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In Proceedings of the IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems
Outrigger Wailea Resort, Maui, Hawaii, USA, Oct. 29 - Nov. 3, 2001, 463-468.
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t A ÈÈZȘ t A éé6ë!ÈO׈b…7E»\RS>9:G8;FL¦K;HJ:G8[º
79i¡RSj[F0D=F>,TS8[:=8[ºTS>,RJFZ:CH0Õ
W >,XZY\À'T >ORJR>9Y[Y[TS7|Ð\:GXh>ORS:G7E8ÙÕ AO×79iRJj;F’>,K[DCHJ798\À
L\F8;M»`>9HJF!Àœ9HJFšHS,TS:G7`bRJ7ÄL\FXZ7E8;HgRSTS>,RJFšRJj[F¤TJFDG:C>OÀ
4
9XZFT >Œ H5Í`FDCL©79idÆ:=F¾A
>ORJ:=798`Ḧ 7,i5RJj[Fh>,»7Od9FBRS>EHP½ŸAÑœ8gé07,i¡RJj[F
D=F>9TJ8[FILMTSFY[TSFHJF8aR
t 9HJFHRSj[FTJ7E»`79R9H_L\K[FRS7š>ZRS:GXZF!À‘79K[R_:=8
79iRJj[FR
½a:=8[ºRJj;FºETJFF8©RS>9TJºEF!RA
RSTS>E<
jBRJj[F¡Ỳ 7aHgR ,DCH¦L[K[TJ:=8[º_¾j[:=<
79i¦RSj[F»`Fj;>|dÆ:G7ETSH:=8¤RJj[F8[FRg¾¡7ETJ½h¾FTSFRJTSK[F9A
9
Moving objects and traversing gates task
8
Track(LightGreen)
7
Drop9
6
Track(Green)
Behaviors
5
4
Track(Yellow)
Track(LightOrange)
¢Gò§¤ÿ!éœóákãJä0œã' éœäkò§¦Jé
¢eëB¤Eð\äkà ó¥œà çý éŽ eãSäaè§òSä¦Jé‘èaè§äkò§ˆå‹à óB¦
ik79T
Y:GºEK[TSF‹A8Ø6(FTJºE:G8;º°D=>EHPFTÁ>98;LØdÆ:=HJK;>9D.:=8\ik79TSXh>ORS:G7E8
>9< ½Æ:=8[º RJT
3
PickUp(Orange)
2
1
Track(LightGreen)
Drop0
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Time [seconds]
…n; s\r ´ ¸ ´\e°† r|µ0b
RSj[F¨FÐÆYFTS:=XF8aRSHY[TSFHJF8aRSFL:G8RSj[:=H¡HPFI,D\79ì
HRJ7.DGFI>,TS80TSFY[TSF!À
RJ7L\FXZ7E8;HgRSTS>,RJFRSj[F¤>,»[:=DG:GRgfZ7,i…RSj[FTS79»7,R
éSéœþéœó èã ë|é‘÷
¢eëB¤îKˆßà
ãSä`ç|ãSáwè.œãSóêà èzà ãSóá ßò'!à
¢eòF¤*ì\óF!à ä§ãJóþéœó è
HJF8aRS>,RJ:=798;H79iEHP½\HRSj;>OR:=8Æd979D=d9F†>,D=D\TS79»7,R9Y;>OÀ
F9A=bE8;>|dÆ:=ºE>,RJ:=798Z>,8;LZ7E»\NgF,8[:=Y[K[DC>ORS:G7E8^8¦Y;:=< ½aÀ
