Body Condition Scoring - the American Miniature Zebu Asssoication

AMERICAN MINIATURE 

AMZA 

ZEBU ASSOCIATION 

Nadu Zebu 

Journal 

Winter 2006-2007 

Nutrition Issue

Nadu Zebu Journal 

Winter 2006-2007 

In this issue: 

Letter from the President..............................................2 

Cow Conformation Terminology Diagram...................3 

Cow Skeletal Anatomy .................................................3 

Body Condition Scoring...............................................4 

Winter Feeding—Alternative Strategies....................10 

Bale Feeder Design Affects Feeding and Behavior..13 

Early Spring Grazing Management............................17 

Calf Nutrition—The Esophageal Groove...................19 

Effects of Nutrition on Rumen Development............23 

Feed Nutrients, Vitamin and Mineral Needs..............29 

AMZA Member Directory.............................................39 

Letter from the Webmaster.........................................44 

Letter from the Editor..................................................45 

Nadu-Zebu Journal is the official publication 

of the American Miniature Zebu Association 

(AMZA). Nadu-Zebu Journal is distributed 

free to AMZA members. 

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of the month prior to publication. Deadlines 

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November 20. 

Editorial Office (Articles, photos, and 

events): 

Dottie Love, Newsletter Editor 

327 Krajca Road, Ennis, TX 75119 

dottie@fancherloveranch.com 

©2007 American Miniature Zebu Association. 

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listed above. 

1 

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Our Cover Photo: A round hay bale and an unfortunate 

Bogle Farms Little Rex (he was surprised 

but unharmed), by Rick Bogle, December 

2006

Letter from the President 

Hello again all, 

Dottie, Larry and I will be leaving for the very 

exciting and well put together AMZA seminar 

and clinics and fun show at Larry and Ann 

Harper’s ranch in Ocala, Florida. Ann and Larry 

have worked very hard and done an amazing 

job of putting this great event together. We are 

all excited about heading to Florida and meeting 

a lot of new zebu people and seeing a lot 

of beautiful zebu cattle. I will have an update 

on the seminar and show with show wins and 

information about the seminars with great 

pics on the AMZA web site, www.amzaonline. 

com make sure and go look! Big thanks go 

out to Lance Kappell and Fred Carson for an 

outstanding job at the State Fair of Colorado 

last year! They took several head of Miniature 

Zebu and put up a display for the entire fair. 

They produced some excellent Miniature Zebu 

information brochures and handed them out. 

This was the first exposure of Miniature 

Zebu cattle in beautiful Colorado. I just heard 

from Jeanne at the State Fair of Colorado. 

Jeanne called to inform me that they would 

love to host our 2007 AMZA National Show 

in Pueblo, Colorado. The dates for the State 

Fair show and the Nadu-Zebu show are Friday, 

August 31, show starts at 6:00 PM and 

Saturday, September 1st, show starts at 6:00 

PM. We are very excited about this wonderful 

opportunity, and thanks go out to Lance 

and Fred for their hard work and dedication 

to AMZA and its members and for their commitment 

to the Miniature Zebu breed. 

Check the AMZA website, www.amzaonline. 

com for all the great upcoming events this 

year, 2007 is proving to be the best year ever 

in seminars and shows for our membership. 

Until next time, 

David 

2

Body Condition Scoring 

How fat is too fat? How thin is too thin? Am I feeding enough? Am I feeding too much? One 

of the biggest problems we all have is trying to identify the proper body condition of our miniature 

zebu. In 1986 two Texas A & M professors created the Body Condition Scoring system. 

Many studies have borne out their theories; 1) there is an optimum body condition; 2) Cows 

that score below 5 have significantly longer periods between calves. Perhaps one of the most 

important management skills of livestock producers is the ability to body condition score their 

animals and track progress toward meeting a desired degree of fatness to meet a given reproductive 

goal in a herd. Body condition scoring is an index to the degree of fatness expressed 

in the anatomy of the animal that can be viewed by the human eye. Essentially, body condition 

scoring is a systematic process of attempting to visualize the degree of underlying skeletal 

features that can be detected by the observing the animal. 

Relationship to Pregnancy Rate 

The body condition score can be evaluated throughout the year. The relationship of BCS at 

calving to reproduction has been looked at in several studies. A beef cow must conceive by 80 

d after calving to maintain a 365 d calving interval that is desired in most management programs. 

Herd and Sprott (1986) reported 62% of beef cows with a BCS of 4 or lower at calving 

were in heat by 80 d after calving compared to 88% and 98% for cows in BCS 5 or 6 or higher. 

Other studies have shown that cows with BCS below 5 require more services per conception 

implying some depression in fertility of cycling beef cows. 

Seasonal Changes in Condition Score 

The body condition of the beef herd will change during the year. The condition is usually highest 

in mid to late summer then declines in the fall or winter and is lowest in late winter or early 

spring. The loss of body condition during the fall and winter can reduce the amount of supplemental 

feed needed to maintain good pregnancy rates, calving intervals and calf gains. The 

rate of loss of body condition should be gradual and not extreme if possible. If a cow herd can 

lose one condition score during the fall and winter (75 lb of flesh), it is desirable for the cows to 

be supplemented to lose this gradually over 120 d instead of a very rapid loss in 45 d followed 

by feeding high levels of supplemental feeds in an attempt to prevent further condition losses. 

It is our observation that some Brahman and Brahman crossbred cattle will lose condition 

faster than other types of cattle especially after calving. It is important that these cattle be 

monitored closely and that forage and supplemental feeds be adjusted to avoid high rates of 

condition loss. 

Body condition affects the amount and type of supplements needed during the winter. Fat 

cows can lose body reserves and feeding of 1 to 2 lb/head/d of a high-protein supplement plus 

minerals and vitamins is sufficient in many situations. In contrast, thin cows have little body 

reserves and often need 4 to 6 lb/head/d or more of a high-energy supplement with 12 to 16% 

protein plus minerals and vitamins to avoid flesh loses and reductions in pregnancy rates. 

4

Body condition or changes in body condition is a more reliable indicator in evaluating nutritional 

status than liveweight or changes in liveweight. Although cows with higher BCS tend to have 

higher weight, the body weight alone is not a good estimate of body condition. Most herds 

have a range in frame and muscling in their cows that make BCS a better measure of body 

fat than liveweight. Liveweight is also affected greatly by gut fill and pregnancy status, which 

are seasonal depending on the breeding season, forage quality and forage availability. In winter 

feeding studies, the body condition loss is usually much higher than the body weight loss. 

How to Score 

A BCS of 5 should look average -- neither thin or fat. Once you have established what a BCS 

5 looks like, it is much easier to determine variations from this. The fill or shrink from digestive 

contents or pregnancy can change the appearance of moderately fleshed cattle especially 

over the rib or in front of the hooks. Long hair is another factor that can make it more difficult 

to evaluate the amount of condition on a cow. When hair is long, handling the cattle over the 

back and ribs, and feeling the flesh over the horizontal process of the backbone in front of the 

hooks can be helpful. The amount of flesh over the transverse process or sharpness of feel of 

this bone can be used to help evaluate body condition. 

Cattle with condition scores of 3 or lower have very little fat and are evaluated on degrees 

of muscle loss. The bone structure over the back and ribs is very visible and another useful 

indicator is the area from the hooks to the pins. Cattle with muscle loss show a depressed or 

sunken appearance in this area. 

Cattle with condition scores of 6 or higher show a smoother appearance across the ribs and 

back. The breed type of cattle can influence where fat is deposited. Some cattle with Brahman 

breeding show very little fat over the ribs but will deposit fat over the hooks and pins. Other 

cattle show uniform deposits of fat across the ribs and back with no patchy deposits around 

the tail head. 

Body condition scoring has to be approached in a systematic manner. A 1-9 system is used to 

describe animals that are extremely emaciated to animals that are so fat they have difficulty 

walking. The threshold body condition score is considered a 5. The key anatomical feature 

that distinguishes an animal below average fatness (

6 

1 Emaciated 

Bone structure of shoulder, ribs, back, hooks 

and pins sharp to touch and easily visible. 

Little evidence of fat deposits or muscling. 

An animal in score 1, has a distinct hipbone 

showing with an strong “V” effect between 

the hooks and pins, ribs are distinct, no tissue 

can support the tailhead and the animal 

appears near death. 

2 Very Thin 

Little evidence of fat deposits but some muscling 

in hindquarters. The spinous processes 

feel sharp to the touch and are easily seen 

with space between them. If the foreribs are 

distinct, the transverse processes showing, 

the vertebrae in the tail head are showing 

and a strong “V” is evident between the hook 

and pins, the animal is classified as a 2. 

3 Thin 

Beginning of fat cover over the loin, back 

and foreribs. Backbone still highly visible. 

Processes of the spine can be identified 

individually by touch and may still be visible. 

Spaces between the processes are less pronounced. 

If the short ribs are showing and a 

moderate “V” has formed between the hooks 

and pins down to the trochanter major, the 

animal is a solid 3.

4 Borderline 

Foreribs not noticeable; 12th and 

13th ribs still noticeable to the eye, 

particularly in cattle with a big spring 

of rib and ribs wide apart. The transverse 

spinous processes can be 

identified only by palpation (with slight 

pressure) to feel rounded rather than 

sharp. Full but straightness of muscling 

in the hindquarters. If the short 

ribs or transverse processes are not 

showing, the animal is classified as a 

4. 

5 Moderate 

12th and 13th ribs not visible to the 

eye unless animal has been shrunk. 

The transverse spinous processes 

can only be felt with firm pressure to 

fell rounded - not noticeable to the 

eye. Spaces between the processes 

not visible and only distinguishable 

with firm pressure. Areas on each 

side of the tail head are fairly well 

filled but not mounded. Animals in 

body condition score 5 exhibit a slight 

inverted V across the back when 

viewed from the rear. There is a slight 

“U” effect between the hooks and 

pins. 

6 Good 

Ribs fully covered, not noticeable to 

the eye. Hindquarters plump and full. 

