A Self-Healing Conductive Ink - Paul Braun Research Group ...
A Self-Healing Conductive Ink - Paul Braun Research Group ...
A Self-Healing Conductive Ink - Paul Braun Research Group ...
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Vol. 24 No. 19 May 15 2012<br />
www.advmat.de<br />
D10488
www.MaterialsViews.com<br />
A <strong>Self</strong>-healing <strong>Conductive</strong> <strong>Ink</strong><br />
Susan A. Odom , Sarut Chayanupatkul , Benjamin J. Blaiszik , Ou Zhao , Aaron C.<br />
<strong>Paul</strong> V. <strong>Braun</strong> , Nancy R. Sottos , Scott R. White , * and Jeffrey S. Moore *<br />
The mechanical durability of conductive materials affects the<br />
performance and lifetimes of devices ranging from electrical<br />
circuits to battery electrode materials. Mismatches in thermal<br />
expansion coeffi cient, Young’s modulus, and Poisson’s ratio<br />
between the conductive materials and packaging materials in<br />
integrated circuits lead to delaminations and fractures both<br />
within conductive pathways and at interconnects.<br />
Dr. S. A. Odom , O. Zhao , Prof. J. S. Moore<br />
Department of Chemistry<br />
Beckman Institute for Advanced Science & Technology<br />
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign<br />
405 N. Mathews Ave. Urbana, IL 61801, USA<br />
E-mail: jsmoore@illinois.edu<br />
S. Chayanupatkul , B. J. Blaiszik , A. C. Jackson ,<br />
Prof. P. V. <strong>Braun</strong> , Prof. N. R. Sottos<br />
Department of Materials Science & Engineering<br />
Beckman Institute for Advanced Science & Technology<br />
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign<br />
405 N. Mathews Ave. Urbana, IL 61801, USA<br />
Prof. S. R. White<br />
Department of Aerospace Engineering<br />
Beckman Institute for Advanced Science & Technology<br />
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign<br />
405 N. Mathews Ave. Urbana, IL 61801, USA<br />
E-mail: swhite@illinois.edu<br />
DOI: 10.1002/adma.201200196<br />
[ 1 , 2 ]<br />
Fatigue<br />
causes microcracks that can lead to channeling, debonding, and<br />
failure. [ 3–5 ] The repeated lithiation and delithiation of battery<br />
electrode materials upon charging and discharging contribute<br />
to decreased capacitance due to a loss of interparticle connectivity<br />
and conductivity. [ 6–9 ] Numerous approaches have been<br />
used to design circuits and materials to prevent mechanical<br />
failure, but only a few have focused on restoring conductivity<br />
after mechanical damage.<br />
[ 10–15 ]<br />
Autonomic restoration of electrical conductivity may greatly<br />
extend the lifetime of electronic materials. The greatest opportunity<br />
for signifi cant short-term impact may be in devices<br />
in which human intervention is diffi cult and/or costly. For<br />
example, fault-tolerant computer chips are of interest in space<br />
applications in which fi eld-programmable gate arrays<br />
used to self-diagnose and reroute damaged circuits. Redundant<br />
circuitry and integrated sensing add complexity, weight, and<br />
cost to fault-tolerant designs. In battery materials, longevity is<br />
an important concern limiting applications. Improving battery<br />
longevity by repairing mechanical failures in electrode materials<br />
would require complete disassembly of the battery cell to<br />
achieve repair. We are interested in developing general concepts<br />
to restore conductivity in mechanically damaged electronic<br />
materials without external intervention or relying on back-up<br />
circuits.<br />
Adv. Mater. 2012,<br />
DOI: 10.1002/adma.201200196<br />
[ 16 ]<br />
are<br />
www.advmat.de<br />
Jackson ,<br />
Recent efforts towards the autonomic restoration of conductivity<br />
have focused on delivering conductive materials to the<br />
site of damage from core–shell microcapsules. [ 10–12 ] Release<br />
of conductive materials has been demonstrated using microcapsules<br />
containing a suspension of conductive carbon nanotubes,<br />
[ 10 ] solutions of precursors to a conductive charge transfer<br />
salt, [ 11 ] and liquid metal alloys. [ 12 ] Conductivity restoration was<br />
demonstrated by manual delivery of core solutions to simulated<br />
cracks [ 11 ] or autonomic delivery to a cracked circuit. [ 12 ] In<br />
this paper, we report a new approach for self-healing: instead<br />
of releasing conductive materials from microcapsules, we utilize<br />
the conductive particles from the conductive ink itself to<br />
heal damage through subsequent particle redistribution. Upon<br />
mechanical damage, solvent released from microcapsules locally<br />
dissolves the polymer binder of the conductive ink, allowing for<br />
particle redistribution and restoration of conductivity upon solvent<br />
evaporation ( Figure 1 a–c).<br />
<strong>Conductive</strong> inks are a mixture of conductive particles,<br />
poly mer binders, and dispersing solvents, and they have been<br />
used in the metallization of microcircuits, [ 17 ] solar cells, [ 18 ] large<br />
