EUNICE OFEIBEA DAMPTEY Supervisor

BUILDING SUSTAINABLY FOR GOOD INDOOR
CLIMATE IN THREE RESIDENTIAL AREAS OF
ACCRA, GHANA
EUNICE OFEIBEA DAMPTEY
Supervisor: Orjan Svane
Stockholm, May 2006
KTH, School of Architecture and the Built Environment
SOM-EX 06-21

SOM-EX 06-021
Royal Institute of Technology
School of Architecture and the Built Environment
Division of Built Environment Analysis
SE-100 44 STOCKHOLM
www.infra.kth.se/BBA/
Copyright Eunice Ofeibea Damptey
ii

FOREWORD
Below is some information about my background and motivation for writing this
thesis.
I had my undergraduate Bachelor of Arts (B.A) degree in Geography and Resources
Development from the University of Ghana, Legon. I was a year later chosen by the
department of Geography and Resource Development to serve a year as a teaching
assistant. I conducted tutorials and seminars in this capacity. During my year as a
teaching assistant I was also asked to assist in a Dutch sponsored project at the
department called the TROPENBOS project. It was a learning experience that helped
me to learn more about sustainable resources especially in Agro forestry.
This thesis is the final part of the Master of Science programme in Environmental
Engineering and Sustainable Infrastructure (EESI) at the Royal Institute of
Technology (KTH), Stockholm, Sweden. I chose to write this thesis in Built
Environment Analysis because I have a personal interest in the built environment as a
geographer hence the focus on the spatial aspects is prominent in this research. I
found it interesting to combine that with the sustainable and environmental issues
studied at KTH.
iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I will like to use this section to thank all the people who have made the writing of this
thesis and my masters programme a reality.
First gratitude goes to God for keeping me strong and protected through all times.
I wish to thank my family members for their prayers and encouragement: Mum, Dad
and Joe. Although you were far away from here, your prayers helped so thank you all.
I thank the Linnaeus- Palme for granting me the scholarship for this Masters
programme without which it would have been difficult to make it through this
programme.
A big thank you goes to my supervisor, Dr. Orjan Svane, Senior researcher in the
Built Environment Analysis Unit, for his guidance and patience during this thesis.
Your advice, time and explanations were of great help to me. Thank you again.
Several people made my stay in Sweden an enjoyable one. It was nice meeting
different students of various disciplines and sharing various ideas with my EESI
colleagues. The help of the staff members were also appreciated: Associate Professor
Jan- Erik Gustafsson (Director of Studies) and Sofia Norlander (Masters Programme
Coordinator).
Many thanks go to my dear friends here in Sweden: Vida Attah, Omar Erik Ek,
Edmond Feldman and Ian. You all helped in numerous ways to make my stay a
memorable one.
Thanks also goes to those who were of assistance during my field work especially the
lecturers and staff of the Dept. of Geography: Dr. Koku, Dr. Attua, Prof. Asiedu, Prof.
E. Ardayfio- Schandorf, Prof. Yankson and Mr. Dzra for their advice. The officials of
EPA, Mr Yayah of the Ministry of Works and Housing, officials of the Ministry of
Energy, Mr. Acquah (Architect interviewed), Mr. Gyesi (Contractor interviewed), Mr.
Ampem- Darko of CSIR(BBRI), Mr. Asante of ECG, staff of the Estate Management
dept. of the University of Ghana. Lastly, thanks to all residents in all three study areas
for their patience during the interview sessions.
To all those, who might not have been mentioned here but helped in their own ways,
God richly bless you.
v

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGE V
TABLE OF CONTENTS VII
LIST OF PICTURES, FIGURES, MAPS AND TABLES IX
LIST OF ACRONYMS X
ABSTRACT XI
1. CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. Background of the study area 1
1.2. Statement of problem 3
1.3. Aims and objectives 3
1.3.1. Research questions 5
2. CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 7
2.1. Building sustainably 7
2.2. Good indoor climate 9
2.2.1. Good indoor temperature 10
2.2.2. Energy use and indoor climate 13
2.2.3. Building materials 18
3. CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 21
3.1. Methodology 21
3.2. Data collection 22
3.3. Selection of case study 23
3.4. Problems encountered 23
4. CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS – AN OVERVIEW
OF ALL THREE STUDY AREAS AND FIELDWORK
FINDINGS 25
4.1. Anumle staff village 25
4.1.1. Good indoor temperature 27
4.1.2. Energy use and indoor climate 29
4.1.3. Building materials 31
4.1.4. Building Sustainably 33
4.2. Legon Ayido Chalets 37
4.2.1. Good indoor temperature 38
4.2.2. Energy use and indoor climate 39
4.2.3. Building materials 40
vii

4.2.4. Building Sustainably 42
4.3. Airport residential area 44
4.3.1. Good indoor temperature 45
4.3.2. Energy use and indoor climate 46
4.3.3. Building materials 47
4.3.4. Building Sustainably 47
5. CHAPTER FIVE: INTERVIEWS WITH
SOME PERSONS IN SELECTED INSTITUTIONS 50
5.1. The environmental factor 50
5.1.1. Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana (EPA) 50
5.2. The building factor 51
5.2.1. The Ministry of works and housing 51
5.2.2. Council for Industrial and Scientific Research (CSIR) 53
5.2.3. Interview with the building contractor 55
5.2.4. Interview with the Architect 56
5.3. The Energy factor 57
5.3.1. The Ministry of Energy 57
5.3.2. The Electricity Corporation of Ghana (ECG) 58
6. CHAPTER SIX: A COMPARATIVE DISCUSSION OF ATTRIBUTES
OF BUILDING SUSTAINABLY AND GOOD INDOOR CLIMATE 60
6.1. Good indoor temperature 60
6.2. Energy use and indoor climate 61
6.3. Building materials 62
6.4. The social aspect 62
6.5. The economic aspect 64
6.6. The environmental aspect 65
7. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1. Conclusions 68
7.2. Recommendations 68
REFERENCES 73
viii

LIST OF PICTURES, FIGURES, MAPS AND TABLES
Pictures
Picture 1: One of the few cement block houses 27
Picture 2 and 3: Deteriorating buildings 32
Picture 4 and 5: Bamboo roofing and floor covering exhibited 33
Picture 6 and 7: A cement block bungalows and steel roofing 38
Picture 8 and 9: Samples of burnt clay bricks and tiles and acrylic
coated clay tiles 42
Picture 10: A house with burnt clay roofing tiles 45
Picture 11: Government plan for affordable housing 66
Figures
Figure 1: A conceptual framework of elements of a good indoor climate 9
Figure 2: A ventilation system designed 18
Maps
Map1: A map of Ghana showing the location of Accra 1
Map 2: An Achimota school map showing the Anumle staff village
indicated with the arrow 26
Map 3: A scaled map showing the Legon Ayido chalets indicated with the arrow 37
Map 4: A map showing the Airport residential area indicated with the arrow 44
Tables
Table 1: The different technologies developed by BRRI 54
ix

LIST OF ACRONYMS
EPA Environmental Protection Agency of Ghana
CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
ECG Electricity Corporation of Ghana
BRRI Building and Road Research Institute
TCPC Town and Country Planning Committee
Keywords: Building sustainably, good indoor climate, social sustainability,
environmental sustainability, economic sustainability, Anumle staff village (low
income), Legon Ayido Chalets (middle income), Airport residential area (high
income), Accra.
x

ABSTRACT
This thesis focused on the building sustainability for a good indoor climate in three
residential areas of Accra, Ghana. The selected areas of the study were the Anumle
Staff village, Legon Ayido Chalets and the Airport Residential area, which were
selected due to their different social classes namely the low, middle and high income
group respectively.
In Ghana, a good indoor climate in a home is a privilege for a few who have the
means to build their own houses. Two main factors were looked at in this research
namely: building sustainably and good indoor climate. For building sustainably, the
elements considered included the social, economic and environmental aspects on
sustainability. For good indoor climate, the elements considered included good indoor
temperature, energy use and indoor climate and building materials.
The main methodology used was case study. During the field work, interviews with
various concerned officials and the residents of the study areas, official documents,
and other literature sources were used in the methodology.
The energy use in most homes in Ghana at present has become an issue of national
concern. Those who do not use energy find other environmentally destructive
alternatives. The influence of authorities concerned and other management bodies
have not been felt in recent times. As a result of this, the low and middle income areas
have been left in a deplorable state and the environment faces the effects of resource
depletion. This research also explores how this could be minimized in homes in
relation to building patterns.
Recommendations were made at the end in relation to the problems earlier discussed.
These recommendations were made on sustainable energy use for home cooling
equipment, building materials and the need for good maintenance culture for current
houses and future ones in Accra and Ghana as a whole. Most of the guidelines put in
place unfortunately favour the rich and so more could be done to improve the
situation for the less fortunate areas in Accra, Ghana. Organisations and residents are
also expected to get involved in decision making processes.
xi

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 . Background of the study and study area
Ghana is the one of the first African nations that became independent in 1957. It is
located in West Africa. Ghana shares boundaries with Burkina Faso to the North, the
Ivory Coast to the west, Togo to the east and the Atlantic Ocean to the South. The
population of the country is about 20 million in a land area of about 238 540 km_.
Accra is the capital city of Ghana. Despite it being a city by the coast, Accra has in
the past years experienced some extremely hot temperatures ranging between an
average of 35-45 degrees Celsius especially during the periods between December
and March. This period is known as the harmattan season in Ghana.
Map1: A map of Ghana showing the location of Accra
Source: www.ghanaweb.com from http://69.41.227.74/GHP/img/pics/93668109.jpg
About three decades ago temperatures were so low some scientists predicted that
Ghana would experience a very chilled weather in the near future. Today, the same
people tell us ‘our planet is on fire and very soon we are all going to be fried’
( C u d j o e , 2 0 0 5 ) .
Though the outdoor climate cannot be prevented, the indoor climate is mostly
1

dependent on a lot of factors, which determine the efficiency of a building. Some of
these include energy use, comfort, ventilation and building materials. Various
researches have been done in different aspects of this topic.
Over 60% of Accra’s residents live in high-density, low-rental areas such as Nima,
Sabon
Zongo and James Town, where there is a lack of basic amenities such as sanitation,
drainage, proper roads and waste disposal (Grant and Yankson, 2003). Examples of
middle-class sprawl include: new flats on the outskirts of Tema in Sakumono Flats,
and newer apartment buildings in East Legon (Grant and Yankson, 2003). In Ghana,
the informal settlements outnumber the formal settlements and especially so in Accra.
The settlements for the low income people are secluded from the high income group.
However, the middle income group are always interspersed with any of these two
groups. Low income settlers are automatically eliminated by the price of houses in the
rich neighbourhoods and the rich will not obviously like to be seen living in a
neighbourhood for the poor. For the poor there are even worse settlements in Accra
than the study area of the low income group and these are the slum areas that lack all
the basic amenities with almost no sanitation.
The local climate in many instances has been left out of many planning processes in
Ghana. Eliasson (2000) considers why knowledge about local climate generally has a
low impact on the urban planning process despite the abundance of scientific studies
in urban climatology and climatic design. He further explained that there were many
constraints that could not be counteracted through improved awareness or education,
but also require improved institutional capacity in the social context of planning.
The three areas of this study were Anumle staff village (a low income area), Legon
Ayido Chalets (middle income area) and Airport residential area (high income area).
These areas represent various social classes and their way of dealing with obtaining a
good indoor climate in general. These areas will be discussed in relation to indoor
temperature; energy use and indoor climate as well as building materials for good
indoor climate.
2

