Advanced Materials and Structures and their Fabrication ... - Aimme
Advanced Materials and Structures and their Fabrication ... - Aimme
Advanced Materials and Structures and their Fabrication ... - Aimme
You also want an ePaper? Increase the reach of your titles
YUMPU automatically turns print PDFs into web optimized ePapers that Google loves.
Contents<br />
<strong>Advanced</strong> <strong>Materials</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Structures</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>their</strong> <strong>Fabrication</strong> Processes<br />
Book manuscript, Narvik University College, HiN<br />
Dag Lukkassen <strong>and</strong> Annette Meidell<br />
August 23, 2007<br />
I <strong>Materials</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Structures</strong> 8<br />
1 Ceramics<strong>and</strong>glasses ............................ 11<br />
1.1 Ceramics................................ 11<br />
1.2 Glasses . . . .............................. 12<br />
1.3 IndustrialImportanceofCeramics<strong>and</strong>Glasses........... 13<br />
1.4 Industrially Important Glasses . ................... 14<br />
1.5 TechnicalCeramics.......................... 14<br />
1.5.1 High-performanceceramics.................. 15<br />
2 Metals<strong>and</strong>metalalloys........................... 18<br />
2.1 High-peformanceMetals ....................... 19<br />
2.1.1 High-PerformanceAluminum ................ 19<br />
2.1.2 High-PerformanceSteel.................... 20<br />
2.1.3 Space-agemetals ....................... 20<br />
3 Polymers<strong>and</strong>Plastics ........................... 23<br />
3.1 Thestructureofpolymers ...................... 23<br />
3.2 Crystallinityinpolymers....................... 25<br />
3.2.1 The glass transition temperature <strong>and</strong> melting temperature 26<br />
3.3 Plastics ................................ 28<br />
3.4 Propertiesofplastics ......................... 28<br />
3.4.1 Thermosettings ........................ 30
3.4.2 TypesofThermosettings................... 30<br />
3.4.3 Thermoplastics ........................ 32<br />
3.4.4 TypesofThermoplastics................... 34<br />
3.5 Classification ............................. 39<br />
3.6 AdditivesinPlastics ......................... 39<br />
3.6.1 OrientedPlastics ....................... 41<br />
3.7 Elastomers&Rubbers ........................ 41<br />
3.7.1 Rubber <strong>and</strong> ArtificialElastomers .............. 43<br />
3.8 Biopolymers .............................. 47<br />
3.8.1 Whatmakesapolymerabiopolymer? ........... 47<br />
3.8.2 Applicationsofbiopolymers ................. 48<br />
3.8.3 Propertiesofbiopolymers .................. 48<br />
3.8.4 Additional information on raw materials in biopolymers . . 50<br />
3.8.5 Plastictastebetterwithsugar................ 51<br />
4 Composites ................................. 55<br />
4.1 Thehistoryofcomposites ...................... 56<br />
4.2 Naturalcomposites.......................... 56<br />
4.3 Man-madeComposites........................ 58<br />
4.3.1 Fiber-ReinforcedComposites................. 60<br />
4.3.2 Classificationofcomposites ................. 60<br />
4.4 CeramicmatrixcompositesCMC .................. 61<br />
4.5 MetalMatrixCompositesMMC................... 64<br />
4.6 PolymerMatrixCompositesPMC.................. 65<br />
4.7 Fiberreinforcement.......................... 66<br />
4.7.1 Choosing fibers ........................ 67<br />
4.7.2 Glass fibers .......................... 69<br />
4.7.3 Carbon fibers ......................... 70<br />
4.7.4 Boron fiber .......................... 71<br />
4.7.5 Ceramic fibers......................... 71<br />
4.7.6 PolymerFibers ........................ 72<br />
4.7.7 Carbon nanotube (CNT) fibers ............... 74<br />
4.7.8 Fiberhybrids ......................... 75<br />
4.7.9 Spidersilk........................... 75<br />
4.8 Aerogelcomposites .......................... 76<br />
4.9 Textilecomposites .......................... 78<br />
4.10Bio-inspiredmaterials ........................ 78<br />
4.11Self-healingcomposites........................ 79<br />
2
4.12Left-h<strong>and</strong>edmetamaterials...................... 81<br />
5 Smart (intelligent) <strong>Materials</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Structures</strong> . .............. 87<br />
5.1 ColorChanging<strong>Materials</strong> ...................... 88<br />
5.1.1 Photochromicmaterials ................... 88<br />
5.1.2 Thermochromicmaterials .................. 88<br />
5.2 LightEmitting<strong>Materials</strong>....................... 88<br />
5.2.1 Electroluminescent materials . . . .............. 89<br />
5.2.2 Fluorescent materials . . ................... 89<br />
5.2.3 Phosphorescentmaterials................... 90<br />
5.3 Moving<strong>Materials</strong>........................... 91<br />
5.3.1 Conductingpolymers..................... 91<br />
5.3.2 Dielectric elastomers . . ................... 92<br />
5.3.3 Piezoelectricmaterials .................... 92<br />
5.3.4 Polymergels.......................... 93<br />
5.3.5 Shapememorymaterials(SMM) .............. 94<br />
5.3.6 NanostructuredShapeMemory<strong>Materials</strong>.......... 95<br />
5.3.7 MagneticShapeMemory(MSM)<strong>Materials</strong>......... 96<br />
5.4 TemperatureChanging<strong>Materials</strong> .................. 97<br />
5.4.1 Thermoelectricmaterials................... 97<br />
6 FunctionalGradient<strong>Materials</strong>....................... 98<br />
7 Solar Cell <strong>Materials</strong> ............................. 101<br />
7.1 Light-absorbingmaterials ...................... 101<br />
7.2 Silicon . . . .............................. 102<br />
7.3 Thin films............................... 103<br />
7.4 Silicon solar cell device manufacture . . . .............. 104<br />
8 Nano-materials-<strong>and</strong>technology..................... 106<br />
8.1 CarbonNanotubes(CNT) ...................... 107<br />
8.1.1 Strength............................ 108<br />
8.2 Nanocomposites............................ 109<br />
8.3 Flexibleceramics ........................... 110<br />
8.4 NewtypeofHigh-performanceCeramic............... 111<br />
8.5 Backtosquareone? ......................... 112<br />
9 CellularSolids,<strong>Structures</strong>&Foams.................... 116<br />
9.1 MetalFoams.............................. 117<br />
9.1.1 Aluminiumfoam:....................... 118<br />
9.2 Polymericfoam ............................ 119<br />
9.3 Refractoryfoams/Ceramicfoam.................. 122<br />
3
9.3.1 Carbonfoam ......................... 123<br />
9.4 Hierarchicalstructures(multiscalestructures) ........... 123<br />
9.5 Biomaterials .............................. 124<br />
II S<strong>and</strong>wich Constructions 127<br />
10Whyuses<strong>and</strong>wichconstructions? ..................... 128<br />
10.1 Face materials ............................. 130<br />
10.2Corematerials<strong>and</strong>structures .................... 131<br />
10.2.1FoamCores .......................... 132<br />
10.2.2HoneycombCores....................... 132<br />
10.2.3CorrugatedCores....................... 135<br />
10.2.4WoodCores.......................... 136<br />
10.3Adhesives ............................... 137<br />
11Designofs<strong>and</strong>wichconstructions ..................... 140<br />
11.1Designofs<strong>and</strong>wichbeams ...................... 140<br />
11.2 Preliminaries ............................. 141<br />
11.3TheFlexuralRigidity<strong>and</strong>ShearRigidity.............. 143<br />
11.4 Tensile <strong>and</strong> Compressive Stresses .................. 144<br />
11.4.1Duetobending(transversalloading) ............ 144<br />
11.4.2Duetoin-planeloading(axial) ............... 147<br />
11.5 Shear stresses ............................. 148<br />
11.5.1Summaryofapproximations................. 153<br />
11.6 S<strong>and</strong>wich design: stiffness,strength<strong>and</strong>weight .......... 155<br />
11.7Exampleofbeamcalculations .................... 157<br />
11.8 Strength <strong>and</strong> stiffnessdesignexample................ 160<br />
12Failuremodesofs<strong>and</strong>wichpanel...................... 163<br />
12.1 Failure loads <strong>and</strong> stresses ....................... 164<br />
12.2Failure-modemaps .......................... 167<br />
12.2.1 Transition equation between face yielding <strong>and</strong> face wrinkling 167<br />
12.2.2 Transition equation between face yield <strong>and</strong> core shear . . . 169<br />
12.2.3 Transition equation between face wrinkling <strong>and</strong> core shear 169<br />
13 Design Procedures ............................. 174<br />
13.1 The stiffnessofs<strong>and</strong>wichstructures<strong>and</strong>itsoptimization ..... 174<br />
13.1.1 Example of minimum weight design for given stiffness . . . 177<br />
4
III Cellular Solids 180<br />
14 Some definitionsofcellularsolids ..................... 180<br />
14.1Mechanicsofhoneycombs ...................... 183<br />
14.2 In-plane deformation properties, uniaxial loading of hexagonal honeycombs<br />
................................ 183<br />
14.2.1Linear-elasticdeformation .................. 184<br />
14.3Out-of-planedeformationproperties................. 187<br />
14.3.1Linear-elasticdeformation .................. 188<br />
IV Mechanics <strong>and</strong> Effective Properties of Composite<br />
<strong>Structures</strong> <strong>and</strong> Honeycombs 191<br />
15 On effectivePropertiesofComposite<strong>Structures</strong> ............. 191<br />
16Thethermalproblem............................ 191<br />
17Isotropicelasticmaterials.......................... 193<br />
18Orthotropiccomposites........................... 194<br />
19 Square symmetric unidirectional two-phase structure . ......... 196<br />
19.1 Calculation of stiffness<strong>and</strong>compliancematrix........... 198<br />
20Numericalmethodsforperiodicstructures ................ 200<br />
20.1Coordinatetransformation...................... 202<br />
21Acomputationalexample ......................... 206<br />
V <strong>Fabrication</strong> processes 210<br />
22<strong>Fabrication</strong>ofplastics ........................... 210<br />
22.1 Processing of Rubber <strong>and</strong> elastomers . . .............. 218<br />
23<strong>Fabrication</strong>ofFiber-ReinforcedComposites(FRC) ........... 221<br />
23.1 Manufacturing processes of Reinforcements . . . ......... 221<br />
23.2Prepregs,Preforms<strong>and</strong>Compounds................. 223<br />
23.3 <strong>Fabrication</strong> processes of FRC . ................... 224<br />
23.4<strong>Fabrication</strong>ofFunctionallyGradient<strong>Materials</strong>........... 229<br />
23.5<strong>Fabrication</strong>ofs<strong>and</strong>wichconstructions................ 229<br />
24LayerManufacturingTechnology(LMT) ................. 233<br />
24.1 Ballistic particle manufacturing (inkjet) BMP . . ......... 235<br />
24.2 Fused deposition modelling - FDM . . . .............. 235<br />
24.3LOM-Laminatedobjectmanufacturing .............. 236<br />
24.4Selectivelasersintering-SLS .................... 236<br />
5
24.5LaserEngineeredNetShaping(LENS) ............... 237<br />
24.6Stereolithography-SLA....................... 238<br />
24.7Solidgroundcuring-SGC...................... 239<br />
24.8Threedimensionalprinting(3DP).................. 240<br />
24.9PowderProcessing/PowderMetallurgy................ 241<br />
24.10VaporDepositionCVD/PVD .................... 243<br />
24.11Selection of a layered manufacturing process . . . ......... 243<br />
25DesignConsiderations ........................... 247<br />
25.1DesigningforManufacturability(DFM)).............. 247<br />
25.2Productdesignguidelines ...................... 248<br />
25.3Evaluationofdesignalternatives................... 249<br />
25.4Themeaningofcolors ........................ 250<br />
6
Preface<br />
This manuscript is written in order to use it as lecture notes in the course ”<strong>Advanced</strong><br />
materials” given at Narvik University College for master students in the<br />
field of Engineering Design. In the course the students will be familiar with different<br />
kind of advanced materials <strong>and</strong> structures such as for instance smart materials,<br />
functional gradient materials, polymers <strong>and</strong> plastics, nano-materials, elastomers<br />
<strong>and</strong> rubbers, biopolymers, cellular solids <strong>and</strong> structures, <strong>and</strong> different types of<br />
composite materials, which can be found in Part 1 of this report. In Part 2, the<br />
fabrication-processes of different advanced materials, structures <strong>and</strong> forms is described.<br />
The different types of s<strong>and</strong>wich constructions included the design of such<br />
structures are subjects that are discussed in Part 3, while in Part 4 we will have<br />
a closer look at mechanics <strong>and</strong> effective properties of composite structures <strong>and</strong><br />
honeycombs.<br />
This report may also be used as literature for students studying mechanical<br />
engineering, material science, production engineering. We assume that the reader<br />
has a bachelor degree in Engineering.<br />
7
Figure 0.1: Classes of materials.<br />
Part I<br />
<strong>Materials</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Structures</strong><br />
In this part we will mainly consider the concepts of materials <strong>and</strong> structures. The<br />
difference between a material <strong>and</strong> a structure is not clearly defined. Many draw<br />
the lines between what you underst<strong>and</strong> as a homogeneous material when you see<br />
it with your bare eyes, <strong>and</strong> the inhomogeneous material structure that you clearly<br />
see is made up of a fixed geometry or mixing of materials. For instance an alloy is<br />
by this definition a material even though it consists of two or more components,<br />
but a honeycomb core built up of two different components is a structure.<br />
<strong>Materials</strong> are often classified into the six broad classes that are shown in figure<br />
0.1; metals, ceramics, glasses, elastomers, polymers <strong>and</strong> composites. But, when<br />
we also include material structures, the number is bigger, <strong>and</strong> the classification<br />
of the term ”materials <strong>and</strong> structures”, even though it is not a conventional way<br />
of making a classification, may look like the one purposed in figure 0.2. We will<br />
in this book briefly mention main properties of each group in figure 0.2, but the<br />
advanced term in the title of the book refers to a thoroughly study of composites,<br />
polymers, smart materials, s<strong>and</strong>wich constructions, nano-technology, functional<br />
materials, cellular structures.<br />
8
Figure 0.2: Classes of materials <strong>and</strong> structures.<br />
High Performance <strong>Materials</strong> (HPM)<br />
High-performance materials (or <strong>Advanced</strong> Engineering <strong>Materials</strong>) are materials<br />
that provide specific performance advantages in comparison with the counterpart<br />
conventional materials. Often it is difficult to place materials strictly into the<br />
group of high-performance group or other groups, but we often divide materials<br />
into the following main groups:<br />
• St<strong>and</strong>ard materials, which are used in products that is exposed to noncritical<br />
environments <strong>and</strong> low-stress applications<br />
• St<strong>and</strong>ard Engineering <strong>Materials</strong>, which are used in products that must<br />
have general bearing <strong>and</strong> wear properties<br />
• High-performance materials or advanced engineering materials, which<br />
are used in products that must have superior properties (extreme service environments,<br />
superior chemical resistance, wear resistance, <strong>and</strong> loading properties)<br />
There are several types of materials currently called high-performance materials,<br />
for instance high-performance concrete, high-performance composites, highperformance<br />
plastics, high-performance aluminum, high-performance ceramics,<br />
<strong>and</strong> high-performance steel. What they all have in common is that they have<br />
outst<strong>and</strong>ing properties compared to the materials we used earlier. In short time<br />
9
maybethematerialsweknowasHPMtodaymaynotbesohigh-performance<br />
tomorrow, since the materials-science is rapidly changing <strong>and</strong> growing.<br />
While research laboratories are still exploring ways to exploit these materials,<br />
some of them are ready for use. Because there is little data available on the<br />
long-term results of many high-performance materials <strong>and</strong> because there is frequently<br />
a relatively high initial cost, states are reluctant to take on such a venture<br />
independently.<br />
Questions:<br />
What is the conventional way of making a classification of materials?<br />
What is the new way of making a classification of materials?<br />
What is so special about high performance materials?<br />
References:<br />
High-performance materials:<br />
http://www.hiper-group.com/hcproducts.htm<br />
http://www.greatachievements.org/?id=3809<br />
free internet books:<br />
http://books.nap.edu/<br />
10
1. Ceramics <strong>and</strong> glasses<br />
A ceramic is often broadly defined as any inorganic nonmetallic material. By this<br />
definition, ceramic materials would also include glasses; however, many materials<br />
scientists add the stipulation that ”ceramics” must also be crystalline. Recall<br />
that crystalline materials have <strong>their</strong> molecules arranged in repeating patterns, see<br />
Figure 1.1. Therefore we often divide the ceramics <strong>and</strong> glasses into two separate<br />
subgroups of materials.<br />
1.1. Ceramics<br />
Figure 1.1: Crystalline structure.<br />
Examples of ceramic materials can be anything from NaCl (table salt) to clay<br />
(a complex silicate).The term ceramic comes from the Greek word keramikos,<br />
which means burnt stuff, indicating that desirable properties of these materials<br />
are normally achieved through a high-temperature heat treatment process called<br />
firing. Ceramics are refractory (fireproof) materials, <strong>and</strong> has therefore a melting<br />
temperature > 1580 ◦<br />
C.<br />
Due to the covalent character of the chemical bond refractory ceramics exhibit<br />
very high (about 3000 ◦ C) melting point, low mobility of atoms, low plasticity<br />
<strong>and</strong> high hardness at temperatures up to 2000 ◦ C. Therefore, refractory materials<br />
can substitute metals, alloys <strong>and</strong> intermetallics in a lot of high temperature<br />
engineering, chemical <strong>and</strong> electronic applications.<br />
Ceramics are in general hard, brittle, high-melting-point materials with low<br />
electrical <strong>and</strong> thermal conductivity, low thermal expansion, good chemical <strong>and</strong><br />
thermal stability, good creep resistance, high elastic modulus, high compressive<br />
strength, low density, high stiffness, high hardness, high wear resistance, <strong>and</strong> high<br />
11
corrosion resistance. Many ceramics are good electrical <strong>and</strong> thermal insulators.<br />
Some ceramics have special properties: some ceramics are magnetic materials;<br />
some are piezoelectric materials; <strong>and</strong> a few special ceramics are superconductors<br />
at very low temperatures. Ceramics are widely used in the electrical industry<br />
mostly due to <strong>their</strong> high electrical resistance. Ceramics <strong>and</strong> glasses have one<br />
major drawback: they are brittle. Their extremely low fracture toughness is the<br />
drawback of ceramics in comparison with metals. It means that ceramics have a<br />
very low tolerance of crack-like flaws.<br />
Ceramic fibers such as graphite <strong>and</strong> aluminum oxide with <strong>their</strong> extremely high<br />
stiffness have led to the production of fiber-reinforced composites. These materials<br />
are only a few of an ever-growing list of industrially important ceramics. Recently,<br />
new groups of ceramics have emerged with the possibility to use them as loadbearing<br />
materials.<br />
1.2. Glasses<br />
Glass is an inorganic nonmetallic material that does not have a crystalline structure.<br />
Such materials are said to be amorphous. Recall that amorphous materials<br />
have <strong>their</strong> molecules arranged r<strong>and</strong>omly <strong>and</strong> in long chains which twist <strong>and</strong> curve<br />
Figure 1.2: Amorph structure.<br />
around one-another, making large regions of highly structured morphology unlikely,<br />
see Figure 1.2. Examples of glasses range from the soda-lime silicate glass<br />
in soda bottles to the extremely high purity silica glass in optical fibers.<br />
The major raw material of glass is s<strong>and</strong> (or "quartz s<strong>and</strong>") that contains<br />
almost 100 % crystalline silica in the form of quartz. Most glass formulations<br />
contain about 70—72 % by weight of silicon dioxide (SiO2). Soda-lime glass which<br />
is the most common form of glass contains nearly 30 % sodium <strong>and</strong> calcium oxides<br />
12
Figure 1.3: A transmission cable containing hundreds of glass optical fibers.<br />
or carbonates. Pyrex is borosilicate glass containing about 10 % boric oxide. Lead<br />
crystal is a form of lead glass that contains a minimum of 24 % lead oxide.<br />
Large natural single crystals of quartz are pure silicon dioxide, <strong>and</strong> upon crushing<br />
are used for high quality specialty glasses. Synthetic amorphous silica, an<br />
almost 100 % pure form of quartz, is the raw material for the most expensive<br />
specialty glasses.<br />
1.3. Industrial Importance of Ceramics <strong>and</strong> Glasses<br />
Silicon [Si] (do not confuse it with Silicone which are mixed inorganic-organic<br />
polymers) has many industrial uses, for instance is it the principal component<br />
of most semiconductor devices (whose electrical conductivity is in between that<br />
of a conductor <strong>and</strong> that of an insulator), most importantly integrated circuits or<br />
microchips. Silicon has been THE material which has made computers possible.<br />
In the form of silica <strong>and</strong> silicates, silicon forms useful glasses, cements, <strong>and</strong><br />
ceramics. It is also a component of silicones, a class-name for various synthetic<br />
plastic substances made of silicon, oxygen, carbon <strong>and</strong> hydrogen, often confused<br />
with silicon itself.<br />
Glasses have historically been used for low technology applications such as<br />
soda bottles <strong>and</strong> window panes. However, glasses, like ceramics, have recently<br />
foundnewapplicationinhightechnologyfields (particularly the semiconductor<br />
microelectronics industry where silica is widely used as an insulator in transistors<br />
<strong>and</strong> the fiber optic cable industry where high purity silica glass has made advanced<br />
telecommunications possible, see Figure 1.3).<br />
As with ceramics, the list of industrially important glasses also continues to<br />
grow. As a result of <strong>their</strong> unique properties, ceramics <strong>and</strong> glasses are materials<br />
which will be used extensively in areas such as aerospace, automobiles, microelectronics,<br />
<strong>and</strong> telecommunications.<br />
13
1.4. Industrially Important Glasses<br />
Silicon [Si] (do not confuse with Silicone which are mixed inorganic-organic polymers)<br />
has many industrial uses, for instance is it the principal component of<br />
most semiconductor devices (whose electrical conductivity is in between that of<br />
a conductor <strong>and</strong> that of an insulator), most importantly integrated circuits or<br />
microchips.<br />
In the form of silica <strong>and</strong> silicates, silicon forms useful glasses, cements, <strong>and</strong><br />
ceramics. It is also a component of silicones, a class-name for various synthetic<br />
plastic substances made of silicon, oxygen, carbon <strong>and</strong> hydrogen, often confused<br />
with silicon itself.<br />
• Silica glass (SiO2) is used for optical fibers when it is very pure.<br />
• Soda-lime glass (SiO2-Na2O-CaO) is the st<strong>and</strong>ard glass used for bottles <strong>and</strong><br />
windows due to its low cost <strong>and</strong> easy manufacturing.<br />
• Borosilicate glass (SiO2-B2O3) is good in applications where thermal shock<br />
resistance is necessary (e.g. laboratory glassware) because of its low coefficient<br />
of thermal expansion<br />
• Lead glass (SiO2-PbO) commonly known as ”crystal”, this glass has a high<br />
index of refraction causing it to sparkle (much like a diamond)<br />
1.5. Technical Ceramics<br />
Technical Ceramics covers ceramic materials <strong>and</strong> products for technical application.<br />
Terms such as:<br />
· functional ceramics (Components which fulfill an electrical, magnetic, dielectrical,<br />
optical etc. function)<br />
· structural ceramics, engineering ceramics, or industrial ceramics (Components<br />
which are subjected mainly to mechanical loads.)<br />
· electro-ceramics<br />
· cutting ceramics<br />
· bio-ceramics<br />
· high-performance ceramics (see below)<br />
describe the products groups of Technical Ceramics, but due to overlapping<br />
there is not a clear classification.<br />
14
Figure 1.4: Products made of ceramic material.<br />
1.5.1. High-performance ceramics<br />
High-performance ceramics are ceramics with incredibly light weight, high hardness,<br />
non-corrodable, high melting points, high price <strong>and</strong> advanced applications,<br />
see Figure 1.4.<br />
Components made from high-performance ceramics are often determining the<br />
functionality of machinery by possessing excellent corrosion resistance, very high<br />
thermal stability <strong>and</strong> wear resistance, as well as high biocompatibility. Density,<br />
porosity, electrical <strong>and</strong> optical characteristics can be varied within a wide range.<br />
Highly specialized <strong>and</strong> flexible production techniques enable us to match our products<br />
to the specific customerdem<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
In ENV 12212 (classification system for European comity for st<strong>and</strong>ardization,<br />
CEN) high-performance ceramics are defined as ”highly developed, highperformance<br />
applicable ceramic material, which is mainly non-metallic <strong>and</strong> inorganic,<br />
<strong>and</strong> has certain functional properties.” The term is seen as a differentiation<br />
to traditional clay based ceramic that includes china-ware, sanitary ceramic tiles<br />
<strong>and</strong> bricks <strong>and</strong> covers all technical ceramics. The materials for electrical engineering<br />
are st<strong>and</strong>ardized according to the international st<strong>and</strong>ard IEC 627 (International<br />
Electrotechnical Commission, IEC).<br />
The terms used above are often still used in classify technical ceramics. However<br />
a precise classification is only possible if the materials are listed under <strong>their</strong><br />
following chemical composition:<br />
• silicate ceramics<br />
— technical porcelain (quartz, feldspar <strong>and</strong> kaolin. )<br />
15
— steatite (major component: soapstone, additives: clay <strong>and</strong> flux)<br />
— cordierite (these magnesium silicates occur during the sintering of soapstone<br />
with added clay, kaolin, corundium <strong>and</strong> mullite.)<br />
— mullite-ceramic (Al2O3 <strong>and</strong> SiO2,where mullite: (3 Al2O3 2SiO2) <strong>and</strong><br />
corundium (Al2O3) )<br />
• oxide ceramics<br />
— aluminium oxide (AL2O3)<br />
— magnesium oxide (MgO)<br />
— zirconium oxide (ZrO2)<br />
— aluminium titanate (AT)<br />
— piezo ceramic (PZT), (the most important piezoelectrical ceramic materials<br />
are based on the oxide mixed crystals system lead zirconate <strong>and</strong><br />
lead titanate)<br />
• nonoxide ceramics:<br />
— carbide: Silicon carbide (SIC), Sintered silicon carbide (SSIC), Reaction<br />
bonded silicom infiltrated silicon carbide (SSIC), Recrystallized<br />
silicon carbide (RSIC), <strong>and</strong> Nitride bonded silicom carbide (NSIC)<br />
— nitride: Silicon nitride (Si3N4), Silicon aluminium oxynitride (SIALON),<br />
<strong>and</strong> Aluminium nitride (ALN).<br />
Questions:<br />
• What is the special properties of ceramics <strong>and</strong> glasses?<br />
• What are they used for?<br />
• What are the industrally important glasses?<br />
• What kind of different ceramics are there?<br />
• What is a high-performance ceramic?<br />
• What is the drawback of ceramics compared to metals?<br />
References:<br />
http://www.keramverb<strong>and</strong>.de/keramik/englisch/fachinfo/<br />
werkstoffe/definitionen.htm<br />
16
http://www.globaltechnoscan.com/<br />
31stOct-6thNov02/high_performance_ceramics.htm<br />
http://www.globaltechnoscan.com/<br />
http://www.sciam.com/explore_directory.cfm<br />
http://www.mse.cornell.edu/courses/engri111/ceramic.htm<br />
http://www.mse.cornell.edu/courses/engri111/impglass.htm<br />
http://biotsavart.tripod.com/327.htm<br />
http://www.engr.sjsu.edu/WofMatE/<br />
17
2. Metals <strong>and</strong> metal alloys<br />
Figure 2.1: A suspension bridge.<br />
Metals are elements that generally have good electrical <strong>and</strong> thermal conductivity.<br />
Many metals have high strength, high stiffness, <strong>and</strong> have good ductility. Some<br />
metals, such as iron, cobalt <strong>and</strong> nickel are magnetic. Many metals <strong>and</strong> alloys have<br />
high densities <strong>and</strong> are used in applications which require a high mass-to-volume<br />
ratio.<br />
At extremely low temperatures, some metals <strong>and</strong> intermetallic compounds become<br />
superconductors (a superconductor can conduct electricity without electrical<br />
resistance at temperatures above absolute zero. The change from normal electrical<br />
conductivity to superconductivity occurs suddenly at a critical temperature Tc).<br />
Puremetalsareelementswhichcomesfrom a particular area of the periodic<br />
table. Examples of pure metals include copper in electrical wires <strong>and</strong> aluminum<br />
in cooking foil <strong>and</strong> beverage cans.<br />
Metal Alloys contain more than one metallic element. Their properties can be<br />
changed by changing the elements present in the alloy. Examples of metal alloys<br />
include stainless steel which is an alloy of iron, nickel, <strong>and</strong> chromium; <strong>and</strong> gold<br />
jewelry which usually contains an alloy of gold <strong>and</strong> nickel.<br />
Some metal alloys, such as those based on aluminum, have low densities <strong>and</strong><br />
are used in aerospace applications for fuel economy. Other examples: Many metal<br />
alloys also have high fracture toughness, which means they can withst<strong>and</strong> impact<br />
<strong>and</strong> are durable. Many beverage cans are made of aluminum metal. Many<br />
structures, such as this suspension bridge, are made of steel alloys, see Figure<br />
2.1. Aircraft skins are made of lightweight aluminum alloys with high fracture<br />
toughness.<br />
18
2.1. High-peformance Metals<br />
When metal components must perform under critical conditions, manufacturers<br />
need high-performance metals. Titanium-base alloys, <strong>and</strong> specialty steels for the<br />
aerospace industry are metals of exceptional wear resistance, corrosion resistance,<br />
heat resistance, toughness, <strong>and</strong> strength. Nickel- <strong>and</strong> cobalt-based materials are<br />
known as superalloys. Turbine blades are for instance made of superalloys in<br />
order to withst<strong>and</strong> the temperatures well above 2,000◦ F(1093.3 ◦<br />
C). The most<br />
advanced of these turbine blades are grown from molten metal as single crystals<br />
in ceramic molds, in order to obtain maximum possible resistance to hightemperature<br />
deformation.<br />
2.1.1. High-Performance Aluminum<br />
Aluminum bridge decks have a number of advantages over concrete <strong>and</strong> steel decks.<br />
Aluminum is about 80 percent lighter than concrete. This substantial weight<br />
savings allows many bridges to be strengthened without extensive reengineering<br />
of substructures.<br />
Aluminum requires fewer welds than steel, eliminating many potential failure<br />
points. Compared to steel, aluminum is less expensive, both in the short term <strong>and</strong><br />
the long term. An aluminum deck is also more resistant to corrosion <strong>and</strong> other<br />
environmental degradation.<br />
Aluminium alloys are often used in Defense <strong>and</strong> Aerospace, which is one of<br />
the most dem<strong>and</strong>ing industries, see Figure 2.2. These industries use high strength<br />
5xxx series (Al-Mg) which are non-heat treatable base alloys for some applications,<br />
but also make use of some of the more specialized heat treatable aluminum alloys<br />
with superior mechanical properties.<br />
Aluminum armor plating is used for its impact strength <strong>and</strong> strength-to-weight<br />
ratio, <strong>and</strong> here alloy 5083, 7039 (Al-Zn) <strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> 2519 (AL-Cu ) are used as base<br />
materials. Missiles are constructed of alloys 2019 <strong>and</strong> 2219. Perhaps the most<br />
exotic aluminum alloys, with exceptional strength over a wide range of operating<br />
temperatures, are used in the aerospace industry. Some of these alloys are 2219,<br />
2014, 2090, 2024, <strong>and</strong> 7075. These base materials are typically used in specialized<br />
high performance applications <strong>and</strong> have <strong>their</strong> own welding characteristics <strong>and</strong><br />
associated problems that require special considerations when joining.<br />
19
2.1.2. High-Performance Steel<br />
Figure 2.2: Aerospace industry.<br />
A new grade of high performance steel, HPS-485W or HPS-70W, uses a new<br />
chemical composition that provides improved welding <strong>and</strong> toughness properties.<br />
The increase in strength <strong>and</strong> performance will allow targeted use of HPS that will<br />
extend the useful life of steel bridge structures; <strong>and</strong> even greater savings with the<br />
reduction of the total steel weight.<br />
Structural components in new cars are for example made from high-performance<br />
steel that is 3 times stronger than ordinary steel (900 MPa instead of 300 which<br />
is ususal). This makes the new cars very crash resistant such that the passengers<br />
are much more protected if there should be a collision.<br />
2.1.3. Space-age metals<br />
In jet aircrafts, rockets, missiles <strong>and</strong> nuclear reactors, the metals columbium (Nb,<br />
41), titanium (Ti, 22), hafnium (Hf, 72), zirconium (Zr, 40) <strong>and</strong> tantalum (Ta,<br />
73) are used. Columbium (niobium) can withst<strong>and</strong> high temperatures <strong>and</strong> can be<br />
used for the skin <strong>and</strong> structural members of aerospace equipment <strong>and</strong> missiles. It<br />
is a lightweight metal <strong>and</strong> a superconductor of electricity (which means that it<br />
could be possible to use it in storing <strong>and</strong> transferring large amounts of energy in<br />
thefuture). Titaniumisasstrongassteel <strong>and</strong> 45% lighter, <strong>and</strong> is often used for<br />
jetenginecomponents(rotors,fins, <strong>and</strong> compressor parts) <strong>and</strong> other aerospace<br />
20
parts. Hafnium <strong>and</strong> zirconium are always found together are they make it possible<br />
to control nuclear reactors in a precise way. The superior corrosion resistance of<br />
zirconium makes it (<strong>and</strong> its alloys) very useful in the chemical industry <strong>and</strong> for<br />
surgical implants. Pure zirconium has for a long time been used as the light<br />
source in photo flash tubes, since it is a reactive metal that burns in air with a<br />
brilliant white light. Tantalum (often occurs as the mineral columbitetantalite) is<br />
very malleable <strong>and</strong> ductile. Its melting point is at 2996 ◦<br />
C, <strong>and</strong> is often used as a<br />
replacement for platinium in chemical, <strong>and</strong> dental equipment <strong>and</strong> instruments. It<br />
is also used to make electrolytic capacitors <strong>and</strong> are used in vacuum furnaces.<br />
A superconducting material transmits electricity with virtually no energy loss.<br />
Superconductivity, which occurs in many metals <strong>and</strong> alloys, is very new <strong>and</strong> is<br />
therefore not yet in widespread use. Superconductivity is a phenomenon occurring<br />
in certain materials at extremely low temperatures, characterized by exactly zero<br />
electrical resistance <strong>and</strong> the exclusion of the interior magnetic field (the Meissner<br />
effect). Superconductivity occurs in a wide variety of materials, including<br />
simple elements like tin <strong>and</strong> aluminium, various metallic alloys <strong>and</strong> some heavilydoped<br />
semiconductors. Superconductivity does not occur in noble metals (metals<br />
that are resistant to corrosion or oxidation, for instance gold, silver, tantalum,<br />
platinum, palladium <strong>and</strong> rhodium; unlike most base metals), nor in most ferromagnetic<br />
metals.<br />
Questions:<br />
•Why are metals <strong>and</strong> metal alloys used?<br />
•What is so special about high performance metals?<br />
• In the space-age, what features in a material or material structure would be<br />
important in the future?<br />
•What kind of metals are used in space equipment, <strong>and</strong> why are they used?<br />
References:<br />
http://www.mse.cornell.edu/courses/engri111/metal.htm<br />
http://www.allvac.com/<br />
http://www.greatachievements.org/<br />
http://www.hiper-group.com/hcproducts.htm<br />
http://www.spacedaily.com/news/materials-02zh.html<br />
http://www.alcotec.com/ataafi.htm<br />
http://www.weldreality.com/aluminumalloys.htm<br />
High Performance Steel Designers’ Guide:<br />
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/guidetoc.htm<br />
21
http://www.mmc.co.jp/alloy/english/products/taisyoku/gijyutsu3.html<br />
R. Gregg Bruce, Mileta M. Tomovic, John E. Neely <strong>and</strong> Richard R. Kibble, Modern<br />
materials <strong>and</strong> manufacturing processes, ISBN: 0-13-186859-4, Second edition,<br />
Prentice Hall, 1998.<br />
22
Figure 3.1: Polymerization by addition of equal monomers.<br />
3. Polymers <strong>and</strong> Plastics<br />
Polymer etymology: The word polymer comes from Greek: poly means ‘many’<br />
<strong>and</strong> mer comes from merous which roughly means ‘parts’. Polymers are organic<br />
materials characterized by long chain-like molecules built up from many units<br />
(monomers), see Figure 3.1, generally repeated hundreds or thous<strong>and</strong>s of times.<br />
Allatomsinachainarebondedbycovalentbondtoeachother,whileV<strong>and</strong>er<br />
Waals bonding keeps the chains together. Starch, cellulose, <strong>and</strong> proteins are<br />
natural polymers. Nylon <strong>and</strong> polyethylene are synthetic polymers.<br />
From organic chemistry, polymer is defined as: ”a large molecule formed by<br />
the union of at least five identical monomers; it may be natural, such as cellulose<br />
or DNA, or synthetic, such as nylon or polyethylene; polymers usually contain<br />
many more than five monomers, <strong>and</strong> some may contain hundreds or thous<strong>and</strong>s of<br />
monomers in each chain.”<br />
3.1. The structure of polymers<br />
Polymerization is the word for the process of forming large molecules from small<br />
molecules. When there are no possibility to add any more atoms, the molecules<br />
are said to be saturated. When molecules do not have the maximum number<br />
of atoms, because atoms in the molecule are held together with double or triple<br />
covalent (shared) bonds, they are called unsaturated. The unsaturated molecules<br />
are important in the polymerization process, which means that small molecules<br />
are linked together to form large molecules, as you can see in Figure 3.1, where<br />
the process has taken place through addition mechanism. Here, a large molecule<br />
23
Figure 3.2: Methane <strong>and</strong> ethane.<br />
(polymer) is formed by a repeated unit (mer). Activators or catalysts (benzoyl<br />
peroxide) are often required to drive the reaction. A polymer can also be made<br />
from a condensation process which means that reactive molecules combine with<br />
one another to produce a polymer plus small, by-product molecules, such as water.<br />
Often, heat, pressure or a catalyst are required to drive the reaction. In most<br />
commercial available plastics the number of mers in the polymer (which is known<br />
as the degree of polymerization) range from 75 to 750. When two different types of<br />
mers are combined into the same addition chain, we call them copolymers. And,<br />
in terpolymers three different monomers are included.<br />
The molecular structure of polymers are often based on paraffin-type hydrocarbons<br />
where carbon <strong>and</strong> hydrogen are linked in the relationship<br />
CnH2n+2,<br />
as we see in Figure 3.2. Hydrogen can be replaced by chlorine, flouring <strong>and</strong> also<br />
benzene. Carbon can be replaced by oxygen, silicon, sulfur or nitrogen. These<br />
possibilities are the reason why a wide range of organic compounds can be created.<br />
By the description of polymers we see that wood (cellulose-type materials, see<br />
Figure 3.3) are included in the group of polymer. It has been accepted for many<br />
years that cellulose is a long chain polymer, made up of repeating units of glucose,<br />
a simple sugar. As a carbohydrate, the chemistry of cellulose is primarily the<br />
chemistry of alcohols; <strong>and</strong> it forms many of the common derivatives of alcohols,<br />
such as esters, ethers, etc. These derivatives form the basis for much of the<br />
industrial technology of cellulose in use today. Cellulose derivatives are used<br />
commercially in two ways, as transient intermediates or as permanent products.<br />
24
3.2. Crystallinity in polymers<br />
Figure 3.3: The structure of cellulose.<br />
We need to distinguish between crystalline (see Figure 1.1) <strong>and</strong> amorphous materials<br />
(see Figure 1.2) <strong>and</strong> then show how these forms coexist in polymers. The<br />
reasons for the differing behaviors lie mainly in the structure of the solids.<br />
The morphology of most polymers is semi-crystalline. That is, they form mixtures<br />
of small crystals <strong>and</strong> amorphous material, see Figure 3.4 <strong>and</strong> melt over a<br />
range of temperature instead of at a single melting point. The crystalline material<br />
shows a high degree of order formed by folding <strong>and</strong> stacking of the polymer<br />
chains. The amorphous or glass-like structure shows no long range order, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
Figure 3.4: A polymer with the combination of amorphous <strong>and</strong> crystalline areas, from:<br />
http://plc.cwru.edu/tutorial/enhanced/files/polymers/orient/orient.htm<br />
25
chains are tangled. There are some polymers that are completely amorphous, but<br />
most are a combination with the tangled <strong>and</strong> disordered regions surrounding the<br />
crystalline areas. Most thermoplastics have crystalline regions alternating with<br />
amorphous regions, while<br />
3.2.1. The glass transition temperature <strong>and</strong> melting temperature<br />
The glass transition temperature Tg (also called the glass temperature), describes<br />
the temperature at which amorphous polymers undergo a second order phase transition<br />
from a rubbery, viscous amorphous solid to a brittle, glassy amorphous solid.<br />
Tg is a property of amorphous polymers which do not have a sharp melting point,<br />
<strong>and</strong> is defined as the temperature at which the specificvolumevstemperatureplot<br />
has a change in slope, see Figure 3.5. When we cool an amorphous material from<br />
the liquid state, there is no abrupt change in volume such as occurs in the case<br />
of cooling of a crystalline material through its freezing point, Tf (=Tm). Instead,<br />
at the glass transition temperature, Tg, there is a change in slope of the curve of<br />
specific volume vs. temperature, moving from a low value in the glassy state to a<br />
higher value in the rubbery state over a range of temperatures. This comparison<br />
between a crystalline material (1) <strong>and</strong> an amorphous material (2) is illustrated in<br />
Figure 3.5. Note that the intersections of the two straight line segments of curve<br />
(2) defines the quantity Tg. When a polymer is cooled below Tg, the molecules<br />
have little relative mobility, <strong>and</strong> the material becomes hard <strong>and</strong> brittle, like glass.<br />
Some polymers are used above <strong>their</strong> glass transition temperatures, <strong>and</strong> some are<br />
used below. Tg is usually referred to wholly or partially amorphous phases in<br />
glasses <strong>and</strong> polymers. As the temperature of a polymer drops below Tg, itbehaves<br />
in an increasingly brittle manner. As the temperature rises above the Tg,<br />
the polymer becomes more rubber-like. In general, values of Tg well below room<br />
temperature define the domain of elastomers <strong>and</strong> values above room temperature<br />
define rigid, structural polymers.<br />
The glass transition is not the same thing as melting. Among synthetic polymers,<br />
(crystalline) melting temperature Tmcrystalline melting is only discussed<br />
with regards to thermoplastics, as thermosetting polymers will decompose at high<br />
temperatures rather than melt. Tm (also called flow temperature for amorphous<br />
materials) happens when the polymer chains fall out of <strong>their</strong> crystal structures,<br />
<strong>and</strong> become a disordered liquid.<br />
Even crystalline polymers will have a some amorphous portion. This portion<br />
usually makes up 40-70% of the polymer sample. This is why the same sample of a<br />
26
Figure 3.5: Comparison between a crystalline material (1) <strong>and</strong> an amorphous material<br />
(2). From: http://plc.cwru.edu/tutorial/enhanced/files/polymers/therm/therm.htm<br />
polymer can have both a glass transition temperature <strong>and</strong> a melting temperature.<br />
But you should know that the amorphous portion undergoes the glass transition<br />
only, <strong>and</strong> the crystalline portion undergoes melting only.<br />
According to Wikipedia, the disaster of the space Shuttle Challenger was<br />
caused by rubber O-rings that were below <strong>their</strong> Tg, on an unusually cold Florida<br />
morning, <strong>and</strong> thus could not flex enough to form proper seals between sections<br />
of the two solid-fuel rocket boosters (SRB), see Wikipedia. SRB’s are used to<br />
provide the main thrust (reaction force) in spacecrafts launches from the earthe<br />
up to about 45 kilometres.<br />
Polymer science is a broad field that includes many types of materials which<br />
incorporate long chain structure of many repeat units as discussed above. The<br />
two major polymer classes are:<br />
• Elastomers<br />
• Plastics<br />
Another important property of polymers, also strongly dependent on <strong>their</strong><br />
temperatures, is <strong>their</strong> response to the application of a force, as indicated by two<br />
27
Figure 3.6: Plastics.<br />
main types of behavior: elastic <strong>and</strong> plastic. Elastic materials will return to <strong>their</strong><br />
original shape once the force is removed. Plastic materials will not regain <strong>their</strong><br />
shape. In plastic materials, flow is occurring, much like a highly viscous liquid.<br />
Most materials demonstrate a combination of elastic <strong>and</strong> plastic behavior, showing<br />
plastic behavior after the elastic limit has been exceeded.<br />
3.3. Plastics<br />
Plastics, see Figure 3.6, are a large group of polymers that has properties between<br />
elastomers <strong>and</strong> fibers, <strong>and</strong> has plastic behavior. As such, plastics have a wide<br />
range of properties such as flexibility <strong>and</strong> hardness <strong>and</strong> can be synthesized to<br />
have almost any combination of desired properties.<br />
Plastics are polymers which, under appropriate conditions of temperature <strong>and</strong><br />
pressure, can be molded or shaped (such as blowing to form a film). In contrast<br />
to elastomers, plastics have a greater stiffness <strong>and</strong> lack reversible elasticity. All<br />
plastics are polymers but not all polymers are plastics.<br />
Cellulose is an example of a polymeric material which must be substantially<br />
modified before processing with the usual methods used for plastics. Every day<br />
plastics such as polyethylene <strong>and</strong> poly(vinyl chloride) have replaced traditional<br />
materials like paper <strong>and</strong> copper for a wide variety of applications.<br />
3.4. Properties of plastics<br />
New types of plastics are developed all the time, <strong>and</strong> therefore it is helpful to have<br />
a brief knowledge of the following general basic properties of plastics.<br />
28
• Light weight: Most plastics have a specific gravity(SG) between 1.1 <strong>and</strong><br />
1.6. Magnesium has a SG about 1.75. Specific gravityis the heaviness of<br />
a substance compared to that of water, <strong>and</strong> it is expressed without units. In<br />
themetricsystemspecific gravityisthesameasintheEnglishsystem. If<br />
something is 7.85 times as heavy as an equal volume of water (such as iron<br />
is) its specific gravity is 7.85. Its density is 7.85 grams per cubic centimeter,<br />
or 7.85 kilograms per liter, or 7.85 metric tons per cubic meter.<br />
• Corrosion resistance: Many plastics perform well in hostile, corrosive<br />
environments.<br />
• Electrical resistance: Plastics are often used as insulating materials.<br />
• Low thermal conductivity: Plastics are relatively good thermal insulators.<br />
• Variety of optical properties: You can get a plastic in almost any color<br />
you would like, <strong>and</strong> the color can go throughout (not only at the surface).<br />
You can also get transparent or opaque plastics.<br />
• Formability: Plastics are easy to form (often in only one single operation).<br />
Extrusion, casting <strong>and</strong> molding are widely used.<br />
• Surface finish: You can get the surface you want, from rough to excellent<br />
surface finish.<br />
• Comparatively low cost: Both material <strong>and</strong> processing/manufacturing<br />
processes are cheap. Tool costs are also low.<br />
• Low energy content: Plastics melt at low temperature compared with<br />
metals, <strong>and</strong> are therefore produced with little energy.<br />
The mechanical strength of plastics are not especially high, compared to metals,<br />
but the low density makes them comparable to metals due to <strong>their</strong> strengthto-weight<br />
ratio (or specific strength). A material has high specific strengthifthe<br />
ratio of its strength to its weight is high.<br />
Plastics are usually divided into two main groups: thermosettings or thermoplastics.<br />
The terms refer to the materials response to elevated temperature. It is<br />
important to know whether the plastic is a thermosetting or a thermoplastic since<br />
it determines how the plastic will perform in service.<br />
29
3.4.1. Thermosettings<br />
In some plastics, polymerization produces cross linkage between long molecular<br />
weight chain molecules. These plastics are known as thermosetting plastics because<br />
they are permanently hardened by heat. The setting process is irreversible,<br />
so that these materials do not become soft under high temperatures. Additional<br />
heating do not lead to softening, but the material maintain <strong>their</strong> mechanical properties<br />
up to the temperature at which they char, or burn.<br />
Thermosetting plastics usually have a highly cross-linked or three dimensional<br />
framework structure in which all atoms are connected by strong, covalent bonds.<br />
They are generally produced by the process of condensation polymerization where<br />
elevated temperature promotes the irreversible reaction, hence the term thermosetting.<br />
The thermosettings are stronger <strong>and</strong> more rigid than the thermoplastics, but<br />
have a lower ductility <strong>and</strong> poorer impact properties. These plastics also resist<br />
wear <strong>and</strong> attack by chemicals <strong>and</strong> they are very durable, even when exposed to<br />
extreme environments.<br />
Typical thermosetting-type plastics are the aminos, most polyesters, alkyds,<br />
epoxies, phenolics <strong>and</strong> urethanes.<br />
3.4.2. Types of Thermosettings<br />
PUR - Polyurethane/polyurethene (or PU)<br />
PUR is found in a variety of forms ranging from stiff to soft types. Stiff PUR is<br />
used for casings <strong>and</strong> modelling material (artificial wood). Softer rubber-like PUR<br />
is used for h<strong>and</strong>tools. Exp<strong>and</strong>ed PUR is used for mattresses <strong>and</strong> car inner panels<br />
where it both forms the foam <strong>and</strong> the leather-like skin. Exp<strong>and</strong>able insulation<br />
foam <strong>and</strong> moisture hardening glue are also made from PUR. Large parts are often<br />
made from PUR due to low tooling cost. In general it has excellent outdoor<br />
performance <strong>and</strong> resistance to most acids <strong>and</strong> solvents.<br />
Genoastackingchair.PURcanbemadefromawidevarietyofrawmaterials<br />
to give hard, clear resins for surface coating: soft flexible resins for oil resistant <strong>and</strong><br />
abrasion resistant rubbers; rigid or flexible foams for thermal insulation, cushion<br />
<strong>and</strong> fabric stiffeners. In building surface coating <strong>and</strong> thermal insulation are <strong>their</strong><br />
main applications.<br />
Products: Mil-Tek high pressure cleaner, Panton chair, Shoe soles, <strong>and</strong> it is<br />
used as modelling material (produced by Westnofa) in the Product Design course<br />
at HiN .<br />
30