Noticeable sponginess to covering of 

foreribs and on each side of the tail 

head. Firm pressure now required to 

feel transverse processes. If the back 

appears smooth to near level without 

any indention along the spine and 

there is a very shallow “U” effect between 

the hooks and pins, the animal 

is classified as a 6. 7

8 

7 Very Good 

Ends of the spinous processes can only 

be felt with very firm pressure. Spaces 

between processes can barely be distinguished 

at all. Abundant fat cover on either 

side of tail head with some patchiness 

evident.If a “U” effect is not evident between 

the hooks and pin and the no anatomical 

features express themselves with a slight 

indention along the spine, the animal is considered 

a 7. 

8 Fat 

Animal taking on a smooth, blocky appearance; 

bone structure disappearing 

from sight. Fat cover thick and spongy with 

patchiness likely. If the indention along 

the spine is deep and there is evidence of 

pockets of excess fat expressed across the 

body, the animal is scored as an 8. 

9 Very Fat 

Bone structure not seen or easily felt. Tail 

head buried in fat. Animal’s mobility may 

actually be impaired by excess amount of 

fat. An animal appearing excessively fat and 

walking in an awkward manner is scored as 

a 9.

This article was excerpted and adapted from the following documents/writers/institutions/publications: 

1. Body Condition Scoring by Herd and Sprott, Texas A&M University, 1986. 

http://cnrit.tamu.edu/ganlab/Program/Nutbal_Tips/body_condition_scoring.htm 

2.. Body Condition Scoring and Rebreeding, byWilliam E. Kunkle, associate professor; Robert 

S. Sand, associate professor; Department of Animal Sciences, Cooperative Extension Service, 

Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville FL 32611. http:// 

edis.ifas.ufl.edu/scripts/htmlgen.exe?DOCUMENT_AN004 

This document is AS51, one of a series of the Animal Science Department, Florida Cooperative 

Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. Original 

publication date December 1991. Reviewed June 2003. Visit the EDIS Web Site at http://edis. 

ifas.ufl.edu. 

The Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) is an Equal Opportunity Institution authorized 

to provide research, educational information and other services only to individuals and 

institutions that function with non-discrimination with respect to race, creed, color, religion, age, 

disability, sex, sexual orientation, marital status, national origin, political opinions or affiliations. 

For more information on obtaining other extension publications, contact your county Cooperative 

Extension service. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Florida, IFAS, 

Florida A. & M. University Cooperative Extension Program, and Boards of County Commissioners 

Cooperating. Larry Arrington, Dean. 

Copyright Information 

This document is copyrighted by the University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural 

Sciences (UF/IFAS) for the people of the State of Florida. UF/IFAS retains all rights under all 

conventions, but permits free reproduction by all agents and offices of the Cooperative Extension 

Service and the people of the State of Florida. Permission is granted to others to use 

these materials in part or in full for educational purposes, provided that full credit is given to the 

UF/IFAS, citing the publication, its source, and date of publication. 

3. Body Condition Scoring Beef Cows by Dan E. Eversole, Extension Animal Scientist; Milyssa 

F. Browne, Graduate Student; John B. Hall, Extension Animal Scientist; and Richard E. Dietz, 

Graduate Student; Virginia Tech, Publication Number 400-795, Posted December 2000 

4. A Guide to Condition Scoring of Zebu Cattle, by M.J. Nicholson and M.H.Butterworth, International 

Livestock Centre for Africa (June 1986) 

9

Alternative Winter Nutritional Management 

Strategies 

By Janna Kincheloe, Extension Agent, Montana State University and Ron Hathaway, Extension 

Agent, Oregon State University 

Swath/Windrow Grazing 

Swath, or windrow, grazing is the process of cutting hay and leaving it in windrows for cows to 

graze in the winter. Forage quality of swaths is generally similar to that of baled forage. However, 

a general decline in quality can be expected over the winter months. Energy or protein 

supplements may be warranted if grazing pregnant or lactating cows, and forage analysis is 

recommended. 

A summary of 10 years of data from the Eastern Oregon Agricultural Research Center demonstrated 

that cows wintered on swaths had increased body condition and did not require 

supplements of additional hay compared to cows fed baled forage. Likewise, conception rates, 

calving interval, weaning weights and attrition rates were equal between control and treatment 

groups. 

In order to optimize success with windrow grazing, forage crops should be cut in the fall and 

windrows should be no more than four feet wide. Cross fencing with electric fence at right 

angles to the windrows increases forage utilization and minimizes waste. To estimate swath 

utilization, assume a cow will consume two to 2.5 percent of its body weight. Thus, a 1,200pound 

cow consumes about 24 dry matter pounds of swath feed per day. If fences are moved 

to limit cattle to one day’s feed, wastage could be less than five percent. 

Winter Grazing 

Another alternative to traditional winter-feeding is the winter grazing of “stockpiled” forage. To 

effectively use this alternative, the producer must defer grazing of irrigated pasture and native 

range to the fall or winter months. The range forage base will be dormant and, as a result, will 

likely need some level of supplementation depending on quality of selected diets, body condition 

status of mature cows and stage of gestation. Quality of standing forage may decline 

faster than forage stored in bales or windrows. Controlling grazing with an inexpensive electric 

fence that allows access to a three- or four-day supply of forage at a time can increase forage 

utilization and reduce waste by up to 40 percent. 

Crop Residue 

Corn stalks are a viable winter feed source in corn-producing areas in the Northwest. A general 

rule of thumb is that one acre of cornstalks can support a 1,000 lb. cow or animal equivalent 

10

for 1.5 to two months. Producers should supply phosphorus and vitamin A to cattle consuming 

corn stalks. Protein supplements may or may not be necessary depending on the amount of 

grain remaining in the residue. 

Substituting Grain for Hay 

Hay often costs 50-100 percent more than grain per unit of energy. If forage supplies are limited 

due to price and/or availability, grain can be substituted for hay as an economical alternative 

energy source. The purpose of this feeding program is to reduce feed costs as mochas possible. 

Therefore, only a minimum amount of hay is provided. The minimum amount of roughage 

that should be fed is 0.5 percent of body weight (6 lbs. roughage for a 1,200 lb. cow)in order 

to maintain proper digestive function. Straw or other low quality roughage may be used rather 

than providing additional hay. The amount of grain necessary depends on weight and body 

condition of cows. In general, one pound of grain or other concentrate is equal in energy to two 

pounds of hay. It is important to realize the difference between substitution and supplementation. 

Energy supplements containing high levels of starch are rapidly fermented in the rumen, 

resulting in a lower rumen pH. This has negative effects on fibrolytic or fiber-digesting microbes 

in the rumen, and may decrease forage intake and digestibility if concentrates are fed 

at levels greater than about 0.5 percent of body weight. If the primary goal is to make up for 

energy deficiencies in forage, grain may not be the most efficient option. In this management 

approach, diets should be grain-based, using hay as a supplement. Protein and mineral supplements 

should be provided. There are also several management considerations in limit-feeding 

grain that need to be carefully examined. High-concentrate diets require increased levels of 

management to ensure consistent feed consumption and avoid digestive disturbances such as 

acidosis and bloat. In order to prevent waste, cattle should be fed in bunks, with at least 24- to 

30- inches of bunkspace per head. It may be a good idea to sort the herd into smaller groups, 

based on nutritional requirements, to minimize competition due to social interactions. In addition, 

producers must have adequate facilities to control hungry cattle. Researchers at Ohio 

State University have examined the efficacy of limit-feeding, grain-based diets as an alternative 

to hay for gestating beef cows.Results indicated that a limit-fed, corn-based diet had no 

detrimental effects on cow performance, conception rates or calf weaning weights compared to 

cows fed ad-libitum hay or stockpiled orchardgrass. In addition, cost of feeding hay was nearly 

double that of limit-feeding a corn-based diet. 

Feeding By-products 

Due to increased grain processing and expansion of the ethanol industry, coproducts are 

readily available to livestock producers in many areas. Many of these feeds are very palatable 

and relatively easy to mix into rations. These include grain co products (e.g. corn screenings, 

wheat midds, corn gluten feed); oilseeds and oilseed coproducts(e.g. canola, safflower meal, 

soybean hulls);and ethanol coproducts (e.g. wet and dry distillers grains, condensed distillers 

solubles. Coproducts have a variety of uses in beef cow diets. High fiber coproducts such as 

beet pulp and soy hulls can be used to replace forage at 20 to 30 percent of forage dry matter 

in the diet. Many oilseed coproducts, such as canola and safflower meal, are good sources of 

escape or bypass protein. Ethanol coproducts can be fed at 10 to 15 percent of diet dry matter 

11

in backgrounding and finishing diets as a protein source or fed at higher levels as an energy 

source. These products may also be used in forage-based diets for beef cows as a source of 

supplemental protein and energy. 

It is not always economical to feed cattle to meet all of their nutritional requirements throughout 

the year. The most critical times to ensure that requirements are met are during the last 

one-third of pregnancy and the first 60 days of lactation. Failing to do so may cause decreased 

conception rates, increased postpartum intervals, increased calf death loss and reduced calf 

weaning weights. 

Source: Beef Questions & Answers Jan 06 Vol. 11 #1 Winter Feeding Cow Management 

Beef Questions & Answers Feb 06 Vol. 11 #2 Alternative Winter Nutritional Management Strategies 

12

Feeder Design Makes a Difference 

by D. D. Buskirk, A. J. Zanella, T. M. Harrigan, J. L. Van Lente, L. M. Gnagey, and M. J. 

Kaercher, Departments of Animal Science and Agricultural Engineering, Extension, Michigan 

State University 

Figure 1. Round bale feeder types: (a) ring, (b) cone, (c) trailer, and (d) cradle. 

Introduction 

Harvested feed is the largest cost contributor to maintenance of beef cows in the upper Midwest 

United States and feed cost is the single largest variable influencing profitability of the 

cow-calf enterprise in this region. Most harvested feed is packaged, stored, and fed as large 

round hay. Storage losses of large round hay bales can range from 2 to 18% of the dry matter, 

depending on type of forage, storage method, environmental conditions, and length of 

time stored. Little has been done to characterize losses of hay due to feeding method, even 

though studies have identified that feed losses may reach 20 to 30% of the dry matter fed. 

Many unique designs of large round bale feeders exist and are often accompanied by claims of 

reduced waste potential. There is a lack of research comparing the magnitude of feed loss and 

its relationship to animal behavior. An understanding of the relationship between feeder design 

and animal behavior will provide an opportunity for more efficient feed use, and enhance animal 

performance and well-being. The objectives of this study were to evaluate: 1) hay dry 

13

matter loss when feeding large round bales in cone, ring, trailer, and cradle-type feeders, 2) 

feeding behavior for each feeder design, and 3) the relationship between feeding behavior, 

feeder design, and feed loss. 

