Norman J. Penny - pictish-mithraism.com

Pictish Symbol Stones Deciphered - their role in the Mysteries of Mithras
Photograph – across the Moray Firth from Burghead – the author
Norman J. Penny
June 2010

Deciphering the secrets in the Pictish Symbol Stones has challenged many people over many
years.
As reported in the Press & Journal on 6 April 2010, I would like to propose a new solution by
bringing together two lines of study and investigation – Pictish Symbol Stones and the
Mysteries of Mithras.
Norman J Penny FCMI FIET FRSA
Birchington, Kent
9 June 2010
Contents
1 Pictish Symbol Stones - Why So Intriguing?
2 Pict, Pictland, Pictish – Simple Definitions
3 Mitra, Mithra, Mithras – “Who’s Who”?
4 Mithraeum, Mithraea – What are They?
5 Mithraic Astronomy & Astrology - Introduction
6 Mithraic Statues & Symbols
7 Mithraeum Outdoors – the “Open-Air” Mithraeum
8 Pictish Mithraea - Builders & Worshippers
9 Pictish Stones Deciphered – the Mithraic Connection
10 Pictish Stones – other Roman Influences
11 Pictish Mithraism - Proposition
Acknowledgements & Bibliography
Copyright; About the Author; Contact
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1 Pictish Symbol Stones - Why so intriguing?
The so-called Pictish Symbol Stones have been in existence for about 1,500 years. What makes them
so intriguing?
They are called “Pictish” but who erected them?
“Picts” is the name supposedly given to the supposedly indigenous population of the,
generally, North East part of Scotland by the Roman invaders around the late 3 rd Century CE.
So why is there a gap between this naming of the Picts and the erection of the Stones?
Did the existing population erect the Stones – or was it by incomers?
Who had the skills to carve the Stones; and why onto a material that was destined to endure
for so long?
What do the symbols mean – assuming they do have a specific purpose and give a particular
message? Are they for worship, markers of some description, used to educate – or maybe
just decorative?
Are the Stones in significant locations?
Why did the symbols on the seemingly older Stones carry forward to the newer ones with
Christian crosses?
Despite all the research and proposing by academics and others, why has it taken so long to
determine what they were really meant for – and are we still unsure?
Of the people who erected them – where did they go, are their ancestors still around?
These, and many more, are the reasons why they are intriguing. In some ways it would be a shame
to have a definitive explanation!
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2 Pict, Pictland, Pictish – Some Definitions
It is useful to draw a brief distinction between these words. Several relevant texts are mentioned in
the Acknowledgements.
“Pict” is a label given apparently by Roman invaders in the 3 rd century CE to the people who lived,
broadly, in the North East of Scotland (historically recorded as 297 AD). It is uncertain whether these
“locals” gave themselves a specific name, whether they were a single “people” or were a
conglomerate of communities. Their origin is uncertain. What is certain is that no-one would have
been living in the north of Scotland until about 11,500 years ago – once the ice had substantially
cleared. The effects of glaciation rendered the non-coastal areas inhospitable to settlers but the
coastal areas have the attributes for sustenance – land to cultivate, material for fire for warmth,
rivers and seas to fish, animals to hunt for food and clothing, dwelling opportunities (caves,
woodland and trees for construction). They are accessible across water, along coastal stretches and,
in early (just post-glaciation) settlement times, via land bridges to other parts of what we now call
mainland Europe. So descriptors such as indigenous (Latin indigen – original inhabitant) are limited –
they may have been original inhabitants of the geographic area but, unlike, a non-glaciated area,
their start point is a lot later. They most definitely came from somewhere else. This “somewhere
else” has relevance in this investigation. Where are they now? A subject for further investigation.
“Pictland” is the term generally used in referring to where the Picts lived. Mainly the North East of
Scotland but varying in size over time to other parts of Scotland – depending on acquired boundary
changes.
“Pictish” can be the adjectival or possessive version of “Pict”. It can mean Pictish person, Pictish
place, Pictish time period, Pictish country, Pictish xxx. Hence the title of this web site - “Pictish
Mithraism” – which embraces several meanings (all valid and intended):- the form of mystery cult
brought into a geographic area of Scotland and practiced by people some of whom may be
“indigenous” others incomers.
“Pictish Symbol Stones” also known as “Pictish Standing Stones” are Stones with coded markings
that have been categorised by J Romilly Allen and Joseph Anderson in The Early Christian
Monuments of Scotland (1903) as:-
Class 1 – incised symbols on upright undressed stones with no Christian cross.
Class 2 – relief carved symbols on upright dressed stones with a large Christian cross.
Class 3 – stones with no Pictish symbols originating in the same period as Class 2.
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3 Mitra / Mithra / Mithras – “Who’s Who”?
A short “Who’s Who” is offered to understand chronology and location of Mitra, Mithra and
Mithras. Several relevant texts are mentioned in the Acknowledgements.
If the words “Mithraic” and “Mithraism” are used to cover individually and collectively Mitra, Mithra
and Mithras it can be stated that there is more than one Mithraic period, that Mithraism is not
continuous and that the Mithraic periods need not be continuous.
The geographical and chronological origins are Mithra (Persian within the Zoroastrian beliefs), Mitra
(Indian within the pantheon of Vedic Hinduism) and Mithras (the Graeco-Roman version followed
about the time of the Roman presence in what is now called Britain). The latter is familiarly referred
to as Roman Mithraism. Currently there is a revival which uses the term Mithras.
Information from a number of sources suggests an approximate timeline:-
Mithra was deemed the son of Ahura-Mazda, the divine God of the heavens. Independent worship
of Mithra declined with Zoroastrianism. The original Persian Mithra worship branched out into India
where Mithra was known as Mitra. Mithras was based on Mithra but was elevated from a son of God
to God himself.
David Ulansey argues that the God Mithras originated as the personification of the force responsible
for the phenomenon of the precession of the equinoxes. Also he has been depicted as Kronos
(personification of infinite time) or as the light conquering the darkness. In Tauroctony statues he is
shown as young, fresh-faced, with no specific racial or birth place identity.
The Mystery of Mithras became a cult following during the time of the expansion of the Roman
Empire. It is based on the previous Persian version and was practiced across the Empire, being
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particularly popular within the army. Roman Mithraism started to decline with Christianity becoming
the “state” religion in the 4 th century CE.
Central to Roman Mithraism is the God called Mithras (Sol Invictus – the Invincible Sun) who had the
power to move the universe. This power was ascribed to him from the discovery by Hipparchus (a
Greek astronomer living in the 2 nd century BCE) of the precession of the equinoxes whereby the
earth has a slight wobble on its axis. The God who could effect this was a powerful God indeed!
Much of the Mithraic Mysteries are related to the astronomy and astrology of the time (with the
earth as the centre of the universe) utilising the planets, Zodiac and constellations as prime
constituents. Coupled with a hierarchy of initiation with associated symbolism, a complex interaction
between “hold” over initiates and progressively gaining more understanding of what the Mysteries
held must have enticed and retained membership.
Whilst the originating centre of Roman Mithraism may well have been Rome the term “Roman” in
the context of this writing should not be thought of as just Rome the place but more the period of
the Empire. The “Roman” army, for example, did not all hail from Rome or even Italy.
4 Mithraeum (singular) & Mithraea (plural) –What are They?
The Mithraeum was the meeting place for pursuing the Mysteries of Mithras. Remains of Mithraea
can be seen across many parts of the early first millennium CE Roman Empire – several websites are
referenced in the Acknowledgments section. The nearest Mithraea to Pictland were by Hadrian’s
Wall.
The Mithraeum (or temple) would have been suitably laid out and decorated with statues and
paintings to enable the followers to gather, to worship, to be talked through (and probably walked
through) the iconography to understand the Mysteries of Mithras and to progress through the
Grades. From remains particularly in Italy, Germany and England there is evidence of structure and
contents and a regard for compass orientation which has huge significance when considering the
relationship of the Mysteries with astrological and astronomical aspects. These are temples – places
of spiritual devotion and for instruction. The Mithraeum was created and constructed as a “virtual
universe”.
The temples generally are underground or partially underground, sometimes beneath other
buildings. Some have also been in caves. For the built temples the structure can be likened to a cave
(of significance as Mithras was said to have been borne from rock in a cave) but also a model of the
macrocosm (the universe as a whole). Having a semi-circular vertical profile, the structure then also
becomes cave-like. On either side of the long centre line of the Mithraeum (they were rectangular)
there are benches and at one end the iconography of the Tauroctony – the portrayal of the bull
slaying by Mithras (see Chapter 6). Being enclosed they were private but something must have
enticed people to want to understand the Mysteries (more on this in Chapter 6); nothing external
“advertising” the temple is apparent from excavations so far. A detail in several of these temples is
niches for statues particularly for Cautes & Cautopates (Mithras’s associates) and for other Gods.
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Tauroctony showing Mithras with his associates – Cautes & Cautopates.
Mithraea may just be the plural of Mithraeum but maybe there is some significance where several
are located nearby one another. Perhaps challenging the description above which tends to suggest a
standard Mithraeum, could they perhaps have been grouped by location each serving a differing but
complementary purpose? Could there be a hierarchical structure to Mithraea in a particular location
(explaining the high number in Ostia, for example) – like Christian churches and cathedrals? Maybe
not all Mithraea catered for all grades. Something under further investigation.
The House of the Mithraeum of the Painted Walls, Ostia, Italy – photo courtesy of Jan Theo Bakker.
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The Mithraeum of the Seven Gates, Ostia, Italy – photo courtesy of www.ostia-antica.org
The Mithraeum at Carrawburgh, Hadrian’s Wall, Northumberland – photo courtesy of
www.odysseyadvetbures.ca
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5 Mithraic Astronomy & Astrology - Introduction
The following is just a glimpse into related, all important, astronomy and astrology.
The Mysteries of Mithras are indelibly linked to the astronomy and astrology as understood and in
use at the time. The earth was considered to be at the centre of the universe with the planets
(including the sun and moon) rotating around the earth in one direction and the firmament (celestial
sphere) rotating in the opposite direction. This is easy to represent in two dimensions as a dot and
two concentric circles. A three dimensional view would still have the earth at the centre but with a
more sophisticated representation of the planets and firmament as two open structured spheres
complete with the zodiac, both ecliptic and celestial equators and tilt on the axis. The planets know
at the time were Jupiter, Mars, Venus, Mercury and Saturn. Combined with the Sun and Moon the
seven “planets” are associated with the seven steps in the ladder of initiation grades in the Roman
Mithraic cult.
With the belief that part of the importance of Mithras was due to his being able to rotate the entire
universe (centred on the Earth), the position of planets and constellations is very important. The
ability to cause, or be deemed to be able to cause, this precession - the movement of the universe
through time - must have given Mithras an extremely high profile in a polytheistic time.
It must be remembered that the position of constellations in our timeframe (2010) is not relevant
(unless it were coincidentally the same); nor, according to David Ulansey, is the position in the early
part of the first millennium CE relevant to the Mysteries of Mithras either. Allowing for apparent
constellation locations for a specific Tauroctony alignment involving the Constellation Taurus, the
significant timeframe is 2000 years before Roman Mithraism i.e. what the sky looked like about 4000
years ago. This is very important to understanding the relative positions of several constellations
such that the Tauroctony occurred at a particular time of the year and has in its component
constellations both the bull (Taurus) and Mithras (seen as Perseus above Taurus). So, for the
Tauroctony to occur at the spring equinox the astronomical and astrological alignments need to
apply to the so-called Age of Taurus (we currently are in the Age of Pisces).
Each component of the Tauroctony has a celestial counterpart:
Bull - Taurus; Dog - Canis Minor & Canis Major; Snake – Hydra, Serpens, Draco; Raven – Corvus;
Scorpion – Scorpius; Wheat ears on bull’s tail – Spica; Cautes & Cautopates – Gemini; Lion – Leo;
Crater (cup) – Crater; Sol – Sun; Luna – Moon; Cave – Universe.
Mithras is shown in the Tauroctony with a figure on either side. Looking towards the Tauroctony to
the viewers left is Cautes (representing the morning star and spring equinox) and to the right
Cautopates (representing the evening star and autumn equinox).
Other astronomical and astrological linkages can be made to Mithraism. For example, Taurus and
Scorpius are in opposing sectors (around 180° apart) as, in effect, are Cautes and Cautopates who
represent the equinoxes (which are 180° apart). The equinoxes in the past would have been in
Taurus and Scorpius – which are represented in the Tauroctony by the bull’s head and the scorpion.
The number “7” features in Mithraism in several aspects. There are (as known at the time) 7 planets.
There are 7 steps as the progression grades in Mithraism; each of these 7 grades has an associated
planet. The Plough has 7 stars – the bear which moves and turns the heavens around.
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6 Mithraic Statues & Symbols
The Mysteries of Mithras are deeply embedded in symbolism such that viewing statues tends not to
be straightforward – they need to be deciphered. The range of statues and symbols in the current
investigation will be sufficient to define what one might expect to see in an Open-Air Mithraeum
(which is explored in Chapter 7).
Five broad areas appear – Enticement, the Tauroctony, associated statues & paintings, other images
of Mithras and the Initiation Grades.
Enticement
Roman Mithraism was a mystery cult with the teaching, initiation and religion being well concealed.
Its buildings were less easy to hide but entry is restricted. None of this would have encouraged
involvement – quite the opposite – but for the cult to exist prospective members needed to know
something about it to want to become involved. There arguably needed to be some form of
enticement - at minimum giving a taster, at best a realisation of a spiritual home for life. Perhaps
handed down knowledge (from an established initiate) or more general public knowledge of what
the cult might offer may have attracted a new member. An expectation of membership – for
example the cult was reportedly popular within the military – could also have been a draw. The hope
of a hereafter could have been an enticement. None of these is statue or symbol as such – the
physical presence of a Mithraeum (with a supposition of what it might contain or what those
contents might represent) could have been the nearest there was to visible enticement.
Tauroctony
This “bull-slaying” scene (real or symbolic) was central to (and in) the design of a Mithraeum
positioned to clearly be seen by those in the building – it was not physically hidden but
interpretation would have required guidance. The contents always featured the cloaked, Phrygian
capped Mithras stabbing the bull with, variously, his associates - Cautes & Cautopates, snake, dog,
scorpion, cup, sun, moon, zodiac, representation of four winds, stars on Mithras’ cloak, ears of corn
and other carvings.
Photo Courtesy of Museum of London
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Associated Statues & Paintings
Either in Mithraea or nearby wide ranges of statues have been found including Magna Mater /
Cybele, Attis, Hercules, Venus, Mercury, Minerva, Serapis, Dionysius etc and paintings of Europa,
Fortuna, Genius etc. Some of these may have been associated directly with initiation grades, others
incidental to the core of the Mithras mysteries, still others unrelated to the Mithras cult but
associated to facilitate acceptance of Mithraism or they may have belonged to belief sets that were
running in parallel. Whichever category applied, all required some form of deciphering for meaning
and relevance. The Great North Museum in Newcastle houses, from Hadrian’s Wall, statues of
Apollo, Jupiter, Minerva etc – a choice of Gods - and there are altars to Mithras dedicated by Legion
personnel dating from the first century CE.
Other Images of Mithras
Although Mithras is generally seen within the Tauroctony, there are statues with him hunting on