area electronic structures, [ 19 ] and solder for microelectronics<br />
packages. [ 20 ] More recently, conductive inks have been used to<br />
print fl exible silver microelectrodes, [ 21 ] circuits on curvilinear<br />
surfaces, [ 22 ] and conductive text, electronic art, and 3D antennas<br />
on paper. [ 23 ] With direct screen printing, [ 24 ] ink-jet printing, [ 25 ]<br />
dip-pen nanolithography, [ 26 ] e-jet printing, [ 27 ] and direct<br />
writing, [ 28 ] many traditional processing steps can be eliminated,<br />
including the use of photoresists and etching. Metallic particles<br />
and polymer binder are usually mixed with one or more solvents<br />
that dissolve the polymer binder. We envisioned a healing<br />
concept where the polymer binder remains soluble after circuit<br />
deposition and the conductive components could subsequently<br />
redistribute upon contact with appropriate solvents. Here we<br />
demonstrate that encapsulated solvent delivered to particle/<br />
binder circuits autonomically restores conductivity to mechanically<br />
damaged conductive inks, and that circuits with lines<br />
spaced 200–500 μ m apart do not short circuit during the restoration<br />
process.<br />
We fi rst explored the response of mechanically damaged<br />
conductive inks to a variety of solvents. <strong>Ink</strong>s consisted of silver<br />
particles in a acrylic binder, deposited as lines, on a glass substrate.<br />
Scratching these lines resulted in a complete loss of electrical<br />
conductivity. Subsequently, a drop of solvent was applied<br />
to the scratched region. After solvent evaporation, conductivity<br />
was restored for a subset of the solvents screened. Conductivity<br />
restoration occurrs with a variety of organic solvents that<br />
dissolve the polymer binder of the conductive ink including<br />
xylenes, chlorobenzene, ethyl phenylacetate, and hexyl acetate.<br />
Optical microscopy images of a line of conductive ink before<br />
and after solvent healing ( Figure 2 a and b) demonstrate the<br />
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Figure 1 . Representation of self-healing silver particle sample a) before damage, b) immediately<br />
after damage, showing solvent release from microcapsules, and c) after healing, where<br />
the majority of solvent has evaporated. d) 3D representation of sample used for scratch testing.<br />
e) Top and f) side geometries of samples with dimensions shown. (Samples are not not drawn<br />
to scale.)<br />
Figure 2 . Characterization of conductive ink and microcapsules. Optical micrograph of<br />
scratched silver ink circuits on a glass slide a) before damage and b) after a drop of solvent<br />
was added to the scratch and was allowed to evaporate. c) SEM image of polyurea/polyurea–<br />
formaldehyde (PU/PUF) microcapsules containing hexyl acetate with average diameter of<br />
192 μ m. d) SEM image of silver particles from the commercially available conductive ink.<br />
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ability of solvent to enable reorganization of<br />
the conductive particles. In the healed line, a<br />
scar from the original scratch is visible, yet<br />
an intact conductive pathway was formed.<br />
To extend these screening tests to a fully<br />
autonomic healing system, we included coreshell<br />
microcapsules ( Figure 2 c and Supporting<br />
Information (SI), Figure S1a) to supply solvent<br />
to the conductive ink (see conductive ink<br />
particles in Figure 2 d). Our design consists<br />
of silver particle ink lines deposited onto a<br />
plastic substrate with solvent-fi lled microcapsules<br />
incorporated into a polyurethane layer<br />
deposited atop the silver ink line ( Figure 1 a).<br />
Failure of the circuit via mechanical damage<br />
simultaneously releases solvent from the<br />
microcapsules ( Figure 1 b). By the mechanism<br />
described in the screening tests, released<br />
solvent locally dissolves the poly mer binder,<br />
allowing the immobilized silver particles to<br />
redistribute and form a connected pathway<br />
once the solvent evaporates ( Figure 1 c), thus<br />
restoring electrical conductivity.<br />
We previously reported the preparation<br />
of hexyl acetate microcapsules [ 29 ] and chose<br />
to use this solvent because of its lower toxicity<br />
and affi nity to dissolve the polymeric<br />
binder. We used a procedure optimized for<br />
solvent encapsulation [ 30 ] to prepare the capsules<br />
for this application. After fi ltration and<br />
drying, we sieved the capsules to isolate those<br />
ranging from 180–250 μ m in diameter. The<br />
polyurethane layer, which is deposited over<br />
the ink line, contained hexyl acetate microcapsules<br />
for self-healing specimens or, as a<br />
control, no microcapsules (see Figure 1 d–f<br />
for substrate geometry).<br />
To measure conductivity during damage<br />
and in the initial minutes after damage, we<br />
