european journal of social sciences issn: 1450-2267 - EuroJournals

European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 5, Number 3 (2007) 

EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 

Editor-In-Chief 

John Mylonakis, Hellenic Open University (Tutor) 

ISSN: 1450-2267 

Volume 5, Number 3 

October, 2007 

Editorial Advisory Board 

Leo V. Ryan, DePaul University 

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John Mylonakis, Hellenic Open University (Tutor) 

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European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 5, Number 3 (2007)� 

European Journal of Social Sciences 

Volume 5, Number 3 

October, 2007 

Contents 

Women as Perpetuators of Domestic Violence in Nigeria: 

Evidence from Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey 2003 .......................................................... 7-21 

Amos O. Oyedokun 

Can’t Come Back and be Siham, the Village Girl I was: 

Hybridity and Identity Facades of Academic Druze Women............................................................ 22-35 

Naomi Levy Weiner 

A Study Measuring the Effect of Pay, Promotion and Training on 

Job Satisfaction in Pakistani Service Industry................................................................................... 36-44 

Babar Zaheer Buttm, Kashif Ur Rehman and Nadeem Safwan 

Student Perceptions of Lecturer Classroom Communication Style .................................................. 45-60 

Lara A. Frumkin and Alan Murphy 

Application of Analytic Network Process in the Enterprise Risk Management: 

An Example of the Selecting Best Operator in the Airport Business................................................ 61-76 

Ayse Kucuk Yilmaz 

The Post-Conflict Educational Establishment of Cyprus: 

Civic Sensibilities within a Divided European Union State.............................................................. 77-87 

James Barbre 

Derived Demand and Human Resource Management: 

An Important Linkage in Organizational Strategy ............................................................................ 88-95 

Robert A. Figler and Steven R. Ash 

Determinant of Innovative Behavior in the Workplace: 

A Case Study of a Malaysian Public Sector Organisation .............................................................. 96-108 

Indra Devi Subramaniam 

Transformational Leadership Style and Information Communication Technology...................... 109-118 

Mojgan Afshari, Kamariah Abu Bakar, Wong Su Luan, Foo Say Fooi and 

Bahaman Abu Samah 

Comparative Study on Performance of Single Pass, 

Double Duct Photovoltaic Thermal Collector with and without CPC .......................................... 119-124 

Ebrahim M. Ali Alfegi, Kamaruzzaman Sopian, Mohd Yusof Hj Othman and 

Baharudin Bin Yatim


Effect of Single Celebrity and Multiple Celebrity Endorsement on 

Low Involvement and High Involvement Product Advertisements .............................................. 125-132 

Ms. Farida Saleem 

Highly Organised Direct Farmers Market: 

Analysis of Forms, Characteristics, Operations and Women Involvement in Japan..................... 133-143 

Sarafat A. Tijani and Izumi Yano


Women as Perpetuators of Domestic Violence in 

Nigeria: Evidence from Nigeria Demographic and 

Health Survey 2003 

Amos O. Oyedokun 

Doctoral Candidate, Demography and Population Studies 

University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa and Assistant Lecturer 

Department of Demography and Social Statistics 

Obafemi Awolowo University, Nigeria 

E-mail: aooyedokun@yahoo.com 

Abstract 

This paper examines the role of women as the perpetuators of domestic violence in Nigeria 

using the Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS) conducted in 2003. Results 

show that most of the independent variables tested were significantly correlated with 

attitudes to wife battering. Also, age and the person having the final say on a woman’s 

health care were significant predictors of women holding on to modern views/ideas about 

wife battering (P


coercive sex. Also, it frequently includes controlling behaviours such as isolating a woman from family 

and friends, monitoring her movements, and restricting her access to resources (Miranda 1994; 

Population Reports 1999). Studies from around the world show that 10% to over 50% of women 

reported being hit or otherwise physically harmed by an intimate male partner at some point in their 

lives (Population Reports 1999; WHO 2006; Xu et al. 2005; Hollander 2005; Parish et al. 2004; Hindin 

2003; Coker et al. 2000; Coker and Richter 1998; Tonelli 2004). 

Worldwide, studies identify a consistent list of events that are said to “trigger” violence and 

these include not obeying husband, talking back, not having food ready on time, failure to care 

adequately for the children or home, questioning about money or girlfriends, going somewhere without 

husband’s permission, refusal to have sex when the husband wants, or expressing suspicions of 

infidelity (Armstrong 1998; Bradley 1985; Gonzalez 1998; Hassan 1995; Jejeebhoy 1998; Michau 

1998; Osakue and Hilber 1998; Schuler et al. 1996; Zimmerman 1995; Verma and Collumbien 2003; 

LLika et al. 2002; Hindin and Adair 2002). All of these constitute transgression of gender norms 

especially in every patriarchal society where women are expected to be seen and never to be heard. The 

situation is not so different in today’s Nigeria in spite of various programmes by civil society 

organisations. 

In many developing countries, women share the notion that men have the right to discipline 

their wives by using force. In rural Egypt, for example, at least 80% of women say that beatings are 

justified under certain circumstances (El-Zanaty et al. 1996) and one of the circumstances that women 

themselves cite is refusing a man sex (Bawah et al. 1999; David and Chin 1998; El-Zanaty et al. 1996; 

Rosales et al. 1999). Refusing a man sex is also one of the reasons women cite most often as triggering 

beatings (Khan et al. 1996; National Sex and Reproduction Research Team and Jenkins 1994; Wood 

and Jewkes 1997; Zimmerman 1995). Studies from as diverse settings as Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, 

Mexico, Papua New Guinea, Zambia and Zimbabwe show that wife abuse is perceived as acceptable 

behaviour and justified as a normal and acceptable part of married life (Schuler et al. 1996; Jejeebhoy 

1998; Abdullah et al. 1995; Glantz and Halperin 1996; Bradley 1988; U.N. 1993; Njovana and Watts 

1996). In contrast, studies pointing to the perceived unacceptability of such behaviour are rare (Choi 

and Edleson 1996). 

Hollander (2005) found that Chinese women whose beliefs and experiences reflect traditional 

norms that limit gender inequality may be at increased risk of being subjected to intimate partner 

violence, and that several factors that suggest adherence to traditional gender roles were associated 

with a woman’s likelihood of reporting intimate partner violence. For example, according to Hollander 

(2005), women who had ever turned down a job because of their partner had elevated odds of reporting 

abuse ever or in the past year, as did women who thought that wife-beating is sometime justified. 

Ahmed (2005) found in a study in Matlab, Bangladesh, that age, schooling, age of household head, and 

self-rated poverty status of household were important predictors of violence. Significant positive 

associations with all forms of violence exist for lack of completion of primary school, history of 

violence exposure in women’s families of orientation either through witnessing violence between 

parents while growing up or direct experience of physical violence perpetrated by family members, 

partner’s jealousy, partner’s need for control, partner’s history of drunkenness, and female-dominated 

financial decision-making according to Gage (2005). Also, neighbourhood poverty and male 

unemployment, number of living children at home, women’s attitudinal acceptance of wife-beating, 

and male-dominated financial decision-making were additional risk factors for sexual violence (Gage 

2005). 

Chen and White (2004) found that earlier problem drinking and negative affect were common 

predictors of perpetration for both men and women; while lower education and parental fighting 

predicted female and female perpetration respectively. Significant risk factors in China according to 

Parish et al. (2004) include sexual jealousy, patriarchal beliefs, low female contribution to household 

income, low male socioeconomic status, alcohol consumption and residence in regions other than the 

8

European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 5, Number 3 (2007)� 

South and Southeast. McCloskey et al. (2005) found that gender inequality within sexual unions is 

associated with intimate partner violence in Tanzania. 

This paper therefore examines the views of women about the acceptability of wife battering 

with the intent of showing that women themselves are the perpetuators of the behaviour in Nigeria. 

Also, that those women with low socioeconomic status in Nigeria are more likely to hold on to 

traditional ideas about wife-beating. 

Data and Methods 

This paper uses the latest of the Demographic and Health Survey in Nigeria. The sample for the 2003 

NDHS was designed to provide estimates of population and health indicators for Nigeria as a whole, 

urban and rural area, and six major subdivisions. A representative probability sample of 7,864 

households was selected for the 2003 NDHS sample. The sample was selected in two stages. In the 

first stage, 365 clusters were selected from a list of enumeration area developed from the 1991 

population census. In the second stage, a complete listing of households was carried out in each 

selected cluster. Households were then systematically selected for participation in the survey. All 

women age 15-49 were eligible to be interviewed if they were either permanent residents or visitors 

present in the household on the night before the survey. The fieldwork for the 2003 NDHS took place 

over a five-month period, from March to August 2003 and twelve interviewing teams carried out the 

data collection. The data entry and editing was completed in September 2003. Of the 7,985 eligible 

women identified, 95 per cent were successfully interviewed. 

Analyses 

The analyses in this paper was done using STATA analytical package and simple descriptive statistics, 

correlation and logistic regression model was used to answer the various questions, objectives and 

hypotheses put up in this paper. Some of the independent variables used in this paper are age, region, 

type of place of residence, childhood place of residence, type of place of previous residence, highest 

educational level, religious affiliation, literacy, frequency of reading newspaper or magazine, 

frequency of listening to radio, frequency of watching television, current marital status, number of 

unions, wealth index, current working status, occupation and other questions relating to gender power 

relation. The dependent variable is a wife battering composite score generated from the responses to 

questions on justification for wife battering and categorised into three basic responses, that is, those 

saying no to wife battering on all counts (modern view/idea), those having mixed view/idea are those 

tolerating wife battering for some of the reasons stated and those with traditional view/idea are those 

justifying wife battering on all the questions put forth in the survey. The questions asked are as 

follows: “Sometimes a husband is annoyed or angered by things that his wife does. In your opinion, is 

a husband justified in hitting or beating his wife in the following situations: If she goes out without 

telling him?, If she neglects the children?, If she argues with him?, If she refuses to have sex with 

him?, If she burns the food?, If food is not cooked on time?”. Six point scales were generated using the 

afore-mentioned questions. A respondent obtain zero if he/she said “no” or “don’t know” to all the six 

questions and six if a respondent said “yes” to all the six questions. 

Multinomial logistics regression is used in this paper because of the nature of the outcome 

variable and the general model is of the form stated below: 

Pw (y|x) = expw.f(x,y)/ Zw(x); where Zw(x) = ∑yexpw.f(x,y) and w is the weight vector 

corresponding to class. 

Multinomial logistic regression model is a generalisation of logistic regression to outcomes 

with more than two categories, and it proceeds by comparing the effect of covariates on the possibility 

of being in each of n-1 categories compared with a baseline category. 

9

Results 

Respondents’ Background Characteristics 


Table 1: A table showing the background characteristics of Nigerian women (NDHS 2003) 

Background Variables Percent (Frequency) 

Age (5-year age group) 

15-19 22.95 (1,749) 

20-24 19.21 (1,464) 

25-29 17.80 (1,356) 

30-34 12.34 (940) 

35-39 10.47 (798) 

40-44 9.12 (695) 

45-49 8.11 (618) 

Total 100.00 (7,620) 

Region 

North-Central 16.48 (1,256) 

North-East 18.54 (1,413) 

North-West 23.50 (1,791) 

South-East 14.19 (1,081) 

South-South 12.31 (938) 

South-West 14.97 (1,141) 

Total 100.00 (7,620) 

Type of Place of Residence 

Urban 40.12 (3,057) 

Rural 59.88 (4,563) 

Total 100.00 (7,620) 

De facto Place of Residence 

Capital/Large City 21.90 (1,669) 

Small City 17.11 (1,304) 

Town 17.97 (1,369) 

Countryside 43.02 (3,278) 

Total 100.00 (7,620) 

Childhood Place of Residence 

City 14.20 (1,080) 

Town 32.87 (2,499) 


Total 100.00 (7,603) 

Type of Place of Previous Residence 

City 21.48 (808) 

Town 33.98 (1,278) 


Total 100.00 (3,761) 

Highest Educational Level 

No Formal Education 39.44 (3,005) 

Primary Education 21.86 (1,666) 

Secondary Education 32.31 (2,462) 

Higher 6.39 (487) 

Total 100.00 (7,620) 

Religious Affiliation 

Catholic 15.25 (1,161) 

Protestants 17.08 (1,300) 

Other Christians 18.69 (1,423) 

Islam/Moslem 47.31 (3,601) 

Traditionalists 1.51 (115) 

Others 0.16 (12) 

Total 100.00 (7,612) 

Literacy 

Can not read at all 48.80 (3,708) 

10


Able to read only parts of a sentence 6.21 (472) 

Able to read a whole sentence 44.27 (3,364) 

No card with required language 0.72 (55) 

Total 100.00 (7,599) 

Current marital status 

Never married 27.39 (2,087) 

Married 65.50 (4,991) 

Living together 2.18 (166) 

Widowed 2.19 (167) 

Divorced 1.59 (121) 

Not living together (separated) 1.15 (88) 

Total 100.00 (7,620) 

Number of Unions 

Once 82.82 (4,556) 

More than once 17.18 (945) 

Total 100.00 (5,501) 

Respondent’s Currently Working? 

No 44.35 (3,370) 

Yes 55.65 (4,228) 

Total 100.00 (7,598) 

Respondent’s Occupation 

Not working/unemployed 42.35 (3,227) 

Professional/Technical/Managerial 4.41 (336) 

Clerical 0.97 (74) 

Sales 30.70 (2,339) 

Agricultural-self employed 13.58 (1,035) 

Household and Domestic 0.81 (22) 

Skilled manual 5.80 (442) 

Unskilled 1.38 (105) 

Total 100.00 (7,620) 

Worked in the last 12 months 

No 42.28 (3,219) 

In the past year 2.18 (166) 

Currently working 55.54 (4,228) 

Total 100.00 (7,613) 

Type of earnings for work 

Not paid 15.23 (666) 

Cash only 72.85 (3,185) 

Cash and Kind 9.61 (420) 

Kind only 2.31 (101) 

Total 100.00 (4,372) 

Wealth Index 

Poorest 19.41 (1,479) 

Poorer 18.36 (1,399) 

Middle 19.82 (1,510) 

Richer 20.26 (1,544) 

Richest 22.15 (1,688) 

Total 100.00 (7,620) 

Frequency of reading newspaper or magazine 

Not at all 76.31 (5,776) 

Less than once a week 11.53 (873) 

At least once a week 9.74 (737) 

Almost everyday 2.42 (183) 

Total 100.00 (7,569) 

Frequency of listening to radio 

Not at all 26.15 (1,989) 

Less than once a week 16.02 (1,218) 

At least once a week 21.89 (1,665) 

Almost everyday 35.94 (2,733) 

11


Total 100.00 (7,605) 

Frequency of watching Television 

Not at all 55.57 (4,231) 

Less than once a week 10.09 (768) 

At least once a week 12.54 (955) 

Almost everyday 21.80 (1,660) 

Total 100.00 (7,614) 

The figures in parentheses are frequencies 

Table 1 reveals that the respondents are relatively young as about 60% are below the age of 30 

and about 17% are 40 years and above. More than half of the respondents live in the rural area 

(59.88%) and reported countryside as their childhood place of residence (52.93%). Forty-five percent 

of the respondents lived previously in the countryside, 34% in towns and 22% in cities. Thirty-nine 

percent of the respondents had no formal education, 22% had primary education, 32.31% had 

secondary education and only 6.39% had beyond secondary education. Majority of the respondents 

were Moslems (47.31%), followed by Christians whether protestants or other Christians (35.77%). 

About half of the respondents are illiterates who can not read at all (48.80%). Sixty-eight percent of 

them were currently married while about 5% were formerly married, and less than a fifth have had 

more than one union in their lifetime (17.18%). Fifty-six percent were currently working at the time of 

the survey with sales as the major occupation (30.70%) followed by agricultural-self employed 

(13.58%). Majority of the women under study work for cash only (72.85%) while only 2.31% received 

their remuneration in kind only. Analysis of the wealth index reveals a somewhat even distribution 

over the five wealth index categories. Twenty-two percent were categorised as falling within the richest 

group, followed by those in the richer category (20.26%), while 18.36% were categorised as belonging 

to the poorer group. Majority of the respondents never read newspaper or magazine (76.31%) with 

only 2.42% reading it almost everyday. About 36% and 22% listen to radio and watch television 

almost everyday respectively. 

12


Table 2: A table showing gender power relation among Nigerian women (NDHS 2003) 

Gender Power Relation Percent (Frequency) 

Portion of household expenditures respondents’ earnings pay 

None, income is saved 10.88 (391) 

Almost none 14.25 (512) 

Less than half 33.36 (1,199) 

About half 22.68 (815) 

More than half 10.35 (372) 

All 8.49 (305) 

Total 100.00 (3,594) 

Who had the final say on own health care 

Respondent alone 16.31 (1,242) 

Respondent and husband/partner 8.39 (639) 

Respondent and other person 1.47 (112) 

Husband/partner alone 48.63 (3,702) 

Someone else 22.49 (1,712) 

Decision not made/Not applicable 2.71 (206) 

Total 100.00 (7,613) 

Who had the final say on making large household purchases 

Respondent alone 9.90 (754) 






Total 100.00 (7,614) 

Who had the final say on making household purchases for daily needs 







Total 100.00 (7,610) 

Who had the final say on visits to family or relatives 


Respondent and husband/partner 15.61 (1,188) 





Total 100.00 (7,609) 

Who had the final say on food to be cooked each day 







Total 100.00 (7,606) 


Table 2 above reveals the pattern of gender power relation among men and women and it is 

basically patriarchal in nature. The results show that for a third of the respondents, their earnings pay 

less than half of the portion of household expenditures (33.36%) and less than one tenth pay all 

portions of household expenditures. Husband/partner alone has the final say on the health of about half 

of them (48.63%); on more than half of decisions regarding large household purchases (51.64%); 

13


42.59% of decisions about making household purchases for daily needs; 38.90% of decisions about 

visits to family or relatives and 32.45% of decisions regarding food to be cooked each day. Decision on 

food to be cooked each day seems to be influenced by either the women or their partners equally 

(30.73% versus 32.45%); although a woman will likely be obliged to cook whatever the partner wants. 

Table 3: A table showing the acceptability of wife battery among Nigerian women (NDHS 2003) 

Justification for Wife Battering Percent (Frequency) 

Wife beating justified if she goes out without telling the husband/partner 

No 48.27 (3,675) 

Yes 49.33 (3,756) 

Don’t Know 2.40 (183) 

Total 100.00 (7,614) 

Wife beating justified if she neglects the children 

No 50.20 (3,822) 

Yes 47.20 (3,594) 

Don’t Know 2.60 (198) 

Total 100.00 (7,614) 

Wife beating justified if she argues with husband/partner 

No 55.44 (4,216) 

Yes 41.71 (3,172) 

Don’t Know 2.84 (216) 

Total 100.00 (7,604) 

Wife beating justified if she refuses to have sex with the husband/partner 

No 60.95 (4,635) 

Yes 35.29 (2,684) 

Don’t Know 3.76 (286) 

Total 100.00 (7,605) 

Wife beating justified if she burns the food 

No 68.07 (5,182) 

Yes 29.21 (2,224) 

Don’t Know 2.72 (207) 

Total 100.00 (7,613) 

Wife beating justified if the food is not cooked 

No 65.52 (4,986) 

Yes 31.94 (2,431) 

Don’t Know 2.54 (193) 

Total 100.00 (7,610) 

Wife Battery Raw Scores 

0 38.35 (2,920) 

1 10.20 (777) 

2 9.59 (730) 

3 8.47 (645) 

4 7.33 (558) 

5 5.87 (447) 

6 20.19 (1,537) 

Total 100.00 (7,614) 

Wife Battering Scores (categorical) 

Modern Views/Ideas 38.35 (2,920) 

Mixed Views/Ideas 41.46 (3,157) 

Traditional Views/Ideas 20.19 (1,537) 

Total 100.00 (7,614) 


Table 3 reveals the acceptability of wife battering among Nigerian women. Forty-nine per cent 

believed that wife beating is justified if the wife goes out without telling the husband/partner, if the 

wife neglects the children (47.20%), if the wife argues with husband/partner (41.71%), if the wife 

14


refuses to have sex with husband/partner (35.29%), if the wife burns the food (29.21%), and if the food 

is not cooked (31.94%). It is also clear from the table that 38.35% of the respondents disagreed totally 

with wife beating on all the questions raised which translates to people holding on to modern 

views/ideas about the issue in question. About a fifth of the respondents were holding on to traditional 

views/ideas regarding wife beating in the study (20.19%). 

Bivariate Analysis 

Table 4: A table showing correlation coefficients between the various independent variables and attitude to 

wife battering among Nigerian women (NDHS 2003) 

Selected Independent Variables Correlation Coefficient 

Age 0.0464* 

Region -0.2370* 

Type of Place of Residence 0.1065* 

Childhood Place of Residence 0.1687* 

Type of Place of Previous Residence 0.1796* 

Highest Educational Level -0.3067* 

Religious Affiliation 0.2146* 

Literacy -0.2677* 

Frequency of reading newspaper or magazine -0.2065* 

Frequency of listening to radio -0.1739* 

Frequency of watching television -0.1986* 

Current marital status 0.0925 

Number of Unions 0.1372* 

Have ever been married 0.1092* 

Wealth Index -0.2389* 

Respondent Currently Working? -0.0004 

Respondent’s Occupation 0.0295* 

Worked in the last 12 months 0.0069 

Type of earnings for work 0.0157 

Portion of household expenditures respondents’ earnings pay -0.1200* 

Who had the final say on own health care 0.1145* 

Who had the final say on making large household purchases 0.0331* 

Who had the final say on making household purchases for daily needs 0.0598* 

Who had the final say on visits to family or relatives -0.0485* 

Who had the final say on food to be cooked each day -0.0036 

*P

Multivariate Analysis 


Table 5: A table showing the multinomial logistic regression model of the predictors of attitude towards Wife 

Battering among Nigerian women (NDHS 2003) 

Variables Modern Views/Ideas Traditional Views/Ideas 

Coefficient Odd Ratio Coefficient Odd Ratio 

Age -0.38* (0.17) 0.683367 0.09 (0.26) 1.097346 

Region -0.18 (0.15) 0.839731 -0.18 (0.23) 0.839048 

Type of Place of Residence -1.04 (0.62) 0.354182 0.95 (0.99 2.595684 

Childhood Place of Residence -0.17 (0.40) 0.845705 0.40 (0.52) 1.484807 

Type of Place of Previous Residence 0.79 (0.42) 2.208474 -0.47 (0.58) 0.623589 

Highest Educational Level -0.05 (0.45) 0.953329 0.28 (0.73) 1.321809 

Religious Affiliation -0.11 (0.26) 0.897341 -0.61 (0.40) 0.546158 

Literacy -0.63 (0.47) 0.5307 -0.72 (0.63) 0.485711 

Frequency of reading newspaper or magazine 0.42 (0.41) 1.528383 -2.17 (1.24) 0.114146 

Frequency of listening to radio -0.01 (0.25) 0.989763 -0.05 (0.37) 0.94963 

Frequency of watching television 0.09 (0.26) 1.096897 -0.69 (0.42) 0.501794 

Current marital status 0.19 (0.36) 1.204598 0.37 (0.52) 1.442624 

Number of Unions -0.20 (0.89) 0.820104 0.83 (0.98) 2.288687 

Have ever been married -0.84 (1.20) 0.432656 0.03 (1.68) 1.026062 

Wealth Index 0.50 (0.29) 1.639688 1.03* (0.43) 2.802626 

Respondent’s Occupation -0.21 (0.20) 0.809787 0.01 (0.23) 1.004708 

Portion of household expenditures respondent’s earnings pay -0.27 (0.25) 0.76293 0.02 (0.36) 1.021279 

Who had the final say on own health care -0.60* (0.30) 0.548047 -0.07 (0.33) 0.933332 

Who had the final say on making large household purchases 0.28 (0.36) 1.325485 -0.00 (0.47) 0.998738 

Who had the final say on making household purchases for -0.32 (0.31) 0.723528 -0.17 (0.42) 0.843174 

daily needs 

Who had the final say on visits to family or relatives -0.04 (0.31) 0.957802 0.82* (0.39) 2.27471 

Constant 4.86 (3.02) 128.6709 -5.89 (4.74) 0.002775 

N 2,920 1,537 

*P


low-skilled occupation, living in the rural areas and the fact that an individual lived in the countryside 

during their childhood and so on will predispose them to traditional and patriarchal attitudes about wife 

beating. 

Thirty-nine percent of the respondents had no formal education and only 6.39% had beyond 

secondary education. It is believed that those with higher formal educational level will be better 

enlightened; thereby influencing the kind of attitude they have toward wife battering. Majority of the 

respondents were Moslems (47.31%), followed by Christians whether protestants or other Christians 

(35.77%) and religious affiliation was significantly correlated with attitude to wife battering. Women 

who identify with any religion that justify wife beating will likely hold on traditional attitude 

concerning such issue. Although, some Christian husbands or partners beat their wives when they are 

annoyed, the Christian Holy Book says “He that spares his rod hates his son: but he that loves him 

chastens him betimes”, and there is no place where wife battering was justified in the Scriptures. About 

half of the respondents are illiterates who can not read at all (48.80%), and this is thought to be 

associated one way or the other with holding traditional views or ideas about wife battering. 

Poverty is one of the reasons while many women depend on men for financial sustenance and 

this could predispose them to abuse from such men. Analysis of the wealth index reveals that 18.36% 

and 19.41% were categorised as belonging to the poorer and poorest groups respectively. Majority of 

the respondents never read newspaper or magazine (76.31%) with only 2.42% reading it almost 

everyday. About 36% and 22% listen to radio and watch television almost everyday respectively. 

These are mediums through which the societies get information for their development and betterment, 

and so to reach the vast majority of women in Nigeria with valuable information especially on the 

issues of violence against women, the radio will be the most appropriate means since more people are 

likely going to be reached through that medium than through other means. 

The pattern of gender power relation among the Nigerian populace is still typically patriarchal 

in nature as the results show. Husband/partner alone has the final say on the health of about half of 

them (48.63%); on more than half of decisions regarding large household purchases (51.64%); 42.59% 

of decisions about making household purchases for daily needs; 38.90% of decisions about visits to 

family or relatives and 32.45% of decisions regarding food to be cooked each day. The results further 

reveal high level of acceptability of wife battering among Nigerian women as forty-nine per cent 

believed that wife beating is justified if the wife goes out without telling the husband/partner, if the 

wife neglects the children (47.20%), if the wife argues with husband/partner (41.71%), if the wife 

refuses to have sex with husband/partner (35.29%), if the wife burns the food (29.21%), and if the food 

is not cooked (31.94%). This scenario has implications for the realisation of a domestic violence bill 

and its execution in Nigeria. The attitude of women towards wife battering will either make it a private 

issue hidden within the family or a public issue that can be reported and dealt with in the society. If 

women accept it as a duty of marriage and a normal cross to bear, they will not report such issue to the 

appropriate authorities for proper intervention and action, especially in a society where the extended 

family system is very powerful and influential. 

Multivariate results reveal that age and the person having the final say on a woman’s health 

care were significant predictors of women holding on to modern views or ideas about wife battering 

(P


provided more insights in this paper were not collected and could not be generated. Second, this paper 

could not estimate the level of wife battering in the country because there were no direct questions on 

whether the respondents had been beaten by their husbands/partners within a given reference period to 

the time of the survey. An attempt is only being made to relate some selected independent variables to 

wife battering composite scores (later categorised into three variables), generated from questions asked 

about the attitude of women to wife battering or the acceptability of wife battering. 

Conclusion 

Results of the analysis for this paper indicated that women’s demographic and socioeconomic 

characteristics correlated significantly with the kind of attitude they hold concerning wife battering in 

the study area. Women with low socioeconomic backgrounds were more likely to hold on to traditional 

views/ideas about wife beating and the higher the socioeconomic standing of the women, the more 

likely that they will disagree with wife beating on all counts. If the women themselves believe that wife 

beating is justified for some reasons, they will likely continue to perpetuate such traditional ideas in the 

younger generation since they are important agent of socialisation in any society. Hence, this paper 

concludes that improving the socioeconomic status of the women in Nigeria can help to hasten the goal 

of eradicating violence against women. This can be done by providing more educational and 

employment opportunities for women and this will enable them to be less dependent on men. Women 

in Nigeria, especially the less privileged ones need appropriate information, education and 

communication (IEC) programmes to enlighten them on the negative consequences of violence against 

the women folks in general. Radio stations in Nigeria have a lot of work to do in the area of 

disseminating useful information that can contribute to attitudinal change concerning wife-beating, 

since it is the best medium of reaching many of the women. 

18


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21


Can’t Come Back and be Siham, the 

Village Girl I was: Hybridity and Identity Facades of 

Academic Druze Women 

Naomi Levy Weiner 

Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Co-manager 

M.Ed. program and Senior Lecturer 

David Yellin Academic College. 15 Opal Street, Mevaseret, 90805 Israel 

E-mail: naomi_weiner@yahoo.com 

Tel: 972-52-406035, 972-2-5795950 

Abstract 

The study examines the complex identity patterns of pioneer Druze women who were the 

first to study at universities in Israel, despite cultural and religious prohibitions. Analysis of 

34 narratives explores the psychological effort involved in being the first to implement 

changes in traditional gender roles and paving the way for others.. The paper displays 

complex identity layers, structured by exposure to higher education and by the subsequent 

return to Druze culture. Attaining higher education brought a sense of pride and success, 

but also involved positioning the woman in a place different from that of their close friends 

and family, a place that raised the awareness of inequality and social conflicts, 

accompanied by feelings of pain, hybridity and emotional conflict. 

The complex identity patterns and emotional processes influenced by crossing 

cultures and "being the first" present themes and personal dynamics that are usually absent 

from the literature examining the effects of social mobility on women or the attainment of 

education in so-called traditional societies. 

Introduction 

“Tell me”, asked Noel unexpectedly, as I presented myself over the phone, explaining my research 

topic, “Didn’t most of the women you interviewed say they were sorry they had ever studied?” Noel is 

one of the first Druze women who had applied for higher education in Israel, and she had spent many 

years studying in one of the most prestigious and demanding faculties. She works in a highly 

responsible and respected job. My belief that her esteemed profession and her position of responsibility 

would lead to satisfaction and contentment was shattered during our first phone conversation, before I 

even managed to set a date for an interview. 

My research about the identities of the first Druze women who had opted for higher education, 

and its effects on their lives was carried out during the millennium year, a decade after the first Druze 

women in Israel had taken their initial steps in attaining higher education. Their attempt involved 

breaching society's traditional customs and gender roles, and was perceived as a threat to the 

community. As a result, some of the women's families were ostracized by the religious leaders and the 

village community. The difficulties faced by the women were encountered not only when entering 

universities, but also upon returning to their traditional culture after attaining academic degrees. 

This study is one of the few that has examined the situation of Druze women in Israel and it is 

unique 1 in addressing the subject of higher education among them. I would like to focus on the 

1 An article published in English by the author examines the first higher educated women as role models: Weiner Levy, N. (2006). The Flag Bearers: 

Israeli Druze Women challenging Traditional Gender Roles. Journal of Anthropology and Education, Vol. 37 No 3 pp.217-235 

22


influence of higher education as it was manifested in the Druze women’s lives and in their narrative 

identities. These aspects were affected both by the uniqueness of the women as the first in their 

communities to achieve higher learning and by the intercultural transitions they experienced along the 

way. 

In order to obtain a better understanding of the Druze, I shall briefly attempt to shed some light 

on Druze culture, followed by a partial overview of the woman’s place in Druze society: 

The Druze Community: Tradition and Cultural Gender Roles 

The Druze are a small and closed social and religious community. They live in high mountain villages 

in Syria, Lebanon and Israel, constituting a small minority of the populations of these countries. 

Despite some resemblance to the Arab population, and the fact that Druze speak Arabic, they form a 

distinct group. Research studies, and the Druze themselves, have debated whether they are part of the 

Arab world. The Druze religion is esoteric, and most of its precepts are kept secret from outsiders. One 

well-known aspect of their religion is the belief in reincarnation. The Druze community has strong ties 

to the land; they form a collective society and have extended patriarchal and patrilinear families (Katz, 

1990; Layish, 1985), and a clear internal hierarchy with women at the bottom. 

The status of women in the Druze family is inferior to that of men. They must dress modestly, 

have no contact with strangers, and attend to housework and child rearing (Dwairy, 1998). 2 Women 

must obey men. If the father is absent, they must obey their brothers or older male children. Women do 

not play an active role in decision making within the family. Obeying or listening to women’s advice is 

regarded as humiliating by the men (Barkat, 1985). The men of the family have absolute authority in 

all decisions regarding women, and are responsible for them (Al-Haj, 1988). 

Traditional norms compel women to remain physically close to home, prohibited from leaving 

the villages without the escort and supervision of a male family member. Women cannot visit public 

places, such as the theatre, cinemas, concerts, cafes, nor can they spend time shopping. Women and 

girls must remain timid and ‘innocent’; they are forbidden to spend time in male company or to speak 

to men who are not close relatives. The strength of these norms is achieved by a network of relatives 

whose behavior gains legitimacy through the traditional code of family honor (Lewin-Epstein and 

Semyonov, 1992). 

The status of Druze women, as a whole, has not been affected by changes in surrounding 

societies, and, although during the past few years significant role changes have taken place (mainly due 

to the changes brought on by the educated women), most Druze women conform to the cultural norms. 

Entering Higher Education 

The first Druze women who sought higher education, breached traditional norms and gender roles: 

they had to leave the village, despite traditional prohibitions, and to study in the company of men. The 

women not only encountered strong opposition from friends and relatives, but as a result, some of their 

families were ostracized by the village community and expelled from the Druze religion. Although this 

punishment is intended solely for murderers and adulterers, the religious leaders chose to use it against 

the first women students and their families. People of the Druze community did not speak to the 

excommunicated family and did not attend their weddings or funerals. Nihaya, one of the interviewees 

explained: “Even a cup of coffee, even a glass of water, may not be drunk in the house of an ostracized 

woman.” 

During the mid-1980s, the first Druze women from villages in the vicinity of Haifa University 

enrolled. During the 1990s, women from villages farther away also applied. The distance between the 

university and their villages obliged them to sleep away from home, thus infringing upon yet another 

2 

Since there are very few studies of Druze women, the findings of research on women in Arab society have also been included where relevant, due to the 

similarity in customs and lifestyle between the Druze and the Arabs. 

23


traditional prohibition. Today, higher education has become accepted for women, and the number of 

female Druze students is higher than that of men. 

Women, Traditional Cultures and Effects of Higher Education 

Since these findings focus on the effects of higher education on women’s lives and identities, a short 

review of the existing research on this topic will follow. The predominant research highlights the 

positive aspects of academic education on women’s lives and on their families, ignoring the internal 

dynamics and identity processes affected by being educated in Western universities and returning to 

live in their original cultures. 

Arab feminists consider women’s education an essential component of human capital 

development and nation building (Abu Baker, undated; Amawi, 1996; Khalidi and Tucker, 1996, in 

Pessate-Schubert, 2003). Studies that have examined the effects of women’s education in Arab society 

found that it had a positive impact on individual lives and on society as a whole (Araf, 1997; Ahmad- 

Fauzia, 2001; Arnhold, 2000; Baburajan, 1998, 1998; Katjavivi, 2000; Abu Rabia Queder, 2005; 

Espanioly, 2005). Scholars have also noted that education leads to women’s greater involvement in the 

labor market and in public activities (As-Sadawi, 1988), to women's empowerment (Perry, 2000; 

Bubtana, 2000) and to the development of independent thinking patterns (Whalley, 1988; Author, 

2004, Author, 2006b). Furthermore, educated women influence changes in the status of women in their 

communities (Author, 2006a), play a more active role in their choice of a partner (Meller, 2000, p. 43) 3 

and encourage marriage at a more mature age (Moghadam, 1993). 

The subject of higher education among women from Palestinian minority groups in Israel has 

been researched only in the past few years (Weiner-Levy, 2000; 2002, Meller, 2000; Pessate-Schubert, 

2003; Abu Rabia-Queder, 2006(. Most studies have related to education as a means of progress, 

leading to personal change in the women’s lives. However, changes in identity have not been 

investigated in the same way. 

The positive implications of higher education are well acknowledged. Nevertheless, discourse 

concerning the benefits of education for women tends to ignore and even deny the hurdles, internal 

transitions and pain that the inevitable losses have entailed (Lucey, 2003), ignoring the intrapersonal 

dynamics and identity transitions associated with processes of being educated and of adopting an 

alternative path. A more thorough understanding of these effects will enhance comprehension of the 

emotional processes and identity changes undergone by women from traditional cultures who obtain 

higher education. 

Method 

A phenomenological narrative methodology was selected to analyze individual experiences and social 

realities from a subjective perspective (Taylor 1998), exploring the interviewees’ life stories and the 

reflected narrative identity. This approach adopts a postmodern point of view and assumes an internal 

relationship between the individual’s life and the story told (Sarbin 1986; Schafer 1992; Gergen and 

Gergen 1988; Neisser 1994). Life stories recount the course of events and the meanings people ascribe 

to them, influenced by the individual’s social and cultural environment (Scheibe 1985; Sarup 1996). In 

this study, the term “identity” refers to a “narrative identity” constructed according to the interviewee’s 

life story (Sarbin 1986; Schafer 1992; Gergen and Gergen 1983 1986 1988; Neisser 1994). 

3 

Additional studies conducted in Israel regarding Palestinian women reflect reinforcement of their ethnic national identity (Erdreich, 2002; Masrawa, 

2002). 

24


Sampling Method 

Thirty-four Druze women were interviewed. They were the first or among the first from their villages 

to apply for higher education. In this study, a purposive, rather than a random sampling method was 

used (Miles and Huberman, 1994), interviewing the ‘first’ Druze women. 

Interviews 

The interviews were conducted in Hebrew, a language in which all interviewees were fluent, and were 

held at the interviewee’s homes. The interviews had two parts: In the first part, following Rosenthal’s 

technique (Rosenthal, 1992), participants were asked to talk about their lives in an unstructured 

manner, enabling internal and dynamic processes to emerge from their own subjective perspectives. 