1.2. Statement of problem
Modern buildings, like other artefacts of industrial civilization, represent an
extraordinary achievement with a hidden cost. They make life easier for many today,
but their construction and operation inflict grievous harm upon the environment,
threatening to degrade the future habitability of the planet. In a tropical country like
Ghana, it is most disturbing to find so many people moving into the capital Accra in
search of better living conditions. The result is overcrowding that has caused these
migrants with no homes in Accra, to put up with family and friends who might not
have enough room space. With the current outdoor rising temperature which reflects
on the indoor climate in Ghana, it has become necessary that buildings conform to
these changes in the climatic conditions. This further worsens the case of an already
bad situation.
Another area that needs attention is in relation to the residential buildings that have
been put up and the ones that will be built in the future. Currently, the indoor climate
in most of the residential buildings in Accra is very poor especially for the low and
sometimes the middle income group. This study could be valuable for the future
constructions of residential buildings. In most cases inferior or low cost building
materials were used to put up temporary structures for the poor and on the other hand
the rich also saw it prestigious to use certain materials in spite of their room
temperature effects. Though not realized presently this could have some potential
environmental, social and economic impacts in the long run.
The main focus is on the environmental aspect of these problems although the other
two aspects are discussed in brief. The main anticipated environmental problem was
the depletion of energy resources. The reason for this case study was to contribute to
the knowledge of maintaining or renovating and building residential houses
sustainably and to highlight the environmental consequences now and in the future.
1.3. Aims and Objectives
The aim of this study is to analyse the indoor temperature and energy use in existing
houses in the three study areas and further find more sustainable ways of building
3

houses, that is, new and more cost effective ways of keeping a good indoor climate in
housing without significantly increasing the energy consumption that puts a strain on
the energy resources and the environment both in the three study areas and in Accra
as a whole. In addition, to find out how building materials could effectively create a
good indoor climate all year round in the Accra type of weather conditions. Focus is
also on how orientation and design influences or promotes a good indoor climate.
Lastly, it is to enforce the idea of building sustainably as elaborated below.
The two areas main areas of focus for this research are
I) Building sustainably
Sustainability in building will tackle the economic, social and environmental
aspects. Elements that constitute these will be discussed in details.
• Economic – The issue of affordability and durability will be discussed to
show the economic implications to residents.
• Social – Views recorded from interviews will be elaborated upon to
highlight the ideas of residents on health and safety
• Environmental – Issues pertaining to the environment drawn from
observations, documents obtained and views of the interviewed
professionals concerned with environmental issues.
II) Good indoor climate
Good indoor climate will place special emphasis on indoor temperature, energy and
indoor climate and building materials.
• Indoor temperature – Views of residents in all three areas will be
discussed in relation to the views of the planners and contractors and
the analysis done on the various schools of thought in the literature
review (see section 2.2.1).
• Energy and indoor climate – The patterns of energy use will be sought
in interviews with officials of the Electricity Corporation of Ghana,
Ministry of Energy and an architect.
4

• Building Materials – Observation on visits to some building sites,
information gathered, pictures taken and interviews with a building
contractors, residents and house owners will be discussed in further
detail bringing to light the bad indoor climate that some choices in
building materials contribute to.
The views of all concerned stakeholders would be discussed in relation to the above
outlined points. Questions like “why buildings are built the way they are currently”,
“who is responsible” and “what can be done to improve situations and how” are some
areas of interest where answers are sought.
The comprehensive aim of this thesis is to contribute to the knowledge of developing
countries, and their environmental situations as well as environmental performance.
The objective with this field study is to conduct an ex-ante investigation analysis into
finding new and environmentally friendly ways of building residential houses to suit
the hot humid climate, which could also be adapted by other countries with similar
weather conditions. Recommendations will be made as to how the built environment,
building materials, natural ventilation and cooling methods can help to improve this
situation in the three study areas in Accra.
1.3.1. Research questions
The three areas to be studied are the Anumle staff village, Legon Ayido chalets and
the Airport residential area. These areas represent the low, middle and high income
group respectively. These areas are studied under the focus of indoor temperature,
energy use and indoor climate and building materials used as they are the aspects that
make up a good indoor climate. Their availability or absence in these three areas and
in future buildings will determine how sustainable they are. Some questions that will
be answered in this research are the following:
• How is indoor climate perceived by the residents and what is the reality in the
three study areas?
• Should energy be used to improve good indoor climate?
5

• What is the correlation between an energy efficient building and good indoor
climate?
• What kinds of materials and methods of building will be most appropriate for
good indoor climate?
• Can there be a quick adaptation to new building methods and improvement of
existing housing in Accra to achieve environmental sustainability?
6

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Building sustainably
Development is not just about economic growth and higher standards of living for a
minority. It should be about making life better for everyone and this should not
involve destroying our natural resources, nor should it involve polluting the
environment. In 1987, the United Nations Commission on Environment and
Development (the Bruntland Commission) drew attention to the fact that economic
development often leads to deterioration, not an improvement, in the quality of
people's lives. Just because it is new does not mean that it is better - or at least not for
everybody! This is why the commission proposed in the Bruntland report of 1987 that
sustainability should be
“a form of sustainable development which meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. (UNCED,
2002)
In 1992, the United Nations held a Conference on Environment and Development
(The Earth Summit) in Rio de Janeiro where the nations of the world agreed on an
action plan for the next century - Agenda 21 which recognises that
• humans depend on the Earth to sustain life
• there are linkages between human activity and environmental issues
• global concerns require local actions
• people have to be involved in planning developments for their own
communities if such developments are to be sustainable (UNCED, 2002).
In Ghana, like in many other countries, building development often involves
destroying natural resources and awareness has to be created on its use. The balance is
to therefore find ways and means to satisfy the needs of the ever growing population
without jeopardizing that of future generations.
According to the AIA (American Institute of Architects) Handbook, sustainability
refers to “the ability of a society, ecosystem, or any such ongoing system to continue
functioning into the indefinite future. For architecture, this means design that delivers
buildings and communities with lower environmental impacts while enhancing health,
productivity, community, and quality of life" (CSSA, 2003).
7

Sustainability in building could be studied under 3 major areas namely the social, the
economic, and the environmental (Garrett, 2005). The social aspect deals with health,
safety and good indoor temperature. The accessibility and acceptability of good
housing for people, the making of good decisions can influence building patterns and
the building materials used as well. The economical aspect is basically the issue of
affordability of good housing, reduction in cost incurred from building sustainably
and the durability or long-term maintenance and management of buildings. Last, but
not least, is the environmental aspect which includes energy use from resources and
how they affect the air quality indoors and outdoors (ventilation), land use during
building and extracting building materials and biodiversity. This aspect basically
deals with the natural resources affected in the course of building and achieving
energy efficiency. The environmental impact of building starts when these materials
are first harvested (e.g., trees) or mined (e.g., metals, crushed stone, sand, gravel and
gypsum). How they are extracted and how much is taken can affect the surrounding
environment, including the condition of soil, streams and forests (US- EPA, 2002).
These will be the main focus of the review in this section.
In short, a sustainable house by definition has all of the following performance
attributes:
• Health
• Good indoor temperature
• Safe
• Durable/Low maintenance
• Affordable
• Energy efficient
These attributes are based on the three aspects discussed earlier. This list is
inexhaustive but for the purpose of this study these are the main focus. This describes
a house that performs properly. Choices should not be made between these desirable
attributes in our buildings especially for the poor who are usually forced to
compromise on some of these. These goals can only be met by understanding the
relationships that comprise the "system" that is the whole, the structure.
8

2.2. Good indoor climate
The climate in which one builds forms a part of the "system." The impacts of the
occupants (also part of the "system") must be understood as they can have very
significant influence on how the building functions and what it is asked to provide
(Garrett, 2005). A good indoor climate is necessary for reasons such as good health,
as the World Health Organization stated that the definition of health is: “A state of
complete well-being and not merely the absence of disease” (WHO, 2000). This
includes the quality of indoor climate, which could either make one feel good or bad
and not necessarily sick. Research and practice have shown, however, that the
occupants are too often unsatisfied with the building (Säteri, 2004).
Some research has shown that the indoor space is where more and more people all
over the world spend most of their time. Because of this the World Health
Organisation states that the “human right to a healthy indoor environment includes
the right to breathe clean air, the right to thermal comfort and the right to visual
health and visual comfort” (WHO, 2000). Studies conducted by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency also show that exposure to air pollutants can be
more than 100 times higher indoors than outdoors (Healthy Climate Solutions, 1999).
Below is a simple conceptual framework of the idea of how the good indoor climate
works. This represents the main parts that constitute a good indoor climate.
Figure 1: A conceptual framework of elements of a good indoor climate.
Source: Wall (2005)
Good Indoor
Climate
Acoustics Thermal Comfort Visual
Comfort
As shown in the diagram above, there are various types of comfort that make up a
good indoor climate. However, for the purpose of this study the main focus will be on
9
Psychosocial
Comfort
Indoor Air
Quality

thermal comfort and indoor air quality. There will also be discussions on other major
determinant factors like energy use and building materials which could help improve
thermal comfort and indoor air quality for a good indoor climate. Thermal comfort
basically has to do with the temperature that the resident considers as comfortable to
stay in. For the purpose of this research good indoor temperature will be used when
discussing thermal comfort. The degree of warmth or cold could be considered in
each case. Good indoor air quality may be defined as air, free of pollutants that cause
irritation, discomfort or ill health to occupants (Liddament, 1996). These two are
highly dependent on the lifestyle of the inhabitants for example the location of the
kitchen that produces a lot of heat during cooking. These factors are very much
interrelated. They will be discussed alongside each other throughout the course of this
thesis. The basis for the determination of the indoor climate in this research is the
perceived ideas got from the interviews that were conducted on residents of the three
study areas.
2.2.1. Good indoor temperature
As seen in figure 1 above, it is not only the indoor temperature but also the indoor air
quality could be a determinant of a good indoor climate. Good indoor temperature as
a determinant for a good indoor climate is in this context defined as "that condition of
mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment" (Fanger, 1970).
However several other factors could also contribute to the determination of good
indoor temperature. Meyer (2002) considers the relationship between indoor climate
and climate change. Two schools of thought on indoor temperature research are
reviewed: “one which sees indoor temperature as governed by a common and fixed
human preference and the other as strongly influenced by highly variable habits and
expectations”. The idea of good indoor temperature could be viewed at different
angles depending on what the individual is accustomed to and variations in income
levels.
The rapid growth in population and development in technology as Pauken (1999)
suggests that the development of air-conditioning was linked to major shifts for some
of the population as he states that ‘air-conditioning is seen to have "tamed" hot and
humid summer conditions bringing prosperity to business owners and individuals’.
10

