength, FF and SA were 

significantly related to self-talk during failure (R2s =.35 and 

.21, respectively), feared self-talk (R2s =.14 and .12, 

respectively), and self-talk during success (R2s =.09 and .06, 

respectively). Only FF was significantly associated with 

wished for self-talk (R2 =.05). The actual and feared self-talk 

while failing ofparticipants who feared failure or were high in 

sport anxiety tended toward hostile control. FS was only 

weakly associated with self-talk (R2s ranged from .03 to .06). 

These results may be confounded by measurement limitations 

associated with FS. Collectively, performance anxiety 

constructs were associated with defined patterns of self-talk. 

Awareness of patterns of self-talk exhibited by performers 

may aid consultants in their assessments as well as in 

designing their interventions.

Can the Debilitating Effects ofStress on Cognitive and 

Motor Performance be Reduced with an Aerobic 

Exercise and Stress Management Program? 

RadIo, S.1., Hyllegard, R., Lambert, B., WaIver, M., & 

Babiak, B., Western Illinois University, Macomb, IL, USA, 

61455. 

Activities that depend on fast and accurate decisions can be 

adversely affected by stress. The purpose of the study was to 

investigate whether a combination of an aerobic fitness and 

comprehensive stress management program would improve 

performance on cognitive and perceptual-motor tasks. The 

aerobic fitness program and comprehensive stress 

management program was implemented over a 15- week 

period. Four groups were formed: 1) stress management 

(SM), 2) aerobic conditioning (AC), 3) stress management 

and aerobic conditioning (SMIAC); and 4) no stress 

management or aerobic conditioning (Control). The cognitive 

activities were a modified Stroop Test and a short-term 

memory recall task. The perceptual-motor task was the Mirror 

Star-Trace. Participants competed in pairs of two with 

monetary incentives used to increase stress along with the 

competition.A 4 (Groups) x 3 (Task) x 2 (Hemisphere) 

MANOVA on four EEG frequencies sampled (1, 2, 40 Hz) 

showed that the SMIAC group produced greater overall right 

hemisphere temporal and lower 2 than the other three groups. 

Also, participants in the SMiAC and SM groups generated 

greater right hemisphere 40 Hz than the AC and Control 

groups. A 4 (Groups) x 2 (Task) MANOVA on P300 latency 

and amplitude event-related potentials showed that the SMI 

AC, SM, and AC groups produced shorter latencies and 

smaller amplitudes than the Control group. ANOVA's for all 

three tasks showed that the SMIAC, SM, and AC groups 

produced faster reaction times and made less error than the 

Control group. 

A Meta-Analytic Review ofthe Life Stress and Injury 

Relationship in Sport 

Anthony P. Kontos, Kristi Foret, University of New Orleans, 

New Orleans, LA 70148 

The current study examined the life stress and injury 

relationship in sport utilizing a meta-analytic review. Using 

computer, journal content, and article reference searches, we 

located 40 studies examining life stress and injury in sport. A 

total of 24 (60%) of these studies provided adequate data (i.e., 

correlations, or means and SOs) for inclusion in the metaanalysis. 

The findings from studies that reported t-test, 

ANOVAs, or means and SOs were converted into 

standardized correlation coefficients (r). All correlations were 

then corrected for attenuation using generally accepted 

reliability data for each life stress measure. The 24 studies 

produced a total sample size of 3,031 subjects. The mean 

sample size was 126.3, with a range of 41 to 451 subjects. A 

total of 61 correlations between life stress measures (total, 

negative, and positive) and injury were included in the metaanalysis. 

Based on data compiled from the 24 studies, the 

average correlations between life stress measures and injury 

59 


were: (a) total life stress, r:=.13 (k= 21); (b) negative life 

stress, r:= .14 (k= 22), and (c) positive life stress, r:= .-02 (k= 

18). The results of homogeneity tests suggested the influence 

of other variables in the life stress and injury relationship. 

Separate correlation and multiple moderator analyses were 

calculated to assess the effects ofgender, injury definition, 

competitive trait anxiety, and social support on the variance of 

the life stress injury relationship. The implications of the 

findings to the stress model of athletic injury (Williams & 

Anderson, 1986; 1998) are discussed. 

Athletes @ Risk - An Interdisciplinary Team Approach 

delivering a Preventive Education Program 

Judy O. Goss, National Sport Centre Ontario, Toronto, ON 

The Athletes @ Risk program is a preventive educational 

program for competitive female athletes who are at risk for 

developing disorders such as disordered eating, ammenorreha, 

osteoporosis and the Female Athlete Triad. The Female 

Athlete Triad is often the culmination ofunrecognized risk 

factors that have developed in a disorder with physical, 

psychological and emotional consequences. An 

interdisciplinary team of health care professionals delivers the 

Athletes @ Risk program. The team consists of a sport 

medicine physician, sport psychology consultant, nutritionist, 

physiotherapist and exercise physiologist. Each team member 

serves the function as an individual whom identifies the 

athlete with the Female Athlete Triad symptomology and 

engages the athlete into the system. The objectives ofthe 

program include to reduce the incidence ofthe Female Athlete 

Triad, to reduce the severity ofany ofthe individual disorders 

common in the female athlete and to encourage and promote a 

healthy lifestyle. This is an educational program that is 

targeted at multiple levels of the sport system such as athletes, 

parents, coaches, teachers, fitness and health care 

professionals. Specific admission and exclusion criteria will 

be presented. The program has five educational sessions 

covering the following topics: 1. Food as Fuel, 2. 

Understanding the Health Consequences, 3. My Body, My 

Sport, 4. Getting Strong, Getting Fit and 5. Life Skills & 

Wellness. The program design and interactive tools will be 

described in detail. 

Coping With Stress: Strategies Used By Female 

Gymnasts 

Gretchen Kerr, University of Toronto, Canada 

This study explored the coping strategies used by elite female 

gymnasts. While previous research indicates that these 

athletes experience many stressors due to the nature ofthe 

sport, their stage of development, and the high demands of 

training, competition, and school, we know little about how 

these young people cope with stress. Six elite, female 

gymnasts, aged 13-15 years, were interviewed individually. 

The interviews began with the question of 'Please tell me how 

you deal with the demands of training, competition, school, 

relationships, etc.' The data were organized according to the 

conceptualization of coping strategies proposed by Lazarus


and Folkman (1988). The results indicated that the gymnasts 

used emotion-focused coping strategies almost exclusively. 

More specifically, they relied on strategies such as selfcontrol, 

'I didn't let others know I was upset', accepting 

responsibility, 'I figured this was part of becoming a good 

gymnast', and distancing, T d go on with the next day and try 

not to think about it.' The reliance on emotion-focused rather 

than problem-focused strategies makes sense as emotionfocused 

strategies are more effective in uncontrollable 

situations. However, these findings raise questions about 

attributions of responsibility, the importance of learning 

problem-focused coping strategies, and the repercussions of 

suppressing emotions. Furthermore, these findings may have 

implications for some of the documented difficulties seen 

during retirement transitions in these young athletes. The 

findings will be addressed with future implications for 

research and practice. 

Sources ofStress for the Female AdolescentAthlete 

Jenelle N. Gilbert, Wade Gilbert, California State University, 

Fresno, Fresno, California, USA, 93740; Cynthia Morawski, 

University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada KIN 6N5 

The purpose of the presentation is to present the stressors 

experienced by female adolescent athletes. A case study 

approach was used to follow five soccer players from one 

team (15-16 years of age) over an eight-month period. 

Sources of data included a focus group, semi-structured 

interviews, participant and non-participant observation, and 

entries from athletes' journals. The data were analyzed using 

an inductive and deductive process, which resulted in three 

main categories: Negative Aspects of Competition and 

Training, Personal Struggles, and Team Dynamic Issues. The 

presentation will focus on the first two categories as the Team 

Dynamic Issues category has been discussed elsewhere 

(Gilbert, Gilbert, & Morawski, 2000). The Negative Aspects 

of Competition and Training category included five higher 

order sub-categories: Performance Expectations, Worries 

about Competition, Competitive Hurdles, Competitive 

Failure, and Performance Review. The Personal Struggles 

category included seven higher order sub-categories: Physical! 

Mental Difficulties, Performance Expectations regarding 

School, Time Demands, Interpersonal Conflict, Work/Career 

Issues, Other Responsibilities and Inconvenience. Each of the 

subcategories will be discussed with supporting quotations 

from athletes. Possible explanations for these findings will be 

suggested, along with implications for mental training 

practitioners and directions for future research in youth sport. 

Identity Foreclosure Reconsidered 

Patricia S. Miller, University ofToronto, Toronto, Canada 

M5S2W6 

Identity foreclosure exists when an individual prematurely 

commits to a career or lifestyle without adequate exploration 

of internal needs and values, or available opportunities and 

ideologies (Marcia, 1966, 1980, 1993; Murphy, Petitpas, & 

Brewer, 1996). Several researchers have found evidence of 

60 

identity foreclosure among college and university studentathletes 

(Adler & Adler, 1989; Murphy et aI., 1996; Sparkes, 

1998). Others have suggested identity foreclosure may be 

unrelated to the experiences ofmost intercollegiate studentathletes 

(Perna, Zaichkowsky, & Bocknek, 1996). In-depth 

interviews were used to examine the role experimentation of 

university student-athletes and the existence of identity 

foreclosure. Interviews were conducted with eight, senior 

male and female student-athletes, the interviews transcribed 

verbatim, and the data analyzed inductively following 

accepted procedures (Cote, Salmela, & Russell, 1995). A 

second series of interviews were used to solicit the 

participants' reactions to initial interpretations and working 

hypotheses. The participants' role experimentation occurred 

within an athletic, academic or social sphere, and revealed a 

two-stage model of identity formation. The participants' 

identities were determined primarily by their roles as athletes, 

often at the expense of meaningful experimentation of other 

available roles, during the first stage of Over-Identification 

with the Athlete Role. However, the participants demonstrated 

meaningful exploration of other roles and significant planning 

for future roles during the second stage of Deferred Role 

Experimentation. The results supported Perna et aI.'s (1996) 

suggestion that identity foreclosure may be overgeneralized in 

the literature. 

Coach-Athlete Interaction in Youth Sport 

Dorothee Alfermann and Sabine Wuerth, University of 

Leipzig, Germany 

Two studies were conducted with adolescent athletes and their 

coaches. The first study followed the framework of 

Chelladurai (cf. Chelladurai & Riemer, 1998), but used a fourdimensional 

questionnaire (without the dimension of 

autocratic style) measuring coaches' behaviors from the 

athletes' and the coaches' perspective. A follow-up one year 

later revealed significant influences of coaches behavior on 

athletes' performance enhancement. In the second study 

coaches behaviors' were videotaped and grouped into 

categories, similar to the Smoll and Smith behavioral 

assessment system (cf. Smoll & Smith, 1989). In addition, 

athletes and coaches estimated the coaches' behaviors on the 

same dimensions via questionnaires. A comparison of both 

approaches reveals detailed information about coach-athlete 

interaction processes. Similarities and differences between 

coaches' and athletes' perspectives are discussed. 

Youth Sport Consulting: Helping Mom and Dad 

Understand their Role 

Doug Hirschhorn, West Virginia University, USA 

Children's participation in sport is directly affected by their 

parents. Generally, when youth engage in sport, parents fall 

into one of two categories: supportive and not interfering or 

overbearing and stress-causing. Parental influence can affect 

the child's participation in sport, as well as impact the youth's 

physical, social, emotional, and intellectual growth. The level 

of responsibility the youth sport parents take can shape their

children's future perspective. Youth Sport Consultants, by 

being aware of the warning signs of unhealthy parent-youth 

sport interaction, is in a unique position to take a proactive 

approach and teach parents how to enable their child's positive 

sport involvement. By working in conjunction with the 

parents, the youth sport consultant is also able to educate, 

facilitate communication, and provide interventions to youth 

and families that support positive sport involvement. When 

youth participate in sport, there is a great deal more at risk 

than the score of the game which is why the youth sport 

consultant, by understanding these additional dimensions, can 

help families promote the healthy goals of youth participation 

in sport. 

The Role ofParents in the Development ofYoung 

Brazilian Athletes in Rhythmic Gymnastics 

Newton Santos Vianna Junior, Universidade Federal de Minas 

Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil, 31.310-250; Luiz Carlos 

Moraes, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo 

Horizonte, Brazil, 31.310-250; John H. Salmela, Ottawa 

University, Ottawa, KIN 6N5; Katya Mourthe, Universidade 

Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil, 31.310-250. 

This study investigated the role of parents in different social 

and financial support in the development of young athletes in 

rhythmic gymnastics in Brazil. Ten top state athletes were 

interviewed, five aged between nine and eleven, that reached 

first place in team competition in the national championship, 

and five athletes, state champion, aged 14 to 17. In-depth 

interviews were taped and transcript verbatim to clarify the 

involvement of parents in the development of athletes, from 

the athletes, parents (N=1O) and the team coach's point of 

views. A spreadsheet with coded answers was also used 

during the interviews (Davidson, Howe, Moore & Sloboda 

1996), where the interviewer select the closest reported 

answers. Results founded that, in general, the perceptions of 

the parental support was in agreement with athletes' 

narratives, especially concerning the: motivation of the child; 

participation of parents in sport events; involvement ofparents 

in child activities; orientation in children's training and 

changes in family schedule. This indicated that parents 

support were significant for the success of these athletes. 

Results also showed high congruence between sports of upper 

middle class such as rhythmic gymnastics in Brazil and the 

research done by Cote (1999), Salmela, Young and Kallio 

(2000) and Wylleman, Knop, Ewing and Cumming (2000). 

This appeared different from researcher on lower class soccer 

players in Brazil (Moraes, Salmela, Rabelo & Vianna Junior, 

2000) that indicate lack of parents support. 

The Relationship between Gender and Race on 

PerceivedAmountofPhysical Activity and Barriers/ 

benefits ofPhysicalActivity in Adolescents 

Joanne Butt and Robert Weinberg, Miami University, Oxford, 

OH45056 

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the 

amount of physical and sedentary activity, and benefits and 

61 


barriers toward physical activity in adolescents across gender 

and race. Participants were 1174 adolescents from Midwest 

public and private high schools. A self-report questionnaire 

was used to measure participation in physical activities (Sallis 

et aI., 1996). Perceptions of barriers and benefits for 

participation in physical activity was assessed by the Expected 

Outcomes and Barriers for Physical Activity Scale (Steinhardt 

& Dishman, 1989). Three separate 2 (gender) x 3 (race) 

MANOVAs were conducted on physical activity, benefits and 

barriers. Results from the physical activity analyses indicated 

a significant main effect only for race in minutes of sedentary 

activity. Specifically, African Americans reported taking part 

in significantly more sedentary activities than whites. Results 

regarding the benefits and barriers towards physical activity 

participation indicated significant main effects for gender and 

race. In particular, significantly more females than males 

participated in physical activity to improve health. In addition, 

females reported more barriers to participation than males. In 

terms ofrace, white youths participated in physical activity 

less due to motivational factors, whereas African Americans 

participated less due to time barriers. These findings can assist 

practitioners and researchers to develop and implement 

specific physical activity interventions for adolescents. 

Woman's Self-Efficacy and Social Physique Anxiety: 

Does the Exercise Setting Matter? 

Mike MacDougall, Tanya Gallant, David Scott, Ryan 

Hamilton, Tanya Taylor, Faculty of Kinesiology, University of 

New Brunswick, Canada 

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship 

between social physique anxiety, self-efficacy, and work out 

setting in females. Previous research has shown that social 

physique anxiety can be predictive ofexercise setting 

(Frederick and Morrison, 1998). In addition, Lirgg (1991) 

reported that women who have lower self-confidence than 

men, will be unlikely to workout with highly confident males. 

It can therefore be suggested that a self-presentational 

theoretical perspective may be useful in explaining why some 

women work out in co-ed facilities whilst others work out in 

women only settings. The participants in this present study 

were from two local fitness facilities; a womens only gym 

(N=30), and a co-ed gym (N=25). The participants completed 

the Physical Self-Efficacy Scale, the Social Physique Anxiety 

Scale, and a demographics questionnaire that examined past 

experience with co-ed and all female fitness facilities, reasons 

for choosing their current facility, and whether or not they 

were beginners or regular attenders. It was hypothesised that 

women in the female only fitness facility would have higher 

social physique anxiety scores and lower self-efficacy scores 

than the women in the co-ed facility. The results indicated that 

women in the female only fitness facility did have 

significantly lower physical self-efficacy scores (M=30.4, 

SO=I1.52) than those woman in the co-ed facility (M=35.17, 

S0=9.93). In addition participants in the all-female condition 

had higher social physique anxiety (M=98.76, SD=14.3) than 

the co-ed group (M=88.067, SD=15.76). It was concluded


that self-efficacy can be predictive of exercise setting for 

females. The implications ofthese findings are discussed. 

Body Image Satisfaction ofPhysically Active Versus 

Nonactive Individuals: A Meta-analytic Review 

Heather A. Hausenblas and Elizabeth A. Fallon, University of 

Florida, USA 

Research examining the effects of physical activity on body 

image satisfaction has been inconsistent (Bane & McAuley, 

1998). That is, the majority of researchers have found that 

exercise results in improved body satisfaction. In comparison, 

to a lesser extent researchers have reported that physical 

activity has no effect ofbody satisfaction or results in 

increased body image disturbance. The discrepant findings is 

concerning considering that exercise as well as dieting are the 

most popular methods used to alter one's physique. Ifexercise 

results in improved body image, physical activity may be a 

viable intervention to alleviate body image disturbance and 

related disorders. Before such conclusions can be rendered, 

however, a systematic review ofthe literature examining body 

satisfaction and physical activity is needed. 

Thus, the purpose of this study was to meta-analytically 

review the literature examining body image between 

physically activity and inactive individuals. Seventeen studies 

containing 37 ES were retrieved through computer, journal, 

and manual reference list searches. It was found that 

physically active individuals had more body satisfaction 

compared to their inactive counterparts (ES = .21, SD = .16, N 

= 37, P < .05). Examination of the effects by gender revealed 

that the physically active males had better body satisfaction 

than inactive individuals (ES = .36, SD = .18, n = 18, P < .05). 

For females, however, the physically active and inactive 

groups did not differ significantly on body satisfaction (ES = 

.01, SD = .15, n = 19 P > 05). Results suggest that physical 

activity participation may have a positive effect on body 

image satisfaction for males only. 

Ballet Teaching Behaviors That are Construed as 

Weight Loss Pressures 

Gina Bottamini, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, 

Canada, KIN 6N5; Diane M. Ste-Marie, University of 

Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, KIN 6N5 

Bottamini & Ste-Marie (2000) reported that dancers perceived 

ballet teachers as a source of weight loss pressure. Further, 

correlation analysis revealed the more the dancer perceived 

teachers as a weight loss pressure, the more likely they were 

to engage in unhealthy eating behaviors. Given these results, 

we deemed it important to identify the forms of 

communication in the teachers' repertoire that dancers may 

perceive as weight loss pressures. To investigate this, forty 

female ballet students involved in serious training completed 

the BALLET scale, a 25-item self-report questionnaire 

developed by the researchers. Respondents also completed the 

Athletic Image Scale. This scale served to investigate the 

perceptions ofthe students on their desired body image and 

the image they perceived their teachers wanted them to be. 

62 

Two main groups emerged from this process. One group 

desired to be of a smaller frame and perceived that their 

teachers also wanted them to be of a smaller frame 

(combined-pressures group). The second group consisted of 

students who were content with their current body image and 

believed their teachers' were content with their current body 

image as well (no-pressures group). Mann-Whitney U 

analyses showed that the combined-pressures group perceived 

more verbal (u=66.5, p=.OI) and nonverbal (u=85.0, p=.02) 

behaviors on the part of the teacher as weight loss pressures 

than those students who were in the no-pressures group. 

Application ofthe Theory ofPlanned Behavior to 

Exercise: A Meta-Analytic Update 

Danielle Symons Downs and Heather A. Hausenblas, 

University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611-8205 

The frequent application of the theory of planned behavior 

(TPB) to the exercise domain is evidenced by narrative (Blue, 

1995; Godin, 1993) and statistical (Hausenblas, Carron, & 

Mack, 1997) literature reviews. Since the last comprehensive 

review (Hausenlas et al., 1997) several researchers have 

further applied the TPB to explain and predict exercise 

behavior. The primary purpose of this study was to conduct an 

updated meta-analytic review of the literature examining the 

TPB and exercise behavior. The secondary purpose was to 

examine the frequency of scale correspondence and 

operationalization ofexercise behavior in this literature 

(Courneya & McAuley, 1995). Studies were retrieved from 

computer, journal, and manual reference list searches. Results 

of 26 recent studies with 56 effect sizes (ES) revealed that the 

ES for the relationship between: (a) behavior and intention 

(ES = 1.04), intention and perceived behavioral control (ES = 

.92), and intention and attitude (ES = .87) were large; (b) 

behavior and perceived behavioral control (ES = .50), 

behavior and attitude (ES = .50), and intention and subjective 

norm (ES = .56) were moderate; and (c) behavior and 

subjective norm (ES = .21) was small. Although 81% of the 

studies provided an operational definition for exercise, only 

15% exhibited scale correspondence. In summary, the results 

of this statistical review are similar to those of Hausenblas et 

al. (1997) and provides current support for the ability of the 

TPB to explain exercise behavior. Future researchers, 

however, are encouraged to follow the methodological tenets 

of TPB and establish scale correspondence. 

Lymphedema as a Barrier to Exercise: A Survey of 

Breast Cancer Survivors and Health Care Professionals 

Daniel C. Hughes and Mary J. Naus, Health Psychology 

Research Group, University of Houston, USA 

Lymphedema is an abnormal collection of protein rich 

lymphatic fluid occurring as a result of loss ofnormal 

lymphatic flow. A disabling and disfiguring condition, it 

effects as much as 35% to 40% of the post surgical breast 

cancer population. For breast cancer survivors the fear of 

potentially developing lymphedema is a barrier to being 

physically active. To reduce the likelihood of developing

lymphedema and because of its seriousness health care 

professionals have historically taken a very conservative 

approach in the management of physical activities for post 

surgical breast cancer survivors. The relationship ofexercise 

to lymphedema has not been clearly established. To help 

breast cancer survivors become more active, the real issues 

regarding lymphedema and exercise need to be better defined. 

Seventeen health care professionals and fifteen breast cancer 

survivors in the greater Houston, Texas area were surveyed to 

63 


get their perspectives on lymphedema issues. Health care 

professionals' perceptions, breast cancer survivors' 

perceptions and the current literature were compared. Health 

care professionals information when compared to the current 

literature showed some differences in the areas of diet, mental 

state and role of exercise. Implications from the survey data 

for design of exercise programs to reduce perceived stress for 

breast cancer survivors and potential future research 

directions are discussed.

Posters 

Leisure-Time Physical Activity Patterns and 

Relationship to Health Status Among Canadians with 

Arthritis or Rheumatism 

Deborah Da Costa, Ilka Lowensteyn, Maria Dritsa, McGill 

University, Canada 

While the physiological benefits associated with regular 

exercise has been demonstrated in the general population, 

much less in known about the physical and psychological 

benefits for specific clinical populations. Among all chronic 

conditions, arthritis and otherrheumatic conditions, which are 

among the most prevalent in Canada and the United States, 

are the leading cause of long-term disability. The main 

objective was to examine the prevalence of leisure-time 

physical activity (LTPA) and its association to health status 

outcomes among persons with arthritis or rheumatism (AIR) 

in Canada. The 1996/97 National Population Health interview 

data with AIR respondents aged 20-79 years (n =10 986) 

were examined. Among persons with AIR, 14.2% were active, 

20.4% were moderately active, while 65.4% were inactive. 

The rate ofinactivity was significantly greater among women 

with AIR (67.3%) compared with their male counterparts 

(61.7%). Greater levels of LTPA were uniquely associated 

with better general health. The contribution of LTPA level on 

generalized distress was dependent on age. Inactive 

individuals were more distressed regardless of age. Greater 

levels of LTPA was significantly associated with less distress 

for younger (20-49 years) and older (70-79 years) persons, but 

not for those in the middle age range (50-69). In conclusion, 

almost two thirds ofpersons with arthritis or rheumatism are 

physically inactive in their leisure time. In addition to physical 

health benefits, the findings suggest that engaging in regular 

exercise may be important for improving 

The Acute Effects ofVigorous Exercise on Mood 

Brenna L. Chirby, Thomas E. Cook Counseling Center, 

Virginia Tech, VA 24061 

The purpose of this study was to further examine the 

immediate and residual effects of vigorous exercise on mood. 

On six separate testing occasions after either an hour of 

vigorous exercise or sedentary activity, 28 subjects completed 

mood adjective checklists to assess the effects of exercise on 

mood. Subjects were adolescent competitive swimmers who 

volunteered for the study, Conditions were randomly assigned 

and occurred at the same time ofday. Subjects took their heart 

rates and completed Thayer's Short Form Activation 

Deactivation Adjective Check List (AD ACL) (Thayer, 1978) 

self-ratings during five-time periods (i.e. pre-exercise to 120 

minutes post-exercise) on each of the six testing occasions. 

Results did not support the initial hypothesis of a delayed 

energy enhancement effect (one hour post exercise). Instead, 

65 

vigorous exercise produced a significant decline in energy for 

up to one hour. Unlike the calm-energetic effect usually 

produced by moderate exercise, vigorous exercise produced 

significant levels of tense energy during and immediately after 

exercise. Possible explanations for these findings will be 

explored, along with recommendations for future research. 

Is a Picture Worth a Thousand Emotions? Affective 

Responses ofWomen to Viewing Physique Slides 

HeatherA. Hausenblas, Christopher M. Janelle, Rebecca Ellis 

Gardner, University ofFlorida, USA 

The purpose of this study was to examine the in-task and 

long-term emotional effects of media exposure to slides of the 

female ideal-physique, self-physique, and standardized 

control slides of females at high- and low-risk for eating 

disorders. Participants were 15 high- and IS low-risk female 

undergraduates who completed three laboratory visits where 

they viewed one of three slide conditions: control, selfphysique, 

and ideal-physique. For each condition, baseline 

and post assessments of the Positive and Negative Affect 

Scale were completed (PANAS; Watson et al., 1985). Eight 

slides were then viewed per session on which participants 

emotion was reported using the SelfAssessment Manikin 

(SAM; Lang et al., 1999). The participants then completed the 

PANAS post-assessment and were instructed on how to 

complete the four hourly PANAS ecological momentary 

assessments after leaving the lab. A MANOVA revealed 

significant group difference for the SAM ratings while 

viewing the self-slides. Univariate analysis revealed that the 

high-risk group reported less pleasure while viewing the selfslides 

compared to the low-risk group. No significant group 

differences were evidenced for the ideal and control slides. A 

MANCOVA (covariate =pre-test scores) undertaken to 

examine the long term effects ofslide viewing was 

nonsignificant for the self and control slides. In contrast, 

significant group differences were evidenced for the ideal 

slides, with the high-risk group reporting lower positive affect 

at one and two hours following slide viewing compared to the 

low-risk group. Future research is needed to examine the 

sociocultural effects of the aesthetic ideal on affect using more 

direct emotional measures. 

Reliefor 'Real' Phenomenon? An Extension of 

Petruzello's 1995 Study 

Steven R. Wininger, Nicholls State University, USA 

The purpose of this study was to address the same question as 

Petruzello's 1995 study on Methodological Artifact or 'Real' 

Phenomenon but with several modifications to the methods. 

Dependent variables in this study included a lO-item version 

of the SAl, the SEES, and heart rate. Two groups took

Associationfor the Advancement ofApplied Sport Psychology 

premeasures and afterwards were informed as to whether they 

were in the exercise condition (n = 24) or control condition (n 

= 24). A third group was informed prior (n = 23) to taking pre 

measures that they would be in a control group. Not until after 

this disclosure did members of the third group take the 

premeasures. Subjects in the exercise group walked for 15 

minutes at 2.5mph. Subjects in both control groups sat quietly 

for 15 minutes. Post measures were given immediately after 

each IS-minute condition. Multivariate analysis of variance 

yielded no differences between the three conditions for the pre 

measures. Thus, relief over not having to exercise did not 

seem to have an effect on premeasures. MANCOVA and 

separate ANCOVA's were run for each of the dependent 

variables. There were no differences among the three groups 

with regards to adjusted post measures of positive mood, 

negative mood, or fatigue. There were significant differences 

between the three groups for adjusted post measures of 

anxiety and heart rate. Persons in the exercise group had 

significantly higher levels ofanxiety at post testing. Persons in 

the exercise group also had significantly higher heart rates at 

the post testing. This does not mean that exercise is not good 

for one's mental health. Simple paired sample t-tests revealed 

that there were significant positive changes for persons in the 

exercise group for positive mood (more after exercising), 

negative mood (less after exercising), as well as increases in 

heart rate. 

Spectators' Perceptions ofMomentum while Attending 

NCAA Men's and Women's Basketball Regular Season 

Contests 

Kevin L. Burke, Mark W. Aoyagi, A. Barry Joyner, Georgia 

Southern University, USA 

Several methods have been employed in past momentum 

research including analyzing winning and losing streaks 

throughout the course of a season (Vergin, 2(00), amount of 

rater agreement of perceived momentum changes while 

watching videotapes of an athletic contest (Burke, Edwards, 

Weigand, & Weinberg, 1997), and recording momentum 

events at a live event by one trained observer (Burke, Burke, 

& Joyner, 1999). The present study utilized multiple (two or 

more) basketball-knowledgeable trained observers at NCAA 

collegiate men's and women's basketball games and analyzed 

rater agreement of momentum, as well as, events which 

initiated, occurred during, and ended momentum. The 

observers recorded perceived game events which began and 

ended momentum, along with the game times when the 

momentum periods occurred. Further, environmental (i.e., 

crowd noise) and game events occurring during the 

momentum periods were noted. A total of 89 occurrences 

momentum were reported. A good performance by one team 

was indicated as the precipitating factor in 65 (73%) of the 

momentum incidents. The most common game action 

beginning momentum periods were three-point shots which 

were reported as the initial event 31 (34.8%) times. Caused 

turnovers were also reported as an event starting a momentum 

period 12 (13.5%) times, and the second event 12 (13.5%) 

times. Frequencies of the most common events during the 

momentum periods were: caused turnovers (38), lay-ups (37), 

three-point shots (36), steals (35), and defensive stops (34). 