The second part was a semi-structured interview comprising specific questions and themes that arose 

during the previous interview. At times, interviews extended more than seven hours, thanks to the 

cordial hospitality of the Druzes, and they often included invitations for traditional meals prepared 

beforehand and conversations with other members of the family. 

My alienness as a researcher was obvious, however; during the research I found that my 

positioning as an outsider or insider was not fixed (See Author, 2007). In some cases, I was an 

“outsider” not understanding the culture and religion, not aware of the various meanings of the customs 

and words. When other topics were discussed, however, I was treated as an “insider” since I was one of 

the few people with whom the participants could talk about the experiences of their education and the 

different world to which they were exposed, a world to which I belonged. Being a stranger, and at the 

same time understanding their experiences in Israeli universities, enabled them to speak freely about 

their inner worlds, their inner conflicts and difficulties (see Simmel, 1921 in Simmel, 1950). 

Method of Analysis 

Phenomenological narrative methodology, based on life stories and their interpretation (Bruner, 1991; 

Bruner, 1991), enabled a closer understanding of the interviewees’ self-perceived, subjective point of 

view (Bruner, 1991; Reinharz, 1997:5; Maynard and Purvis, 1994:12; Taylor, 1998). Giorgi’s 

phenomenological analysis (Giorgi, 1989) was selected for its adherence to the text. Many of the 

women’s own personal narratives are presented in the text, allowing marginalized women to make 

their private stories public (Pessate-Schubert, 2003) and their voices heard (Maynard & Purvis, 1994; 

Taylor, 1998). 

Findings and Discussion 

Identity Changes Following Higher Education 

While studying at university, the first students encountered methods of study that differed from the 

authoritarian approaches that were the norm in the Druze and Arab schools the women had attended 

(Al-Haj, 1988; Dwairy, 1998 Alean, 2006). This period of university study exposed the Druze students 

to individualistic theories and norms that altered their notions about the individual's place in society. 

Studying in a different, Western culture and encountering different views, values and norms enabled 

them to gain a new perspective through which they could review and reflect upon their own needs, 

values and way of life. 

During their years at university the interviewees experienced an attitude which encouraged 

independent thought, permitted the questioning of knowledge and authority, and legitimized inquiry 

(Author, 2006b, 2004). They were encouraged to express their views and give voice to their unique 

ideas. This period exposed the Druze students not only to academic knowledge, but also to different 

Western values (ibid, see Al-Haj 1988). 

25


The legitimacy of open dialogue and commentary which they encountered and implemented 

during higher education did not halt at the level of texts and academic discourse. The women, 

influenced by the fact that they were free to question theories and authoritative concepts, were also able 

to challenge the legitimacy of male strength of authority as the sole source of knowledge, as it often is 

in Druze society (Author, 2006b). The years spent studying were described as a period of intense 

individual change. Their studies altered their ways of thinking and changed their perceptions of the 

individual’s place in society. The period of study was described as a time that provided the women 

with opportunities to discover levels and aspects of “inner self” that could not always find expression 

in the Druze society. 

Returning Home: What is home? 

Upon returning to their families and communities, the layers of their unique personalities which they 

wished to express were not always compatible with traditional expectations in Druze society. The 

women, whose identities were shaped and consolidated during their period of study, felt at times, that 

by accepting the gender codes of their society, they were distancing themselves from their inner selves 

and suppressing their unique personal selves. 

Research findings of adaptation of students (mainly from the Far East or Latin America) 

attending overseas universities, focused on their adjustment to the new culture (Hoff, 1979; Bennett, 

1986; Cushnir, 1991; Furnam and Bochner, 1986; Paige, 1991; Weaver, 1986, Grove and Torbion, 

1986). 4 The effects of cultural transition upon the return to the original society have hardly been 

examined 5 . Researchers who studied the effects of women’s education in the Arab or Muslim world 

have not discussed their return to their former lifestyles (Ahmad-Fauzia, 2001; Michaels, 1998; 

Shaaban, 1998; Whalley, 1998; Abdel kader, 1987; Eickelman, 1994). 

Since Druze women cannot live alone, after completing their degree, they had to return to their 

villages and families, to the custody and control of a male relative. Most of them had to choose a job 

from the limited alternatives offered in the village, their choice further restricted by the prohibition on 

working with men. 

Entering university, with its Western norms, liberal attitudes and ways of life was described as 

a “shock”, but the return to their society was described as “the shock”. Interviewees associated this 

shock with the changes in identity they had undergone during the period of study, while the norms they 

were expected to live by had remained unchanged, and seemed, upon return, restrictive and 

constricting their personal freedom: 

Coming back is harder,” says Siham, one of the interviewees, “much harder, many times, 

a thousand times more than leaving. The changes I went through there, (at the university), 

and then going back home to deal with a society where only a small percentage of the 

people have changed mentally, it’s difficult, it’s a shock. You feel you’ve changed. 

Going out of the village and living other experiences, it does something to you. It’s easier 

for a person to get used to freedom, it’s harder to get used to something suffocating, 

something hurting you. (…) I can’t fit into the modern world, and I can’t come back to 

the village and be Siham, the village girl again. (Siham) 

Iman, another interviewee, expresses her feelings of displacement upon her return to the 

village. 

It’s just the beginning. And emotionally – I just can’t get adjusted to this reality, of 

coming back. I can’t. (…).Going out was like a dream, an aspiration to reach something. I 

was motivated. It was hard, but it’s a difficulty you work to overcome.)…(Coming back 

was hard because during those five years, I changed personally. I began seeing myself as 

responsible, independent, as having character, having something to give. The period of 

studies helped to build an independent personality, and finally I knew that I was a person 

4 These studies found adaptation difficulties, social isolation, lowered self-image, disappointment at unfulfilled expectations, depression and frustration. 

5 Kidder, 1991 and Paige, 1991 conducted a study describing the difficulties in adjustment of students returning from the United States to the Far East. 

26


in my own right… I realized what they had always instilled in us, and, I would say, we 

were taught to be dependant upon others, not to be independent or responsible. (Iman) 

The individualistic aspects of independence, the desire to be responsible for oneself, feelings of 

distinctiveness and uniqueness of ‘self’ evolved during the period of study. The new feelings expressed 

by Iman differ from the “relational selving” (Suad Joseph, 1999) or ‘interdependence’ (Markus & 

Kitayama, 1994) that are more prevalent in Arab and Far Eastern cultures (Kondo, 1990; Segall, 

Dasen, Berry & Pootinga, 1990, Joseph, 1999). These terms relate to identity traits found to be more 

prevalent in cultures that expect people to remain in close proximity to their families and to be 

responsible for and to each other much of their lives. These societies value the family or the 

community more than the individual, who achieves meaning in the context of family or community 

(ibid, p. 9). A similar term, connectivity (Joseph, 1999), that connotes neither inequality nor 

subordination, is, however, often intertwined with local patriarchy to produce ‘patriarchal 

connectivity’, culturally legitimizing male domination (ibid p.12). Iman, and other interviewers, 

develop heightened awareness of patriarchal control and connectivity, upon returning to their families 

and home culture. 

Nawal, cited below, describes the lack of equality and the negation of women's rights that are 

maintained by, the "male custodian" that affects aspects of connectivity and the way of life..- She felt 

this dominance at its full intensity when she returned home with an advanced degree after six years of 

study while living in dorms, and describes her feelings after years of personal independence. She 

points out that the main possibility for a woman to improve her status and degree of freedom is by 

getting married so that she has the advantage of decreasing the number of those who control her. 

If you are unmarried or divorced, life is really difficult because you are under the dominance of 

the family. You are not allowed to be your own master, to live your life as you would like to. There is 

always someone who interferes in your life and tells you what to do, and where to go and what… 

Someone must always be dominating you and it is everyone. Your father and your brothers, as well. 

Lets say, the woman even marries (mostly) to flee from the status of being a single woman. If you are 

married, you only have to deal with your husband. (Nawal) 

The re-entry shock was so painful that some interviewees expressed its intensity by regretting 

that they had ever studied: 

I think things would be easier for me if I hadn’t gone out and studied, but because I’ve 

seen the other side, it changed something inside me. I can’t be the 18 year old that left 

this village to go to Haifa and study. ..With all the dilemmas I have now… sometimes, I 

wish I’d never studied, I wish I’d never gone out, I wish I hadn’t seen these things… and 

I come back here, I want to be like the other women, but it doesn’t work, I can’t 

succeed.(Amal) 

The simultaneous existence between different societies and cultures characterizes the postmodern 

individual. ‘Hybridization’ is a concept described by Sarup (1996) as a situation of multiple 

identities and existences in two or more cultures. This existence, although expressed mainly in postmodern 

theories of the individual (Gergen, 1991; Zurcher, 1977), was already described at the 

beginning of the century by Park (1928) and Stonquist (1935); the former, coined the concept of the 

‘marginal man’ to describe an individual who is torn between two cultures and pushed to the periphery 

of each. (Stonquist, 1935 and Park, 1928, in Berry, 1991). 

In this narrative, the sense of alienation and of existence between two cultures or “two worlds” 

was expressed, not during immigration to a new and different culture, but upon return to their original 

culture, after a relatively short sojourn at university. The period of studies, which exposed them to 

different knowledge and cultural values, demanded new ways of inner organization and coping. 

Overt Identity, Covert Identity, Masks and Veils 

Life between and inside ‘two worlds’ has affected the women’s identity. After returning to the village, 

the interviewees' narratives reveal an identity portrayed by the reflections of the two cultures they have 

27


encountered. The different, and sometimes opposing, values and norms of the two societies have 

constructed a concealed ‘inner’ identity, and an ‘overt’ ‘exhibited’ identity. 

The external-‘overt’ identity which was expressed among family and in the Druze community, 

was composed of cultural norms and values which the women were raised upon and which were 

accepted in the village society. The ‘external’ or ‘exhibited’ identity existed in the narratives mainly as 

a preemptive means to protect against the social sanctions held by the community. It was frequently 

described as a ‘cover’, a wrap, a mask or a veil, designed to camouflage the changes the women had 

undergone in the course of their studies, a period which was meant to be insignificant, and was 

therefore silenced, appearing transparent. Iman describes the inner self in contrast to the performance 

and behavior that must coincide with the Druze society’s demands: 

The Druze girl is very polite, always has to be sweet, even though inside me, that’s not it, 

… but it’s a kind of mold I’ve gotten into, and in which I have to live… I always liken it 

to a social mold, that is imposed on us, in which we, the girls are forced to grow up by 

(…) and I say this, and always stress - that it is not by choice; if I had the possibility of 

leading a different life - I’d live very differently. (Iman) 

The ‘overt’ identity is revealed during social encounters and adheres to accepted gender norms. 

While the ‘overt’ identity is utilized or revealed in public, the concealed ‘covert’ identity cannot be 

publicly expressed in the Druze community. It encompasses characteristics that were formed during the 

period of study, a different, Western, individualistic worldview, a desire for independence and selfexpression, 

all of which are unattainable in a culture where women are expected to conceal personal 

desires and aspirations. This difficulties and prohibitions to express their views and to attain personal 

goals results in a ‘secret,’ ‘concealed’ or covert identity that cannot be publicly expressed. 

The covert identity is covered by traditional clothing and scarves, hidden but very much alive: 

They can limit how I dress, says Arige. They can limit what I say, but they can’t limit my 

thoughts. My thoughts, I don’t know, if they can really fly, but they reach places without 

bounds. I can think however I want; after all I don’t think aloud, so I don’t threaten my 

surroundings. But the difficulty of always living in a world of thoughts is enormous, and 

the fact is that you can never put them into practice. (Arige) 

The sense of disconnection and dissociation between the ‘overt’ identity, the bodily practices 

bound by traditional obligations, and the ‘inner’ identity, “the soul”, is expressed by Arige and is 

experienced with great pain. The bodily practices and spoken words can be traced and condemned by 

the family and the community; therefore, while adhering to the accepted gender norms, the soul can 

roam without any limitations, but also without any ability for self expression, accompanied by 

substantial pain. 

The secular world, the individualistic values that have influenced the educated Druze women, 

and the Druze values they were raised upon, are expressed in their lives by a discrepancy and a gap. 

This gap exists between the way of life in practice and the inner goals, thoughts and feelings. Jasmine 

expresses this gap between her ‘covert’ identity, composed of thoughts and feelings developed during 

her encounter with secular individualistic norms at university, and her ‘overt’ identity of her performed 

lifestyle: 

I came upon secular values and a way of life that I believe in, but this creates a 

conflict…During the period that I studied in Jerusalem, I went through a process of 

growth and change, you can call it renewal. And now (upon return) I have to, like, ignore 

and disregard all this development, and show commitment to traditional practices. This 

gap, between what you think and feel is right and what you can actually do, between the 

way you have to behave here (the village), and what you believe in, creates a real 

problem! (Jasmine) 

Jasmine, like other interviewees, conceals the changes that have taken place during the period 

of higher education. The gap between actions and feelings, displays the split between the expressed 

way of life and the inner thoughts and feelings. A sense of disconnection and dissociation between the 

28


two identities emerges. While the ‘overt’ identity lacks inner expression, the covert ‘identity’ lacks any 

way of outer expression. Different psychological theories address the issue of presented selves or 

social selves as opposed to inner personal selves (among them: Goffman, 1959; James, 1890 Rosaldo 

,1985; D'andrade, 1985; Jones, 1964; 1981; Jones & Pittman, 1982; Schlenker, 1980) . “Properly 

speaking,” says James, (1890: 294), “a man has as many social selves as there are individuals who 

recognize him and carry an image of him in their mind”. Seemingly, similarity can be seen between 

these psychological theories and the aspects of identity expressed by the interviewees. But while Jones 

& Pittman, (1982) and Schlenker (1980) describe mutual influences and relationships existing between 

the personal inner self and the expressed social self in theories, these mutual relations do not appear in 

the citations above, nor in the other citations. 

Another fundamental difference is the freedom to express and create the different selves. 

Although the theories of Jones Pittman (1982) and Schlenker (1980) do not refer to the social necessity 

or obligation to express the external ‘overt’ presentation of the self, the Druze women accentuate their 

obligation to conceal their inner selves, and the social sanctions that would be applied if they expressed 

their covert-concealed self influenced by Western individualistic norms. The interviewees accentuate 

the dissociation between the two identities, each presenting different cultural norms and values, and the 

lack of ability to present their inner feelings and values. These two dissociated aspects of identity 

influenced by East and West, by tradition and modernity, were apparent in the narratives, in addition to 

the accompanying pain and hybridity. 

Integration and Conflict in Identity 

In the narratives displayed in former sections, the traditional Druze norms were articulated by the 

‘overt’ identity, and Western influences by the ‘covert’ identity, and a gap was described as existing 

between the two. Although many of the narratives described the two aspects of identity as dissociated, 

further analysis reveals that both cultures have apparently exerted a profound influence on the inner, 

covert identity and have caused intrapersonal conflicts. 

Nawal, who first describes her behavior as originating from social necessity, talks about 

internal conflicts that are not only affected by Western values and norms, but are influenced by both 

Western and traditional values and prohibitions: 

There will always be one side and an opposing side…. For example, women are not allowed to 

swim! Why? No one even gives you an explanation! It’s forbidden! If I go swimming in a bathing suit 

I feel like I’ve sinned. But my brain and logic say it is not a sin, not an offense! Nevertheless, the way I 

was raised constantly influences and affects me … Somehow, one is always in a state of dilemma and 

inner conflict of one side contrasting with the other, with yourself in the middle. (Nawal). 

The conflict is not limited to the dichotomy between individual will and collective norms or 

between ‘covert’ and ‘overt’ identities. The two worlds Nawal is torn between are reflected in the dual 

aspects of her inner, ‘covert’ identity: Her relationship with the secular and Western world is 

represented by cognition, and applied by her intellect or brain, while her affinity to the traditional 

world is implied by emotion. This portrayal of the two cultures integrated in her identity adds a new 

dimension to theoretical discussion of the influence of different cultures on identity. Not only does the 

dominance or supremacy of each culture vary (within identity) but these cultures also reflect separate 

entities in the different components thereof, i.e., the cognitive vs. the emotional. 

Hanan describes her inner conflicts stemming from the two cultures to which she was exposed, 

each in a different way, by using a metaphor which emphasizes the difficulty and pain: 

A single woman who has studied has many arguments with herself. There is even a stage of 

being split between keeping what I have, what I received from my childhood and tradition, and 

between the outside world, the contact with modernity outside. The argument is not only between me 

and my husband, between me and my friends, but also within myself;(…) Do you understand, it’s a 

long process, I still have many limitations. I want to fly, but I want to be attached with a thread; I can't 

29


fly, cut myself off completely. I told you, it's a process…and you must…then, you must free yourself, 

just free yourself from these chains slowly, slowly and gradually. (Hanan) 

The conflicts which derive from exposure to different cultures and values in her social 

environment have influenced her identity and are expressed on different levels: on the external level 

they are expressed between her and her husband, and stem from Hanan’s desire, as expressed in the 

interview, to change the relations of authority and the alignment of roles in the family; between herself 

and her female friends due to her different notions and lifestyle. On a different level, there are the 

interpersonal conflicts , "within myself", which emerge from the conflict between the way she was 

raised, and the "contact with modernity outside". In order to express her feelings, Hanan uses 

metaphors. They serve to express abstract concepts or complex ideas, especially connected to human 

experience, when there are no terms or ready linguistic "formulas" (Taylor, 1995) which can aid her in 

expressing the ambivalence in her soul The "chains" and the “thread” determine confusion and 

conflicting needs, the chains which cause her distress at times are viewed as a thread, which constitute 

a need; and thus, her desire to fly, on the one hand, and her desire to be connected, on the other. 

At first, the dichotomy between the ‘overt’ identity as influenced by collective traditional 

norms and the ‘covert’ one embodying personal, individual thoughts, appears powerfully present, only 

to diminish in intensity as the women outlined the complex influences of the two cultures on their 

covert inner identity, resulting in interpersonal conflicts and split loyalties. 

Epilogue: Conflicts and Coherency in Identity 

Upon their return to their community, the educated women re-encountered the gender norms with a 

different perspective than the one they had left with. The positive implications of higher education that 

are constantly described and highlighted by many studies (Aref, 1997; The Carnegie Report and 

Recommendations on Higher Education, 1973; Ahmad-Fauzia, 2001; Aronhold, 2000; Baburajan, 

1998; Bahemuka & Van der Vynct, 2000;, 1978; Jejeebhoy, 1995; Katjavivi, 2000; (Stormquist, 1992; 

Viveros, 1992) were indeed apparent in other findings of this research (see Weiner-Levy, 2006a). 

Education led the women to knowledge, and enabled them to work and support themselves. But for 

many of the interviewees, upon return to their society, higher education, which had exposed them to a 

different culture, to dissimilar norms and values, did not set them free, but rather intensified their 

awareness of inequality and patriarchal repression, accompanied by pain and hybridity. The diverse 

norms and values have influenced and shaped their identities and the interviewees are torn between 

expression of their personal wishes and their right to self-realization, and the need and desire to belong 

to the community and to maintain its values. 

The interviewees described feelings of displacement, of living "in between two worlds”, not in 

one nor in the other. The existence in two cultures, and the genderial bounds set by the Druze 

community, emphasized the gap between the cultural norms the women were raised upon, and the 

norms and values of individualism and self-fulfillment which they were exposed during studiyng for 

their academic degrees. These different, sometimes opposing, norms and cultures, have shaped 

different constructs of identity. The constructs, the covert (or concealed) identity, and the overt identity 

have been described in many ways as dissociated and disconnected from each other 6 . The “hybrid” 

identity described by the interviewees exhibits a situation of multiple identities that arise from being 

educated according to dominant cultural norms, and then returning to the Druze culture. The different 

levels of interpersonal conflicts have been salient; the next section will therefore discuss differing 

theoretical approaches towards conflict or internal disharmony 

Psychological identity theories address inner conflicts in different ways. Widely accepted 

essentialist theories describe 'identity confusion' or 'identity diffusion' (Erikson, 1968, 1975 ; 

6 Erickson 1968 wrote about the negative effects of integrating opposing norms and values. The latter, according to his theory brought about identity 

diffusion and identity confusion. Similarly Marcia (1993:10) accentuated the importance of inner harmony in order to achieve “closure” - the required 

identity achievement. The Postmodern theories (Gergen, 1991; Hall, 1996; Sarup (1996. describe the state of conflicting values and norms as part of 

the postmodern experience. 

30


Marcia,1993) resulting from exposure and internalization of norms and values which are different or 

conflicting. As opposed to theories, which demand a decision between alternatives and different 

identifications, the interviewees describe indecision, duality and long lasting inner conflicts in their 

identities. They have not solved the conflict either by a decision, or by disregarding certain aspects in 

order to create inner harmony. They have not flinched from the lack of integration which causes 

disharmony and inner tension, but which reflects the experiences of their life stories. In line with the 

narrative approach, ‘consistent identity’ is created when an individual organizes various conflicting 

events from his/her past in his life story in a comprehendible way (McAdams, 1988). This does not 

mean uniformity and harmony or unification among the components of personality, but rather 

coherence among the parts of the story itself by an attempt to give meaning and significance to its parts 

(Bruner, 1986, 1987, 1991). Gergen (1991: 265) emphasizes that consistency and coherence are 

constructed not from the identity that the individual has "found" or has "crystallized" but from the 

ability of the individual to understand him/herself and to pass on his/her story in a comprehensible 

way, to others. The human ability for rich and varied behavior and the sense of identity are based on 

the fact that a person can behave in contradictory ways without losing the inner sense of internal 

honesty (Bruner, 1991), that the construction of a conflictual identity is suited to the life story, and that 

actually, coherence is displayed between the stories of the interviewees and the correspondence of 

these stories to the development of their lives. 

In this article certain aspects of identity have been presented and clarified, aspects which are 

generally absent from the literature dealing with women who have pioneered or women who have 

attained higher education. However, the scene which has emerged is temporary and rooted in the 

context of place and time, as changing and constructing identity is a lifelong process imbued with 

contradictions and impinged upon by social and cultural processes and relationships. 

31


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35


A Study Measuring the Effect of Pay, Promotion and Training 

on Job Satisfaction in Pakistani Service Industry 

Babar Zaheer Butt 

Ph. D Scholar, Foundation University 

New Lalazar, Rawalpindi, Pakistan 

E-mail: babarzb@gmail.com 

Kashif Ur Rehman 

Associate Professor, Iqra University 

Sector H-9, Islamabad, Pakistan 

E-mail: dr.kashifurrehman@gmail.com 

Nadeem Safwan 

Assistant Professor, Foundation University 

New Lalazar, Rawalpindi, Pakistan 

E-mail: drnsafwan@gmail.com 

Abstract 

Job satisfaction has long been an important and interesting area in organizational research. 

More recently, considerable attention has been focused on the concept of job satisfaction 

and factors that affect it. A major reason for the tremendous interest in this work attitude is 

that it has been consistently found to be related to important employee behaviors, such as 

turnover, absenteeism, and job performance. The objective of this study is to analyze the 

effect of human resource practices such as pay, promotion and training on job satisfaction. 

The sample of this study consisted of 150 employees of both private and public sector 

service organizations in the vicinity of twin cities of Rawalpindi and Islamabad. A 

questionnaire was used to gather data regarding above mentioned variables and 

demographic characteristics of the respondents. Data then analyzed with the help of SPSS 

using regression analysis and Independent Sample T Test. A positive and significant 

relationship was found between job satisfaction and factors like compensation, training and 

promotion. The study can be helpful for the employers to design their human resource 

strategies according to the changing socio-economic environment in the country. 

Keywords: Job Satisfaction, Work Attitude, Turnover and Job Performance Introduction 

Introduction 

Job satisfaction has always been a concern in the literature of organizational behaviour. A vast range of 

research on the subject of job satisfaction is available, while researchers agree that job satisfaction 

reduces turnover rates and absenteeism, it does not have definitive positive impact on work effort and 

organizational commitment. It is also evident from literature that researchers and practitioners are 

agree on various determinants of job satisfaction like pay, promotion, training, organizational 

commitment, nature of work and supervisory behaviour, but they are not very conclusive about the 

impact of each determinant especially in different environments. There is extensive research available 

in conventional professions to find out the relationship between job satisfaction and work effort in the 

36


advanced and stable environments. However, we need further investigation on job satisfaction and its 

determinants in unstable and uncertain environment. 

Ivancevich et al. (1997) pointed out that job satisfaction of an employee is his feelings and 

perception about his work and how he finds himself fit in with the organization. Davis and Newstrom 

(1999) define job satisfaction as a phenomenon, which comprised of different factors and among the 

most important and significant are those, which relate to nature of work and concerned with the 

working conditions. Shein (1978) argued that career development programs aid employees to enhance 

their productivity, ingenuity and organizational effectiveness and help them to find out new 

opportunities according to their own potential, leading to personal satisfaction and job satisfaction. 

Leavitt (1996) identified that job satisfaction can be raised by introducing appropriate career 

development programs, even without offering high salaries to employees. 

Gupta and Singhal (1993) described that in research and development based organizations 

human resource management strategies are mainly focused in four dimensions i.e. human resource 

planning, performance appraisal, reward systems and career management to encourage innovative and 

creative abilities. Garrido et al (2005) studied the determinants of sales manager job satisfaction; they 

analyzed the effect of different human resource management practices like compensation, promotion, 

training and job design on job satisfaction, they used an empirically tested model on Spanish industrial 

firms’ sample that used data from a postal survey. According to their findings the fundamental 

determinants of sales manager job satisfaction are human resource practices based on compensation 

level and type as well as on the job design in terms of resources and autonomy. 

The increasing complexity and instability in business environment accompanied by rapid 

change in technology and hostile competition demands firms to use all their resources to achieve 

competitive edge in the industry and most reliable and significant source of competitiveness is skilled 

employees. Business success is also dependent on loyal and committed employees and we know that 

job satisfaction is an important source of these work attitudes. From the last decade or so Pakistan 

service industry is experiencing a tremendous growth in different sectors like education, banking, 

consultancy and telecommunication. The firms of these sectors not only facing increased competition 

from new entrants they also under pressure due to express turnover. The retention of key and skilled 

labour force is becoming major issue for service industry. On the one side they have to enhance their 

service quality where as on the other hand they have to lower their prices to remain in competition. 

They are doing their best by utilizing different tactics to retain their one of the important source of 

competitive advantage i.e. workforce. 

In the light of current scenario the purpose of this study is to analyze the impact of different 

human resource strategies like pay, promotion and training on job satisfaction. The focus of this study 

is the workforce of service sector in Pakistan. The objective is to find out main determinants of job 

satisfaction in service industry and what human resource practices are the most significant for job 

satisfaction. 

Literature Review 

Organizational behaviour and economic researchers have been trying to find out the relationship 

between job satisfaction and different human resource practices for last many years. They have 

analyzed the effect of various determinants like compensation, training, promotion, career goals, job 

design and nature of work on job satisfaction. They have find out varying degree of impact of these 

human resource practices on job satisfaction. The literature on job satisfaction reveals that researchers 

have analyzed the impact of different variables on job satisfaction like some of the authors link job 

satisfaction with the demographic characteristics of employees, some of them relate it with nature of 

work while other examine job satisfaction with respect to working conditions offered by the 

organization. Morgan et al (1995) examined the relationship between the demographic characteristics 

37


such as age, gender, time period of service etc. and overall job satisfaction of marketing managers with 

their work keeping in view the factors like promotion, compensation and work itself. 

Different researchers have tired to analyze the relationship between pay and job satisfaction. 

Igalens and Roussel (1999) have found that increase in pay positively raise the level of job satisfaction 

among employees however they have also pointed out that flexible pay and benefits do not influence 

job satisfaction. They also analyze how different pay packages influence job satisfaction. Claver et al. 

(2001) have defined compensation “the economic compensation directly received by employees for the 

position they hold, the work carried out and their continuity in the post, whatever the factors taken into 

account, the systems followed or the method of payment used”. Oshagbemi (2003) analyzed the 

relationship between job satisfaction and age, gender, rank and length of service of employees. The 

data was collected from UK Universities. It was found that job satisfaction was significantly negatively 

correlated with length of service in higher education where as rank of an individual within the 

organization is positively and very strongly correlated with job satisfaction and it was a significant 

predictor of job satisfaction. Moreover, age and gender also not significantly related with overall job 

satisfaction. 

Literature is also available examining the relationship between gender and job satisfaction. But 

results of many studies are different from each other and they have shown different relationship 

between gender and job satisfaction. Some studies concluded that men are more satisfied with their 

jobs and some other studies have found that women are more satisfied than men with their jobs (Clark, 

1997, Ward and Sloane, 1998, Forgionne and Peters, 1982, Weaver, 1974, Shaprio and Stern, 1975). 

Cambell et al. (1976) explained that women have different expectations to their jobs, which might be 

the reason of different level of job satisfaction between men and women. Forgionne and Peters (1982) 

proposed that number of dependants in a family and rank held in the organization are the factors that 

can be included in determining the relationship between gender and job satisfaction. Nicholson and 

Miljus (1972) found that turnover issues are very much related with promotion, salary and 

administrative practices. Lam et al. (2001) studied the work motivation and job satisfaction among 

Chinese restaurant managers in Hong Kong. They found that to determine the job satisfaction in this 

industry work environment, job itself and rewards are important factors. They found a significant 

relationship between job satisfaction and turnover intentions. 

Hackman and Oldham (1980) argued that job satisfaction is a multidimensional phenomenon 

which includes factors like work itself, supervision at work, pay and benefits, promotion practices, 

appraisal and coworkers. People are very sensitive to their pay as it is very essential for their life and a 

symbol of social status. Tanke (1990) found that people tend to leave the organization due to 

dissatisfaction with pay, unpleasant supervisor’s behaviour and disagreement with human resource 

practices. Baruch (1996) pointed out that people differ in their needs, career stage, status in the 

organization and some other factors so; career development systems should be build in such a way that 

they fulfill the needs of the individuals in the organization. Galaz-Fontes (2002) analyzed the overall 

job satisfaction level of faculty working at a Mexican State University and different factors that can 

best predict job satisfaction. They also evaluated factors like research activities, administrative 

leadership, appraisal and pay and compensation. Sokoya (2000) studied the personal predictors of job 

satisfaction of public sector managers; the sample consisted of 350 public sector managers from 

different rank in the organization. The results showed that employee income was a major source of job 

satisfaction. Nguyen et al. (2003) examined the determinants of job satisfaction using data from the 

National Educational Longitudinal Study. They included many personal characteristics, job autonomy, 

hours of work, actual pay and relative pay to investigate their relationship with job satisfaction. They 

found that relative pay has statistically significant with job satisfaction but relatively small effect. 

38


Hypothesis 

The objective of this study is to measure the relationship between job satisfaction and pay, promotion 

and training. The level of job satisfaction between male and female respondents will also be analyzed. 

Therefore, the following hypothesis can be developed: 

Gender and Job Satisfaction Level 

As there is no conclusive evidence from literature regarding the relationship between job satisfaction 

and gender, because some studies argued that men are more satisfied than women while other pointed 

out that women are more satisfied than men with their jobs (Clark, 1997, Ward and Sloane, 1998, 

Forgionne and Peters, 1982, Weaver, 1974, Shaprio and Stern, 1975), so hypothesis will be: 

H0: There is no significant difference between male and female job satisfaction level 

H1: There is a significant difference between male and female job satisfaction level 

Job Satisfaction and Pay, Promotion and Training 

As many studies have provided evidence that there is a positive and significant relationship between 

job satisfaction and human resource practices such as pay, promotion and training like Igalens and 

Roussel (1999) have found that increase in pay positively raise the level of job satisfaction among 

employees. Sokoya (2000) studied the personal predictors of job satisfaction of public sector managers; 

the results showed that employee income was a major source of job satisfaction. Garrido et al (2005) 

studied the determinants of sales manager job satisfaction; they analyzed the effect of different human 

resource management practices like compensation, promotion, training and job design on job 

satisfaction. According to their findings the fundamental determinants of sales manager job satisfaction 

are human resource practices based on compensation level and type as well as on the job design in 

terms of resources and autonomy. Therefore, the hypotheses for these variables will be 

H2: Pay leads towards higher level of Job Satisfaction 

H3: Employee Promotion leads towards higher level of job satisfaction 

H4: Employee Training leads towards higher level of job satisfaction 

Method 

This study measures the relationship between job satisfaction and human resource practices like pay, 

promotion and training. For this purpose, responses were collected from employees of different 

service sector organizations; the sample size consisted of 150 employees from different level of 

organizational hierarchy. The sample was divided in to two broad categories that are male and female. 

A questionnaire was used to collect the information from the respondents. This questionnaire was 

developed on the basis of instruments used by Lam et al. (2001) for studying the managerial job 

satisfaction in Hong Kong’s Chinese restaurants, Garrido et al. (2005) to find the determinants of sales 

manager job satisfaction: an analysis of Spanish industrial firms and Oshagbemi (1997) to analyze the 

job satisfaction profiles of university teachers. The questionnaire was comprised of three sections. 

Section I consisted of different demographic attributes like age, gender, education and marital status 

etc. In the second section questions were related to job satisfaction and respondents were asked to 

indicate the job satisfaction level on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from “very dissatisfied” (1) to “very 

satisfied” (5). Where as third section of the questionnaire comprised of questions related to the 

importance of each variables like pay, promotion and training to job satisfaction and employees have to 

mention their responses again on five point Likert scale ranging from “very unimportant” (1) to “very 

important” (5). Reliability analysis demonstrated the Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient for this 

questionnaire is .744, which considered to be relatively high and internally consistent (Hair et al., 

1998). 

The questionnaires were conveniently distributed among 220 employees of different service 

sector organizations in Pakistan, out of which 174 were received and 150 questionnaires completed in 

39


all aspects were included in study for analysis. Before the questionnaire was filled by the respondent 

the purpose of the questionnaire was explained to each of the respondent. Proper instructions were 

written on the questionnaire but further instructions were given to the respondents in order to fill the 

questionnaire properly. In order to do analysis, regression and Independent Sample T-Test were 

performed and for this purpose SPSS was used. 

Results and Discussion 

The objective of this study is to find out the relationship between job satisfaction and various human 

resource strategies like pay, promotion and training. Moreover, the level of job satisfaction between 

male and female employees is also investigated. For this purpose various tests were performed and 

results are summarized below: 

Table 1: Level of Job Satisfaction between Male and Female Employees (Independent Sample T-Test) 

Level of Job Satisfaction 

Group Mean Std Dev P-Value 

Male 3.8397 .21522 .000 

Female 4.1159 .26110 

After ensuring the assumption of equality of variances (p>.05), T-Test was applied to measure 

the difference between job satisfaction level of male and female employees. The result of T-Test is 

showing a significant difference between the responses of two groups (p


The results in Table 2 reveal the correlation among all variables; it summarizes the values of 

Pearson Coefficient of correlation and their significance. It is quite evident from the results that job 

satisfaction is strongly positively correlated with Pay as value of Pearson Correlation Coefficient .615 

and the relation is significant at 95% confidence level (p


confirmed that pay, promotion and training lead toward higher level of job satisfaction. The results of 

this study are consistent with the studies conducted by Garrido et al (2005), according to their findings 

the fundamental determinants of sales manager job satisfaction are human resource practices based on 

compensation level and type as well as on the job design in terms of resources and autonomy, Igalens 

and Roussel (1999) have found that increase in pay positively raise the level of job satisfaction among 

employees and Lam et al. (2001) studied the work motivation and job satisfaction among Chinese 

restaurant managers in Hong Kong. They found that to determine the job satisfaction in this industry 

work environment, job itself and rewards are important factors. 

Conclusion and Recommendations 

This study is carried out to measure the effect of human resource practices such as pay, promotion and 

training on job satisfaction. Attempt is made to find out the importance of each factor towards level of 

job satisfaction. Difference between male and female job satisfaction level is also examined. From the 

results it can be concluded that pay, promotion and training have positive and significant impact on job 

satisfaction. However, employees give more importance to pay and promotion than training. The 

results also suggest that there is a significant difference between male and female employees job 

satisfaction level. 

The service industry is facing a tremendous change for last few years in Pakistan. Not only the 

number of new entrants increasing the competition among the firms, customer awareness and new 

regulatory environment are also pressing hard. As a result, not only the volume of their transaction is 

increasing, the range of their service is also expanding. Due to which different sectors of service 

industry like banks, education institutes and telecommunication firms are experiencing swift turnover. 

The results of this study are not only beneficial for the employers in private sector but they are also 

useful for public sector organizations as well. Since we have found that employees consider pay and 

promotion as important factors that enhance their job satisfaction, so it is recommended that employers 

not only offer attractive salaries to their employees, they should also provide them career growth 

prospects which will increase their job satisfaction and as a result absenteeism and turnover can be 

curtailed down. From above results it is also recommended that organizations should encourage the 

induction of female employees and must consider them while making human resource strategies 

because they have shown more satisfaction to their jobs as compared to male employees. Since in our 

country we are experiencing a positive trend in female education and proportion of women 

employment is also increasing, as more women are interested in jobs. Human resource managers must 

devise balance strategies that should provide appropriate career development opportunities both for 

male and female employees. As a result they will be able to hold down the current turnover rate, they 

can also increase the job satisfaction level among employees. 

We studied the effect of factors like pay, promotion and training on job satisfaction. In future 

few other work related factors like, working conditions, employees safety and security etc. can be 

considered to measure the level of job satisfaction and some other statistical tools can be used to 

analyze it. Sample size can be increased which may yields different results. 

42


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43


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44


Student Perceptions of Lecturer Classroom 

Communication Style 

Lara A. Frumkin 

Middlesex University The Burroughs 

Hendon London, NW4 4BT United Kingdom 

E-mail: L.frumkin@mdx.ac.uk 

Tel: +44 20 8411 4776 

Alan Murphy 

Middlesex University The Burroughs Hendon 

London, NW4 4BT United Kingdom 

Abstract 

The way a teacher communicates in the classroom is studied from the perspective of the 

university student. The sample consisted of students enrolled in a programme at a 

university that follows a blended learning system making use of a resource rich learning 

environment of lectures, tutorials, and online resources. Adult learners on Masters’ 

programmes in Computing Science attending teacher led lectures in several locations (e.g., 

London, Hong Kong, Shenzhen) completed questionnaires describing five communication 

patterns. They are (a) challenging, (b) encouragement and praise, (c) non-verbal support, 

(d) understanding and friendly, and (e) controlling communication. Results of the data 

indicate that students rate communication patterns in significantly different ways. There 

were statistically significant relationships between both challenging and controlling 

communication and final course grades; challenging and encouragement/praise 

communication patterns were significant when data were analysed by cultural background 

such that Eastern and Western students rated the same teachers as having different 

communication patterns; there were significant differences on all five communication 

styles by gender. Findings indicate that teachers need to be aware of their communication 

style as it has differential effects for their students by their gender and culture, and may in 

some cases more significantly impact upon student’s final grades. 

