Training course on energy efficiency in SMEs - engine-sme.eu

<strong>Training</strong> <strong>course</strong> on energy efficiency in SMEs 

This training has been developed in the context of ENGINE. ENGINE is a European co-operation project for the support 

of SMEs in implementing appropriate energy management, energy services and polygeneration energy systems. For 

further information on the project or on products of the project see: www.engine-sme.eu 

The project ENGINE is supported by the Intelligent Energy – Europe (IEE) programme of the European Union 

promoting energy efficiency and renewables. More details on the IEE programme can be found on: 

http://ec.europa.eu/energy/intelligent/index_en.html 

The sole responsibility for the content of this training set lies with the authors. It does not represent the opinion of the 

European Communities. The European Commission is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information 

contained therein. 

funded by

General Requirements 

www.engine-sme.eu

Overview Energy Data 

Typical consumption data for individual areas 

Value 

Power consumption 

Max. electrical capacity 

Price 

Gas consumption 

Boiler capacity 

Price 

Cost of electricity + gas 

Common units 

Power consumption 

Power capacity 

Domestic 

3.000 

6 

20 

20.000 

20 

8 

1.500 

2.500 

www.engine-sme.eu 

6.000 

SME 

1.500.000 

800 

10 

8.000.000 

3.000 

4,5 

500.000 

kWh 

W 

Large industry 

200.000.000 

35.000 

7 

250.000.000 

50.000 

3,0 

25.000.000 

1.500 

800 

Unit 

kWh/a 

kW 

€Cent/kWh 

kWh/a 

kW 

€Cent/kWh 

€ 

MWh 

kW

Saving potential 

… of primary energy in the industry by 2020 

Electrical power 

22% 

Office equipment & 

air conditioning 

1% 

Space heating 

& hot water 

18% 

Source: German Wuppertal Institut 

Lighting 

1% 


Process heat 

58%

Characteristics 

Energy intense industries and the proportion of energy costs 

as a percentage of total costs 

Mining 

Metal production and processing 

Glass, ceramics and processing of stones and earths 

Paper 

Chemical 

Food 

Producing industries average 


Source: Statistical Yearbook 2006, Federal Office of Statistics Austria, September 

8,7 % 

6,2 % 

5,6 % 

5,1 % 

2,9 % 

1,8 % 

1,6 %

Euro per kWh 

Energy price trends - Electricity 

Electricity price 2001-2007 (for industrial customers) 

0,12 

0,10 

0,08 

0,06 

0,04 

0,02 

0,00 


EU27 EU25 EU15 GE IT AT SW UK 

2001 

2002 

2003 

2004 

2005 

2006 

2007

Euro per GJ 

Energy price trends -GAS 

Gas price development 2001-2007 (industrial customers) 

14,0 

12,0 

10,0 

8,0 

6,0 

4,0 

2,0 

0,0 


EU27 EU25 EU15 GE IT AT SW UK 

2001 

2002 

2003 

2004 

2005 

2006 

2007

Contents of EN 16001 

…standard for energy management systems 

4.1 

4.2 

4.3.1 

4.3.2 

4.3.3 

4.4.1 

4.4.2 

4.4.3 

4.4.4 

4.4.5 

4.4.6 

4.5.1 

4.5.2 

4.5.3 

4.5.4 

4.5.5 

4.5.6 

General requirements 

Policy 

Identification and review of energy aspects 

Legal obligations 

Energy programme 

Resources, Roles and responsibilities 

Awareness raising 

Communication 

EM System documentation 

Control of documents 

Operational control 


Energy monitoring 

Evaluation of compliance 

Nonconformity, corrective action 

Control of records 

Internal audit 

Review

Contents of EN 16001 

… standard for energy management systems (EMS) 

█ establish systems and processes to improve energy efficiency 

█ reductions in cost and greenhouse gas emissions 

█ systematic management of energy 

█ develop and implement policy & objectives 

█ take into account legal requirements 

█ information about significant energy aspects 

Act 


█ apply to all types and sizes of organisations 

Plan 

Check 

█ EMS independently or integrated with other management systems 

Do 

The Deming cycle

Why not implement an EMS? 

Reasons why managers do not launch the 

process are mainly: 

• No specific responsibility for energy topics 

• Yearly energy bills are considered as fixed costs 

• Confusing energy bills (taxes, net costs, climate change levy, 

different billing periods) 

• Different energy carriers and different units are used and 

energy flows change during their way through the organisation 

• The individual sub systems have been established over time 

and influence each other - the whole system has to be 

regarded and seems to be complicated 


• Energy consumption and power rating are closely linked but 

must be distinguished during the evaluation

Energy Policy 


Starting point 

The development of an energy policy is the starting point 

for an effective energy management. 

Although some companies may already have taken action 

to reduce their energy bill, few have recognised the need 

to formalise this in a structured way. 

This starts with an energy policy. 


Formalised approach 

1. Discuss the strengths and weakness of the energy 

system of the company, 

2. Realise the interdependencies of individual 

departments, 

3. Discuss possible future developments 

4. Be aware of the strong dependency on fossil fuels and 

external suppliers. 


1/10. Motivate the Energy team 

Experience shows that in the phase of developing the energy policy 

staff need a clear understanding about the benefits and need of 

such a document. 

The development of an Energy Management system is a work 

intensive process so staff must be motivated to actively take part in 

the process. 

Only if staff are convinced that this additional work also ends in 

advantages they will they participate. 


2/10. Clarify the process 

At an early stage the Energy Manager must clarify why 

they need to develop a policy and what purpose it 

serves. 

This is an important factor for success. 

As the development of an energy policy will be a new 

topic for the energy team it is important to describe 

clearly which targets will be fulfilled by the document 

and what the team is expected to do. 


3/10. Focus on energy use 

.. .. within the company 

In the first place it is important to visualise the company's 

energy consumption to establish a common 

understanding about key figures. 

As there will often be no information about losses, 

weaknesses and strengths, the energy manager should 

focus on all areas where no data is available and no 

information could be collected. 

It is a fact that in the first step often only data from 

invoices will give an overview about the energy system. 


Focusing on the black box "company" might lead to the 

understanding that additional work is necessary to realise 

costs, consumption, losses and areas of improvement.

4/10. Inviting staff to participate 

Staff are the most important resource to realise saving 

potentials. Therefore staff have to be involved to 

contribute to the policy statements. 

As this can be very time intensive it might be a good idea 

to contact staff via a short questionnaire before the policy 

is written. 

Staff could be asked in which areas losses occur and 

which strategies could be used to increase energy 

efficiency. 

The results then may be taken to formulate the policy. 

In addition such a strategy motivates staff to participate 

more in energy topics. 


5/10. Collecting the statements 

• The project group has now an overview of 

the company’s position regarding energy. 

• The team members present the statements 

of staff from their areas. 

• The Energy Team now has enough 

information and knowledge to transfer the 

statements into a written draft policy. 


6/10. Energy Policy - content 

• Commitment to deal with energy in a conscious way 

• Core principles and strategic goals (e.g. reduce CO 2 

emissions, energy cost reduction, commitment for 

staff training, continuous monitoring) 

• Short overview about roles and responsibilities 

• Commitment to continuous improvement 

• Commitment to evaluate the energy system 

• Staff participation, staff information and staff training 


Example Energy Policy 

SCA HYGIENE PRODCTS 

The responsible use of energy is an essential part of the business 

activities of the company SCA Hygiene Products GmbH, Austria. 

All staff at the Ortmann site support the efficient use of energy. 

An energy management system helps us to focus on all energy 

relevant areas within the Ortmann site in a systematic and holistic 

way. 

With the use of indicators we focus on 

• a continuous improvement of the energy efficiency 

• a decrease of the specific energy need 

• zero energy losses. 


We use special criteria for the purchase of energy consuming 

plants and machinery and take into account the lowest possible 

energy consumption.

Example Energy Policy 

SCA HYGIENE PRODCTS 

To achieve continuous improvement and to reach our goals we 

develop detailed targets, fix resources and define necessary 

actions. 

To evaluate the success of our voluntary goals we undertake 

audits on a continuous basis. 

We inform and train our staff about topics in the area of energy 

efficiency and set the basis for an awareness of use of energy. 

Self initiatives of staff in this area are welcomed and will be 

supported by useable actions. 


In addition we commit ourselves to an open communication about 

energy topics with internal and external interested groups. 

Ortmann, 20. December 2001 

G. Just M. Andersson R. Hütterer

7/10. Maturity & final preparation 

After the brainstorming the contents have to be 

discussed to reach a common understanding. 

The statements should be summarised and 

disseminated for additional comments and 

suggestions. 

It is very helpful if the individual statements and 

consequences are explained in more detail. 


8/10. Final Energy Policy 

The project group then decides about the last 

adaptations and prepares the final policy. 

The top management will be asked to officially 

sign and support it. 

It is important to underline that the top 

management has to implement the energy policy 

into the company and that this document 

presents guiding principles. 


9/10. Dissemination of policy 

At least one of the following strategies should be chosen: 

• Energy policy on notice boards 

• Energy policy in company magazine 

• Presenting the policy in face to face meetings 

• Articles in local newspapers and specialised 

magazines 


10/10. Updating the policy 

The energy system, the factors influencing the energy 

management system and the organisation itself will not 

remain the same but change continuously. 

The energy policy itself will therefore not be valid forever 

but must be adapted from time to time. 

The energy manager must be aware that the policy must 

be revised in the following situations: 

• Changes in the external pressures on the 

company e.g. introduction of new legislation (e.g. 

emission trading), changing markets, 

• Corporate changes e.g. company merger, 

• Site changes e.g. introduction of a new product 

range or production process, 

• Changes in stakeholder pressures e.g. growing 

public concern about a particular issue. 


The Initial Review 


The initial review 

The goal of the initial review is to realise the current energy 

situation of the organisation. This includes 

• the energy consumption in an organisation 

• the energy flows within an organisation 

• leaks and losses 

• areas to evaluate in more detail 

• areas of improvement where action may be taken 

immediately. 


Advantages of the Initial Review 

• To realise – mainly for the first time - the energy consumption 

on a continuous basis 

• To realise the costs for individual energy carriers and 

consumers 

• To establish the current baseline 

• To realise unusual consumption 

• To realise areas of improvement where actions can be taken 

immediately without investments 


• To understand the relation between the sub-systems 

• To raise awareness for efficient energy use.

Step by step process 

The initial review should be regarded as a step by step 

process. 

1. Appointing an Energy Manager and an Energy Team (see 4.4.1) 

2. Defining the goal and the area of scope 

3. Collecting and measuring data 

4. Data preparation 

5. Developing an input-output analysis and indicators 

6. Analysis and interpretation 


Define the goal 

The goal of the review may be to 

• identify real energy use and costs for the 

individual areas and processes 

• identify losses in the individual sub-systems 

• establish indicators for continuous improvement 

or for comparison with other companies 

• identify sources of waste heat and possibilities 

for re-use 

• review energy contracts 


• identify responsibilities of managers for energy 

topics 

• evaluate results of previous activities

Define operating conditions 

The efficiency of machines depend strongly on their 

operating conditions. Machines have a higher efficiency 

when operating at full power than at half power. During the 

review phase the Energy Manager should be aware of the 

operating conditions as the data is hardly comparable in 

the future if those conditions change. 


Define system boundaries 

The following areas might be taken into 

consideration: 

• Production processes which are mainly 

responsible for the energy use 

• Areas to influence easily (variable or fixed 

energy costs) 

• Individual energy carriers (electricity, natural 

gas, oil, fuel etc) 

• Focus on energy carriers or production 

processes and facility (lighting, heating, 

ventilation, cooling) 


• Detail of measurement 

Not all areas need to be evaluated and not all areas will be 

covered in detail but the team must make the selection in full 

awareness of the consequences.

Human factors 

Beside the technical goals, the energy manager should look at 

both the organisation and at "human factors". Organisational 

aspects influence energy consumption due to low coordination 

between the individual departments or unstructured and 

irregular team work. 

• Motivation, 

• Activities undertaken in the past, 

• Opportunities to train in energy conservation. 


Collecting and measuring data 

It is recommended to start with measured data and proceed 

to calculate and meter 

a. Invoices 

b. Information from energy suppliers 

c. Measurements 


Data source: Invoices 

Invoices present the primary source of energy information. 

Invoices are available for the past years and they include 

real data. Although this seems simple, care must be taken 

as invoices might not present data in a way that it is useful 

for immediate analysis. The following must be taken into 

account: 

• Data basis 

• Cost basis 

• Billing and evaluation period 

• Non-consumption billing for account 

adjustment 


Data source: Reports from energy 

suppliers 

Additional information about the energy consumption 

might be provided by the supplier upon request. This 

includes more details about the electricity consumption 

within certain periods and detailed charts for the 

evaluation of peaks. 


Calculating data – options 

• To identify the energy consumption for lighting an estimated value 

can be achieved by counting light bulbs and multiply them by 

operating hours and wattage 

• To identify the electricity consumption for electric motors, 

ventilation and air condition an estimation can be achieved by 

multiplying the power rating by operating hours 

• Heat consumption can normally be obtained from bills, as heating 

will use a separate energy carrier 

• Heat consumption could be identified when temperature and 

pressure is known. The calorific value can be determined from 

calorific tables which can be found in technical handbooks 


• Where only one energy carrier is used for both hot water 

production and heating a first estimation can be undertaken by 

comparing the summer and the winter consumption

Data source: Measurements 

Measurements are always time and cost intensive and 

before starting it should be clear that: 

• the benefit is higher than the total costs of the 

measurement 

• there is no knowledge about a certain area 

and measuring gives guidance. 

”You cannot control what you cannot measure” 


Data source: Measurements 

The first place for measuring the electricity consumption 

is usually at the switchbox. The data can be used directly 

for calculations. 

Data for gas and district heating can be obtained from the 

meters at the supply terminals. 

Measuring electricity and fuel at individual areas of the 

company could be undertaken by the staff themselves. 

Areas such as compressed air, waste heat or ventilation 

rate are more sophisticated and need an expert. 


Measurement intervals 

The energy team should fix the development intervals of 

the charts such as 

• every 15 minutes 

• daily 

• weekly 

• monthly 

15 minute charts will be used when evaluating electricity 

peaks. 


Daily and weekly charts will be used for important data 

such as the energy consumption of processes

Meter requirements 

• Make sure that these sub-meters are installed 

properly as often unskilled staff installed them 

years ago 

• Make sure that the meters are calibrated as 

otherwise data is useless 

• Make sure that measurements are taken as 

close as possible to the consumer and that 

working conditions (e.g. full load) are 

described 

• Make somebody responsible for recording the 

data and train them so that the data can be 

used successfully. 


General advice 

When preparing data the following points should be taken 

into account: 

• Use only data essential for the analysis 

• Reduce data into small units 

• Focus on comprehensive areas so that staff realise 

which activities have a positive influence on 

consumption 

• Clearly label all data and note the date of collection 

and preparation and the person responsible 


• Establish a baseline against which figures can be 

compared

EXAMPLE Data preparation 

The following table presents an example of such a data 

preparation. The conversion table was explained in the 

previous sub module. 

2005 2006 2007 

Electricity 703 MWh 743 MWh 858 MWh 

Natural gas 768 842 m 3 834 985 m 3 883 612 m 3 

2005 2006 2007 

Electricity 703 MWh 743 MWh 858 MWh 

Natural gas 7.304 MWh 7.932 MWh 8.394 MWh 


Total 8.007 MWh 8.675 MWh 9.252 MWh

Developing indicators 

Indicators could be developed to 

• compare the energy consumption over time 

• evaluate the efficiency of processes 

• realise if improvement activities are successful 

• compare the energy consumption with benchmarks 

There are absolute and relative indicators. 