»[:=DG:GRJ:=FHÒk:ˆA
Y:GºEK[TSFƒ*8¹†j[F f o£í ; t9qÊbÙs ´ ¸ @ ·dzs\q¸zµ ´ RS>EHP½
Ô‹A¿¹†j[FFÐÆYFTS:=XF8aRSHZ>,DCHP7
:=8[ºÁK;YË>98;L¿L\TS79Y;Y[:G8;ºÁ7E»\NgF,TS8[:=8[ºj;:GºEj[FTJÀˆD=FdEFD
HJj[7O¾&RJj`>ORRJj[F>,D=º97ETJ:GRJj;XÃ>,D=DG7O¾¨H
FIḦ 79i»Fj`>|da:=79T
^K[TS:=8[ºhRJj;:=H_F!Ð\YFTS:GXZF8aRIb`>,D=D#RSj[TSFF¤RgfÆỲ
>ORS:G7E8
Y[TSFL\7Æ79T S ºa>ORJF¡K;HJ:G8[º¤HJ:GXÀ
»Fj;>|dÆ:=79T
H†>,D=TJFI>9L\f0>|dO>,:=DC>,»[D=FRJ7RJj[FTS79»7,RIA
Y[D=FT»Fj;>|dÆ:=79T
RSj[FTJ7E»`79R:=H,TSTJfÆ:=8[º>98.7E»\NgF9< ½Æ:=8[ºRJj[F2L[FHPRJ:=8;>ORS:G7E8
ºE79:=8[ºRJj[TS79K[ºEjšRSj[FmÞJºE>ORSFBß>,8;LšRJT
>98;LËRJj[F
¹†j;F¨RS>EHP½RS7B»FD=F>,TS8[FILZ»afRSj[F_TS79»7,R¡:=H5RJj[F_ik79D=D=7O¾:G8[º
½šK[Y(RSj[F27ETS>98[º9F»7|ЩY[DC>9,TRSj[F
Ò.Y:=º9K[TSF}Ò§>EÔJÔ8Y[:C<
R >,TSº9F!RIb>98;LËRJjÆK;HhRJj[F(D=:G8;½ÆHš»`FRg¾¡FF8 ` ¸§t“‘^î @
,RJFBß
D=:GºEjER¤º9TSFF8(RS>9TJºEF!RZÒwRJj;FHJ79K[T
ik79TSXZFLš»afRSj[F¤f9FD=D=7O¾°>,8;LhD=:=º9jaR7ETS>98[º9F¨RS>,TSº9FRb\L\TS79YhRSj[F
@n; rB¿
»Fj;>|dÆ:=79T99»`7OdEF>9TJF
´;Æ´ q Y;TJFI,T»F!Rg¾FF8Z»`Fj;>|dÆ:G7ETSH¦ik79T5¾j[:=< jRSj[FỲ 7aHgR 9Y[Ỳ
7ETS>9TJ:=D=fB7Od9FTJDC>,Y b
>9TJFXZF!RL\K[TS:G8[ºB:G8aRJFTJdO>9D=HRSj;>OR¡798[D=f2RSFXZỲ
µ`rO ; rO¸ ´\e Y[TSF¤RJ7EỲ 7EDG7Eº9:C9D
>98;LÁRJj[F
Hba>9H¡:eR†TJFIHPK;DeR HikTS79XÚRJj;FL\FXZ798\À
7ETSL\FT¡»F!Rg¾FF80»Fj;>|dÆ:=79T
>ORS:G7E8#A HPRJT
>,TJR7,i…RJj;FRS>EHP½ŸAÑœ8h79T L\FTRJ7RSF>9< jZRSj[F
»F_9HỲ
½BK[YRSj[F¨»7|Пb9RJj[FjaK;XZ>98ZDGFILBRSj[F
TS79»7,RRJj`>OR:GR5j;>9HRJ7Y[:C<
TS79»7,RRJ7:GR5>,8;L.RSj[F8#bE¾j[F8hHJKTè0,T:GRbaY[DC>9ORS:G7E8_R >,TSº9FRb
»F!Rg¾FF8¤RSj[FTS79»7,R“Œ
RJj;F¤RJF>E< j[FTRS7a7E½0RSj[F»`7|КikTJ7EXÅRJj[FTS79»7,R“Œ H†ºETJ:=Y[YFT HA