Intoduction 

It is necessary when communicating for the recipient of a given message to be able to attend to and 

extract relevant information from a particular piece of input. It is assumed that the behaviour of 

participants in a social setting may influence others in that setting (Mullen, Bryant, & Driskell, 1997). 

It could be argued that in an education setting, not only is the content of a particular message vital, 

(e.g., understanding a given topic area) but so is the way it is communicated to a student 1 . It is 

therefore necessary that teachers are able to communicate effectively with their students. As the 

research to date has shown, it is important to provide feedback to teachers on their communication 

style as very often they are unaware of many aspects of their behaviour or the feedback they provide to 

students (Good & Brophy, 1991; Levy, Wubbels, & Brekelmans, 1992; She & Fisher, 2002). 

A student’s perception of a teacher’s behaviour may be influenced by a variety of other factors, 

such as affective learning (Anderson, 1979), cognitive learning (Gorham, 1988; Richmond, Gorham, & 

1 

Multiple approaches to the study of communication exist (e.g., Hall, 1980, Petty & Cacioppo, 1986). For the purposes of this study, the model as 

described by Mullen, et al, 1997 is used. 

45


McCroskey, 1987; Richmond, McCroskey, Kearney, & Plax, 1987), the effectiveness of the teacher 

(Anderson, 1979), interactions between the student and teacher (Andersen, Norton, & Nussbaum, 

1981), and general student performance (Matsumoto, Garside, & Roberts, 1991). The current study 

focuses on student perception 2 of a teacher and how that influences student module outcome (i.e., final 

class grade). 

While a vast generalisation, it is useful to categorise groups when studying behaviour based on 

cultural boundaries (Geertz, 1973). According to Geertz, researchers should acknowledge that culture 

may only be understood from the starting point of one’s own culture. For the purposes of this research, 

culture is used to mean a set of cohesive behaviours (Holliday, 1999). A distinction is made in the 

current research between Eastern (Confucian heritage culture) and Western (Socratic style) learning 

environments. Certainly there are differences in Confucian teachings between China and Japan or 

Korea, for instance, or Socratic in the USA vs. the Netherlands, but for the purposes of this study 3 , the 

divide is made between Eastern and Western style education. This is not to claim that there is 

homogeneity among Western or Eastern teaching behaviours; rather, it is that in this paper, ‘culture’ 

will be defined by Eastern (Confucian heritage culture) and Western (Socratic style) environments, as 

described by the research reviewed below. These distinctions have been made by others as well (e.g., 

Watkins & Biggs, 2001; Watkins & Biggs, 1996). 

Salili (2001) claims that while there has been a good deal of investigation into Western studentteacher 

interaction, fairly little research has been conducted in Chinese schools. According to Biggs 

and Watkins (2001), good teaching is viewed in the West as teaching using a repetitious, teacherdominated 

room. This is not to say that nothing is known about the Chinese classroom, however, it 

appears from a review of the literature that a good deal of knowledge is based on the ideals of 

Confucius along with individual studies, as opposed to any meta-analytic ones (see for example 

Watkins & Biggs, 2001; Watkins & Biggs, 1996). 

Communication and final grades 

Undoubtedly, students perceive and develop impressions of a teacher’s behaviours in part through the 

teacher’s style of communication. That is, depending on the way a teacher communicates effects the 

impression the student has of him/her. Van Tartwijk (1993), using a classroom-observation instrument, 

found that 63% of behaviours in a classroom are accounted for by the students reported perceptions of 

their teacher. If the way the teacher communicates is indeed related to student perception, it is 

important to understand how varying communication patterns influence student outcome (e.g., grades). 

Research indicates that teachers can make a valuable contribution towards creating a positive learning 

environment in classes (Christophel, 1990; Richmond, 1990). This is done through teacher interaction 

and/or communication with students (Wubbels & Levy, 1993). It logically follows then that the greater 

the teacher-student interaction and the more positive that interaction is, than the better the learning 

environment for the student and perhaps, the higher are the final grades. In fact, regardless of the 

taxonomy of teacher behaviours, this was found to be the case in the four studies named above. 

Understanding/Friendly 

Studies conducted in three countries, the Netherlands, U.S., and Australia, have shown that friendly, 

helpful, and understanding behaviour from teachers is related to both higher cognitive outcomes as 

well as positive student attitudes (Fisher, Henderson, & Fraser, 1995; Fisher & Rickards, 1997; 

Wubbels & Levy, 1993). Similarly, other researchers found that when lecturers created an open and 

friendly atmosphere adult learners perceive the teachers as being more effective (Comadena, Semlak, 

2 There are many ways to study perception (observation, interviews, qualitative techniques, etc.). In the current study, perception is measured by a 

quantitative scale and is paired with gender and culture 

3 This study is using London and South East Asian populations. 

46


& Escott, 1990). Australian males, however, prefer lower levels of teacher input into student work and 

less teacher helpfulness than do females (Hansford & Hattie, 1989). According to van Tartwijk (1993), 

something as simple as a teacher smiling leads students to perceive teachers as more helpful, friendly, 

and understanding. 

Student attitude in Western classrooms (e.g., Netherlands, USA, Australia) is positively related 

to academic achievement (e.g., Mager, 1968). Kim, Fisher, and Fraser (2000) report that Korean 

students’ attitudes are higher in classrooms in which they perceive friendly and understanding 

behaviours from their teachers. A study in Taiwan indicates that understanding and friendly behaviour 

on the part of the teacher is positively related to higher student academic achievement (She & Fisher, 

2002). One may then wonder whether understanding and friendly behaviour is useful for module 

outcome in all classrooms (Eastern and Western style) or whether there is some other factor, such as 

the particular type of education system (Socratic vs. Confucian heritage), contributing to these 

behaviour’s influences. This issue should be further explored. 

Challenging 

Both Good and Brophy (1974) and Walberg (1984) argue that teacher questioning and reaction to 

student answers are key factors in the interactions occurring between teachers and students. This type 

of challenging classroom, incorporating question and answer sessions, appears to promote relevance, 

encourage ownership of a given topic, assist students in their interpretations of material, and link new 

learning to what they already know (Deal & Sterling, 1997). In several studies conducted in Taiwan, 

She (1998, 2000, 2001) found that the use of questioning and verbal reinforcement are very important 

facets of teacher behaviour (i.e., allowing students to link new information with what they already 

know, helping students in analyzing the new knowledge). At the same time, Pratt, Kelly, and Wong 

(1998) argue that in Chinese society adult students may think that their questioning of a teacher, such 

as in a question and answer session, is akin to the student questioning the teacher’s competence. Others 

argue it could be viewed as a sign of disrespect (Salili, 2001). It may be the case then that older 

Chinese students would not respond well to a question and answer classroom style session. The 

learning environment may be changing for the younger Chinese student population though due to the 

dynamic nature of globalisation, such that they may like a more challenging environment, with the 

opportunity to interact using a question and answer dialogue. As an aside, it is possible that questioning 

a teacher is seen as acceptable in a Confucian heritage culture classroom; however, the ‘questioning’ 

may be different than what the Westerner is expecting. This is an issue to be further investigated in this 

piece of research. 

Controlling 

Research has shown the controlling behaviour on the part of teachers does increase cognitive gains 

among students (Fisher, et al., 1995; Fisher & Rickards, 1997; Wubbels & Levy, 1993). However, 

student attitudes were not high in this type of learning environment even though achievement was. 

Broken down by gender, a study looking at Dutch students found that females perceive their teachers 

as being more dominant (i.e., controlling) than did males (Levy, et al, 1992). A study by Hansford and 

Hattie (1989) indicates that Australian male students prefer an individualized, low teacher controlled 

classroom when compared with Australian female students. Such a classroom has high student 

independence to control work habits and behaviour, high level of student freedom to work at his/her 

own pace, and a high level of a student being able to conduct his/her own research. Certainly this has 

implications for teachers when assessing gender differences in their classrooms. Specifically for the 

Eastern students, Pratt, et al (1998) believe that in Chinese society the teacher-student relationship may 

be compared to the father-son, or authority figure- subordinate, one. The role of teacher demands a 

level of respect for hierarchy and authority on the part of the student. The teacher is expected to 

exercise a degree of authority over the material which he/she is teaching. The researchers further argue 

47


that Western society teachers may compromise their authority role in a desire to be liked. While a 

teacher’s behaviour towards the student may be friendly outside of the classroom, inside it the 

relationship must hold a certain degree of formality. Thus, based to some extent on gender and cultural 

background, students may respond differently to a controlling teacher. 

Encouragement/Praise 

Christophel (1990) and Richmond (1990) posit that teacher behaviours directly influence student 

motivation by increasing positive affect on the part of the student for the teacher and the subject. 

Motivation, which may be provided by teacher encouragement or praise of the student, enhances 

interest and involvement in class (Frymier, 1994). Motivated students report looking forward to 

attending lectures (Frymier, 1994). Encouragement and praise of a student may lead to a virtuous cycle 

of more student motivation which may in turn lead to greater desire to learn, yet again increasing 

motivation. Unfortunately, it is not indicated in these studies whether encouragement and praise 

influence student cognitive outcomes. A study conducted in Taiwan using final grade and a 

communication behaviour scale (described later) found that student achievement is increased when 

students feel that their teacher exhibits behaviours such as encouragement and praise (She & Fisher, 

2002). 

Non-verbal 

While verbal messages are believed to impact cognitive aspects of communication, non-verbal 

messages appear to be responsible for affective types of communication (McCroskey, Sallinen, Fayer, 

Richmond, & Barraclough, 1996). Babad (1992) argues that non-verbal behaviours are so important in 

academic settings because they may express true feelings or emotions that are hidden when conveying 

information in a verbal-only way. Non-verbal behaviour may also regulate verbal communication 

(Philippot, Feldman, & McGee, 1992). Student perceptions of teacher’s non-verbal behaviour is 

related to student reports of the teacher’s interpersonal behaviour in general (van Tartwijk, 1993). 

Although a broad generalisation, presumably this means that the more positive non-verbal behaviour 

the teacher exhibits, the more positively the student feels about the teacher. Certainly students interpret 

behaviours differently, but in an effort to draw conclusions about how particular behaviours impact 

classrooms, such a generalisation is warranted. 

She (1998, 2000, 2001) observed that non-verbal behaviours in Taiwanese classrooms has 

shown the importance of using such communication styles and that student achievement is higher when 

students believe their teachers use positive non-verbal behaviours in the classroom. Non-verbal 

behaviours associated positively with cognitive learning are things such as eye contact and smiling 

(McCroskey, et al, 1996). Factors such as these may influence how a message is perceived. That is, the 

content of the message may be distorted or incorporated in an unexpected way due to the irrelevant 

factors such as eye contact or smiling, interfering with the actual message (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986). 

Babad (1992) goes as far as to claim that when both verbal and non-verbal communication 

channels are used, the non-verbal ones should be thought of as more truthful and revealing of actual 

held beliefs. In fact, if non-verbal communication is thought of as more revealing of actual beliefs and 

students are aware of their teachers’ underlying feelings towards them, the non-verbal behaviours may 

contribute even more dramatically than verbal behaviours to teacher effectiveness (Philippot, et al, 

1992). It should be clear then that non-verbal aspects of communication in a classroom cannot be 

dismissed (Philippot, et al, 1992). 

Effects of Communication 

Both intentional and unintentional communication behaviour may influence student outcome in a 

particular classroom (Babad, 1992). It is unclear at present if differential treatment towards students 

merely aids some in attaining at higher levels, or actually lowers the achievement level of those 

48


students who receive a less stimulating environment. Perhaps this would depend on how explicit the 

teacher is in conveying or hiding the differential treatment (non-verbally, controlling manner). Those 

who focus on communicating their ‘rightness’ with little regard for interaction with the students 

become ineffectual as teachers (Osterman, 1993). Nonetheless, knowing how students perceive teacher 

communication behaviour and how it affects module outcome, could aid teachers in thinking about 

how to positively enhance their classroom environment. It is anticipated that this would be the case in 

both Eastern and Western classrooms; however, the behaviour may manifest itself differently based on 

cultural norms. In the current study, only Western style classrooms are investigated albeit partially in 

an Eastern society. 

Communication and demographics 

Mehrabian’s (1969) seminal work in culture posits that it may influence a student’s perceptions of his 

or her teacher’s behaviours. More recently, research on the impact of teacher behaviours found that 

cognitive learning did not differ among African-American, Asian-American, Hispanic, and non- 

Hispanic Caucasian groups of students (Sanders & Wiseman, 1990). Research on a blended learning 

programme (to be described later) assessed module outcome scores for students based on learning 

location (i.e., London, Hong Kong, Cairo) (Sadler, Bakry, Chera, Hatzipanagos, Milankovic-Atkinson, 

& Murphy, 2002). They found an increase in outcome scores across the three locations over time, 

although most dramatically in Hong Kong. The conclusion drawn by the researchers to explain the 

increase is that the teacher behaviour changed over time such that the teachers were able to assist their 

students in doing well on their final exam (Sadler, et al, 2002). Yet the Hong Kong teachers altered 

their behaviours most which led to the most dramatic changes on module outcome. These studies 

spanning a 30 plus year time period may be indicative of the fact that teacher behaviours are important 

contributors to student success regardless of ethnic background; they warrant continued exploration. 

Perceptions of teacher communication may be influenced by various behaviours in different 

cultures (McCroskey, et al, 1996). Cultures should not be thought of as individuals living in different 

parts of the world; rather, cultures should be considered as sociopsychological entities (Lee, 

Matsumoto, Kobayashi, Krupp, Maniatis, & Robert, 1992). An individual who considers herself 

Chinese, even if she is living in London, may have more of a Chinese cultural personality than an 

English one. Culture as a concept may be better defined by an individual rather than arbitrary criteria. 

For research purposes however this is difficult to achieve. In the current study, participants self-defined 

their cultural background in an effort to eliminate arbitrary criteria to determine their background; the 

generic terms of Western and Eastern serve as useful proxies in enabling a study of this sort to be 

carried out. 

Finally, with respect to gender explicitly, a number of studies indicate females tend to perceive 

their learning environments more positively than do males (Fraser, Giddings, & McRobbie, 1995; 

Fisher, Fraser, & Rickards, 1997; Rawnsley & Fisher, 1997). For example, Taiwanese females report 

their teachers as being more understanding and friendly than do males (She & Fisher, 2002). 

Taiwanese males, on the other hand, perceive their teachers as exhibiting more controlling-type 

behaviours than do their female counterparts (She & Fisher, 2002). While this is only one study, it does 

lend credibility to the idea that there are gender-based differences in perceptions of teacher behaviours. 

Global Campus 

Global Campus (GC) is a distance learning project originated at a university in London, UK. With 

overseas partners, the university strives to offer a blended learning mode for both postgraduate and 

undergraduate students. Blended learning allows for face to face and electronic teaching. Course 

materials are available in a VLE and on a CD-ROM. Students attend a weekly lecture at a learning 

resource centre close to where they live. Administrative support is provided at the university in London 

49


as well as in the distance location (e.g., Hong Kong). Students are able to contact the lecturer directly 

in London, their local tutor at the distance location, and administrative components in either location 

for assistance. The degree programmes are also run in the conventional, face-to-face mode in the UK. 

GC was created to exploit the advantages brought by the development of flexible learning 

arrangements for London-based students as well as to efficiently deliver high-quality courses to partner 

institutions abroad (Murphy, Bakry, Milankovic-Atkinson, Sadler & Woodman, 2001). The 

programme brings a Western style educational system (based at a UK university) to a traditionally 

Eastern (Confucian heritage culture) society. Several research projects are ongoing to determine the 

effectiveness of the blended learning environment as compared with the conventional, face-to-face one 

as well as the introduction of the Western programme to the East. The following study is one such 

piece of research. 

The current study aims to assess whether perceptions of communication patterns vary among 

students enrolled in a Masters of Computing Science programme. The study evaluates various types of 

communication in two locations (UK, China) to determine whether culture, gender, and module 

outcome are related to perceptions of communication. 

Method 

Participants 

There were 141 participants who took part in the study. All are MSc students in Computing Science. 

Seventy-eight of the participants are male, 40 are female and the remainder did not report their gender. 

Seventy-five participated while enrolled as students in modules in the UK. These students were given 

the questionnaire in their classroom in London. The majority of these are, for the purposes of this 

study, considered the European sub sample. There are several (28) who make up the Indian 

subcontinent sub sample. This group was subsequently omitted from analyses as there were both not 

enough of them and they were not cohesive enough culturally to consider them as one unit. Therefore, 

47 participants were included in the analyses from London (all citizens of EU countries). Sixty-six of 

the one hundred forty-one are Chinese students. The total usable sample was 113, including 47 

Western and 66 Eastern participants. The Chinese students are based primarily in the south of the 

country, in and around the Hong Kong reg city (e.g., Hong Kong, Shenzhen). After completion, the 

questionnaires were mailed back to the reion. These students were given the questionnaire by the GC 

local administrative offices in their homesearchers in London. It is worth noting that while individuals 

all come from different backgrounds, grouping participants by sociopsychological means is useful. The 

European students are members of EU countries and were previously educated in Western style 

classrooms. While there are certainly cultural differences within the European group, and for that 

matter any group that is classified based on country or location of origin, since academic background 

was being investigated, it was necessary to group students who came from Western and Eastern style 

classrooms. 

The Chinese group originated from one country, albeit a diverse and large one, and were 

educated in a Confucian heritage style classroom (i.e., Eastern style). All students involved in the 

research who provided their email addresses were entered into a prize drawing as a thank you for their 

participation. One student won a £20 voucher to an online book store. Staff and students were asked if 

they wished to be involved; participation for both was voluntary. 

Students provided specific ratings for lecturers. These were not of interest for this study. 

Rather, the composite data across lecturers were used. Lecturers came from Eastern and Western 

backgrounds; they were male and female. 

50


Materials 

It was determined that quantitative data should be collected for the following reasons. First, an existing 

questionnaire used with a Western and Eastern sample had been used in several previous studies (e.g., 

She & Fisher, 2002). Second, due to the nature of data collection across cultures, it was anticipated that 

a level of rigor would be lost if the research needed to rely upon assistants at the distance sites to 

collect qualitative data. Third, analysis of quantitative data provides a foundation for comparison that 

the researchers did not feel was possible with such a diverse group of students if qualitative data were 

used. 

The 40 item Teacher Communication Behavior Questionnaire (TCBQ) (She & Fisher, 2000) 

was used to determine student perception of variations in communication style with lecturers. The 

questionnaire is comprised of five scales, or types of communication. They are (a) challenging, (b) 

encouragement and praise, (c) non-verbal support, (d) understanding and friendly, and (e) controlling 

communication. Each question is answered by circling a number, 1 through 5, on a Likert scale. The 

scale ranges from almost never (1) to almost always (5) with interim choices of seldom, sometimes, 

and often. The use of a questionnaire with a Likert scale was desirable for this sample because it 

provides a visual scale (1 through 5 evenly spaced on a page) for participants when expression of 

perceptions in English language varies across comparison groups. Reliability was estimated by She and 

Fisher (2000) in Taiwan and Australia using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. The coefficient ranged 

between .86 and .93 in both countries on the five scales. Validity was measured by principle 

components analysis. According to She and Fisher (2000), the 40-item questionnaire was structured 

based mainly on the factor analysis and in small part on the interviews conducted with the students. 

Discriminant validity measures ranged from .06 to .45, indicating small enough correlations between 

the scales to be satisfactory (She & Fisher, 2000). Chart 1 in Appendix 1 provides the questions for 

each of the scales. 

While the questionnaire was being validated by She and Fisher (2000), translations and back 

translations were done to increase the cultural appropriateness of it. The questionnaire was initially 

written in Chinese, then translated to English. A back translation was done by people who were not 

involved in the initial translation. Modifications of both the Chinese and English versions occurred 

following the back translation. Only the English version was used with the current sample. Although a 

number of the participants are Chinese, the MSc programme is structured such that the students attend 

lectures in English. In order to enrol in the programme, students must have achieved a minimum 

competency, to learn and be assessed, in English. As this research was connected to the university 

programme, a decision was made to provide a questionnaire about English language lectures in 

English. 

Gender, culture, and module outcome were measured. Gender was measured by having the 

participant circle either ‘male’ or ‘female’. Culture was measured by asking two questions, one about 

country of birth and another about time spent in the country of current study. These were open-ended 

questions forcing the participants to fill in their response. This was done in an effort to allow the 

student to select his/her own cultural background as previous work indicates that culture may be more 

individual than one’s ethnic background (Lee, et al, 1992). Module outcome was measured by 

retrieving the final scores each student received in the module. The lecturer gave the student a final 

grade that he/she saw fit and that was the number used for the module outcome variable. This grade 

was determined by a combination of assessment from a proctored exam and course work. The lecturers 

did not see the questionnaires completed by the students and do not know specifically what each 

student wrote about the lecturer’s communication behaviours. Following the final assessment period, 

lecturers submitted grades for each student. Grades were submitted approximately four weeks after the 

module ended. Researchers matched the student grade to the student questionnaire (via student ID 

number). Questionnaires were not anonymous but students were reassured that lecturers would not see 

the student questionnaire. 

51


Procedure 

Questionnaires were distributed to the London-based students in the spring of 2004. Two researchers 

attended lecture sessions to disseminate and collect the questionnaires, and to respond to questions 

about the research. Questionnaires were distributed in two ways with the Chinese students. First, an 

electronic copy of the questionnaire was sent to each of the locally run GC administrative offices (e.g., 

Shenzhen, Hong Kong). Other Chinese participants were attending a course in London beginning in 

late spring of 2004. Two researchers attended one of their first meetings to disseminate and collect the 

questionnaires, as well as answer questions. Completion of the questionnaires took from 15 to 30 

minutes. The students were asked about perceptions of their teacher who they had in the module in 

which the data were collected. Each student reported on one lecturer’s behaviours. The study received 

approval from the university psychology ethics review committee. Permission was also obtained from 

the questionnaire authors to use the instrument in the current study. 

Hypotheses 

The study models earlier work comparing communication patterns at the secondary school level in 

Australia and Taiwan (She & Fisher, 2002; She & Fisher, 2000). It uses a similar framework to 

determine student perceptions of communication at the university level. This model was copied 

because the researchers felt that the work of She and Fisher (2000, 2002) well exemplifies what is 

currently being investigated. This research was designed to examine module outcome, culture and 

gender differences based on perceived communication patterns. The closest study done previously to 

this was She and Fisher’s. 

Several hypotheses were developed. 

1) Hypothesis one is that there is a positive relationship between student perceptions of 

teacher communication patterns and module outcome (final class grade). That is, the 

larger the degree to which students believe teachers interact with the students, the higher 

the module outcome is for the particular student. 

2) Hypothesis two is exploratory. It is expected that there will be cultural differences with 

the Chinese and UK students reporting different degrees of understanding/friendly, 

encouragement/praise, non-verbal, challenging and controlling behaviours from their 

teachers. However, no predictions are being made with respect to Chinese vs. UK-based 

student’s ratings. 

3) Hypothesis three is that female students will report greater levels of all types of 

behaviour from their teachers than will male students. 

Results 

A multiple regression and follow-up paired analyses provided some support for hypothesis 1. 

Correlational analysis would not provide answers to the questions of causation (Scaife, 2004), 

therefore multiple regression was used for the analyses. It was believed that there would be a 

significant relationship between grades and the five communication factors which there was, (F (1,96) 

= 3.01, p < .05). However, only two of the five communication factors were significant in the post-hoc 

tests, challenging (F (1,96) = 2.48, p


Table 1: Munication behaviour means and standard deviations 

Variable N Mean SD 

Challenging 113 3.73 .72 

Encouragement/Praise 112 3.46 .80 

Non-verbal 113 3.56 .73 

Understanding/Friendly 113 4.11 .69 

Controlling 112 3.14 .81 

Hypothesis 2 was developed in an attempt to analyse the cultural differences among this 

sample. A multivariate analysis of variance for hypothesis 2 was conducted due to the type of data 

collected (Bray & Maxwell, 1982). The MANOVA was significant, Wilks’ Lambda (F = 1.48, p < 

.001). Post-hoc tests indicated significance for culture on two of the communication variables: 

challenging (F = 2.55, p < .05) and encouragement and praise (F = 3.18, p < .01). The mean for the 

encouragement/praise variable was 3.74 (SD= .61) for the Chinese and 2.22 (SD = .91) for the London 

sample. For challenging behaviour for the Chinese (mean = 3.56, SD = .87) and for the London group 

(mean = 2.31, SD = .77), partially supporting the hypothesis that there would be differences between 

the groups. The Chinese perceived greater levels of both encouragement/praise and challenging 

behaviour from their lecturers. 

Support for hypothesis 3 was determined by the same multiple analysis of variance as for 

hypothesis 2. There was a significant difference in gender with respect to the five communication 

factors (F (1,112) = 914.04, p


2000; Wubbels & Levy, 1993). The hypothesis predicted that greater levels of interaction between 

teachers and students would result in higher module outcome scores. Many view teachers who 

challenge their students to in fact help their students achieve at higher levels (Good & Brophy, 1974; 

Walberg, 1984; Wubbels & Levy, 1993). Challenging behaviour may be demonstrated, for example, by 

teachers asking questions in class. 

Questioning in class is has been shown to assist students in learning (Deal & Sterling, 1997; 

She, 1998, 2000, 2001). Whether this is due to more study time, alertness in the lecture for fear of 

being called upon and not knowing the answer, or other reasons, being challenged has been shown to 

lead to higher academic achievement (Good & Brophy, 1974; Walberg, 1984; Wubbels & Levy, 1993). 

Controlling behaviour paradoxically may lead to a mix of outcomes depending upon individual 

responses (Fisher, et al, 1995; Fisher & Rickards, 1997; Wubbels & Levy, 1993). There are instances 

in all environments in which an individual who is too controlled will rebel thereby not reaching the 

goal the controlling individual had for him. At the same time, there are instances where controlling 

behaviour leads to desired and higher outcomes. The latter was hypothesized for the current study. 

Specifically, it was thought that any sort of behaviour by which the teacher interacted with the students 

would lead to a higher module grade (i.e., the Hawthorne Effect). This hypothesis was supported by the 

research. 

Encouragement and praise was anticipated to assist students to achieve higher grades. It is 

unclear why encouraging students in the classroom did not enhance student grade as was predicted in 

hypothesis 1. It is possible that the types of encouragement and praise that were given by this group of 

teachers were of a kind nature, rather than a helpful one. That is, to encourage students in such a way 

that they are confident about their academic abilities, translating into an altered student behaviour and 

module outcome, may be different than simply providing encouragement to a student. An idea such as 

this needs to be further explored. 

Hypothesis 1 predicted that non-verbal support would enhance the student’s module outcome. 

Non-verbal support, however, may not be a strong enough way of communicating in the lecture 

environment to elicit higher grades. One may speculate that a teacher may be too remote from the 

student (physically far away while teaching, unable to interact 1-to-1) such that non-verbal support 

does not have a direct impact on grades (Babad, 1992; McCroskey, et al, 1996). In the current study 

perhaps this was the case as non-verbal support did not have a statistically significant effect on module 

outcome. 

It was also predicted that understanding and friendly behaviour would be significantly related 

to higher academic achievement (Fisher, et al, 1995; Fisher & Rickards, 1997; Wubbels & Levy, 

1993). It was anticipated that a teacher who is understanding/friendly increases student’s desire to 

please the teacher, thus motivating the student to try harder. However, this sort of finding did not 

surface and understanding/friendly behaviour was found to be unrelated to module outcome. It may be 

possible that a teacher who is quite understanding/friendly provides behaviour allowing the student to 

believe she will do well in the module regardless of how hard she tries. People often translate 

understanding/friendly behaviour into being liked and doing well at something (van Tartwijk, 1993). It 

is of course possible that understanding and friendly behaviour on the part of the teacher led to both 

desire to please and lack of motivation in working hard because the student assumed she would do well 

in the module. This may be why understanding and friendly behaviour had no relationship to module 

outcome. 

It is important that teachers are aware that at least based on the findings from this study, 

controlling and challenging behaviour are related to module outcome. If it is possible for teachers to 

challenge their students, and to have the students perceive the teachers as controlling, it may increase 

module outcome for those students. Of course teachers would need to engage in this behaviour and 

have students perceive this behaviour. The two step process this requires may be difficult to promote. 

There were some significant relationships between culture and the communication variables as 

would be expected based on the work of Salili (2001), Watkins and Biggs (2001), Watkins and Biggs 

54


(1996) and others. The multivariate analyses furthered clarified these findings indicating that two of 

the communication variables, challenging behaviour and encouragement and praise, varied with 

cultural background. The Chinese and European subgroups differed significantly on their ratings of 

both challenging behaviour and encouragement and praise type behaviour. 

The Chinese group (including the students based in China and those in London who arrived 

from China within one month prior to data collection) rated the teachers as both more challenging and 

having higher levels of encouragement and praise. While it was predicted that there would be 

differences in ratings on the communication variables between the Chinese and European samples, no 

predictions were made with respect to the differences. In an effort to explain these findings, it might be 

the case that the Chinese students do not expect their teachers to have traditionally positive (e.g., 

encouragement) behavioural traits in their teaching roles. The Chinese may expect teachers to present 

the material and not engage with the students in much beyond straightforward teaching, vis-à-vis Pratt 

et al (1998)’s work and Confucian heritage culture education settings (Watkins & Biggs, 2001; 

Watkins & Biggs, 1996). This may include a challenging style but it was unexpected on the part of the 

student that the teacher would exhibit encouragement/praise type behaviour. The particular MSc 

programme studied tries to encourage a Western-based approach to teaching which may account for 

this finding (Murphy, et al, 2001). The students are Chinese and often taught by Chinese lecturers; 

nonetheless, the programme requires that the lecturers teach in a Western style, as described 

previously. It would be interesting to know if the UK-based programme has influenced the teachers of 

the Chinese students to engage in more Western-style teaching behaviour (i.e., encouragement/praise). 

This could explain why the Chinese students have rated the teachers as having such behaviours. While 

it makes logical sense based on Confucian heritage style teaching 

(http://www.china.org.cn/english/China/94272.htm) that the Chinese students would rate their teachers 

as being more challenging, it would also imply that they would perceive teachers to have more 

controlling type behaviour. This was not supported and requires further investigation. 

It is also interesting to note that the European students did not rate their teachers as having 

understanding/friendly, encouragement/praise, and non-verbal support behaviour. Based on anecdotal 

and not prediction-based work, it might have been expected that teachers would be rated in such a way. 

At the same time, because the London based students expect their teachers to act more as a friend (e.g., 

calling the teacher by first name) they do not feel that a slight hint towards understanding/friendly, 

encouragement/praise, or non-verbal behaviour is truly behaviour of that sort. Rather it is just natural 

and in order to elicit perceptions of teacher behaviour on those variables from the European sample 

(those raised and educated in EU countries), there needed to be a far more dramatic display of those 

behaviours. This needs further investigation. 

When implementing a programme such as GC, a programme that promotes use of a Western 

designed Masters degree in a not fully European setting, one must be aware of cultural pitfalls 

(Murphy, 2006). The Chinese students may be expecting a programme far different from what they are 

receiving. Perhaps this is why they rated the teachers as encouraging/praising. Because culture 

influences how groups of people perceive a given situation (Shiraev & Levy, 2004), it is crucial that 

teachers are aware not only of how their culture is generally perceived by students from a different 

culture, but also how their communication behaviours play into the student’s stereotypes of the 

teacher’s culture. In turn, naturally, teachers may want to make an effort to understand how 

communicative behaviour alters student performance. Differences based on cultural background should 

be further explored. As education tries to become more global it is essential to develop an 

understanding of how communication behaviour, influenced by culture, effects perceptions of teachers 

and more substantially, module outcome. 

It was predicted that female students would report higher levels of all five types of 

communication behaviour. This hypothesis was supported regardless of lecturer gender. Lecturers were 

both male and female and female students rated male and female lecturers higher on the 

communication variables. Perhaps the female students were more aware of teacher behavioural styles 

55


while the male students focused primarily on course material. It might be then, that when working in 

academic settings, males process content information while females process content and behavioural 

style to a greater extent. Folklore often provides examples of females being more aware of contextual 

differences and this might have surfaced in a research setting. Research indicates that females perceive 

their learning environments more positively as well (Fraser, et al, 1995; Fisher, et al, 1997; Rawnsley 

& Fisher, 1997). That research may be corroborated by the current findings in that perceiving greater 

levels of communication is positive and females did in fact perceive higher levels of teacher 

communication. It is important then for teachers to be aware of their communication behaviour so that 

females as a group are not unfairly disadvantaged, or distinctly advantaged, over the male students. In 

this study, ratings of teachers by females versus males were not significantly related with module 

outcome. However, that does not necessarily mean that teachers do not have to be aware of their 

communication styles which did vary significantly with gender and how it influences module 

dynamics. 

Males and females perceived communication behaviour differently, but those differences were 

predicted (Fraser, et al, 1995; Fisher, et al, 1997; Rawnsley & Fisher, 1997). As they were expected 

based on past findings, it is likely that teachers are already aware of such differences and are attending 

to them. Research of this sort should still be funnelled to those in education settings working with 

students to ensure that there is awareness of the effects of communication behaviour on module 

outcome. 

Limitations 

There are several limitations to this study. First, the study looked at two cultures within a select 

population (i.e., students in one Masters programme). Thus, one should be cautious when generalizing 

these findings. It may be that the Chinese and European samples of MSc students at this university are 

distinct subsets of Chinese and European computing science MSc students. It would then be 

inappropriate to assume that these findings are useful for all international Masters degree programmes. 

Additionally, the culture of a given MSc programme itself might vary widely. This may be a caveat to 

generalisability and therefore research reported here should be corroborated by other work. 

Another limitation is the data itself. While the questionnaire provided a good deal of 

information about students in the programme, using observation techniques and interviews in addition 

would likely provide richer data and more rounded picture of the communication behaviour. In the 

future, it might be useful to triangulate these data collection methods to more fully understand 

communication in the classroom. 

Future Studies 

This piece of research provides some evidence for the importance of communication style in the 

classroom. However, many questions remain to be answered. For example, is the student participant 

group used in this study representative of Masters degree students in other programmes, or other 

universities? This study could be expanded to investigate whether there are differing impressions of 

teacher behaviour at other universities or different programmes within the same university. 

Another variation on this study may be to use additional data to further understand opinions of 

these students. Observations, interviews, or teacher questionnaires may be useful in understanding 

more fully what communication style in a classroom means in relation to module grade outcome, 

cultural background or gender. 

It may be worthwhile to look at other patterns of communication (i.e., permissive style, 

interactive teaching) to see if they alter module outcome. Perhaps the communication styles 

investigated here are only some of the important behaviours that influence grades. Other behaviour 

styles may also affect module outcome. 

56


Taken together, this study sheds light on how communication behaviour may affect module 

outcome. It is important that findings such as those reported in this study are provided to teachers so 

that they are aware of how their classroom behaviour may affect students and their grades. 

Acknowledgement 

The authors wish to thank Mike Mimirimis for his assistance with data collection and entry. 

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59

Appendix 1 

Chart 1: Items from the TCBQ (She & Fisher, 2000) 


Almost Some- Almost 

Never Seldom times Often Always 

1 The teacher asks questions that require me to provide steps of ways of 

solving problems. 1 

1. 2 3 4 5 

2. This teacher asks questions that make me think hard about things that I have 

learned in class. 

1 2 3 4 5 

3. This teacher asks questions that require me to carefully analyze information 

in order to answer. 

1 2 3 4 5 

4. This teacher asks questions that require me to use a judgement to answer. 1 2 3 4 5 

5. This teacher asks questions that require me to apply what I have learned in 

class in order to answer. 

1 2 3 4 5 

6. This teacher asks questions that require me to integrate information that I 

have learned. 

1 2 3 4 5 

7. This teacher asks questions that require me to understand what I have 

learned in class in order to answer. 

1 2 3 4 5 

8. This teacher asks questions that require me to give explanations in my own 

words. 

1 2 3 4 5 

9. This teacher asks for my opinions during discussions. 1 2 3 4 5 

10. This teacher encourages me to discuss the answers to questions. 1 2 3 4 5 

11. This teacher encourages me to discuss my ideas with other students. 1 2 3 4 5 

12. This teacher encourages me to express my opinions about a topic. 1 2 3 4 5 

13. This teacher praises me for asking a good question. 1 2 3 4 5 

14. This teacher praises my answers. 1 2 3 4 5 

15. This teacher uses my ideas as part of the lesson. 1 2 3 4 5 

16. This teacher uses my answer as part of the explanation of the lesson. 1 2 3 4 5 

17. This teacher nods his/her head to show his/her understanding of my opinion. 1 2 3 4 5 

18. This teacher nods his/her head to show support while I answer a question. 1 2 3 4 5 

19. Without speaking, this teacher indicates support for me through his/her 

facial expression. 

1 2 3 4 5 

20. Without speaking, this teacher supports me when I have a problem through 

his/her facial expression. 

1 2 3 4 5 

21. Without speaking, this teacher shows he/she understands my opinion 

through his/her facial expression 

1 2 3 4 5 

22. Without speaking, this teacher show his/her enthusiasm about my answer 

through his/her facial expression. 

1 2 3 4 5 

23. Without speaking, this teacher show his/her enthusiasm about my question 

through his/her facial expression. 