EXAMPLE Absolute and relative 

indicators 

Absolute indicator: The total energy consumption 

increased from 120000 kWh to 130000 kWh. This figure 

does not show if the increase in energy consumption is in 

line with the increased production. 

Relative indicator: The relative energy consumption 

increased from 7058 kWh/t to 7222 kWh/t. The Energy 

Manager must analyse the relative increase in energy 

consumption. 

2006 2007 

Electricity 


120000 kWh 130000 kWh 

Production quantity 17 tons 18 tons 


EXAMPLE – Energy indicators 

Using these indicators, it is possible to compare the energy 

consumption (input) in relation to the production volume (output) 

over time. 

2005 2006 2007 

Total production 500 550 600 

Total electricity 


Specific electricity 


Total natural gas 


Specific natural gas 


Total energy 


Specific energy 


703 MWh 743 MWh 858 MWh 

1.40 MWh/PU 1.35 MWh/PU 1.43 MWh/PU 

7304 MWh 7932 MWh 8.394 MWh 


14.61 MWh/PU 14.42 MWh/PU 13.99 MWh/PU 

8007 MWh 8675 MWh 9252 MWh 

16.01 MWh/PU 15.77 MWh/PU 15.42 MWh/PU

Input-Output analysis 

Input Output 

Fuels 

Natural Gas 

Oil 

District 

heating 

Wood 

Emissions 


Electricity 

Waste Heat

Output - Emissions 

Carbon dioxide and other emissions should be documented 

as energy consumption which has a negative impact on the 

environment. Those emissions are likely to impact on 

national policies concerning greenhouse gases. Each kWh 

used contributes to global warming and all staff in the 

organisation should be aware of this. 

Fuel kg C/kWh kg CO2/kWh 

Gas 0.052 0.19 

Oil 0.069 0.25 

Coal 0.081 0.30 

Electricity 0.127 0.46 


Flow chart 

With the data 

collected to this 

point, the energy 

system should be 

visualised with an 

energy flow chart. 

This is a graphical 

representation of 

all relevant energy 

flows in the 

company. 


Analysis and interpretation 

Simple bar charts 


Analysis and interpretation 

Current year against last year (Example of Calculating specific 

energy consumption and specific gas consumption) 

Dry cleaning PQ 

Total Electricity 


Spec. Electricity 

Consumption 

Total Gas 

Consumption 


Spec. Consumption 

of gas 

2006 

2 869 kg 

703 MWh 

245 kWh/kg 

7.034 MWh 

2.45 kWh/kg 

2007 

2 960 kg 

743 MWh 

251 kWh/kg 

7.932 MWh 

2.68 kWh/kg 

2008 

3 482 kg 

858 MWh 

246 kWh/kg 

8.388 MWh 

2.40 kWh/kg

Going into depth 

This will be the case for complex production processes 

where the main energy flows are known but no knowledge 

is available about interdependencies between areas. It is 

now time to decide which areas to analyse in detail and 

which energy flows to measure. This will mainly be the 

case for processes with the highest energy consumption 

and the highest energy costs. 


Legal Obligations 



There should be a register of regulations in place 

or a description of the procedure used 

to identify relevant legal obligations . 

A step by step procedure could help 

to comply with environmental legislation: 

= Identification of 

• Plant and machinery 

• Products and services, which are covered by 

legislation 



STEPS 

1. Decide what actions are required in order to ensure 

compliance with legislation and define roles and 

responsibilities for these 

2. Decide how to update the register of regulations 


Layout a register of regulations 

• Organisational unit, product, activity or aspect as identified 

within the energy review to which the regulation is relevant 

• Name of the law, directive, legal regulation or administrative 

regulation including clear identification (e.g. name,,publication 

date..) 

• Explanatory remarks 

• Description of activities and tasks which have to be 

undertaken to comply with the regulation 

• Description of any corrective actions which must be 

undertaken to meet the requirements of the regulation 

• Appropriate regulatory authority 

• The person responsible for ensuring legal compliance 

• Date of progress review 


Energy Programme 



These stages will be explained in more detail: 

1. Gathering proposals for an efficient energy use 

2. Structuring proposals 

3. Assessing the proposals 

4. Allocating roles and responsibilities 

5. Establishing goals 


Establish the procedure 

Within the development of an energy programme it is, first of all, 

necessary to get an overview of possible areas of improvement. 

The energy team will collect all improvement possibilities and set 

up a system for a transparent and comprehensive procedure 

from the selection of actions to the implementation. This ensures 

that the best solution will be selected and that employees 

support the improvement activities. 


Identify priorities 

• legal compliance 

• industry standards 

• ease of implementation 

• cost benefit 

• basis for future action 

• environmental improvement 


Gathering proposals 

There are 2 useful techniques to collect ideas: 

• Brainstorming 

• Improvement proposals 


Brainstorming 

Brainstorming is a technique to spontaneously collect 

ideas for the solution of a problem. 

A brainstorming starts with a warm up and a clear 

briefing (targets, procedure, rules) by the Energy 

Manager. The process consists of two steps: 

1. Collection of ideas 

2. Assessment of the ideas 

One advantage of this technique is that also new and 

creative ideas will be detected which could present a 

new approach to solve a problem. 


Improvement proposals on site 

Staff must be given the possibility to post improvement proposals. 

All ideas will be collected within the departments or directly 

beside the machinery. Meetings or a regular jour fix could be used 

to discuss the ideas and to explain possible steps in more detail. 

The member of the energy team checks a possible realisation 

following pre defined criteria and presents the idea to the energy 

team. It is important to… 

• describe the weak point 

• describe the solution 

• describe the possible realisation of the 

improvement 

• underline very clearly who has mentioned the idea 


And do not forget to give feedback to the author of the idea 

about further steps.

Ways of assessment 

Assessments will build on data and facts as well as 

individual opinions and prejudgements. Nevertheless it is 

necessary to focus on the importance of a subsequent 

detailed analysis including a financial evaluation as 

described later on. 

Two ways of assessing proposals and ideas are: 

Cost+benefit diagram. 

This simple diagram with its rough assessments 

gives a subjective overview of the benefits and 

expenses of possible activities. 


Standardised scoring system. 

An objective selection of the best action will 

always require a standardised system. A scoring 

system is a good and transparent possibility.

Cost Benefit Diagram 

Field A has the highest benefit and the 

lowest costs which means that these 

proposals are the most advantageous 

Field B has high benefits but also high 

costs and, in the case of free capital, 

presents 

the second best opportunity 

Field C has low benefits and low costs. 

Proposals in this field could normally be 

implemented immediately 


Field D has low benefits but 

high cost and proposals in this 

field will normally not considered 

immediately.

EXAMPLE 

Cost Benefit Diagram 

The energy team places 5 proposals on 

the matrix: 

1. Reduce pressure of compressed air 

2. Maintain the heating system on a 

regular basis 

3. Heat warm water with solar panels 

4. Storage of waste heat 

5. Identify criteria for the purchase of 

energy efficient equipment 


The energy team will concentrate on 

action 1 and action 5 and goes into a 

detailed survey.

Scoring system 

Another efficient procedure to assess 

the actions is a scoring system. 

1. The team defines criteria by which 

actions may be assessed. They 

consider: 

• the current and the achieved status 

• the key factors such as for example 

� costs and amortisation 

� statutory duties 


� feasibility 

� environmental impact 

� staff relevance etc.


2. The organisation may decide that some 

criteria are more important than others. 

Weightings can be attached to each 

criteria to reflect this importance. 

The score against each criterion will then 

consist of both a rating and a weighting. 

For example, if the organisation decides 

that financial implications are more 

important than stakeholder concerns it 

may decide to multiply financial ratings 

by 2 and stakeholder ratings by 1. 

The criteria are weighted. 



3. Assessment - Each individual 

proposal will be assessed following its 

importance. (3 = very important; 0 = no 

importance) 

Finally the points are multiplied and 

summarised. 


Financial assessment 

Actions which will be implemented and which are linked with 

investment costs must be evaluated by financial criteria to 

guarantee an economic benefit. 

In the simplest terms, the lower the investment (costs) and the 

higher the savings (benefits) the more likely it is that a given 

action will be implemented. The simplest, most often used by 

smaller organisations but the most unreliable, is payback. 


Financial assessment 

1. Static investment calculation does not consider interest 

rates. For short periods with continuous money flows this is 

ok, however for longer periods with irregular money flows this 

financial calculation should not be used. 

2. Dynamic calculations consider interest rates 


Payback 

Payback is defined as the investment made 

divided by the average annual net savings. 

Although the calculation is useful, it has a 

number of problems associated with its use. 

1. Payback does not allow for comparison of projects with 

different lifetimes. 

2. It does not take account of the continued savings 

following the payback period. 


3. It ignores the value of money over time - money is 

sensitive to a number of influences such as inflation and 

interest rates. Applications for project funding both 

internal and external to the company may need to take 

account of such influences.

Static methods 

The costs of an investment the benefits over the years will 

be considered: 

Example: Investment of 10000; 

Savings of 

First year: 4000 

Second year: 2000 

Third year: 4000 

Fourth year: 5000 

Year 

1 

2 

3 

Savings 


4000 

2000 

4000 


accumulated 

4000 

6000 

10000

Dynamic pay back 

The costs of an investment the benefits over the years will be 

considered: 

Example: Investment of 10000; 

Savings of 

First year: 4000 

Second year: 2000 

Third year: 4000 

Fourth year: 5000 

Interest rate of 10%: 

Year 

1 

2 

3 

4 


4000 


2000 

4000 

5000 


3636 

1653 

3005 

3415 


accumulated 

3636 

5289 

8294 

11709

Implementation of proposals 

In practice the following financial 

problems occur: 

• Companies do not allocate a separate budget for energy 

topics and improvement activities. 

• Savings will rarely be allocated to the departments from 

which they were derived. 

This results in the situation that the energy manager 

always has to ask for every individual funding for 

improvement activities. 


Implementation of proposals 

To break out of this vicious circle the following strategy could help: 

• The annual company budget must contain a separate budget 

for energy topics. 

• The savings achieved through energy efficiency activities 

should be allocated to the energy budget. 

When constituting an energy management system the energy 

manager must actively ask for a separate budget to finance 

analysis and evaluations of the energy system. In addition the 

budget is used for immediate investments and ad-hoc activities. 


Identification of savings 

Apportioning identifiable savings to the budget heads from which 

they were derived has the following benefits: 

• for the energy management budget it will mean that the 

energy manager will be motivated to identify and quantify 

savings; 

• for other budgets from which energy 

management funds are derived, benefits will become 

conspicuous and as a consequence lead to improved 

understanding and support; 

• the importance of energy management and the need to 

conserve should also be recognised on a company wide 

basis; 


• the independence and longevity of the energy 

management function will also result.

Allocating roles and responsibilities 

The energy manager will not be able to 

work on all problems simultaneously but he 

will allocate roles and responsibilities to 

implement the agreed improvement 

proposals. Therefore he needs the 

competency and the support of the top 

management to delegate and define tasks. 

In practice the energy manager is assigned to the middle 

management, e.g. in a technical department, so that this 

support must be communicated explicitly to all other 

responsible staff. Without a formal assignment the energy 

manager has no reputation and formal power to delegate 

tasks. 


The Energy Programme 

If tasks are very complex it could be useful to split the whole project 

into smaller units to get a better overview. These smaller units are 

easier to handle and include the following points: 

• Goal – description of the results which 

should be achieved 

• Start – Date or week 

• End – Date or week 

• Necessary time in man-days 

• If necessary: budget for external 

consultant 

• Responsible employees 

• Description of the tasks 


EXAMPLE Energy Programme 


Target 

Action 

Responsible 

Budget 

Deadline 

Reduce energy use for lighting by 10 % by April 2005 

1. Assess lighting levels needed for all processes and tasks. 

2. Fit low energy luminaries. 

3. Fit remote sensors to control when lights come on. 

1. Heads of Department / Energy Manager 

2. Chief Engineer 

3. Chief Engineer 

1. – 

2. €600 

3. €400 


1. September 2004 

2. December 2004 

3. March 2005

Resources, Roles and Responsibilities 


Resources, Roles and 

Responsibilities 

In many cases the responsible person for energy 

consumption is the driving force behind such initiatives. 

He or she has to handle supply and cost problems and has to 

convince staff and top management to focus on energy. 

Only with a structured approach is it possible to improve the 

existing situation, to motivate colleagues to deal with energy 

efficiency and to receive a budget for necessary investment. 


Energy Manager & Energy Team 

The top management must appoint an Energy Manager 

and include this role in the existing organisational 

structure otherwise the energy situation will not improve 

on a long term basis. 

An Energy Team works under the guidance of an Energy 

Manager who co-ordinates and controls all activities. 

In large industries usually an energy department already 

exists for the collection of information and the control of 

energy flows. 


Non the less it is important to dedicate a responsible 

Energy Manager with specific responsibilities to coordinate 

and control the activities as otherwise all 

activities will be limited to solutions in those area.

Energy Manager & team – actions 

The actions carried out by Energy 

Manager include: 

• Development and implementation of energy management 

strategies 

• Development and implementation of an energy 

information system (energy bookkeeping system) 

• Internal and external communication 

• Development of the energy program, identifying 

improvement proposals and implementing actions to 

increase energy efficiency 

• Purchase of energy and implementing guidelines for the 

purchase of energy efficient equipment 

• Development of an energy report 

• Staff training and awareness training 

• Contact point for staff 


The Energy Team 

Members of the energy team should derive from 

the individual production areas including 

• environmental manager 

• quality manager 

• maintenance manager. 

The members must be given time for working in the energy 

team. 

Top management must make it clear that energy 

consumption is of importance and that the members have 

time to fulfil their tasks in the team. 


The team members should be specialists in their working 

field and be competent to implement necessary activities 

in their areas.

Energy Management Structure 


Resources 

• timetable 

• budget 

• personnel / qualifications 

• material / equipment 

• external support - specific 

requirements 

• project specification / 

objectives and goals 


Awareness Raising 



In the area of information and motivation the main task 

for the Energy Manager is to prepare information for the 

individual target groups and to communicate this 

information in three directions: 

• Top management 

• Staff 

• Neighbours and interested groups 


Convince Target Groups 

It is obvious that the individual target groups need 

different information for their respective areas. 

One reason for this is that each group uses different terms 

and ways to communicate. It might be necessary for top 

management to focus on key figures of the company in a 

very technical way. 

It will be more helpful for other staff to receive practical 

advice of how to act properly, and to receive graphically 

prepared information about performance. 


Top management 

Top management must support an Energy Management 

System (EMS). 

The main arguments of Top Management will focus on the 

cost saving potential of energy efficient activities such as: 

• Decreased energy consumption due to the 

implementation of improvements 

• Decreased energy price due to the possibility to 

negotiate the energy price in liberalised markets 


Staff involved 

Besides top management, staff must be informed about 

the Energy Management as soon as possible to accept and 

support the system. 

Unfortunately this rarely happens in larger organisations 

and leads to a rejection of the system. 

In addition the Energy Manager has to set up a continuous 

information and awareness raising system as early as 

possible. 


This system is the basis for future activities in the area of 

energy savings and shows the results of actions.

Provide necessary information 

The information for staff of the company could cover a 

broad range such as: 

1. Information about the Energy Management System 

2. Data, indicators and performance 

3. Information and advice for correct equipment use 

4. Possibilities to reduce losses 

5. Contact points for staff for improvement proposals 

6. Awareness raising 


Information about the EMS 

Information about the Energy Management System should 

focus on the system itself and give guidance on the 

individual topics. 