In this thesis, one problem is the bad indoor temperature. This is as a result of the
tropic weather condition in Ghana and is evident through the use of fans and air
conditioners in most homes. On the other hand, in temperate countries, the heating is
done indoors due to the cold outdoor climate but studies have shown that these
different climates all seek to achieve a good indoor climate. Brager and de Dear
(1998) states “research undertaken in comfort chambers shows fairly consistent and
similar temperature preferences even across cultures with highly variable climates”
contrary to what Meyer says.
However, field studies of indoor temperature reveal more variation, especially in the
case of occupants of "naturally ventilated" or "free running" buildings without
centralized heating and cooling systems.
One important consideration is to recognize “cultural and climatic differences in
interpretations of standard comfort scales. For example, the term "hot" in Western
Australia was obviously more extreme than for counterparts in the northern
hemisphere”(Cena and Ladd, et al. 1990). One can conclude that though indoor
temperature is defined by many in various ways, one that always stands out is the fact
that a good indoor climate is wanted by most people for comfort to be achieved.
Focusing on good indoor temperature that helps residents to be comfortable in the
home, Rybczynski (1987) states, “comfort is a multi-faceted concept relating to the
historical development of ideas about privacy, domesticity, efficiency, ease and
austerity”. More recently, indoor temperature has come to be associated with
functional efficiency, related to the development of scientific theories of light and air,
and technologies for ventilation and air-conditioning.
Factors that are considered along side indoor temperature include indoor air quality
(IAQ) or ventilation and energy use as these can be viewed under both artificial (air-
conditioning and electrical fans) and natural ventilation through well positioned
windows amongst other related factors.
Research has shown that most high income residents find air-conditioning or electric
fans as a better cooling option than natural ventilation which is the cheapest option for
the poor in Ghana. Affordability is the main issue between these two social classes.
Cooper (1998) examines the history of mechanical air conditioning in the US,
11

describing engineering practice and how "man-made weather" came to be accepted by
consumers. She argues that air conditioning was initially resisted because it
challenged the established social rituals of hot weather (e.g. light clothing, cold
drinks, and vacations, swimming). However, after the 1950s passive forms of climate
control in the home were in decline with the rise of air conditioners and the mass
commodification of comfort.
Whilst Meyer (2002) discusses the idea of habits and preferences de Dear and
Auliciems (1988) however feel that this should be understood in a more psychological
context. In Ghana the idea of adapting to the hot indoor temperature comes to play as
the different social classes get used to the temperatures that exist in their homes.
Similarly, a study done in three climatically disparate Australian cities (Darwin,
Brisbane and Melbourne) revealed that occupants of air-conditioned buildings tended
to prefer them, whilst those in non air-conditioned buildings preferred to work in
passively ventilated buildings - even when these recorded the hottest temperatures (de
Dear and Auliciems, 1988).
A hindrance to good indoor temperature could be the types of clothing used in the
tropics. People sometimes dress in inappropriate or heavy clothes that are meant for
less warmer temperatures instead of light ones. Aghemabiese and Berko, et al. (1996)
have suggested that the wholesale adoption of air-conditioning as a primary cooling
strategy throughout the developing world can be avoided. Given that many people
from tropical climates are 'uncomfortable' with air-conditioning due to its energy
consumption level and cost, more climatically and culturally sensitive futures
involving daily adjustment, clothing habits and climatically sensitive design are
advocated.
Indoor temperature has been viewed as being highly dependent on the occupants and
the way they see the environment. Baker and Steemers (1999) have discussed the
issues of “comfort and thermal delight” as important to building design but not the
"obsessive application of narrow 'optimized' environmental parameters". Providing
temperatures of 21°C does not guarantee a good indoor temperature. Instead indoor
temperature must be understood as a far more holistic experience dependent upon the
interaction of many factors - including the variability and options that the
12

environment offers and the ability of the occupant to determine these options. The
challenge for building designers is to provide options for "adaptive opportunity" (e.g.
pulling down blinds or opening windows) and thus to extend the 'comfort zone'. Once
again this is similar to what Meyer (2002) proposed earlier. The idea of indoor
temperature in the three areas of study will be researched into more detail keeping in
mind the various schools of thought on the issue.
2.2.2. Energy use and indoor climate
The environment and its limited natural resources have become a growing concern for
the world as a whole and not only Ghana. Energy efficiency is now universally
recognized as one of the quickest, most cost effective ways to reduce energy related
emissions associated with global warming, climate change, acid rain and smog.
Improving energy efficiency is a key strategy in making the world's energy system
more economically and environmentally sustainable (NUS, 2005).
In Ghana energy is produced mainly by hydro powered dams. The largest are
Akosombo (134 m high) and Kpong (29 m high). Ghana has 1072 MW of installed
hydro capacity, at the Akosombo (912 MW) and Kpong (160 MW) plants. The Volta
River Authority (VRA) was created in 1961 by act of parliament (the Volta River
Development Act). The VRA is responsible for electricity generation in Ghana by
developing the hydro potential of the Volta River and also the operation of the
transmission system. The need for energy conservation became an issue of National
concern after Ghana had been faced with a drastic fall in the level of water in the main
dam due to climatic changes. This has been the main problem with electricity
production. Unusually dry weather in recent years has resulted in low inflows into
Ghana’s major hydro developments on the Volta River. This decreased inflow has
resulted in reduced generation at the country’s hydropower plants. To cope with the
reduced flows and generation, the VRA imposed load shedding in 12-hour shifts.
Ghana had to shut down four of its six hydro generators in the first half of 1998 due to
lack of rain (International small-hydro atlas, 1999).
Though this previous situation has been rectified to some extent by building more
hydro power plants, energy conservation is being advertised through all available
media sources to create awareness as residents are educated on efficient energy use.
13

The main possible environmental problem with the energy use is that if the demand
for energy is not contained within the capacity of energy generated other sources of
energy will have to be considered.
Currently in Ghana the Deputy Minister of Trade and Industry, Mr. Kofi Osei-
Ameyaw, has launched the Ghana Appliance Standards and Labelling (ASL) regime
for air conditioners and compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs). Compliance with the
standards and labelling programme is voluntary from June 2005, and becomes
mandatory from June 2006. The Energy Foundation (EF) in collaboration with the
Ghana Standards Board have imported air conditioners and CFLs and will be
required to import and sell only products that meet minimum energy efficiency and
performance standards approved by the Ghana Standards Board (GSB). Furthermore,
appliance manufacturers and retailers are obliged to display a label which indicates
the energy efficiency rating of the product before the first retail sale.
“Building a new power plant was time-consuming and required substantial financial
commitment and that the nation needed to redouble its efforts at adopting energy
conservation as an important tool to ensure national energy security,” states the
Deputy Minister (CLASP, 2005).
Though it is hoped that the use of air-conditioning will be considerably reduced due to
its price increase and replaced with natural ventilation, it is also a fact that the use of
air- conditioning will not be stopped completely. Contrarily, since use is likely to
continue, Fanger (2001) explores how future air-conditioned environments might be
provided to enhance productivity, reduce sick building syndrome symptoms and be
compatible with energy efficiency and sustainability. Fanger also suggests that a
paradigm shift is required, based on the premise of individual control, in which the
provision of "personalized air" is served to wherever it is needed. This is the current
situation as seen in Ghana.
With this in mind the current minister of energy, Professor Mike Ocquaye has stated
that
“The air conditioner standard would save Ghanaian consumers more that $775
million by 2020. Although the price of air conditioners might go up by about 3% for
the proposed standard, they would use about 9% less energy, paying off the
investment very quickly.” “By 2013, analysis suggest, the standards could be saving
14

the equivalent of a 150-megawatt generating plant and by 2020 it may free up to
nearly 250-megawatts generating capacity that can be used for other productive
purposes,” (CLASPS, 2005).
Energy use could be a great determinant of a good indoor climate. Hackett and
Lutzenhiser (1991) shows that reduced air-conditioner use accounted for almost all of
the reduction in energy consumption, and there were few expressions of discomfort.
Their findings also suggested that the use of air conditioning may have less to do with
cost than is often assumed. The good indoor air quality with low energy use or natural
ventilation could contribute to a good indoor temperature in the sense that a good
indoor climate will be easy to obtain at little or no cost to all social classes.
Rohracher (2001) stated that the problem of making building stock more sustainable
is only to a minor extent a technical one. More important is changing the social
context and socio-technical processes involved in the construction of sustainable
buildings. A number of strategies to manage technical change towards sustainability
were suggested, including: better integration of supply chain actors; the shift to a
market for innovative and ecological building services; and, the integration of
consumers into the innovation process.
In the early 1990s, some commentators argued, "we have accustomed ourselves to
live in rooms that are too warm" (i.e. above 15°C). More recent focus on “fuel poor",
defined as those who spend more than 10% of household income to achieve
acceptable indoor temperatures of 21°C in the living room and 18°C elsewhere.
According to 1991 English House Condition Survey, only 70% of homes met
minimum regime of 18°C in living room, 16°C elsewhere, and 25% had 21°C in the
living room (Cole, 2000). This shows the amount of effort that is put into achieving a
good indoor climate. The acceptable temperatures are also getting warmer indoors
meaning that buildings might not be serving their purposes.
Auliciems (1972) argues that more information is needed on the atmospheric
influences affecting human productivity "in order that humans may capitalize on their
innovations and achieve optimal thermal conditions".
15

Currently, a study of the dynamic interaction between internal physiological processes
in humans and perpetually changing weather called the science of 'biometeorology' is
ongoing. Although there are many historical examples of successful naturally
ventilated buildings, it is argued that standards for indoor climate have tended to
emphasize active, mechanical airflow systems rather than passive, natural systems. As
such, knowledge about the performance of naturally ventilated buildings has remained
comparatively sparse (Clements-Croome, 1997). This is why there should be more
research into how building can be naturally ventilated rather than the total reliance on
mechanical airflow systems that could be relatively inefficient in the long run.
The "paradox" of modern approaches to building design, Fitch argues, is that "the
same mechanical systems which give us clean, conditioned air inside the building are
simultaneously polluting the outside atmosphere". Rather than attempting to engineer
out nature, he suggests that: "With the complexity of modern building we need nature
more than ever before. It is not a question of air-conditioning versus sea breezes, or
fluorescent tubes versus the sun. It is rather a necessity for integrating the two at the
highest possible level" (Fitch, 1972).
It has been realized in most situations that instead of the buildings in themselves
providing energy sustainability, people do this themselves. Heerwagen and Diamond
(1992) have concluded that comfort maintenance is a highly reflexive behaviour and
that people prefer to change conditions themselves rather than have the building
"decide" what to do. There is a need to develop different ways to enhance good indoor
temperature and save energy. Buildings should be built in a way to conserve energy
naturally through their building materials and ventilation.
The building design is the most important step in order to achieve an acceptable
indoor climate since the technical installations are related both with the energy use
and with the building performance. Low energy design cannot be a target itself since
the design of a not comfortable building is not a successful one. The interactions
between energy use, functional and low energy design and acceptable indoor climate
are very important (Wall, 2005).
16

With respect to indoor climate, energy use is of great essence but this comes with a lot
of cost and there are variations in the amount of ventilation needed indoors.
Liddament (1996) discusses the fact that a considerable proportion of the energy
consumed in buildings is caused by ventilation and air infiltration. This has important
implications both at the consumer level, where the cost must normally be met, and at
the strategic level, where it contributes to primary energy need and environmental
pollution. Since ventilation is so closely linked to concern about indoor air quality,
there is the further problem of identifying how much ventilation is needed to provide
a healthy indoor environment. This could become a debatable issue when dealing with
the high income group as there might be no limit to how much ventilation they can
afford. Since it is difficult to assess the energy impact of ventilation, the context of
air change in relation to energy use is often undefined. As a consequence, no adequate
datum exists from which strategic planning for improving the energy efficiency of
ventilation can be developed.
Liddament (1996) also suggests that a ventilation system must be designed to satisfy
the required demand. In meeting this need it is necessary to consider a wide range of
criteria, varying from meeting the needs of building regulations to planning for
maintenance and replacement (see figure 2). It is necessary to integrate the ventilation
system itself into the overall design of the building, especially in relation to air
tightness, room partitioning and accessibility. The high income group is more likely to
have this privilege. Since such a wide range of parameters is involved, there is rarely
a unique solution to a particular ventilation design. Instead the designer must base a
judgment on the individual needs of each building.
17