L\FºETJFFHMÒz>,8;LïÈ t ,TS8[:G8;º.R >9HJ½
Ñœ8RJj;:=Ḧ
j¦¾¡F0L[F!RJFTJXZ:=8[FRJj[FhFÐ\Ỳ FI,8¦dO>,D=K[F0>,8;L
ik79T¾j;:=<
9׈A
RJj;F29DÕ
H…:=H…RJ7¨ºE7¡RSj[TS79K[ºEj
¹†j;FRS>EHP½HJFD=FORS:G7E8;HbikTJ7EX
ǦFYFTJik79TSXZFL_RJj[TSFFjÆK[Xh>98\ÀˆD=FL¤L\FXZ798;HPRJT
j0>D=F>,TS8[FTTJ7E»`79R5EHP½TJFY[TSFHJF8\À
¾j[:C<
t RJTS:C>,DCHRJj[FTS79»7,R¨EHP½ŸA
Ñœ8(>,D=DÖ
FTPik7ETJXZFLËÖ t RJTS:=>9D=H:=8ľj[:C< jÄRg¾¡7TS79»7,RSHb
@F!ÐÆRb¾FhỲ
< j[FL.TJ7EDGFIH:G8
HPRS>,TJRJ:=8[º_ikTJ7EX¬>¤,TS8[FL2RS>9HJ½Ÿb9HJ¾:eR
>9HJ½A©Y[7ETF>E< jB7,iRJj;F¨>,»7Od9F¡RJTS:=>9D=H¾FTSF,Ð\:GX.K[X
HB7E»;HPFTJdO>,RJ:=798;Hb¾j[FTSF>EH.RJj[FTS79»7,RRJF>E< j[FT
RSj[F(DGFI>,TS8[FT“Œ
j[:=8[ò b,L\K[FRS72:eR H7O¾8ZD=:GXZ:GRJFL
j;>EHRS7¾¡7E8;L\FT¡>,TS79K[8;LZHJF>9TS<
¸§pIt9·ppI¸§µ ´ ó
jË>,D=DG7O¾¨Hh>ÄTS79»7,RhRS7Ù>,K\RS79Xh>ORS:eÀ
¹†j[F­Y[TJFIHPF8aRJFLÌ>9Y[Y[TS7E>9<
RS79XZ:5I>ORS:G7E8#b9¾:GRJj0L\:ŸFTSF8aR¡>9ORJ:=798h9XF.79T>9EHP½\HbRJjÆK;H:G8`9HJ:=8[ºš»F!À
HTJFK;HJ>9»[:=DG:GRgfš>,8`L©L\FIEHP:=8[ºZ|dÆ:=79T
ô
DROP0
MTLGreen1
PICKUPOrange2
RJFI>9< j[:=8[º¦F!Ð\Ỳ FTJ:=XZF8aRSH.»F!ik79TSF¤DGFI>,TS8[:G8;ºMi§>,:=D=FLÙ¾FTSFÉ
79ï
>98;L‹˜MTJFIHPYF,8&ik7ETBRSj[F¹¹‚
MTLOrange4
7E»\RS>9:G8[FIL0ikTS79X
RJj[FFÐÆYFTS:=XF8aRSH†:CH ˜\AsÈ\b\¾:GRJj>,D=K;>ORS:G7E8
Í`L[F8;9D…7,iÕeÖEA
>©jaK;XZ>98¦,8¦»`F
HJj[7O¾¨Hb#>,8ÆfM:=8\ik79TSXh>ORJ:=798ÁDGFI>,TS8[FLMikTJ7EX
MTYellow7
MTGreen8
>,8;HPikFTSFLËRS7¿7,RSj[FT¤TS79»7,RSH©>OR¤DGFI>9HPRš798[FÁXZ79TSF
ikK[TJRJj;FT©RJT
j¾¡F
RS:GXZF:G8­RJj[F¾¡7ETSHPR_9HJF9b…L\FHJY[:GRJFBRJj[F8;>,:=d9F>,Y[Y;TJ7a>9<
DROP9
j[FTIA
j;>|dEF¤FXZY[D=7Of9FLšik79T†RSj[FTS79»7,RRJF>E<
FTPik7ETJXh>,8`,:=8[FL.:=8