The most frequently reported opposing team actions which 

ended momentum were called time-outs (22 instances, 

24.7%). Other common momentum ending acts by the 

opposing team were successful jump shots (18 instances, 

20.2%) and caused turnovers (15 instances, 16.9%). 

A Proposed Model for Explicating the Relationships 

among Achievement-related Cognitions, Coping 

Strategies, and Competitive State Anxiety 

Randall Cockshott, David Pargman, Gershon Tenenbaum, 

Florida State University, USA 

Support exists for the relationship between the adoption of 

achievement goals and the development ofcompetitive 

anxiety. Ntoumanis and Biddle (1997) have suggested that 

coping strategies may have an effect on this relationship. The 

present study tested a proposed model establishing the 

relationships among various achievement-related cognitions, 

coping strategies and competitive state anxiety. Participants 

(N=247) in the study were ranked and unranked junior tennis 

players competing in regional tennis tournaments in the 

southeastern United States. Participants completed a packet of 

questionnaires designed to measure goal orientation, trait 

anxiety, perceived ability, self-efficacy, task difficulty, 

motivational climate, coping strategies and state anxiety. 

Participants were asked to complete the packet within an hour 

of their competition. Internal consistency estimates for the 

questionnaires ranged from.71 to .94. A hypothesized model 

suggesting the relationships among the variables was tested 

using structural equation modeling (SEM). The hypothesized 

model was consistent with the data, as the overall chi-square 

was 505.6 with 284 df. Furthermore the RMSEA was .05 

(p=.09). Increases in the use ofproblem-focused coping 

strategies led to facilitative interpretations of anxiety, while 

emotion-focused coping strategies led to debilitative 

interpretations of competitive state anxiety. Task orientation 

and perceived ability had a direct influence on the use of 

problem-focused coping strategies. Increases in both task 

orientation and perceived ability had an indirect effect on 

increases in facilitative state anxiety through the use of 

problem-focused coping strategies. Emotion-focus coping 

increased the magnitude of the total effect of trait anxiety on 

the facilitative anxiety. 

The Effects ofan Acute BoutofExercise Stepping on 

Mood: Do Music and Intensity Moderate the 

Relationship? 

Jim Ranieri and Steven R. Wininger, Nicholls State 


This study was designed to examine the effects of music and 

intensity for an acute bout of exercise on anxiety and mood 

changes. Participants were 96 university students. Each 

subject was randomly assigned to one of four conditions. The 

mode of exercise was an eight-inch high exercise and duration 

was five minutes. Conditions one and two consisted of

stepping to the beat of a metronome at 92 and 120 beats per 

minute. Conditions three and four consisted of stepping to the 

beat of music, 'Sadness' at 92 beats per minute and 'Axel' at 

120 beats per minute. Subjects completed a 10-item version of 

the State Anxiety Inventory and the Subjective Exercise 

Experience Scale both before and after exercising. Stages of 

change was assessed prior to testing and Perceived Exertion 

was measured at the two and four minute intervals. The results 

of a MANCOVA revealed that there were significant 

differences between the intensity levels for two of the 

dependent variables, post anxiety and post heart rate. 

ANCOVA for intensity with post anxiety as the DV and pre 

anxiety the CV revealed that persons exercising at a higher 

intensity had significantly higher levels of anxiety. ANCOVA 

for intensity with post heart rate as the DV and pre heart rate 

as the CV revealed that persons exercising at a higher intensity 

had significantly higher heart rates. Stage and PE4 were 

examined as predictors ofpost measures with the premeasures 

factored out. Stage was significantly correlated with post 

anxiety scores and positive mood scores. Perceived exertion at 

the 4 minute mark was significantly correlated with post 

fatigue scores and post heart rate. 

Affective Responses and Exercise Choice during High 

Intensity Exercise 

Amanda J. Daley & Ian Maynard, Sheffield Hallam 

University, Sheffield, UK 

Whilst there have been many studies that have considered the 

exercise and affect relationship, these have tended to prescribe 

cycle ergometry. Whether the temporal pattern of the exercise 

and affect relationship parallels those of the same participants 

when they are given a choice of exercise modes is not known. 

Therefore, this study examined the relationship between 

affect, prescribed exercise mode and exercise choice at 75 

80% of age predicted heart rate maximum in twenty-six 

(Mean age =33.2 years) physically active adults during and 

following acute bouts of exercise. Affective responses were 

measured by using the Positive and Negative Affect Scales 

(1988). Participants engaged in the following conditions for 

30 minutes; (1) cycle ergometry, (2) choice of exercise mode 

and, (3) television control (highlights from the Sydney 2000 

Olympics). The PANAS was administered to participants pre, 

mid (orally) and post exercise. RPE data was recorded every 

10 minutes during exercise. A 3 x 3 (Condition x Time) 

within-subjects repeated measures ANOVA revealed a 

significant interaction for negative affect scores (NA). Followup 

analyses indicated no pre-exercise differences between the 

conditions for NA. At 15-mins during exercise the no choice 

condition reported significantly higher NA compared to the 

control condition (television). At 5-mins-post exercise the no 

choice condition reported significantly higher NA compared 

to the choice condition. These results appear to be indicating 

that exercise choice may be an important variable in reducing 

NA during exercise. 

67 1 

2001 Conference Proceedings-Posters 

Changes in BurnoutAcross a Season: Examining 

Gender Differences in Division I Soccer Players Over 

Time 

Christopher Lai, University of New Hampshire, USA; 

Matthew S. Wiggins, Murray State University, USA 

This study was conducted to assess the differences in 

burnout between male and female Division I soccer players 

over the course of a season. Seventy-three athletes (34 

males, 39 females) ranging in age from 18-22 years (M = 

19.38, SD = 1.45) participated in the study. Athletes were 

asked to take the Burnout Inventory for Athletes (BIA, Van 

Yperen, 1997) five times during the soccer season. Survey 

dates scheduled were preseason, after preseason/start of the 

season, after the first month of competition (September), 

after the second month (October), and during the post season 

(November). The BIA consists of a seven-item 5-point 

Likert-type scale that purports to measure energy depletion. 

Data was analyzed using a 2 (gender) x 5 (time) two-way 

repeated-measures ANOVA. Results indicated a significant 

main effect for time, F(4, 284) = 6.54, P = .0001, with BIA 

mean scores increasing from the start of the season to post 

season. The main effect for gender approached significance, 

F(l, 72) =3.43, p =.068, with males reporting slightly 

higher scores than females. No interaction was found 

between the variables. Results were discussed in terms of 

monitoring burnout levels in athletes, along with possible 

gender implications, and future directions in research. 

Mood and Concentration Grid Performance 

Andrew Lane, University ofWolverhampton, UK, and 

Christopher J. Beedie, Brunel University, UK 

The present study tested a conceptual model of moodperformance 

relationships (Lane & Terry, 2000), which 

proposed that depressed mood would influence the intensity 

and inter-relationships of other mood responses, and moderate 

the anger-performance and tension-performance relationships. 

Eighty-nine Sport Sciences students completed the 24-item 

the Profile of Mood States - Adolescents (POMS-A) 

immediately before completing a 60 second Concentration 

Grid Test. Participants completed the Concentration Grid Test 

twice. Performance was measured by calculating the 

difference between the first and second concentration test 

performance scores. To test for the proposed moderating 

effect of Depressed mood on mood and performance 

relationship, participants were divided into a Depressed mood 

group (n = 36) and a No-depression group (n = 53). It is 

important to note that Lane and Terry (2000) are talking about 

Depressed mood at the time of testing and not talking about 

clinical depression. MANOVA results indicated that the 

Depressed mood group reported significantly higher Anger, 

Confusion, Fatigue, and Tension than the No-depression. 

Multiple regression results indicated that Tension scores were 

associated with poor performance in the Depressed mood 

group while showing no significant relationship in the Nodepression 

group. Anger scores were associated with good 

performance in the No-depression group, but showed no


significant relationship in the Depression group. This finding 

lends some support to the proposed moderating effect of 

depression on mood and performance relationships for Anger 

and Tension. Collectively, findings lend some support the 

notion that Depressed mood influences the nature of other 

mood dimensions. 

The Associations ofCompetitive Trait Anxiety and 

Personal Control with Burnout in Sport 

Mark W. Aoyagi, Kevin L. Burke, A. Barry Joyner, and 

Charles J. Hardy 

Despite its seeming pervasiveness, burnout remains a 

relatively under-researched phenomenon in sport (Fender, 

1989; Gould, Udry, Tuffey, & Loehr, 1996). Several 

theoretical models have been put forth attempting to explain 

athlete bumout (i.e., Coakley, 1992; Silva, 1990; Smith, 

1986), and from these models have emerged certain variables 

that appear to be linked to burnout. Trait anxiety has been 

found to be the most significant predictor of burnout in 

coaches (Vealey, Udry, Zimmerman, & Soliday, 1992), and is 

also predictive of athlete burnout (Vealey,Armstrong, Comar, 

& Greenleaf, 1998). Perceived control has also been proposed 

as a key variable in the burnout phenomenon. Raedeke (1997) 

clustered swimmers according to certain characteristics and 

found that clusters characterized by low perceived control 

scored significantly higher on measures of burnout. The 

present study compared competitive athletes from different 

sports and age groups. Athletes from competitive youth (ages 

10-12 years), high school (ages 14-18 years) and college (ages 

17-22 years) soccer and swim teams completed the Eades 

Athlete Burnout Inventory (Eades, 1990), Sport Anxiety Scale 

(Smith, Smoll, & Schutz, 1990), and a modified version of the 

Control Over One's Work Environment scale (Tetrick & 

LaRocco, 1987). Results for the groups will be presented 

examining possible associations ofburnout with competitive 

trait anxiety and personal control. 

Cognitive and Affective Factors Linked to Successful 

Performance in Elite Women Foil Fencers 

Dale G. Pease, University of Houston; John Hei1,Lewis-Gale 

Clinic; Jay T. Lee, Lamar University; Lee Branum-Martin, 

Danny Hughes, University of Houston 

The purpose of this study was to investigate the cognitive and 

affective substrates of psychological states linked to 

successful fencing in elite fencers during competitive bouts, 

with particular attention to shifts in mental states. To increase 

the ecologically validity, competitive bout cognitions and 

emotions were extracted through using video stimulated 

recall. Metamotivationa1 constructs from Reversal Theory 

were used to guide the qualitative analysis of individual fencer 

recall. Six elite women foil fencers at a national tournament 

volunteered to have their bouts videotaped followed by 

participation in recall sessions. In general these fencers were 

found to be telic, conformist, autic mastery, and arousal 

seeking. The three highest ranked fencers had similar bout 

profiles with the three lower ranked fencers experiencing 

68 

greater mental structural variability. Shifts in mental states 

unique to each fencer were found across the six fencers. This 

research suggests the need for an idiographic approach where 

an individual's uniqueness can be assessed, which would 

ensure greater success from a performance enhancement 

program designed specificity to address the identified 

problems. 

Days ofThunder-A Qualitative, Exploratory 

Investigation ofa Sport Psychologist's Responses to 

Driving Stock Cars 

Kevin L. Burke, Georgia Southern University, USA 

Sensation or thrill seeking has received only a small amount 

of attention in the sport psychology literature. Zuckerman 

(1994) defined sensation seeking as a trait describing the 

tendency to seek novel, varied, complex, and intense 

sensations and experiences, and the willingness to take risks 

for the sake of the experience. More recently, Wann (1997) 

defined sensation seeking as a psychological trait in which the 

individual enjoys and seeks dangerous, thrilling, or new 

experiences. The Sensation Seeking Scale (Zuckerman, 1984) 

is the most commonly used instrument for measuring this 

variable. Research has indicated that life event stress (Smith, 

Ptacek, & Smoll, 1992) may be moderated by sensation 

seeking. It has been proposed that a Type T personality 

dimension may exist where individuals vary on a continuum 

from seeking risk-taking and thrill-seeking situations (Big T) 

to avoiding stimulating or risky situations (Little T) (Knutson 

& Farley, 1995). Past sport research has indicated that being 

classified as high in sensation seeking corresponds with 

participation in a variety of sports (Rowland, Franken, & 

Harrison, 1986). Other investigations have examined athletes 

in high risk sports such as skydiving (Hymbaugh & Garrett, 

1974), hang gliding, and automobile racing (Straub, 1982), 

mountain disciplines (Rossi & Cereatti, 1993). The current 

investigation examined the experiences of one AAASP 

certified consultant while driving NASCAR similar stock cars 

during the Richard Petty Driving Experience at Lowe's 

(Charlotte) (LMS) and Atlanta Motor Speedways (AMS). The 

fastest lap speed recorded (at AMS) was 143.85 miles per 

hour. Utilizing a heart rate watch monitor, heart rate data 

comparisons were made while driving on the speedways, 

watching a NASCAR event in person, normal driving on an 

interstate highway, and resting heart rate. Qualitative data was 

also collected concerning the perceptions of the speedway 

driving experiences. 

The Use ofthe POMS in Longitudinal Intra-Subject 

Research with Rowers 

Patricia Wightman, Nelly Giscafr,& Carlos Giesenow, 

National Training Center for Elite Athletes, Argentina 

The purpose of this study was to present research using the 

Profile of Moods States (POMS) with longitudinal intrasubject-type 

of data, in an attempt to start filling an apparent 

void in the field of applied sport psychology. The Argentine 

men's National Rowing Team was evaluated through four

years (1997-1999). This period of time covers two mayor 

sporting events: the Winnipeg Pan-American Games and the 

Sydney Olympics. As suggested by Clark (1997), the events 

and ecology surrounding this period are described to 

illustrate the culture-relevant variables that could have 

caused an impact on the rowers' emotional responses. The 

experiences and measures collected raised up the following 

conclusions: (A) In agreement with several authors (e.g., 

Kauss, 2001; Lane & Terry, 2000; Cockerill, 1991) the 

results support the idea of anger as facilitative of sport 

performance. This concept contradicts the "iceberg profile" 

originally proposed by Morgan (1980); (B) When athletes 

attain a higher level of maturity the POMS reflected a 

stabilizing pattern, i.e., an indication that moods are more 

state-like in adolescence, and evolve into emotional-traits as 

the athlete matures; and (C) The POMS of athletes who 

exhibit a greater tendency of exteriorizing psychosomatic 

symptoms does not vary significantly even though these 

athletes do show physiological alterations during the same 

period of time. Finally, suggestions for future research and 

different uses of POMS, and support of Hanin's (2000) 

IZOF conceptualization will be presented. 

Mood States, Self-confidence and Perceived 

Performance in Snowboards Elite Competitors 

Jose Arruza, Saioa Telletxea, Alfonso Azurza, Benat 

Amenabar, University of the Basque Country, Spain; Gloria 

Balague, University of Illinois at Chicago, USA 

This is a longitudinal, descriptive and correlational research 

with quasi-experimental design. N=5, where all 5 subjects are 

elite competitors. This group of 5 athletes compete in the 

modality of half-pipe ofSnowboard. The main goal of the 

study is to identify and analyze the athlete's psychological 

tolerance and the importances that this factor has in the intrasubject 

variability in competitive performance. This project 

focuses on the events surrounding the beginning of the 

competition, that is, the warm-up phase, and also on the postcompetition 

analysis through the perceived performance 

capacity. We hypothesize that there is a specific way of 

approaching high level competitions, unique to each 

individual athlete, but we also assume that there are some 

common behaviors and approaches individuals. Through the 

questionnaire POMS is determined the fluctuations of the 

dimensions of vigor, fatigue, hostility, depression and tension 

and is compared with the profile iceberg, own of the athletes 

of high level. The Pre-competitive variables studied are: Mood 

states, difficulty estimate, self-confidence and endogenous 

and exogenous variables. Post-competitive variables are: 

perceived performance, measured with a 25 items 

questionnaire that includes qualitative and quantitative data. 

Results of the study show discrepancies with the notion of an 

Iceberg Profile in competition and also raise interesting issues 

regarding the degree ofcorrelation between the mood states, 

self-confidence and perceived performance. 

69 


The Emotional Response to the Injury and 

Rehabilitation Process 

Jill Tracey, University ofWindsor, Canada 

The purpose of the study was to examine the emotional 

response to the injury and rehabilitation process for college 

level athletes who experienced a moderate to severe injury. 

The study utilized qualitative methodology to further uncover 

the emotional experience of injured athletes, to gain an 

understanding of the psychological recovery from athletic 

injury, and to better assist injured athletes during their 

rehabilitation process. Ten college level athletes were studied 

during three phases ofinjury recovery: onset of injury; 1 week 

post injury; and 3 weeks post injury. The investigation 

involved an open-ended questionnaire and three in-depth 

interviews. The emotional response to a moderate to severe 

injury has unique features for the rehabilitation phases 

studied. Sustaining and recovering from an injury is an 

emotionally difficult experience marked by a strong degree of 

personal responsibility for the recovery process. The 

emotional response involves gaining and maintaining 

emotional stability by appraising the situation, seeking social 

support, talking with a variety of people, remaining proactive 

and positive, and learning from the series ofchallenges faced 

during the experience. For the participants in the present 

study, an understanding was gained about the complexity of 

the experience, as well as many unique features, which can 

help researchers and practitioners to offer assistance to injured 

athletes and help to facilitate a more effective recovery 

process for the athletes. 

Motivation andMorality in Youth Sports: An Integrated 

Perspective. 

Marta Guivernau, The University of Notre Dame, Notre 

Dame, IN 46556, and Joan L. Duda, The University of 

Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2IT, UK 

Grounded primarily on Kolhberg's theory of moral 

development (Kohlberg, 1981, 1984) and Nicholls' goal 

perspective theory of motivation (Nicholls, 1984, 1989), the 

major purpose of this study was to examine motivational 

factors and moral variables in relation to aggressive 

tendencies in young soccer players. This investigation 

proposes and evaluates a conceptual model which integrates 

both motivation-related (i.e., perceived motivational climate 

and personal theories of achievement) and moral (e.g., 

perceived significant others' pro-aggressive norms, moral 

identity) constructs. The model reflects individual differences 

as well as situational variability as potential predictors of 

athletic aggression. 194 young male (N = 135) and female (N 

= 59) soccer players, ranging from 13 to 15 years of age, 

completed a multi-section questionnaire targeting the 

variables ofinterest. Three soccer-specific intentionally 

aggressive acts were presented (Aziz, 1998). Results 

suggested that the proposed theoretical model fit the data well 

and was an adequate account of some of the antecedents of the 

sport proneness to aggress. Players' perceptions of the proaggressive 

norms displayed in the sport environment (i.e.,


coaches and teammates) emerged as a consistent significant 

predictor of aggressive tendencies (i.e., self-reported 

likelihood to aggress; SLA). Further, the endorsement of an 

ego-theory of sport achievement was significantly related to 

the athletes' SLA in the second and third scenario. The study 

highlights the relevance ofthe moral atmosphere operating on 

athletic teams and personal theories of achievement to 

aggressive acts in youth sport. 

The Relationship ofthe Motivational Climate and Goal 

Orientations to Burnout among Junior Elite Tennis 

Players 

Joan L. Duda, The University ofBirmingham, UK; Isabel 

Balaguer, Yolanda Moreno, The University ofValencia, Spain; 

Miguel Crespo, International Tennis Federation 

The purpose of this study was to examine whether goal 

orientations and perceptions of the motivational climate, and 

their interaction, significantly relate to indicators of being 

burned out among junior elite athletes. An international 

sample of 262 (N Male = 160, N Female = 102) junior level 

tennis players participated in the study (M Age = 15.9 years; 

M years experience playing tennis = 4.5 + 3.6; M days/week 

and hrs/day training, respectively = 5.5 + .78 and 3.9 + 1.6). 

The athletes were administered a multi-section inventory 

containing assessments of dispositional goal orientations 

(TEOSQ), the perceived motivational climate created by the 

coach (PMCSQ-2), and facets of burnout (Eades' Athlete 

Burnout Inventory). Moderated hierarchical multiple 

regression analyses indicated that the dimensions of burnout 

were predicted by main effects for goal orientations and 

perceptions ofthe motivational climate. The Negative Self 

Concept ofAthletic Ability and Emotional and Physical 

Exhaustion aspects of feeling burned out were negatively 

predicted by task orientation. When the tennis players were 

high in task orientation and perceived a task-involving tennis 

environment, they were less likely to report Psychological 

Withdrawal from their sport. When the motivational climate 

was deemed more ego-involving, players reported greater 

Devaluation by the Coach and Teammates. Incongruent 

Expectations between Coach and Athlete were negatively 

predicted by perceptions of a task-involving atmosphere. In 

total, these results suggest that the promotion oftask goals and 

the fostering oftask-involving environments might reduce the 

degree of burnout evidenced in junior elite tennis. 

Influence ofPerceived Motivational Climate, Perceived 

Ability, and Task Difficulty on Exerted Effort and 

Performance in Soccer 

Michael Reinboth and Glyn C. Roberts, Norwegian 

University ofSport Science, Norway 

The purpose was to examine the influence of perceived 

motivational climate, perceived ability and task difficulty on 

the effort and performance ofmale adolescent soccer players. 

Participants were 418 (age 15-16) Norwegian boys taking part 

in an international soccer tournament. Questionnaires 

assessing perceived motivational climate (PMCSQ, Seifriz, 

70 

Duda & Chi, 1992), perceived ability (IMI sub-scale, 

McAuley, Duncan & Tammen, 1989) as well as self-reported 

effort and performance during a game were given to the 

participants following their participation. A median split was 

used (highllow mastery, highllow performance) to create two 

predominant climate groups (high performance/low mastery 

and high mastery/low performance) and two perceived ability 

groups (highllow). The data was analysed with a three-way 

MANOVA (climate x task difficulty x ability). A significant 

multivariate interaction effect of climate and perceived ability 

emerged (Wilks' lambda = .92; F (2, 139) = 6.26, P < 0.005). 

Planned comparisons revealed no significant differences in 

effort or performance among low perceived ability players 

perceiving either a high performance/low mastery or a high 

mastery/low performance climate. However, high 

performance/low mastery climate players with low perceived 

ability reported significantly lower effort F (1, 68) = 8.90, P < 

0.005 and performance F (1, 68) = 24.43, P < 0.001 than high 

perceived ability players. Among those perceiving a high 

mastery/low performance climate, no such differences were 

found. The results support the tenets of achievement goal 

theory and illustrate that when ego involved, the perception of 

ability is an important variable to consider. 

Examination ofthe Interactive Relationship ofGoal 

Orientations, Perceptions ofthe Motivational Climate, 

and Perceived Ability in Youth Tennis Players 

Maria Newton, University ofUtah, USA; Mary Fry, 

University of Memphis, USA; Paul Bernhardt, University of 

Utah, USA 

Person and situation variables are integral to Nicholls' theory 

of achievement motivation. The purpose ofthis study was to 

examine how goal orientations, perceptions ofthe 

motivational climate, and perceptions of ability related to 

intrinsic motivation and beliefs about the causes of success. 

Tennis players (n=168; 101 females, 67 males; M age=14.05 

years) participated. Assessments of goal orientations, 

perceptions of the program's motivational climate, intrinsic 

motivation, and beliefs about the causes of success in tennis 

were administered. Simple correlations revealed relationships 

consistent with goal perspective theory. In order to examine 

the interactive components ofthe theory, a series ofmoderated 

hierarchical regression analyses were conducted. The 5 main 

effect terms entered in step 1 were followed in step 2 by 6 

pertinent interaction terms, A total of 35% ofenjoyment was 

significantly predicted by main effects (task orientation and 

perceptions of competence) and interaction terms. Effort was 

predicted by the main effects of task orientation, an egoinvolving 

climate, and perceptions of competence (R2=.29). 

Pressure was related to ego orientation (R2=.08). Effort-based 

beliefs were predicted by task orientation, ego-involving 

climate, perceptions ofcompetence, and the interaction of 

task orientation and perceptions of competence. Externalbeliefs 

were predicted (R2=.28) by task orientation, ego 

orientation, and perceptions of an ego-involving motivational 

climate. A total of 22% ofAbility-focused beliefs were 

accounted for by ego orientation and an ego-involving

motivational climate. The presentation and discussion will 

focus on interpretation ofthe interactive effects in light ofgoal 

perspective theory. 

Do Self-determinedMotives Underpin Exercise Imagery 

in Female Exercise Participants? 

Wendy M. Rodgers, Philip M. Wilson, University of Alberta, 

Canada; Craig R. Hall, Kim L. Gammage, University of 

Western Ontario, Canada 

Previous research supports the link between multiple facets of 

exercise imagery and exercise behavior patterns (Hausenblas 

et al., 1999). Despite the potential health implications ofthis 

link, scant attention has been afforded the psychological 

mechanisms that underpin imagery in the exercise domain. 

Self-determination theory (SDT; Ryan & Deci, 2(00) 

contends that favorable cognitions stem from self-determined 

motives which develop in contexts that support perceived 

autonomy. The purpose of this study was to examine the 

relationship between perceived autonomy support from 

exercise instructors, exercise motives, and appearance, 

technique, and energy exercise imagery. Female exercise 

participants (N = 165) completed measures of perceived 

autonomy support, exercise motivation, and exercise imagery. 

Correlation analyses revealed greater perceived autonomy 

support was most strongly associated with identified and 

intrinsic exercise motives. Three hierarchical multiple 

regression analyses supported the ability of SDT's constructs 

to predict appearance (R2ajd = .32), technique, (R2ajd = .44), 

and energy (R2ajd = .19) exercise imagery. Autonomy support 

significantly contributed (b' s = .26 to 34) to the prediction of 

each form ofimagery, however, exercise motives were 

differentially related to exercise imagery type with introjected 

regulation (beta = .40) predicting appearance imagery, 

intrinsic regulation (beta = .33) predicting technique imagery, 

and external regulation (beta = .20) predicting energy 

imagery. Collectively, these data suggest the content of 

exercise imagery can be explained within a motivational 

framework that allows greater understanding ofthe functional 

role played by different images and specifies the conditions 

under which different forms ofimagery manifest themselves 

in the exercise domain. 

The Relationship ofGoal Orientations, Motivational 

Climate, and Perceived Ability to SelfEfficacy 

Maria Newton, Ph.D., Nicole J. Detling, M.S., Jennifer 

Kilgore, M.S., Paul Bernhardt, M.S., University of Utah 

Goal perspective theory suggests that motivation in 

achievement situations is linked to personal and situational 

goals as well as perceptions of competence (Nicholls, 1989). 

Research has established that continued engagement in 

physical activity is linked to self-esteem (Biddle, 1997). Little 

is known regarding the relationship between goal perspectives 

and self-esteem. Therefore, the purpose ofthis study was to 

examine the relationship of goal orientations, perceptions of 

the motivational climate, and perceptions of competence on 

self-esteem. Participants (n = 225; 91 males, 109 females, 25 

71 


non-indicators) were students enrolled in university-level 

physical activity classes. Participants' goal orientations 

(TEOSQ; Duda & Nicholls, 1992), perceptions ofthe 

program's motivational climate (PMCSQ-2; Newton & Duda, 

1999), perceived competence, and self-esteem (PSPP; Fox & 

Corbin, 1989) were assessed in group settings one week 

before classes were to end. MANOVA and follow-up 

univariate F tests indicated gender differences in relation to 

dispositional goal orientations and perceptions of the 

motivational climate. All subsequent analyses were conducted 

independently for each sex. Moderated hierarchical regression 

analyses were conducted to examine the main and 2-way 

interactive effects of goal orientations, perceptions ofthe 

motivational climate, and perceived competence on selfesteem. 

No relationships emerged for females. In the case of 

males, ego orientation predicted physical self worth and body 

self perceptions while both task orientation and ego 

orientation predicted physical conditioning. Results will be 

discussed in light of goal perspective theory and conceptual 

understanding of self-esteem. 

Fear ofFailure: Predicting Persistence on a Motor Task 

Jonathan N. Metzler, The University ofNorth Carolina, 

Chapel Hill, NC 27599; John M. Silva, The University of 

North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599 

The present study examined the predictive ability of fear of 

failure on persistence. College students (N = 110) completed 

the Performance Failure Appraisal Inventory, the Carolina 

Sport Confidence Inventory, the Golf-Putt Self-Efficacy Scale, 

and the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory. Participants engaged in 

a three-phase golf-putting task including a practice trial, fiveminutes 

of "free-choice" time, and a performance trial. 

Persistence was measured behaviorally (i.e., seconds holding 

the putter and number of putts taken during the "free-choice" 

period) as well as through participant self-report. Hierarchical 

multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine the 

unique contributions of fear of failure, sport confidence, and 

self-efficacy on persistence after controlling for interest/ 

enjoyment. Although the results did not reveal a significant 

change in effect size (R2 change = .06, n.s.), when entered 

into the model, fear of failure was a significant predictor (? = 

.20, P < .05) of persistence defined as seconds holding the 

putter. Overall, interest/enjoyment, fear of failure, sport 

confidence, and self-efficacy accounted for 11% of the 

variance, however, only interest/enjoyment and fear of failure 

were significant predictors. Only interest/enjoyment was a 

significant predictor ofpersistence defined in number ofputts. 

No variables were related to self-reported persistence. Fear of 

failure is a stable and relatively enduring construct thus its 

predictive ability of a single episode of behavior is 

noteworthy. Large effects offear offailure on persistence may 

be determined by observing the accumulation of episodic 

behavior over time. Future research should explore the 

predictive ability offear of failure on cumulative behavior.


