project honey as antimicrobial agent final full.pdf - University of ...

1.1 Antimicrobial Resistance:
An antimicrobial agent is a substance that inhibits or kills microbial growth;
unfortunately, the introduction of a new antimicrobial agent into clinical practice is
usually followed by the rapid emergence of resistance. Resistance in bacteria can be
intrinsic, because not all bacterial species are naturally sensitive to all antimicrobials,
or it can be acquired, based on genetic mutation or genetic transfer from other
organisms (Forbes et al., 2007). The production of drug-inactivating enzymes,
alteration of an active target site, acquirement of a target bypass system, decrease cell
permeability and an efflux pump in cell membrane are the five mechanisms which
admit microorganisms to acquire resistance through a biochemical basis (Sefton
2002). The mechanisms by which β lactam resistance is manifest in bacteria involve
enzymatic inactivation, or by altered receptors of penicillin binding proteins (Winn et
al., 2006).
Resistance to antimicrobial agents is not a new incident. Soon after penicillin has
established as an antibiotic in the 1940s, the rate of penicillin resistance had risen to
14%, and is over 90% for Staphylococcus aureus today (Aksoy 2007). In the past,
resistant strains were believed to be a problem confined to hospitals, however today
resistance has increased in the community (Aksoy 2007).
Urinary tract infections (UTI), respiratory tract infections (RTI), and tuberculosis are
considered to be problem diseases both in the community and the hospital setting
with regard to antimicrobial resistance. Misuse of antibiotics by healthcare
professionals, unprofessional doctors, poor drug quality, poor hygienic conditions
and inadequate surveillance measures account for the emergence of resistant bacteria.
All of these factors contribute to the spread of multidrug resistant (MDR) organisms,
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