1 2 3 4 5 

24. Without speaking, this teacher shows his/her support through his/her eyes. 1 2 3 4 5 

25. This teacher trusts me. 1 2 3 4 5 

26. This teacher is willing to explain things to me again. 1 2 3 4 5 

27. If I have something to say, this teacher will listen. 1 2 3 4 5 

28. This teacher realizes when I do not understand. 1 2 3 4 5 

29. This teacher is patient with me. 1 2 3 4 5 

30. This teacher is friendly to me. 1 2 3 4 5 

31. This teacher is someone I can depend on. 1 2 3 4 5 

32. This teacher cares about me. 1 2 3 4 5 

33. This teacher’s standards of behaviour are very high. 1 2 3 4 5 

34. This teacher expects me to obey his/her instructions. 1 2 3 4 5 

35. This teacher insists that I follow his/her rules. 1 2 3 4 5 

36. This teacher insists that I do everything(s) he/she tell me to do. 1 2 3 4 

37. This teachers demands that I do exactly as I am told. 1 2 3 4 5 

38. This teacher does not allow me to do things differently from what he/she 

expect. 

1 2 3 4 5 

39. This teacher makes very clear to me that standard of behaviour expected of 

all students in this class 

1 2 3 4 5 

40. This teacher demands that I listen to instructions. 1 2 3 4 5 

60


Application of Analytic Network Process in the Enterprise Risk 

Management: An Example of the Selecting Best Operator in 

the Airport Business 

Ayse Kucuk Yilmaz 

Anadolu University, Ikı Eylul Kampus, School of Civil Aviation, 26470, Eskisehir, Turkey 

E-mail: akucukyilmaz@anadolu.edu.tr 

Tel: +90 535 462 55 90 Office: +90222 335 35 80-6812 

Abstract 

This paper proposes an application of the analytic network process (ANP) for the selection 

of best operator for enterprise risk management (ERM) practice in the airport business. 

This survey is deal with solving “Who has best practices related to the ERM 

Implementation in the airport business?” problem. In order to identification of the best 

practice criterias to the ERM is realized to interview with airport managers, analysis of best 

practice surveys and ERM guidelines. ERM is required to serious investment, resources 

and integrated holistic approach. In this complex concept, many various criterias is 

important to best ERM implementation. ANP is used solving the problem, which it is 

include many measure and inderdependency. TAV Airport Holding Co. and Fraport A.G. 

are determined as alternatives in the proposed ANP model. 

Keywords: Airport Business; Analytic network process; Enterprise risk management; 

Factors affecting best enterprise risk management practice. 

1. Introduction 

Recent developments and changes in the airport business environment have completely changed both 

the risks organisations face and their management of those risks. Globalisation, e-business, new 

organisational partnership, changes in the air transportation industries and the increasing speed� of 

business activity are rapidly changing and expanding the organisations face. ERM has emerged as an 

important new business trend at the airport business environment. ERM is structured and disciplined 

approach aligning strategy, process, people, technology and knowledge wtih the purpose of 

evaluationg and managing the uncertainties the enterprise faces as it creates value. “Enterprise-wide” 

means the removal of traditional functional, divisional, departmental, or cultural barriers. A truly 

holistic, integrated, future-focused, and process-oriented approach helps an organisation manage all 

key business risks and opportunities with the intent of maximising shareholder value fort he enterprise 

as a whole. Business leaders are realising that risk creates opportunitiy that opportunity creates value, 

and that value ultimately creates shareholder wealth. “How best to manage risks to derive that value” 

has become the critical question. ERM has the potential to provide organisations with a new 

competitive advantage (Mercer Oliver Wyman, 2006). 

The art of managing risk is more challenging than ever. ERM is become a focus point in the air 

transportation industry and airport business like as the other business and industries. Today business 

environment, managers is focused to “how should the best ERM practice?” question. Most 

organisations are uncertain about how, exactly, to translate the concept of ERM into concrete actions 

steps that will help them best practice. Rather, there is an emerging consensus about how to achieve 

effective ERM implementation and how it can benefit the organization. In this study, I deal with 

61


solving “who are the best operator about ERM implementation in the airport business?” problem. Best 

practice criterias are determined that affect the best practice of ERM by doing literature searches and 

analysis of ERM framework guidelines, case study and ERM survey reports. TAV Airport Holding Co. 

and Fraport A.G. are determined as alternatives in the ANP model. These alternatives are assessed 

according to the strategic, operational and financial criterias. In the result of this model application, one 

of them is selected as best alternative regarding to the ERM implementation. But many efforts will 

require being best in the ERM concept. So, many suggestions are developed in the conclusion part of 

this study. 

Analytic Network Process (ANP) methodology is used in this study. ANP provides a more 

generalized model in decision-making without making assumptions about the independency of the 

higher-level elements from lower-level elements and also of the elements within a level. Despite all 

these merits, the applications of ANP are not very common in a decision-making problem. However, in 

recent years, there has been an increase in the use of ANP in multi-criteria decision-making problems. 

In the selection of a provider, the criteria are of both the types, subjective and objective. These criteria 

also have some interdependencies, which cannot be captured by the popular AHP method. Therefore, 

instead of using the commonly used AHP approach for solving such types of problems, I recommend 

the use of an ANP-based model for the selection of a best operator. 

The objective of this paper is to introduce a comprehensive decision methodology for the 

selection of a best operator that airport managers can consider to their implementations about ERM. 

The proposed methodology allows for assessment and benchmarking of alternative operators. Also, 

this paper is give information about best practice of ERM. Following questions are responsed in this 

study: 

• What is ERM and best ERM practice? 

• What is the best practice criterias? 

• What should do to the best practice about ERM in the airport business? 

In this study ANP serves as the decision analysis tool and we implemented it using Super 

Decisions, sophisticated and user-friendly software that implements ANP (Saaty, 2001a). ANP makes 

it possible to deal systematically with the interactions and dependencies among the factors in a 

decision system (Bayazit and Carpak, 2007). The criteras were based on the results of literature search 

and analysis of guidelines published by various organizations about ERM framework given fourth part 

of this study as literature review. Also In this section, I mention the ANP methodology and explained 

to considered criteria’s effecting to best practice of ERM. The criterias of ERM best practice to airport 

business listed that dividing into three main groups such as strategic, operational and financial. The 

reason of this division is shaping according to the ANP approach. ANP approach is explained appendix 

section in this study. 

The rest of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 explains the importance of ERM to air 

transportation industry and expecially airport business. Section 3 explains the concept of the ERM and 

ERM best practice. In Section 4, literature related to the ERM and best practice survey is reviewed. In 

section 5, current ERM implementations are reviewed in the airport business: TAV Airport Holding 

Co. and Fraport A.G. Also in this section, Best ERM practice criterias are presented. In Section 6, the 

proposed method based on the ANP is developed. Finally, according to the findings of this research, 

conclusions and suggestions are presented. Some conclusion remarks are made in the last section, 

while the appendix briefly reviews the decision making tool ANP. 

2. Importance of ERM to Airport Business 

Air transportation industry one of the world’s most important industries. Air transportation plays a vital 

role in developing and facilitating economic growth, particularly in developing countries like Turkey. 

Airports, as a key factor of production of air transport, are directly impacted by what happens to the 

industry. Development and changes in the air transportation such as deregulation, liberalization, 

62


privatization, commercialization, and competitive structure, have an influence over airports as critical 

and fundamental element of air transportation system. 

ERM is important in airport business. Airports are and will continue to be the engine of 

economic growth. Airports are fundamental element of air transportation system. In addition, airport 

business practices play a critical role in shaping airline competition. Development and changes in the 

air transportation such as deregulation, liberalization, privatization and commercialization, and 

competitive structure, influence over airports as a part of air transportation system. These development 

and changes have important consequences in planning, design, and management of airports. 

Uncertainty and risks are increasing due to these developments and changes. ERM implementation is 

essential for survival of airport business. In the air transportation sector, airports, air traffic control 

facilities, and government airlines become more commercial-oriented and have been partially or fully 

privatized in many cases. 

Airlines and airports face challenging in dynamic market environments that in the short term 

are extremely sensitive to the world economic and political situation. Airport business practices play a 

critical role in shaping airline competition (FAA/OST Task Force Study, 1999). Uncertainty and risks 

are increasing and driving due to this developments and changes. So, ERM is guiding for survival of 

airport business. 

Commercialized and privatized airports are improving and increasing in terms of service 

concepts, quantity and network in the world-wide. This trend indicates the rapid development of airport 

business. This process is risky and risks must be managed. Air transportation and airport businesses 

have more risks than any other industries. These risks appear suddenly and have strong impacts. 

Survival of the airport business strongly depends on their ability of managing them entirely. 

Implementation of ERM model can offer an efficient framework for managing these risks. The airport 

business is a business of managing risks. Any mistake or initiative is a possible source of threat and 

opportunity in terms of security, safety, quality, environment, efficiency and public health. Thus, 

airport business risks must be handled efficiently. Furthermore, airports have to create social and 

economic value for their stakeholders. Therefore, airport management systems must be including 

implementation of ERM. 

Standard best practice model does not exist for ERM implementation in the airport business 

like a other business sectors. ERM model is shaped according to the organizational structure and 

requirements in the Airport Business. 

ERM is defined by the Protiviti as an integrated, forward-looking and process-orientated 

approach to managing all key business risks and opportunities - not just financial ones - with the intent 

of maximizing value for the enterprise as a whole. 

The complexity of ERM precludes "one size fits all" type solutions while the maturity level of 

different companies' enterprise risk management efforts can vary considerably. "ERM for the ınsurance 

industry" the study by PricewaterhouseCoopers, found that there is no “one size fits all” solution for 

designing and implementing an ERM program. At the same time, the ERM process fits all industries, 

all organizations (public or private, profit or not for profit). But, some strategies and tactics are 

industry and/or firm specific. In this research study, ERM best practice surveys, ERM implementation 

framework guidelines and current practices in the airport business are reviewed. The best practice 

criterias are determined. So, the paper allows to closing of best ERM practice since it is include 

fundamental efforts about this subject. 

3. Concept of Enterprise Risk Management and Best Practice 

In the global and volatile air transportation industry and airport business environment, a key source of 

sustainable competitive advantage and gain of reasonable assurance to achieving of organizational 

objectives relies on the ERM implementation. The concept of ERM and its importance are discussed 

below. 

63


No entity operates in a risk-free environment, and ERM does not create such an environment. 

Rather, ERM enables management to operate more effectively in environments filled with risks. All 

organizations can benefit from improved ERM procedures in meeting objectives related to strategic 

direction, operations, reporting and compliance. ERM provides management with enhanced 

capabilities to align risk appetite and strategy, link growth, risk and return, minimize operational 

surprises and losses, identify and manage cross-enterprise risks and rationalize capital 

(PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2006). Recently, there is an increasing attention for ERM implementations 

in various industries. Many problems are appearing in air transportation sector since regarding issues 

of ERM implementations are very limited in both quantity and context. This study is prepared to 

answer this need. 

As the dynamics of the market, business environment and changes in regulatory requirements 

for corporations increase in their complexity, it becomes harder to plot the right course for continued 

success. Being able to identify and adapt to changes are key success factors for the leaders of 

tomorrow. In light of these events companies are driven more than ever by the desire to protect their 

reputation and manage their risks effectively. ERM provides a framework for management to 

effectively deal with uncertainty and associated risk and opportunity thereby enhancing management’s 

capacity to build value. ERM does not operate in isolation in a corporation, but rather is an enabler of 

the management process. ERM is a part of corporate governance by providing information to the Board 

and to the Audit Committee on the most significant risks and how they are being managed. It 

interrelates with performance management by providing risk-adjusted measures. ERM is an integral 

part of internal control. Given the importance of ERM, the key objectives of this survey were to 

identify (PriceWaterhouseCoopers, 2006): 

1. Current focus areas in corporate risk management 

2. Current and planned risk management related functions in the companies 

3. Current and planned risk management processes at the enterprise level 

4. Practical next steps to advance ERM within organizations 

The organizations reported many benefits of managing risk. The benefits, overall, relate to 

organizational objectives and the management process. The key benefit is the achievement of 

organizational objectives. Other reported benefits are better focus on business priorities, strengthening 

of the planning process and the means to help management identify opportunities. The reported 

benefits to the management process include: a cultural change that supports open discussion about risks 

and potentially damaging information; improved financial and operational management by ensuring 

that risks are adequately considered in the decision-making process; and increased accountability of 

management (KPMG, 1999). 

No risk management process can create a risk-free environment. Rather ERM enables 

management to operate more effectively in a business environment filled with fluctuating risks. 

Enterprise risk management provides enhanced capability to (COSO, 2006): 

_ Align risk appetite and strategy: Risk appetite is the degree of risk, on a broad-based level, 

that a business is willing to accept in pursuit of its objectives. Management considers the business’s 

risk appetite first in evaluating strategic alternatives, then in setting boundaries for downside risk. 

_ Minimise operational surprises and losses: Businesses have enhanced capability to identify 

potential risk events, assess risks and establish responses, thereby reducing the occurrence of 

unpleasant surprises and associated costs or losses. 

_ Enhance risk response decisions: ERM provides the rigour to identify and select among 

alternative risk responses – risk removal, reduction, transfer or acceptance. 

_ Resources: A clear understanding of the risks facing a business can enhance the effective 

direction and use of management time and the business’s resources to manage risk. 

_ Identify and manage cross-enterprise risks: Every business faces a myriad of risks affecting 

different parts of the organisation. The benefits of enterprise risk management are only optimised when 

an enterprise-wide approach is adopted, integrating the disparate approaches to risk management 

64


within a company. Integration has to be effected in three ways: centralised risk reporting, the 

integration of risk transfer strategies and the integration of risk management into the business processes 

of a business. Rather than being purely a defensive mechanism, it can be used as a tool to maximise 

opportunities. 

_ Link growth, risk and return: Business’s accept risk as part of wealth creation and 

preservation and they expect return commensurate with risk. ERM provides an enhanced ability to 

identify and assess risks and establish acceptable levels of risk relative to potential growth and 

achievement of objectives. 

_ Rationalise capital: More robust information on risk exposure allows management to more 

effectively assess overall capital needs and improve capital allocation. _ Seize opportunities: The very 

process of identifying risks can stimulate thinking and generate opportunities as well as threats. 

Reponses need to be developed to seize these opportunities in the same way that responses are required 

to address identified threats to a business. There are three major benefits of ERM: improved business 

performance, increased organizational effectiveness and better risk reporting. 

3.1. Best Practice Concept to ERM and its Framework 

In order to provide comparability and usefulness to the collection of information regarding "best 

practices" in risk management, it was necessary to first define "best practice" in the context of this 

study. This definition was developed jointly with KPMG to be used as well in its international study. 

“Not all risk management practices are best practices, nor would all good practices have relevance or 

be readily adaptable to the federal public service. It was concluded that a best practice would be a 

strategy, approach, method, tool or technique that was particularly effective in helping an organization 

achieve its objectives for managing risk. A best practice would also be one that was expected to be of 

value to other organizations. For example, a practice that was particularly helpful in establishing 

guidance would be of value to many other organizations, including the Treasury Board of Canada 

Secretariat (TBS) as the provision of”. A best practice is a strategy, approach, method, tool or 

technique, which was particularly effective in helping an organization achieve its objectives for 

managing risk. A best practice is also one that is expected to be of value to other organizations. 

Figure-1 provides an overview of the eleven best practices that identified in the study. The 

“hub,” from which all other practices derive, is the organizational philosophy. All practices provide 

the movement to integrate risk management within the organization. Approaches, tools and techniques 

are the interface with the “road”, or the direction and objectives of the organization. Many of the 

practices are inter-related. For example, “teaming” requires “open communication” (KPMG, 1999). 

Figure 1: Overview of best ERM practices (KPMG, Best Practices in Risk Management: Private and Public 

Sectors Internationally, April 1999, p. 5.). 

Guidance 

Internal Audit 

assistance 

Training 

Communicating 

performance 

Corporate function 

Teaming 

Philosophy 

that everybody 

is a risk 

manager 

Objectives 

65 

Senior Management & 

Board leadership 

Open communication 

& information flows 

Simple language


3.2. Best Practice Framework to ERM 

A best practice framework sets out the areas where best practices would be expected to be of common 

interest to a variety of organizations. This framework was developed jointly with KPMG to be used as 

well in its international study. The basic assumption is that an organization invests resources in 

managing its risks, both strategic and operational, in order to achieve anticipated benefits. These 

benefits, which are often defined as objectives for managing risk could be any combination of: 

• Communication for commitment; 

• Enhancement of stakeholder value, achievement of corporate objectives; 

• Measurement for improved management; 

• Support for effective accountability and governance; 

• Strengthening of planning and decision processes (synergy, communications, etc.); 

• Measurable returns on investments; and, 

• Increased confidence of stakeholders. 

The authors continued their research of current trends and best practices in ERM with case 

studies of several organizations: Hydro-Quebec, Bradford & Bingley Building Society, Australian 

Communications Company, Clarica Life Insurance, KeyCorp, Infineon Technologies AG, Holcim Ltd., 

and Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. Although these organizations have much in common, ranging from 

corporate philosophy to corporate structure, the level of success with ERM implementation is varied. 

Interviews with leading organizations in ERM and literature reviews helped the authors identify 

several key success factors for ERM. According to the results of this research, ERM efforts are more 

successful when there is strong and visible support from senior management and dedicated crossfunctional 

staff to drive ERM implementation and push it into operation. Most executives interviewed 

stressed the importance of linking ERM objectives to the key financial and strategic objectives of the 

organization and to the business-planning process. In addition, those interviewed suggested introducing 

ERM as an enhancement to already entrenched and well-accepted processes, rather than as a new 

stand-alone procedure, and then proceeding incrementally to avoid great internal resistance. 

4. Determining of ERM Best Practice Criterias 

Many book, research and reports published about ERM concept and its conceptual framework. Also, 

many survey accomplished about various sectors and industries. But, any study doesn’t exist to air 

transportation sector and airports. For this reason, this article will help and support related to newly 

raising and growing ERM efforts in the airport business across the world. In this study, best practices 

criterias are determined by these ERM best practice surveys, guidelines, frameworks, case studies and 

ERM implementation studies are analyzed. They are considered in the 3 main gorups. They are; 

i. Strategic best practice criterias 

• Developing and Establish to ERM vision, mission and strategy 

• Integration of ERM into other management practices and management functions 

• Creating and Promoting an ERM culture and common language Developing 

organizational ERM policy and prosedures 

• Achievement to Corporate Risk Optimization 

ii. Operational best practice criterias 

• Determining corporate risk appetite and tolerance line; creating corporate risk profile 

• Establishing open communication and feedback systems 

• Establish ERM information system 

• Setting up ERM function and committee 

• Setting Up an ERM framework for all aspects of corporate-based risks 

• Overall enterprise risk assessment and analysis, enterprise risk mapping and 

prioritization 

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iii. Financial best practice criterias 

• Use and supply of outsources about ERM 

• Supply to Modeling, tools and techniques 

• Resource allocation to ERM efforts, requirements and infrastructure 

• Establish ERM Framework 

• Providing resource to sustainability of the ERM development and continuity 

These criterias has qualitative and quantitative characteristic. Selection a best ERM operator in 

the airport business is considered as the multiple criteria decision-making (MCDM) problem. So, ANP 

based apporach is used in this study. In order to implement the ERM successfully, here raises a critical 

issue of select a best practice criterias of ERM before that ERM implementation. However, although 

numerous creditable works are devoted to the study of how to build a best ERM practice, few of those 

have provided methods which can systematically implementation of the ERM strategy and framework. 

When companies need to achieve best ERM strategy and its implementation, they usually face to 

consider a large number of complex factors. Typically, the multiple criteria decision-making (MCDM) 

problem is a decision-making problem required to evaluate several alternatives involved in a set of 

evaluation criteria. Hence, selecting a best ERM operator is a kind of MCDM problem, it is better to 

employ MCDM methods for reaching an effective problem-solving. Since the ANP has advantages 

(see appendix), in this paper, I develop an effective method based on the ANP to help companies that 

need to understanding of best ERM practice concepts and its criterias. 

5. Current ERM Practice in Airport Business: Fraport A.G. and TAV Airport 

Holding Co. 

ERM differs from traditional risk management approaches in terms of focus, objective, scope, 

emphasis and application. It aligns strategy, people, processes, technology and knowledge. The 

emphasis is on strategy, and the application is enterprise-wide. ERM provides a company with the 

process it needs to become more anticipatory and effective at evaluating, embracing and managing the 

uncertainties it faces as it creates sustainable value for stakeholders. It helps an organization manage its 

risks to protect and enhance enterprise value in three ways. First, it helps to establish sustainable 

competitive advantage. Second, it optimizes the cost of managing risk. Third, it helps management 

improve business performance. These contributions redefine the value proposition of risk management 

to a business. One way to think about the contribution of ERM to the success of a business is taking a 

value dynamics approach. Just as potential future events can affect the value of tangible physical and 

financial assets, so also can they affect the value of key intangible assets. This is the essence of what 

ERM contributes to the organization: the elevation of risk management to a strategic level by 

broadening the application and focus of the risk management process to all sources of value, not just 

physical and financial ones (Deloach, 2005). 

Commercialization (and in many cases privatization) is becoming a general trend in the airport 

industry in the sense that airports are increasingly run as commercial business and not as public service 

organizations. This new scenario has brought opportunities for airport competition and so for further 

efficiency gains. So, ERM is became critical practice in the airport business. 

In this section, airport ERM practices reviewed based on TAV and Fraport A.G. cases since 

they are only current samples related to the ERM implementation to airport business in the across the 

world. 

5.1. Fraport ERM Practice 

Fraport AG Frankfurt Airport Services Worldwide (formerly called Flughafen Frankfurt/Main AG) is a 

leading player in the global airport industry. Following its initial public offering (IPO) in June 2001, 

Fraport AG has become the world’s second largest listed airport company by revenues. Fraport trades 

67


on the Frankfurt stock exchange and has become a member of Germany’s M-DAX mid-cap index of 

blue chip companies. After Deutsche Lufthansa, Fraport ranks as the second largest aviation-related 

company in Germany. The Financial Times also covers Fraport in its survey of European Top 500 

companies. 

Fraport's expertise is based on almost 80 years of aviation history at Frankfurt am Main, 

Germany. Founded in 1924, Südwestdeutsche Luftverkehrs AG – Fraport’s forerunner – began 

operating Frankfurt Airport at the former Rebstock airfield. In 1936, Frankfurt Airport (airport code = 

FRA) was inaugurated at its present-day location, adjacent to the Frankfurter Kreuz autobahn 

intersection about 12 kilometers from downtown Frankfurt. A renowned pioneer for decades, FRA 

serves as Fraport’s home base and showcase for the company's know-how and technologies. 

Besides managing Frankfurt Airport, Fraport AG and its affiliated businesses provide a wide 

range of planning, design, operational, commercial and management services around the world. 

Furthermore, Fraport AG also serves as a neutral partner to the world's major airlines: offering a 

complete package of aircraft, cargo, passenger and other ground handling services, as well as aviation 

security services at FRA and elsewhere. The company is also expanding its activities in airport 

retailing, airport advertising, IT services, e-commerce, intermodal concepts, hub management, and 

other areas. ICTS Europe, a wholly owned Fraport subsidiary, is now the largest provider of aviation 

security services throughout Europe. 

To strengthen FRA’s competitive position in international aviation and to meet future traffic 

needs, Fraport AG is spearheading the largest development in the airport’s history. The €3.3 billion 

Airport Expansion Program (AEP) includes the construction of a fourth runway for landings and a 

third passenger terminal with a design capacity of more than 25 million passengers per year. The new 

runway will allow FRA’s so-called coordinated runway capacity to grow from 80 to 120 aircraft 

movements per hour – a 50-percent increase. In addition to the AEP, Fraport’s is moving ahead with 

plans for a new maintenance base at FRA for Lufthansa’s future fleet of Airbus A380 superjumbos that 

will be delivered beginning in 2007 (www.fraport.com). 

Fraport AG has an extensive risk management system. They are timely determined, evaluate 

and control the risks with which their activities are related. The primary objective of their risk 

management system is to ensure a controlled treatment of risk. This gives room to maneuver, enabling 

risks to be taken if the weighting of opportunities and risks entered into appears to be favorable to the 

Fraport A.g. As part of their value-oriented management approach, they make their capital expenditure 

decisions based on this principle. In the Fraport A.G., risk management is integrated in the operating 

business processes. Management of risks is made by those responsible for the business segments. Risks 

from group companies are controlled by Fraport AG, partly via the business segments and investment 

controlling department and partly by representatives of Fraport AG on the relevant supervisory boards. 

The central body responsible for the risk management system is the risk management committee, made 

up of representatives from the group's segments. The risk management committee, which reports 

directly to the executive board of Fraport AG, is responsible for monitoring risks and coordinating 

measures from the group's point of view. Risk transfer by entering into insurance policies is controlled 

by their subsidiary, Airport Assekuranz Vermittlungs-GmbH (AAV). Group-wide guidelines require a 

quarterly documentation and reporting of risk situations. This regular reporting format can be 

supplemented, on a case-by-case basis, by reporting significant changes. Materiality limits are set for 

this purpose. The executive board is thus in a position to meet its responsibility for the entire group. 

The ability of their risk management system to function is checked by their internal auditor department. 

Their findings serve to continually improve the risk management system. All risks are defined as 

significant, to the extent they are quantifiable, if their effect on earnings is at least € 10 million before 

tax, as well as risks which are not quantifiable but could have a similar effect on the net assets, 

financial position and results of operations. An overall evaluation of the risks to which Fraport AG is 

exposed revealed that continuation of the company as a going concern is not endangered as far as its 

68


net assets and liquidity are concerned and there are no discernible risks endangering continuation of the 

company as a going concern in the foreseeable future (Fraport A.G., 2006). 

Fraport has a comprehensive risk management system. It makes sure that significant risks are 

identified, monitored constantly and limited to an acceptable level. Fraport actively looks for 

opportunities and tkaes them when this is justified by the ratio of the size of the anticipated benefits to 

the risks involved. Controlled risk exposure is the primary objective of Fraport’s risk management 

system. This objective is the basis fort he following risk policiy principles: 

• The risk strategy is co-ordinated with the corporate strategy and is required to be 

consistent with it, as the strategy specifies how strongly the company’s operations are 

exposed to risks. 

• Risk management is integrated in the ongoing business process. 

• Risks are maneged primarily by the organizational units that operate locally. 

• The aim of the risk managemen process is to make sure that significant risks are 

identified, monitored constantly and limited to an acceptable level. 

• Active and open communication of the risks is a major success factor in the risk 

management system. 

• All the employers of Fraport A.G. are expected to participate actively in risk 

management in their area of responsibility. 

5.2. TAV ERM Practice 

TAV Airport Holding Co. is the biggest and pioneer as an airport operator in the Turkey. Also TAV 

has many superior and different characteristics from the other airport operators in the Turkey. TAV 

operates 3 main and biggest airports in the Turkey: Istanbul-Atatürk, Ankara-Esenboga and Izmir- 

Adnan Menderes. TAV is operates Gurcistan-Tıflis Airport from February, 2007. Also, TAV is 

operating broad geographical field as an operational. TAV with its know-how and expertise has been 

awarded with the construction and B.O.T projects inside and outside of Turkey since 2003. The 

projects are investment, construction and operation of Ankara Esenboga New Domestic and 

International Terminal, Izmir Adnan Menderes International Terminal and Tbilisi and Batumi Airports, 

The Construction of Cairo International Terminal Construction, TB3/Eygpt, Tohid Iranian School 

Construction/UAE, Emirates New Engineering Centre Hangar Roof Structural Steel Work/UAE, 

Majestic Tower (G+6P+46) in Al Memzar/Sharjah/UAE, Al Sharaf Shopping Mall Construction, UAE. 

As the company has grown so fast for the last years, the management has made the decision to gather 

all the investment, construction and operation activities and facilities in the aviation sector under one 

roof and for this purpose TAV INVESTMENT HOLDING Co. (TAV Holding) has been established 

on 1 July 2005 to unite all TAV group companies. 

TAV Airports Holding Co. is rapidly growth duration both Turkey and the across the world as 

an airport operators. Their growth includes service concept and geographical area in the both the 

managerial and the operational context. This growth increase and diversify of their risks. Also, growth 

process is risky. TAV managers are aware of the providing to the continuously and sound growth. The 

process and providing of its continuity is risky. ERM is indispensable and important implementation 

issue for sustainable growth, protect and increase of corporate value, provide to reasonable assurance 

for organizational objectives, effective and successful airport management to TAV. 

TAV is get ERM implementation decision at the end of the 2005 within a formal framework. In 

the 2006, TAV ERM model developed with university-private sector collaboration. Created Airport 

ERM model tailored according to the characteristics and needs of TAV airport holding Co. (The model 

is basically based on: “Kucuk Yilmaz, Ayse. ‘Enterprise Risk Management Implementations and 

Model Suggestion to Airports’, Doctoral Dissertation, Anadolu University, Social Science Institute, 

Civil Aviation Management Branch, Eskisehir, Turkey, 2007”). ERM model identifies 32 steps of the 

ERM implementation process, which are designed as the 6 key components and their subcomponents: 

i. Analysis of Internal environment and Determination of Requirements of ERM 

69


ii. Establish of ERM Strategy; Establish of Substructure Requirements about ERM 

iii. Establish of ERM Function and Committee 

iv. Establish of ERM Information System and Determination of ERM Framework 

v. Data Flow and Feedback; Analysis of ERM implementation Performance 

vi. Provide continuity both ERM system and its improving; Restart to ERM process over 

loop to new and developing risk and environment 

The implementation of the ERM model is not a "one-size-fits-all" analysis. So, the model is 

tailored according to the qualifications and various parameters of the TAV Airports. All efforts 

achieved with coordinated studies with TAV airport managers as following steps: 

• Firstly, TAV Airport Holding Co. analyzed about ERM infrastructure and capabilities, 

objectives and wants related ERM. 

• The model tailored according to the determinations. 

• Basic ERM framework and process is prepared according to the general ERM context. 

• ERM model integrated with organizational ERM process. 

• Airport ERM organization model (AERM-OM) developed. 

• AERM Information Management System (AERM-IMS) developed. 

• AERM information flow system (AERM-IFS) developed. 

TAV has fully AERM concept substructure. ERM is critical objective to achievement to 

organizational objectives for TAV executive board and their managers. TAV is developing ERM 

policy, prosedures and implementation guide for create to common risk language and ERM 

terminology. They are considered following factors in this concept: 

1. Fundamental elements: ERM and planning 

2. Managerial support and leadership 

3. Risk ownership mechanism 

4. set-up, risk aggregation and reporting 

5. Assessment, confirmation and follow-up process 

TAV has ERM committee. Benefit-cost analysis is considered by TAV ERM committee. 

According to the TAV ERM philosophy “Every risk doesnt create value and every risk isnt worthy to 

managing”. ERM is managing of the true risks according to the TAV ERM approach. Critical factors 

are: value creation and opportunity in the risk. TAV ERM approach leads to the robust management of 

risks throughout all phases of an enterprise’s activities. This results in benefits such as: 

• A clear understanding of the risks which could impact the enterprise and how these may 

be manifested 

• Robust and well implemented systems for managing the risks 

• Employees who integrate risk management into their normal activities 

• Demonstration of risk management performance to stakeholders 

• Confidence that the risk profile is understood and being monitored in accordance with 

the enterprise’s risk management plan 

The TAV is consider that ERM is an integral part of good governance and management 

practice and is committed to its application at all management levels within a firm-wide framework. 

6. Application of the Proposed ANP Model to ERM Best Practice 

The ANP model that is presented in this research has been evaluated in an airport business, which was 

interested in the implementation of the ERM best practice. The analysis and the implementation of the 

ANP model are presented in the following six steps. The offered ANP model in best ERM operator is 

given in Fig.-3. 

70


Figure 2: The proposed ANP model is to selection of best operator about ERM practice in the airport business. 

Step 1: In applying ANP, the first is to structure the model to be evaluated. The overall objective of 

this ANP model is to evaluate the ultimate relative importance of different factors that impact the best 

mentation of ERM and assess which is the best operator to ERM in the airport business. The factors 

that will be used to evaluate the alternatives were developed were explained in the step 2. 

In this step, the decision problem is structured into its important components. The relevant 

criteria and alternatives are chosen on the basis of the review of literature and discussion with few both 

from industry and academia. Also, the first step of the algorithm is the analysis of the ERM best 

practice problem. The fundamental aim of the ERM best practice problem is selecting the best operator 

in the airport business that meets the requirements or criteria are of the ERM best practice. ERM best 

practice criterias are detemined by analysis of ERM framework guidelines and best practice survey 

results. These researches explained in the literature review section of this study. 

Step 2: For the proposed ERM best practice model, overall 16 criteria are determined under the below 

mentioned three main criteria clusters: i) Strategic ii) Operational and iii) Financial best practice 

criterias. All of the criterias are given a following table-1. They will be used in the supermatrix. 

Table 1: The Criterias determined best operator of ERM practice by using ANP 

The Criterias to Best ERM Practice 

Strategic 

• Developing and Establish to ERM vision, mission and strategy 

• Integration of ERM into other management practices and management functions 

• Creating and Promoting an ERM culture and common language Developing organizational ERM 

policy and prosedures 

• Achievement to Corporate Risk Optimization 

Operational 

• Determining corporate risk appetite and tolerance line; creating corporate risk profile 

• Establishing open communication and feedback systems 

• Establish ERM information system 

• Setting up ERM function and committee 

• Setting Up an ERM framework for all aspects of corporate-based risks 

• Overall enterprise risk assessment and analysis, enterprise risk mapping and prioritization 

Financial 

• Use and supply of outsources about ERM 

• Supply to Modeling, tools and techniques 

• Resource allocation to ERM efforts, requirements and infrastructure 

• Establish ERM Framework 

• Providing resource to sustainability of the ERM development and continuity 

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Step 3: In this step alternatives are determined as: Fraport A.G. and TAV Airport Holding Co. 

Selecting the alternatives from the more effective and successful ones in their ERM field of practices 

by using the preliminary elimination will increase the quality of the decision. 

Step 4: Performing pairwaise comparisons between factors. I this step the interactions between clusters 

and elements are determined. The selection of best ERM operator model’s control hierarchy according 

to the determined criterias is given in fig.-3. 

Step 5: Obtaining the overall outcome. Following weighting is acquired by the pairwise. Table-2 

shows the priorities of all the factors in the decision-making model. 

Table 2: Final pritioritization of alternatives that it is derived from ANP model. 

Graphic Alternatives Total Normal Ideal Ranking 

FRAPORT A.G. 0.3449 0.6898 1.0000 1 

TAV 0.1551 0.3102 0.4497 2 

The proposed decision model of best operator selection was implemented for 16 criteria under 

three main criteria cluster and two main alternative operators. After this step, I had mine unweighted 

supermatrix. Then clusters’ priority weights were calculated by using experts’ opinion. Multiplying 

this priority weights by the unweighted supermatrix I had the weighted supermatrix. The final step is 

the calculation of the limiting priorities of the weighted supermatrix. According the final prioritization 

of alternatives is given in Table-2, the Fraport A.G. is the highest priority from the TAV Airport 

Holding Co. Because of this reason Fraport selected as best operator about ERM implementations. 

To sum up, what best practice for ERM is hard to say as certainly since ERM is not standardize 

application. Also, ERM is shaped according to tje organizational factors. As a mention nefore, ERM is 

not “one size fits all” approach. It really is all hinging on the differences of purposes, the condition of 

resources and capabilities, and the existing organizational cultures. But this study is showed that 

Fraport is best operator according to the current practice. However they are should do many 

improvements in their ERM system to achievement of best practice. Final prioritizationof alternatives 

and all factors are given following Table-3. 

Table 3: Final Prioritization of criteras as ANP model result. 

Name 

Normalized 

By Cluster 

Limiting 

FRAPORT A.G. 0.344904 0.68981 

TAV 0.155096 0.31019 

Establish ERM Framework 0.023149 0.18519 

Providing resource to sustainability of the ERM development and continuity 0.026044 0.20835 

Resource allocation ERM efforts, requirements and infrastructure 0.024881 0.19905 

Supply to Modeling, tools and techniques 0.024881 0.19905 

Use and suppy of outsources about ERM 0.026044 0.20835 

Determining corporate risk appetite and tolerance lline, creating corporate risk profile 0.023501 0.18800 

Establish ERM information system 0.019861 0.15889 

Establishing open communication and feedback systems 0.022057 0.17645 

Overall enterprise risk assessment and analysis, enterprise risk mapping and prioritization 0.019861 0.15889 

Setting up an ERM framework for all aspects of corporate based risks 0.019861 0.15889 

Setting up ERM function and committee 0.019861 0.15889 

Achivement to Corporate Risk Optimization 0.050000 0.20000 

Creating and Promoting an ERM culture and common language 0.050000 0.20000 

Developing and Establish to ERM vision, mission and strategy 0.050000 0.20000 

Developing organizational ERM policy and prosedures 0.050000 0.20000 

Integration of ERM into other management practices and management funcions 0.050000 0.20000 

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8. Conclusion and Suggesstions 

The paper presents a method for applying ANP in determination of best operator to ERM 

implementation in the airport business. By managing risks, managers are more likely to achieve their 

objectives. Hence, they would be more likely to meet service delivery objectives and targets. Practices 

such as the organizational philosophy, open communication channels, teams and committees, 

guidance, and training contribute to a supportive work environment. These practices also support 

innovation. 

While the practices do facilitate management decision-making and planning, the link to sound 

resource allocation is less strong. However, the tools for mapping, modelling, identifying and assessing 

risks do help focus the resources on key risks and, in this way, allocate the resources to the most 

critical areas. 

There may be significant barriers to implementing those best practices that are very different 

from the status quo. Most federal departments and agencies operate with traditional organizational 

structures having a defined reporting and management hierarchy. Hence, implementing a philosophy 

and culture that everybody is a risk manager may be a stretch target. Similarly, the current 

environments do not welcome bad news or open communication channels. 

Departments and agencies will need to adopt the practices that make sense for the organization 

and are linked with the benefit targeted by the organization. There are many different ways that these 

practices can be implemented in organizations. 

The major contribution of this paper lies in the development of a comprehensive methodology, 

for the selection of a best ERM operator in the airport business. The paper also provides for a review of 

the issues, which influence the best practice of ERM. The ANP approach, as a part of this 

methodology, not only leads to a logical result but also enables the decision-makers to visualize the 

impact of various criteria in the final result. Further, I have demonstrated that the interdependencies 

among various criteria can be effectively captured using the ANP technique, which has rarely been 

applied in the context of ERM. The proposed methodology serves as a guideline to the airport 

managers ERM implementation-related decisions. 