Goal Perspective Theory and Motivational Responses in 

PhysicalActivity Course Participants 

Maria Newton, Jennifer Kilgore, Nicole Detling, John 

Bernhardt, University of Utah, USA 

This study utilized goal perspective theory (Nicholls, 1989) to 

examine the influence of goal orientations, perceptions ofthe 

motivational climate, and perceived competence on selected 

indices of motivation. College students (n = 225; Mage = 

23.45 years) enrolled in physical activity classes completed 

the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire 

(TEOSQ; Duda, 1992), the Perceived Motivational Climate in 

Sport Questionnaire-2 (PMCSQ-2; Newton & Duda, 1999), 

the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (Kendzierski & 

DeCarlo, 1991), Qualities of Relationships Scale (Smith & 

Smoll, 1991) and a 4-item assessment of expectations 

regarding future involvement in university physical activity 

courses. MANOVA indicated that males and females 

significantly differed in goal orientations and perceptions of 

the motivational climate. All analyses were completed 

separately for each sex. Moderated hierarchical regression 

analyses were conducted to examine the main and two-way 

interactive effects of goal orientations, motivational climate, 

and perceived competence on motivation. For males, future 

expectations were associated with motivational climate (taskinvolving 

climate B=.29; ego-involving motivational climate 

B=-.30). Quality of relationships (B=.38) and satisfaction 

(B=.56) were only predicted by a task-involving motivational 

climate. In the case of females, non-significant results 

emerged in relation to satisfaction. Future expectations were 

related to perceptions ofa task-involving motivational climate 

(B=-.Ol). Quality of relationships were predicted by 

perceptions ofboth a task-involving (B=.54) and egoinvolving 

(B=-.18) motivational climate. Results will be 

discussed in light of the long term promotion of motivation 

and goal perspective theory. 

The Significance ofa Task-Involving Climatefor Highly 

Elite Athletes 

Anne Marte Pensgaard & Joan L. Duda, University of 

Birmingham, UK 

Highly elite athletes are subject to intense expectations, from 

the general public, the media, sponsors, but also from 

themselves. To understand how high level athletes might 

respond to such potential pressures, it is important to consider 

how they subjectively define success and decide whether they 

have been efficacious or not. Achievement goal theory 

(Nicholls, 1989) maintains that the achievement goals adopted 

(i.e., task and ego goal involvement) lay the foundation for 

how success and demonstrated competence are conceived. It 

is assumed that a state ofego or task involvement is a result of 

the interplay between individual dispositions and situational 

cues. Expanding upon past research, the purpose of this study 

was to investigate the relationship ofthe perceived 

motivational climate and goal orientations to stress and coping 

responses and objective performance among 61 athletes from 

Scandinavia who competed in the Olympic Games in Sydney 

72' 

2000. Goal orientations, perceptions of motivational climate, 

experienced distress, sources of distress, satisfaction with 

coping, and performance (placement) were measured. 

Perceptions of a task-involving climate emerged as the single 

predictor of effective coping and more positive performance 

outcomes. A task-involving climate was negatively associated 

with athletes viewing the coach as a source ofstress and 

positively related to reported satisfaction with the coach. In 

total, the results suggest the importance of promoting a taskinvolving 

environment at the micro level within the larger 

ego-involving mileau of high-level competitive sport. 

Exercise Motivation: Is There a Difference Between 

High and Low Exercise Dependent Individuals? 

Amy L. Hagan and Heather A. Hausenblas, University of 

Florida 

Despite physical activity'S potential harmful effects, research 

examining the psychological correlates of exercise 

dependence is limited both in number and methodological 

design. It is conceivable that the maladaptive behavior 

apparent in exercise dependent individuals may in part be 

attributed to pathological motives. Thus, the purpose of this 

study was to theoretically determine the exercise motives of 

females high and low on exercise dependence symptoms. To 

obtain a sample ofindividuals at-risk for exercise dependence, 

750 female college students were prescreened on the Exercise 

Dependence Scale (EDS; Hausenblas & Symons Downs, 

2(01). The 20 highest and 20 lowest scoring participants (M 

age = 21.18) on the EDS were asked to complete the Exercise 

Motivation Scale (EMS; Li, 1999) which is based on selfdetermination 

theory. A MANOVA, with group as the 

independent variable and the EMS subscales as the dependent 

variables was significant [Wilks's Lambda=.499, F (1,35) = 

4.39, P =.001]. Univariate analyses revealed that the high 

exercise dependent group scored significantly higher on the 

three subscales of external motivation compared to the low 

exercise dependent group: introjected regulation, identified 

regulation, and integrated regulation. The high exercise 

dependent group also scored significantly higher on internal 

motivation to learn, internal motivation to accomplish, and 

internal motivation to experience sensation compared to the 

low exercise dependent group. There were no group 

differences for amotivation or external motivation. In 

conclusion, high exercise dependent individuals tend to have 

more self-determination for exercise behavior compared to the 

low exercise dependent participants. 

Identifying Korean Athletes'Beliefs about the Causes of 

Success in Sport 

Mi-Sook Kim, San Francisco State University, USA; Duk 

Sun Chang, Chung-Ang University, Korea 

Previous investigations in which researchers attempted to 

measure Korean athletes? beliefs about the determinants of 

success in their sport employed the Beliefs About the Causes 

of Sport Success Questionnaire (Duda et al., 1992). Results 

have revealed a positive interdependency between ability and

effort beliefs among Korean athletes (e.g., Kim, 1999). 

Therefore, the current study was designed to identify athletes' 

beliefs about the determinants of their success in sport among 

Korean athletes using open-ended questions. Ninety-seven 

intercollegiate athletes (Mage = 19.14 + 2.7) listed what they 

believe to be the causes of success in sport participation. The 

open-ended question was 'If athletes , they will be 

successful in their sport.' The athletes identified a total of 408 

determinants of success and these raw data were deductively 

grouped into conceptually similar categories via content 

analysis procedures. Results revealed twelve beliefcategories. 

The determinants of sport success that emerged were 

Personality/Attitude (25.1 %), Effort/Consistent Challenge 

(23.7%), Self-Discipline (14%), Understanding of Tasks 

(7.6%), Physically Talent (7.6%), Psychological Skills and 

Training (5.4%), Coachability (4.4%), Interest/Enjoyment 

(3.7%), External support (3.2%), Team Harmony (2.5%), 

Positive Outcome experience (2.2%), and Uncategorized 

(1.7%). When examining participants' responses, more than 

half ofthe athletes (51%) indicated conceptually different 

determinants (i.e., Effort/consistent attempts, Personality/ 

Attitude needed to be successful, and/or Physical talents) 

simultaneously. These findings imply that sport psychologist 

need to extend their knowledge and view to culturally 

sensitive beliefs about causes of sport success in their research 

and practice. 

Comparing Motivations ofNAIA-I and NCAA-II 

Athletes 

Laura F.Schneider; Lisa Orlando; Texas Wesleyan University, 

Ft. Worth, TX 76105 

The primary goal ofboth studies is to investigate motivational 

differences (intrinsic, extrinsic, amotivation) in college 

athletes in different divisional levels (NAIA, NCAA II) using 

the Sports Motivation Scale (Pelletier, Fortier, Vallerand, 

Tuson, Briere, & Blais, 1995). Since research suggests that 

skilled athletes are more intrinsically motivated than less 

skilled athletes, it was hypothesized that NAIA-I and NCAA 

II athletes would be motivated for different reasons (Chantal, 

Guay, Bobreva-Mortinova, & Villerand, 1996; Drummond & 

Lenes, 1997). Eighty-six NAIA-I athletes at Texas Wesleyan 

University (61 males and 25 females) with a mean age of 

20.04 years of age were participants in the first study. Two 

years later, Texas Wesleyan University became affiliated with 

the NCAA-II and the study was replicated. One-hundredthirty-two 

Texas Wesleyan Athletes (72 males and 60 females) 

with a mean age of 19.73 years were participants. All subjects 

completed the Sport Motivation Scale and provided 

demographic information (Pelletier, et al., 1995). Factor 

Analysis showed that Amotivation and Identified Extrinsic 

Motivation have good construct validity and stable fracture 

structure. In both divisions, females had higher levels of 

Identified Extrinsic Motivation compared to males. Starters in 

both divisions were more intrinsically motivated than nonstarters. 

Analysis ofVariance did not show any significant 

differences between NAIA-I and NCAA-II athletes on 

Intrinsic Motivation, Extrinsic Motivation, and Amotivation, 

73 


suggesting that athletes motivations did not differ between 

divisions. 

Goal Involvements, Goal Orientation, and Perceptions 

ofParent- and Coach-initiated Motivational Climates 

Among Youth Sport Participants 

Jessica L. Daw, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign; 

Glyn C. Roberts, Norwegian University of Sport Science 

This investigation examined the structure of relationships 

between goal orientations and perceptions of parent- and 

coach-initiated climates on goal involvements of youth 

sport participants. 313 9- to 14-year old boys and girls, 

playing on either a youth soccer or basketball team, 

participated in the study. Participants completed a measure 

of dispositional goal orientation early season and late 

season. During the season (two pregame and one 

prepractice), players completed a measure of goal 

involvement, as well as measures of perceptions of parentinitiated 

and coach-initiated motivational climates. With 

respect to the structure of relationships, when looking at 

task involvement, the path from parent-initiated learning/ 

enjoyment climate was the strongest, followed by task 

orientation at the pregame #2 and prepractice timepoint, 

while at the pregame #1 timepoint, the path from task 

orientation was strongest. When looking at ego involvement 

at these three timepoints, ego orientation had the most 

significant path, followed by ego-indicative parent-initiated 

climates. At all timepoints and with both involvements, no 

significant coach-initiated paths resulted. These results are 

discussed with respect to achievement goal theory. 

Motivational Climate and Peer Relationships as 

Predictors ofBurnout and Motivation in Adolescent 

Swimmers 

Alan L. Smith, Purdue University, USA; Thomas D. Raedeke, 

East Carolina University, USA; Jennifer J. Glass, Sarah 

Ullrich-French, Purdue University, USA 

The social context associated with sport participation is 

thought to influence the quality of youth athletic experiences 

(Brustad, Babkes, & Smith, 2001). However, research is 

needed that clarifies the nature of this contribution. The 

purpose of this study was to examine perceived motivational 

climate, friendship quality, and peer acceptance as predictors 

ofburnout and intrinsic/extrinsic motivational indices in 

adolescent swimmers. Senior age-group swimmers (N = 209), 

ages 13 to 19 years (M =15.5, SD =1.5), completed reliable 

and valid measures of these variables. Two multivariate 

multiple regression analyses were conducted to assess study 

hypotheses. In the first, social contextual variables 

(motivational climate, peer relationships) served as predictors 

of burnout subscales (swim devaluation, exhaustion, reduced 

sense of accomplishment). The multivariate relationship was 

significant, Wilks' = .57, F(27, 576) = 4.58, P < .001, Rc = .59, 

explaining 22.8% of the variance in the burnout variables. 

Canonical loadings indicated that higher perceptions of a taskinvolving 

climate and peer acceptance combined with lower


perceptions of an ego-involving climate were associated with 

lower burnout scores. In the second, social contextual 

variables served as predictors of motivation indices. The 

multivariate relationship was significant, Wilks' =.38, F(45, 

875) = 4.72, P < .001, Rc = .65, explaining 25.9% of the 

variance in the motivation variables. Higher perceptions of a 

task-involving climate, peer acceptance, and positive 

friendship quality were associated with lower amotivation and 

higher identified regulation and intrinsic motivation. Findings 

are discussed relative to social relationships, burnout, and 

motivation literatures. 

Attributions ofYouth Female Gymnasts: Categories and 

Types ofAttributions 

John M. Fitzpatrick, Chicago State University, USA 

This research was conducted to investigate the types of causal 

attributions made by youth female gymnasts. Participants 

included 75 female gymnasts aged II to 18 from United 

States Gymnastics Levels 8, 9, 10 and Elite. All gymnasts 

completed two written surveys, the Sport Attributional Style 

Survey (SASS) and the Gymnastics Experience Survey 

(GES). Twenty randomly selected gymnasts also participated 

in a 30-minute interview. Results from the surveys and the 

interviews indicated that the most commonly reported 

attributions for both successful and unsuccessful performance 

outcomes were psychological factors. Fifty-three percent of 

the total attributions for successful outcomes and fifty-one 

percent of unsuccessful attributions were attributed to 

psychological factors. Nine second-order themes of 

psychological skills emerged for successful outcomes and six 

for unsuccessful outcomes. Specific attributions were reported 

within each category. Attributions to both successful and 

unsuccessful performances were rated as stable, internal and 

controllable by participants. Results from this study contradict 

previous studies by Weiner (1985) and other researchers who 

suggested that ability was the most common cause of 

successful outcomes and that unsuccessful outcomes should 

result in unstable. external and uncontrollable attributions. 

Possible explanations regarding these contradictions were 

suggested and applications to coaching and mental skills 

training were made. 

Attentional Dispositions in Youth Sport Athletes: 

Development and Initial Psychometric Properties 

Peggy S. McCann and Laura M. Finch, Michigan State 

University and Western Illinois University, USA 

The purpose of this study was to develop a valid and reliable 

measurement tool (The Attentional Dispositions of Children 

in Team Sport SurveyorADcrSS) to examine attentional 

dispositions of children between the ages of eight and 13. The 

ADCTSS was administered in three phases. The first two 

phases consisted of students enrolled in physical education 

activity classes (186 and 264 respectively) at a midwestern 

university. The third phase consisted of 69 children between 

the ages of eight and 13 who had participated or were 

currently participating in a team sport. Results of the data 

74 I 

analysis provided moderate statistical support for consistent 

item loading on two factors. Five items demonstrated 

consistent factor loadings across phases for the Distractibility 

subscale. Seven items also loadedconsistently to represent the 

Flexibility subscale. The Cronbach alpha for each of these 

subscales was 3 .50 across phases. Recommendations for 

future research include a) reducing the age range and 

increasing the sample size, b) reviewing and revising the 

inventory design, c) investigating survey administration 

variables, and d) reducing test anxiety in youth participants. 

The Relationship ofMotivation and Psychological 

Skills ofSenior Game Participants to Performance 

Keiba Shaw, MPT, West Virginia University, Morgantown, 

WV; Andrew Ostrow, Ph.D. West Virginia University, 

Morgantown, WV 26505 

Few studies have examined psychological factors, such as 

motivation and psychological skills, in relation to senior 

athletes' participation in competitive sports. The purposes of 

this two-phase investigation, therefore, were to: (1) identify 

prevalent motivational strategies for continued sport 

participation used by senior athletes, (2) assess the 

psychometric properties of the Sport Motivation Scale (SMS; 

Pelletier, Fortier, Vallerand, Tucon, Briere, & Blais, 1995) and 

the Athletic Coping Skills Inventory - 28 (Smith, Schultz, 

Smoll, & Ptacek, 1995) in the senior athlete population, and 

(3) determine the extent senior athletes use psychological 

skills. The results obtained from Phase I of this study will be 

compared to larger study utilizing an independent sample of 

senior athletes in the Florida Senior Games State 

Championships. In phase I, principal component analyses 

(PCA) ofthe 28-item ACSI-28 using a varimax rotation 

yielded six factors accounting for 61% of the variance. PCA 

of the 28-item SMS using a varimax rotation yielded five 

factors accounting for 65.9% of the variance. Through 

confirmatory factor analyses (CFA), an acceptable model fit 

was found only for the ACSI-28 (GFI): p> .05, X2/df ratio = 

1.(8). Internal consistency coefficients range from .54 

(Coachability) to .89 (Peaking under Pressure) for the ACSI 

28 and from .74 (Amotivation) to .87 (EM Identified) for the 

SMS. No significant results were found when two 2 X 2 

(gender x age group) MANOVA's were computed on the 

various subscales ofthe ACSI-28 and the SMS. Phase II 

expands on these results by examining via discriminant 

functional analyses if psychological skills and type of 

motivation are able to determine qualification for the National 

Senior Games.

The X-Factor: Development ofa Sport Psychology 

Newsletter and Consulting Opportunities with 

Intercollegiate Athletics 

Jeffrey M. Cherubini, Devin Riley, Gary Bundy, Jennifer Lee, 

Kellie Brady, Michael L. Sachs, & Carole A. Oglesby, 

Exercise and Sport Psychology Division, Biokinetics 

Research Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, Temple 

University, Philadelphia, PA, and Department ofAthletics, 

Temple University, Philadelphia, PA. 

Many intercollegiate athletes have an understanding of what 

needs to be done in terms of physical training in order to 

perform at their best. In addition, at the NCAA Division I 

level, many have been exposed to concepts of sport 

psychology, but few know what these concepts really mean. 

Graduate students in sport psychology programs obtain a 

wealth ofknowledge applicable to enhancing sport 

performance. Hence, a unique opportunity exists for graduate 

students in sport psychology, student-athletes, and 

administrators. This poster will present ways in which 

graduate students can capitalize on consulting opportunities in 

university settings. Specifically, the advantages of using a 

newsletter as a vehicle of communication between graduate 

students in sport psychology and intercollegiate athletes will 

receive primary focus. Over 300 intercollegiate athletes have 

been directly exposed to sport psychology services offered by 

graduate students. To develop consulting services, athletes 

were asked to choose workshops of interest. Of the 293 

athletes who responded to a survey, the following workshops 

were most preferred: Mental Toughness, Nutrition, Team 

Building, Stress Management, and Attention Control. These 

workshops provide opportunities for graduate students to 

share critical information with student-athletes and gain 

experience in workshop development and presentation. The 

newsletter provides opportunities for developing "real-world" 

writing skills, through print and web site possibilities. 

The Implementation and Evaluation ofthe Going for 

the GOAL Program 

Tanya Taylor and David Scott, University of New Brunswick, 

Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada, E3B 5A3 

Life skills are defined as skills that enable us to succeed in our 

environments (Danish, 1997). According to Danish (1997) it 

is important that we teach adolescents how to succeed. The 

Going for the GOAL program is designed to teach adolescents 

life skills. The purpose of this study was to examine the 

impact of the Going for the GOAL program on the 

development of three specific life skills in adolescents; goal 

setting, problem solving and seeking social support. In this 

present study there were two groups of grade nine 

adolescents. One ofthe groups participated in the program 

whilst the participants in the second group were assigned to a 

wait-list control condition. Grade twelve peer mentors taught 

the program to grade nine students. Problem solving and 

seeking social support were measured using the Coping 

Strategy Indicator. Goal setting was assessed through a series 

on interviews with the program participants. Preliminary 

75 

2001 ConferenceProceedings-Posters 

results indicated that the grade nine adolescents scores were 

low to moderate for problem solving and moderate for 

seeking social support. However, within the sample of 

participants scores on problem solving and seeking social 

support ranged from very low to high. Implications 

concerning adolescent goal setting, problem solving and 

seeking social support will be discussed. 

Reasons for Commitment and Disengagement in 

Division I-A College Baseball 

Lisa A. Collet, Sandy Cottle, and Wade Gilbert, California 

State University, Fresno, 5275 North Campus Drive, MSNG 

28 Fresno, CA 93740 

The purpose ofthis study was to identify the reasons why 

baseball student-athletes commit to and disengage from 

athletic participation prior to completion of eligibility. Six 

male, collegiate baseball players were identified by the 

compliance office at a Division I-A institution based on the 

following criteria: recipients of an athletic scholarship during 

the 1996-97, 1997-98, or 1998-99 academic years and 

discontinuation prior to eligibility completion. Each 

participant was interviewed using a semi-structured interview 

guide. All interviews were tape-recorded, transcribed and 

analyzed inductively. Peer debriefing, member checks, and 

code checks were used to address validity concerns. The data 

were segregated into the two categories of commitment and 

disengagement. Examples of reasons to be and remain 

committed to playing baseball were playing and traveling, pro 

baseball/career dreams, and positive feedback and support 

from coaches. Some reasons for disengagement were lack of 

playing time, lack ofcoaching consistency or communication, 

and lack ofcoach receptivity to athlete concerns. These results 

provide insight for exploring commitment and disengagement 

in other collegiate sports and effects on student-athlete 

graduation rates. 

What about the Coach? College Coaches'Views about 

Success in Athletics 

Jamie McCarthy, Christopher Mesagno, Peter Giacobbi, 


In this study, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 

10 NCAA Division I coaches. The coaches were asked to 

discuss their experiences coaching athletes who experienced 

successful athletic careers and to elaborate on the 

psychological characteristics of specific athletes whom the 

participants coached. A research team trained in qualitative 

methods utilized the principles of grounded theory (Glaser & 

Strauss, 1967) to analyze the interviews. Through a process of 

constant comparative analysis, the research team identified 

several higher order themes that emerged from the interviews. 

These included athlete motivation (e.g., competitiveness, 

driven to achieve goals, desire to succeed), the ability to 

control one's emotions, the development of specific 

psychological skills (e.g., confidence, mental toughness, 

focus), and the developmental/maturation process. In 

addition, the coaches identified aspects of their relationships


with specific athletes that may have contributed to the 

development and success of specific athletes they coached. 

These included one-on-one meetings, the development ofa 

friendship with the athlete, and the use ofindividualized 

techniques to motivate the athlete. Two miscellaneous themes 

emerged that consisted of psychological skills specific to 

certain sports and coaching philosophies. Consistent with the 

recommendations of Sparkes (1998), exemplar quotes from 

the coaches are presented to illuminate the themes that 

emerged and to allow the readers to judge for themselves the 

accuracy of the research team's conclusions. 

Recommendations are made concerned with how sport 

psychologists can elicit more feedback and input from 

coaches about knowledge construction and practical 

application of that knowledge in sport settings. 

Strategies Master Football Coaches use to Develop 

Collective-efficacy 

John McCarthy, Boston University, USA 

The ability to direct teams or groups into effective units was 

recognized in Bandura (1997) where he extended the 

concept of self-efficacy (1977) to understanding group 

functioning, by applying the notion of collective-efficacy 

(1986) to sports teams. The purpose of this study, is to 

determine; if effective coaches believe confidence is 

important to their success, then what strategies do they think 

develop team confidence? This will be a qualitative study of 

twelve football coaches (n=12), 6 professional, 6 college. 

These "master coaches" met Ericsson's (1993) metric "10 

years or 10,000 hours" of how one develops expertise, plus 

have won- loss records far superior to their peers. Analysis 

of the data will determine if Bandura's sources of efficacy 

belief I.Performance accomplishment, 2. Vicarious 

Experience, 3.Verbal Persuasion, and 4. Control of 

Emotional Arousal, as well as, a fifth source of collectiveefficacy 

5. Leader Effectiveness as cited by Watson and 

Chemers (1998) are present in these coaches strategies. 

Additionally, the interviews will attempt to determine if the 

coaches strategies confirm also what, Yallom (1989) regards 

as the basic tasks ofthe group (therapy) leader. Among the 

areas explored are the I. Creation and Maintenance of the 

group, 2. Building a culture 3. Construction of norms, (that 

promotes collective confidence). Finally, the interview 

process will attempt to situate the coaches from a family 

systems theory perspective, Goldenberg & Goldenberg 

(1995) which states that "people are products of their social 

connections, and attempts to understand them must take 

family relationships into account". The findings may not 

support the sources of efficacy Bandura (1986) or coincide 

with the basic tasks of the group therapist Yallom (1989). In 

either case, however, it is hoped that these findings will 

contribute to understanding of coaching behavior. 

76 

Coaching Style Preferences ofSoccerAthletes on 

Successful Division III College Teams 

Greg A. Shelley, Ithaca College, NY and Dawson L. Driscoll, 

University of Missouri-Rolla, MO 

The research on sport leadership and coaching styles has 

varied greatly in an attempt to understand leadership in sport 

and the effects of sport leadership on performance. 

Researchers have often examined different leadership and 

coaching styles relying on observational analyses and third 

party perspectives. In this study, a qualitative 

phenomenological research design (i.e., a first person 

perspective) was utilized to assess the coaching style 

preferences of male soccer athletes (n=6) and coaches (n=2) 

from two successful Northeastern, Division III soccer 

programs. Semi-structured interviews with athletes (i.e., three 

starters from each team) and coaches (i.e., head coaches with 

at least five years experience) were completed immediately 

following the completion ofthe competitive soccer season. 

Inductive content analyses revealed six common coaching 

themes (i.e., preferences) held by these athletes. Specifically, 

Division III soccer athletes desired their coach to be 

experienced and enthusiastic about the game, to provide 

personal support both on and offthe field, to be receptive to 

input concerning techniques and tactics, and to emphasize the 

enjoyable nature of the game. In addition, athletes desired 

their coach to be motivational in terms ofhard work, intensity, 

and direction through authoritative and democratic behaviors. 

As a result ofthese styles being displayed by the coaches, 

athletes felt a stronger bond to their team, had greater respect 

for their coach, and attempted to participate to the best oftheir 

abilities (i.e., they played harder). Practical applications for 

coaches and recommendations for future research concerning 

coaching style preferences will be discussed. 

Exploring the Relationship Between Leadership and 

Collective Efficacy. 

StephenA. Kozub and Laura Shrives, De Montfort University, 

Bedford, United Kingdom, MK40 2BZ. 

The purpose ofthis exploratory study was to investigate the 

relationship between leadership and collective efficacy in 

sport teams. Ninety-two athletes (62 female and 30 male) 

participated in the study. The athletes were members of 

lacrosse and soccer teams competing in the British University 

Sports Association. Chelladurai and Saleh's (1980) 

Leadership Scale for Sports (LSS) was used to assess the 

athletes' perceptions their coach's leadership behavior. 

Collective efficacy was assessed with a lO-item scale 

developed on the model of Feltz & Lirgg (1998). A multiple 

regression analysis indicated that the LSS dimensions 

accounted for 24.8 percent of the variance in collective 

efficacy (F (5,91) = 5.68, p < .01). Inspection ofthe regression 

coefficients revealed that higher levels of perceived Training 

and Instruction and Positive Feedback behavior were 

associated with higher and lower levels of collective efficacy 

respectively. Training and Instruction behavior on the part of 

the coach may influence collective efficacy through

development of skills and tactics, the implementation of 

effective playing systems, and the co-ordination of task 

relevant resources. Due to the nature of the LSS Positive 

Feedback dimension, high levels of this behavior may detract 

from collective efficacy by promoting an individualistic 

approach on the part of the athletes. The implications of the 

findings for coaches will be discussed. 

Phases and Stages in Athlete-Coach Relationship: A 

Qualitative Exploration ofA Female College 

Gymnastics Team 

Artur Poczwardowski, St. Lawrence University, USA; Keith 

P. Henschen, University ofUtah, USA; James E. Barott, 

Eastern Michigan University, USA 

Optimizing athlete-coach relationships may lead to 

improvements in the quality ofboth the training process and 

performance (Poczwardowski, 2000). This study expanded 

phenomenological knowledge about the athlete-coach 

relationship based on the interpretive paradigm of symbolic 

interactionism (Blumer, 1969). The participants were six 

Division I gymnasts, their three coaches, and an athletic 

trainer. The data was obtained during ten one-hour individual 

interviews and a 4-month observation period. The following 

phases in the athlete-coach relationship were identified: (a) 

prerelationship phase (or recruiting); (b) relationship phase 

with the following stages: initial, transition, productive, 

concluding, after-eligibility; and (c) postrelationship phase of 

two kinds: sentimental or extinct. During recruiting the coach 

and athletes gathered information important from an athletic, 

team, and interpersonal standpoints. This inquiry process was 

further intensified during the initial stage and was followed by 

the transition stage of mutual testing and adjustment. The 

productive stage was characterized by a stabilization of 

relationship-oriented activity, interaction, and care and intense 

work towards a common goal. During the concluding stage, 

an affective foundation for a relationship termination was set. 

Nevertheless, many athletes continued their interactions with 

their coaches during their 5th year in college (after-eligibility 

stage). Finally, after the graduation (or postrelationship 

phase), the athletes either still stayed in touch with the 

coaches (sentimental stage) or completely discontinued their 

athlete-coach interpersonal involvement (extinct stage). The 

poster will present the findings of the study and will offer 

suggestions for future research (e.g., making the time 

dimension the unit of analysis in studies exploring the athletecoach 

relationships). 

A Comparison ofTeam Cohesion and Performance 

Levels in Division I Volleyball Athletes 

Matthew S. Wiggins and Marlene E. Metti, Murray State 


The purpose of this study was two-fold: First, to assess the 

amounts of cohesion or closeness involving Division I 

volleyball participants on the court, as well as their social 

interaction off the court; and second, to determine if the 

cohesion levels differed according to the team's overall 

77 


record. Eighty-one female athletes ranging in age from 18-22 

years participated in the study. Athletes were divided into 

three groups (low, moderate, and high) based on the team's 

over-all winning percentage (i.e., below .400, .400 -.599, .600 

and above). The Relationship Closeness Inventory (Berscheid, 

Snyder, & Omoto, in preparation), which is composed of four 

subscales (Frequency, Diversity, Strength, and Total RCI), 

was used to measure the closeness or cohesion levels of the 

athletes. The over-all MANOVA (F =4.29, P < .001) was 

significant, indicating differences on the RCI by the three 

groups. Follow-up univariate ANOVAs for the separate RCI 

subscales were significant for the Total and Diversity 

measures (p < .000 1), along with the frequency domain (p < 

.01). Interestingly, the moderate group consistently reported 

the lowest scores on the three significant subscales. Results 

were discussed in terms of implications for coaches, and 

future research. 

Self-Efficacy andthe Stages and Processes ofChange 

Associated with Adopting and Maintaining Muscular 

Fitness Promoting Behaviors 

Bradley J. Cardinal and Gianni F.Maddalozzo, Oregon State 

University 

For optimal health, the Surgeon General encourages all adults 

to engage in muscular fitness promoting behaviors at least 2 d/ 

wk. Currently only 19% of adults do so, and the goal is to 

increase this figure to 30% by 2010. The purpose ofthis study 

was to determine if constructs from the Transtheoretical 

Model, a contemporary behavior change framework, could be 

applied to the study of muscular fitness promoting behaviors. 