horseback, catching the bull, at birth with the globe in his hand, riding a bull, on foot with bow and
arrow, being born from the rock etc.
Mithraic Grades
These grades or rites and associated symbols can clearly be seen in Mithraea in Ostia, Italy. In
summary they are:-
Grade Associated Planet Symbols
1 Corax (raven) Mercury Raven, caduceus, small beaker
2 Nymphus (male bride) Venus Oil lamp, diadem, torch, veil, mirror, bee
3 Miles (soldier) Mars Lance, helmet, soldier’s bag
4 Leo (lion) Jupiter Fire shovel, rattle, thunderbolt, honey
5 Perses (Persian) Moon Harpe (curved sword), Persian dagger,
sickle, scythe, crescent moon with star,
honey
6 Heliodromus Sun Torch, seven-rayed crown, whip
(Courier of the sun)
7 Pater (Father) Saturn Libation bowl, sickle of Saturn, staff
and ring, Phrygian cap
A complete ladder can be considered to start from a base of “0” rising in seven steps (the Mithraic
Grades) to the eighth – the Celestial Sphere, the Milky Way, the home of the soul. All told nine levels
from “enticement” at “0” to “soul return” at “9”.
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7 Mithraeum Outdoors – the “Open-Air” Mithraeum
The statues and symbols to be found in Mithraea are mentioned in Chapter 6. The assumption is
that they or their meanings need to be reflected into the hypothetical Open-Air Mithraeum – but in
a different context – outside rather than inside.
The first key difference, then, between the typical Mithraeum used in the cult of the Mysteries of
Mithras and the proposed “Open-Air Mithraeum” is that the former is constructed mainly
underground or makes use of a natural cave and the latter needs neither.
The second key difference is that the “indoor” Mithraeum has iconography on its internal surfaces
(floor, walls, ceiling) the Open-Air version does not; but it does need an alternative. Substitution of
what usually is seen in an indoor mithraeum is that alternative.
The third key difference is that the access to the indoor Mithraeum is secured by a door or other
barrier whilst an Open-Air one, from its name, is completely visible. Gaining understanding of what is
contained in, on or around the Open-Air mithraeum needs to be “hidden” somehow. Despite having
decided to concentrate on the Open-Air Mithraeum, the prospect of indoor ones in Pictland has not
been dismissed. On the contrary looking at what arguably is an indoor Mithraeum in Burghead,
Moray (the so-called Roman well) gives contrast to the outdoor variety.
The design, to include what can be seen in a typical indoor Mithraeum, can make use of physical
surfaces on which symbols can be affixed (the terrestrial component) and, as it is outside, the view
of everything “as far as the eye can see”. It is suggested that the latter may to an extent replace the
“sky” elements of an indoor Mithraeum (for example the components of the Zodiac).
To retain obscurity there is, arguably, a need to further encode or depict differently from the
equivalent indoor symbol (which usually is rendered physically inaccessible except to those who are
intended to see it). Most indoor symbols are recognisable but their context and application is not –
but they are not seen by all. The outdoor version can be seen by all hence the suggestion for some
more involved encryption. Physical privacy afforded by the indoor Mithraeum needs to be replaced
by obscuring the symbols in the terrestrial part of the outdoor version.
Construction Materials
Indoor symbols have the benefit of enclosure to protect them from the weather. Not so for Open-Air
ones. If the intent was to have durable monuments then the material they were placed on or made
from would need to be weather-resistant. This then rules out painting.
In selecting suitable surfaces, external attachment to buildings does not seem to be a first choice
when a prospective alternative may be to use the inside of the building which, presumably, has been
eliminated as space might be at a premium (other strictly practical needs may take precedence).
Attachment to buildings also reduces independence – there is a reliance on the longevity of the
structure and there is a restriction in terms of privacy.
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Faced with restrictions on material and location some form of carving comes to mind. In the context
of Pictland (which we currently are considering) stone is bountiful, very bountiful. Some is
freestanding as boulders and naturally occurring monoliths, perhaps there is a re-use possibility for
existing human erected monoliths alternatively stone could be quarried (from locations with varying
degrees of extraction difficulty). Perhaps the selected location for the carved monument could
determine what material should be used (e.g. immediately available), or vice-versa - the basic
material might need to be moved. The carver and whoever is hiring the carver (although the carver
could be the user) may need to compromise between desired location for the monument and
availability of materials but over-riding factors may come into play; portability is unlikely to be one
of them! If longevity is an objective stone is preferable to wood.
Having determined that stone would be a desirable material for carving symbols, two essential and
very practical ingredients are needed – the carver and the symbols. Keeping with the Pictland
context, stone masons / carvers with the ability either to learn how to carve or, preferably, with that
ability would be needed. Even to achieve the first possibility – to learn how to carve –someone with
the necessary skills would need to be the instructor. So where could this person or these persons
have come from? This is explored in Chapter 8.
Components and Symbols
There are two components to the Open-Air Mithraeum – terrestrial and “as far as the eye can see”.
The latter can range from flora, fauna, fields, rivers, the sea, mountains, the sky and what can be
seen in the sky – planets, constellations etc. The indoor Mithraeum’s representation of planets and
constellations is not required – they can be seen in the outdoor version but astronomical and
astrological knowledge would be needed to identify them.
Regarding the symbols, representation of Enticement, Tauroctony and Initiation Grades plus
inclusion of associated local customs / cults / religions or forms of adaptation (Mithraism to “other”
and/or vice versa) would be a start point in designing the terrestrial part of an Open-Air Mithraeum.
Adaptation - taking one symbol and modifying it to become another - would generally need to be
obscure; to decipher a symbol would require a knowledge of both Mithraism and the local item.
Constituent symbols could include:-
Enticement – attracting a target audience e.g. military, to prospects of life after death, a
hereafter, gaining “secret” knowledge etc.
Tauroctony – Mithras himself (or a representation of what Mithras stands for); animals –
dog, snake, scorpion (or a representation of them in “sky” terms or otherwise); the zodiac &
constellations (seen in the sky) but maybe needing a form of indicator and most certainly an
explanation; Mithras’s associates (or what they represent); water container; bull; knife;
winds; elements (earth, wind, fire, air) etc.
Grades – planets (visible in the sky) but again maybe needing a form of indicator or pointer;
grade names (raven, male bride, soldier, lion, Persian, courier of the sun, father) and their
related symbols.
Local customs / cults / religions – Celtic Gods; symbols of local customs; non-Mithraic
symbols etc.
Purely decorative – to be just that, decorative, or to further confuse overall deciphering.
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Looking Skywards
Through the day (clear day) the sun is the most visible planet (it was considered to be a planet in
time frame of Roman Mithraism) followed by the moon, then on occasion, other planets (such as
Venus) and brighter stars. Through the night (clear night) the zodiac and a much wider set of stars is
visible – in fact, broadly a hemisphere of the universe. This sky component replaces much of the
iconography of the indoor mithraeum quite simply as it is not needed. In the night sky the relevant
constellations can be seen – dependent on the time of year. The plough will point to the pole star.
Any other star - indeed galaxy - formations, otherwise represented in the indoor mithraeum
(including the Milky Way), will be seen outdoors by the observer on Earth.
Therefore, in designing the terrestrial part of the Open-Air Mithraeum there is arguably no need to
include the planets and stars as such – maybe just their relationship within the mystery and/or
indicators towards their location. However, there may be aspects of the view skywards, otherwise
depicted but obscured in the Mithraeum, which are visible to anyone (Mithraist or not) that need to
have their context made unclear e.g. through astrological references.
The symbols on the Stones might then need to obscure something that may be deduced directly
from looking at the sky or, conversely, Stone based symbols could rely on the sky view to complete
the symbol. Nothing should be obvious to the uninitiated. Furthermore, a Stone based symbol could
be used as an indicator to use part of the sky view to decipher the symbol or, simply, to be a pointer.
The big difficulty, then, in designing the Open-Air Mithraeum Stone is what to include because the
sky (at night in particular) contains elements that are in the indoor Mithraeum and what to exclude
from the design – an icon may not be needed when the real thing is visible.
Orientation and Location
If the intent is to mimic the indoor Mithraeum then replication of layout, orientation and location is
necessary. The indoor Mithraea seem to have specific East/West orientation; good examples are
those in Ostia. The Tauroctony is at the East end; the benches are set on the North side facing South
and the South side facing North; the entrance is at the West end so anyone entering faces towards
the Tauroctony. All this gives orientation along a specific axis and facilitates observing where the sun
and moon rise and set plus gives a reference point for knowing the equinox and solstice locations.
Indoor Mithraea are located close to running water – partly, probably, for practical purposes but
maybe to ensure all elements are present and visible – earth, air, fire and water.
In some places several Mithraea are built in close proximity to one another – maybe providing
different but complementary functions.
Conclusion
We now have the rationale and elements for the “Open-Air” Mithraeum. Now we need to see if such
places exist – Pictish Symbol Stones seem to be a contender.
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8 Pictish Mithraea - Builders & Worshippers
Maybe the Pictish Symbol Stones are the terrestrial part of the “Open-Air” Mithraea. So who built
them and who used them?
Perhaps Builders and Worshippers were one and the same people; maybe the builders of the Stones
were different from those who used them. Someone had to cause them to be built; someone had to
organise their planning and creation. There are questions of timing – when were they built; and
timescale – over what period were they used?
By builders I am thinking of the people who carved and erected the Stones (or took existing Standing
stones and carved onto them). By worshippers I am deliberately using a very wide application of the
term – to avoid digression into theology but assuming they were used for some form of worship,
teaching or initiation (or all three - or more!) – in fact, pursuing the Mysteries of Mithras.
Christian Influence
Many texts consider the Stones were built from the 4 th Century CE with relevance into the 9 th . The
classification into incised (Class 1) and relief (Class 2) almost has an implied sequence which might
suggest different builders and timeframes. The change in design came about from the arrival of
Christianity. Timing wise this might be related to St Columba’s visit to Inverness in the 6 th century CE
(around 570). But was this the first exposure of the builders to Christianity? Certainly St Ninian is
attributed with introducing Christianity to the Southern Picts in the early 5 th century CE (supposedly
about 420). To add to the options, the Irish and Northumbrian forms of Christianity differed so any
associated, influential design cues could be different. This timing is after the initial carving period
(assuming Class 1 precedes Class 2) as it is the Christian crosses that have the more complex artistic
style. Perhaps there were other arrival routes with Christianity coming to people in Pictland but not
necessarily to the pre-existing Picts. Maybe the people who built the first phase of Pictish Stones
were influenced by Christianity and built the second phase with Christian symbols as well as the first
phase ones (a compressed time frame). Maybe, if the builders and worshippers were “incomers” the
path that took Christianity to them was different than via the Saints.
Arguably the earliest start point is just after Constantine who caused Christianity to become the
dominant religion in the Roman Empire – around the mid 4 th century CE. In Scotland the Pictish
missions of Kentigern, Drostan, Buitte and Columba took place between around 520 to 580 - a long
time after Emperor Gratian encouraged Christianity as the official religion of the Empire in 380
shortly after which tolerance of non-Christian religions rapidly expired. Mithraism had a relatively
long lease of life beyond this turning point. In this period Mithraism must have been running in
parallel.
Timing & Location
A great part of the “intrigue” is why, when these are called “Pictish” Symbol Stones, was there such
a gap between when the Picts were named Picts (late 3 rd Century CE) and the first Stones being
dated as around the 4 th / 5 th Century CE. This suggests an external trigger for this happening – there
cannot be an assumption that when the Picts came to be known as Picts there were Pictish Symbol
Stones. This reinforces the point that it is useful to consider “Pictish” as the era not just the people.
Topographically where the existing population lived and where the incomers came to may not be
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one and the same. The Stones in Moray and Aberdeenshire tend to be in locations near rivers but
more inland than close to their outlets. There is no reason to doubt that the existing population lived
around all of the fertile valley areas not just locations upstream. This leads to wondering why the
Stones were built where they were / are. If incomers did, indeed, build the Stones and if they were
part of the Roman invasion then they probably would not have set up fort or camp in the middle of
the existing population and would have set up camps of limited distances apart for ease of travelling.
Maybe the Stones were not erected at invasion times which might explain the time gap between the
alleged start point for Class 1 Stones and the earlier days of the arrival of the Romans in the first
century CE and the later Severan campaign of around 210 CE (still around 200 years before the
supposed erection of the earliest Symbol Stones). It is likely that the locations of the fixed
community and that of the incomers may have a shallow correlation unless there was a more
complex (and amenable) relationship between the incomers and the locals such as pre-existing
trade.
Capability & Skills
Someone with visual knowledge of the symbols (to have carved then in the first place) and with the
ability to carve in Stone must have been the builder. “Someone” is meant in the plural and not
necessarily in a single time frame – it is clear these Stones were carved over several hundred years
(maybe with gaps). By “familiar with the symbols” it is not necessarily suggested that the builder
“knew” what the symbols meant but knew what to carve. Maybe the builder did know (so could also
have been a worshipper) but conversely could have been commissioned by another (necessarily one
who knew what the symbols meant). Either way the Stones complete with symbols must have had a
specific purpose. Possibly the Stones were carved by a small number of people with the required
skills moving around from site to site – so far there seems little evidence to choose between the
carving activities being performed over long, continuous periods or in bursts.
So who had the carving skills at that time? For the so-called Class 1 Stones (i.e. those on boulders or
undressed Stone with incised symbols) shaping and dressing skills were not required only an ability
to chisel into the surface of the Stone. The so-called Class 2 Stones (i.e. with Christian motifs
[especially crosses] and Pictish symbols) require more skills. The size of the Stones would mean
transport from the source of the Stone material – close to (fortuitously) or distant from a quarry. The
Stones are shaped basically as rectangles and the faces are prepared for carving – possibly needing a
different set of tools than those used by the chiseller of Class 1 Stones. Then the complex and
intricate act of carving in relief – this is much more exacting than for the Class 1 carver involving the
removal of a lot more stone material so the symbols stand proud of the surface in relief. A third
demand on carvers is the application of Ogham scripts – these are incised rather than relief. None of
the carvings includes true likenesses e.g. faces. Could this indicate there was not such a demand
from the commissioner of the carving nor a need from what the carving was required to represent or
a restriction related to the carvers abilities? Another thought – could the incisions or the reliefs on
the Stones have been painted, like more modern grave stones?
Prospectively what is needed in way of carving skills is relatively basic but good quality (especially for
Class 2 Stones which are more intricate). What is carved must be quite clear and there probably was
some order to the layout. This tends to suggest someone (singular and plural) with existing skills
rather than self-taught. At the time the people with such skills were probably not within Pictland –
16