¹†j[F¨L\:FTJF8;jÆK[Xh>,8&d9FTSHJK;H>(TS79»7,RRSF>E< j[FT2:CHBL[K[FhRJ7
RSj[F©9HJFh7,ï
RJj[F†jÆK[Xh>,8.i§>9ORSFH
RSj[F¨ÜaK;>,D=:eRgfB7,i;RSj[FL\FXZ7E8;HgRSTS>,RJ:=798^8
INIT
MTLOrange0
HJF8;HJ:=8[ºh,Ỳ >,»[:=DG:GRJ:=FHA
MTYellow1
Y:GºEK[TSFÂÈ8Ú¹>9HJ½ØTJFY[TSFHJF8aRS>,RJ:=798ØD=F>,TS8[FILØikTS79X
jÆK[Xh>,8
L\FX7E8;HPRJT >ORJ:=798©ik79T†RSj[F f o£í ; t,qÊbÙs ´ ¸ @ ·dzs\q¸zµ ´ R >9HJ½
MTLGreen2
>,8;º9F¡RS>,TSº9FRK;8ERS:GD;:eR:CH>ORÖBi t L[Fº9TSFFIHÒ§>98;L¥ t 9TJºEF!RK[8aRS:GD:GR:CH
TSFHJỲ
MTOrange3
>OR t
>9< ½­»7,RSjÄRS>9TJºEF!RSH279K\R HP:CL\F0:GRSHBda:GÀ
RJj;F0TJ7E»`79R2:=H.>,»[D=FhRS7RJT
Š r|s;tB‘ »`Fj;>|dÆ:G7ETSH¾¡FTJF
HJK;>,D;Í;FDCL…baRJj[Fº97a>,DCH7,i…RSj[F_>9»`7OdEF
MTPink4
INIT
>9< j;:GFd9FLš¾:eRSjM>ZHPXZ7Æ7,RSj#b\8;>ORSK[T >,DŸRJT >ONgFI,RJ:=798;H`RS7RJj[F9HJF7,iÆDGFI>,TS8[:=8[ºikTJ7EXŽTS79»7,RŸRJFI>9<
HAÇÁF2>9TJF¤:=8aRJFTSFHPRJFIL¤:G8ML\FRJFTJXZ:=8[:G8;ºZRJj[FTSFD=:=>9»[:=DG:GRgfš79i
FT
Y:=º9K[TSFƒÉH8>EÔ{O8ÆdÆ:GTS798[XZF8ER5ik79TRJj[FTS79»7,RPÀ‘TS79»7,R5RSF>E< j[:G8;º
>9HJ½0CO»Ô#¹>9HJ½TSFY[TSFHJF8aRS>,RJ:=798¤D=F>,TS8[FILikTJ7EXŽTS79»7,R L\FXZ798\À
R
>ORS:G7E8šik7ET†RJj[Fyò ¸§pIķq¸ ´e qs[r e0; qp R >9HJ½
HPRJT
RJj;F¤:=8\ik7ETJXh>ORS:G7E8&RJj`>ORh:=HY;>EHJHJFL&ikTJ7EXÊTJ7E»`79RSHBRJ7¦TJ7E»`79RSH
j[:=8[ºZ»ÆfšL\FXZ7E8;HgRSTS>,RJ:=798#A
»Æf0XZF>98;H†7,iRJFI>9<
ǦFML\FRJFTSXZ:G8;FLËRJj;FRS>9HJ½&RSTS>98;HgikFThTS>,RJF&Ò§¹¹‚_Ô‹bRSj[F
>9HJ½
8ÆK[XB»FT¤7,iBHJK;,XZFMR
>©RJFI>9< j[FT¤RJ7M>¤D=F>,TS8[FTA 4 ¹¹‚Ú7,i ðMXZF>98;HRJj`>OR
ikTS79X
>9HJ½h¾>EH¡RJT >,8;HJXZ:eRJRJFL0ikTJ7EXÅRJj;F7ETJ:=º9:=8;>9DL\FXZ798;HPRJT >OÀ
RJj;F_R
,D=DGf»[K[:=DCL(TJFDG:C>,»;DGFBRS>9HJ½¤TJFY[TJFIHPF8aRS>ORS:G7E8;H†ikTS79XÏ798;DGf¤798[F