Data were obtained from 428 college students. Using a 

behavior specific scale, participants were classified into one of 

five "stages of change for muscular fitness promoting 

behavior." Overall, 17 participants were classified as being in 

precontemplation, 44 in contemplation, 80 in preparation, 88 

in action, and 199 in maintenance. In addition, participants 

completed behavior specific questionnaires that assessed the 

10 processes of change and self-efficacy. A one-way 

MANOVA was performed on the vector of mean scores and 

revealed a significant main effect for stage (p


Evaluation ofa University Course Aimed at Promoting 

Exercise Behavior 

Bradley J. Cardinal, Ken)' M. Jacques, and Susan S. Levy, 

Oregon State University, USA 

Sixty-three percent of colleges and universities in the U.S. 

require their students to pass some form of physical activity 

course prior to graduation. Although many universities require 

their students to take these courses, only a limited number of 

studies have assessed the efficacy of these courses. The 

purpose of this study was to assess the effect a lO-week, 

"Lifetime Fitness for Health" (LFH) course had on university 

students' leisure-time exercise behavior, and to determine if 

stage of change for exercise is (or might be) an important 

moderating variable. In conducting this study, a quasiexperimental 

design was employed. The intervention 

consisted of a 30-hour LFH course administered over 10 

weeks. The control condition consisted of psychology 

courses. Ofthe 806 people enrolled in these courses, 540 

(67%) agreed to participate in this study. Participants' weekly 

leisure-time exercise behavior (reported in METS) was 

assessed pre- and post-intervention using a recall 

questionnaire. Exercise METs were analyzed within a 3 

(group: LFH, Prior-LFH, No LFH) x 5 (stage of change) x 2 

(time) analysis of covariance (covariate was age) with 

repeated measures on the last factor. Of the seven 

experimental effects examined, only the main effect for stage 

of change (p

Social Desirability or Scale Confusion? Challenges of 

Administering the Stages ofChange Questionnaire in a 

Rural, Industrial Workplace 

B. Ramsay and D. Scott (Faculty of Kinesiology, University 

of New Brunswick, Canada 

The transtheoretical model (TIM) ofbehavior change, widely 

accepted by researchers and practitioners in the exercise field, 

offers a framework for understanding the process people go 

through when attempting to change unhealthy behaviors, such 

as physical inactivity. The purpose of this study was to 

evaluate the effectiveness of a stage matched wellness 

intervention in a rural, industrial workplace. Specifically, this 

study measured employee progression along the stages of 

change continuum, employee health and employee 

commitment to the company. Subjects were recruited from a 

private sector manufacturer of wallboard. Thirty six 

employees (50% of workforce) took part in the eight month 

intervention consisting of three one-on-one wellness 

consultations and five needs based wellness workshops. 

Incentives for participation were included. During the baseline 

data collection phase ofthis study the Stages of Change 

Questionnaire revealed that 9% of subjects were in the 

precontemplation and contemplation stages, with 91% in the 

preparation, action and maintenance stages. The literature 

does not support this breakdown (Cole et al., 1998; Marcus et 

al., 1998, Canadian Fitness and Lifestyle Research Institute, 

1997; Marcus and Simkin, 1994). The literature suggests that, 

on average, 42% of employees are in the precontemplation 

and contemplation stages and 58% are in the preparation, 

action and maintenance stages. One-on-one consultations 

following baseline data collection further confirmed that 

fewer than 20% of employees participate in regular physical 

activity. Suggestions will be offered regarding this 

discrepancy, including temporal administration of the scale, 

social desirability and scale unreliability. 

Lifestyle Management: The Effects ofan Intensive 

Lifestyle Management Course on Behavioral, 

Psychological, Physiological, and Psycho-behavioral 

Factors 

Jeffrey Pauline, West Virginia University, USA; Frank Perna, 

Boston University School of Medicine, USA; William Reger, 

Andrew Ostrow, Edward Etzel, Randy Bryner, West Virginia 


The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of an 

intensive one-week Lifestyle Management course on 

behavioral, psychological, physiological, and psychobehavioral 

factors. The current study contained forty-five 

participants (N = 45) which included twenty-four individuals 

enrolled in the Lifestyle Management course (experimental 

group) and twenty-one matched individuals (control group). 

The experimental and control groups were evaluated at three 

time points: prior to entering the course (pre-test), upon 

completion ofthe course (post-test), and three months after 

the completion ofthe course (3-month post-test). The 

behaviors/factors evaluated included energy expenditure, 

79 


dietary intake of fat and cholesterol, positive and negative 

mood, blood lipids, cortisol, and stage of change, self-efficacy, 

and decisional balance for adoption of physical activity and a 

low-fat diet. Results revealed that the Lifestyle Management 

course was successful in improving, from pre-test to post-test, 

dietary intake of fat and cholesterol, and positive mood. These 

improvements were not maintained to the 3-month post-test 

evaluation. Results also indicated that the Lifestyle 

Management course was not successful in improving energy 

expenditure, negative mood, blood lipids, cortisol, or stage of 

behavior change, self-efficacy, and decisional balance for 

adoption ofphysical activity and choosing a low-fat diet from 

pre-test to post-test or to the 3-month post-test evaluation. 

Future research investigations examining the effects of an 

intensive lifestyle management course are discussed. 

The Psychological Benefits ofResistance Training 

Ryan Hamilton, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, 

NB, Canada, E3B 5A3; Joanna Morey, Brock University, 

Canada; David Scott, University of New Brunswick, 

Fredericton, NB, Canada, E3B 5A3 

The purpose ofthis study was to determine the psychological 

effect of resistance training on male university ahtletes. More 

specifically, it was hypothesized that resistance training would 

have a significant psychological effect with regard to selfconfidence, 

assertiveness, and risk-taking behaviour. Forty 

male university athletes from the sports of wrestling, 

volleyball, and basketball participated in the study. 

Participants completed a questionnaire which assessed 

specific demographic factors, training schedules, perceived 

benefits and reasons for resistance training, self-confidence, 

assertiveness, and risk-taking behaviour. Results indicated that 

resistance training was associated with significant changes in 

self-confidence, assertiveness, and risk-taking behaviours. 

Implications and directions for future research are discussed 

as well as recommendations for training professionals. 

Does Every Cloud Have a Silver Lining? The 

Relationship Between the Optimistic Bias and Jogging 

Performance 

James A. Shepperd, Danielle Symons Downs, and Heather A. 

Hausenblas, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611 

8205. 

Research suggests that people believe they are more likely 

than others to experience future positive events and less 

likely to experience negative events (Weinstein, 1980). 

Recent evidence, however, indicates that the optimistic bias 

(DB) largely reflects pessimism in estimates for the average 

person rather than optimism in personal estimates (Taylor & 

Shepperd, 1998). Although a bias in estimates emerges for a 

variety of health-related events, it is unclear whether it 

occurs in exercise estimates. The present study examined 

whether students displayed an DB in their estimates about 

exercise, and whether the bias reflected pessimism in 

estimates for the average classmate rather than optimism in 

personal estimates. Participants (179 male and female


undergraduates in elective jogging classes) estimated the 

time it would take them and the average person in their class 

(same sex and age) to complete a semester end jogging trial. 

Based on a Leisure-Time Exercise Questionnaire (Godin & 

Shepard, 1985) median split, participants were categorized 

into high or low exercise groups. Dependent t-tests (p < .05) 

revealed that: (a) only high exercisers displayed an OB in 

their estimates, predicting that they would run faster than 

others in the class, and (b) both groups were pessimistic in 

their performance estimates for others. The findings 

replicate prior nonexercise studies, but also suggest that the 

bias is driven by pessimism in target estimates rather than 

optimism in personal estimates. From a practical standpoint, 

underestimating the amount that others exercise may lead 

people to underestimate their own need to exercise. 

Mental Training and Chronic Pain Management: 

Integration ofthe Psychological Pain Management 

Interventions with Mental Training Principles 

Dean Hugie, Saskatchewan Sport Medicine and Science 

Program, Canada 

The presentation outlines the mind - body connection used in 

mental training and integrates this connection with the 

"wellness model". This connection forms the bases for both 

pain management and performance enhancement practises. 

Whether the client is a high performance athlete or an 

individual suffering from chronic pain, participants will gain 

insight into the relationship between mind and muscle and 

ways the muscles are influenced by the mind. This 

presentation will be most interesting to those wanting to learn 

more about psychological pain management, rather than those 

wanting to grow in their understanding of performance 

enhancement. 

Effects of10 Weeks Weight Training on Female College 

Students' Physical Selfand Mood 

Frank Jing-Horng Lu, National College ofPhysical Education 

and Sports, Taiwan 

This study examined the effects of weight training on female 

college students' perception of physical self and mood 

compared to non-weight trainers. The experimental group 

consisted of 42 female college students, and a comparison 

group was comprised of 45 female college students. 

Experimental subjects participated in a 10 weeks, two-dayper-week 

weight training intervention, while subjects in the 

comparison group only did regular college activities. 

Participants were pre- and posttested on the Physical Self 

Description Questionnaire (PSDQ, Marsh, Richards, Johnson, 

Roche, & Tremayne, 1994), the abbreviated Profile of Mood 

State (POMS, Grove & Prapavessis, 1992), and the muscular 

strength as well as three skinfold measurements. With pretest 

scores controlled, the weight trainers had significant higher 

physical self (especially on strength) and better mood 

(especially high vigor and low fatigue.) Weight trainers also 

showed significant increase in upper, lower limbs and trunk's 

strength but significant decrease in skinfold thickness. 

80 

Although consistent with previous research (e.g. Tucker & 

Maxwell, 1992), this study concluded that the effects of 

weight training did not warrant to the changes of all factors of 

physical self and mood. 

The Experience ofa First Race: A Phenomenological 

Description 

Karen M. Appleby, University ofTennessee, USA 

The purpose of this study was to describe the experience of a 

first race for novice competitors. While the seven participants 

in this study had never run a competitive race before, they had 

run consistently on their own (i.e. at least ten miles a week for 

one month). In order to obtain a description ofthe 

participants' experiences, a phenomenlogical approach was 

employed. The phenomenological paradigm acknowledges 

the participant as the expert on the phenomenon at hand (Dale, 

1996). Therefore, the interview allowed the participants the 

freedom to tailor the discussion to describe their experience. 

Each interview was audiotaped, transcribed, and then 

analyzed by both the researcher and a group of sport 

psychology students and professors. Five themes emerged 

from the analysis of these interview. These themes were: (a) 

Others and how Others were experienced through Others as 

Motivation, Comparing Self to Others, and Perceptions of 

Experienced Others; (b) Personal Meaning and how Personal 

Meaning became apparent through Accomplishment, Positive 

Experience, and Trying Harder; (c) Temporality and how 

temporality was experienced through Starting Too Fast, Pace, 

and Slow Time; (d) Surprise and Unfamiliarity and how this 

theme was experienced through Energy After the Race and 

Race Paraphernalia; and (e) The Body and how this theme 

was perceived through Preparing the Body, Mental Strategies, 

and Physical Discomfort. The results ofthis study suggest 

several applications for novice competitors and for coaches. 

These applications include the importance of anticipating 

aspects of the event and preparing for them as well as 

obtaining social support before, during, and after the race. 

Avid Exercisers' Thoughts on Exercise: Do Their 

Thoughts Differ From Regular Exercisers? 

Krista 1. Munroe, University ofWindsor, Canada; Wendy W. 

Rodgers, University ofAlberta, Canada; Craig R. Hall, 

University ofWestern Ontario, Canada; Phil Wilson, 

University ofAlberta, Canada 

Hall (1995) proposed that imagery use may vary with the 

frequency ofexercise involvement. Hausenblas, Hall, Rodgers 

and Munroe (1999) and Gammage, Hall and Rodgers (2000) 

examined this proposal and found that frequent exercisers 

used imagery more often than less frequent exercisers. As 

well, regular exercisers use imagery for appearance, energy 

and technique (Gammage et al., 2000; Hausenblas et al., 

1999). However, past research has not examined whether the 

content offrequent (i.e., avid) exercisers' thoughts differ from 

the thoughts of regular exercisers. Therefore, the purpose of 

this study was to gather in-depth information on avid 

exercisers' thoughts on exercise. Four females with a mean

age of 33.8 years participated in a focus group session. The 

participants exercised 5 or more times a week for a minimum 

of 7 hours per week. An interpretational analysis was 

conducted and a hierarchical tree was developed to display the 

data. With respect to participants' thoughts on exercise, the 

themes that emerged from the focus group included: A) 

barriers/obstacles to exercise, including affect and strategies to 

overcome barriers, B) specific thoughts directly related to 

their individual workouts such as strategies and technique, C) 

arbitrary cues which prompt thoughts of exercise D) motives 

to exercise, including when and why one exercises, E) 

positives/negatives of exercise that impact upon the 

individual, F) social support, and G) perceptions of self as an 

avid exerciser. The present findings offer a preliminary 

understanding regarding avid exercisers' thoughts on their 

exercise participation. A better understanding of their thoughts 

can serve as a guide to future research. From a practical 

perspective, this may facilitate the development ofmore 

effective interventions. 

Exercise Intention and BehaviorAmong Women 

Participating in a Weight Loss Program 

Rebecca Ellis Gardner and HeatherA. Hausenblas, University 


High risk groups for low activity levels include the obese and 

women (USDHHS, 2000). Theoretical research is needed on 

exercise determinants in overweight women before effective 

interventions to increase exercise adherence can be 

implemented. Thus, the purpose of the present study was to 

examine the usefulness of the theory of planned behavior 

(TPB) in predicting women's exercise intention and behavior 

within a weight loss program. Forty adult female participants 

completed a four-week weight loss program that consisted of 

group exercise sessions (three x week) and a low calorie diet. 

Prior to the start of the program, participants responded to 

questions targeting the constructs ofthe TPB for their exercise 

intention and behavior (i.e., intention, perceived behavioral 

control, attitude, and subjective norm; Ajzen, 1985, 1991). 

Exercise behavior was operationalized as the number of 

sessions attended. Hierarchical regression analyses were 

conducted to examine the ability of the TPB to predict 

exercise intention and behavior. Only the model for intention 

was significant, F (3, 36) =6.93, p < .05, and it accounted for 

36.6% of the variance in intention. Subjective norm, however, 

was the only significant predictor of intention (p =.009). In 

contrast to previous research, attitude and perceived 

behavioral control were not significant predictors ofexercise 

intention and behavior nor was intention a significant 

predictor of behavior. The findings are discussed in relation to 

the low variability in program attendance (i.e., the majority of 

participants adhered to the program). 

81 


The Effects ofPreferred, Non-preferred, and No Music 

during Aerobic Exercise: Manipulation ofEnjoyment, 

Arousal, Pedaling Rate, and Time to Fatigue 

John K. Meis, Florida State University, USA 

Despite previous examinations of the effects of various 

musical components on work output, heart rate, and perceived 

exertion, (Dorney, Goh & Lee, 1992; Lee, 1989; Mertesdorf, 

1994; Wales, 1986) the true ergogenic effects ofmusic are still 

debatable. The purposes of the present study are four-fold: (a) 

to assess the relationship between music tempo and selfselected 

pace on a stationary cycle task, (b) to assess the 

effects ofsynchronous music on mood, RPE, and aerobic 

endurance (time to fatigue), (c) to determine the effects of 

synchronous music on enjoyment and perceived task 

difficulty, and (d) to assess the arousal regulatory effects of 

tempo on exercise performance. Preliminary analyses of 

initial data indicate a strong possibility of music condition 

main effects. These findings would support the use of selfselected 

music as an ergogenic aid during exercise. 

The Influence ofSocial Support on the Lived 

Experiences ofSpinal Cord Injured Sportsmen 

Tim Rees, University of Exeter, UK; Brett Smith, University 

of Exeter, UK; Andrew Sparkes, University of Exeter, UK 

The purpose ofthis research was to study the influence of 

social support on men who have acquired a spinal cord injury 

(SCI) through playing sport. Ten British men, who had all 

experienced a C-4/5 SCI through playing ruby football union, 

were involved in at least three confidential life history 

interviews, each lasting from two to six hours. All interviews 

were tape-recorded, transcribed, and analyzed utilizing a 

paradigmatic method (Sparkes, 1999). Emotional, esteem, 

informational and tangible support (Rees & Hardy, 2000) 

were experienced from different sources and served to match 

the specific needs, problems and stressors faced by the 

participants. However, as well as examples of the beneficial 

impact ofsocial support, some negative influences were 

highlighted. This research demonstrates the need for greater 

awareness ofthe needs and stressors facing spinal cord injured 

athletes. Whilst it is highlighted that the spinal cord injured 

person needs to recognize needs and be proactive in 

resourcing social support, it is also highlighted that providers 

often carry their support inappropriately, and might therefore 

be taught to recognize the great impact, either positively or 

negatively, that their giving support can have. 

Psychosocial Antecedents ofInjury and Post-Injury 

Mood Response AmongAdolescentAthletes 

Courtney B. Albinson and Trent A. Petrie, University of North 

Texas, Denton, TX 76203 

In the sport injury prediction literature, adolescent athletes 

have been given limited attention. This investigation 

examined the effects of life event stress, social support, 

preinjury mood state and dispositional optimism on injury 

time loss and post-injury mood disturbance among


adolescent athletes. Of the 44 participating high school 

varsity football players, 7 sustained time loss injuries. 

Hierarchical regression analyses conducted separately for 

negative and positive life event stress, revealed no significant 

predictors of either injury time loss or post-injury mood 

disturbance when controlling for pre-injury mood state. 

Furthermore, ANOVAs conducted with each variable 

resulted in no significant differences between injured and 

uninjured athletes (p > .10). Thus, the relationships often 

found with college athletes were not supported with this 

sample of adolescent athletes. Low time loss (median =6 

days) and number of injuries, however, limited the findings. 

Nonetheless, in completing the Adolescent Multiethnic/ 

Multiracial Life Events Inventory (Pre low & Guarnaccia, 

1996), the athletes as a group reported experiencing 216 

negative and 129 positive events. Ofthose reported, the most 

frequent negative ones were: "serious illness or 

hospitalization of a family member," "broke up with 

boyfriend/girlfriend," "fight with a parent/parental figure," 

"fight, conflict, or argument with a friend," and "other 

activities interfered with school." Among positive ones, the 

most frequent were: "weight change," "change in personal 

appearance," "began senior year of high school," "brother or 

sister left home," and "had to care for younger brothers and! 

or sisters." Additional findings, limitations, and implications 

of this research will be reported. 

The Predictive Utility ofCompetitive Trait Anxiety, 

Social Support, and Daily Hassles for Athletic Injury 

Joseph M. Mannion, Charles 1. Hardy, Kevin L. Burke, A. 

Barry Joyner, Georgia Southern University, USA 

Andersen and Williams (1988) proposed a model 

conceptualizing the relationship between a history of 

stressors, personality characteristics, social support, and 

subsequent athletic injury. However, previous research has not 

utilized a multidimensional measure of competitive trait 

anxiety. Within this framework, the present study examined 

the predictive utility of competitive trait anxiety using a 

multidimensional measure (Sport Anxiety Scale, SAS, Smith 

Smoll, & Schutz, 1990) with an added directional component, 

social support (Social Provisions Scale, SPS, Russell & 

Cutrona, 1984), and daily hassles (Daily Hassles Scale, DHS, 

Kanner, Coyne, Schaefer, & Lazarus, 1980) for athletic injury 

severity and frequency. Questionnaires were administered to 

10 male and female high school basketball teams in the 

southeastern United States. Approximately 100 players 

asymptomatic at the time of the administration were included 

in the analysis. Certified athletic trainers classified injuries 

using the Colorado Injury Reporting System (CIRS, 

Blackwell & McCullagh, 1990; Hanson, McCullagh, & 

Tonymon, 1992) as mild, moderate, or severe. It was 

hypothesized that athletes with higher competitive trait 

anxiety and daily hassles, and lower social support will have 

significantly more frequent and severe injuries. The frequency 

of injury was the summation of all injuries for each player, 

and the severity was represented by the most severe level of 

injury reported throughout the season for each athlete. 

82 

Descriptive statistics were calculated overall and as a function 

of injury status and gender. Stepwise multiple regression and 

discriminant analysis were used to calculate the predictive 

validity for injury frequency and severity. Results will be 

presented indicating the results of these analyses. 

A Look into the Needs ofInjuredAthletes: Implications 

and Recommendations 

Karen MacNeill, University of Calgary/ NSCC, USA 

Athletes are dependent on the optimal functioning of their 

physical skill, therefore sport injury can have a profound 

effect. Throughout this healing process the athlete has a wide 

range of needs, depending on the scenario and the severity of 

injury. There are also a variety ofcoping mechanisms and 

strategies that athletes use to fulfill various needs, and deal 

with the trials and tribulations of injury. This exploratory 

study was conducted to gather data on the needs of injured 

athletes and identify strategies that are used to fulfill these 

needs. A variety of athletes ranging from provincial to 

national team level filled out questionnaires, and shared 

information at an injury support group meeting regarding their 

needs. Based on this information eight categories were created 

that summarized the needs of these injured athletes. Each of 

these categories will be discussed and specific examples will 

be presented. The idea to support athletes through injury was 

brought forth by an athlete at the National Sport Centre in 

Calgary (NSCC). In response, the sport psychology team 

developed some programs that would provide the stakeholders 

(athletes, coaches, sports medicine team) with social support, 

information, resources, and tools to enhance the recovery 

process and assist with coping mechanisms. The programs 

that will be discussed include: the development and function 

of a peer support group for injured athletes, coach education 

workshops, resource libraries, and linking athletes with other 

athletes as rehab partners. 

High School Athletes'Perceptions ofSport Psychology 

and Preferences for Services 

Lindsey C. Blom, Charles J. Hardy, Kevin L. Burke, A. Barry 

Joyner, Georgia Southern University, USA 

Past research has examined the public's perceptions (e.g., 

Linder, Brewer, Van Raalte, & De Lange, 1991) and collegiate 

athletes? perceptions (e.g., Sullivan & Hodge, 1991) of sport 

psychology, but the high school athlete population has been 

excluded. This study used a qualitative analysis to examine 

high school athletes? perceptions of sport psychology and 

their preferences for different types of services. Sixty-five 

high school athletes (33 boys & 32 girls) from three 

southeastern rural schools participated in the study. The 

athletes must have participated in a varsity high school sport 

for at least one year and were currently in the 9th throughl2th 

grade year. Individual sports (i.e., tennis, golf, cross-country, 

track) and team sports (i.e., football, baseball, softball, soccer, 

& basketball) were included. Athletes participated in a 30-45 

minute focus group session, completed a background 

questionnaire, and the 'Preferences for Sport Psychology

Services' survey {PSPS} (Burke, 1999). By using a focus 

group methodology, an informal, open, non-directive 

discussion was created. Eight focus group sessions were 

conducted, four sessions for each gender. The focus group 

discussion guide consisted of nine questions concerning the 

athletes? perceptions of the mental side of sport, meaning of 

sport psychology, description of a sport psychologist, purpose 

of a sport psychologist, and important mental issues. Also, 

barriers and facilitators of using a sport psychologist and the 

high school athletes? preferences for the types of services 

were ascertained. Each focus group session was audiotape 

recorded. The PSPS, Ethnograph v5.0 computer program 

(Qualis Research, 1998), and four researchers were utilized to 

triangulate the data. Results will be presented indicating the 

major themes for each question, and comparing the themes for 

the male and female high school athletes. 

Educational Background and Confirmatory Bias: The 

Impact on Athlete-Client Case Conceptualization and 

Intervention Strategies 

Tammy Franklin and Frank L. Gardner, Arizona School of 

Professional Psychology, USA 

In recent years, there has been ongoing discussion among 

applied sport psychology professionals concerning the type 

of services needed by athlete-clients (Taylor, Gardner, 

Ravizza, & Zinsser, 2000). While practitioners of applied 

sport psychology have traditionally focused their efforts on 

educationally based psychological skills training programs 

for performance enhancement, recent data has suggested that 

while most initial referrals to sport psychology practitioners 

are made for performance enhancement reasons, ultimate 

intervention needs focus more on psychological issues and 

personal concerns (Baumann, 2000). To data, there has been 

no empirical data regarding the impact that practitioners' 

educational backgrounds have on their perceptions of 

athlete-client problems and needs. It therefore remains 

questionable whether educational background creates a 

confirmatory bias by which practitioners evaluate athleteclients. 

In the present study, clinical records of 18 practicum 

students in applied sport psychology will be qualitatively 

coded to determine the following: 1) The relative frequency 

of initial referrals for performance related issues versus 

more personal/psychological issues 2) The relative 

frequency of ongoing psychological skills training for 

performance enhancement versus counseling based 

interventions for personal/psychological concerns 3) The 

relative impact that supervisors' educational backgrounds 

(clinical psychology, counseling psychology, exercise 

science) have on initial referral classification and 

intervention choice. Implications for training, practice, and 

future research will be discussed in depth. 

83 


Coaches'Attitudes Towards Seeking Sport Psychology 

Consultation 

Earl E. Walker, Jr., Boston University, Boston, MA, USA, 

02215; Oliver W. Eslinger, Boston University, Boston, MA, 

02215 

Thirty collegiate coaches from Divisions I, II, and III in the 

northeast were given the Coaches' Attitudes Towards Seeking 

Sport Psychology Consultation Questionnaire (CATSSPCQ) 

to assess their attitudes towards the utilization of sport 

psychology professionals for both themselves and their 

athletes. The questionnaire consists of demographic 

information and two main categories: recognition of need and 

openness to sport psychology consulting. The CATSSPCQ is 

adapted from the athlete-specific ATSSPCQ (Martin, 

Wrisberg, Beitel, & Lounsbury, 1997). Results are expected to 

indicate how coaches view the field of sport psychology, how 

and when they have utilized sport psychology consultants, and 

explain why more coaches are not turning to sport psychology 

as a resource for performance enhancement. Besides the 

original ATSSPCQ, research in sport psychology has not 

focused on the needs and potential influences of coaches 

choosing sport psychology for their programs. It is our hope 

that the CATSSPCQ will serve as a fundamental base for 

improving and implementing sport psychology consulting 

into not only collegiate athletics, but youth sport and high 

school athletics as well. 

Do Sport Psychologists in an Academic Setting Get Paid 

for their Consulting Time? 

Lance Green and Jerry C. Sandberg, Tulane University; New 

Orleans, LA 70118 

The initial perception of students that enter master's or 

doctoral programs in sport psychology is that the academic 

sport psychologists that work with student athletes in 

performance enhancement and counseling at the university 

are paid for their time (Simons & Anderson, 1995). Previous 

studies, however, have shown that the majority of consulting 

sport psychologists in an academic setting do so on a 

volunteer basis (Meyers et al., 2001). A survey was 

distributed to 150 sport psychologists who work in an 

academic setting in order to establish what type of working 

and budgetary relationship exists between the academic and 

athletic departments. Ofthe 83 academicians that responded, 

the majority of these practitioners had similar relationships, 

e.g., voluntary, shared salary, salaried retainers, and 

compensation per sport. The results of the survey and its 

implications will be discussed. 

Multicultural Consulting Experiences with Japanese 

andAmerican Female Tennis Players 

Airi Naoi and Sam Zizzi West Virginia University, 

Morgantown, WV, USA 26506 

The purpose ofthis poster presentation is to describe the 

experiences learned from an internship conducted with varsity 

female tennis teams in both Japan and the United States.


Recently, there has been a lot written regarding the use of 

Psychological Skills Training (PST) and its application to 

tennis players (Weinberg, 1988; Bollettieri & Maher, 1996; 

Van Raalte & Silver-Bernstein, 1999). In scientific research, 

Daw and Burton (1994) demonstrated that tennis players 

utilizing PST improved their competitive cognitions and 

performance. In this poster presentation, both team and 

individual consulting work with female tennis players will be 

described. In addition to introducing PST used with tennis 

teams, possible research areas related to this applied work 

experience will be suggested. PST utilized with these tennis 

players includes goal setting, relaxation, imagery, positive 

self-talk, concentration and team building. To integrate 

applied experiences and research, potential research areas will 

be discussed to examine the effectiveness of PST in tennis 

such as measuring the percentage of services, unforced errors 

in competitive situations, and the number of negative and 

positive behaviors in competition and practice. In this poster 

presentation, the following areas will be addressed: the PST 

procedures employed in working with these athletes as well as 

the athletes' responses to these interventions, positive and 

negative consulting experiences in conducting internships in 

two countries, and differences in how Japanese tennis players 

and American tennis players responded to PST. Lastly, 

possible research areas related to these applied experiences 

will be suggested. 

Tracking the Training and Careers ofGraduates of 

Advanced Degree Programs in Sport Psychology, 1994 

through 1998. 

Jean M. Williams and Carrie B. Scherzer, University of 

Arizona, USA. 

Periodically, all responsible professions need to monitor their 

growth, success at placing graduates, and the training ofthese 

graduates. This investigation determines what changes have 

occurred in the numbers, training, and career histories of 1994 

through 1998 graduates of sport psychology graduate 

programs compared to earlier research that examined 1984 

1988 and 1989-1993 graduates (Andersen, Williams, 

Aldridge, & Taylor, 1997; Waite & Pettit, 1993). The present 

study also helps to determine what impact AAASP's 

certification standards have had on the curriculum and training 

of graduate students. Of 101 North American graduate 

programs in sport psychology, 80 schools responded to 

requests for names and addresses of graduates whose degree 

had some type of emphasis in sport psychology. These 

responses generated 802 graduates (doctoral = 196, masters = 

606), but many had either no address or an incorrect address 

(n= 288). The doctoral (n = 69) and master (n = 102) degree 

graduates who completed the Tracking Survey reported their 

demographics, educational background (e.g., degrees, 

departments of all degrees, degree program emphasis, course 

work, and supervised experiences), current positions, 

incomes, initial and future career goals and success at 

fulfilling goals, difficulty finding paying and non-paying sport 

psychology work, satisfaction with work, and causes of 

frustration. The majority of the doctoral graduates found 

84 

academic/research positions (72%) and most (81%) of the 

master graduates were in fields where they could use at least 

some of their sport psychology training. The complete results 

of the Tracking Survey will be presented and discussed. 

Supervision Experiences in an Applied Team 

Sport Setting 

Nicholas L. Holt & John G.H. Dunn, University of Alberta, 

Canada 

Supervision is central in the training of applied sport 

psychologists, however, it has been argued that supervised 

experiences are underdeveloped in sport psychology 

graduate training programs (Andersen, Williams, Aldridge, 

& Taylor, 1997; Silva, Conroy, & Zizzi, 1999). The purposes 

of this presentation are to describe a program of supervised 

experiences relating to a trainee sport psychologist's work 

with a university varsity football team, and to analyze key 

incidents that presented learning opportunities for the trainee 

and supervisor. Data are drawn from documentary field 

notes amassed by both the supervisor and trainee, including 

reflexive journals, detailed observations, and notes on team, 

individual, and supervision meetings. The presentation 

describes an applied training program that included the 

trainee's exposure to the supervisor's approach, entry into 

the applied setting, and supervisory experiences during the 

competitive season. Three key issues arising from the 

supervision process are selected for discussion: (a) 

establishing trust and rapport (e.g., supervisor advising 

against certain courses of action prior to the trainee 

establishing trust and rapport with the team); (b) potential 

misalliances (e.g., trainee endorsing players' criticisms of a 

staff member); and, (c) dependence between the trainee and 

a player, and between the trainee and the supervisor. These 

issues are compared to previous commentaries on the 

requisite skills of sport psychologists and supervisors 

(Andersen, Van Raalte, & Brewer, 1994; Simons & 

Andersen, 1995). Suggestions relating to the development 

and delivery offuture supervision programs in team sport 

settings are provided. 