EP - Epoxy<br />
Epoxy is a strong <strong>and</strong> very resistant thermoset plastic. It is used as an adhesive<br />
agent, as filling material, for moulding dies, <strong>and</strong> as a protective coating on steel<br />
<strong>and</strong> concrete. Many composite materials are reinforced epoxy.<br />
Epoxy is resistant to almost all acids <strong>and</strong> solvents, but not to strong bases or<br />
solvents with chlorine content.<br />
By adding a hardening agent curing takes place. The type of hardener has a<br />
major influence on properties <strong>and</strong> applications of epoxies.<br />
Products: Surfing board, Composite bicycle, Badminton racket, Wheel chair,<br />
Knee support, Soda stream pressure, container, Skull, model, Car space frame,<br />
Wheelchairramp,Swingwheel.<br />
UP - Unsaturated Polyester<br />
UP is widely used as filler material with glass fibre in sailing boats, hard tops<br />
for cars, furniture, etc. In general UP is not resistant to solvents <strong>and</strong> bases.<br />
Apart from sulphuric acid it resists acids. To improve appearance <strong>and</strong> resistance<br />
a surface layer (gel coat or paint) is often added. UP does not require expensive<br />
equipment or tooling to work with UP, <strong>and</strong> it is therefore often used for prototypes<br />
<strong>and</strong> low-volume production.<br />
Products: Sailing boat, Chair, Hard top for car, Printed circuit board, Pedestrian<br />
bridge.<br />
UF - Urea formaldehyde<br />
Urea thermoset molding compounds offer a wide range of applications for<br />
every-day living <strong>and</strong> industry. Urea formaldehyde (UF) thermosets are economically<br />
priced, they are strong, glossy, <strong>and</strong> durable. They are not affected by fats,<br />
oils esters, ether, petrol, alcohol or acetone, nor by detergents or weak acids, <strong>and</strong><br />
they exhibit good resistance to weak alkalis.<br />
Their high mechanical strength, heat <strong>and</strong> fire resistance, <strong>and</strong> good electrical<br />
arc <strong>and</strong> tracking resistance make them an ideal plastic for numerous industrial <strong>and</strong><br />
household applications, from doorknobs <strong>and</strong> toilet seats to electrical components<br />
<strong>and</strong> cosmetics enclosures. You name it — if it can be plastic, it can be stronger<br />
<strong>and</strong> brighter as a (Perstorp) urea thermoset.<br />
MF - Melamine formaldehyde<br />
Melamine thermoset plastics are similar to urea molding compounds, but<br />
melamine has even better resistance to heat, chemicals, moisture, electricity <strong>and</strong><br />
scratching.<br />
31
Melamine formaldehyde (MF) thermosets are ideal for dinnerware, kitchen<br />
utensils, bathroom accessories, <strong>and</strong> electrical components. The molded compounds<br />
are bright, inviting, <strong>and</strong> highly resistant to scratches <strong>and</strong> staining. (Perstorp’s)<br />
melamine thermosets are approved for contact with foodstuffs, <strong>and</strong> they<br />
do not affect the food’s flavor - even at high temperatures. They are very, very<br />
durable.<br />
Like urea molding compounds, melamine thermosets consist of plastic that has<br />
high surface hardness <strong>and</strong> gloss, brilliant <strong>and</strong> precise colors, <strong>and</strong> light fastness.<br />
UF or MF thermosets can be manufactured in a precise <strong>and</strong> vibrant array of<br />
colors. Two-tone compression molding using doublepunch tools will enable you<br />
to express your creative designs. For example, your cups or sinks can have white<br />
inside <strong>and</strong> tasteful color outside. The choice of color <strong>and</strong> shape is limited only by<br />
your imagination.<br />
Alkyd resins<br />
This group of polyesters are usually compression moulded from powders. Originally<br />
produced for inclusions in paints, they are resistant to heat <strong>and</strong> electricity<br />
<strong>and</strong> will withst<strong>and</strong> attack by acids <strong>and</strong> solvents. Alkyd plastics find applications<br />
in enamels for cars, refrigerators <strong>and</strong> washing machines <strong>and</strong> are also used for<br />
electric motor insulation <strong>and</strong> some television parts.<br />
Silicones<br />
Silicon is an element whose atoms have similar linking properties to those of<br />
carbon, but it is stable at much higher temperatures. To utilize the properties of<br />
silicon, certain plastics, called silicones have been developed based on the element.<br />
Although they are much more expensive, they contain excellent properties. These<br />
super materials are available as oil, plastics <strong>and</strong> rubbers. To quote an example<br />
illustrating <strong>their</strong> value: silicone rubber will retain its elasticity over a temperature<br />
range of -80 ◦ Cto250 ◦ C. The stability of silicones under widely varying service<br />
conditions make them valuable materials for applications such as laminates in the<br />
aerospace industry, gaskets <strong>and</strong> seals for engineering purposes <strong>and</strong> cable insulation<br />
for aircraft electrical systems.<br />
3.4.3. Thermoplastics<br />
Thermoplastics, alternatively thermosoftenings, as the name implies, are hard at<br />
low temperatures but soften when they are heated. The softening <strong>and</strong> hardening<br />
can be repeated without any change in the chemical structure. Although they are<br />
32
Figure 3.7: The easiest way to identify the type of thermoplastic you’re working with<br />
is to look for the Plastic ID symbol the backside of the part.<br />
less commonly used than thermosetting plastics they do have some advantages,<br />
such as greater fracture toughness, long shelf life of the raw material, capacity for<br />
recycling <strong>and</strong> a cleaner, safer workplace because organic solvents are not needed<br />
for the hardening process.<br />
Thermoplastics have weak bonds between the neighboring molecules <strong>and</strong> they<br />
are weakened by elevated temperature which means they soften at high temperature<br />
<strong>and</strong> are stronger <strong>and</strong> harder when cooled. They do not have any definite<br />
melting temperature, they have a range of temperatures where they soften. When<br />
cooled below the glass transition temperature, Tg, the linear polymer retains its<br />
amorphous structure, but becomes hard, brittle, <strong>and</strong> glasslike.<br />
Thermoplastics are not cross-linked <strong>and</strong> can be softened <strong>and</strong> hardened over <strong>and</strong><br />
over again. The majority of polymers are thermoplastic. Today there are primarily<br />
six commodity polymers in use, namely polyethylene terephthalate (PETE),<br />
polyethylene(PE),polyvinylchloride(PVC),polypropylene(PP),polystyrene<br />
(PS) <strong>and</strong> polycarbonate (PC). These make up nearly 98% of all polymers <strong>and</strong><br />
plastics encountered in daily life, see ref.[33].<br />
The Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc. (SPI) introduced its resin identification<br />
coding system in 1988 at the urging of recyclers around the country. The SPI<br />
code was developed to meet recyclers needs while providing manufacturers a consistent,<br />
uniform system that could apply nationwide, see figure 3.7. Look at the<br />
bottomofarecyclableplasticbottle-chancesareyouwillseeaPEorPSwhich<br />
means polyethylene or polystyrene. These materials are examples of what happens<br />
33
to polymers when they solidify: the chains are entangled <strong>and</strong> packed together to<br />
make light, tough, flexible materials. If you heat up PE or PS to moderate temperatures,<br />
if the chains have not been chemically stuck together (‘cross-linked’)<br />
they will melt, <strong>and</strong> turn into goopy liquids, which are called polymer melts. Some<br />
polymers melts even at room temperature, like polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), or<br />
poly(ethylene-propylene) (PEP).<br />
3.4.4. Types of Thermoplastics<br />
PET - Polyethylene terephthalate (or PETE)<br />
PET has good barrier properties against oxygen <strong>and</strong> carbon dioxide. Therefore,<br />
it is utilized in bottles for mineral water. Other applications include food<br />
trays for oven use, roasting bags, audio/video tapes as well as mechanical components.<br />
PET exists both as an amorphous (transparent) <strong>and</strong> as a semi-crystalline<br />
(opaque <strong>and</strong> white) thermoplastic material. Generally, it has good resistance<br />
to mineral oils, solvents <strong>and</strong> acids but not to bases.<br />
The semi-crystalline PET has good strength, ductility, stiffness <strong>and</strong> hardness.<br />
The amorphous PET has better ductility but less stiffness <strong>and</strong> hardness.<br />
Danish Name PET - thermoplastic polyester<br />
Products: Bottle for mineral water, Trays for oven use, Oven foils, Audio <strong>and</strong><br />
video tapes, Thermo scarf (fleece)<br />
PE - Polyethylene<br />
PE is a semi-crystalline thermoplastic material <strong>and</strong> one of the most commonly<br />
used plastics. It is generally ductile, flexible <strong>and</strong> has low strength. PE is one<br />
of the most commonly used thermoplastic material due to the good properties<br />
combined with a low price.<br />
There are two basic families: LDPE (low density), <strong>and</strong> HDPE (high density):<br />
• LDPE - low density polyethylene: LDPE is the low density version of<br />
PE. This has less hardness, stiffness <strong>and</strong> strength compared to HDPE, but<br />
better ductility. It is opaque <strong>and</strong> only thin foils can be transparent. LDPE<br />
is used for packaging like foils, trays <strong>and</strong> plastic bags both for food <strong>and</strong><br />
non-food purposes. Used as protective coating on paper, textiles <strong>and</strong> other<br />
plastics, for instance in milk cartons. Products: Wrapping foil for packaging,<br />
Plastic bag (soft type that does not crackle), Garbage bag, Tubes, Ice cube<br />
plastic bag.<br />
34
• HDPE - high density polyethylene: HDPE is the high density version<br />
of PE plastic. It is harder, stronger <strong>and</strong> a little heavier than LDPE, but less<br />
ductile. Dishwasher safe. HDPE is lighter than water, <strong>and</strong> can be moulded,<br />
machined, <strong>and</strong> joined together using welding (difficult to glue). The appearance<br />
is wax-like, lusterless <strong>and</strong> opaque. The use of UV-stabilizators (carbon<br />
black) improves its weather resistance but turns it black. Some types can be<br />
used in contact with food. Products: Milestone, Bottle for motor oil, Bottle<br />
for organic solvents, Street bollard, Hedge cutter, Gasoline tank, Milk<br />
bottles, Plastic bag (stiff type that crackles), Children’s toys, Lid for honey<br />
pot, Beer crate, Dolphin bicycle trailer.<br />
PVC - Polyvinyl chloride (vinyl)<br />
PVC is one of the oldest <strong>and</strong> most commonly used thermoplastic material, it<br />
is a heavy, stiff, ductile <strong>and</strong> medium strong amorphous (transparent) material.<br />
By adding softeners, a range of softer materials can be achieved, ranging from<br />
a flexible to an almost rubber-like elastic soft material. Softeners also help to<br />
increase the manufacturability. PVC has brilliant resistance to acids <strong>and</strong> bases,<br />
but is affected by some solvents. Soft PVC is exceptionally resistant to most<br />
chemicals. The poor weather resistance can be improved using additives. PVC<br />
has good barrier properties to atmospheric gasses. PVC has a Tg of 83◦C, making<br />
it good, for example, for cold water pipes, but unsuitable for hot water. PVC will<br />
also always be a brittle solid at room temperature.<br />
Products: Boat fender, garden hose, electrical wire insulation, vinyl flooring,<br />
roof gutter, vinyl record, children’s doll, wrapping film, medical transparent tube,<br />
Pneumatic chair.<br />
PP - Polypropylene<br />
PP is an inexpensive, ductile, low strength material with reasonable outdoor<br />
performance. The material surface is soft wax-like <strong>and</strong> scratches easily. It has a<br />
high stiffness, good strength even in relatively high temperatures, abrasion resistant,<br />
good elastic properties <strong>and</strong> a hard glossy surface. In low temperatures PP<br />
gets brittle (< 0◦C). Stiffness <strong>and</strong> strength are often improved using reinforcement<br />
of glass, chalk or talc. The color is opaque <strong>and</strong> white, but it can be dyed in many<br />
colors. In many ways, PP is similar to HDPE, but it is stiffer <strong>and</strong> melts at 165-<br />
170◦C. PP can be manufactured by all the methods used for thermoplastics. PP<br />
has high crystallinity (70-80 %), <strong>and</strong> is one of the lightest thermoplastics on the<br />
marked. The chemical properties are good. PP is resistant to inorganic chemicals<br />
35
<strong>and</strong> water. It is resistant to most strong mineral acids <strong>and</strong> basics. PP is not<br />
resistant to nitrous gasses, halogens <strong>and</strong> strong oxidizing acids.<br />
Products: Childrens toy bin, transport box, fuel tank, suitcase, garbage bin,<br />
rope, shaver (rechargeable), air intake, tubes, packing material, auto parts etc.<br />
The material is often used for hinges as it can be flexed millions of times before<br />
breaking.<br />
PS - Polystyrene<br />
Polystyrene is an inexpensive amorphous thermoplastics that has good mechanical<br />
proprieties. It is vitreous, brittle <strong>and</strong> has low strength. However it is<br />
also hard <strong>and</strong> stiff. Foamed PS is used for packaging <strong>and</strong> insulation purposes.<br />
PS is not weather resistant, <strong>and</strong> therefore not suitable for outdoor uses. PS is<br />
transparent (it transmits about 90% of the sunlight) <strong>and</strong> has unlimited dyeing<br />
possibilities. Assembly can be done with gluing.<br />
Products: CD <strong>and</strong> MC covers, disposable drinking glass, glass for bicycle<br />
lamp, salad bowl, razor (ordinary), razor (biodegradable), disposable articles,<br />
signs, machine parts <strong>and</strong> picture frames etc.<br />
PC - Polycarbonate<br />
Polycarbonate is an amorphous plastic with very high impact strength, good<br />
ductility <strong>and</strong> high stiffness. It is very difficult to break <strong>and</strong> the material is therefore<br />
considered fracture-proof (e.g. bullet-proof glass).<br />
Light transmission is 85-90% but depends on the thickness. It has good outdoors<br />
resistance in the UV-stabilized form, but it tends to turn yellow by long<br />
exposition to sunlight. PC is transparent <strong>and</strong> can be dyed in many colors. PC<br />
has a relatively good chemical resistance.<br />
Products: PC is commonly used for shielding of work places <strong>and</strong> machines,<br />
sight glass, tubes etc. due to its transparency <strong>and</strong> high impact resistance, CD<br />
compact disc, bullet-proof glass, water container.<br />
ABS -Acrylonitrile-butadiene- styrene<br />
Acrylnitrile contributes with thermal <strong>and</strong> chemical resistance, <strong>and</strong> the rubberlike<br />
butadiene gives ductility <strong>and</strong> impact strength. Styrene gives the glossy<br />
surface <strong>and</strong> makes the material easily machinable <strong>and</strong> less expensive.<br />
Generally, ABS has good impact strength also at low temperatures. It has satisfactory<br />
stiffness <strong>and</strong> dimensional stability, glossy surface <strong>and</strong> is easy to machine.<br />
If UV-stabilizators are added, ABS is suitable for outdoor applications.<br />
Products: LEGO building bricks, Computer mouse, Vacuum jug, KimBox<br />
suitcase, Ceramic advanced wet shave razor, Hedge cutter h<strong>and</strong>le, H<strong>and</strong>le for<br />
36
high pressure cleaner, Shaver, rechargeable, Ensemble chair (ABS blended with<br />
PA), auto body parts, suitcases, toys etc. Extruded profiles, tubes <strong>and</strong> bolts can<br />
be made from ABS when the requirements are high impact resistance <strong>and</strong> a nice<br />
surface.<br />
PA - Polyamide (nylon)<br />
PA is a group of amorphous (transparent) <strong>and</strong> semi-crystalline (opal-white)<br />
plastics. Arguments for using PA include strength (fishing line, axe h<strong>and</strong>le),<br />
wear resistance (bearings), barrier properties (food packaging) <strong>and</strong> machinability.<br />
Polamide is recognised for good abrasion resistance, low friction coefficient, good<br />
resistance to heat <strong>and</strong> good impact resistance. PA absorbs water which makes it<br />
softer. UV-stabilizators are required for outdoor applications.<br />
Products: Nylons (stockings), fishing line, bicycle trailer (rainproof cover),<br />
bearing, axe, hedge cutter, h<strong>and</strong>le for, high pressure cleaner, bottle for tomato<br />
ketchup (barrier layer), ensemble chair (PA blended with ABS), bottle-opener.<br />
Kevlar (aramid fibre) is a family of nylons.<br />
Acrylic - PMMA (plexiglas)<br />
PMMA (polymethyl-methacrylate) is an amorphous thermoplastic material<br />
with very good optical properties (as transparent as glass <strong>and</strong> it allows 92% of<br />
the sunlight to pass!).<br />
PMMA is hard, stiff <strong>and</strong> medium strong, easy to scratch, notch sensitive,<br />
but easy to polish <strong>and</strong> has a very good weather resistance. Exceptional outdoor<br />
performance, such as weather <strong>and</strong> sunlight resistance, without reduction neither of<br />
optical nor mechanical properties. PMMA is resistant to water, basics, inorganic<br />
salts diluted in water, most diluted acids. It is not resistant to strong acids, basics<br />
<strong>and</strong> polar solvents.<br />
Products: Tail light glass, exhibition case, folding chair, kitchen scale, decoration<br />
articles, transparent tubes, signs, windows, level glass etc..<br />
POM - (polyoxymethylene) Acetal<br />
Acetal is a crystalline plastic often used for technical applications due to its<br />
strength, ductility <strong>and</strong> good machinability. It has good creep properties which<br />
makes it suitable for click connections (e.g. bicycle lamp holder). It exhibits good<br />
stiffness, strength <strong>and</strong> hardness up to 120◦C, <strong>and</strong> the elasticity is comparable<br />
with that of many metals. Acetal is wear resistant <strong>and</strong> has a very low friction<br />
coefficient. The color is opaque white. To protect it from UV-light carbon black<br />
can be added, changing its color into black.<br />
37
Products: Vacuum jug (top), Holder for bicycle lamp, Fitting for Vico Duo<br />
chair, Gearwheel.<br />
PTFE - Fluoropolymer (Teflon)<br />
Fluoropolymers can be used to make a variety of articles having a combination<br />
of mechanical, electrical, chemical, temperature <strong>and</strong> friction-resisting properties<br />
unmatched by articles made of any other material. Commercial use of these <strong>and</strong><br />
other valuable properties combined in one material has established TEFLON R°<br />
resins as outst<strong>and</strong>ing engineering materials for use in many industrial <strong>and</strong> military<br />
applications. TEFLON R° resins may also be compounded with fillers or<br />
reinforcing agents to modify <strong>their</strong> performance in use.<br />
TEFLON R° PTFE resins have a continuous service temperature of 260 ◦ C<br />
(500 ◦ F). Much higher temperatures can be satisfactorily sustained for shorter<br />
exposures.<br />
Teflon is used in: Food processing, Electrical parts, Coaxial cable connectors,<br />
Terminal insulators, Transformers, Relays, Medical industry, Washers, Gaskets,<br />
Flanges, Valve components, Pump Components, Baffles, Seals, Bearings, Rings,<br />
Bushings , High heat applications. Teflon is available as: Sheets, Rods, Tubes,<br />
Heavy wall tubing, Film, Rectangular bar, Pressure sensitive, tape.<br />
TPUR - Thermoplastic urethane (or TPU)<br />
TPU is a urethane based TPE (thermoplastic elastomer). It is made of long<br />
chained molecules of diols <strong>and</strong> diisocyanates. Urethane is the unit which is repeated<br />
in polyurethane. TPU has a very good abrasion resistance. It is a tough<br />
material with a good elasticity over a wide temperature range. TPU is filling the<br />
gap between rubber material <strong>and</strong> the more traditional thermoplastics.<br />
The electrical conductance is very low. TPU is a hygroscopic material, <strong>and</strong><br />
the conductance is dependent on the content of moisture. TPU is resistant to<br />
oil, fat, gasoline, <strong>and</strong> ozone. It is not resistant to hot water, steam, strong acids<br />
<strong>and</strong> basics. Polyether based TPU is resistant to microbes. TPU is available in a<br />
variety of qualities.<br />
Products: Bumpers, hoses, tubes, sleeves, cushions, coating, insulators, apron<br />
rollers etc.<br />
PEEK - Polyetheretherketone<br />
PEEK is a high temperature resistant engineered thermoplastic with excellent<br />
chemical <strong>and</strong> fatigue resistance plus thermal stability. They exhibit superior<br />
mechanical <strong>and</strong> electrical properties. With a maximum continuous working temperature<br />
of 249 ◦ C(480 ◦ F), they have excellent retention of mechanical properties<br />
38
up to 299 ◦ C(570 ◦ F) in a steam or high-pressure water environment. Superior<br />
chemical resistance has allowed them to work effectively as a metal replacement<br />
in harsh environments. They are inert to all common solvents <strong>and</strong> resist a wide<br />
range of organic <strong>and</strong> inorganic liquids. When ∆extensive machining is required,<br />
a secondary annealing process should be considered.<br />
PEEK is an excellent material for a wide spectrum of applications where thermal,chemical,<br />
<strong>and</strong> combustion properties are critical to performance. The addition<br />
of glass fiber <strong>and</strong> carbon fiber reinforcements enhances the mechanical <strong>and</strong><br />
thermal properties of the basic PEEK material.<br />
Products: automobile engine parts, medical equipment, aerospace products.<br />
Today there are primarily six commodity polymers in use, namely polyethylene,<br />
polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene terephthalate, polystyrene <strong>and</strong><br />
polycarbonate. These make up nearly 98% of all polymers <strong>and</strong> plastics encountered<br />
in daily life.<br />
3.5. Classification<br />
• St<strong>and</strong>ard plastics used in non-critical <strong>and</strong> low-stress applications are materials<br />
like PS, ABS, PVC, PP, HDPE, <strong>and</strong> LDPE.<br />
• Engineering plastics that are used in general structural, bearing <strong>and</strong> wear<br />
purpose are plastics like PPO (Polyphenylene oxide, modified), Acrylic, PC<br />
(Polycarbonate), PET-P (Polyethylene Terephtalate), POM (Poly-oxymethylene<br />
=Acetal), PA (Polyamide = Nylon), <strong>and</strong> UHMW-PE (Ultra high mole wt.<br />
Polyethylene).<br />
• <strong>Advanced</strong> engineering plastics that have superior properties <strong>and</strong> can be<br />
used in extreme environments are plastics like PSU (Polysulfone), PPSU<br />
(Polyphenylsulfone), PEI (Polyetherimide), PTFE (Polytetraflouroethylene<br />
=Teflon), PPS (Polyphenylene sulfide), PEEK (Polyetheretherketone), PI<br />
(Polyimid), PAI (Polyamide-imide), <strong>and</strong> PBI (Polybenzimidazole).<br />
3.6. Additives in Plastics<br />
Very often, some additional materials are mixed into plastics, to obtain:<br />
• improved properties<br />
39
• reduced cost<br />
• improved moldability<br />
• wanted color<br />
These additional materials are classified as fillers, plasticizers, lubricants, coloring<br />
agents, stabilizers, antioxidants, flame retardants, foaming or blowing agents,<br />
antifogging agents, antistatic agents, clarifying agents <strong>and</strong> optical brighteners.<br />
New ones are added to the list continuously, so we briefly mention a few of them.<br />
Fillers<br />
Improve mechanical properties, reduce shrinkage, reduce weight or provide<br />
bulk. Fillers comprise a large percentage of the total volume of the plastic. Example<br />
of fillers can be: wood flour, cloth fibers, glass fibers, clay.<br />
Plasticizers<br />
Increase flexibility, improve flow during molding, reduce shrinkage, reduce<br />
weight.<br />
Lubricants<br />
Comparison of both internal lubricants <strong>and</strong> external lubricants which can be<br />
blended with various materials to reduce friction, <strong>and</strong> wear, improve mar resistance,<br />
<strong>and</strong> extend the useful life of products which are subject to friction. They<br />
also improve moldability <strong>and</strong> extraction from molds.<br />
Coloring Agents<br />
Coloring Agents are put in the plastic to Impart color.<br />
Stabilizers<br />
Stabilizers retard degradation due to heat or light.<br />
Antioxidants<br />
Antioxidants retard degradation due to oxidation.<br />
Flame retardants<br />
Flame retardants reduce flammability.<br />
Foaming Agents<br />
Foaming Agents, also known as Blowing or Nucleating Agents, can eliminate<br />
sink marks, reduce density, shorten cycle time <strong>and</strong> reduce total production costs.<br />
In extrusion <strong>and</strong> injection molding, foaming agents can save material weight <strong>and</strong><br />
lower total cost. They also improve extrusion rates by increasing the volume that<br />
40
can be processed per extruder in a given period of time, <strong>and</strong> endothermic foaming<br />
agents absorb heat <strong>and</strong> improve injection molding cycle time.<br />
Antifogging agents<br />
Antifogging agents reduce the formation of condensed droplets on the surface<br />
of polyolefin films, such as for food-packaging or agricultural films, resulting in<br />
better film transparency <strong>and</strong> consequently providing better food preservation.<br />
Antistatic agents<br />
These new permanent antistatic agents, form a conductive network throughout<br />
the polymer matrix which dissipates the electrical charge as it builds up. They<br />
are already effective for processing <strong>and</strong> even work at low environmental humidity.<br />
Clarifying agents/Optical brighteners<br />
Clarifying agents/optical brighteners are designed to give brilliance <strong>and</strong> whitening<br />
to a variety of applications. Synthetic fibers for example, have an inherent<br />
yellowish tint. Add optical brighteners <strong>and</strong> the fibers appear cleaner <strong>and</strong> whiter.<br />
IRGACLEAR R° is a range of products that not only improves the clarity <strong>and</strong><br />
transparency of polypropylene, but also enhances the mechanical properties.<br />
3.6.1. Oriented Plastics<br />
The strength of the intermolecular bond increases with reduced separation distance,<br />
<strong>and</strong> that is why a processing that makes the molecules align parallel make<br />
the long-chain thermoplastic higher strength in a given direction. This is called<br />
an orientation process, <strong>and</strong> can be obtained by stretching, rolling, or extrusion, as<br />
shown in the Figure 3.8. When a polymer (amorphous or crystalline) is subjected<br />
to stress (tensile), the molecular chains become aligned or oriented parallel to the<br />
direction of applied stress. The polymer is then in an oriented state. Orienting<br />
may increase the tensile strength by more than 200%, but 25% is more typical.<br />
3.7. Elastomers & Rubbers<br />
Elastomers, or rubbery materials, have a loose cross-linked structure. Natural <strong>and</strong><br />
synthetic rubbers are both common examples of elastomers. Elastomers possess<br />
memory, that is, they return to <strong>their</strong> original shape after a stress is applied.<br />
Elastomers are amorphous polymers <strong>and</strong> consist of long polymer chains above<br />
<strong>their</strong> glass transition temperature. The structure of elastomers is tightly twisted<br />
or curled.<br />
41
Figure 3.8: Presentation of the alignment of the plastic molecules in the orienting<br />
process.<br />
Figure 3.9: Elastomers.<br />
Elastomers are reversibly stretchable for small deformations. When stretched,<br />
the polymer chains become elongated <strong>and</strong> ordered along the deformation direction.<br />
When no longer stretched, the chains r<strong>and</strong>omize again. The cross-links guide the<br />
elastomer back to its original shape. They are very flexible <strong>and</strong> elastic, which<br />
means that they can undergo large elastic deformations without ruptures <strong>and</strong><br />
recover substantially in shape <strong>and</strong> size after the load has been removed. Many<br />
elastomers can be stretched to several times <strong>their</strong> original length. Also, the cycle<br />
can be repeated numerous times with identical results, as with the stretching of<br />
arubberb<strong>and</strong>.<br />
Elastomers are generally resistant to oil <strong>and</strong> fuel, impermeable to liquids <strong>and</strong><br />
gases, but tend to deteriorate by oxidation.<br />
42
Like plastics, elastomers are either thermoplastic material (they can be remelted)<br />
or thermoset material (that cannot be remelted). Rubber is an older name for<br />
elastomers.<br />
Elastomeric polymers do not follow Hooks’s law (as most engineering material<br />
do). The behavior of the elastomers is a bit more complex due to the molecular<br />
shape <strong>and</strong> the fact that small degree of viscous deformation in produced when<br />
load is applied.<br />
3.7.1. Rubber <strong>and</strong> Artificial Elastomers<br />
The oldest commercial elastomer is natural rubber, which is made from a processes<br />
sap of a tropical tree. Natural rubber (NR) is a biopolymer which is known as<br />
polyisoprene. The rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) is the most common source of<br />
natural rubber used today. Polyisoprene can also be synthesized by polymerization<br />
from its monomer isoprene (CH2=C(CH3)CH=CH2), (IR). This is a rare example<br />
of a natural polymer that we can make almost as well as nature does. Rubber has<br />
been used for centuries by the South American Indians. They most probably were<br />
the people who discovered that if latex (a milky fluid that circulates in the inner<br />
portions of the bark of many tropical <strong>and</strong> subtropical trees <strong>and</strong> shrubs) is dried,<br />
it can be pressed into useful objects such as bottles, shoes <strong>and</strong> balls. Figure 3.10<br />
shows the common use of rubber.<br />
However, it was not until the 1830s (when John Haskins <strong>and</strong> Edward Chaffee<br />
organized the first rubber-goods factory in the United States) that the commercial<br />
rubber industry really began to flourish. But rubber had many weaknesses;<br />
it softened with heat <strong>and</strong> hardened with cold; it was tacky, odorous, <strong>and</strong> perishable.<br />
In 1834 the German chemist Friedrich Ludersdorf <strong>and</strong> the American<br />
chemist Nathaniel Hayward discovered that if they added sulfur to gum, then<br />
rubber lessened or eliminated the stickiness of finished rubber goods. Charles<br />
Goodyear discovered in 1839, that cooking natural rubber with sulfur removed<br />
the gum’s unfavorable properties <strong>and</strong> could be strengthened by cross-linking it<br />
with approximately 30% sulfer <strong>and</strong> heating it to a suitable temperature. This<br />
process is called vulcanization, <strong>and</strong> led to many <strong>and</strong> varied applications of natural<br />
rubber, since the rubber then has got increased strength <strong>and</strong> elasticity <strong>and</strong><br />
greater resistance to changes in temperature. It is also impermeable to gases, <strong>and</strong><br />
resistant to abrasion, chemical action, heat, <strong>and</strong> electricity, in addition to have<br />
high frictional resistance on dry surfaces <strong>and</strong> low frictional resistance on water-wet<br />
surfaces. The vulcanization process remains fundamentally the same as it was in<br />
43
Figure 3.10: Common use of rubber.<br />
1839.<br />
Vulcanized rubber has numerous practical applications, such as<br />
• excellent abrasion resistance which makes it valuable for the treads of vehicle<br />
tires, conveyor belts (soft rubber), pump housings <strong>and</strong> piping used in the<br />
h<strong>and</strong>ling of abrasive sludges (hard rubber).<br />
• flexibility characteristics which makes it suitable for use in hoses, tires, <strong>and</strong><br />
rollers for a wide variety of devices ranging from domestic clothes wringers<br />
to printing presses.<br />
• its elasticity makes it suitable for various kinds of shock absorbers <strong>and</strong> for<br />
specialized machinery mountings designed to reduce vibration. Since it its<br />
relatively impermeable to gases its used as air hoses, balloons, balls, <strong>and</strong><br />
cushions.<br />
• resistance to water <strong>and</strong> to the action of most fluid chemicals has led to its<br />
use in rainwear, diving gear, <strong>and</strong> chemical <strong>and</strong> medicinal tubing, <strong>and</strong> as a<br />
lining for storage tanks, processing equipment, <strong>and</strong> railroad tank cars.<br />
44
• high electrical resistance, soft rubber goods are used as insulation <strong>and</strong> for<br />
protective gloves, shoes, <strong>and</strong> blankets. Hence, hard rubber is used for articles<br />
such as telephone housings, parts for radio sets, meters, <strong>and</strong> other electrical<br />
instruments.<br />
• coefficientoffriction(resistance to movement) of vulcanized rubber, which<br />
is high on dry surfaces <strong>and</strong> low on wet surfaces, leads to the use of rubber<br />
both for power-transmission belting <strong>and</strong> for water-lubricated bearings in<br />
deep-well pumps.<br />
• uncertainty of price <strong>and</strong> supply of natural rubber led to the development<br />
of artificial elastomers. Some artificial elastomers are inferior to natural<br />
rubber, others have superior characteristics.<br />
Rubber that has not undergone the vulcanization process has few practical<br />
uses because of its poor heat resistance <strong>and</strong> high plasticity. It is used for cements,<br />
adhesive, insulating, friction tapes <strong>and</strong> for crepe rubber used in insulating blankets<br />
<strong>and</strong> footwear.<br />
Some other elastomers include:<br />
Polybutadiene (BR): Polybutadienewasoneofthefirst types of synthetic<br />
elastomer, or rubber, to be invented. It is very similar to natural rubber, polyisoprene,<br />
<strong>and</strong> is good for uses which require exposure to low temperatures. Tires<br />
treads are often made of polybutadiene copolymers. Belts, shoe soles, hoses, gaskets<br />
<strong>and</strong> other automobile parts are made from polyubutadiene, because it st<strong>and</strong>s<br />
up to cold temperatures better than other elastomers.<br />
Polyisobutylene (PIB): Polyisobutylene is a synthetic rubber, or elastomer.<br />
It is the only rubber that is gas impermeable, (can hold air for long periods of<br />
time). For instance, balloons will go flat after a few days because they are made<br />
of polyisoprene, which is not gas impermeable. Since polyisobutylene will hold<br />
air, it is used to make things like the inner liner of tires, <strong>and</strong> the inner liners of<br />
basketballs.<br />
Polyisobutylene, sometimes called butyl rubber, is a vinyl polymer, <strong>and</strong> is very<br />
similar to polyethylene <strong>and</strong> polypropylene in structure, except that every other<br />
carbon is substituted with two methyl groups.<br />
Poly(styrene-butadiene-styrene) (SBS) : Poly(styrene-butadiene-styrene),<br />
is a hard rubber, <strong>and</strong> is therefore used in soles of shoes, tire treads, <strong>and</strong> other places<br />
45
Figure 3.11: Poly(styrene-butadiene-styrene), or SBS.<br />
where durability is important. It is a type of copolymer called a block copolymer.<br />
Its backbone chain is made up of three segments, where the first is a long chain<br />
of polystyrene, the middle a long chain of polybutadiene, <strong>and</strong> the last segment is<br />
another long section of polystyrene, see Figure 3.11.<br />
Polystyrene is a tough hard plastic, which gives SBS its durability, while<br />
polybutadiene is a rubbery material, <strong>and</strong> gives SBS its rubber-like properties.<br />
The material the ability to retain its shape after being stretched; SBS is a type of<br />
unusual material called a thermoplastic elastomer.<br />
Polyurethanes (AU or EU): (Seealso3.4.2)Polyurethanesarethemost<br />
well known polymers that are used to make foams. But, polyurethanes are more<br />
than foam. Polyurethanes are the single most versatile family of polymers there is.<br />
Polyurethanes can be elastomers, <strong>and</strong> they can be paints. They can be fibers, <strong>and</strong><br />
they can be adhesives. You can find them everywhere. A well-known polyurethane<br />
is sp<strong>and</strong>ex (DuPont sells it under the trade name Lycra). Lycra is a fiber that<br />
acts like an elastomer, <strong>and</strong> allows us to make fabric that stretches for exercise<br />
clothing <strong>and</strong> the like.<br />
Polychloroprene (CR) : Polychloroprene is usually sold under the trade<br />
name Neoprene, <strong>and</strong> it is especially resistant to oil, <strong>and</strong> was the first synthetic<br />
elastomer that became a hit commercially. It was Arnold Collins, while working<br />
under the same fellow who invented nylon, Wallace Carothers that invented<br />
polychloroprene.<br />
Silicones (Q): (See also 3.4.2) Silicones can be used for a lot of things. Silicones<br />
are inorganic polymers, that is, there are no carbon atoms in the backbone<br />
chain. The backbone is a chain of alternating silicon <strong>and</strong> oxygen atoms. Each<br />
silicone has two groups attached to it, <strong>and</strong> these can be any organic groups. Sili-<br />
46
Figure 3.12: Biopolymers.<br />
cones can st<strong>and</strong> high temperatures without decomposing, but they have very low<br />
glass transition temperatures.<br />
3.8. Biopolymers<br />
Biopolymers are an alternative to petroleum-based polymers (traditional plastics)<br />
produced by living organisms. The field of biopolymers, is still in its early stage,<br />
but is growing in popularity every day. The term biopolymers is often used for all<br />
polymers that are made from natural renewable resources <strong>and</strong>/or are completely<br />
biodegradable. Biopolymers can be produced by biological systems like microorganisms,<br />
plants <strong>and</strong> animals, or chemically synthesized from biological starting<br />
materials (e.g. sugars, starch, natural fats or oils, etc.). Most of the biopolymers<br />
are biodegradable, some of them are even water soluble, most of the biopolymers<br />
are compostable or will biodegrade in l<strong>and</strong>fill, time can vary from a couple of days<br />
to even years, but they will eventually degrade.<br />
Biopolymers can be used in all kinds of applications, <strong>and</strong> with all kinds of production<br />
techniques, like injection moulding, thermoforming <strong>and</strong> blow moulding!<br />
Some biopolymers can directly replace synthetic plastics in traditional applications,<br />
while others possess unique properties that may open new applications.<br />
3.8.1. What makes a polymer a biopolymer?<br />
Biopolymers are defined as biologically degradable polymers. Biopolymers are<br />
polymers that are generated from renewable natural sources, are often biodegrad-<br />
47
able, <strong>and</strong> not toxic to produce. According to the American Society for Testing <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>Materials</strong> (ASTM), biopolymers are degradable polymers in which degradation<br />
results from the action of naturally occurring micro-organisms such as bacteria,<br />
fungi <strong>and</strong> algae.<br />
3.8.2. Applications of biopolymers<br />
Biopolymers can be used for a lot of applications, from packaging to disposables,<br />
from diapers to cottonsticks, from carparts to bottles, etc. In theory conventional<br />
plastics may be substituted by biopolymers in many applications. In practice substitution<br />
is not always feasible, wanted or the most lucrative way to use biopolymers.<br />
Besides technical development which is needed for some applications, the<br />
applications have to be economically feasible within a reasonable term. The economic<br />
feasibility depends on the investments needed for material <strong>and</strong> product<br />
development <strong>and</strong> the added value of the biopolymer in the application.<br />
3.8.3. Properties of biopolymers<br />
Properties of biopolymers depend on the raw material they are based on, on<br />
additives used <strong>and</strong> on the (chemical) modifications during production.<br />
Different types of biopolymers<br />
Starch, proteins <strong>and</strong> peptides, <strong>and</strong> DNA <strong>and</strong> RNA are all examples of biopolymers,<br />
in which the monomer units, respectively, are sugars, amino acids, <strong>and</strong> nucleic<br />
acids. Biopolymers found in <strong>and</strong> used by living cells can be divided into the<br />
following four classes:<br />
• Lipids (fats, oils, phospholipids waxes, <strong>and</strong> steroids)<br />
• Carbohydrates (Starch, Cellulose, <strong>and</strong> Sugars as polysaccharides)<br />
• Proteins (Protein is a polymer with the monomer made up of amino-acid<br />
residues, <strong>and</strong> is contained in skin, bones, muscles, blood <strong>and</strong> hair )<br />
• Nucleic acids (complex polymeric molecules which store <strong>and</strong> translate genetic<br />
information )<br />
The most common way to divide biopolymers in different types is on the<br />
basis of the raw material used for production. However, some biopolymers can<br />
48
e produced from different raw materials. Some examples of different types of<br />
biopolymers are:<br />
Starch-based polymers (SBP) are often a blend of starch <strong>and</strong> other plastics<br />
(e.g PE), which allows for enhanced environmental properties. Starch is a<br />
polymeric carbohydrate (a polysaccharide), in which the monomers are glucose<br />
units joined to one another<br />
Starch is abundantly present in many crops. The starch is stored in granules<br />
within the plant. This facilitates the isolation from the plant. Starch may be<br />
modified in order to become a thermoplastic. This makes the starch polymer<br />
suitable for current processes in the plastics industry like: injection moulding<br />
<strong>and</strong> extrusion. Thermoplastic starch has an affinity with moisture. The material<br />
therefore is not suitable for wet food packaging applications. Direct contact with<br />
water only is possible for a short time. By acetylation a certain resistance to<br />
water may be achieved. By adding PCL the flexibility of the bioplastic increases.<br />
Starch polymer has good oxygen barrier properties. Starch polymers are the most<br />
produced <strong>and</strong> used biopolymers at the moment. Starch (in particular cornstarch)<br />
is used in cooking for thickening foods such as sauce. In industry, it is used in the<br />
manufacturing of adhesives, paper, textiles <strong>and</strong> as a mold in the manufacture of<br />
sweetssuchaswinegums<strong>and</strong>jellybeans. Itisawhitepowder,<strong>and</strong>depending<br />
on the source, may be tasteless <strong>and</strong> odourless.<br />
Cellulose polymers (cellulose esters, cellulose ethers, cellophane)<br />
Cellophane is one of the oldest packaging materials. Cellulose pulp from trees<br />
or cotton may be used to produce cellophane. It is a relatively expensive packaging<br />
material which can be used for a wide range of products such as cd’s, c<strong>and</strong>y <strong>and</strong><br />
cigarettes. The higher price is a reason why a large market share was lost to<br />
polypropylene. At the moment new applications in which the specific properties<br />
may be used, are sought for. The material is transparent <strong>and</strong> has good folding<br />
properties. The foil has a high gas barrier <strong>and</strong> if a coating is applied may resist<br />
water vapor as well.<br />
Protein polymers<br />
Thereisnoinformationaboutproteinpolymersavailableyet,butseeforinstance<br />
http://www.ppti.com/Technology/technology.htm.<br />
49
3.8.4. Additional information on raw materials in biopolymers<br />
Lactic acid is produced by the microbial fermentation of sugars such as glucose<br />
or hexose. Feedstocks can include potato skins <strong>and</strong> corn. The lactic acid<br />
monomers can be used to create low or high molecular weight polylactide polymers<br />
(PLA). PLA commodity polymers are being developed for use as pulping<br />
additives in paper manufacturing <strong>and</strong> as biodegradable packing materials, clothes,<br />
cups, packaging <strong>and</strong> many other everyday products.<br />
Polylactic acid (PLA) is derived from lactic acid for which carbohydrates<br />
in sugar beets, potatoes, wheat, maize <strong>and</strong> milk are the source. Polylactic acid<br />
is a substance familiar to the human body, as we ourselves produce it by every<br />
muscle contraction. It can be broken down by the body.<br />
PLA can be processed through for example injection moulding, foil blowing<br />
<strong>and</strong> deep drawing. PLA may be applied as a coating. PLA is water resistant but<br />
cannot withst<strong>and</strong> high temperatures (>55◦C).Incomparisontostarchbiopolymer the degradation process is very slow. However, within a composting facility it can<br />
be broken down in 3 to 4 weeks.<br />
Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) (polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), polyhydroxybutyrate/valerate<br />
(PHB/HV))<br />
PHA’s are generally derived through fermentation of glucose, sucrose of fatty<br />
acids by micro-organisms.<br />
PHB can be processed through for example injection moulding <strong>and</strong> deep drawing.<br />
It is an excellent material for the coating of paper coffee cups. The most<br />
important features of PHB are the resistance to high temperatures up to 120◦C <strong>and</strong> the resistance to water.<br />
Chitin, a polysaccharide found in the exoskeletons of insects <strong>and</strong> shellfish,<br />
possesses many desirable characteristics. Chitin’s most important derivative, chitosan,<br />
is nearly a ”model” biopolymer with it’s useful physical <strong>and</strong> chemical properties,<br />
high strength, biodegradability, <strong>and</strong> nontoxicity. In fact, chitosan brings<br />
new meaning to the word ”biodegradable” as the human body easily breaks it<br />
down into simple carbohydrates, carbon dioxide, <strong>and</strong> water. This accounts for<br />
the research that is trying to use chitosan in drug delivery systems.<br />
Other natural Biopolymers:<br />
Protein<br />
Proteins are biopolymers consisting of one or more strings of amino acid<br />
residues joined head-to-tail via peptide bonds. Protein also makes up much of<br />
50
the structure of animals: collagen <strong>and</strong> keratin are components of skin, hair, <strong>and</strong><br />
cartilage; <strong>and</strong> muscles are composed largely of proteins.<br />
Peptides<br />
Peptides are the family of molecules formed from the linking, in a defined<br />
order, of various amino acids. Peptides differ from proteins, which are also long<br />
chains of amino acids, by virtue of <strong>their</strong> size. Traditionally, those peptide chains<br />
that are short enough to make synthetically from the constituent amino acids are<br />
called peptides rather than proteins. The dividing line is at approximately 50<br />
amino acids in length, since naturally-occurring proteins tend, at <strong>their</strong> smallest,<br />
to be hundreds of residues long.<br />
DNA<br />
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the molecule in living things that contains<br />
the coding information for creating proteins. It is also the molecule of heredity—<br />
whenever an organism reproduces, each offspring gets a copy of its parents’ DNA.<br />
RNA<br />
Ribonucleic acid, a nucleic acid structurally distinguished from DNA by the<br />
presence of an additional hydroxyl group attached to each pentose ring, <strong>and</strong> functionally<br />
distinguished by its multiple roles in the intracellular transmission of<br />
genetic information from the site of transcription (from DNA) to the site of translation<br />
(into protein).<br />
3.8.5. Plastic taste better with sugar<br />
Chemists in India are lacing plastics with sugar to make them palatable to soil<br />
bacteria. The plastics, which normally survive for decades in l<strong>and</strong>fills, start to<br />
biodegrade within days.<br />
The tweaked plastics are polythene, polystyrene <strong>and</strong> polypropylene. These<br />
make up around a fifth of urban waste by volume. Bottles, bags <strong>and</strong> sacks are<br />
made of polyethylene, food packaging is made of polypropylene, <strong>and</strong> drinking<br />
cups, fast-food cartons <strong>and</strong> the hard casing of electronic equipment are fashioned<br />
from polystyrene.<br />
Digambar Gokhale <strong>and</strong> colleagues at the National Chemical Laboratory in<br />
Pune mix the styrene subunits of polystyrene with small amounts of another<br />
substance that provides a chemical hook for sucrose or glucose pieces. They then<br />
addsugarstothestyrenechainslikependantsonanecklace.<br />
51
Figure 3.13: One fifth of urban rubbish is plastics like polystyrene. c° GettyImages<br />
By weight, less than 3% of the final polymer is sugar, so the material is more<br />
or less the same. But bacteria such as Pseudomonas <strong>and</strong> Bacillus break open the<br />
chains when they chomp on these sugary snacks, kicking off decay.<br />
It remains to be seen whether the polymer biodegrades into entirely non-toxic<br />
substances. Fully broken down, the end products are carbon dioxide <strong>and</strong> water.<br />
But along the way, all sorts of other compounds are produced, such as organic<br />
acids <strong>and</strong> aldehydes.<br />
Indeed, it is not yet clear how far, or how quickly, the plastic will break down<br />
in the real world. And adding the sugar would require significant manufacturing<br />
changes, which could be costly.<br />
Other additives that make polythene, polystyrene <strong>and</strong> polypropylene biodegradable<br />
have been toxic <strong>and</strong> can leach out of garbage. Another approach is to initiate<br />
the breakdown process using heat, ultraviolet light or exposure to oxygen, but<br />
this is cumbersome <strong>and</strong> expensive.<br />
Published in: Nature News Service, 2.december 2002; see also<br />
http://www.nature.com/nsu/021125/021125-12.html.<br />
References:<br />
Polymers:<br />
http://www-materials.eng.cam.ac.uk/mpsite/<br />
http://www.plasticsusa.com/<br />
http://www.polymer-age.co.uk/directry/plastic.htm<br />
http://www.mse.cornell.edu/courses/engri111/<br />
http://www.amco.ws/home.asp<br />
52
http://naturalrubber.cjb.net/<br />
http://www3.jaring.my/inro/<br />
http://www.phy.uni-bayreuth.de/theo/tp3/members/elast.htm<br />
http://www.psrc.usm.edu/macrog/crystal.htm<br />
http://www.uvi.edu/Physics/SCI3xxWeb/Structure/Polymerization.html<br />
http://www.zeusinc.com/<br />
http://islnotes.cps.msu.edu/trp/toc.html<br />
http://abalone.cwru.edu/tutorial/enhanced/files/textbook.htm<br />
http://www.thermosets.com/thermosets.html<br />
http://www.aipma.org/t&ti/thermos.htm<br />
http://www.polymer-age.co.uk/techlink.htm<br />
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_transition_temperature<br />
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer#Polymer_science<br />
Elastomers:<br />
http://www.psrc.usm.edu/macrog/elas.htm<br />
Biopolymers:<br />
http://www.biopolymer.net/<br />
http://www.biopolymer.com/<br />
http://www.biotec.de<br />
http://www-classes.usc.edu/engr/ms/125/MDA125/biopolymers/<br />
http://online.itp.ucsb.edu/online/infobio01/lancet2/<br />
http://www.cheresources.com/biopoly2zz.shtml<br />
http://www.proterra.nl/norms.html<br />
http://www.dblab.helsinki.fi/~rtuma/biopolymers.htm<br />
http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopolymer<br />
http://www.brooklyn.cuny.edu/bc/ahp/SDPS/PSLectNotes/SD.PS.LectP2.html<br />
http://www.bipp.nl/about_3.html<br />
http://www.forskning.no/Artikler/2002/desember/1038997297.18<br />
http://www.nature.com/nsu/021125/021125-12.html<br />
http://www.ppti.com/Technology/technology.htm<br />
Galgali, P., Varma, A. J., Puntambekar, U. S. & Gokhale, D. V. Towards biodegradable<br />
polyolefins: strategy of anchoring minute quantities of monosaccharides <strong>and</strong> disaccharides<br />
onto functionalized polystyrene, <strong>and</strong> <strong>their</strong> effect on facilitating polymer<br />
biodegradation. Chemical Communications, 2002, 2884 - 2885, (2002).<br />
Questions<br />
• Explain the expression thermosetting <strong>and</strong> thermoplastic.<br />
53
• What is the glass transition temperature?<br />
• What is the difference between an amorphous <strong>and</strong> crystalline plastic?<br />
• What happens to a thermoplastic when it is cooled down below melting temperature?<br />
• How do thermosetting polymers respond to subsequent heating?<br />
• What is the difference between a saturated <strong>and</strong> an unsaturated molecule?<br />
• Describe the two different processes of forming polymers: addition <strong>and</strong> condensation.<br />
• What are some attractive engineering properties of plastics, <strong>and</strong> in what area<br />
do they fall?<br />
• What are some reasons that additive agents are incorporated into plastics?<br />
• What kind of additive agents are there, <strong>and</strong> what are <strong>their</strong> objective?<br />
• What is the primary engineering benefit of an oriented plastic?<br />
• What is the unique mechanical property of elastomeric materials?<br />
• What is vulcanization?<br />
• What is rubber?<br />