Figure 2: showing a ventilation system designed
Source: Liddament (1996)
Especially in the tropics, ventilation is basically for the sake of removing
contaminated air and replacing it with clean air to give a good indoor air quality.
Ventilation basically involves the movement of air but air conditioning involves
cooling but not necessarily for replacing with clean air. The checklist for a good
ventilation system should include a good indoor climate. This means paying attention
to lack of draft, low noise level, appropriate temperatures and superior air quality.
Other items on the checklist are low energy use, simple operation, easy maintenance,
simple adjustments, good flexibility, low life cycle costs and easy, simple-to-
understand instructions for operation (Love, 2005). These qualities should be a
necessity for all residents but not a luxury for the rich only.
2.2.3. Building materials
The sources of adverse emissions to the indoor environment should be minimised.
This can be done by using materials that have low primary emission levels, are
sustainable and resistant, and by avoiding materials that may give rise to significant
secondary emissions (Bakke and Lindvall, 1999). In Ghana, buildings are usually
built with cement blocks, wood and corrugated aluminium roofing sheet. In recent
times, the use of local materials like bamboo, mud bricks, wattle and daub and straw
bale is being promoted and a lot of research is being done into its efficiency and
sustainability for achieving good indoor climate. In almost all localities, nature has
provided us with some good quality materials to build with and some of these
18

materials require little processing or transporting. The environmental and economic
costs are low though at times they could be quite expensive. Some are renewable
resources like trees and straw, and some may be so abundant that their supply seems
almost inexhaustible like rocks, clay and sand. One of the beauties of building with
local materials is that they seem to fit well with the feeling of the place, naturally
(Hart and Hart, 2005). Fortunately, most of these materials are readily available in
Ghana but are not used optimally.
The inhabitants of a building have the right to demand from the management in
charge that the appropriate building materials be used and a good maintenance culture
to obtain a good indoor climate. This can only be made possible if the inhabitants are
aware of the benefits of a good indoor climate. The issue of indoor temperature,
energy use and health is often dependent on the building materials.
There have been some suggestions on different kinds of building materials that have
been used in various places. Rocks have been seen not to only strengthen a building
but also create a natural beauty. Mud brick (adobe) is an extremely valuable building
material, useful for both walls and floors. It is composed of between 20 and 30
percent clay, with the rest mostly sand (Hart and Hart, 2005). Such soil is common in
many areas. In Ghana, buildings made of adobe are mainly found in the northern part
and this has been mostly adopted for a good indoor temperature due to the extremely
high temperature found in the area. Irrespective of where the mud bricks are used,
they are often known for their cooling effect. Especially at night, residents can be
assured of a good indoor climate without the use of any mechanical effects.
Other materials that could be used are the wattle and daub which is a traditional
building method that involves filling a wood frame with withies or twigs which
constitute the wattle and then this is plastered with the daub which binds the twigs
together and makes the structure strong. Straw bale building requires few specialist
skills and is ideal for self-building. Energy efficiency is very high as the straw cools
well and the buildings can last indefinitely. Initially pioneered in the USA, straw bale
has now been adapted by most countries with hot humid climates (BBC- h2g2, 2003).
Bamboos have also been found to be appropriate for hot climates. Its advantages are
limitless. Apart from the fact that large species used for construction only grow in the
19

tropics and sub-tropics, it is often combined with other building materials and
techniques, such as timber and adobe. Bamboo is round, hollow and separated into
culms; it is very strong and can support more weight than an equivalent length of
wood. Its lightness makes it easy and fast to manhandle and place. It can also be cut
and shaped more easily than wood. Bamboo grows fast and can be grown on a small
scale by the builder. It is a fast and cheap option for long-lasting buildings. However,
the main disadvantage of bamboo is that it is extremely flammable, so extra care
needs to be taken in building design to reduce the threat of fire (BBC- h2g2, 2003). It
is grown and used mainly in Africa and across Asia.
Mud bricks, straw bales, bamboos and wattle and daub are all building materials that
are found in Ghana and they produce a good indoor climate through their cooling
effects when used in building. Building with bamboos is currently been experimented
on. Further discussion will be done about this in coming chapters.
Most builders also stick to the well-known cement block. The cement blocks are
known to retained more heat in a building than mud or burnt clay bricks.
The focus should also be on the type of roof that is used in building since that comes
in direct contact with the sun. In recent times, slates and clay tiles sometimes coated
with acrylic paint have been used in Ghana. The very common one used was the
aluminium roofing sheet but this has been found to be heat absorbent instead of
reflective. This causes the rooms to be very hot during the hot seasons. It is believed
that these new roofing materials are better reflectors of heat and so the heat is not
absorbed and released into the house afterwards. It should be noted that despite these
materials being highly durable and efficient for a good indoor climate it is not
common to find these types of buildings in any of the research areas and hardly in
Accra as a whole. These building types are more common in the villages where the
traditional ways of life influences the use of traditional materials. This is usually
mostly associated with the poor in a city like Accra.
20

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.1. Methodology
The main research method used for this research is the case study methodology. The
areas that have been chosen as cases are Anumle staff village, Legon Ayido chalets
and the Airport residential area. As stated in Johansson (2004), case studies are used
in many spheres of practical activity including the architecture and planning sectors,
which are in this case related directly to this topic. A case study is defined by
Johansson (2004) as the process of learning about a case and the product of our
learning from the case is the case study report. It also involves the study of one or a
few units of analysis but in depth with many aspects and variables. A case study may
use both qualitative and quantitative methods.
Many schools of thought on case study have been given. Yin (1994) writes about a
case study being studied in its real life context or natural setting. Yin continues to
explain the differences in the 2 types of case studies he proposes, namely, the holistic
case study and the embedded case study. A holistic case study focuses on the case as a
unit of analysis whiles with the embedded case study the case still functions as the
main function of study but there are also subunits of analysis within the case. He cites
the example of a study done in a housing area as being more of an embedded case
study since the housing area is the case and the households are embedded in the units
of analysis making it an embedded case study. On the other hand, Stake (1998)
defines a case study as every study that has a case as the object of study is a case
study regardless of the methods used. Cases are said to be phenomenal in nature but
can be studied under three aspects though it is sometimes hard to draw a boundary
between all three. These are the social, spatial and the temporal. The cases in this
research will be spatially and socially determined as the research involves three
housing areas and indoor climate.
3.2. Data Collection
A number of data collection methods have been used. These include interviews,
analysis of archival records, documents and observations made from visit to the three
places. The facts obtained from the collected data will be validated through the use of
21

the data triangulation method. Data triangulation as defined by Stake (1998) is the
process of using multiple perceptions to clarify meaning by identifying different
methods to study the same aspect, for example observing and interviewing to assess
indoor climate or safety.
Interviews were done in all three areas of study in which twenty four households were
interviewed in all as well as in institutions visited and data on the same issues of study
were obtained from these different areas. The twenty-four residents interviewed
about their homes were chosen at random. Some officials of organizations like the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Ministry of Works and Housing, an
architect at the Estate Management of Legon, Building and Road Research Institute
(BRRI) of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), a building
contractor and the Ministry of Energy were also interviewed. Documents from these
organizations were obtained. Observations on visit to the study areas and pictures
taken are all findings of the present situation. The period of the field work was from
August to mid September, 2005.
3.3. Selection of case study
Three areas in Accra were selected for studies, namely, Anumle staff village, Legon
Ayido Chalets and the Airport residential area. These areas have been chosen on the
basis of their various social classes. Furthermore, the types of building found in these
areas with respect to similarities and differences in some aspects such as building
patterns, indoor temperature and energy use. The Anumle staff village represents the
low income area; Legon Ayido chalets area represents the middle income area and the
Airport residential area for the high income class. A good representation of these can
be found in all three areas. There are numerous other areas that could have been
chosen. These areas were thought by the researcher to have a clear cut stratified
society and hence could bring out the distinction needed for certain points that are
highlighted in the analysis and discussions sections to be understood. Though these
areas were found to be information rich, not all data was easy to find.
22

3.4. Problems encountered
Though interviews were on the whole successful, it was sometimes very difficult to
talk to residents without them being suspicious of the researcher being a spy for a
government official or an intruder. In Ghana, as in most places, people are not too
comfortable with strangers asking about their homes and going into their homes so it
was very difficult to have a vivid idea of how the indoor design looked like as this
was necessary for the determination of how ventilation was possible. In most cases
the design had to be described to the researcher and this could not be considered as
reliable enough. Hence not all specific details could be obtained.
At the institutions and organizations visited it was most often difficult to get officials
who were available to be interviewed since there were so many bureaucratic channels
to go through. When the officials became available to be interviewed, certain specific
details could not be revealed due to certain working codes that had to be adhered to.
Those notwithstanding, institutions like the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),
Ministry of Works and Housing, Estate Management of Legon, Building and Road
Research Institute of the Centre for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and the
Ministry of Energy were willing to give some information.
With the Ministry of Energy, general information was given but when specific details
were asked the researcher was told that information could only be given by the boss
who was out of town. The official interviewed at the Ministry of Works and Housing
was also very helpful but when the researcher asked about obtaining set guidelines
used by the ministry to ensure that residential buildings are built accordingly, it was
unfortunately still under review but the available one for use at the moment was the
building code of Ghana. It should be noted that the EPA had a lot of documented
information for the researcher and they were willing to give out some of such
information. The only problem realized through the interviews with staff of EPA was
they seldom deal with issues pertaining to the environment in relation to residential
building but rather with commercial buildings and in cases where builder residential
defaulted, they were handled by the Town and Country Planning Committee (TCPC)
unit.
23

It was also very difficult for the researcher to obtain detailed maps showing the
residential layout of the areas of study. Those that were available were not up to date
as areas that had been developed in recent times had not been represented on these
maps. A draftsman at the estate management of Legon was very helpful in providing
a very detailed map that was made especially for this research but unfortunately the
estate did not have access to the two other areas of study. An architect responsible for
the design of the Legon Ayido chalets was interviewed.
24

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS – AN OVERVIEW OF ALL THREE STUDY
AREAS AND FIELDWORK FINDINGS.
This chapter presents the results from the field work findings. It gives a detailed
account of the residents’ views of their homes in relation to good indoor temperature,
energy use and indoor climate and building materials in all three study areas. Various
interviews were also conducted with the officials who are in one way or the other
related with the decisions that affect the residential buildings in Ghana. Sustainability
in building is also discussed in all three areas.
4.1. The Anumle staff village
The staff village is located on the eastern part of Achimota School area and was built
initially to serve as a military base for soldiers in the colonial era. It currently serves
as a housing area for most non-academic staff of Achimota School. Built in the 1920s
by the founding fathers of Achimota School, the buildings have survived the vagaries
of the weather over the years but have in recent times seen a lot of deterioration as
was observed by the researcher and through information from residents. (See map 2)
Map 2: Achimota school map showing the Anumle staff village indicated with the
arrow. Map source: Achimota School Library
25

The Anumle staff village area was converted into houses in the late forties after the
soldiers were moved to a new location. These building have been maintained in their
original state till present. It is still owned and managed by the Achimota school
authorities made up of the board of directors of the school. The area is has about of
about 70 households. This area represents the low income area of this research due to
the income level of the residents found here. Interviews were done in ten households
randomly selected within the study area. The neighbourhood has a basic school which
most of the children in the area attend. It is a walking distance from the staff village
itself. Most houses in this area have mainly one window for each room and are
mainly mud houses that have been plastered interspersed with a few cement block
houses. Most houses in this area have a small balcony that leads outside by a short
staircase.
Picture 1: One of the few cement block houses. Picture source: Field work, Anumle
(2005)
26