there is no suitable archaeological evidence – so they must have been incomers. The nearest would
have been in the vicinity of Hadrian’s Wall (at the time the Antonine wall was either unmanned or
scarcely manned). There is physical evidence (much in the Museum of the North in Newcastle) that
carving skills had been employed – not least for Mithraea, Gods and altars. Perhaps the source of the
carvers was within the Roman army or its associated trade’s people. Not only would the carvers have
the carving skills they most likely would have seen the Mithraea first hand.
To give a balanced argument, views of other authors should be considered. For example attempts
have been made to determine whether the source of the symbols is Scandinavia (e.g. Lord Southesk
- 1893) with a possible conclusion that any similarity between symbols may not be due just to
transfer from Scandinavia to Scotland but, rather, both from a common source. This prompts
consideration of other “common source” prospects for any Mithraic influence. If the builder has
seen a Mithraeum then there are some general options – for example on Hadrian’s Wall, London,
Germany or Italy. This could link in with any similarity of artistic design between Scandinavia and
Scotland – maybe a common source is carvings or statues in, say, Germany and maybe that common
purpose is Mithraic. So the Pictish Stone builders might not have come from the Roman settlements
around Hadrian’s Wall at all but other places where there are Mithraea. Or, maybe there is a chain
of events – those who built the Hadrian’s Wall Mithraea may have seen other Mithraea; this is not
unreasonable as it is know that the bulk of the personnel in Roman Legions and auxiliaries based in
the UK came from the European mainland.
The foregoing – any of the options – makes sense when considering the creation of the terrestrial
part of the Open-Air Mithraeum. The assumed content could be what one would see in a Mithraeum
- a direct transfer; but that is not the case. Whilst it can be demonstrated (in Chapter 9) that there is
a relationship between Mithraic and Pictish Stone symbols and symbolism something is missing –
whoever decided on the design of the Pictish symbols. Maybe that can be ascribed to the
Worshippers.
Turning now to the worshippers – the “users” and presumably “owners” of the Mithraea - who
could have been the builders themselves or those who commissioned them. Having suggested the
concept and the construct of an Open-Air Mithraeum in Chapter 7, the assumption is made that the
Pictish Stones were used for some sort of worship rather than boundary markers or gravestones - for
teaching, initiation, as an aide memoire etc. So who were the worshippers and where did they come
from? With the “intrigue” of why there is a time gap between the people in Northern Scotland being
labelled Picts by the Romans and the first Stones it is suggested that the worshippers (initial ones
anyway) came from outside the geographic area of Pictland as it was around the 4 th / 5 th century CE.
Making an association between the builders and the worshippers they could have hailed from the
same place.
What is a distinct possibility is that the builders and the worshippers either came from around
Hadrian’s Wall, were people with a Roman Army genealogy or were from Roman camps that might
have existed at the time in Pict territory. The latter is less likely as there is currently no evidence of
formal Roman presence or settlement in North East Scotland in our time period but there was in the
1 st and 2 nd centuries CE.
17

