Pacific Island Mangroves in a Changing Climate and Rising Sea

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Mangroves in a Changing Climate and Rising Sea
and resilience to global climate change, sea level rise, and other stresses. The existence of functional links
between coastal systems means that degradation of one habitat type will adversely affect the health of
neighboring habitats. If a protected area encompassing a mangrove wetland does not include adjacent
ecosystems, unsustainable activities occurring in the adjacent hinterland or offshore on adjacent coral reefs
and seagrass beds could result in degradation of the mangrove (Barber et al., 2004; Ellison, 2004; Mumby et
al., 2004).
The cultural context of most Pacific Islands makes it necessary to abandon the traditional concept of
protected areas, where the aim is typically to provide recreational opportunities, protect aesthetics, or protect
nature from development by preventing people from inhabiting an area and restricting activities in and access
to the area (Gilman, 1997). Protected area planning and management activities are most effective when all
interest groups are fully involved. Protected area management conducted through the collaboration of the
local community, government agencies and other groups, is an appropriate approach in many areas of the
Pacific Islands region (Gilman, 2002). When there is inadequate community involvement in decision-making
to establish and manage protected areas, natural resources remain under a de facto open-access regime
because resource users do not support or possibly know about a protected area's rules concerning the use of
natural resources, and the rules are not followed. Islands with contemporary pressures on their natural
environment that do not employ community-based decision-making nor allow for multiple purposes when
establishing protected areas produce "paper parks" whose purposes are not achieved, and natural resources
continue to degrade because enforcement measures are ineffective (Gilman, 1997). Conversely, protected
areas established and management through community-based approaches are more likely to be successful
because (Gilman, 1997):
• A perception of equity develops among interest groups, a basic tenet of conflict management.
Representatives of all interest groups have equal opportunity to raise issues important to their interest
group, and to make decisions. This helps achieve equity even though it may not have existed before the
process began;
• The protected area selection and management processes are flexible, allowing the protected area to fit
the needs of the local context;
• Decision-makers account for local ecological knowledge, the knowledge that comes from observing and
using natural resources, in addition to information from technical experts and resource managers;
• Community-based decision-making enhances the communicability of results because interest group
leaders disseminate information to the community;
• Decisions respect tenets of traditional management systems;
• Participation of all interest groups ensures that all issues are identified and addressed;
• Community-based coordination results in educated user groups who take credit and ownership for the
protected area and its rules;
• Continual communication with interest groups allows protected area managers to evaluate the efficacy of
the protected area and effectively adapt management measures;
• Community-based selection, management, and enforcement is more effective and economical in the longterm
than continual policing; and
• Allowing the community to select multiple uses to be allowed in the area that are compatible with the
goals of the protected area ensures all needs are considered, reducing the likelihood of conflict. A greater
number of interest groups will support a protected area that permits numerous, but appropriate uses than
would support a single-purpose protected area. Also, the community will more likely support a protected
area if their interest group representatives can select the major goals than if goals are predetermined.
Coastal and marine protected areas have potential limitations, which can be avoided and minimized through
careful planning and management (Huber and McGregor, 2001; Gilman, 2002; Gilman et al., 2006):