Family sizes of the households in this area were mainly made up of about six to eight
people sharing two rooms as some extended family members added to this number.
Houses were mainly made up of one or two small bedrooms, a sitting room and
sometimes an outhouse. The outhouse was usually divided into two parts, on one side
as the kitchen and on the other side as a bathroom and toilet. This outhouse was built
by residents who had extra land area within the compound they live in. In instances
where the household consisted of just the nuclear family they could afford to convert
one of the rooms into a kitchen. Those who do not have an extra land area for an
outhouse used the public bathrooms and toilets provided in the neighbourhood and
cooked on the veranda just in front of the house.
4.1.1. Good indoor temperature
Good indoor temperature was considered by most residents as being able to stay
indoors without having to use any cooling system and using less energy in return.
According to them, windows were not enough for cross ventilation so they quoted the
indoor climate as being “fairly comfortably”.
In picture 1 above, the house was built of cement blocks and slate roofs. However, the
complaint of the inhabitants of this house, made up of a couple and their three
children, indicated that the nature of the roofing besides producing heat was not very
comfortable due to the ‘V’ shaped nature of the roof. The roof served as the main
27

ceiling so the sun transmitted radiation directly from the slate into the house. Added
to this was the fact that reptiles like lizards and snakes had access to the house
through the space on the roof and that also scared the residents. This could have been
simply avoided by creating a second ceiling under the slate roof so that the slate could
only be seen from the outside. The heat could then have been easily ventilated away
through this second ceiling and not directly by the room. This will obviously affect
the indoor temperature for the inhabitants of this house.
In relation to the above mentioned, the question of affordability of cooling systems
could be raised. The meagre income of residents can hardly support the daily needs of
a family with the responsibility of paying the children’s school fees and buying food.
Hence the issue of buying the most affordable cooling system which is the electrical
fan (either ceiling or standing) is not usually considered. Cooling systems were
however found to be mostly needed in the hot seasons between December and March
as most of the residents stated.
Residents have learnt to accept whatever room temperature exists since they thought
that using any cooling system will be both unhealthy and expensive. Whilst some
thought two windows in a room could help give a good indoor climate others thought
that one window was enough. Some people learn to adapt to what they have whilst
others do their best to change the situation if they think they are not comfortable.
Could the type of clothing account for the unbearable heat? The answer from
residents was both “yes” and “no”. “Yes” because the residents in this neighbourhood
are the low income group who are more concerned about survival than to know what
clothing type will reduce the heat. To quote one resident who, when asked if he
thought clothes could be a contributory factor, replied “clothes are clothes and we
wear them to protect ourselves”. To some of them clothes serve the basic purpose of
covering their bodies in cold or hot weather situation. On the other hand “no” because
they could change their clothes when they were hot and did not see why clothes
should count.
In spite of the fact that houses should be built to have an adaptive opportunity most
residents did not think that they served the purpose for which they were built. The two
main issues that came up from interviews with residents were overcrowding and
28

orientation of the building. Residents mentioned that the sizes of rooms were too
small to accommodate their large family sizes. The over crowding in rooms causes a
lot of heat at night as well as an unfavourable indoor air quality. The orientation of
houses also came up as one of the issues of concern. The residents claimed that their
windows were not in the direction of the air and so they did not always get the fresh
air as expected. In both cases the opening of windows had never been the best option
especially at night as insects like flies and mosquitoes were another problem although
it would have been preferred to using the electrical fans. Treated mosquito nets could
be mounted over their beds or windows fitted mosquito nets.
These were the issues that residents complained about and wished could be addressed.
Most would have liked to create a good indoor temperature in their own way if they
were given the choice to alter their homes. The issue of indoor temperature means
different things to different people and even in the same area with the same standard
of building the issues of family sizes in relation to room sizes, the number of
windows, type of clothing and the use of cooling equipment gave way to different
opinions.
4.1.2. Energy Use and indoor climate
Past problems with Ghana’s energy resources forced the education of Ghanaians
about the sustainable use of energy especially in houses. These problems (see section
2.2.2) brought to light the need to not only use environmentally friendly equipment or
energy efficient ones. Although more emphasis has recently been on creating more
energy efficient air conditioners the same cannot be said for electrical fans which are
sometimes used by the low income majority.
In the discussions with most of residents interviewed, it was found that electrical fans
could not be used as often as needed due to its contribution to high electrical bills
(relative to the poor) and respiratory problems. Some households did not have any
electricity because the ECG had disconnected power to their homes due to their
inability to pay for the outstanding bills. In a household of about five children, a
father admitted that aside caring for the basic needs of the family he could not afford
29

to pay for the electricity bills as well so they would stay in darkness until things got
better for him. During further enquiries it was realised that some actually had illegal
power connections that had been detected and so they had been asked to pay
outstanding bills before reconnection whilst others got away with it. These illegal
connections had actually caused a low voltage in the area which could not support
most home appliances of those who still used electricity.
Most residents responded that the indoor climate depended to a large extent on the
season. Those who can afford these electrical fans can hardly keep it on for long hours
due to the unaffordable bills. Residents claim they would rather resort to natural
ventilation which is free and healthier comparatively. Some residents were insisting
on the availability of more windows for cross ventilation but the problem was since
those buildings belonged to the government they could not be altered in any way.
Most windows in the houses are also hardly ever opened. Most of the residents
interviewed explained that this was because there was no protective covering that
shielded them from insects or thieves. Others who were brave enough to make such
alterations had been asked by the authorities to change it back to its initial state since
they had no right to make such alterations. From visits to the area this was evident and
some revealed that they had defied the order so had been asked to pay a fine. Picture 2
below (left) does not only show the deteriorating house but also shows a window that
has been widened and barred with wood and metal bars. Out of apathy, one tenant
explained that she would soon move out and redo the changes that she had made
earlier to its original state. Such changes should have rather been viewed from a
positive perspective by the authorities. The fact that the residents made these changes
at their own personal cost for a good indoor climate could help any future inhabitants
of that house if properly done.
As was noticed during the site visits, some large households had a small outhouse
built of mud that served as a kitchen (see example in picture 3). These were built to
make up for the kitchen that had been converted to a bedroom as one resident
admitted. Most residents used firewood, coal pots and kerosene stoves for cooking.
The heat from using these fuels is not pleasant and some were of the view that the
outhouse was a good idea for them. Those who cooked indoors explained that it was
more convenient for them because no matter how late it was they could cook and not
30

have to go outside as they feared for their safety. An unpleasant situation that stems
from cooking indoors is the fact that they sometimes have the smell of smoke in all
their clothes. The idea of cooking indoors is not bad as kitchen are generally made to
be part of the whole architectural design of a residential building but in this case it
becomes a nuisance when heat, smoke and aroma generated from cooking could
contribute to making the already uncomfortable situation worse.
To the residents, the building was not designed properly and hence they had to go the
extra mile in finding all affordable means to obtain good indoor climate and they also
use other means such as firewood for cooking. This should not be the case as there
should have been cross ventilation or more space made available for the kitchen but
once again the issue of not being permitted to change any part of the building design
rears its ugly head. At least if there was not enough space for a kitchen then there
should be good ventilation that could clear up the heat that the residents feel.
4.1.3. Building materials
Apart from blaming the indoor climate solely on the climate during the warm season
of the year, some of the residents thought that building materials could play a crucial
role on how they felt indoors. The residents in this area had no say in what building
materials should have been used for building. However, some residents are aware of
the materials that could give them a better indoor climate. Various views were shared
by the residents on why they would prefer to use a particular type of building
material. Whilst some for example thought that a good financial standing would
increase their demand for cement blocks rather than mud bricks (adobe) and be
prestigious, the majority thought that block houses rather than mud bricks ones would
be safer to live in. Hence whether there is money or the safety involved cement blocks
were preferred.
One interesting observation that was made was the fact that most of the out houses
were built of mud. This was not very clear at first because the impression was that
they preferred to build with cement blocks. It was revealed by a few owners of these
outhouses that they used mud because they knew it was temporary and that when they
31

eventually move away in the future they will be expected by the authorities to leave
the place as it was initially. To them, the mud house could easily be pulled down
when that time came. Their reason was that enough research has not proven beyond
all reasonable doubt that mud bricks could last as long as cement blocks. Others were
also very objective about the deteriorating state of their houses. They admitted that
apart from the fact that the maintenance culture in the area was bad, these buildings
had been there since the 1920s so to say that mud houses do not last is not a fair
statement. To them, mud houses if maintained would last as long as block houses.
From visits to the area and pictures taken, the fears of residents were evident to a
point. Some houses in this area were built of mud bricks but plastered with cement
and painted. A gradual deterioration of the buildings was evident (See pictures 2 & 3).
Picture 2 and 3: Deteriorating buildings. Picture source: Field work, Anumle (2005)
Is deterioration to be blamed only on building materials? A building should be
maintained during its operation stage and it would be unfair for those responsible for
this maintenance process to prevent the inhabitants from upgrading these 1920s
buildings if they will not do it themselves. Having cross ventilation and separate
kitchens could be a better, low energy, solution. Considering the fact that personal
monies spent by inhabitants are not remitted to them by the authorities that were
supposed to bare this cost.
32

Picture 4 and 5: Bamboo roofing and floor covering exhibited. Picture source: Field
work, 3rd International building Exhibition, Accra (2005)
Residents expressed their wish to use straw, thatch, clay tiles and bamboo for roofing
rather than the slates which contributed to the heat experienced indoors. They were
however not sure if these would be able to withstand the torrential rains in Ghana.
Although another section of residents prefer to feel comfortable they also admitted
that they will rather go for affordable materials first to provide shelter for their
families before they will think about how to make the indoor climate better.
Although there were preferences for various building materials over others, one
cannot overlook the fact that building materials used deteriorate and so should be
maintained. If the deterioration continues despite frequent maintenance then the
efficiency of that material could be questioned. The authorities should be responsible
for making the changes in building materials since they are also responsible for
creating a good indoor climate for the residents. Education about the recent
technologies being introduced on mud brick and other building material production
could help instil the confidence needed for builders to use mud bricks.
4.1.4. Building sustainably
The issue of building sustainably can be analysed under the three elements as done
briefly in section 2.1 namely the social, economic and environmental aspects of
sustainability.
Social aspect: In the discussion of elements that make up this aspect, health, safety
and good indoor temperature will be examined as they existed in the low income area
33

of this research. In the case of health, the number of windows and the sizes of the
rooms were architectural form taken into consideration when discussing health. The
nature of building materials for example, the plastered mud building was also another
area for concern. For some residents the number of windows and the sizes of the
rooms not only created overcrowding but also respiratory problems for those who
dared to use fans for long hours. Bugs had bored holes in some of the mud walls. In a
research done by UNCHS habitat 1997, stated that ‘plastered walls were less prone to
cracks as long as the plaster was maintained uncracked but when holes or cracks
develop then it provides suitable dark spaces for disease vectors to hide, creating a
health risk’. The residents stand a risk of this due to the holes and cracks in their
walls.
The need for safety in every neighbourhood cannot be taken for granted. To find
people in a place they can call home, they need to know that they will be safe.
In the case of the Anumle staff village area, it was realised that safety could not be
totally guaranteed. It was evident from the fact that residents were very particular
about keeping their windows shut if even it was in the hot season. This was made
even worse by the absence of bars or louvers to protect inhabitants against intruders.
The indoor air quality therefore is greatly affected. For the purpose of this research,
elements like improving maintenance and operation procedures, ventilation and
cooling systems will be analysed. In the Anumle staff village area the maintenance
and operation culture is non existent. Considering the fact that these buildings were
built in the 1920s, it is necessary for maintenance to be done at short intervals because
the deterioration of the building increases as the years go by. Related to this point is
the nature of the windows that allow for ventilation. Maybe in the 1920s crimes were
not so much as it is today. This could explain why the windows had no bars but things
have changed and now crime is on the increase. There should therefore be an
upgrading that conforms to current situations. The same goes for the provision for
mosquito nets. Most drains in the area are choked causing stagnant water that breeds
the mosquitoes. If these are well addressed then there will be less need for cooling
systems. Other areas of concern when it comes to safety could be fire outbreaks, poor
constructions and flooding.
34