Defining andAchieving Balancefor Mothers in 

Athletics 

Leana Rice and Wade Gilbert, California State University 

Fresno, USA; Gordon Bloom, McGill University, Canada 

The purpose ofthe present study was to describe the strategies 

Division I female athletic trainers use to balance career and 

family responsibilities. In-depth interviews were conducted 

with six female athletic trainers who are mothers. A 

purposeful sampling strategy was used to select the 

participants based on consultation with the Athletic Training 

Women's Taskforce. All interviews were tape-recorded and 

transcribed verbatim. The interviews were inductively coded 

based on qualitative data analysis procedures (Miles & 

Huberman, 1994). Tactics used to address validity included 

member checking, peer debriefing, use of a semi-structured 

interview guide, and inter-coder reliability testing. The data

were grouped into four main categories: (a) definitions of 

balance, (b) work environment, (c) family structure, and (d) 

strategies to achieve balance. The focus of this presentation 

will be on these women's definitions of balance and the 

strategies they utilized to achieve balance. Common elements 

in their definitions of balance included meeting their 

established goals and priorities. Relying on adequate childcare 

and strong organizational skills were frequently cited 

strategies to achieve balance. Each participant also cited 

relying on a strong support system that included spouses, coworkers, 

or their parents. The results will be used to extend 

the literature by sharing strategies used to balance career and 

family demands for women across athletic careers, such as 

coaching, administration, elite athletes, and consulting. 

Getting Everyone on the Same Page: An Examination 

ofSport Psychology Service Provision Aroundthe World 

Erik Dunlap, University of Idaho, Moscow ID 83844 

In 1989, the Association for the Advancement ofApplied 

Sport Psychology initiated the establishment of minimum 

competencies necessary to provide sport psychology services. 

In the first few years over 70 professionals were conferred the 

title of Certified Consult for the Association for the 

Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology. It is now the year 

200 I, and we have barley doubled the number of certified 

consultants. Over the past few years there have been several 

AAASP presentations and discussions amongst the fellows 

concerning the viability of the criteria that was initially 

established almost a decade ago. The certification committee 

is now charged with the task of evaluating those criteria with 

the goal of bolstering the number ofcertified consultants in 

AAASP. Several suggestions have been brought forth 

including multi-level certification, the re-opening of 

grandfathering, and the establishment of a competency exam. 

A concern commonly raised by professionals trained in sport 

psychology from other countries is that it is difficult for 

competently trained sport psychology consultant to meet the 

established criteria due to a different structure of graduate 

programs than in the United States. These professionals 

represent a significant portion of our membership and a 

potential solution to strengthening certified consultant 

numbers. The purpose ofthis presentation is to present 

AAASP members information regarding the means through 

which other countries regulate sport psychology service 

provision and the minimal competencies required for 

providing sport psychology services. 

Psychodoping 

Geir Jordet, Norwegian University ofSport Science, Norway 

The use of performance enhancing drugs seems to be 

increasing among athletes at Olympic and professional levels. 

In his highly controversial book, 'Mortal Engines: The 

Science of Performance and the Dehumanization of Sport', 

John Hoberman (1992) juxtaposes these drugs with the 

implementation ofapplied sport psychology. In general, he 

describes research on performance in sport as a quest for 

85 


unlimited progress. This quest is problematic because humans 

are limited organisms and not machines. Furthermore, he 

argues that performance technology threatens the identity of 

the athlete because one never knows who actually performs 

the athlete or the technology. Finally, Hoberman (1992) holds 

sport psychology as the ultimate performance technology. 

Allegedly, the purpose of applied sport psychology is to 

eliminate all human characteristics from the athletic machine, 

including thoughts, emotions, and vulnerability. Even though 

many of Hoberman's allegations on contemporary sport 

psychology seem to be based on invalid premises, it is 

important to take his criticism seriously. 'Psychodoping', here 

defined as the extreme use of psychological performance 

technology that threatens the autonomy ofthe athlete, will 

probably, due to technological advancements, become even 

more relevant in the future. Based on three ethical theories 

(utilitarism, deontology, and virtue ethics) it is concluded that 

sport psychology per se is not necessarily ethically justifiable. 

However, implemented the right way applied sport 

psychology may not only be ethically sound but it may also be 

the only formal humanizing component within performance 

enhancement systems in modem top sport. 

Examining the Factor Structure ofthe Sport Anxiety 

Scale: Modification and Confirmation 

Gretchen M. Jones, Trent A. Petrie, and Bert Hayslip, Jr., 

University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203 USA 

The Sport Anxiety Scale (SAS; Smith, Smoll, & Schutz, 

1990) is a multidimensional measure of competitive trait 

anxiety that has been used frequently in sport psychology 

research. In this study, we tested the SAS' factor structure 

through confirmatory procedures with a mixed gender sample 

of older athletes. Participants were 1147 male (mean age was 

52.17 years, SD=12.6) and 197 female (mean age was 51.6 

years, SD=9.98) amateur golfers. Two matched groups (age 

and handicap) were used for the CFA. In study 1 (matched 

group 1), two models were tested - the one proposed by Smith 

et al. and the other supported by Dunn et al. CFA 

demonstrated that the Dunn et al. model demonstrated the best 

fit (c2[l86J=1030.22; RMSEA=.082; RMR=.057; GFl=.86; 

NNFl=.87; CFl=.89), with indices comparable to the Dunn et 

al. results. However, based on standardized residuals (> + 2), 

inter-item correlations, and conceptual overlap of items, two 

items were dropped from the somatic scale and one item from 

the worry scale. These changes improved the fit ofthe model 

(c2[132J=686.9; RMSEA=.079; RMR=.052; GFl=.89; 

NNFl=.89; CFl=.91), without sacrificing the scales' alphas 

(somatic=.86; worry=.88; concentration=.70). In study 2, this 

revised model was tested using matched group 2. Fit was good 

(c2[132J=652.4; RMSEA=.078; RMR=.057; GFl=.89; 

NNFl=.88; CFl=.90), and so were the alphas (somatic=.84; 

worry=.87; concentration=.75). These findings suggest that 

the SAS is a factorially valid measure across older athletes, 

particularly when the 3 items have been removed.


Examination ofthe Paradoxical Effects ofSupportive 

Audiences on Performance in Championship Series 

Marc Lochbaum, Kristi Burd, Paul Erickson, Jason Staudt, 

David Nichol, and Stanley Bonewitz, Texas Tech University, 

Lubbock, TX, USA, 79409 

The purpose of this study was to examine Baumeister's 

(1984) model of choking by reexamining Baumeister and 

Steinhilber's (1984) investigation of the paradoxical 

performance effects of a supportive audience in professional 

sport championships by extending their analyses by 18 

years. Baumeister (1984) proposed that choking under 

pressure is the result of increased self-awareness that 

disrupts automatic functioning of skills. The model has 

received support for individual performance (Baumeister, 

1984; Lewis & Linder, 1997). In team sports, Baumeister 

and Steinhilber (1984) predicted that the presence of 

supportive audiences is detrimental to performance because 

the opportunity to claim desired support enhances selfawareness 

and interferes with automatic skill response. By 

examining the MLB World Series (1924-1982) and NBA 

Championship series (1967-1982), Baumeister and 

Steinhilber (1984) provided empirical support for their 

model that the home team is significantly more likely to lose 

a decisive game compared to earlier home contests. In the 

present investigation, chi-square analyses supported 

Baumeister's model for World Series results in that home 

teams winning percentage in Game 7 (.423) was less than 

the expected winning percentage (.616) from Games 1 and 2 

combined. Further, a 2 (Team) by 3 (Time) repeated 

measures ANOVA revealed a significant (p < .05) Team by 

Time interaction demonstrating that the home team 

committed more errors, whereas, the visiting team 

committed fewer errors in Game 7 when compared to Games 

1 and 2. The results for the NBA series did not support the 

model. The results are discussed with regard to performance 

enhancement strategies to combat the paradoxical effects of 

a supportive audience. 

Teaching Research Methods to Undergraduate Sport 

Psychology Classes: Instructor and Student 

Perspectives 

Bruce G. Klonsky and Michelle L. Niehaus, State University 

of New York, College at Fredonia, USA 

This presentation will discuss approaches and resources to 

consider when faced with teaching the "dreaded" research 

methods concepts and techniques in the undergraduate 

Introduction to Sport Psychology course. Instructor and 

student perspectives will be provided on this issue. In addition 

to providing examples requiring analysis and application of 

research design, technique, and assessment-related concepts 

during the initial teaching of the material, it is also important 

to provide activities throughout the course that reinforce these 

concepts. These activities include carrying out and discussing 

class experiments, analyzing major studies in sport 

psychology, administering and evaluating psychological tests, 

and a "capstone" sport psychology research experience paper 

86 

with four options. The options are flexible enough to be 

relevant and useful to the diverse group of students that take 

the Sport Psychology course. The options include (a) being an 

apprentice to a sport psychology researcher and proposing 

what the next study should be, (b) developing a sport 

psychology research proposal, (c) evaluating two 

psychological tests widely used by sport psychologists, and 

(d) observing and evaluating two practices of an athletic team. 

The apprenticeship option has proven to be a stepping-stone to 

independent study and graduate work in sport psychology and 

related areas. All told, these research experiences let the 

students know there is another (interesting and important) side 

to sport psychology. 

State Self-confidence, Mood States, and Sleep 

Perceptions ofCollegiate Tennis Players: Toward 

Theory Development 

Jacqueline Savis, UWS, Australia 

Male tennis players were studied over a four-month period in 

an attempt to discover how confidence, moods, and sleep 

fluctuate over an athletic season. Also, preliminary steps 

toward theory development involving these variables were 

taken. Participants were members of a Division I varsity 

men's tennis team. Various assessment tools were used and 

included the TSCI, SSCI, POMS, CSAI-2, ESSSA (identifies 

chronotype), DALDA, coach's rankings of players' moods 

and tennis confidence, sleep and mood charts, and semistructured 

interviewing. Participants were studied during preseason, 

off-season, and during the competition season. During 

the season, players provided information about their state 

sport confidence, pre-competitive mood, and their sleep, 

within one hour of eight intercollegiate competitions. Case 

studies that represented extreme or unique information on 

confidence, moods, and sleep were written up in detail. 

Findings revealed that, as a whole, this group of studentathletes 

had variable sleep patterns at different periods in the 

study, but moods did not vary appreciably. Pearson product 

moment correlations revealed that coach's rankings of the 

player's tennis ability, mood control, general sport confidence, 

and performance consistency were all significantly correlated 

(p < .05). It was concluded that a great many factors may 

influence an athlete's confidence, moods, and sleep. The 

particular situations that are germane to college studentathletes 

were described, and the high degree of idiosyncrasy 

of confidence, moods, and sleep was emphasized. It is hoped 

that future studies might lead to theory development, offering 

applications for coaches and athletes. 

Battling Body Dissatisfaction: What Role Does Exercise 

Participation Play? 

Elizabeth A. Fallon and Heather A. Hausenblas, University of 

Florida, USA 

The purpose of this study was to explore the influence of 

exercise on the cognitive aspect of body image (i.e., body 

satisfaction) while controlling for age and body mass index in 

234 male and 276 female undergraduate students. Participants

completed the Leisure-Time Exercise Questionnaire (LTEQ; 

Godin et al., 1986) and the Body Areas Satisfaction Sub scale 

of the Multidimensional Body Self-Relations Questionnaire 

(BASS; Cash et al., 1986). Two separate hierarchical multiple 

regression (by gender) where conducted to determine if 

exercise behavior predicted body satisfaction while 

controlling for BMI and age. For females, the model 

accounted for 16% of the explained variance in BASS score 

[R = .39, F (3, 260) = 16.01, P < .


patterns. APEV, positive attributes of muscularity (PAM), and 

BF% all predicted SPA, accounting for 45,12, and 8 percent 

of the variance, respectively, for the total sample. Participants 

low in APEV and high on PAM and BF% were more anxious 

than participants high in APEV and low on PAM and BF%. 

The major difference among the three sets ofregressions was 

that BF% accounted for 10 percent ofthe variance with nonathletes 

and no variance for athletes. Finally, drive for 

muscularity was strongly correlated with a variety of 

psychological variables (e.g., negative appearance evaluation) 

for athletes and worthy of further study. 

The Effect ofa Fall Risk Reduction Program on the 

Self-Concept ofOlder Adults 

Vicki Ebbeck, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA, 

97331; Debra 1. Rose, California State University at Fullerton, 

Fullerton, CA, USA, 92834 

The purpose of this study was to examine if a fall risk 

reduction program that had produced documented changes in 

functional performance would create an increase in the selfperceptions 

of older adults. A total of 23 participants with a 

minimum age of 70 years completed all questionnaires and 

adhered to the research protocol. Those in the intervention 

group (n=11) participated in a group-based balance training 

intervention for a period ofeight weeks. At pre- and postintervention, 

both intervention and control groups completed 

the balance efficacy scale (Rose, et al., 1999), physical selfworth 

subscale of the Physical Self-Perception Profile for 

Older Adults (Chase, 1991), and the self-esteem subscale of 

the Adult Self-Perception Profile (Messer & Harter, 1986). 

Due to the limited sample size, it was deemed most 

appropriate to calculate difference scores between the pre- and 

post-intervention data for each of the three dependent 

variables that were then compared across groups. The only 

significant ANOYA (p

health/fitness reasons for exercise in predicting levels of 

physical activity. 

Marsh's liE Model in a Sport-related Context 

Maike Tietjens, Westfalische Wlhelms Universitat, Germany 

Sports instruction in schools is characterized by social 

comparisons that both students and teachers use to estimate 

capability. This may lead to changes in the estimation of 

talent, in interest, but also in performance. In this context, 

contemporary research also examines dimensional 

comparisons between two domains that may serve to stabilize 

self-esteem. Theoretical considerations and empirical studies 

in this field refer to the InternalJExternal frame ofreference 

model (lIE Model) proposed by Marsh (1990. This has yet to 

be examined experimentally, particularly in sports, although 

there is an urgent need for such studies to improve our 

understanding ofthe underlying mechanisms. In the present 

experiment, participants (72 sports students, mean age 22.4 

years, SD = 2.45 years) were exposed to dimensional and 

social comparisons after carrying out two motor skills tests. 

The data show that parts of the IJE model can be generalized 

to sports. In other words, comparison information is used for 

evaluating and stabilizing the talent concept. It is shown that 

dimensional comparisons become relevant when social 

comparisons are unavailable, and that, in line with 

expectations, this leads to an increase in self-concept in 

downward comparisons, but not to a decrease in upward 

comparisons. However, the impact ofdimensional and social 

comparison information on the pattern ofcorrelations will 

need to be examined with path analysis. 

Development and Exploratory Factor Analysis ofthe 

Student-Athlete Experiences Inventory (SAEI) 

Richard H. Cox, Matthew Martens, Scott Sandstedt, Starla 

Ivey, Gant Ward, Nicki Webber, and Steve Portenga, 

University of Missouri-Columbia, Columbia, MO, USA 

652II 

Educational experiences of the student-athlete may be 

predictive ofthe development ofthe concept of "careerism" in 

the athlete. The purpose ofthis investigation was to develop a 

student-athlete experiences inventory that would measure the 

college experiences ofcollegiate athletes. The Student-Athlete 

Experiences Inventory (SAEI) is composed of65 randomly 

distributed items that represent 13 experience categories 

written specifically for the athlete population. In arriving at 65 

items and 13 categories, an original set of 80 items were 

repeatedly scrutinized and refined through pilot testing and 

critical review by members of the research team. The 

inventory was administered to 97 student-athletes from a large 

midwest university. Based on results of data screening, three 

SAEI items that had either skewness or kurtosis indices of 

greater than 2.00 were deleted. The remaining 62 item SAEI 

was then subjected to an initial exploratory factor analysis 

(EFA). Based upon the results ofthe initial EFA, a three-factor 

solution with a promax correlated rotation was sought. Items 

that loaded .40 or greater were retained, while items that 

89 


double loaded on more than one factor were deleted. These 

procedures resulted in 16 items loading on factor one (well 

rounded), 14 items loading on factor two (academic focus), 

and six items loading on factor three (social interactions). 

Calculated Chronbach Alphas for the three factors were .90, 

.83, and .73 respectively. While the initial results oftest 

development were based upon only 97 participants, minor 

modifications ofresults are expected as more participants are 

included. 

Attitudes toward Minority Groups in Exercise and Sport 

Diane L. Gill, Ronald G. Morrow, Karen E. Collins, Allison 

B. Lucey and Allison M. Schultz, University of North 

Carolina at Greensboro 

As part of a larger project on inclusive practice, we examined 

attitudes toward gays and lesbians, racial/ethnic minority 

groups, older adults and persons with disabilities. The survey 

included Herek's Attitudes Toward Lesbians and Gay Men 

(ATLG) scales, an evaluation thermometer for each minority 

group, and demographic information. Surveys were 

administered to all sections of a Fitness for Life course (n = 

150). The sample included more females (56%) than males, 

was divided among the 4 class years, and was predominantly 

white/European (68%) with 22% African-American and only 

a few students in other ethnic minority groups. Using the 7point 

Kinsey scale (from exclusively heterosexual to 

exclusively homosexual), nearly all (96%) circled exclusively 

heterosexual. Overall ATLG scores were in the middle range 

with attitudes toward lesbians (ATL) more positive than 

attitudes toward gay men (ATG), and with females reporting 

more positive ATG scores than males. The evaluation 

thermometer scores (range 0 to 1(0) were generally positive. 

Attitudes toward all the ethnic minority groups and toward 

older and disabled persons were all near 80 with no 

differences by gender or any other category. However, 

evaluation scores were markedly lower for gay men (38.2) and 

lesbians (44.7). Again, females were more positive than were 

males toward gay men. These initial survey results indicate 

that many students and future professionals hold negative 

attitudes toward minority groups, and particularly toward gay 

men and lesbians, and confirm the importance ofprograms to 

enhance cultural competence. 

AssessingAmerican Cultural Orientation within 

Diverse Cultures 

Heather J. Peters and Jean M. Williams, University of 

Arizona, USA 

The void ofcross-cultural research within sport psychology is 

alarming (Walrath & McGowman, 1998). Although a 

heightened awareness ofculture is needed, one should not 

automatically assume that individuals from different cultures 

are dissimilar culturally nor that all members of the same 

culture are similar. When addressing cultural diversity 

questions, it would be helpful to determine the degree to 

which people from different cultures align themselves with 

the American culture and with their own culture. This step


became possible when Tsai (2000) developed the General 

Ethnicity Questionnaire (GEQ). This study examined the 

degree to which people from different cultures align 

themselves with the American culture (ACO), and whether 

differences exist for athletes and non-athletes. Individuals 

who self-identified as American (athlete n = 99, non-athlete n 

=682) were compared to Asian (athlete n =8, non-athlete n = 

56), Hispanic (athlete n =4, non-athlete n =59), and African 

American (athlete n = 5, non-athlete n = 14) athletes and nonathletes. 

The latter three groups combined to form a "Cultural 

Diversity" group when no differences occurred in ACO. 

Significant main effects for American vs. Cultural Diversity, F 

(1,926) =13.199, P < .0001, and athlete vs. non-athlete, F (1, 

926) = 3.837, P < .05, found Americans scored higher on ACO 

and had less variability and athletes scored lower. Similar 

cultural diversity within the athlete vs. non-athlete populations 

(18.9% vs. 17.7%) suggests the differences were not an 

artifact of disparate numbers. The ACO is discussed as a 

potential moderator within future cross-cultural sport 

psychology research. 

Diversifying Body Image: Age, Race, and Culture 

exposed 

Justine J. Reel, West Chester University, West Chester, PA 

19383; Daniel Fodor, Lorand Eotvos University, Budapest, 

Hungary 

While body image research has become increasingly popular, 

the majority of studies have focused on adolescent or collegeaged 

females. Edut (1998) argued that non-Caucasian women 

also struggle with body image disturbances. This purpose of 

this study was to expand body image research to include 

diverse women in the community. The first phase of this study 

examined body image, body dissatisfaction, physical selfperceptions 

and social physique anxiety among 215 U.S. 

women (85 African-American and 130 Caucasian) who 

ranged from 20 to 80 years of age (M = 44 years). While age 

differences were noted for physical self-perceptions with 

older women scoring lower on the physical self-perception 

items, women reported similar levels of body dissatisfaction 

across the adult life span. While the overall SPAS for the 

sample was low (M = 34.62), the oldest group scored the 

lowest (M = 32.55) ofthe three groups which supports 

McAuley's (1995) findings. For race there were differences 

for Body Mass Index, weight satisfaction, current weight and 

some of the Figure Ratings scale items. This presentation will 

also share findings from a secondary analysis that involved a 

cross-cultural comparison between U.S. and Hungarian 

women. The 72 Hungarian female participants represented the 

same three age categories as the first phase: 20-39 years; 40 

59 years; and 60-79 years. SPAS scores for Hungarian women 

mimicked trends from U.S. data. Future research directions 

for diversifying body image will be presented. 

90 

Prediction ofPerfectionism, Achievement Goals, and 

Self-Presentation on Precompetition Anxiety 

Frank Jing-Homg Lu, National College ofPhysical Education 

and Sports, Taiwan 

This study examined the contributions of perfectionism, 

perceived ability, achievement goals, and self-presentation on 

the prediction of precompetition anxiety. Two hundred and 

seventeen level-II intercollegiate athletes (males=132; 

females=84)with mean age of21.58 (SD=2.08)participated in 

this study. Instruments assessed participants' perfectionism 

with Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS, Frost & 

Henderson, 1991), achievement goals with Task and Ego 

Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ, Duda & 

Nicholls, 1989), and self-presentation with Self-Presentation 

in Sport Questionnaire (SPSQ, Wilson & Eklund, 1998) a 

month ago prior to an intercollegiate athletic meet in Taiwan. 

Next, participants completed Competition State Anxiety 

Inventory (CSAI-II, Martens, Burton, Vealey, Bump, & Smith, 

1982) prior to competition one week, one day, and one hour 

ago. Correlational analyses found that all social cognition 

variables correlated with precompetition anxiety. However, 

hierachical regression analyses only found perfectionism, 

perceived ability, and self-presentation predicted 

precompetition anxiety. This study concluded that 

participants' competition level and cultural differences may 

account for the inconsistency. 

The African American Athlete's Experience with Race: 

An Existential-Phenomenological Investigation 

Suzanne Malia Lawrence, University of Tennessee, 

Knoxville, TN 37996 

Qualitative inquiry is beginning to emerge in the field of sport 

psychology as researchers have begun to examine athletes' 

experiences. Of the limited amount ofqualitative research, 

only a few have utilized an existential phenomenological 

approach. These researchers have examined athletes' 

experiences of specific sporting events (Dale, 1996), of being 

coached (Johnson, 1998), and of group norms in sport teams 

(Munroe, Estabrooks, Dennis, & Carron, 1999). The purpose 

of this study is to explore male and female African American 

athletes' experiences with race in regards to specific episodes 

that have occurred throughout their athletic careers from an 

existential-phenomenological perspective. Eight African 

American athletes (includes high school, collegiate, and 

professional level athletes), each from a different sport, were 

interviewed on their experience with their race and how it 

played an important role in their careers. These interviews 

were transcribed and analyzed using phenomenological 

methods outlined by Pollio, Henley, and Thompson (1997). 

Results revealed five themes in the athlete's experience of 

their race: 1) Tough Life Experiences; 2) Unfair Treatment; 3) 

Athlete (Me) vs. Them (White People); 4) Racial Remarks; 

and 5) ConfusionlFrustration. Sub-themes and details were 

specifically outlined. The philosophical background of 

existential-phenomenological methodology and the step by 

step procedure for this type ofinquiry was also discussed.

This study concluded with recommendations for sport 

researchers and coaches. 

The Introduction to Black Sports Psychology, the Way 

Forward to Helping the Black Collegiate Athlete 

Mark D. Robinson, Succeeding through Sports Network, 

USA 

The study used one hundred African American athletes who 

competed in sports at the collegiate level. All athletes were 

interviewed and their responses were tape-recorded and then 

place on the computer ethnograph to determine the 

reoccurring themes. This study had three separate purposes. 

The first was to develop a paradigm/model which researchers 

can use in an attempt to understand the psychology ofthe 

Black athlete at all levels of athletic development. Second, to 

determine if Black athletes felt there was a need for such a 

model when attempting to understand the Black athlete that 

counselors can use. Determining why until now this model 

has not been incorporated as a field of study was the third 

purpose. IfSports psychology as defined by Cox (1994) "is a 

science, in which the principles ofpsychology are applied in a 

sport setting" and these principles are often applied to 

enhance performance. In agreement with Cox, enhancing the 

athlete's performance is the main task of the sports 

psychologist, however, Singer (1977) believed that a true 

sports psychologist is interested in much more than 

performance enhancement and sees sport as a vehicle for 

human enrichment. African American athletes rarely have 

difficulties enhancing their performance in a chosen sport, but 

seem to have academic, behavioral and social problems that 

require much needed attention to aid in performance 

enhancement which, at the moment is almost non existent. 

Therefore a majority ofthe work sport psychologist engage in 

when working with African American athletes should focus 

on the mental growth of these athletes first which then and 

only then can a sports psychologist aid in the enhancing of 

their performance. 

Coping Styles and Sources ofStress among Mexican 

andAmerican Tennis Players 

Rogelio Puente, University of Iowa, USA 

The purpose of the present investigation was twofold. First, 

sources of stress associated with competing in tennis 

tournaments were identified. Second, cultural and gender 

differences in coping styles were assessed among Mexican 

and American tennis players. Diaz Guerrero (1967) 

hypothesized that Mexicans had a tendency to use a passive 

style of coping whereas Americans used a more active style of 

coping. Participants were 112 (54 Mexicans, 44 males and 10 

females; 58 Americans, 30 males, 28 females) tennis players. 

Regarding sources ofstress, frequencies showed 'Receiving 

negative comments from coaches and relatives' as the most 

stressful situation. For active coping the results showed that 

Mexican tennis players had higher levels ofactive coping than 

American tennis players. For passive coping, the results 

demonstrated a significant interaction; Mexican female tennis 

I 91 


players had higher levels of passive coping than American 

female tennis players. Findings suggest the presence of 

cultural and gender differences regarding coping styles. 

Can Cognitive Profiling Predict the "on-jield" 

Performance ofElite Football Players? 

Dean Hugie, Saskatchewan Sport Medicine and Science 

Program, Canada 

n an effort to improve player selection, scouts are profiling the 

cognitive abilities of athletes. The assumption is that insight 

into "on-field" performance can be obtained through formal 

assessment. This study examines this hypothesis by following 

the progress of 88 elite CIAU football players. Participants 

were assessed while attending a camp sponsored by the 

Canadian football League. Players were in years 2 to 4 of their 

eligibility. Testing took place in may and all-star selections 

occurred the following November. Two levels of all-stars were 

selected: regional and national. Ofthe 88 participants.Sl were 

chosen as regional all-stars and 16 as national all-stars. Two 

cognitive attributes were assessed: "power" and "directional 

focus." Power represents the capacity of the athlete to make 

sense of what is seen. Directional focus describes an athlete's 

predisposition to be either accurate/precise or intuitive / 

creative. These measures were compared to "on-field" 

performance as determined by all-star selection. The mean 

power scores are: national all-stars 7.62; regionaI6.00 and 

non-stars 5.92. The scores of the national all-stars is 

significantly higher than for the non-national 

stars.(5.94),(p=O.023). The directional focus results indicate, 

that on- field success may depend on the position selected by 

the athlete. In conclusion, it appears that profiling cognitive 

attributes can predict certain aspect of on-field performance. 

Player scouts may benefit from both power and directional 

focus measures in their profiling model. 

The Psychological Factors ofPerfecting ofPhysical 

Serviceability ofthe Athletes 

Grant Avanesyan, Bekoyan Trdat, Armenian State Institute of 

Physical Culture, Yerevan, Armenia 

Sport activity in ingle combats and particularly in wrestling 

is characterized by high tensity as it is proceeding in the 

extreme conditions and includes many considerable 

difficulties which are conditioned by painful feelings with 

their immediate fight with opponent. The purpose of the 

given research consist of revealing of some psychological 

factors limiting manifestation of physical serviceability at 

the wrestlers in condition unspecific (PWC-170) and specific 

loads (special tests). For want of it were investigated: 

individually-psychological features of the person, dymanics 

(changes) of mental condition in various conditions of 

activity, and also interdependence of the revealed indexes. 

The competent wrestlers of free style, Greece-Romanian 

struggle and dzudoist (more than 120 athletes participated in 

researches.).The experimental work was conducted both in 

laboratory, and natural conditions (training, competition). 

The conducted research has allowed to reveal statistical


performances individually-psychological of features of the 

compote on an outcome of activity. The chosen parameters 

of specific properties of the personal, sports motivation, 

uneasiness, and sensormoving to make individual maps of 

the athletes and go to give psychological performance of the 

wrestlers on kinds of specialization. The outcomes of 

research of features of mental conditions of the wrestlers in 

connection with productivity of competitive activity have 

shown, that dynamics (changes) of a condition differed 

especially individual outspoken and had a number of the 

group tendencies. 

Prevalence and Risk Factors Associated with 

Overtraining in Ultra-Endurance Athletes 

Darryl K Forsyth & Sarah Fifield, University of Canterbury, 

Christchurch, New Zealand 

Data was gathered concerning background, motivation, 

training load, overtraining, and race performance from 229 

athletes competing in an international ultra-endurance multisport 

race. The sample had a representative age, gender, and 

ability mix. Twenty-two percent of athletes reported having to 

take three or more consecutive days off at least once over the 

previous 3 months due to health problems attributed to 

training. In addition 26% were required to do the same due to 

fatigue. Over the same period 29% indicated that they had 

experienced both mood changes and emotional instability 

when they trained 'too much'. Fifty percent of athletes 

reported episodes of marked decrease in performance for 

more than three consecutive days. Younger athletes and those 

with lower levels of task and ego goal orientation were 

significantly more likely to report episodes of overtraining 

across all four indicators. Athletes who reported higher levels 

of average exertion were significantly more likely to have 

episodes where their performance was 'markedly decreased' 

for more than three consecutive days. Significantly more 

female athletes reported having experienced both mood 

changes and emotional instability when they trained 'too 

much'. Elite athletes were significantly more likely to 

experience episodes where they had to take at least three days 

off due to fatigue and mood changes combined with 

emotional instability when they trained 'too much.' 