connected the silver ink line to a Wheatstone<br />
bridge via lead wires. For testing over hours<br />
or days, we measured the resistance using<br />
an ohmmeter. We used scratch damage to<br />
approximate stress-induced cracking. To<br />
mechanically damage the samples, a razor<br />
blade was used to apply scratches to the circuits,<br />
causing all samples to fail electrically.<br />
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis<br />
(SI, Figure S3) shows that the scratch<br />
extends through the conductive ink and into<br />
the underlying plastic substrate. For concentrations<br />
of capsules in the polyurethane layer<br />
between 10 and 30 wt%, a decrease in sample<br />
resistance was observed within 1–10 min<br />
( Figure 3 a and SI, Figure S4). None of the<br />
control samples without microcapsules<br />
regained conductivity. We tested the conductivity<br />
restoration when the voltage was<br />
not actively monitored, and we found that<br />
Adv. Mater. 2012,<br />
DOI: 10.1002/adma.201200196
www.MaterialsViews.com<br />
Figure 3 . Conductivity response for conductive ink samples. a) Normalized<br />
bridge voltage ( V norm ) vs. time for a healing sample containing 30 wt%<br />
microcapsules and a control sample with no microcapsules. Scratch applied<br />
at time t = 20 s. b) Resistance of circuits prior to damage, 5 min after damage,<br />
1 h after damage, and 1 week after damage. c) Percent of healed samples<br />
vs. wt% of microcapsules incorporated into the polyurethane healing layer.<br />
(<strong>Healing</strong> is defi ned as having a normalized bridge voltage of 0.8 or higher.)<br />
Adv. Mater. 2012,<br />
DOI: 10.1002/adma.201200196<br />
© 2012 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim<br />
www.advmat.de<br />
conductivity was restored, whether or not a voltage source was<br />
applied during the healing process.<br />
Although samples containing microcapsules healed within<br />
one hour of the damage event, the process of conductivity restoration<br />
continued on a longer time scale. Therefore, we monitored<br />
the circuit resistance over several days, and the resistance<br />
remained constant after ca. one week. For a representative<br />
sample set ( Figure 3 b), the average resistance of 1.45 Ω after<br />
one week is similar to the original resistance of 0.95 Ω . We<br />
presume the continued repair process is due to continued solvent<br />
evaporation, leading to increased interparticle contact. In<br />
contrast, after one week, the control sample (no microcapsules)<br />
showed no evidence of conductivity restoration.<br />
We investigated the effect of microcapsule concentration in<br />
the polyurethane layer on the percentage of samples in which<br />
conductivity was restored. Initial testing described above was<br />
performed with 30 wt% hexyl acetate capsules, and resulted<br />
restoration in almost 90% of the samples, which we defi ned<br />
as recovery of over 80% of original bridge voltage during initial<br />
testing (within 10 min). At lower capsule concentrations, a<br />
decrease was observed in the percentage of samples in which<br />
a change in resistance occurred ( Figure 3 c), suggesting that<br />
within the tested range of capsule loadings, increased solvent<br />
delivery facilitates the healing process.<br />
Additionally, we monitored adjacent ink lines for short circuits.<br />
We prepared an additional sample type in which a series<br />
of parallel lines with 200–500 μ m separation distance. Simultaneous<br />
scratch damage of these lines initiated loss of conductivity,<br />
and subsequent conductivity restoration of the primary<br />
conductive pathway. However, of the 50 samples tested we did<br />
not observe electrical conduction between neighboring lines.<br />
While this value is larger than those reported in recent printed<br />
conductive ink circuits, which have separation distances of<br />
5–10 μ m, [ 21 ] it is important that at our larger distances do not<br />
result in short circuiting.<br />
In conclusion, we showed that solvent-fi lled microcapsules<br />
autonomically restore conductivity to lines of a conductive<br />
silver ink after scratch damage. Optical microscopy revealed<br />
that the relatively large gaps (ca. 25 μ m) in the conductive ink<br />
are bridged by the reorganized silver particles. We found that a<br />
higher concentration of microcapsules leads to greater percent<br />
of samples that undergo conductivity restoration. It may be possible<br />
to achieve greater success in sample healing by optimizing<br />
the capsule size and volume of solvent released to the damaged<br />
area, and also by varying solvents to change polymer binder solubility<br />
and/or solvent volatility. This result represents the fi rst<br />
example of a self-healing circuit in which the circuit material<br />
itself is used to repair damage. In addition to potential applications<br />
in integrated circuits, a solvent-healing mechanism could<br />