ERM implementation, which is one of the company’s most important managerial approaches, 

must be systematically considered from the decision makers. For this reason, ERM implementation is 

evaluated in a sample ERM framework and guidelines consist of various techniques from the 

experimental to the analytical ones and its successful applications were performed in numerous sectors. 

In this paper, selection of best ERM operator was considered as an multi criteria decision problem 

(MCDP) and a model is proposed by using ANP. The evaluation criterias were developed according to 

the best practice surveys and ERM guidelines and the model was applied to actual two ERM operators 

in the airport business. This paper shows that, ANP is a decision tool by making strategical decisions, 

such as selecting a best ERM operator. Generally, managers might be inclined not to use a 

sophisticated method, but by using user-friendly software like super decision, developed by Saaty, the 

decision making process by using ANP will be handled more easy. Evaluating the operators from both 

objective and subjective criterias will gain flexibility to the decision process.. Another important 

finding is that the proposed model is more reflecting the relation of how the best practice criterias 

affect the selected operators. This paper moves us one step closer to the implementation of ERM as 

best practice in real airport business. 

The effective management largely starts with a proper strategy. Hence, in order to implement 

the ERM successfully, there has a critical issue of how companies can better evaluate and select a 

favorable ERM strategy, framework and it’s best practice. However, the best operator selection of 

ERM usually involves subjective and qualitative judgment. In particular, ERM best practice is a 

strategic issue, which is restricted by resource needs, realistic support, time requirements, and 

conformity with expected outcomes or business purposes. In this sense, the treatment of ERM best 

operator selection is required to handle several complex factors in a better objective and logical 

manner. Thus, the ERM best operator selection is a kind of MCDM problem, and requires MCDM 

73


methods to solve it appropriately. Unlike traditional MCDM methods are based on the independence 

assumption, the ANP is a relative new MCDM method which can deal with all kinds of dependences 

systematically. For the purpose of helping companies to evaluate and select ERM best practice 

successfully, I have proposed an effective method based on the ANP. Additionally, this study has 

contributed to extend practical applications of ANP in ERM field. ERM required to significant 

managerial efforts and organizational recourses. Both Fraport A.G. and TAV has to be best practice 

criterias to achievement best implementation of the ERM. 

In this paper, I have developed a framework based on ANP to identify the degree of impact of 

factors affecting best ERM practice. I used the ANP for decision making with dependence and 

feedback. ANP is a new methodology that incorporates feedback and interdependent relationships 

among decision attributes and alternatives. It leads to fresh insights about issues. 

In this study, I have determined 16 factors affecting best ERM practice. The factors affecting 

best ERM practice could be qualitative as well as quantitative. There are many qualitative concerns 

when assessing the factors critical to the ERM practice. ANP enabled us to incorporate both 

quantitative and qualitative factors, which are very important in selecting best operator to ERM. This 

research contributes to both ERM knowledge and ANP implementation. From ERM perspective I 

propose an ANP-based framework for selection of best operator in the airport business related with 

current ERM implementations. From an ANP implementation point of view it is the most 

comprehensive one. 

Based on our model I found that Fraport A.G. is best operator from the TAV Airport Holding 

Co. Fraport is given %68 rate about current ERM practice. Most of the existing models that investigate 

the factors affecting ERM implementation have used various survey methods. I have shown an 

alternative approach using expert judgment. The ANP approach, as a part of this methodology, not 

only leads to a logical result but also enables the decision-makers to visualize the impact of various 

criteria in the final result. Since ANP is capable of dealing with all kinds of feedback and dependence 

when modeling a complex decision environment, I contend that my results are more accurate. ANP 

deals with uncertainty and complexity and provides insights that other, more traditional methods could 

miss. The ANP approach is capable of taking into consideration both qualitative and quantitative 

criteria. 

74


Figure 3: The ERM best practice network model’s control hierarchy 

Appendix. Review of the ANP 

This paper will not go into details of the technical component of ANP, which can be acquired in other 

published ANP papers and the ANP book of Saaty. 

75


References 

[1] AMEC (2005): Risk Management within AMEC, Canadian Risk Management Conference, 

Montreal. 

[2] Agarwal, A. and Shankar, R. (2003). On-line trust building in e-enabled supply chain. Supply 

Chain Management: An International Journal, 8(4), 324–334.) 

[3] Barton, Thomas L., William G. Shenkir, Paul L. Walker. (2002). “Making Enterprise Risk 

Management Pay Off: How Leading Companies Implement Risk Management”, Financial 

Times Prentice Hall. 

[4] Causalty Actuarial Society Enterprise Risk Management Committee. (2003). Overview of 

Enterprise Risk Management. 

[5] COSO. (2004). ERM Framework, www.erm.coso.org. 

[6] DeLoach, Jim. (2005) Enterprise Risk Management: Practical Implementation Ideas, MIS 

SuperStrategies Conference, April 26-29, 2005, in Las Vegas, Nevada, 

http://www.knowledgeleader.com. 

[7] Encyclopedia of Management. (2006). 

[8] Fraport A.G. (2006). Annual Report 2005, www.fraport.com, 

[9] Funston, Rick. (2003). “Creating a risk-intelligent organization: using enterprise risk 

management, organizations can systematically identify potential exposures, take corrective 

action early, and learn from those actions to better achieve objectives”, Internal Auditor. 

[10] KPMG LLP. (1999).Best Practices in Risk Management: Private and Public Sectors 

Internationally, Ottawa. 

[11] Kucuk Yilmaz, Ayse. (2007). “ENTERPRISE RISK MANAGEMENT IN THE 

AIRPORTS: THE MODEL SUGGESTION FOR THE ATATURK AIRPORTS 

TERMINAL OPERATIONS COMPANY”, Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Anadolu 

University, Eskisehir, Turkey, 2007. 

[12] Nocco, Brian W. and René M. Stulz. (2006).Enterprise Risk Management: Theory and Practice, 

July. 

[13] PricewaterhouseCoopers. (2004). “The Importance of Enterprise Risk Management, 

Framework for Enterprise Risk Management”, September 29. 

76


The Post-Conflict Educational Establishment of Cyprus: Civic 

Sensibilities within a Divided European Union State 

James Barbre 

Visiting Assistant Professor 

213 Willard Hall, School of Educational Studies, College of Education 

Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74078 

E-mail: j.o.barbre@okstate.edu 

Tel: (405) 744-2016; Fax: (405) 744-7758 

Abstract 

The use of schooling and orientation of school policy does not strictly serve the purposes of 

enlightening the population or preparing them for the future. In the event that conflict has 

been a recent event, regardless of the context, schooling and the execution of the civics 

curriculum may also be utilized as a means to separate groups of people, thus making 

reconciliation all the more difficult. Cyprus is an example of such a place where conflict 

has occurred in recent memory and the outcomes of that conflict continue to divide 

segments of the population and a younger generation. As a result, educational institutions 

in the major ethnic communities, namely Greek and Turkish, have become a reflection of 

the events that separate the island’s populations. They have been built and sustained in the 

name of ethnic allegiance and cultural identity. This lack of pragmatism is greatly 

extending the time required for the island’s populations to reunite. This article will 

examine the situation in through historical analysis and suggest an inevitable outcome, 

should the conflict go on as it has and not be resolved and the implication that will hold for 

schools. 

Introduction and Purpose 

Cyprus is a small island with a long and complicated history. Not only for the relations between its 

people, but with regard to their relationship with the nations that have at one time ruled or exercised 

influence. Series of conflicts and events between the various ethnic groups, of which Greek and 

Turkish are the largest, have culminated with the establishment of isolationist tendencies and the 

attitude of marginalization toward the each other. The tone and substance of the resulting political 

relations have shaped the way native Cypriots regard each other, both historically and in the 

contemporary sense, as individuals and as larger groups. This has had a resounding impact on the 

education students have received at all levels of school, in both the Greek and Turkish communities. 

This fact has a substantial set of implications not only in that it separates the two largest ethnic groups 

of the island, but also in that it influences the realities, perceptual and otherwise, that they construct in 

reference to each other 1 .These attitudes have characterized their civic, historic and national identity as 

it is taught and experienced through education as being juxtaposed to each other. 

There is a two-fold reason that this situation is worthy of analysis. First, it is important to 

articulate the nature of the historical interactions, sometimes peaceful and other times not, as 

experienced by the Greek and Turkish Cypriot populations. The relationships they have had are hardly 

clear cut with regard to cause and effect because the cause/effect factors do not strictly lie with one 

group. Causal factors are attributed to the other group by both sides for the way things have turned out 

1 

Richmond, O. (1998). “Implications for making peace: building negotiating positions during the Cyprus conflict.” Paper 

delivered at ACGTA seminar in London. 

77


in the present. These interactions have played a substantive role in determining the accepted 

structure(s) and orientation of their respective educational systems. I assert that the structure and 

orientation of the schools are direct products of the political and cultural dimensions of the 

relationship, but more specifically of the political. The second purpose is to analyze how this conflict 

has, through events located outside of Cyprus and within the European Union, created a crossroads of 

sorts where Cyprus and its people are now located on both the Turkish and Greek sides. This is 

significant because Cyprus is currently a member state of the European Union, but not as a unified 

nation. The final section of the paper will focus on the substance of the relationship Cyprus has with 

the European Union. Cyprus is eligible for the monetary and free-trade benefits that accompany 

membership. These benefits, however, do not apply to the entire island. The Turkish side is without 

them at the present time. This fact presents an additional stumbling block for the complicated 

challenges that accompany re-unification of the island’s population. The direction both groups take in 

the future will depend on how, when, and if they can resolve differences of which the lop-sided nature 

of EU monetary and other benefits further complicates the situation. All this influences the educational 

component of the situation in that the curricula being taught in schools is also reinforcing this conflict, 

making it all the more difficult to get past. This is due to the historical relations between the group, but 

also the nature of ethnicity as the same history informs its experience. 

Historical Context of the Island 

Cyprus occupies an interesting position in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It is a small oblong island 

nestled less than 100 miles from the shores of Turkey and the shores of Syria. It sits in a location that 

would naturally receive a large amount of traffic through trade and travel going to different places 

along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. Historically, the island and its populations have seen and 

been influenced in numerous ways through sea-faring contact with other peoples. This history 

stretches back to the eras of the Mycenean culture and of the Greek city-states; at least 3000 years. 

Cyprus has, at times, been a sovereign nation, and other times the victim of colonization. Regardless 

of the era, name of the dominant culture or invading army, the majority of the island’s population has, 

with one historical exception, been Greek in both ethnic heritage and language. This means that the 

dominant influence on the culture of the island’s population has been Greek. 

The Ottoman Empire conquered and ruled Cyprus for more than three hundred years, from 

1571-1878. During this time, Turkish peoples migrated from Anatolia and settled into living and 

practicing their culture which included educating their young. During the time when Cyprus was an 

Ottoman colony, the Greek and Turkish populations were allowed to develop their own systems of 

schooling. An important feature of this lies in the fact that during this period in history the main 

orientation for these school systems was religious in nature. Turkish populations brought Islamic 

views with them and the Greeks were allied with the Eastern Greek Orthodox Church. The Ottomans 

officially recognized the Greek Archbishop of the Eastern Orthodox Church as the official 

representative, or Ethnarch, of the Greek Cypriot population 2 . This relationship gave the church a high 

level of influence over the identity of the population, both politically and culturally. Its influence went 

further because it was the church that established schools and administered their curriculums. These 

approaches to education in both groups were focused in a way that reinforced the perceptual core of the 

respective ethnic identities of both Greeks and Turks 3 . 

After the fall of the Ottoman Empire, the island was annexed by the British empire and 

managed as one of the empire’s many colonies from 1878-1960. It was during the time of British rule 

that both educational systems of the Greek and Turkish Cypriot populations took on characteristics that 

would be considered more ‘nationalistic’ by today’s standards. To those ends, they worked to greatly 

reinforce their respective Greek and Turkish identities. It was during this time within the Greek 

2 Ioannidou, M. (1997). Curriculum as political text: the case of Cyprus. History of Education 26(4): 395-407. 

3 Cyprus conflict narrative, http://www.cyprus-conflict.net/www.cyprus-conflict.net/index.html (accessed July 11, 2007). 

78


populations that the idea of Enosis 4 , or union with Greece, came into greater form for the Greek 

population. This was an attempt to fight the power of their British colonizers. 

The British occupation of the island organized the educational system so that the Greek and 

Turkish populations could determine, to a large extent, the structure and scope of what subject matter 

was offered in the schools, but there was still a high commissioner appointed by the English colonial 

government possessing the approval/disapproval authority over their decisions. Both groups worked 

within themselves to minimize the influence of British culture in what was being taught to students. 

An example of this lies in monetary grants that were offered to the school systems by British 

authorities. These came with the caveat that the subject matter be deemed desirable by the British 

authorities and reflect positively the British influence of the day 5 . School systems, as a whole, found 

ways to operate outside the needs of these monetary resources and so the British influence was further 

reduced. In this context of colonization, it served to fuel the drive of the population in resisting the 

British influence in as many ways as possible. 

Life on the island meant that the two ethnic groups had daily interactions with each other that 

were outside the school systems. While not every school was strictly Greek or Turkish, there were still 

schools that emphasized one culture and their numbers grew through the subsequent settlement and 

demographic patterns that emerged within and throughout the communities and the choice of parents 

for where their children would attend. 

Through the course of daily life, Greeks and Turks naturally did business with each other and in 

these exchanges, the Greek language was used as the language of commerce. This bi-lingual ability 

was seen as being practically useful by the Turkish communities and so the Greek language was 

considered the lingua franca. The Turkish Cypriot schools began to offer several foreign languages in 

their curriculums in 1896. These languages included English, French, and eventually Greek. Though 

the Turkish schools began offering Greek as an academic subject, Greek schools never reciprocated in 

teaching the Turkish language. While there was pragmatic use of the language in the social context of 

the island, it was not recognized as an official need by Greek schools. 

The fact that Turks and Greeks built their school systems apart from one another allowed each 

group to further develop and implement curricula which further fit into social priorities, most often 

political, which existed at the time. The curriculum within each schooling system took the form of 

being a political tool with which both groups could struggle against British colonization. Enosis had 

been a strong sentiment held in the Greek population throughout British rule. Enosis is an important 

concept here for two reasons. First, it galvanized the Greek population(s) against the power of the 

colonizing British. Second, it remained a social belief after colonization ended that eventually led to 

animosities between the Greek and Turkish populations. We might refer to Enosis as a renaissance, or 

rebirth, concept with regard to Greek identity. 

The relationship between the Greek and Turkish communities in Cyprus, in both a 

contemporary and historical sense, has determined the nature and direction of what is taught in their 

schooling systems. In turn, the curricular substance and orientation of these school systems have been 

utilized as a bulwark for maintaining the prevailing attitudes and characteristics of a certain political 

text (and context) to students of the younger generation 6 . The story of this island has been and 

continues to be the struggle for cultural identity and its legitimacy, and this area is where the political 

element of the curriculum comes into play for each community, for it serves as a counter-measure to 

perceived oppressive hegemony from the opposite group. 

Tolerance being a tool in teaching, though it was once a virtue for at least the Turkish part of 

the population, has all but disappeared from the consciousness of the present political leadership. 

However, this is not an issue revolving solely an issue about cultural identity and its sustainment. The 


5 Persianis, P. (1996) The British colonial education ‘lending’ policy in Cyprus (1878-1960): and intriguing example of an 

elusive ‘adapted education’ policy. Comparative Education 32(1) pp. 45-68. 


79


other part of the story, much less well known, is that which comprises the middle road. This is a place 

where many Cypriots, both Turkish and Greek, desire to construct their own sovereign identities, 

which may be influenced by both Turkey and Greece, but they do not desire a strict replica of either. 

This is a very small piece of land in the Mediterranean and it has been concretely divided by a demilitarized 

zone and maintained by troops from the United Nations for nearly a quarter of a century. 

This fact has a substantial set of implications not only in that it separates the two largest ethnic groups 

of the island, but also in that it influences the realities, perceptual and otherwise, that they construct in 

reference to each other 7 . This situation closely mirrors what occurred when Germany was split into 

east and west and what occurs with the two Koreas today. At present, the Greek population comprises 

77% of the population and the Turkish is 18% 8 . 

The Aftermath of Independence 

Cyprus achieved its independence from Britain in 1960. But this came with a series of problems since 

the two largest groups on the island had, from encounters that were sometimes violent, built isolationist 

and prejudiced tendencies into their social and educational practices with regard to each other. The 

constitution establishing the republic did not help matters any. The formal document referred to both 

groups in the articulation of its principles, instead of ‘one people’. There was also no national 

language. There was only the existence of groups that saw and defined themselves as being different 

in their ethnicity, nationality, and identity, but in close proximity to one another. Their schooling 

taught values strictly aligned with either Greek or Turkish identity, especially that of religious 

education. Hence, there were no real structures built in to foster political or ideological compatibility 

or tolerance between the two, only those serving as default political tools 9 . 

Different groups on the island, some of which were illegal and of a caliber of vigilante, worked 

to promote one cultural identity by undermining the legitimacy of the other and provoking civil unrest. 

This started with the Greek population, but then spread to the Turkish population. Both sides accused 

each other of being the antagonists of the situation and claimed defense, physically and in terms of 

sovereignty. The implication here is that these underground organizations created the climate where 

suspicion was prevalent and could easily be acted upon. Thus, from 1963-1974, there was substantial 

civil unrest on Cyprus, but the culminating events came first with a coup de grace engineered in 

Greece whereby the president of the Greek Cypriot Republic was overthrown. Though he was restored 

to the office, Turkey followed with a military invasion of the northern half of the island in 1974, 

claiming defense of sovereign Turkish Cypriot interests 10 . The ensuing conflict forced thousands of 

Greek residents to flee south from their homes in the north. Prior to and subsequent to the invasion, 

Turkish residents left their homes and communities in the southern half of the island for places with 

greater Turkish populations in the north. This culminated with the establishment of a demilitarized 

zone between the Northern Turkish population and the southern Greek population; a border that still 

exists to the present day and is administered by the United Nations. The United Nations sent in a 

peace-keeping force to maintain this border after the Turkish military agreed to halt their invasion and 

withdraw to the northern half of the island. 

At present, there is limited contact between the different groups across the borders, even where 

the borders have been dismantled 11 . Though ordinary citizens have contact with each other, this has 

not filtered through to the political structure of both sides of the island or to the educational structures 

7 

Richmond, O. (1998), Implications for making peace: building negotiating positions during the Cyprus conflict, Paper 

delivered at ACGTA seminar in London (June 5, 1998) 

8 

CIA World Fact Book 2007, Cyprus, http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/cy.html (accessed July 11, 

2007) 

9 

Ioannidou, M. (1997). Curriculum as political text: the case of Cyprus. History of Education 26(4): 395-407. 

10 

Cyprus conflict narrative, http://www.cyprus-conflict.net/www.cyprus-conflict.net/index.html (accessed July 11, 2007). 

11 

BBC News. (2007). “Greek Cypriots dismantle barrier”, http://news.bbc.co.uc/2/hi/europe/6433045.htm (accessed July 

11, 2007). 

80


that are influenced by them. Due to situations like this, the school systems that developed independent 

of one another are still isolated. An entire generation of students has scarcely had anyone from the 

other side for more than two decades. The state of these relations does not foster peace and/or any 

sense of possible reconciliation as those concepts may be taught to students. A relevant question here 

is the future that students are being groomed for through the civic and historical education they receive 

and how open that education is to the idea of reconciliation with their neighbors. 

Cypriot Pragmatism 

Prior to and following the events of 1974, it is important to mention that not all members of the 

population(s) held such extreme or intolerant views of the other group 12 . Indeed, there were many 

within the population that did not hold the sentiment that they should be strictly affiliated with either 

Greece or Turkey. Their desire was to have an identity which was uniquely Cypriot, and this included 

members of both groups. Their perspective comprised what we would refer to as the ‘middle road’. 

Their primary interest was in getting on with life, working, and participating in the workings of the rest 

of the world community. 

By 1967, there were two groups that are referred to as ‘nationalists’ and ‘rationalists’. On the 

Greek side, the nationalists were members of a group that desired unification with Greece and allowed 

no debate on this issue. Any sentiment or questioning running counter to it was considered selling out 

to the Turkish influence. Countering this were the ‘rationalists’ whose views concentrated more on 

developing the economy of Cyprus in a way that would invite greater prosperity to the population. It 

was their influence that persuaded, even demanded, that the Ministry of Education open vocational 

technical schools. Jobs and industry, they argued, would do more to build up and sustain the future(s) 

of Cypriot identity and not confine it to one particular ethnic group. These technical schools produced 

workers for the job market with newer and updated skills than those previously available 13 . 

The founding of these technical schools represented a compromise from the political leadership 

to aid the economic development of the economy on the Greek side. The leadership required a quid 

pro quo on the part of the vocational/technical educational establishment, though. In the curriculum 

schools in the Greek communities, they were required to offer courses in the social sciences, more 

precisely that of Classical Greek, which served to reinforce and expand the dimensions of the Greek 

identity, but not the Turkish 14 . 

Down to Brass Tacks 

The features of both educational systems in Cyprus are striking for the sheer nature of their similarities, 

both in structure and governance 15 . The major difference between them lies in the civic orientation 

each has toward its history and culture. The tone and substance of this uni-cultural orientation revolves 

around the notion of identity. The Greek system of education is administered through the Ministry of 

Education and Culture. A primary mission of this organization is the maintenance of Greek identity. 

Ranging from the primary school where both groups of students enter at age 6 all the way through to 

the end of secondary school which ends at around age 18, and including the technical and tertiary 

institutions, they are virtually alike. The social sciences are where the major differences lie, especially 

in relation to history and the perspective it is taught from. History and the social sciences are the main 

vehicles in the transmission of civic knowledge. In this context, the history is being framed from a 

point of view where one group is elevated to the point of unquestioned legitimacy and the other plays 

the role of the antagonist. 

12 

Cyprus conflict narrative, http://www.cyprus-conflict.net/www.cyprus-conflict.net/index.html (accessed July 11, 2007). 

13 


14 

Ioannidou, M. (1997). 

15 

Structure of education systems in northern Cyprus. www.euroeducation.net/prof1/cypco.htm (accessed July 12, 2007) 

81


Even the methods of training teachers bear remarkable similarities to one another. Turkish 

teachers are required to complete a four year teachers college prepatory program, while Greek teachers 

are required to complete more of a technical degree. This technical degree has a structure of 

accountability built into it which helps to ensure the quality of the training and the accountability of the 

individual(s). 

The implication(s) here are that the major differences, meaning the nature of the training, 

assessment, and curricular focus of each school system is political in nature. Accordingly, 

“...curriculum should be considered foremost as a political document which reflects the struggles of 

opposing groups to have their interests, values, histories and politics dominate the curriculum” 16 . 

While there have been dissenting voices to this use of history in the curriculum, they have not been 

part of the political leadership, nor have they been representative of the sentiments that galvanized 

popular sentiment in directing political action. 

Meanings for Students, Schools, and Society 

There is great concern on both sides that cultural identity will be a casualty with contact, because that 

contact would surely drudge up the recent past and this is a highly charged and volatile topic in both 

communities. For someone not familiar with the fabric of this struggle, the nature of this conflict 

makes limited sense, but unfamiliarity here does not properly reflect what has been built into the civic 

knowledge and understanding of these two nationalities on this small island. People in both groups 

feel they are being marginalized by the other for the state and construction of their culture and heritage. 

With no colonizer bigger than both of themselves to struggle against, they have turned the quest for 

cultural recognition and legitimacy in a way that targets each other. 

A paper was presented at the 6th biennial conference for the International Network of 

Philosophers of Education (INPE) by Kamil Ozerk in which he traced the use of language throughout 

the history of the island. Ozerk reported that the island has never been monolingual 17 . Though the 

citizenry of the island became proficient in what they had to, there was never a concerted effort to 

introduce and maintain bilingualism through both school systems. As stated earlier, the Turkish 

schools did offer other languages in their schools, but the Greek school system did not. What are the 

implications here? The absence of bi-lingual language instruction in both school systems in a mutually 

complimentary manner helps to serve the otherwise default function of distorting perceptions of 

equality that people of both groups hold toward one another. This state of relations retards progress 

that may be made through cooperation on economic, cultural or political levels. Even worse are the 

consistent battles fought in the name of countering the perception(s) of hegemonic influences by the 

‘other group.’ 

Ozerk contends that communicative competence is crucial and language is a major, if not 

primary, component of this competence 18 . With each group holding an orientation directed away from 

the other, communicative competencies cannot be easily built into the civic relations of the younger 

population, since they are not legitimized by the existing school structures. These same competencies 

are part of an effort that would be constructive towards understanding. 

With the mission of the school focused solely around the idea of cultural reproduction and 

maintenance on both sides, one must be curious as to what this means for the idea of peace education 

for students in the schools. If the political leadership intends to isolate the other group, then students 

who grow up and go to school in this climate of cultural frigidity will surely have a take on the 

struggles at hand. 

16 Ioannidou, M. p. 395 

17 Ozerk, K. (1998). “A right to and opportunity for reciprocal bilingualism: A study of the role and potential of 

bilingualism in inter-communal relationships in Cyprus.” Paper presented at the 1998 International Network of 

Philosophers of Education (INPE). 6 th biennial conference. 

18 Ozerk, K. 1998. 

82


In 1996, a workshop was sponsored by the United Stated Agency for International 

Development (USAID) and held by the Harvard University Conflict Management Group, college 

students from both Turkish and Greek Cypriot communities were asked for their perceptions of the 

conflict that each has dealt with through their respective communities 19 . This workshop revolved 

around determining their understanding or articulation of the nature of the political and cultural 

struggle, what it meant to reside in a community, and developing skills at negotiation and dialogue in 

order to resolve the conflict on a personal level. The results of this workshop make it quite clear that, 

while many of the students do not have a profound mistrust of the other as individuals or groups, they 

do mistrust the nature of the civic and national orientations that have been put in place; politically, 

economically, culturally, and educationally. 

The relevant time frames both groups refer to in the context of the present situation range from 

the years of the Cypriot Republic (1963-1974) and to the present. Greeks and Turks both place causal 

factors to what occurred during this frame of time. The Turkish community focuses on 1963-1974 

because this was a time where there was a large degree of social unrest and illegal entities such as the 

Greek terrorist organization EOKA committed acts that terrorized residents of Turkish communities on 

the island. Their activities and persecution forced many people to flee these communities on the 

southern portion of the island for the northern part of the island where the Turkish population was 

larger. The Greek coup de grace added to this and, legitimate in the eyes of the Turkish population, 

brought about the Turkish invasion of 1974. The time from 1974 on is the era focused on by the 

Greeks as this represents a violation of the sovereignty of the island by Turkish forces. This same 

event is looked at as being legitimate by the Turkish community, due to the same coup 20 . As is replete 

through the recent history of the island, two groups see the same set of circumstances in very different 

ways. 

Both groups cite historical links to the past with the Greek Cypriots citing their Greek heritage 

and the Turks their own heritage. It should be noted that neither group placed the totality of their 

respective identities within the historical parameters of their cultural progenitors, but they hold fast to 

the fact that these different groups give them their roots. Neither group, especially the Cypriots of 

Greek heritage, desires a permanent division of the island. But with history still as fresh as it is, these 

acts of division are still quite fresh in the minds of the younger generation and so they must be 

resolved. 

Historically, with the physical border that exists on the island between the two groups, there is 

an economic result which comes about with regard to the prosperity of each community. As a result, 

the Greek community to the south has a much higher standard of living than their northern counterparts 

due to their ties with Greece, and subsequently Europe. Northern Cyprus trades almost exclusively 

with Turkey and this substantially limits the degree of foreign investment and prosperity that have 

come to their part of the island. The infrastructure of the southern part of the island is better developed 

and, since it is recognized as the legitimate Republic of Cyprus in the eyes of the world community, 

enjoys a far greater degree of trade and prosperity. 

Cyprus joined the European Union in 2005, though not as a unified or reconciled people 21 . 

Though both the north and south are members of the E.U., only the southern Greek portion of the 

island receives the monetary and trade benefits which accompany state membership. The situation is 

further complicated by the fact that Turkey is the main sponsor for northern Cyprus. Turkey desires to 

join the European Union itself, but the issue of its military and financial support of TNRC (Turkish 

Northern Republic of Cyprus) serves as a stumbling block for their acceptance. At this point, Turkey 

needs the Cyprus issue to be resolved so they can pursue their own interests with acceptance to the EU. 

19 Erduran, S. (1996). “Reflection on Turkish Cypriot and Greek Cypriot students’ perceptions of the Cyprus conflict: 

Implications for peace education.” Paper presented at the 1996 annual meeting of the American Educational Research 

Association. New York. Eric document: ED427985. 

20 Cyprus conflict narrative, http://www.cyprus-conflict.net/www.cyprus-conflict.net/index.html (accessed July 11, 2007). 

21 Country profile: Cyprus, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1016541.stm (accessed July 11, 2007). 

83


Though they hold considerable sway with their military and monetary presence on the island, the 

political leadership has proven less pragmatic in this arena. 

The increased economic prosperity that EU membership has brought to the Greek community 

of Cyprus will, as time goes by, serve as a major mechanism of further marginalization for the Turkish 

population(s). This would make them not only question the value of their political leadership, with its 

continual guard against influences of the Greek south, but come to resent what they have been denied 

through the absence of the same membership. As reported in the Economist, Rauf Denktash, the 

Turkish president on Cyprus, has publicly stated that he does not desire the loss of so much sovereignty 

on the part of the Turkish community 22 . He would prefer looser ties with the European Union. 

Recently, a referendum was held for acceptance of an EU treaty by both the Greek south and the 

Turkish north. The Turkish north overwhelmingly passed the referendum in spite of the positions of 

their political leaders. The Greek south, however, did not due to stipulations on their rights of return to 

communities they had previously occupied on the northern part of the island 23 . These referendums 

have more to do with the political and demographic landscape, but greatly influence the educational 

landscape as a by-product. 

The education received by students on both sides is oriented in a way that first accuses and then 

marginalizes the other group. Language, civics, and history education all coalesce to form a distinctive 

flavor of nationalism that is oriented around ethnicity. The outcomes of these experiences for students 

are continually building a dimension to their relationship that stymies the leap of trust and faith that is 

required for reconciliation of the island and reunification of its people. This comes about through the 

influence of the political leadership, since the substance and orientation of the curriculum is one that 

they have such a heavy hand in 24 . As described by Ozerk earlier, language is essential to bridging 

differences between groups. In this instance, language, history and civics education are not separate 

dimensions of education, but tightly interwoven with the intent of achieving a particular, in this case 

nationalistic, end. 

The increasing disparity of relations created between the two communities will become more 

substantial in scope as time goes by. This will have drastic implications for the educational structures 

of the north since they are already operating with resources well below those of the Greek communities 

of the south. As the resources continue to flow into the Greek south of Cyprus, but not to the north, the 

basic educational infrastructure which enables students to be competitive in the larger world will 

become even more lop-sided. This is partly due to the small size and population of Cyprus. A 

majority of the students who desire further post secondary education leave the island in order to make 

it happen, both Greek and Turkish. The resources made available to improve the educational 

experiences of Turkish students will not be able to improve dramatically, while a steadily improving 

lot of the Greek Cypriots will. Cyprus has a very high rate of literacy and graduation from secondary 

school with a majority of students aspiring to continue their education 25 . This education, however, still 

requires the constant evolution and improvement through allocation of resources. The education they 

are offered will improve marginally with regard to the physical resources that account for part of the 

schooling experience. Recently, Cyprus has experienced economic growth due partly to the abilities of 

their educational sector 26 . Though resources made available will continue to promote their identity, the 

questions to be asked are what it will be promoted in relation to. 

22 

Economist. (1997). “Greater, poorer.” Economist, October 2. [Electronic version] 

23 

BBC News (April 25, 2004) “Cyprus spurns historic chance.” http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3656753.stm (accessed 

July 26, 2007) 

24 


25 

CIA World Fact Book, 2007, http://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/cy.html (accessed July 11, 

2007) 

26 

CIA World Fact Book, 2007 

84


Conclusion 

The primary question here lies in the distinctive form and worth of community, and how far the 

educational structure of that community should go in order to ensure that it retains its own sense of 

identity, yet exercise a pragmatic approach to a much larger and more interconnected world. There is 

nothing particularly wrong in fomenting the development of national character, but in this situation and 

when one follows it to the ultimate end, it has succeeded in separating people rather than bringing them 

together out of a sense of mutual pride. Raymond Grew (1980) addressed bias when he wrote of the 

need and legitimacy in comparing historical accounts between peoples. Quoting Lord Acton, “The 

process of civilization depends on transcending nationality” 27 . This speaks directly to the limitations 

imposed by strict nationalist interpretations of historical accounts and directly addresses the Cypriot 

situation. 

The story and state of the island of Cyprus is one of the conflicts between group ethnic 

experience(s). One of the parties happens, at the present time, to occupy a more advantaged position 

than the other. The Turkish north is the one at a disadvantage here. Though it may not be fair, it is the 

reality of the situation. Both groups of Cypriots desire to improve their status and standing in relation 

to the world community. It is my contention that if both sides would take the steps of fundamentally 

re-examining their structure of the history and civic knowledge taught in schools, it would promote 

much of the faith and open-mindedness required for national and social healing with the generations 

yet to come enter and leave the school doors. If the status quo remains unchanged or unchallenged, the 

lines will be drawn even deeper and the already sizable tasks made larger and more difficult. 

Regardless of the resources, be they monetary, ethnic, religious, or any other, using them within the 

institution of education as a means to frustrate the ‘other’ or depict the other in a marginalizing fashion 

will not help in presenting a solution to a problem. As has been shown in numerous other national 

examples, ethnic beliefs and attitudes have inherently complimentary features that are more capable of 

solving problems through dialogue than strictly creating them. 

As important as cultural and ethnic identity is, it must still relent to the forces around it and 

within it. There is an unhealthy context of hegemonic maintenance which occurs when the leadership 

of a group of people is simply unwilling to budge, especially in light of efforts by leaders of other 

countries. What sort of future is the political leadership building for their younger generations? It 

would be easy to conclude that these are little more than ongoing proxy identity wars being fought 

using schools and the same younger generations as a means to continue the conflict and reach a desired 

end that is specific to the ethnically-oriented goals of the older generation. In a speech given by the 

Cyprus chief negotiator, Cypriots are entreated to understand that it is in their own best interests to 

overcome what has historically separated them and possess a common set of goals and vision for the 

future 28 . The legitimacy inherent in any historical account lies in the power of depiction 29 . 

Eventually, the north will have no choice but to concede, but by that time they may have come 

to occupy an even lower position of affluence or influence with respect to larger social and economic 

entities that surround them. The Greek part of the island is benefiting by default from existing 

European associations, so they really have nothing to lose, other than the continued observation by 

other countries that they come from a land that is still split, all the way down to Nicosia, the capital city 

itself. The question remaining is whether and to whom that matters and how much. 

27 

Grew, R. (1980). The case for comparing histories. American Historical Review, 85, 763-778.Griffith, B. (1990). 

Traditional American history texts: The search for alternatives. (Report No. SO021461). Proceedings from the Annual 

meeting of the American Historical Association. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED337387) 

28 

Vassiliou, G. (8 April 2002). “European union and enlargement and the Cyprus political and economic implications.” 

Speech by Cyprus chief negotiator. http://www.pio.gov.cy/news/special_issues/special_issue087.htm. (accessed July 26, 

2003) 

29 

Barbre, J. (2006). “Powers of Depiction: A Textual Analysis of Secondary-Level History Books Currently in Use In 

Toronto, Ontario and Stillwater, Oklahoma”. PhD diss., Oklahoma State University. [School of Educational Studies] 

85


References 

[1] Abboud, R. & N. Minow. (2002). [Electronic version]. “Advancing peace in the Middle East: 

The Economic Path Out of Conflict.” Foreign Affairs, 81(5) September/October. 

[2] Barbre, J. (2006). “Powers of Depiction: A Textual Analysis of Secondary-Level History 

Books Currently in Use In Toronto, Ontario and Stillwater, Oklahoma”. PhD diss., Oklahoma 

State University. [School of Educational Studies] 

[3] BBC News Country profile: Cyprus, 

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1016541.stm (accessed July 11, 2007). 

[4] BBC News (April 25, 2004). “Cyprus spurns historic chance.” 

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3656753.stm (accessed July 26, 2007) 

[5] BBC News. (2007). “Greek Cypriots dismantle barrier”, 

http://news.bbc.co.uc/2/hi/europe/6433045.htm (accessed July 11, 2007). 

[6] Bradshaw, L. (1993). Technical education in Cyprus. International journal of educational 

reform. 2 (3): 279-285. 

[7] CIA World Fact Book 2007, Cyprus, 

http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/cy.html (accessed July 11, 2007) 

[8] Cyprus conflict narrative, http://www.cyprus-conflict.net/www.cyprus-conflict.net/index.html 

(accessed July 11, 2007). 

[9] Economist. (1997). “Greater, poorer.” Economist, October 2. [Electronic version] 

[10] Economist. (2003). “The Magic of Membership.” Economist, January 18. [Electronic version] 

[11] Economist. (2003). “Loosening up.” Economist, May 15. [Electronic version] 

[12] Erduran, S. (1996). “Reflection on Turkish Cypriot and Greek Cypriot students’ perceptions of 

the Cyprus conflict: Implications for peace education.” Paper presented at the 1996 annual 

meeting of the American Educational Research Association. New York. Eric document: 

ED427985. 

[13] Grew, R. (1980). The case for comparing histories. American Historical Review, 85, 763- 

778.Griffith, B. (1990). Traditional American history texts: The search for alternatives. (Report 

No. SO021461). Proceedings from the Annual meeting of the American Historical Association. 

(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED337387) 

[14] Ioannidou, M. (1997). “Curriculum as political text: the case of Cyprus.” History of Education 

26(4): 395-407. 