In pursuing the prospect of constructing an Open-Air Mithraeum in Pictland then amongst the best
people to have been engaged would be those familiar with Mithraea elsewhere – better still, nearby.
At least three Mithraea existed by Hadrian’s wall – maybe built outside the Pictland time period
under consideration but maybe in use right up until the Roman army left Britain; maybe beyond.
The Roman army apparently “pensioned off” its soldiers (and also its auxiliaries). Part of the
pensioning off was the opportunity to remain at an outpost which for someone already out-posted
for a long period could almost equate to contentedly remaining in situ. This opens up several
prospects for the ethnicity of potential builders and worshippers – they could be from other parts of
the Roman Empire but residing in Britain, “British” people who had become accustomed to the
Roman customs and adopting them (including religions) or merchants and traders maintaining an
import/export base in Britain. Contrary to what in the past has been learnt at school, the Romans
were not necessarily from Rome. In fact the British region was at times administered from beyond
Rome e.g. at times from Germany. The Roman regime, in common with the Persian ones in the first
half millennium BCE, had a habit of taking people from pacified acquisitions, placing them in their
armies then dispatching them to other parts of the Empire or potential expanded Empire. So the
prospect for people coming from places well remote from Pictland is high – and they could have
come with their belief set or a susceptibility to one that they might be sympathetic towards. From
statues around Hadrian’s Wall it is known that there were cohorts comprising Hamian archers from
Syria, Dacians from north of the Danube around the Carpathian mountains, Batavians from around
the Netherlands, Tungrians from the western Ardennes and others.
The pursuit of Mithraism allegedly went underground with Christianity becoming the Roman state
religion. Maybe this is why NE Scotland, being relatively remote geographically, would have been
considered a good location to practice Mithraism (motive and opportunity). Finally, the following of
the cult ended beyond the establishment of Christianity in Britain and beyond the establishment of
Islam in the Middle East – about the time of the 10 th Century amalgamation of the Picts and Scots.
Coding of the Symbols
A great intrigue indeed! Assuming the desire to pursue the Mithras Mystery cult, in potentially
unfamiliar territory (although that might be debatable as there is an argument that the builders and
users were “accepted” so they may not have been too unfamiliar with the locations where the
Stones were built) with a high degree of “secrecy”, then someone had to decide on the coding.
Familiarity with the symbols and their meaning in a Mithraeum seems a logical start point – this
suggests and adept rather than an initiate. Then the jump would need to be made from indoor to
outdoor Mithraeum with knowledge of the constellations and zodiac and planets as seen in the sky
rather than relying on the depiction indoors. Conversely, as an aside, whoever designed the original
indoor Mithraea must have had much knowledge of the “sky” and how to “read” it.
18

All this comes together in the Open-Air Mithraeum:-
“The Craw Stane” – Rhynie
Photograph – the author
Aberlemno 2, Angus
Photograph – the author
With some Mithraic knowledge, we can now go about deciphering the Pictish Stones.
19

9 Pictish Stones Deciphered – the Roman Mithraic Connection
To avoid introducing a new terminology, the symbol names used here are those popularly found in
Pictish Symbol Stone texts and web-sites.
The Stones contain carvings which are either symbols without immediate clear meaning or items
which on the surface may require no interpretation. In reality if there are “secrets” which obscure or
protect “mysteries” then every symbol and other item will have a meaning, possibly several; and so
require interpretation. Some of the shapes might be thought of as symbols but could be
embellishments added at the discretion of the carver or, simply, errors. Deciphering 100% of the
shapes may be overly ambitious – I will initially stick with the more abundant. Some bear
resemblance to tamgas (Central Asian markings used to identify property or cattle and also with
wider use to represent birds and other meanings) but none so far researched fit. Looking at
Scandinavian symbols some similarities with Pictish symbols can be found but not with a high
correlation. Often they are described as “unique” bearing no resemblance to symbols or marks or
depictions seen anywhere else but this can be a way of dismissing further investigation. Overall they
surely must “evoke” something.
A few examples of the “crescent” shape seen on Pictish Stones can be seen on Roman carvings –
some taken from around Hadrian’s Wall now in the Great North Museum, Newcastle and from
Cappuck, Roxburghshire now in the National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh. The Cappuck Roman
carving also has a Boar – not dis-similar to the Knocknagael Stone (in the foyer of the Highland
Council, Inverness) which is the symbol of the Roman Twentieth Legion further prompting a Roman
connection.
Cappuck Stone – courtesy of NMS, Edinburgh (X.FR567)
In deciphering the symbols on the Stones there is always a need to consider context. The greatest
over-riding difference between Pictish and other Mithraic symbolism is that, almost exclusively, the
Pictish symbols are outside. Hence it might be deduced that the seeming lack of Tauroctony
symbolism is due to the fact that the “bull killing” does not need to be represented – it can be seen
in the night sky (Perseus representing Mithras over Taurus the bull).
Pictish Stone Symbols
The clearly identifiable symbols are listed overleaf. The first four groupings account for two-thirds of
the symbols. The additional, more obvious (maybe?) items include (in no particular order):-
Christian (Latin) Cross – often with squares or circles by the intersection.
A person or groups on foot - variously with axe, spear, shield.
A person or groups on horseback – variously with sword, shield, horn.
People holding boxes.
Bulls.
Bossed circles.
Decorative interlace patterns.
20