• What is a SPI code, <strong>and</strong> what is it good for?<br />
• What groups of SPI codes are there?<br />
• What is a biopolymer?<br />
• What kind of different biopolymers exist?<br />
• Whatproductscanbemadefrombiopolymers?<br />
Polymers can be described as being thermosetting or thermoplastic<br />
a. Why are the thermosetting polymers so different from thermoplastic polymers?<br />
b. What decides if a polymer will be thermosetting or thermoplastic?<br />
c. What are three important, common thermosetting polymers?<br />
d. What are three important, common thermoplastic polymers?<br />
Polymers can be described as being amorphous or crystalline polymers<br />
a. Compare the physical <strong>and</strong> chemical properties of amorphous <strong>and</strong> crystalline<br />
polymers.<br />
b. What are three important amorphous polymers?<br />
c. What are three important crystalline polymers?<br />
d. How does light penetration qualities depend on the degree of crystallization?<br />
54
4. Composites<br />
Composite materials are materials that combine two or more materials (a selected<br />
filler or reinforcing elements <strong>and</strong> compatible matrix binder) that have quite different<br />
properties that when combined offer properties which are more desirable than<br />
the properties of the individual materials . The different materials work together<br />
to give the composite unique properties, but within the composite you can easily<br />
see the different materials, they do not dissolve or blend into each other.<br />
The key characteristic of composites is the<br />
• Specific strength (the strength to weight ratio σ/ρ)<br />
• Specific stiffness or specific modulus (the stiffness-to-weight ratio E/ρ)<br />
• Tailored material ( since composites are composed of 2 or more ”phases”,<br />
they can be formulated to meet the needs of a specific application with<br />
considerable ease)<br />
Composites are not a single material but a family of materials whose stiffness,<br />
strength, density, <strong>and</strong> thermal <strong>and</strong> electrical properties can be tailored. The<br />
matrix, the reinforcement material, the volume <strong>and</strong> shape of the reinforcement,<br />
the location of the reinforcement, <strong>and</strong> the fabrication method etc. can all be<br />
varied to achieve required properties.<br />
Composite applications<br />
Specific composite applications are detailed in each market category:<br />
• Transportation<br />
• Electrical/Electronics<br />
• Building Construction<br />
• Infrastructure<br />
• Aerospace/Defense<br />
• Consumer/Recreation<br />
• Medical Products<br />
• Sport equipment<br />
55
4.1. The history of composites<br />
The theory behind the construction of composite materials comes from the need<br />
to create a strong stiff <strong>and</strong> light material.<br />
<strong>Materials</strong> such as glass, carbon <strong>and</strong> Kevlar have extremely high tensile <strong>and</strong><br />
compressive strength, but in solid form, many r<strong>and</strong>om surface flaws present in such<br />
materials, cause them to crack <strong>and</strong> fail at a much lower stress that it theoretically<br />
should.<br />
To overcome this problem, the material is produced in a fibre form, although<br />
the flaws will occur at the same frequency, the flaws will be reduced to a small<br />
number of fibres at any one point, <strong>and</strong> the remaining ones will carry the load with<br />
the materials theoretical strength. To prevent flaws occurring from abrasion on<br />
the surface of the material, or from existing flaws transferring to other fibres, it is<br />
necessary to isolate the fibres. This is why a resin matrix system is used.<br />
Another well-known composite is concrete. Here, aggregate (small stones or<br />
gravel) is bound together by cement. Concrete has good strength under compression,<br />
<strong>and</strong> it can be made stronger under tension by adding metal rods, wires, mesh<br />
or cables to the composite (so creating reinforced concrete).<br />
Mostcompositesaremadeupofjusttwomaterials. Onematerial(thematrix<br />
or binder) surrounds <strong>and</strong> binds together a cluster of fibres or fragments of a much<br />
stronger material (the reinforcement). There are both natural <strong>and</strong> man-made<br />
composites.<br />
4.2. Natural composites<br />
Composites exist in nature.<br />
A piece of wood is a composite, see Figure 4.1, with long fibres of cellulose<br />
(a very complex form of starch) held together by a much weaker substance called<br />
lignin. Cellulose is also found in cotton <strong>and</strong> linen, but it is the binding power of<br />
the lignin that makes a piece of timber much stronger than a bundle of cotton<br />
fibres. Other examples of natural composites are:<br />
Spider silk<br />
Spider silk is a biopolymer fibre <strong>and</strong> a natural composite material, see Figure<br />
4.2.<br />
Its composition is a mix of an amorphous polymer (which makes the fibre<br />
elastic), <strong>and</strong> the two simplest proteins (which give it toughness), in other words,<br />
it is simply a protein. The result is a good combination of strength <strong>and</strong> toughness.<br />
56
Figure 4.1: The cell-structure of a natural composite, a tree.<br />
It is five times as strong as steel, twice as strong as Kevlar at same weight,<br />
twice as elastic as polyamide fibres (it can be stretched by 31% without breaking),<br />
more elastic than aramid fibre, finerthanahumanhair,<strong>and</strong>lighterthancotton.<br />
Promises are: bulletproof vests, parachute cords, bridge suspension cables,<br />
wear-resistant shoes <strong>and</strong> clothing, seat belts, rustfree bumpers for automobiles,<br />
artificial tendons <strong>and</strong> ligaments, etc.<br />
Spider silk is produced either by spider or (in the future) by bacteria or plants,<br />
thereforeinanenvironment-friendlyway. Itisanenvironment-friendlybiopolymer<br />
<strong>and</strong> is easy to recycle. Spider silk does not decompose like other proteins by fungi,<br />
or bacteria because they contain substances that makes it durable.<br />
The thread of the garden spider (Araneus) would have to be 80 km long before<br />
it would snap under its own weight. When synthesis of spider silk in bacteria or<br />
plants becomes efficient, spider silk will have a commercial relevance.<br />
Human hair, bone <strong>and</strong> muscles are also natural composites. These kind of<br />
structures are also called hierarchical structures since they have structures in<br />
many levels, see also chapter 9.4.<br />
57
4.3. Man-made Composites<br />
Figure 4.2: Spidersilk.<br />
Humans have been using composite materials for thous<strong>and</strong>s of years. Take mud<br />
bricks for example. A cake of dried mud is easy to break by bending, which puts<br />
a tension force on one edge, but makes a good strong wall, where all the forces<br />
are compressive. A piece of straw, on the other h<strong>and</strong>, has a lot of strength when<br />
you try to stretch it but almost none when you crumple it up. But if you embed<br />
pieces of straw in a block of mud <strong>and</strong> let it dry hard, the resulting mud brick<br />
resists both squeezing <strong>and</strong> tearing <strong>and</strong> makes an excellent building material. Put<br />
more technically, it has both good compressive strength <strong>and</strong> good tensile strength.<br />
In the case of mud bricks, the two roles are taken by the mud <strong>and</strong> the straw; in<br />
concrete, by the cement <strong>and</strong> the aggregate; in a piece of wood, by the cellulose<br />
<strong>and</strong> the lignin. In fiberglass, the reinforcement is provided by fine threads or fibres<br />
of glass, often woven into a sort of cloth, <strong>and</strong> the matrix is a plastic.<br />
Composite materials are composed of a matrix material reinforced with any of<br />
a variety of fibers made from ceramics, metals, or polymers. The reinforcing fibers<br />
are the primary load carriers of the material, with the matrix component transferring<br />
the load from fiber to fiber. Reinforcement of the matrix material may be<br />
achieved in a variety of ways. Fibers may be either continuous or discontinuous,<br />
see Figure 4.3. Reinforcement may also be in the form of particles. The matrix<br />
material is usually one of the many available engineering plastics/polymers. Selection<br />
of the optimal reinforcement form <strong>and</strong> material is dependent on the property<br />
requirements of the finished part.<br />
58
Figure 4.3: Composite materials with different types of reinforcements.<br />
The threads of glass in fiberglass are very strong under tension but they are<br />
also brittle <strong>and</strong> will snap if bent sharply. The matrix not only holds the fibres<br />
together, it also protects them from damage by sharing any stress among them.<br />
The matrix is soft enough to be shaped with tools, <strong>and</strong> can be softened by suitable<br />
solvents to allow repairs to be made. Any deformation of a sheet of fiberglass<br />
necessarily stretches some of the glass fibres, <strong>and</strong> they are able to resist this, so<br />
even a thin sheet is very strong. It is also quite light, which is an advantage in<br />
many applications.<br />
Over recent decades many new composites have been developed, some with<br />
very valuable properties. By carefully choosing the reinforcement, the matrix,<br />
<strong>and</strong> the manufacturing process that brings them together, engineers can tailor<br />
the properties to meet specific requirements. They can, for example, make the<br />
composite sheet very strong in one direction by aligning the fibres that way, but<br />
weaker in another direction where strength is not so important. They can also<br />
select properties such as resistance to heat, chemicals, <strong>and</strong> weathering by choosing<br />
an appropriate matrix material.<br />
59
4.3.1. Fiber-Reinforced Composites<br />
Fiber Reinforced Plastics (FRP) is a general term for composite materials or parts<br />
that consist of a resin matrix that contains reinforcing fibers such as glass or fiber<br />
<strong>and</strong> have greater strength or stiffness than the resin. FRP is most often used to<br />
denote glass fiber-reinforced plastics.<br />
Reinforcing fibers can be made of metals, ceramics, glasses, or polymers that<br />
have been turned into graphite <strong>and</strong> known as carbon fibers.<br />
Fibers increase the modulus of the matrix material. The strong covalent bonds<br />
along the fiber’s length gives them a very high modulus in this direction because<br />
to break or extend the fiberthebondsmustalsobebrokenormoved.Fibersare<br />
difficult to process into composites, making fiber-reinforced composites relatively<br />
expensive.<br />
Fiber-reinforced composites are used in some of the most advanced, <strong>and</strong> therefore<br />
most expensive, sports equipment, such as a time-trial racing bicycle frame<br />
which consists of carbon fibers in a thermoset polymer matrix. Body parts of<br />
race cars <strong>and</strong> some automobiles are composites made of glass fibers (fiberglass) or<br />
carbon fibers in a thermoset matrix.<br />
On the basis of stiffness <strong>and</strong> strength alone, fibre reinforced composite materials<br />
do not have a clear advantage particularly when it is noted that <strong>their</strong><br />
elongation to fracture is much more lower than metals with comparable strength.<br />
The advantage of composite materials appear when the modulus per unit weight<br />
(specific modulus) <strong>and</strong> strength per unit weight (specific strength) are considered.<br />
The higher specific weight <strong>and</strong> high specific strength of the composite materials<br />
means that the components weight can be reduced.<br />
Although glass fibres are by far the most common reinforcement, many advanced<br />
composites now use fine fibres of pure carbon. Carbon fibres are much<br />
stronger than glass fibres, but are also more expensive to produce. Carbon fibre<br />
composites are light as well as strong. They are used in aircraft structures <strong>and</strong> in<br />
sporting goods (such as golf clubs), <strong>and</strong> increasingly are used instead of metals to<br />
repair or replace damaged bones. Even stronger (<strong>and</strong> more costly) than carbon<br />
fibres are threads of boron.<br />
4.3.2. Classification of composites<br />
Many terms have been used to define FRP composites. Modifiers have been used<br />
to identify a specific fiber such as Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP), Carbon<br />
Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP), <strong>and</strong> Aramid Fiber Reinforced Polymer<br />
60
(AFRP). Another familiar term used is Fiber Reinforced Plastics. In addition,<br />
other acronyms were developed over the years <strong>and</strong> its use depended on geographical<br />
location or market use. For example, Fiber Reinforced Composites (FRC),<br />
Glass Reinforced Plastics (GRP), <strong>and</strong> Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC) can<br />
be found in many references. Although different, each of before mentioned terms<br />
mean the same thing; FRP composites.<br />
There are many ways of classifying composite materials. For instance, we can<br />
classify the microcomposite materials based on the size, shape <strong>and</strong> distribution of<br />
the different phases in the composite for instance like this:<br />
• Continuous fibres in matrix: aligned, r<strong>and</strong>om<br />
• Short fibres in matrix: aligned, r<strong>and</strong>om<br />
• Particulates (spheres, plates, ellipsoids, irregular, hollow or solid) in matrix<br />
• Dispersion strengthened, as for the point above, but the particle size <<br />
10−8m • Lamellar structures (used in laminates)<br />
• Skeletal or interpenetrating networks<br />
• Multicomponent, fibres, particles etc.<br />
Clearly, the distinction between the different groups is not always a sharp one.<br />
Nanocomposites are composites on nanoscale (10−9 meter). They have constituents<br />
that are mixed on a nanometer-length scale.<br />
Mostly, we classify composites according to <strong>their</strong> matrix phase. The role of the<br />
matrix is to act as a medium to keep the fibers properly oriented <strong>and</strong> to protect<br />
them from the environment. There are ceramic matrix composites (CMC’s), metal<br />
matrix composites (MMC’s), <strong>and</strong> polymer matrix composites (PMC’s). <strong>Materials</strong><br />
within these categories are often called ”advanced” if they combine the properties<br />
of high strength <strong>and</strong> high stiffness, low weight, corrosion resistance, <strong>and</strong> in some<br />
cases special electrical properties. This combination of properties makes advanced<br />
composites very attractive for aircraft <strong>and</strong> aerospace structural parts.<br />
4.4. Ceramic matrix composites CMC<br />
Monolithic ceramics have the disadvantage of being brittle, see Figure 4.4 from:<br />
www.ms.ornl.gov/programs/ energyeff/cfcc/iof/chap24-6.pdf.<br />
A reinforcing phase can improve the toughness of these materials, while still<br />
taking advantage of the matrix’s other properties such as wear resistance, hardness,<br />
corrosion resistance, <strong>and</strong> temperature resistance. A wide range of ceramic<br />
61
Figure 4.4: Failure modes for monolithic ceramic <strong>and</strong> CFCCs.<br />
matrix composites (CMCs) have thus been developed that combine a matrix material<br />
with a reinforcing phase of different composition (such as alumina <strong>and</strong> silicon<br />
carbide) or the same composition (alumina/alumina or silicon carbide/silicon carbide).<br />
Figure 4.5 compares the approximate service temperature ranges of some important<br />
polymers, metals <strong>and</strong> ceramics.<br />
The CMC market is divided into two classes; the oxide <strong>and</strong> non-oxide materials.<br />
Some of the more common oxide matrices include alumina, silica, mullite,<br />
barium aluminosilicate, lithium aluninosilicate <strong>and</strong> calcium aluminosilicate. Oxide<br />
matrices are often more mature <strong>and</strong> environmentally stable, but non-oxide<br />
ceramics have more superior structural properties <strong>and</strong> hardness are rapidly entering<br />
the marketplace. Examples of non-oxide ceramics are silicone carbide (SiC),<br />
silicone nitride (Si3N4), boroncarbide(B4C) <strong>and</strong> aluminium nitride (AlN).<br />
The oxide CMCs often consist of oxide fibers (for instance alumina Al2O3),<br />
while the non-oxide CMCs consist of non-oxide fibers (for instance SiC) (see also<br />
Chapter 4.7 for more information concerning fibers). Non-oxide CMCs are more<br />
advanced than oxide CMCs since they have higher thermal conductivity, lower<br />
62
Figure 4.5: Service temperature ranges of some important polymers, metals <strong>and</strong> ceramics.<br />
thermal expansion <strong>and</strong> are more stable at high temperatures than oxide CMCs.<br />
The non-oxide CMCs are used in thermally loaded components (combustor liners,<br />
vanes, blades <strong>and</strong> heat exchangers). The oxide CMCs have good oxidation resistance,<br />
alkali corrosion resistance, low dielectric constants <strong>and</strong> potentially low cost,<br />
<strong>and</strong> are therefore used for hot gas filters, exhaust components of aircraft engines,<br />
<strong>and</strong> in long-life, lower temperature components.<br />
The reinforcements of CMCs can include carbides, borides <strong>and</strong> oxides. Specific<br />
examples of reinforcements include carbon, silicon carbide, titanium diboride,<br />
silicon nitride <strong>and</strong> alumina. Some of the more common ceramic discontinuous<br />
reinforcement include whiskers, platelets, <strong>and</strong> particulates having compositions of<br />
Si3N4, SiC, AlN, titanium dibori, boron carbide, <strong>and</strong> boron nitride.<br />
Ceramics <strong>and</strong> CMCs can also result in fuel efficiency in heat engines because of<br />
higher operating temperatures, <strong>and</strong> reduction or elimination of cooling systems.<br />
Thetemperaturerequirementinsuchapplicationsisnotashighasinaerospace<br />
materials applications. Other applications of CMCs include wear parts, such as<br />
seals, nozzles, pads, liners, grinding wheels, brakes, etc. For instance, carbon fiber<br />
reinforced carbon composites are being used in aircraft brakes.<br />
63
4.5. Metal Matrix Composites MMC<br />
Metal Matrix Composites (MMC’s) are increasingly found in the automotive industry.<br />
They consist of a metal such as aluminium as the matrix, <strong>and</strong> a reinforcement<br />
that could be continuos fibres such as silicon carbide, graphite or alumina,<br />
wires such as tungsten, beryllium, titanium <strong>and</strong> molybdenium, <strong>and</strong> discontinuous<br />
materials. Metals containing ceramic particles, whiskers or (short or long) fibers<br />
are also gaining importance. MMC are said to be materials for the dem<strong>and</strong>s of<br />
the future.<br />
When the dem<strong>and</strong>s for high thermal conductivity, reduced weight, heat dissipation,<br />
<strong>and</strong> high strength are factors for design, MMCs represent the Next Generation<br />
of solutions for today’s electronic requirements. Metal-matrix composites are<br />
either in use or prototyping for the Space Shuttle, commercial airliners, electronic<br />
substrates, bicycles, automobiles, golf clubs, <strong>and</strong> a variety of other applications.<br />
While the vast majority are aluminum matrix composites, a growing number of<br />
applications require the matrix properties of superalloys, titanium, copper, magnesium,<br />
or iron.<br />
Regardless of the variations, however, aluminum composites offer the advantage<br />
of low cost over most other MMCs. In addition, they offer excellent thermal<br />
conductivity, high shear strength, excellent abrasion resistance, high-temperature<br />
operation, nonflammability, minimal attack by fuels <strong>and</strong> solvents, <strong>and</strong> the ability<br />
to be formed <strong>and</strong> treated on conventional equipment. Aluminum MMCs are applied<br />
in brake rotors, pistons, <strong>and</strong> other automotive components, as well as golf<br />
clubs, bicycles, machinery components, electronic substrates, extruded angles <strong>and</strong><br />
channels, <strong>and</strong> a wide variety of other structural <strong>and</strong> electronic applications.<br />
Compared to monolithic metals, MMCs have:<br />
• Higher strength-to-density ratios<br />
• Higher stiffness-to-density ratios<br />
• Better fatigue resistance<br />
• Better elevated temperature properties: -Higher strength<br />
-Lower creep rate<br />
• Lower coefficients of thermal expansion<br />
• Better wear resistance<br />
The advantages of MMCs over polymer matrix composites (PMCs) are:<br />
64
• Higher temperature capability<br />
• Fire resistance<br />
• Higher transverse stiffness <strong>and</strong> strength<br />
• No moisture absorption<br />
• Higher electrical <strong>and</strong> thermal conductivities<br />
• Better radiation resistance<br />
• No outgassing<br />
• Fabricability of whisker <strong>and</strong> particulatereinforced<br />
MMCs with conventional metalworking equipment<br />
Some of the disadvantages of MMCs compared to monolithic metals <strong>and</strong> polymer<br />
matrix composites are:<br />
• Higher cost of some material systems<br />
• Relatively immature technology<br />
• Complex fabrication methods for fiber-reinforced systems (except for casting)<br />
• Limited service experience<br />
4.6. Polymer Matrix Composites PMC<br />
Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC’s) are the most common composites, <strong>and</strong> are<br />
also known as FRP - Fibre Reinforced Polymers (or Plastics). These materials use<br />
a polymer-based resin as the matrix, <strong>and</strong> a variety of fibres such as glass, carbon<br />
<strong>and</strong> aramid as the reinforcement. Matrix materials are either thermosetting or<br />
thermoplastic polymers. Reinforcing fibers are either continuous or chopped. In<br />
general, polymer composites processing includes contracting of polymer <strong>and</strong> fibers,<br />
shaping, controlled heating <strong>and</strong>/or reactions, <strong>and</strong> cooling. The technology of<br />
polymer composites has been driven to a large extent by aerospace <strong>and</strong> military<br />
applications.<br />
Advantages of Polymer Composites<br />
Polymer composites make the largest <strong>and</strong> most diverse use of composites due<br />
to ease of fabrication, low cost <strong>and</strong> good properties. Also, they have:<br />
• High specific strength properties (20-40% weight savings)<br />
• Ability to fabricate directional mechanical properties<br />
• Outst<strong>and</strong>ing corrosion resistance<br />
• Excellent Fatigue <strong>and</strong> fracture resistance<br />
• Lower tooling cost alternatives<br />
• Lower thermal expansion properties<br />
65
Figure 4.6:<br />
• Simplification of manufacturing by parts integration<br />
• Potential for rapid process cycles<br />
• Ability to meet stringent dimensional stability requirements<br />
Glass-fiber reinforced composites (GFRC) are strong, corrosion resistant <strong>and</strong><br />
lightweight, but not very stiff <strong>and</strong> cannot be used at high temperatures. Applications<br />
include auto <strong>and</strong> boat bodies, aircraft components.<br />
Carbon-fiber reinforced composites (CFRC) use carbon fibers, which have the<br />
highest specific module (module divided by weight). CFRC are strong, inert,<br />
allow high temperature use. Applications include fishing rods, golf clubs, aircraft<br />
components.<br />
4.7. Fiber reinforcement<br />
Fibers (see [14]) are pliable hair-like substances, built up by long chains of basic<br />
molecules. Fibres are very small in diameter in relation to <strong>their</strong> length. Long<br />
continuous str<strong>and</strong>s of fibers are called filaments. The only natural filament fibre<br />
is silk from butterflies or spiders. Fibre’s properties depend strongly on both<br />
the external <strong>and</strong> internal fibre structure as well as the chemical composition.<br />
Properties therefore vary significantly. Crystalline areas give tensile strength,<br />
stiffness <strong>and</strong> stability, while amorphous areas are weaker but more movable.<br />
The fibers can be individual str<strong>and</strong>s as thin as a human hair or they can be<br />
multiple fibers braided in the form of a yarn (or tow).<br />
66
4.7.1. Choosing fibers<br />
The fibers in advanced composites are usually non-metallic in nature, consisting<br />
of such materials as glass, carbon, silicon carbide, alumina, boron or Kevlar.<br />
Other fibers such as spectra <strong>and</strong> quartz are also available, but these are usually<br />
reserved for specialized application. The table below shows some advantages <strong>and</strong><br />
disadvantages of some fibertypes, while Figure 4.7 shows some properties of some<br />
fibers.<br />
Fiber Advantages Disadvantages<br />
E-, S-Glass - High strength -Lowstiffness<br />
-Lowcost - Short fatigue life<br />
- High temp sensitivity<br />
Aramid (Kevlar) - High tensile strength - Low comp. strength<br />
- Low density - High moisture absorp.<br />
Boron - High stiffness -Highcost<br />
-Highcomp.strength<br />
Carbon (AS4, T300) - High strength - Moderate cost<br />
- High stiffness<br />
Graphite (pitch) -Veryhighstiffness -Lowstrength<br />
-Highcost<br />
Ceramic (silicon - High stiffness -Lowstrength<br />
carbide, alumina) -Highusetemp -Highcost<br />
Figure 4.8 shows a plot of specific strength vs. specific stiffness of some fibers.<br />
High-strength fibers utilized in high-performance composites include carbon,<br />
glass, aramid, ultrahigh molecular-weight polyethylene (PE), boron, quartz, ceramic<br />
<strong>and</strong> hybrid combinations. Continuous bundles (tow or roving) are the basic<br />
fiber forms for high-performance composite applications. These forms may be used<br />
directly in processes such as filament winding or pultrusion or may be converted<br />
into tape, fabric <strong>and</strong> other forms.<br />
In high-performance composites, the structural properties of the finished part<br />
are derived primarily from the fiber. A fiber-to-matrix ratio of 60:40 or higher<br />
is common for both thermoset- <strong>and</strong> thermoplastic-matrix composites. Desirable<br />
properties are not achieved, however, without effective adhesion between fiber <strong>and</strong><br />
matrix, which requires sufficient saturation with resin (wetout) at the fiber-matrix<br />
67
Figure 4.7: Properties of some fibers.<br />
Figure 4.8: Specific strength vs. specific stiffness of some fibers.<br />
68
interface. Attention to fiber surface preparation, such as use of a surface finish<br />
or coupling agent <strong>and</strong> selection of a compatible fiber <strong>and</strong> matrix combination,<br />
ensures good adhesion.<br />
We will have a closer look at some types of fibers.<br />
4.7.2. Glass fibers<br />
Glass fibers (GF) are the most widely used reinforcement for plastic <strong>and</strong> rubber<br />
products, <strong>and</strong> are also the finest (smallest diameter) of all fibers, typically 1 to 4<br />
microns in diameter. Glass fibers, see Figure 4.9, are made of silicon oxide with<br />
addition of small amounts of other oxides. Glass fibers are characteristic for <strong>their</strong><br />
high strength, good temperature <strong>and</strong> corrosion resistance, <strong>and</strong> low price. Over<br />
90% in the composite industry is glass fibers. Properties of glass fibers are bound<br />
Figure 4.9: Glass fiber.<br />
to the chemical composition of the mixture, but they are also influenced by the<br />
spinning way. Usually, they are divided into:<br />
Use Type of glass<br />
Multipurpose fibers glass E<br />
Acid resistant fibers glassA,C,CR<br />
Alkali resistant fibers glass R, S<br />
High strength fibers glass R, S<br />
Fibers with good dielectric properties glass D<br />
69
The two types of glass fibers that are most common are the E-glass <strong>and</strong> Sglass.<br />
The firsttypeisthemostused,<strong>and</strong>takesitsnamefromitsgoodelectrical<br />
properties (no electrical interference in thunderstorms, <strong>and</strong> no sparks). The second<br />
type is very strong (S-glass), stiff, <strong>and</strong> temperature resistant. They are used as<br />
reinforcing materials in many sectors, e.g. automotive <strong>and</strong> naval industries, sport<br />
equipment. S-glass are used for instance in aircraft flooring, helicopter blades etc.<br />
Some properties for E- <strong>and</strong> S- glass are listed in the following table:<br />
E-glass S-glass<br />
- softens at ≈850 ◦<br />
C - softens at ≈1000 ◦<br />
C<br />
-mostinexpensivefiber ≈ 30% stronger than E-glass<br />
-mostcommonlyusedfiber today ≈ 15% stiffer than E-glass<br />
- insulators <strong>and</strong> capacitors ≈ 3 times as expensive as E-glass<br />
- high quality glass fiber<br />
- high technical purposes<br />
Themostwidelyusedcompositematerialisfiberglass in polyester resin, which<br />
is commonly referred to as just fiberglass. Fiberglass is light weight, corrosion<br />
resistant, economical, easily processed, has good mechanical properties, <strong>and</strong> has<br />
over 50 years of history. It is the dominant material in industries such as boat<br />
building <strong>and</strong> corrosion equipment, <strong>and</strong> it plays a major role in industries such as<br />
automotive, medical, recreational, <strong>and</strong> industrial equipment.<br />
Quartz fibers Quartz fibers (SiO2) are very high silica version of glass with<br />
much higher mechanical properties <strong>and</strong> excellent resistance to high temperatures<br />
<strong>and</strong> can be used continuously to 1048.9 ◦<br />
C <strong>and</strong> for short-temperature applications,<br />
even to 1248,9 ◦<br />
C. They are more expensive than E-glass <strong>and</strong> S-glass, provide<br />
significantly better electromagnetic properties than glass, making them a good<br />
choice for parts such as aircraft radomes.<br />
4.7.3. Carbon fibers<br />
Carbon fibers (CF) appeared on the market in 1960 <strong>and</strong> are produced of organic<br />
fibers (rayon, acrylics etc.) or from remaining of petroleum or tar distillation.<br />
70
Figure 4.10: Carbon fibre.<br />
Carbon fibers, see Figure 4.10, are the stiffest <strong>and</strong> strongest reinforcing fibres for<br />
polymer composites, the most used after glass fibres. Made of pure carbon in<br />
form of graphite, they have low density <strong>and</strong> a negative coefficient of longitudinal<br />
thermal expansion. Carbon fibres are very expensive <strong>and</strong> can give galvanic<br />
corrosion in contact with metals. They are generally used together with epoxy,<br />
where high strength <strong>and</strong> stiffness are required, i.e. race cars, automotive <strong>and</strong> space<br />
applications, sport equipment.<br />
4.7.4. Boron fiber<br />
Boron (BF) is a metal known for its exceptional resistance <strong>and</strong> form. BF is five<br />
timesasstrong<strong>and</strong>twiceasstiffassteel. Boron provides strength, stiffness,<br />
light weight <strong>and</strong> excellent compressive properties, as well as buckling resistance.<br />
Use of boron composites ranges from sporting goods, such as fishing rods, golf<br />
club shafts, skis <strong>and</strong> bicycle frames, to aerospace applications such as aircraft<br />
empennage skins, space shuttle truss members <strong>and</strong> prefabricated aircraft repair<br />
patches. It has a melting point at 2180 ◦<br />
C.<br />
4.7.5. Ceramic fibers<br />
Ceramic fibers (CEF) are mostly used as refractory fibers in uses over 1000 ◦ C<strong>and</strong><br />
are characterized by a polycrystalline structure rather than amorphous. Some<br />
of the more common ceramic continuous reinforcements include silica, mullite,<br />
71
alumina, carbon, zirconia, <strong>and</strong> silicon carbide in addition. The more sophisticated<br />
kinds of fibers, have a basis of borate, carbide, silicon nitrure <strong>and</strong> borate nitrure.<br />
They are very expensive fibers because only a small quantity is produced, <strong>and</strong><br />
they are used in particular fields such as aerospace.<br />
Ceramic fibers offer high to very high temperature resistance but poor impact<br />
resistance <strong>and</strong> relatively poor room-temperature properties. They are often<br />
divided into the following two groups:<br />
* Non-oxide fibers can be such as Siliconcarbide (SiC), boron nitride (BN),<br />
silicon nitride (SiN), aluminium nitride (AlN) <strong>and</strong> multiphase fibers consisting of<br />
silicon, carbon, boron, nitride, titanium, (Si-C-B-N-Ti).<br />
* Oxide fibers can be such as aluminium oxide (Al2O3),aluminazirconiamixtures<br />
(Al2O3+Zr2O2), yttria-alumina-garnet (YAG), <strong>and</strong> mullite (3Al2O3-2SiO2).<br />
Ceramic fibers of pure Al2O3 in a single crystalline microstructure are called sapphire<br />
fibers.<br />
4.7.6. Polymer Fibers<br />
Aramid fiber (Kevlar)<br />
Aramids are a family of nylons, including Nomex R° <strong>and</strong> Kevlar R° (Polyamide<br />
-PA). Aramid fibers, see Figure 4.11 are known for <strong>their</strong> large hardness <strong>and</strong> resistance<br />
to penetration. Thanks to <strong>their</strong> toughness aramid fibres are used where high<br />
Figure 4.11: Aramid fibre.<br />
impenetrability is required, e.g. bulletproof vests, bike tires, airplanes wings, <strong>and</strong><br />
sport equipment. These fibres are not as spread as glass or carbon fibres, mostly<br />
because of <strong>their</strong> cost, high water absorption, <strong>and</strong> <strong>their</strong> difficult post-processing.<br />
72
(References: DuPont (Kevlar R° )FibersofKEVLAR R° consist of long molecular<br />
chains produced from poly-paraphenylene terephthalamide). PPTA is the<br />
acronym for para-phenylen-terephthalamid.<br />
Polymers are not only used for the matrix, they also make a good reinforcement<br />
material in composites. For example, Kevlar is a polymer fibre that is immensely<br />
strong <strong>and</strong> adds toughness to a composite. It is used as the reinforcement in<br />
composite products that require lightweight <strong>and</strong> reliable construction (e.g., structural<br />
body parts of an aircraft). Composite materials were not the original use<br />
for Kevlar; it was developed to replace steel in radial tires <strong>and</strong> is now used in<br />
bulletproof vests <strong>and</strong> helmets. Kevlar, <strong>and</strong> aramid-fiber composite can be used<br />
as textile fibers. Applications include bullet-proof vests, tires, brake <strong>and</strong> clutch<br />
linings. Servicetemperature of Aramid fibre is up to 250 ◦<br />
C, <strong>and</strong> its melting temperature<br />
is 426.7 ◦<br />
C.<br />
UHMW-PE - Ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene<br />
UHMW, see Figure 4.12, is a polymer material composed of long chains with<br />
Figure 4.12: UHMW.<br />
a very high molecular weight. It even replaced Kevlar R° for making bullet-proof<br />
vests! UHMW-PE combines the traditional abrasion <strong>and</strong> cut resistance of metal<br />
alloys with the impact <strong>and</strong> corrosion resistance of synthetic materials. Tough as<br />
a metal, self-lubricating <strong>and</strong> slippery. UHMW-PE fibres have the tendency to<br />
elongate under load (creep). They are extremely low density, <strong>and</strong> they can float.<br />
Melting-point between 120 ◦<br />
<strong>and</strong> 150 ◦<br />
C. Applications are being developed particularly<br />
in the areas of ballistic protection <strong>and</strong> ropes. The material is inflammable.<br />
These fibres have a tensile strength 20 times greater than that of steel, <strong>and</strong><br />
40% stronger than aramid. Their free breaking length is around 330 km (steel<br />
breaks at 25, glass at 135, carbon at 195 <strong>and</strong> aramid at 235).<br />
73
Figure 4.13: Liquid crystal polymer.<br />
Products: Bullet-proof vest, Cut-resistant gloves, Psychiatric clothing.<br />
LCP - Liquid crystal polymer<br />
LCP, see Figure 4.13 is a thermoplastic fibre with exceptional strength <strong>and</strong><br />
rigidity (five times that of steel), <strong>and</strong> about 15 times the fatigue resistance of<br />
aramid. Very good impact resistance. It doesn’t absorb moisture, has very low<br />
stretch, it doesn’t creep like UHMW-PE fibre, <strong>and</strong> has excellent abrasion, wear,<br />
<strong>and</strong> chemical resistance. Its high melting-point (320 ◦<br />
C) allows the retention of<br />
these properties over broad ranges of temperatures. It is suitable for industrial,<br />
electronic, <strong>and</strong> aerospace applications, as well as for ropes, <strong>and</strong> sport equipment.<br />
Products: Fishing line, High performance rope, Tennis racket.<br />
4.7.7. Carbon nanotube (CNT) fibers<br />
Strong <strong>and</strong> versatile carbon nanotubes are finding new applications in improving<br />
conventional polymer-based fibers <strong>and</strong> films. For example, composite fibers made<br />
from single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) <strong>and</strong> polyacrylonitrile, a carbon<br />
fiber precursor, are stronger, stiffer <strong>and</strong> shrink less than st<strong>and</strong>ard fibers.<br />
Nanotube-reinforced composites could ultimately provide the foundation for a<br />
new class of strong <strong>and</strong> lightweight fibers with properties such as electrical <strong>and</strong><br />
thermal conductivity unavailable in current textile fibers<br />
74
4.7.8. Fiber hybrids<br />
Figure 4.14: Spidersilk.<br />
Fiber hybrids capitalize on the best properties of various fiber types, while reducing<br />
raw material costs. Hybrid composites combining carbon/aramid <strong>and</strong><br />
carbon/glass fibers have been used successfully in ribbed aircraft engine thrust<br />
reversers, telescope mirrors, drive shafts for ground transportation <strong>and</strong> infrastructure<br />
column-wrapping systems. For example, in hybrid-fiber flywheels for electric<br />
vehicles, the composite components withst<strong>and</strong> energy forces as high as 2.5 million<br />
ft-lb.<br />
4.7.9. Spider silk<br />
Spider silk is a biopolymer fiber <strong>and</strong> a natural composite, see Figure 4.14 <strong>and</strong><br />
chapter4.2.Itis5timesasstrongassteel<strong>and</strong>2timesasstrongasKevlar.<br />
Man-made spider silk has now become a reality. "Spider-goats," ( goats that<br />
are created having one spider gene added to the 70,000 genes that make a goat a<br />
goat) for example, produce an extra protein in <strong>their</strong> milk that can be spun into<br />
man-made spider silk. Spider silk is stronger, by weight, than anything else on<br />
earth. The hope was to spin silk from milk - <strong>and</strong> use the ultra-light material for<br />
things like bulletproof vests. It turns out that it takes a lot of goat milk to make<br />
just a small bit of silk, so for now the idea of making bulletproof vests out of<br />
spider silk has been put aside. Other uses of the material, medical sutures, for<br />
example are in progress instead.<br />
75
4.8. Aerogel composites<br />
Figure 4.15: Crayons on Aerogel over a flame.<br />
Aerogel is 99.8% air, <strong>and</strong> provides 39 times more insulating than the best fiberglass<br />
insulation, <strong>and</strong> is 1,000 times less dense than glass, see Figure 4.15 http://stardust.jpl.nasa.gov/<br />
tech/aerogel.html where the picturecan be found. A cube of 1x1x1 meter of aerogel<br />
will only weight three kg. It can also be exposed to temperatures up to 1400 ◦ C<br />
before it will soften.<br />
Aerogel is not like conventional foams, but is a special porous material with<br />
extreme microporosity on a micron scale. It is composed of individual features<br />
only a few nanometers in size. These are linked in a highly porous dendritic-like<br />
structure.<br />
This exotic substance has many unusual properties, such as low thermal conductivity,<br />
refractive index <strong>and</strong> sound speed - in addition to its exceptional ability<br />
to capture fast moving dust. Aerogel is made by high temperature <strong>and</strong> pressurecritical-point<br />
drying of a gel composed of colloidal silica structural units filled with<br />
solvents.<br />
Silica aerogel is just another form of glass. If aerogel is h<strong>and</strong>led roughly, it will<br />
break just like glass. However, if care is taken, the material can be h<strong>and</strong>led <strong>and</strong><br />
shaped effectively.<br />
Silica aerogels are inorganic solids, very brittle <strong>and</strong> usually very low density<br />
materials. A collapse of the solid network in the material occurs gradually, spreading<br />
the force of impact out over a longer time, <strong>and</strong> is why they can be very useful<br />
as energy absorbing materials.<br />
Aerogels can be added different materials/particles in order to obtain special<br />
76
effect of the materials. For instance can we add metal salts, or other compounds<br />
to a sol before gelation. Then we may obtain a deep blue aerogel by adding nickel;<br />
while a pale green color appears by adding copper; a black gel contains carbon<br />
<strong>and</strong> iron; <strong>and</strong> orange aerogel is added iron oxide. It is also possible to obtain a<br />
magnetic aerogel by using chemical vapor infiltration to get iron oxide introduced<br />
in the material. The aerogel can also be made photoluminescent, which means<br />
that it glows-in-the-dark by using a pigment that absorbs light <strong>and</strong> emits that<br />
energy over a period of time -even after the light source has been removed. The<br />
pigment is rechargeable.<br />
Flexible aerogels<br />
In the mid to late 1990’s, Aspen Systems perfected proprietary changes in<br />
the formulation, processing <strong>and</strong> drying of aerogels, reducing drying time to a few<br />
hours. Besides a cost effective drying time, the aerogels were also isolated in the<br />
form of thin, flexible blankets. The blankets were much more robust than the<br />
monoliths <strong>and</strong> beads, <strong>and</strong> could also be easily installed like any other flexible batting.<br />
These breakthroughs led to the formation of Aspen Aerogels, Inc. in 2001,<br />
<strong>and</strong> the commercialization of aerogel technology for broad use, see for instance<br />
theFigure4.16<br />
Aspen Aerogels has created a variety of organic <strong>and</strong> inorganic/organic hybrid<br />
aerogel formulations including those made from polydimethylsiloxane/silica,<br />
cellulose polyurethane, polyimide, polymethylmethacrylate/silica, <strong>and</strong> polybutadiene<br />
rubber. These materials show enhanced physical <strong>and</strong> mechanical properties<br />
relative to pure silica aerogel.<br />
Asshowninthetablebelow,aerogelsoffer significantly more insulating value<br />
per unit of material than other insulations:<br />
Material Thermal Conductivity (k) [ W<br />
mK ]<br />
Aerogel 0.012<br />
Polyurethane foam 0.021<br />
Polystyrene foam 0.038<br />
Microporous silica 0.019-0.038<br />
fiberglass 0.040<br />
Mineral wool 0.038<br />
Perlite 0.040-0.060<br />
Calcium Silicate 0.047<br />
77
Figure 4.16: Areas that Aspens flexible aerogels can be used in. The picture is from:<br />
http://www.aerogel.com/markets.htm<br />
4.9. Textile composites<br />
There is a new ”class” of composites, called textile composites. The material<br />
comes from a new technique which instead of the reinforcing fibres being put in<br />
place individually, which is slow <strong>and</strong> costly, they can be knitted or woven together<br />
to make a sort of cloth. This can even be three-dimensional rather than flat, see<br />
Figure 4.17. The spaces between <strong>and</strong> around the textile fibers may be filled with<br />
the matrix material (such as a resin) to make the final product.<br />
This process can quite easily be done by machines rather than by h<strong>and</strong>, making<br />
it faster <strong>and</strong> cheaper. Connecting all the fibres together also means that the<br />
composite is less likely to be damaged when struck.<br />
4.10. Bio-inspired materials<br />
Researchers are making rapid progress in the design <strong>and</strong> synthesis of non-natural<br />
oligomers <strong>and</strong> polymers that emulate the properties of natural proteins (also called<br />
bio-inspired materials). For instance is NASA trying to tailor new materials that<br />
can mimic the extraordinary structural <strong>and</strong> self-repairing properties of biological<br />
78
Figure 4.17: Three dimensional braiding of composite structures.<br />
substances such as bone or sea shells, also called bio-inspired materials. Such<br />
biologically inspired materials can adapt to changing conditions <strong>and</strong> therefore<br />
they can help to make airplanes <strong>and</strong> spacecraft lighter, stronger <strong>and</strong> more reliable.<br />
New advanced materials can also be able to change <strong>their</strong> shapes (i.e. airplane<br />
wings which today is done with hydraulics). The hope is to find materials that<br />
change shape on comm<strong>and</strong> because then we could improve for instance airplanes<br />
tremendously.<br />
Also the so-called ’self-healing’ materials could be very important to space<br />
exploration, thus even small s<strong>and</strong> grain particle of a meteor could puncture the<br />
hull of existing space vehicles.<br />
4.11. Self-healing composites<br />
Inspired by biological systems in which damage triggers an autonomic healing response,<br />
researchers at the University of Illinois have developed a synthetic material<br />
that can heal itself when cracked or broken.<br />
The material — consisting of a microencapsulated healing agent <strong>and</strong> a special<br />
catalyst embedded in a structural composite matrix — could increase the reliability<br />
<strong>and</strong> service life of thermosetting polymers used in a wide variety of applications<br />
ranging from microelectronics to aerospace.<br />
”Once cracks have formed within typical polymeric materials, the integrity of<br />
the structure is significantly compromised,” said Scott White, a UI professor of<br />
aeronautical <strong>and</strong> astronautical engineering <strong>and</strong> lead author of a paper published in<br />
the Feb. 15 (2001) issue of the journal Nature that described the new self-healing<br />
material.<br />
79
Figure 4.18: Self healing composite from http://www.cerncourier.com.<br />
”Often these cracks occur deep within the structure where detection is difficult<br />
<strong>and</strong> repair is virtually impossible.” In the new material, however, the repair<br />
processbeginsassoonasacrackforms.<br />
”When the material cracks, the microcapsules rupture <strong>and</strong> release the healing<br />
agent into the damaged region through capillary action,” White said. ”As the<br />
healing agent contacts the embedded catalyst, polymerization is initiated which<br />
then bonds the crack face closed.”<br />
In recent fracture tests, the self-healed composites recovered as much as 75<br />
percent of <strong>their</strong> original strength. And because microcracks are the precursors to<br />
structural failure, the ability to heal them will enable structures that last longer<br />
<strong>and</strong> require less maintenance.<br />
The concept of the autonomic healing system.<br />
”Filling the microcracks will also mitigate the harmful effects of environmentally<br />
assisted degradation such as moisture swelling <strong>and</strong> corrosion cracking,”<br />
White said. ”This technology could increase the lifetime of structural components,<br />
perhapsbyasmuchastwoorthreetimes.”<br />
The ability to self-repair <strong>and</strong> restore structural integrity also could extend the<br />
lifetimes of polymer composite circuit boards, where microcracks can lead to both<br />
mechanical <strong>and</strong> electrical failure.<br />
80
Figure 4.19: (a) In a right-h<strong>and</strong>ed material, where both permittivity <strong>and</strong> permeability<br />
are positive, the index of refraction is positive <strong>and</strong> the law of optics follow our intuition.<br />
(b) This is not the case in a left-h<strong>and</strong>ed material with negative permittivity <strong>and</strong> permeability.<br />
In that case the index of refraction is negative <strong>and</strong> a convergent lens becomes<br />
divergent. Figure from: http://www.ifh.ee.ethz.ch/~martin/res10.en.html<br />
4.12. Left-h<strong>and</strong>ed metamaterials<br />
Metamaterials are engineered composites exhibiting properties that are not observed<br />
in the constituent materials <strong>and</strong> not observed in nature.<br />
The response of a material to electromagnetic fields is entirely characterized by<br />
its permittivity <strong>and</strong> its permeability. The former gives the response to an applied<br />
electric field, while the latter describes the response to a magnetic field. They<br />
determine how electromagnetic waves (including microwaves <strong>and</strong> visible light)<br />
interact with the material. These two parameters are not constant, but depend<br />
on the illumination frequency (for example a semiconductor can be opaque in<br />
the visible range, but transparent in the infrared). Quite surprising effects can<br />
also arise for specific values of these two parameters. For example, when the<br />
permittivity takes particular negative values plasmon resonances can be excited<br />
in the material, see Figure 4.19.<br />
Composite Material with ”reversed” physical properties<br />
Minneapolis, MN-Physicists at the University of California, San Diego (UCSD)<br />
have produced a new class of composite materials with unusual physical properties<br />
that scientists theorized might be possible, but have never before been able to<br />
produce in nature.<br />
”Composite materials like this are built on a totally new concept,” said the<br />
two co-leaders of the UCSD team, Sheldon Schultz <strong>and</strong> David R. Smith, who<br />
81
announced <strong>their</strong> discovery at a news conference. ”While they obey the laws of<br />
physics, they are predicted to behave totally different from normal materials <strong>and</strong><br />
should find interesting applications.”<br />
The unusual property of this new class of materials is essentially its ability<br />
to reverse many of the physical properties that govern the behavior of ordinary<br />
materials. One such property is the Doppler effect, which makes a train whistle<br />
sound higher in pitch as it approaches <strong>and</strong> lower in pitch as it recedes. According<br />
to Maxwell’s equations, which describe the relationship between magnetic <strong>and</strong><br />
electric fields, microwave radiation or light would show the opposite effect in this<br />
new class of materials, shifting to lower frequencies as a source approaches <strong>and</strong> to<br />
higher frequencies as it recedes.<br />
Similarly, Maxwell’s equations further suggest that lenses that would normally<br />
disperse electromagnetic radiation would instead focus it within this composite<br />
material. This is because Snell’s law, which describes the angle of refraction<br />
caused by the change in velocity of light <strong>and</strong> other waves through lenses, water<br />
<strong>and</strong> other types of ordinary material, is expected to be exactly opposite within<br />
this composite.<br />
”If these effects turn out to be possible at optical frequencies, this material<br />
would have the crazy property that a flashlight shining on a slab can focus the<br />
light at a point on the other side,” said Schultz. ”There’s no way you can do that<br />
with just a sheet of ordinary material.”<br />
Underlying the reversal of the Doppler effect, Snell’s law, <strong>and</strong> Cerenkov radiation<br />
(radiation by charged particles moving through a medium) is that this<br />
new material exhibits a reversal of one of the ”right-h<strong>and</strong> rules” of physics which<br />
describe a relationship between the electric <strong>and</strong> magnetic fields <strong>and</strong> the direction<br />
of <strong>their</strong> wave velocity.<br />
The new materials are known by the UCSD team colloquially as ”left-h<strong>and</strong>ed<br />
materials,” after a term coined by Veselago, because they reverse this relationship.<br />
What that means is physically counterintuitive-pulses of electromagnetic radiation<br />
moving through the material in one direction are composed of constituent waves<br />
moving in the opposite direction.<br />
The UCSD physicists emphasized that while they believe <strong>their</strong> new class of<br />
composites will be shown to reverse Snell’s law, the specific composite they produced<br />
will not do so at visible-light frequencies. Instead, it is now limited to<br />
transmitting microwave radiation at frequencies of 4 to 7 Gigahertz-a range somewhere<br />
between the operation of household microwave ovens (3.3 Gigahertz) <strong>and</strong><br />
military radars (10 Gigahertz).<br />
82
The composite constructed by the UCSD team-which also consisted of Willie<br />
J. Padilla, David C. Vier, <strong>and</strong> Syrus C. Nemat-Nasser-was produced from a series<br />
of thin copper rings <strong>and</strong> ordinary copper wire strung parallel to the rings. It is<br />
an example of a new class of materials scientists call ”metamaterials.” ”Even<br />
though it is composed of only copper wires <strong>and</strong> copper rings, the arrangement has<br />
an effective magnetic response to microwaves that has never been demonstrated<br />
before,” said Schultz.<br />
What’s unusual about the new class of materials produced by the UCSD team<br />
is that it simultaneously has a negative electric permittivity <strong>and</strong> a negative magnetic<br />
permeability, a combination of properties never before seen in a natural or<br />
man-made material.<br />
”And the interesting thing is that it’s produced with no magnetic material,”<br />
said Schultz. ”It’s all done with copper.”<br />