A good indoor temperature for the inhabitants in this area was being able to have lots
of air in the rooms and staying indoors for long hours without using any cooling
gadgets that will make them incur unnecessary cost or having to stay out.
One thing that is worth noting is that the Anumle staff village has access to social
amenities like the Anumle School, Achimota hospital and nearness to Achimota
school which is the workplace of most residents.
Economic aspect: This aspect considers the affordability and durability issues of
building sustainably. In this study area the houses are rented out to residents. It is very
difficult to afford to build a house in Ghana and worse still for most residents in the
low income category. Many workers in this category might spend their whole
working life trying to build at least a one bedroom house. This is why most of the
residents of this area have to deal with the discomfort of sometimes staying in the
government provided houses. Others might even go on retirement without having a
house of their own and so have no place to stay in Accra. Most of them go back to the
villages where they originated from because simple thatch or mud houses are cheaper
to put up as some residents hinted.
Durability of building materials and quality of constructing a building in the short
term is most often considered as a waste of money but it pays in the long term. This is
due to the high cost of some durable materials and construction. A durable material
does not only provide safety but also helps in minimizing the cost of maintenance or
replacement. Modern materials are usually more expensive than the known traditional
ones like the mud bricks in this case. Mud bricks were used mainly in this
neighbourhood to build most of the houses. To some of the people this was seen as an
inferior material. In past evidences, as seen in old village buildings of our forefathers,
mud was a very common material and cheap. Modernisation has shifted the focus of
concentrating on improving the durability of the mud bricks to that of cement blocks.
Most people in this neighbourhood do not think that mud bricks are durable enough.
If an efficient way is developed to maintain the durability of the mud bricks then little
or no maintenance would be needed to prevent the deteriorating state of the houses
currently.
35

Environmental aspect: Energy efficiency is a very delicate issue when it comes to
residential buildings in Ghana. The energy a home uses can be a significant drain on
both the environment and residents’ budgets, hence energy efficiency is an essential
part of building sustainably (US-EPA, 2002). In Anumle, the natural resources are
affected due to the need for residents to turn to an alternative fuel source for cooking.
Firewood is usually acquired by the felling of trees within the neighbourhood. Whilst
some use this raw wood for cooking others try to prevent the unpleasant smoke from
the raw wood by burning the wood further into little chunks of charcoal. For those
without electricity this is the most available and cheapest option when little or no
energy is used at all.
As stated above, most of the materials used in building are got from nature. Some of
the long lasting materials from nature that are needed to build could be stones, wood,
sand and metals that are extracted and processed. With the area in question, the
building material used from nature was mainly from clay or mud. In the first place the
extraction causes disturbance to nature through decrease in resources and the building
phases from the construction to the maintenance also do the same. This is why most
developed countries have introduced green buildings and rating systems into their
housing schemes. The once known forest area has now faced deforestation because of
the tree cutting practice. This could be blamed on the inability of residents to afford
an electric or gas cooking stove. Although electricity is not the ultimate option for
them and firewood or charcoal obviously depletes the environment too, the wood is
readily available at no cost and serves the purpose for which an electric or gas stove
would. The charcoal is also used in the coal iron for ironing their clothes as an electric
iron would have equally done. It is sad to know that these trees are not replanted.
The above analysis show that qualities like energy efficiency, good maintenance
culture, good indoor temperature and air quality have not been given major attention
by the authorities in the study area. In comparison to the high income area energy use
is very low and so energy efficiency is a relatively small problem in this area. The
poor people tend to harm their local environment.
36

4.2. Legon Ayido Chalets
The University of Ghana is located at the northern part of the city in East Legon,
about 12 km from the center of Accra (Grant and Yankson, 2003). It was established
in 1948. The Legon Ayido Chalets area is a property of the University of Ghana,
Legon. Built between the period of the late 90s and the early part of the millennium, it
forms part of the housing project put up by the university to accommodate the
lecturing staff. The area is made up of about 30 households and surrounded by other
facilities of the university. Although owned by the University of Ghana, it is a
governmental institution and managed by Estate management department of the
university. The plan of the area is still underway as more bungalows are scheduled to
be built in the near future (indicated in X on map). See map of area below.
Map 3: A scaled map showing the Legon Ayido chalets indicated with the arrow. Map
source: Estate Management Department of the University of Ghana, Legon
Houses found here are mainly those built of cement blocks with corrugated
aluminium roofing sheets. It also has a long porch as can be seen in the picture 6 and
7. For security reasons, windows are fitted with metal bars and mosquito nets.
37

Residents in this study area represent the middle income class and mainly consists the
nuclear family type. Seven household were interviewed randomly within the study
area. Houses in this area were semi-detached bungalows. (See pictures 6 &7)
Picture 6 and 7: A cement block bungalows and steel roofing. Picture source: Field
work, Legon Ayido Chalets (2005)
4.2.1. Good indoor temperature
As in the case of the low income area, one common response was that the weather
outside was the main determinant for how comfortable they felt in their homes.
Furthermore, some residents were of the view that their houses were comfortable but
others disagreed. Though most people could afford electrical fans and even air-
conditioners in some cases, some interviewed residents did not like the idea of using
them often. Several reasons were given for this.
Some of the residents thought that the windows in each room were enough to
facilitate ventilation and good indoor air quality. The inevitable heat cannot always be
escaped leaving residents with no choice - a resident narrated, “The fan blows ‘hot
air’ after long hours of use”. Windows could be opened in the night to reduce the use
of fan due to the use of mosquito nets on window frames, but some residents cited
safety reasons such as the avoidance of theft as the reason for the preferred closure of
windows. Others residents were indifferent about the effects of fan on the indoor air
38

quality. They would rather use the windows as much as they could and even open
them up in the night but close it when sleeping, by which time they claim the room
would be cool enough.
All the residents in this area had a kitchen in the house. The heat from the kitchen
could also be a contributory factor to heat in the rooms. The individual households
had different opinions about this. A lady explained that she only cooked during the
weekend for the coming week and stored the food in the freezer so she did not use her
kitchen much. In another home a man explained that he had a house help who did all
the cooking when the family was out during the day, so by evening time when they
got back it was not that warm anymore. These arrangements were more convenient
due to their busy schedule and also made possible since they could afford freezers and
house helps. Thus it was found that, most interviewed residents tried to adopt
strategies to help them feel more comfortable.
Fans and air conditioners used for long hours were blamed for respiratory problems
amongst their users. There were some complains of colds and breathing problems
raising health issues as well, which could contribute to the discomfort of the residents.
The residents had different ideas about what it meant to have a good indoor
temperature. They were aware of the role that buildings in themselves had to play in
relation to what the inhabitants do. Hence a good indoor temperature can never be
blamed on one element but depending on what it means to the individual they are
likely to act towards that meaning to achieve what they perceive to be the accepted
temperature. However, much effort should not be placed on achieving a good indoor
temperature if these building have good cross ventilation. The question to ask then
will be ‘what happens to those who have no house helps or are too busy to cook
during the day so cook when they are home’?
4.2.2. Energy Use and indoor climate
It was evident that most residents knew about ways to conserve energy. This included
low use of appliances that contributed greatly to high use of energy like electric
cookers, air conditioners, electric irons and refrigerators. Gas cookers were sometimes
used instead. It was noticed during the interviews that the electricity bills were paid
39

for by the university in some cases. Some senior lecturers and administrators have
been given a concession by the university which makes them exempted from paying
electricity bills. The bills are paid by the university. This study area included some of
this category of people. This is believed to have its pros and cons. These residents did
not see the reason they could not make much use of the electricity if they were not
paying. With the use of fan for example, one resident claimed that it did not consume
so much energy so he did not see why he could not use it for long hours. The good
aspect of this was that most of these residents were intellectuals familiar with the
country’s energy situation.
Indoor climate in this area was blamed by some on the bad architecture of the
building. The kitchens for them seemed too small and the position of the kitchen
causes the smell of the food and the heat to go into their bedrooms. Having a kitchen
in the home is a good idea but maybe the position in relation to the bedrooms should
be reconsidered in future house designs. Others had some comments on the
orientation of the building. In the rainy season it serves them well as they get a lot of
air but in the dry windy season the dust and sand particles are carried directly into
their homes. The only way to prevent this is to close the windows. So in an attempt to
block out the dust they get no fresh air. There is no immediate solution to this but it is
hoped that in future orientation of houses built will be taken into consideration.
4.2.3. Building Materials
The building materials used in this area were mainly cement blocks, corrugated
aluminium roofing sheets and in some cases clay tile roofing. A majority of the
residents interviewed were of the view that the building materials used were of
inferior quality. There were visible cracks in some of the walls. Marks of leakages
through these cracks during the rainy season were also evident. According to those
living in houses with these cracks in their walls, all efforts to get the maintenance
team to fix this has proved futile. One woman explained that the team just came to
assess the situation but did not come back to solve the problem. There were other
varying complains about reported problems that had not been adequately addressed.
Once again this is also a problem with the maintenance culture of the authorities
involved.
40

A Dutch resident and professor shared some knowledge on how the houses were built
since he had lived in Ghana as far back as the 1950s. He compared the durability of
these new houses to the old ones that were built during the colonial era. According to
him, aside the building materials being inferior, the cracks were as a result of the poor
joints that make up the four corners of the house. The blocks are supposed to overlap
each other to give the building more bonding strength but instead the blocks meet
exactly at the joint so the bond is not strong. He added that the houses were so fragile
the slightest earthquake is most likely to make them crack or send them crumbling
down.
Some residents interviewed were in the process of building houses but with cement
blocks. When asked why it could not be mud bricks which were cheaper the residents
complained about its durability. With the option of burnt clay bricks they said it was
comparatively expensive because they were smaller and twice as much or more was
needed to build the same house size as the cement blocks. From enquiries it was
further learnt that whilst about four hundred cement blocks were needed to build an
average of one bedroom house, a thousand or more burnt clay bricks were needed to
build the same type of house. Burnt clay bricks are also found to be lighter and
stronger due to the intensity of furnace heat that is used to dry them unlike the mud
bricks which are just dried in the sun. This explains why the burnt clay bricks are
more expensive than the mud bricks. Such a costly change cannot be afforded by the
residents and is also difficult to achieve.
For roofing, the common materials mentioned and used in other university buildings
but not used in the houses studied included acrylic coated clay tiles, roofing slates,
baked clay tiles due to their good reflection of heat. Some of these roofing materials
like the acrylic coated clay tiles and baked clay tiles are being used for the new homes
that are being put up in this study area. Though residents had no say in the choice of
building materials used some were indifferent about the materials used for building.
41