The Pictish Symbols are firstly grouped by order of incidence (1 to 12) then by dominance within
groupings (based on data used by W A Cummins):-
1 V-Rod / Crescent 2 Z-Rod / Double Disc 3 Mirror / Mirror Case / Comb
V-Rod & Crescent Z-Rod & Double Disc Mirror
Crescent alone Z-Rod & Serpent Comb
Double Crescent Z-Rod & Divided Rectangle Mirror Case
V-Rod & Horseshoe (arch) Double Disc alone Notched Mirror Case
4 Pictish Beast 5 Rounded Shape 6 Angular Shape
Pictish Beast Horseshoe Rectangle
Triple Disc Tuning Fork
Disc Divided Rectangle
Triple Oval Step
Ogee Square
Twin Discs Vertical Rectangle
Arch Step with Handles
L-shaped Figure
7 Fish 8 Bird 9 Animal
Fish Eagle Deer’s Head
Fish Monster Goose Boar
Extended Fish Monster Raven Beast
Stag
Wolf
Horse
Bull’s Head
Dog’s Head
10 Serpent 11 Implement 12 Plant
Serpent Hammer Flower
Serpent & Straight Rod Anvil
Extended Serpent Pincers or Tongs
Shears
Crosier
Helmet
In Chapter 6, Mithraic Symbols and Grades (or rites) were considered. It is timely now to see if there
is any correlation between the two sets of symbols – Mithraic and Pictish Stones. Account needs to
be taken of multiple uses i.e. symbols with more than one meaning. Correlation is not necessarily
symbol to symbol but from meaning to symbol. The Mithraic symbols need to be understood before
the Pictish ones can be “deconstructed” or interpreted in the context of Roman Mithraism.
21

V-Rod & Crescent
This is the popular description name for what historically has been determined as two symbols that
look like a bent rod and a crescent (particularly influenced, seemingly, by the shape of the crescent
moon).
This is the most prolifically used symbol set on Class 1 and Class 2 Stones and is not restricted to any
specific geographic area.
The shape is undoubtedly like a crescent moon but is never seen in a correct “sky” orientation.
These are examples of Stones with both V- Rod & Crescent and Z-Rod with Double Disc:-
Inverneen Stone Fiscivaig Stone
- courtesy of NMS, Edinburgh (X.IB227) - courtesy of NMS, Edinburgh (X.IB213)
22

In deciphering symbols used in Mithraism there reasonably would be identification of a bull – the
crescent shape looks like bull horns. The bull was slain by Mithras – maybe the V-Rod shape is a
sword or Persian harpe. The two (bull horns and sword) would amply fit as a Tauroctony symbol.
As part of the Mysteries of Mithras the moon figures prominently, not least as an initiation grade
(Perses) which has the Moon as its planet with the harpe (sickle and scythe) and crescent moon with
star as associated symbols.
A suggestion is that the crescent shape looks like a view of the sky and beyond. The infill on some
crescents looks like stylised clouds such as the Stone at Kinblethmont, near Arbroath.
The V-Rod shape is never seen on its own, it is never combined with another symbol – it is always
with the crescent shape; maybe this confers a specific, singular meaning to this combination.
Maybe the V-Rod is not a rod at all! As with the Z-Rod there have been suggestions that it is a
broken spear signifying death and/or burial. The “rod” has also been referred to as a sceptre (carried
by people in authority – monarchs, for example) so this might lead to the V-Rod and Crescent being
somehow linked to a King (but why a broken sceptre?). If the V-Rod is not a single rod at all but two
items then an alternative view emerges. Perhaps these are two lines representing something coming
to a focal or common point. Many of the “lines” on the Stones have finials; taken with the line these
add direction (in other words directional arrows).
With the need when interpreting the Mysteries of Mithras to think of several levels – practical,
instructional, devotional, spiritual – the same thought process should be given to deciphering the
Pictish Symbols placed in the context of Mithraism. Also multiple meanings should not be dismissed.
Whilst multiple meanings including the Moon and Tauroctony might be included for the V-Rod and
Crescent, the author proposes that the V-Rod is not a rod but two arrows (left down, right up) and
the crescent is the firmament. Together these represent the soul travelling from the celestial
sphere at birth and returning to the celestial sphere on death; in effect into mortality and later
into immortality. The symbolism is structured in such a way that the observer can consider himself
to be at the focal point looking out to the sky (universe, celestial sphere) and imaging the soul’s
travel. The suggestion of elapsing time is made by the distance between the “V” lines passing
across the crescent shape. The symbolism should be spiritually comforting as the returning arrow
is suggesting there is not absolute finality on death – this is an enticement to follow Mithraism.
23

Z-Rod & Double Disc
This is the popular description name for what historically has been determined as two (or more)
shapes that look like a Z shaped rod and, in the main, two separate but inter-connected circles or
discs. In fact, most Z-Rods comprise a reverse-Z but the description is convenient. Some double discs
appear alone – more on these later.
The Z-Rod is never seen on its own (just like the V-Rod) - it is combined with either the double disc
formation or with a serpent or a divided rectangle. Maybe this confers a particular meaning to the
“Z” or its components which is not adversely modified (or lost) when combined with other symbols.
This is the second most prolifically used symbol set on Class 1 and Class 2 Stones and, like V-Rods &
Crescents, not restricted to any specific geographic area. Several Stones have both V-Rod and Z-Rod
symbol sets on them, often juxtaposed – this positioning is discussed in this Chapter’s section on
Symbol Groups.
Most examples of this symbol set have the above orientation. A few are rotated 90 degrees counterclockwise
and only one (discovered so far) is rotated 45 degrees counter-clockwise. What they all
have in common is symmetry about the axis at right angles to the circles and lines connecting the
circles that are almost always curved into their centre line. This could be stylistic, even decoratively
stylistic but is consistent. Unless there was a “standard” for the symbols or pure coincidence the
alternative is that each engraver understood a common method of showing whatever the circles or
discs were intended to depict. Generally the carving on the Stones is pictorially two dimensional
(albeit “raised” in relief) not using projections such as orthogonal or other techniques to imply depth
or distance. Could the two-dimensional circles / discs associated with the Z-Rod be different? With
the centre line symmetry etc these circles look like a bisected solid annulus (a cut though dough-ring
whereby both exposed cross sections are the same but left / right handed). That applies only to
those double discs with the same content in each disc (which is the majority).
To try to decipher this composite set of symbols it is useful to disassemble into components. Just as
the V-Rod is arguably not a rod at all but directional arrows, maybe the “arms of the Z” are
directional arrows. In many instances it looks as if there are directional finials but generally they are
more elaborate compared with the V-Rods – in fact, more floriated. Suggestions have been made
that these might represent lightning and that does have a Mithraic context with the Leo Grade.
Alternatively, these shapes may have multiple meanings.
If the Stones are indeed the terrestrial part of the Open-Air Mithraeum described in Chapter 7 then
the Z-Rod combinations are very significant. Mithras in known paintings and sculptures (most
especially the Tauroctony) is accompanied by Cautes and Cautopates. In Mithraism Cautes
represents the morning star and Cautopates the evening star. The morning star is associated with
the east (bringing dawn and light at the beginning of the day). The evening star is associated with the
west (bringing dusk and night at the end of the day). In pictures and sculptures Cautes and
Cautopates are holding torches (they are often called the torch bearers). Cautes typically to the right
of Mithras holds a lit torch upwards, Cautopates to Mithras’s left holds an extinguishing torch
downwards – again reinforcing the symbolism as morning and evening.
24

Close study of the symbols on the Pictish Symbol Stones shows several examples where the
seemingly floriated ends of the upper part of the Z-Rod could appear to be flames from torches.
Between the ends of the day the sun shines. So the inner ends of the torches are connected by the
joining line of the “Z”. Typically, this connection lies across the centre line of the circles or discs.
Several suggestions have been made about the circles – sun and moon, other paired items in
harmony or tension (like ying/yang), heaven and hell, decorative. An alternative could be the Sun
(Sol) with Mithras (Sol Invictus) – in Mithraism there is a distinct difference. The Sun is one of the
planets being, in some interpretations, located halfway between the Earth and Celestial Sphere
giving equitable illumination (and heat) to the planets on either side of its circular path. Sol Invictus,
more specifically recorded as Deus Sol Invictus – the unconquerable Sun God, is the creator of the
universe, the Mithras who knows about the precession of the equinoxes. He is in balance with the
Sun hence the two are shown together. In the pre-Roman versions of Mithras – Mithra – he is the
God of contracts; in the Roman version he, Mithras, can be considered to be in contract with the
God Sol, the Sun. Alternatively, or in parallel, the discs could be the universe (especially in
concentric-circle or so-called “circle and dot” versions) with the Earth at the centre.
Cautes – courtesy of Wikipedia commons Cautopates – courtesy of Wikipedia commons
25