”The bottom line,” said Smith, ”is that this material- this metamaterial, at<br />
frequencies where both the permittivity <strong>and</strong> permeability are negative, behaves<br />
according to a left-h<strong>and</strong>ed rule, rather than a right-h<strong>and</strong>ed rule.”<br />
Questions<br />
• What is the theory behind composite materials?<br />
• What is a composite material?<br />
• How do we classify composite materials according to <strong>their</strong> matrix phase?<br />
• What is the greatest advantage of composite materials?<br />
• What is the greatest disadvantage of composite materials?<br />
• Why is specific modulus <strong>and</strong> specific strength important?<br />
• What does Fiber Reinforced Plastics (FRP) mean?<br />
• What kind of reinforcement can composites have? Illustrated them.<br />
• What kind of fibers are there, <strong>and</strong> what are <strong>their</strong> advantages/disadvantages?<br />
• What is so special about spider silk, can you find out the prospect for commercialisation<br />
of spider silk?<br />
• What is the primary function of the reinforcement <strong>and</strong> the matrix in the composite<br />
material?<br />
• How do we find the modulus of the entire composite?<br />
• How do we classify composites?<br />
•What is so special about high performance materials?<br />
• What is the strength of the composite primarily depending on?<br />
• What is CMC, MMC, <strong>and</strong> PMC? What are the differences? Where are the<br />
applications?<br />
83
• What is the advantages of MMCs compared to monolithic metals?<br />
• WhatistheadvantagesofMMCscomparedtoPMC’s?<br />
• What is the disadvantages of MMCs compared to PMC’s <strong>and</strong> monolithic metals?<br />
• How does a self-healing composite work?<br />
• What is a left-h<strong>and</strong>ed material?<br />
• What is a metamaterial?<br />
References:<br />
Natural composites:<br />
http://www.imb-jena.de/~sponner/Current.html<br />
Fibers<br />
http://www.azonano.com/news.asp?newsID=82<br />
MMC:<br />
http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/0104/Rawal-0104.html<br />
http://www.electrovac.com/metall/indexe.htm<br />
http://www.machinedesign.com/bde/materials/compsites/rvmat2d.html<br />
http://www.pcc-aft.com/tech/mmc/mmc.html<br />
Ceramics:<br />
http://www-materials.eng.cam.ac.uk/mpsite/properties/non-IE/max_service_temp.html<br />
http://www.albint.com/web/techweav/techw.nsf/<br />
http://www.engr.utk.edu/~cmc/<br />
http://www.onera.fr/dmsc-en/matcer/<br />
http://www.mmat.ubc.ca/other/courses/mmat382/cnc63.htm<br />
http://books.nap.edu/books/0309059968/html/7.html#pagetop<br />
http://www.ms.ornl.gov/programs/energyeff/cfcc/iof/chap24-6.pdf<br />
PMC<br />
http://www.npl.co.uk/npl/cmmt/cog/cmmthm098.html<br />
http://www.egr.msu.edu/cmsc/nsf/polymeric.html<br />
http://www.raypubs.com<br />
http://www.raypubs.com/hpcsb/sbover2.html#partdesign<br />
High-performance composites:<br />
http://www.etcusa.com/hpc/<br />
Material database on internet:<br />
http://www.matweb.com/index.asp?ckck=1<br />
84
Composites:<br />
http://composite.about.com/mbody.htm<br />
http://composite.about.com/cs/aboutcomposites/<br />
http://www.mil17.org/<br />
http://www.netcomposites.com/<br />
http://www.science.org.au/nova/059/059key.htm<br />
http://www.efunda.com/materials/polymers/properties/<br />
polymer_cat.cfm?MajorID=PA<br />
http://www.sdplastics.com/<br />
http://www.howstuffworks.com/ question87.htm<br />
http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~weeks/Composite%20<strong>Materials</strong>.htm<br />
http://callisto.my.mtu.edu/my472/<br />
http://home.earthlink.net/~ttc/about.html<br />
http://www.mech.utah.edu/~rusmeeha/labNotes/composites.html<br />
http://ice.chem.wisc.edu/materials/composite.html<br />
http://www.psrc.usm.edu/macrog/index.htm<br />
http://callisto.my.mtu.edu/MY472/<br />
http://www.matweb.com/searchcompenglish.htm<br />
http://plastics.about.com/library/weekly/aa980323.htm<br />
http://www.advancedcomposites.com/technology.htm<br />
http://www.nap.edu/books/0309059968/html/index.html<br />
http://www.technica.net/NF/NF2/efibreinorganiche.htm<br />
http://www.fibreglast.com/<br />
Aerogel materials:<br />
http://www.ntnu.no/gemini/2002-05/16-19.htm<br />
http://www.tu.no/snadder/article.jhtml?articleID=14148<br />
http://stardust.jpl.nasa.gov/tech/aerogel.html<br />
http://www.taasi.com/what.htm<br />
http://www.aspensystems.com/<br />
http://www.aerogel.com/technology.htm<br />
Textile composites:<br />
http://www.mtm.kuleuven.ac.be/Research/C2/poly/Modelling.htm<br />
http://www.muratec.net/braider/<br />
http://www.engr.ukans.edu/~rhale/textiles/index.htm<br />
http://www.ntcresearch.org/pdf-rpts/AnRp00/I00-A06.pdf<br />
http://www.innovationave.com/storage/PDF/advmaterials/ghosh.pdf<br />
85
http://fiberarchitects.com/<br />
http://www.mtm.kuleuven.ac.be/Research/C2/poly/wisetex.html<br />
http://www.stru.polimi.it/Compositi/Compositi_dx.htm<br />
John Summerscales, Microstructural characterisation of fibre-reinforced composites,<br />
ISBN 1 85573 240 8, 320 pages, 1998.<br />
General:<br />
http://claymore.engineer.gvsu.edu/~jackh/eod/<br />
Race-car:<br />
http://www.mse.cornell.edu/courses/engri111/racecar.htm<br />
FRP manufact:<br />
http://www.owenscorning.com/owens/composites/about/introduction.asp<br />
Sspace-age materials:<br />
http://www.spacedaily.com/news/materials-02zh.html<br />
High-performance composites:<br />
http://www.etcusa.com/hpc/<br />
http://www.raypubs.com/hpcsb/sboverview.html<br />
http://www.atlcomposites.com/products_composite_duflex_intro.htm<br />
http://www.quadrantepp-europe.com/idqua001.asp<br />
http://www.bayplastics.co.uk/<br />
http://www.tstar.com/pdf/quadrant-DF.pdf<br />
High-performance materials:<br />
http://www.hiper-group.com/hcproducts.htm<br />
Self-healing material:<br />
http://www.news.uiuc.edu/scitips/01/0214selfheal.html<br />
http://www.globaltechnoscan.com/21stFeb-27thFeb01/biological.htm<br />
Left-h<strong>and</strong>ed composite materials/metamaterials:<br />
http://ucsdnews.ucsd.edu/newsrel/science/mccomposite.htm<br />
http://www-physics.ucsd.edu/lhmedia/<br />
http://www.ing.dk/konf/root/redproduktion/sub/graensel<strong>and</strong>/html/0106.html<br />
http://physics.ucsd.edu/~drs/left_home.htm<br />
http://www.ifh.ee.ethz.ch/~martin/res10.en.html<br />
http://physics.ucsd.edu/lhmedia/<br />
86
5. Smart (intelligent) <strong>Materials</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Structures</strong><br />
Smart materials are not smarter than you. Smart materials respond to environmental<br />
stimuli with particular changes in some variables. For that reason they<br />
are often also called responsive materials or functional materials. Depending on<br />
changes in some external conditions, ”smart” materials change either <strong>their</strong> properties<br />
(mechanical, electrical, appearance), <strong>their</strong> structure or composition, or <strong>their</strong><br />
functions. They are materials able to transform other forms of energy to mechanical<br />
energy <strong>and</strong>, sometimes, vice versa. These are unique type of materials <strong>and</strong><br />
have similarities in microstructures <strong>and</strong> deformation mechanisms. Fundamental<br />
underst<strong>and</strong>ing on the behavior of these materials is still on the way, meanwhile,<br />
various novel applications of these materials are found of successful.<br />
The technological field of smart materials (see [16]) has evolved over the past<br />
decades with increasing pace during the 1990s.<br />
At a more sophisticated level, such smart materials become intelligent when<br />
they have the ability to respond intelligently <strong>and</strong> autonomously to dynamicallychanging<br />
environmental conditions.<br />
Potential applications are widespread <strong>and</strong> have excited interest in industrial,<br />
military, commercial, medical, automotive <strong>and</strong> aerospace fields. Embedded fibreoptic<br />
sensing systems are employed in many engineering disciplines to monitor<br />
critical characteristics. Several smart skins programmes have been initiated for<br />
both civil <strong>and</strong> military aircraft. Large space structures are also c<strong>and</strong>idates for the<br />
incorporation of smart structural systems because of the variable service conditions<br />
in which they operate. Typical applications include, sensors <strong>and</strong> actuators,<br />
vibration suppression <strong>and</strong> damping device, micro-electro-mechanical-system, biomedical<br />
engineering, space, robot, etc., to name a few. These materials will greatly<br />
help us to further improve the way of living of our human being (see i.e.[19]).<br />
Furthermore, one should note that the terms Smart materials, Intelligent <strong>Materials</strong>,<br />
Active <strong>Materials</strong>, Adaptive <strong>Materials</strong>, (<strong>and</strong> to some extent) actuators <strong>and</strong><br />
sensors, are almost always, used interchangeably. We will consider the following<br />
4 main groups of smart materials in more detail<br />
• — Color Changing <strong>Materials</strong><br />
— Light Emitting <strong>Materials</strong><br />
— Moving <strong>Materials</strong><br />
— Temperature Changing <strong>Materials</strong><br />
87
5.1. Color Changing <strong>Materials</strong><br />
Color changing materials are materials that change color due to different external<br />
stimuli.<br />
5.1.1. Photochromic materials<br />
Photochromic materials change reversibly color with changes in light intensity,<br />
see Figure 5.1. Usually, they are colorless in a dark place, <strong>and</strong> when sunlight or<br />
ultraviolet radiation is applied molecular structure of the material changes <strong>and</strong> it<br />
exhibits color. When the relevant light source is removed the color disappears.<br />
Changes from one color to another color are possible mixing photochromic<br />
colors with base colors. They are used in paints, inks, <strong>and</strong> mixed to mould or<br />
Figure 5.1: Photochromic material.<br />
casting materials for different applications.<br />
5.1.2. Thermochromic materials<br />
Thermochromic materials change reversibly color with changes in temperature,<br />
see Figure 5.2. They usually are semi-conductor compounds. The change in color<br />
happens at a determined temperature, which can be varied doping the material.<br />
They are used to make paints, inks or are mixed to moulding or casting materials<br />
for different applications.<br />
5.2. Light Emitting <strong>Materials</strong><br />
Light emitting materials are materials that change the light in some sense, due to<br />
some external stimuli.<br />
88
5.2.1. Electroluminescent materials<br />
Figure 5.2: Thermochromic material.<br />
Electroluminescent materials produce a brilliant light of different colors when<br />
stimulated electronically, see Figure 5.3.<br />
Figure 5.3: Electroluminescent material.<br />
Electroluminescent materials are a combination of phosphorous <strong>and</strong> fluorocarbons<br />
that produce a brilliant light of different colors when stimulated electronically<br />
(e.g. by AC current). While emitting light no heat is produced.<br />
They can be used for making lightstripes for decorating buildings, or for industrial<br />
<strong>and</strong> public vehicles safety precautions.<br />
5.2.2. Fluorescent materials<br />
Fluorescent materials produce visible or invisible light as a result of incident light<br />
of a shorter wavelength (i.e. X-rays, UV-rays, etc.). The effect ceases as soon as<br />
89
the source of excitement is removed, see Figure 5.4.<br />
Figure 5.4: Fluorescent material.<br />
Fluorescent pigments in daylight have a white or light color, whereas under<br />
excitation by UV radiation they irradiate an intensive fluorescent color.<br />
They can be used for paints, inks or mixed to moulding or casting materials<br />
for different applications.<br />
5.2.3. Phosphorescent materials<br />
Phosphorescent materials (or afterglow materials) produce visible or invisible light<br />
as a result of incident light of a shorter wavelength (i.e. X-rays, UV-rays, etc.),<br />
detectable only after the source of the excitement has been removed, see Figure<br />
5.5.<br />
Figure 5.5: Phosphorescent material.<br />
90
Afterglow effect pigments are polycrystalline inorganic zinc sulphide (green<br />
afterglow) or alkaline earth sulphides (red or blue afterglow), <strong>and</strong> can be used in<br />
paints, inks or mixed to moulding or casting materials for different applications.<br />
5.3. Moving <strong>Materials</strong><br />
Moving materials are materials that in some sense move when exposed to some<br />
special external source.<br />
5.3.1. Conducting polymers<br />
Conducting polymers are conjugated polymers, through which electrons can move<br />
from one end of the polymer to the other. The most common are polyaniline<br />
Figure 5.6: Conducting polymer.<br />
(PAni) <strong>and</strong> polypyrrole (PPY). Polipyrrole has been used for the development<br />
of micro muscles. Polyaniline films s<strong>and</strong>wiched around a ion-conducting film are<br />
considered as material for artificial muscles for robots. A current flow reduces one<br />
side <strong>and</strong> oxidizes the other. Ions are transferred. One side exp<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> the other<br />
contracts, resulting in a bending of the s<strong>and</strong>wich, see Figure 5.6. Electrical <strong>and</strong><br />
chemical energies are in this way transformed into mechanical energy.<br />
Conducting polymers are still at a research level. Presently, the expected<br />
lifetime of the muscle is of 100.000 actuations. In the Year 2000 Alan Heeger got<br />
the Nobel Price in chemistry for the invention of a conducting polymer.<br />
91
5.3.2. Dielectric elastomers<br />
Dielectric elastomers (also called electrostrictive polymers) exhibit a mechanical<br />
strain when subjected to an electric field as shown in Figure 5.7. The most com-<br />
Figure 5.7: Dielectric elastomers.<br />
mon are PMMA-based electrostrictive polymers. Thanks to <strong>their</strong> electrostrictive<br />
strain, they can be s<strong>and</strong>wiched between two electrodes to emulate the operation of<br />
muscles. In an electric field, the elastomer exp<strong>and</strong>s in the plane of the electrodes,<br />
amplifying the normal compression due to the electrostatic charges on the electrodes.<br />
The result is a muscle with large strain capability, <strong>and</strong> a large actuation<br />
pressure.<br />
5.3.3. Piezoelectric materials<br />
Piezoelectric materials produce an electric field when exposed to a change in dimension<br />
caused by an imposed mechanical force (piezoelectric or generator effect),<br />
see Figure 5.8. Conversely, an applied electric field will produce a mechanical<br />
stress (electrostrictive or motor effect). They transform energy from mechanical<br />
to electrical <strong>and</strong> vice-versa <strong>and</strong> are used for sensing purposes (e.g. microphone,<br />
transducer), <strong>and</strong> for actuating applications. Similar to piezoelectric materials are<br />
electrostrictive <strong>and</strong> magnetostrictive materials used in high precision actuation.<br />
They are ferromagnetic materials which experience an elastic strain when subjected<br />
to an electric or magnetic field respectively.<br />
Products: Smart skis, Mothra plain, Acoustic transducer, Multilayer cofired<br />
actuator, Magnetostrictive linear motor, Smart skin.<br />
92
5.3.4. Polymer gels<br />
Figure 5.8: Piezoelectric material.<br />
Polymer gels consist of a cross-linked polymer network inflated with a solvent<br />
such as water, see Figure 5.9. They have the ability to reversibly swell or shrink<br />
Figure 5.9: Polymer gels.<br />
(up to 1000 times in volume) due to small changes in <strong>their</strong> environment (pH,<br />
temperature, electric field). Micro sized gel fibres contract in milliseconds, while<br />
thick polymers layers require minutes to react (up to 2 hours or even days). They<br />
have high strength <strong>and</strong> can deliver sizeable stress (approximately equal to that of<br />
human muscles).<br />
The most common are polyvinylalcohol (PVA), polyacrylicacid (PAA) <strong>and</strong><br />
93
polyacrylonitrile (PAN). There are many potential applications for these materials<br />
(e.g. artificial muscles, robot actuators, adsorbers of toxic chemicals), but<br />
presently, few of them have a commercial diffusion. Response time is still not<br />
fast enough for artificial muscles. Lifetime of a gel actuator is very short. Their<br />
structure gradually degrades <strong>and</strong> they become unusable. Commercial reality is<br />
still far away.<br />
5.3.5. Shape memory materials (SMM)<br />
Shape memory alloys (SMA) are metals that, after being strained, at a certain<br />
temperature revert back to <strong>their</strong> original shape, see Figure 5.10. A change in <strong>their</strong><br />
crystal structure above <strong>their</strong> transformation temperature causes them to return to<br />
<strong>their</strong> original shape. SMAs enable large forces (generated when encountering any<br />
resistance during <strong>their</strong> transformation) <strong>and</strong> large movements actuation, as they<br />
can recover large strains.<br />
Figure 5.10: Shape memory alloys (SMA).<br />
Shape-memory materials are also superelastic, namely they are able to sustain<br />
a large deformation at a constant temperature, <strong>and</strong> when the deforming force<br />
is released they return to <strong>their</strong> original undeformed shape. Typically, they can<br />
undergoe elastic strain up to 10%.<br />
The shape memory effect is a unique property of certain alloys. Even though<br />
the alloy is deformed in the low temperature phase, it recovers its original shape on<br />
being heated to a critical higher temperature. The material is one that undergoes<br />
a change of crystal structure at a certain temperature called the transformation<br />
temperature. Above this temperature the material has one crystal structure (cubic<br />
94
in the case of Cu-Al-Ni) <strong>and</strong> below this temperature it has another (orthorhombic<br />
for Cu-Al-Ni). The low temperature structure of these types of materials allows<br />
the material to be easily <strong>and</strong> apparently permanently deformed. However on<br />
heating the material returns to its high temperature structure which has only<br />
one possible shape. Thus the material has ”remembered” its shape (see also<br />
[20]). Generally, these materials can be plastically deformed at some relatively<br />
low temperature, <strong>and</strong> upon exposure to some higher temperature will return to<br />
<strong>their</strong> shape prior to the deformation. <strong>Materials</strong> that exhibit shape memory only<br />
upon heating are referred to as having a one-way shape memory. Some materials<br />
also undergo a change in shape upon recooling. These materials have a two-way<br />
shape memory.<br />
Products: SMA stent for veins, Superelastic glasses, Coffeepot thermostat,<br />
Electrical connector.<br />
Also shape-memory ceramics <strong>and</strong> polymers (SMP) exist. Shape-memory polymer<br />
for instance, converts from a temporary shape (top) to its parent shape (bottom)<br />
in 45 seconds at 65oC. Commercial SME Alloys<br />
The only two alloy systems that have achieved any level of commercial exploitation<br />
are the NiTi alloys <strong>and</strong> the copper-base alloys. Properties of the two<br />
systems are quite different. The NiTi alloys have greater shape memory strain (up<br />
to 8% versus 4 to 5% for the copper-base alloys), tend to be much more thermally<br />
stable, have excellent corrosion resistance compared to the copper-base alloys’<br />
medium corrosion resistance <strong>and</strong> susceptibility to stress-corrosion cracking, <strong>and</strong><br />
have much higher ductility. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, the copper-base alloys are much<br />
less expensive, can be melted <strong>and</strong> extruded in air with ease, <strong>and</strong> have a wider<br />
range of potential transformation temperatures. The two alloy systems thus have<br />
advantages <strong>and</strong> disadvantages that must be considered in a particular application.<br />
5.3.6. Nanostructured Shape Memory <strong>Materials</strong><br />
Nanoscale materials have enjoyed recent interest because of the changes that occur<br />
in material behavior as surface effects <strong>and</strong> grain boundary behavior play a<br />
larger role in the overall mechanical behavior of the material. Shape memory<br />
alloys continue to be explored for more dramatic superelastic behavior <strong>and</strong> several<br />
of these alloys have already proven to have wide ranging applications in the<br />
aerospace, biomedical, <strong>and</strong> microelectronics industries. A nanostructured shape<br />
memory alloy is on the leading edge of materials development <strong>and</strong> will allow fur-<br />
95
Figure 5.11: Magnetically controlled shape memory materials (MSM) replace machines.<br />
ther advances in the application of shape memory alloys to microscopic structures<br />
<strong>and</strong> miniaturized devices.<br />
Foils of nickel-titanium alloy with nanoscale structure have been successfully<br />
fabricated. Preliminary characterization testing has been conducted which confirms<br />
that the primary phase present in the material is NiTi which is the phase<br />
displaying shape memory behavior.<br />
5.3.7. Magnetic Shape Memory (MSM) <strong>Materials</strong><br />
Magnetic Shape Memory effect is a new invention in actuator materials field, allowing<br />
even 50 times greater strains than in previous magnetically controlled materials<br />
(magnetostrictive materials). In MSM materials the magnetic field moves<br />
microscopical parts of the material (so called twins) that creates a net shape<br />
change of the material. The mechanism enables also more complicated shape<br />
changes than conventional linear strain, such as bending <strong>and</strong> shear. Strains can<br />
be even 5 % (depending on the material). Typically, present MSM materials produce<br />
2 % strain at 0 to 2 MPa stress in actuator use. AdaptaMat is developing a<br />
commercial grade MSM alloy. MSM material samples can be produce for research<br />
use.<br />
MSM materials field of application seems to be very wide, ranging from automotive<br />
applications to home electronics. They can simplify complicated mechanical<br />
structures. Consider a sewing machine, as in Figure 5.11: traditional sewing<br />
machine has a rotating electric motor <strong>and</strong> a large number of parts in a rather<br />
complicated mechanical transmission system, although the desired motion of the<br />
needle is up <strong>and</strong> down. A sewing machine based on MSM technology could consist<br />
96
of an electromagnet (coil) <strong>and</strong> a needle made of MSM-material.<br />
5.4. Temperature Changing <strong>Materials</strong><br />
Temperature changing materials are materials that change temperature in some<br />
way, when exposed to some sort of external source.<br />
5.4.1. Thermoelectric materials<br />
Thermoelectric materials are special types of semiconductors that, when coupled,<br />
function as a ”heat pump”, see Figure 5.12. By applying a low voltage DC power<br />
Figure 5.12: Thermoelectric materials.<br />
source, heat is moved in the direction of the current (+ to -). Usually, they are<br />
used for thermoelectric modules where a single couple or many couples (to obtain<br />
larger cooling capacity) are combined. One face of the module cools down while<br />
the other heats up, <strong>and</strong> the effect is reversible. Thermoelectric cooling allows for<br />
small size <strong>and</strong> light devices, high reliability <strong>and</strong> precise temperature control, <strong>and</strong><br />
quiet operation. Disadvantages include high prices <strong>and</strong> high operating costs, due<br />
to low energy efficiency.<br />
97
Figure 6.1: Aluminium foam / functional gradient material in car.<br />
6. Functional Gradient <strong>Materials</strong><br />
Functional (FGM) gradient materials are materials that have a gradual variation<br />
of material properties from one end to another, as shown in Figure 6.1.<br />
The concept of Functionally Gradient <strong>Materials</strong> (FGM) was first put forward<br />
for reducing thermal stress. A kind of special materials which can be used<br />
long-term in high temperature <strong>and</strong> large difference of temperature is needed as<br />
aerospace industry is developing at high speed. The thermal stress in materials is<br />
so large that neither pure metals, pure ceramics nor cladding materials can meet<br />
this strict condition.<br />
Man-made functionally graded materials (FGMs) copy natural biomaterials,<br />
such as bamboo, teeth <strong>and</strong> shell etc., with a gradient in chemical composition or<br />
microstructure from one side to the other side in the material. <strong>Materials</strong> with a<br />
gradual change in chemical composition or microstructure are expected to have<br />
advanced or new properties. The concept of functionally graded materials was<br />
proposed in 1984 by material scientists in the Sendai area in Japan. Since then<br />
studies to develop high-performance heat-resistant materials using functionally<br />
graded technology have continued. In recent years, another attempt to apply the<br />
FGM concept to the functional materials has been initiated.<br />
ThetypicaldesignoftheFGMsisthatthevaryingcompositionoftheFGMs<br />
from high ceramic content on one side of bulk material to high metal content on<br />
the other side. This may lead to good wear resistance, good corrosion resistance,<br />
good heat resistance on the high ceramic content side <strong>and</strong> good fracture resistance,<br />
98
Figure 6.2: Functional (FGM) gradient materials.<br />
good thermal conductivity on the high metal content side.<br />
The joining of ceramics to metals is of great engineering significance for various<br />
advanced technologies, including high-temperature structural applications in,<br />
e.g., turbine airfoils <strong>and</strong> combustors. A crucial matter in the ceramic-metal joint<br />
system is to develop an efficient means to suppress the damage to be induced by<br />
thermal stresses (cracking, interfacial decohesion, etc.), see Figure 6.2.<br />
99
Figure 6.3: Functional (FGM) gradient materials.<br />
100
Figure 7.1: The picture shows a solar cell which is made from a monocrystalline silicon<br />
wafer.<br />
7. Solar Cell <strong>Materials</strong><br />
A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts light energy into electrical<br />
energy. Sometimes the term solar cell is reserved for devices intended specifically<br />
to capture energy from sunlight, while the term photovoltaic cell is used when the<br />
light source is unspecified.<br />
Fundamentally, the device needs to fulfill only two functions: photogeneration<br />
of charge carriers (electrons <strong>and</strong> holes) in a light-absorbing material, <strong>and</strong> separation<br />
of the charge carriers to a conductive contact that will transmit the electricity<br />
(simply put, carrying electrons off through a metal contact into a wire or other<br />
circuit). This conversion is called the photovoltaic effect, <strong>and</strong> the field of research<br />
related to solar cells is known as photovoltaics.<br />
Solar cells have many applications. They have long been used in situations<br />
where electrical power from the grid is unavailable, such as in remote area power<br />
systems, Earth-orbiting satellites <strong>and</strong> space probes, consumer systems, e.g. h<strong>and</strong>held<br />
calculators or wrist watches, remote radiotelephones <strong>and</strong> water pumping<br />
applications. More recently, they are starting to be used in assemblies of solar<br />
modules (photovoltaic arrays) connected to the electricity grid through an<br />
inverter, often in combination with a net metering arrangement (ref. wikipedia).<br />
7.1. Light-absorbing materials<br />
All solar cells require a light absorbing material contained within the cell structure<br />
to absorb photons <strong>and</strong> generate electrons via the photovoltaic effect. The<br />
materials used in solar cells tend to have the property of preferentially absorbing<br />
the wavelengths of solar light that reach the earth surface; however, some solar<br />
cells are optimized for light absorption beyond Earth’s atmosphere as well. Light<br />
absorbing materials can often be used in multiple physical configurations to take<br />
101
advantage of different light absorption <strong>and</strong> charge separation mechanisms. Many<br />
currently available solar cells are configured as bulk materials that are subsequently<br />
cut into wafers <strong>and</strong> treated in a "top-down" method of synthesis (silicon<br />
being the most prevalent bulk material). Other materials are configured as thinfilms<br />
(inorganic layers, organic dyes, <strong>and</strong> organic polymers) that are deposited<br />
on supporting substrates, while a third group are configured as nanocrystals <strong>and</strong><br />
used as quantum dots (electron-confined nanoparticles) embedded in a supporting<br />
matrix in a "bottom-up" approach. Silicon remains the only material that is wellresearched<br />
in both bulk <strong>and</strong> thin-film configurations. The following is a current<br />
list of light absorbing materials, listed by configuration <strong>and</strong> substance-name:<br />
7.2. Silicon<br />
By far, the most prevalent bulk material for solar cells is crystalline silicon (abbreviated<br />
as a group as c-Si), also known as "solar grade silicon". Bulk silicon<br />
is separated into multiple categories according to crystallinity <strong>and</strong> crystal size in<br />
the resulting ingot, ribbon, or wafer.<br />
• monocrystalline silicon (c-Si): often made using the Czochralski process.<br />
Single-crystal wafer cells tend to be expensive, <strong>and</strong> because they are cut<br />
from cylindrical ingots, do not completely cover a square solar cell module<br />
without a substantial waste of refined silicon. Hence most c-Si panels have<br />
uncovered gaps at the corners of four cells.<br />
• Poly- or multicrystalline silicon (poly-Si or mc-Si): made from cast square<br />
ingots – large blocks of molten silicon carefully cooled <strong>and</strong> solidified. These<br />
cells are less expensive to produce than single crystal cells but are less efficient.<br />
• Ribbon silicon: formed by drawing flat thin films from molten silicon <strong>and</strong><br />
having a multicrystalline structure. These cells have lower efficiencies than<br />
poly-Si, but save on production costs due to a great reduction in silicon<br />
waste, as this approach does not require sawing from ingots.<br />
• New <strong>Structures</strong>: These new compounds are special arrangements of silicon<br />
that can dramatically improve efficiency such as ormosil.<br />
[edit]<br />
102
7.3. Thin films<br />
The various thin-film technologies currently being developed reduce the amount<br />
(or mass) of light absorbing material required in creating a solar cell. This can<br />
lead to reduced processing costs from that of bulk materials (in the case of silicon<br />
thin films) but also tends to reduce energy conversion efficiency, although many<br />
multi-layer thin filmshaveefficiencies above those of bulk silicon wafers.<br />
• CdTe: Cadmium telluride is an efficient light-absorbing material for thinfilm<br />
solar cells. CdTe is easier to deposit <strong>and</strong> more suitable for large-scale<br />
production. Despite much discussion of the toxicity of CdTe-based solar<br />
cells, this is the only technology (apart from amorphous silicon) that can be<br />
delivered on a large scale.<br />
• CIGS: are multi-layered thin-film composites. The abbreviation st<strong>and</strong>s for<br />
copper indium gallium diselenide. The best efficiency of a thin-film solar<br />
cell as of December 2005 was 19.5% with CIGS absorber layer. Higher<br />
efficiencies (around 30%) can be obtained by using optics to concentrate the<br />
incident light.<br />
• CIS: CIS is an abbreviation for general chalcopyrite films of copper indium<br />
selenide (CuInSe2), CIGS mentioned above is a variation of CIS. While these<br />
films can achieve 13.5% efficiency, <strong>their</strong> manufacturing costs at present are<br />
high when compared with a silicon solar cell but continuing work is leading<br />
to more cost-effective production processes<br />
• Gallium arsenide (GaAs) multijunction:High-efficiency cells have been developed<br />
for special applications such as satellites <strong>and</strong> space exploration. These<br />
multijunction cells consist of multiple thin films produced using molecular<br />
beam epitaxy. A triple-junction cell, for example, may consist of the semiconductors:<br />
GaAs, Ge, <strong>and</strong> GaInP2. GaAs multijunction devices are the<br />
most efficient solar cells to date, reaching a record high of 40.7% efficiency<br />
under solar concentration <strong>and</strong> laboratory conditions. In production, GaAs<br />
triple-junction cells reach efficiencies above 28.3%. They are also some of<br />
the most expensive cells per unit area (up to US$40/cm 2 ).<br />
• Dye-sensitized solar cells are a relatively new class of low-cost solar cells.<br />
They are based on a semiconductor formed between a photo-sensitized anode<br />
<strong>and</strong> an electrolyte, a photoelectrochemical system. Typically a ruthenium<br />
metalorganic dye (Ru-centered) used as a monolayer of light-absorbing<br />
103
material. The dye-sensitized solar cell depends on a mesoporous layer of<br />
nanoparticulate titanium dioxide to greatly amplify the surface area (200-<br />
300 m 2 /gram TiO2, as compared to approximately 10 m 2 /gram of flat single<br />
crystal).<br />
• Organic solar cells <strong>and</strong> Polymer solar cells are built from thin films (typically<br />
100 nm) of organic semiconductors such as polymers <strong>and</strong> small-molecule<br />
compounds like polyphenylene vinylene, copper phthalocyanine (a blue or<br />
green organic pigment) <strong>and</strong> carbon fullerenes. Energy conversion efficiencies<br />
achieved to date using conductive polymers are low at 6% efficiency for the<br />
best cells to date.<br />
• Silicon: Silicon thin-films are mainly deposited by Chemical vapor deposition<br />
(typically plasma enhanced (PE-CVD)) from silane gas <strong>and</strong> hydrogen<br />
gas. Depending on the deposition’s parameters, this can yield: Amorphous<br />
silicon (a-Si or a-Si:H), protocrystalline silicon or nanocrystalline silicon (nc-<br />
Si or nc-Si:H).<br />
• Nanocrystalline solar cells: These structures make use of some of the same<br />
thin-film light absorbing materials but are overlain as an extremely thin<br />
absorber on a supporting matrix of conductive polymer or mesoporous metal<br />
oxide having a very high surface area to increase internal reflections (<strong>and</strong><br />
hence increase the probability of light absorption).<br />
• CPV:Concentratingphotovoltaicsystemsusealargeareaoflensesormirrors<br />
to focus sunlight on a small area of photovoltaic cells. If these systems<br />
use single or dual-axis tracking to improve performance, they may be referred<br />
to as Heliostat Concentrator Photovoltaics (HCPV).<br />
7.4. Silicon solar cell device manufacture<br />
Because solar cells are semiconductor devices, they share many of the same processing<br />
<strong>and</strong> manufacturing techniques as other semiconductor devices such as computer<br />
<strong>and</strong> memory chips. However, the stringent requirements for cleanliness <strong>and</strong><br />
quality control of semiconductor fabrication are a little more relaxed for solar<br />
cells. Most large-scale commercial solar cell factories today make screen printed<br />
poly-crystalline silicon solar cells. Single crystalline wafers which are used in the<br />
semiconductor industry can be made into excellent high efficiency solar cells, but<br />
they are generally considered to be too expensive for large-scale mass production.<br />
104
Poly-crystalline silicon wafers are made by wire-sawing block-cast silicon ingots<br />
into very thin (180 to 350 micrometer) slices or wafers. The wafers are usually<br />
lightly p-type doped. To make a solar cell from the wafer, a surface diffusion<br />
of n-type dopants is performed on the front side of the wafer. This forms a p-n<br />
junction a few hundred nanometers below the surface.<br />
Antireflection coatings, which increase the amount of light coupled into the solar<br />
cell, are typically applied next. Over the past decade, silicon nitride has gradually<br />
replaced titanium dioxideastheantireflection coating of choice because of its<br />
excellent surface passivation qualities (i.e., it prevents carrier recombination at the<br />
surface of the solar cell). It is typically applied in a layer several hundred nanometers<br />
thick using plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) (which is<br />
process that REC Scancell AS in Narvik uses). Some solar cells have textured<br />
front surfaces that, like antireflection coatings, serve to increase the amount of<br />
light coupled into the cell. Such surfaces can usually only be formed on singlecrystal<br />
silicon, though in recent years methods of forming them on multicrystalline<br />
silicon have been developed.<br />
Thewaferisthenmetallized,wherebyafullareametalcontactismadeonthe<br />
back surface, <strong>and</strong> a grid-like metal contact made up of fine "fingers" <strong>and</strong> larger<br />
"busbars" is screen-printed onto the front surface using a silver paste. The rear<br />
contact is also formed by screen-printing a metal paste, typically aluminium. Usually<br />
this contact covers the entire rear side of the cell, though in some cell designs<br />
it is printed in a grid pattern. The metal electrodes will then require some kind<br />
of heat treatment or "sintering" to make Ohmic contact with the silicon. After<br />
the metal contacts are made, the solar cells are interconnected in series (<strong>and</strong>/or<br />
parallel) by flat wires or metal ribbons, <strong>and</strong> assembled into modules or "solar<br />
panels". Solar panels have a sheet of tempered glass on the front, <strong>and</strong> a polymer<br />
encapsulation on the back. Tempered glass cannot be used with amorphous silicon<br />
cells because of the high temperatures during the deposition process.<br />
References: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell#Light-absorbing_materials.<br />
105
Figure 8.1: A ”nano-tube”, 1nm in diameter <strong>and</strong> may be 1000nm long. Carbon-atoms<br />
in a ”periodic tube”.<br />
8.Nano-materials-<strong>and</strong>technology<br />
Nanoelectronics, Nanotechnology, Nanoconductor, Nanocomputer, Nanobots, from<br />
[13] are all technology based on nanoparticles which is a new functional material<br />
with length from 1 to 100nm, where 1 nanometer is 1·10 −9 meter. In recent<br />
years, it has attracted worldwide attention in research <strong>and</strong> development of nano<br />
materials. The immediately available applications for these materials range from<br />
transparent skin-care products to microelectronic components <strong>and</strong> high-stress engine<br />
parts.<br />
In this near to atomic size range, the particles <strong>and</strong> dynamic properties of<br />
surface atoms can be exploited to modify <strong>and</strong> enhance the performance of basic<br />
raw materials (e.g. iron, aluminum <strong>and</strong> titanium). These materials have unique<br />
electrical, optical, chemical, structural <strong>and</strong> magnetic properties with potential<br />
applications including information storage, color imaging, bioprocessing, magnetic<br />
refrigeration, <strong>and</strong> ferrofluids.<br />
This type of new composite materials can be molecularly engineered. The<br />
capabilities allow products to achieve levels of strength <strong>and</strong> durability. It can<br />
also be use to produce designer materials with electronic, mechanical, chemical,<br />
magnetic, <strong>and</strong> optical behavior, beyond the capability of traditional materials.<br />
New generations of products <strong>and</strong> processes become possible.<br />
Nanoparticles are also widely applied in such fields as astronavigation, national<br />
106
defense, magnetic recording devices, computerization, environmental protections,<br />
surface modification <strong>and</strong> medical/biological engineering etc.<br />
Manufacturedproductsaremadefromatoms(see[17]). Thepropertiesof<br />
those products depend on how those atoms are arranged. If we rearrange the<br />
atoms in coal we can make diamond. If we rearrange the atoms in s<strong>and</strong> (<strong>and</strong> add<br />
a few other trace elements) we can make computer chips. If we rearrange the<br />
atoms in dirt, water <strong>and</strong> air we can make potatoes.<br />
It’s like trying to make things out of LEGO blocks with boxing gloves on<br />
your h<strong>and</strong>s. Yes, you can push the LEGO blocks into great heaps <strong>and</strong> pile them<br />
up, but you can’t really snap them together the way you’d like. In the future,<br />
nanotechnology will let us take off the boxing gloves. We’ll be able to snap together<br />
the fundamental building blocks of nature easily, inexpensively <strong>and</strong> in almost any<br />
arrangement that we desire. This will be essential if we for instance want to<br />
continue the revolution in computer hardware.<br />
The greatest problem of nanocrystalline materials have been to move the technology<br />
out of the laboratory <strong>and</strong> put into commercial applications by developing<br />
means to produce quality materials in commercial volume at affordable cost. However,<br />
these difficulties have been overcome. Todays manufacturing methods have<br />
been very crude at the molecular level. Casting, grinding, milling <strong>and</strong> even lithography<br />
move atoms in great thundering statistical herds.<br />
8.1. Carbon Nanotubes (CNT)<br />
Figure 8.1 gives a picture of a carbon nanotube (CNT), see ref. Aftenposten<br />
(graphics: J. P. MÆHLEN ). One gram of these tubes costs about 5000 NOK,<br />
<strong>and</strong> is produced by Carbon Nanotechnology Inc. (CNI) which founder is Richard<br />
Smalley who got the Nobelprize for the invention of the technology of the nanotubes<br />
in 1996.<br />
It’s worth pointing out that the word nanotechnology has become very popular<br />
<strong>and</strong> is used to describe many types of research where the characteristic dimensions<br />
are less than about 1,000 nanometers. For example, continued improvements in<br />
lithography have resulted in line widths that are less than one micron: this work<br />
is often called nanotechnology. Sub-micron lithography is clearly very valuable<br />
but it is equally clear that lithography will not let us build semiconductor devices<br />
in which individual dopant atoms are located at specific lattice sites. Many of the<br />
exponentially improving trends in computer hardware capability have remained<br />
steady for the last 50 years. There is fairly widespread confidence that these<br />
107
trends are likely to continue for at least another ten years, but then lithography<br />
starts to reach its fundamental limits.<br />
Whatever we call it, nano-technology should let us:<br />
• — Get essentially every atom in the right place.<br />
— Make almost any structure consistent with the laws of physics <strong>and</strong><br />
chemistry that we can specify in atomic detail.<br />
— Have low manufacturing costs (not greatly exceeding the cost of the<br />
required raw materials <strong>and</strong> energy).<br />
There are two more concepts commonly associated with nanotechnology:<br />
• — Positional assembly.<br />
— Self replication.<br />
Clearly, we would be happy with any method that simultaneously achieved<br />
the first three objectives. However, this seems difficult without using some form<br />
of positional assembly (to get the right molecular parts in the right places) <strong>and</strong><br />
some form of self replication (to keep the costs down).<br />
The need for positional assembly implies an interest in molecular robotics,<br />
e.g., robotic devices that are molecular both in <strong>their</strong> size <strong>and</strong> precision. These<br />
molecular scale positional devices are likely to resemble very small versions of<br />
<strong>their</strong> everyday macroscopic counterparts. Positional assembly is frequently used<br />
in normal macroscopic manufacturing today, <strong>and</strong> provides tremendous advantages.<br />
The requirement for low cost creates an interest in self replicating manufacturing<br />
systems. These systems are able both to make copies of themselves <strong>and</strong><br />
to manufacture useful products. If we can design <strong>and</strong> build one such system the<br />
manufacturing costs for more such systems <strong>and</strong> the products they make (assuming<br />
they can make copies of themselves in some reasonably inexpensive environment)<br />
will be very low.<br />
8.1.1. Strength<br />
Carbon nanotubes are one of the strongest <strong>and</strong> stiffest materials known, in terms<br />
of tensile strength <strong>and</strong> elastic modulus respectively. Multi-walled carbon nanotube<br />
was tested in 2000, <strong>and</strong> was found to have a tensile strength of 63 GPa. (highcarbon<br />
steel has a tensile strength ≈ 1.2 GPa). CNTs have very high elasticmoduli,<br />
on the order of 1 TPa. Since CNTs have a low density for a solid (1.3-1.4<br />
108
Figure 8.2: Picture from http://www.forskning.no.<br />
g/cm 3 ), its specific strength of up to 48462 kN·m/kg is the best of known materials,<br />
(thespecific strength of high-carbon steel is 154 kN·m/kg).<br />
The tubes will undergo plastic deformation under excessive tensile strain,<br />
which starts at strains of approximately 5%. CNTs are not so strong under compression.<br />
Due to <strong>their</strong> hollow structure <strong>and</strong> high aspect ratio, they tend to undergo<br />
buckling when placed under compressive, torsional or bending stress.<br />
8.2. Nanocomposites<br />
<strong>Materials</strong> with features on the scale of nanometers often have properties dramatically<br />
different from <strong>their</strong> bulk-scale counterparts. For example, nanocrystalline<br />
copper is five times harder than ordinary copper with its micrometer-sized crystalline<br />
structure. The development of such materials is currently a research area<br />
of great interest.<br />
Nature makes fabulous nanocomposites, <strong>and</strong> scientists are trying to emulate<br />
such processes. The abalone shell, for example, has alternating layers of calcium<br />
carbonate <strong>and</strong> a rubbery biopolymer; it is twice as hard <strong>and</strong> a thous<strong>and</strong> times<br />
tougher than its components.<br />
The study of nanocomposite materials requires a multidisciplinary approach,<br />
involving novel chemical techniques <strong>and</strong> an underst<strong>and</strong>ing of physics, mathematics,<br />
material science <strong>and</strong> surface science. It is a field of broad scientific interest<br />
with impressive technological promise.<br />
109
Figure 8.3: (Left) This transmission electron micrograph of the cubic structure of<br />
the new hybrid material shows pores of about 10 nanometers across. (Right) This<br />
diagram shows molecular architecture of the flexible ceramic phase called a ”plumber’s<br />
nightmare.” Wiesner Research Group<br />
8.3. Flexible ceramics<br />
Using nanoscale chemistry, researchers at Cornell developed in 2002 a new class of<br />
hybrid materials that they describe as flexible ceramics, , see Figure 8.3 . The new<br />
materials appear to have wide applications, from microelectronics to separating<br />
macromolecules, such as proteins.<br />
The Cornell researcher reasoned that the simplest way to mimic nature’s pathways<br />
was to use organic (or carbon-based) polymers — more particularly materials<br />
known as diblock copolymers — that have the ability to self-assemble chemically<br />
into nanostructures with different symmetries. If the polymer could somehow be<br />
melded with an inorganic material — a ceramic, specifically a silica-type material —<br />
the resulting hybrid would have a combination of properties: flexibility <strong>and</strong> structure<br />
control from the polymer <strong>and</strong> functionality from the ceramic. This, Wiesner’s<br />
group has now achieved.<br />
”The resulting material has properties that are not just the simple sum of<br />
polymers plus ceramic, but maybe something quite new,” said Wiesner. Thus<br />
far the Cornell researchers have made only small pieces of the flexible ceramic,<br />
weighing a few grams, in petri dishes, but that is enough to test the material’s<br />
properties. It is transparent <strong>and</strong> bendable but with considerable strength, <strong>and</strong><br />
110
Figure 8.4: Flexible ceramics, from http://www.polytec.com/default.asp.<br />
unlike pure ceramic will not shatter. In one form the hybrid material is an ion<br />
conductor (an ion is an electrically charged atom), with great promise as highly<br />
efficient battery electrolytes. There also is the possibility that the new material<br />
could be used in fuel cells, he said.<br />
Published March 21, 2002, http://www.news.cornell.edu/Chronicle/02/3.21.02/<br />
Wiesner-ceramics.html<br />
For example, Cotronics´ Flexible Ceramics, see Figure 8.4 are easy to use to<br />
1650 ◦ C, highly efficient insulation products. They are available as:<br />
Fiber blankets, Ceramic Papers, Moldable Sheets, Ceramic Boards, Cloths <strong>and</strong><br />
Sleevings, Tapes, Ropes <strong>and</strong> Fabrics. They have advantages as:<br />
high purity, outst<strong>and</strong>ing thermal insulation, low heat storage, lightweigh, high<br />
resilienc, high mechanical <strong>and</strong> thermal shock resistance <strong>and</strong> are resistant to oxidizing.<br />
8.4. New type of High-performance Ceramic<br />
When a racing driver brakes, the discs <strong>and</strong> linings become red-hot. These parts<br />
are commonly made of carbon-fiber-reinforced carbon <strong>and</strong> are black at moderate<br />
temperatures. Car manufacturers <strong>and</strong> <strong>their</strong> suppliers would dearly like to extend<br />
the use of these special brake pads <strong>and</strong> other hard-wearing parts developed for<br />
racing vehicles to perfectly normal family cars - if only the cost was not prohibitive.<br />
This may now be possible using a new fiber-composite material that could almost<br />
be referred to as a renewable ceramic. Its carbon matrix is made of carbonized<br />
flax, hemp or wood fibers, which are then permeated with liquid silicon to form a<br />
high-strength, wear- <strong>and</strong> temperature-resistant silicon carbide.<br />
111
A great deal of know-how is needed even to produce the sheets of carbon fiber,<br />
reveals Dr. Stefan Siegel, team leader at the Fraunhofer Institute for Ceramic<br />
Technologies <strong>and</strong> Sintered <strong>Materials</strong> IKTS. Our starting material are boards of<br />
resin-coated plant fibers, which are produced for us by our colleagues at the Fraunhofer<br />
Institute for Wood Research WKI. These sheets then undergo a process<br />
called carbonization, in which the natural-fiber composite is heated in a nitrogen<br />
flooded furnace to temperatures of over 1000 ◦ C. This process has to be carefully<br />
controlled to ensure that the shrinkage of the material - i.e. its reduction in volume<br />
- proceeds homogeneously <strong>and</strong> without distortion. All that is left in the end<br />
is carbon; practically all other compounds present in the original material have<br />
decomposed <strong>and</strong> evaporated. The black sheets resulting from the carbonization<br />
of the raw natural fiber can be used, for example, as structural elements or as<br />
an insulating lining for furnaces. Alternatively, this intermediate product can be<br />
shaped into components using st<strong>and</strong>ard industrial machining techniques such as<br />
sawing, drilling or milling.<br />
But let us return to the ceramics. At temperatures above 1410 ◦ C, silicon<br />
liquefies, <strong>and</strong> is soaked up like a sponge by the sheets of carbon (at present up to<br />
one square meter in size) or the pre-shaped components. The silicon undergoes a<br />
fast-acting reaction with the carbon, forming a fiber-composite ceramic material.<br />
This stage of the process, unlike carbonization, does not alter the shape or size<br />
of the parts. The post-processing of hard ceramic materials like silicon carbide<br />
is relatively difficult. The new wood ceramic, by contrast, can be shaped before<br />
it is hardened, thus presenting manufacturers who use machine tools to produce<br />
parts subject to high mechanical <strong>and</strong> thermal stress with a simple-to-use, low-cost<br />
alternative. (published nov. 2002).<br />
8.5. Back to square one?<br />
Published in : http://www.forskning.no/Artikler/2002/oktober/1034170456.0 10.<br />
October 2002<br />
An up-<strong>and</strong>-coming young physicist at Bell Labs in Murray Hill, New Jersey,<br />
has been dismissed after being found guilty of 16 counts of scientific misconduct<br />
by a review panel charged with investigating his research.<br />
Formerly a rising star in the field of nanotechnology, Schön was renowned for<br />
creating field-effect transistors, the backbone of modern electronics, out of tiny<br />
molecules. His work won him numerous awards from magazines <strong>and</strong> scientific<br />
organizations, <strong>and</strong> colleagues were beginning to tip him for a Nobel Prize.<br />
112
But not everything was as it seemed. Many scientists were unable to reproduce<br />
Schön’s results. In April, a small group of physicists noticed that graphs in three<br />
unrelated papers appeared identical down to what should have been r<strong>and</strong>om noise.<br />
Bell Labs rapidly launched an independent investigation, which soon exp<strong>and</strong>ed to<br />
include two dozen papers.<br />