Feeder Types 

This study was conducted using four different round bale feeder designs: cone (Weldy Enterprises, 

Wakarusa, IN; model R7C), ring (Weldy Enterprises, model R7), trailer (S.I. Feeders, 

Portage WI; Arrow Front Feeder Wagon), or cradle (Weldy Enterprises; model 6 × 12 feet 

HGF). Both the ring and cone feeders were 2.34 m in diameter. The cradle feeder was 3.66 × 

1.83 m. The trailer feeder was 6.10 × 2.13 m; however, hay was placed only in a 3.66 m length 

of the feeder. Therefore, all feeder types provided approximately37 cm of linear feeder space 

per animal. There were a total of 18, 18, and 19 feeding spaces for the cone, ring, and trailer 

feeders respectively. The cradle feeder did not have defined feeding spaces. The cone and 

ring feeders had identical feeding spaces with bars oriented at 70° with 35.5-cm spacing; the 

trailer feeder bars were oriented at 50° with 40-cm spacing. The height of the top rail was 191, 

121, 163, and 152 cm for the cone, ring, trailer, and cradle feeders, respectively. 

Behavior Evaluation 

Animals were videotaped for 5 minutes at 30-minute intervals to assess their behavior. Access 

to the feeders was defined as regular or irregular. A regular entrance was defined as the 

positioning of the head below the top rail, as intended by the feeder manufacturer. An irregular 

entrance was defined as access to the feeder above the top rail. Agonistic interactions were 

broadly defined to include behaviors of a cow that resulted in the displacement of another cow 

from the feeder. This definition included threats, head butting, and pushing. 

Table 1. Effect of feeder type on hay waste and intake by beef cows 

Feeder Type 

Cone Ring Trailer Cradle 

Initial Cow Weight, kg 628.7 631.5 632.2 629.6 

Initial Cow Body Condition 

Score 

5.8 5.9 5.9 5.8 

Daily Hay Disappearance, 

kg/cow 

12.0 12.1 13.9 12.9 

Daily Hay Waste, kg/cow .4 .7 1.6 1.9 

Hay Waste, %/day 3.5 6.1 11.4 14.6 

Daily Hay Intake, kg/cow 11.5 11.4 12.3 11.0 

Intake/cow BW, % 1.8 1.8 2.0 1.8 

14

Results and Discussion 

The effect of feeder type on hay waste and intake is shown in Table 1. There was a significant 

difference in feed loss among all feeders with the exception of the trailer and cradle feeders, 

which tended to be different from one another. Use of the ring feeder resulted in nearly twice 

the amount of waste compared to the cone feeder, whereas the trailer and cradle feeders resulted 

in four times the waste per animal compared to the cone design. In the present trial, our 

observation indicated that cattle eating from the cone and ring feeders would have been able 

to more closely mimic a grazing position than those eating from the trailer and cradle feeders 

would, and this may have contributed to reduced feed losses. Feed wastage from cows tossing 

feed over their backs or along their sides may be reduced by allowing the animals to eat in a 

head-down, natural grazing position from ground level rather than an elevated platform. In addition, 

an animal’s ability to throw its head and toss feed is limited when their head is beneath a 

rail, such as the top rail on the cone, ring, and trailer feeders in the present study. The percentage 

of hay waste in our trial ranged from3.5 to 14.6%.Some factors that may have contributed 

to relatively less waste in this experiment were that all hay was stored inside until fed and that 

the bale diameter: feeder diameter ratio was relatively small, causing cows to reach for the 

feed with some of the designs. In addition, fly and insect annoyance was not a problem, which 

could increase waste in summer trials. 

Feed loss (refusal or waste) is influenced by storage method. One study fed large round alfalfa 

hay bales to beef cows in bunks with angled headgates. Feed losses were similar for bales 

stored inside (12.4%) or covered with plastic outside (13.4 to 14.5%), but were higher for bales 

stored uncovered outside (24.7%). Round bale feeders limit access to forage and thus limit 

waste from trampling and manure contamination. A 1974 study reported that an average of 

29% more dry matter was required when feeding round-baled hay without racks. Slanted bar 

designs encourage animals to keep their heads in the feeder opening by providing some constraint. 

Depending on bar angle and spacing, this design may force cows to rotate their heads 

when entering or leaving the feeder. 

How Feeder Affects Hay Use and Cow Behavior 

Table 3. Effect of feeder type on feeding behavior and dry matter hay waste 

Feeder Type 

Cone Ring Trailer Cradle 

Agonistic Interactions/hr. 10.9 7.4 13.6 30.7 

Frequency of Entrances, #/hr. 6.3 8.0 8.3 29.8 

Frequency of Regular Entrances, 

#/hr. 

6.1 3.8 8.2 13.0 

Frequency of Irregular Entrances, 

#/hr. 

13.5 7.6 16.1 16.7 

Feeder Occupancy, % of 

animals 

13.5 7.6 16.1 16.7 

Daily DM Waste, kgb 9.5 14.5 26.6 50.0 

15

Most notable is the fact that cows feeding from the cradle feeder had nearly three times the 

agonistic interactions and four times the frequency of entrances. This may be partially due to a 

lack of vertical partitions to create feeding positions in the cradle feeder. There was no barrier 

to deter cows from interacting with one another, nor were they hindered from entering or exiting 

the feeder. Another study found that manger divisions protected submissive cows’ heads and 

enabled them to eat for longer bouts. We observed that a single animal more easily displaced 

multiple cows eating from a rectangular feeder compared to a round feeder. In this manner, an 

animal often relocated its pen mates along the full length of a linear feeder, whereas this behavior 

was not observed in pens with round feeders. 

Another potential difference between round and rectangular designs may involve the cows’ 

visual perception. Cattle have nearly 360° of vision, with the exception of a narrow blind spot 

directly behind them. The area in which animals react to a perceived threat by moving away is 

their flight zone. In a competitive feeding situation, round geometry of a feeder may allow cows 

to maintain a larger flight zone, thereby allowing both comfortable herd interaction and awareness 

of an agonistic cow approaching from behind and asserting position. 

The frequency of irregular entrances, or entering the feeder to eat over the top bar was greatest 

for the cradle feeder. The top bar of the cradle feeder was relatively high compared to the 

other designs. The social organization of a herd is established through aggressive behavior, 

whereby animals approach, threaten, and possibly butt other animals with their head. When 

a competitive condition exists for available feed, dominant cows assert their position in eating 

before less dominant cows. The amount of time feeding has been positively correlated with 

dominance behavior. However, agonistic actions during feeding are not limited to dominant animals. 

Dominance relationships of cattle based on spontaneous aggressive interactions have 

been identified as being different than those based on interactions motivated by competitive 

feeding. It was observed from the tapes of the present study that hay often fell from the mouths 

of one or both animals during the course of an agonistic interaction. Because these interactions 

occurred outside of the feeder perimeter it is not surprising that agonistic interactions 

were positively correlated with feed loss. 

Source: Large round bale feeder design affects hay utilization and beef cow behavior, by D. 

D. Buskirk, A. J. Zanella, T. M. Harrigan, J. L. Van Lente, L. M. Gnagey, and M. J. Kaercher, 

Departments of Animal Science and Agricultural Engineering, Extension, Michigan State University, 

East Lansing 48824-1225 

©2003 American Society of Animal Science. All rights reserved. J. Anim. Sci. 2003. 81:109–115 

16

Grazing Management for Spring Pastures 

by Dr. Jeff Mosley, Extension Range Management Specialist, Department of Animal and 

Range Sciences; and Dr. Tracy Brewer, Assistant Research Professor of Range Science, Joe 

Skeen Institute for Rangeland Restoration, Montana State University 

(editor’s note--An Animal Unit (AU) is 1000 lbs.of cattle. Assuming a 36” light framed mini zebu 

cow weighs 400 lbs. and her 3 mo. calf is 50 lbs., that’s .45 AU.) 

The combined effects of open winters, warm spring temperatures, and extended drought that 

have weakened many winter calving pastures have also weakened many spring pastures. 

Now, with spring turn-out underway or close at hand, it’s a good time for considering ways to 

keep your spring pastures healthy and productive. Appropriate grazing strategies in spring 

depend on whether you use seeded pasture or native rangeland. 

Native Rangeland 

Moderate grazing can be sustained with a 3-pasture rest-rotation system in which the spring 

grazing season is split into 2 halves (early spring, late spring), with each half lasting no more 

than 3-4weeks (Table 1).For rangeland in good health, we suggest initial stocking rates of 2.2 

acres per AUM in the 15-19-inch precipitation zone, and 3.3 acres per AUM in the 10-14-inch 

precipitation zone. Be sure to include the acres from all 3 pastures in your stocking rate calculations, 

even though you only use 2 pastures per year. For example, if each of the 3 spring 

pastures contain 200 acres in the 15-19-inch precipitation zone, an appropriate initial stocking 

rate for good condition rangeland would-be 273 Animal Unit Months (600 acres ÷ 2.2 acres/ 

AUM = 273 AUMs). For a 6-week spring grazing season, there would be enough forage for 

182 Animal Units (273 AUMs ÷ 1.5 months = 182 AUs) And if the cows weigh 1250 lbs each 

(1250 lbs ÷1000 lbs/AU = 1.25 Animal Unit Equivalent), an appropriate stocking rate would be 

146 pairs (182AUs ÷ 1.25 AUE = 146 AUs) for the 6-week grazing season, with the 146 pairs 

spending 3 weeks in one pasture and 3 weeks in the other. 

Seeded Pasture 

Well-managed seeded pasture can usually be stocked at higher rates than adjacent native 

rangeland. We suggest initial stocking rates of 1.0 acre/AUM in the 15-19-inch precipitation 

zone, and 1.5-2.0 acres/AUM in the 10-14-inch precipitation zone. Crested wheatgrass and 

Russian wildrye are 2 of the best grasses for spring pastures because they attain maximum 

growth 4-5 weeks earlier than most native bunchgrasses. 

17

Table 1. Three-pasture rest-rotation system for spring grazing on native rangeland. 