[15] Market Access Sectoral and Trade Barriers Database. (2002). General features of trade policy: 

Cyprus. http://mkaccdb.eu.int/mkdb/stb/mkstb.pl . (accessed 27 July 2003) 

[16] Menon, M. (1998). “Factors influencing the demand for higher education: The case of Cyprus.” 

Higher Education. 35: 251-266. 

[17] Menon, M. (1997). “The demand for higher education in Cyprus: an educational policy 

perspective.” Higher Education Policy. 10 (1): 31-39. 

[18] Ozerk, K. (1998). “A right to and opportunity for reciprocal bilingualism: A study of the role 

and potential of bilingualism in inter-communal relationships in Cyprus.” Paper presented at 

the 1998 International Network of Philosophers of Education (INPE). 6 th biennial conference. 

[19] Persianis, P. (1996). “The British colonial education ‘lending’ policy in Cyprus (1878-1960): 

and intriguing example of an elusive ‘adapted education’ policy.” Comparative Education 

32(1): 45-68. 

[20] Richmond, O. (1998). “Implications for making peace: building negotiating positions during 

the Cyprus conflict.” Paper delivered at ACGTA seminar in London. 

[21] Structure of education systems in northern Cyprus. www.euroeducation.net/prof1/cypco.htm. 

(accessed July 28, 2003) 

[22] United Nations Conference on Trade and Developement. Concentration index of exports by 

country. http:// www.unctad.org/Templates/Webflyer.asp?docID=2721 (accessed July 19, 

2003) 

86


[23] Vassiliou, G. (8 April 2002). “European union and enlargement and the Cyprus political and 

economic implications.” Speech by Cyprus chief negotiator. 

http://www.pio.gov.cy/news/special_issues/special_issue087.htm. (accessed July 26, 2003) 

87


Derived Demand and Human Resource Management: An 

Important Linkage in Organizational Strategy 

Robert A. Figler 

Associate Professor of Management, Department of Management 

The University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325-4801 

E-mail: Figler@uakron.edu 

Tel: 330.972.5437 

Steven R. Ash 

Associate Professor of Management, Department of Management 

The University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325-4801 

E-mail: Ash@uakron.edu 

Tel: 330.972.6429 

Introduction 

Business markets around the globe continue to become more dynamic, complex and uncertain. Today’s 

business firms find it increasingly challenging to establish and sustain a market competitive advantage 

and require that managers develop a more strategic mindset within each functional area. This has 

become particularly true with regard to the increasing global context in which firms now operate. In 

particular, the forces shaping and changing the knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) of the firm’s 

workforce are expected to play an increasingly larger role on the firm’s performance, efficiency, 

productivity, and profitability (Perkins and Shortland, 2006). 

Historically, the “HR” function has been one of handling the paperwork for hiring employees 

and setting up their compensation and benefits. The HR folks were the ones that employees would call 

to complain about a problem with their paycheck. They were also often allowed to plan the annual 

company picnic – after all they were the “people” people. This will no longer suffice (Jamrog and 

Overholt, 2004). 

Human resource management has become one of the central factors for building and sustaining 

competitive advantage (Pfeffer, 2005). Most organizations find that the systems that are used to recruit 

top talent, select the best fitting candidates, train associates in the latest processes and technologies, 

design work, develop team interaction, evaluate performance, and reward with appropriate 

compensation systems are the very factors that determine industry leadership. Yet, one of the most 

common criticisms levied against HR managers is their lack of understanding of the way the business 

operates (Hammonds, 2005). In this paper, we attempt to delineate the role of HR in the organization 

through an economic business lens. With this conceptual understanding, HR managers will have the 

ability to participate in strategic planning for the turbulent changes which are likely in store for many 

organizations. 

Recently, many publications regarding HR have placed the term “strategic” in front of HR. The 

idea behind strategic human resource management revolves around involving and utilizing the function 

of human resource management as a participant in the formulation and positioning of the firm in its 

product/service market. We argue that without a sound understanding of HR from the economic 

perspective it’s strategic role can not be fully appreciated. 

88


The Economic/Systems Perspective of the Business Organization 

Understanding how forces in the product and service market impact human resource planning and 

deployment – and effectively managing them – make the difference between the economic success or 

failure of the firm. One important concept linking the firm’s human resource market with its 

product/service market is the economic principle of derived demand. This principle was primarily 

elaborated upon by the late 19 th century economist Alfred Marshall and was employed in his use of 

supply and demand analysis of product prices in relationship to their factors of production i.e., 

resources. While the demand for a product is traceable directly from consumer preferences, wants and 

income; the demand for the respective inputs is derived from the market demand of the product 

(Friedman, 1976). 

When viewed with the economist’s eye, the organization represents an entity that procures raw 

inputs, transform the raw inputs in some fashion, and then provide outputs. The nature of the business 

and its technology determines the type of transformation that occurs in between the input and output 

stages. For example, if a company sells lumber, the raw inputs are trees, the transformation might be 

sizing, cutting, treating. The outputs are boards for building materials delivered to retailers. The 

primary function of the organization is to turn trees into building material. In addition to the primary 

function of the organization (the transformation process), most organizations require a number of 

support functions to operate effectively. A lumberyard may find it necessary to provide other business 

functions such as accounting support, mechanical support, sales support and transportation. These 

duties do not add directly to the profitability of the organization, and thus are often regarded as costs. 

In Figure 1 we illustrate the economic/systems perspective of the organization. We can begin 

by understanding the general types of inputs and processes. For example, the input side is actually a 

depiction of the firm’s resource market and the output side is a depiction of the firm’s product/service 

market. The business itself consists of structured functional activities designed to produce outputs or 

services of value. The magnitude of derived demand is affected by the changes and levels of a firm’s 

profitability and/or inventory. When looking at the resource/input side, it is always good to remember 

that these are separate markets; markets for capital, markets for materials, and markets for resources. 

Figure 1: The Economic Perspective of the Organization for Human Resources 

Resource Market 

(Inputs) 

Demand for 

Human 

Resources 

Business Organization 

(Transformation)) 

Organizational 

Structure & Design 

Derived Demand 

• 

• 

Technology 

Functions 

Derived Demand 

• Operations 

• Marketing 

• Finance 

• Accounting 

• Etc. 

Environmental Forces 

Degree of: 

1. Uncertainty 

2. Stability 

3. Complexity 

4. Changes in 

Technology 

89 

Product/Service Market 

(Outputs) 

Demand of 

Consumers


From a textbook perspective, competitive markets are relatively uncomplicated and easily 

understood; no uncertainty with complete information, complete resource mobility, products or 

services which are homogenous among rival firms, and a large number of buyers or sellers in the 

market so each firm is a price-taker. This view assumes, of course, zero transaction costs, i.e., the costs 

of discovering, contracting, monitoring and enforcing market exchanges. With this assumption, the 

determination of demand collapses into a relatively easy calculation. However, as Leibenstein pointed 

out: 

“Microeconomics is not concerned with the internal workings of the organization. The 

problem of internal efficiency is assumed away by postulating the existence of a 

production function, combined with the maximization postulate. Once we imagine that 

the firm knows the relationship between inputs and outputs, we can magically get the best 

results, then nothing more need be said. Although such a simplification of reality is useful 

for some types of theory construction, at present, it seems desirable to try to develop 

theories on a more realistic basis.” (1987, p.3) 

When we enter the actual world of economic transactions and competitive markets, 

environmental forces such as degrees of uncertainty, instability, complexity, information asymmetries, 

and positive transaction costs prevail, therefore nothing must be taken for granted or simply assumed 

away. Strategic positioning, product differentiation, and organizational culture do play a critical role in 

the attainment of a competitive advantage in the market. The unique, difficult to imitate, internal 

resource configuration of a firm provides it with an edge in the competitive market (Barney, Wright & 

Ketchen, 2001). This implies that the strategic development and employment of a firm’s human 

resources are key to acquiring a competitive advantage. These ideas have helped shape new visions for 

the function of a firm’s human resource department. 

The Basic Linkage of Derived Demand and Human Resource Planning Process 

Although commonly cited throughout most labor economics texts, “the demand for labor is derived 

from the demand in the product/service market” is the mantra which often masks the complexities of 

this relationship and is one that must be fully understood for effective competition. 

At its most elementary level, the derived demand principle states that a firm’s demand for 

human resources is derived from the firm’s product or service market. This proposition provides a 

pathway that links a firm’s resource market with it product/service market. The basic implication of 

this principle is that the firm’s human resource planning process is simply an algebraic count: given a 

forecast of product demand, the quantity of labor services is simply calculated from the umber of units 

sold or forecast to be sold. Since most organizations can generalize the headcount required per unit 

volume production, the personnel requirements seem as straightforward as the raw materials 

requirements. However there are many conditions and factors in the product/service market that 

influences and shape the quantity and mix of labor services demanded by the firm. 

Planning for Derived Demand 

In the strategic human resource management planning process, the mix and quantity of labor services 

required can potentially span a large and variable range of skills and talents. Furthermore, simple 

changes or shifts in the amount forecast can have dire consequences with respect to the profitability, 

cost, effectiveness and efficiency of the firm. 

For example, in the service related markets, firms tend to be labor intensive and it is not 

unusual for the firm to spend anywhere from forty to eighty cents of each revenue dollar for 

employees. In manufacturing these costs can range from thirty-five to sixty percent of revenue 

(Henderson, 2005). Swings in profitability and efficiency are relatively sensitive to shifts in such labor 

costs. With an overestimate of demand for human resources, the firm may take on substantially more 

90


labor cost than required and this may then result in lost profits and inefficient utilization of employees. 

Underestimates may result in underutilization and shortages of essential employees. Potentially missed 

market opportunities may result and rival co-optation of market shares may ensue. In either case, the 

realization of the firm’s expected competitive advantage may simply turn on the variability of its 

forecast for human resources. 

It becomes fairly evident that strategic human resource management should be a part of the 

formulation stage of the firm’s strategic management process. Decision-makers must be provided with 

human resource contingency plans and cost impacts as they relate to overall firm profitability and 

efficiency. This also requires that the human resource manager must go beyond simply understanding 

the firm’s human resource market (input side) and develop a working conceptual knowledge of the 

forces affecting the firm’s competitive position in the product/service market and how this will relate 

to the human resource market. 

Table 1: Mechanistic and Organic Organizational Structures 

Mechanistic Structures Result When an Organic Structures Result When an Organization makes 

Organization makes these Choices 

these Choices 

• Individual Specialization • Joint specialization 

Employees work separately and specialize in one Employees work together and coordinate their actions to 

clearly defined task 

find the best way of performing a task. 

• Simple Integrating Mechanisms • Complex Integrating Mechanisms 

Hierarch of authority is clearly defined and is the Task forces and teams are the major integrating 

major integrating mechanism 

mechanisms 

• Centralization • Decentralization 

Authority to control tasks is kept at the top of the Authority to control tasks is delegated to people at all 

organization. Most communication is vertical. 

levels in the organization. Most communication is lateral. 

• Standardization • Mutual Adjustment 

Extensive use is made of rules and SOPs to Extensive use is made of face-to-face contact to coordinate 

coordinate tasks, and work process is predictable. tasks, and work process is relatively unpredictable. 

• Status-Conscious Informal Organization • Expertise-Conscious informal organization 

Employees protect their area of authority and Employees share their skills with others, and authority and 

responsibility from others. 

responsibility change over time. 

Adapted from Jones (2004), p. 78 

Uncertainty and Dynamism 

One of the major forces shaping and complicating a firm’s demand for human resources arises from the 

degree of market certainty and dynamism facing the business firm. These forces impact the derived 

demand pathway by causing the firm to alter its organizational design and structure. Table I illustrates 

the characteristics of mechanistic and organic organizational design and structures. Typically 

mechanistic organizations tend to be hierarchical with many levels of management. Whereas organic 

structures, associated with uncertainty and instability, tend to be more flattened and require a different 

mix of skills, roles, and number of employees. Figure 2 illustrates changes in environmental forces 

with regard to changes in organizational design and structure. At the end of the ranges the 

characteristics of mechanistic and organic structures emerge much more distinctly. The choices made 

in the design of work and interaction determines the resulting organizational form – ranging from 

organic to mechanistic. 

91

Dynamic 

Environment 

Certain 


Figure 2: Environmental Forces on Organizational Structure 

100% Mechanistic 

The key to effective human resource planning lies in the timing and process of restructuring 

from either of the well-defined mechanistic/organic structures. When firms move from a more 

mechanistic to organic structure, levels of management flatten and spans of control grow. This, in turn 

has implications for changes in communication, motivation and rewards structures. Authority and 

accountability create relationship changes in this transition and decision-making becomes more 

decentralized (Jones, 2004). Without the properly aligned workforce, structures designed to facilitate 

work coordination and flow will almost certainly fail. 

Implications for HR 

Turbulent environments require flexibility. More organizations are encountering turbulence in their 

industries and are therefore moving toward organic structures. The transition to an organic structure 

directly impacts the derived demand linkage and human resource planning process. The entire span of 

selection, training, and rewarding criteria must become aligned with the requirements of the new 

structure. The implications for these contrasting structures are important. 

Under the organic structure conditions, employees require less direct supervision. The 

effectiveness of employees in these circumstances is directly related to selection methods used to hire 

the employees. For example, when hiring, organizations can use valid tests to select for appropriate fit 

characteristics like locus of control, need for autonomy, and independence (Hough & Oswald, 2000). 

In moving toward the organic type structure, delegation of authority becomes very critical. Typical 

mechanistic firms employ spans of control around seven. Under a more organic structure spans of 

control can reach as high as seventy-five (Gailbrath, 2002). Moving toward a more organic structure 

requires the development and deployment of self-managing work teams that end up training, selecting 

and rewarding their respective members. Such a structure requires a complete re-vamping of 

supervisory skills and characteristics. For successful operations in these organic firms, managers 

require training on how they can provide substantial coaching skills rather than directing skills 

(Gailbrath, 2002). 

92 

Structure 

100% Organic


One of the most difficult challenges for the human resource management and planning process 

is when the firm is operating in the middle of the transition stage from mechanistic to organic. When 

the firm is neither predominately mechanistic nor organic in structure, it literally has a wide range of 

designs and structures producing a significant variation in the types of KSAs required of the firm’s 

workforce. Furthermore, some firms, rather than transitioning to organic endpoints, tend to constantly 

fluctuate between centralized and decentralized decision-making, moving back and forth along the 

horizontal range of organizational structure (Roberts, 2004). Human resource managers must have 

knowledge of when such transitions are taking place, i.e., what forces are shaping the firm’s 

product/service market and the degree to which workflows and work structures are to be altered. 

Without attending to this, managers will be applying inappropriate motivation and control procedures 

on their employees. This is not beneficial to overall firm performance. 

Furthermore, the entrance or exit of new and old competitors into an industry, changes in 

political and legal constraints, merger and acquisition actions and the diffusion of major innovations all 

serve to change the landscape of certainty and stability facing the firm. This in turn further complicates 

strategic human resource planning. Once again human resource managers must also have a good grasp 

of the dynamic changes in the competitive environment and how these changes impact changes on the 

firm’s structure and design. Good forecasts require contingency strategies for hiring human resources 

and the impact on the bottom-line become essential for the major strategic decision-makers of the firm. 

Technology 

To further complicate issues, another force affecting the derived demand linkage is the nature and 

deployment of technology. In the simplistic view of technology, a firm adopts technology to substitute 

for relatively high labor costs. However, the effect of technology on the demand for human resources 

reveals a more complex set of relationships and impacts. 

Some technologies may substitute for certain labor skills while other technologies change and 

extend the skill mix of employees. Generally, the adoption of technology changes the quantity, quality, 

and mix of labor services in the production process. Understanding how technology impacts these skill 

levels and quantities is essential for developing an effective human resource planning process in 

support of achieving and maintaining a competitive advantage in the firm’s product/service market. 

Galbraith (2002) illustrates some of the changes organizations face in regards to labor skills: 

“… Companies in electronics, genetics and pharmaceuticals all search for experts in 

specialized fields to push the limits of technology. The level of specialization is actually 

increasing, as the new specialties are created everyday. Specialization of high skill 

workers allows the talented employees to gain greater expertise in these specific areas. 

The expertise can often be accumulated into databases and delivered to the teams by new 

information devices. Thus, the expertise not only services its primary purpose of 

allowing the specialist to gain in-depth knowledge but also can be disseminated to 

educate and inform generalists.” (pp. 18-19) 

The effects of such changes also impact low and medium skilled workers: 

“In contrast, at the low- and medium-skill levels, several forces are combining to 

eliminate highly fragmented tasks. Simple low-skilled tasks are being automated 

(machines can do the tasks more cheaply and reliably than people can) or exported to 

developing countries. In addition, the costs of coordinating fragmented, interdependent 

tasks are too high in rapidly changing situations; a large amount of communication is 

needed to combine the work when hundreds of subtasks are involved. The remaining 

low- and moderate- skill work is being handled by multiskilled teams of educated 

workers. These teams are given end-to-end responsibility to make decisions for an entire 

piece of work providing a more rapid and effective workflow.” (p.19) 

93


In addition to technological and environmental forces, many firms and industries face pressure 

for innovation in products or services. To compete effectively a business firm may have to pursue 

several types of different innovation strategies simultaneously (O’Reilly and Tushman, 2004). 

This type of information input from the strategic human resource managers to decision-makers 

becomes intensely more critical and the simplistic conceptualization of derived demand is unveiled to 

be a complex set of relationships, requiring a detailed understanding of how technology impacts the 

mix and skill levels of the firm’s workforce. 

Conclusion 

Traditionally, regardless of the nation in which they operate, HR managers have focused on the 

input/resource market – hiring people to fill open positions. However, ignoring the derived demand 

conditions facing the firm in its product/service market along with the impending changes in 

organizational structure would surely leave the firm at a major competitive disadvantage. Strategic 

human resource management requires the linking of human resource market information with the 

information and planning occurring in the product/service market. Without this linking, forecasting the 

mix and quantity of human resources is almost insurmountable. Thus, the human resource function 

must also comprehend the nature of product/service innovation, market changes, its impact on business 

firm structure, and the implications for acquiring human resources. 

The factors affecting the derived HR demand linkages are complex and difficult to estimate and 

yet they have a real and critical impact on the operation of the firm. Whether the business firm creates 

its own human resource department or, as in the case of small business, requires operating managers to 

carry out the primary human resource function, understanding the derived demand linkage and the 

conditions shaping it are an essential task for the strategic human resource management of the firm. 

The strategic function of today’s global human resource department can no longer take a seat at 

the back of the bus: human resources must have a seat next to the driver. Its role has evolved from a 

paper pushing administrative function of its historical past to a more proactive, strategic function. 

Decision makers in upper levels of management must become acutely aware of how quickly a 

competitive advantage in the global marketplace can vanish without the proper input from the human 

resource function. This requires that human resource managers go beyond their traditional roles and 

make their mark on the strategic planning of the firm. The nature, complexity and types of markets in 

which the firm competes must inform strategic human resources practitioners. The economic 

perspective discussed in this paper should help provide a start for HR managers to understand the true 

implications of Strategic HR management, and, hopefully, increase focus on the important elements to 

include in planning. 

94


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[2] Friedman, Milton. (1976). Price Theory, Chicago, Aldine Publishing Company 

[3] Gailbraith, Jay, R. (2002). Designing Organizations: An Executive Guide to Strategy, Structure, 

and Process, New and Revised, New York, John Wiley & Sons Inc.. 

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[5] Henderson, Richard, I. (2006). Compensation Management in a Knowledge-based World, 10 th 

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[6] Hough, Leaetta M. and Oswald, Frederick L. (2000). Personnel Selection: Looking toward the 

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[7] Hselis, Mark A., Jackson, Susan, E. & Schuler, Randall S. (1997). Technical and strategic 

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95


Determinant of Innovative Behavior in the Workplace: A Case 

Study of a Malaysian Public Sector Organisation 

Indra Devi Subramaniam 

Faculty of Management, Multimedia University, Malaysia 

Abstract 

The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between selected predictor 

variables and innovative behavior in the workplace. The predictor variables are leadermember 

relationship, leader role expectation, demographic variables and problem-solving 

style. The study was also carried out to determine whether there was a direct relationship 

between these predictor variables and innovative behavior or whether the psychological 

climate for innovation mediated between the predictor variables and innovative behavior. 

The respondents for this study were 79 teacher educators. A questionnaire was used to 

collect data. The findings of the study showed that only leader-member exchange 

correlated significantly with support for innovation. Leader-member exchange, leader role 

expectation and intuitive problem solving style correlated significantly with individual's 

perception of adequacy of resource supply for innovation. Leader-member exchange is the 

only variable that correlated significantly with psychological climate for innovation. There 

was significant relationship between psychological climate and innovative behavior. 

Leader-member exchange, leader-role expectation, systematic problem-solving style and 

intuitive problem-solving style correlated significantly with innovative behavior. Among 

the conclusion that can be made from this study is that psychological climate for 

innovation is influenced by leader-member exchange. Support for innovation without 

resource supply will not result in innovative behavior. 

Keywords: Psychological climate for innovation, leader member exchange, leader role 

expectation, problem-solving style 

Introduction 

Teachers are faced with unprecedented challenges in the new millennium. They have been charged 

with building the human capital of the nation equipped with skills for the k-economy. This they are 

expected to do by encouraging in their students acquisition of knowledge and key skills for the new 

information society and emphasizing creativity and imagination. Teachers can only achieve this by 

providing a challenging and rewarding experience for all students. This cannot be achieved without 

innovation in teaching and learning. 

Innovation requires creation of new knowledge. This knowledge creation process involves 

tapping the tacit and often subjective insights, intuitions and hunches of individual teachers and testing 

them through the research process. Ideally based on the findings of the research, a prototype of a 

product can be made. The product in this case can be a new teaching method. This then represents an 

innovation in the teaching learning process and can be implemented in the classroom. However in 

reality this is seldom the case. In most cases the teacher researchers do not go beyond stating the 

findings of the research and statements of how the new knowledge can improve practice. What is then 

impeding these teachers from implementing these innovation in their classroom? 

96


Figure 1: Determining Individual Innovative Behavior: A Hypothetical Model (Adapted from Scott and 

Bruce, 1994) 

Model of Individual Innovative Behavior 

According to Van de Van (1986), one of the central problems in the management of innovation is the 

management of attention. This is because individuals gradually adapt to their environments in such a 

way that their awareness of need deteriorates and their action thresholds reach a level at which only 

crisis can stimulate action (Scott and Bruce, 1994). However several theorist (Amabile, 1988; Isaken, 

1987 and Kanter, 1988) have suggested that organizational climate may channel and direct both 

attention and activities towards innovation. 

The purpose of this study is to determine the factors that facilitate innovative behavior in the 

work place. The study will also look at the path model for innovative behavior and the best predictors 

of innovative behavior in the work place. 

In the model tested in this study (Figure 1), individual innovative behavior is viewed as the 

outcome of three interacting systems - individual attributes, leadership and climate for innovation. In 

this model leadership style (leader-member exchange and leader role expectation) and individual 

attributes (demographic variables and problem¬ solving style [systematic problem -solving style and 

intuitive problem-solving style]) affect individual innovative behavior directly and indirectly through 

the individual's perception of a climate for innovation (support for innovation and resource supply). 

Based on the hypothetical model, the following hypothesis has been developed to be tested in this 

study: 

97


Leader-Member Exchange and Perception of Psychological Climate as Supportive 

of Innovation 

In this study it is also hypothesized that leader-member exchange (LMX) can influence innovative 

behavior through its influence on how individuals perceive the climate. According to Ashforth (1985); 

Glick (1988); Schneider and Reichers (1983), an individuals' perception of the psychological climate at 

his work place will be strongly influenced by his co-workers and leaders. Kozlowski and Doherty 

(1989) have suggested that because supervisors are the representatives of management actions, policies 

and procedures, subordinates tend to generalize their perceptions of supervisors to their organizations 

at large. Thus subordinates with a high-quality relationship with their supervisors will perceive their 

organization as providing greater autonomy and supportiveness compared to those having a lowquality 

relationship. Studies by Koxlowski and Doherty(1989); Dunegan et. al.(1992), have provided 

empirical support for a positive relationship between LMX quality and climate perception. Several 

theorists suggest that managers may play a key role in this endeavor. Kanter (1988) and James et. al. 

(1990), for example, maintain that managers are a primary source for the signals from which 

subordinates construct perceptions of their work group’s climate. Since employee perceptions of 

climate conditions have been strongly linked with innovation initiation, adoption, and implementation 

it is important to understanding how leader/subordinate relationships influence those perceptions. 

Hypothesis 1: The quality of leader-member exchange between an individual and his or her supervisor 

is positively related to the degree to which the individual perceives dimensions of climate as supportive 

of innovation. 

Leader Role Expectation and Perception of Psychological Climate as Supportive of 

Innovation 

In many instances, management may have certain expectations of subordinates. These expectations 

may make it difficult for subordinates to negotiate through the processes suggested by LMX theory. 

The role of the subordinate may be rigidly prescribed by the organization or by the routine work they 

are expected to perform. The manager may have inflexible expectations for a particular role, or lack 

interest or may not have enough imagination (Graen and Scandura, 1987). The expectations that 

supervisors have for their subordinates (referred to as the Pygmalion effect) may have impact on the 

subordinates behavior (Livingstone, 1984). 

Since managers' expectation of subordinates' behavior is communicated through their own 

behavior, Eden (1984) theorized that, the subordinates perception of their managers' behavior will be 

generalized to the organization. When managers expect their subordinates to be innovative, the 

subordinates will perceive the organization as encouraging innovation. Thus: 

Hypothesis 2: The degree to which a supervisor expects a subordinate to be innovative is positively 

related to the degree to which the subordinates perceive dimensions of climate as supportive of 

innovation 

Individual's Problem - Solving Style and Perception of the Psychological Climate 

as Supportive of Innovation 

Studies by Kirton (1976), Barron and Harrington (1981) and Jabri (1991) have focused on the 

dimensions of cognitive style as possible antecedents of cognitive behavior. This suggests that the 

problem-solving style of individuals (systematic problem-solving style and intuitive problem solving 

style) could be related to their perception of the psychological climate as supportive of innovation. 

There are two specific approaches to problem-solving suggested by Wedley and Field (1984) looks at 

problem -solving in terms of a continuous series of analytical steps .However according to Nutt (1984), 

steps may be skipped or combined. 

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A second more contemporary approach to problem-solving was proposed by Mitchell and 

Beach (1990) According to them, selecting the best alternatives by weighing all the options is not 

always the major concern when making a decision. People also consider how the various decision 

alternatives fit with their personal standards as well as their personal goals and plan. The best decision 

for someone may not be the best decision for someone else. In this approach to problem-solving which 

is referred to as the intuitive approach, people may make decisions in a more automatic and intuitive 

fashion. This approach is based on the image theory proposed by Beach and Mitchell (1990). 

According to this theory, people make decision on a simple two-step process. The first step is the 

compatibility test, a comparison of the degree to which a particular course of action is consistent with 

various images-particularly individual principles, current goals and plans for the future. If any lack of 

compatibility exists with respect to any of these consideration, a rejection decision is made. If the 

compatibility test is passed, then the profitability test is carried. That is people consider the extent to 

which using various alternatives best fit their values, goals and plans. According to the image theory, 

intuitive problem-solving is rapid and simple. The theory suggests that people do not ponder and 

reflect over decisions, but make them using a smooth, intuitive process with minimal cognitive 

processing. 

Based on the two problem-solving style the following hypothesis are made: 

Hypothesis 3: The degree to which an individual's problem-solving style is systematic is negatively 

related to his or her climate perception 


related to his or her climate perception 

Demographic Variables and Individuals Perception of the Psychological Climates 

Supportive of Innovation 

In this study several demographic variables that may influence climate perceptions and innovative 

behavior or both has been included. Work by James et. al. (1990), Mumford and Gustafson (1988) 

have shown that climate perception and innovative behavior to be significantly related to demographic 

variables. In this study, age, career stage and academic qualification are used as demographic variables 

in the prediction of climate perception and innovative behavior. Hence: 

Hypothesis 5a: Age of individual is positively related to the individual's perception of the dimensions 

of climate as supportive of innovation. 

Hypothesis 5b: The career stage of an individual is positively related to the individual's perception of 

the dimensions of climate as supportive of innovation. 

Hypothesis 5c: The academic qualification of an individual is positively related to the individual's 

perception of the dimensions of climate as supportive of innovation. 

In addition it is also hypothesized that there is a direct relationship between the selected 

demographic variables and innovative behavior. Thus: 

Hypothesis 6a: Age of individual is positively related to his or her innovative behavior 

Hypothesis 6b: The career stage of an individual is positively related to his or her innovative behavior 

Hypothesis 6c: The academic qualification of an individual is positively related to his or her 

innovative behavior 

Leadership and Innovative Behavior 

Research by Kanter, (1988) and Heap (1989), have found leadership to be critical in the innovation 

process. Amabile (1988) has suggested a list of activities that leaders should be engaged in to allow 

creativity to emerge. Waldman and Bass (1991) have found a relationship between productivity 

outcomes and leadership. In this study two leadership approaches are examined. The first is the leadermember 

exchange(LMX) theory (Dansereau, Graen and Haga, 1975; Graen and Scandura, 1987) which 

99


was used as it has been previously tied to innovation. The other is the effect of role expectations of 

leaders on innovative behavior because of the consequences of the "Pygmalion Effect" (Livingston, 

1969). The Pygmalion effect to the modification of an individual's behavior based on expectation for 

the behavior received from another person (Eden, 1984). 

According to the LMX theory, as suggested by Graen and Scandura (1987), the quality of the 

relationship between a supervisor and a subordinate is related to innovativeness. Proponents of this 

theory (Graen and Cashman, 1975), say that supervisors and subordinates engage in a role 

development process during which understandings are arrived at regarding the extent of decisionmaking, 

influence and autonomy the subordinate will be allowed. As time passes, some leader-member 

exchange that start as formal and impersonal (low-quality leader-member exchange) may develop into 

mature interactions characterized by trust, mutual liking and respect (high ¬quality leader-member 

exchange). In the latter stage the subordinates are allowed greater autonomy and freedom to make 

decisions. Both these conditions have been found to be essential to innovative behavior (Cotgrove and 

Box, 1970). Studies by Basu (1991) have supported a positive relationship between leader-member 

exchange and innovative behavior. 

Hypothesis 7: The quality of leader-member exchange between an individual and his or her supervisor 

is positively related to the individual's innovative behavior. 

Hypothesis 8: The degree to which a supervisor expects a subordinate to be innovative is positively 

related to the subordinate's innovative behavior. 

Problem- Solving Style and Innovative Behavior 

Kirton (1976) has suggested that individuals can be placed on a continuum ranging from those who 

have an ability to do things "better" to those who have an ability to do things "differently". Jabri (1991) 

conceptualized problem-solving style as composed of two independent modes of thinking namely 

"associative" and "non-associative". Associative thinking is based on habit or following set routines 

and adhering to rules and use of rationality and logic. This represents the systematic problem-solving 

style. This kind of problem-solver will generate conventional solutions to problems. 

Bi-associative thinking is characterized by overlapping separate domains of thought 

simultaneously, a lack of attention to existing rules and boundaries and an emphasis on imagery and 

intuition. This is called the intuitive problem-solving style. According to Isaken (1987), the intuitive 

problem solver has a propensity to process information from different paradigm and is more likely to 

generate novel problem solutions. 


related to his or her innovative behavior 

Hypothesis 10: The degree to which an individual's problem solving style is intuitive is positively 

related to his or her innovative behavior. 

Climate and Innovative Behavior 

Studies by Abbey and Dickson (1983), Paolillo and Brown (1978) and Siegel and Kaemmerer (1978) 

have offered empirical evidence for the effect of climate on innovation at the organizational level while 

Amabile and Gryskiewicz (1989) and Scott and Bruce (1994) have come up with an empirical study of 

climate's effect on individual behavior. At the individual level, climate is a cognitive interpretation of 

an organizational situation that has been labeled "psychological climate"(James and Ashe, 1990). 

According to James and Sells (1981), a proponent of the psychological climate theory, individuals 

respond primarily to cognitive representation of the environments rather than to the environment per 

se. Climate represents signals individuals receive concerning organizational expectations for behavior 

and potential outcomes of behavior. According to James et. al., (1977), individuals use this information 

to formulate expectancies and instrumentalities.. In addition, people also respond to these expectations 

100


by regulating their own behavior in order to realize positive self evaluative consequences, such as self 

satisfaction and self-pride. 

Kanter, (1983) and Siegel and Kaemmerer (1978) found that innovative organizations are 

characterized by an orientation toward creativity and innovative change, support for their members in 

functioning independently in the pursuit of new ideas and a tolerance for diversity among their 

members (Siegel and Kaemmerer, 1978). In addition to this Ammabile (1988) and Angle (1989) found 

that adequate supplies of such resources as equipment, facilities, and time are critical to innovation and 

the supply of such resources is another manifestation of the organizational support for innovation. 

Since climate is conceptualized as a determinant of individual behavior, and there being empirical 

support for climate's effect on innovative behavior it is predicted that the degree to which organization 

members perceive an organizational climate as supportive of innovation would affect individual 

innovative behavior. 

Hypothesis 11: The degree to which individuals perceive dimensions of organizational climate as 

supportive of innovation is positively related to their innovative behavior 

Methodology 

Research Design 

This study used an ex-post-facto design. The dependent variable was individual innovative behavior. 

Instrument 

The data was collected using a questionnaire. The questionnaire was administered and collected 

personally. 

Sampling 

The respondents for this study were drawn from lecturers in a Government Teacher Training College. 

The total population was 152. The sample comprised of 79 respondents which was about 52% of the 

total population. A t-test to check for non-response bias found that there was no significant difference 

between those who responded to the survey and those who did not. 

Results And Interpretations 

Table 1: Relationship Between Leader - Member Exchange, Role Expectation and Problem-Solving Style 

with Support for Innovation 

Variables r p 

Leader-member exchange 0.37 0.001* 

Leader role expectation -0.01 0.974 

Systematic problem-solving style -0.01 0.954 

Intuitive problem-solving style -0.01 0.929 

Resource Supply 0.34 0.001* 

Age -0.16 0.170 

Career Stage -0.14 0.246 

Academic Qualification -0.12 0.308 

* Significant art P < 0.05 level 

Table 1 presents the relationship between leader-member exchange, leader role expectation and 

problem-solving styles and demographic variable with support for innovation. The results show that 

only leader-member exchange (r = 0.37, p < 0.001) and resource supply (r = 0.34, p < 0.05), correlated 

101


significantly with support for innovation. The positive correlation indicates that high quality leadermember 

exchange results in the subordinates perceiving the climate as supportive of innovation. This 

is in keeping with the findings of Koxlowski and Doherty (1989) and Dunegan et. al (1992). 

The significant correlation between resource supply with support for innovation indicate that 

perception of support for innovation is enhanced when it is accompanied with resource supply. The 

relationship between leader role expectation, problem-solving style, age, career stage and academic 

qualifications of the members with their perception of support for innovation was found to be not 

significant. 

Table 2: Relationship between Leader-Member Exchange, Role Expectation and Problem-¬solving Style 

with Resource Supply for Innovation 

Variables r p 

Leader-member exchange 0.54 0.0001 * 

Leader role expectation 0.36 0.03 * 

Systematic problem-solving style 0.06 0.929 

Intuitive problem-solving style 0.35 0.002 * 

Age -0.06 0.702 

Career stage -0.10 0.702 

Academic Qualification -0.09 0.426 


Table 2 shows that there is significant relationship between leader-member exchange(0.54, p < 

0.05), leader role expectation (0.36, p < 0.05) and intuitive problem-solving style (0.35, p < 0.05) with 

resource supply. The exceptions being systematic problem-solving style, age, career stage and 

academic qualifications of the members. This indicates that a high quality leader-member exchange 

and high leader role expectation for innovation will be manifested in the leaders providing resource 

supply for their members to accomplish their tasks. In addition the results imply that intuitive problemsolving 

style which is characterized by overlapping separate domain of thought simultaneously and 

emphasis on imagery and intuition requires that individual's perception of resource supply as adequate 

in terms of time to pursue creative ideas, adequate resources, facilities and assistance. 

The systematic problem-solving style which is characterized by following set routines and 

adhering to rules and use of rationality and logic does not depend on perception of resource supply. 

Table 3: Relationship between Leader-Member Exchange, Leader Role Expectation and Individual Problem- 

Solving Style with Perceived Psychological Climate for Innovation(Support for Innovation + 

Resource Supply) 

Variables r p 


Leader role expectation 0.12 0.32 

Systematic problem-solving style 0.03 0.82 

Intuitive problem-solving style 0.11 0.35 

Age -0.14 0.231 

Career stage -0.15 0.206 

Academic qualification -0.12 0.298 


The relationship between the predictor variables and the perceived climate for innovative 

behavior is shown in Table 3. The perceived psychological climate for innovation is obtained by 

computing support with innovation and resource supply. The results show that only leader-member 

exchange (r = 0.51, p < 0.05) has significant correlation with perceived climate for innovation. This 

implies that a high quality leader ¬member exchange will result in the members perceiving the 

psychological climate as being supportive of innovation. This is probably because high quality leader- 

102


member exchange is characterized by the leader allowing his subordinates greater autonomy and 

freedom to make decisions and mutual trust. This is similar to the findings of Graen and Scandura 

(1987). 

The relationship between predictor variables and innovative behavior are shown in Table 4. 

With the exception of support for innovation, all other variables correlated positively with innovative 

behavior. There was no significant relationship between support for innovation which is the a 

dimension of the climate for innovation without the resource supply. However, when support for 

innovation is computed with resource supply, the resultant variable (perceived psychological climate 

for innovation) was found to be significantly related to innovative behavior (r = 0.24. p < 0.05). This 

shows that perception of support for innovation without perception of adequate resource supply will 

not result in innovative behavior. This is shown by the significant correlation between resource supply 

and innovative behavior (r =0.47, p < 0.05). 

Table 4: Relationship between Leader-Member Exchange, Leader Role Expectation, Individual Problem - 

Solving Style, Support for Innovation, Resource Supply and Perceived Psychological Climate for 

Innovation with Innovative Behavior. 