Picture 8 and 9: Samples of burnt clay bricks and tiles and acrylic coated clay tiles.
Picture source: 3rd international building exhibit, Accra (2005)
If what the Dutch professor said was true, then maybe more emphasis should be on
the technique of building rather than on the building materials. The other side to this
problem could be that the cement is not mixed in the right quantity with the sand to
give it that strong bond that could prevent cracks. It is not clear what the causes of
these cracks are but at least for the safety of the residents, complains about these
should be given the urgent response. At worst, the outcome of a crumbled building
could be loss of lives and property.
4.2.4. Building sustainably
Social aspect: The residents in this area were not in much health risk as compared to
the low income group. The main health risk mentioned was from the cooling systems
used by the residents but not from the building itself like was with the deteriorating
state of the mud houses.
Safety was a very crucial element also in this study area. One resident said that there
had been instances where burglary attempts had been made and the metal bars had
prevented the robbers because they could not go past them. This is what the low
income area needs. The main problem with safety in this area is the supposed poor
construction that might cause the collapse of the buildings in case of tectonic
disturbances.
Indoor temperature was not much of an issue with most of the residents of this area.
One main uncomfortable situation some residents wanted changed was the position of
the kitchen. It was found opposite the bedrooms and so the heat went directly there
42

making the rooms hot after using the kitchen every time. This was a bit different from
the low income area which had some of their kitchen outside though others had theirs
indoors. Maybe what should be looked at is the position of the kitchen in the home.
Apart from this most residents said that they were alright with the number of windows
that they had in their homes. Unfortunately, having cross ventilation meant they had
to deal with the dust that came along with air.
Economic aspect: The affordability issue in this study area was a bit more of a
possibility than in the low income area. Some of the residents interviewed were in the
process of building their own houses but they had been doing that for years. Due to
the large cost involved, they built gradually. It was the hope of these people that they
could finish building before they retired so they could have a place to live when they
moved out of the government provided house. Others also revealed that they had
bought houses from estate developers and had made the payment policy plan through
which monies could be deducted from their salaries every month for the rest of their
working years. Some however did not have to worry about electricity bills since the
university paid for that.
There were cracks on most the walls of some houses visited causing water leakages
when it rained. It was not certain what actually caused the cracks in these walls but
resident gave it different explanations. It was blamed on building materials, poor
construction quality and or poor maintenance of the buildings in general.
Environmental aspect: Unlike in the case of the low income group, residents in this
area did not use the trees in the area for charcoal or firewood for cooking. Electric or
gas stoves were used instead. However, the use of air conditioners by some residents
contributes to the greenhouse effect which is a global problem.
The building can be said to be energy efficient to some extent. In comparison to the
low income area there was some apathy with the use of electricity and cooling
equipment. This was because bills were not being paid by some of the residents
themselves but even with that some others used the electricity wisely. The indoor
climate was good for most residents. One question that should be considered could be
that should it always be about the gadgets used, the house being energy efficient in
itself or both?
43

4.3. The Airport Residential area
The airport residential area forms part of the airport development plan. It is situated
within the area of the main airport called the Kotoka International airport. This area
includes houses that have been built by both individuals and estate developers. It
forms part of a development project that has been put up by the government to raise
the standard of the airport and its environs (see map of the area below).
Map 4: A map showing the Airport residential area indicated with the arrow. Map
source: Map library, Dept of Geography, University of Ghana.
The residents in this area represent the high income class. This is due to the income
level and the type of houses found in this area. Other upper class areas in Accra
include East Legon, New Achimota, and Dansoman areas. 7 households were
interviewed at random but individually built houses were the main target because a
comparison was needed between government and individually built houses. Houses in
this area are usually enclosed with a wall and main gate. These elites also have
residents’ association and ‘watch dog’ committees that see to their common interest in
decision making and other related issues. The area creates a clearer picture of the
choices of indoor temperature, energy use and indoor climate and building materials
and the hierarchy in the social classes. Families were mainly nuclear but in a few
44

instances there were extended families living with the nuclear family. Houses were
big with so many rooms to accommodate everyone.
Picture 10: Showing a house with burnt clay roofing tiles and cement blocks. Picture
source: Field work, Airport residential area (2005)
4.3.1. Good indoor temperature
Apart from the inevitable heat during the hot season, the high income class had no
significant problem with indoor temperature. In this case they had the full
responsibility of deciding how to achieve a good indoor temperature could be
inculcated into their house design. The number of windows, their sizes, room sizes
and the type of cooling systems were all to their individual specifications. Houses
could be altered any time to suit its inhabitants when there was any form of
discomfort. Residents admitted that they had made several renovations since they
built their houses. Hence the nature if the indoor temperature was on individual basis.
Whilst some residents admitted that decorating their rooms with furniture and other
luxuries made staying indoors comfortable, others were very particular about the
elements involved in building like getting the best expert advice on every step of their
45

home building process. This involved a land and quantity surveyor, an architect and a
building contractor. It was easy to afford these services since this group of people
always strived for the best and had the means. Unlike in the low and middle income
areas where the houses were either of mud bricks or cement blocks these houses had
different combinations of buildings materials and the designs were also different. To
these residents, having a good indoor temperature basically depended on how they
were advised to combine materials with the architecture by hired professionals.
4.3.2. Energy Use and indoor climate
There was little consideration for the amount of energy used because of their ability to
pay. Lights were found in gardens and houses were over lit in the night. One lady
resident revealed that she had both a cooling and heating system which the family
used at different times of the year. Although she admitted that the heating system
contributed much to the bills they paid, she argued that they needed it so she did not
see why they could not have it if they could afford it. This same lady has a grocery
store right in front of her house which she explained that it provides the family some
extra money that could help pay the electricity bills. Some others also revealed that
they had all the cooling equipment but were very careful how they used them so that
they did not get high bills though they could afford them. In one house, a resident
admitted that he travelled a lot as a businessman so he did not use cooling gadgets so
much. His wife and child stayed home often but they did not use it much either. The
tree gardens in most of these houses created shade and fresh air, shielding the house
from the direct rays of the sun. Most residents were very particular about the
orientation of the building in relation to the direction of the prevailing winds.
Though energy can be paid for, the issue of its efficient usage could be taken more
seriously as it contributes to the final national consumption rate. This is not a problem
of ignorance but of affluence so it might be better to develop a quota system that
monitors electricity consumption in rich neighbourhoods. For example, waste of
energy resources could be seen in the case of the resident who owned equipment she
thought she could use because she could afford to have.
46

4.3.3. Building materials
This was of particular interest to residents when they were putting up their houses.
Some issues that came up from the discussion included that of indoor temperature,
affordability and prestige. As stated in section 4.3.1 houses were built to create the
good indoor temperature needed by the individual as they cited the weather as the
main reason for being comfortable indoors. Others were of the view that if the
building materials looked good to build with and they could afford it then they would
go for it – comfortable or not. Here the main issue is prestige and affordability.
Related to the previous point is the fact that the neighbourhood also played an
important role in what kind of materials were used. One resident said he would have
liked to use mud bricks or burnt clay bricks but he would be the odd one out because
everyone in the area had used cement blocks instead so he would rather prefer to use
these building materials in the rural home. Here, the sense of belonging has covered
the better judgement of using the right materials despite what anyone thinks.
However, there was a great awareness of effects of building materials on indoor
temperature. On a house tour with one resident it was realised that wood panelling
had been used. When asked why, he explained that an expert advised him to use
panelled wood and aside the beauty of wood panelling for indoor walling, using it
could also reduce the indoor temperature. The roof was made of concrete ceiling but
also had a terrazzo coating on the concrete and finally a tile ceiling, which was in
direct contact with the sun. He explained that he was advised by the building
contractor to use these since it could easily reflect the sun and keep his rooms cool.
4.3.4. Building sustainably
Social aspect: Although there might be some health risks from the individual choices
made either with the use of cooling equipment or building materials there were no
other major complains about health issues from any of the residents.
The issues of safety were well dealt with in this high income neighbourhood. All the
houses visited had highly built walls around them with some having electrically made
barb wiring to prevent thieves from climbing over into the house. There was a huge
gate in all the houses with most having the inscription “beware of dogs” which is also
47

to prevent intruders from coming in. Others had a security guard at the gate that
monitored the movement of all passers-by and questioned anybody that seemed
suspicious around the house to prevent theft and any break-in. In fact residents in this
neighbourhood had so many options when it came to what kind of security measures
they were willing to adopt. There was always a form of 24-hour surveillance.
The issue of comfort was individually controlled. Unlike in the two areas earlier
discussed, this income group had the option of building to suit themselves and could
adjust or change anything about their homes providing they were within the laws set
out in the building code for home owners.
Economic aspect: Money is not a problem for this category of people. Obviously,
they already have their own houses so the issue of affordability cannot be talked about
much.
It is assumed that most residents will buy the most durable of all building materials
and construct the best of all houses. This could be true but other elements like prestige
and the neighbourhood in question could supersede the better judgement of rather
building sustainably. Unfortunately, more emphasis is placed on the beauty of the
material used in building than on its durability. This is because of how expensive it
will be and what the neighbours might say about the building if it does not look good
on the outside. The good thing about this is that when they find out that the house has
a problem, they could maintain or upgrade all deteriorating parts of their houses
easily.
Environmental aspect: The environmental impact caused by this group of people
usually follows from the fact that they most often acquire large tracts of land because
they can pay for it. A whole area of vegetation is destroyed and the area acquired is
usually larger than the average area needed to build.
Energy efficiency was however a problem. Not because the residents could not pay or
did not know that there was a national energy problem. They did not really think that
they were a contributory factor to this national problem because they knew they were
paying for the energy they used. They do not care much for the taxes levied either.
Their cooling equipment was the main cause for this. Their frequent use of cooling
48

equipment like air conditioners did not only deplete the national energy resources but
also eventually contributed the problem of global warming. It is believed that the
warm air that is removed from inside is released into the atmosphere along with other
poisonous gases that run the air conditioners. One major implication of this is the
depletion of the ozone layer by these poisonous gases.
49

CHAPTER FIVE: INTERVIEWS WITH SOME PERSONS IN SELECTED
INSTITUTIONS
Views from officials of institutions related to this research were sought about the
same issues discussed with the residents earlier. It was necessary to have views of the
people in charge of making decisions on buildings and building related issues. The
third international building exhibition in Accra from 15 th to 18 th September 2005 was
also visited.
5.1. The environmental factor
5.1.1. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
The EPA is a governmental organisation that sees to the implementation of
environmental assessment regulations that govern all environmental issues. The main
tool used is an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) submitted by the intended
developer. Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) is a requirement in Ghana as in
many other countries and all EIS projects are reviewed and approved by the EPA
(EPA, 2005).
In an interview with an official of EPA and a member of the planning committee that
makes approval decisions, questions about EPA’s role in the issues of buildings was
sought. First of all, the official clarified the fact that EPA did not usually assess
individual residential buildings. The only involvement of EPA in residential building
was with estate developers who were required to submit an overall EIS for their whole
project. The agency works closely with planners and developers. The official was
asked if the agency would serve the individual residential interests if required. The
answer was ‘yes’ but the individual would have to contact them. However, they
would only intervene if they found that such development created environmental
obstructions. He also mentioned that EPA did this with the help of the Town and
Country Planning Committee (TCPC). According to the EPA official, TCPC was in
charge of making sure that residential buildings had sanitary amenities, good lighting
and ventilation, specified spacing between buildings but only when complaints were
lodged on any of these. Action was then taken by the TCPC by either giving an
ultimatum for the fault to be corrected or legal action taken. The EPA had the right to
50