Pasture 1 Pasture 2 Pasture 3 

Year 1 Early Spring Late Spring Rest 

Year 2 Late Spring Rest Early Spring 

Year 3 Rest Early Spring Late Spring 

Year 4 Early Spring Late Spring Rest 

Seeded pasture grazed annually in spring for only a brief period (i.e., less than 3 weeks) does 

not benefit much from rotational grazing. If the spring grazing period is longer, a rotational 

grazing system should be used. 

Table 2. Two-pasture deferred-rotation system for spring grazing on seeded pasture. 

Pasture 1 Pasture 2 

Year 1 Early Spring Late Spring 

Year 2 Late Spring Early Spring 

Year 3 Early Spring Late Spring 

However, a seeded pasture can be used every spring as long as it isn’t grazed at the same 

time every year. We recommend a 2-pasturedeferred-rotation grazing system in which the 

spring grazing season is split into 2 halves(early spring, late spring), with each half lasting no 

more than 3-4 weeks (Table 2). Seeded pastures are best grazed at higher stock densities 

(i.e., number of animals per unit area of pasture) than native rangeland. A high stock density 

will achieve more uniform use across a pasture and prevent forage plants from becoming too 

coarse or“wolfy”. Stock densities of 3 to 5 cows (or their equivalent) per acre are usually appropriate. 

Source: Beef Questions & Answers May 06 Vol. 11 #5 

18

The Esophageal Groove, 

or Where Does the Milk Go? 

by Sam Leadley (Attica Veterinary Associates) and Pam Sojda (Offhaus Farms) 

Why do we care where the milk goes in a calf as long as the calf doesn’t die? Well, maybe we 

would like to cut down on our scours rate. Or, we would like to improve our rate of gain. When 

this physical structure inside a calf’s gut works properly, better digestion of milk and/or milk 

replacers occurs - thus, we get more nutrients for each feeding into the calf’s blood stream 

and less undigested milk into the small intestine. Ever wonder where this esophageal groove 

was? What it looked like? Was it a hole somewhere in the calf’s gut? If you have opened up 

a calf’s gut you can’t see anything like a pipe, groove or tube. Is it some sort of magic? Dr. R. 

W. Blowey, writing about calf feeding practices in relation to health, actually uses the terms,” 

pipe” and “channel.” In our language this is how he describes the esophageal groove. First, 

the tissue that makes up the groove may be called the “lower esophagus.” This tissue passes 

across the wall of the reticulum (the side toward the middle of the animal) and ends right where 

the reticulum empties into the omasum. (Remember the stomach names? Reticulum, rumen, 

omasum and abomasum.) 

As we stand next to a new-born calf (also standing), this layer of tissue runs almost vertically 

straight down. It goes down from the lower end of the throat (esophagus) to the omasum. The 

19

milk dumps directly into the abomasum when the tissue is curled up into a tube. It is estimated 

that only three to five percent of the fluid milk or milk replacer leaks out of this tube at feeding 

time with adequate groove closure. No wonder we can’t see it when we cut open a dead calf 

- the muscles are loose. All we see is a flat surface. That’s because the muscles that fold the 

tissue into a tube aren’t working. When a live calf is stimulated properly she has “esophageal 

groove closure.” 

What happens when the esophageal groove closes on a living calf? Blowey summarizes the 

changes like this: 

1.horizontal muscles contract pulling the lips of the groove together; 

2. vertical muscles contract shortening the groove; and 

3. the right lip twists over the left one making a “pipe.” 

If you hold your hands in front of you with the palms facing the same way and thumbs together, 

you can see how this works. Just close all eight fingers. Your hands make a “pipe” from the 

edge of one hand to the other. Now, just imagine that same muscle action inside the calf’s 

stomach with tissue rolling up from either side. First, to form a “U” and then one side overlapping 

the other to form an “O.” Presto, esophageal groove. 

(left) Esophageal 

Groove in a calf 6 

weeks old, fed on a 

diet of milk only 

(right) Esophageal 

Groove in a calf 6 

weeks old, fed on 

a diet of milk and 

grain 

20

Why Does Closure Make a Difference? 

Why does this groove closure make a difference? It channels milk/milk replacer directly into the 

abomasum. It’s an ideal place to digest milk. It’s an acid environment. It’s where the enzyme 

rennin occurs. When milk hits here it clots - forms lumps. The rest of the milk (we call this liquid 

whey) goes on to be digested and absorbed in the small intestine. The “clots” stay behind in 

the abomasum. So far, so good. Even if we feed 100 percent whey-based milk replacer, better 

digestion is achieved by direct delivery to the abomasum. Two enzymes in the abomasum 

(pepsin for the protein called casein and lipase for the fat) eat away at these clots. The end 

result is nutrients that can either be absorbed directly or further digested in the small intestine. 

What happens if these “clots” don’t form properly? Whole milk gets into the small intestine. The 

protein, casein, can’t be digested very well in the intestine. But, it’s a great source of nutrients 

for bacterial growth. Oops! Scours! With whey-based milk replacers we also want to bypass 

the rumen and have the fluid milk replacer go directly into the abomasum. Poor clot formation 

and poor esophageal groove closure go together. That is, with poor groove closure lots of the 

milk ends up in the rumen instead of going directly into the abomasum. (Remember that rennin 

that makes clots is in the abomasum, not the rumen.) Some experts estimate that milk dumped 

into the rumen may take as long as three hours before it finally makes its way into the abomasum. 

What Does Research Tell Us? 

First, that sucking either from a nipple or a pail encourages closure. Second, that adrenalin 

(released into the blood stream when a calf is stressed) inhibits closure. Third, after the calf 

is 2-3weeks old, milk has a stronger positive effect than water to encourage closure. Fourth, 

too cold or variable milk temperatures inhibit full closure. Fifth, irregular feeding times and/or 

feeding patterns inhibit full closure. Sixth, having the base of the feeding bucket lower than 12” 

above where the calf is standing inhibits full closure. Blowey says, “Groove closure is stimulated 

by sight, sound, taste and other stimuli associated with feeding.” He suggests things like 

these: 

(1) feed at the same time of day; 

(2) feed calves in the same order; 

(3) let the calf see and hear milk being prepared; 

(4) have milk at proper feeding temperature; 

(5) if feeding milk replacers, have it mixed according to the manufacturer’s directions; 

(6) reduce stress as much as practical; 

(7) have your feeding bucket base at least 1 foot above where the calf is standing; and 

(8) remove unconsumed milk so it doesn’t get drunk cold. 

He uses the term, “mothering.” We often call it “tender, loving care - TLC” The more our calves 

are “mothered,” he says, the more likely they will experience adequate esophageal groove closure 

at feeding time. And, we will get more nutrients absorbed in the blood stream. And, we will 

get less undigested milk into the intestine to encourage bacterial growth leading to scours. 

21

Reference: R.W. Blowey, “Calf Feeding Practices in Relation to Health,” in Proceedings of 

BCVA, Summer 1994, pp.76-79. Source: Calving Ease, March 1996 (Revised Jan ’04) Calving 

Ease, 11047 River Road, Pavilion, NY 14525 www.calfnotes.com 

22

Calf Nutrition: Proper Rumen Development 

Developing a healthy rumen is important to ease the transition from a pre-ruminant to a ruminant 

animal. These pictures show how the rumen develops over time when dairy calves are 

fed various combinations of milk, grain, and hay. As you compare the pictures in this section, 

keep in mind that a healthy rumen has a dark coloration, which is caused by increased tissue 

mass and large blood vessels (vascularization). The papillae in a healthy rumen are numerous 

and visible without magnification. Differences in the number and size of papillae and the color 

of the rumen wall can be seen easily in these three calves. 

Rumen Comparisons: 4 Weeks of Age 

The calf fed grain in addition to hay and milk has a larger stomach, and greater rumen development. 

Note the healthy, dark coloration and visible rumen papillae. 

Diet: Milk, Grain, and Hay 

Diet: Milk and Hay 23


Diet: Milk Only 

Diet: Milk and Grain 

More Rumen Comparisons: 6 Weeks of Age 

The rumen of the calf fed milk only is considerably smaller than the other calves shown here. 

In addition, the grain-fed calf has much darker coloration and greater papillae development 

than the milk only calf. The grain-fed calf has a healthy, properly developing rumen. 

24

Diet: Milk Only 


Diet: Milk and Hay 

25


Both of these calves exhibit dark coloration of the rumen and reticulum, but if you examine 

the rumen it is apparent that the calf fed hay (bottom photo) has much less papillae development. 

The rumen wall is thin and papillae are short and sparse. In this case, the calf ate a large 

amount of hay and less grain than the calf in the top photo. The bulky fiber in hay filled the 

calf’s small stomach and limited grain intake. 


Diet: Milk, Grain, and Hay 


Both of these rumens are very large, but when it comes to rumen development size isn’t everything! 

Look at the dramatic difference in the number and length of papillae between these two 

calves. Also, note the healthy, dark coloration of the calf fed grain. The calf fed milk and hay 

has stunted rumen development, with light color and very little papillae growth. 

26

Diet: Milk, Hay, and Grain 

Diet: Milk and Hay 

The Importance of Grain in Developing the Rumen 

The importance of grain in developing the rumen should be obvious from the following two 

photos. The rumen of the calf at 4 weeks of age is more developed than the 12-week-old calf 

that received no grain. 

Age: 4 Weeks Diet: Milk and Grain Age: 12 Weeks Diet: Milk and Hay 

27

Continued grain feeding through 6 or 8 weeks leads to further papillae growth and development. 

Since grain intake is strongly related to rumen development and since we normally cannot 

see the inside of calves’ rumens, grain intake can be used as an indirect estimator of rumen 

development and a criterion for weaning. If calves are healthy and eat 1.5 to 2 pounds of 

grain per day for three consecutive days, they can be weaned any time after 4 weeks of age: 

This page located at: http://www.das.psu.edu/dairynutrition///dairynutrition/calves/rumen/index. 

cfm 

Copyright ©2007, The Pennsylvania State University Copyright ©2007 (www.psu.edu) 

The Pennsylvania State University (www.psu.edu) 

Rate of passage of feed for dry cows and lactating cows 

Dry Cows Milk Cows 

Body weight, lb 1541 1381 

Dry matter intake, lb/day 23.8 43.5 

Milk production, lb/day — 53.6 

Ruminal mean retention 

time, hr 

Grain 25.6 19.4 

Hay 30.0 30.3 

Total mean retention time 

in the digestive tract, hr 

Grain 47.0 39.2 

Hay 55.3 50.7 

Source: Adapted from Hartnell, G. F. and L. D.Satter. 1979. Determination of rumen fill, 

retention time and ruminal turnover rates of ingesta at different stages of lactation in 

dairy cows. J. Anim. Sci. 48:381. Means reported in this table were taken from four dry 

cows and four lactating cows. 