Variables r p 


Leader role expectation 0.64 0.001* 

Systematic problem-solving style 0.30 0.007* 

Intuitive problem-solving style 0.34 0.002* 

Support for Innovation 0.20 0.090 

Resource Supply 0.47 0.001* 

Perceived Psychological Climate for Innovation 0.24 0.040* 

Age 0.06 0.571 

Career stage 0.01 0.949 

Academic qualification 0.20 0.084 

The results also show that high quality leader-member exchange as characterized by high levels 

of trust between leader and member, grater autonomy and freedom to make decision for members is 

important if members are to exhibit innovative behavior (r = 0.42, p < 0.05). This is in keeping with the 

findings of Abbey and Dickson (1933), Pastillo and Brown (1978) and Siegel and Kaemmerer (1978). 

Leader role expectation, that is the extent to which the leader expects his or her subordinate to be 

innovative is strongly correlated with innovative behavior (r = 0.64, p < 0.05). This is similar to the 

findings of Livingston (1984). 

Both systematic problem- solving style (r = 0.30, p < 0.05) and intuitive problem-solving style 

(r = 0.34, p

Evaluating the Hypothesized Model 

Table 5: Relationship Between the Research Variable 


Dependent Variables Path r 

Support for Innovation 

Leader-member exchange Support 

Role expectation Support 

0.37** 

-0.01 

Systematic problem-solving style Support -0_01 

Intuitive problem-solving style Support -0.01 

Resource supply 0.34** 

Age Support -0.16 

Career stage Support -0.14 

Education Support -0.12 

Leader-member exchange Resources 0.54*** 

Role expectation Resources 0.36* 

Systematic problem-solving style Resources 0.06 

Resource Supply Intuitive problem-solving style Resources 0.35** 

Age Resources -0.06 

Career stage Resources -0.10 

Education Resources -0.09 

Leader-member exchange Innovative Behaviour 0.47** 

Role expectation Innovative Behavior 0.64** 

Systematic problem-solving style Innovative Behaviour 0.30** 

Intuitive problem-solving style Innovative Behaviour 0.34** 

Innovative behavior Support Innovative Behavior 0.20 

Resource Supply Innovative Behavior 0.47** 

Age Innovative Behavior 0.06 

Career stage Innovative Behavior 0.01 

Education-Innovative Behavior 0.20 

*p


From the final model in Figure 2, it can be seen that there is significant correlation between 

leader- member exchange and the individual's perception of dimensions of climate as supportive of 

innovation. This means that we can accept Hypothesis 1 that is "The quality of leader-member 

exchange between an individual and Leader role expectancy was found to be significantly related to 

innovative behavior . This means that Hypothesis 8 that is "The degree to which a supervisor expects a 

subordinate to be innovative is positively related to the subordinates innovative behavior" is accepted. 

Both systematic and intuitive problem - solving style was found to be positively related to 

innovative behavior though intuitive problem-solving style had a higher correlation. This implies that 

both Hypothesis 9 which states that "The degree to which an individual's problem -solving style is 

systematic is negatively related to his or her innovative behavior" is rejected while Hypothesis 10 

which states that "the degree to which an individual's problem solving style is intuitive is positively 

related to his or her innovative behavior" is accepted. 

Support for innovation and resource supply make up dimensions of the perceived psychological 

climate which is supportive of innovation. The results show that while there was significant positive 

correlation between resource supply and innovative behavior, the relationship between support for 

innovation and innovative behavior was found to be not significant. This means that Hypothesis 11 

"The degree to which individuals perceive dimensions of the organizational climate as supportive of 

innovation is positively related to innovative behavior" can only be accepted. 

Significant Predictors Of Individual Innovative Behavior In The Workplace 

When multiple regression analysis was carried out with the variables which correlated significantly 

with innovative behavior , the results in Table 6 show that the five variables of leader-member 

exchange, leader role expectation, intuitive problem solving style , systematic problem-solving style 

and resource supply together explained 51 percent of the innovative behavior of the respondents. This 

implies that there are other predictor variables of innovative behavior in the workplace which have not 

been included in this study. 

Table 6: Simple Multiple Regression Analysis for Predictors of Innovative Behavior 

Dependent Variable: Innovative Behavior 

Variable in Equation B Beta t p 

Leader Role Expectation 1.22 0.39 2.56 0.02 

leader-Member Exchange 0.23 0.38 1.89 0.06 

Intuitive Problem-Solving Style 0.26 0.09 0.51 0.62 

Resource Supply 0.02 0.03 0.15 0.88 

Systematic Problem-Solving Style 0.11 0.02 0.13 0.89 

(Constant) 10.85 3.54 0.00 15 

Multiple R = 0.72 R 2 = 0.51 

Adjusted R = 0.42 F(5,26) =5.46 Significant F = 0.0014 

Table 7 presents the results of Stepwise Regression Analysis carried out to determine the 

significant predictors of innovative behavior in the work place. Again the predictor variables used were 

leader-member exchange, leader role expectation, problem solving style and the variables related to 

perceived psychological climate (support for innovation and resource supply) with innovative behavior 

as the dependent variable The results show that that are two significant predictors of innovative 

behavior in the workplace. They are the quality of the leader -member relationship (t = 43.07, p < 0.05) 

and leader role expectation (t = 2.79, p < 0.05). Leader-member exchange was found to explain 37 

percent of individual innovative behavior while leader role expectation was found to explain 13 percent 

of individual innovative behavior. Therefore together they explained 50 percent of the variation in 

innovative behavior in the workplace. 

105


Table 7: Stepwise Multiple Regression : Predictors of Innovative Behavior 

Dependent Variable : Innovative Behavior 

Variable in the equation R 2 +R 2 Beta t p 

Leader-Member Exchange 0.37 0.61 3.07 0.0046 

Leader Role Expectation 0.50 0.13 0.40 2.80 0.0091 

(Constant) 5.02 0.0000 

Multiple R = 0.71 R 2 = 0.50 

Adjusted R Square = 0.47 F(2,29) = 14.69 Significant F = 0.0000 

Discussion 

In this study a model was developed in which leadership (leader-member exchange and leader role 

expectation) and individual attributes (demographic variables, systematic problem-solving style and 

intuitive problem-solving style) were hypothesized to affect individual innovative behavior\r directly 

and indirectly, through climate perception. It was found that leader-member exchange and leader role 

expectation to be significant predictors of individual innovative behavior in the workplace and the 

hypothesized model explained about 51 percent of the variation in innovative behavior. Among the 

significant predictors, leader-member exchange explained about 37 percent of the variation in 

innovative behavior while leader role expectation explained 13 percent of variation in innovative 

behavior. These two variables explained about 50 percent of the total variation in individual innovative 

behavior in the workplace. 

Thus the study provided evidence that innovative behavior is related to the quality of the leader 

subordinate relationship. The reason according to Graen and Scandura (1987) is that high quality dyad 

relationship may give the subordinates the levels of autonomy and discretion necessary for innovation 

to emerge. The findings also suggest that individuals generalize their relationship with their supervisor 

to their organization. In this study individuals who reported having relationships with their supervisor 

that was characterized by high levels of support, trust and autonomy also perceived the organization to 

be supportive of innovation and considered the resource supply to be high. 

The finding that the role expectation of the leader influenced individual innovative behavior 

gives support for the Pygmalion effect (Livingston, 1989) and suggests that it holds true in the context 

of innovation. Another interesting finding was that resource supply mediated between leader role 

expectation and intuitive problem¬ solving style with innovative behavior. This together with lack of 

significant relationship between leader role expectation and problem-solving style with support for 

innovation implies that resource supply in terms of time, resources and assistance is essential for 

individuals to exhibit innovative behavior. 

Resource supply was also found to mediate between support for innovation and innovative 

behavior. This suggests that perceiving the organization as being supportive of innovation is not 

enough (the relationship between support for innovation and innovative behavior was not significant). 

There must be adequate resource supply for innovative behavior to occur. 

Both systematic problem-solving style and intuitive problem-solving style was found to be 

significantly related to innovative behavior. This suggests that individuals use different problemsolving 

styles at different times with different tasks. 

In conclusion, the study shows that among the variables studied, the most important predictors 

of innovative behavior in the workplace is leadership (explains 50 % of the variation in innovative 

behavior). In this study leadership is made up two dimensions.(leader-member exchange and leader 

role expectation). High quality leader ¬subordinate relation contributed substantially (37 %) to the 

variation in individual innovative behavior followed by leader role expectation (13 %). 

106


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108


Transformational Leadership Style and Information 

Communication Technology 

Mojgan Afshari 

Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia 

E-mail: mojganafshari@yahoo.com 

Kamariah Abu Bakar 


E-mail: kamarab@educ.upm.edu.my 

Wong Su Luan 


E-mail: suluan@educ.upm.edu.my 

Foo Say Fooi 


E-mail: foosf@putra.upm.edu.my 

Bahaman Abu Samah 


E-mail: drbas@educ.upm.edu.my 

Abstract 

Without the support of school principals, the educational potential of Information and 

Communication Technology may not be realized. Principals play a vital role in promoting 

ICT use in school. Hence, they should have the ability to effectively use technology as a 

communication tool, a management tool, and a decision making tool. The effective use of 

these tools can help principals increase their instructional and managerial efficiency. A 

wide range of factors has been found to affect principals’ use of ICT. Of these, 

transformational leadership style has been identified as being one of the most important. 

However little is known about this style and ICT use by principals. This paper, therefore, 

reviews empirical and selected conceptual research on the role of principals in ICT 

implementation, factors which influence ICT use and transformational leadership style. 

Researchers and school leaders will find this information useful in developing their own 

inquiry and improving their understanding of this important management issue. 

Keywords: Information and Communication Technology, Principal, Transformational 

Leadership Style 


Technology involves the application of knowledge, resource materials, tools and skills in designing, 

producing and using products and it is also used to extend human capability to control and modify 

natural and human-made environments (Raizen et al, 1995). Hence, it is imperative for principals and 

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teachers to be trained professionally to acquire knowledge and skills to enable them to fulfill their roles 

in the application of ICT in schools. 

Furthermore, technology is the catalyst in the process of transforming traditional schools and it 

is indispensable for the success of the schools in the information age (Hashim & Man, 1999). 

According to Attaran and Vanlaar (2001), technology forces change management style. Also, it forces 

administrators to reevaluate not only what they do, but also who they are. In this way, new 

organizations require new management philosophy and principals must change the way they think, 

organize, plan, deploy, inspire and reward the performance. Principals are responsible to infuse 

technology into schools and they play a critical role in technology integration (Schorny et al., 1999). 

Therefore, principals must increase their computer competence in order to provide vision and 

understanding needed to guide the development of instructional computing programs in their schools. 

2. Role of Principal in Technology Implementation 

Effective leadership is a critical element in the success of schools seeking to implement change 

(Calabrese, 2002). Although infrastructure is important, leadership is the critical element in 

establishing technology as a part of school culture (Anderson and Dexter, 2000). Hence, principals 

have important leadership roles in relation to teaching with ICT and their approaches are influenced by 

personal beliefs (Otto & Albion, 2004). 

According to Han (2002), principals play various roles such as change agent, lifelong learner, 

principal supporter, and resource provider in relation to ICT implementation in schools. Similarly 

Flanagan and Jacobsen (2003) identified the principals’ role responsibilities which are leader of 

learning, leader of student entitlement, leader of capacity building, leader of community, and leader of 

resource management. In this way, principals should be able to identify and articulate a vision, provide 

an appropriate model, provide individualized support, provide intellectual stimulation, foster 

acceptance of group goals, and achieve high performance expectations (Leithwood, 1994). 

Therefore, familiarity with computer hardware and software is essential and fundamental for 

school management. Principals must assess hardware costs and capabilities, software availability and 

compatibility, and hardware quality. They must be able to match equipment and materials with the 

priorities of the school (Ross, 1996). Besides, successful adoption of computers is important for school 

principals who must use computers and model their use for their staff (Tiede, 1992). If this modeling is 

successful, the staff may then model the use of computers for students. In this way, principals who do 

not have positive expectations for computer use or do not instill or support a culture of technology use; 

integration is inhibited (Anderson & Dexter, 2000). For this reason, principals should possess adequate 

level of ICT skills and knowledge. Apart from that, they should also have positive attitudes toward 

implementation ICT in schools. 

3. Selected Factors Related to Computer use 

According to Rogers (1995), attitudes toward a new technology are a key element in its diffusion. He 

argued that barriers to technology integration can be the result of either internal or external sources. 

Internal sources include “principal attitude” or “perception” about technology. Hence, principals’ 

attitude toward technology is a variable that determine the extent to which computers are used by 

principal at school. Similarly, Wolf (1993) found that principal’s positive attitude toward technology 

have a strong impact on the effective use of computers in the school. Therefore, positive attitudes 

encourage principals to acquire knowledge and skills necessary for the utilization of ICT. 

Moreover, Rogers (1995) stated that the perceived attributes of an innovation are the most 

important explanation of the rate of adoption of an innovation. Based on past research, Rogers (1995) 

identified five innovation attributes that may contribute to the adoption or acceptance of an innovation: 

relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, observability, and trialibility. In addition, he found that 

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if innovations that are perceived by individuals have greater relative advantage, compatibility, 

trialability, observability, and less complexity, they will be adopted more rapidly than other 

innovations. Hence, computer characteristics are very important to the adoption/implementation of 

computers. 

On the other hand, the construct of social norms can be important in transferring technology 

from developed to developing countries (Thomas, 1987). Then, acceptance of a new technology in a 

society depends on how well the proposed innovation fits the existing culture. In addition, the diffusion 

of technologies may be inhibited by the micro culture of a certain institution or organization. Hence, 

there must be a match between organizational culture and new technology into an organization (Hodas, 

1993). Within the school organization, if the technology is not well received by principals, there will 

be a mismatch of values between the culture of schools and the technology. 

In addition, the success of educational innovations depends largely on skill and knowledge of 

teachers and principals. Knezek and Christensen (2002) found that competence in computer technology 

influence on effective use of computer. Hence, knowledge of computer hardware and software is 

important for principals. According to Creighton (2001), the identification of the principals’ task that 

they want to accomplish will determine the type of software needed. Therefore, principals must decide 

what administrative and instructional functions they want to perform with computers before making 

purchases. On the other hand, access to computer resources has often been one of the most important 

barriers for the integration of technology in both developed and developing countries (Albrini, 2006). 

Hence, sufficient technology infrastructure must be available in order to use technology successfully 

(Becker et al., 1999). 

Rogers (1995) stated that individuals’ characteristics and the nature of the social system 

influence the adoption of an innovation. Several studies reported a relationship between principals’ 

profiles and level of computer use. For example, Schiller (2003) studied about age, gender and years of 

experience in his selected characteristics of principals and found that principals below the age of 50 use 

computers more than principals over the age of 50. Also, he reported that there were statistically 

significant differences between male and female principals in the use of computer at home and school. 

The factor that empowers the people and ultimately determines which organizations succeed or 

fail is the leadership of those organizations (Bennis, 1990). However, it is important to mention that 

leadership is only one aspect of a very complex process of technological innovation (Stone, 1994). On 

this matter, according to Jung et al. (2003), a wide range of factors has been found to affect 

organizational innovation. Of these, managers’ leadership style has been identified as being one of the 

most important variables. Yet, few studies have empirically examined the link between this factor and 

utilization of technology at the school level. In this paper, a short literature overview is given on the 

concept of transformational leadership style and the role that it plays in implementing ICT at school. 

4. Transformational Leadership 

The pace of change confronting organizations today has resulted in calls for more adaptive, flexible 

leadership. Adaptive leaders work more effectively in rapidly changing environments by helping to 

make sense of the challenges confronted by both leaders and followers and then appropriately 

responding to those challenges (Bass et al.,2003). In other words, such leaders are influential in 

approving or disapproving new ideas. They play an important role in the diffusion and adoption of 

innovations (Malioukis et al., 2007). According to Rogers (1995), it is impossible to ignore opinion 

leaders in studying the spread of ideas. If opinion leaders are to be widely recognized as experts on 

innovations, it is likely that they adopt new ideas before their followers. Therefore, leaders must be 

more innovative than their followers. Also, they must be able to communicate with their followers and 

have high rapport with them. 

Adaptive leaders work with their followers to generate creative solutions to complex problems, 

while also developing them to handle a broader range of leadership responsibilities (Bennis, 2001). 

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Bass (1985) labeled the type of adaptive leadership described above transformational leadership. One 

of the best styles of leadership is transformational leadership that can change and transform individuals 

(Northouse, 1997). Transformational leadership occurs when one or more persons engage with others 

in such a way that leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of motivation and morality 

(Burns, 1978). An important goal of a transformational leader is to develop followers beyond their 

potential (Lee, 2005). Hence, transformational leaders try to develop and satisfy the higher-order needs 

of followers to gain their followers’ commitment to the organization (Rowden, 2000). 

The concept of transformational leadership has acquired wide popularity among leadership 

researchers during the past decade (Lowe, Kroeck et al., 1996) because of its qualitatively different 

approach to motivating followers as compared with other leadership styles (Howell & Avolio, 1993). 

Bass and Avolio (1994) described transformational leadership as being composed of four unique but 

interrelated behavioral components: inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, idealized 

influence, and individualized consideration. Several empirical and theoretical studies have found that 

leaders who display these four behaviors are able to realign their followers’ values and norms, promote 

both personal and organizational changes, and help followers to exceed their initial performance 

expectations (e.g., Jung & Avolio, 2000). 

According to Bass (1985), charisma (idealized influence) is the most important component of 

transformational leadership. Bass and Avolio (1994) noted that charismatic leaders were admired and 

respected and they did the right things. Moreover, charismatic leaders instilled pride, promoted the 

good of the group, built respect, and displayed a sense of power and confidence. They talked about 

values and beliefs, specified the importance of having a sense of purpose, considered the moral and 

ethical consequences of decisions and emphasized the sense of mission (Bass & Avolio, 1994). Also, 

in description of charisma, Judge and Piccolo (2004) suggested that charisma can be defined based on 

the amount of faith, respect, and inspiration that he instills in his followers. 

Another component of transformational leadership is inspirational motivation. Such leaders 

articulate, in an exciting manner, a vision of the future that the followers are excited to accept and 

strive towards (Kikbride, 2006). In other words, these leaders use of metaphors, models, symbols, 

stories, and pictures to communicate their vision and their message (Kelloway & Barling, 2000), can 

inspire a shared vision (Bass & Avolio, 1994). 

Third component of transformational leadership is intellectual stimulation. Bass and Avolio 

(1994) stated that these leaders stimulate followers' efforts to be innovative by questioning 

assumptions, reframing problems, and approaching old situations in new ways. Also, Leithwood 

(1994) stated that transformational leaders try to challenge followers to reconsider and rethink about 

their work and encourage new practices. This intellectual stimulation is the act of encouraging new 

ways of thinking, reasoning before acting, and enabling subordinates to analyze problems from many 

different viewpoints (Schepers and Wetzels, 2005). Hence, such leaders stimulate followers to search 

new ideas as well as to direct the school. Also, they remove penalties for mistakes as a part of efforts 

toward school improvement and strengthen the school climate by establishing high expectations for 

both staff and students (Leithwood, 1994). In this way, such leaders prompt subordinates to be 

creative, think critically and independently and find novel ways of solving problems while seeking a 

wide range of opinions before deciding upon solutions (Pounder, 2003). Thus, intellectual stimulation 

has been viewed as a vehicle for developing subordinates’ confidence to tackle problems (Bass, 1985). 

Another factor of transformational leadership that is measured by the Multifactor Leadership 

Questionnaire is individualized consideration. It is considered as a first step of transformational 

leadership style. Schepers and Wetzels (2005) pointed out that such leaders delegate responsibilities to 

their subordinates and stimulate people, create learning leadership styles experiences, and pay attention 

to the personal needs of their followers. Hence, they coach and mentor, provide continuous feedback 

and links organizational members’ needs to the organization’s mission (Pounder, 2003). Therefore, 

transformational leaders are not born but transformational leadership can be taught (Bass & Avolio, 

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1994). This style of leadership is necessary in the less bureaucratic and authoritarian organizations of 

the future (Bennis, 1990). 

5. Transformational leadership and ICT 

Leadership is a critical factor in the initiation and implementation of the changes in organizations. This 

is supported by Ely (1999), who distinguished eight conditions that are relevant to ICT 

implementation. These conditions are dissatisfaction with the status quo, existence of knowledge and 

skills, availability of resources, availability of time, existence of rewards or incentives, participation, 

commitment, and leadership. Hence, there is a strong need for leaders who are more change-centered. 

In addition, one of the most important skills that a leader should have is the ability to manage 

change. Principals need to understand the capacities of the new technologies, to have a personal 

proficiency in their use, and be able to promote a school culture which encourages exploration of new 

techniques in teaching, learning and management. Hence, principals have a major responsibility for 

initiating and implementing school change through the use of ICT and to facilitate complex decisions 

about integration of ICT into learning and teaching (Schiller, 2003). Therefore, types of outstanding 

leadership, such as transformational, charismatic and visionary, are becoming more and more 

important to organizations, as workforces become more diverse, technology improves and international 

competition heightens. 

According to Bass (1997), transformational leadership may be a particularly powerful source of 

leadership in a variety of contexts, including human computer interactions. In other words, 

transformational leadership is a term used increasingly in relation to large-scale innovation in 

education (e.g. Leithwood, 1994). This form of leadership is considered crucial for the implementation 

of large-scale innovations by principals (Berg and Sleegers, 1996). In the current area of continuing 

demands for innovations in school organizations, therefore it is not surprising that the concept of 

transformational leadership is being applied increasingly. Hence, transformational leadership appears 

to be necessary to drive principals to the higher levels of concern and motivation that are needed for 

such kind of educational improvement (Berg and Sleegers, 1996; Leithwood, 1994). 

Moreover, Geijsel et al. (1999) stated that the school leaders in the high innovation schools 

showed more vision, more charisma, more teaching reform, more individual feedback, better 

delegation, more joint responsibility, and a more collaborative culture than the school leaders in the 

low innovation schools. On the other hand, Beatty and Lee (1992) conducted several case studies of the 

implementation of CAD/CAM systems in numerous British and Canadian companies in an effort to 

investigate the linkage between leadership and technological change in organizations. Through 

semistructured interviews and using a critical incident approach to assessing leadership abilities, the 

researchers tracked managerial involvement throughout the implementation process. The outcome of 

their qualitative research suggests that a transformational approach to leadership, combining 

pathfinding with people solving and technical problem-solving skills to introduce organizational 

changes, is likely to be more effective in overcoming barriers to change than a transactional leadership 

approach that concentrates on technical problem solving to the neglect of people and organizational 

issues (Beatty & Lee, 1992, p. 987). 

This is further supported by Jung et al. (2003) who conducted a research on the role of 

transformational leadership in enhancing organizational innovation. Their findings supported a direct 

and positive link between a style of leadership that has been labeled as “transformational” and 

organizational innovation. Also, they indicated that transformational leadership has significant and 

positive relations with both empowerment and an innovation-supporting organizational climate. 

Therefore, transformational leader is noted as one of the most important factors affecting the 

integration of educational technology and has input into all the essential conditions that promote the 

integration of educational technology (Brooks-Young, 2002; Ross, McGraw & Burdette, 2001). 

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Similarly, Schepers and Wetzels (2005) found that there is a positive relationship between 

transformational leadership and technology usage. They added that if a leader encourages creativity 

and open-mindedness, employees will be more used to experimenting with new technologies and 

procedures. Thus, they learn more quickly. Therefore, a leader should facilitate conditions and events 

that create a positive environment for technology adoption such as training and education and 

organizational technical support (Frambach and Schillewaert, 2002; Schillewaert et al., 2005). 

In this way, transformational leaders can plan for integrating technology into the instructional 

program in several different ways. First, they must create a vision statement that describes how 

teachers and the staff will use technology for data-driven decision making, increased productivity, and 

planning. More broadly, principals are a key source of influence on school’s culture. They should 

concentrate on building a school culture in which teachers use technology in teaching and learning 

(Felton, 2006). Moreover, they should involve all stakeholders to give them an opportunity to have 

input into the goals of the plan. On the other hand, data must be gathered to understand where the 

school is in order to plan for the future (Barnett, 2001). Hence, principals must be prepared to embrace 

technology and integrate technology into the school. Furthermore, they should be committed to 

professional development by providing appropriate training for effective use of technology. In addition 

to budget issues, human resources and material resources must be provided by principals (Han, 2002). 

Finally, leaders should plan for ongoing monitoring and assessment with benchmarks and timelines 

and also they must plan for future technology to allow for new and promising practices and 

technologies (Barnett, 2001). Therefore, administrators should not only be competent users of 

information and technology tools, but also they must understand how to align technology with the 

school’s overall educational vision 

6. Conclusion 

Technology will continue be an integral part of our schools for the foreseeable future. If school leaders 

are to maximize its effectiveness, they must be active learners in this fast changing arena. Leadership is 

critical and can significantly determine the extent to which technology becomes integrated in schools. 

Integration is facilitated in situations where the leadership body places great emphasis on technology 

use. Schiller (2003) stated that the role of the leader is crucial to the successful implementation of ICT. 

Hence, leaders should never stop learning and honing their skills. In addition, they must be familiar 

with current research and best practices. They must maintain a personal plan for self-improvement and 

continuous learning (Bennis, 1990). Then, if principals use technology and understand the benefits of 

technology utilization, they can successfully model their use for their staff. In this way, teachers will be 

encouraged to model the use of computers for their students. Therefore, school leaders must develop 

their style of leadership and learn new technologies to serve precise management task. 

According to Schepers and Wetzels (2005), transformational leadership style can influence on 

the effective use of ICT. Moreover, Kelloway and Barling (2000) stated that transformational 

leadership can be successfully taught. In this way, they used an experimental design to assess the 

effectiveness of leadership training. Their result showed that both training and counseling are effective 

means of behavioral change. If leaders find that their behavior or leadership style do not fit in their 

workplace, they should change their leadership style (Kelloway & Barling, 2000). 

In this way, technology and leadership have reciprocal effects, that is; a change in one 

necessitates a change in the other (Crawford, 2005). Hence, technology leaders must seek to 

understand all of the components in the educational system that are needed to lead technology 

integration as an instructional strategy and ultimately to help make technology a transparent tool in the 

teaching and learning process. Therefore, technology leaders should be knowledgeable and competent. 

Competence in using computers requires a positive attitude, practice time, and staff 

development in computer use (Starr, 2001). Besides, a plan for training should focus on the needs of 

principals. Hence, consistent and continuous training can raise the proficiency of principals. Moreover, 

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competence in operating a computer and in utilizing software may improve the quality and efficiency 

of administrative performance in schools. In this way, improved quality could lead to improve decision 

making (Felton, 2006). Therefore, there is a need for principals to be proficient in utilizing the 

computer to assist in administrative and instructional functions (Blake, 2000; Starr, 2001). Also, it is 

important for principals to become role models if they expect teachers and students to readily use 

computers in the teaching and learning processes. 

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118


Comparative Study on Performance of Single Pass, Double Duct 

Photovoltaic Thermal Collector with and without CPC 

Ebrahim M. Ali Alfegi 

Solar Energy Research Institute, Faculty of Engineering 

University Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia 

E-mail: alfegi@vlsi.eng.ukm.my 

Kamaruzzaman Sopian 



Mohd Yusof Hj Othman 



Baharudin Bin Yatim 



Abstract 

This paper presents comparative results of experimental investigations of the photovoltaic, 

thermal, and combined photovoltaic thermal performance of two solar air collectors. The 

first collector uses Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC) and fins; and the second 

collector uses only fins without (CPC). Two complete collectors test facilities, operating in 

the same conditions, equipped with a data acquisition system, have been assembled and 

tested for comparing their efficiencies. Tests are performed under various parameters such 

as minimum and maximum solar intensities, ranging from 400 to 700 W/m 2 , inlet 

temperature ranging between 30 to 35 Cº, and mass flow rate ranging from 0.0316 kg/s to 

0.09 kg/s. The comparative results show an average combined performance of 63.65 % for 

the two collectors when the air mass flow rate reaches 0.09 kg/s. The combined efficiency 

of the collector with CPC is 65.206 % at mass flow rate 0.09 kg/s, solar intensity of 700 

W/m 2 , and inlet temperature of 30 Cº, while its 62.093 % for the collector with out CPC. 

The results show that the collector coupled with CPC is performs better for both thermal 

and electrical output of the hybrid PV/T. 

Keywords: Hybrid PV/T collector, both sides single-pass, CPC, Fin, combined efficiency. 

Introduction 

Solar energy is one of the most important source of renewable energy that world needs. The major 

applications of solar energy can be classified into two categories, Thermal system (T) and Photovoltaic 

system (PV) cell. Normally, these systems are used separately. In conventional solar thermal system, 

external electrical energy is required to circulate the working fluid through the system. In conventional 

photovoltaic system, high incident solar radiation on (PV) panel should give high electrical output. 

119


However, high incident will increase the temperature of the solar cells and that will decrease the 

efficiency of the panel. 

Therefore, to achieve both higher cell efficiency and higher electrical output we must cool the 

PV cells. To eliminate an external electrical source from the thermal system and to cool the PV cells in 

photovoltaic system we integrate a photovoltaic panel with solar air/water heater collector, this can 

make when photovoltaic cells pasted directly on the flat plate absorber. This type of system is called 

photovoltaic thermal collector (PV/T) or hybrid (PV/T). 

A number of theoretical as well as experimental studies have been made on PV/T systems with 

air and liquid as working fluid. Kern and Russell (1978) are the first who give main concept of PV/T 

collector using water or air as the heat removal fluid (working fluid). Chandra (1983) have analysis 

theoretically two different configuration single and double pass photovoltaic air heaters and they have 

shows that the double pass are more efficiency than single pass collector. Cox and Raghuraman (1985) 

study air type PV/T system by analysis the effects of various design variables on the performance of 

the system. Bharagava et al. (1991) and Prakash (1994) reported the effect of air mass flow rate, air 

channel depth, and packing factor. Sopain et al. (1995) have successfully demonstrated the improved 

performance of steady state double pass collector over the single pass collector due to efficient cooling 

of pv cells. Sopian et al. (2000) developed and tested a double pass photovoltaic collector suitable for 

solar drying applications and they comparison between theoretical and experimental results. 

Tripanagnotopoulos et al. (2002) built and tested various photovoltaic thermal collector models with 

both water and air as the working fluids. Y. B. Assoa (2007) developed simplified steady state 1-D 

mathematical model of (pv/t) bi-fluid (air and water) collector with a metal absorber. A Parametric 

study (numerically and experimentally) to determine the effect of various factors such as the water 

mass flow rate and thermal performance was studied. Simulation results were compared with the 

experimental results. Othman et al (2007) investigate the performance of double pass (pv/t) air heater 

with fins fixed in the bottom of absorber, the system theoretically under steady state conditions and 

experimentally was studied. They conclude that it is important to use fins as integral part of the 

absorber surface in order to achieve meaningful efficiencies for both thermal and electrical output of 

photovoltaic solar collector. 

In this work an experimental study of prototype single pass with both sides of the absorber 

photovoltaic thermal PV/T solar collector with and without CPC and fins was studied. The PV/T was 

test experimentally to determine its photovoltaic, thermal and combined photovoltaic thermal 

performance over range of operating conditions for both collectors and their results was compared, the 

results was discussed 

Experimental Setup 

The solar collectors considered in this study have three essential static components: a glazing on the 

top, a plate containing numerous solar cells and a bottom plate. The schematic diagram of the two 

experimental setup is shown in Figure 1(a) and figure 1(b) respectively. The size of the collector is 

0.755 m wide and 1.22 m long, the high of the upper channel is 0.165 m and the lower channel is 0.125 

m. the total area covered by solar cells is 0.38 m 2 . The air enters through the upper channel formed by 

the glass cover and photovoltaic plate and through the lower channel formed by absorber plate with 

fins and the back plate at the same time. CPC with concentration ratio (CR) of 1.86 is used as a 

reflector and located parallel to the air flow in first collector. Rectangular fins attached on the back of 

the photovoltaic panel increase the heat transfer to the air and enhance the efficiency of the system in 

both collectors. 23 tungsten halogen lamps each rated at 500W used to simulate solar radiation during 

the test. The intensity of the incoming solar radiation was measured by Eppley pyranometer. Ambient 

temperature and other temperatures such as (inlet, outlet, absorber, glass cover, and back plate) at 

several positions of the system were measured by k – type thermocouple. The air flow sensing element 

was of the van type probe head and connected direct to the data logger. 

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Figure 1 (a): PV/T collector with CPC, (b) PV/T collector without CPC 

Glass cover Solar cell 

Fin 

Results and Discussions 

The efficiency of the combined photovoltaic thermal collector is defined as the sum of thermal 

efficiency and electrical efficiency as: 

η pv / t = ηthermal 

+ ηelectrical 

The thermal efficiency of the collector with CPC and fins is as follows: 

η th = 

. 

m c p ∫ ( T 0 - T i ) dt 

A c CR ∫ I tot dt 

The electrical efficiency is as follows: 

η elect = 

∫ τ g I u η pv α pv 

' 

2 n 

' ρ pv ρ g ρ 

n 

R 

P CR d ρ R [ 1 + ( 

CR 

CR ∫ I tot dt 

) dt 

The thermal efficiency of the collector without CPC is as follows: 

η th = 

. 

m c p ∫ ( T 0 - T i 

A c ∫ I tot dt 

) dt 

The electrical efficiency is as follows: 

η elect = ∫ τ g I tot η pv α pv P 

∫ I tot dt 

Where: 

I 

u 

I tot 

= 

CR 

Absorber plate 

Air in 

Air in 

CPC 

(a) (a) 

Insulator 

ηpv is solar cell efficiency which defines as follows: 

η = η [ 1 - 0.0045 ( T - T ) ] 

pv ref 

pav ref 

ηref is the reference efficiency of the solar cell at Tref = 25 Cº which is 15 %. 

Figure 2 show the comparative on the photovoltaic efficiency of the collectors with and without 

CPC. It can see that the photovoltaic efficiency is quite close between two collectors at flow rates less 

than 0.0316 kg/s, but the deviation becomes more pronounced for mass flow rate greater than or equal 

0.09 kg/s. the comparative on the thermal and combined efficiency of the collectors with and without 

121 

Fin 

Glass cover 

Air in 

Insulator 

(b) 

Solar cell 

Air in 

Absorber plate


CPC and fins is shown in figures 3 and 4 respectively. Results show that the collector who has CPC 

has higher thermal efficiency and has higher combined efficiency than the collector without CPC. 

Figure 2: Comparisons of the collector with and without CPC, and Photovoltaic efficiency at 700 W/m 2 and 

Ti = 30 Cº 

Photovoltaiv Efficiency ( % 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

WithCPC 

WithOut CPC 

0 

0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 

Mass flow rate ( kg/s ) 

Figure 3: Comparisons of the collector with and without CPC, and Thermal efficiency at 700 W/m 2 and Ti = 

30 Cº 

Thermal Efficiency ( % ) 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

With CPC 

Without CPC 

0 

0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 


122


Figure 4: Comparisons of the collector with and without CPC, and combined efficiency at 700 W/m 2 and Ti = 

30 Cº 

Combined Efficiency ( % ) 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

With CPC 

Without CPC 

0 

0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 


The experimental results show that when the collector is operating at high mass flow rate; the 

efficiencies (photovoltaic, thermal, and combined pv/t) were increase as shown in figure 5. It can see 

that the combined pv/t efficiency is decrease at low flow rate because the mean photovoltaic 

temperature is high. Therefore, cooling of the photovoltaic cells by increasing the mass flow rate will 

increase the combined photovoltaic thermal efficiency. This is expected when the photovoltaic panel is 

cooled by the incoming air. 

Figure 5: The Effect of mass flow rate on efficiencies with and without CPC at 700 W/m 2 and Ti=30 Cº 

Efficienciey ( % ) 

Pv Efficiency With CPC Pv Efficiency Without CPC 

Thermal Efficiency With CPC Thermal Efficiency Without CPC 

Combined Efficiency With CPC Combined Efficiency Without CPC 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 


Conclusion 

Performance curves of the single pass, double duct solar collector with and without CPC and fins have 

been obtained. The experimental results were shown. On the basis of the comparisons made it can be 

123


observed that using CPC and fins will increase the photovoltaic, thermal, and combined photovoltaic 

thermal efficiencies. The conclusion reached by this work is that the collector coupled with CPC as an 

integral part of the absorber is performs better than collector without CPC for both thermal and 

electrical output of the hybrid PV/T. 

References 

[1] E.C. Kern and M.C. Russell. 1978. Combined photovoltaic and thermal hybrid collector 

system. Proc. of 13th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialist (USA): 1153–1157 

[2] Chandra R., Geol V.K., and Ray Choudhuri B.C. 1983. Thermal performance of two-pass PV/T 

air collector. Proc. Of solar energy society of India, 63-69 

[3] Cox, C.H., and Raghuraman P. 1985. Design considerations for flat-plate photovoltaic/thermal 

collectors. Solar Energy, 35: 227–245 

[4] Bhargava AK, Garg HP and Agarwal RK. 1991. Study of a hybrid solar system-solar air heater 

combined with solar cell. Solar Energy, 31 (5): 471–479 

[5] Prakash J. 1994. Transient analysis of a photovoltaic-thermal solar collector for co-generation 

of electricity and hot air/water. Energy Conv Manage, 35 (11): 967–972 

[6] K. Sopian, H.T. Liu, K.S. Yigit, S. Kakac,T.N. Veziroglu, and R.J Krane. 1995. 

Thermodynamics and the design Analysis, and improvements of energy systems. ASME 

International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, San Francisco 35: 89-94 

[7] Sopian, K., K. S. Yigit, H. T. Liu and S. Kakac, T. N. 2000. Performance of a double pass 

photovoltaic thermal solar collector suitable for solar drying system. Energy Conv. Manage. 41: 

353–365 

[8] Y. Tripanagnostopoulos, Th. Nousia, M. Souliotis, P. Yianoulis. 2002. Hybrid 

photovoltaic/thermal solar system. Solar energy, 72 (3): 217-234 

[9] Y. B. Assoa, C. Menezo, G. Fraisse, R. Yezou and J. Brau. 2007. Study of a new concept of 

photovoltaic–thermal hybrid collector. Solar energy : In Press 

[10] Othman M. Y., Yatim Baharudin, Sopian k., Abu Bakara M. Nazari. 2007. Performance studies 

on a finned double-pass photovoltaic-thermal (PV/T) solar collector. Desalination journal, 209: 

43-49 

124


Effect of Single Celebrity and Multiple Celebrity Endorsement 

on Low Involvement and High Involvement Product 

Advertisements 

Ms. Farida Saleem 

Phd. Scholar, Foundation University 

Institute of Management and Computer Sciences 

E-mail: farida-saleem@hotmail.com 

Tel: 092-051-5953031 

Abstract 

Celebrity ads are very prominent now a day. Celebrities can make the communication 

process more effective when they are used according to the involvement of the consumer. 