Besides an explanation of how the EMS is built within the 

organisation there should be details given regarding 

company related topics such as: 

• Name and telephone number of the Energy Manager, 

the energy team and their roles and authority 

• The company’s energy policy 


• The current energy goals in the programme, the 

necessary activities to be undertaken to achieve 

these goals, dead lines and performance 

• The results of the audit

Data, indicators and performance 

• Precise data should derive from measurements and 

the energy monitoring system 

• Elaborate with concerned staff which information is 

helpful 

• Agree about unit (kWh, m 3 ) and reference units 

(production figures) 


Information and advice 

for correct equipment use 

• Train staff how to use machinery (own technician or 

plant manufacturer) 

• Give general advice how to deal with office equipment 

• Identify variables which will have an influence on the 

energy consumption 


Possibilities to reduce losses 

General advice might be given for heating and lighting. 

Turning off the lights when leaving the office or in unused 

rooms and closing windows and doors in heated areas 

are typical examples for reducing losses in office 

buildings. 

Losses in production areas are more sophisticated. It 

depends on the machinery and the production process to 

analyse areas of losses. 

An example for this is compressed air and losses due to 

leakages. 


Practice shows that staff often realise there are leakages 

in compressed air pipes but are not aware about the costs 

and the necessary steps to repair the leak.

Contact points for staff for 

improvement proposals 

Staff should be motivated to participate actively in the 

process of identifying improvements. 

This may be a system to collect, evaluate and implement 

improvement proposals where staff receive benefits for 

developed proposals. 

Another possibility is a contact point where staff may 

discuss and develop improvement proposals. 



Awareness is the fundamental basis before staff should 

receive information about the principles of energy 

conservation and before they can be expected to 

contribute to any activities at the workplace. 

Some staff may need additional technical knowledge in 

order to perform specific tasks more efficiently. 

Awareness raising and training programmes are, 

therefore, essential. 

Awareness raising may be achieved using a number of 

formal and informal methods. 

Ultimately the goal of awareness raising is to motivate 

individuals by raising their awareness of energy 


conservation, inform them of the consequences of their 

work in relation to energy use by the company and train 

them to take action to minimise these impacts by 

acquiring appropriate skills and knowledge.

Awareness training 

• An energy newsletter 

• Posters and leaflets 

• Competitions and reward schemes 

• Suggestion boxes 

• Informal discussions during lunch and coffee breaks 

• Involvement of employee representatives in energy 

management meetings 

• Presentations by external specialists on selected 

topics 


Staff participation – Check 

1. What are the factors having a positive 

influence on energy saving? 

2. What are the factors having a negative 

influence on energy savings? 

3. What are the possibilities of energy saving 

in a company? 

4. Which obstacles could affect 

implementing energy efficient activities 

and equipment? 


5. What advantages arise from energy 

saving?




Data about the Energy Management System, quantities and costs 

must be prepared in a user friendly way or they will be ignored. Each 

target group requires dedicated information and the way it will be 

presented has a strong influence on whether the information will be 

immediately forgotten or changes behaviour. 


Target groups 

•Staff and external groups 

•Staff who control energy consuming plants and equipment 

•Top management 


Methods 

1. Indicators 

2. Information in text form 

3. Information in figures 

4. Graphs 

5. Symbols and pictures 


Indicators 

Indicators are a helpful instrument to follow the company’s 

energy performance. 

Absolute indicators present the development of the total 

energy consumption. Relative indicators are built with 

reference units and take into account the development of 

the organisation. 

It is common practice to use relative indicators in order to 

be able to compare different systems and performance 

over time. 


back|detail 1

Information in text form 

In 2003 the total energy consumption of our organisation 

including subsidiaries reached 225.6 MWh which is an 

increase by 1.6 %. The reason for this is an increase in gas 

consumption whilst the electricity use remained at the 

2002 level. Parts of this increase may be explained by 

increased production quantities of 0.4 %. In addition the 

energy costs rose by 1.9 % due to a price increase of 

electricity in the middle of the second quarter. As energy 

costs make up 4.9 % of the total costs the Management 

Board underlined the importance of efficient energy use 

and all staff are strongly asked to launch improvement 

activities. 


Information in tables 

The energy consumption of our company shows a 

steady increase of electricity and natural gas while our 

oil consumption could be eliminated. 

2001 

Electricity 43.46 MWh 

Natural 

Gas 

Oil extra 

light 

2002 2003 

45.44 MWh 47.22 MWh 

7688 m 3 7798 m 3 8656 m 3 

12 500 l 7600 l 0 


This table on its own will not be very helpful for staff.

Information in graphs 

MWh 

10000 

8000 

6000 

4000 

2000 

0 

District heating 2009 


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 

Month

Pictures and symbols 


The communication network 

For each single group special types of communication work has 

to be initiated. 

Top management Staff 

Energy Report Workshops Intranet 

Environmental Report Celebrations Leaflets 

Telephone Speeches Energy Report 

Environmental 

Report 

Energy Manager 

Energy Team 

Letters 

Environmenta Report 

Speeches 

Articles 


Neighbours 

others and interested groups

Communication possibilities 

The choice of certain media to launch and disseminate 

information depends on the size of the company and the 

strategy in place. The decision must be taken by the 

responsible managers. The following media are a selection 

of possibilities for small and medium sized companies: 

1. Energy Reports 

2. External media 

3. Direct communication 

4. Activities and competition 

5. Events 


Structure of an Energy report 

Executive Summary 

Motivation for developing an energy report 

Main findings and areas of improvement 

Introduction 

Overview on the company 

Energy price & development 

Supplier and net price energy carriers 

Description of energy prices for the past 5 years and outlook for the coming year 

Description of the price structure 

Total Consumption 

Cost structure of the company (staff, energy, investments, capital) 

Energy consumption for the last 5 years. 

Energy benchmarks (energy consumption/product; energy consumption/m 2 ) 

Energy production and re-use of energy 


Energy Consumption of Individual Areas 

Building 

Infrastructure 

Production 

Areas of Improvement

Energy Management – System Documentation 


EM System documentation 

The primary purpose of energy management documentation is to provide a 

good description of the energy management system. The energy management 

manual should act as a permanent reference to the implementation and 

maintenance of the system. 


Energy Management Manual 

• A description of the management system, detailing its scope and purpose 

and its relationship to the organisation’s energy policy, objectives and targets 

• A copy of the energy policy 

• The organisation’s objectives and targets 

• An organisation chart, depicting the organisational structure with respect to 

energy management. This should include a list of the names of current jobholders 

• Criteria for assessing significant energy consumers 

• A list of significant energy consumers 

• A register of legislative, regulatory and other policy requirements 

• A list of procedures and work instructions with energy re-levance (the 

detailed documents themselves may be annexed) 

• A description of the organisation’s energy management programmes 

• A description of the system for keeping energy management records 

• Arrangements for regular audits, including reports or references to the 

location of reports 

• Arrangements for management reviews 


Document control 

• Date stamped (including any dates of revisions). 

• Readily identifiable for example, by named procedures, clear 

reference numbers, specified ownership, etc. 

• Maintained in an orderly and easily referenced manner, i.e. by 

providing numbered and lettered references to individual procedures, 

schedules etc. in a systematic way 


Control of Documents 


4.4.5 Control of documents 

1. Documents can be identified with the appropriate organisation, 

division, function, activity and/or contact person 

2. Documents are periodically reviewed, revised and approved prior 

to issue 

3. Current versions are available at all appropriate locations 

4. Obsolete documents are promptly removed 


Operational Control 



As a rule of thumb 

20% of equipment 

consumes 80% of the energy used. 



1. For the main equipment and operations 

written operation procedures (including advice 

on how to deal with energy responsibly) need 

to be developed 

2. It is important to ensure that energy efficient 

equipment is procured. 

3. The future energy consumption of facilities, 

buildings and halls need to be taken into 

account during the design phase 


Energy Monitoring 


Energy monitoring 

Energy monitoring is to 

• record, 

• analyse and 

• report 

energy consumption and costs on a regular basis. 


... gives information 

Before energy costs can be analysed it must be clear which 

costs really occur within the individual areas of a company. An 

energy monitoring system is the solution as it gives information 

on 

• how much energy will be used, 

• where it will be used and, 

• what costs occur. 


Reasons for an energy monitoring 

system 

Important reasons why a company should implement an 

energy book keeping system are: 

• A monitoring system will help the company to record 

and allocate energy consumption and costs to the 

consumers 

• Find out losses and billing errors 

• Prioritising areas for improvement 

• Evaluate the success of the energy program and 

communicate results 

• Budget more accurately 


Core areas 

When setting up an energy monitoring system the 

following topics should be covered: 

• Data to be collected on a regular basis (weekly or 

monthly) 

• Convert data into a single unit to present it in a useful 

and clear way. (e.g. kg coal, Litres oil, m³ gas into MWh) 

• Indicators to be updated regularly 

• Appoint responsible person for collecting the data and 

developing the energy monitoring system 

• Target groups for receiving energy information identified 


• Use reliable data (invoices, measurements) 

• Clearly label all data (date, storage, author)

The energy monitoring structure 

Pos. 

Energy Monitoring 

unit year prev. year diff. in % 

1 employees number 25 24 4.17 

2 heated area m² 260 260 0.00 

3 turnover 1,000/year 3,520 3,598 -2.17 

4 total energy costs 1,000/year 57.69 60.91 -5.30 

5 heating energy costs (combustion fuels) 1,000/year 9.29 10.23 -9.25 

6 total energy consumption MWh/year 768 789 -2.63 

7 heating energy consumption (combustion fuels) MWh/year 301 311 -3.09 

8 total energy costs perm €/m² 222 234 -5.30 

9 heating energy costs perm €/m² 35.72 39.36 -9.25 

10 heating energy combustion per m MWh/year 1.159 1.196 -3.09 

11 share of energy costs in turnover % 1.64 1.69 -3.20 


MWh/a 

120,00 

100,00 

80,00 

60,00 

40,00 

20,00 

0,00 

Comparison of total annual energy consumption 

previous year current year 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 

month 

Indicators 

Comparison of total annual energy costs 

previous year current year 

Total consumption Total costs 

Electricity Oil Gas Coal Wood 

Euro per year 

7.000,00 

6.000,00 

5.000,00 

4.000,00 

3.000,00 

2.000,00 

1.000,00 

0,00 

January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

District 

Heating

Results 

An energy monitoring asks for energy data for each 

individual energy carrier and provides an overview of: 

• Total energy consumption 

• Total energy costs 

• Average costs of all energy sources 

These figures will be compared with data from previous 

years and visualised with indicators. The energy manager 

is then able to evaluate the performance of his or her 

energy system. 


The energy consumption should be allocated to 

departments/production processes.

Use costs for work only, example 

Electricity 

Electricity invoices are often confusing and therefore not 

easy to understand. Companies with a high electricity 

consumption (rule of thumb > 100,000 kWh/year) may have 

monthly invoices, smaller companies may have an annual 

invoice and monthly payments in advance. Independent of 

the company’s size, all invoices basically will contain the 

following components: 

Costs for work (depending on kWh) 

+ Costs for load (depending on kW) 

+ Costs for the energy network (cannot be influenced) 

+ Costs for metering (depending on meter in use) 

+ Energy tax 

+ Additional taxes like ”eco – tax” 

+ Value added tax (VAT)_____________________ 

= Total electricity costs 


Electricity 

Company 

Energy monitoring system – ELECTRICITY 

electr. supplier 

Energy manager voltage of supply kV : on the contract 

Year 2001 contractual capacity kW on the contract 

1 

Pos. month 

2 


sheet: 

1 

energy supply costs comparison with previous year 

HT 

kWh 

LT 

kWh 

Total 

kWh 

peak 

load 

kW 

3 

idle 

power total costs 

kVArh incl. EP 

4 

€ 

∅ 

price 

€/kWh 

energy 

previous year 

(HT+LT) 

kWh 

diff. 

% 

total costs 

previous year 

€ 

diff. 

% 

∅ − 

price 

prev. y 

€/kWh 

1 January 27,630 9,642 37,272 133 0 4,205.29 0.1128 40.058 -6,95 4.582.30 -8.23 0.1144 -1.37 

2 February 29,796 10,230 40,026 129 0 4,427.64 0.1106 42,536 -5.90 4.720.10 -6.20 0.1110 -0.31 

3 March 27,726 9,474 37,200 128 0 4,202.00 0.1130 39,143 -4.96 4.562.30 -7.90 0.1166 -3.09 

Q1 1.Quarter 85,152 29,346 114,498 133 0 12,834.93 0.1121 121,737 -5.95 13.864.70 -7.43 0.1139 -1.57 

5 

6 

diff. 

%

Extra Light Oil 

Energy monitoring system – oil extra light 

Company supplier 

Energy manager special weight: 

Year 2001 infer. cal. value Hu(kWh/l) 10.0 


2 

tank 

filling 

dec. 

prev. y 

600 l 

3 

quantity 

l 

purchase consumption comparison with previous year 

costs 

€ 

4 

5 

∅ − 

price 

€/l 

6 

quantity 

l 

∅ − 

price 

€/l 

costs 

€ 

heat con- 

amoun sump 

t MWh tion prev. 

year l 

Click on the numbers in the table to get more in depth information 

diff. 

% 


costs 

prev. 

year 

€ 

diff. 

% 

sheet: 

2 

∅ − 

price 

prev. y 

€/l 

1 January 6,870 7,500 2,500 0.3333 1,230 0.3333 410.00 12,30 1,300 -5,38 468.00 -12.39 0.3600 -7.41 

2 February 5.619 1,251 0.3333 417.00 12,51 1,365 -8.35 491.40 -15.14 0.3600 -7.41 

3 March 4,519 1,100 0.3333 366.67 11,00 1,230 -10.57 442.80 -17.19 0.3600 -7.41 

Q1 1 st Quarter 4,519 7,500 2,500 0.3333 3,581 0.3333 1,193.67 35.81 3,895 -8.06 1,402.20 -14.87 0.3600 -7.1 

7 

1 

diff. 

%

Natural gas 

In some countries, e.g. UK and USA natural gas is 

commonly measured in therms. In other European 

countries natural gas is measured in m³ and in kWh. 

If an organisation buys gas directly from an utility 

company it will pay a price per therm, per m 3 or per kWh. 

The price may depend on the season and on the 

consumption quantities. 

However, in some countries the natural gas industry has 

been deregulated and many organisations buy gas from an 

independent supplier or from a gas broker. In this case 

there is a price for the natural gas itself and a price for the 

network. These charges may be billed separately but must 

be added to obtain the full costs. 


Natural gas 

Energy monitoring system – NATURAL GAS 

Company supplier 

Year 2001 Energy manager 

1 


2 

energy supply 

gas consumption 

m³ 

calorific calorific 

value val. 

Ho superior 

kWH/m³ kWh Ho 

consumption costs comparison with previous year 

3 4 

calorific 

val. 

inferior 

kWh Ho 

5 

total costs 

current year 

€ 

∅ − price 

€/kWh 

6,495.40 Ho Hu 

energy prev. 

year Ho 

kWh l 

diff. 

% 


total costs 

prev. 

year 

€ 

7,023.60 

diff. 

% 

sheet: 

3 

∅ − 

price 

prev. y 

Ho €/l 

1 January 3,500 10.70 37,450 33,705 1,107.78 0.03 0.03 36,210 -3.42 1,147.05 -3.42 0.03 -6.62 

2 February 3,256 10.70 34,839 31,355 1,030.55 0.03 0.03 35,623 -2.20 1,128.45 -8.68 0.03 -6.62 

3 March 2,987 10.70 31,961 28,765 945.41 0.03 0.03 33,510 -4.62 1,061.52 -10.94 0.03 -6.62 

Q1 1 st Quarter 9,743 10.70 104,250 93,825 3,083.75 0.03 0.03 105,343 -1.04 3,337. 02 -7.59 0.03 -6.62 

6 

diff. 