Eating and Rumination Behavior 

Eating, min./24hr 204.4 

Rumination, min./24hr 466.3 

Total chewing time, min./24hr 670.7 

28

Types of Feeds and Feed Nutrients 

Forages are perennial and annual crops grown for use as pasture, green chop, haylage, silage, 

or hay that have been harvested at the proper length. They contain significant levels of protein, 

fiber, energy, and vitamins A and E. If the crops have been sun-cured, the feed may also contain 

significant levels of vitamin D. 

Roughages are crops or processing wastes of adequate particle size that arehigh in fiber, relatively 

low in energy content, and devoid of fat soluble vitamins A, D, and E. Cereal straw, cornstalks, 

cottonseed hulls, corn cobs, or apple pomace with hulls are common roughages. 

Concentrates are cereal grains and by-product feedstuffs containing relatively high levels of 

energy. Generally, concentrates are finer in particle size than properly harvested forages. 

Most concentrates are too fine in particle size to provide a sufficient rumen mat, maintain normal 

rumen epithelial tissue, and stimulate sufficient chewing and eructation of gases. For these 

reasons, it is generally recommended that most of the NDF in the diet be in the form of forage 

NDF. 

Forage dry matter intake should range between 1.4 to 2.4 percent of body weight regardless of 

forage NDF intake parameters. 

29

Minerals 

TOXICITY SYMPTOMS AND PROB- 

LEMS 

NRC, 1989) 

Rickets; slow growth and poor bone de- Calcium fed at levels more than .95 to 

velopment; easily fractured bones; re- 1.00% dry matter basis may reduce induced 

milk yield; milk fever (a disturbance take and lower performance. 

of normal calcium metabolism). 

Fragile bones; poor growth; low blood Excessive phosphorus intakes may cause 

P: depraved appetite—chewing wood, bone resorption, elevated plasma phos- 

hair, and bones; poor reproductive perphorus levels, and urinary calculi. 

formance. Chronic deficiency may cause 

animals to have stiff joints. 

Craving for salt; reduced appetite. Excessive levels of chlorine without sodium 

or potassium can contribute to an 

acidosis condition. 

MINERAL FUNCTION DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS, ASSOCIAT- 

ED PROBLEMS (LEVELS LOWER THAN 

Calcium (Ca) Bone and teeth 

formation;blood clotting; 

muscle contraction. 

Bone and teeth formation; 

P. is involved 

in energy metabolism, 

part of DNA and RNA. 

Phosphorus 

(P) 

Irritability; tetany; increased excitability. Not usually a problem. 

Sulfur levels exceeding .35% on a drymatter 

basis may reduce intake and overload 

the urinary excretion system. Sulfur 

can interfere with the metabolism of other 

Slow growth; reduced milk production; 

reduced feed efficiency. 

minerals, especially selenium and copper. 

High levels found in young, very lush forages 

can interfere with magnesium metabolism 

and utilization. 

Decreased feed intake; loss of hair glossiness; 

lower blood and milk potassium. 

Chlorine (Cl) Acid-base balance, 

maintenance of osmotic 

pressure, manufacture 

of hydrochloric 

acid in abomasum. 

Magnesium Enzyme activator; 

(Mg) 

found in skeletal tissue 

and bone. 

Sulfur (S) Needed for rumen 

microbial protein synthesis 

especially when 

nonprotein nitrogen is 

fed. 

Potassium (K) Maintenance of 

electrolyte balance; 

enzyme activator; 

muscle function; 

nerve function.

Toxicity signs may appear at 50 to 200 

ppm. Symptoms include excess salivation, 

watery nasal discharge, and coughing. 

Iodine (I) Synthesis of thyroxine. Big neck in calves; goitrogenic 

substances may cause deficiency. 

Nutritional anemia. Iron concentration exceeding 1,000ppm 

is characterized by diarrhea, hyperthermia, 

metabolic acidosis, and reduced 

feed intake and daily gain. 

Iron (Fe) Part of hemoglobin; part of 

many enzyme systems 

Toxicity symptoms include jaundice, 

liver damage, and death. Upper limit is 

considered 80 ppm. 

Severe diarrhea; abnormal 

appetite; poor growth; coarse, 

bleached, or graying of hair 

coat; osteomalcia. 

Copper (Cu) Needed for the manufacture of 

hemoglobin; coenzyme. 

Upper limit is 10 to 20 ppm. Signs of 

toxicity include reduced feed intake and 

body weight; emaciation; weakness; 

anemia. 

Reduced appetite; anemia; decreased 

milk production; rough 

hair coat. 

Cobalt (Co) Part of vitamin B12; needed for 

growth of rumen microorganisms. 

Maximum safe level is 1000 ppm. 

Excess interferes with iron metabolism 

and 

Delayed or decreased signs of 

estrus; poor conception. 

Growth; bone formation; enzyme 

activator. 

Manganese 

(Mn) 

induces hypomagnesia. 

Maximum safe level is not more than 

500 ppm. 

Decreased weight gains; lowered 

feed efficiency; skin problems; 

slow wound healing; 

listlessness. 

Zinc (Zn) Enzyme activator; wound healing.

TOXICITY SYMPTOMS AND PROBLEMS 

MINERAL FUNCTION DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS, AS- 

SOCIATED PROBLEMS 

(LEVELS LOWER THAN NRC, 

Maximum safe level is 3 to 5 ppm.Toxicity 

shown by “alkali disease” or “blind stag- 

1989) 

White muscle disease in calves; 

retained plcenta. 

gers”; lameness; sloughed hooves. 

Maximum safe level is 6 ppm.Symptoms 

include emaciation; intense liquid diarrhea; 

weakness; stiffness; hair color changes. 

Loss of weight; emaciation; 

diarrhea. 

Selenium (Se) Functions with certain 

enzymes; associated with 

vitamin E. 

Molybdenum (Mo) Part of the enzyme xanthine 

oxidase. 

Sources: Compiled from Jurgens, M. H. Animal Feeding and Nutrition, 5th ed. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt, 1982, and National 

Research Council (NRC), 1989. 

32

Minerals can be expressed on the basis of elemental content or total ash. They provide skeletal 

structure to bones and cells and are necessary in many chemical and enzymatic reactions 

in the body. An animal may draw upon its bones for limited amounts of calcium and phosphorus. 

Table 2 describes the main functions, deficiency and toxicity symptoms, and associated 

problems that can occur. 

Calcium can have a pronounced effect on rumen metabolism, production, skeletal growth, and 

reproduction. Calcium is most likely to be deficient when using rations high in grass or wholeplant 

corn silage. Failure to supplement or balance rations, especially for young stock and dry 

cows, can result in poor production and infertility. Milk fever and retained placenta may also 

increase. Poor skeletal growth and fractures in legs of young stock may result. 

Excessive calcium in the ration for dry cows and springing heifers can depress digestibility, 

reduce feed intake, and increase the incidence of milk fever, retained placenta, and uterine 

infection. The incidence of infertility, especially cystic problems, may increase when calcium is 

highly excessive. Frequent causes of excessive calcium intake are overfeeding high-calcium 

forage to dry cows and over-supplementation with calcium for any animal group. 

Phosphorus is very important for normal rumen metabolism, reproduction, skeletal growth, and 

production. Low phosphorus intake frequently occurs in young stock and dry cows from lack 

of supplementation or concentrate feeding. Sometimes the problem can be due to poor availability 

of phosphorus sources. Bone growth and strength may become impaired if inadequate 

levels of phosphorus are supplied. 

Excessive phosphorus intake is most often encountered in rations for milk cows. This generally 

results from oversupplementation, particularly when high levels of by-product feed ingredients 

are fed. Production and especially reproduction may be adversely affected. Prolonged consumption 

of high phosphorus diets may cause metabolic problems due to disorders associated 

with calcium absorption and metabolism. 

Magnesium is necessary to maintain normal rumen fermentation, skeletal growth, production, 

reproduction, and health. Depressed fiber digestibility and impaired reproduction usually occur 

when rations are not balanced for this element or properly supplemented. Low magnesium 

intake may result in grass or winter tetany and complicated milk fever cases. Excessive magnesium 

may depress intake, digestibility, and production. This may result in nutritional scouring 

or diarrhea. 

Sulfur is necessary for the synthesis of essential amino acids by rumen microbes. Sulfur supplementation 

is important in rations containing high levels of nonprotein nitrogen since several 

sulfur-containing amino acids must be made by rumen microbes, notably, cysteine, cystine, 

and methionine. Low sulfur intake results in an induced protein deficiency, and excessive intake 

damages liver tissue and function. Forages should be tested periodically and balanced for 

this nutrient. 

Potassium is essential for maintaining acid-base balance relationships and allowing transmission 

of nerve impulses to muscle fibers. It activates or functions as a cofactor in several 

33

enzyme systems. Potassium deficiency most often occurs when using rations containing large 

amounts of wet or dried brewers grains or distillers grains without solubles (light grains). Low 

intake of potassium can result in reduced feed intake and depressed production and fat test. 

Inadequate potassium in the diet can also increase stress from heat and humidity and may 

result in paralysis of rear legs. Excessive intakes of potassium by springing cows and heifers 

may increase udder congestion and is a factor related to milk fever in anion-cation balance. 

Sodium and chloride are elements provided by salt, but they are also found to some extent in 

most feeds. Low salt intake is one of the most common problems in the diet of dairy cattle. This 

can result from failure to supplement salt when using commercial protein concentrates that are 

low in salt to make them more palatable. 

Some rations are balanced using only sodium levels and may result in low chlorine due to the 

use of buffers. Salt should be provided free choice as well as force fed for most animal groups. 

Salt should be limited somewhat for springing and dry cows when severe problems are encountered 

with udder congestion. Low intakes seriously reduce feed intakes and production 

and may increase the incidence of displaced abomasum. Lack of salt also impairs acid-basebalance. 