Cautes and Cautopates have further symbolism. In addition to their representing the beginning and
end of the day (during which the sun shines) they also signify the spring and autumn equinoxes. In
the Tauroctony pictures and sculptures they are usually shown with their legs crossed – Cautes left
over right with the left pointing away from Mithras; Cautopates right over left with the right pointing
away from Mithras. The crossed legs could symbolise the crossing of the celestial and ecliptic
equators at the time of the equinoxes; the different crossing formats distinguishing the two
equinoxes. This is arguably an additional symbolism for the arrow parts of the “Z” giving this symbol
grouping a daily meaning (morning and evening) plus a 6-monthly meaning at the equinoxes.
Additionally, making a zodiac relationship, Cautes is in Taurus and Cautopates is in Scorpio – as
mentioned in Chapter 5.
The author proposes that the Z-Rod is not a rod but two inter-connected arrows representing the
torches of Cautes and Cautopates (Mithras’s associates in the Tauroctony). One faces east towards
the morning star the other west towards the evening star – one’s torch is alight the other
extinguishing signifying the beginning and end of the day; they further depict the spring and
autumn equinoxes. The connecting part of the “Z” is firstly the day, secondly the months between
the equinoxes, thirdly time itself – the start is connected to the finish. The circles or discs are
multi-depiction - the Earth in the middle, with the planets then the celestial sphere (shown as the
cross-section of a ring); the Sun and Moon and other paired items in harmony or tension; the Sun
(Sol) and Mithras (Deus Sol Invictus – the unconquerable Sun God, the creator of the universe) in
balance. This symbol set acts as the platform for deeper explanation and understanding via the
Mithraic Grades; for example some circles are infilled with seven circles, the number of planets (at
the time).
The symbolism is structured in such a way that the observer can use this solid part of the Open-Air
Mithraeum to guide towards the truly open part i.e. the sky and beyond. His presence may be small
but he is part of it; all the changes are happening around him – again, as with the V-Rod, he can
become a focal point.
Circles or Discs
Looking at the circles or discs in more detail there are many hidden symbolic details many of which
link to Mithraism. Some are just plain discs (such as in the middle section of the Aberlemno Kirkyard
Stone). The discs on the Dyce and Dunnicaer Stones are three concentric circles – arguably the Earth
at the centre (the “dot”), the first circle being the Planets and the second the Celestial Sphere. On
Stones at Inverurie Kirkyard and East Balhaggardy there is a dot and three concentric circles –
perhaps the above three constituents are there (and no more) with the dot showing from the centre
point of a compass with the next circle out being the Earth; the Keith Hall Stone is another good
example of this configuration. In other words the Earth is being given a greater presence than just a
dot. Overall all these circle / disc interpretations point to the purely symbolic – they most certainly
are not scale realistic! Of the two circles on the Newton House Stone the left hand one has an, as
yet, inexplicable indentation.
26

Occasionally the circles or discs are in-filled. On the Wantonwells, Insch Stone each circle has curved
lines like a counter-clockwise rotating turbine. There is a dot with a close in inner circle and an outer
circle. The seven curved lines are between the two circles. Seven is significant – the number of
Planets and the number of Mithraic Grades. An Aberlemno Stone also has a “seven” connection –
each of the circles contains seven small circles; the Glenferness Stone is likewise. Whilst the
Nigg Stone also has small circles within a larger one it is highly stylised with an additional circle
within the envelope of the larger circle and the space where the inner line of the “Z” crosses. The
Dunnichen Stone has another variant on the theme – seven serially connected filigree style curls
between the inner and outer circles; maybe the dot is a centre point, the Earth the inner circle, the
Planets the middle curled circle and the outer the Celestial Sphere. Seven stars can be construed to
be the Plough which is the bear which moves and turns the heavens around.
Z-Rods & Other Symbols
Some “Zs” are associated with other symbols, firstly the serpent (such as the Brandsbutt Stone,
Inverurie, Aberdeenshire; the Picardy Stone; St Vigeans; Drumbuie and Newton House examples).
The serpent in the context of the constellations can be Hydra, Serpens or Draco. Hydra as one of the
88 modern constellations stretches from Libra to Canis Minor (over 90° of the celestial sphere) but in
the period when the equinoxes were in Taurus and Scorpio (circa 4000 BCE to 2000 BCE) Hydra was
considered to extend further by including Sextans, Crater and Corvus; more like 180°). The author
proposes that the serpent representing Hydra connects the equinoxes represented by Cautes and
Cautopates thus connecting the equinoxes together using a constellation.
Mirror / Mirror Case / Comb
On the assumption that these shapes are mirror-like the conclusion has tended to be that they have
a female association. This has been reinforced by these symbols often been accompanied by a comb.
Undoubtedly the shapes accord with Roman style mirrors in use not only in the first millennium CE
but centuries before. Interpretation of the circles into astronomical bodies or their revolution has so
far been inconclusive. Whilst it might be difficult to understand that in Mithraism there is a grade
that has female attributes in an all-male cult – the author proposes that the mirror, mirror case and
comb represent the Nymphus Grade. This is the second Grade in the seven step ladder whereby the
initiate becomes the bride of Mithras. With the associated Planet being Venus which is the second
planet from the Sun perhaps there is some significance in the circles?
27

Pictish Beast
As a stylised animal this one stands alone – by reason of its popularity on the Stones and by being
different from all the other animals on the Stones whether zoomorphic or otherwise. Like the three
foregoing sets of symbols it has a fairly well “standardised” design on the Stones – both Class 1 and
Class 2 – so it, like them, endured in use about 300 years.
Various descriptions have been given for this symbol ranging from the non-committal Pictish Beast
to the very specific Pictish Dolphin and less practical Pictish Elephant. Like the V-Rod & Crescent and
Z-Rod & Double Disc the design is “standardised” and localised broadly to the North East of Scotland
– but, unlike these there is a known similarity. In Assyrian history there is a beast called
“mushhushshu” who was supposed to have protected many of the supreme Gods such as Marduk,
the city God of Babylon. This may be a precursor to the “beast” of Pictish Stones which prospectively
fits the Leontocephalous (a lion headed man often carrying keys and entwined by a snake), the
serpent (whether Serpens or Hydra or, terrestrially, a snake) or the lion (as in the Roman Mithraic
Leo Grade or as symbolising a powerful beast). Perhaps the key is in considering the Pictish Beast’s
position related to other symbols in those cases where there are groups. On Class 1 Stones the beast
is often next to the V-Rod & Crescent, usually beneath it, and next to the arch, usually below it. On
Class 2 Stones the beast is more randomly placed, when on the cross side it is typically high up.
Mushhushshu
Timewise Marduk came to prominence around 1500 BCE – the same period as Persian Mithra and
prior to the monotheism of Zoroastrianism. Mushhushshu had associations with other Gods; it is
described as “crypto-zoological” made from a combination of animals that could never have existed
in nature. Maybe too much of a coincidence or completely unconnected; maybe a design cue? If not
a coincidence then this could suggest a linkage between the knowledge of the Stone Builders and a
people who lived about 2,000 years before – in which case there is some difficulty in determining
how that knowledge travelled – or that there was some form of continuum over two millennia. This
needs more investigation not least to eliminate the possibility if no connection can be evidenced.
Turning to Roman / Pictish Mithraic related possibilities there are many options. What needs to be
avoided is making a solution fit! It is tempting to think of the Pictish Beast shape prospectively fitting
the Leontocephalous, the serpent or the lion.
28