%

Results 1: Energy consumption 

Energy monitoring system – TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION 

Company 

Year 2001 Author 

1 MWh = 1,000 kWh oil gas/DH solid fuels 

total 

combustion 

fuels 

electricity 

total 

2001 


total 

2000 

sheet: 

7 

difference 

Pos. month MWh MWh MWh MWh MWh MWh MWh % 

1 January 12.50 37.45 0.00 49.75 37.27 87.02 89.27 -2.52 

2 February 12.51 34.84 0.00 47.35 40.03 87.38 91.81 -4.83 

3 March 11.00 31.96 0.00 42.96 37.20 80.16 84.95 -5.64 

Q1 1 st Quarter 35.81 104.25 0.00 140.06 114.50 254.56 266.03 -4.31

Results 2: Energy costs 

Energy monitoring system – TOTAL ENERGY COSTS 

Company 

Year 2001 Responsible 

1 MWh = 1,000 kWh oil gas/DH 

solid 

fuels 

total 


fuels 

electricity 

total 

2001 


total 

2000 

sheet: 

8 

difference 

Pos. month EURO EURO EURO EURO EURO EURO EURO % 

1 January 410.00 1,107.78 0.00 1,517.78 4,205.29 5,723.07 6,197.35 -7.65 

2 February 417.00 1,030.55 0.00 1,447.55 4,427.64 5,875.19 6,339.95 -7.33 

3 March 366.67 945.41 0.00 1,312.08 4,202.00 5,514.08 6,066.62 -9.11 

Q1 1 st Quarter 1,193.67 3,083.75 0.00 4,277.41 12,834.93 17,112.34 18,066.92 -8.02

Results 3: Average energy costs 

Energy monitoring system – AVERAGE COSTS OF ENERGY 

Company 

Year 2001 Responsible 

1 MWh = 1,000 kWh oil gas/DH 

solid 

fuels 

total 


fuels 

electricity 

total 

2001 


total 

2000 

sheet: 

9 

difference 

Pos. month €/MWh €/MWh €/MWh €/MWh €/MWh €/MWh €/MWh % 

1 January 33.333 29.580 - 30.508 112,827 65.766 69.424 -5.27 

2 February 33.333 29.580 - 30.572 110,619 67.241 69.056 -2.63 

3 March 33.333 29.580 - 30.541 112,957 68.788 71.411 -3.67 

Q1 1 st Quarter 33.333 29.580 - 30.540 112,097 67.224 69.932 -3.87

Results 4: Energy indicators 

Energy monitoring system – DATA OF ENTERPRISE – ANNUAL ANALYSIS 

Company Energy Manager 

Year 2001 


sheet: 

10 

Pos. month unit year previous year difference in % 

1 employees % 25 24 4.17 

2 heated area m² 260 260 0.00 

3 company turnover EURO/year 3520,000 3598,000 -2.17 

4 total energy costs EURO/year 57,690 60,910 -5.30 

5 heating energy costs (combustion fuels) EURO/year 9,290 10,230 -9.25 

6 total energy consumption MWh/year 768 789 -2.63 

7 heating energy consumption (comb. fuels) MWh/year 301 311 -3.09 

8 total energy costs per m² EURO/year 222 234 -5.30 

9 heating energy costs per m² EURO/year 35.72 39.36 -9.25 

0 heating energy consumption per m² MWh/m² 1,159 1,196 -3.09 

11 share of energy costs in turnover % 1.64 1.69 -3.10

Evaluation of Compliance 


Evaluation of compliance 

Evaluation of compliance is needed to make sure that up to date 

information about legal requirements is available to the organisation. 

Broadly, there are two types of procedures: 

• Management procedure – deals with issues including the updating 

of documentation and the identification of new laws, regulations, and 

requirements 

• Control procedures – deal with the way in which certain tasks are 

carried out to comply with legal requirements – e.g. the operation of 

the boiler house or the storage of heat oil 


Register of compliance 

Relevant activities, products, services 

1 

2 

Relevant Legislation, regulations, policies 

§ 

§ 

Compliance requirements 

Regulatory Authority 

Internal responsibilities 

Current position 

Action 


Appropriate procedures and documentation 

Topic

Nonconformity 

Corrective and Preventive Actions 


Nonconformity, corrective and 

preventive action 

The organisation must have procedures in place to identify the 

potential for nonconformity and to respond to it appropriately. 

Typically nonconformity will occur in several areas: 

• Energy consumption and energy costs for predefined areas 

and production processes 

• Operation and management practices (operation plans for 

machines, procurement practices) 

• Maintenance and servicing procedures 

• Inspections 


Nonconformity, corrective and 

preventive action 

When there are problems or failures in plant or equipment, caused by 

human error or deficiencies within the management system, these 

need to be investigated to establish what happened. The investigation 

procedure will: 

• Determine the cause 

• Draw up a plan of action 

• Initiate preventive actions, to a level corresponding to the 

risks encountered 

• Apply controls to ensure that any preventive actions taken are 

effective and reoccurrence is avoided 

• record any changes in procedures 


Control of Records 


Control of records 

The purpose of record control is to make sure that necessary 

documents are available to staff so that EMS goals and targets can be 

achieved 

The following documents should be included in this system: 

• Organisational charts 

• Process information 

• Internal standards and procedures 

• Emergency plans 


Records needed 

• <strong>Training</strong> records 


• Inspection, maintenance, calibration records 

• Pertinent contractor and supplier information 

• Incident reports 

• Information on emergency preparedness and response 

• Audit results 

• Complaint records 

• Management reviews 


Records needed 

• <strong>Training</strong> records 


• Inspection, maintenance, calibration records 

• Pertinent contractor and supplier information 

• Incident reports 

• Information on emergency preparedness and response 

• Audit results 

• Complaint records 

• Management reviews 


Document control 

• Revision Dates - the date of each document revision 

• Nature of Revisions - a brief description of the nature of the revision 

• Names of Document Review Participants - list the name of each 

individual who participated in the document review/revision 


Record Control 

• General Responsibilities 

• Types of Records 

• Identification of Records 

• Maintenance of Records 


General requirements for all records 

Records must be maintained in a manner that ensures that they are: 

• Readily retrievable 

• Reviewed and updated as necessary (documents) 

• Protected from alterations or damage (records) 

• Available when and where needed 

• Removed or archived, as appropriate, when obsolete 


Maintenance of records 

Hard copy records 

• Hand-written entries shall be screened for legibility by document 

owners and/or reviewers during normal record processing. 

• The Energy Manager shall review all areas where hard copy records 

are stored. 

Electronic records 

• Each controlled document is maintained electronically on the 

designated electronic storage system 

• Electronic records that are under the control of persons that do not 

have read/write permissions to the Intranet are maintained in a 

designated electronic storage location 

Document Change History 

Revision Date 

14/10/2007 

19/10/2008 


Nature of Revision 

Update content 

Update content 



Document Review Participants

Internal Audit 


Internal Audit 

The audit compares all planned activities and procedures 

with the current situation and states deviations. 

The reasons for gaps between the plan and the actual 

situation will be stated and the energy team has to decide 

• how to eliminate those gaps 

• how to improve the system 

• which future activities and future developments 

must take place. 


Areas to cover within an audit 

The following topics should be covered: 

1. Energy Policy 

2. Energy Data 

3. Organisation 

4. Energy Team 

5. Improving proposals 

6. Energy programme 

7. Information 

8. Legal obligations 


10. Energy intensive areas 

11. Purchase 

12. Maintenance 

13. Audit 

14. <strong>Training</strong> 


15. Management Review 

16. EM System 

documentation

1. Energy policy 

• There is an energy policy in place 

• The energy policy will be disseminated (e.g. notice 

boards, magazines, face to face meetings) 

• Staff are aware of the energy policy and its core 

statements 


2. Energy data 

• Data is classified into measured data and calculated data 

• Data is collected on a continuous basis 

• There is a person responsible for collecting, measuring and 

recording data 

• There is a person responsible for transforming data into 

indicators and figures 

• Indicators are in place so that they can be used for internal 

purposes (staff realise which activities cause an increase or a 

decrease in energy consumption) 


• Indicators are in place so that they can be used for external 

purposes (comparison with benchmarks, other factories, PR)

3. Organisation 

• There is an energy manager in place and staff are aware of 

him/her 

• There is an energy team in place 

• The energy manager has defined roles and responsibilities 

• The energy team has clear roles and responsibilities 

• There are clear responsibilities for energy use, energy intensive 

processes and plants in the individual departments 

• There is a person responsible for the purchase of energy 

efficient equipment 


• There is a person responsible for energy purchase 

• There are clear responsibilities for maintenance and service

4. Energy team 

• In larger organisations (> 100 employees) there is an 

energy team in place to support the energy manager 

• The energy team meets on a regular basis 

• There is an agenda for the meeting 

• The team members come from production areas, 

departments using energy in an intensive way and 

include the environmental manager, the quality 

manager and the maintenance manager 


5. Improving proposals 

• There is a system for improvement proposals in place 

covering energy topics 

• The energy team collects improvement proposals 

from their respective areas and discuss them in the 

regular meetings 

• There are criteria in place to evaluate the proposals 

• There is an award scheme in place to motivate staff 


6. Energy programme 

• The improvement activities will be summarised in an 

energy programme on a yearly basis 

• The energy programme contains information about 

the activity, the responsibilities, the time frame, the 

budget, the pay back and necessary milestones 


7. Information 

• Energy information and data will be communicated to 

predefined groups 

• There is a system in place (e.g. intranet) offering necessary and 

updated information 

• There is real time data available for energy intensive areas 

• There are hard copy sheets with necessary information available 

on departmental level for staff without access to a computer 

• Information about energy consumption will be provided so that 

staff realise in which way their activities influence the energy 



• An energy report will be produced on a regular basis

8. Legal obligations 

• There is a person responsible for the register of 

regulations 

• Legal obligations, laws, standards relevant to the 

organisation’s activities, services and products are 

identified and updated on a yearly basis 

• Staff within departments and production processes are 

aware of legal obligations and do have precise 

instructions for legal compliance 



• There is at least one awareness raising activity 

undertaken each year 

• Staff are aware of the need to be energy efficient 

• Staff have participated in an awareness raising 

activity 


10. Energy intensive areas 

• Energy intensive areas are identified and documented 

• The main energy inputs and waste heat emissions are 

known for those areas 

• The main energy inputs and waste heat emissions are 

documented 

• There is an equipment list including energy relevant 

information such as connecting power, year of 

purchase, operating hours, total energy consumption 

per year and total energy costs per year. 


11. Energy purchase 

• There is a person responsible for the purchase of 


• There is a procedure in place dealing with the 

purchase of energy consuming equipment 



• Energy intensive machinery, equipment and plants 

are serviced and maintained on a regular basis 


13. Energy audit 

• An audit is undertaken within a predefined period (e.g. yearly) 

• The areas to be audited are defined 

• The audit team is trained 

• The audit report has been produced for the previous period 

• Post audit activities including improvement activities were 

undertaken 


14. <strong>Training</strong> 

• There is a training programme in place 

• Staff are regularly trained on energy topics 


15. Management Review 

• Top management have been regularly informed about 

the energy management system 

• The audit report was presented to top management 

• The planned activities were presented to top 

management 

• Top management have signed the previous audit 

report and support its activities 


16. EM System documentation 

• There is a manual or there are documents available 

describing all areas of the Energy Management 

system in place 

• The manual contains up to date documents about 

work procedures, processes, management 

procedures 


The audit team 

The basic idea of the audit is to evaluate the individual 

areas of an EMS by an independent expert or by a team of 

experts. 

In many cases the members of the energy team will act as 

auditors although there are certain preconditions to 

consider. 


The audit team 

• The members of the audit team should have appropriate 

knowledge about the area to be audited including the 

technical systems, the activities undertaken in the area 

and the components of an EMS in place. They should 

know the members of the energy team in the area and the 

staff working with energy consuming equipment. 

• The members of the audit team must be sufficiently 

independent from the activities to be audited. It is 

obvious that the individual team members must not 

evaluate areas they are working in. 

• The audit team should be trained so that there is 

consistency in the audit process. 


Audit frequency 

There are 3 topics linked with audit times: 

1. How often to undertake an audit? 

2. How long does the audit take? 

3. What period will be covered by the audit? 


EXAMPLE Audit Overview 

Office Production I Production II 

Policy 15/6/04 15/6/04 15/6/04 

E-Data 15/6/04 15/6/04 15/6/04 

E-Organisation 16/6/04 16/6/04 16/6/04 

E-Information 17/6/04 17/6/04 17/6/04 

E-Programme 17/6/04 17/6/04 17/6/04 

Auditor Williams Williams Hutt 

The dates in the cells state when the audit takes place. In 

addition, the names of the auditors are given, including the 

individual sub-areas of the audit checklist. 

Larger organisations will find it useful to audit all areas 

over an extended period. In addition many organisations 

are already familiar with audit procedures. In that case it is 

strongly recommended to integrate the energy audit into 

the existing audit procedures. 


Evaluation of the audit findings 

The audit results must be evaluated in a 

common way. Criteria for evaluating the 

individual areas must be clear before the audit 

takes place. 

Criteria should be known by the staff of the 

respective departments and must be objective 

to everybody. 

The standards will be set by the company itself 

and the top management has to set the 

baseline. 


Audit procedure 

1. The Audit team must be trained 

2. The audit activities must be planned 

3. The audit must take place 

4. There are post audit activities including the report 

and corrective actions 


Review by Top Management 


Review by top management 

Top management will normally focus on the following areas 

which are partly covered by the energy report: 

• Energy policy 

• Results of the energy review (including register of significant 

areas of consumption and register of regulations) 

• Energy programme and the extent to which energy objectives and 

targets have been met; 

• Corrective and preventive actions; 

• Energy management system documentation 

• Audit report 


Review by top management 

Top management will specify: 

• Cases of non-compliance with the provisions of the 

regulation 

• Technical defects in the first energy review, or audit 

method or environmental management system and 

any other relevant process 

• Points of disagreement with the energy report and 

suggested amendments and additions 


Compressed Air 


Compressed air 

It is very important to systematically analyse a 

compressed air plant. 

With the following information you will be able to 

evaluate the efficiency of a compressed air plant in 

a step by step process. 

In addition, examples will be given on 

• how to calculate leakages, 

• the effective power for production, 

• how to track the efficiency, 

• why the use of waste heat from the plant 

should be considered. 


Checking the efficiency 

Since poor maintenance and incorrect specification 

of plant leads to high energy consumption and 

operating costs, efficiency should be analysed. The 

advantages of such a detailed analysis are: 

• Knowledge about the maximum consumption of 

compressed air. This allows you to check that your 

system is of the correct capacity. Most systems are 

oversized due to a lack of understanding about the 

maximum consumption requirement. 

• To realise if it would be profitable to share the 

production of compressed air between a small 

compressor and a larger one. Each system runs 

efficiently and this saves money. 


Checking the efficiency 

• To realise at what time the maximum 

consumption, and therefore the maximum 

energy demand, occurs. 

You should try to avoid peaks for compressed 

air demand coinciding with periods of high 

electricity demand. 

• By making measurements during periods of no 

use, low-consumption periods or during the 

night, leaks in the system can be detected. 

• You can monitor the efficiency of your system 

continuously and can react if something appears 

to go wrong. 