What they found, according to Malcolm Beasley, a professor of electrical engineering<br />
at Stanford University, who chaired the panel, was that Schön substituted<br />
whole figures from other papers, removed data points that disagreed with predictions,<br />
<strong>and</strong> even used mathematical functions in place of real data points.<br />
References:<br />
Nano SMM:<br />
http://mrsec.wisc.edu/Seed_shape_memory/seed_shape_memory_alloys.htm<br />
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_nanotube<br />
Aerogel:<br />
http://e<strong>and</strong>e.lbl.gov/ECS/aerogels/aerogels.htm<br />
http://www.ntnu.no/gemini/2002-05/16-19.htm<br />
FGM:<br />
http://kenwww.pi.titech.ac.jp/Current_Subjects#Topic-3<br />
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/<br />
http://WWW/RT2000/5000/5920arnold3.html<br />
http://www.lucifer.com/~sean/Nano.html<br />
http://www.zyvex.com/nano/<br />
http://web.mit.edu/tdp/www/composite.html<br />
CVD:<br />
http://chiuserv.ac.nctu.edu.tw/~htchiu/cvd/home.html<br />
http://www.ultramet.com/4.htm<br />
nano:<br />
http://www.aftenposten.no/nyheter/iriks/article.jhtml?articleID=199118<br />
http://www.aftenposten.no/nyheter/iriks/article.jhtml?articleID=198172<br />
http://www.aftenposten.no/nyheter/iriks/article.jhtml?articleID=198173<br />
http://www.dr.dk/videnom/12nano/nano2.htm<br />
http://www.dr.dk/orbitalen/artikler/aktnat/nanoroer.shtm<br />
http://www.tekblad.no/show_article.asp?id=4112<br />
http://www.pa.msu.edu/cmp/csc/nanotube.html<br />
113
http://www.sciencesite.dtu.dk/nano/<br />
http://www.sciam.com/nanotech/<br />
http://www.forskning.no/Artikler/2003/juni/1055493430.67<br />
http://www.forskning.no/Artikler/2003/september/1063028534.1<br />
Nanocomposites:<br />
http://www.mse.cornell.edu/materials_science_discovering/nanocomposites.html<br />
http://www.nanocor.com/nclays/nanocomposites.htm<br />
http://www.pnl.gov/nano/conferences/smart.html<br />
http://www.ntnu.no/gemini/2002-05/16-19.htm<br />
Flexible cramics:<br />
http://www.news.cornell.edu/Chronicle/02/3.21.02/ Wiesner-ceramics.html<br />
Solar Cell materials:<br />
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell#Light-absorbing_materials<br />
Misconduct in nanotechnology:<br />
http://www.smalltimes.com/document_display.cfm?document_id=4079<br />
http://www.nature.com/nsu/020923/020923-9.html<br />
http://www.nanoelectronicsplanet.com/briefs/<br />
http://nanotechweb.org/articles/news/1/9<br />
Questions<br />
• What is the difference between a material <strong>and</strong> a structure?<br />
• What is a smart material?<br />
• What kind of smart materials are there, <strong>and</strong> how do they act?<br />
• What is a FGM?<br />
• What is the advantage of a functional gradient material compared with traditional<br />
”solid” materials?<br />
• What kind of products do you think could be made from a functional gradient<br />
material?<br />
• What kind of products is FGM used in today? Who make them? What kind of<br />
materials are they made of?<br />
•What kind of Solar cell materials are there?<br />
• What is nano-technology?<br />
• What future is there in nano-technology?<br />
• What is a nanotube? What is the principle of fabrication of the nanotubes?<br />
• What kind of commercial nano-tube-based products are available in the market,<br />
<strong>and</strong> what can they be used as?<br />
114
• What is a flexible ceramic?<br />
115
Figure 9.1: Cellular structure.<br />
9. Cellular Solids, <strong>Structures</strong> & Foams<br />
When modern man builds large load-bearing structures, he uses dense solids; steel,<br />
concrete, glass. When nature does the same, she generally uses cellular materials;<br />
wood, bone, coral. There must be good reasons for it ref: (Prof. M. F. Ashby,<br />
University of Cambridge)<br />
Cellular solids are defined as ”...an assembly of cells with solid edges of faces,<br />
packed together so that they fill space...”, see [5], p. 1, <strong>and</strong> see Figure 9.1. Such<br />
materials can be found in nature, for instance cork <strong>and</strong> wood. Man-made cellular<br />
structures will in the future replace conventional materials because of the possibility<br />
to construct structures with tailored properties. Cellular structures can either<br />
consist of two-dimensional structures, like honeycombs, or three-dimensional<br />
structures, like foam-structures.<br />
Honeycombs are usually thought of as cells in a hexagonal form, but they<br />
can also be in a triangular, square or rhombic form. We can find honeycombs in<br />
the nature, like the bee-honeycomb <strong>and</strong> as the cross-section of the bambootree.<br />
Honeycombs are often used as a core material in s<strong>and</strong>wich-constructions. The very<br />
good stiffness-to-weight ratio <strong>and</strong> strength-to-weight ratio <strong>and</strong> the good shock<br />
absorption ability in addition to the possibility for man-made tailored properties<br />
of the structures are some of the answers to why the honeycomb-structures have<br />
become so interesting as material structures.<br />
Foamscannowalsobemadeofalmostanymaterial,likepolymers,metals,<br />
ceramics, glasses, <strong>and</strong> composites. The properties of a foam are related to<br />
116
its structure <strong>and</strong> the material of which the cell walls are made. Cellular solids<br />
are often used for thermal insulation, packaging, filtering, structural applications<br />
or for <strong>their</strong> buoyancy property among many other applications. Recently, there<br />
has been an increased interest in the use of cellular solids that perform more<br />
than just one function. These multi-functional materials would possess unique<br />
combinations of thermophysical <strong>and</strong> mechanical properties. For example, a load<br />
bearing cellular solid could also provide for additional things such as impact/blast<br />
absorption, thermal management, conductance of electricity <strong>and</strong>/or shielding of<br />
electromagnetic waves, electrical power storage, filtering or impeding of fluid flow,<br />
retardation of chemical reactions <strong>and</strong> fire or in-growth of biological tissue. The<br />
largest obstacle in creating these materials thus far has been the inability for<br />
many manufacturers (using foaming or other methods) to gain control over the<br />
distribution of material/pores at the cell level. In addition, the limited choice of<br />
base material types has slowed the introduction of cellular solids as materials of<br />
choice for multifunctional applications.<br />
The foam industry grows because cellular materials offer unique advantages<br />
over traditional materials <strong>and</strong> non-cellular polymers.<br />
9.1. Metal Foams<br />
Metal foams are a new type of materials, that is unknown to most engineers. They<br />
are not perfectly characterized, but generally we say that they have low densities<br />
<strong>and</strong> new type of physical, mechanical, thermal, electrical <strong>and</strong> energy absorption.<br />
In recent years there has been an increased interest in metal foams in the field<br />
of material science. The stress absorbing potential is one of the most interesting<br />
properties for the application of aluminium foam (e.g. car manufacturing). Material<br />
scientists need to investigate the structure of metal foams in order to optimize<br />
<strong>their</strong> deformation behavior.<br />
Most available metal foams are based on aluminium or nickel, but there also<br />
exist methods for foaming magnesium, lead, zinc, copper, bronze, titanium, steel<br />
<strong>and</strong> even gold. The methods are still imperfectly controlled. Metallic foams<br />
(metfoams) offer significant performance gains in light, stiff structures since they<br />
have an excellent stiffness-to-weight ratio. They can also be used as core materials<br />
in s<strong>and</strong>wich constructions since they have low density with good shear <strong>and</strong> fracture<br />
strength. The damping capacity of metal foams is larger than that of solid metals<br />
by up to a factor of 10.<br />
The most promising applications for metal foams appear to be as cores for<br />
117
Figure 9.2: Example of aluminium foam.<br />
light-stiff s<strong>and</strong>wich panels; as stiffeners to inhibit buckling in light shell structures;<br />
as energy absorbing units, both inside <strong>and</strong> outside of motor vehicles <strong>and</strong> trains; as<br />
efficient heat exchanges to cool high powered electronics (by blowing air through<br />
the open cells of the aluminium foam, , attached to the heat source) <strong>and</strong> as light<br />
cores for shell casting. Several industrial designers have seen potential in exploiting<br />
the reflectivity <strong>and</strong> light-filtering of open cell foams, <strong>and</strong> the interesting textures<br />
of those with closed cells.<br />
9.1.1. Aluminium foam:<br />
Also aluminium foam, see Figure 9.2, is beginning to be a large group of foam<br />
cores. It can be difficult to distinguish between aluminium foam as core material<br />
or as a functional gradient material, which is used in for instance car production.<br />
The properties (mechanical, thermal et.) of foam materials is studied in the<br />
field of cellular solids.<br />
Blocks of foam can be used as energy absorbers in various transportationrelated<br />
applications, such as automobiles, trucks <strong>and</strong> trains <strong>and</strong> highway crash<br />
barriers. Cymat is capable of producing aluminum foam panels up to four feet<br />
wide <strong>and</strong> 50 feet long with thickness ranging from 1 inch to 4 inches. The densities<br />
available are from 2.5% dense aluminum (0.0675 g/cc) to 20% dense aluminum<br />
(0.54 g/cc).<br />
118
9.2. Polymeric foam<br />
Polymeric foams have important economic impactonnearlyeveryaspectoflife<br />
today. High-density cellular plastics are used in furniture, transportation, <strong>and</strong><br />
building products. Low-density foams are used as shock mitigation, insulation,<br />
<strong>and</strong> rigid packaging.<br />
Foams can be manufactured from a variety of synthetic polymers including<br />
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene (PS), polyurethane (PU), polymethyl<br />
methacrylamide (acrylic), polyetherimide (PEI) <strong>and</strong> styreneacrylonitrile (SAN).<br />
Polyvinyl chloride PVC - Often used in the manufacture of racing boats,<br />
as the linear construction foams are flexible, <strong>and</strong> can be heat moulded around<br />
curves.<br />
Closed-cell polyvinyl chloride (PVC) foams are one of the most commonly<br />
used core materials for the construction of high performance s<strong>and</strong>wich structures.<br />
Although strictly they are a chemical hybrid of PVC <strong>and</strong> polyurethane, they tend<br />
to be referred to simply as ’PVC foams’.<br />
PVC foams offer a balanced combination of static <strong>and</strong> dynamic properties <strong>and</strong><br />
good resistance to water absorption. They also have a large operating temperature<br />
range of typically -240◦Cto+80◦C , <strong>and</strong> are resistant to many chemicals.<br />
Although PVC foams are generally flammable, there are fire-retardant grades that<br />
can be used in many fire-critical applications, such as train components. When<br />
used as a core for s<strong>and</strong>wich construction with fiber reinforced polymer (FRP)<br />
skins, its reasonable resistance to styrene means that it can be used safely with<br />
polyester resins <strong>and</strong> it is therefore popular in many industries. It is normally<br />
supplied in sheet form, either plain, or grid-scored to allow easy forming to shape.<br />
There are two main types of PVC foam: crosslinked <strong>and</strong> uncrosslinked with<br />
the uncrosslinked foams sometimes being referred to as ’linear’. The uncrosslinked<br />
foams are tougher <strong>and</strong> more flexible, <strong>and</strong> are easier to heat-form around curves.<br />
However, they have some lower mechanical properties than an equivalent density<br />
of cross-linked PVC, <strong>and</strong> a lower resistance to elevated temperatures <strong>and</strong> styrene.<br />
Their cross-linked counterparts are harderbutmorebrittle<strong>and</strong>willproducea<br />
stiffer panel, less susceptible to softening or creeping in hot climates. Typical<br />
cross-linked PVC products include the Herex C-series of foams, Divinycell H <strong>and</strong><br />
HT grades <strong>and</strong> Polimex Klegecell <strong>and</strong> Termanto products.<br />
A new generation of toughened PVC foams is now also becoming available<br />
which trade some of the basic mechanical properties of the cross-linked PVC<br />
foams for some of the improved toughness of the linear foams. Typical products<br />
119
include Divincell HD grade.<br />
Owing to the nature of the PVC/polyurethane chemistry in cross-linked PVC<br />
foams, these materials need to be thoroughly sealed with a resin coating before<br />
they can be safely used with low-temperature curing prepregs. Although special<br />
heat stabilisation treatments are available for these foams, these treatments are<br />
primarily designed to improve the dimensional stability of the foam, <strong>and</strong> reduce<br />
the amount of gassing that is given off during elevated temperature processing.<br />
Applications of PVC foam are in maringe, aerospace, transportation, military<br />
<strong>and</strong> defence, <strong>and</strong> industry.<br />
Polystyrene (PS)- Very light - around 40kg/m 3 , inexpensive <strong>and</strong> easily shaped.<br />
Although polystyrene foams are used extensively in sail <strong>and</strong> surf board manufacture,<br />
where <strong>their</strong> light weight (40kg/m3), low cost <strong>and</strong> easy to s<strong>and</strong> characteristics<br />
are of prime importance, they are rarely employed in high performance<br />
component construction because of <strong>their</strong> low mechanical properties. They cannot<br />
be used in conjunction with polyester resin systems because they will be dissolved<br />
by the styrene present in the resin (ester-based matrices cannot be used as adhesives).<br />
PS or EPS (extruded PS) is primary used as thermal insulation materials<br />
but also in some load carrying structures. Extruded polystyrene insulation offers<br />
a service temperature range of (-183 ◦ Cto+74 ◦ C).<br />
Polyurethane (PU) (PUR earlier)- Is very rigid <strong>and</strong> has <strong>and</strong> good mechanical<br />
properties, but tends to deteriorate with age <strong>and</strong> become delaminated.<br />
Polyurethane foams exhibit only moderate mechanical properties <strong>and</strong> have a<br />
tendency for the foam surface at the resin/core interface to deteriorate with age,<br />
leading to skin delamination. Their structural applications are therefore normally<br />
limited to the production of formers to create frames or stringers for stiffening<br />
components. However, polyurethane foams can be used in lightly loaded s<strong>and</strong>wich<br />
panels, with these panels being widely used for thermal insulation. The foam also<br />
has reasonable elevated service temperature properties (150◦C), <strong>and</strong> good acoustic<br />
absorption. The foam can readily be cut <strong>and</strong> machined to required shapes or<br />
profiles.<br />
Polymethyl methacrylamide (PMI)<br />
For a given density, polymethyl methacrylamide (acrylic) foams such as Rohacell<br />
offer some of the highest overall strengths <strong>and</strong> stiffnesses of foam cores. Their<br />
high dimensional stability also makes them unique in that they can readily be<br />
used with conventional elevated temperature curing prepregs. However, they are<br />
expensive, which means that <strong>their</strong> use tends to be limited to aerospace composite<br />
120
parts such as helicopter rotor blades, <strong>and</strong> aircraft flaps. Acrylics has the highest<br />
specific strength <strong>and</strong> stiffness for a given density. High stability makes them<br />
ideal for use with prepregs, but they do not fit curves well. Maximum service<br />
temperature of PMI is 180◦C. Styrene acrylonitrile (SAN) co-polymer Foams<br />
SAN foams behave in a similar way to toughened cross-linked PVC foams.<br />
They have most of the static properties of cross-linked PVC cores, yet have much<br />
higher elongations <strong>and</strong> toughness. They are therefore able to absorb impact levels<br />
that would fracture both conventional <strong>and</strong> even the toughened PVC foams. However,<br />
unlike the toughened PVC’s, which use plasticisers to toughen the polymer,<br />
the toughness properties of SAN are inherent in the polymer itself, <strong>and</strong> so do not<br />
change appreciably with age.<br />
SAN foams are replacing linear PVC foams in many applications since they<br />
have much of the linear PVC’s toughness <strong>and</strong> elongation, yet have a higher temperature<br />
performance <strong>and</strong> better static properties. However, they are still thermoformable,<br />
which helps in the manufacture of curved parts. Heat-stabilised grades<br />
of SAN foams can also be more simply used with low-temperature curing prepregs,<br />
since they do not have the interfering chemistry inherent in the PVC’s. Maximum<br />
service temperature of PMI is 125◦C. Polyethylene (PET)- A crystalline polyethylene terephthalate (PET) foam<br />
by applying high-expansion foam extrusion <strong>and</strong> thermoforming to PET resin.<br />
The PET foam combines light weight <strong>and</strong> outst<strong>and</strong>ing shock resistance with good<br />
thermal insulation. Because it withst<strong>and</strong>s temperatures up to 220◦C, PET foam<br />
is an excellent material for oven-proof food containers. And because of its superior<br />
shock absorption <strong>and</strong> moldability, it makes an ideal packing material for multiple<br />
products.<br />
Other thermoplastics<br />
As new techniques develop for the blowing of foams from thermoplastics, the<br />
range of exp<strong>and</strong>ed materials of this type continues to increase. Typical is PEI<br />
foam, an exp<strong>and</strong>ed polyetherimide/polyether sulphone, which combines outst<strong>and</strong>ing<br />
fire performance with high service temperature. PEI is expensive, but can be<br />
used in temperatures from -194 ◦ C-+180 ◦ C, <strong>and</strong> can be used in structural, thermal<br />
<strong>and</strong> fire protection applications, for instanceinaircrafts<strong>and</strong>traininteriors,<br />
as it can meet some of the most stringent fire resistant specifications.<br />
121
9.3. Refractory foams / Ceramic foam<br />
Refractory materials are ceramics that have been designed to provide acceptable<br />
mechanical or chemical properties while at high temperatures.<br />
Refractory foams are a new class of open cell, low density materials which<br />
Ultramet has developed to produce lightweight refractory structures for a variety<br />
of aerospace <strong>and</strong> industrial applications including thermal insulation, lightweight,<br />
precision mirrors, impact absorption, catalyst support, <strong>and</strong> metal <strong>and</strong> gas filtration.<br />
By pyrolyzing a polymer foam, a reticulated vitreous carbon (RVC) foam<br />
is created which has substantial mechanical <strong>and</strong> thermal properties. By further<br />
CVI (chemical vapor infiltration) processing, ceramic (e.g. silicon carbide [SiC])<br />
<strong>and</strong>/or metal or mixed material foams can be fabricated.<br />
These cellular materials can be simultaneously optimized for stiffness, strength,<br />
thermal conductivity, active surface area, <strong>and</strong> gas permeability. They are thermally<br />
stable, low in weight <strong>and</strong> density, chemically pure, resistant to thermal<br />
stress <strong>and</strong> shock, <strong>and</strong> are relatively inexpensive.<br />
June 2001: A team of scientists from Technion, Israel, has succeeded in manufacturing<br />
the worlds lightest ceramic foam material, implementing a unique mechanism<br />
its members have developed. The new material is a ceramic foam that<br />
contains 94% to 96% air by volume, but can resist temperatures above 1700◦C. The material is made of aluminum oxide, a common high-temperature ceramic,<br />
but gets its extraordinary insulating powers from the many tiny air bubbles within<br />
the material. The foam is generated from special crystals that contain the metal<br />
components <strong>and</strong> all the foaming ingredients. Upon heating, the crystals form a<br />
solution. Within this solution a reaction takes place, forming polymer chains.<br />
After the chains grow sufficiently, the solution suddenly separates into a pure<br />
solvent <strong>and</strong> the polymer. At this point, the solvent begins to boil, forming trillions<br />
of tiny bubbles that blow the polymer into a foam, stabilized by the polymer<br />
chains. Subsequent heating to high temperatures leaves behind the ceramic, metal<br />
oxide foam.<br />
The material will be used for a wide variety of advanced applications such<br />
as acoustic insulation, thermal insulation, adsorption of environmental pollutants<br />
or as a platform for bio-technology applications. The estimated market for this<br />
product is worth billions of dollars.<br />
122
9.3.1. Carbon foam<br />
Figure 9.3: Human bone is a hierarchical structure.<br />
Touchstone makes thee carbon foam product, CFoam by transforming high-sulfur<br />
bituminous coal into a strong but lightweight, fire-resistant, <strong>and</strong> thermally insulating<br />
material. A slice of Carbon foam that is exposed to a 3000 ◦ flame, can be<br />
held by a h<strong>and</strong> in the other end due to its conductivity which makes that the end<br />
remains cool enough to touch. The carbon foam material can be used as for instance<br />
lightweight thermal protection in aircraft <strong>and</strong> spacecraft, as a fire blocking<br />
material in military vehicles, as a porous electrode for lightweight energy storage,<br />
<strong>and</strong> to provide insulation <strong>and</strong> fire protection in home construction.<br />
9.4. Hierarchical structures (multiscale structures)<br />
Some cellular structures are made up in a different matter than the previous ones.<br />
The hierarchical structures (also called multiscaled structures) are structures that<br />
consist of structures in many size scales or levels. They are also called multiscaled<br />
structures. Many such structures can be found in nature, <strong>and</strong> humans have begun<br />
to imitate the nature <strong>and</strong> build man-made hierarchical structures. Weight-savings<br />
<strong>and</strong> tailored properties are some of the benefit of such structures.<br />
Human bone (bones in general) is for instance a natural hierarchical structure,<br />
see Figure 9.3.<br />
123
Figure 9.4: The Eiffel tower is also a hierarchical structure.<br />
Eiffel-tower, on the other h<strong>and</strong>, is an example of an artifical/man-made hierarchical<br />
structure, see Figure 9.4, is a hierarchical structure.<br />
Most common materials or structures have a Poissons ratio 0.5 > ν > 0<br />
(approximately 0.5 for rubbers <strong>and</strong> for soft biological tissues, 0.45 for lead, 0.33<br />
for aluminum, 0.27 for common steels, 0.1 to 0.4 for cellular solids such as typical<br />
polymer foams, <strong>and</strong> nearly zero for cork). In an isotropic material (a material<br />
which does not have a preferred orientation) the allowable range of Poisson’s ratio<br />
is from -1.0 to +0.5. Hierarchical structures <strong>and</strong> foams have also been made with<br />
negative Poissons ratio (ν < 0), <strong>and</strong> Poisson’s ratio > 1, which give exciting<br />
respond to loads. The applications for such structures/materials are not widely<br />
known, but will certainly increase in future when the fabrication of such structures<br />
will be easier. Rod Lakes (at: http://silver.neep.wisc.edu/~lakes/sci87.html) is<br />
maybe the person who has done most in this field.<br />
9.5. Biomaterials<br />
A biomaterial is any material, natural or man-made, that comprises whole or part<br />
of a living structure or biomedical device which performs, augments, or replaces<br />
a natural function.<br />
References:<br />
124
Cellular structures:<br />
http://ansatte.hin.no/dl//homo.html<br />
http://web.mit.edu/dmse/csg/Research.htm<br />
http://silver.neep.wisc.edu/~lakes/<br />
Metal foam:<br />
http://www.metalfoam.net/<br />
http://www.porvair.com/fuelcell/metalfoam.htm<br />
http://www.porvair.com/fuelcell/<br />
http://www.ultramet.com/foamtech.htm<br />
http://www.cymat.com/<br />
http://www.npl.co.uk/npl/cmmt/metal_foams/index.html<br />
http://www.grantadesign.com/solutions/metalfoams.htm<br />
Polymer foam:<br />
http://www.vitec.org.uk/<br />
http://www.foam<strong>and</strong>form.com/seminars/foam/<br />
Ceramic foams:<br />
http://www.emgroup.nl<br />
http://www.solgel.com/articles/june01/news06_101.htm<br />
Refractory foams:<br />
http://www.ultramet.com/<br />
http://voyager.cet.edu/iss/techcheck/techcheck3/wvproduct.html<br />
General:<br />
http://www.npl.co.uk/npl/cmmt/metal_foams/applications.html<br />
Hierarchical structures<br />
http://silver.neep.wisc.edu/~lakes/Hierarch.html<br />
Negative Poissons ratio materials<br />
http://silver.neep.wisc.edu/~lakes/sci87.html<br />
Biomaterials:<br />
http://www.engr.sjsu.edu/WofMatE/Biomaterials.htm<br />
Questions<br />
• What is the definition of ”cellular solids”?<br />
• What types of foams are there, <strong>and</strong> what products are they used in?<br />
125
• What is the advantages of foam materials compared to conventional solid materials?<br />
• What are the applications of foam materials?<br />
• What is a refractory material/structure?<br />
• What is hierarchical structures?<br />
• Find two examples of man-made hierarchical structures <strong>and</strong> two examples of<br />
natural hierarchical structures.<br />
• Does foam with negative Poissons ratio exist? How does such a material act?<br />
• Does foam with Poissons ratio >1 exist?<br />
126
Part II<br />
S<strong>and</strong>wich Constructions<br />
Composite materials used today are often in the form of a s<strong>and</strong>wich construction,<br />
see Figure 9.5.A s<strong>and</strong>wich panel is built up by two thin skins, also called the<br />
Adhesive<br />
Face sheet<br />
Honeycomb core<br />
(metal, composite<br />
or paper)<br />
Face sheet<br />
Figure 9.5: A s<strong>and</strong>wich construction.<br />
facings, separated by a lightweight core. The core helps to increase the moment of<br />
inertia such that the structure becomes efficient for resisting bending <strong>and</strong> buckling<br />
loads. This is why s<strong>and</strong>wich panels are being used in applications where weightsaving<br />
is critical, for instance in aircraft <strong>and</strong> in portable structures.<br />
S<strong>and</strong>wich designs are also used by nature itself for instance in a human skull<br />
<strong>and</strong> in plants. While nature often uses the same material in the facings as in<br />
the core <strong>and</strong> only vary the density, man-made s<strong>and</strong>wich panels usually consist of<br />
different materials, or even structures, in the facings <strong>and</strong> in the core.A s<strong>and</strong>wich<br />
construction is built up by different face- <strong>and</strong> core materials <strong>and</strong> forms, see Figure<br />
9.6 <strong>and</strong> [36, p.18].<br />
127
Figure 9.6: S<strong>and</strong>wich materials <strong>and</strong> forms.<br />
10. Why use s<strong>and</strong>wich constructions?<br />
The mechanical behavior of a s<strong>and</strong>wich panel depends on the properties of the<br />
face <strong>and</strong> the core materials <strong>and</strong> on its geometry.<br />
The Figure 10.1 shows how the s<strong>and</strong>wich design works, the so-called s<strong>and</strong>wicheffect.<br />
In Figure 10.2 we see the s<strong>and</strong>wich-effect in <strong>and</strong> aluminium-s<strong>and</strong>wich compared<br />
to solid aluminium plates of different thickness.<br />
128
Figure 10.1: The s<strong>and</strong>wich effect.<br />
Figure 10.2: Aluminium foam used as core material compared with aluminium plate.<br />
129
10.1. Face materials<br />
The face material in a s<strong>and</strong>wich panel can be made of almost any material that<br />
can be formed into thin sheets. The properties we seek for in a face material are:<br />
• high stiffness, which gives high flexural rigidity<br />
• high tensile <strong>and</strong> compressive strength<br />
• impact resistance<br />
• surface finish<br />
• environmental resistance (chemical, UV, heat etc.)<br />
• wear resistance<br />
The most usual type of material used as facings are listed in the Table with a<br />
summary of face materials.<br />
Material<br />
Metals: Mild steel<br />
Stainless steel<br />
Aluminium Alloy<br />
Titanium Alloy<br />
Wood: Pine<br />
Plywood<br />
Unidirectional fibre composites Carbon/Epoxy<br />
(vf =0.6 − 0.7) Glass/Epoxy<br />
Kevlar/Epoxy<br />
Bi-directional fibre composites Kevlar/Polyester<br />
(vf =0.3 − 0.4) Glass weave/Polyester<br />
Glass WR /Polyester<br />
R<strong>and</strong>om fibres Glass CSM<br />
(vf =0.15 − 0.25) SMC<br />
, (10.1)<br />
where WR=(woven roving), CSM= chopped str<strong>and</strong> mat, SMC = sheet moulding<br />
compound <strong>and</strong> vf isthevolumefractionoffibers.<br />
The most used group of face-materials is the fibre composites since they have<br />
a similar or even higher strength properties than metals, <strong>and</strong> are much easier to<br />
fabricate. Also, the possibility to tailor the face materials because the anisotropic<br />
behavior of the fibres offer a very interesting addition. In this way fibres can be<br />
placed in the direction where the loadcarrying is most important.<br />
130
Figure 10.3: Core exposed to shear.<br />
10.2. Core materials <strong>and</strong> structures<br />
The essential property of any core material is that it increases the thickness of the<br />
laminate, without causing a great weight increase (engineering theory shows that<br />
the flexural stiffness of any panel is proportional to the cube of its thickness). The<br />
purpose of a core in a composite laminate is therefore to increase the laminate’s<br />
stiffness by effectively ’thickening’ it with a low-density core material. This can<br />
provide a dramatic increase in stiffness for very little additional weight.<br />
Figure 10.3 shows a cored laminate under a bending load. Here, the s<strong>and</strong>wich<br />
laminate can be likened to an I-beam, in which the laminate skins act as the<br />
I-beam flange, <strong>and</strong> the core materials act as the beam’s shear web. In this mode<br />
of loading it can be seen that the upper skin is put into compression, the lower<br />
skin into tension <strong>and</strong> the core into shear. It therefore follows that one of the most<br />
important properties of a core is its shear strength <strong>and</strong> stiffness.<br />
In addition, particularly when using lightweight, thin laminate skins, the core<br />
must be capable of taking a compressive loading without premature failure. This<br />
helps to prevent the thin skins from wrinkling, <strong>and</strong> failing in a buckling mode.<br />
The properties of primary interest for the core:<br />
• Low density (add little weight to the total weight of the s<strong>and</strong>wich)<br />
• Shear modulus (prevents wrinkling)<br />
• Shear strength (prevents wrinkling)<br />
• Stiffness perpendicular to the faces (prevents decrease in core thickness <strong>and</strong><br />
therefore a rapid decrease in the flexural rigidity)<br />
• Thermal insulation<br />
• Acoustic insulation<br />
There are four main groups of core material used,<br />
131
• Foams<br />
• Honeycombs<br />
• Corrugated<br />
• Wood<br />
10.2.1. Foam Cores<br />
Figure 10.4: Honeycomb core.<br />
Foamsareoneofthemostcommonformsofcorematerial. Theycanbemanufactured<br />
from a variety of synthetic polymers including polyvinyl chloride (PVC),<br />
polystyrene (PS), polyurethane (PU), polymethyl methacrylamide (acrylic), polyetherimide<br />
(PEI) <strong>and</strong> styreneacrylonitrile (SAN). They can be supplied in densities<br />
ranging from less than 30kg/m 3 to more than 300kg/m 3 , although the most<br />
used densities for composite structures range from 40 to 200 kg/m 3 . They are<br />
also available in a variety of thicknesses, typically from 5mm to 50mm.<br />
10.2.2. Honeycomb Cores<br />
Honeycomb cores are available in a variety of materials for s<strong>and</strong>wich structures,<br />
which ranges from paper <strong>and</strong> card for low strength <strong>and</strong> stiffness, low load applications<br />
(such as domestic internal doors) to high strength <strong>and</strong> stiffness, extremely<br />
lightweight components for aircraft structures. Honeycombs can be processed into<br />
both flat <strong>and</strong> curved composite structures, <strong>and</strong> can be made to conform to curves<br />
without excessive mechanical force or heating.<br />
Figure 10.4 shows the usual honeycomb shape. The cells can be triangular,<br />
square or hexagonal cells which also can be filled with a rigid foam in order to<br />
132
provide a greater bond area for the skins, increases the mechanical properties of<br />
the core by stabilizing the cell walls <strong>and</strong> increases thermal <strong>and</strong> acoustic insulation<br />
properties. The following materials are commonly used in honeycomb structures.<br />
• Aluminium - Has been used since 1950, several alloys can be used, but in<br />
comparison it is old <strong>and</strong> heavy.<br />
• Glass fibre reinforced plastic - Has a high temperature resistance <strong>and</strong> good<br />
insulating properties, but is denser than other materials.<br />
• Kraftpaper honeycombs - impregnated paper with resin to make it water<br />
resistant. Good strength at low cost.<br />
• Nomex honeycomb which is made from Nomex paper - a form of paper based<br />
on Kevlar TM (Aramid fibre), rather than cellulose fibres. High strength <strong>and</strong><br />
toughness with a low density makes it the most widely used honeycomb<br />
core. The initial paper honeycomb is usually dipped in a phenolic resin to<br />
produceahoneycombcorewithhighstrength<strong>and</strong>verygoodfire resistance.<br />
It is widely used for lightweight interior panels for aircraft in conjunction<br />
with phenolic resins in the skins. Nomex honeycomb is becoming increasingly<br />
used in high-performance non aerospace components due to its high<br />
mechanical properties, low density <strong>and</strong> good long-term stability.<br />
Figure 10.5 shows the shear strength <strong>and</strong> compressive strength of some of the<br />
core materials described, plotted against <strong>their</strong> densities. Figure 10.6 shows the<br />
prices of some core materials.<br />
Honeycombscanbemadewithseveraldifferent cell shapes:<br />
Hexagonal<br />
The most common shape is the one shown at Figure 10.4, but this can only<br />
be used in flat components.<br />
Overexp<strong>and</strong>ed<br />
The honeycomb in Figure 10.7 is over exp<strong>and</strong>ed, so that the cells are rectangular.<br />
This gives better properties in the web direction, but worse in the other, it<br />
can therefore be curved in the ribbon direction only. This shape is used for single<br />
curvature components.<br />
133
Figure 10.5: Compressive strength <strong>and</strong> shear strength of some of the core materials<br />
plotted against <strong>their</strong> densities.<br />
Figure 10.6: Comparative prices of some core materials.<br />
134
Figure 10.7: Overexp<strong>and</strong>ed honeycomb structure.<br />
Negative Poisson’s Ratio<br />
Honeycombs can be made with negative Poissons Ratio, when the cell walls<br />
areinvertedasinFigure10.8.<br />
10.2.3. Corrugated Cores<br />
Figure 10.8: Honeycombs with negativ Poisson’s ratio.<br />
A corrugated core is shown in Figure 10.9.<br />
135
10.2.4. Wood Cores<br />
Figure 10.9: Corrugated core.<br />
Wood can be described as ’nature’s honeycomb’ because on a microscopic scale<br />
you find that it consists of closed-cell structure. It has a similar structure to<br />
that of a hexagonal honeycomb, <strong>and</strong> consequently good mechanical properties.<br />
When used in a s<strong>and</strong>wich structure with the grain running perpendicular to the<br />
plane of the skins, the resulting component shows properties similar to those made<br />
with man-made honeycombs. However, despite various chemical treatments being<br />
available, all wood cores are susceptible to moisture attack <strong>and</strong> will rot if not well<br />
surrounded by laminate or resin. Wood is only used in large projects, as it has a<br />
relatively high density, of at least 100kg/m 3 .<br />
Balsa<br />
The most commonly used wood core is end-grain balsa. Balsa wood cores first<br />
appeared in the 1940’s in flying boat hulls, which were aluminium skinned <strong>and</strong><br />
balsa-cored to withst<strong>and</strong> the repeated impact of l<strong>and</strong>ing on water. This performanceledthemarineindustrytobeginusingend-grainbalsaasacorematerial<br />
in FRP construction. Apart from its high compressive properties, its advantages<br />
include being a good thermal insulator offering good acoustic absorption. The<br />
material will not deform when heated <strong>and</strong> acts as an insulating <strong>and</strong> ablative layer<br />
in a fire, with the core charring slowly, allowing the non-exposed skin to remain<br />
structurally sound. It also offers positive flotation <strong>and</strong> is easily worked with simple<br />
tools <strong>and</strong> equipment.<br />
Balsa core is available as contoured end-grain sheets 3 to 50mm thick on a<br />
backing fabric, <strong>and</strong> rigid end-grain sheets up to 100mm thick. These sheets can<br />
be provided ready resin-coated for vacuum-bagging, prepreg or pressure-based<br />
manufacturing processes such as RTM. One of the disadvantages of balsa is its<br />
136
high minimum density, with 100kg/m3 being a typical minimum. This problem<br />
is exacerbated by the fact that balsa can absorb large quantities of resin during<br />
lamination, although pre-sealing the foam can reduce this. Its use is therefore<br />
normally restricted to projects where optimum weight saving is not required or in<br />
locally highly stressed areas.<br />
Balsa was the first material used as cores in load bearing s<strong>and</strong>wich structures<br />
<strong>and</strong> is still often used as a core material.<br />
Cedar<br />
Another wood that is used sometimes as a core material is cedar. In marine<br />
construction it is often the material used as the ’core’ in strip-plank construction,<br />
with a composite skin on each side <strong>and</strong> the grain of the cedar running parallel to<br />
the laminate faces. The cedar fibres run along the length of the boat giving fore<br />
<strong>and</strong> aft stiffness while the fibres in the FRP skins are laid at ±45 ◦ giving torsional<br />
rigidity, <strong>and</strong> protecting the wood.<br />
10.3. Adhesives<br />
Bonding of s<strong>and</strong>wich construction involve bonding of two very dissimilar constituents,<br />
one solid <strong>and</strong> one softer cellular component, <strong>and</strong> the requirements concerning<br />
bonding are therefore somewhat different than normal use. The adhesive<br />
must be stronger than the tensile strength of the core. Some of the requirements<br />
oftheadhesivesare:<br />
Surface preparation<br />
Thecore<strong>and</strong>thefacematerialhavetobepreparedbeforebonding,which<br />
involves mechanically or chemically cleaning <strong>and</strong> sometimes priming.<br />
Solvents<br />
Core materials are often very sensitive to certain solvents. For instance: Polystyrene<br />
foams are sensitive to styrene (polyester <strong>and</strong> vinylester contains styrene),<br />
while epoxies <strong>and</strong> polyurethanes may be used. Similar combinations needs to be<br />
investigated before bonding components.<br />
Curing vapors<br />
When curing, some adhesives (as phenolics) give off vapor when curing, which<br />
can give rise to several bonding problems.<br />
Bonding pressure<br />
137
When pressure is needed to prevent pores to appear, be careful so that the<br />
core will not fail due to the compression.<br />
Adhesive viscosity<br />
Theadhesivemusthaveexactlytherightcombinationofsurfacewetting<strong>and</strong><br />
flow. In the case of foam or balsa core, the viscosity should be low enough to<br />
enabletheadhesivetofillthesurfacecellsproperly<strong>and</strong>leaveaslittleaspossible<br />
trapped air. But the viscosity must not be too low,the adhesive could be squeezed<br />
out leaving too thin bonding line.<br />
Bond thickness<br />
If the bond is too thick, it adds extra unnecessary weight to the part. If it is<br />
too thin, bonding will not be one properly.<br />
Strength<br />
The bond must be able to transfer the design loads, which means it must have<br />
the desired tensile <strong>and</strong> shear strength, at the temperatures that might occur.<br />
Thermal stresses<br />
A frequent cause of debonding failures are thermal stresses. If for instance one<br />
side is heated from sunlight it will deform due to thermal expansion. Most core<br />
materials are very good insulators, <strong>and</strong> therefor it will be a very high thermal<br />
gradient over the bond line. This lead to very high shear stresses in the bond<br />
which may lead to debonding. In such environment, very ductile adhesives should<br />
be chosen (high strain to failure).<br />
Toughness<br />
Toughened adhesives which resist cracks better (improved impact resistance)<br />
are on the market. They are ordinary resins which have elastomer particles added.<br />
Viscoelastic properties<br />
Highly viscoelastic adhesives may be advantageous for example where there<br />
are high thermal gradients.<br />
Curing shrinkage<br />
As much as 7% decrease in volume can an adhesive (as polyesters) shrink when<br />
its curing. This leads to high interface (bond) shear stresses <strong>and</strong> may decrease<br />
the strength of adhesive joints.<br />
Curing exotherm<br />
Most adhesives exhibit an exotherm (curing process gives off heat) curing.<br />
This is seldom a problem in thin bondings spread over a large area.<br />
138
Different types of adhesives are for instance:<br />
• Epoxy resins<br />
• Modified epoxies<br />
• Phenolics<br />
• Polyurethanes Urethane acrylates<br />
• Polyester <strong>and</strong> vinylester resins<br />
References:<br />
Alulight products:<br />
http://www.alulight.com/en/products/products.html<br />
Composites:<br />
http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~weeks/<br />
Composite%20<strong>Materials</strong>.htm<br />
http://www.netcomposites.com/education.asp<br />
http://www.baltek.com/<br />
Fibres<br />
http:// www.netcomposites.com/education.asp?sequence=45<br />
Foam cores:<br />
http://www.netcomposites.com/education.asp<br />
http://www.polymer-age.co.uk/techlink.htm<br />
http://www.hexcelcomposites.com<br />
Adhesives:<br />
http://www.hexcelcomposites.com/products/honeycomb/<br />
s<strong>and</strong>_design_tech/hsdt_p04.html<br />
http://www.hexcelcomposites.com/products/<br />
Questions<br />
•Why are s<strong>and</strong>wich constructions used?<br />
•What kind of face <strong>and</strong> core materials are used in s<strong>and</strong>wich constructions?<br />
•What is the essential property of any core material<br />
•Is End Grain Balsa used as core material in s<strong>and</strong>wich construction? If yes,<br />
what kind of products, <strong>and</strong> what are the advantages of this product?<br />
(http://www.baltek.com/)<br />
•What requirements must be taken into consideration when it comes to bonding<br />
s<strong>and</strong>wich-constructions with adhesives?<br />
139
11. Design of s<strong>and</strong>wich constructions<br />
When we use s<strong>and</strong>wich panels in different applications we have to know the mechanical<br />
properties of the face <strong>and</strong> core materials <strong>and</strong> the geometry of the panel.<br />
Often we formulate the design of a s<strong>and</strong>wich panel as an optimization problem<br />
where the goal is to minimize the weight of the panel that meet the constraints<br />
on stiffness <strong>and</strong> strength desired. With respect to the core <strong>and</strong> skin thickness, or<br />
the materials, or the density of the core, the optimization can be carried out.<br />
11.1. Design of s<strong>and</strong>wich beams<br />
Design of s<strong>and</strong>wich beams are the basis for underst<strong>and</strong>ing more complicated panels<br />
<strong>and</strong> constructions. Beams are defines as a long, slender, one dimensional structural<br />
element that carries load primarily in bending (flexure). In classical engineering<br />
beam theory where the cross-section of the beam is a homogenous material the<br />
transverse shear deformations are neglected. In s<strong>and</strong>wich beam theory we cannot<br />
neglect the transverse shear deformations.<br />
An example of a s<strong>and</strong>wich beam can be seen in Figure 11.1. Here, the beam<br />
has a given point load P at the middle of the length.l We use the subscripts ”f”,<br />
Figure 11.1: A s<strong>and</strong>wich beam.<br />
<strong>and</strong> ”c” which refer to the facings, <strong>and</strong> core, respectively.<br />
140
11.2. Preliminaries<br />
Figure 11.2: Acurvedbeam.<br />
Let us start with recalling the problem of a straight beam subjected to a constant<br />
bending moment giving the beam a curvature 1/Rx. The length of the curve, lc at<br />
the neutral axis (N.A.), that has radius Rx <strong>and</strong> angle α, see Figure 11.2, is found<br />
by the formula<br />
lc = Rxα.<br />
The strain εx in a new curveline at a distance z from the N.A. (where εx =0)can<br />
be found as follows:<br />
εx =<br />
(new curve length)-(old curve length)<br />
(old curve length)<br />
= Rxα + zα − Rxα<br />
Rxα<br />
= z<br />
.<br />
Rx<br />
The stress σx in the beam is then given by<br />
σx = Eεx = E z<br />
Rx<br />
.<br />
= (Rx + z) α − Rxα<br />
Rxα<br />
The applied bending moment dMx, with respect to the x-axis, caused by the force<br />
dF acting on a small element, see Figure 11.3, of area dA = dydz at a point x is<br />
dMx = zdF = zσxdA<br />
| {z }<br />
dF<br />
141<br />
= zσxdydz.<br />
|{z}<br />
dA
Figure 11.3: A small element dA.<br />
The total moment at the point x of the beam with height h <strong>and</strong> depth b is<br />
where<br />
Mx = X dMx =<br />
=<br />
= 1<br />
= 1<br />
Z h/2 Z b/2<br />
−h/2 −b/2<br />
Z h/2 Z b/2<br />
Rx −h/2<br />
Z h/2<br />
Rx<br />
−h/2<br />
Z h/2 Z b/2<br />
z<br />
−b/2<br />
−h/2<br />
µ<br />
E z<br />
Rx<br />
dMx =<br />
−b/2<br />
<br />
dydz =<br />
Ez 2 dydz = 1<br />
bEz 2 dz = 1<br />
Rx<br />
Rx<br />
Z h/2 Z b/2<br />
−h/2 −b/2<br />
Z h/2 Z b/2<br />
−h/2 −b/2<br />
Z h/2 Z b/2<br />
−h/2<br />
(EI) eq = 1<br />
Rx<br />
−b/2<br />
D,<br />
zσxdydz<br />
E z2<br />
dydz<br />
Rx<br />
Ez 2 dydz<br />
Z h/2<br />
(EI) eq = b Ez<br />
−h/2<br />
2 dz (11.1)<br />
(often also denoted D) is called the equivalent flexural rigidity, also called the<br />
bending stiffness. The general expression for the strain will then be<br />
εx = z<br />
=<br />
Rx<br />
1<br />
µ Ã !<br />
Mx Mx<br />
z = z = z. (11.2)<br />
Rx D<br />
(EI) eq<br />
The strain will vary linearly with z over the cross-section. The basic equations<br />
for the s<strong>and</strong>wich beam are now established, <strong>and</strong> this makes it possible to find the<br />
cross-sectional properties <strong>and</strong> stresses in such a beam.<br />
142
11.3. The Flexural Rigidity <strong>and</strong> Shear Rigidity<br />
The theory for engineering stresses in beams is easily adapted to s<strong>and</strong>wich beams<br />
if we modify it slightly.<br />
Flexural rigidity<br />
In an ordinary beam the flexural rigidity, denoted EI, whereE is the modulus<br />
of elasticity (Young’s modulus) <strong>and</strong> I is the second moment of area. The equivalent<br />
flexural rigidity of a cross-section of a s<strong>and</strong>wich (see Allan 1969) is the sum of<br />
flexural rigidities of the different parts in the s<strong>and</strong>wich <strong>and</strong> can be found from<br />
(11.1) <strong>and</strong> is<br />
(EI) eq = Ef<br />
bt 3 f<br />
6<br />
+ Ef<br />
btfd 2<br />
2<br />
bt<br />
+ Ec<br />
3 c<br />
12 =2(EI) f +(EI) o +(EI) c , (11.3)<br />
where d (= tf + tc) (see Figure 11.1) is the distance between the centroids of the<br />
faces. The first term, 2(EI) f , represents the flexural rigidity of the faces alone<br />
when they are bending about <strong>their</strong> own neutral axes, <strong>and</strong> the third term, (EI) c ,<br />
represents the flexural rigidity of the core. The first <strong>and</strong> the third term are small<br />
compared to the second term, (EI) o , which corresponds to the stiffness of the<br />
faces associated with bending about the centroid axis of the whole s<strong>and</strong>wich.<br />
The faces in a s<strong>and</strong>wich are thin compared to the core (tf 100<br />
tf<br />
or<br />
d<br />
tf<br />
> 5.77 (11.4)<br />
because ⎛ ⎞<br />
bt 3 f<br />
⎝ Ef 6<br />
btf d<br />
Ef<br />
2<br />
2<br />
⎠ 100 < 1.<br />
The first term can therefor be neglected <strong>and</strong> (11.3) is the reduced to<br />
btfd<br />
(EI) eq = Ef<br />
2<br />
2<br />
bt<br />
+ Ec<br />
3 c<br />
12 =(EI) o +(EI) c .<br />
Ifthecoreisweak,thenEc 100, (11.5)
ecause à Ec bt3 c<br />
12<br />
Ef btf d 2<br />
2<br />
!<br />
100 < 1.<br />
The third term <strong>and</strong> can therefore be neglected, <strong>and</strong> (11.3) is reduced to the approximated<br />
simple formula<br />
2 Efbtfd<br />
(EI) eq = =(EI) o . (11.6)<br />
2<br />
Shear rigidity<br />
The shear rigidity AG (shear stiffness) for a beam with a homogeneous crosssection<br />
is given by<br />
AG = bhG<br />
k ,<br />
where h is the height, G is the shear modulus, <strong>and</strong> k is a shear factor, which for<br />
rectangular homogenous cross-sections equals 1.2.<br />
The equivalent shear rigidity (shear stiffness) for a s<strong>and</strong>wich beam when Ec
Figure 11.4: Stresses at different approximation levels in a s<strong>and</strong>wich.<br />
Thus, the stress in the face σf of the s<strong>and</strong>wich due to bending can be written as<br />
σf = MxzEf<br />
(EI) eq<br />
for tc<br />
2<br />
< |z| < tc<br />
2 + tf. (11.8)<br />
Figure 11.5: A s<strong>and</strong>wich beam exposed to (transversal) bending load.<br />
145
If Mx is positive then the maximum stress in the face appears when z = tc/2+tf:<br />
¢<br />
σf max = MxzEf<br />
(EI) eq<br />
= 2Mx<br />
¡<br />
tc + tf 2<br />
btfd 2<br />
= Mx<br />
¡ ¢<br />
tc + tf Ef<br />
2 = EfMx<br />
¡<br />
tc + tf<br />
³ 2<br />
Ef btf d2 ´<br />
¢<br />
(EI) eq<br />
= Mxtc 2Mx<br />
+<br />
btfd2 bd2 while the minimum stress (in the same face) appears when z = tc/2:<br />
σf min = MxzEf<br />
(EI) eq<br />
= Mx<br />
¡ ¢<br />
tc<br />
Ef 2<br />
(EI) eq<br />
= EfMx<br />
¡ ¢<br />
tc<br />
³ 2<br />
Ef btf d2 ´ = Mxtc<br />
.<br />
btfd2 Hence<br />
Mxtc<br />
btfd2 ≤ σf ≤ Mxtc 2Mx<br />
+<br />
btfd2 bd2 in that face. When tf
Figure 11.6: A s<strong>and</strong>wich beam exposed to (in-plane) axial load F.<br />
If Mx is positive then the maximum stress in the core appears when z = tc/2, i.e.<br />
σcmax = MxzEc<br />
(EI) eq<br />
¡ tc<br />
2<br />
= 2Mx<br />
Efbtfd2 = Mx<br />
¢ Ec<br />
¡ tc<br />
2<br />
(EI) eq<br />
¢ Ec<br />
MxtcEc<br />
=<br />
Efbtfd2 = Mx<br />
¡ ¢<br />
tc<br />
Ec<br />
³ 2<br />
Ef btf d2 ´<br />
while the minimum stress in the core appears when z =0,<br />
Hence<br />
σcmin<br />
= MxzEc<br />
(EI) eq<br />
= Mx (0) Ec<br />
(EI) eq<br />
0 ≤ σc ≤ MxtcEc MxtcEc<br />
≤<br />
Efbtfd2 Efbtft2 c<br />
=0.<br />
2<br />
= MxEc<br />
.<br />
Efbtftc<br />
Thus when Ec
where Fx is the axial load (normal force) <strong>and</strong> εx0 is the strain at the neutral axis<br />
(N.A.) if the two facings are of equal thickness (in order to see this, we note that<br />
the strain εx0 will be the same in the core <strong>and</strong> faces so that<br />
The stresses will be<br />
2tfb<br />
| {z } |{z}<br />
Fx = Efεx0<br />
σf<br />
Af<br />
+ Ecεx0<br />
tcb = εx0b (2Eftf + Ectc)).<br />
| {z } |{z}<br />
σc<br />
Ac<br />
σf = Efεx0 <strong>and</strong> σc = Ecεx0.<br />
The stresses <strong>and</strong> strains due to bending <strong>and</strong> in-plane loading can be superimposed.<br />
11.5. Shear stresses<br />
Consider a small volume element with sidelengths dx, dy <strong>and</strong> dz seeFigure11.7.<br />
Using that P F i x =0where F i x are the forces acting on the cell walls i in the<br />
x-direction, we obtain<br />
X F i x = −σxdydz +(σx + ∂σx<br />
Hence,<br />
−τ xydxdz +<br />
µ<br />
τ xy + ∂τxy<br />
∂y dy<br />
∂x dx)dydz<br />
<br />
dxdz<br />
−τ xzdxdy +(τ xzdxdy + ∂τxz<br />
∂z dz)dydx<br />
= ∂σx ∂τxy ∂τxz<br />
dxdydz + dydxdz +<br />
∂x ∂y ∂z dzdydx<br />
µ <br />
∂σx ∂τxy ∂τxz<br />
= + + dxdydz =0.<br />
∂x ∂y ∂z<br />
∂σx<br />
∂x<br />
+ ∂τxy<br />
∂y<br />
+ ∂τxz<br />
∂z<br />
=0. (11.12)<br />
Similarly, by using that P F i y = 0 <strong>and</strong> P F i z = 0, we obtain the other two<br />
equations for equilibrium:<br />
X Fy = ∂τyx<br />
∂x<br />
+ ∂σy<br />
∂y<br />
148<br />
+ ∂τyz<br />
∂z<br />
=0 (11.13)
<strong>and</strong><br />
X<br />
Fz = ∂τzx<br />
∂x<br />
It can also be verified that<br />
Figure 11.7: A small element.<br />
+ ∂τzy<br />
∂y<br />
+ ∂σz<br />
∂z<br />
=0. (11.14)<br />
τ xy = τ yx, τxz = τ zx, τyz = τ zy. (11.15)<br />
Equations (11.12), (11.13), (11.14), <strong>and</strong> (11.15) are called the equilibrium equations.<br />
We assume that the shear stress in (11.12) will not vary with y, <strong>and</strong> therefore<br />
∂τxy/∂y =0(in fact we assume τ xy =0in all points). Thus we get that<br />
X<br />
i<br />
Fx = ∂σx ∂τxz<br />
+<br />
∂x ∂z =0<br />
<strong>and</strong> the shear stress τ xz can therefore be found as follows:<br />
This gives<br />
Z (d+tf )/2<br />
z<br />
∂σx<br />
∂x<br />
Z (d+tf )/2<br />
∂σx<br />
∂τxz<br />
dz = −<br />
∂x z<br />
= −∂τxz<br />
∂z .<br />
(when using the fact that τ xz at (d + tf)/2 =0) i.e.<br />
τ xz(z) =<br />
∂z dz = −(τ xz((d + tf)/2)<br />
− τ<br />
| {z }<br />
xz(z)) = τ xz(z),<br />
Z (d+tf )/2<br />
z<br />
149<br />
=0<br />
∂σx<br />
∂x dz.