Using the Five-Step Strategy to Alleviate 'Choking 

Under Pressure'Among Explicit Learners 

Christopher Mesagno and Christopher M. Janelle, University 


Researchers have indicated that when in a pressure situation, 

explicit learners show detriments in performance, while 

implicit learners increase performance (Masters, 1992). The 

purpose ofthis experiment was to evaluate whether a 

cognitive strategy, Singer's Five-Step Strategy (5SS) 

(1986,1988), would facilitate performance for explicit 

learners during pressure situations. Participants were 

randomly assigned to one of four groups: Implicit Learning 

(IL), Explicit Learning (EL), Explicit Learning with 5SS 

(EL5), and Non-Stress Control (NSC). Participants completed 

92 

a lO-pin bowling task in which they performed 80 shots over 

two days, with the 80 shots being separated into 8 trial blocks 

of 10 trials each. The eight trial blocks consisted of six trial 

blocks for a skill acquisition phase and two trial blocks for a 

stress phase. Stress was induced by means of I) videotaping, 

2) inducing a threat to the individual's ego, and 3) 

manipulating extra course credit. Results indicate that the EL5 

group increased performance during the stress condition in 

comparison to the EL group. Overall the EL and EL5 groups 

performed superior to the IL and NSC groups. Findings 

indicate that explicit learning is a superior method of skill 

acquisition. However, to overcome 'choking under pressure' 

for explicit learners, cognitive strategies should be 

implemented into preshot routines to maintain a 

predominantly implicit performance. 

The Application ofGoal Setting and Implementation 

Intentions to Exercise 

Danielle Symons Downs and Robert N. Singer, University of 

Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611-8205. 

Examined was the effectiveness of goals with implementation 

intentions compared to goals without stated intentions on 

fitness test achievement for 53 university students (M age = 

20.04, SD =1.70; 51% male). Pre-test assessments included: 

weekly exercise behavior, exercise motivation, a 1.5 mile 

timed run, and I-min. curl/push-ups tests. The non-intention 

group was told how to set goals and the implementation 

intention group received instructions on forming 

implementation intentions. Both groups completed an activity 

assessment weekly for eight weeks and the intention group 

also completed an intention form. Post-test assessments 

included the run and l-min, curl/push-ups tests. No significant 

group differences were revealed on the pre-test measures, thus 

the run and curl/push-ups tests were analyzed with separate 2 

x 2 (Group x Test) ANOVA's. Findings indicated: (a) a 

significant test main effect for the 1.5 mile run, F =(l,48) = 

4.21, P < .05, curl-ups, F = (1,48) = 112.44, P < .01, and pushups, 

F = (1,48) = 32.61, p < .01, and (b) group x test 

interactions for curl-ups, F =(l,48)=5.26, p < .05, and pushups, 

F =(1,48) =8.39, p < .01. Post-hoc analyses indicated 

that for both groups, scores were faster for the run and more 

curl/push-ups were executed at post-test. Furthermore, the 

implementation group outperformed the non-intention group 

at post-test on curl/push-ups. The results partially support the 

use of goals and implementation intentions in an exercise 

setting. Future sport/exercise studies are warranted to evaluate 

the effectiveness of goals and implementation intentions. 

The EffectofGender Grouping on Physical Fitness Test 

Performance of10th Grade Female Students 

Charmaine DeFrancesco, & Shannon Gray, Florida 

International University, Miami, FL 

Physical fitness levels of children and adolescents in America 

have declined in the past decade. Poor nutrition, lack of and a 

reduction in mandatory physical education classes have all 

been cited as contributing factors for lower fitness levels.

However, one factor that has not received much attention 

regarding its impact on fitness scores is test reliability. Lirgg 

(1993) has suggested that the structure and sex composition of 

the physical activity setting can influence the perceived 

competence and physical performance ofthe participants. The 

perceptions females hold about their ability to complete 

physical tasks significantly affects their persistence, effort, 

self-confidence and consequently, their performance (Yin & 

Ryska, 1999). The purpose ofthis study was to determine the 

effects of co-educational and single-sex testing situations on 

the physical fitness scores of 10th grade female, physical 

education students. Using tests from the FITNESSGRAM, 45 

female students were tested in the push-up, curl-up and mile 

run/walk in single-sexed and co-educational testing situations. 

Using a nonequivalent control group design, three tenth-grade 

personal fitness classes were randomly selected for this study. 

To control for physical fitness improvements, participants 

were tested in each of the two situations within a three to five 

day period. Results revealed significant differences between 

testing situations for the mile run/walk test and the pushup 

test. Participants scored significantly higher on both fitness 

tests when tested in the single-sex testing situation. Cultural 

differences were also observed. Discussion includes potential 

changes to physical education and sports settings. 

A Parameter-scaling Perspective applied to the Schema 

Theory ofMotor Learning: A Conceptual Model 

David E. Marshall and Brian A. Marshall, University of 

Florida, USA 

Schmidt's schema theory (Schmidt, 1975) has been the 

dominant perspective of motor learning for the last 25 years. 

Evolving from this perspective are several strategies generally 

accepted as improving the motor learning environment. 

Variability of practice is one of the most widely researched 

and consistently employed techniques. Practicing multiple 

variations of a task is believed to broaden the experience base 

and enhance the motor schema required for skill 

improvement. Additionally, the order in which the variations 

are practiced may enhance or impede the encoding of 

information to the schema based upon the degree ofcognitive 

effort required to resolve the contextual interference (CI) 

created by practice format complexity. Research conducted by 

the authors suggests that the efficacy of practice format 

manipulations is moderated by the degree of expertise 

exhibited by the individual. Fixed practice formats proving to 

be effective for subjects at one ability level may produce 

differential effects for individuals at other ability levels. 

Formats expanding the experience base, thus enhancing the 

schema do not necessarily result in positive learning effects. 

This poster presents a conceptual model describing the 

processes ofmotor learning accounting for changing levels of 

expertise. Utilization of this model provides a structured 

paradigm from which to assess, adjust, and improve the 

practice environment of athletes at different stages of 

expertise. The overall model is viewed as an extension of 

schema theory which accounts for all possible outcomes in a 

motor skill learning environment. 

93 


The Strategic Competence ofTeam Coaches 

Bernd Strauss, Dirk Buesch, Norbert Hagemann and Rolf 

Brack, University of Muenster, Germany 

The purpose of this study is to investigate the strategic 

competence of coaches in sports. One opportunity to measure 

strategic competence is to use computer-simulated scenarios 

like the 'textile factory' computer program by Hasselmann 

and Strauss. Different studies have shown that success on such 

programs does not depend on specialized knowledge about 

the content, but on the use of strategic knowledge. We 

predicted that experienced sports coaches would be able to 

control computer-simulated (business) scenarios more 

successfully than nonexperienced coaches. A total of 58 

persons had to operate one oftwo computer-simulated 

scenarios 'textile factory' or 'oil company' (a parallel version 

ofthe textile factory). Their performance (dependent variable) 

was measured in terms of the increase in 'company capital' 

(Oeno increase; 20=max. increase). Thirteen participants 

(Sample l) were experienced coaches of upper-league teams. 

Twenty-four persons (Sample 2) were coaching lower-league 

teams. A further 21 persons (Sample 3) had no experience in 

coaching sport teams. Performances differed significantly 

between all three samples, F(2,55) = 4.85, P = .011, eta2 = .15. 

Coaches of upper-league teams performed best (M = 7.31), 

whereas persons without coaching experience, in contrast, 

performed poorly (M = 2.33). Performance in Sample 2 was 

intermediate (M = 4.38). Results indicate that upper-league 

coaches apply a more appropriate set ofstrategies. This can be 

considered as indicating a higher strategic competence 

compared with lower-league coaches and non-coaches. 

Letting Go Part 2: The Problems ofAdhering to an 

Eastern Philosophical Framework 

Jerry C. Sandberg and Lance B. Green, Tulane University; 

New Orleans, LA 70118 

The integration of theories and approaches collectively 

grouped into the term 'Eastern Thought' (such as Zen, Tao, or 

the Martial Arts) are becoming increasingly popular due to the 

successes ofseveral coaches and elite athletes who have used 

such strategies (Belasik, 1992; Huang & Lynch, 1995). The 

implementation and understanding of a synthesized Eastern 

Western approach remains an ongoing challenge. One ofthe 

obstacles with implementing this type of approach lies with 

the athlete's natural reflex 'to fight making mistakes.' 

However, we forget that setbacks are natural and inevitable. 

They are gifts that provide opportunities for improvement. It 

can be argued that this synthesized approach is really a twostep 

process where an athlete first gains a foundation with 

which to work and then graduates to principles that are more 

subtle, but no less important. The purpose of this paper is to 

extend the theories that were previously presented to AAASP 

in 2000. Topics that will be discussed are terms common to 

'Eastern Thought' and applicable to sport psychology such as 

'invest in loss,' 'being centered,' and 'channeling energy.' 

Certain principles such as 'letting go' and 'samadhi' will be 

extended beyond that which was previously presented.


Present and past problems ofimplementing these strategies 

will also be included as well. 

Zen Coaching: An Alternative Approach 

Lance Green and Jerry C. Sandberg, Tulane University; New 

Orleans, LA 70118 

Coaching strategies are an integral part of any athletic 

endeavor. The impact that the coach has on his players, 

whether positive or negative, is enormous. In post game 

commentary, it is often said that the reason for a loss was that 

one team was 'out coached' in crucial situations. Coaching 

styles often change with the times and with the attitudes and 

outlooks ofthe players. Many approaches to coaching become 

'outdated' while other approaches resurface. One such 

approach that has resurfaced is an Eastern approach to 

coaching. In this style, coaches such as Phil Jackson profess to 

follow tzu jan, which can be translated as an event that occurs 

naturally or as a matter of course (Jackson, 1995; Wing, 

1986). One only needs to look at the level of success that 

teams have had under Jackson's leadership to see that the 

integration of Eastern philosophies and approaches have been 

quite effective. The principles ofthis approach and examples 

from coaches such as Jackson, Rick Pitino, Pat Riley and 

others will be discussed. Finally some material will be 

presented on how to implement these approaches. 

"Extraordinary performances and success in sport, as in all of 

life, are created by our passionate moment-by-moment 

involvement. Our victories are natural by-products of this 

approach. Real success or victory is measured by the quality 

of that very process of attention and mindful involvement, 

practice, and commitment" (Huang & Lynch, 1992; p.7). 

Collegiate Athletes' Use ofMental Skills During 

Practice 

Melinda Frey, California State University, Fullerton, USA 

A significant portion ofthe sport psychology literature is 

aimed at the examination of the factors that lead to an elite 

athlete's success. In order to reach a better understanding of 

this subject, numerous interviews and surveys with 

Olympians and collegiate athletes have been administered 

with the hopes they will reveal their training methods and 

their use of mental skills during competition. However, 

researchers have neglected to examine athletes' use of mental 

skills while they are in practice, despite the fact that an 

athlete's training and preparation during practice plays such a 

major role in their performance during competition. Most 

notably, committed athletes spend up to 99% of their time in 

practice, rather than competition (McCann, 1995). Thus, the 

major purpose of this study was to examine the mental skill 

use of Division I baseball and softball players during practice. 

The Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS), developed by 

Thomas et al. (1999), was given to all subjects and contains 

questions regarding the mental skills of arousal regulation, 

attentional control, goal setting, imagery, self-talk, emotional 

control, and automaticity. Secondly, a comparison was made 

between the athletes' use ofthese mental skills during practice 

94' 

with their use of the same skills during competition. In 

addition, the study examined the relationship between mental 

skill use during practice and the athletes' perceived success 

during competition and practice. Findings are discussed in 

terms of practical application, and future research 

implications are suggested. 

The Sport Psychology Movie Database (SPMD): A New 

Resourcefor Sport Psychology Consultants and 

Instructors 

Allen E. Cornelius, Center for Performance Enhancement and 

Applied Research, Springfield College, Springfield MA 

01109 

Sports movies can offer sport psychologists a valuable 

mechanism for illustrating important concepts in their 

teaching and consulting. This project created a database of 

movie titles that sport psychologists can use as a resource for 

their consulting and teaching. Phase I of this project 

consisted of asking sport psychologists for the titles of 

movies that depict sport psychology topics. An initial 

request on SPORTPSY, a sport psychology electronic 

discussion group with over 800 members, yielded a list of 

approximately 100 movie titles. Phase II of the project 

consisted of designing a website that gathered information 

about the main sport or activity depicted in the movie, the 

sport psychology related themes, and how well the movie 

was liked on a rating of 1 to 5 running shoes 

(http://www.sPOl1psychmovies.homestead.com). Subscribers 

of SPORTPSY were asked to visit the website and provide 

information on any movies about which they had opinions. 

Additional movie titles not on the original list could also be 

suggested. After four weeks of data collection, the website 

had received over 500 visitors, over 100 movie ratings, and 

50 additional movie titles. From the data provided by this 

input, 20 categories of sport psychology themes were 

derived. Phase III of the project involved redesigning the 

website so movie titles can be located by sport and by sport 

psychology related theme. This resource, the Sport 

Psychology Movie Database (SPMD) provides sport 

psychologists with a comprehensive list of sport-related 

movies they can use in their consulting with athletes or in 

the classroom. 

Embodied Flow in Pedagogy 

Rebecca Lloyd, Simon Fraser University, Canada 

The experience of flow has been described by 

Csikszentmihalyi (2000) in a systematic, cognitive, 

disembodied fashion where the relationship between 

challenge and skill has been reduced to Cartesian coordinates. 

Furthermore, the role of the body in flow has been overlooked 

to the extent where a characteristic of the flow experience is 

'self-forgetfulness'. Acknowledging the philosophical 

question of where the lifeform of flow originates is a pivotal 

point to understanding the role of gesture in flow. This 

presentation will persuade you to consider that the life of flow 

is an embodied phenomenon and the gestures associated with

the onset of flow are deeply rooted in the experience. The 

purpose of this paper is to describe flow states specific to the 

postures of learning and the gestural interactions between a 

student and coach in athletic, artistic, and academic 

environments. 

An Exploratory Factor Analysis ofan Instrument for 

Self-talk in Sport 

James Hardy & Craig Hall, University of Westem Ontario 

Self-talk is a much promoted but scarcely researched mental 

skill. One of the reasons for the surprising dearth of research 

may be due to a lack ofinstruments available to investigators. 

Consequently the purpose ofthe present study was to develop 

a self-talk instrument that could be used across different sport 

and competitive levels. Two hundred athletes (M=21.58, 

SD=3.82)completed the self-talk questionnaire, comprised of 

30 items based on Hardy et al's (in press) framework of selftalk 

use. Athletes competed in a broad array of sports, both 

team and individual. Principal axis factoring extraction 

method was utilized, with oblimin rotation. Four factors 

emerged (two cognitive and two motivational). The first 

factor, 'Skills' (alpha=.85) was comprised of three items, 

while the second factor, 'Strategies' (alpha=.90) was 

comprised offour items. In addition, a 'Coping' factor 

(alpha=.84) was comprised of three items, and an 'Activating' 

factor (alpha=.90) was comprised of six items. Subscales were 

significantly and positively correlated to one another (p


states, cognition and short-serve performance of4 female 

collegiate badminton players. The design consisted of a 

baseline phase followed by an intervention phase introduced 

at different points for each participant. The hypnosis 

intervention utilised in this study combined a hypnotic 

induction with hypnotic regression and trigger control 

techniques (Pates & Maynard, 2(00). The present study also 

applied a procedure that monitored both flow states (Jackson, 

& Marsh, 1996) and the internal experience of each player 

(Kendall, Hrycaiko, Martin & Kendall, 1990). The short serve 

was chosen as the criterion task and assessed using a method 

adapted from Goode and Magill (1986). Data was examined 

by way of changes in the mean, level, trend and variability 

between baseline and intervention (Hrycaiko & Martin, 

1996). All 4 participants utilizing the intervention increased 

their performance from baseline to intervention. Performance 

improvements ranged from 15% to 27%. Three of the 

participants indicated they felt more relaxed, calm, 

determined, happy and focused during the intervention which 

the felt best explained their improvements. The results support 

the contention that flow states associated with successful 

athletic performance may be accessed using hypnotic 

regression and trigger control techniques. 

Developing an Empirically-based Educational Program 

to Help Sport Participants Experience Enjoyment and 

Resonance on a Daily Basis 

Natalie Durand-Bush, Pierre Trudel, Kelly Doell, Amilie 

Soulard, University of Ottawa, Canada; Doug Newburg, 

University ofVirginia, USA 

Research has shown that enjoyment is an extremely 

important factor in the development of personal and athletic 

skills and the adherence to sport programs at various levels 

of participation (Csikszentmihalyi et aI., 1993; Durand 

Bush, 2000; Newburg, 2(00). This presentation will focus 

on the results of the first phase of a three-year research 

program designed to examine if and how individuals 

participating at various levels in sport experience enjoyment 

and resonance in their daily lives to achieve optimal 

performance and wellness. An initial group of 10 individuals 

competing at five different levels (i.e., sampling, 

specializing, investment, maintenance, and recreational; 

Cote & Hay, 2000; Durand-Bush, 2000) in individual sports 

participated in an in-depth, semi-structured interview. The 

main categories that emerged from the data analysis 

pertained to motives for participating in sport, positive 

feelings associated with performance, preparation for daily 

high quality performance, obstacles inhibiting the process of 

performance, and strategies for reconnecting with positive 

feelings. These findings will be discussed in light of the 

other data that will be collected in the future. We will also 

address the other two phases ofthe research program in 

which an applied intervention program as well as a training 

program for graduate students will be developed, 

implemented, and validated. This three-year research 

program will provide important empirical information on the 

concepts of enjoyment and resonance that could 1) help 

many individuals to live a more healthy and fulfilling life 

and 2) guide professional practice in the fields of education 

and sport psychology / pedagogy. 

Solution-Focused BriefTherapy and Performance 

Enhancement: An Interface with Counseling 

Psychology 

Douglas J. Moaner and A.J. Ploszay, University of Tennessee, 

USA 

Poczwardowski, Shennan, and Henschen (1998) suggest that 

the field of sport psychology would benefit from an interface 

with counseling psychology in the subdomains of supervision, 

service philosophy, service models, and theoretical 

frameworks. Petitpas, Giges, and Danish (1999) agreed that 

this interface could in fact be beneficial to sport psychology 

practitioners. The purpose of this study is to assess the utility 

of Solution-Focused Brief Counseling (SFBC) in a sport 

psychology performance enhancement setting. DeShazer, 

discovered that clients overcame problems faster when they 

focused on solutions to their problems, rather than the 

problem itself. According to deShazer, individuals know and 

have resources and solutions to their problems present, 

however; these solutions are unrecognizable. The researchers 

attempted to transfer this success to a sport psychology 

performance enhancement setting. The researchers developed 

a working relationship with the client, identified the clients' 

strengths, implemented active counseling interventions, and 

helped the client establish clear and measurable goals. Eight 

male student-athletes from a major Division I university track 

program participated in the study. The counselors asked the 

participants to rate the state of their current athletic 

performance based on a scale from 0-100 (Kral, 1994). In 

addition, clients will beasked to rate how they perceive their 

teammates and coach would rank their performance on the 

same 0-100 scale. The clients' initial ratings established 

baselines of self-evaluations of performance satisfaction. 

Other baseline performances (competitive race times and 

distances) were also established and reviewed as a part of the 

study. This gave the researchers tangible evidence ofthe 

success ofSFBC as a viable counseling method to be used in 

sport psychology. 

National Football League Player Development: 

Emerging Trends 

Leo Lewis, Minnesota Vikings Football Club, USA 

The National Football League (NFL) is in its eleventh year 

managing comprehensive player development and applied 

sport psychology programming for players. The office of 

Player and Employee Development provides leadership 

resource components for all member clubs. Since 1991, it has 

experienced tremendous growth and participation in all ofit's 

programs. The growing acceptance by league coaches and 

administrators has resulted in over 8000 players and family 

members participating in the core programs. Recently, 

emphasis has been directed toward managing player behavior 

and implementing life skills programming. As a result ofthe

NFL's intervention, the number of violent crimes, alcohol and 

drug abuse infractions, and other forms ofmisconduct have 

decreased. The core programs ofNFL player development 

include: 1) financial education, 2) continuing education, 

3)career development, 4)employee assistance, and 5)life skills 

behavior management. The purposes ofthis examination are 

twofold: (a) to describe the current Player and Employee 

Development structure and initiatives and, (b) to provide a 

briefoverview ofthe programs' year by year intervention and 

participation results. 

The Reflective Process in a Mental Skills Training 

Program 

Brigham R. Beatie and Jenelle N. Gilbert, California State 

University, Fresno, Fresno, CA, USA, 93740 

Logbooks have been suggested as an important tool to 

enhance the success of mental training programs (Burton, 

Dieffenbach, Bull, Shambrook, Hogg, Ravizza, & Naylor, 

1999). Furthermore, many educators believe that reflection is 

essential to personal and professional growth (Gilbert, 2000). 

The purpose ofthis presentation is to discuss the use of two 

reflective tools (i.e., athlete reflective logbooks and 

consultant's reflective journal) in a mental skills training 

program. A 16-week mental skills training program was 

conducted with a female adolescent (15-18 years of age) elite 

volleyball club team. The athletes' reflective logbooks 

comprised exercises modified from existing mental training 

programs (Albinson & Bull, 1988; Orlick, 2000) and pages 

with starter sentences and open-ended questions (Janesick, 

1999). The reflective logbooks yielded many positive benefits. 

For example, the logbooks gave the athletes an opportunity to 

write about their own views in a safe environment. However, 

the authors also realized several challenges related to the 

logbook use, such as dealing with athletes who did not always 

complete logbook pages. Strategies for the logbook 

implementation process with athletes, as well as strategies to 

deal with the challenges will be discussed. Additionally, the 

first author (consultant) used a reflective journal to enhance 

the mental training program and his professional 

development. The use of a reflective journal increased the 

consultant's ability to better understand the needs of the 

athletes and make necessary changes to meet these needs. 

Research on the Character ofAthletes Participating in 

Personal and Command Competitions 

Trdat Bekoyan, Grant Avanesyan, Armine Araratyan, 

Armenian State Institute of Physical Culture and Sport, 

Scientific Center PCS, Yerevan, Armenia 

As objects of research such kinds of sports were chosen, 

where the athlete during sports career participate both in 

personal, and in command championships (fencing, 

gymnastics, bathing, swimming etc.). It is obvious, that in 

these kinds of sports the activity in impellent aspect is 

identical. However from the psychological point of view 

participation in structure of group (team, crew, relay race, 

group exercises...) differs from activity in individual 

99 


competitions. The expert interrogation ofthe skilled trainers 

on the specified kinds of sports has shown, that there is an 

only empirical differentiation ofthe athlete, for example 'the 

man in group', 'individual', 'finishman', 'team man'. Similar 

division they explain both results of competitions and 

character traits ofthe athlete. Research, in which more than 60 

athletes participated, was spent in 3 stages: I. The analysis of 

productivity ofactivity in personal and command 

competitions. 2. Testing ofpersonal features of the athlete 3. 

Experiment simulating competitive activity in personal and 

command superiority. By results ofresearch the athlete were 

conditionally divided on predisposition to achieve success on 

3 groups: 1st competes in-group better. (44.2%), 2nd 

competes individually better. (30.8%), 3rd athlete at which the 

difference in results is not found out. (24.9%). The analysis of 

test parameters has found out statistical distinctions between 

the representatives these 3 groups on the following character 

traits: purposefulness, vanity, self-control, resoluteness, and 

strong-willed qualities. 

An Investigation ofFactors Predicting Academic and 

Athletic Success and Failure ofCollege Student-athletes 

Alan Behrman, Elizabeth Brazelton, Stacy Holman, Auburn 


College student-athletes, especially at Division I universities, 

experience many stressors that other students do not 

experience. Additionally, many ofthese students enter college 

not valuing a college education. It is the goal of the NCAA 

and academic support services housed in athletic departments 

to retain these athletes through graduation. It is also the desire 

ofthe athletic department to retain these athletes through their 

entire athletic eligibility, which may also enhance their 

remaining in college for longer periods oftime. This study 

attempts to determine personality and social variables that can 

be used to identify those student-athletes who may be more at 

risk for both academic and athletic failure and differentiate 

those variables from student-athletes who experience 

academic and athletic success. These variables will be tested 

in a relatively short test battery. This battery includes several 

preexisting questionnaires that look at personality 

characteristics that priorresearch suggests may have a bearing 

on one ofthe outcomes looked at in this study. Additionally, 

through an existing body ofliterature, a new questionnaire has 

been developed asking about relational, motivational, and 

other factors that may be predictive ofsuccess or failure in the 

athletic and academic arena. The results of this study and the 

ability to make predictions can help student-athletes in a more 

proactive rather that reactive way through interventions that 

are already in place at the given institution or that may be put 

in place by a sport psychologist or other qualified individuaL


PhysicalActivity and CVD Risk Profile in African 

American Women with Hypertension: Implications for 

Intervention 

Nancy S. Diehl and Brent M. Egan, Medical University of 

South Carolina, USA; Britton W. Brewer, Springfield College, 

USA 

Sedentary lifestyles are more common in African American 

women and contribute to their higher risks for hypertension, 

diabetes, and cardiovascular mortality. This study 

investigated the relationship between physical activity (PA) 

and the cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factor profiles of 

African American women with hypertension, ascertained 

preferences for specific programmatic factors for PA 

promotion, and measured psychological variables related to 

PA, such as perceived barriers and social support. 

Participants were 26 African American women with 

hypertension who completed demographic questionnaires, 

physical activity and fitness measures, DEXA scan, blood 

100 

work, and psychological scales related to PA. Results 

indicated that participants had significant CVD risk, with all 

having at least three risk factors for CVD. With one 

exception, all women were unfit (mean V02 Max =19.84, 

SD =5.92 ml/kg.min). A correlational analysis revealed no 

significant relationships among the psycho social variables of 

efficacy to overcome barriers, social support, and physical 

activity by self-report or V02 Max estimate. Barriers 

included time, motivation, money, health problems, lack of 

an exercise partner, environmental variables, stress, and 

fatigue, though safety was a concern for only 15% of 

participants. From an intervention perspective, women 

indicated interest in receiving PA information via several 

mediums, but not by telephone. They indicated a strong 

preference to attend a structured exercise program (65%), 

though a sizable minority preferred to learn to incorporate PA 

into their lifestyles. These results demonstrate a significant 

need to develop and evaluate appropriate PA interventions to 

reduce CVD risk in African American women.

Workshops 

Clinical Pitfalls in Sport Psychology 

Mitch Abrams, Learned Excellence for Athletes, USA 

Sport psychology has been struggling with the division 

between Psychology and the Sport Sciences for years. One 

attempt to come to some resolution may generate from 

identifying what it is that each brings to the table. 

Psychologists (specifically clinical psychologists) may be 

prone to over-pathologize while Sport Scientists run the risk 

of missing some important clinical data that would effect the 

direction of treatment. Burton (2000) notes that "mental 

illness does occur in athletes and while definitive 

demographic data are not available, there is evidence 

suggesting that athletes suffer from the same types of 

psychiatric disorders as the general population in roughly 

the same distribution." The incident rates for disorders in 

athletes are quite variable, with Petrie (1996) noting rates for 

eating disorders that ranged between 4.1 % to 39.2% 

depending on the study. That said, however, perhaps the 

incidence rates are less important than the recognition of 

clinical nuances of different disorders that may present as 

"typical performance issues." The focus of this presentation 

will be to highlight some of these phenomena. Two 

approaches will be used. One will be to discuss subtle 

diagnostic clues that the Sport Scientist, Coach or Trainer 

may be exposed to and how they could be part of a bigger 

clinical picture. This will be addressed in both functional 

and DSM-IV diagnostic models. Options for subsequent 

treatment recommendations will be offered. The second 

approach will identify commonly used sport psychology 

interventions and illuminate some potential dangers the 

sport psychologist may stumble upon with their utilization. 

The Age Game: A DevelopmentalApproach to 

Implementing Mental Skills With Athletes ofAllAges 

Karen Collins, University of North Carolina Greensboro, 

Greensboro, NC, 27412; Russell Medbery, American Sport 

Education Program (ASEP), Champaign, IL, 61825 

As sport psychology professionals and coaches, we are often 

called to integrate mental training skills into physical practice 

settings (Martens, 1997). Given the wide range of time 

demands already on a coach and the competing prioritization 

of physical training (endurance, strength, speed, technique, 

and tactics), it is imperative that mental skills training be 

introduced and pursued as part ofphysical skill learning. The 

purpose ofthis workshop is for participants to acquire 

strategies for introducing and implementing mental skills in a 

developmentally appropriate manner in a team setting. During 

this workshop, four mental skills will be addressed: Activation 

Control, Focus, Emotional Control, and Imagery. 

101 r 

Workshop participants will learn strategies for introducing 

these four mental skills into an athletic season. Specifically, 

participants will be led through strategies to introduce these 

mental skills techniques with youth athletes (ages 6 to 13), 

high school athletes (ages 14-18), and collegiate athletes (ages 

18-22). In addition to providing strategies for introducing 

mental skills training in a team setting, participants will learn 

twelve specific strategies for implementing these four mental 

skills into the athletic season at all three developmental levels 

(youth, high school, and collegiate). An interactive learning 

session and "hands on" approach will allow participants the 

opportunity to plan how they would integrate these skills into 

team culture. Finally, in order to encourage the use of 

information learned in the workshop, participants will also 

receive handouts highlighting the specific strategies for 

implementing mental skills training into an athletic season. 

Conducting Performance Enhancement Training with 

Elite Golfand Tennis Players: An Experiential 

Workshop for Sport Psychology Consultants 

Kevin Sverduk, University of Northern Colorado, USA, and 

Glen Albaugh, University of the Pacific, USA 

The purpose ofthis workshop is to provide sport psychology 

consultants strategies and techniques for effectively working 

within the golf and tennis cultures. A secondary purpose is to 

introduce specific interventions to be applied at the golf 

facility and tennis court. Topics covered at the workshop will 

include but not be limited to; a) strategies for gaining 

acceptance into the golf and tennis cultures, b) ways to work 

effectively with the athlete and coach (teaching professional), 

c) ways to work productively with small groups and teams. 