The author proposes that the Pictish Beast has several representations the most prominent, as it
often is associated with the V-Rod & Crescent (the soul travelling from and to the celestial sphere),
being of a lion formation to represent the Leontocephalous which in turn represents Mithraic
Kronos or endless time. This decipherment shows the degree and depth to which symbols have
been encoded. In other words when the symbol is far removed from what it represents then a
deeper drill down is needed because the representation is in layers – in this case, from endless time
to Mithraic Kronos to Leontocephalous to lion form to Pictish Beast. Whoever decided on the Pictish
Beast to depict endless time must have had a very advanced knowledge of Mithraism and a highly
developed capability to layer concealment. If this hypothesis is correct then the mystery aspect of
the cult is well exemplified and the need for teaching initiates reinforced.
Other Shapes
There is not an attempt here to analyse every symbol – that will be the subject of another
publication by the author. A selection of the more readily deciphered shapes follows.
Rounded Shape
The Horseshoe and Arch can be deciphered (by taking the shape as an arc) as the arc of a planet’s
orbit, the entrance to a cave or the Celestial Sphere or, as with most of the symbols, several of these
and/or others. The author therefore proposes that the horseshoe and arch shapes are
representations of and from the indoor Mithraeum. “Of” the Mithraeum in the sense of its arched
shape; “from” in the sense that within the Mithraeum there are representations of the Celestial
Sphere etc.
The circle and multiple circle shapes may be seen as containers (some with handles). In the
Tauroctony there is a cup shape which represents the Crater Constellation. A small beaker is
associated with the Corax Mithraic Grade; in the Nymphus Mithraic Grade rite, Venus can be offered
a cup of water; a libation bowl is associated with the Pater Mithraic Grade.
Angular Shape
Within this grouping the rectangle type shapes may be representations of the shape of indoor
Mithraea. Others may be like steps – part of the Mithraeum design or steps as in ladder i.e. Grade
progression. The “L” shape is like a key – a key is held by Leontocephalous as recorded by Franz
Cumont.
The divided rectangle shapes typically have niches cut into them. On the Raven Stone (Tyrie,
Aberdeenshire) and Birnie Stone (near Elgin) the overall rectangular footprint has what could be
construed as the side (longitudinal) benches of a Mithraeum with statue niches (one on each side of
the Mithraeum and near the Tauroctony end – possibly for Cautes and Cautopates). The Maiden
Stone, in Aberdeenshire, is almost identical to the Raven Stone footprint except the proximity of the
niches to the Tauroctony end is the opposite i.e. on the Raven Stone the left niche is nearer than the
right and on the Maiden Stone the right niche is nearer than the left. The Tillypronie Stone is another
variant on the theme – the niches are opposite one another; similar to the Inverallan Stone. The
Ballintomb Stone has only one niche – on the left but shown as extending about two thirds of the
way across the width of the rectangle. Ardnilly is slightly different again with semicircles cutting into
the insides of the “benches”. As there is a high correlation between the Symbol Stone rectangle
symbols and the footprints of Mithraea such as in Ostia, Italy, the author proposes that the divided
rectangle shapes represent the shape and layout of a Roman Mithraeum, in some cases with
indentations which represent niches which would have housed statues.
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Z-Rod and Rectangle with niches.
Part of Raven Stone (minus Raven) from an 1856 hand sketch.
Fish
Some of the fish carvings have been identified as salmon. This fish was mystically revered (but to
date not known in Mithraism) not least as it can live in both salt and fresh water. Scandinavians have
a home for the salmon in their folk lore. Maybe some inscriptions, not just the fish ones, have been
added to the Stones for the benefit of people with other belief sets in way of harmony, acceptance
and tolerance.
Bird
The eagle was commonly used on the standards of Roman Legions and possibly has an association
with the Leo Mithraic Grade.
The goose does not appear to have any Mithraic significance. However, it is referred to in
Scandinavian folk lore so there may be an explanation similar to the fish above.
The raven has a distinct place in Mithraism – on the Tauroctony, as the messenger of God,
identification with a constellation named Corvus and as the Corax Mithraic Grade.
Animal
The low incidence and geographic spread of animal figures makes pattern formulation difficult.
Relationship with Mithraic aspects is even more difficult.
For example, the Knocknagael boar Stone may not have been in its original position when located at
Knocknagael farm near Inverness; there is no significant running water immediately nearby but
other streams are close by. Whether there was a Roman presence is not yet known. The purpose of
the Stone is unclear save to say that the 20 th Roman Legion ( XX Valeria Victrix ) was involved in the
construction of Hadrian’s Wall and is believed to have been in Britain until wholesale Roman
withdrawal in the early 5 th century CE). Perhaps someone from the Legion had the Stone carved
when in the vicinity – but why only one associated symbol?
Another example is the wolf which might be (as has been speculated) a less than accurate carving of
a dog – an animal seen on the usual format of the Tauroctony.
Serpent
Considering the profile of the serpent (snake, hydra etc) in the symbolism of Roman Mithraic statues
and paintings it is surprising to see so few of these shapes on the Pictish Stones – or is it? Faced with
the ability directly to see this shape in the Open-Air Mithraeum perhaps there is less of a need to
depict it on the Stones.
However, the serpent with the Z-Rod could link the Tauroctony with Cautes and Cautopates; on its
own (as two snakes intertwined into a caduceus or singly as the rod of Asclepius) it might be
deciphered as a symbol of the Corax Mithraic Grade whose associated planet is Mercury (Mercury
the messenger is often depicted with the snake); the Leontocephalous is entwined by a snake;
maybe it looks like the Mushhushshu (known as the furious snake).
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Implement
The set of hammer, anvil and tongs could allude to Vulcan. The Leo Mithraic Grade has been shown
with a fire shovel; with Jupiter as planet and fire as the associated zodiacal element maybe there is a
Mithraic connection.
Conclusion - Correlation between Pictish Symbols and Roman Mithraism
Whilst a satisfactory explanation can be given to the Tauroctony related symbols thus achieving a
high correlation this is much less so for the sequence of Mithraic Grades. The V-Rod, Z-Rod and
Pictish Beast all contain Tauroctony and “cult” related symbols. The Mirror symbols can be
translated to align with the second Grade – Nymphus. Generally, the first and second Grades have
few interpretable or assignable symbols; more appear in the higher Grades. However, Stones with
horses and riders may be deciphered as being linked to the third Grade - Miles (soldier). Maybe the
Grade system was optional although there is a possibility of a number of alignments from symbols
linked to “7”. Perhaps this suggests a particular form of Mithraism; one which does not fully match
Roman Mithraism; one which is peculiar to the Northern Pictish area and era; hence the title –
Pictish Mithraism. The author proposes that there is sufficient correlation between Pictish and
Mithraic symbols to support the view that a form of Roman Mithraism existed in (predominantly)
North East Scotland. The lack of symbols to associate with the full range of Roman Mithraic Grades
suggests a variant of the cult was in use – Pictish Mithraism.
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10 Pictish Stones – Other Roman Influences
Several other aspects reinforce the relationship between Pictish Symbol Stones and the Roman and
Roman Mithraic influence.
This is an overall timeline for the period under consideration:-
Pictish Stones near Roman Forts & Camp Sites
There are high concentrations of Pictish Stones near sites of Roman Forts and Marching Camps.
Interestingly Glenmailen, Ythan Wells camps are considered to have been large but the nearest
Stones are about 5 miles distant near the River Urie. Fort / Camp locations near rivers (not
surprisingly as water was needed for troops and animals) include Balnageith near Forres - the
Findhorn; Thomshill near Elgin – the Lossie; Bellie near Speymouth - the Spey; Kintore – the Don.
But, all of these are close to Stones.
The difficulty in making a connection between Roman presence and Stones is timeframe. Despite a
popular view that the North East of Scotland was unconquered and then “Roman free” the locals
must have presented a threat or a strong desire not to be pacified over a long period (these were
and are fertile lands all along the coast to the foothills of the Grampians and nearby ranges).
Typically the construction of Hadrian’s Wall is seen as the main “separator” but it was built after the
Gask Ridge (broadly a north easterly line of fortifications from Dunblane towards the coast at
Stonehaven. In sequence, the Gask Ridge fortifications were apparently constructed about 70 to 80
CE; Hadrian’s Wall about 122 to 130; and the Antonine Wall about 142 with repairs to Hadrian’s Wall
around 208. The Romans therefore visited early in the expansion of their Empire.
Within the army there was a Mithraic following (as apparently there was with traders and
merchants) and the construction of Mithraea by Hadrian’s Wall (at, Housesteads, Carrawburgh and
Rudchester) date back to the late 2 nd / 3 rd century CE being out of use by the middle of the 4 th
century. The Roman army began to leave Britain in 388 CE supposedly completely withdrawing by
410. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in 476.
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Attribution: Gask Ridge; Wikipedia
All of the Mithraea in Britain have been in Roman military contexts – there is no reason, therefore,
to assume that the context in North East Scotland should be any different. The author proposes that
the presence of Roman military establishments in North East Scotland has facilitated the
establishment of Mithraism in a geographic area hitherto not considered.
Pictish Stones near Water
Guy de la Bédoyère in “Gods with Thunderbolts” states that “a Mithraeum could be built anywhere
so long as running water was available”. Isabel Henderson in “Origin Centre of the Pictish Symbol
Stones” plotted the locations of the Class 1 Stones; the majority in Aberdeenshire and Moray are
located by or near rivers in particular the Don, Urie, Deveron and Spey. Almost all the Sutherland
Stones are coastal. The author proposes that the proximity of Pictish Stones to water and the
building of Mithraea near water further tend to support a relationship between Mithraea and
Pictish Stones.
Symbol Groups
The symbols on Stones cannot be considered to be randomly distributed. Several have the V-Rod &
Crescent and Z-Rod & Double Disc juxtaposed on the same Stone surface and this suggests some
composite meaning or maybe a direct progression in revealing a meaning or meanings from one to
the next.
Elgin Cathedral Stone (not original place). Photograph – the author.
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A suggestion has been put forward (by W A Cummins) that combinations of symbols or symbol sets
can be interpreted as components of names memorialising, for example, Pictish Kings. By applying
the multiple meaning principle in the current writing it would be unreasonable to dismissively
substitute one proposition with another. Therefore, the symbol groups could also be construed to
represent names.
At minimum, in the context of Pictish Mithraism, some typical symbol groups show the Enticement
(in the V-Rod), the explanation of Mithras, Cautes and Cautopates (in the Z-Rod) and one Mithraic
Grade (Nymphus in the case of the Mirror symbols). Examples of groups of two are the Brandsbutt
Stone, Aberdeenshire; Elgin Cathedral; Aberlemno: and of three are the Picardy Stone, Insch; Clach
Ard, Skye.
Stone Groups
The prospect of Stones being in sets or groups with specific geographic proximity is rather
speculative, not least as we are only now considering the proposed Mithraic use of the Stones.
However, if the users of the Stones used them to take initiates through the Mithraic Grades then
maybe some Stones were used for, say, higher ladder grades. This is not dissimilar to the
relationship of Christian parish churches to cathedrals. Stones are clustered in many areas for
example Glamis / Eassie / Tealing / Wester Denoon / Kirriemuir; Craigton / Dunrobin / Golspie;
Brandsbutt / Kintore / Drimmies / East Balhaggardy /Logie ElphinStone; Knocknagael / Lochardil /