From equation (11.7)<br />
Ã<br />
σ = εE =<br />
Mx<br />
(EI) eq<br />
!<br />
z E<br />
<strong>and</strong> the fact that<br />
dMx<br />
= Tx<br />
dx<br />
where Tx is the shear force. We obtain that the shear stress τ xz(z)<br />
τ xz(z) =<br />
=<br />
³ ´<br />
Z Mx<br />
(d+tf )/2 d zE Z (d+tf )/2<br />
(EI) eq<br />
Ez dMx<br />
dz =<br />
dz =<br />
z<br />
dx<br />
z (EI) eq dx<br />
Z (d+tf )/2<br />
zE<br />
Txdz =<br />
z (EI) eq<br />
Tx<br />
Z (d+tf )/2<br />
zEdz =<br />
(EI) eq z<br />
Tx<br />
B(z),<br />
(EI) eq<br />
where B(z) is the firstmomentofarea<br />
We observe that for |z|
For tc/2 ≤−z ≤ tc/2+tf (in the upper face)<br />
Z (d+tf )/2<br />
Z −tc/2<br />
Z tc/2<br />
Z (d+tf )/2<br />
B(z) = zEdz = zEfdz + zEcdz + zEfdz<br />
z<br />
z<br />
−tc/2<br />
| {z }<br />
tc/2<br />
=<br />
=0<br />
∙<br />
1<br />
Ef<br />
2 z2<br />
¸−tc/2 ∙<br />
1<br />
+ Ef<br />
z 2 z2<br />
=<br />
¸ (d+tf )/2<br />
tc/2<br />
" µtc 2<br />
1<br />
Ef − z<br />
2 2<br />
2<br />
=<br />
# " µd 2 µ #<br />
2<br />
1 + tf tc<br />
+ Ef<br />
−<br />
2 2 2<br />
Ef<br />
∙ ¸ 2 tc − z2 +<br />
2 4 Ef<br />
" µd 2<br />
+ tf<br />
−<br />
2 2<br />
t2 #<br />
c<br />
=<br />
4<br />
Ef<br />
à µd 2<br />
+ tf<br />
− z<br />
2 2<br />
2<br />
=<br />
!<br />
Ef<br />
à µ(tf 2<br />
+ tc)+tf<br />
− z<br />
2 2<br />
2<br />
!<br />
= Ef<br />
µ<br />
1<br />
2 4 t2c + tftc + t 2 f − z 2<br />
<br />
.<br />
For tc/2 ≤ z ≤ tc/2+tf (in the lower face)<br />
B(z) =<br />
Z (d+tf )/2<br />
z<br />
= Ef<br />
2<br />
τ f = TxEf<br />
2(EI) eq<br />
zEdz =<br />
à µ(tf + tc)+tf<br />
2<br />
Z (d+tf )/2<br />
z<br />
2<br />
− z 2<br />
zEfdz = Ef<br />
!<br />
= Ef<br />
2<br />
" µd 2<br />
1 + tf<br />
− z<br />
2 2<br />
2<br />
#<br />
µ<br />
1<br />
4 t2c + tftc + t 2 f − z 2<br />
<br />
(i.e. the same as for the upper face). Hence, the shear stress in the facings of the<br />
s<strong>and</strong>wich is<br />
µ<br />
1<br />
4 t2c + tftc + t 2 f − z 2<br />
<br />
for tc/2 ≤ |z| ≤ tc/2+tf. (11.17)<br />
Assume that Tx is positive (otherwise max is replaced by min <strong>and</strong> vice versa).<br />
Then the maximum shear stress in the core appears when the expression<br />
(t 2 c/4 − z 2 ) in (11.16) is maximized, i.e. when z =0(the neutral axis N.A.),<br />
<strong>and</strong> is found in the following way:<br />
µ µ 2 Eftfd Ec tc +<br />
2 2 4<br />
τ c max = Tx<br />
(EI) eq<br />
− z2<br />
<br />
151<br />
= Tx<br />
µ µ 2 Eftfd Ec tc +<br />
(EI) eq 2 2 4<br />
<br />
− 0
τ c min = Tx<br />
(EI) eq<br />
= Tx<br />
µ<br />
Eftfd<br />
(EI) eq 2 + Ect2 <br />
c<br />
=<br />
8<br />
=<br />
Tx<br />
(Efbtfd2 µ<br />
)<br />
Tx<br />
³ Ef btf d 2<br />
2<br />
´<br />
Eftfd + Ect 2 c<br />
4<br />
µ<br />
Eftfd<br />
2 + Ect2 <br />
c<br />
8<br />
<br />
. (11.18)<br />
The minimum shear stress in the core appears when the expression (t2 c/4 − z2 )<br />
in (11.16) is minimized, i.e. when |z| = tc/2 (the face/core interface), i.e.<br />
µ µ µ µ 2 2 Eftfd Ec tc Eftfd Ec tc + − z2<br />
+<br />
2 2 4 2 2 4 − t2 <br />
c<br />
4<br />
= Tx<br />
(EI) eq<br />
µ <br />
Eftfd<br />
=<br />
2<br />
Tx<br />
³ Ef btf d 2<br />
2<br />
= Tx<br />
(EI) eq<br />
µ <br />
Eftfd<br />
´<br />
2<br />
= Tx<br />
. (11.19)<br />
bd<br />
³ The maximum shear stress in the face appears when the expression<br />
t2 c<br />
4 + tctf + t2 ´<br />
f − z2 in (11.17) is maximized, i.e. when z = tc/2 (the face/core<br />
interface) such that<br />
τ f max = TxEf<br />
µ 2 tc (EI) eq 2 4 + tctf + t 2 f − z 2<br />
<br />
= TxEf<br />
Ã<br />
t<br />
(EI) eq 2<br />
2 c<br />
4 + tctf + t 2 µ !<br />
2<br />
tc<br />
f − =<br />
2<br />
= TxEf<br />
µ 2 tc (EI) eq 2 4 + tctf + t 2 f − t2 <br />
c<br />
=<br />
4<br />
TxEf ¡<br />
tctf + t<br />
2(EI) eq<br />
2¢ f =<br />
= TxEf<br />
Efbd2 (tc + tf) = Tx<br />
bd2 (tc + tf) = Tx<br />
bd<br />
(this also shows that τ c min = τ f max).<br />
2<br />
TxEf<br />
³ Ef btf d 2<br />
The minimum shear ´ stress in the face appears when the expression<br />
in (11.17) is minimized, i.e. when |z| = tc/2+tf<br />
³<br />
t2 c<br />
4 + tctf + t2 f − z2<br />
2<br />
´ ¡ tctf + t 2¢ f =<br />
(11.20)<br />
τ f min = TxEf<br />
µ 2 tc (EI) eq 2 4 + tctf + t 2 f − z 2<br />
<br />
= TxEf<br />
Ã<br />
t<br />
(EI) eq 2<br />
2 c<br />
4 + tctf + t 2 µ !<br />
2<br />
tc<br />
f − + tf<br />
2<br />
152
= TxEf<br />
µ 2 tc (EI) eq 2 4 + tctf + t 2 µ<br />
f − t 2 f + tftc + 1<br />
4 t2 <br />
c = TxEf<br />
(0) = 0.<br />
2(EI) eq<br />
The deviation between the maximum <strong>and</strong> minimum shear stress in the core<br />
from (11.18) <strong>and</strong> (11.19) will be less than 1 percent, i.e.<br />
if<br />
τ c max − τ c min<br />
τ c min<br />
This means that<br />
or<br />
=<br />
τ c max − τ c min<br />
τ c min<br />
µ<br />
|Tx|<br />
(Ef btf d2 ³<br />
Eftfd +<br />
)<br />
Ect2 c<br />
4<br />
|Tx|<br />
µ Ef bt f d 2<br />
2<br />
< 1<br />
100 ,<br />
´ Ã<br />
−<br />
<br />
Ect2 c 1<br />
<<br />
4Eftfd 100 ,<br />
µ<br />
|Tx|<br />
Ef btf d2 ³<br />
Ef tf d<br />
<br />
2<br />
2<br />
³ ´ <<br />
Ef tf d<br />
1<br />
2<br />
´ !<br />
100 .<br />
100 < 4Eftfd<br />
Ect 2 c<br />
which is often satisfied for s<strong>and</strong>wich beams because we often have that the core is<br />
weak i.e. Ec
from (11.20).<br />
τ c = Tx<br />
bd<br />
154<br />
(11.23)
11.6. S<strong>and</strong>wich design: stiffness, strength <strong>and</strong> weight<br />
The deflection, δ of a s<strong>and</strong>wich beam in general is the sum of the bending <strong>and</strong><br />
Figure 11.8: Deflection of a cantilever s<strong>and</strong>wich beam with an end point load..<br />
shear components, see Figure 11.8 (subscripts ”b” <strong>and</strong> ”s” denotes bending <strong>and</strong><br />
shear, respectively),<br />
δ = δb + δs = PL3<br />
B1 (EI) eq<br />
+<br />
PL<br />
B2 (AG) eq<br />
where B1 <strong>and</strong> B2 are constants which depend on the geometry of the loading <strong>and</strong><br />
the boundary conditions (type of support). Moreover, the maximum moment Mx<br />
<strong>and</strong> the maximum shear (transverse) force Tx are given by<br />
Mx = PL<br />
, Tx = P<br />
,<br />
B3<br />
155<br />
B4
where B3 <strong>and</strong> B4 also are constants which depend on the geometry of the loading<br />
<strong>and</strong> the boundary conditions. In Table 11.24 you can find the constans for several<br />
loading conditions <strong>and</strong> boundary conditions.<br />
Mode of loading,<br />
(all beams are of length L)<br />
Cantilever,<br />
end load,<br />
P<br />
Cantilever,<br />
Uniformly distributed load,<br />
q = P/L<br />
Three-point bend,<br />
central load,<br />
P<br />
Three-point bend,<br />
Uniformly distributed load,<br />
q = P/L<br />
Ends built in,<br />
Central load,<br />
P<br />
Ends built in,<br />
Uniformly distributed load,<br />
q = P/L<br />
B1 B2 B3 B4<br />
δb= PL3<br />
B1(EI) eq<br />
δs= PL<br />
B2(AG) eq<br />
Mx= PL<br />
B3<br />
Tx= P<br />
B4<br />
3 1 1 1<br />
8 2 2 1<br />
48 4 4 2<br />
384<br />
5 8 8 2<br />
192 4 8 2<br />
384 8 12 2<br />
(11.24)<br />
In Table 11.24, Mx is the maximun bending moment <strong>and</strong> Tx is the maximum<br />
shear (transverse) force.<br />
156
Figure 11.9: Cantilever beam with end point load.<br />
11.7. Example of beam calculations<br />
A cantilever beam has Gc =30MPa (80kg/m3 PVC foam),Ef = 200000 MPa<br />
(steel), L =500mm, tf =1mm, tc =30mm (d = tc + tf =31mm), b =1mm,<br />
as in Figure 11.9.<br />
a) Find the total deflection, δ, <strong>and</strong>thedeflection due to shear in percentage of<br />
the total deflection.<br />
The total deflection is described as<br />
where the bending contribution is<br />
δb = PL3<br />
3(EI) eq<br />
= P · L3<br />
3<br />
<strong>and</strong> the shear contribution is<br />
δs = PL<br />
(AG) eq<br />
The total deflection is<br />
δ = δb + δs = PL3<br />
3(EI) eq<br />
³ Ef btf d 2<br />
2<br />
´ =<br />
3<br />
= PL<br />
´ =<br />
³ bd 2 Gc<br />
tc<br />
+ PL<br />
,<br />
(AG) eq<br />
P · (500) 3<br />
³ 200000·1·1·(31) 2<br />
2<br />
´ =0.43P (mm/N)<br />
P · 500<br />
´ =0.52P (mm/N).<br />
³ 1·(31) 2 ·30<br />
30<br />
δ = δb + δs =0.43P +0.52P =0.95P (mm/N).<br />
157
The deflection due to shear in percentage of the total deflection is<br />
δs<br />
δb + δs<br />
100 = 0.52<br />
(100) = 54.7% (mm/N).<br />
0.95<br />
b) Compare a) with a homogenous steel beam with a rectangular cross-section<br />
of height h =30mm <strong>and</strong> width b =1mm.<br />
The total deflection is<br />
where the bending contribution is<br />
δb = PL3<br />
3(EI) eq<br />
δ = δb + δs = PL3<br />
3(EI) eq<br />
= PL3<br />
3 ¡ Ebh 3<br />
12<br />
<strong>and</strong> the shear contribution is<br />
δs = PL<br />
(AG) eq<br />
=<br />
¡ bh<br />
k<br />
PL<br />
¢ = 4PL3<br />
=<br />
Ebh3 ¢ ³ E<br />
2(1+ν)<br />
´ =<br />
¡ 1·30<br />
1.2<br />
+ PL<br />
,<br />
(AG) eq<br />
4P · 5003 =0.0926P<br />
200000 · 1 · 303 P 500<br />
¢ ³ 200000<br />
2(1+0.3)<br />
´ =0.00026P,<br />
where k is a shear factor. For rectangular homogeneous cross-sections k is 1.2.<br />
Poissons ratio ν =0.3. The total deflection<br />
δ = δb + δs =0.0926P +0.00026P =0.0929P.<br />
The deflection due to shear in percentage of the total deflection is<br />
δs<br />
100 =<br />
δb + δs<br />
0.00026<br />
(100) = 0.28%.<br />
0.0929<br />
This explains why elementary beam theory usually neglects the contribution<br />
of the transverse shear deformation.<br />
c) Compare a) with a homogenous steel beam with a rectangular cross-section of<br />
height h =2tf =2mm.<br />
Here, the bending contribution is<br />
δb = PL3<br />
3(EI) eq<br />
= PL3<br />
3 ¡ Eh 3<br />
12<br />
¢ = 4PL3<br />
Eh<br />
158<br />
4P · 5003<br />
= =312.5P<br />
3 200000 · 23
<strong>and</strong> the shear contribution is<br />
δs = PL<br />
(AG) eq<br />
The total deflection<br />
=<br />
¡ bh<br />
k<br />
PL<br />
¢ ³ E<br />
2(1+ν)<br />
´ =<br />
¡ 1·2<br />
1.2<br />
P 500<br />
¢ ³ 200000<br />
2(1+0.3)<br />
´ =0.0039P.<br />
δ = δb + δs =312.5P +0.0039P =312.5039P.<br />
The deflection due to shear in percentage of the total deflection is<br />
δs<br />
δb + δs<br />
100 = 0.0039<br />
(100) = 0.00125% .<br />
312.5039<br />
159
Figure 11.10: A simply supported three-point bended beam.<br />
11.8. Strength <strong>and</strong> stiffness design example<br />
A simply supported three-point bending beam, with uniform load case, has P =<br />
qL = 10000N, Gc =40MPa (80kg/m 3 PVC foam), (Ec =100MPa), shear strength<br />
τ c,cr =1.5MPa, Ef = 20000MPa (GRP), strength σf,cr =100MPa, L =1000mm,<br />
tc =50mm, b =100mm, see Figure 11.10. The maximum allowed deformation of<br />
the beam is L/50.We assume Ec
We have the formulae<br />
= ³ 8<br />
2(EI) Ef btf d<br />
eq 2<br />
2 ´ =<br />
2<br />
2<br />
¢<br />
50 · 20000<br />
³ 8<br />
20000·(100)·tf ·50<br />
2<br />
2 ´ = 250.0<br />
,<br />
tf<br />
σf = Mx maxtcEf<br />
=<br />
¡ 10000·1000<br />
2<br />
¡ ¢<br />
PL<br />
tcEf<br />
¡<br />
10000·1000<br />
³ 8<br />
20000·(100)·tf ·502 ¢<br />
50 · 20000<br />
´ =<br />
here d ≈ tc, thus the face thickness for maximum allowable stress<br />
tf = 250<br />
= 250<br />
=2.5 mm.<br />
100<br />
σf<br />
The maximum shear stress in the core is<br />
τ c = Tx max<br />
db =<br />
P<br />
2 P<br />
=<br />
db 2db =<br />
10000<br />
2 · 50 · (100) =1MPa<br />
(which is satisfactory since τ c,cr =1.5 MPa). Next, we want to check the wrinkling<br />
stress 12.1<br />
σcr =0.5 3p EfEcGc =0.5 3√ 20000 · 100 · 40 = 215 MPa<br />
(which is satisfactory since σcr >σf =100MPa ).<br />
ii) Stiffness design<br />
Find the face thickness for allowable deformation. Total deflection is<br />
We find that<br />
such that<br />
δ = δb + δs =<br />
=<br />
384<br />
5<br />
δb =<br />
PL 3<br />
384<br />
5 (EI) eq<br />
10000 · 1000 3<br />
³ 20000·100·tf ·(50) 2<br />
2<br />
PL 3<br />
384<br />
5 (EI) eq<br />
δ = δb + δs.<br />
+ PL<br />
8(AG) eq<br />
<strong>and</strong> δs = PL<br />
8(AG) eq<br />
=<br />
384<br />
5<br />
PL 3<br />
³ Ef btf d 2<br />
2<br />
2<br />
´ +<br />
8<br />
10000 · 1000<br />
´ + ³ ´ = 2<br />
100·(50) ·40<br />
8<br />
52.1<br />
+6.25.<br />
tf<br />
161<br />
50<br />
PL<br />
³ bd 2 Gc<br />
tc<br />
´ =
Thus, when allowed deformation δ = L/50<br />
tf =<br />
52.08333 3<br />
(δ − 6.25)<br />
¡ 1000<br />
50<br />
52.083333<br />
= =3.8 mm<br />
− 6.25¢<br />
which is the thickness we must use to fulfill the requirements!<br />
Check the requirements due to the approximations. Since<br />
µ 2<br />
d<br />
3<br />
tf<br />
(or d<br />
tf<br />
µ 2<br />
53.8<br />
= 3 =601.3 > 100<br />
3.8<br />
= 53.8<br />
=14.2 > 5.77)<br />
3.8<br />
then the first term of 11.3 is less than 1% of the second, <strong>and</strong> can therefor be<br />
neglected, <strong>and</strong> since<br />
6Eftfd 2<br />
Ect 3 c<br />
= 6 · 20000 · 3.8 · (53.8)2<br />
100 · (50) 3<br />
=105. 6 > 100<br />
then the third term of 11.3 is less than 1% of the second , <strong>and</strong> can therefor be<br />
neglected such that we can use the reduced form of 11.3. The assumption<br />
is valid!<br />
2 Efbtfd<br />
(EI) eq = D =<br />
2<br />
162
12. Failure modes of s<strong>and</strong>wich panel<br />
A s<strong>and</strong>wich panel must have the strength to carry the design loads without failing<br />
in one of the possible failure modes. We have to design against <strong>and</strong> consider all<br />
thefailuremodestobesureofthatthestructurewillnotfail. Examplesonfailure<br />
modes is shown in Figure 12.1. A s<strong>and</strong>wich construction will fail by the failure<br />
Figure 12.1: Some failure modes; a)face yielding/fracture, b) core shear failure, c) <strong>and</strong><br />
d) face wrinkling, e) general buckling, f) face dimpling, <strong>and</strong> g) local indentation.<br />
mode which occurs at the lowest load. The optimum design is when two or more<br />
failure modes occur at the same load. The failure modes can be found on the basis<br />
of when the mode occur. Some of the failure modes is described in the following<br />
chapter.<br />
The skin <strong>and</strong> core materials should be able to withst<strong>and</strong> the tensile, compressive<br />
<strong>and</strong> shear stresses induced by the design load. Also the adhesive must be<br />
capable of transferring the shear stresses between skin <strong>and</strong> core. The s<strong>and</strong>wich<br />
panel should also have sufficient bending <strong>and</strong> shear stiffness to prevent excessive<br />
deflection.<br />
163
12.1. Failure loads <strong>and</strong> stresses<br />
(I) Face Yielding/fracture:<br />
Face yielding/fracture occurs when the normal stress in the face σf equals or<br />
exceeds the (yield) strength of the face material, σyf, such that:<br />
σf = Mx PL<br />
= ≥ σyf.<br />
btfd B3btfd<br />
(II) Face wrinkling:<br />
Face wrinkling (local buckling) occurs when the normal stress in the face reaches<br />
the wrinkling stress (the local instability stress). Wrinkling occurs when the compressive<br />
stress in the face is<br />
σf ≥ Mx PL<br />
=<br />
btfd B3btfd =0.5 3p EfEcGc. (12.1)<br />
Hence, the wrinkling load is independent of the s<strong>and</strong>wich geometry, <strong>and</strong> is only a<br />
function of the face <strong>and</strong> core properties. It is the core that has most influence on<br />
the wrinkling load.<br />
(III) Core shear failure:<br />
Core shear failure occurs in a foam with a plastic-yield point when the principal<br />
stresses satisfy the yield criterion. If the shear stress in the core is large compared<br />
to the normal stress, failure occurs when the shear stress, τ c, equals or exceeds<br />
the yield strength of the foam in shear, τ yc. The core failure is given by<br />
τ c max = Tx<br />
bd<br />
= P<br />
B4bd ≥ τ yc.<br />
(IV) Failure of the adhesive bond (debonding):<br />
Failure of the adhesive bond can occur due to overloading. Debonding (the adhesive<br />
between the skin <strong>and</strong> the core fail) is the most difficult of the mechanisms to<br />
analyze. The adhesive must have a strength equal or bigger than the shear stress<br />
in the bonding line under loading which is almost the same as τ c max. To avoid<br />
debonding therefore<br />
τ c max = Tx<br />
bd ≤ τ ya<br />
164
where τ ya is the yield shear stress in the adhesive. High thermal stresses, fatigue,<br />
<strong>and</strong> aging are some of the reasons to debonding.<br />
(V) Core indentation:<br />
Core indentation is only a problem when loads are very localized <strong>and</strong> can be<br />
avoided if we ensure that the load is distributed over a minimum area of at least<br />
A ≥ P<br />
,<br />
σyc<br />
where σyc is the compressive strength of the core.<br />
(VI) General buckling:<br />
General buckling can occur in s<strong>and</strong>wich constructions due to the transverse shear<br />
deformation. The transverse shear deformation must be accounted for, since this<br />
decreases the buckling load compared with the ordinary Euler buckling cases. The<br />
critical buckling load for s<strong>and</strong>wich columns with thin faces is given by:<br />
1<br />
=<br />
Pcr<br />
1<br />
+<br />
Pb<br />
1<br />
,<br />
Ps<br />
where Pb is the buckling load in pure bending, <strong>and</strong> Ps in pure shear, <strong>and</strong> they are<br />
given as follows<br />
Pb = π2 (EI)eq<br />
(βL) 2 <strong>and</strong> Ps =(AG) eq ,<br />
where β is the factor depending on the boundary conditions in Euler buckling, see<br />
Figure 12.2<br />
(VII) Face dimpling (local buckling, or intercellular buckling):<br />
Face dimpling may occur in s<strong>and</strong>wich structures with honeycomb or corrugated<br />
as core material. For a square honeycomb this buckling stress equals<br />
µ 2<br />
tf<br />
σf =2.5Ef<br />
a<br />
for Poissons ratio νf =0.3,<br />
where a is the length of the side of the cell. For hexagonal honeycombs the<br />
buckling stress equals<br />
σf = 2Ef<br />
1 − ν 2 f<br />
µ tf<br />
s<br />
2<br />
≤ σyf ,<br />
Ã<br />
when νf =0.3 then σf ≈ 2. 2Ef<br />
165<br />
µ !<br />
2<br />
tf<br />
,<br />
s
Figure 12.2: Different cases for Euler buckling.<br />
where s is the radius of the inscribed circle in the honeycomb cell.<br />
(VIII) Fatigue:<br />
Fatigue is said to cause more than 90% of all structural failures. For the face<br />
material, a conservative way to use the fatigue limit under which the material<br />
can undergo an infinite number of load cycles without exhibiting any damage by<br />
taking the allowable face stress σyf as the material fatigue stress at the given<br />
number of load cycles <strong>and</strong> stress ratio. For the core material the reasoning is<br />
similar; substitute the allowable shear stress τ yc with the fatigue limit. Be aware<br />
that there is not always data for all materials available. Hopefully, more data will<br />
be available in the future.<br />
166
12.2. Failure-mode maps<br />
Failure-mode maps can be used to design s<strong>and</strong>wich constructions in a way that<br />
will improve the performance of the s<strong>and</strong>wich so that no single component is overdesigned.<br />
The designer can choose the anticipated failure mode, or making two<br />
different failure modes equally likely occur. Also, this is an advantage for cases<br />
where certain failure modes should be avoided.<br />
The dominant failure mode mechanism for a given design, is the one giving<br />
failure at the lowest load.<br />
A transition in failure mechanism takes place when two or more mechanisms<br />
have the same load. This information can be displayed as a diagram or map<br />
(failure-mode map).The most important transitions we get from equating pairs<br />
of the failure-mode equations are: face yielding - face wrinkling, face yield - core<br />
shear <strong>and</strong> face wrinkling - core shear, as shown in Figure 12.4. Failure-mode maps<br />
can be constructed from the failure-mode equations that comes out as a result of<br />
theanalysisofthedifferent failure modes.<br />
Some different failure modes with the corresponding failure loads for a rectangular<br />
s<strong>and</strong>wich beam are shown in the table below.<br />
Summary of failure modes <strong>and</strong> failure loads:<br />
Failure Mode Failure Load<br />
Face Yielding/fracture (I)<br />
Face Wrinkling (II)<br />
B3btf d<br />
P ≥ σyf L<br />
P ≥ B3btf d<br />
L 0.5 3p Core shear failure (III)<br />
EfEcGc<br />
P ≥ B4btc<br />
Failure of the adhesive bond (debonding) (IV)<br />
L<br />
Tx ≥ τ yabd<br />
Core indentation (V) P ≥ σycA<br />
(12.2)<br />
12.2.1. Transition equation between face yielding <strong>and</strong> face wrinkling<br />
Face yielding/fracture occurs when<br />
σf = Mx PL<br />
=<br />
btfd B3btfd<br />
hence the failure load P is given by<br />
P = σyfB3bd<br />
167<br />
= P<br />
B3b tf<br />
L<br />
d = σyf.<br />
µ <br />
tf<br />
. (12.3)<br />
L
Face wrinkling (local buckling) occurs when<br />
σf = |Mx|<br />
btfd<br />
= PL<br />
B3btfd =0.5 3p EfEcGc.<br />
Thus the failure load P can be written as<br />
µ <br />
tf<br />
P =0.5B3 bd<br />
L<br />
3p EfEcGc. (12.4)<br />
Putting (12.3) <strong>and</strong> (12.4) equal to each other, we obtain that<br />
µ µ <br />
tf<br />
tf<br />
σyfB3bd =0.5B3 bd<br />
L<br />
L<br />
3p EfEcGc, (12.5)<br />
i.e<br />
σyf =0.5E 1 1<br />
3 3<br />
f Ec G 1<br />
3<br />
c =0.5 3p EfEcGc. (12.6)<br />
By using the fact that for most foams <strong>and</strong> honeycombs the mechanical properties<br />
vary with the density of the material in the following way<br />
Ec = CEρ n c , Gc = CGρ n c , σyc = Cσρ m c <strong>and</strong> τ yc = Cτρ m c , (12.7)<br />
where the constants CE,CG,Cσ,Cτ,n<strong>and</strong> m depend on the type of microstructure<br />
<strong>and</strong> the mechanical properties of the micromaterial in the core, we find that<br />
q<br />
σyf =0.5 3p EfEcGc =0.5 3<br />
Ef (CEρ n c )(CGρ n c )=0.5 3p EfCECGρ 2n<br />
c .<br />
Thus the transition between face yielding <strong>and</strong> face wrinkling is given by the equation<br />
ρc = 2n<br />
s<br />
³σyf ´ 3<br />
0.5<br />
1<br />
, (12.8)<br />
EfCECG<br />
which is independent of tf/L <strong>and</strong> therefore will appear as a horizontal line in a<br />
failure mode map in Figure 12.4, where the variable tf/L is along the horizontal<br />
axis <strong>and</strong> ρ c is along the vertical axis.<br />
168
12.2.2. Transition equation between face yield <strong>and</strong> core shear<br />
Core shear failure occurs when<br />
where<br />
by the use of (12.7).<br />
τ c max = Tx<br />
bd<br />
Face yielding/fracture occurs when<br />
= P<br />
B4bd ≥ τ yc,<br />
P = τ ycB4bd =(Cτρ m c ) B4bd. (12.9)<br />
σf = Mx PL<br />
= = σyf.<br />
btfd B3btfd<br />
Thus, we find that the failure load<br />
µ <br />
tf<br />
P = σyfB3b d. (12.10)<br />
L<br />
Putting the two expressions in (12.9) <strong>and</strong> (12.10) equal to each other<br />
(Cτρ m µ <br />
tf<br />
c ) B4bd = σyfB3b d,<br />
L<br />
we obtain that<br />
ρ m µ <br />
B3 tf<br />
c = σyf<br />
.<br />
CτB4 L<br />
Thus the transition equation between core shear failure <strong>and</strong> face yielding will be<br />
given by<br />
ρc = m<br />
r<br />
B3<br />
σyf<br />
CτB4<br />
µ 1<br />
tf<br />
m<br />
. (12.11)<br />
L<br />
12.2.3. Transition equation between face wrinkling <strong>and</strong> core shear<br />
Face wrinkling (local buckling) occurs when<br />
σf = Mx PL<br />
=<br />
btfd B3btfd =0.5 3p EfEcGc.<br />
169
Hence,<br />
P = 0.5B3<br />
= 0.5B3<br />
µ tf<br />
<br />
bd<br />
L<br />
3p EfEcGc =0.5B3<br />
µ <br />
tf<br />
bd<br />
L<br />
3p EfCECGρ 2n<br />
c<br />
by the use of (12.7).<br />
Core shear failure occurs when<br />
τ c max = Tx<br />
bd<br />
= P<br />
B4bd = τ yc.<br />
µ <br />
tf<br />
bd<br />
L<br />
3<br />
q<br />
Ef (CEρn c )(CGρn c )<br />
(12.12)<br />
Hence,<br />
P = τ ycB4bd = Cτρ m c B4bd (12.13)<br />
by (12.7).<br />
Putting the two expressions in (12.12) <strong>and</strong> (12.13) equal to each other, we get<br />
that<br />
1<br />
2 B3<br />
µ <br />
tf<br />
bd<br />
L<br />
3p EfCECGρ 2n<br />
c = Cτρ m c B4bd.<br />
i.e.<br />
B3 3p µ <br />
EfCECG tf<br />
= ρ<br />
2CτB4 L<br />
m ¡ ¢ 1<br />
2n − m−<br />
3<br />
c ρc = ρ 2n<br />
3<br />
c .<br />
Thus, the transition equation between face wrinkling <strong>and</strong> core shear failure will<br />
be<br />
s<br />
Summing up:<br />
ρ c = m− 2n 3<br />
B3 3p EfCECG<br />
2CτB4<br />
µ 1<br />
tf m−<br />
L<br />
2n 3<br />
. (12.14)<br />
The Face yield - Face wrinkling transition equation is given by<br />
ρ c = 2n<br />
s ³σyf<br />
0.5<br />
´ 3 1<br />
EfCECG<br />
The Face yield - Core shear transition equation is<br />
ρc = m<br />
r<br />
B3<br />
σyf<br />
CτB4<br />
. (1) (12.15)<br />
µ 1<br />
m tf<br />
. (2) (12.16)<br />
L<br />
170
The Face wrinkling - Core shear transition equation is given by<br />
ρc = m− 2n s<br />
B3 3<br />
3p µ 1<br />
EfCECG tf m−<br />
2CτB4 L<br />
2n 3<br />
(3) (12.17)<br />
The transitions of failure modes in (12.15), (12.16) <strong>and</strong> (12.17) are illustrated<br />
in the failure mode map in Figure 12.4.<br />
An example of a failure mode map To illustrate that the transition between<br />
the failure modes can form a failure mode map, we will have a look at a beam in<br />
three-point bending. The beam has faces with ultimate strength σyf =150MPa<br />
<strong>and</strong> Ef = 70000MPa. B3 =4<strong>and</strong> B4 =2. We assume a linear relation between<br />
thecoreproperties<strong>and</strong>thecoredensity,whichmeansthatn = m =1, <strong>and</strong><br />
that CE =1,CG =0.4 <strong>and</strong> Cτ =0.015. Then we obtain the following transition<br />
equations:<br />
The Face yield - Face wrinkling transition equation is given by<br />
ρc = 2n<br />
s<br />
³σyf ´ 3 1<br />
=<br />
0.5 EfCECG<br />
2<br />
s<br />
³σyf ´ 3 1<br />
(1) (12.18)<br />
0.5 EfCECG<br />
= 2<br />
s<br />
µ150<br />
3<br />
1<br />
0.5 (70000) (1) (0.4) =31.053.<br />
The Face yield - Core shear transition equation is<br />
µ <br />
(4)<br />
tf<br />
ρc = (150)<br />
= 20000 . (12.19)<br />
(0.015) (2) L<br />
The Face wrinkling - Core shear transition equation is given by<br />
ρc = m− 2n s<br />
B3 3<br />
3p µ 1<br />
EfCECG tf m−<br />
2CτB4 L<br />
2n 3<br />
(12.20)<br />
= 1 s<br />
(4) 3<br />
3p µ 1<br />
13<br />
(70000) (1) (0.4) tf<br />
2(0.015) (2) L<br />
Ã<br />
(4)<br />
=<br />
3p ! 3 µtf 3<br />
(70000) (1) (0.4)<br />
2(0.015) (2) L<br />
= 8.296 4 · 10 9<br />
µ 3<br />
tf<br />
.<br />
L<br />
171
Summing up we obtain that:<br />
The Face yield - Face wrinkling transition equation is given by<br />
log 10 ρ c =log 10 31.053<br />
The Face yield - Core shear transition equation is<br />
µ <br />
tf<br />
log10 ρc =log10 20000 + log10 .<br />
L<br />
The Face wrinkling - Core shear transition equation is given by<br />
¡ 9<br />
log10 ρc =log10 8.296 4 × 10 ¢ µ <br />
tf<br />
+3log10 .<br />
L<br />
³ ´<br />
tf<br />
Thus, substituting x =log10 <strong>and</strong> y =log L<br />
10 ρc we obtain that<br />
The Face yield - Face wrinkling transition equation is given by<br />
y =log 10 31.053<br />
The Face yield - Core shear transition equation is<br />
y =log 10 20000 + x.<br />
The Face wrinkling - Core shear transition equation is given by<br />
¡ 9<br />
y =log10 8.296 4 × 10 ¢ +3x.<br />
The graphs of these expressions are illustrated in Figure 12.3, where we also have<br />
indicated the failure mechanisms which are pairwise dominating on the respective<br />
side of each graph (1,2 <strong>and</strong> 3 denote face yield, face wrinkling <strong>and</strong> core shear,<br />
respectively). For each failure mechanism we now find the region for which<br />
this mechanism is dominating all other mechanisms. This region must be the<br />
intersection of the regions where the failure mechanism is pairwise dominating<br />
the others. The resulting regions are shown in Figure 12.4.<br />
172
Figure 12.3: The graphs of the three transisition equations.<br />
Figure 12.4: Failure mode map for a s<strong>and</strong>wich beam in three-point bending, which has<br />
faces made of aluminium <strong>and</strong> a core with properties that vary with the core density.<br />
173
13. Design Procedures<br />
Designing a s<strong>and</strong>wich element is very often an integrated process of sizing <strong>and</strong><br />
material selection in order to get some sort of optimum design with respect to<br />
the objective you have chosen for instance weight, strength, or stiffness. Note<br />
that all material systems have both advantages <strong>and</strong> disadvantages. Therefore it is<br />
difficult to state some general terms about choosing materials. But, some material<br />
related properties can still be considered despite the choice of material, such as<br />
density of the core material. An optimum design of a s<strong>and</strong>wich construction is<br />
very difficult to obtain because there are so many different constraints that the<br />
problem becomes complex. But, considering the most important constraints <strong>and</strong><br />
using a simple optimization technique could be very useful in the design process.<br />
An optimization on strength only does not ensure that the s<strong>and</strong>wich panel is<br />
stiff enough. In most studies done in optimization they do not take into account<br />
allpossiblefailuremodesastheyshouldhave.<br />
13.1. The stiffness of s<strong>and</strong>wich structures <strong>and</strong> its optimization<br />
We will consider a s<strong>and</strong>wich beam given a load P in three-point bending see Figure<br />
13.1. For several core microstructures it appears that the elastic moduli of the<br />
Figure 13.1: A s<strong>and</strong>wich beam.<br />
core Ec <strong>and</strong> Gc vary with the relative density of the core ρ c/ρ s in the following<br />
174
way<br />
µ 2<br />
ρc<br />
µ 2<br />
ρc<br />
Ec = C1Es , Gc = C2Es<br />
(13.1)<br />
ρs ρs where ρc is the density of the core, ρs is the density of the solid material (cell<br />
wall) in the core, Es is the Youngs modulus of the solid material (cell wall) in the<br />
core, <strong>and</strong> C1 (≈ 1) <strong>and</strong> C2 (≈ 0.4) are proportionality constants. We will explain<br />
the concept of relative density ρc/ρs in more detail later.<br />
Recall that for most cases the flexural rigidity<br />
(EI) eq = Efbt3 f<br />
6 + Ecbt3 c<br />
12<br />
+ Efbtfd 2<br />
2<br />
is reduced to<br />
2 Efbtfd<br />
(EI) eq = ,<br />
2<br />
(13.2)<br />
<strong>and</strong> that the equivalent shear rigidity<br />
when d ≈ tc, is reduced to<br />
Recall also that the deflection δ<br />
(AG) eq = bd2 Gc<br />
δ = δb + δs = PL3<br />
tc<br />
(AG) eq = bdGc. (13.3)<br />
B1 (EI) eq<br />
+<br />
PL<br />
B2 (AG) eq<br />
. (13.4)<br />
If we insert (13.2) <strong>and</strong> (13.3) in (13.4) we obtain that the compliance (the inverse<br />
of the stiffness) of the beam<br />
δ<br />
P =<br />
2L 3<br />
B1 (Efbtfd 2 ) +<br />
L<br />
B2 (bdGc)<br />
. (13.5)<br />
In most s<strong>and</strong>wich design the key issue is to minimize the weight, W ,(also<br />
called the ”objective function” ) given by<br />
W = mgV =2ρ fgbLtf<br />
| {z }<br />
facings<br />
+ ρ cgbLtc<br />
| {z }<br />
core<br />
175<br />
≈ 2ρfgbLtf + ρ<br />
| {z }<br />
cgbLd,<br />
| {z }<br />
(13.6)<br />
facings core
for a given bending stiffness P/δ, where m is the mass, V is the volume, g is the<br />
acceleration due to the gravity <strong>and</strong> ρ f <strong>and</strong> ρ c is the density of the face <strong>and</strong> core<br />
material, respectively. The only free variables are d, tf <strong>and</strong> ρ c. For simplicity we<br />
assume that the core density ρ c, is fixed. Then the optimization problem is quiet<br />
easy. By using (13.5), we find that<br />
tf =<br />
2L3 B1Efbd2 ³<br />
δ<br />
P − L<br />
´ (13.7)<br />
B2(bdGc)<br />
<strong>and</strong> by substituting it into (13.6) we have that the objective function (W is to be<br />
minimized)<br />
⎛<br />
W =2ρfgL ⎝<br />
2L3 B1Efbd2 ³<br />
δ<br />
P − L<br />
⎞<br />
´ ⎠ + ρcgLd. (13.8)<br />
B2(bdGc)<br />
⎛<br />
4ρ<br />
W = ⎝<br />
fgL4 B1Efbd2 ³<br />
δ<br />
P − L<br />
⎞<br />
´ ⎠ + ρcgLd B2(bdGc)<br />
We minimize the weight W with respect to the only other free variable, d, bysetting<br />
∂W/∂d =0<strong>and</strong> then we obtain the optimum core thickness, dopt. Rearranging<br />
(13.8) we get that<br />
where<br />
W =<br />
Differentiating we get<br />
i.e.<br />
=<br />
1<br />
B1Ef bδ<br />
4PgρfL4d2 − B1Ef bL<br />
4gρf L4B2(bGc) d + ρcgLd =<br />
1<br />
k1d 2 − k2d + ρ cgLd,<br />
k1 = B1Efbδ<br />
4Pgρ fL 4 ,k2 =<br />
B1EfbL<br />
4gρ fL 4 B2 (bGc) .<br />
∂W<br />
∂d = − 2k1d − k2<br />
(k1d 2 − k2d) 2 + ρ cgL =0<br />
− (2k1d − k2)+ρ cgL ¡ k1d 2 − k2d ¢ 2 =0,<br />
176
which is a 4th order equation in d.<br />
If the core density also should be treated as a variable the design optimization<br />
problem is more complex.<br />
13.1.1. Example of minimum weight design for given stiffness<br />
This is a method for finding the optimum face <strong>and</strong> core thickness for a given<br />
stiffness, providing the materials included the core properties are predetermined.<br />
We assume that the core properties can be varied by choosing different densities.<br />
If the compliance δ/P from (13.5) is denoted C, <strong>and</strong> solving it with respect to<br />
tf as a function of d we obtain from (13.7) that<br />
tf =<br />
2L3 B1Efbd2 ³<br />
δ<br />
P − L<br />
´ =<br />
B2(bdGc)<br />
2L3 B1Efbd2 ³<br />
C − L<br />
´<br />
B2bdGc<br />
<strong>and</strong> by rearranging we get that<br />
tf =<br />
2L3 B1Efbd2 ⎡<br />
⎣<br />
1<br />
³<br />
C − L<br />
⎤<br />
´ ⎦ =<br />
B2bdGc<br />
2L3<br />
⎡<br />
⎣<br />
1<br />
³<br />
B1Efb Cd2 − dL<br />
⎤<br />
=<br />
´ ⎦ =<br />
B2bGc<br />
2L2<br />
⎡<br />
⎤<br />
⎣<br />
1<br />
³ ´ ⎦ =<br />
B1Efb Cd2 2L2<br />
∙ ¸ 2<br />
−1<br />
Cd d<br />
−<br />
B1Efb L B2bGc<br />
L<br />
− d<br />
B2bGc<br />
which when substituting into the weight equation, we obtain that the total weight<br />
W of the beam as a function of d (when d = tc)<br />
W [g] = ¡ 2ρftf + ρcd ¢ Ã<br />
4ρfL<br />
L =<br />
2 ∙ ¸ !<br />
2<br />
−1<br />
Cd d<br />
− + ρ<br />
B1Efb L<br />
cd L. (13.9)<br />
B2bGc<br />
A simply supported beam in three-point bending should have a maximum<br />
mid-point deflection of δ = L/100. B1 is 48 <strong>and</strong> B2 is 4. Let L =500mm, the<br />
width b =1mmthefacesaremadeofaluminiumalloywithρ f =2700kg/m 3 <strong>and</strong><br />
Ef = 70000MPa<strong>and</strong>thecorehasadensityρ c =100kg/m 3 <strong>and</strong> a shear modulus<br />
Gc =40MPa. Assume a point load of 10N is acting in the middle of the beam.<br />
177
weight W [g]<br />
2.625<br />
2.5<br />
2.375<br />
2.25<br />
2.125<br />
20<br />
25<br />
30<br />
35<br />
40<br />
45<br />
d [mm]<br />
Figure 13.2: Beam weight (g/mm thickness) as function of thickness d.<br />
The weight of the beam per unit thickness (eq. (13.9) times the length L) can<br />
then be plotted versus thickness d as illustrated in Figure 13.2. The weight<br />
⎛<br />
⎜<br />
W (d) [g] = ⎝ 4(2.7 · 10−3 ) (500) 2<br />
⎡³<br />
´ 500<br />
100 d 10<br />
⎣<br />
48 (70000)<br />
2<br />
⎤−1<br />
d<br />
− ⎦ +0.1 · 10<br />
500 4(40)<br />
−3 ⎞<br />
⎟<br />
d⎠<br />
500<br />
simplifying <strong>and</strong> solving we get that<br />
µ −4<br />
8.0357 × 10<br />
W (d) [g] =<br />
0.001d2 − 0.00625d +0.0001d<br />
<br />
500.<br />
The weight of the beam per unit thickness (equation )<br />
The curve in Figure 13.2 shows that the optimum design is when d ≈ 29mm.<br />
This value can be found more precisely by solving the equation<br />
W 0 (d) =0<br />
numerically, i.e. solving the equation<br />
1<br />
d2 2.511 2 × 10−3 − 8.035 7 × 10−4d (0.001 d − 0.006 25) 2 +0.05 = 0.<br />
178<br />
50
The solution of this equation turns out to be i.e. d =28.617. Thus the minimum<br />
total weight<br />
W (28.617) =<br />
µ<br />
8.0357 × 10<br />
=<br />
−4<br />
0.001 (28.61729) 2 − 0.00625 (28.61729)<br />
=2.058 6g.<br />
Substituting back gives the face thickness<br />
tf = 2L2<br />
∙ ¸ 2<br />
−1<br />
Cd d<br />
− =<br />
B1Efb L B2bGc<br />
= 2 (500)2<br />
⎡³<br />
´ 500<br />
100 (28.617) 10<br />
⎣<br />
48 (70000) 1<br />
2<br />
−<br />
500<br />
28.617<br />
⎤<br />
⎦<br />
4(40)1<br />
=0.23249mm.<br />
179<br />
<br />
+0.0001 (28.61729) 500 =<br />
−1<br />
=
Part III<br />
Cellular Solids<br />
14. Some definitions of cellular solids<br />
Cellular solids are described by the geometric structure of the cells, that is both<br />
shape <strong>and</strong> size of the cells <strong>and</strong> the way the cells are distributed. Foams are threedimensional<br />
cellular solids <strong>and</strong> are more complex than the two-dimensional structures<br />
like honeycomb-structures. But, by studying the two-dimensional structures<br />
we make a basis in underst<strong>and</strong>ing the more difficult <strong>and</strong> complex three-dimensional<br />
structures of for instance foams.<br />
One of the most important feature of a cellular solid is what we call the relative<br />
density, defined by<br />
ρ = ρ∗<br />
(14.1)<br />
ρo where ρ∗ <strong>and</strong> ρo are the density of the cellular material <strong>and</strong> the outer (connected<br />
solid) material (which is the material that the cell-walls are made up of), respectively.<br />
When the relative density increases, the cell wall gets thicker. Relative<br />
density of the outer material is the same as the volume fraction of the outer<br />
material, po, defined by<br />
po = volume of outer material (m3 )<br />
volume of foam (m 3 )<br />
= Vo<br />
V ∗<br />
(see Figure 14.1). In order to see this, we observe that the density of the foam<br />
ρ ∗ mass of foam (kg)<br />
=<br />
volume of foam (m 3 )<br />
<strong>and</strong> the density of the outer connected material<br />
mass of outer (kg)<br />
ρo =<br />
volume of outer (m 3 )<br />
= m∗<br />
V ∗<br />
mo<br />
= .<br />
Vo<br />
For the case when the inner material in Figure 14.1 <strong>and</strong> 14.2 is air, we have that<br />
m ∗ = mo.<br />
180
Figure 14.1: Cellular solids.<br />
Figure 14.2: Volume fraction of square honeycomb cells.<br />
Thus, the volume fraction of the outer material<br />
po = Vo<br />
=<br />
V ∗<br />
mo<br />
ρ o<br />
m ∗<br />
ρ ∗<br />
=<br />
m ∗<br />
ρ o<br />
m ∗<br />
ρ ∗<br />
Moreover, the volume fraction of the inner material is<br />
Note also that<br />
pI = volume of inner (m3 )<br />
volume of foam (m 3 )<br />
po = Vo<br />
V ∗ = V ∗ − VI<br />
V ∗<br />
VI<br />
=1−<br />
V<br />
= ρ∗<br />
. (14.2)<br />
ρo VI<br />
= .<br />
V ∗<br />
=1− pI.<br />
∗<br />
When the cells are square honeycombs, as in Figure 14.2, the volume fractions can<br />
also be expressed in the terms of side length l <strong>and</strong> wall thickness t in the following<br />
way<br />
181
<strong>Materials</strong> ρ<br />
Special ultra-low-density foams 0,001<br />
Polymeric foams (packaging <strong>and</strong> insulation) 0,05-0,20<br />
Cork 0,14<br />
Softwoods 0,15-0,40<br />
Table 14.1: Relative density for some cellular solids.<br />
(l − t)2<br />
po =1− pI =1−<br />
l2 µ 2 µ µ 2<br />
l − t<br />
t<br />
=1− =1− 1 − =<br />
l<br />
l<br />
à µ µ !<br />
2 µ µ 2<br />
t t t t<br />
1 − 1 − 2 + =2 − ,<br />
l l l l<br />
which is approximately 2(t/l) for small values of t/l. For a closed-cell structure,<br />
the relative density ρ ∗ /ρ o can be written as<br />
ρ ∗<br />
ρ o<br />
= po =2<br />
µ <br />
t<br />
.<br />
l<br />
Iftherelativedensityρ ∗ /ρ o(= po) isislarge,saypo > 0.3, the structure will<br />
look more like a solid material with isolated pores than a cellular structure (see<br />
[5], p. 2). Gibson <strong>and</strong> Ashby refer to materials with relative density less than 0.3<br />
as true cellular solids. Throughout we assume a low density, so that t
14.1. Mechanics of honeycombs<br />
Figure 14.3: Honeycomb structure.<br />
The cells in a honeycomb-structure are usually hexagonal, but they can also be<br />
triangular or square or rhombic. We will mainly consider the regular square <strong>and</strong><br />
regular hexagonal honeycombs. The honeycombs can be made of different types<br />
of materials, such as metal, wood, polymer <strong>and</strong> ceramics or a combination of two<br />
or more of these materials. For instance, foams of polymer inside the honeycomb<br />
<strong>and</strong> thin metal on the outside will give a much more stiff/stabile construction so<br />
that the wall thickness of the metal can be made even thinner to obtain an even<br />
more light-weight structure.<br />
When honeycombs are used in load-bearing structures it is important to underst<strong>and</strong><br />
the mechanical behavior of these two-dimensional structures, illustrated<br />
as hexagonal honeycomb-structures in Figure 14.3.<br />
Besides, many natural three-dimensional cellular solids (for instance wood)<br />
that normally are too complex to be treated can be idealized <strong>and</strong> analyzed as<br />
honeycomb-structures.<br />
14.2. In-plane deformation properties, uniaxial loading of hexagonal<br />
honeycombs<br />
The study of the in-plane (also called transversal) properties will highlight the<br />
different deformation <strong>and</strong> failure mechanisms of the cellular solids. In-plane properties<br />
are defined as (the stiffness <strong>and</strong> strength) properties in the X1 − X2 plane,<br />
see Figure 14.4.<br />
183<br />
t<br />
l<br />
x<br />
2<br />
h<br />
x<br />
3<br />
x<br />
1
σ 1<br />
σ 1<br />
Figure 14.4: Honeycombstructure loaded in X1 or X2−direction.<br />
In-plane compression of honeycombs gives us first a bending of the cell walls<br />
<strong>and</strong> we obtain a linear elastic deformation. If the compression increases beyond<br />
a critical strain the cell walls will undergo collapse by elastic buckling, plastic<br />
yielding, creep or brittle fracture depending on the type material the cell wall is<br />
made of.<br />
If the honeycomb is exposed for tension the cell walls first bend but they will<br />
not obtain elastic buckling. Instead the cell walls will show extensive plasticity<br />
<strong>and</strong>ifthecellsarebrittleitwillfracture.Thein-planestiffness <strong>and</strong> strength are<br />
the lowest ones because in this plane the cell walls will bend. We will study only<br />
the linear-elastic deformation case of a hexagonal honeycomb in uniaxial loading<br />
in detail.<br />
The study of in-plane properties highlights the mechanisms by which cellular<br />
solids deform <strong>and</strong> fail.<br />
14.2.1. Linear-elastic deformation<br />
If the hexagonal honeycomb is regular (all angles θ are 30 ◦ , <strong>and</strong> wall thicknesses<br />
are equal as Figure 14.5 shows), then the in-plane properties are isotropic. This<br />
means that the in-plane properties of the honeycomb can be described by only<br />
two independent elastic moduli, for instance by Young’s modulus E ∗ <strong>and</strong> a shear<br />
modulus G ∗ . The notation ∗ means the effective value. If the honeycomb is not<br />
regular, the in-plane properties is described with four moduli (e.g. E ∗ 1,E ∗ 2,G ∗ 12<br />
<strong>and</strong> ν ∗ 12). Here, ν ∗ 12 is the Poisson’s ratio. If the general hexagonal honeycomb<br />
(arbitrary cell wall angle θ) has a low relative density, ρ ∗ /ρ o, (t/l is small) we have<br />
184<br />
σ 2<br />
σ 2
that<br />
Figure 14.5: A regular hexagonal honeycomb.<br />
ρ ∗<br />
ρ o<br />
≈<br />
t h ( l l +2)<br />
2cosθ( h<br />
l +sinθ).<br />
(14.3)<br />
When the honeycomb is regular (h = l <strong>and</strong> θ =30 ◦ ), see Figure 14.5, then (14.3)<br />
is reduced to<br />
ρ ∗<br />
ρ o<br />
=<br />
t h ( l l +2)<br />
2cosθ( h<br />
l +sinθ)<br />
µ 1<br />
l2 1<br />
l2 <br />
=<br />
t(1<br />
+ 2) l<br />
2 √ 3<br />
2<br />
(1 + 1<br />
2<br />
which holds when strains are less than 20% or t/l is small.<br />
) = t<br />
l<br />
The response of the honeycomb when loaded in x 1− or x 2−direction (see<br />
Figure 14.4), is bending of the cell walls (see Figure 14.6), <strong>and</strong> is described by five<br />
moduli: two Young’s moduli E ∗ 1 <strong>and</strong> E ∗ 2,ashearmodulusG ∗ 12 <strong>and</strong> two Poisson’s<br />
ratio ν ∗ 12 <strong>and</strong> ν ∗ 21. The reciprocal relation (according to Ashby)<br />
E ∗ 1 ν ∗ 21 = E ∗ 2 ν ∗ 12<br />
(14.4)<br />
where ν∗ 12 isthenegativeratioofthestraininthex2−directiontothatinthe x 1−direction for normal loading in the x 1−direction, reduces the five not independent<br />
moduli to four independent moduli. (According to Meidell & Lukkassen,<br />
)<br />
ν ∗ 21<br />
E1<br />
= ν∗ 12<br />
E2<br />
which gives that ν ∗ 21 E2 = ν ∗ 12 E1<br />
185<br />
2<br />
√<br />
3
σ σ<br />
1 1<br />
x2<br />
x1<br />
Figure 14.6: Honeycomb deformed by normal stresss when loaded in X1 <strong>and</strong> X2.<br />
When loading in x 1− or x 2− direction, respectively, the four independent<br />
moduli are described as<br />
<strong>and</strong><br />
E ∗ 1<br />
Eo<br />
µ<br />
t<br />
=<br />
l<br />
E∗ µ ¡ 3 h<br />
2 t<br />
=<br />
l<br />
Eo<br />
ν ∗ 12 = − ε2<br />
σ<br />
σ<br />
3<br />
cos θ<br />
¡<br />
h<br />
l +sinθ¢ sin2 θ<br />
ε1<br />
2<br />
2<br />
l +sinθ¢<br />
cos 3 θ<br />
cos<br />
=<br />
2 θ<br />
¡<br />
h<br />
l +sinθ¢ sin θ<br />
¡ h<br />
x2<br />
x1<br />
, (14.5)<br />
, (14.6)<br />
(14.7)<br />
ν ∗ 21 = − ε1<br />
ε2<br />
= l +sinθ¢ sin θ<br />
cos2 .<br />
θ<br />
(14.8)<br />
For regular hexagonal honeycombs, the two Young’s moduli will be reduced to<br />
E ∗ 1<br />
Eo<br />
= E∗ 2<br />
Eo<br />
=2.3<br />
µ 3<br />
t<br />
,<br />
l<br />
<strong>and</strong> the two Poisson’s ratio will be reduced to ν∗ 12 = ν∗ 21 =1. The honeycomb<br />
exposed to a shear stress is shown in Figure 14.7. It is possible to show that the<br />
shear moduli G∗ 12 to be<br />
G ∗ 12<br />
Eo<br />
=<br />
µ 3<br />
t<br />
l<br />
¡ h<br />
l<br />
¡ h<br />
l +sinθ¢<br />
¢ 2 ,<br />
(1 + 2h/l)cosθ<br />
186
τ τ<br />
Figure 14.7: Honeycombdeformatedbyshearstress.<br />
which for regular honeycombs is reduced to<br />
G ∗ 12<br />
Eo<br />
which correctly obeys the relation<br />
for isotropic solids.<br />
=0.57<br />
G =<br />
µ 3<br />
t<br />
l<br />
x2<br />
E<br />
2(1+ν)<br />
14.3. Out-of-plane deformation properties<br />
x1<br />
= 1 E<br />
4<br />
∗ 1<br />
Eo<br />
Out-of-plane properties are definedas(thestiffness <strong>and</strong> strength) properties in the<br />
x 3-plane, see Figure 14.8. The function of a honeycomb core in a s<strong>and</strong>wich panel<br />
is to carry the shear <strong>and</strong> normal loads in the x 3-direction. When honeycombs are<br />
loaded either along the x 3−plane or in out-of-plane shear they are much stiffer<br />
<strong>and</strong> stronger than if they are loaded in in-plane.<br />
Out-of-plane tension <strong>and</strong> compression loading of a honeycomb imply that the<br />
cell walls undergo only axial extension or compression <strong>and</strong> therefore the moduli,<br />
collapse stresses, <strong>and</strong> strength will be much larger.<br />
Also in the out-of-plane case we will only consider the linear-elastic deformation<br />
case, as we did in the in-plane case. The out-of-plane analysis gives the<br />
additional stiffness which is needed for the design of honeycomb cores in s<strong>and</strong>wichpanels,<br />
<strong>and</strong> for the description of the behavior of natural honeycomb-like material,<br />
such as wood.<br />
187
Figure 14.8: A honeycomb with out-of-plane loads (faces normal to X3− direction).<br />
14.3.1. Linear-elastic deformation<br />
A total of nine moduli are needed to describe the out-of-plane deformation, that<br />
means five new ones in addition to the four already described (E ∗ 1, E ∗ 2, G ∗ 12 <strong>and</strong><br />
υ ∗ 12). We will now find the five new moduli. The Young’s modulus E ∗ 3,fornormal<br />
loading in the x3-direction is obviously the same as the Young’s modulus for the<br />
outer material, Eo, scaled by the loadbearing section area<br />
E ∗ 3<br />
Eo<br />
= ρ∗<br />
ρ o<br />
≈ t<br />
l .<br />
The next two Poisson’s ratio are equal to the solid itself<br />
υ ∗ 31 = υ ∗ 32 = υo,<br />
<strong>and</strong> the Poisson’s ratio υ ∗ 13 <strong>and</strong> υ ∗ 23 are found from the reciprocal relations (see<br />
[5], p. 498)<br />
υ ∗ 13 = E∗ 1<br />
E ∗ 3<br />
υo ≈ 0, υ ∗ 23 = E∗ 2<br />
E∗ υo ≈ 0.<br />
3<br />
Theshearmoduliaremorecomplicatedtofind because of the non-uniform<br />
deformation in the cell walls due to stress distribution in the honeycomb. The<br />
plane honeycomb may not remain plane, <strong>and</strong> exact calculations may only be done<br />
using numerical methods. But, we can obtain upper <strong>and</strong> lower bounds for the two<br />
shear moduli, with the help of the method in [23], by calculating the strain energy<br />
188
associated first with the strain distribution <strong>and</strong> next by the stress distribution<br />
(see [5], p. 149). If the two coincide, the solution is exact, but if not the true<br />
solution lies somewhere in between the upper <strong>and</strong> lower bound. We will only give<br />
the results here, for more information see [5], p. 150. The upper <strong>and</strong> lower bounds<br />
for G ∗ 13, respectively:<br />
G ∗ 13<br />
Go<br />
G∗ 13<br />
Go<br />
µ <br />
cos θ t<br />
≤<br />
,<br />
h/l +sinθ l<br />
µ <br />
cos θ t<br />
≥<br />
h/l +sinθ l<br />
which are identically, <strong>and</strong> therefor we have an exact solution. For the regular<br />
hexagon we obtain that<br />
G∗ µ <br />
13 t<br />
=0.577 .<br />
l<br />
(14.9)<br />
Go<br />
The upper <strong>and</strong> lower bounds for G∗ 23, respectively:<br />
G ∗ 23<br />
Go<br />
≤ 1 h/l +2sin<br />
2<br />
2 µ <br />
θ t<br />
,<br />
(h/l +sinθ)cosθ l<br />
µ <br />
h/l +sinθ t<br />
≥<br />
(1 + 2h/l)cosθ l<br />
G ∗ 23<br />
Go<br />
which are not identically. They will not coincide for a general, anisotropic honeycomb<br />
but for a regular hexagon they are reduced to<br />
G∗ µ <br />
23 t<br />
=0.577 . (14.10)<br />
l<br />
Go<br />
We see that (14.9) <strong>and</strong> (14.10) are identical, which confirms that regular hexagons<br />
are isotropic in the x 1−x 2 plane.<br />
The out-of plane shear moduli vary linearly with the relative density (t/l) <strong>and</strong><br />
are therefore larger that the in-plane moduli by the factor (t/l) 2 .<br />
Now we have all the parameters describing the orthrotropic structure, <strong>and</strong> we<br />
can put them into the matrix 18.5 in order to find the compliance matrix (the<br />
inverse of the stiffness matrix).<br />
Questions<br />
• What is relative density?<br />
189
• Show that relative density is the same as volume fraction. Assume air inside<br />
the cell.<br />
• Show that if the hexagonal honeycomb has a low relative density, ρ ∗ /ρ o, (t/l is<br />
small) then<br />
ρ ∗<br />
ρ s<br />
≈<br />
t h ( l l +2)<br />
2cosθ( h<br />
l +sinθ).<br />
• If the relative density of a square honeycomb is 0.8, what is the wall-thickness<br />
of the honeycomb?<br />
• If the volume fraction of a hexagonal honeycomb is 0.8, what is the wall-thickness<br />
of the honeycomb?<br />
• When is simple beam theory valid, according to Ashby & Gibson?<br />
• What is the difference between in-plane <strong>and</strong> out-of-plane properties of a honeycomb<br />
structure?<br />
• If a hexagonal honeycomb is regular (wall thicknesses are equal), are the in-plane<br />
properties isotropic?<br />
• What does isotropic mean?<br />
• If the honeycomb is irregular <strong>and</strong> anisotropic, how many moduli for a complete<br />
description of the in-plane properties is needed?<br />
• What is the definition of Poisson’s ratio?<br />
190
Part IV<br />
Mechanics <strong>and</strong> Effective<br />
Properties of Composite<br />
<strong>Structures</strong> <strong>and</strong> Honeycombs<br />
15. On effective Properties of Composite <strong>Structures</strong><br />
Strongly non-homogeneous structures have fascinated people for a very long time.<br />
Archaeological observations in Finl<strong>and</strong> show that fibre- reinforced ceramics were<br />
made about 4000 years ago, <strong>and</strong> that people already at this time had ideas <strong>and</strong><br />
theories for intelligent combinations of materials <strong>and</strong> structures. Analysis of<br />
the macroscopic properties of composites was initiated by the physicists Raleigh,<br />
Maxwell <strong>and</strong> Einstein. Around 1970 one managed to formulate the physical problems<br />
of material structures <strong>and</strong> composites in such a way that this field became<br />
interesting from a purely mathematical point of view. This formulation initiated a<br />
new mathematical discipline called homogenization theory. Independently of this<br />
development scientists within the field of micro-mechanics have developed <strong>their</strong><br />
own theory concerning the mechanics of composites <strong>and</strong> structures.<br />
By using these theories we can determine locale <strong>and</strong> global (effective) properties<br />
of inhomogeneous structures which are too complex to be treated by conventional<br />
computational methods. The theories make it possible to design material<br />
structures with optimal properties with respect to weight, strength, stiffness, heat<br />
conductivity, electric conductivity, magnetic permeability, viscosity etc.<br />
Almost all literature on this field assumes relatively high knowledge in mathematics.<br />