Analysis & calculation - 12 steps 

The following provides a step-by-step process on 

how to analyse a plant and how to calculate losses: 

1. Measure the consumption of compressed air 

2. Measure the consumption of electrical energy 

3. Check the specific energy consumption 

4. Compare the specific energy consumption 

5. Calculate losses from leaks 

6. Calculate the effective power of production 

7. Calculate the pressure in the distribution system 

8. Loss of pressure through system parts 

9. Loss of pressure through branch connections 

10. Decrease of efficiency through humidity 

11. Choice of off-load pressure 

12. Choosing the off-load/on-load differential 


Step 1: Measure the consumption 

of compressed air 

Optimising existing plants is a 

very time consuming activity. 

You should begin by measuring 

the actual consumption of 

compressed air over a week. 

If your system has no means of measuring compressed air production, 

install a flow meter and a pressure transducer in the compressed air 

mains and take readings over a representative period of time. 

The flow meter and the pressure transducer should be installed by 

experts. The graph below is an example of such an analysis. 


With this information you can easily arrive at the weekly consumption.

Step 2: Measure the 

consumption of electrical energy 

Determine the consumption of electricity for the same period. 

Electrical energy inputs to all parts of the compression process 

should be included in the calculation (for example: dryer, cooling 

fan and oil pumps). 

If there is no individual meter for the compressor system you 

should install one, or you can make a single measurement for a 

certain period by using a data logger. 

Using the data acquired, the specific energy consumption can 

now be calculated. 

These indicators will be 

needed for continuous 

monitoring. 

Electrical Energy Consumption: kWh 

Compressor: 4,200 


Dryer: 

no dryer fitted 

Pump: 300 

Fan: 300 

Total kWh: 4,800

Step 3: Check the specific energy 


In the third step it is easy to calculate the specific energy 

consumption for a particular plant. 

The consumption of compressed air is the result of the 

measurements over a week. 

The following indicators must be calculated: 

Consumption: kWh 


Compressed air [m³/week] 1 13,440 

Electrical energy [kWh/week] 2 4,200 

Specific energy consumption [kWh/m³] 2/1 0.31 

Specific energy consumption [kW/m³/min] 18.6

Step 4: Compare the specific 


Compare the specific energy consumption of your plant with 

the manufacturer’s technical specifications for your plant. 

If no data is available than compare your figures to those given 

in the table below. 

Type of compressor: 

Specific energy 

consumption for 

compressing air from 0 to 

10 bar [kW/m3/min] 

Piston compressor 1 step 10.31 


Screw compressor 1 step 10.06 

Piston compressor 2 steps 8.36 

Oil free Piston compressor 2 steps 10.51

Step 4: Compare the specific 


It is important that only the actual energy 

consumed by the compressor is considered. 

Energy losses from the motor and inputs to 

other parts of the process should not be 

included. 

Losses from electrical motors will often result 

in the specific consumption being increased 

by 12% - 16%. 


Step 5: Calculating losses from 

leaks 

Leaks in compressed air systems are one of the greatest 

problems and result in enormous costs if there is no 

systematic control. 

A small plant with only a few connections into the 

system should aim for a leakage rate of less than 5% of 

demand, but a large manufacturing site cannot expect to 

have a leakage rate better than 15-20% of total demand. 

If you have no means of measuring compressed air, the 

following method can be used for analysing losses 

through leaks. 


This method is recommended when you know the 

volume of your storage containers and the volume of the 

distribution system.


leaks 

1. The first step is to ensure all applications using 

compressed air are turned off. 

2. Next, fill the air storage container to its maximum 

capacity and measure the time it takes to reach minimum 

pressure, this is when the machine switches itself on 

again. 

The difference between the pressure levels should not be 

too small (>2 bar). 


The pressure required in normal operation of the plant 

should lie between these maximum and minimum levels.


leaks 

There will always be some leaks in the system. Since the 

cost of producing compressed air is so high, every effort 

should be made to keep leaks to a minimum. 

To quantify the losses caused by leakage in the distribution 

system use the following calculation: 

QL = 

Vn x 3,600 

t 

x [pe2 - pe1] 

QL [m 3 /h]: leakage between maximum and minimum pressure 

VD [m3]: volume of the storage container and of the system 

t [sec]: time for the pressure to drop from the higher to the lower level 

P e2 [bar]: 

P e1 [bar]: 


pressure of the storage container at the higher level, start of 

measurement 

pressure of the storage container at lower level, end of 

measurement

EXAMPLE – Calculating losses 

from leaks 

unit value remark 

VD [m 3 ] 10 volume of the storage container and of the system 

t [sec] 600 time for the pressure to drop from higher to lower level 

pe2 [bar] 11 pressure of the storage container at the higher level 

(start of measurement) 

pe1 [bar] 9 pressure of the storage container at the lower level 

(end of measurement) 

QL [m 3 /h] 120 leakage between maximum and minimum pressure 

Q [m 3 /h] 1200 average demand of compressed air 


= [%] 10 > 5 % for small plant 

> 15-20 % for larger plant


from leaks 

QL = 

Loss = 

V x 3,600 10 x 3,600 

x [p e2 - pe1] = 

t 

600 

Q L 

Q 

= 

120 

1,200 

= 10 % 


x [ 11 - 9] = 120


from leaks 

For our example 10% losses from leakage are below the 

tolerance range of

Step 6: Calculating the 

effective power 

To calculate the efficiency of the compressor, use the 

container filling method as follows. Shut off the outlet from 

the storage container and measure the time the compressor 

takes to reach the maximum pressure. 

As with the calculation to determine leakage, the pressure 

difference should not be too small and the average pressure 

should correspond to the actual pressure required. 

To calculate the effective power of production use the 

following equation: 

QL = 

V x 3,600 

t 

x [pe2 - pe1] 


Q [m 3 /h]: difference between maximum and minimum pressure 

V [m3]: volume of the storage container 

t [sec]: 

time for filling up the storage container to a 

predetermined level 

Pe2 [bar]: pressure of the storage container at maximum pressure 

Pe1 [bar]: pressure of the storage container at minimum pressure

EXAMPLE – Calculating the 

effective power 

unit value remark 

V [m 3 ] 6 volume of the storage container 

t [sec] 36 time for filling up the storage container to a 

predetermined level 

pe2 [bar] 11 pressure of the storage container at maximum pressure 

pe1 [bar] 9 pressure of the storage container at minimum pressure 

pa [bar] 1 Pressure in the suction pipe 

Q1 [m 3 /h] 1200 average production of compressed air 

Q2 [m 3 /h] 1300 average production of compressed air (technical 

specification of the manufacturer) 


= [%] 92.3 > 95 % for small plant 

> 90-95 % for larger plant

Step 7: Calculate pressure in 

distribution system 

If there is no demand for compressed air the pressure 

should be constant throughout the system. 

However, as compressed air flows through the 

distribution system a loss of pressure will occur, this is 

caused by the speed of flow. 

To minimise the loss of pressure caused by the 

distribution system, ensure that pipe-work is of the 

correct dimension. 


1|2

Step 7: Calculate pressure in 

distribution system 

High pressure loss in the system might be caused by: 

• Line diameters being too small 

• Resistance due to different size of fittings and 

other system parts such as flexible hoses or 

connections being too high 

• Inner surface of pipe material being too rough 

• Distances in the distribution system being too 

long. This often happens 


The loss of pressure in the system should not be higher 

than 0.1 bar for industrial systems up to 200 meters in 

length. If higher losses are measured get the diameter 

of the pipes checked by a competent person. 

1|2

Step 8: Loss of pressure through 

system parts 

Filters, air-dryers, cooling systems and maintenance 

tools cause air flow resistance. Pressure losses 

should be no higher than the following: 

filter 0.1 bar 

air-dryer/cooler 0.2 bar 

maintenance tools 0.1 bar 

In practice, overall losses should not exceed 0.5 bar. 

When calculating maximum pressure this loss must 

be considered. 


Step 9: Loss of pressure 

through branch connections 

Connectors that join pipes can cause 

high losses. 

Frequently the case when the 

distribution network has been changed 

after its original installation. 

An expert is needed to assess this. 


Step 10: Decrease of efficiency 

through humidity 

If the system does not contain a dryer, pressure 

losses could increase as a result of rust. 

During the servicing of old plant this fact has to be 

considered carefully. 

To prevent excess humidity you should put water 

separators and air dryers upstream of your 

process. 


Step 11: Choice of off-load 

pressure 

The higher the off-load pressure the more energy is 

required for compressing. 

To compress air by 1 additional bar, energy 

consumption will increase by up to 4-7 %, 

depending on the compressor type. 

Therefore, you should not compress air to a higher 

pressure than is needed. 

You should check whether the pressure level of 

your plant corresponds with that required for your 

process. 


Step 12: Choosing the off-load/ 

on-load differential 

The difference between on-load and off-load 

pressure should be as small as possible. 

To avoid overheating the electrical motor as low 

an off-load pressure as possible should be 

maintained as should the frequency with which 

the compressor comes on. 

Ideally a large capacity storage container should 

be used, which should make a small switching 

differential possible. 


In practice economic considerations are likely to 

force a compromise.

Record keeping 

- track the efficiency 

If you have analysed your compressed air plant 

and have optimised the energy consumption 

needed to produce compressed air, it is easy to 

maintain permanent control. 

To do so: 

• Document the monthly consumption of 

compressed air and electricity 

• Make monthly comparisons between specific 

energy consumption data calculated for your 

system 

• If any change is noticed find the cause 


EXAMPLE – track the efficiency 

. 

date 

level from first 

check 

level following 

optimisation 

Monthly 

consumption of 

electricity for 

producing 

compressed air 

Compressed 

air produced 

monthly 

[m 3 ] 

Specific 



[kW/m 3 /min] 

- - 18.75 

- - 11.50 


Remarks 

Optimisation 

necessary 

Manufacturers 

specification 

11.5kW/m 3 /min 

April 03 8,280 kWh 43,200 m 3 11.50 All right 

May 03 8,653 kWh 44,640 m 3 11.63 All right 

June 03 9,211 kWh 41,100 m 3 13.45 Dirty intake filter 

July 03 4,600 kWh 23,000 m 3 12.00 2 weeks holiday 

August 03 11,371 kWh 55,467 m 3 12.30 

Cooling system 

leakage 

September 03 8,741 kWh 40,344 m 3 13.00 Valve changed 

October 03 8,340 kWh 43,780 m 3 11.43 All right

Useof wasteheat 

Irrespective of the compressor type used, 90% of 

electrical energy consumed is lost as waste heat. 

The temperature at which waste heat is available is 

important. 70% to 80% of electrical power input is 

available for use as waste heat. 

The temperature level of waste heat available for use 

as process heat or warm water, is about 50°C from 

piston compressors and about 60°C from oil injected 

screw compressors. 


EXAMPLE – wast heat: track the 

efficiency 

. 

remark unit value 

Your annual electrical consumption for 

producing compressed air 

70% of this electrical amount 

(maximum use of waste heat) 

Specific costs of heat (0.03 €/m 3 

natural gas; conversion efficiency 90%) 

Maximum saving potential through the 

use of waste heat 


[kWh] 715,000 

[kWh] 500,000 

[EURO/kWh] 0.07 

[EURO] 8,000

SUMMARY 

• Compressed air is both very expensive and 

energy intensive. 

• To produce 1 kW of power using compressed air 

10 kW of electricity is required. 

• 50% of the total cost to produce compressed air is 

energy costs. 

• 70% to 80% of the electrical power input is lost as 

waste heat, the recovery and use of which should 

be considered in the planning phase of the plant. 

• Small leaks and incorrect specification result in 

substantial costs. 

• The people responsible for compressed air supply 

and users of compressed air are not always aware 

of the high losses and the high cost of 

compressed air production. 


Electric Motors 


Electric motors 

Components & applications 

This module focuses on electric motors, components 

and applications driven by them such as pumps, fans 

and compressors 

You will get an overview on identifying the energy 

consumption and the costs relating to electric motors. 

This will help you to identify possible improvements 


Life-time facts 

• Almost half of all electricity generated in the world is 

used by electric motors 

• This is equal to two thirds of all industrial electricity 


• Typically a motor can consume electricity equal to its 

purchase cost in just 40 days of continuous running 

• There are several ways and methods to make savings 

– from switching off to modern electronic controls 

Life-time cost 

motor 1 x 5000.- = 5000.e-company 

20 x 5000.- = 100000.- 

105000.- 


E-Motors - main components 

Electric motors convert electricity to rotational energy. 

The machine to which the motor is connected does the 

value-producing work of processing and moving 

materials. The concept of the ‘motor system’ is 

therefore central to understanding how to improve 

energy efficiency. 

The components of motor systems are closely 

interdependent, but classifications are not rigid. 


Main components 

The following components belong to a motor system: 

1. power supply 

2. the motor-drive package 

3. the process system 


Generic applications include pumps, fans and 

compressors. The other major categories are materials 

handling and processing systems.

Losses in a motor system 

Only part of the losses can 

be attributed to the motor 

itself. The parts before 

and after the motor cause 

the major losses as can 

be seen in the figure below. 

In a typical system only 

50% of the Input power is 

actually useable. 



The main problem with electric motors in 

practice is that, over time, 

• systems may end up handling very different 

volumes of materials, 

• and may even perform quite different tasks 

from those originally intended. 



Motors may be driving loads much higher, lower, or more 

variable than those for which they were first specified. In 

practice, therefore, factories don’t configure production 

machinery really systematically. 

The first step in performance optimisation should be 

characterisation of the process load to determine its 

magnitude, duration and variability by hour and season. 

Surprisingly this step alone leads to significant energy 

savings, by indicating, for example, quick fixes for 

malfunctioning control equipment, or by revealing the 

possibility to shut down a system for extended periods. 


Motor applications 

The following applications of motors can be found in 

many companies: 

1. Pump 

2. Compressor 

3. Conveyor 

4. Press 

5. Lathe 

6. Fan 


Seven ways of saving energy 

In a given motor system, the largest proportion of 

potential energy saving derives from changes in 

the process system, that is, in the design and 

operation of equipment downstream of the motor 

package. Upgrading the efficiency of individual 

components yields more modest savings. 

1. Switch it off 

2. Slow it down 

3. Reducing motor load 

4. Proper Motor Repairs and 

maintenance 

5. Use motor control systems 

6. Select motor with best efficiency 

7. Motor sizing 



The simplest method of reducing energy used is to switch 

off the motor when it is not needed. There are several 

ways of controlling ”switching off”: 

1.1 Manual switching off 

1.2 Interlocking 

1.3 Time switch 

1.4 Load sensing 



Frequent switching problems. Switching 

motors on and off more often is a simple 

way to save on energy. 

But, frequent starts increase wear on 

belts and bearings and the extra heat 

generated with high starting currents can 

shorten the life of the motor insulation. 

Discuss the issue of frequent starts with 

the motor manufacturer, and take into 

account any extra maintenance or repair 

costs. 


Permitted starts/hour 


The figure shows the permitted number of starts for typical 

industrial motors. 

1000 

100 

10 

1 


Rated output power (kW) 

4 pole motors 

0 1 10 100 1000 

75 % full load; load inertia = 3 x motor inertia 

75 % full load; load inertia = 10 x motor inertia 

90 % full load; load inertia = 10 x motor inertia


Electronic ”Soft starters” 

Electronic ”Soft starters” can reduce wear during start-up 

and can allow the motor to be switched on 2-4 times more 

often. You should therefore consider these if frequent 

starting occurs. 

Soft starting is a method of reducing the high starting 

current that occurs when a motor is first switched on by 

applying a reduced adjustable voltage. The voltage is then 

increased over a period of time to a value which allows the 

motor to accelerate smoothly to full speed. 


A soft start controller is a programmable electronic device 

which allows this period, the acceleration time, to be 

selected by the user and is dependent on the application 

and the desired starting characteristics.

2. Reducing motor load 

There is little point in improving the motor and its controls 

if the driven equipment is inefficient. Industrial motors are 

designed to operate at fixed speeds under a wide range of 

loads. 