conceivably restore such capacity losses in electrodes fabricated<br />
from a soluble binder. Our system does not require rerouting<br />
to back-up circuitry and does not cause short-circuiting upon<br />
healing. Our result provides a new concept for the realization of<br />
fault-tolerant circuits.<br />
Experimental Section<br />
Silver ink circuits were prepared using SPI <strong>Conductive</strong> silver paint, which<br />
was painted onto acrylic substrates. Acrylic substrates were cut from a clear<br />
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cast acrylic sheet 0.15 cm thick, purchased from McMaster-Carr, catalog<br />
number 8560K175. Clear Flex 50, a two-part polyurethane elastomer,<br />
was purchased from Smooth On, Inc. Hexyl acetate, urea, resorcinol,<br />
and formalin were purchased from Aldrich Chemical Co. Ethylene-maleic<br />
anhydride copolymer (Zemac-400) powder with an average molecular<br />
weight of 400 kDa (Vertellus) was used as a 2.5 wt% aqueous solution.<br />
The commercial polyurethane prepolymer, Desmodur L75, was purchased<br />
from Bayer Material Science and was used as received.<br />
Microcapsule Preparation : Microcapsules were prepared with slight<br />
modifi cations using our previously published procedures .<br />
wileyonlinelibrary.com<br />
[ 29 , 30 ]<br />
Similarly,<br />
100 mL of distilled water was placed in a 600 mL beaker, along with<br />
25 mL of 2.5 wt% ethylene co-maleic anhydride as a surfactant. The<br />
beaker was placed in a temperature-controlled water bath equipped<br />
with a mechanical stirring blade (40 mm diameter), which was brought<br />
to 400 rpm. To the aqueous solution was added the solid wall-forming<br />
materials: urea (2.50 g), ammonium chloride (0.25 g), and resorcinol<br />
(0.25 g). Afterward, the pH was raised from 2.7 to 3.5 by addition of<br />
NaOH (aq). Desmodur L75 (4 g) in hexyl acetate (60 mL) was added<br />
to the stirring solution, creating an emulsion. After 10 min, 6.33 g of<br />
formalin solution was added, and the temperature was increased to<br />
55 ºC. The reaction proceeded under continuous stirring for 4 h after<br />
which the reaction mixture was allowed to cool to room temperature.<br />
The microcapsules were fi ltered the next day using a Buchner funnel,<br />
washing with water, and were dried under air for 24 h before sieving.<br />
Microcapsule Analysis : After isolation via fi lteration, microcapsules were<br />
sieved to collect those with diameters ranging from 125–180 μ m. Optical<br />
micrographs of dried capsules in mineral oil on glass slides were taken<br />
using a Leica DMR Optical Microscope. Images of dried capsules were<br />
obtained using SEM (FEI/Philips XL30 ESEM-FEG) after sputter coating<br />
with a gold-palladium source. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was<br />
performed on a Mettler-Toledo TGA851 e , calibrated by indium, aluminum,<br />
and zinc standards. A heating rate of 10 ºC min − 1 was used, and<br />
experiments were performed under nitrogen atmosphere from 25–450 ºC.<br />
For each experiment, approximately 5 mg of sample was used.<br />
Wheatstone Bridge Circuit : The conductive metal in each specimen<br />
acts as one resistor in an unbalanced constant voltage Wheatstone<br />
Bridge circuit. The voltage source is a BK Precision DC Power Supply<br />
(model 1710). The voltage gauge and voltage source are monitored by<br />
LabVIEW DAQ. Scratch damage was applied using a Corrocutter with<br />
razor blades at forces ranging from 28–30 N. A new razor blade was<br />
used for each measurement to ensure consistency in the integrity of the<br />
blade for each sample.<br />
Circuit Fabrication : Each circuit was 3 mm wide and ranged from<br />
20–50 μ m in thickness, as measured by profi lometry. Each test sample<br />
contained three circuits to allow for testing of multiple samples at at<br />
the same time. Using a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) mold, a 1 mm<br />
thick fi lm of polyurethane elastomer containing 0, 10, 20, or 30 wt%<br />
microcapsules was deposited on top of the silver particle circuits. Wires<br />
were then attached to the circuits using copper pads and solder.<br />
Sample Imaging : To obtain cross-sectional images, a diamond saw was<br />
used to cut thin slices of the circuits; our cuts were made perpendicular<br />
to the direction in which the scratch was applied. The samples were<br />
analyzed by SEM with analysis in refl ectance mode. Not only are the<br />
conductive ink and capsule-containing polyurethane damaged, but the<br />
scratch also extends into the supporting polymer substrate.<br />
Supporting Information<br />
Supporting Information is available from the Wiley Online Library or<br />
from the author.<br />
Received: January 13, 2012<br />
Published online:<br />
© 2012 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim<br />
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Adv. Mater. 2012,<br />
DOI: 10.1002/adma.201200196