However, in this paper we give a short introduction to the theory which<br />
require physical intuition rather than deep theoretical underst<strong>and</strong>ing. We hope<br />
this treatment makes it easier to underst<strong>and</strong> some basic aspects of the theory for<br />
a broader audience, especially people with background in engineering.<br />
16. The thermal problem<br />
The heat flow in the direction of decreasing temperature. Moreover, for isotropic<br />
materiels, the velocity v of the heat flow is proportional to the gradient of the<br />
191
temperature, i.e.<br />
∙<br />
v = −λ grad u (= − λ ∂u<br />
,λ<br />
∂x1<br />
∂u<br />
,λ<br />
∂x2<br />
∂u<br />
¸T ∂x2<br />
⎡<br />
= − ⎣<br />
λ ∂u<br />
∂x1<br />
λ ∂u<br />
∂x2<br />
λ ∂u<br />
∂x2<br />
where u is the temperature <strong>and</strong> λ is called the conductivity. Assuming no heat<br />
source in the body <strong>and</strong> no dependence of time, a simple application of the divergence<br />
theorem (Gauss theorem) shows that<br />
div v =0, (recall that div v = ∂v1<br />
∂x1<br />
+ ∂v2<br />
∂x2<br />
+ ∂v3<br />
).<br />
∂x3<br />
Some materials have different effective conductivities in each direction.<br />
means that the velocity v of the heat flow can be written as<br />
∙<br />
¸T ∂u ∂u ∂u<br />
v = − λ11 ,λ22 ,λ33 ,<br />
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x2<br />
or even more generally as<br />
v = −A grad u,<br />
where A a symmetric matrix of the form<br />
This<br />
⎡<br />
⎤<br />
A =<br />
⎣ λ11 λ12 λ13<br />
λ12 λ22 λ23<br />
λ13 λ23 λ33<br />
In a composite material we distinguish between the local conductivity A (which<br />
varies locally) <strong>and</strong> the effective conductivity<br />
⎡<br />
⎤<br />
A ∗ = ⎣<br />
λ ∗<br />
11 λ ∗<br />
12 λ ∗<br />
13<br />
λ ∗<br />
12 λ ∗<br />
22 λ ∗<br />
23<br />
λ ∗<br />
13 λ ∗<br />
23 λ ∗<br />
33<br />
(which is constant). This matrix is found as follows. Imagine that the composite<br />
is subjected to a homogeneous temperature-field, that is a temperature-field such<br />
that the average value hgrad ui of grad u is constant. Letting hvi be the average<br />
value of v = −A grad u we can obtain A ∗ from the relation<br />
hvi = A ∗ hgrad ui .<br />
192<br />
⎦ .<br />
⎦<br />
⎤<br />
⎦),
The average is taken over some representative domain Y of the composite. In<br />
general this volume should be much larger than the typical length-scale of the<br />
material (e.g. fiber-diameter), but in the case of periodic materials we can as<br />
well let Y be the cell of periodicity. Roughly speaking the effective conductivity<br />
matrix A∗ is the matrix of a corresponding homogeneous material with the same<br />
”effective” thermal properties as the actual composite. In particular, the ”the<br />
thermal energy” in Y of the actual composite is equal to ”the thermal energy” in<br />
the corresponding homogeneous material, i.e.<br />
Z<br />
1<br />
(grad u · A grad u) dv =<br />
Y 2<br />
| {z }<br />
thermal energy in the composite<br />
1<br />
2 hgrad ui·A∗ hgrad ui|Y | . (16.1)<br />
| {z }<br />
thermal energy in corresponding<br />
homogenized material.<br />
Forexample,ifwewanttofind λ ∗<br />
11 we impose the thermal field such that hgrad ui =<br />
[1, 0, 0] T then measure the energy W inside Y <strong>and</strong> obtain λ ∗<br />
11 from (16.1):<br />
17. Isotropic elastic materials<br />
λ ∗<br />
11 =2 W<br />
|Y | .<br />
For an isotropic material the shear modulus G <strong>and</strong> bulk modulus K in plane<br />
elasticity (plane strain) are related to the well known Young’s modulus E <strong>and</strong><br />
Poisson’s ratio ν as follows:<br />
K =<br />
E<br />
2(1+ν)(1− 2ν) ,<br />
E<br />
G =<br />
2(1+ν) .<br />
The bulk modulus k of the three-dimensional theory is given by<br />
k = E<br />
3<br />
1<br />
1 − 2ν .<br />
Thus the plane strain bulk modulus K can be expressed as<br />
K = k + G<br />
3 .<br />
193
If the material is a thin plate, we consider the plane-stress problem. In this case<br />
the plane stress bulk modulus is expressed as<br />
K = E<br />
µ <br />
1<br />
.<br />
2 1 − ν<br />
The shear modulus G is independent of the dimension <strong>and</strong> also independent of<br />
whether we are dealing with the plane-strain -or plane stress problem.<br />
18. Orthotropic composites<br />
Consider a linear elastic composite material in R3 which is locally orthotropic,<br />
<strong>and</strong> globally orthotropic. This means that in each point of the structure we have<br />
that the stress-strain relation is given as<br />
⎡ ⎤ ⎡<br />
σ11 C1111<br />
⎢ σ22 ⎥ ⎢ C2211 ⎢ ⎥ ⎢<br />
⎢ σ33 ⎥ ⎢ C3311 ⎢ ⎥<br />
⎢ σ12 ⎥ = ⎢<br />
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0<br />
⎣ σ23 ⎦ ⎣ 0<br />
σ13 0<br />
| {z } |<br />
C1122<br />
C2222<br />
C3322<br />
0<br />
0<br />
0<br />
C1133 0<br />
C2233 0<br />
C3333 0<br />
0 C1212<br />
0 0<br />
0 0<br />
{z<br />
0<br />
0<br />
0<br />
0<br />
C2323<br />
0<br />
⎤⎡<br />
⎤<br />
0 e11<br />
0 ⎥⎢<br />
e22 ⎥<br />
⎥⎢<br />
⎥<br />
0 ⎥⎢<br />
e33 ⎥<br />
⎥⎢<br />
⎥<br />
0 ⎥⎢<br />
⎥⎢<br />
γ ⎥<br />
12 ⎥<br />
0 ⎦⎣<br />
γ ⎦<br />
23<br />
C1313 γ13 } | {z }<br />
σ<br />
e<br />
<strong>and</strong> the average stress-strain relation of the form<br />
i.e.<br />
⎡<br />
⎢<br />
⎣<br />
hσ11i<br />
hσ22i<br />
hσ33i<br />
hσ12i<br />
hσ23i<br />
hσ13i<br />
| {z }<br />
hσi<br />
C<br />
⎤ ⎡<br />
C<br />
⎥ ⎢<br />
⎥ ⎢<br />
⎥ ⎢<br />
⎥ = ⎢<br />
⎥ ⎢<br />
⎦ ⎣<br />
∗ 1111 C∗ 1122 C∗ 1133 0 0 0<br />
C∗ 2211 C∗ 2222 C∗ 2233 0 0 0<br />
C∗ 3311 C∗ 3322 C∗ 3333 0 0 0<br />
0 0 0 C∗ 1212 0 0<br />
0 0 0 0 C∗ 2323 0<br />
0 0 0 0 0 C∗ ⎤⎡<br />
⎤<br />
he11i<br />
⎥⎢<br />
⎥⎢<br />
he22i ⎥<br />
⎥⎢<br />
⎥⎢<br />
he33i ⎥<br />
⎥⎢<br />
⎥⎢<br />
hγ12i ⎥ ,<br />
⎥<br />
⎦⎣<br />
hγ23i ⎦<br />
1313 hγ<br />
| {z } | {z<br />
13i<br />
}<br />
C ∗<br />
hei<br />
(18.1)<br />
σ = Ce, hσi = C ∗ hei . (18.2)<br />
194
Here we assume equilibrium of stresses in each direction:<br />
∂σ11<br />
∂y1<br />
∂σ21<br />
∂y1<br />
∂σ31<br />
∂y1<br />
+ ∂σ12<br />
∂y2<br />
+ ∂σ22<br />
∂y2<br />
+ ∂σ32<br />
∂y2<br />
+ ∂σ13<br />
∂y3<br />
+ ∂σ23<br />
∂y3<br />
+ ∂σ33<br />
∂y3<br />
= 0,<br />
= 0,<br />
= 0.<br />
where σij = σji (obtained by applying Gauss theorem as for the heat problem)<br />
These equations follows if we assume that the net force is 0. The symbol h·i<br />
denotes the average taken over some representative domain Y of the composite.<br />
In general this volume should be much larger than the typical length-scale of the<br />
material (e.g. fiber-diameter), but in the case of periodic materials we can as well<br />
let Y be the cell of periodicity. Roughly speaking the effective stiffness matrix C∗ is the matrix of a corresponding homogeneous material with the same ”effective”<br />
properties as the actual composite. In particular, the actual strain energy stored in<br />
Y is equal to the strain energy stored in the corresponding homogeneous material,<br />
i.e. Z<br />
1<br />
1<br />
(e · Ce) dv =<br />
2 2 hei·C∗ hei |Y | . (18.3)<br />
Y | {z }<br />
strain energy in the composite<br />
| {z }<br />
strain energy in corresponding<br />
homogenized material.<br />
Example 18.1. If we want to find C ∗ 1111 we stretch the periodic structure in such<br />
a way that average strain hei =[1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0] T , then measure (or compute) the<br />
average stress hσi =[hσ11i , hσ22i , hσ33i , hσ12i , hσ23i , hσ13i] T <strong>and</strong> finally compute<br />
the coefficient C ∗ 1111 from (18.1) which gives us that C ∗ 1111 = hσ11i . Equivalently,<br />
we can ask the FE-program to compute the strain energy W (theleftsideof<br />
(18.3)) <strong>and</strong> then compute C ∗ 1111 from (18.3), i.e. we obtain<br />
Z<br />
1<br />
(e · Ce) dv<br />
2<br />
Y | {z }<br />
strain energy in the composite<br />
thus<br />
= 1<br />
2 [1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0]T · C ∗ [1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0] T |Y | = 1<br />
2 C∗ 1111 |Y | ,<br />
C ∗ 1111 =<br />
2(strain energy)<br />
.<br />
|Y |<br />
195
The stiffness matrix is symmetric <strong>and</strong> the elements may be expressed as follows<br />
(see e.g. [32]):<br />
C ∗ 1111 = 1 − ν∗ 23ν ∗ 32<br />
∆E ∗ 2E ∗ 3<br />
, C ∗ 1122 = ν∗21 + ν∗ 31ν∗ 23<br />
∆E∗ 2E ∗ , C<br />
3<br />
∗ 1133 = ν∗31 + ν∗ 21ν∗ 32<br />
∆E∗ 2E ∗ 3<br />
C ∗ 2222 = 1 − ν∗ 13ν∗ 31<br />
, C ∗ 2233 = ν∗32 + ν∗ 12ν∗ 31<br />
, C ∗ 3333 = 1 − ν∗12ν∗ 21<br />
∆E ∗ 1E ∗ 3<br />
∆E ∗ 1E ∗ 3<br />
C ∗ 1212 = G ∗ 12, C ∗ 2323 = G ∗ 23, C ∗ 1313 = G ∗ 13,<br />
∆E ∗ 1E ∗ 2<br />
(18.4)<br />
where<br />
∆ = 1 − ν∗12ν∗ 21 − ν∗ 23ν∗ 32 − ν∗ 31ν∗ 13 − 2ν∗ 21ν∗ 32ν∗ 13<br />
E∗ 1E ∗ 2E ∗ .<br />
3<br />
Here, ’E∗ i ’aretheeffective Young’s moduli, ’G∗ ij’ aretheeffective shear moduli<br />
<strong>and</strong> ’ν∗ ij’ aretheeffective Poisson’s ratios. The inverse of the effective stiffness<br />
matrix (the compliance matrix) which (certainly) also is symmetric is given by<br />
⎡<br />
1<br />
E ⎢<br />
⎣<br />
∗ 1<br />
− ν∗ 12<br />
E∗ 2<br />
− ν∗ 13<br />
E∗ −<br />
3<br />
0 0 0<br />
ν∗ 21<br />
E∗ 1<br />
1<br />
E∗ 2<br />
− ν∗ 23<br />
E∗ −<br />
3<br />
0 0 0<br />
ν∗ 31<br />
E∗ 1<br />
− ν∗ 32<br />
E∗ 2<br />
1<br />
E∗ 0 0<br />
3<br />
0<br />
0<br />
1<br />
G<br />
0 0<br />
∗ 0 0 0<br />
12<br />
0<br />
0<br />
1<br />
G<br />
0<br />
∗ 0 0 0 0<br />
23<br />
0<br />
0<br />
1<br />
G∗ 13<br />
⎤<br />
⎥ .<br />
⎥<br />
⎦<br />
(18.5)<br />
19. Square symmetric unidirectional two-phase structure<br />
In the case of square honeycombs with locally isotropic material properties (local<br />
shear moduli Go <strong>and</strong> GI <strong>and</strong> local plane strain bulk moduli Ko <strong>and</strong> KI with<br />
corresponding volume fractions po <strong>and</strong> pI, respectively, where the subscript o <strong>and</strong><br />
I denote outer <strong>and</strong> inner material, respectively (see Figure 19.1), the stiffness<br />
matrix reduces to a matrix of the form:<br />
⎡<br />
⎢<br />
⎣<br />
K ∗ + G ∗ T K ∗ − G ∗ T l ∗ 0 0 0<br />
K ∗ − G ∗ T K ∗ + G ∗ T l ∗ 0 0 0<br />
l∗ l∗ n∗ 0 0 0<br />
0 0 0 G∗ 0 0 0<br />
T,45<br />
0<br />
0<br />
G<br />
0<br />
∗ 0 0 0 0<br />
L<br />
0<br />
0<br />
G∗ L<br />
196<br />
⎤<br />
⎥ . (19.1)<br />
⎥<br />
⎦
Figure 19.1: The structure of square honeybombs with locally isotropic material properties.<br />
Figure 19.2: The 4 moduli measure resistence against the indicated average strains.<br />
Here, K ∗ is the effective transverse (also called ”in-plane”) bulk modulus, G ∗ T ,<br />
G ∗ T,45 are the effective transverse shear moduli <strong>and</strong> G ∗ L is the longitudinal (also<br />
called ”out-of plane”) shear modulus, see Figure 19.2. In this case the compliance<br />
matrix reduces to<br />
197
⎡<br />
1<br />
E<br />
⎢<br />
⎣<br />
∗ T<br />
− ν∗ T<br />
E∗ T<br />
− ν∗ L<br />
E∗ −<br />
L<br />
0 0 0<br />
ν∗ T<br />
E∗ T<br />
1<br />
E∗ T<br />
− ν∗ L<br />
E∗ −<br />
L<br />
0 0 0<br />
ν∗ L<br />
E∗ L<br />
− ν∗ L<br />
E∗ L<br />
1<br />
E∗ 0 0<br />
L<br />
0<br />
0<br />
1<br />
G<br />
0 0<br />
∗ 0 0 0<br />
T,45<br />
0<br />
0<br />
1<br />
G<br />
0<br />
∗ 0 0 0 0<br />
L<br />
0<br />
0<br />
1<br />
G∗ L<br />
⎤<br />
⎥ .<br />
⎥<br />
⎦<br />
(19.2)<br />
Using (18.4) <strong>and</strong> the symmetry we obtain the relations<br />
G ∗ T =<br />
E ∗ T<br />
2(1+ν ∗ T )<br />
(19.3)<br />
4<br />
E∗ T<br />
= 1<br />
G∗ +<br />
T<br />
1<br />
K∗ + 4(ν∗L) 2<br />
E∗ .<br />
L<br />
(19.4)<br />
l ∗ = ν ∗ L2K ∗ ,n ∗ = E ∗ L +4(ν ∗ L) 2 K ∗<br />
Moreover, it has been proved by Hill [11] that<br />
(19.5)<br />
E ∗ L = poEo + pIEI + 4(νo − νI) 2<br />
³<br />
1 1 − Ko KI<br />
ν ∗ L = poνo + pIνI − νo − νI<br />
1<br />
Ko<br />
− 1<br />
KI<br />
´ 2 (po<br />
(po<br />
1<br />
1<br />
1<br />
+ pI<br />
Ko KI<br />
1<br />
+ pI<br />
Ko KI<br />
− 1<br />
), (19.6)<br />
K∗ − 1<br />
). (19.7)<br />
K∗ Thesetwoformulaewereprovedin[11]forthecaseoftransverseisotropy. However,<br />
by following the proof in [11] it is easy to check that the same facts hold in<br />
our case.<br />
19.1. Calculation of stiffness <strong>and</strong> compliance matrix<br />
We remark that (19.3), (19.4), (19.5), (19.6) <strong>and</strong> (19.7) hold for all two-component<br />
unidirectional fiber composite (orientated in the direction x3) satisfying the property<br />
of square symmetry, i.e. the case when the stiffness matrix is of the form<br />
(19.1) (we say that the composite satisfies the property of transverse isotropy if<br />
G ∗ T = G ∗ T,45, see Figure 19.3). In order to compute all components stiffness matrix<br />
(19.2) we only have to compute (e.g. numerically by using the finite element<br />
method) the four components G ∗ L , G∗ T , G∗ T,45 ,<strong>and</strong>K∗ . The other two moduli<br />
198
Figure 19.3: Hexagonal honeycomb. Exampel of structure satisfying the property of<br />
transverse isotropy (i.e G ∗ T = G ∗ T,45).<br />
l∗<strong>and</strong> n∗ are the found by inserting the values of E∗ L (19.6) <strong>and</strong> ν∗ L (19.7) into<br />
(19.5). If we also want to know E∗ T <strong>and</strong> ν∗ T we can evaluate these values by first<br />
evaluating E∗ T from (19.4) <strong>and</strong> finally ν∗ T from (19.3).<br />
It is possible to show that G ∗ L<br />
can be found exactly as the effective conductivity<br />
in the similar 2-dimensional problem by letting Go <strong>and</strong> GI play the same role as<br />
the local conductivity for that problem.<br />
Exercise 19.1. Consider square symmetric unidirectional two-phase composite<br />
with volume-fractions pI = po =1/2, Poissons ratios νI = νo =0.3 <strong>and</strong> Youngs<br />
modulus EI =0.5, Eo =1.(no units)<br />
1. Find KI, Ko, GI, Go.<br />
2. By performing a FE-calculation it is possible to find the following effective<br />
moduli:<br />
Find the effective stiffness matrix C ∗<br />
K ∗ = 0.658455,<br />
G ∗ T = 0.273775,<br />
G ∗ T,45 = 0.259418,<br />
G ∗ L = 0.274426.<br />
3. Find also ν ∗ L,E ∗ L,E ∗ T <strong>and</strong> ν ∗ T . <strong>and</strong> find the effective compliance matrix.<br />
199
20. Numerical methods for periodic structures<br />
In order to use conventional software to solve displacement field numerically for<br />
periodic structures, e.g. by the finite element method, it is often necessary to<br />
”translate” the information of the average strain hei into equivalent boundary<br />
conditions for the on the cell of periodicity<br />
for the displacement<br />
Y = h0,y1ih0,y2ih0,y3i<br />
u =<br />
⎡<br />
⎣ u1<br />
u2<br />
u3<br />
This is obtained by letting each pair of points (xl−,xl+) (the latter point with<br />
the largest coordinates) on opposite faces with normal vector nl be coupled to<br />
eachotherinsuchawaythat<br />
⎡<br />
⎣<br />
u1(xl+)<br />
u2(xl+)<br />
u3(xl+)<br />
⎤<br />
⎡<br />
⎦ = ⎣<br />
where ⎡<br />
⎣<br />
⎤<br />
⎦ .<br />
u1(xl−)<br />
u2(xl−)<br />
u3(xl−)<br />
c1l<br />
c2l<br />
c3l<br />
⎤<br />
⎦<br />
⎤<br />
⎡<br />
⎦ + ⎣<br />
c1l<br />
c2l<br />
c3l<br />
⎤<br />
⎦ , (20.1)<br />
is a constant vector. By integrating along the normal vector nl we obtain that<br />
¿ À<br />
∂uk<br />
=<br />
∂xl<br />
uk(xl+) − uk(xl−)<br />
=<br />
yl<br />
ckl<br />
,<br />
yl<br />
thus, recalling that<br />
ekk = ∂uk<br />
∂xk<br />
γ kl = ∂uk<br />
∂xl<br />
we obtain the following useful relation<br />
ckk<br />
yk<br />
= hekki<br />
200<br />
+ ∂ul<br />
∂xk
Figure 20.1: The Y -cell in the symmetric case.<br />
ckl<br />
yl<br />
+ clk<br />
yk<br />
= hγ kli . (20.2)<br />
Hence<br />
ckk = yk hekki .<br />
Observe that ckl <strong>and</strong> clk are not uniquely determined by this relation when k 6= l.<br />
Thus in this case these constants can be chosen independently (as long as (20.2)<br />
is satisfied). E.g. we can choose<br />
ckl = clk = hγkli 1 1 . (20.3)<br />
+ yl yk<br />
If the material properties are symmetric in each coordinate with respect to<br />
the midpoint ((1/2)y1,...,(1/2)yn) of the Y -cell problem (see Figure 20.1) then<br />
we can often use simpler boundary conditions than (20.1).<br />
For example, in the case when all average shear strains hγkli =0, we can in<br />
(20.1) use the Dirichlet condition<br />
ul(xl−) =0, ul(xl+) =cll(= yl helli), l =1, 2, 3, (20.4)<br />
<strong>and</strong> drop all the other boundary conditions. The latter is equivalent with setting<br />
a Neumann condition, ∂ui/∂xl = 0, i 6= l on the same faces. It is easy to<br />
see physically that these simplified boundary conditions hold by considering the<br />
deformation of the whole periodic structure, since it is obvious that the solution<br />
(which indeed represents the deformed body) must inherit the same symmetry<br />
as the material itself (see Figure 20.2). Moreover, in the case when all average<br />
normal strains hekki =0, we can in (20.1) use the Dirichlet condition<br />
ui(xl−) =0, ui(xl+) =cil(= hγ ili<br />
201<br />
1<br />
yl<br />
+ 1<br />
yi<br />
), i 6= l (20.5)
Figure 20.2: Deformation of the periodic structure in the symmetric case.<br />
<strong>and</strong> drop all the other boundary conditions. The latter is equivalent with setting<br />
a Neumann condition, ∂ui/∂xi =0, i 6= l for l =1, 2, 3 onthesamefaces.<br />
Theboundaryconditionsfortheconductivitycasecanbesimplified in the<br />
same way.<br />
20.1. Coordinate transformation<br />
For the computation of effective moduli it is sometimes convenient to rotate the<br />
original coordinate system. Consider an orthonormal coordinate system with basis<br />
vectors<br />
n1 = [n11,n12,n13]<br />
n2 = [n21,n22,n23]<br />
n3 = [n31,n32,n33] .<br />
A vector with coordinates x =(x1,x2,x3) (relative to the usual coordinate system)<br />
will have coordinates x 0 =(x 0 1,x 0 2,x 0 3) (relative to the new coordinate system) given<br />
by the relation ⎡<br />
⎣<br />
x 0 1<br />
x 0 2<br />
x 0 3<br />
⎤<br />
⎡<br />
⎦ = ⎣<br />
n11 n12 n13<br />
n21 n22 n23<br />
n31 n32 n33<br />
⎤ ⎡<br />
⎦ ⎣<br />
(see Figure 20.3). It is possible to show that the following relation between the<br />
strain e = £ ¤ T<br />
e11,e22,e33,γ12,γ23,γ13 ,γij =2eij (in the usual coordinate system)<br />
<strong>and</strong> e0 = £ e0 11,e0 22,e0 33,γ0 12,γ0 23,γ0 ¤ T 0<br />
13 ,γij =2e0 ij (in the new coordinate system):<br />
e 0 = Te,<br />
202<br />
x1<br />
x2<br />
x3<br />
⎤<br />
⎦
where<br />
⎡<br />
Figure 20.3: The two coordinate systems.<br />
n 2 11 n 2 12 n 2 13 n11n12 n12n13 n11n13<br />
n 2 21 n 2 22 n 2 23 n21n22 n22n23 n21n23<br />
n 2 31 n 2 32 n 2 33 n31n32 n32n33 n31n33<br />
⎢<br />
⎥<br />
⎢<br />
⎥<br />
⎢<br />
⎥<br />
T = ⎢<br />
⎥<br />
⎢ 2n11n21 2n12n22 2n13n23 n11n22 ⎢<br />
+ n21n12 n12n23 + n22n13 n11n23 + n21n13 ⎥ .<br />
⎥<br />
⎣ 2n21n31 2n22n32 2n23n33 n21n32 + n31n22 n22n33 + n32n23 n21n33 + n31n23 ⎦<br />
2n11n31 2n12n32 2n13n33 n11n32 + n31n12 n12n33 + n32n13 n11n33 + n31n13<br />
Moreover, we can obtain a similar relation between the corresponding stresses σ<br />
<strong>and</strong> σ 0 :<br />
σ 0 = T −T σ,<br />
where T−T is obtained from T by changing the factors of 2 in T symmetrically<br />
about the diagonal, i.e.<br />
⎡<br />
n 2 11 n 2 12 n 2 13 2n11n12 2n12n13 2n11n13<br />
n 2 21 n 2 22 n 2 23 2n21n22 2n22n23 2n21n23<br />
n 2 31 n 2 32 n 2 33 2n31n32 2n32n33 2n31n33<br />
T −T ⎢<br />
⎥<br />
⎢<br />
⎥<br />
⎢<br />
⎥<br />
= ⎢<br />
⎥<br />
⎢ n11n21 n12n22 n13n23 n11n22 ⎢<br />
+ n21n12 n12n23 + n22n13 n11n23 + n21n13 ⎥ .<br />
⎥<br />
⎣ n21n31 n22n32 n23n33 n21n32 + n31n22 n22n33 + n32n23 n21n33 + n31n23 ⎦<br />
n11n31 n12n32 n13n33 n11n32 + n31n12 n12n33 + n32n13 n11n33 + n31n13<br />
The stress-strain relation in the new coordinate system can therefore be written<br />
as:<br />
σ 0 = C 0 e 0 ,<br />
203<br />
⎤<br />
⎤
where<br />
C = T T C 0 T.<br />
Concerning these facts we refer to e.g. [3, p. 212].<br />
In the plane strain case we put all strains related to the x3-variable equal to<br />
0. If we also assume that the new coordinate system is obtained from the st<strong>and</strong>ard<br />
one by a rotation in the x1-x2-plane then we obtain the following simplified<br />
relations:<br />
⎡<br />
⎤<br />
T =<br />
⎡<br />
T −T = ⎣<br />
C =<br />
⎣ C1111 C1122 C1112<br />
C2211 C2222 C2212<br />
C1211 C1222 C1212<br />
⎦ ,<br />
⎣ n2 11 n 2 12 n11n12<br />
n 2 21 n 2 22 n21n22<br />
2n11n21 2n12n22 n11n22 + n21n12<br />
⎡<br />
n 2 11 n 2 12 2n11n12<br />
n 2 21 n 2 22 2n21n22<br />
n11n21 n12n22 n11n22 + n21n12<br />
As an example, let us consider the square symmetric case, i.e. when the stiffness<br />
matrix is of the form<br />
⎡<br />
C ∗ = ⎣<br />
K ∗ + G ∗ T K ∗ − G ∗ T 0<br />
K ∗ − G ∗ T K ∗ + G ∗ T 0<br />
0 0 G ∗ T,45<br />
(c.f. (19.1)). Performing a rotation of 45 ◦ , i.e. [n11,n12] =<br />
h<br />
− √ 2<br />
2 , √ 2<br />
2<br />
becomes<br />
⎤<br />
⎦<br />
⎤<br />
⎦ ,<br />
⎤<br />
⎦ .<br />
h √<br />
2<br />
2 , √ i<br />
2 <strong>and</strong> [n21,n22] =<br />
2<br />
i<br />
, the corresponding stiffness matrix in the rotated coordinate system<br />
⎡<br />
C ∗0 = T −T C ∗ T −1 = ⎣<br />
K ∗ + G ∗ T,45 K ∗ − G ∗ T,45 0<br />
K ∗ − G ∗ T,45 K∗ + G ∗ T,45 0<br />
0 0 G ∗ T<br />
⎤<br />
⎦ , (20.6)<br />
i.e. C ∗0 is the same as C ∗ except that the shear moduli G ∗ T,45 <strong>and</strong> G ∗ T have changed<br />
place. This explains the use of the index ”45” <strong>and</strong> shows that we can calculate<br />
G ∗ T,45 exactlyaswecalculateG∗ T except by rotating the coordinate system 45◦ .<br />
204
Exercise 20.1. Verify (20.6) by calculating C ∗ = T T C ∗0 T<br />
Exercise 20.2. Let<br />
C ∗0 ⎡<br />
= ⎣ K∗ + G∗ K∗ − G∗ K<br />
0<br />
∗ − G∗ K∗ + G∗ 0<br />
0 0 G∗ ⎤<br />
⎦<br />
By matrix-multiplication it is possible to obtain that<br />
T T C ∗0 T =C ∗0 . (20.7)<br />
for any orthonormal coordinate system [n11,n12] = [cosφ, sin φ] , [n21,n22] =<br />
[− sin φ, cos φ] This is done by simplifying each of the elements of the matrix.<br />
For example we find that<br />
¡ T T C ∗0 T ¢<br />
11 = n4 11K ∗ + n 4 11G ∗ +2n 2 11n 2 21K ∗ +2n 2 11n 2 21G ∗ + n 4 21k + n 4 21G ∗<br />
Verify that (20.7) holds for this element. (Note that (20.7) explains why composites<br />
with this type of effective stiffness matrixes are called transversely isotropic).<br />
Solution:<br />
¡ ¢ T ∗0<br />
T C T 11 = (K∗ + G ∗ ) ¡ n 4 11 +2n 2 11n 2 21 + n 4 ¢ ¡ ∗ ∗ 2<br />
21 =(K + G ) n11 + n 2 ¢ 2<br />
21 =<br />
= (K ∗ + G ∗ ) ¡ cos 2 φ +sin 2 φ ¢ 2 ∗ ∗ 2 ∗ ∗<br />
=(K + G )1 =(K + G ) .<br />
Exercise 20.3. Consider the same square symmetric unidirectional two-phase<br />
composite in Exercise 19.1. Suppose that the composite is used as core material<br />
in a s<strong>and</strong>wich construction. How should we direct the fibres in order to maximize<br />
the stiffnessofthes<strong>and</strong>wich(comparethethreealternativesinFigure20.4).<br />
Solution: The deflection of the s<strong>and</strong>wich due to shear deformation in the<br />
core is dependent of G ∗ L (in alternative 1), G ∗ T (in alternative 2) <strong>and</strong> G ∗ T,45 (in<br />
alternative 3), where these parameters correspond ti the same coordinate system as<br />
in 19.1). Using the values we see that alternative 1 is (insignificantly) better than<br />
alternative 2 which is better than alternative 3. (For example when calculating<br />
the deflection of a s<strong>and</strong>wich beam of type alternative 1 we use the same formulae<br />
as in the isotropic case by using G = G ∗ L as the shear modulus of the core <strong>and</strong> the<br />
same goes for alt. 2 <strong>and</strong> alt. 3).<br />
205
Figure 20.4: S<strong>and</strong>wich plate with three alternative cores.<br />
21. A computational example<br />
Inthecaseofsquarehoneycombswithlocallyisotropicmaterialproperties(see<br />
Figure 19.1) the structure is symmetric with respect to the midpoint of the Y -cell<br />
Y =[−1, 1] 3 in all the coordinates x1,x2,x3, <strong>and</strong> also in the coordinates x 0 1,x 0 2,x3<br />
in the coordinate system obtained by a rotation of 45 ◦ in the x1-x2-plane. The<br />
effective stress/strain-relation (18.1) reduces in this case to<br />
⎡ ⎤ ⎡<br />
hσ11i K<br />
⎢ hσ22i ⎥ ⎢<br />
⎥ ⎢<br />
⎢ hσ33i ⎥ ⎢<br />
⎥<br />
⎢ hσ12i ⎥ = ⎢<br />
⎥ ⎢<br />
⎣ hσ23i ⎦ ⎣<br />
hσ13i<br />
∗ + G∗ T K∗ − G∗ T l∗ K<br />
0 0 0<br />
∗ − G∗ T K∗ + G∗ T l∗ l<br />
0 0 0<br />
∗ l∗ n∗ 0 0 0<br />
0<br />
G<br />
0 0<br />
∗ 0 0 0<br />
T,45<br />
0<br />
0<br />
G<br />
0<br />
∗ L 0<br />
0 0 0 0 0 G∗ ⎤ ⎡<br />
⎥ ⎢<br />
⎥ ⎢<br />
⎥ ⎢<br />
⎥ ⎢<br />
⎥ ⎢<br />
⎥ ⎢<br />
⎦ ⎣<br />
L<br />
In order to compute the effective in-plane moduli K ∗ <strong>and</strong> G ∗ T<br />
he11i<br />
he22i<br />
he33i<br />
hγ 12i<br />
hγ 23i<br />
hγ 13i<br />
⎤<br />
⎥ . (21.1)<br />
⎥<br />
⎦<br />
we solve the cell<br />
problem for hei =[1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, ] T <strong>and</strong> hei =[1, −1, 0, 0, 0, 0, ] T <strong>and</strong> compute the<br />
corresponding values K∗ = hσ11i /2 <strong>and</strong> G∗ T = hσ11i /2, respectively. Alternatively<br />
we can compute the strain energy W <strong>and</strong> compute K∗ <strong>and</strong> G∗ T from the identity<br />
W = 1<br />
2 hei·C∗ hei|Y | (21.2)<br />
206
(discussed in (18.3)). For the computation it is enough to solve the two-dimensional<br />
cell problem using plane strain. This is due to the fact that the solution of the<br />
three dimensional cell problem in both cases will be independent of the x3-variable<br />
<strong>and</strong> we do not use any information of the strain or stresses in x3-direction for the<br />
computation of K ∗ <strong>and</strong> G ∗ T . Because of the symmetries it sufficestosolvetheprob-<br />
lem on 1/4 of the Y -cell, e.g. on the square Y =[0, 1] 2 .Since|Y | =1, we obtain<br />
from (21.2) that K∗ = W/2 <strong>and</strong> G∗ T = W/2. We can use uniform boundary conditions<br />
on each face of this square (see Section 20), i.e. for hei =[1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, ] T<br />
the boundary conditions are :<br />
<strong>and</strong> for hei =[1, −1, 0, 0, 0, 0, ] T :<br />
u1(0,x2) = u2(x1, 0) = 0,<br />
u1(1,x2) = u2(x1, 1) = 1<br />
u1(0,x2) = u2(x1, 0) = 0,<br />
u1(1,x2) = 1<br />
u2(x1, 1) = −1<br />
(this follows from (20.4)). Due to symmetries the module G∗ T,45 can be found<br />
exactly as G∗ T except that we must rotate the coordinate system 45◦ (see the last<br />
part of Section 20.1).<br />
Alternatively we can compute G∗ T,45 more directly by solving the cell problem<br />
for hei =[0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0] T <strong>and</strong> computing the corresponding value G∗ T,45 = hσ12i·1,<br />
or equivalently, compute the strain energy W <strong>and</strong> find G∗ T,45 from the identity<br />
(21.2) (with |Y | =1), which gives G∗ T,45 =2W . Inthiscaseweusethefollowing<br />
boundary conditions on each face of the square ( according to (20.5))<br />
u2(0,x2) = u1(x1, 0) = 0,<br />
u2(1,x2) = u1(x1, 1) = 1<br />
2 .<br />
The module G ∗ L can be found by using hei =[0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1] T <strong>and</strong> computing<br />
the corresponding value G ∗ L = hσ13i . The problem with doing this is that it often<br />
requires a full 3D FE-computation regardless of the fact that the solution of the<br />
cell problem is independent of the x3-variable. Therefore it is often easier to<br />
solve the corresponding 2D heat-conductivity problem (see Subsection 19.1) with<br />
207
oundary conditions<br />
u(0,x2) = 0<br />
u(1,x2) = 1<br />
using Go <strong>and</strong> GI as ”thermal conductivities” <strong>and</strong> computing G ∗ L<br />
energy W (16.1), which gives<br />
G ∗ L =2W.<br />
Once we have computed the 4 moduli K ∗ , G ∗ T , G∗ T,45 ,<strong>and</strong>G∗ L<br />
obtain all the other moduli (see Subsection 19.1).<br />
from the thermal<br />
we can easily<br />
As an example, consider a square honeycomb structure (see Figure 19.1) with<br />
volume fractions pI = po =1/2 <strong>and</strong> locally isotropic material properties νI =<br />
νo =0.3, EI =0.5, Eo =1(or equivalently KI =0. 48076923, Ko =0. 96153846,<br />
GI =0. 19230769, Go =0.38461538). By performing a FE-calculation according<br />
to the above method we obtain the following effective moduli:<br />
K ∗ = 0.658455,<br />
G ∗ T = 0.273775,<br />
G ∗ T,45 = 0.259418,<br />
G ∗ L = 0.274426.<br />
Hence, by using (19.3), (19.4), (19.6) <strong>and</strong> (19.7) we obtain that<br />
<strong>and</strong> by (19.5)<br />
ν ∗ L = 0.3,<br />
E ∗ L = 0.75,<br />
E ∗ T = 0.70779659,<br />
ν ∗ T = 0.29266111,<br />
l ∗ = 0. 39507,<br />
n ∗ = 0.98704.<br />
Thus the effective stiffness matrix is written as<br />
208
⎡<br />
⎢<br />
⎣<br />
0.932226 0.384677 0.39507 0 0 0<br />
0.384677 0.932226 0.39507 0 0 0<br />
0.395072 0.395072 0.98704 0 0 0<br />
0 0 0 0.259418 0 0<br />
0 0 0 0 0.274426 0<br />
0 0 0 0 0 0.274426<br />
<strong>and</strong> the effective compliance matrix (19.2) takes the form<br />
⎡<br />
⎢<br />
⎣<br />
1.41284 −0.413482 −0.4 0 0 0<br />
−0.413482 1.41284 −0.4 0 0 0<br />
−0.4 −0.4 1.33333 0 0 0<br />
0 0 0 3.8548 0 0<br />
0 0 0 0 3.64397 0<br />
0 0 0 0 0 3.64397<br />
In this example we used the same Poisson’s ratios in both phases. Let us consider<br />
thecasewhenνI =0.4,νo =0,EI =0.5,Eo =1or equivalently KI =0. 89285714,<br />
Ko =0.5,GI =0.17857143,Go =0.5. In this case we obtain the following effective<br />
moduli:<br />
K ∗ =0.66335 ν ∗ L =0.22386372<br />
G ∗ T =0.3038805 E ∗ L =0.79338859<br />
G ∗ T,45 =0.269322 E ∗ T =0.79193337<br />
G ∗ L =0.307502 ν∗ T =0.3030342<br />
Remark 1. In the firstexample(wherethePoisson’sratiosarethesameinboth<br />
phases) ν∗ L <strong>and</strong> E∗ L equals the arithmetic mean of the corresponding phase properties<br />
(usually referred to as ”the law of mixtures”). From the last example we<br />
observe that this may not be true when the Poisson’s ratios of the phases are<br />
different.<br />
Exercise 21.1. Verify the above values for K ∗ , G ∗ T , G ∗ T,45, <strong>and</strong>G ∗ L by performing<br />
a FE-calculation according to the above method. Use e.g. the Finite Element<br />
Method programme ANSYS. For the calculation of K ∗ , G ∗ T , G ∗ T,45 use Structural<br />
problem, element type PLANE 82, element size 0.015, plane strain. For the<br />
calculation of G ∗ L use thermal problem, element type PLANE 77, element size<br />
0.015.<br />
209<br />
.<br />
⎤<br />
⎥ .<br />
⎥<br />
⎦<br />
⎤<br />
⎥ .<br />
⎥<br />
⎦
Part V<br />
<strong>Fabrication</strong> processes<br />
In this part we will study some of the fabrication processes concerning the materials<br />
<strong>and</strong> structures studied in Part I. In particular we consider the processes of<br />
fabricating polymers, plastics <strong>and</strong> composites. Moreover, we study some of the<br />
advanced manufacturing techniques of layer manufacturing technology (LMT).<br />
From [4], we have the rough definition of what a material processing is: ”all<br />
that is done to convert stuff into things”. Figure 21.1 gives an picture of the<br />
different general materials processing types (independent of the material types).<br />
<strong>Fabrication</strong> of an acceptable product involves the selection of both<br />
i) an appropriate material <strong>and</strong><br />
ii) a companion method of processing,<br />
such that the resulting combination can provide the desired shape, properties,<br />
precision <strong>and</strong> finish.<br />
22. <strong>Fabrication</strong> of plastics<br />
The fabrication method depends on what raw material we have. Polymers are<br />
formed by many low temperature processes. It is important to know for instance<br />
whether the material is a thermoplastics or thermosetting. Thermoplastics can<br />
be heated <strong>and</strong> then formed by either a formable solid or a liquid. Thermosettings<br />
have far fewer options, because once the polymerization has occurred, the<br />
framework structure is established <strong>and</strong> no further deformation can occur. Thus<br />
the polymerization <strong>and</strong> the shape-forming are usually accomplished at the same<br />
time. We will have a closer look at some of most used fabrication processes:<br />
Casting<br />
In casting, no fillers or no pressure is required. The liquid polymer is poured<br />
into a container having the shape of the desired part. It is an inexpensive process,<br />
dimensional precision is quite high, but quality problems can occur due to inadequate<br />
mixing, air entrapment, gas evolution, <strong>and</strong> shrinkage.<br />
Typical products: sheets, plates, rods <strong>and</strong> tubes as well as small objects such<br />
as jewelry.<br />
210
Figure 21.1: <strong>Materials</strong> processes.<br />
211
Figure 22.1: Pressure die casting.<br />
Pressure die casting<br />
Pressure die casting (also called compression molding) is used for net-shape<br />
forming (dimensional accuracy <strong>and</strong> surface details) of high-quality parts with complex<br />
shapes. Thanks to the high pressures involved, very thin walled parts can be<br />
obtained, see Figure 22.1. Preformed thermosettings (now also thermoplastics)<br />
are introduced into an open, heated cavity. Pressure are applied. Products are:<br />
gaskets, seals, exterior automobile panels, aircraft fairings , <strong>and</strong> a wide variety of<br />
interior panels.<br />
Blow molding<br />
In blow molding, thermoplastics are converted into bottles or other hollowshape<br />
containers. The melted polymer is put into a mold, then compressed air<br />
is used to spread the polymer into the mold, see Figure 22.2.It is used to make<br />
many containers such as plastic soda containers <strong>and</strong> milk jugs.<br />
Cold molding<br />
In cold molding, raw thermosetting is pressed to shape while it is cold. Cured<br />
in a separate oven. It is a low cost process, but neither surface finish nor dimension<br />
precision is good.<br />
Injection molding<br />
212
Figure 22.2: Blow molding.<br />
Injection molding is the most widely used process for high-volume production<br />
of thermoplastics parts. The resulting form is usually a finished product, no need<br />
for other work before assembly or use. If the process is applied to thermosettings,<br />
theprocessmustbemodified to provide the temperature <strong>and</strong> pressure required<br />
for curing (which is additional time in a heated mold).<br />
Similar to extrusion, the polymer is heated to the liquid state, but it is prepared<br />
in metered amounts, <strong>and</strong> the melt is forced into a mold to create the part, see<br />
Figure 22.3. This is not a continuos process. Many toys are made by injection<br />
molding.<br />
Transfer molding<br />
Transfer molding combines elements from compression <strong>and</strong> injection molding.<br />
Preformed raw thermosetting material is placed into a cavity, where it is heated<br />
until molten which is forced into the channels in the die. Thin sections can<br />
be made, with excellent detail, <strong>and</strong> good tolerance <strong>and</strong> finish. Inserts can be<br />
incorporated into the product.<br />
Products: switchgear <strong>and</strong> wiring devices, household appliances that require<br />
heat resistance, structural parts that require hardness <strong>and</strong> rigidity under load.<br />
213
Figure 22.3: Injection molding.<br />
Reaction injection molding<br />
In reaction injection molding, two or more highly reactive liquid monomers are<br />
mixed <strong>and</strong> immediately injected into the mold cavity where the chemical reactions<br />
leading to solidification, occur, see Figure 22.4.<br />
Heating is not required. Polyurethane (thermosettings urethane-groups), polyamides<br />
(thermoplastics amids-group), composites with short fibers <strong>and</strong> flakes can be<br />
molded. Different formulations result in elastomeric or flexible, structural foam<br />
(foam core with a hard, solid outer skin), solid (no foam core), or composite products.<br />
The shapes can be quite complex (with variable wall thickness), <strong>and</strong> surface<br />
finish is excellent.<br />
Products: automobile products; steering wheels, instrument panels, door panels,<br />
armrests, household; refrigerators, water-skis.<br />
Insert molding<br />
Insert molding is an injection molding process whereby plastic is injected into<br />
a cavity <strong>and</strong> around an insert piece placed into the same cavity just prior to<br />
molding. The result is a single piece with the insert encapsulated by the plastic.<br />
The insert can be made of metal or another plastic.<br />
Like injection molding in general, insert molding can be accomplished with<br />
a wide variety of materials, including polyethylene, polystyrene, polypropylene,<br />
214
Figure 22.4: Reaction injection molding.<br />
polyvinyl chloride, thermoplastic elastomers, <strong>and</strong> many engineering plastics. The<br />
primary factors that restrict the use of insert molding are not process related,<br />
but are determined by the strength <strong>and</strong> other properties required for the molded<br />
product.<br />
Processing Parameters: Oneofthechiefcausesoffailureinaninsertmolded<br />
part is the cleanliness of the insert. It is absolutely imperative that the<br />
insert be as clean as possible prior to molding. When molding with large metal<br />
inserts, the inserts may need to be preheated to minimize the stresses caused by<br />
differential thermal expansion <strong>and</strong> contraction. When inserts are manually loaded<br />
it is important that the operator maintain a consistent cycle time.<br />
Thermoforming<br />
In thermoforming, thermoplastic sheet material is heated to a working temperature<strong>and</strong>thenformedintoafinished<br />
shape by heat, pressure, or vacuum, see<br />
Figure 22.5. There are two main steps in the process: heating <strong>and</strong> forming.<br />
Products: range from panels for contoured skylights, large items such as bathtubs,<br />
to pages of text for the blind.<br />
The size of Thermo Pressure Formed parts is limited by the size of the thermoforming<br />
machines now in use <strong>and</strong> the size of plastic sheet stock which is available.<br />
215
Figure 22.5: An example of thermoforming.<br />
Commercially available sheet stock is attainable in sizes of 120 inches wide <strong>and</strong><br />
as long as required in thicknesses of up to .500 inches. Larger, thicker sheet stock<br />
is available in special cases.<br />
To date, the largest commercially available Thermo Pressure Formed parts are<br />
in the size range of 48 inches long by 24 inches wide <strong>and</strong> 18 inches deep. However,<br />
the size capabilities of the process increase almost daily.<br />
Rotational molding<br />
Rotational molding produce hollow, seamless products of a wide variety of<br />
sizes <strong>and</strong> shapes, including storage tanks, bins, <strong>and</strong> refuse containers, doll parts,<br />
footballs, helmets, <strong>and</strong> even boat hulls. Gravity is used inside a rotational mold<br />
to achieve a hollow form, see Figure 22.6. The polymer is heated <strong>and</strong> due to the<br />
rotation, distributed in the form of a uniform thickness all over the mold<br />
The process is principally for thermoplastics (thermosets <strong>and</strong> elastomers are<br />
more <strong>and</strong> more common).<br />
Extrusion<br />
By extrusion, long plastic products with uniform cross section are produced.<br />
Thermoplastic pellets or powder are the raw material. The polymer is heated to<br />
the liquid state <strong>and</strong> forced through a die under pressure resulting in an endless<br />
product of constant cross section, see Figure 22.7. Extrusion is a cheap <strong>and</strong> rapid<br />
method.<br />
Products: tubes, pipes, window frames, sheet <strong>and</strong> even coated wires <strong>and</strong> cables.<br />
60% of polymers are prepared in this way.<br />
216
Figure 22.6: Rotational molding.<br />
Film Blowing<br />
Film blowing uses the same method as extrusion: the material coming out of<br />
the die is blown into a film. An example is plastic wrap.<br />
Foam molding<br />
In foam molding, plastic foam is fabricated. Foaming agent is mixed with<br />
the plastic resin <strong>and</strong> releases gas or volatilizes when the combination is heated<br />
during molding. The materials exp<strong>and</strong> to 2-50 times <strong>their</strong> original size. The<br />
process produce open-cell foams <strong>and</strong> closed-cell foams. Open cell-foams have<br />
interconnected pores that permit the permeability of gas or liquid. Closed-cell<br />
foams have the property of being gas- or liquid-tight. Both thermoplastics <strong>and</strong><br />
thermosettings can be foamed.<br />
Polyurethane is one of the most versatile polymers in use today. It’s chemistry<br />
is based on the reaction of an isocyanate with a polyhydroxy compound (polyol).<br />
Therefore, a polyurethane foam-in-place system is a combination of the above<br />
two components which have been preformulated so they need to only be mixed<br />
<strong>and</strong> dispensed to make polyurethane foam, see Figure 22.8. North Carolina Foam<br />
Industries (NCFI) was awarded a Mission Success Medal on July 29, 1998 by<br />
Lockheed Martin Michoud Space Systems for production <strong>and</strong> delivery of a lightweight<br />
spray-applied foam insulation system that Lockheed Martin applies on the<br />
surface of the new super lightweight external fuel tank.<br />
217
Figure 22.7: Extrusion.<br />
Figure 22.8: Foaming in-place. From: http://www.ncfi.com/foam-in-place.htm<br />
Products: Rigid foams are useful for structural applications, packaging, shipping<br />
containers, interiors of thin-skinned metal components, <strong>and</strong> flexible foams<br />
are primarily used for cushioning.<br />
22.1. Processing of Rubber <strong>and</strong> elastomers<br />
The simplest of the fabrication processes is dipping, where a master form of metal<br />
is first produced, which is dipped into the molten liquid of elastomers.<br />
Dipping produce relatively thin parts with uniform thickness, such as boots,<br />
gloves, balloons, swim caps, toys, <strong>and</strong> fairings.<br />
Adaptions of the previously discussed processes for plastics are also used to<br />
produce the shapes (injection, compression, <strong>and</strong> transfer molding, <strong>and</strong> extrusion).<br />
218
Figure 22.9: Glovedipping, picture from: http://www.accautomation.com/prodsysc.htm.<br />
References:<br />
<strong>Fabrication</strong> Processes:<br />
http://islnotes.cps.msu.edu/trp/toc.html<br />
http://www/designinsite.dk<br />
<strong>Fabrication</strong> of plastics:<br />
http://www.mse.cornell.edu/courses/engri111/polymer4.htm<br />
Foam molding:<br />
http://www.ncfi.com/foam-in-place.htm<br />
Videos:<br />
http://www.gwplastics.com/capabilities/amto.html<br />
3D Body scanner, see http://www.tc2.com/RD/RDBody.htm<br />
Design<br />
http://www.machinedesign.com/<br />
Application of plastics:<br />
http://www.stug.com.au/Applications/Common.html<br />
Questions<br />
• What kind of main groups, subgroups <strong>and</strong> processes of fabrication processes are<br />
there?<br />
• How does the fabrication of a thermoplastic polymer differ from the processing<br />
of a thermosetting polymer?<br />
219
• What are some of the ways that plastic sheets, plates <strong>and</strong> tubes can be fabricated?<br />
• What types of polymers are most commonly blow molded?<br />
• What type of products are produced by rotational molding?<br />
• How do we produce long plastic products with uniform cross-section?<br />
• How are foamed plastics produced?<br />
• What is the difference between open-cell foams <strong>and</strong> close-cell foams?<br />
220
23. <strong>Fabrication</strong> of Fiber-Reinforced Composites (FRC)<br />
Taking composite materials as a whole, there are many different material options<br />
to choose from in the areas of resins, fibres<strong>and</strong>cores,allwith<strong>their</strong>ownunique<br />
set of properties such as strength, stiffness, toughness, heat resistance, cost, production<br />
rate etc. However, the end properties of a composite part produced from<br />
these different materials is not only a function of the individual properties of the<br />
resin matrix <strong>and</strong> fibre (<strong>and</strong> in s<strong>and</strong>wich structures, the core as well), but is also a<br />
function of the way in which the materials themselves are designed into the part<br />
<strong>and</strong> also the way in which they are processed. In this section we compare a few<br />
of the commonly used composite production methods.<br />
23.1. Manufacturing processes of Reinforcements<br />
Individual fibres or fibre bundles can only be used on <strong>their</strong> own in a few processes<br />
such as filament winding. For most other applications, the fibres need to be<br />
arranged into some form of sheet, known as a fabric, to make h<strong>and</strong>ling possible.<br />
Different ways for assembling fibres into sheets <strong>and</strong> the variety of fibre orientations<br />
possible lead to there being many different types of fabrics, each of which has its<br />
own characteristics. These different fabric types <strong>and</strong> constructions are explained<br />
later.<br />
Glass filaments are supplied in bundles either str<strong>and</strong>s, rovings or yarns. A<br />
str<strong>and</strong> is a collection of more than one continuous glass filament. Roving generally<br />
refers to a bundle of untwisted str<strong>and</strong>s wound in parallel to form a cylindrical,<br />
flat-ended package, similar to thread on a spool. Single-end roving contains only<br />
one continuous str<strong>and</strong> of multiple glass filaments. Multiple-end roving contains<br />
numerous wound str<strong>and</strong>s. Yarns are collections of filaments or str<strong>and</strong>s (usually<br />
smaller than rovings) that are twisted together.<br />
Carbon Fiber: Fiber produced by carbonizing precursor fibers based on PAN<br />
(polyacrylonitrile), rayon <strong>and</strong> pitch to eliminate non-carbon atoms. The term carbon<br />
fiber is often used interchangeably with graphite. Carbon fibres are produced<br />
by the PAN or the pitch methods.<br />
Pitch method pulls out graphite threads through a nozzle from hot fluid<br />
pitch.<br />
The PAN method separates a chain of carbon atoms from polyacrylnitrile<br />
(PAN) through heating <strong>and</strong> oxidation. The polymer is stretched into alignment<br />
parallel with what will eventually be the axis of the fiber. Then, an oxidation<br />
221
Figure 23.1: Woven mat.<br />
treatmentinairbetween200<strong>and</strong>300 ◦ C transforms the polymer into a nonmeltable<br />
precursor fiber. This precursor fiber is then heated in a nitrogen environment. As<br />
the temperature is raised, volatile products are given off until the carbon fiber is<br />
composed of at least 92% carbon. The temperature used to treat the fibers varies<br />
between 1000 ◦ C <strong>and</strong> 2500 ◦ C depending on the desired properties of the carbon<br />
fiber.<br />
Aramid: A high strength, high stiffness fiber derived from polyamide. Kevlar R°<br />
<strong>and</strong> Nomex R° areexamplesofaramids.<br />
Fiberglass: Filaments made by drawing molten glass, commonly used to reinforce<br />
composite materials.<br />
Woven mats: For applications where more than one fibre orientation is required,<br />
a fabric combining 0 ◦ <strong>and</strong> 90 ◦ fibreorientationsisuseful.<br />
Woven fabrics, see Figure 23.1, are produced by the interlacing of warp (0 ◦ ) fibres<br />
<strong>and</strong> weft (90 ◦ ) fibres in a regular pattern or weave style. The fabric’s integrity<br />
is maintained by the mechanical interlocking of the fibres. Drape (the ability of<br />
a fabric to conform to a complex surface), surface smoothness <strong>and</strong> stability of a<br />
fabric are controlled primarily by the weave style.<br />
Filament winding: This is the automated process of wrapping resin impregnated<br />
filaments, see Figure 23.2, (rovings or tows) in a geometric pattern over a<br />
rotating male m<strong>and</strong>rel. The component is then cured under high pressure <strong>and</strong><br />
temperature.<br />
Rovings: Rovings consist of one or more glass str<strong>and</strong>s made up of varying numbers<br />
of continuous glass fibers of a specific filament diameter. These fibers are<br />
coated with a sizing designed to protect the fiber during processing <strong>and</strong> to couple<br />
with the customer’s resin to optimize laminate performance.<br />
222
Figure 23.2: Filament winding rovings.<br />
Rovings, the most common form of glass, can be chopped, woven or processed<br />
to create secondary fiber forms for composite manufacturing, such as mats, woven<br />
fabrics, braids, knitted fabrics <strong>and</strong> hybrid fabrics. Rovings are supplied by weight,<br />
with a specified filament diameter. The term yield is commonly used to indicate<br />
the number of yards in each pound of glass fiber rovings.<br />
Mats: Mats are nonwoven fabrics that provide isotropic or equal strength in<br />
all directions. They come in two distinct forms: chopped <strong>and</strong> continuous str<strong>and</strong>.<br />
Chopped mats contain r<strong>and</strong>omly distributed fibers cut to lengths typically ranging<br />
from 1.5 to 2.5 inches <strong>and</strong> held together with a chemical binder. Inherently weaker<br />
than continuous-str<strong>and</strong> mats, chopped-str<strong>and</strong> mats provide low-cost polymer reinforcement<br />
primarily in h<strong>and</strong> layup, continuous laminating <strong>and</strong> some closedmolding<br />
applications.<br />
Chopped Str<strong>and</strong> Mat: The chopped str<strong>and</strong> mats, see Figure 23.3, are made<br />
from cut fibers laid in a r<strong>and</strong>om pattern <strong>and</strong> bonded with a powdered, highly<br />
soluble resin binder.<br />
Continuous Filament Mat: In a different production step, str<strong>and</strong>s formed<br />
below the bushings are treated with a binder <strong>and</strong> formed into a swirl pattern to<br />
make continuous filament mat.<br />
23.2. Prepregs, Preforms <strong>and</strong> Compounds<br />
A prepreg is an intermediate composite form made by preimpregnating the reinforcement<br />
with resin prior to molding. Molding compounds prepared in this way<br />
223
Figure 23.3: Chop str<strong>and</strong> mat.<br />
are mostly glass fiber mats or glass filament cloths processed to form molded parts<br />
or semi-finished products by hot-press molding<br />
Preforming is an intermediate molding process whereby the reinforcement is<br />
assembled in the shape of the part to be molded. This helps to ensure uniform<br />
properties in a composite product <strong>and</strong> speed the molding cycle.<br />
Glass fiber-reinforced thermoplastic compounds are typically in the form of<br />
pellets consisting of resin with fibers in it. They can have several different forms,<br />
i.e. sheets <strong>and</strong> billets/bulk form, also called bulk molding compounds (BMC) <strong>and</strong><br />
sheet molding compound (SMC).<br />
The pre-mixed material has the consistency of molding clay <strong>and</strong> is injected<br />
into a mold cavity or placed on the bottom of two mold halves for compression<br />
molding.<br />
23.3. <strong>Fabrication</strong> processes of FRC<br />
There are several processes that manufacture fiber-reinforced composites. Some<br />
of the processes are almost the same as we studied for manufacturing plastics, but<br />
somewhat modified in order to incorporate the reinforcements. We will consider<br />
some of the most widely used processes in manufacture FRCs.<br />
Centrifugal Casting<br />
This process makes cylindrical, hollow shapes such as tanks, pipes <strong>and</strong> poles.<br />
Chopped str<strong>and</strong> mat is placed into a hollow, cylindrical mold, or continuous roving<br />
is chopped <strong>and</strong> directed onto the inside walls of the mold. Resin is applied to the<br />
inside of the rotating mold.<br />
Cold press molding<br />
224
Cold press molding is a semi-open molding process. Reinforcements, usually<br />
continuous filament mats (CFM), are placed into the tool <strong>and</strong> a highly filled<br />
polyester resin is poured onto them. The press is closed <strong>and</strong> the part is cured.<br />
The process requires lower pressures, 15 - 100 lb/in2, <strong>and</strong> temperatures averaging<br />
55 ◦ C. Cycle times are in the range of 10 - 20 minutes. Other glass fiber fabrics,<br />
mats, veils <strong>and</strong> preforms are also used. Parts usually have a fair-to-poor surface,<br />
so uses are under-hood auto <strong>and</strong> truck components like fan shrouds, brackets <strong>and</strong><br />
battery supports.<br />
Compression Molding (hot press molding)<br />
The composite is formed under pressure between matching male <strong>and</strong> female<br />
mold halves, at temperatures between 130 <strong>and</strong> 170 ◦ C. The material that is compressed<br />
is typically one of several combinations of glass fibers <strong>and</strong> resin. These<br />
combinations are: sheet molding compound, bulk molding compound, preform or<br />
glass fiber-reinforced thermoplastic sheet.<br />
Continuous Lamination<br />
This is a process for making composite in sheet form such as composite glazing,<br />
corrugated or flat construction panels, <strong>and</strong> electrical insulating materials.<br />