Trace elements play an important role in the diet of dairy cattle. A lack of these elements may 

adversely affect production and especially health to an extent equal to the deficiency of either 

protein or energy. Dairy producers at least should monitor levels of copper, zinc, and selenium 

by using suitable trace mineral premixes containing other elements such as manganese, iron, 

cobalt, and iodine in proper proportions. 

Low intakes of trace minerals can be widespread in young stock and dry cows. Copper and 

zinc often are lacking in rations for milk cows because levels of the elements are low in homegrown 

feeds in many areas of the country. Induced copper deficiency may result from high 

sulfate, molybdenum, iron, and manganese intakes through polluted water or crops. 

Selenium is deficient in feeds grown in certain areas of the country (e.g., the Northeast). In 

many of these deficient areas, selenium is often lacking in rations for young stock and dry 

cows, and about one-third of the herds still have low levels in milk cows. Low intakes greatly 

increase susceptibility to infections, including those of the udder, uterus, and foot. 

Cobalt and iodine are most often lacking in young stock and dry cow rations. Lack of cobalt 

results in a deficiency of vitamin B12, which is essential to animal health and metabolism. Appetite 

is reduced, and anemia may result when cobalt is lacking. Lack of iodine hampers thyroid 

function and endocrine or hormonal relationships. Excessive intake of iodine may result in 

too- high values in the milk (over .5 ppm).Dairy producers should provide a trace mineral salt 

or other mineral-vitamin mixtures containing these trace elements to all groups. 

Fluorine and molybdenum generally are not lacking in a diet. Excesses to the point of toxicity 

are more apt to occur. This may result from high fluorine in some phosphorus supplements or 

contamination of forage by air pollution near aluminum plants, foundries, and steel mills. Excessive 

fluorine, over 30 to 40 ppm in the total ration dry matter, causes foot and leg problems 

34

or production. High molybdenum may result from water contamination, especially in coal areas. 

This can lead to an induced copper deficiency. 

Excessive intakes of trace elements may adversely affect production and health. This generally 

occurs from oversupplementation and sometimes from water and feed contamination. Intake 

levels can be ascertained through the use of blood and liver analyses. 

35

Vitamins 

Vitamin Function Deficiency Symptoms and 

Associated Problems (levels 

lower than NRC, 1989) 

A Essential for normal 

vision;cellular function, 

and maintenance 

of epithelial linings of 

respiratory, reproductive, 

and digestive 

tracts 

D Normal bone growth 

and development; 

absorption of calcium 

and phosphorus; mobilization 

of calcium 

and phophorus 

E Antioxidant; associated 

with selenium 

K Required for blood 

clotting 

Night blindness; skin problems; 

blind, dead, or weak 

calves; reproduction problems 

Toxicity Symptoms and Problems 

Toxicity is not considered a 

problem under most practical 

feeding programs 

Rickets; osteomalcia Maximum limit is 100,000 

IU/head daily 

Oxidized flavor in milk; 

muscle problems; white 

muscle disease; cardiac 

muscle abnormalities 

Moldy sweet clover disease; 

hemmorhages 

Toxicity is not considered a 

problem under most practical 

feeding programs 

Source: Compiled from Jurgens, M.H., Animal Feeding and Nutrition, 5th ed., Dubuque, Iowa; 

Kendall-Hunt 1982, and National Research Council (NRC) 1989. 

Vitamin Needs 

Guide to Vitamin Composition in Rations for High-Producing Dairy Cows 

Stage of Lactation 

Early Mid Late 

IU/lb DM 

Vitamin A 3500 3500 3500 

Vitamin D 

Minimum 750 750 750 

Maximum 1100 1100 1100 

Vitamin E 20 20 20 

Source: Use of Total Mixed Rations (TMR) for Dairy Cows. 

Penn State Dairy and Animal Science Extension Fact Sheet 94-25. 

36 

--

Dairy cattle have a physiological requirement for the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K. Generally, 

dairy cattle of all ages require a dietary source of vitamins A and E. Vitamin D may be 

synthesized in the skin under the influence of ultraviolet radiation or may be included in the 

diet. Rumen microbes synthesize adequate amounts of vitamin K to meet the needs of most 

dairy cattle with the exception of young calves. Under most feeding situations, there should be 

few problems with deficiencies. However, as dairy cattle are being fed more ensiled forages 

and exposed to less sunlight, additional vitamin supplementation will be needed to maintain 

health and high levels of production. 

Fat-soluble vitamins may not constitute a large part of the ration; nonetheless they are extremely 

important in the health and production of the dairy cow. Vitamin A and its pro-vitamin, 

beta carotene, are necessary for good health and reproduction. Low vitamin A status is most 

apt to occur when rations are high in hay and/or corn silage. Haylage rations also may be low 

in vitamin A if they do not have good green color. Use of pasture or green chop at a minimum 

of 50 percent of the forage dry matter for several months can replenish liver stores. 

Vitamin D supplementation at proper levels may improve calcium and phosphorus utilization, 

metabolism, and reproductive performance. Low intakes of vitamin D may result in rickets and 

weak bones, as well as weak or silent heats, especially in young stock. Vitamin D should be included 

in the formulation of the ration to avoid excessive levels. Excessive intakes occur quite 

frequently. An intake of 80,000 units per head daily may depress production. An intake exceeding 

100,000 units for an extended period may increase the incidence of milk fever as well as 

infertility, joint problems, lameness, and heart failure. 

Vitamin E is most apt to be limiting with a ration high in hay or corn silage and haylage lacking 

green color. Both vitamin E and selenium are necessary for good resistance to disease. Low 

intake of vitamin E makes the animal more susceptible to infections and has pronounced effect 

on the ability of white blood cells to kill organisms and on the production of antibodies. Low 

vitamin E intake may result in oxidized flavor, or milk that tastes like cardboard. Many commercial 

products contain relatively low amounts of this vitamin. 

Vitamin K generally is not lacking in the ration. It is synthesized by rumen microbes, unlike 

other fat-soluble vitamins, and affects blood clotting. Sweet clover poisoning is the syndrome 

most commonly associated with vitamin K deficiency. When sweet clover hay or silage becomes 

moldy or spoiled, dicoumarol, a fermentation product, develops. The hemorrhagic action 

of dicoumarol and related derivatives is due to specific antivitamin K activity. 

Water 

Adequate water intake is needed to provide for vital body functions. Water is required for maintaining 

body fluids and 

proper ion balance; for digesting, absorbing, and metabolizing nutrients; for eliminating waste 

materials and excess heat from the body; for providing a fluid environment for the developing 

fetus; and for transporting nutrients to and from body tissue. Adequate water intake of reasonable 

good chemical and bacteriological quality must be available to optimize dry matter intake. 

37

The amount of water consumed is influenced by the dry matter ingested, climatic conditions, 

composition of the diet, water quality, and the physiological state of the animal. 

Water intake needs by various age groups of dairy cattle, drinking water only. 

COW TYPE AGE OR CONDITION GALLONS PER DAY 

Holstein Calves 1 mo 1.3-2.0 




Holstein Heifers 5 mo 3.8-4.6 

Holstein Heifers 15-18 mo 5.9-7.1 

Holstein Heifers 18-24 mo 7.3-9.6 

Dry Cows Pregnant, 6-9 mo 7-13; average 10 

Lactating cows depends on production and other factors 

Source: J. Dairy Science 66 (1983):35 and J. Dairy Science 75 (1992):1472 

Note: Generally, beef cattle consume water at the rate of 1% of body weight in gallons daily. 

One gallon of 

water weighs 8.34 pounds. A cubic foot of water weighs 62.4 pounds. Water intake will be 

higher for all 

cattle during hot weather. 

Source: From Feed to Milk: Understanding Rumen Function, Extension Circular 422, by Virginia 

Ishler, extension assistant in the Department of Dairy and Animal Science, Jud Heinrichs, 

professor of Dairy and Animal Science, and Gabriella Varga, associate professor of Animal Science, 

Pennsylvania State University, 1996 

38

A 

Albert, Devin 

4590 Ruby Lee Lane 

San Angelo, TX 76904 

(325) 325-651-1214 

devinalbert@wcc.net 

Dues Due: 07/08/07 

Anderson, Randy & Karla 

4430 275th Ave. N.E. 

Belgrade, MN 56312 

320-254-3324 

Dues Due: 01/01/07 

Audarya Monastary 

22001 Panorama Way 

Philo, CA. 95466 

707-895-3052 

swami@swami.org 

Dues Due: 08/08/08 

B 

Bachtel, Kathe 

KB Farms – KB 

19440 E. Mews Road 

Queen Creek, AZ 85242 

480.988.9504 

Dues Due: 01/01/07 

Balensiefen, Bob 

19174 1750 North Avenue 

Princeton, Il 61356 

818-879-4003 

www.rgbexotics.com 

Dues Due: 03/01/07 

Bellamy, Gene 

QVB 

5517 NW 42 

Oklahoma City, OK 73122 

405-789-7280 

alottacritters@earthlink.net 

Dues Due: 09/01/05 

Bellard, John L. & Amanda 

2069 Nesom Road 

Clinton, LA 70722 

225-936-1924 

abellard@neighborsfcu.org 

Dues Due: 04/08/07 

2007 AMZA Members 

Berry, Bob 

Et Cetera Farms 

3207 Almeda-Genoa Road 

Houston, TX 77047 

(713) 434-0034 

RBerry111@aol.com 

Dues Due: 08/09/07 

Berry, Shanna L. 