The purpose of this study is to explore the perceptual difference of consumer towards 

single celebrity endorsement and multiple celebrity endorsement (more than one celebrity 

in a single ad) for low involvement products/services and for high involvement 

products/services. Questionnaires were administered on a sample of 300 university 

students to asses the impact of single celebrity and multiple celebrities endorsement with 

respect to low involvement products and high involvement products. Four print media ads, 

two ads, one single and one multiple celebrities are taken from low involvement products 

and two ads, one single and one multiple celebrities ads were taken from high involvement 

products. The results showed that the attitudes toward ad, attitude toward brand and 

purchase intentions are more positive for multiple celebrities ad which belong to low 

involvement category while for high involvement product category attitude toward ad, 

attitude toward brand and purchase intention showed no significant difference for single 

celebrity and multiple celebrity ads. 

Keywords: Single celebrity endorsement, multiple celebrity endorsement, attitude toward 

ad, attitude toward brand, purchase intentions, high involvement 

products/services, low involvement products/services. 

Introduction 

Advertising is a very important social phenomenon which helps to increase consumption which has 

direct effect on the economic activity (Pollay & Mittal, 1993). About 20% of all television ads have 

celebrities in them and almost 10% of all dollars spent on advertising goes to celebrities in different 

advertisements (Agrawal & Kamakura, 1995). Million of dollars are spent on celebrity endorsement 

contracts to make the communication process more effective and convincing (Tripp et. al., 1994). 

McCracker (1989) defined the celebrity endorser as someone who enjoys public recognition 

and who use that recognition on behalf of a consumer good by appearing with it in an advertisement. 

Celebrity endorser includes movie and television stars, models and individuals from sports, politics, 

business, art and the military worlds (McCracker, 1989). Similarly the celebrity spoke characters, like 

there human counterparts have also served as product endorsers and the anthropomoric characters can 

be considered another type of celebrity endorsers (Hus and McDonald, 2002). 

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The empirical finding regarding measuring consumer response to celebrity endorsements in 

advertisement shows that celebrity makes advertisements more believable (Kamins et al., 1989) it also 

enhance message recall (Friedman and Friedman, 1979), create a positive attitude toward the brand 

(Kamins et al., 1989) and celebrity endorsements are believed to generate more positive response 

toward choosing the endorsed brand/product (Freiden, 1984, Kahle and Homer, 1985, Ohanian; 1991, 

Kamins et at., 1989, Atkin and Block, 1983). 

Empirical evidence regarding how consumer reacts to multiple celebrities in a single 

advertisement is scant, leaving a gap in an important research area. In advertising practices it is 

common to note that certain products or brands uses same celebrity for long period of time while some 

times marketers relay on multiple celebrities in an advertising campaign (Hus and McDonald, 2002). 

Literature Review 

According to the attribution theory by Kelly 1967, the significance and importance to an event is 

assigned by the people on the bases of two type of behavior either their own behavior or the behavior 

of others. When we talk about with the reference to the celebrity advertising there are two types of 

attributes, the internal attribution in which consumer believes that the endorser recommend the product 

due to the good characteristics of the product, or the external attribution in which the consumer 

believes that the endorser is recommending the product because they are paid for it (Hus & McDonald, 

2002). The attribution theory suggests that the small fee paid to endorser has an impact on the 

consumer perception (Silvera & Austad, 2004). But the empirical evidence regarding this suggests that 

the celebrities are effective endorsers as they are trustworthy, reliable, credible, effective and likable 

endorsers (e.g Freiden, 1984, Ohanion 1991). The consumers also believe that the celebrities like the 

product which they endorse regardless of the high fees they charge for it. 

Petty, Cacioppo, and Schumann (1983) have proposed the Elaboration Likelihood theory in 

which they have discussed the two process model of response to the advertising stimuli. In this model 

they have discussed two conditions, the first condition for the high involvement products under this 

condition attitude change travels through central route, in which evaluation is on the bases of the 

quality of the argument. The second condition is for the low involvement products under this condition 

attitude change travels through a peripheral route, in which simple cues, objects or celebrity play 

important role in the evaluation process. The results of this research supported this theory, as for the 

low involvement products celebrities in an ad plays more important role to effect consumer perception 

compare to the argument in the ad. Similarly for high involvement products celebrities are not as 

important as the argument in the ad which can influence the consumer attitudes. Chaiken (1980) has 

given a similar theory. 

The social adaptation theory (Kahle, 1984; Kahle & Timmer, 1983; Kahle & Homer, 1985) 

implies that the importance of the information will determine its impact on the consumer attitudes. For 

example if we take print media ad as stimulus and the ad is for the low involvement product the viewer 

will glance at the ad for a second or two and than moves to the next page or source so the information 

form that source in that second or two will have an impact in the consumer mind, which may include 

only the name of the product or the endorser or the graphic. Similarly for the high involvement product 

advertisement the consumer may spend a considerable amount of time reading the copy; the argument 

in that copy strong or weak plays an important role (Kahle & Homer, 1985). 

The difference in Elaboration Likelihood theory and Social Adaptation theory is that in EL 

theory the information scanning is the same way for the both high and low involvement products 

however in SA theory the information process end very quickly for the low involvement products. 

(Khale & Homer, 1985). Both theories have more points on which they agree than the points on which 

they disagree, both agree that information or the argument is important for the high involvement 

product decisions, both agree that the information scanning is different for high and low involvement 

products (ibid). 

126


There is a lot of research work done on celebrity endorsement but there is a distinct lack of 

research on multiple celebrity endorsement in advertising. Despite the fact multiple celebrity 

endorsements are becoming more prominent as compare to single celebrity endorsement advertising 

(Hsu & McDonald, 2002). Celebrities have the ability to hold the viewer’s attention and it also help to 

penetrate the clutter of the advertising spots (Miciak and Shanklin, 1994). When using more than one 

celebrity in a campaign, the consumer association with the product also increases. Hence the use of 

multiple celebrities for a product can be beneficial for attracting different target audience (Hsu & 

McDonald, 2002). Multiple celebrities may help the advertisers to reduce the boredom and sometimes 

the target audience is very wide so multiple celebrities are required to cover that audience (Erdogan & 

Baker, n.d). Multiple celebrity endorsements with reference to the low involvement product/services 

and high involvement products/services has not yet been explored. 

Hypothesis 

In the present study on the bases of Social Adaptation theory we develop two hypotheses with 

reference to the multiple celebrity endorsement. The basic aim is to find out the effect on consumer 

perception, when we have more than one celebrity in low and high involvement product 

advertisements. 

H1: consumer perception is more positive for multiple celebrities ads compare to single celebrity 

ad for low involvement products/services. 

H2: there is no significant difference in consumer perception for single celebrity ads and multiple 

celebrities ads for high involvement products/ services. 

Method 

Research Design 

The research was conducted using a questionnaire design to understand consumer views on celebrity 

endorsement with reference to the high involvement products/services and low involvement products 

and services, measuring their attitude toward ad, attitude toward brand and their intentions to purchase 

the given product or service. 

Four print media advertisements were chosen based on the number of celebrities in them. Two 

advertisements contain single celebrity in them while two ads contain more than two celebrities in 

them. Two ads, one single and one multiple celebrities were taken from low involvement product ads 

while two ads one single and one multiple celebrities were taken from high involvement 

products/services. 

Each participant of the study was provided with one ad, either single celebrity ad or multiple 

celebrities’ ad. Same questionnaire was used to measure consumer perception about single celebrity 

endorsement and multiple celebrities endorsement. 

Independent variable 

Four print media ads were used as stimulus. Two ads from low involvement products/services were 

taken one single celebrity Pantene pro v shampoo ad, and one multiple celebrities Lux soap ad with 

five celebrities in it. Two ads were taken from high involvement products/services one single celebrity 

Warid mobile phone connections ad and one multiple celebrities Ufone mobile phone connection ad 

with three celebrities in it. 

Dependent variables 

To measure young adult perception three variables were studied, attitude toward advertisement, 

attitude toward brand and purchase intentions. Information on these variables is presented in table no 1. 

127


Sample 

A total of 300 university students from Foundation University Islamabad and Federal Urdu University 

Islamabad participated in the study. Student samples have been used by most of the comparative 

advertising research (Barry 1993). The data was collected from one private university (Foundation 

University Islamabad) and one government university (Federal Urdu University Islamabad). 

Description of Instrument 

To measure the attitude toward ad, scales were taken from Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum, (1957), six 

items were taken to measure both effective and evaluative content, the items were selected on a review 

of existing research (Kamins & Gupta, 1994; Kahle & Homer, 1986; Mitchell & Olson,1981; Choi & 

Miracle, 2004; Tripp, Jensen & Carlson, 1994). To measure attitude toward brand scales were taken 

from Osgood, Suci and Tennenbum (1957), six items were used one the bases of the existing research 

(Kamins & Gupta, 1994; Kahle & Homer, 1986; Mitchell & Olson,1981; Choi & Miracle, 2004; Tripp, 

Jensen & Carlson, 1994;Till & Busler,1998). To measure purchase intentions, three questions using 

sementatic scales were uesd these questions have been asked throughout past research (Mitchell & 

Olson, 1981; Kamins & Gupta, 1994; Ohanian, 1991; Kahle & Homer, 1985, Tripp, Jenson & Carlson, 

1994). The Cronbatchs Alpha of the scale is 0.911. The Cronbatchs Alphas of three dependent 

variables are given in table no 1. 

Table 1 

Measure No of items Alpha Source 

Attitude toward ad 6 .83 Osgood, Suci and Tannenbaum, 1957 

Attitude toward brand 6 .87 Osgood, Suci and Tannenbaum, 1957 

Purchase intentions 3 .88 Kahle and Homer, 1985 

Data Analysis 

Data was analyzed by SPSS. The first test run was the Levens test for normality of data at 0.05% level 

of significance. The p values of attitude toward ad, attitude toward brand and purchase intentions are 

0.187, 0.396 and 0.247 respectively. It is concluded that the data is normally distributed. The 

backward linear regression test is applied to find out the relationship between these variables. 

Independent sample t test is used to measure the difference in the consumer perception for high 

involvement products/services and low involvement products/services 

Results 

The sample consists of 61% male while 39% female respondents, 36% were of age between 18 to 21, 

48% were of age between 22 to 26 while 16% were of age between 27 to 30. 57% of respondents had 

bachelor’s degree while 43% had professional degree. The frequency distribution, of single celebrity 

Pentane Pro V shampoo ad was 27% the single celebrity Warid mobile phone connection service 

providers ad was 24% the multiple celebrities Lux soap ad was 27% and multiple celebrity Ufone 

mobile phone connection service providers. 

The results of backward liner regression showed that there is a significant relationship between 

purchase intention as dependent variable and attitude toward ad and attitude toward brand as 

independent variables. The r 2 of the regression model is (0.49) the f statistic of regression model is 

(142.412) and the p value of this model is (0.000). It has been observed from the model that attitude 

toward brand has much stronger relationship with purchase intention as compare to the attitude toward 

advertisement. The results of regression are displayed in table no 2. 

128


Table 2: Regression Model Purchase intentions as dependent variable Regression coefficient, st. error in 

parenthesis, t values in brackets and p values in italics 

Constant Attitude toward ad Attitude toward brand r 2 f value 

- 0.331 0.245 0.691 0.49 142.419 

(0.281) (0.63) (0.65) 

[-1.179] [3.900] [10.712] 

0.239 0.000 0.000 0.000 

To measure consumer perception about single celebrity ad and multiple celebrities’ ad for low 

involvement products first Independent sample t test is applied for single celebrity Pentane Pro V 

shampoo ad and multiple celebrities Lux soap ad. The p value for attitude toward ad, attitude toward 

brand and purchase intentions are (0.002, 0.048, 0.002) which shows that there is a significant 

difference at 0.05% level between single celebrity ad and multiple celebrities’ ad for low involvement 

products which proved our first hypothesis. The mean values are more positive for multiple celebrities’ 

ad compare to single celebrity ad for low involvement products. When Independent sample t test is 

applied for single celebrity Warid ad and multiple celebrities Ufone ad (the ads for high involvement 

product/services) there is no significant difference for attitude toward ad, attitude toward brand and 

purchase intentions between single celebrity and multiple celebrities’ ad. The p value for attitude 

toward ad, attitude toward brand and purchase intentions are (0.175, 0.312, 0.064) which shows that 

there is no significant difference at 0.05% level between single celebrity ad and multiple celebrities’ ad 

for high involvement products/services which proved our second hypothesis. 

Table 3: Independent sample t test Pantene pro v shampoo ad (single celebrity ad) Lux soap ad (multiple 

celebrities’ ad) Low involvement products category 

variables Mean St. dev. t-value p-value 

Attitude toward ad 

Single celebrity 

Multiple celebrity 

4.3439 

4.9241 

1.05218 

1.29011 

-3.5068 0.002 

Attitude toward brand 



4.8122 

5.1709 

1.10276 

1.15747 

-1.994 0.048 

Purchase intentions 



3.9620 

4.7426 

1.48783 

1.55154 

-3.228 0.002 

Table 4: Independent sample t test Warid mobile phone connection (single celebrity ad) Ufone mobile phone 

connection (multiple celebrities’ ad) High involvement product category 

Variables Mean St. dev. t-value p-value 

Attitude toward ad 



4.5399 

4.8146 

1.10355 

1.29178 

-1.362 0.175 

Attitude toward brand 



4.8732 

5.0798 

1.25371 

1.16866 

-1.016 0.312 

Purchase intentions 



3.9437 

4.3521 

1.25481 

1.35446 

-1.864 0.064 

Discussion and Conclusion 

The key finding emerge from this research is that celebrities have positive impact on consumer 

perception when they appear in low involvement products or services ads. As the number of celebrities 

increases consumer perception also become more positive this is due to the fact that these ads attract 

different target markets at the same time (Hus & McDonald, 2002). When we have more than one 

celebrity in low involvement products/services ads consumer attitude is influenced due to the 

celebrities in those ads (Kahle & Homer, 1985). 

129


But more than one celebrity has no effect on consumer perception when they appear in high 

involvement product or service ads. The results showed that there is no significant difference in 

consumer perception for single celebrity and multiple celebrity ads for high involvement product or 

service. As for high involvement product or service ad the argument in that ad is more important for 

consumer compare to the celebrities in that ad. Consumer attitude is influenced by the argument not 

due to number of celebrities in that ad (Kahle & Homer, 1985). 

The results from this research supported the Elaboration Likelihood theory (Petty and 

Cacioppo, 1981) and Social Adaptation theory (Kahle, 1984; Kahle & Timmer 1983) according to 

which for low involvement product or service ad celebrity is a good option but for high involvement 

product or service ad the argument is more important to influence consumer attitude. 

This research could be a good extension of knowledge on celebrity endorsement as consumer 

perception remain same when we have one celebrity or when we have multiple celebrities in high 

involvement product ads so for advertiser and marketers of high involvement product or service 

argument should be of prime concern compare to number of celebrities in an ad. While for low 

involvement product and services multiple celebrities’ endorsement can play its magic but two points 

should be considered before going for more than one celebrity in an ad. First matching the celebrity 

with the compatible meaning which the brand is or product is using as multiple celebrities can lead to 

confusion about the brand identity (Erdogan & Baker, n.d., p.13). Second the target market should be 

divers enough because for diverse target market more than one celebrity are required to cater all of 

them (Hus & McDonald, 2002) 

Limitation and Recommendation 

The primary limitations are related to the generalization of the research results. The first issue is related 

to the sample, as student sample has limited external validity which limits the generalization of the 

results (Lynch, 1982). Second generalization issue is related to the stimulus, ads which were used as a 

stimulus were all female celebrities ads, male celebrities ads and males and female celebrities ads may 

produce more constructive results. 

The future research can use electronic media ads as stimulus. Because electronic media ads can 

effect consumer perception differently compares to print media advertisements. 

130


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132


Highly Organised Direct Farmers Market: Analysis of 

Forms, Characteristics, Operations and 

Women Involvement in Japan 

Sarafat A. Tijani 

Graduate School of Biosphere Science, Faculty of Applied Biological Science 

1-4-4 Kagamiyama, Higashi Hiroshima University 739-8528 Japan 

Email: tsarafat@yahoo.com 

Izumi Yano 

Graduate School of Biosphere Science, Faculty of Applied Biological Science 

1-4-4 Kagamiyama, Higashi Hiroshima University 739-8528 Japan 

Abstract 

This study was based on the primary information collected from women farmers and 

coordinators of selected direct farmers markets in Sera and Ohnan Chuo, Hiroshima and 

Shimane prefecture respectively in Japan. Stratified and purposive sampling techniques 

were used to select respondents and direct farmers markets Information from direct farmers 

market coordinators and women farmers/processors was collected through interview 

schedule and structured questionnaires respectively. The study revealed that most of the 

direct farmers market studied were established for economic and social assistance of 

farmers. Requirements to participate varied from market to market. Low profit, competition 

and lack of sale were the major problems facing the respondents. Comparison of women 

farmers’ income from agriculture and non agriculture suggests better condition in 

agriculture than seeking employment outside the industry. Although, respondents were 

being empowered economically in some market and socially in others through participation 

in direct farmers market but both economics and social as well as political empowerment 

are essential for the market participants through involvement in the management activities 

of the market. Physically presence of farmers with their products on weekly, fortnightly or 

monthly basis should be initiated in order to build more social relationship among farmers 

and between farmers and consumers. 

Keywords: marketing, direct marketing, direct farmers market, women farmers, Japan. 


In Japan, various kinds of agricultural products are being produced by small farm household units and 

distributed to numerous consuming households through a multi-stages marketing channel (Muto, 

1987). Those markets are classified into two systems namely; the government control system (mainly 

rice and wheat) and the free market system (vegetables, fruits, livestock products etc.). In most cases, 

the latter is often partially controlled by administrative authorities. 

However, the systems have been criticized for their complicated marketing channels (Kambara 

and Shelley (2002)). Also, JOAA (1993) pointed out that those systems tended to make much delivery 

efficiency and superficial appearances of products rather than safety. These criticisms gave impetus to 

promote diversified and decentralized systems where farmers and consumers directly control the 

systems by themselves. 

133


However, the existence of direct marketing for agricultural products in Japan was dated back to 

1950’s while subsequent evolutions were as a result of: 1) the rise in the prices of vegetable in the 

1960s, hence direct market was used as an alternative channel to the complex structure of mainstream 

channels coupled with the formation of consumer cooperatives (Muto (1987), Nomiyama (1997], 

Kambara and Shelley (2002), 2) the movement against mass production, mass consumption and mass 

selling in the 1970s also gave rise to direct marketing and it was used as a channel to emphasis value in 

use, 3) the chemical contamination and the need for safety of products in the 1980s led to direct 

marketing as an extension of channels by consumers’ cooperatives, 4) In the 1990s, however, direct 

marketing was used for the diversification of values-in-use by consumer with some consumers having 

preference for safe food irrespective of the price while others prefer cheap food products (Nomiyama, 

1997 and Sakurai, 2002). 

Channels of direct marketing include direct farmers market (DFM), roadside, on-farm, u-pick, 

farm tour/excursion, community supported agriculture (CSA), sales to restaurant, sales to school, mail 

order, consumer cooperatives, municipal buying club etc. Meanwhile, among all the channels, direct 

farmers market is the most common (Kambara and Shelley, 2002). According to Leslie and Tamera, 

(2001) “farmers market is a market in which farmers, growers or producers from a defined local area 

are present in person to sell their own products directly to the public”. 

Recently in Japan, DFM is on the increase with more participation of rural women due to the 

old-age of farming household, increasing preference for fresh products and large number of women 

involvement. DFM in the study area were being operated mostly as a non- face to face market as 

against the face to face transaction system known worldwide. Also, rural women in the study area have 

not been participating in the marketing of agricultural product in the past because of the system of 

marketing through agricultural cooperatives. The establishment of DFM has led to greater number of 

rural women involvement. 

The different style of operation as well as greater number of women participation led to the 

assumption that method of operation may be different but the worldwide mission of DFM is still met. 

Also, that more women participation means the greater involvement in the activities of the market. To 

establish this fact, investigation into the activities of the market becomes imperative. Specifically, this 

study assessed women farmers’ demography and farming activities. It assessed different types of DFM, 

the reason(s) behind the establishment as well as the operation of DFM. Lastly, it investigates the 

reasons for the involvement and the activities of women in DFM. 

The significance of the study lies on the need to introduce Japanese style of DFM to the global 

world as well as clarification of the different opinions regarding participants’ involvement through the 

outcome of the research. Also important is that, majority of the study on the concept of ‘direct market’ 

in Japan are not available in English language which makes it difficult for non-Japanese researchers to 

get a better understanding of the concept, this study is intended to fill this gap. 

2. Data and Methodology 

The surveys were conducted in Sera town and Ohnan Chuo in Hiroshima and Shimane prefectures 

respectively in the Chugoku region of Japan. The area is mountainous in nature and it is being regarded 

as one of the less favoured areas for agriculture in Japan. Two case studies of DFM were chosen from 

both prefectures. Four coordinators and 65 women farmers were sampled using simple random 

sampling. Data from coordinators and women farmers/processor was collected through interview 

schedule and structured questionnaires respectively. 

134

3. Result and Discussion 

1. Profile of the Respondents 


The respondent’s age ranged between 35 and 84 years with average being 62.3years. Marital status 

suggests that close to 90% were married while few percentages were divorced and separated. Majority 

of the participant were senior high school certificate holders and equal percentage (43.1% each) of 

respondents have household member of 1-3 and 4-6. 

Categorization of respondents based on the size of cultivated hectare of land to different 

enterprises revealed greater percentage of the respondents to be small-scale farmers cultivating less 

than 1ha of land irrespective of the enterprise. Finding also revealed that women farmers’ current 

involvement in some enterprises e.g. rice cultivation, decreased while their involvement in vegetable 

production, processing and other activities e.g. fruit, flower, tobacco leaf, egg and livestock production 

increases. 

2. The Features of Direct Market in the Study Area 

a. Types of Direct Farmers Market in the Study Area 

There are different types of DFM in Japan which were categorized into five by Sakurai [10] based on 

the operation body. They are: 

i Private Volunteer Market: formed by individuals or partnerships that is completely 

independent of government. 

ii Corporate Cooperative Market: it comprises of small and medium scale farmers. The investors 

share on equal basis the initial capital. Also, most of the founders are farmers. 

iii Limited or Joint Stock Market: established for profit making, clear division of responsibility 

and profit is shared based on the money invested. 

iv JA Cooperative Market: it is one of the businesses of Japan Agriculture Cooperative; they have 

the technical–know-how. 

v Direct Market by Municipal: it has link with town office, establishment and coordination of 

the market is under the control of town/municipal government. 

However, there are other DFMs outside Sakurai’s classification such as the two case studies 

selected but they share characteristics similar to some of the Sakurai‘s classification though not typical 

of them. The selected case studies are: Kho-raku-ichi in Shimane “DFM A” and Kouzan Ikiki mura in 

Hiroshima “DFM B". The two markets were chosen as case studies based on the aim of the 

establishment (Social for DFM A and Economic DFM B) and types of management to represent highly 

organized DFM. 

b. Existence and Reasons for the Establishment of DFM 

The study revealed that DFM A came into existence in 1985 with subsidy assistance from prefecture 

government and became well organized in 1996. Beside the general reasons for the emergence and 

popularity of DFM in Japan, consideration for the needs to be self-reliance and demonstration of 

intelligence of women against subordinate view and domination by men form the reason for the 

establishment of the market i.e. liberation of women. They achieves this by the establishment of DFM 

where both male and female can market their products aside agricultural cooperative where only male 

is recognized. 

DFM B existence was dated back to 1987 as open market with management by town office but 

later changed to indoor type and subsequently transferred with financial assistance to the present 

corporate cooperative in 2005. Reasons for the management by corporate cooperative are: old-age of 

farmers, inability to meet wholesale requirement, small-scale production, independent of women 

farmer and for the area revitalization of agricultural products 

135


c. Operation and Characteristics 

In DFM A, there are three types of membership; A, B and C with A-member being full-member while 

B and C are sub-member and ordinary-member respectively. Admission/registration fee is based on the 

membership type as shown in table 1 and it is once in life time. In DFM B however, no differentiation 

of membership and also equal amount of admission fee is being paid. 

Table 1: Basic Operation of Highly Organized Direct Farmers’ Market (DFM) 

Activities DFM A DFM B 

Membership A-membership B-membership C-membership - 

Commission 10% 20% 30% 15% 

Admission fee(yen) 50,000 20,000 0 2,000 

Annual Due(yen) 5,000 1,000 

Female/Male 50/30 220/110 

Total Member 80 320 

Days of Operation Weekends and Public holidays Everyday 

Staff/Committee 2staff/4core committee 13staff + 110 

Scale of Operation Small- scale Small-Large 

Founder Small-scale women farmers Farmers 

Commons Features 

Space Allocation First come first served 

Price Determination By farmers themselves 

Others Tour trip to other market, Organizing of programs and events 

Problems Communication and Intergenerational Succession 

Remarks Management depicts highly organized DFM 

Source: Field survey 

Participants were also expected to pay annual due which varied from market to market. In 

addition, commission is charged on products for maintenance of the market and payment of staff 

allowances. DFM A’s commission rate follows the membership type (table1) whereas equal rate of 

commission is charged in DFM B. While A-member farmers in DFM A valued membership fee due to 

regular production to the market, B & C-members valued commission charge on the quantity sold 

because of their sporadic production to the market. Also, group manufactured products was recognized 

as an entity product in both markets with all fees and dues levied on the group rather than individual 

member of the group. 

Also in table1, percentage of female in both markets was higher than male. Operating time 

depends much on the location of the market, but both markets operate from morning to late in the 

afternoon. DFM A was located outskirt of the town but at a town camp area as a strategy to capture 

interest of the visitors from the city or urban centers; who moved out of their homes for relaxation at 

the camp. However, non-routinely patronize of the area by the visitors made the market to open only 

on weekends while other days of the week were used to work on individual core member’s personal 

farm. Winter period also shortens the open month in a year to late March and early December. DFM B 

on the other hand opens throughout the year and all days of the week due to its central location. 

Furthermore, in some markets, the decision on where individual producer are located often determined 

by the market manager and in other markets assigning producer a “permanent” space for the season is 

common (Charles and Karen, 1995). However, result of product display, price determination 

(coordinators do advice farmers with high price products) and others are presented in table1. Other 

results revealed by the study shows that the DFMs in the study area possessed the following 

characteristics: 

i. Non-physical presence of the farmers/processors of the products in the market 

ii. Standard place in terms of facilities and realm of human activities: standard and adequate 

facilities including safe entry with good visibility of the parking lot are provided in both 

markets; 

136


iii. Little competition without conflict: Competition is a natural part of any marketing process. 

Thus competition is essential to make the market large, diverse and active. Both markets exhibit 

competition but their non physical presence avoids conflict. 

iv. Provision of technical information and tour/trip: DFM B employed an extension officer who 

scheduled visit with all the farmers participating in the market for provision of technical 

information on their activities. Both DFMs occasionally organize programs/events/tour for 

producer and consumers interaction. 

v. Recent incorporation of restaurant to the shop, which apart from generating income; also serves 

as market for left over products particularly vegetables in order to motivate farmers. Selling to 

other restaurants, schools, and hospital on behalf of farmers are also noticed in DFM B as 

against sale to local restaurant only in DFM A. 

vi. Presence of designated farmers for some crops in DFM B was noticed. 

vii. Absence of organizational structure to encourage all core members’ full responsibility was 

revealed in DFM A. 

3. Women Involvement: 

Aside women farmer’s involvement in marketing through the emergence of DFM and the stated 

establishment of the markets for rural women’s assistance, the percentage of women in both markets is 

more than men, hence, the needs to investigate their activities in the market. Meanwhile, the results 

indicate that women farmers are not participating in the management activities of the market including 

the women established direct farmers market. However, the obtained results in terms of women 

participation in the market are presented as follows: 

a. Years in Direct Market, Sources of Awareness and Reason for Joining 

Long year of existence of direct marketing was buttressed by the study as some respondents have been 

participating in DFM for 15years and above (7.7 and 15.1% for DFM A and B respectively) but 

majority joins the market 5-10years ago in both markets (40% and 51.6% respectively). Greater 

percentage of respondent with 5-10years of participation conformed to Nakamichi, (2000) that 

majority of the DFM were established in the last ten years. 

Participation of women in marketing is greatest where trade is traditional. Therefore 

establishment of both markets for women farmers and DFM A by women themselves coupled with 

emphasis on place of origin products best explain their source of awareness. Aside this, many got 

aware through friends, city office and others (relatives, community women group, wage workers in the 

market or living near to the market with addition of study meeting and media in DFM B. 

There are a lot of diversified opinions on why participant involved in DFM. However the study 

established that farmers/processor’s involvement was mostly due to the closeness of the market to their 

home. This result was in line with Nakamichi (2000) report that women enterprises were 

137


Figure 1: Reasons for Joining DFM 

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managed close to the home. Opportunity to determine price by themselves and to produce chemical 

free products were other reasons stated aside those illustrated in fig1. Meanwhile, some reasons as 

shown in the chart were not the reasons why respondents in DFM A join and they were the least that 

made respondents in DFM B to join. Furthermore, negative report of mainstream market (Muto (1987), 

Ellis, (1996], Kambara and Shelley (2002) was not totally supported by the respondents. 

b. Classification by the percentage of Productivity for Consumption and Sale through different 

Channels 

Rural women have participated at rates equaling or surpassing those of men, yet main crops are often 

regarded as men’s crop leaving vegetable garden meant for household consumption in charge of 

women (Otomo, 2000). Rural women in Japan also recalled that almost 100% of their vegetables in the 

past were being consumed due to less commercial valued of the product as main crop (rice). 

Establishment of local market such as DFM where they can easily sell their products however 

encouraged them to produce beyond subsistence level presently. 

About 80% of all the respondents sell vegetables in DFM and almost half (37%) of them sell 

50% or more of their total product because of the perishable nature of vegetables and also because 

138 

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Table 2: The Channels of the respondents’ product 


Direct Market A Direct Market B 

To DFM Self Consume to JA to DFM Self Consume to JA 

A - A - A - A - 

A 

1 B 

C 

- 

1 

B 

C 

- 

- 

A 

6 B 

C 

- 

1 

B 

C 

- 

1 

(10%) D - D - 

(26%) D 5 D 5 

A - A - A - A - 

B 

1 B 

C 

1 

- 

B 

C 

- 

- 

B 

4 B 

C 

2 

2 

B 

C 

1 

1 

(10%) D - D - 

(17%) D - D 2 

A 3 A 1 A 8 A - 

C 

5 B 

C 

- 

2 

B 

C 

1 

2 

C 

9 B 

C 

- 

1 

B 

C 

- 

- 

(50%) D - D 1 

(39%) D - D - 

A 3 A - A 4 A - 

D 

3 B 

C 

- 

- 

B 

C 

- 

- 

D 

4 B 

C 

- 

- 

B 

C 

- 

- 

(30%) D - D - 

(17%) D - D - 

Source: Field Survey 

Note: A for the most frequent user who se ll70-100% of their products to the channel 

B for the user who se ll10-69% their products to the channel 

C for the user who se ll 1-39% of their products to the channel 

D for non-user of the channel 

DFM is known for fresh vegetables. Out of those selling through DFM A, only 28.6% sells 

large quantity (40-100%) while 71.4% sells small quantity (


4/6-/28+1/ 

/6-/28+1/ 

Figure 2: Agricultural Income 

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�+6�/8 

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� � 

4+78 

46/7/28 

" � � �� 

� ��32 � � � 

140 

�6/-8 

�+6�/8 

Figure 3: Non Agricultural Income 

Direct 

Market A 

� � � � 

� 

4+78 

46/7/28 

Direct 

Market B 

" � � � � 

� 

� ��32 � 

Among them were also respondents with more than 4million yen income from DFM though 

this group was few. Majority with less than one million yen income from both markets might imply 

small nature of women farmers business due to old-age or lack of production resources on one hand or 

selling of substantial part of their products through another channel on the other hand. 

The finding also confirmed low gross sale from women farmers` enterprise (Nakamichi, 2000). 

Furthermore, greater percentage often consumed large quantity of their products as revealed earlier 

thereby selling leftover after their subsistence has been met and others did extend kindness towards 

kinship through some of their output. Above all, it was reported that women did engaged in DFM for 

social relationship which they could gain rather than income. Higher income of some respondents in 

DFM B could be ascribed to large-scale, production of special product/ solely producer of some 

products as observed and informed during the course of the survey. 

Respondents might engage in other agricultural activities which are not sold through DFM, thus 

knowledge of their income from agriculture could supply more details. Finding revealed 65% of 

respondents earning less than 3million yen in DFM A. This percentage has almost doubled what it used 

to be in the past judging from figure 2. 

Thus, there was increase in the percentage of low income earner in DFM A with consequent 

decrease in higher income earners purely due to old-age (Farmers in DFM A were older than DFM B). 

In DFM B on the other hand, respondents with low income decreased while higher income earner 

increased which could be linked with newly introduction of many economic activities in the area and 

more involvement of women in those activities. 

" 

"


Income from non- farm activities: women farmers did engage in other work outside agriculture 

to supplement household income especially in a household headed by women. In Japan however, lack 

of sale, low profit and equal employment opportunity in the secondary sector might be the factors that 

increase women’s participation in non-farm job. Involvement in other job could be one of the reasons 

while hobby women farmers increased. 

Women farmers’ non-farm income as shown in figure 3 ranged between less than two million 

yen to more than six million yen with higher percentage earning less than two million yen and 23.6% 

earning more than six million yen. Low income earners from other job as well as some higher income 

earners increase in both markets while others either remains the same or decreased. Higher income 

outside agricultural work might categorize respondents to be non full-time farmers and this could 

explain the reason for their low income from DFM as well. 

Comparing women farmers’ income from agriculture and non-agriculture suggests that access 

to production resources with adequate market outlet for their products could increase their contribution 

to agricultural development. 

Women farmers activities were not without setbacks; with the major problem being lack of 

profit, competition, sale, money, “ie” system, toughness of the work, inability to produce in large 

quantity, old-age etc in both markets. Meanwhile, problem of profit in DFM A might not be regarded 

as so important since majority did not join the market for profit. Although, social relationship gain with 

more profit have better chance to improve their capability. They were also faced with input and 

problem of where to sell in the past which the re-emergence of DFM has solved. 

4. Conclusion 

The study focused on direct farmers market (DFM) with the aim of introducing highly organized DFM 

types and operations to the global community. Extraction of common features and area of differences 

of the two case studies were carried out. The differences could be attributed to the objective of the 

establishment of each market while the main common feature is that both are highly organized DFM. It 

means an indoor operating style of DFM which has additional advantages over the generally known 

DFMs (e.g of worldwide DFM; support for small-scale farmers, old farmers in Japan and food safety 

despite their style of operation). Additional benefits include trust and good relationship between the 

producers and managers/coordinators of the market. (This occurs as a result of non-physical presence 

of farmers in the market, hence, managers/coordinators managed the market well through sale of the 

products on behalf of farmers.) It gives the producers more opportunity to engage in other activities as 

well as elimination of conflicts among the participants. Empowerment of women participants and 

community development form the main aim of both markets. Apart from income generation, other 

activities such as tour, event, programs and meetings organized by DFM as well as group discussions 

promised to be instrument for the improvement in their economic, mobility, socialization, legal and 

political status. 

DFM B is more business oriented DFM compared to DFM A due to the other characteristics it 

possesses such as: presence of designated farmers for some products, everyday and all year round 

operation, employment of extension agent to provide technical information to the participants and 

incorporation of restaurant (which apart from generating income, also serves as market for left over 

products particularly vegetables thus motivating farmers to produce more) to the market. On the other 

hand, DFM A operates on weekends and public holidays only, participation by small-scale farmers and 

low income of the participants as well as lack of organizational structure depict the market to be for the 

life maintenance of the farmers and social relationship. Age can be said to affect the objective of both 

market. DFM A are very old with their average age being…hence, they value social relationship more 

than economic, whereas, young women prefer to be economically empowered rather than social though 

both are essential but in terms of priority both groups will choose as explained. In conclusion, the 

objectives of both case studies might be different but the contribution is similar in terms of 

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empowering or assisting women (Socially or economically, though achieving both is essential). Also, 

non involvement of the producers in the management of the market depicts ‘highly organized’ market 

system. Though involving the producers in management will ensure more cooperation�more trust and 

a better transparent system of management. 

Meanwhile, lack of communication is one of the problems of highly organized DFM. As a 

solution, coordinators of both DFM used to advise as well as organize tours for the producers to other 

market to learn by themselves on the salient matters such as price and quality of the products based on 

consumers’ comments. In addition, fortnightly or monthly operation of the market as open market is 

essential for the producers themselves to listen to the consumers’ comments, thereby fostering 

interaction among the participants. 

Inter-generational succession threat is more visible in DFM A than DFM B because greater 

percentage of farmers and the coordinators of the market are becoming very old (Average age= 

65years). However, some of the participants have started introducing their young relatives to the 

market which would serve as a potential future replacement. Also, non-agricultural products are 

welcomed in the market as an opportunity for the young non-agricultural workers to participate thus 

building the future for the market. Although, the feasibility of this method to the future existence of the 

market is a subject of concern to DFM A coordinators. In corporate cooperative however, such threat is 

less visible, though 80% of their participants are also old but the remaining 20% are still energetic with 

as young as 35years of age. Besides, a lot of activities are also put in place to attract young people to 

participate. In addition, young farmers as well as pairing old and young farmers or cooperative farming 

need to be encouraged. 

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