Interventions that will be introduced include a) Imagination 

awareness training, b) practicing trust, c) concentration 

routines, d) simulation training, e) quality practice evaluation, 

and f) tempo training. The workshop will be primarily hands 

on. Participants will actively engage in simulated performance 

enhancement interventions while role playing as the athlete 

and/or the consultant. Lectures, discussion and participation 

will give participant's opportunities to exchange ideas and 

explore questions. The workshop will be led by two 

performance enhancement consultants with extensive 

experience working with elite golfers and tennis players. One 

consultant has conducted over 200 mental training workshops 

for golf and currently consults with several PGA touring 

professionals. The other interviewed several expert coaches 

while developing a conceptual model of quality practice in 

sport and consults with elite tennis players, coaches, and 

college teams. The workshop presenters will draw upon their 

varied experiences as elite athletes, coaches, and sport 

psychology practitioners to share unique interventions and 

new ways of saying old things.


Exercise Behavior Change From the Inside Out 

Jay Kimiecik, Miami University/WellnessltolfThe 

Resonance Group, Oxford, OH 

The starting point for this workshop is that information 

abounds about the benefits of a healthy lifestyle but people are 

actually exercising less and more overweight than ever before. 

All of this information seems to be having a hollow, almost 

reverse, effect on people's motivation to exercise. Why is that? 

Because Outside In information pertaining to disease, 

longevity, and fitness doesn't connect to a person's mindset 

about and experience with moving the body. People who 

become regular exercisers change their thoughts and feelings. 

They change from the Inside Out and in the process transform 

themselves into Intrinsic Exercisers; those who regularly 

experience the inner joy of movement for its own sake. In the 

first part ofthis workshop, we'll explore the Outside In and 

Inside Out perspectives on exercise behavior change through a 

multi-media mix ofresearch, anecdotes, quotes, and video 

clips. In the second part, we'll discuss the four specific 

components of Intrinsic Exercise--vision, mastery, flow, and 

inner synergy (Kimiecik, in press). The participants will have 

opportunities to learn strategies for enhancing each Intrinsic 

Exerciser component for themselves as well as for their health 

and fitness clients or members. Participants will receive a 

complete handout packet that includes PowerPoint slides, 

articles by the workshop facilitator with reference list, and 

self-assessment materials. 

Wired for Performance Excellence: Cases Studies of 

On-Line Consulting, Inevitable Challenges, and Future 

Directions 

Adam H. Naylor, International Tennis Academy, USA; Robert 

Nideffer, Enhanced Performance Systems, USA; Leonard 

Zaichkowsky, Boston University, USA; Sam Zizzi, West 

Virginia University, USA 

The internet is a rich landscape that provides many 

opportunities for sport psychology, but also contains potential 

professional and ethical pitfalls. Three consultants discuss 

their unique experiences providing sport psychology services 

on-line. The first consultant speaks of taking the traditional 

client-practitioner relationship to e-mail in his work with 

tennis professionals. The second consultant examines the 

challenges and opportunities that exist for a psychoeducational, 

sport-oriented website. Lastly, the final 

consultant will reflect upon psychological assessment on the 

'information superhighway'-benefits to athletes and 

coaches, potential shortcomings, and future directions. These 

three experiences will then be placed in the context of current 

research that addresses sport psychology in this age of 

technology. With both experiences and research in mind, four 

specific issues will be addressed: 1) How is the therapeutic 

relationship changed or affected? 2) How should/can services 

be structured? 3) Ethical issues? Consultant responsibilities? 

Client responsibilities? 4) How might this benefit the athletes 

with whom you work? A significant portion of this workshop 

will offer an opportunity for small, group discourse on these 

102 

issues. From these discussions, suggestions for web-base 

practice will be further developed. Ifethically and 

professionally conducted, athlete-practitioner relationships 

on-line can yield positive emotional and performance benefits. 

"Learningfrom Our failures: Discussions ofthe 

Mistakes Made in Applied Sport Psychology 

Consulting" 

Traci Statler, Winthrop University, USA; Keith Henschen, 

University of Utah, USA; Gloria Balague, University of 

Illinois, Chicago, USA; Rich Gordin, Utah State 


In reviewing research in the field of applied sport psychology 

consulting, it becomes quickly apparent that practitioners are 

quick to share their successful and positive experiences. Large 

volumes of work outline the characteristics of effective sport 

psychology consultants, as well as effective programs (Orlick 

& Partington, 1987; Partington & Orlick, 1987), but few 

consultants ever discuss those characteristics that contribute to 

ineffectiveness or negative experiences. Ifsport and exercise 

psychology students and young professionals are expected to 

learn from their mentors' successes, it stands to reason that 

they could learn just as much from their failures and mistakes. 

Therefore, the purpose of this workshop is to provide a forum 

for outstanding consultants to share some of the negative 

experiences they have had in their careers. First, the panel of 

discussants will describe situations they have encountered in 

their consulting careers, explaining the scenario, then what 

they did (or didn't do), and finally, the motivations or thought 

processes behind their actions. With their current experience 

and hindsight, they can then explain why they believe their 

plans failed or produced less than ideal results. It has often 

been stated that the only true mistakes anyone ever makes are 

those mistakes they fail to learn from. This workshop will 

allow participants the opportunity to learn from the mistakes 

others have made without the negative consequences involved 

with making those same mistakes themselves. Furthermore, 

participants will be given ample opportunity to ask more 

specific questions of the panel members and participate in 

subsequent discussion. 

Transferring Life Skills from the Gym to the Classroom 

with Underserved Youth through Goal-setting and 

Mentoring 

Thomas Martinek, Donna Duffy, Ansu Lee, Kyle Radaker, 

University of North Carolina, Greensboro, USA 

Project Effort is a special after-school program that utilizes 

sport/physical activity and a school-based, one-on-one 

mentoring program to foster resiliency with elementary, 

middle and high school students who have been identified as 

"underserved," Don Hellison's 5 levels ofpersonal and social 

responsibility guide the Project Effort program. They are, (1) 

self-control, (2) effort, (3) self-direction, (4) caring for others, 

and (5) transferring the goals (1-4) outside ofthe gym 

(Hellison, 1995). Each of the students in one of the Project 

Effort after-school programs, is matched with a mentor who is


mistakes and setbacks. Participants will then be divided into 

focus groups, and will be challenged with specific cases that 

could arise for someone in the coach / sport psychology 

consultant dual role. The focus groups will work to reach 

solutions, and then report back to the group to promote further 

discussion. Main discussion points will be summarized, 

culminating in a discussion ofeffective strategies relevant to 

integrating and implementing a psychological skills training 

program as a coach. Finally, participants will be provided with 

brochures offering tips to facilitate the coach / sport 

psychology consultant dual role. 

Combining Fun Activities with Teachable Moments to 

Enhance Athletes' Retention ofPsychological Skills 

Jamie Robbins, Michigan State University, Lansing, MI, 

USA, 48824; Greg Dale, Duke University, Durham, North 

Carolina, USA, 27708 

The purpose of the workshop is to demonstrate the possibility 

of creating a fun and entertaining environment for athletes to 

learn the importance ofbuilding and maintaining a variety of 

psychological skills. The workshop will involve the active 

participation of all those who attend. The audience will take 

on the role of "the athletes" and the presiders will guide them 

through three activities aimed at demonstrating the 

importance of focus, the detrimental effect of distractions and 

the continuing need for active problem solving. The workshop 

will end with an open discussion ofother possible ways of 

incorporating active teaching techniques into everyday 

counseling sessions. The goal of the workshop is to encourage 

sport psychologists to think about their own styles and 

brainstorm new and innovative ways of working with athletes 

to help promote active learning. 

Intentional Development: A Model ofPersonal and 

Performance Development in Physical Activity, 

Exercise, and Sport 

Jeffrey M. Cherubini, Exercise and Sport Psychology 

Division, Biokinetics Research Laboratory, Department of 

Kinesiology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA. 

The purpose of this workshop is to provide participants with a 

base of knowledge about the Model of Intentional 

Development and experience in implementing the model with 

a variety of populations. As sport psychology consultants and 

coaches, we work with a variety of athletes and non-athletes, 

healthy and unhealthy populations with a wide range of 

motivations and desired outcomes. Individual motives are 

dynamic and evolving. The key is that not one strategy works 

for everyone. This model represents an authentic attempt at 

theory development unique to the discipline of sport 

psychology. The goal of this model is to help facilitate 

positive personal and performance development over the 

entire life span. Specifically, the model focuses on the 

individual's development within the physical activity, exercise, 

and sport environments. This workshop will define 

development within the context of the model, review specific 

elements ofthe model, and propose a framework to guide the 

104 

understanding and facilitation of development Workshop 

participants will have the opportunity to review goals of the 

model, foundational assumptions, and specific intervention 

techniques. Working with this knowledge as a base, the 

majority of time in the workshop will be spent in small group 

discussions on specific case studies dealing with a variety of 

developmental issues in the four major areas of the model. 

Participants will develop strategies to guide and facilitate 

effective interventions for the case studies in particular, and 

with athletes and non-athletes in general. 

Coping with the Reality ofAthletic Injury: Working with 

Track and Field Athletes at the Olympic Games 

Ralph Vernacchia, Western Washington University, 

Bellingham, WA, 98225; Keith Henschen, University of Utah, 

Salt Lake City, UT 84112 

As a result of an extended competitive season, travel demands, 

and lack of diagnostic and rehabilitation opportunities, several 

members of the 2000 USA Olympic Track and Field Team 

experienced sub-par performances at the Olympic Games. 

The presenters for this workshop served as sport psychology 

consultants for the 2000 Olympic Track and Field Team in 

Sydney, Australia and will identify the stress and coping 

dimensions of their consultations at the Olympic Games. 

The specific objectives ofthis workshop are to: (1) identify 

specific mental skills and techniques that athletes can utilize 

to retain their skills in the absence of adequate training or 

practice; (2) identify ways of restoring an athlete's physical 

as well as mental confidence after experiencing an injury; and 

(3) address the unique characteristics effecting injury 

rehabilitation and athletic performance that exist in an 

Olympic Games setting, including the role and relationship 

of the sports medicine team in providing social and medical 

support for athletes. Case studies that both illustrate the 

psychological and emotional impact of injuries on Olympic 

track and field athletes and the effectiveness of performance 

enhancement strategies for injury rehabilitation will be 

discussed in small groups and with the presenters. 

Taking Applied Sport Psychology from Research to 

Practice: Integrating Empirically Validated 

Interventions into a Self-Regulatory Model ofAthletic 

Performance 

Zella E. Moore and Frank L. Gardner, Arizona School of 


Within professional psychology, there has been a growing 

movement toward defining and utilizing empirically validated 

treatments for a range of psychological difficulties. Specified 

criteria have been developed and utilized across a number of 

clinical and counseling populations (Chambless & Hollon, 

1998; Kendall, 1998). Adapted for the practice of applied 

sport psychology, empirically validated interventions (EVIs) 

represent those interventions that have demonstrated efficacy 

for the treatment of psychological and behavioral issues 

related to athletic performance.

The efficacy of psychological skills training (PST) for the 

enhancement of athletic performance has been demonstrated 

by a number of meta-analytic reviews. Such reviews have 

demonstrated only a mild to moderate effect size for PST 

procedures. As a result, existing meta-analyses provide 

practitioners with questionable conclusions and inconclusive 

support for the effectiveness of PST. In contrast, the EVI 

approach utilizes standard criteria designed to evaluate the 

methodological quality of research. Adopting a more 

rigorous approach to the analysis of empirical data will 

allow practitioners to legitimately utilize appropriate 

intervention strategies with athletes. As suggested by 

Murphy (1998), a comprehensive model for both the 

assessment and conceptualization of athlete issues has been 

lacking within the field. Therefore, the goals of the 

workshop are to present findings regarding EVIs and to 

demonstrate how practitioners can integrate these findings 

into a self-regulatory model of functional and dysfunctional 

athletic performance. During this interactive workshop, 

participants will gain an understanding of a contemporary 

model of athletic performance based on recent empirical 

data, develop an understanding of how EVIs can be utilized 

within this model, and along with handouts, will develop a 

sound basis for case conceptualization and intervention 

planning. 

Gender-blind or Gender-sensitive Sport Psychology 

Consulting: Exploring Choices and Consequences 

Carole Oglesby, Tracey Covassin, Jean Thayer Meston, 

Temple University, USA 

Until the late 1970s, the field of physical education featured 

separate, single-sex training for teachers and coaches. The 

program offerings in the field were viewed by professionals as 

fundamentally different by gender, and desirably so. 

Therapists and clinicians were seldom, if ever, trained in 

gender-separate ways and in the Post-Title IX era, neither 

have sport psychologists been so trained. The majority of 

certified sport psychology consultants are male and their sport 

experiential background is likely to be within the context of 

men's sport. While there are some "boundary breaking" 

females participating in traditional men's sports (football, 

boxing, wrestling) most female certified consultants will have 

an experiential background in women's sport. Does any ofthis 

matter, in regard to the provision ofquality sport psychology 

services to sport performers? Do consultants themselves 

believe it matters? The authors will offer a workshop to 

explore these questions. In the workshop, a very brief 

"historical snapshot" will be offered of the traditions of 

women's s\lOrtinthe USA.. A.ho, results willbe sharedof an 

on-going study of perceived differences and similarities in 

same and cross-sex applied sport psychology work. Small 

group discussions will be facilitated concerning implications 

of the research and explanations of the findings. Sharing of 

perspectives will be facilitated in regard to workshop 

participants views on the similarities and differences male and 

female clients present in applied sport psychology settings 

and how these behaviors impact on successful outcomes. 

105 

2001 Conference Proceedings-Workshops 

Recommendations will be explored for same and cross-sex 

consultation and for training and supervision in sport 

psychology settings. 

Improving upon the Quality ofSport Training: 

Important Considerations andAssessment-Monitoring 

Procedures 

Mike R. Voight, Ph.D., University of Southern California, Los 

Angeles, CA.; Kevin Sverduk, Ph.D., University of Oregon, 

Eugene,OR 

Research from the motor learning field has provided a wealth 

ofinformation regarding the principles ofquality practice, yet 

application ofthese principles into the sport psychology field 

has been limited. In the applied sport psychology literature, 

however, some authors have presented strategies athletes or 

coaches could utilize to enhance upon the quality ofpractice 

(Orlick & Partington, 1988; Ravizza & Hanson, 1995; 

Sverduk & Albaugh, 1999; Taylor, 1999; Voight, 1999). This 

workshop will focus on three primary areas: (1) review the 

conceptual quality oftraining models posited by the 

presenters which extend the current literature; (2) discuss the 

important issues to applying quality oftraining principles with 

athletes, teams, and coaches, including roadbloacks to peak 

practice performance like poor attitude, ill preparation, and 

lack of accountability; (3) discuss specific methods of 

assessment, monitoring, and evaluation procedures on 

athlete's quality ofpractice pursuits. Participants will receive 

detailed outlines ofthe information covered, as well as copies 

of the assessment-monitoring tools the consultants use with 

their athletes and team. The presenters will the comment and 

answer questions from participants. 

RealLife, RealIssues: The Experience ofWorking With 

Diversity Issues in Sport and Exercise Psychology 

Tova R. Rubin, North Carolina A&T State University, USA; 

Joy Griffin, University ofNew Mexico, USA; Ronald G. 

Morrow, North Carolina Central University, USA 

While most individuals trained in Sport and Exercise 

Psychology have studied the theories and constructs of social 

and cultural diversity issues they are rarely exposed to the 

actual experience of having to work with them. 

The use of case studies to bring the student closer to the real 

world challenges of practice has increased over the past few 

years. What has been lacking however has been the ability to 

question the practitioner who has had to work with and 

through the issues facing them. The purpose of this session 

is to -provide a constructive o-penforum for the exchange of 

experiences involving the unique aspects of social and 

cultural diversity issues which are often involved with the 

multidimensional role that sport and exercise psychologists / 

educators are faced with. The members of the panel will 

share their experiences and techniques for addressing a 

variety of diversity issues within the differing contexts that 

sport and exercise psychologists / educators work. Focus 

will be placed upon issues related to cultural belief systems, 

religion, ethnicity, sexual orientation and cross-cultural


communication. Members ofthe audience are encouraged to 

participate through questions and sharing of their own 

experiences. 

Publishing Sport and Exercise Psychology: The Nuts 

and Bolts ofWriting and Editing Books 

Justine J. Reel, West Chester University, West Chester, PA 

19383; Robert Singer, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 

32611; Albert V. Carron, University ofWestern Ontario, 

London, Ontario N6A 3K7; Andrew Ostrow, West Virginia 

University, Morgantown, WV 26506; Judy Van Raalte, 

Springfield College, Springfield, MA 01109; Michael Sachs, 

Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19122; Jean Williams, 

University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721 

Many sport and exercise psychology professionals and 

students aspire to write and publish their own book. This 

workshop will provide a panel of experienced authors and 

editors who have broken into the publishing world. Editors 

and authors ofsport and exercise psychology textbooks, 

applied works, and directories will be included on the panel to 

discuss their experiences with publishing sport and exercise 

psychology literature. One panelist is directly involved with a 

publishing company, and will offer the publishing company's 

perspective, as well as the perspective ofan editor. Differences 

in being an editor and author will be discussed, as well as the 

experience of re-writing a book for multiple editions. 

Challenges and obstacles of writing/editing a book will be 

discussed and tips will be given to prospective authors. A 

handout will be provided to conference participants that 

outlines the typical steps for writing a book. In addition, 

helpful resources (e.g., web sites) related to published will be 

shared with the audience. 

A Risk Management Approach to Ethical Behavior in 

Sport and Exercise Psychology Practice 

Edward Etzel, Jack Watson, West Virginia University, USA; 

Sandra Foster, Success at Work, USA; Kirsten Peterson, 

United States Olympic Committee, USA; Sherry Harrison, 

Arizona School of Professional Psychology, USA 

Although the work of sport and exercise psychology 

professionals is frequently challenged from an ethical 

perspective, barring various unforeseen events, one can 

function in a consistently ethical manner. This workshop is 

intended for all people involved in sport psychology (i.e., 

students, researchers, teachers, and practitioners), with the 

primary objectives of helping individuals learn how to 

practice in an ethical manner on a day-to-day basis, and to 

avoid the risks and pitfalls of working in a complex, litigious 

world. Organized and presented by members of the AAASP 

Ethics Committee, participants will learn about the process of 

ethical decision making with cases presented linked to 

AAASP Ethical principles and standards. 

Consultant-Coach Relationships: Ally or Adversary? 

Gloria Balague, Ph.D. University ofIllinois, Chicago, IL, 

60640, USA; Jim Taylor, Ph.D., Alpine/Taylor Consulting, 

'106 

San Francisco, CA, 94147, USA; Susan Tuffey, USA 

Swimming, Colorado Springs, CO, 80909, USA 

An essential contributor to the effectiveness of an applied 

consultant is the relationship that the consultant has with the 

coach. This relationship is important for several reasons. The 

coach has a significant influence on the athlete's attitude 

toward sport psychology and the consultant. The coach 

spends much more time with the athlete. The coach can 

either support or undermine the efforts ofthe consultant. The 

ability ofthe consultant to build a collaborative relationship 

with the coach will often dictate the consultant's 

effectiveness with the athlete. The two presenters will share 

their experiences of having coaches as both allies and 

adversaries. They will discuss what problems can arise that 

can tum coaches against consultants including athlete 

control and attention, and credit for success. The presenters 

will also describe what consultants can do minimize the 

likelihood of an adversarial relationship, for example, 

maintaining appropriate boundaries, clarifying the 

consultant's role, and being sensitive to time and attention 

that the consultant gets from the athlete. The presenters will 

also examine the qualities that in coaches who are open to 

consultants including security in the coach's role, a lack of 

ego investment, athlete focus, and a holistic approach to the 

athlete's development. The presenters will offer case studies 

of coaches who became allies or adversaries. Attendees will 

gain a greater appreciation of the consultant-coach 

relationship, an increased sensitivity to consultant 

interactions with coaches, and learn more tools to build a 

positive relationship with coaches. 

Invited StudentWorkshop: The Performance Excellence 

Movement: A Joint Effort Between AAASPandAPA 

Daniel Gould, University of North Carolina-Greensboro, 

USA; Trent Petrie, University of North Texas, USA; Doug 

Hirschhorn, West Virginia University, USA; Michelle 

Colman, University of Western Ontario, USA; Kay Porter, 

Porter Performance Systems, USA 

As the field of sport psychology continues to grow so does the 

need for cutting-edge graduate training. A number of 

professionals in the field of sport psychology have expressed 

the importance and practicality of broadening the role of a 

sport psychology consultant (Danish, Petitpas, & Hale, 1990, 

1992, 1993, 1995). The concept of moving toward 

performance excellence in variety of domains rather than 

performance enhancement in sport alone is of growing 

interest. In addition, psychologist Martin Seligman author of 

Learned Optimism, recently has made major strides within 

mainstream psychology. He has popularized performance 

enhancement by endorsing a new perspective he referred to as 

'positive psychology.' The presenters will focus on 

performance psychology in and out ofsport. Emphasis will be 

placed on practical considerations for applying sport 

psychology techniques to other areas of life. An overview of 

the rationale, benefits, and format of an AAASP and APA 

joint initiative, The Performance Excellence Movement, will

Associationfor the Advancement ofApplied Sport Psychology 

specifically, we often hear success stories in the field that 

being with 'the key was to get my foot in the door.' But how 

do you get your foot in the door of applied sport psychology 

as a graduate student? Furthermore, how do you decide which 

door you want to get your foot into? The purpose ofthis 

student workshop is to describe experiences in gaining applied 

work experience in sport and additional domains while in 

graduate school and as a new professional. The presenters 

include a group of active graduate students and young 

successful professionals in the field. The presenters will each 

give overviews of their backgrounds and share their personal 

experiences in obtaining applied experience. A variety of 

strategies used to secure experiences will be addressed. In 

addition, the presenters will comment on some of the 

frustrations and obstacles that they overcame in the process. 

This workshop is focused on the 'how-to' of getting 

experience in sport psychology and additional domains, 

answering questions such as who to contact, how persistent 

(or patient) to be, and how to find internship experiences. 

Diversity and Sport: Strategies and Discussion for 

Working with African-American Athletes and Student 

Athletes 

Teresa B. Fletcher, Melanie Richburg, Jevon Davis, Joy 

Myers, Clark Atlanta University, USA 

Cultural diversity is becoming a topic of conversation among 

sport psychologists and sport counselors. The purpose of this 

presentation is to create an open environment to discuss 

cultural differences and gain an understanding into cultural 

identity development. There are three goals for this 

presentation including gaining information on multicultural 

terminology, understanding minority and majority identity 

development, and creating a panel discussion to open the 

doors of communication on the subject of culture, specifically 

the African-American or black culture. The failure to 

recognize within-group or individual differences among a 

group of individuals can be problematic for helping 

professionals. Not all stereotypes fit all individuals of a certain 

race, ethnic, gender, socioeconomic, or age group. Therefore, 

it is important and necessary to become familiar with minority 

and majority identity development as it pertains to potential 

diagnostic value for the individual (Sue & Sue, 1990). This 

presentation will focus on minority identity development as it 

pertains to the African-American or black population. The 

diverse backgrounds of the presenters can provide a panel 

discussion on specific issues relating to culture, behavior, and 

race in terms of working with athletes and student-athletes. 

The presenters are prepared to address issues pertaining to 

black athletes, diversity among team members and coaches, 

relationship building and teambuilding, socioeconomic issues, 

overcoming negative stereotypes, and strategies for working 

with individuals and groups from diverse backgrounds. 

Handouts will be provided. 

108 

Expectancy Effects among Coaches: The Pursuit of 

Perceptual Flexibility 

Gloria B. Solomon, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, 

Texas 76129, USA 

Researchers have utilized expectancy theory in sport settings 

to explain coach-player interactions for over 20 years. The 

vast majority of inquiry records coach feedback issued to 

athletes and relates those patterns to athlete expectancy level 

(Hom, 1984, Rejeski, Dararcott, & Hutslar, 1979; Solomon, 

Striegel, et al., 1996). Recent research has made great strides 

in contributing to the understanding ofcoach expectancies 

(Solomon, DiMarco, Ohlson, & Reece, 1998; Solomon & 

Kosmitzki, 1996; Solomon & Rhea, 2000) and the potential 

impact ofcoach expectations on athlete performance 

(Solomon, 2oo1a; 2oo1b). The purpose of this workshop is to 

provide sport psychologists with information regarding the 

potential impact of coach expectancies on athlete 

development and performance. The workshop will be divided 

into four sections. First, an overview of expectancy theory will 

be provided with an explanation of the four-step self-fulfilling 

prophecy cycle in sport. Second, participants will be presented 

with a brief reporting on the current status of expectancy 

effects in sport. Third, a discussion will ensue which 

addresses the issue of perceptual flexibility. Participants will 

be afforded the opportunity to perform self-assessments to 

determine their perceptual flexibility. Subsequently, strategies 

for becoming more flexible will be discussed. Fourth, the 

influence of coach expectations on athlete performance will 

be addressed via small group discussion to derive potential 

ramifications ofthis for the sport psychology educator and 

practitioner. 

Mind Grind: The Unique Psychological Challenges of 

Endurance Sport Athletes 

Kim Cusimano, KC Consulting, New York, NY, 10128, USA, 

and Jim Taylor, Alpineffaylor Consulting, San Francisco, CA, 

94147, USA 

This workshop will focus on the unique psychological 

challenges that endurance sport athletes such as marathon 

runners, triathletes, and long-distance swimmers face in 

training and competition. The presenters will draw on their 

extensive consulting work with endurance sport athletes as 

well as their own experience as an Ironman triathlete and 

marathon runner, respectively. The workshop will examine the 

psychological demands that endurance sports athletes must 

meet in order to achieve their goals. The workshop introduces 

the concept of the "Mind Grind," which emphasizes the timeconsuming 

and often monotonous nature of endurance sport 

training. The workshop will examine five psychological 

factors that impact endurance sport performance: motivation, 

confidence, intensity, focus, and emotions. The first part of the 

workshop will focus on the psychological needs oftraining. 

Topics include staying motivated, avoiding overtraining, 

effective focus, building confidence, being patient, and 

dealing with injury. The second part will look at the 

psychological demands of e competition. Issues include

trusting preparation, psychology ofrace tactics, race intensity, 

race focus, and the "emotional rollercoaster" of endurance 

sport events. The workshop will emphasize the practical skills 

and techniques for endurance sport athletes to improve their 

training and competitive efforts. 

Addressing and Reducing Alcohol Use among Athletes: 

A Psycho-educational Approach Focusing on 

Facilitating Peak Performance 

Luis G. Manzo, University ofNotre Dame, USA, and Niels C. 

Beck, University of Missouri, USA 

The prevalence of alcohol use and misuse among athletes has 

been well documented by studies commissioned by the 

NCAA and the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. For those 

practitioners consulting with athletes, teams, and coaches it is 

not uncommon to encounter such concerns. Unfortunately, 

many opportunities to intervene and effect change are lost, as 

many practitioners feel these issues are outside their realm of 

expertise. However, regardless of whether one is trained in 

psychology or the sport sciences, there is a wealth of psychoeducational 

information regarding the way in which alcohol 

negatively effects an athlete's mental and physical abilities 

that practitioners can share with their clients. Working from a 

performance enhancement perspective the two presenters will 

outline how alcohol leads to sub par performances by 

examining the way alcohol's effects on an athlete's body prior 

to and after training and competition. Specifically, the 

presenters will explore the psychological impact (i.e., lowered 

confidence, poor concentration, and decreased motivation) 

alcohol can have by impeding basic physical processes such 

as muscle recovery, fluid retention, aerobic metabolism, and 

an athlete's sleep cycle. This 9O-minute workshop will discuss 

the prevalence of alcohol use among athletes and seeks to 

educate practitioners in the way alcohol use negatively effects 

peak performance. The two presenters will share practical 

methods that they use to address these issues and reduce 

alcohol use. Additionally, they will discuss how to determine 

if an athlete has a serious problem with alcohol and when to 

refer to a qualified mental health professional. 

The Psychology ofthe Musician: Physical and 

Psychosocial Issues and the Interventional Techniques 

for Performance Enhancement 

Carolyn Valone Bell, Mayo Clinic Sports Medicine Center, 

USA 

The purpose of this workshop is to address the psychology of 

the musician, the health problems associated with being a 

performer and the role of the sport psychology consultant. 

Approximately fifty percent of all musicians experience a 

problem that may threaten or end their career as a performer 

(Lockwood, 1989). As a result, Young and Hipple (1996) 

assessed the mental health of university musicians and found 

that suicidal ideation, depression and nervousness were 

common. Contributing to these phenomenon is music 

performance anxiety (MPA) which results from factors 

including social evaluation (fear offailure) and financial 

109 


insecurity (Ostwald, Bareon, & Wilson, 1994). Symptoms of 

MPA are palpitations, tremors, skill deterioration, 

forgetfulness, and generalized muscle tension. In addition to 

the aforementioned factors, investigators hypothesize that 

personality variables and unique auditory styles (Smith, 

Maragos, & Van Dyke, 2000) predispose musicians to 

problems (Ostwald, 1992; Gedo, 1993; Babbage & Valentine, 

1995; Butler, 1995; & Hamilton, 1995). Personality variables 

identified were self-esteem, confidence, hardiness, toughmindedness, 

trait-state anxiety, motivational factors, and 

perfectionism. While personality factors are a contributing 

source to the mental health of the musician, psychosocial 

factors are also important to consider (Smith, et. al, 2000). 

Some of these include occupational stress, parental influences, 

and injury. After reviewing the findings, it was apparent that 

interventional techniques were necessary to reduce MPA and 

lessen its impact on the well being of the musician. The 

workshop will discuss a PST program that will lower 

perceived stress and consequently enhance the experience of 

the performing musician. 