1551 CR 144 

Georgetown, TX 78626 

shanna@starmoldinc.com 

Dues Due: 1/15/08 

Best, Angale & Mike 

19006 Stevens Road 

Tecumseh, OK 74873 

(405) 391-4744 

angale1961@aol.com 

Dues Due: 02/04/08 

Blackwell, Kass & Dave 

HC 7 BOX 259 

Kingston, OK 73439 

kblackwell@hotmail.com 

Dues Due: 02/01/06 

Bogle, Rick 

601 Sherwood Drive 

Altamonte Springs, FL 32701 

407-468-9002 

www.boglefarms.net 

RVBogle@earthlink.net 

Dues Due: 05/09/07 

Boleman, Dr. Chris 

Texas A&M University 

AMZA Judge 

Mail Stop 2116 Scoates Hall 

College Station, TX 76273 

Brennan, Eric & Debbie 

709 Eastern Valley Lane 

Whitesboro, TX 76273 

940-612-3447 

brennansurveying@netzero.com 

Dues Due: 01/01/06 

Broussard, Belva and Wilfred 

1524 Lady of the Lake Road 

Saint Martinville, LA 70582 

(337) 394-7265 

belva@sugarlandfarm.com 

Dues Due: 07/30/07 

Byerly, Steve & Kay 

Dry Creek Farm 

1630 Dogpatch Drive 

Terrell, TX 75161 

972-524-6668 

www.drycreekzebus.com 

stvbyr1@aol.com 

sdlebag2@aol.com 

Dues Due: 01/28/07 

C 

Carson, Fred & Cindy 

P.O. Box 943 

Delta, CO 81416 

970-874-8368 

cinfred@aol.com 

Dues Due: 04/17/07 

Clark, Dotty 

AMZA Judge 

8370 W. Abbey Lane 

Wilhoit, AZ 86332 

928-776-0092 

dcdc@dcminiatures.com 

Dues Due: 01/01/07 

Corley, Jerry 

147 Birdhouse Road 

Trout, LA 71371 

(318) 992-8101 

Patsy28@excite.com 

Dues Due: 06/30/07 

Counts, Donna 

Storybook Farm – SBF 

2729 Kleberg Road 

Seagoville, TX 75159 

972-287-1818 

Dues Due: 12/18/06 

Covington, Joyce 

MCC Farms -- MCC 

6109 FM 390 N. 

Brenham, TX 77833-7216 

(979)830-9046 

mccfarmsbr@aol.com 

www.mccfarms.com 

Dues Due: 09/04/07 

39

Curtis, Red & Pam 

1973 Roland Road 

Whitesboro, TX 76273 

903-564-5898 

redcurtis@dhexpress.us 

Dues Due: 01/26/07 

D/E 

Dees, Dr. Alexandra 

Cavalo Real - CR 

P.O.Box 653 

Somis, CA 93006 

805.386.0202 H 

805.386.4812 F 

www.cavaloreal.com 

Dues Due: 10/07 

D’Angelo, Philip 

Mini Moo Farm - MMF 

6570 NE 172 Court 

Williston, FL 32696 

(352) 528-0368 

ps55r@yahoo.com 

Dues Due: 02/01/08 

DeMoor, Steve 

140 Wekiua Park Drive 

Sanford, FL 32771 

(407) 509-9069 

www.zebufarm.com 

Dues Due: 01/17/08 

Diaz, Sal and Beth 

Muck Pond Farms – MPF 

6248 Muck Pond Road 

Seffner, FL 33584 

(813) 781-2260 

bethdiaz@tampabay.rr.com 

Dues Due: 02/01/08 

Engelsman, Laura 

S1985 Durham Road 13 

RR #4 Sunderland 

Ontario, Canada LOC 1Ho 

lrfspot@sympatico.ca 

Dues Due: 04/01/06 

F 

Fagalde, Mary Jane 

P.O. Box 674 

Kelseyville, CA 95451 

(707) 279-8727 

Oops_ranch@mchsi.com 

Dues Due: 07/30/07 

40 

Fairbanks, Chris 

4609 O’Connor Court 

Irving, TX 75062 

214-502-2459 

Dues Due: 01/01/07 

G 

Ganschow, Jeff & Debbie 

2200 Creechville Road 

Ennis, TX 75119 

972-878-3103 

ddr_mini@yahoo.com 

www.doubledreamranch.com 

Dues Due: 09/29/07 

Gibson, Walter T.J. 

Official AMZA Judge 

T.J. Gibson Ranch 

P.O.Box 1424 

Quinlan, TX 75474 

903.356.6803 

tjgibson@onlineisp.net 

www.onlineisp.net/tjgibson 

Dues Due: 01/01/07 

Grant-Simmons, Linda 

Official AMZA Judge 

712 Mimosa 

Cedar Hill, TX 75104 

972-293-6868 

Lgrant_canada@yahoo.com 

Dues Due: 01/01/07 

H 

Haas, Robin 

433 Chisholm Road 

Inman, KS 67546 

620-585-6884 

Rlhaas4@hotmail.com 

Dues Due: 01/01/07 

Hamman, Don 

962A S. Westwood 

Porterville, CA93257 

559-783-8183 

dhamman@olivewoodranch.com 

www.olivewoodranch.com 

Dues Due: 01/01/06 

Hammons, Jerome 

1373 W.B. Lewing Road 

Many, LA 71449 

(318) 256-2420 

Dues Due: 07/31/07 

Hanneman, Sarah 

5991 CR 4061 

Scurry, TX 75158 

214-520-0726 

lacyacres@hotmail.com 

Dues Due: 08/17/05 

Harper, Larry & Ann 

Git Er Dun - GED 

1550 S.E. 175th Street 

Summerfield, FL 34491 

(352) 585-6070 

lrryharper@aol.com 

Dues Due: 12/07/07 

Harris, Mike & Wanda 

1755 Walsh Street 

Oviedo, FL 32765 

(407) 971-2429 

Miway6@aol.com 

Dues Due: 02/01/08 

Hasty, Denice 

AMZA Judge 

6154 Newt Patterson Road 

Mansfield, TX 76063 

denicehasty@sbcglobal.net 

Dues Due: 01/01/07 

Hawkins, Linda 

Winding Lane Farm – WLF 

P.O. Box 1012 

Waldron, AR 72958 

479-637-9217 

www.windinglanefarm.com 

Dues Due: 03/28/07 

Hays, Jackie & Lorie 

Standing Oak Farm – SOF 

814 East Braod Street 

Mineola, TX 75773 

Dues Due: 04/08/07 

Helton, Keely & Curtis 

Fun On The Farm – FOF 

2300 McGarity Lane 

Lucas, TX 75002 

972-390-1933 

www.funonthefarm.net 

Dues Due: 05/03/07 

Hoffman, David 

DRH Noaark 

18425 East Via De Palmas 

Queen Creek, AZ 85242 

480-987-1117 

Dues Due: 11/8/06

House, Nancy 

WBF 

1315 FM 2025 Road 

Cleveland, TX 77328-8617 

281-659-9607 

wannebe@quik.com 

Dues Due: 11/30/06 

Howes, Ida Bess 

P.O. Box 150 

Round Top, TX 78954 

979-249-5380 

Dues Due: 07/01/06 

Huckabee, Rusty & Family 

Radar Hill Farms – RHF 

1000 E. Peruvian Pasture Lane 

Brooksville, FL 34601 

(352) 341-2182 

www.radarhillfarms.com 

sagginh@shadrach.net 

Dues Due (F): 02/01/08 

I/J/K 

Kappel, Lance & Pat 

10305 Tonque Creek Road 

Austin, CO 81410 

970-835-8360 

kappelspaints@aol.com 

Dues Due: 04/17/07 

Keasler, Bernie & Chris 

Crooked Star Ranch CSR 

12115 FM 157 

Maypearl, TX 76064 

972-435-2615 

e-mail Bkeasler@swbell.net 

http://www.crookedstarranch.com 

Dues Due: 8/26/07 

Kehoe, Robert 

CCMF - CCM 

716 Logan Lane 

Winter Haven, FL 33880 

(863) 324-4780 

www.crittercreek.com 

spikepheasants@yahoo.com 

Dues Due: 02/01/08 

King, Jan 

900 CR 126 

Georgetown, TX 78626 

(512) 819-9444 

e-mail jlking@mailaka.net 

Kinion, Kari 

Kinion Miniature Zebus-- KSK 

7866 E. 92nd Street S. 

Sully, IA 50251 

(641) 798-4587 

jandkfarms@yahoo.com 

www.kinionminizebu.com 

Dues Due: 12/07/07 

L 

Lanier, Bill/Jacobs, Bev 

Dragonflye Farms Miniature Livestock 

DFF 

905 S. 181 Avenue 

Goodyear, AZ 85338 

623-853-8155 

dragonflyefarms@yahoo.com 

www.dragonflyefarm.com 

Dues Due:12/01/06 

Lekschas, Helmut 

HL Cattle Co. – HL 

5405 NW 135th St. 

Reddick, FL 32686 

(352) 591-5363 

hlqtr@alltel.net 

Dues Due: 02/01/08 

Love, Dottie 

Sale,Tom 

Fancher Love Ranch – FLR 

327 Krajca Road 


214-244-9565 


www.fancherloveranch.com 

Lifetime Member 

Lovell, Paul 

P.O. Box 1288 

Canton, TX 75103 

903-865-6028 

Dues Due: 01/01/07 

Lynch, Terry 

14527 Wheatland Drive 

Longmont, CO 80504 

(303) 651-3022 

Tlynch14527@msn.com 

Dues Due: 01/31/08 

M 

Mannos, Jim 

AMZA Registrar 

1414 Wilson Road 

Lancaster, TX 75146-5526 

972-227-7060 

ndgareg@aol.com 

Lifetime Member 

Martin, Robert J. (Bob) 

P.O. Bax 257 

Troup, TX 75789 

903-561-1229 

Bob2058212@msn.com 

Dues Due: 05/07/07 

Maxwell, Roger 

Maxwell’s Minis – MAX 

2514 Walker Road 

Jonesboro, LA 71251 

318-259-3427 

Dues Due: 12/18/06 

McCormick, Sunni 

22815 Zuni Road 

Apple Valley, CA 92307 

951-453-4743 

sundogger@verizon.net 

Dues Due: 02/03/07 

McIntire, Suzanne & Frank 

McScurry Farm 

6161 CR 4070 

Kemp, TX 75143 

903-498-4433 

mcscurryfarm@yahoo.com 

Dues Due: 01/01/07 

Meding, Rosemary 

Shell Creek Ranch – SCR 

33131 Serene Dr. 

Punta Gorda, FL 33982 

www.miniaturezebus.com 

Dues Due: 02/01/08 

Millison, David 

Woodhaven Farms – WHF 

AMZA Judge 


Lancaster, TX 75146-5526 

972-227-7311 

whfarms@aol.com 

www.woodhavenfarms.net 

Lifetime member 

41

Mullins, Carolann 

Mullins Mule & Zebu Farm 

6217 Muck Pond Road 

Seffner, FL 33584 

813-653-3441 

mullinsmules@aol.com 

Dues Due: 12/01/06 

Munchrath, Larry – AMZA Webmaster 

Nordin, Michael 

Munchranch – MRF 

261 VZ CR 2924 

Eustace, TX 75124 

903.887.6378 

lmunchrath@netzero.com 

www.munchranch.com 

www.miniaturezebucattle.info 

Lifetime member 

Murren, Larry and Cindy 

P.O. Box 100 

Newberry, FL 32669 

(352) 472-7462 

LMurren@acmenet.net 

Dues Due: 07/30/07 

N/O 

Olive, Cathy 

ZEBU email list moderator 

8315 Elroy Road 

Del Valle, TX 78617 

512-247-2485 

TRZOO@aol.com 

Dues Due: 01/01/08 

Ontiveros, M.J. 