Reinforcement is combined with resin <strong>and</strong> s<strong>and</strong>wiched between two plastic carrier<br />
films. The sheet takes shape under forming rollers, <strong>and</strong> the resin is cured to form<br />
the composite.<br />
Filament Winding<br />
This process makes high strength, hollow <strong>and</strong> generally cylindrical products<br />
such as pipe, storage tanks, pressure vessels <strong>and</strong> rocket motor cases. The fiber<br />
isimpregnatedinaresinbath<strong>and</strong>pulledbytheforceofarotatingm<strong>and</strong>rel<br />
which gives the part its shape, see Figure 23.4.Veils are used for inner <strong>and</strong>/or<br />
outer surfaces to create a resin-rich surface for better corrosion resistance <strong>and</strong><br />
aesthetics.<br />
H<strong>and</strong> Lay-Up<br />
This process is suited for making large, high strength parts at low to medium<br />
volumes. A combination of reinforcements in roll form is laid into an open mold<br />
<strong>and</strong> impregnated with resin. When the resin cures, the surface of the mold is<br />
replicated on the side of the composite facing the mold.Resins are impregnated by<br />
h<strong>and</strong>, see Figure 23.5, into fibres which are in the form of woven, knitted, stitched<br />
or bonded fabrics. This is usually accomplished by rollers or brushes, with an<br />
225
Figure 23.4: Filament winding.<br />
Figure 23.5: H<strong>and</strong> lay-up.<br />
increasing use of nip-roller type impregnators for forcing resin into the fabrics by<br />
means of rotating rollers <strong>and</strong> a bath of resin. Laminates are left to cure under<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ard atmospheric conditions.<br />
Infusion molding<br />
In infusion molding processes a single-sided mold which is covered with reinforcements<br />
<strong>and</strong> sealed with a flexible vacuum bag or film is used. A vacuum is<br />
drawn on the space between the mold <strong>and</strong> the seal containing the reinforcements,<br />
<strong>and</strong> a thermoset resin is allowed to infiltrate the reinforcements. The resin flows<br />
through the reinforcements <strong>and</strong> cures to form the finished composite. Large parts<br />
can be produced; such as boat hulls <strong>and</strong> windmill blades.<br />
226
Figure 23.6: Pultrusion.<br />
Injection Molding<br />
A thermoplastic or thermoset molding compound made of glass fibers <strong>and</strong><br />
resin is fed by a screw or plunger into a mold cavity. The mold halves are held<br />
under pressure until the resin cures. Short glass fibers are commonly used as<br />
reinforcements.<br />
Pultrusion<br />
This is a continuous process for making a lineal profile with a constant cross<br />
section (such as rod stock, beams, channels <strong>and</strong> tubing) of fibre reinforced profiles.<br />
After the reinforcement is impregnated with resin, the material is pulled through<br />
a heated die that gives the part its cross sectional shape, see Figure 23.6.The resin<br />
cures to create the composite profile.<br />
Reaction Injection Molding (RIM)<br />
This process uses a two-component resin system, see Figure 23.7. The two resin<br />
components are combined <strong>and</strong> mixed together, then injected into a mold cavity<br />
containing reinforcement. In the mold cavity, the resin rapidly reacts <strong>and</strong> cures to<br />
form the composite part. The reinforcement is added to both resin components<br />
before those components are reacted. The fiber-reinforced resin combination is<br />
injected into the mold cavity where the resin rapidly reacts <strong>and</strong> cures to form the<br />
composite part.<br />
227
Figure 23.7: Reaction injection molding.<br />
RIM uses liquid raw materials unlike other methods (including injection <strong>and</strong><br />
compression) where plastic raw materials are in solid forms must first be melted,<br />
then molded.<br />
Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)<br />
The reinforcement is placed in the bottom half of matching molds. After the<br />
mold is closed <strong>and</strong> clamped, resin is pumped under pressure into the mold cavity.<br />
The resin wets the reinforcement <strong>and</strong> cures to form the composite part.<br />
Figure 23.8: Resin transfer molding.<br />
Spray-Up<br />
This is similar to <strong>and</strong> often combined with h<strong>and</strong> lay-up. With spray-up, glass<br />
fiber roving is fed into a chopper ”gun” that chops the roving into fibers of predetermined<br />
length. The fibers are directed to a resin stream. The combination<br />
228
Figure 23.9: 3D woven s<strong>and</strong>wich fabric.<br />
material is directed to the mold cavity when the composite part takes shapes.<br />
23.4. <strong>Fabrication</strong> of Functionally Gradient <strong>Materials</strong><br />
Various techniques have been employed to the fabrication of FGMs, including<br />
Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) / Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD), powder<br />
metallurgy, plasma spraying, electro-plating <strong>and</strong> combustion synthesis.<br />
23.5. <strong>Fabrication</strong> of s<strong>and</strong>wich constructions<br />
3D woven s<strong>and</strong>wich<br />
New methods makes it possible to braid, weave or knit s<strong>and</strong>wich structures,<br />
as shown in Figure 23.9.The new research in this techniques <strong>and</strong> structures focuses<br />
on integrated core s<strong>and</strong>wich panels, based on 3D-Woven s<strong>and</strong>wich fabrics.<br />
Intensive research on the 3D woven s<strong>and</strong>wich panels has been carried out, proving<br />
the advantages of this material. The very high skin-core debonding resistance<br />
ofthepanelsisintheoryverybeneficial in increasing the lifetime <strong>and</strong> damage<br />
tolerance of the structure. The application of 3D woven s<strong>and</strong>wich composites in<br />
(semi-) structural composites depends on the long-term behavior <strong>and</strong> the damage<br />
tolerance of the panels. These properties have not yet been investigated. Three<br />
load cases are considered to be essential for the further applicability of the panels:<br />
fatigue, impact <strong>and</strong> static concentrated loads.<br />
229
1) 2)<br />
3) 4)<br />
glue<br />
honeycomb material<br />
Figure 23.10: <strong>Fabrication</strong> of aluminiun honeycombcore.<br />
Manufacturing of honeycomb cores<br />
There are two methods of constructing honeycombs; by Corrugation Process<br />
or by Expansion Process.<br />
• Corrugation Process<br />
Sheets of the material are passed through corrugating rolls, to give them shape,<br />
are then cut to length. The sheets are then bonded together to make a complete<br />
honeycomb. This process only works for denser materials, which will retain <strong>their</strong><br />
shape after corrugation.<br />
• Expansion Process<br />
Sheets of the material are covered in thin strips of adhesive, <strong>and</strong> are stacked<br />
to form a block, see Figure 23.10. The block is sliced to the right thickness, <strong>and</strong><br />
then pulled into an exp<strong>and</strong>ed form. This method is used for less dense materials.<br />
Both of these methods produce a honeycomb in which the original material<br />
runs in one direction. This is known as the web direction. The finished composite<br />
materialwillbetwiceasstiff inthewebdirectionasitisintheother.<br />
Manufacturing of foams<br />
230
A new, inexpensive method for manufacturing cellular solids of highly repeatable<br />
<strong>and</strong> uniform open cell geometry has been developed. Pore sizes as small<br />
as a few microns can be achieved. <strong>Materials</strong> choices include metals, ceramics,<br />
glasses, polymers, semiconductors <strong>and</strong> composites. A significant advantage to<br />
this method is that the distribution of material at the cell level is readily controlled.<br />
This creates the possibility for optimally designed cellular structures with<br />
exceptional thermophysical <strong>and</strong> mechanical properties. Multi-functional materials<br />
are envisioned. These could include load bearing structures which also provide<br />
for additional things such as impact/blast absorption, thermal management, conductance<br />
of electricity <strong>and</strong>/or shielding of electromagnetic waves, electrical power<br />
storage, filtering or impeding of fluid flow, retardation of chemical reactions <strong>and</strong><br />
fire or in-growth of biological tissue.<br />
Thermoplastic foams are the result of deliberately adding at least one gasgenerating<br />
substance such as a chemical blowing agent, a soluble gas, or volatile<br />
liquid under pressure to the polymer melt, then altering the environment to cause<br />
the gas-generating substance to yield discrete bubbles. Foams offer unique processing<br />
challenges, ranging from the technical aspects of controlling bubble nucleation<br />
<strong>and</strong> growth to issues dealing with environmental concerns from diffusing blowing<br />
agent gases.<br />
Refractory foams can be fabricated from any material or materials combination<br />
(either homogeneously combined or layered) which can be deposited by CVD<br />
(chemical vapor deposition). Among the materials that can be deposited are the<br />
refractory metals (e.g. niobium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium) <strong>and</strong> <strong>their</strong> ceramic<br />
compounds (e.g. the oxides, nitrides, carbides, borides, <strong>and</strong> silicides). Deposited<br />
material densities of up to 50% of theoretical values can be readily achieved.<br />
These materials can be furnished in various sizes <strong>and</strong> configurations, <strong>and</strong> are easy<br />
to machine. Face sheets of either the same of different material can be applied to<br />
enhance the flexural <strong>and</strong> tensile properties.<br />
References:<br />
<strong>Fabrication</strong> fiber-reinforced composites:<br />
http://www.owenscorning.com/owens/composites/about/fabrication.asp<br />
http://www.advancedcomposites.com/<br />
http://www.giplastek.com/rim/<br />
http://www.polymerprocessing.com/operations/rim/<br />
http://www.raypubs.com/ctyp/ypoverview.html<br />
Composite applications:<br />
231
http://www.owenscorning.com/composites/applications/index.asp<br />
About composites:<br />
http://www.mdacomposites.org/materials.htm<br />
http://www.netcomposites.com/<br />
http://islnotes.cps.msu.edu/trp/toc.html<br />
http://me.lsu.edu/~composit/<br />
Manufacturing of foams:<br />
http://www.uvapf.org/technology/viewInvention.cfm?inventionID=205<br />
Fiber <strong>and</strong> Powder manufacturing<br />
http://powdermetinc.com/<br />
http://www.reade.com/home_index.html<br />
http://www.wrigley-fibres.com/<br />
http://www.claremontflock.com/<br />
Design for Manufacturability<br />
http://www.galorath.com/tools_manuf.shtm<br />
http://www.npd-solutions.com/dfm.html<br />
Design <strong>and</strong> analyse of composite materals:<br />
Polymer Matrix Composites, http://mil-17.udel.edu/PMC/index.html<br />
3D-woven s<strong>and</strong>wich:<br />
http://www.mtm.kuleuven.ac.be/Research/C2/poly/PhD_hj.htm<br />
http://www.muratec.net/braider/<br />
Questions<br />
• What is Prepreg?<br />
• What is Preform?<br />
• What is Compound?<br />
• How is fiber manufactured?<br />
• What are woven mats?<br />
• How is carbon fiber manufactured?<br />
• What different processes of making fiber-reinforced composites are there?<br />
• How can honeycomb-cores be made?<br />
232
Figure 24.1: Layer Manufacturing Technology.<br />
24. Layer Manufacturing Technology (LMT)<br />
Layer Manufacturing Technology (LMT), is based on the principle of adding material<br />
in 2D-layers to build a complete 3D-model, that is why it is called additive<br />
technologies. Figure 24.1 shows how the parts made from LMT looks like in 2D<br />
<strong>and</strong> 3D <strong>and</strong> close-up. There are several names of such processes: e.g. Rapid prototyping<br />
(RP), 3D-printing, solid freeform fabrication (SFF), freeform fabrication<br />
(FFF). The different technologies fabricate physical objects directly from CAD<br />
data sources. These methods are unique in that they add <strong>and</strong> bond materials in<br />
layers to form objects. Such systems offer advantages in many applications compared<br />
to classical subtractive fabrication methods (for instance milling or turning),<br />
such as<br />
• Objects can be formed with any geometric complexity or intricacy without<br />
the need for elaborate machine setup or final assembly.<br />
• Objects can be made from multiple materials, or as composites, or materials<br />
can even be varied in a controlled fashion at any location in an object.<br />
• Solid freeform fabrication systems reduce the construction of complex objects<br />
to a manageable, straightforward, <strong>and</strong> relatively fast process.<br />
• Small series of parts.<br />
The latter has resulted in <strong>their</strong> wide use as a way to reduce time to market<br />
in manufacturing. Today’s systems are heavily used by engineers to better underst<strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> communicate <strong>their</strong> product designs as well as to make rapid tooling<br />
233
to manufacture those products. Surgeons, architects, artists <strong>and</strong> individuals from<br />
many other disciplines also routinely use the technology.<br />
The names of specific processes themselves are also often used as synonyms<br />
for the entire field of LMT. Each of these technologies has its singular strengths<br />
<strong>and</strong> weaknesses.<br />
LMT is an acronym for a group of processes capable of producing prototypes<br />
of a complex geometry in various materials (wax, plastic, metal, etc.). The dominating<br />
types of LMT processes, that will be studied in more detail, are:<br />
• Ballistic particle manufacturing (inkjet)- BPM<br />
• Fused deposition modelling - FDM<br />
• Laminated object manufacturing - LOM<br />
• Selective laser sintering - SLS<br />
• Stereo lithography - SLA<br />
• Solid ground curing - SGC (cubital)<br />
• Three dimensional printing (3DP)<br />
• Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS)<br />
• Inkjets<br />
• Powder metallurgy (PM)<br />
Price is generally proportional to the time consumption on the machine. This<br />
means that price increases with finer layer thickness, increased volume, as well as<br />
increased part height.<br />
The materials used in rapid prototyping are still pretty limited <strong>and</strong> dependent<br />
on the method chosen. However, the range <strong>and</strong> properties available are growing<br />
quickly. Numerous plastics, ceramics, metals ranging from stainless steel to<br />
titanium, <strong>and</strong> wood-like paper are available. At any rate, numerous secondary<br />
processes are available to convert patterns made in a rapid prototyping process to<br />
final materials or tools.<br />
The ever increasing range of materials <strong>and</strong> processes in the group of additive<br />
material processes make the processes possible to use in also fabrication of finished<br />
products <strong>and</strong> not only prototypes. In for instance the SLS process, metallic powder<br />
is the basis <strong>and</strong> the finished product has very good properties. Therefore, in<br />
addition to prototypes, RP techniques can also be used to make tooling (referred<br />
to as rapid tooling) <strong>and</strong> even production-quality parts (rapid manufacturing).<br />
For small production runs <strong>and</strong> complicated objects, rapid prototyping is often the<br />
best manufacturing process available. Of course, ”rapid” is a relative term. Most<br />
prototypes require from three to seventy-two hours to build, depending on the<br />
234
Figure 24.2: Ballistic particle manufacturing.<br />
size <strong>and</strong> complexity of the object. This may seem slow, but it is much faster than<br />
the weeks or months required to make a prototype by traditional means such as<br />
machining. These dramatic time savings allow manufacturers to bring products<br />
to market faster <strong>and</strong> more cheaply.<br />
24.1. Ballistic particle manufacturing (inkjet) BMP<br />
BMP uses CAD-generated three-dimensional solid model data to direct streams<br />
of material (waxes, plastics, photocurable polymers, ceramics, or metals) at a<br />
target, building three-dimensional objects in much the same manner an ink jet<br />
printer produces two-dimensional images. An object is built by a three-axis robotic<br />
system controlling a piezoelectric ink-jet mechanism ”shooting” particles of<br />
the material, producing multiple cross sections, onto a target, as shown in Figure<br />
24.2.<br />
There are different inkjet techniques (deposition systems), but all rely on<br />
squirting a build material in a liquid or melted state which cools or otherwise<br />
hardens to form a solid on impact.<br />
24.2. Fused deposition modelling - FDM<br />
FDM, see Figure 24.3 is another deposition method.The Titan machine from<br />
Stratasys creates models using high performance engineering materials such as<br />
polycarbonate, ABS <strong>and</strong> sulfones. Now with Titan, you can create prototypes<br />
that have superior impact strength <strong>and</strong> also resist heat <strong>and</strong> corrosive agents such<br />
235
Figure 24.3: Fused deposition modelling.<br />
as oil, gasoline <strong>and</strong> even acids. Multiple materials, coupled with one of the largest<br />
build chambers in its class, make Titan a smart solution for building, large, strong<br />
<strong>and</strong> durable parts. Parts up to 355 x 406 x 406 mm can be built.<br />
24.3. LOM - Laminated object manufacturing<br />
Laminated object manufacturing, see Figure 24.4 is a process suited for large <strong>and</strong><br />
heavy parts, e.g. models for metal castings. The process makes use of foils, where<br />
the undersurface of this foil has a binder that when pressed <strong>and</strong> heated by the<br />
roller causes it to glue to the previous foil. The foil is cut by a laser following the<br />
contour of the slice. To help the removal of the excess material once the parts have<br />
been built, the exterior of the slice is hatched, as opposed to fluid-based processes<br />
(e.g. the SLA process), where the interior is hatched. Fine details cannot be<br />
produced, <strong>and</strong> surplus material has to be removed manually from the part.<br />
Helisys invented this process, but they ceased operation in 2000. However,<br />
there are several other companies with either similar LOM technology, or in early<br />
commercial stages. Maximum dimension was about 1600 * 1200 * 1200 mm.<br />
24.4. Selective laser sintering - SLS<br />
SLS, see Figure 24.5 produces part from plastic, wax, or metal powders. Advantages<br />
include the use of industrial plastic types.<br />
236
Figure 24.4: Laminated object manufacturing.<br />
Selective Laser Sintering is a thermal process <strong>and</strong> starts with a thin, evenlydistributed<br />
layer of powder. A laser is then used to sinter (fuse) only the powder<br />
that is inside a cross-section of the part. The energy added by the laser heats the<br />
powder into a glass-like state <strong>and</strong> individual particles coalesce into a solid. Once<br />
the laser has scanned the entire cross-section, another layer of powder is laid on<br />
top <strong>and</strong> the whole process is repeated.<br />
The hardened layer is lowered, a new layer of powder is spread, <strong>and</strong> the process<br />
is repeated. Maximum dimensions are about 500 * 500 * 500 mm.<br />
The SLS technology is known for its ability to process a variety of prototyping<br />
materials including thermoplastics, investment casting wax, <strong>and</strong> a powdered metal<br />
material for the production of prototype injection molds.<br />
24.5. Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS)<br />
Laser-engineered net shaping (LENS TM ) builds on the SLS process with a few<br />
notable exceptions. Instead of bonding material in a bed of powder, the powder<br />
is delivered in a gas jet through nozzles. Solid material is formed by solidification<br />
of a molten pool, thus forming a fully dense, free-st<strong>and</strong>ing deposit.<br />
A variety of materials can be used such as stainless steel, Inconel (a special<br />
nickel material), copper, aluminum etc. Of particular interest are reactive materials<br />
such as titanium. <strong>Materials</strong> composition can be changed dynamically <strong>and</strong><br />
continuously, leading to objects with properties that might be mutually exclusive<br />
237
Figure 24.5: Selective laser sintering.<br />
using classical fabrication methods.<br />
The strength of the process lies in the ability to fabricate fully-dense metal<br />
parts with good metallurgical properties at reasonable speeds.<br />
24.6. Stereo lithography - SLA<br />
Stereo lithography - SLA is the most common RPT technique, <strong>and</strong> produces<br />
acrylic <strong>and</strong> epoxy parts from a liquid. Initially, an elevator is located at a distance<br />
from the surface of the liquid equal to the thickness of the first, bottom-most layer,<br />
see Figure 24.7. The laser beam will scan the surface following the contours of<br />
the slice. The interior of the contour is then hatched using a hatch pattern. The<br />
liquid is a photopolymer that when exposed to the ultra-violet (uv) laser beam<br />
solidifies or is cured. The elevator is moved downwards, <strong>and</strong> the subsequent layers<br />
are produced analogously. Fortunately, the layers bind to each other. Finally, the<br />
partisremovedfromthevat,<strong>and</strong>theliquidthatisstilltrappedintheinterioris<br />
usually cured in a special oven.<br />
Almost unlimited geometry possibilities, fine geometric details <strong>and</strong> high accuracy.<br />
The required geometry is produced in thin layers (0.0254 mm layer thickness)<br />
that yields a smooth finish. A CNC-controlled laser beam cures a pattern in the<br />
surface of a fluid photosensitive polymer. The hardened layer is then stepwise<br />
lowered allowing the fluid to cover the part.<br />
238
Figure 24.6: Laser Engineered Net Shaping.<br />
Typical applications are prototypes of injected moulded plastic parts <strong>and</strong> modelling<br />
of human bones <strong>and</strong> skulls. Maximum dimensions are about 500 * 500 *<br />
600 mm.<br />
24.7. Solid ground curing - SGC<br />
With the solid ground curing technique, see Figure 24.8, parts are produced from<br />
photosensitive polymers by hardening them in layers just as the SLA process.<br />
However, this is a significantly different process. The vat moves horizontally<br />
as well as vertically. The horizontal movements take the workspace to different<br />
stations in the machine.<br />
The light source a uv-lamp (mercury) is used to flood the chamber <strong>and</strong> expose<br />
<strong>and</strong> solidify the entire layer at once (instead of using a laser beam as in SLA).<br />
This avoids the need for post-curing the parts. To select the areas that should<br />
be cured, a mask is built on a glass plate, <strong>and</strong> subsequently, erased after begin<br />
used. The mask is built using a process similar to the one used in laser printers.<br />
The glass plate with the mask is placed between the lamp <strong>and</strong> the surface of the<br />
workspace.<br />
Parts are built surrounded by wax, eliminating the need for support structures<br />
(which is needed in SLA). Once a layer has been exposed to the uv-lamp, the uncured<br />
areas-those areas filled with residual, liquid polymer-are replaced by wax.<br />
This is done by wiping away the residual polymer <strong>and</strong> applying a layer of wax.<br />
239
Figure 24.7: Stereo lithography.<br />
The wax is hardened by a cold metal plate, <strong>and</strong> subsequently, the layer is milled<br />
to the correct height. The milling station also allows for layers to be removed,<br />
i.e. an undo operation is possible. The new layer of polymer is applied when the<br />
workspace moves from the milling station back to the exposure chamber.<br />
The process is well suited for large <strong>and</strong> heavy parts. No separate part support<br />
is required during processing. Compared with SLA, it is more expensive <strong>and</strong> not<br />
as accurate. Machines from Cubital use SGC principle.<br />
24.8. Three dimensional printing (3DP)<br />
Three dimensional printing, see Figure 24.9 was developed at Massachusetts Institute<br />
of Technology (MIT). It’s often used as a direct manufacturing process as<br />
well as for rapid prototyping.<br />
The process starts by depositing a layer of powder object material at the top<br />
of a fabrication chamber. To accomplish this, a measured quantity of powder is<br />
first dispensed from a similar supply chamber by moving a piston upward incrementally.<br />
The roller then distributes <strong>and</strong> compresses the powder at the top of<br />
the fabrication chamber. The multi-channel jetting head subsequently deposits a<br />
liquid adhesive in a two dimensional pattern onto the layer of the powder which<br />
becomes bonded in the areas where the adhesive is deposited, to form a layer of<br />
the object.<br />
240
Figure 24.8: Solid ground curing.<br />
Once a layer is completed, the fabrication piston moves down by the thickness<br />
of a layer, <strong>and</strong> the process is repeated until the entire object is formed within<br />
the powder bed. After completion, the object is elevated <strong>and</strong> the extra powder<br />
brushed away leaving a ”green” object. No external supports are required during<br />
fabrication since the powder bed supports overhangs.<br />
Three dimensional printing offers the advantages of speedy fabrication <strong>and</strong> low<br />
materials cost. In fact, it’s probably the fastest of all RP methods. Recently color<br />
output has also become available. Parts can be made of any material (ceramic,<br />
metals, polymers <strong>and</strong> composites).<br />
24.9. PowderProcessing/PowderMetallurgy<br />
Powder metallurgy is the process where both casting, forming <strong>and</strong> consolidation<br />
are involved. Fine powdered materials are blended, pressed into a desired shape,<br />
<strong>and</strong> then heated in a controlled atmosphere to bond the contacting surfaces of the<br />
particles <strong>and</strong> establish the desired properties. Some of the advantages with the<br />
process is that the material waste is very little, unusual materials or mixtures can<br />
be used <strong>and</strong> the porosity or permeability can be tailored. There are many different<br />
methods to manufacture products with powder metallurgy processes <strong>and</strong> in the<br />
future even more methods will be introduced to the marked. Almost any metal,<br />
metal alloy, or nonmetal such as ceramic, polymer or wax or graphite lubricant can<br />
241
Figure 24.9: Three dimensional printing.<br />
be converted into powder <strong>and</strong> can thereby be produced by a powder metallurgy<br />
method.<br />
Powder metallurgy uses sintering process for making various parts out of metal<br />
powder. The metal powder is compacted by placing in a closed metal cavity (the<br />
die) under pressure. This compacted material is placed in an oven <strong>and</strong> sintered<br />
in a controlled atmosphere at high temperatures <strong>and</strong> the metal powders coalesce<br />
<strong>and</strong> form a solid. A second pressing operation, repressing, can be done prior to<br />
sintering to improve the compaction <strong>and</strong> the material properties.<br />
The properties of this solid are similar to cast or wrought materials of similar<br />
composition. Porosity can be adjusted by the amount of compaction. Usually<br />
single pressed products have high tensile strength but low elongation.<br />
Powder metallurgy is useful in making parts that have irregular curves, or<br />
recesses that are hard to machine. It is suitable for high volume production with<br />
very little wastage of material. Secondary machining is virtually eliminated.<br />
Typical parts that can be made with this process include cams, ratchets,<br />
sprockets, pawls, sintered bronze <strong>and</strong> iron bearings (impregnated with oil) <strong>and</strong><br />
carbide tool tips.<br />
FGMs can be fabricated by for instance Powder Metallurgy (PM).<br />
242
24.10. Vapor Deposition CVD/PVD<br />
Deposition is a process of depositing a thin layer of film onto the surface of the<br />
wafer.<br />
Vapor deposition processes usually take place within a vacuum chamber. There<br />
are two categories of vapor deposition processes: physical vapor deposition (PVD)<br />
<strong>and</strong> chemical vapor deposition (CVD). In PVD processes, the workpiece is subjected<br />
to plasma bombardment. In CVD processes, thermal energy heats the gases<br />
in the coating chamber <strong>and</strong> drives the deposition reaction.<br />
Chemical Vapor Deposition is done by putting the chemicals into a heated<br />
vacuum chamber containing a wafer. These chemical are fed into the chamber in<br />
a gas form. There are a couple of different forms of chemical vapor deposition.<br />
Each form has its own advantages <strong>and</strong> disadvantages. These forms are:<br />
APCVD Atmospheric Pressure CVD<br />
LPCVD Low Pressure CVD<br />
PECVD Plasma Enhanced CVD<br />
Physical vapor deposition does not use a chemical to deposit a film on the<br />
wafer but uses physical means. To do this a gas inside a vacuum is excited with<br />
asource,likeRF(Radiofrequency)energy.Themoleculesofthegasbecomeso<br />
energeticthatiftheyweretocollidewithsomematerialstheymightcauseatoms<br />
of that material to break free. PVD uses this as a way to deposit layers of material<br />
onto a wafer. A ”target” is placed above the wafer <strong>and</strong> when the molecules of gas<br />
strike the target <strong>and</strong> cause the atoms to break free then a layer of atoms will fall<br />
onto the wafer.<br />
24.11. Selection of a layered manufacturing process<br />
Selection of a layered manufacturing process depends on the basic application as<br />
well as material <strong>and</strong> accuracy requirements. Selection rules of thumb have evolved:<br />
Applications involving injection molded parts <strong>and</strong>/or good accuracy, often lead<br />
to stereolithography (SLA) as the best choice.<br />
If a prototype part needs to be in final materials <strong>and</strong> with mechanical properties<br />
that emulate injection molded parts, selective laser sintering (SLS) might be<br />
chosen.<br />
If the requirement is for large objects that will ultimately be s<strong>and</strong> cast, laminated<br />
object manufacturing (LOM) is often the way to go.<br />
243
If the need is for a quick concept model <strong>and</strong> physical properties are of secondary<br />
importance, three dimensional printing (3DP) may be most economical.<br />
If the requirement is for extreme accuracy <strong>and</strong> very high resolution, such as<br />
in making jewelry or small parts, a good choice is often an inkjet system such as<br />
the ModelMaker Series from Solidscape, Inc. (formerly S<strong>and</strong>ers Prototypes).<br />
Direct fabrication of metal objects as tools or prototypes will require selective<br />
laser sintering (SLS), or one of the methods based on laser fusing such as laser<br />
engineered net shaping (LENS).<br />
In order to get the best finish of a product; rotate the geometry such that the<br />
laser"draws"the2Dgeometrythatismostcritical,<strong>and</strong>notletthatsurfacebe<br />
step-wise.<br />
Of course, such rules of thumb risk offending every system manufacturer because<br />
there is tremendous overlap in capabilities <strong>and</strong> specifications. The majority<br />
of applications can probably be accomplished satisfactorily by several of the technologies.<br />
References about additive technologies:<br />
SLS- technology in action:<br />
http://www.dtm-corp.com/<br />
http://home.att.net/~castleisl<strong>and</strong>/<br />
http://lff.me.utexas.edu/sls.html<br />
LMT Processes:<br />
http://home.att.net/~castleisl<strong>and</strong>/<br />
http://designinsite.dk<br />
http://www.efunda.com/processes/metal_processing/powder_metallurgy.cfm<br />
http://www.efunda.com/processes/processes_home/process.cfm<br />
http://www.efunda.com/home.cfm<br />
http://www.precitech.ca/pmproc.htm<br />
http://www.cs.hut.fi/~ado/rp/rp.html<br />
http://home.att.net/~castleisl<strong>and</strong>/rp_int1.htm<br />
http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~rapidproto/manufacturing/mfgresources.html<br />
http://home.att.net/~castleisl<strong>and</strong>/rp_int1.htm<br />
http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~rapidproto/manufacturing/mfgresources.html<br />
http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~rapidproto/manufacturing/mfguniversity.html<br />
http://emsh.calarts.edu/~mathart/R_Proto_ref.html<br />
http://home.att.net/~castleisl<strong>and</strong>/com_lks.htm<br />
http://www.stratasys.com/ (also streaming video on FDM process)<br />
244
Figure 24.10: Rapid Prototyping Technologies.<br />
245
http://www.acceltechinc.com/nojava/sls.html<br />
http://www.prototype3d.com/<br />
http://www.3dsystems.com/<br />
http://web.mit.edu/tdp/www/whatis3dp.html<br />
http://www.myb2o.com/myb2ous/RapidPrototyping/Tools/Process/10265.htm<br />
http://www.mit.edu/~tdp/ (pictures)= next link<br />
http://web.mit.edu/afs/athena/org/t/tdp/www/<br />
http://www.s<strong>and</strong>ia.gov/media/lens.htm<br />
http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/9907/Hofmeister<br />
/Hofmeister-9907.html (LENS)<br />
CVD/PVD<br />
http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/MetalCoatings/Physical.htm<br />
http://entcweb.tamu.edu/zoghi/semiprog/deposit.htm<br />
http://www.darpa.mil/dso/trans/fds_2.htm<br />
Questions<br />
• What are the different processes of LMT?<br />
• What are the advantages <strong>and</strong> disadvantages of LMT-processes compared to<br />
traditional processes?<br />
• How does SLA work?<br />
• Explain the powder metallurgy process<br />
246
25. Design Considerations<br />
The goals of reducing a large manufacturing cost <strong>and</strong> improving product quality<br />
has lead to certain processes <strong>and</strong> procedures that have come to be known as design<br />
for manufacturability or design for manufacture (DFM). The closely related is also<br />
the area of design for assembly (DFA).<br />
25.1. Designing for Manufacturability (DFM) )<br />
Design for Manufacturability (DFM) or Design for <strong>Fabrication</strong> (DFF) is a method<br />
<strong>and</strong> the theory for designing products that can be produced. In addition this<br />
method saves time compared to previous methods (or non-methods).<br />
In the past, products have been designed that could not be produced. Products<br />
have been released for production that could only be made to work in the<br />
model shop when prototypes were built <strong>and</strong> adjusted by highly skilled technicians.<br />
Clearly, there must be some other way to develop a product that is smarter than<br />
this.<br />
A product can be designed in many different ways. The designer’s objective<br />
must be to optimize the product design with the production system. A company’s<br />
production system includes its suppliers, material h<strong>and</strong>ling systems, manufacturing<br />
processes, labor force capabilities <strong>and</strong> distribution systems.<br />
Generally, the designer works within the context of an existing production<br />
system that can only be minimally modified. However in some cases, the production<br />
system will be designed or redesigned in conjunction with the design of the<br />
product. When design engineers <strong>and</strong> manufacturing engineers work together to<br />
design <strong>and</strong> rationalize both the product <strong>and</strong> production <strong>and</strong> support processes, it<br />
is known as integrated product <strong>and</strong> process design. The designer’s consideration of<br />
design for manufacturability, cost, reliability <strong>and</strong> maintainability is the starting<br />
point for integrated product development.<br />
A designer’s primary objective is to design a functioning product within given<br />
economic <strong>and</strong> schedule constraints. However, research has shown that decisions<br />
made during the design period determine 70% of the product’s costs while decisions<br />
made during production only account for 20% of the product’s costs. Further,<br />
decisions made in the first 5% of product design could determine the vast<br />
majority of the product’s cost, quality <strong>and</strong> manufacturability characteristics. This<br />
indicates the great leverage that DFM can have on a company’s success <strong>and</strong> profitability.<br />
247
However, the application of DFM must consider the overall design economics.<br />
It must balance the effort <strong>and</strong> cost associated with development <strong>and</strong> refinement of<br />
the design to the cost <strong>and</strong> quality leverage that can be achieved. In other words,<br />
greater effort to optimize a products design can be justified with higher value or<br />
higher volume products.<br />
Design effectiveness is improved <strong>and</strong> integration facilitated when:<br />
• Fewer active parts are utilized through st<strong>and</strong>ardization, simplification <strong>and</strong><br />
group technology retrieval of information related to existing or preferred<br />
products <strong>and</strong> processes.<br />
• Producibility is improved through incorporation of DFM practices.<br />
• Design alternatives are evaluated <strong>and</strong> design tools are used to develop a<br />
more mature <strong>and</strong> producible design before release for production.<br />
• Product <strong>and</strong> process design includes a framework to balance product quality<br />
with design effort <strong>and</strong> product robustness.<br />
25.2. Product design guidelines<br />
Designers need to underst<strong>and</strong> more about <strong>their</strong> own company’s production system,<br />
i.e., its capabilities <strong>and</strong> limitations, in order to establish company-specific design<br />
rules to further guide <strong>and</strong> optimize <strong>their</strong> product design to the company’s production<br />
system. For example, they need to underst<strong>and</strong> the tolerance limitations<br />
of certain manufacturing processes.<br />
DFM Guidelines:<br />
• Minimize total number of parts<br />
• St<strong>and</strong>ardize components<br />
• Use common parts across product lines<br />
• Design parts to be multifunctional<br />
• Design parts for ease of fabrication<br />
• Avoid secondary operations<br />
• Utilize the special characteristics of processes<br />
In addition, colors, tolerances <strong>and</strong> materials also limits the process that should<br />
be used.<br />
Design guidelines<br />
248
There has been developed a number of rules for design. Briefly mentioned, the<br />
list looks like this:<br />
• Space holes in parts so they can be made in one operation without tooling<br />
weakness. There is a limit in how close holes may be spaced due to strength in<br />
the thin section between holes.<br />
• Notes on engineering drawings must be specific <strong>and</strong> clear.<br />
• Dimensions should be made from specific surfacesorpointsontheparts.<br />
• Dimensions should all be from a single datum line.<br />
• The design should aim for minimum weight consistent with strength <strong>and</strong><br />
stiffness requirements (this means minimized material cost <strong>and</strong> reduction in labor<br />
<strong>and</strong> tooling costs).<br />
• Adjust the design to the manufacture process chosen (wall thickness, fillets,<br />
radii, dies etc.)<br />
• Rotation of geometry<br />
25.3. Evaluation of design alternatives<br />
With the traditional approach, the designer would develop an initial concept <strong>and</strong><br />
translate that into a product design, making minor modificationsasrequired<br />
to meet the specification. DFM requires that the designer start the process by<br />
considering various design concept alternatives early in the process. At this point,<br />
little has been invested in a design alternative <strong>and</strong> much can be gained if a more<br />
effective design approach can be developed. Only through consideration of more<br />
than one alternative is there any assurance of moving toward an optimum design.<br />
Using some of the previous design rules as a framework, the designer needs to<br />
creatively develop design alternatives. Then alternatives are evaluated against<br />
DFM objectives.<br />
Design guide for composite materials, Part design concerns<br />
The very nature of composites allows designers <strong>and</strong> manufacturers to tailor<br />
fiber architecture to match performance requirements of a specific part. Fiberorientation<br />
can be varied to allow wall-thickness variations, development of complex<br />
shapes, <strong>and</strong> production of large parts with integral reinforcing members. Laminates<br />
may be designed to be isotropic or anisotropic, balanced or unbalanced,<br />
symmetric or asymmetric - depending on the in-use forces a component will endure.<br />
Underst<strong>and</strong>ing layered or laminate structural behavior is vital to designing<br />
effective composite components. Adhesion of laminate layers - called plies - is<br />
249
critical; poor adhesion can cause delamination under multiple stress, strain, impact<br />
<strong>and</strong> load conditions. Ply layup designers must consider adhesion, strength,<br />
weight, stiffness, operating temperature <strong>and</strong> toughness requirements, as well as<br />
variables such as electromagnetic transparency <strong>and</strong> radiation resistance. Additionally,<br />
composite component design must encompass surface finish, fatigue life,<br />
overall part configuration, <strong>and</strong> scrap or rework potential, to name just a few of<br />
themanyapplicablefactors.<br />
The intended fabrication method will also affect design. For instance, manufacturers<br />
of filament-wound or tape-layed structures use different reinforcement<br />
forms <strong>and</strong> build-up patterns than those warranted for h<strong>and</strong> laid up laminate<br />
panels or vacuum-bag-cured prepreg parts. RTM accommodates 3-D preforms<br />
more easily than do some other manufacturing techniques. The varying benefits<br />
<strong>and</strong> limitations of these fabrication techniques provide considerable flexibility to<br />
achieve part performance <strong>and</strong> economies.<br />
25.4. The meaning of colors<br />
Are Colors Significant? Only for the sighted or only if one isn’t color-blind. For<br />
those of us blessed with sight, we’ve been taught that colors can make us feel<br />
good, excite us, generate fear <strong>and</strong> joy, or literally make us nauseated. As long<br />
as we attach a certain meaning to a particular color, the legends of colors will<br />
continue to persist.<br />
Color is a very important part to web design. As human beings we are very<br />
sensitive to color. We rely heavily on certain colors to give meaning to things. For<br />
example we associate the color red to love. Like hearts or roses. We also associate<br />
redtoanemergencylikefire trucks or exit signs. As North Americans we associate<br />
black to death however I bet you didn’t know that the Chinese culture associates<br />
black with happy <strong>and</strong> joyful. We associate white to purity or wholesomeness like<br />
a wedding dress, while in the Chinese culture a bride would never wear white<br />
on her wedding day because it symbolizes bad luck or death. So you can see by<br />
thissimpleexamplethatcolornotonlyissymbolicforallculturesbutNOTall<br />
cultures associate color the same way.<br />
How Are Colors Symbolic?<br />
Time <strong>and</strong> tradition have created strong, symbolic color connections. For example,<br />
we associate red with festivity, blue with distinction, purple with dignity,<br />
green with nature, yellow with sunshine, pink with health, <strong>and</strong> white with purity.<br />
250
Context also gives color specific leaning, we know that red means stop, <strong>and</strong> green<br />
means go.<br />
White: White is associated with peace <strong>and</strong> purity such as in the white clouds<br />
<strong>and</strong> sparkling snowflakes. Two of the most popular peace symbols are the white<br />
dove <strong>and</strong> the truce flag.<br />
Red - Vitality, Courage, Self Confidence: Whenredisfeaturedina<br />
dream the tint or shade carries different meanings. A light tint of red - suggests<br />
the glory of success, hot reds - signify the stress of family quarrels, crimson hues<br />
- foretell of happy news from a friend <strong>and</strong> red hair on a beautiful woman suggests<br />
that you will receive unexpected good news.<br />
Yellow - Wisdom, Clarity, Self-esteem: Studies show that yellow is most<br />
often associated with words like cheerful, jovial <strong>and</strong> sunny, somewhat associated<br />
with exciting <strong>and</strong> stimulating <strong>and</strong> almost never associated with words like respondent,<br />
dejected, melancholy or unhappy. In short, a wonderful color for lifting the<br />
spirits <strong>and</strong> letting the sun shine in.<br />
Orange - Happiness, Confidence, Resourcefulness: The meaning of orange<br />
is inexorably linked to the sensations of radiant energy, heat <strong>and</strong> the glowing<br />
presence of the setting sun. The link between red <strong>and</strong> yellow, orange takes its<br />
traits from both. It is less passionate <strong>and</strong> intense than red, incorporating the<br />
sunny disposition of yellow. To the human eye, orange is seen as the hottest of<br />
all colors, both in temperature <strong>and</strong> appearance.<br />
Blue - Knowledge, Health, Decisiveness: The Russian artist Kadinsky<br />
captured the expansive essence of blue when he wrote that blue is ”the infinite<br />
penetration into the absolute essence - where there is, <strong>and</strong> can be, no end.” People<br />
who are strongly attracted to blue tend to be devoted <strong>and</strong> deliberate in <strong>their</strong><br />
actions <strong>and</strong> since blue is everywhere, they feel a unity with the world.<br />
Purple - Beauty, Creativity, Inspiration: The purple family is the most<br />
enigmatic of all colors. Purple is a combination of the excitement of red <strong>and</strong> the<br />
tranquillity of blue, the marriage of two diametrically opposed emotions.<br />
Green - Balance, Love, Self control: Green is the most refreshing, restful<br />
color to the eye. The word ”green” comes from the same root as ”grow,” so green<br />
symbolizes that which grows: rebirth, regeneration, the renewal of life. Indian<br />
mystics see green as the marriage of balance <strong>and</strong> harmony, the ray that bridges<br />
cause <strong>and</strong> effect.<br />
251
References:<br />
Design guidelines:<br />
http://www.devicelink.com/mddi/archive/96/04/008.html<br />
http://www.arrem.com/designguide/dgdesvsmat.htm<br />
http://www.tstar.com/pdf/quadrant-DF.pdf<br />
http://www.npd-solutions.com/dfmguidelines.html<br />
http://www.geplastics.com/webted/webted.html<br />
Colors:<br />
http://crumpledpapers.com/color.html<br />
http://www.wevehadit.com/Publications/Color/page3.html<br />
http://www.srsd.org/~arainone/color.html<br />
Questions<br />
• What is DFM?<br />
• What is DFF<br />
• What do we have to take into consideration when designing for fabrication?<br />
• What kind of design-considerations would you take into consideration in general?<br />
• How can colors affect our underst<strong>and</strong>ing of a product?<br />
• If you would like a product to make you feel good, (happy), what color would<br />
you choose on your product?<br />
252
References<br />
[1] Ashby M.F (1992), <strong>Materials</strong> Selection in Mechanical Design, Second edition,2000,<br />
ISBN 0 7506 4357 9, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.<br />
[2] Alting Leo, (1994), Manufacturing Engineering Processes, ISBN-0-8247-9129-0, Series:<br />
Manufacturing engineering <strong>and</strong> materials processes, nr. 40, Marcel Dekker<br />
Inc., New York.<br />
[3] Cook R. D. , Malkus D. S. <strong>and</strong> Plesha M.E. (1989),Concepts <strong>and</strong> applications of<br />
finite element analysis, J.Wiley<strong>and</strong>SonsInc.<br />
[4] DeGarmo Paul E. (1997), <strong>Materials</strong> <strong>and</strong> processes in manufacturing, NewYork,<br />
Prentice Hall..<br />
[5] Gibson L.J <strong>and</strong> Ashby M.F (1997), Cellular solids, Second edition, Cambridge<br />
University Press, Cambridge.<br />
[6] Gregg Bruce (1997), Modern materials <strong>and</strong> manufacturing processes, NewYok,<br />
Prentice Hall.<br />
[7] Greengard L. <strong>and</strong> Helsing J. (1998), On the numerical evaluation of elastostatic<br />
fields in locally isotropic two-dimensional composites, J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 46,<br />
1441-1462.<br />
[8] Hashin, Z. (1983) Analysis of composite materials. A survey, J. Appl. Mech., 50,<br />
483-505.<br />
[9] Hashin, Z. <strong>and</strong> Shtrikman, S. (1962) A variational approach to the theory of effective<br />
magnetic permeability of multi phase materials, J. Appl. Phys 33, 3125-3131.<br />
[10] Helsing J. (1995), An integral equation method for elastostatics of periodic composites<br />
J. Mech. Phys. Solids 43, 815-828.<br />
[11] Hill R. (1964), Theory of mechanical properties of fibre-strengthened materials-I.<br />
Elastic behaviour, Journal of the Mechanics <strong>and</strong> Physics of Solids, Vol. 12, 199-212.<br />
[12] http://amsl.mit.edu/research/Devices/afc/AFCcompare.html<br />
[13] http://www.chinanano.com/product.htm<br />
[14] http://www.designinsite.dk/htmsider/inspmat.htm<br />
253
[15] http://209.226.65.103/<br />
[16] http://intellimat.com/<br />
[17] http://www.zyvex.com/nano/<br />
[18] http://www.cranfield.ac.uk/sims/materials/processing/fsm.htm<br />
[19] http://www.ntu.edu.sg/home/mliuy/SMM.htm<br />
[20] http://whirlwind.aem.umn.edu/people/faculty/shield/shp-mem.html<br />
[21] http://www.plastics.com/definitions.php<br />
[22] Lukkassen D. ,. Persson L.-E <strong>and</strong> Wall P. (1995), Some engineering <strong>and</strong> mathematical<br />
aspects on the homogenization method, Composites Engineering 5, 5, 519-531.<br />
[23] Kelsey, S., Gellatly, R.A. <strong>and</strong> Clark, B.W. (1958) The sear modulus of foil honeycomb<br />
cores, Aircraft Engineering, October, 294-302.<br />
[24] Meidell, A. <strong>and</strong> Wall, P. (1997), Homogenization <strong>and</strong> design of structures with<br />
optimal macroscopic behavior, in Hernández S. <strong>and</strong> Breddia C.A. (eds.), Computer<br />
aided optimum design of structures V, Computational Mechanics Publications,<br />
Southampton, 393-402.<br />
[25] Meidell, A. (1997), Layer manufacturing Technology, HiN-manuscript, Høgskolen<br />
i Narvik, Narvik.<br />
[26] Meidell, A. (1998), Anvendt Homogeniseringsteori, ISBN-82-7823-037-4, HiNreport<br />
(51 p in Norwegian.), Høgskolen i Narvik, Narvik.<br />
[27] Meidell, A. (1998), The out-of-plane shear modulus of two-component regular honeycombs<br />
with arbitrary thickness, in Mechanics of Composite <strong>Materials</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Structures</strong><br />
(eds. C.A. Mota Soares, C.M. Mota Soares <strong>and</strong> M.J.M. Freitas), NATO ASI,<br />
Troia, Portugal, Vol. III, 367-379.<br />
[28] Meidell A. (1998), The out-of-plane shear modulus of two-component regular honeycombs<br />
with arbitrary thickness, in Mechanics of Composite <strong>Materials</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Structures</strong><br />
(eds. C.A. Mota Soares, C.M. Mota Soares <strong>and</strong> M.J.M. Freitas), NATO ASI,<br />
Troia, Portugal, Vol. III, 367-379.<br />
254
[29] Meidell, A. (1999), Cellular Solids, HiN-report, Narvik Institute of Technology,<br />
Narvik.<br />
[30] Messler Robert W. Jr. (1993), Joining of <strong>Advanced</strong> <strong>Materials</strong>, ISBN-0-7506-9008-9,<br />
Renesslaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York.<br />
[31] Persson L.E. ,Persson L. ,Svanstedt N. <strong>and</strong> Wyller J.(1993), The homogenization<br />
method: An introduction, Studentlitteratur, Lund.<br />
[32] Reddy J.N. (1984), Energy <strong>and</strong> variational methods in applied mechanics, John<br />
Wiley <strong>and</strong> Sons, New York.<br />
[33] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer#Morphological_Properties<br />
[34] Wakil El <strong>and</strong> Sherif D. (1998), Processes <strong>and</strong> design for manufacturing, Boston,<br />
PWS Publ. Co.<br />
[35] Wright John R. (1996), Introduction to materials <strong>and</strong> processes, Newor,Delmar.<br />
[36] Zenkert Dan (1995), An introduction to S<strong>and</strong>wich Constructions, ChameleonPress<br />
Ltd., London.<br />
255