Standard motors tend to reach efficiency at 80-100% of full 

load. 

Motor efficiency drops quickly when motors operate below 

40% of full rated load. 

As a rule of thumb it can be said that at least one third of 

all integral horsepower motors are oversized for their 

loads. 



Motors must be maintained on a regular basis to avoid 

efficiency losses and unnecessary cost intensive repairs. 

However, many motors, especially large or special types 

are repaired several times during their life. Proper care 

must therefore be given to the repair and maintenance 

process. 

All repairs must be to the original manufacturers 

specifications. Try to ensure your motor repairer provides 

you with certification for the repair and that the work is 

guaranteed. 


Give careful thought to the economics of repair versus 

cost of replacing with a new good quality higher efficiency 

motor.

4. Use motor control systems 

Variable Speed Drives (VSD). 

Basically these control the speed at 

which an a.c. induction motor runs. 

In addition to the possible large 

savings achieved by slowing the 

motor there are other advantages of 

using VSD: 

• Programmable soft starting, soft stopping and dynamic breaking. 

• Wide range of speed, torque and power. 

• Improved process control. 

• Controllable by a Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) – very 

often found in industrial control situations. 


Using VSD is an important issue that you should examine for your 

organisation – the benefits are not just in energy savings.

5. Motor with best efficiency 

A. High Efficiency Motors (HEM) or EFF1 motors are about 2 – 3 

per cent more efficient than standard types. This sounds small 

but over the life of the motor this will mean a significant 

reduction in energy use - especially as motors generally 

consume energy in the first 5-6 weeks which is equal to their 

purchase cost. The purchase price of HEM is only a little higher 

to that of standard motors. 

Cost savings Motor size 

% 

KW 

14

6. Reconnect to STAR 

‘STAR’ connection reduces the voltage across the 

motor windings to 58 per cent of the delta 

connection. 

In Star connection the motor then only gives onethird 

torque. Doing this can make useful energy 

savings. Competent industrial electrical engineers 

can easily perform this task. 

Warning: only re-connect in star if the motor is 

loaded at 40-45 per cent of its rated power. 



Motors may be driven much higher, lower or 

more variable than for which they were first 

specified – and this causes losses. It may not 

always be economically feasible to simply 

buy a replacement motor for the sole reason 

of higher motor efficiency, however, when 

they need repairing it is strongly 

recommended not to repair these motors but 

to buy high efficiency ones. 


In practice most 

motors are only 

65% loaded 

However, the first step in performance optimisation is the characterisation of the 

process load to determine its magnitude, duration and variability by hour and 

season. In the next step the motor size will be adjusted to the requirements. 

Modern motors are generally designed for maximum efficiency at 75 per cent full 

load. Between 50-100 per cent load there is only a small variation in motor 

efficiency.


It has been engineering practice not to specify the absolute 

minimum power requirements for a system, and various 

contingencies are allowed for. This can result in over sizing of 

motors. The diagram graphically demonstrates this issue of 

‘contingency’. 

7.5 kW 

8.5 kW 

9.1kW 

Basic duty requirement 

11kW 


Increase to nearest 

available rating 

10% contingency by project engineer 

10% contingency by equipment designer

E-consumption by electric motors 

The energy consumption of electric motors can be identified by 

measuring or by calculating the consumption with given data. 

The goal is: 

• to identify all electric motors in operation 

• to realise the yearly energy consumption caused by electric 

motors 

• to realise if electric motors are used properly 

• to evaluate efficiency 

• to decrease energy consumption 


Calculating the energy consumption 

When undertaking a rough calculation of the 

energy consumption of an electric motor the 

following information is needed: 

• KW 

• Annual running hours 

• Energy price per kWh 

The power (kW) of a motor can normally be 

found on the motor nameplate itself. 



The annual hours of running could be found on a 

display showing the operating hours of the machine (if 

applicable) or it has to be estimated. 

As an example, if a ventilation system operates every 

day during office times it has a yearly run time of 

approximately 2240 hours. 

(8 hours a day and 280 working days) 



The result is a summary of the motors used and their 

energy consumption. 

Motor reference: Water pump 1 

kW: 15 

Amps: 70 

Manufacturer and motor type: A.N.O Type 3345 

Annual hours of running: 7700 

Yearly Electricity consumption kWh: 115500 



The result is a summary of the motors used and their energy consumption. 

Your Motor reference shows for 

example where it is situated, what 

function it performs, … 

The kW rating of the 

motor and will be found on 

the motor name plate. 

The Amps figure gives the maximum current 

that the motor should take, and will be found 

on the motor name plate (at this stage you do 

not need this figure as it is the kW rating that 

we will be using –so don’t worry if you cannot 

get the current rating figure). 

Motor reference: Water pump 1 

kW: 15 

Amps: 70 

Manufacturer and motor type: A.N.O Type 3345 

Annual hours of running: 7700 

Yearly Electricity consumption kWh: 115500 


The manufacturer and the type of the 

motor will be on the motor name plate, or 

stamped on the body. 

To get the annual 

hours of running you 

may need to ask other 

people in your 

organisation (for 

example engineering 

or production).


By gathering this information you have a very good 

start for recording all your site’s data on electric 

motors. 

Other information that you may want to consider 

recording for the motors may be: 

• Date of purchase & cost. 

• Yearly inspections to be undertaken - yes or no 

• Repair / rewind records. 

• Maintenance records (lubrication, filter, belt 

replacement). 


By doing this you will end up with a comprehensive 

document for all electric motors in the company (plant 

list), which gives an excellent overview.

Calculating annual costs 

It may be useful to calculate the annual costs of running the 

motor. Using the formula and information below it is 

possible to calculate the annual cost of running the motor. 

Motor size (> motor nameplate): 

Motor efficiency (> manual): 

Full annual run time (> estimation): 

Average cost of electricity (> bill): 

Motor operating at full load: 

Annual Cost = 

hours per year x kW x % full load x EURO / kWh 

Motor efficiency 


EXAMPLE 

Calculating annual costs 

Motor size (> motor nameplate): 20 kW 

Motor efficiency (> manual): 91.7% 

Full annual run time (> estimation): 8544 hours 

Average cost of electricity (> bill): 0.07 Euro per kWh 

Motor operating at full load: 100 % 

Annual Cost = 

Annual Cost = 

hours per year x kW x % full load x EURO / kWh 

Motor efficiency 

8,544 x 20 x 100 x 0.07 

91.7 

= 13,044 EURO 


Comparing investment and 

running costs 

To visualise the importance of high efficiency motors the 

energy manager should be able to show the costs for 

electricity compared to investment costs. 

The following figures and formulas are needed for this 

calculation. 

Purchase cost: 

Motor size: 

Motor efficiency: 

Annual run time: 

Average cost of electricity: 

Motor operating at full load: 


Annual run costs: 

motor cost 

Run time = annual run cost

Example: Comparing investment 

and running costs 

Purchase cost: 1,650 EURO 

Motor size: 20 kW 

Motor efficiency: 91.7 % 

Annual run time: 8,000 hours 

Average cost of electricity: 0.07 EURO per kWh 

Motor operating at full load: 100 % 

Annual run costs: 13,044 

motor cost 

Run time = annual run cost 


1,650 

Run time = = 0.12 years = approximately 46 days 

13,044

Comparing HEF and normal motors 

1. Power required for HEF and normal motor 

2. Difference between the power required 

3. Comparison: Increased costs due to higher electricity 

consumption for standard motor 



Energy costs: 0.07 EURO per kWh 

Efficiency Purchase cost (1) Power required 

HIF motor: 0.952 2.536 EURO 

Normal motor: 0.930 2.029 EURO 

(2) Difference: 


(3) Comparison: kW x h x EURO = EURO after 1 year

EXAMPLE Comparing HEF 

and normal motors 



Energy costs: 0.07 EURO per kWh 

Efficiency Purchase cost (1) Power required 

HIF motor: 0.952 2.536 EURO 90 kW x 0.952 = 94.54 kW 

Normal motor: 0.930 2.029 EURO 90 kW x 0.930 = 96.77 kW 

(2) Difference: 2.23 kW 

(3) Comparison: 2.23 kW x 8000h x 0.07 Euro = 1248 Euro after 1 year 

Result: The increased costs due to higher electricity 

consumption for standard motor is 1248 Euro after 1 year. 


Heating Systems 


Heating systems 

This module focuses on heating systems for small and 

medium sized companies. The following will be covered: 

• The main components of heating systems, their 

strengths and weaknesses 

• Activities to decrease heat consumption by 

simple actions and to minimise heat losses 

• How to collect and analyse consumption 

quantities and costs associated with heating 


• Develop core indicators and to compare them 

with benchmarks

Facts 

Costs and consumption depend on the 

• heating system – the higher the standard of the 

heating system and the higher the level of 

maintenance the lower the heating costs 

• building structure – better insulated buildings 

have lower costs 

• outdoor climate – the colder it is the more 

heating is required 

• fuel price 


Losses in a heating system 

As a rule of thumb it can be said that 25 % of the input 

energy for heating results in losses. 

losses 

in % 

Input 

10 kW 

exhaust gas 

losses 

10 

radiaton 

losses 

1 

stand by 

losses 

distribution 

losses 

9 5 


1 kW 0,1 

kW 

0,9 kW 0,4 kW 

Application 

Output 

7,5 kW

Elements of a heating system 

Optimisation may start in different areas so it is first of all 

necessary to have a closer look at the individual 

components of a heating system. 

The essential elements of a heating system are: 

• Heat source or boiler 

• Distribution system 

• Heat emitters 

• Control system 

• Fuels 


Heat source and boiler 

• Oil boiler 

• Gas boiler 

• Oil/Gas boiler 

• Condensing boiler 

• Solid fuel boilers 

• Electric heated boilers 

• Heat pumps 


• CHP - combined heat and power systems 

• District heat

Heat distribution systems 

Heat distribution systems transport heat from the source to the 

heat emitter. Usually water or steam will be transported. The 

components of a heat distribution system are: 

• Tube system 

• Circulating pumps 

• Lock up and control devices 


Tube systems 

Heat in the form of hot water or steam will be distributed from 

the heat source to the heat emitter. In an existing system it is 

difficult to change the tube system. The size of a tube system 

may originally be designed by a specialist for a predefined 

purpose. However, problems occur 

•when the heating system may not be used for the purpose it 

was originally intended, e.g. because room occupancy changed, 

•when the system was badly designed to keep investment cost 

low or 

•when the system is not regularly maintained. 


Circulation pumps 

Circulation pumps are electrically driven and are required in 

every hot water system to pump the water. The only possibility 

to increase the efficiency of circulation pumps is to ensure that 

during repair or maintenance work a variable speed driven pump 

is installed. These pumps may be easily adjusted to hydraulic 

requirements and save up to 14 % in comparison to ordinary 

pumps. 


Controls 

Controls allow you to regulate the temperature in individual 

rooms and may help to gain considerable savings by correct 

use. 

Heating valves are used for switching on and off the heating 

emitters. It is only possible to regulate the quantity of water 

flowing into the emitters. 

Thermostatic valves are used to fix individual room 

temperatures. The desired room temperature will be set 

manually. When the room temperature changes, the valve opens 

or closes automatically and more or less hot water flows into the 

emitter. 


Heat emitters 

Heat emitters such as 

• radiators 

• convectors 

• hot air heating 

• panel heating 

emit the heat into the room. The size and place of emitters are 

essential for a comfortable room climate. Basically it can be said 

that heat emitters should be placed below windows. The 

incoming cold air will be heated immediately and draughts can 


be avoided. If heat emitters are placed on the inner walls the 

incoming cold air glides along the floor to the heating emitter 

and causes draughts.

Fuels 

Today fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas, coal and coke will be 

mainly used for heating purposes. Wood will be used as a 

renewable energy source for heating. Electricity for heating is, in 

general, not recommended due to economic reasons. The only 

exception is electricity used for heat pumps and decentralised 

hot water preparation. 

The main problems with fuels occur due to the facts that 

•once the heating system is installed fuels may rarely be 

changed 

•fossil fuels are environmentally damaging due to their 

emissions 


•fossil fuels have to be imported and the dependency on foreign 

markets and prices have large risks

Evaluating heat costs 

When talking about costs for the 

heating system the 

• investment costs, 

• running costs and 

• fuel costs 

have to be considered. 


Calculating running costs for 


The aim of analysing quantities and costs for 

energy is to increase the efficiency and to 

decrease costs. 

This may occur through 

• the reduction of current energy quantities 

• the purchase of cheaper fuels 

• the increase in efficiency of the heating 

system 

• the improvement of the building insulation 

• the change in comfort 


Calculating running costs for 


The first step is to calculate - or even better to measure - the current 

energy consumption in kWh/m² (heated m²). This data gives a first 

overview of the actual situation as it may be compared with 

• previous years to visualise development 

• benchmarks. 


Step 1: Identify heated area 

Identify the heated area of your 

organisation. The figure can normally be 

taken easily from floor plans. Avoid 

including areas which are not heated such 

as corridors, storage areas or cellars. Do 

not forget to add a note which areas you 

did not consider – it might help if you come 

back to the calculation in the future. 

Heated area m² 


Step 2: Identify consumption and 

costs 

Identify the energy consumption and the 

energy costs of heating for a given period, 

e.g. a year. This can normally be taken 

from the energy invoices. Where you use 

one energy source for several purposes 

then this figure has to be measured or 

calculated. You might identify the heating 

costs on an invoice for a summer and a 

winter month. As no heating will be 

required during the summer months the 

difference on the invoice may show the 

heating demand. 


Energy consumption kWh 

Energy consumption Euro

Step 3: Develop an indicator 

All you have to do now is to divide the figure for 

consumption by the figure for the area and you obtain the 

indicator. Please do not forget to mark what period the 

indicator covers. 

Specific energy consumption kWh/m² 


Step 4: Compare with bench marks 

Compare the specific energy consumption of your building with the 

bench marks given. The classification is for central Europe and 

means that an energy consumption above 200 kWh/m 2 per year for 

heating purposes is completely inefficient. 

If your energy consumption for heating is higher than 70 kWh/m 2 

you should immediately start to identify losses. 

Rating 

heat consumption 

kWh/m²/year 

Comment 

A 0 – 30 Best efficiency 

B 31 – 50 High energy efficiency 

C 51 – 70 Sparing 


D 71 – 120 Average 

E 121 – 160 Unsatisfactory 

F 161 – 200 Wasteful 

G 201 - Completely inefficient

Reducing energy consumption 

Reducing the amount of energy used for heating may be 

achieved by 

A. Awareness raising and publishing the true costs of 


B. Decreasing heat consumption with simple activities 

C. Minimising heat losses 


A. Awareness raising and 

information 

Starting an energy efficiency activity by telling staff that 

heating will probably be turned down will raise an 

incredible rejection against every kind of activity. Heating 

represents the core area of comfort at the workplace. 

The Energy Manager must be aware that in the first step 

awareness about the necessity to balance acceptable work 

place temperatures against the desire for energy 

conservation must be created. 


B. Energy optimisation with simple 

activities 

Simple activities for saving energy consumption are 

� Identify and adjust room temperatures 

� Reduce room temperature at specified times 

� Keep air change low 

� Decrease heat losses through windows 

� Switch off heating emitters in rooms not regularly used 

� Reduce boiler temperatures 

� Switch off circulation pumps when not in use 

� Adjust preflux temperatures correctly 

� Ensure good heat radiation 

� Adjust thermostat valves 

� Install temperature sensors properly 

� Check frost detection devices 


Identify and adjust room 

temperatures 

In this step zones for different heating demands will be established. 

A walk through the individual areas of a building during winter 

months helps to understand the individual requirements and the 

current situation. 