8522 FM 1181 


(972) 878-3021 

ctrypetz@airmail.net 

Dues Due: 07/30/07 

P/Q/R 

Pettit, Elizabeth 

8172 County Road 208 

Navasota, TX 77868 

936-894-3657 

eapettit@yahoo.com 

Dues due 9/05/07 

42 

Pizzolato, Michael 

5335 Bayonne Dr. 

Greenwell Springs, LA 70739 

225-335-7712 

Popolizio, Frank 

3610 State Street 

Schenectady, NY 12304 

ssd@nycap.rr.com 

www.southsidestables.com 

(518) 588-0188 

Dues Due: 12/07/07 

Repp, Rusty 

AMZA Judge 

Little Tot’s Estate 

206 Ivy Creek Drive 

Loganville, GA 30052 

770-466-3583 

rrepp@littletotsestate.com 

Dues Due: 01/01/07 

Ricer, Ken 

2014 Wright Road 

Akron, OH 44320-2440 

330-864-4276 

Dues Due: 11/21/06 

Rick, Edward J. 

18805 N. HWY 329 

Micanopy, FL 32667 

(352) 591-6090 

rickk@mail.vetmed.vfl.edu 

Dues Due: 02/01/08 

Rohner, Judy & Larry 

Buffalo Hill – BHE 

1501 Brick Hill Road 

Centralia, IL 62801 

618-532-9036 

buffalohillexotics@netwitz.net 

www.buffalohillexotics.com 

Dues Due(f): 09/30/07 

Rojas, Saul 

Woodford, Randy 

Pride Of Texas – PT 

16220 So. FM 148 


903-498-4634 

saul@prideoftexas.com 

www.miniaturezebucows.com 

Dues Due: 01/29/07 

S 

Sandling, Eunice 


Lancaster, TX 75146 

972-227-4223 

Tenmile1@juno.com 

Dues Due: 01/01/07 

Schmidt, John & Kathleen 

The Other Side – TOS 

20513 NW 13th Street 

Dunnellon, FL 34431 

(352) 465-0025 

jksch@earthlink.net 

Dues Due: 02/01/08 

Schocker, Dean 

31020 27th Avenue 

New Liberty, IA 52765 

563-843-3848 

deanschocker@netins.net 

Dues Due: 04/18/06 

Seiler, April 

AMZA Judge 

Ahsum Pygmies 

7720 S. 27th Avenue 

Phoenix, AZ 85041 

602-276-6306 

adseiler@aol.com 

Dues Due: 01/01/07 

Shelby, Rick & Pam 

Rocking S2 

9900 CR 519 

Burleson, TX 76028 

817-790-8325 

CBAUTU@sbcglobal.net 

Dues Due: 09/06/06 

Slade, Leslie 

RMB 2368 Station Road 

Prosperine, Queensland 

4800 Australia 

legstails@yahoo.com 

04/01/08 

Sokolow, Sonya 

Minmar Farms – SSS 

301 Highview Court 

Santa Cruz, CA 95060 

831-423-1417 

Sonya@thesokolows.com 

Dues Due: 11/30/06

Stocks, Mark & Nancy 

P.O. Box 376 

Crawford, GA 30630 

manasto@juno.com 

Dues due: 03/24/07 

Strauss, Tom 

McCauly, Bert 

WSF 

14106 Hooper Road 

Houston, TX 77047 

713-529-5577 

Dues Due: 09/30/05 

Stull, Debi 

5699 Happy Canyon Road 

Santa Ynez, CA 93460 

(805) 688-9313 

debbies@allied-pacific.com 

Dues Due: 07/30/07 

Swafford, Michael & Becky 

Sunny Acres – SSA 

13236 C.R. 137 

Wellborn, FL 32094-2126 

(386) 963-5285 

swaffm2b4@alltel.net 

Dues Due 02/01/08 

Swanson, Virgil 

4110 E. Cloverdale Road 

Chillicothe, IL 61523 

309-274-3433 

Dues Due: 01/01/07 

T 

Tapley, David 

P.O. Box 1074 

250 Private Road 8418 

Van, TX 75790 

903-963-5249 

Dues Due: 10/01/06 

Teppe, Scott 

6140 Fairfield 

Wichita, KS 67204 

316-371-0099 

SerpentHunter@aol.com 

Dues Due: 02/10/08 

U/V/W 

Underwood, Mike & Marion 

4477 So. Williams Road 

St. Johns, MI 48879 

989-224-9227 

Mike@avi-sci.com 

Dues Due: 03/10/06 

Wass de Gzege, Geza & Zsuzsanna 

18641 Telegraph Creek Lane 

Alva, Fl 33920 

(239) 694-2929 

Dues Due: 02/01/08 

Webster, Dean & Austin 

Rocking AW Ranch – RAW 

13420 W. Emigh Road 

Tucson, AZ 85743-9743 

520-745-5190 

rockin_aw_ranch@peoplepc.com 

Dues Due:11/1/06 

White, Gail 

2009 Pohlman Road 

Sebring, FL 33875 

(863) 655-9173 

Grw.gailwhite@aol.com 

Dues Due: 12/07/07 

Wood, Wayne 

286 Seabreeze Lake Road 

Buchanan, Ga 30113 

770-646-3413 

Two2rheas@aol.com 

Dues Due: 04/26/07 

Woodford, Randy 

Rojas, Saul 

Pride Of Texas – PT 

16220 So. FM 148 


903-498-4634 

farmer@ix.netcom.com 

www.miniaturezebucows.com 

Dues Due: 01/29/07 

Woolwine, Brent 

1828 No. Newell Road 

Vincennes, IN 47591 

812-726-5335 

BWollwine@vinu.edu 

Dues Due: 04/18/06 

43

Letter from 

the Webmaster 

Our AMZA website is a work in progress. We 

have added the show result pages with full 

color pictures of the top winners, and printable 

pages of all the placings. If your name 

and animal is there without a photo, please 

send it to me so we can get your winner on 

line. 

Thanks to all the hard work from Dottie Love, 

the Journals are also on line and archived so 

you will not have to miss an issue. The Bulletin 

page keeps our members updated with 

the most current information coming down 

from the President, David Millison, as to what 

is coming up in the future. There are a lot of 

events in the planning stages that you will not 

want to miss, so please check it out. 

Also, if you have any good head shots of horn 

shapes that we do not have, or colors that 

needed to be added to our color page, you 

can send those also. 

44 

We have added a page for the members to see 

how many points and wins their animals have 

accumulated and will keep up with it so you do 

not have to. In addition, we will make a page to 

post the Permanent Grand Champion names. 

We hope to add more informational pages in 

the future when we find the time. An example 

is a page that shows some of the maladies that 

the zebu cattle breed might have, and hopefully 

remedies or preventions for these things. 

Another page we’re planning is one of David’s 

projects, a page called ‘You Be The Judge”. 

This page will be an on-line judging experience 

for a class or two of our animals, and will 

discuss the evaluation techniques and reasons 

for each placing. The point of this is to see how 

good you are at evaluating the breed standards 

of our Zebu cattle, and to become better at it. 

We also plan to have an online store for AMZA. 

Bernie Keasler has volunteered his expertise 

to do this for AMZA. We will have many items 

that you can purchase such as AMZA T-shirts, 

signs, and other zebu and club items for sale. 

We also plan to include PayPal access to make 

taking credit cards easier. You will even be able 

to register your animals on line. 

We hope to make this website the best out 

there and appreciate any ideas or contributions 

that you might have to offer. 

Until the next journal, Happy Zebuing! 

Larry Munchrath 

lmunchrath@netzero.com

Letter from 

the Editor 

Hi, everybody! Can you believe we have 

over 80 members?! Wow! 

As I write this David, Larry, and I are packing 

to drive to Florida for our first out-of-state 

Zebu seminar. Ann and Larry Harper have 

been very busy planning all these talks, 

clinics, and a show as well. It’s going to be 

so much fun, I can’t wait! We’re going on 

several farm tours and we’re all putting on a 

show as well. Look for loads of great pix on 

the website soon. 

It’s been kinda hard to figure out how to 

blend the website and the Journal. One idea 

is to have lots of photos on the website and 

keep lengthy articles for the Journal. Color 

pix are free and easy on the web, but reading 

on the internet isn’t fun. So we’re trying 

this method for this issue. We scoured the 

internet for research projects, excerpting and 

condensing the most informative sections, 

and added helpful diagrams and tables. If 

you’d like to access the full text, just follow 

the links listed on the articles. 

Cathy Olive’s yahoo chat line, Miniature Zebu 

Cattle, has some quiet days and some days 

where you can’t keep up with the messaging. 

It’s a wonderful network of folks with lots of 

opinions and different knowledge levels and different 

attitudes, yet everyone’s respectful and 

friendly. And with over 250 members, that’s a 

lot of zebu lovers! 

Check out the movie “Borat” for a scene with 

Larry Munchrath and Michael Nordin! Too bad 

the scene was shot before they were into miniature 

zebu or else our breed would have national 

exposure! As it is they were featured with their 

giant tortoise. 

Talk to y’all later--hope for an early Spring! 

Dottie Love 


ps-at press time--we had a wonderful time in 

Florida and met so many great folks! We visited 

a dozen farms and saw beautiful cattle. Many 

thanks go to Larry and Ann Harper, who worked 

tirelessly to provide us all with everything needed 

and more. 77 people attended our Saturday 

Seminar/Clinic. Many returned to meet even 

more new folks on Sunday for our first AMZA 

Show in Florida--it was so much fun! 

45

Body Condition Scoring - the American Miniature Zebu Asssoication

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