Bridging the Gap between Sport Psychology and Sport 

Medicine Certifications 

Dan Hollander, Heather Webb, Southeastern Louisiana 

University, USA; Justine J. Reel, West Chester University, 

USA; Laura Kenow, Linfield College, USA 

The purpose of this workshop is to discuss the emerging role 

ofAAASP certification and it's relationship to sports medicine 

practitioners. This has become an increasingly important issue 

as many sport and exercise psychology professionals in and 

out ofacademia must demonstrate application of proficiencies 

and competencies in the field of sport and exercise 

psychology as they related to the larger sports medicine 

community. To discuss how the certification may impact and 

be impacted by the field of athletic training, basic 

proficiencies and competencies of the NATA as it relates to 

athletic trainers in the area ofsport psychology will be 

discussed. Next, implementation of sport and exercise 

psychology techniques with a sports medicine team will be 

examined. Then, discussion related to the proficiencies and 

competencies that currently exist with regard to the AAASP 

certified consultant and areas of controversy will be 

highlighted. Finally, an examination ofconnections between 

the AAASP certification and how it maybe employed with the 

certified strength and conditioning specialist will continue to 

bridge the gap between sport psychology and the larger sports 

medicine community. The goal of this workshop is to explore 

the role of sport and exercise psychology within the sports 

medicine community and develop insight and interest into our 

emerging role as service providers and performance 

enhancement specialists.


Workshop: Secrets for Developing and Implementing 

Periodized Mental Training Programs 

Damon Burton and Bernie Holliday, University of Idaho, 

Moscow, ID 83844; Jon Hammermeister, Eastern Washington 

University, Cheney, WA 99004; Dan Freigang, In-the-Zone 

Training Systems, Ogden, UT 84401; Sarah Naylor, U.S. 

Military Academy, West Point, NY 10996; Sharleen Hoar, 

University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T lZI; 

Brendan Lally, Miami of Ohio, Oxford, Ohio 45056. 

Periodization is a potentially valuable strategy to enhance 

mental skills training programs. The purpose ofthis workshop 

is to provide hands-on experiences in periodizing mental 

training programs, and six separate practical design and 

implementation issues will be highlighted, including: (a) 

learning how to break their season down into macro, meso and 

microcycles, (b) systematically varying the volume and 

intensity of mental training, (c) using mental training menus 

to provide greater athlete control over volume and intensity 

adjustments across training cycles, (d) debating the role of 

specificity and recovery in mental training, (e) comparing 

peaking strategies for team versus individual sports and 

strategies to enhance peaking effectiveness, and (f) discussing 

how to promote periodization of mental training to coaches 

and athletes and better integrate it with physical training. 

Initially, workshop moderators will briefly introduce each of 

these six mental training periodization topics to the entire 

audience before six breakout groups are created. Each 

participant will have the opportunity to rotate through all six 

mental training periodization stations. During each breakout 

session, participants will receive a handout and experience 

one or more hands-on exercises designed to enhance their 

understanding and ability to implement periodization with 

mental training. Finally, each leader will briefly summarize 

the experiences at their station. 

Professional (LifelBusiness) Coaching and Sport 

Psychology: Possible Synergies 

Billy Strean, University ofAlberta, Canada; Tom Hanson, 

Heads-Up Performance, USA; Tim Cline, Transformational 

Coaching Services, USA; Leith Drury, University of Toronto, 

Canada; Robert Limoges, Limoges Coaching, USA 

Professional Coaching, as governed by the International 

Coaching Federation, is a growing profession that has many 

ofthe same values and goals as sport psychology. Both 

professions seek to help individuals to improve their 

performance and get the most out of life. Whereas sport 

psychology tends to work in the realm of physical activity, 

professional coaches help clients to integrate and balance all 

aspects of their lives. The purpose of this workshop is 

threefold. First, we will suggest that professional coaching is a 

viable career option or complement for many individuals who 

are interested in working with people. Furthermore the 

athletic model ofworking with healthy, motivated, resourceful 

individuals is very transferable. For many graduate students 

and young professionals who would like to build a career, but 

don't see the possibility of working outside of academia, we 

110 [ 

will show how professional coaching may be a useful avenue 

to pursue. Second, we will demonstrate some of the skills and 

perspectives from professional coaching, such as fulfillment 

and life balance, and show how they can be used to work very 

powerfully with athletes and many individuals in the areas of 

health and physical activity. Finally, we will look at successes 

in the development ofthe coaching profession and the ICF 

and suggest possible directions for AAASP to consider. 

Integrating Optimism Building Techniques into Your 

Sport Consulting Practice: A Practicum Experience 

Luis G. Manzo, University of Notre Dame, USA, and Sandra 

Foster, Success at Work, USA 

Martin E.P. Seligman's research on "explanatory style" (how a 

person explains the cause of good and bad events to him or 

herself) has documented highly significant differences in the 

well-being and performance outcomes of persons who tested 

as optimists when compared to those tested as pessimists. 

Optimism was associated with higher sales productivity, more 

robust immune response in persons with life-threatening 

illness, and resilience after defeat in athletes. Specifically for 

athletes, an optimistic explanatory style can give an athlete a 

striking competitive advantage. For example, the swimmer 

with an optimistic explanatory style who loses a close race is 

likely to become motivated to practice harder and seek 

consultation with coaches to figure out ways to improve his or 

her swimming technique and fitness. Thus, resulting in faster 

times and a better mental attitude. Whereas, the swimmer with 

a pessimistic explanatory style is likely to skip practice, show 

up late, or unprepared for practices, which ultimately results 

in decreased motivation and sub par performances. During 

this 90-minutes experiential workshop participants will be 

taught optimism-building techniques and given the 

opportunity to put these skills into action. The two presenters 

will briefly summarize the empirical basis of the benefits of 

adopting an optimistic explanatory style. Participants will be 

lead through experiential exercises that can be used with their 

clients to teach optimistic thinking. Additionally, the 

presenters will coach participants through role-playing 

exercises that further enhance their ability to integrate the 

teaching ofoptimism thinking skills into their work with 

athletes, coaches, and parents. 

Improvisation for Sports Teams 

Joan Ingalls, Focused Training, USA 

Successful sports teams rely on precise communication; they 

develop the talents of each member, and pass leadership 

moment by moment throughout a game; they creatively 

surpass the 'impossible.' The work of Lev Vygotsky, an early 

Soviet psychologist, has relevance for sports counselors 

working with teams that value communication. Vygotsky 

spent his life searching for a 'practice of method' that would 

allow human beings to support each other in their 

development. He called the 'space' that they create for each 

other's growth, the 'Zone of Proximal Development' (ZPD).

'Improvisation for Sports Teams' is based on Performance 

of a Lifetime (TM), an improvisational game for 

organizational team building created by a corporate training 

center in New York City. This workshop will begin with a 

description of the brief history of the use of improvisation 

for team building with high schoollacross teams and a 

college football team. Participants will practice the 'rules' of 

improvisation: 'listening to' and 'building creatively with 

the offering.' As they integrate the rules into the ongoing 

games, they will experience the possibilities ofcreative team 

building that emerge in the ZPD. There will be an 

opportunity for discussion and questions about what 

improvisational games are, how and why they are effective, 

and how to use them for team building. This workshop is for 

students and professionals, those in practice and those 

interested in entering the field. Handouts include formats for 

improvisational games for teams, the rules of improvisation 

for team building and a bibliography for further reading. 

Toward a StructuredAssessmentand Conceptualization 

ofAthlete-Clients: The Multilevel Classification System 

for Sport Psychology (MCS-SP) 

Frank L. Gardner and Zella E. Moore, Arizona School of 


The need for theory to drive empirical and applied efforts in 

sport psychology has been noted numerous times in the 

professional literature (Murphy, 1998; Vealy, 1998). To date, 

however, there has been a lack of a clear model by which 

practitioners in sport psychology can organize and 

conceptualize cases involving athletes and their performance/ 

personal concerns and issues. As such, decisions regarding 

type and level ofintervention required for a given case are left 

to the 'philosophy' and 'feelings' of sport psychology 

professionals rather than guided by systematic theory and 

research. The purpose ofthis workshop is to present a model 

for conceptualizing and classifying athlete-client issues along 

a continuum of Performance Development, Performance 

Dysfunction, and Personal Impairment with or without 

associated Performance Impairment (The Multilevel 

Classification System for Sport Psychology). This model is 

intended to: 1) Provide a clear and structured assessment 

system for sport psychology professionals 2) Lead to a clear 

and logical decision making process regarding appropriate 

HI 


levels and types of intervention 3) Provide suggestions for 

future efficacy research in applied sport psychology. In this 

workshop, participants will be guided through the athleteclient 

assessment process and classification system via 

interactive discussion and the use of in depth handouts in the 

form of a workbook. The goal of the workshop is to aid in the 

development of a thorough understanding of the conceptual 

model ofthe MCS-SP, as well as the development of 

proficiency in the assessment and decision making process 

that is rationally connected to the model. 

Storytelling as a Performance Enhancement Technique 

in Applied Sport Psychology 

Ralph Vemacchia, Western Washington University, 

Bellingham, WA 98225 

Storytelling has long been an effective educational strategy 

and technique used by the teachers of sport, including, 

coaches and sport psychology professionals. Sport stories 

are often told in order to convey the principles and values of 

sport participation and for this reason, sport stories can be 

very effective in transmitting the principles of sport 

psychology that can lead to effective athletic performances. 

Storytelling serves to provide the listener with a reference 

point for sport related behaviors and if told effectively 

stories fascinate the listener while at the same time 

enculturating the listener into the world of sport (Bennett, 

1993). Storytelling also provides the storyteller/teacher with 

an opportunity to engage in a process of renewal of ideals 

and values (Bennett, 1993). Stories that illustrate such 

performance principles as character and sportspersonship 

(moral reasoning and ethical decision making), attitude, 

confidence, courage, composure, concentration, and 

commitment can be very inspiring and educational for those 

who aspire to achieve performance excellence in sport. The 

specific objectives of this workshop are to: (I) create an 

awareness of the educational significance and impact of 

sport storytelling; and (2) provide examples of sport specific 

or related stories that can serve to illustrate sport psychology 

performance principles. Small group interactions will 

provide workshop participants with the opportunity to relate 

stories to one another that illustrate the value and 

effectiveness of sport psychology as a performance 

enhancing discipline.

Author Index 

A 

Abrams, Mitch 101 

Albaugh, Glen 101 

Albinson, Courtney B. 81 

Alfermann, Dorothee 60 

Amenabar, Benat 69 

Amirault, Kimberley 107 

Anshel, Mark H. 15, 16,30,31 

Antoniazzi, Mark 5,6 

Aoyagi, Mark W. 66, 68 

Appleby, Karen M. 80 

Araratyan, Armine 99 

Arruza, Jose 69 

Arthurs, Lisa 37 

Ashe, Diane Davis 44 

Avanesyan, Grant 91, 99 

Aziz, Shaharudin Abd. 33, 34 

Azurza, Alfonso 69 

B 

Babiak, B 59 

Babkes, Megan 57 

Balague, Gloria 40,69, 106 

Balaguer, Isabel 70 

Barnes, Kelly A. 44 

Barott, James E. 77 

Beatie, Brigham R. 99 

Beaulieu, Nicole S. 19,21 

Beck, Neils C. 18, 19,44, 109 

Beedie, Christopher J. 67 

Behrman, Alan 99 

Bekoyan, Trdat 99 

Bell, Carolyn Valone 109 

Bengochea, Enrique Garcia 41 

Bernhardt, John 72 

Bernhardt, Paul 70, 71 

Bernuth, Chris D. 18 

Biddle, Suart J. H. 52 

Bindarwish, Jamal 28, 29 

Bisschop, Sean 5, 6 

Blom, Linsey C. 82 

Bloom, Gordon A. 46 

Bock, Susan 96 

113 

Bonewitz, Stanley 86 

Bottamini, Gina 62 

Botterill, Cal 2 

Brack, Rolf 93 

Brady, Kellie 75 

Branum-Martin, Lee 49, 68 

Brazelton, Elizabeth 99 

Brewer, Britton W. 16, 17, 100 

BruneI, Philippe C. 56 

Brustad, Robert J. 11, 12,39 

Bryner, Randy 79 

Buceta, Jose 10 

Buesch, Dirk 93 

Bundy, Gary 75 

Burd, Kristi 86 

Burke, Kevin L. 40, 66, 68, 82 

Burrell, Clare 8 

Burton, Damon 37, 110 

Butler, Richard J. 87 

Butryn, Ted M. 24, 25, 50 

Butt, Joanne 43,61 

C 

Callaghan, John 58 

Callow, Nichola 12,31,32 

Cardinal, Bradley J. 77, 78 

Carron, Albert V. 26, 27,45, 106 

Chang, Duk-Sun 72 

Chantal, Yves 56 

Chase, Melissa A. 1, 2 

Cherubini, Jeffrey M. 75, 104 

Cheung, Helen 96 

Chi, Likang 14 

Chirby, Brenna L. 65 

Chuo, Kuo-Hsiung 46 

Ciambrone, Jordan T. 58 

Claspell, Emily 107 

Cline, Tim 110 

Coady, Catherine 16, 17 

Cockshott, Ranall 66 

Cogan, Karen D. 103 

Cohen, Alex 28, 29 

Collet, Lisa A. 75


Collins, David J. 8 

Collins, Karen E. 89, 101 

Colman, Michelle M. 26, 45, 106 

Comper, Paul 5, 6 

Conroy, David E. 58 

Cornelius, Allen E. 16, 17, 51, 94 

Cote, Jean 52 

Cottle, Sandy 75 

Covassin, Tracey 105 

Cox, Anne E. 54 

Cox, Richard H. 18, 19,44,50,87,89 

Craig 13 

Cremades, J.G. 48 

Crespo, Miguel 70 

Cumming, Jennifer 54 

Cumming, Sean 55 

Curry, Lewis A. 56 

Cusimano, Kim 108 

Czech, Dan 24, 25 

Czesniuk, Dave 39 

D 

Da Costa, Deborah 65 

Dacey, Marie 49 

Dale, Gregory A. 39, 104 

Daley, Amanda J. 67 

Davis, Jevon 108 

Davis, Paul 2, 3 

Daw, Jessica L. 73 

De Vries, Steven 33, 34 

Deaner, Heather 45 

DeFrancesco, Charmaine 92 

Deklaj, Tom 5 

Detling, Nicole J. 71, 72 

Dieffenbach, Kristen 10, 11, 21, 22 

Diehl, Nancy S. 100 

Ditmar, Terry D. 16, 17 

Doell, Kelly 37, 98 

Donnelly, Peter 5 

Driscoll, Dawson L. 76 

Dritsa, Maria 65 

Drury, Leith 19,20, 110 

Duda, Joan L. 34, 56, 69, 70, 72 

Duffy, Donna 102 

Dunlap, Eric 37,85 

Dunn, John G. H. 53, 84 

Durand-Bush, Natalie 53, 98 

114 I 

E 

Ebbeck, Vicki 88 

Edwards, Tara 31 

Egan, Brent M. 100 

Englund, Anna-Karin 97 

Erickson, Paul 86 

Eslinger, Oliver W. 83 

Estabrooks, Paul 46 

Etzel, Edward 79, 106 

Evans, Lynne 31, 32 

Ewing, Martha 55 

Eys, Mark A. 26 

F 

Fallon, Elizabeth A. 62, 86, 96 

Fazio, Robert J. 107 

Fazzano, Catalina 41 

Feltz, Deborah L. 55 

Fenilli, Albert 38 

Fifield, Sarah 92 

Finch, Laura M. 54, 74 

Fink, Christina 10, 11 

Finley, Diane L. 38 

Finnie, Stephen B. 9 

Fisher, Leslee A. 7, 8, 24 

Fitzpatrick, John M. 74 

Fletcher, Richard 46 

Fletcher, Teresa B. 108 

Fodor, Daniel 90 

Foore, Brady 57 

Foret, Kristi 59 

Forsyth, Darryl K. 92 

Foster, Sandra 103, 106, 110 

Franklin, Tammy 83 

Fraser, Jessica 37 

Frehlich, Shane G. 48 

Freigang, Dan 110 

Frey, Melinda Frey 94 

Friend, Louise 37 

Fritzenberg, Martin 57 

Fry, Mary 70 

G 

Galipeau, James 37 

Gallant, Tanya 61 

Gammage, Kimberley L. 12, 13, 71 

Gano-Overway, Lori 55 

Gardner, Douglas 107

Gardner, Frank L. 83, 104, 107, 111 

Gardner, Rebecca Ellis 65,81 

Gentner, Noah 24 

Giacobbi, Peter R. 22, 23, 57, 75, 96 

Giesenow, Carlos 38, 68 

Giges, Burt 38, 103 

Gilbert, Jenelle N. 60, 99 

Gilbert, Wade 52, 60, 75, 84 

Gill, Diane L. 89 

Giscafre, Nelly 38, 68 

Giske, Rune 6 

Glass, Jennifer J. 73 

Gordin, Rich 102 

Goss, Judy D. 59 

Gould, DaniellO, 21, 22, 106 

Gray, Shannon 92 

Gray, Tinker 16, 17 

Graydon, Jan 87 

Green, Lance B. 83, 93, 94 

Green, Robin 5, 6 

Greenleaf, Christy 88 

Greenlees, lain 87 

Grevorgyan, Karapet 48 

Gribble, Mark 96 

Griffin, Joy 105, 107 

Guivernau, Marta 33,34,69 

H 

Haase, A. M. 30 

Haberl, Peter 53 

Hacker, Colleen 103 

Hagan, Amy L. 72 

Hagemann, Norbert 93 

Haider, Natalie 96 

Hale, Bruce D. 7, 8, 107 

Hall, Craig R. 12, 13,54, 71, 80, 95, 96 

Hall, Howard K. 56 

Hall, Ruth 107 

Halleckson, Kelly 44 

Hamilton, Ryan 61, 79 

Hammermeister, Jon 49, 110 

Hankes, Douglas M. 3 

Hanna, Jennifer M. 95 

Hanrahan, Stephanie J. 103 

Hanson, Tom 110 

Hanton, Sheldon 43 

Hardy, Charles J. 68, 82 

Hardy, James 95 

115 

200J Conference Proceedings-Author Jndex 

Harrison, Sherry 106 

Harwood, Chris 43 

Hausenblas, Heather A. 62, 65, 72, 79, 81, 86, 96 

Hauw, Nicolas 56 

Hays, Kate 103 

Hayslip, Bert Jr. 85 

Headley, E. 6 

Heil, John 49,68 

Henschen, Keith P. 77, 102, 104 

Hill, Jennie 46 

Hill, Tom 45 

Hirschhorn, Doug 45, 60, 106 

Hoar, Sharleen 110 

Hodge, Ken 43 

Hollander, Dan 109 

Holliday, Bernie 110 

Holman, Stacey 99 

Holt, Nicholas L. 53, 84 

Horizonte, Belo 52,61 

Hughes, Daniel C. 49, 62, 68 

Hugie, Dean 80, 91 

Hurley, Kimberly S. 54 

Hurst, Richard 8 

Hutchings, Amy 44 

Hutchinson, Jasmin 28, 29 

Hyllegard, R 59 

I 

Ingalls, Joan 110 

Ivey, Starla 87,89 

J Jacques, Kerry M. 78 

Janelle, Christopher M. 22, 23, 65, 92 

Janssen, Jeff 39 

Johnson, Christina 33 

Johnson, Jay 47 

Johnson, Theresa 28, 29 

Jones, Gretchen M. 85 

Jordet, Geir 6,85 

Jowdy, Douglas P. 37 

Joyner, A. Barry 66, 68, 82 

K 

Kagan, Russ 44 

Kelley, Betty C. 37 

Kellmann, Michael 57 

Kenow, Laura 109 

Kerr, Gretchen 19,20,59


Kilgore, Jennifer 71, 72 

Kim, Chisoo 28, 29 

Kim, Mi-Sook 14,72 

Kimiecik, Jay 102 

Kliber, Amy 87 

Klonsky, Bruce G. 86 

Knight, Betsy J. 1,2,43 

Ko1basovsky, Andrew 51 

Kontos, Anthony P. 59 

Kozub, Stephen A. 76 

Kozuma, Yoichi 14, 15 

Krane, Vikki 11 

Kristman, Vicki 5 

Krushell, Robert J. 16, 17 

Ku1ikov, Nicole 52 

Kyungpook, Jingu Kim 48 

L 

Lacey, Kathryn 43 

Lai, Christopher 67 

Lally, Brendan 110 

Lambert, B. 59 

Lamontagne, Alex 37 

Lane, Andrew 67 

Lantz, Christopher D. 8 

Lauridsen, Kaare 6, 7 

Lawrence, Suzanne Malia 90 

Leal, Josh 44 

Lee, Ansu 102 

Lee, Bervyn P. H. 30 

Lee, Jay T. 49, 68 

Lee, Jennifer 75 

Lemyre, P. Nicolas 55 

Lerner, Bart 107 

Levy, Susan S. 78 

Lewis, Leo 98 

Limoges, Robert 110 

Livesley, Kelly 2 

Lloyd, Rebecca 94 

Lochbaum, Marc 86 

Loehr, James E. 15 

Loughead, Todd M. 26, 27, 45 

Lowensteyn, Ilka 65 

Lu, Frank Jing-Horng 46,53,80,90 

Lucey, Allison B. 89 

116 

M 

MacDougall, Mike 61 

Mack, Diane E. 46 

MacNeill, Karen 82, 107 

Maddalozzo, Gianni F. 77 

Madison, James K. 56 

Magyar, T. Michelle 55 

Mainwaring, Lynda 4,5,6,97 

Maniar, Sameep D. 34, 35 

Mannion, Joseph M. 82 

Manzo, Luis G. 109, 110 

Marshall, Brian A. 93 

Marshall, David E. 47, 93 

Martens, Matthew P. 18,34,35,44,87,89 

Martin, Jeffrey J. 87 

Martin, Scott 3, 4 

Martinek, Thomas 102 

Marvin, Kristin 37 

Matsumoto, Hiroshi 78 

Maynard, Ian 67, 95, 97 

McArdle, Siobhan 56 

McCann, Peggy S. 74 

McCann, Sean 107 

McCarroll, Natasha 43 

McCarthy, Jamie 75 

McCarthy, John 76 

McDonald, Judith 96 

McGraw, Ted 24 

McGuire, Rick 18 

McMaster, Melissa 24,25 

Medberry, Russell 10, 11,50, 101 

Meis, John K. 81 

Mellalieu, Stephen D. 96 

Melo, B. 6 

Mesagno, Christopher 75,92 

Meston, Jean Thayer 105 

Metti, Marlene E. 77 

Metzler, Jonathan N. 37,58, 71 

Meyer, Barbara B. 95 

Miller, Blake W. 6, 7 

Miller, Patricia S. 19,20,60 

Moaner, Douglas J. 98 

Moffett, Aaron 21 

Monsouri, Hossein 30, 31 

Moore, Bill 40 

Moore, ZelIa E. 104, III 

Moraes, Luiz Carlos 52, 61 

Morawski, Cynthia 60

Moreno, Yolanda 70 

Morey, Joanna 79 

Morrow, Richard G. 89 

Morrow, Ronald G. 105 

Mourthe, Katya 61 

Mrazek, Mike 44 

Munroe, Krista J. 12, 13,46,50,80 

Myers, Joy 108 

N 

Naoi, Airi 83 

Naus, Mary J. 62 

Naylor, Adam H. 102 

Naylor, Sarah 39, 110 

Newburg, Doug 2, 98 

Newcomer, R. Renee 16, 18 

Newton, Maria 70, 71, 72 

Nichol, David 86 

Nideffer, Robert 40, 102 

Nieh, Joe Chiao-Ling 53 

Niehaus, Michelle L. 86 

o O'Sullivan, Tracey 53 

O'Connor, Edmund A. Jr. 9, 51 

Ogelsby, Carole A. 47, 75, 103, 105 

Oka, Koichiro 78 

Oliver, Rachel 95 

Ommundsen, Yngvar 55 

Orlando, Lisa 73 

Ormsby, Peter 28, 29 

Ostrow, Andrew 74, 79, 106 

Ottley, Margaret 47, 107 

Owens, R. G. 30 

p 

Palmer, Charles G. 56 

Palmi, John 97 

Pargman, David 66 

Partridge, Julie A. 39 

Patel, Ashwin 24, 25 

Pates, John 95, 97 

Pauline, Jeffrey 79 

Pease, Dale G. 49, 68 

Pensgaard, Anne Marte 72 

Perna, Frank M. 9, 10, 16, 18, 79 

Perritt, Nicole 43 

Peters, Heather J. 89 

Petersen, Gregory 9, 10 

117 i 

2001 Conference Proceedings-Author Index 

Peterson, Kirsten 3, 4, 103, 106, 107 

Petitpas, Albert J. 16, 17, 38 

Petrie, TrentA. 81,85,106 

Ploszay, A. J. 98 

Poczwardowski, Artur 40, 77 

Pohlman, Mark H. 16, 17 

Portenga, Steve 19,45,87,89 

Porter, Kay 106 

Prapavessis, Harry 30 

Provvidenza, Christine 4,5,97 

Puente, Rogelio 91 

Pyo, Nae-Sook 14 

R 

Rabelo, Andre Scotti 52 

Radaker, Kyle 102 

RadIo, S.J. 59 

Raedeke, Thomas D. 73 

Ram, Nilam 47 

Ramsay, B. 79 

Ranieri, Jim 66 

Rea, Sean 37 

Reardon, Gerald 16, 17 

Reel, Justine J. 3,4,90, 106, 109 

Rees, Tim 81 

Reger, William 79 

Reinboth, Michael 70 

Rhea, Deborah J. 7, 8 

Rice, Leana 84 

Richards, Doug 5, 6 

Richburg, Melanie 108 

Riley, Devin 75 

Robbins, Jamie 104 

Roberts, Glyn C. 55, 70, 73 

Robinson, Mark D. 91 

Rodgers, Wendy M. 71, 80 

Roper, Emily 24 

Rose, Debra J. 88 

Rosenkranz, Sara 46 

Rubin, Tova R. 105 

Ruma, Sarah 56 

S 

Sabiston, Catherine 50 

Sachs, Michael L. 7,40, 75, 106 

Sacks, David 28, 29 

Safai, P. 4 

Safai, Parissa 5


Salmela, John H. 52, 61 

Sandberg, Jerry C. 83, 93, 94 

Sandstedt, Scott D. 19,87,89 

Savis, Jacqueline 41, 86, 96 

Scherzer, Carrie B. 78, 84, 107 

Schneider, Laura F. 73 

Schrader, Diana C. 40 

Schultz, Allison M. 88, 89 

Scott, David 61, 75, 79 

Sealy, Paul 37 

Sellars, Christopher N. 52 

Shambrook, Chris 54 

Shaw, Keiba 74 

Shelbourne, K. Donald 16, 17 

Shelley, Greg A. 76 

Shepherd, David 27, 28 

Shepperd, James A. 79 

Shrives, Laura 76 

Silva, John M. 37, 71 

Sime, Wesley E. 39,41 

Singer, Robert N. 22, 23, 92, 106 

Sklar, Joseph H. 16, 17 

Smith, Alan L. 73 

Smith, Aynsley 9 

Smith, Brett 81 

Smith, Daniel 27, 28 

Smith, David 7, 8 

Soberlak, Peter 52 

Solomon, Gloria B. 108 

Sordoni, Carla A. 12, 13, 54 

Soulard, Amilie 98 

Sparkes, Andrew 81 

Spino, Michael P. 97 

Stanish, WilliamD.16, 17 

Starek, Joanna 47 

Statler, Traci 102 

Staudt, Jason 86 

Stefanek, Kevin 55 

Ste-Marie, Diane M. 62 

Stephens, Dawn E. 33, 34 

Stevenson, Lai Fook Fatt 27 

Straub, William F. 97 

Strauss, Bernd 93 

Stream, William B. 41, 110 

Suematsu, Yoshiko 97 

Sullivan, Michael J. L. 16, 17 

Sverduk, Kevin 101, 105 

Symons Downs, Danielle 62, 79, 92 

118 

T 

Takenaka, Koji 78 

Tammen, Vance 44 

Taylor, Jim 30, 31, 106, 107, 108 

Taylor, Marcus K. 103 

Taylor, Tanya 61, 75 

Telletxea, Saioa 69 

Tenenbaum, Gershon 28, 66 

Thelwell, Richard C. 87 

Thompson, Kim 53 

Tietjens, Maike 89 

Tracey, Jill 69 

Trdat, Bekoyan 91 

Tremayne, Patsy 96 

Tripp, Dean A. 16, 17 

Trudel, Pierre 98 

Tuffey, Susan 106 

U 

Udry, Eileen 16, 17 

Ullrich-French, Sarah 73 

Unestahl, Lars-Eric 97 

V 

Van Raalte, Judy L. 16, 17, 106 

Vealey, Robin S. 1,2 

Vernacchia, Ralph 40, 104, 111 

Vianna, Newton Santos, Jr. 61 

Vitullo, Elizabeth 4, 5 

Voight, Mike R. 58, 105 

W 

Walker, Beverly M. 30 

Walker, Earl E. Jr. 83 

WaIver, M. 59 

Wann, Daniel L. 45 

Ward, D. Gant 19,50,87,89 

Watson, Jack C. II 28, 29, 34, 35, 106 

Webb, Heather 109 

Webber, Nicole S. 40, 45,87,89 

Webber, S. Nicole 18 

Weinberg, Robert S. 43, 57, 61 

Weiss, Garth W. 15, 16 

Weston, Neil J. V. 87 

Whaley, Diane E. 54 

White, Alison 31, 32 

Wickwire, Tamara L. 46 

Wiggins, Matthew S. 67, 77 

Wightman, Patricia 68

Wightmann, Patricia 38 

Wilkinson, Hiedi 46 

Williams, Brad 1, 2 

Williams, Jean M. 78, 84, 89, 106 

Williams, Lavon 11, 12 

Willow, Jason P. 58 

Wilson, Clare 107 

Wilson, Keith A. 38 

Wilson, Marcia 107 

Wilson, Philip M. 71, 80 

Wininger, Steven R. 65, 66 

Wuerth, Sabine 60 

119 

y 

Yen, Ang 27, 28 

2001 Conference Proceedings Author Index 

Z 

Zaichkowsky, Leonard 53, 102 

Zhang, Zhong Qui 14, 15 

Zizzi, Samuel J. 83, 102, 107

2001 - Bowling Green State University

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