Part of the building °C 

Shower Areas 24 

Garage 10 

Corridors 15 

Kitchen 16 

Library 18 


Office 20 

Restaurant, Canteen 20 

Toilet 16 

Public waiting rooms 16

Reduce room temperature at 

specified times 

During nights and weekends temperatures should be 

decreased to avoid the heating of areas with no 

occupancy. As a rule of thumb it can be said that a 

reduction of 2°C during nights gives a decrease in energy 

consumption of 2–3%. 

Be aware not to decrease the temperature too much. It is 

very energy intensive to heat rooms up completely and 

any savings will be cancelled by the costs. 


Keep air change low 

Doors between rooms and areas with different temperature 

levels should be closed to keep heat in and reduce 

draughts. In addition, extractor fans should be turned off 

overnight and used only when necessary. 

As a rule of thumb it can be said that to heat 1000 m³/hour 

from 12°C to 20°C requires about 11 kW power which 

means an energy consumption of approximately 16000 

kWh or Euro 800 in one heating period. 


Decrease heat losses through 

windows 

Ensure that all windows and curtains are closed during the 

night; curtains must not cover heating emitters. 


Switch off heating emitters in 

rooms not regularly used 

Radiators and convectors should only be turned on if the room 

is occupied. Therefore heating emitters should be turned on 

shortly before the room is to be used. 


Reduce boiler temperatures 

Hot water in boilers should not reach a temperature at which the 

water may not be used. Therefore the boiler supplier should be 

contacted to find out what temperature is the lowest possible for 

the boiler without causing damage. The water temperature of a 

hot water boiler should reach 60°C. As a rule of thumb it can be 

said that reducing the storage temperature from 65°C to 60°C 

cuts the heat losses by 9%. 


Switch off circulation pumps 

when not in use 

Circulation pumps of heating systems normally run 

automatically, but may also be operated manually. If the heating 

system is turned down the pumps should not operate but be 

switched off to save electricity and prevent a rapid cooling of the 

heating system. 


Adjust preflux temperatures 

correctly 

In boiler controls there is a feature called preflux setting of temperatures. 

Check with the boiler installer that the preflux control is correctly set. 

Consider turning down the preflux temperature by 1°C at a time until you 

reach the point where staff complain about being cold. 


Ensure good heat radiation 

Ensure that heat emitters are not covered by furniture or 

curtains as they avoid heat radiation into the room. Make sure 

also that heating emitters are cleaned regularly as dust and dirt 

decrease radiation. 


Adjust thermostat valves 

Make sure that all thermostat valves are adjusted to the 

appropriate temperature in the rooms, check that they are not 

damaged and keep a record of the optimal control settings to 

give guidance to staff. 


Install temperature sensors 

properly 

Make sure that temperature sensors are properly installed. 

Experience shows that sensors are often positioned in places 

too cold or too warm leading to too much or too little heating. 

Indoor sensors should not be placed near a window, near 

heating emitters or in a draught. Outdoor sensors must be 

installed on a north wall and not exposed to direct sunlight. In 

many cases the position of sensors requires a compromise. 


Check frost detection devices 

Check frost detection devices regularly. When thermostats are 

not adjusted to a temperature between 4 – 6°C heat will be 

wasted or frost damage could occur. 


C. Energy savings by minimising 

losses 

Activities for minimising losses may focus on 

�Hydraulic regulation of the heating system 

�Losses caused by emitted heat in exhaust gases 

�Losses caused by boilers 

�Distribution losses 


Hydraulic regulation of the heating 

system 

Hydraulic regulated heating systems have a 30 % higher 

efficiency compared to those with common technology. A 

specialist measures the pressure differences in the heating 

system and installs special controllers to influence the amount 

of water running through the system. 

With hydraulic regulation the 

•temperature in rooms may be adjusted to the appropriate 

temperature. This saves up to 5 % of the costs for each 1°C. 

•water quantity pumped through the system will be optimised 

and less electricity will be needed for running the pump. 


Losses caused by emitted heat in 

exhaust gases 

Burners emit hot gases which should not be above 

180°C for oil heating systems and 

140°C for gas heating systems. 

The only possibility to reduce hot air emissions for existing 

installations is to clean and service the heating system regularly. 

To avoid too much excess air quantities during operation the 

burner should be adjusted regularly by an expert 

In addition, losses may be caused by insufficient burning of 

carbon-monoxide. These gases may be measured during an 


emission measurement and as a rule of thumb it can be said that 

losses can be up to 7% by each per cent non burned Carbon 

Monoxide (CO). The plant may be easily adjusted by an expert.

Losses caused by emitted heat in 

exhaust gases 

Other possibilities should be considered in the planning phase 

as a later installation might need high investments. These 

possibilities include: 

•re-use exhaust gas by heat recovery system 

•install variable operating burners (such as 2-phase-burner) 

•specify the capacity of the plant correctly to avoid over sizing 


Losses caused by boilers 

Losses in boilers are caused by two reasons. 

The first reason is poor boiler insulation which leads to losses of 

heat into the boiler room. New boilers now have an insulation 

thickness of up to 20 cm and old boilers should be insulated at 

least with 10 cm insulation. 

The second reason are losses due to stand-by operation. Stand 

by losses usually occur because hot water has to be stored for 

immediate use and for the heating supply. Losses depend on the 

fuel, boiler, burner and usage of heat. What they all have in 

common are additional regulation problems which could 

technically be decreased with hydraulic regulation. 


Distribution losses 

During operation of the heating system distribution losses may 

be avoided by insulating pipes and tubes, and by decreasing the 

temperatures in times of no use. 

As a rule of thumb it can be said that insulating pipes has a pay 

back period of less than 5 years. 


Surface temperatures and comfort 

wall 18°C 

Example 1 Example 2 

ceiling 18°C 

air 22°C 

20 °C 

felt 

tempe-rature 

floor 18 °C 

wall 18°C 


wall 22°C 

ceiling 22°C 

air 18°C 

20 °C 

felt 

tempe-rature 

floor 22 °C 

wall 22°C

Humidity and its influence on 

comfort 

The comfortable range of 

humidity is between 40 % and 

60 % with a room air 

temperature of 18°C to 23°C. 

For measuring humidity a 

hygrometer is used. When the 

air is too dry you should use 

an a humidifier. By changing 

the humidity the subjective 

feeling of a comfortable room 

temperature could be 

influenced. 

humidity 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 uncomfortable 

10 

dry 

12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 

room temperature 


uncomfortable 

wet 

comfortable 

acceptable

Reduce costs by changing fuels 

and the system 

It may not be possible to improve the energy efficiency by 

installing energy efficient equipment as investments would be 

needed. However, you should give careful consideration when 

•the energy system has to be renewed 

•improvement programs are available by public organisations or 

energy suppliers 

•building alterations are necessary 


Reduce costs by changing fuels 

and the system 

When comparing fuels it is necessary to create a common 

basis. This basis should be the energy available for the 

user in kWh. It is necessary to take into consideration 

• the calorific value of each fuel and 

• the efficiency of the boiler 

to compare the useful energy which may be used by the 

company. 


Example Converting into one unit 

1 litre extra light oil costs 0.5 Euro/litre incl. VAT. To 

identify the price for 1 kWh useful energy you have to 

divide the costs per litre with the calorific value and the 

efficiency of the heating system in use. 

Energy source Oil extra light 

Price (€/unit) Euro 0.5/l 

Calorific value (kWh/unit) 10.0 

Efficiency (%) 90 

Heat costs of useful heat (€/k Wh) 0.055 Euro/k Wh 

By using a condensing boiler with natural gas the 

efficiency increases by 10 %. 

Prices of energy sources can sometimes be found on the 

homepages of energy suppliers or can be asked for 

directly. 





This module explores indoor lighting systems, 

lighting sources and describes their 

advantages and disadvantages. Guidance will 

be given on 

•artificial lighting requirements 

•a step by step approach for analysing factors 

influencing lighting conditions and illumination 

comfort. 

•implement energy saving activities 


Lighting facts 

Lighting can be a big energy consumer in offices and 

production areas and experience shows that energy 

savings may be achieved - often with simple activities. The 

main reasons for wasting energy is that 

•staff are not aware about lighting costs and correct light 

usage 

•systems have been originally installed correctly but 

requirements have changed and the system was not 

updated 

•identifying costs for lighting and lighting requirements is 

time intensive and will therefore be ignored by staff 


Illuminating areas 

In general the following illumination will be in use: 

a. Lighting system for single rooms 

b. Lighting system for several areas with different 

lighting requirements 

c. Direct and indirect lighting 


a. Single rooms 

The lighting system designed for a single room 

enables the control of single lamps or a group of 

lamps in the room. These systems are normally 

installed in offices and combine general lighting and 

task lighting. 

one room 


light 

control

. Large areas 

Lighting systems designed for a larger area or for a group 

of rooms can normally be found in conference centres, 

restaurants, offices or production areas. 

Normally the whole area is illuminated even though only a 

small area is occupied. Typically, problems occur due to 

the inflexibility of the present lighting system control. 

group of rooms 


light 

control

c. Direct and indirect lighting 

Direct lighting will normally be 

used in office buildings and has 

the advantage that lamps emit 90 

– 100% of their output directly on 

the working area. Direct lighting 

occurs in both general and task 

lighting. 

Indirect lighting emits only 0 – 

10% of its outputs directly on the 

working area. 

direct 

indirect 


Lighting sources and 

characteristics 

A lighting system may use different lighting sources 

although incandescent and fluorescent lamps are best 

known. Each lighting source has its advantages and 

disadvantages and the use of a lamp depends on the 

lighting requirements. 

a. Traditional bulbs 

b. Fluorescent lamp standard 

c. Compact fluorescent lamps 

d. New generation fluorescent lamps 


Light yield lm/W 

Life time hour 

Purchase cost 

Life time cost 

Ballast 

Advantage 

Disadvantage 

Traditional 

bulbs 

12-16 

1000 

Very low 

Very high 

No Ballast required 

Very low purchase cost 

No ballast required 

Excellent colour rendering 

Very high life time cost 

Low light yield 

Short life 

Fluorescent 

lamp standard 

40-68 

8000-12000 

Low 

Very high 

Conventional ballast 

Low purchase cost 

Very low life time cost 

Long life time 

Good quality light to the rooms 


Slowly run up to full light 

Excessive switching shortens life 

Ballast required 

Stroboscopic effect 

Compact 

fluorescent lamps 

44-88 

8000-12000 

High 

Low 

Integrated electronic ballast 

Low life time cost 

Energy-saving 

High light yield and life time 

Interchangeable with traditional bulbs 

High frequency switch 

High purchase cost 

Cannot be used with dimmers 

New 

generation fluorescent lamps 

66-104 

12000 

High 

Low 

Electronic ballast 

Very high life time 

Very high light yield 

Incorporate electronic ballast 

No stroboscopic effect 

Low life time cost 

Ballast required 

High purchase cost

Ballasts 

Ballasts are required to control the electrical properties of 

fluorescent lamps. Ballasts are important as they influence 

the energy consumption of the lamp and guarantee proper 

operation. There are 2 types of ballasts: 

a.Conventional ballasts 

b. Electronic ballasts 


Requirements for illumination 

Illumination requirements depend on necessary lighting 

levels for different types of industries, rooms and 

activities. When evaluating the illumination requirements it 

is important to consider the following factors: 

a.Illumination power measured in luminous flux 

b.Evenness of the lighting 

c.Colour rendering 


Average luminous flux density 

Degree of work 

accuracy 

The lowest 

permissible average 

luminous flux density 

Eav (lx) 


Examples 

Limited visual needs 50 Staircase, corridors, hall 

– with little usage 

Limited visual needs 100 Staircase, corridors, hall 

– with heavy usage 

Work of average 

accuracy 

300 Occasional office work 

Accurate work 500 Intense office work, 

Computer laboratory, 

Precise machining 

Very accurate work 750 Very precise machining

Evenness of lighting 

Type of work 

Evenness of lighting: 

Emin / Eav 

Continuous work ≥ 0,65 

Occasional work and 

communication zone 

≥ 0.40 


Colour rendering 

Colour rendering describes the comfort of a lamp and has a 

significant impact on the comfort of a workplace. 

•The vertical illumination power is responsible for the colour 

rendering. 

•The horizontal illumination power is responsible for the lighting 

intensity. 

As a rule of thumb it can be said that the vertical illumination 

power should reach at least 1/3 of the horizontal illumination 

power. Both data can be directly measured with a light meter. 


Lamps with very good colour rendering will normally be used in 

areas which should provide a good level of comfort or where 

very precise work is undertaken.

Evaluating costs for lighting 

It is normally not possible to identify the costs for lighting 

from the energy invoice, or to undertake separate 

measurements. Therefore it is necessary to identify 

electricity costs by calculations. The following step by 

step process gives guidance. Start to evaluate your 

system by analysing an individual room and then continue 

with the rest of the organisation. 


Step 1 – Identify lamps and bulbs 

It is first of all necessary to go through the room and to 

identify all lamps in use. Count the number of lamps and 

multiply each lamp by its power rating. For fluorescent 

lamps do not forget to add ballasts. Where ballasts are not 

known it is a rule of thumb to take it to be 12% of the 

power rating of each lamp. 

This calculation gives a total power rating for the lighting 

system. Take care to always calculate with the same unit 

kW (1000W = 1 kW). 

E.g. 71 Conventional lamps at 150W = 10650 W / 1000 = 

10.65 kW 


Step 2 – Identify annual operating 

hours 

The annual number of hours the system is in use may be 

calculated by taking the office hours per day and 

multiplying it with the working days per year. An example 

would be a shop open 8 hours per day and 50 weeks in the 

year which is 2000 h. 


Step 3 – Annual operating costs 

of the lighting system 

Multiplying the annual operating hours with the total 

power rating leads to the annual electricity consumption. 

Taking the electricity price from the invoice it is now easy 

to calculate the current costs for lighting. 

Example: 

2000 x 10.65 = 21300 kWh 

Electricity price = 0.10 Euro / kWh 

Total cost = 2130 Euro/year 


Making energy savings 

1. First, focus on activities which do not require 

investments. 

2. Second, focus on activities that increase the efficiency of 

the current system. 

3. Third, focus on activities connected with changes to the 

system itself or building alteration work. 



Energy costs for lighting depend on power requirements 

of the system and the operating time. The main focus must 

therefore be to reduce both power requirements and 

operating times. The following actions and techniques can 

help: 

• Use of daylight 

• Switch lights off 

• Maintenance and cleaning 

• Interiors and colours 

• Reducing lighting level 


• Select components with best efficiency 

• Use control systems

Use of daylight 

Staff sometimes forget that artificial light is only necessary 

when there is too little natural daylight. Therefore 

awareness must be raised to switch lights off when 

daylight is sufficient. 

In addition the use of daylight may be maximised by 

considering the interior design of the office by moving 

desks next to windows and opening blinds. 


Switch it off 

Manual switching off. Switch off lamps if they are not 

needed. Install more switches so that lighting can be 

zoned. Opportunities to switch off lights by staff are 

during breaks, lunchtimes and when finishing work. This 

method is the cheapest because no investment is needed 

but requires staff awareness. 

Time switch. For rooms where illumination is needed for a 

short period only, time controllers are helpful to reduce 

energy consumption. Automatic lighting control allows 

lights to be turned off automatically at predetermined 

intervals. 


Reduce lighting level 

Daylight control allows the gradual switching off of lights. 

A good opportunity is to continuously adapt lighting 

requirements according to the needs of staff. It is not 

necessary that lights operate 24 hours a day although this 

is needed sometimes to be customer friendly, e.g. clothes 

shops, hotels etc. 


Maintenance and cleaning 

Although this might sound obvious ensure that lights, 

reflectors and coverings are cleaned regularly. 