RSTJ:C>,DˆA[Y[K[TJRJj;FTSX7ETJFEbaRJj[FRS>EHP½\H¡RJj;FTS79»7,R:CH†>,»[D=FRJ7ZDGFI>,TS8
RJ7ETÁÒ§K;HPK`>,D=DGf¢>&jÆK[Xh>,8Ô/ðXñÃÖ(RJ:=XZFHb¨K[8aRJ:=DRJj[F­i§>,:=DGK;TJF
Y79:=8ERIAM¹†j[:CHBdO>,TS:C>,»[D=FZik79D=DG7O¾¨HB>(º9F79XZF!RSTJ:C,TS»[:eRSTS>9TJ:=D=fÈD=798[ºÚHPFIÜaK[F8;|dÆ:=79T Hb
j »`FI|dÆ:=79T8[FRg¾¡7ETJ½
¾j[:C<
>ORJ:=798 A 4 8Æf»`Fj;>|dÆ:G7ET98»FK;HJFLZ¾:GRJj[7EK\R5,8[ºEF†RS>,TSº9FRSH
>mÞJºE>,RJFBßik7ETJXZFILh»Æf.RSj[Ff9FD=D=7O¾Ì>98;LhD=:GºEjaRPÀ‘79T
Ò.Y:=º9K[TSFaÉ`Ò§>aÔPÔ‹bda:CHJ:eR¤RJj[FÁDG:=º9jaRJÀˆºETJFF8ÌRS>9TJºEF!RIb>,8;L¢,8;L¿79T >,8[ºEFZRS>9TJºEF!RSHAņ¾¡7¦L\:=HPÀ
»;>E<
>9,TSº9F!R H†Òkº9TSFF8.>,RRSj[FRJ7EY.>,8`LBfEFD=DG7O¾¿>,R¦RSj[F†TJ:=º9jaR
RJT
HAǦFB>9TJFik7ETJXh>,D…XZ7\L\FD…ik79T
ik7ETPR
>ORS:G8[º¨RJj[F¡d|>9DG:CL\:GRgf¤7,iÆRJj[F9L¦RS7M:GºE8[79TSF0L\K[TS:=8[ºRJj[F©DGFI>,TS8[:=8[ºM>,8;L¦RSj[F
¹†j[F¨TS79»7,RSH5>,TSF†>9»[D=F†RJ72YFTJik79TSX¬:=8ZX7ETJF¨,8;L¤RS7:=8\ikFT>,8`LFD=:GXZ:=8;>ORSFRSj[F¡:=TSTJFDGFd|>98aR
HJFTSdO>ORJ:=798`H#K;HJ:G8;º798;DGf¤d9FTJfHJ:GXZY[D=F¡9< j[FTA
j(L\7ÆFH8[7,R¤ORSFB:=TPÀ
Ç¢j[:=D=FBRSj[:=H>,Y;Y[TJ7a>9<
»F:=8[º079»`HPFTJdEFL…b[:GR_»;:eÀ
TSFD=FdO>,8aRF8Æda:=TS798[XZF8aRHPRS>,RJF2ikTS79X
jËRJ:=XZF9A 4 Hš>&»;>EHPFM9HJF9bRJ7ÉHPj[7O¾ RSj;>OR0RSj[F
RS>,RJ:=798¢FI>9<
>9L\Fh7OdEFT¤RS:GXZF
YFTJik79TSXZ>98;EHPFIH…RJj;F5TS79»7,R#RS78[79RJ:C98;L0Òk:Gi;9Y;>,»;DGF|Ô…9Y\RJK[TSFRSj[F5½EFf
j[8[:CÜaK[FH
FDGFXF8aRSHA4ǦFÄ>9TJFÄORS:G8;ºÙRJFI<
RJj[F¡HJ>9XFRS>9HJ½TJFY[TJFIHPF8aRS>ORS:G7E8#b¾FYFTJik79TSXZFLZÖ t RSTJ:C>,DCH
ik79T
j&>TS79»7,RTJFỲ FI>ORSFL\D=f­FÐÆFI,»7Od9FRS>EHP½ŸA
:=8¦¾j;:=<
º9F8[FT >,D=:75>ORS:G7E8>9,RJ:=798;H…79i\RJj[F
ik7ET
j[FTA
HS>,XZF†RS>EHP½.:G8RSj[F>,»`HPF8;RJFI>9<