Torgorm.
A topic worthy of more exploration and deciphering which the author intends to pursue.
Christian Cross
These should not be regarded only as being what they are and nothing else. There is the possibility
of symbol concealment in the cross itself. For example where the vertical and horizontal parts of the
cross intersect some Stones show a circle at each junctions – 4 in all. These could be an allusion to
the 4 elements (air, water, sea, fire) or four “winds” of the Moon. These Class 2 Stones tend to have
well executed and sometimes more stylised versions of the symbols seen on Class 1 Stones. The
author proposes that the carving on the Class 2 Stones (with Christian Crosses) allowed for a
transition between Pictish Mithraism and Christianity. This is similar to the way in which
Christianity was transitioned as the state religion in the Roman Empire period.
Ogham Inscriptions
Also known as Ogam or Oghams, these are inscribed on a few Pictish Stones – they are much less
rare outside Pictland especially in Ireland, Wales and south west England. Clear examples are on
Brandsbutt, Dyce, Newton, Brodie and Ackergill Stones.
Supposedly in use (especially around the Irish Sea) around the 5 th and 6 th centuries but reportedly
inscribed on Pictish Stones in the 7 th and 8 th centuries there seems no reason to assume that the
Oghams were inscribed in the same time period as the Class 1 Stones were built. The style and depth
of the incisions is different from the early Pictish Stone carving style. The author proposes that the
Oghams were added to the, then, existing Stones and may have no direct connection with the
initial purpose of the Stones. This secondary use could be commemorative, burial headstone etc.
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11 Pictish Mithraism - Proposition
The objective of this investigation is to see if there is a linkage between the symbols on Pictish
Symbol Stones and some form of religious belief set.
An open mind and temporary parking of previous views is requested to give the proposition fair
consideration. The author is non-partisan in terms of academic background so is not putting forward
a view from a specific allegiance.
Based on thorough research into the Pictish Symbol Stones and the Mysteries of Mithras it is
proposed that:-
I. The Stones are Religious in Context – pre-Christian then Christian
II. The Builders & Worshippers were “Incomers”
III. The “Mystery” Symbols are Mithraic
IV. “Pictish Mithraism” was Practiced
I. The Stones are Religious in Context – pre-Christian then Christian
A process of elimination rules out the erection and use of the Stones as boundary markers or merely
decorative – there would be no point in adorning them with complex symbols for a less significant
purpose. They could have been commemorative but again why adorn them with symbols some of
which require considerable deciphering.
The Pictish Symbol Stones have a religious belief set context. That context is in two phases – pre-
Christian and Christian with a distinct overlap between the two. The Christian phase is evidenced by
the carving of Christian (or Latin) crosses and symbols referring to Bible stories. The crosses have an
art style that suggests a Northumbrian influence which in turn suggests, at the time, the adoption of
the Roman rather than Celtic (or Irish) form of Christianity. This second phase is straightforward to
decode both then and now with much historical material to assist. The real challenge is the earlier
phase.
Continuing the proposition that from the first Stone the purpose has been religious, the author has
eliminated several contenders (such as Manichaeism, a range of Celtic Gods, Persian and Indian
versions of early Mithraism, Hinduism, a range of Assyrian Gods and Zoroastrianism) and settled on
the pursuit of some form of the Mysteries of Mithras. The evidence is in the deciphering of the
symbols in representing the theology of the Mithras cult, the initiation by grade and relating some
symbols to the layouts of temples used by Mithraists.
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II. The Builders & Worshippers were “Incomers”
With the Stones being known for so long as the Pictish Symbol Stones combined with the general
view that Pictish is basically interchangeable with Pict, the assumption has been (and tends to be)
that the Picts created the Symbol Stones. The greater likelihood is that the existing population did
not create or use (initially anyway) the Symbol Stones – “incomers” did. The thesis is that at the end
of the Roman occupation a number of people from the Roman army stayed in North East Scotland
and wished to pursue their belief set – the Mysteries of Mithras. It was not untypical for a retiring
member of the Roman army to be pensioned off and given the opportunity to stay where he was
based. The timing of the creation of the Stones coincides with the final Roman retreat – maybe
more of the army’s members than those due to be pensioned off stayed on. With the broad mix of
people from many countries in the Roman army there is no suggestion that those who stayed were
in fact Roman or even from Italy. Perhaps there was either an affinity with the existing population or
an acceptance of the incomers – maybe they were of similar origin. For example, with the mix in the
Roman army, there could have been members from Germany (highly likely given the presence there
and locations in Germany sometimes being headquarters for those who governed Britain) or from
countries further east where there was knowledge of other forms of Mithraism. Whichever might be
a source prospect, as members of the Roman army they would have been familiar with the cult and
its practices.
If the thesis that the Stones were built and used (certainly initially) by people from the Roman army
then that tends to explain why there is such a time gap between the existing population in North
East Scotland being given the name Picts (end of 3 rd century CE) and the Stones supposedly
appearing from around the 4 th / 5 th century. The builders would have needed carving skills, for Class
1 to incise and for Class 2 to work in relief. These skills my well have been available in and from the
Roman army. Timescale wise the case can be well made for Class1 Stones. Once they were
established and Pictish Mithraism extended to the pre-existing population then the desire would
have been to retain the cult and its symbols as Christianity was introduced. If the Class 2 Stones
reflect a Northumbrian influence then the art style and the carvers may have arrived together with
Pictish symbols being accommodated in the early stages of conversion.
The location of the Stones is of significance. A broad geographic pattern is of proximity to known
Roman army forts and camps. Mithraic temples were known to be located by rivers – many Stones
are located by or near rivers (or, in the case of Sutherland, near the sea).
III. The “Mystery” Symbols are Mithraic
Having determined that the Stones were used in a religious context, being built and used by
“incomers”, the primary function is set. Later there may have been secondary re-use functions such
as grave markers or for commemoration. Researching non-Christian and pre-Christian belief sets
narrowed down to the Mysteries of Mithras being the belief set that is portrayed on the Stones. The
author’s interpretations are consistent with Mithraism.
The most prevalent symbols are the so-called V-Rod & Crescent; the Z-Rod & Double Disc; Mirror,
Mirror Case & Comb; and the Pictish Beast. Collectively these account for two thirds of the symbols.
Several other shapes have been deciphered but it is suggested that there is sufficient evidence in the
examples above to amply demonstrate that the Pictish Symbol Stones were used within the practice
of the cult of Mithraism.
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IV. “Pictish Mithraism” was Practiced
“Pictish Mithraism” would have transitioned from the Roman variety probably, initially at least,
being practiced by those incomers who had the Class 1 Stones carved, maybe later by a wider
following.
Unlike the indoor, enclosed, Roman Mithraeum where the sky and celestial sphere were
represented through statues, pictures and building shapes the practice in Pictland was different. The
“Open-Air” Mithraeum was created with two components – the skyward view towards the planets
and celestial sphere containing the constellations and zodiac and the Symbol Stone. The sky
component replaces much of the iconography of the indoor Mithraeum quite simply as it is not
needed but the openly accessible Stones needed much more encryption – achieved very
successfully, it has taken a very long time to decipher them.
So far little has been deciphered regarding the Mithraic Grades – maybe fewer were used than is
known for the Roman version.
Christianity did not immediately oust Mithraism – the Class 2 Stones are witness to a transition
period of over 200 years.
The impact of Pictish Mithraism was significant – over a geographic area from the Shetlands to the
Forth and the Hebrides to the Solway Firth but most densely in North East Scotland.
Brandsbutt Stone, Inverurie – V-Rod, Z-Rod with Snake and Ogham
Photograph – the author
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Acknowledgements & Bibliography
The following texts, and their constituent references, have had been a learning resource and
provoked thoughts towards deciphering the “intrigue”. I attest, however, that the Proposition and
the arguments leading up to it are wholly my own and have not been plagiarised.
Pictish:
Origins of Pictish Symbolism – James Carnegie Southesk, 1893
The Picts and their Symbols – W A Cummins, 1999
The Pictish Symbol Stones of Scotland – Iain Fraser for RCHAMS, 2008
The Origin Centre of the Pictish Symbol Stones (Proc FSA(Scot)) – Isabel Henderson, 1957-58
The date and origin of Pictish symbols (Proc Soc Antiq Scot) – L Laing & J Laing, 1984
Beyond the edge of the empire – Caledonians, Picts & Romans - Fraser Hunter, 2007
Pictish & Norse Finds from the Brough of Birsay – C L Curle, 1982
Scotland Before History – Stuart Piggott, 1982
Mithraic:
The Religion of the Mithras Cult in the Roman Empire – Roger Beck, 2006
The Mysteries of Mithras – Payam Nabarz, 2005
The Mysteries of Mithra – Franz Cumont, 1903
The Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries – David Ulansey, 1989
Mithras, the Secret God – M J Vermaseren, 1963
Gods with Thunderbolts – Guy de la Bédoyère, 2007
http://www.twmuseums.org.uk/archive/mithras/intro.htm
http://www.roman-britain.org/places/brocolitia.htm
http://www.ostia-antica.org/dict/34.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Mithraeum
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Copyright
The information contained in this publication is Copyright © Norman J Penny unless stated
otherwise and is protected by international copyright laws. All Moral Rights are asserted under the
terms of Section 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Permission to reproduce copyright material on this site does not extend to any material identified
as being the copyright of a third party - authorisation to reproduce such material must be obtained
from the copyright holders concerned.
Disclaimer - the author shall not be liable for any loss of any kind whatsoever in consequence of
the use of contents of this publication.
About the author – an Invernessian in Kent
Born in Inverness in 1948 in the early ‘50s I saw the Knocknagael Boar Stone – the beginning of the
life-long “intrigue”. Working in Inverness enabled much travel around Pictland; subsequently,
holidays in Moray have provided a great base for more looking at Symbol Stones. Frequent visits to
museums in Edinburgh and London to research Scottish and Middle Eastern history and religions
resulted in a few ideas falling into place prompting this wholly different proposition.
A background in engineering encouraged logical analysis and in management encouraged synthesis.
A career in telecoms was paralleled by professional society activity most recently as chairman of
Council of the Institution of Engineering & Technology and membership of many boards and
committees. Early retirement has generated time for mentoring at a grammar school and for the
Engineering Development Trust in Kent, Corporation Board membership of Thanet College and wideranging
research. The author is a Fellow of the Institution of Engineering & Technology, Fellow of the
Chartered Management Institute and Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts.
Contact
Critique, correction to factual points, constructive comments, further detail and expansion are very
much invited.
Please feel free to EMail the author, Norman J Penny, at norman@pictish-mithraism.com. The web
site www.pictish-mithraism.com will be updated as necessary and acknowledgement will be given to
contributions as appropriate.
Produced by:
Elgin Museum, 1 High Street, Elgin Moray, IV30 1EQ
Tel: 01343 543675 – Email: curator@elginmuseum.org.uk
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