Interiors and colours 

When decorating and choosing floor coverings try to use 

light colours as they are better at reflecting light. This is also 

true for furniture and curtains. 


Select components with best 

efficiency 

Changing all lamps to energy efficient light fittings and 

bulbs will be unlikely to happen all at once. It is a better 

idea to change to efficient fittings during repair and 

maintenance work and to continuously update the system. 

This is also true for replacing the older thick fluorescent 

lamps with new thinner fluorescent lamps as they have a 

higher intensity of light and save up to 5 % energy. 

In cases where fluorescent lamps flicker the energy 

consumption rises by up to 30%, and the ballast has to be 

checked. 

Selecting energy efficient components also means to 

clean windows regularly, to paint walls bright and to clean 

the surfaces of lamps. 


Use control systems 

Control systems are an effective instrument to reduce 

energy consumption but have the main disadvantage that 

they need high investment and are only economic in 

buildings with high energy consumption. Control systems 

should therefore be considered in the planning phase of a 

building. 

The following control systems are commonly used: 

• Motion control 

• Daylight control 

• Time clock 

• Remote control 


Ventilation Systems 


Ventilation systems 

This module will explore different ventilation 

systems and show ways of identifying energy 

savings associated with ventilation. 

This includes 

• typical components of a ventilation system 

• different ventilation systems 

• how to calculate the energy consumption for 

ventilation and which indicators to use 


• ways of identifying energy savings 

associated with ventilation

Background information 

Industrial ventilation generally involves the use of supply 

and exhaust ventilation to control 

• emissions, 

• exposures and 

• chemical hazards in the workplace. 



Traditionally, non-industrial ventilation systems commonly 

known as heating, ventilating and air-conditioning (HVAC) 

systems were built to control 

• temperature 

• humidity 

• odours 


Types of ventilation 

In general there are 2 types of ventilation: 

• Natural ventilation. 

• Mechanical ventilation. 



There are different systems and methods for ventilation 

depending on the requirements. How the temperature 

and the air rate are regulated, depend on the ventilation 

system. 

Natural Method Mechanical Method 

Dilution 

Local exhaust 

Replacement 

HVAC 

Recirculation 


Mixed ventilation Displacement 

ventilation

Natural ventilation 

In the past natural ventilation dominated. 

Advantages include 

• simple components 

• low investment costs 

• negligible operating costs. 

Disadvantages include 

• poor control of ventilation 

• temperature variations 

• not as effective during warm, 

humid summer months 

• difficult to retrofit in buildings 

• poor heat economy. 


Natural ventilation 

There are many office buildings throughout Europe that rely on 

natural ventilation to meet all their cooling needs. 

In North America, there is a trend towards natural ventilation and 

many new buildings have operable windows. 

Elimination or avoidance of mechanical air conditioning is 

difficult in hot humid climates but is possible in most other 

climates. 


Mechanical ventilation 

Mechanical ventilation systems are capable of providing a controlled 

rate of air change and respond to the varying needs of occupants 

and pollutant loads. In general incoming supply air is filtered and 

some systems have provision for heat recovery from the exhaust air 

stream. 

The potential advantages of mechanical ventilation, especially for 

smaller buildings, can often be outweighed by installation and 

operational cost, maintenance needs and inadequate return from 

heat recovery. Mechanical ventilation is often essential in large office 

buildings where fresh air must penetrate to the centre of the building 

and high heat gains can cause over heating. 


Several configurations of mechanical ventilation are possible: 

• Supply ventilation 

• Extract (or exhaust) ventilation 

• Balanced (supply extract) systems

Ventilation rates 

The quantity of ventilation needed depends on the amount and 

nature of contamination present in a space. 

To determine the overall ventilation needed, it is useful to 

identify the dominant pollutant. This is the pollutant that requires 

the greatest amount of ventilation for removal. 

To assess the emission from the processes one can ask people 

working near the processes if they smell, feel or in any other way 

have a problem with the emissions. The methods to measure the 

emission vary from component to component and is often a job 

for specialists to investigate. 

Air flow for humans 


Air flow to ventilate emission 

from construction materials 

25.2 m 3 /h per person 

2.5 m 3 /h per m 2 floor area

Facts 

• Approximately 30% of the energy delivered to 

buildings is dissipated in departing 

ventilation and exfiltration air streams. 

• In buildings constructed to very high 

standards of thermal insulation the 

proportion of airborne energy loss can be 

much higher. 


Facts 

The amount of energy consumed depends on the 

• flow rate of ventilation 

• amount of conditioning air to achieve thermal comfort 

(heating and cooling) 

• operation of mechanical ventilation systems 

• required humidity. 


Components 

A ventilation system consists of different components. 

All components are important when discussing energy 

efficiency. 

Many of the components are selected during the design 

phase, but during the operation phase maintenance and 

movement of components often occur. 


Components 

A ventilation system consists of the following components: 

• Fans 

• Air-cleaning and filtration systems 

• Heating, cooling and humidification systems 

• Heat recovery systems 

• Recirculation of indoor air 

• Control system 


Fans 

Fans are used in ventilating units to transport the air from various air 

intakes through the duct system to the room which is to be ventilated. 

Every fan must overcome the resistance created by having to force the air 

through ducts, bends and other ventilation equipment. 

The resistance causes a fall in pressure, and the size of this fall is a 

decisive factor when choosing the dimensions of each individual fan. 

Fans can be divided into a number of main groups determined by the 

impeller’s shape and its operating principle: 

• Radial fans 

• Axial fans 


Efficiency of fans 

Fan connections to the inlet and outlet 

must be designed in a specific way to 

avoid losses. 

As a rule of thumb it can be said that the 

• duct diameter on the inlet side must have the same 

size as the inlet 

• duct diameter on the pressure side (outlet) must be 3 

times larger than on the inlet. 


Efficiency of fans 

Radial fans must be at least 5 times larger on the suction 

side (inlet), and the same size as the duct diameter on the 

pressure side (outlet). 

If the connections are different to this there could be a 

greater pressure reduction. 

This extra pressure drop is called the system effect or 

system dissipation, and can cause the fan to produce a 

smaller volume of air. 


Specific Fan Power 

There are now stringent requirements to ensure that power 

consumption in a building is as efficient as possible so as 

to minimise energy costs. Specific Fan Power (SFP) has 

been introduced as a measurement of a ventilation 

system’s energy efficiency. 

The Specific Fan Power for an entire building can be 

defined as the total energy efficiency of all the fans in the 

ventilation system divided by the total air flow through the 

building. The lower the value, the more efficient the 

system is at transferring the air. 

E.g in Norway the recommendations for public sector 

purchasing are that the maximum SFP should be 2.0 when 

maintaining and repairing ventilating units, and 1.5 for new 

installations. 


Specific Fan Power 

To calculate the SFP the following information is required: 

• Power of all fans in the system (kW) 

• Volume flow of air in the system (m3/s) 

SFP = P/V (kW/(m 3 /s)) 

To obtain the power of all fans it is necessary to read the 

kW-rating which can be found on the information plate on 

the electric motors (which drive the fans in your system). 

To obtain the volume flow you can find the rated volume 

flow on each fan in the documentation for the ventilation 

system. Elsewhere an expert can measure the volume flow 

with appropriate instrument. 


Air-cleaning and filtration systems 

There are two reasons for using filters 

in an air-handling unit: 

1. To prevent impurities in the outside air from entering 

the building. 

2. To protect the unit’s components from contamination. 


Heating batteries 

Where the outside air is colder than the required 

temperature for the supply air it is necessary to warm the 

air before it enters the building. 

The air can be warmed in a heating battery, by using either 

an electric heating battery or a hot water battery. 


Electric heating batteries 

An electric-heating battery consists of a number of enclosed 

metal filaments or wire spirals. They create an electrical 

resistance which converts the energy to heat. 

The advantages of the electric battery are: 

• It has a small pressure drop. 

• It is easy to calculate the power to the battery. 

• It is inexpensive to install. 

The main disadvantage is: 

• The metal filaments have considerable heat inertia so the 

electric battery has to be fitted with overheating protection. 


Water heating batteries 

Crossflow water-heating batteries are the most common 

type of water-heating batteries in ventilation units. 

The water flows at right angles and in the opposite 

direction to the air stream. The water flows upwards 

through the battery. This allows any air bubbles to collect 

at the highest point where they can be easily drawn off via 

a ventilating pipe. 


Heat recovery systems 

In a ventilation unit it is often economical to attempt to 

recover the heat which is contained in the exhaust air 

and use it to warm the supply air. There are several 

methods for achieving this type of heat recovery: 

• Plate heat recovery. 

• Rotary heat recovery. 

• Battery heat recovery. 

• Chamber heat exchanger. 

• Heat pipe. 


Recirculation of indoor air 

Recirculation is normally used when the ventilation 

system functions as heating in a building or a part of a 

building. It is difficult to obtain good indoor air quality 

using recirculation. 

Recirculation should incorporate 

• air cleaners 

• a by-pass or auxiliary exhaust system 

• regular maintenance and inspection 

• devices to monitor system performance 


The system should remove as much of the contaminant as 

can economically be separated from exhaust air.

Control systems 

Ideally, buildings should have minimal HVAC (Heating 

Ventilation Air Conditioning) systems. 

However, most modern urban buildings, with their location 

and building constraints, require more extensive electrical 

and mechanical systems with automatic control. 


Control systems 

• The best control strategy allows occupants to directly 

manipulate simple and understandable building 

features, such as windows or shades. 

• Controls should provide immediate feedback on their 

effects. 

• Controls should not require occupant attention for 

safe, healthy indoor conditions, low energy 

consumption and operating costs. 

• Automatic building controls must ensure the building 

operates efficiently regardless of occupant behaviour. 


Evaluating the energy consumption 

Energy consumption for ventilation consists of: 

• heating the air 

• tranportation of the air 

Often the amount of energy for heating and transportation are at the same 

level. 

Energy for heating depends on: 

•Air volume 

•Temperature of outdoor and indoor air 

•Heat recovery 

•Working hours 


Energy for tranportation depends on: 

•Air volume 

•Input power to fans 

•Working hours

Evaluating the energy consumption 

How to find data for the energy consumption 

Air volume [m3/h] or [m3/s]. 

Temperature of outdoor and indoor air 

[C]: 

Heat recovery: ? 

Working hours [h]: 

Input power to fans [kW]: 

Capacity written on the aggregate or in the 

manual 

Outdoor: Yearly average temperature Indoor: 

Set value on inlet air 

If there is any, what is the efficiency? 

Calculations between 0,5 – 0.9 

How many hours will the system be operational 

each day? 

Plate on the fan 


Evaluating the energy 


A. Heating: 

You find the energy consumption with the following formula: 

E [kWh] = (c x ρ) x [m3/s] x [ C] x (1 – ŋ) x [h] 

(c x ρ) = 1,21 kJ/m3xC 

B. Air transport: 

You find the energy consumption with the following formula: 

E [kWh] = [kW] x [h] 


Example „energy consumption“ 

A. Basic data - Heating: 

Air volume: 2.4 m3/s 

Temperature outdoor yearly average: + 8 C 

Temperature indoor set inlet: + 20 C 

Heat recovery efficiency: 0.7 

Working hours: 60 hours/week x 52 weeks 

= 3120 h 


Energy consumption for heating: 

1.21 [kJ/m3xC] x 2.4 [m3/s] x (20 – 8) [ C] x (1 – 0.7) x 3120 [h] 

E = 32618 kWh

Example - energy consumption 

B. Basic data - Air Transport: 

Power input fan motors: 8 kW 

Working hours: 60 hours/week x 52 weeks = 3120 h 

Energy consumption for air transport: 

E = 8 [kW] x 3120 [h] 

E = 24960 kWh 


Example - energy consumption 

Energy consumption for heating: 32618 kWh 

Energy consumption for air transport: 24960 kWh 

Total energy consumption: 57578 kWh 



The energy used in ventilation is a product of power 

(kW) and time in hours (h). The main issues are to 

reduce either the amount of the power or the 

operating hours the power is on. 

In reducing both power and operating hours care is 

needed not to change the indoor air quality that 

would be unacceptable to staff. 

Energy savings can be made: 


2. Slow it down 

3. Select components with best efficiency 

4. Use a control system 


Energy savings – 1. Switch it off 

The simplest method of reducing energy is to switch it off when it 

is not needed. 

There are several ways of controlling “switching off”. 

1.1 Manual switching off 

1.2 Time switch 

1.3 Demand controlled ventilation 

1.4 Control system 


Example Ventilation rates 

Office building 2000 m 2 

Heating capacity for ventilation 45 kW 

Ventilation On 24 hours a day, 7 days a 

week (168 hours weekly) 

Heat recovery 0 % 

Energy consumption 420000 kWh (100%) 

Switch off 12 hours 5 days (Mon-Fri) 

18 hours 1 day (Sat) 

24 hours 1 day a week (Sun) 

From 168 to 66 hours weekly 

Switch off for 102 hours 



Energy savings 255000 kWh (60%)

Energy savings – 2. Slow it down 

Instead of switching the system off, the ventilation 

system can reduce the ventilation rate without a 

noticeable change to the indoor climate. 

Savings can easily be achieved by reducing the air 

flow rate. 


Example Ventilation rates 

Office building 2000 m 2 

Ventilation On 24 hours a day, 

7 days a week (168 hours weekly) 

Heat recovery 0 % 


Slow it down On 24 hours a day, 

7 days a week (168 hours weekly) 

Reduced air rate From 10000 m 3 /h to 7000 m 3 /h 


Energy savings 125000 kWh (60%) 


Energy savings – 3. Select 

components with best efficiency 

All of the following components are important when 

discussing energy efficiency: 

3.1 Fans 

3.2 Air cleaning and filtration 

3.3 Heat recovery and equipment 


Energy savings – 4. Use of control 

systems 

The potential energy saving gained from controllers can be 

up to 60% of ventilation energy costs, depending on 

• Building type and use 

• Local climate 

Direct digital control (DDC) 

Occupancy sensors 

Daylight controls 

Fan motor controllers 

Time clocks 

allows precise, flexible management of electrical and mechanical parts 

of a ventilation system. Digital controls can easily respond to building 

changes and occupancy throughout the life of the building. 

ensure that the air flow rate will be reduced or switched off if people 

are not at their work place 

provide occupants with the ability to adjust space lighting to their own 

needs. Reduced lighting power translates into lower cooling loads, 

smaller HVAC equipment and reduced energy consumption. 


ensure that the motor speed is correctly matched to the load 

requirements of the ventilation system. 

Are very simple and low cost controllers which often can be quickly 

installed

Cooling 

Particularly in large commercial office buildings, high heat 

loads are developed through lighting, computing and other 

electrical sources. Further heat gains are derived from 

occupants, solar radiation and high outdoor temperatures. 

These factors make cooling of the indoor air essential. 

The choice is either to introduce mechanical cooling or to 

introduce ventilation cooling. In either case heat gains should 

be minimised by good building design and reduced power 

consumption. 

Mechanical cooling is energy intensive and contributes to 

peak power loads. When mechanical cooling is needed, 

ventilation must be minimised to prevent the unnecessary loss 

of conditioned air. 


Summary 

Industrial ventilation generally involves the use of supply and 

exhaust ventilation to control 

• emissions, 

• exposure and 

• chemical hazards in the workplace 

Energy is used for two main purpose. To heat the supply air and 

to transport the air in and out of the building. There are many 

parts of the ventilation system where losses occur. 

The first step in performance optimisation should be the analysis 

of the process to determine the heat load and power to fans in its 

magnitude, duration and variability by hours and season. 

Surprisingly this step alone leads to significant energy savings.

Training course on energy efficiency in SMEs - engine-sme.eu

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