õ/; dzs\q ; ¢¦Bµ`r“‘
j[:=8[º2FI>9< j079RJj[FTRSj[FHS>,XZFR >9HJ½ŸbEFI>9< jhRS:GXZFK`HP:=8[º2RSj[F
RJFI>9<
:=8\ik79TSXh>ORJ:=798©>9,R¡RSj[FY[TJFdÆ:G7EK;H¡HPRJFY#A[Y:GºEK[TSF3É;Ò§»`Ô
:CḦ 8[FI,»[:=D=:eRgf¤RJ7šTJFY[TJFIHPF8aR_>,8;LFÐ\FEHP½\H¾F¤>9TJF:=8ERSFTSFHPRJFIL
FIHJHS>,TSfZik79TD=F>9TJ8[:=8[º.RJj[FRgfÆYFH79i
:=8ØRJFI>9< j[:=8[º°TS79»7,R HAʹ†j[:CHM:CHMỲ >,TJRJ:C,TSDGfŽTJFDGFdO>,8aR­:=8
Y[TSFHJF8aRSHRJj;F|dÆ:=79T_8[F!Rg¾79TS½¤ik79T_RJj[:CH

,XZF¾79TS½Ÿb!¾j[FTJFHJFÜaK[F8ERS:=>9D,»Fj;>|daÀ
RJj;F»`Fj;>|dÆ:G7ETPÀ‘»;>EHPFIL¨ikT
>ORJj;FTRSj;>,8
:=79T¨:CHK`HPK;>9DGD=f0RSTJ:=º9FTJTSFL©RSj[TJ7EK[º9jRSj[F2¾79TSD=L#b;T
RJj;TJ7EK[º9j¤:G8aRSFTS8;>,D#HJFÜaK[F8;,TSDGfhFÐ[>,XZY[D=F79i¦FXB»FL[L\:=8[ºZTSFY[TSFHJF8aRS>,RJ:=7980:=8aRJ7
4
>,DCHP7EH…L\798[F5»afZÕGÖ9֋בA¦¹†j[F5TJFY[TJFIHPF8aRS>ORS:G7E8_¾†>9H
Xh>,8[:=Y[K[DC>ORS:G7E8#A
TS79»7,R&DGFI>,TS8[:=8[º;b
Ñœ8ÈRJj;FÌ|dÆ:=79TJÀˆ»`>9HJFL
j[FH j;>|d9F¡»`FF8Z>ORRJj[F†D=Fd9FDÆ7,i;D=F>9TJ8[:=8[ºỲ 7EDG:GÀ
XZ7EHPR>9Y[Y[TS7E>E<
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L…b D=F!iwRIb>,8;LÄTS:GºEjaR2RJK[TS8[:=8[ºM»Fj;>|dÆ:=79T HSÔ!A¦ÕGÖ“È|×K;HJFL
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RJ:=798¿DGFd9FD¤ÒkTSFHJK[DGRJFIL&:G8¿TJFI>9ORS:G8[º&j;:GºEj\ÀˆD=FdEFD
98;LËTJFỲ
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4
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TS79»7,RL[FXZ798;HPRJT
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RJK;TJF¨>9DGD=7O¾¨HRJj[FTS79»7,R
H#:=8¤RJj[F¡F8ÆdÆ:GTS798;XF8aR#79T
TSFY[TSFHJF8aRJ:=8[ºY[TS79YFTJRJ:=FH#7,i[79»[NgFOR>,D=DG7O¾¨H>2TS79»7,R¡RJ7BD=F>9TJ8
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