take legal action against the TCPC or any other organisation that impacted negatively
on the environment. He further stated that the building engineers of TCPC were in
charge of deciding internal comfort.
This means that issues on individual residential buildings that affect the environment
will most times go unnoticed and will not be adequately addressed. It would have
been more helpful if the EPA had a say in the building of residential houses either
individually built or by estate developers. This has its implications in all three areas of
study but especially for the high income area because they are not controlled by any
authority unless their building causes an obstruction of some sort. A building permit is
obtained either by fair or foul means and the rules of the building code are sometimes
adhered to. Since the official mentioned that they could intervene when the houses did
not conform to environmental policies set by the EPA, the problems of the low and
middle income areas such as poor ventilation, spacing amongst other could be
channelled directly to them or to the TCPC for action to be taken on the management
responsible for these areas. It can only be assumed that the low and middle income
areas are state owned so they are more likely to adhere to building regulations in the
national building code of Ghana that the Ministry of Works and Housing is
responsible for implementing. This ministry is discussed next.
5.2. The building factor
5.2.1. The Ministry of Works and Housing
The Ministry of Works and Housing has as its main functions the formulation and co-
ordination of policies and programmes for the systematic development of the
country's infrastructure requirements in respect of Works, Housing, Water Supply and
Sanitation and Hydrology. The Ministry co-ordinates and supervises, by way of
monitoring and evaluation of the performance of both public and private agencies
responding to and participating in the realisation of the policy objectives established
for the sector (Ministry of Works and Housing, 2005).
A technical advisor of the ministry was interviewed. The aim of the ministry is to
provide affordable housing for all Ghanaians. He revealed that the ministry only
facilitated the provision of houses through loans. Housing loans were being given to
51

civil servants that had worked for a certain number of years with a regular monthly
salary so that they could finally settle down when they retired. Irrespective of the
social class there were housing types for all who were interested. He stressed that this
was a pilot project. All agencies or organisations that were interested in providing
housing through all the right channels were welcomed to do so. A question was asked
about what the ministry was doing to promote the use of local materials. The official
explained that the ministry was currently encouraging all developers who sought the
assistance of the ministry to use local materials like mud bricks and burnt clay bricks.
There were currently also efforts to introduce the use of bamboo in building. He
admitted that efforts had not yielded many positive results over the years but there
were still some strategies that had to be put in place like more industries being
encouraged to produce durable local building materials. When asked if there were any
binding regulations that made sure that guidelines were adhered to, he replied that the
guidelines were currently under review and so the current one used was the Building
Code of Ghana. On how the issues of indoor temperature could be tackled in homes
he revealed that the district assemblies had the mandate to check that buildings
conformed to the building code standard. The district assembly is made of a
representative(s) that serves as a link between the local people and the authorities.
They are found in every locality.
A critical study of the building code revealed a few inconsistencies with the interview
which should be addressed in the future. The fact that the low and middle income
areas are the affected party in this since they live in government provided houses
makes it necessary for the district assemblies to address shortfalls in the code. For
example, in part 8 (VIII) of the building code which talks about air movement and
ventilation in section 86 (1) the code states,
“every habitable room, store, larder, ventilation, stairway, room containing bath,
urinal, privy accommodation, corridor or any such room or space shall be provided
with facilities for the entry from and natural ventilation to the open air provided that
the rooms and spaces may be considered to satisfy this provision if they are
mechanically ventilated except that electric fans shall not be permitted in lieu of the
requirement of this provision” (National Building Regulation, 1996).
52

This provision is absent for most of the houses in the low income area because cross
ventilation was not totally provided and so it had to be substituted for with the use of
electrical fans in some cases. Another part of the code in the same section 86 (5)
states,
“Windows shall open to the external air and shall be provided in all rooms. The total
clear opening shall in every case be equivalent to at least one sixth or 16% of the
floor area. All habitable rooms shall have at least two windows and adjacent walls
shall be so located as to ensure effective air movement and cross ventilation”
(National Building Regulation, 1996).
Most of the rooms in the low income area have only one window so that also falls
short of what the code proposes. It is no wonder why some residents find alternative
means to make their situation better. Although the houses in the low income area are
much older than the code, the obvious reason why the buildings cannot be upgraded
to meet the current standards could be due to the lack of money for renovations.
Another point that needs mentioning is the fact that the code itself is very complicated
and difficult to understand. It will be difficult for a layman to read, understand and
even insist on his rights based on this. It is hoped that the guidelines under review will
be an easier replacement.
5.2.2. The Council for Industrial and Scientific Research (CSIR)
The CSIR has several of institutes but for the purpose of this research emphasis will
be on the Building and Road Research Institute (BRRI). The Building Road Research
Institute was first established in 1952, as the West African Building Research Institute
(WABRI) in Accra. In 1962, the BRRI under the aegis of the then Ghana Academy of
Sciences was transferred to Kumasi (BRRI, 2004). The main objectives of the BRRI
include
• To undertake research into all aspects of building and road design and
construction with a view to assisting the construction industry to be more
efficient, safe and economical.
• To develop construction materials from local materials.
• To create durable building materials for Ghanaian climatic conditions
53

Within the BRRI there also exist other divisions that narrow down to various
specialities. Those of relevance to this research are the Building materials, Structures
designing and Planning and Construction divisions. Though an interview could not be
obtained from the officer in charge, literatures obtained were very elaborate. In an
interview, an officer at the Accra branch of CSIR who had formerly worked with this
institute in Kumasi confirmed most of the information found in the literature. Below
is a table that explains further technology contributions of the institute to residential
buildings.
Table 1: Showing the different technologies developed by BRRI
Technology
on Offer
1. Clay
Pavement
Bricks,
Roofing tiles
& Building
Bricks; Kiln
Technology
2. Clay
Pozzolana
Cement
3. Cost-saving
Fast-track
Housing
Technology
4. Earth
Wall/Roofs
Construction
5. Structure,
Building
Design &
Planning
Stage/Status
of Transfer
Transfer
ready
Training and
follow-ups in
progress
Pilot Plant
Fabrication
Transferred,
Update
review ongoing
Transfer
Ready
Design
Auditing
TECHNOLOGIES ON OFFER
Clients/Potential
Beneficiaries
District
Assemblies,
Private Estate
Developers, Brick
producers
GoG Projects,
DAs, Estate
Developers
GoG Projects,
DAs, Estate
Developers
DAs, Rural
Housing
DAs, SSNIT,
CSIR, Estate
Developers
54
Pilot Scale
testing
Trial production
at
Demonstration
Plant
Seeking
Partners for
constructing
pilot plant
Design
improvements
& innovations,
demonstrations
Demonstration
& improvement
Improved
designs being
developed
Remarks
Promoting
increased use
of local
materials to
reduce cost
Saves up to
30% Portland
cement in non
structured
masonry
works
Construction
time & cost
reduction by
15-20%
achieved
Local
materials
utilization
Affordable
housing
schemes
Source: BRRI (2004). (GoG- Government of Ghana, DAs – District Assemblies)

It is evident from table that efforts are being made in developing local building
material technology but it will take a while for homeowners to have the confidence of
using them. For now the designs need some more improvement and its use should be
demonstrated as well. It is also obvious that more education is needed to instil the
confidence of durability into the future users of this product. Potential individual
builders should also be targeted in the education process.
5.2.3. Interview with a building contractor
This interview was to find out a contractor’s perspective of evolving developments
over the years. Having been in this business for over 20 years with his private
company of about ten employees, most of his works has been for residential purposes.
When asked about the materials house owners usually opt for and why, he said that he
and most of his other colleagues often build with sand, natural stones and cement
because that was what his customers could afford. About his views on what could
contribute to a good indoor climate his opinion was that burnt clay bricks were better
than cement blocks in keeping a room cool and comfortable. He added that the only
problem was that it was very expensive to build a whole house especially of two or
more storeys with burnt clay bricks due to number of bricks and the amount of cement
needed to bind them together but not that expensive with the mud bricks. The size of a
cement block is usually 4m_ whilst a brick size is usually 0.6m_. Most house owners
would like to use burnt clay bricks but immediately he gives them the estimate of the
cost they quickly change their minds. About the durability of plastered mud brick
houses like those found in the low income area, he explained that mud bricks can last
as long as the cement blocks contrary to what the residents had said about insects
destroying the building. To him, it depended on how good the contractor was.
The sizes if room was also discussed. The size of a room, if not public or government
rented apartments, could be whatever size the house owner preferred. However, the
standard size by regulation was 13m_.
In all three areas of this study, the use of bricks was not an option. The low and
middle income group had no say about their houses but to most of them mud bricks
were definitely not the best option for their houses. On the contrary, the middle
income group thought more about bricks in general giving a good indoor temperature
55

ut their problem was durability of mud bricks and the affordability of burnt clay
bricks. It would have been thought that the high income group would build with burnt
clay bricks since they could afford it but maybe the use of bricks or blocks by an
individual builder is not only durability or affordability problem but that of prestige as
well. The question to be asked here is: can anything be done to make the brick
appearance more presentable apart from it being plastered?
5.2.4. Interview with an Architect
This architect was part of the team that designed the Legon Ayido Chalets buildings
(middle income group). Initially the guidelines for a room size was 9m_ but he
explained that in recent times a room size could either be 11m_ or 13m_ since these
were both acceptable and ensures that overcrowding is minimized. A toilet and
bathroom area could be 2m_ and 2.6m_ respectively but these could change when
built to individual specification. He stressed that one main consideration in his
designing work was ventilation and lighting. At least for every room there were two
double windows in opposite directions for cross ventilation in the middle income area.
This could explain why most residents in the middle income area did not complain
much about the indoor temperature in their homes. When asked about the orientation
of the buildings and the position of the kitchen in the house of the middle income
group, he explained that first of all, the intention of having the buildings facing each
other and in the way of the air direction was to give a sense of neighbourliness in the
area. The buildings are semi-detached and so it was easy to have a small community
of people who knew each other and also a form of “watchdog” strategy. Another
reason given was that the air direction and light was very important in the rooms so
the fact that it brings dust into the rooms of the residents was rather unfortunate. With
the position of the kitchen, he explained that it had come to their attention from some
complains received from some residents about the kitchen being too small and lacking
cross ventilation. The initial idea was to have the kitchen just by the dining hall so it
was more convenient for residents but since this has generated problems new
buildings in the area will be redesigned with much more space and windows.
At least the problem has been identified for the middle income group and the residents
could lodge their complaints with the estate development management. However, the
56

same cannot be said for the low income area. If the houses in the low income area can
be renovated or upgraded then they would have little or no problem with indoor
temperature and energy use. The reality however remains that change such as that for
room sizes cannot easily be redone unlike the other two.
5.3. The Energy factor
5.3.1. The Ministry of Energy
The Ministry of Energy is to extend and ensure reliable supply of high quality energy
services to all sectors of the economy in an environmentally friendly atmosphere to
facilitate productivity and reduce poverty. One of the objectives of the Ministry is to
minimize environmental impacts of energy supplies and consumption through
increased Renewable Energy/Energy efficiency economies (Ministry of Energy,
2005).
In an interview with an official of the Ministry of Energy, questions were asked in
relation to what the ministry was doing to make energy use more sustainable. The
official admitted that though the demand for energy has increased over the past few
years, the consumer’s choice of electrical equipment was aggravating the situation.
For example, residents were buying more incandescent lamps (onion bulbs) instead of
the Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL) which was a bit more expensive but saves
energy. He said that research by the ministry had shown that residents purchased
second hand household equipment at low prices but in the long run this equipment are
not energy efficient. When asked what the ministry was doing about this he explained
that the only way will be through education which is underway in the print and
electronic media.
Information was also sought about alternative sources of energy to reduce the
depletion of energy resources in the country. He referred to solar energy, which forms
about 1% of the energy production sources as one of the latest areas being explored.
However barriers such as the cost of initial installation and maintenance were cited
for the low patronage of this energy source. Most of the public education involves
57

collaboration between the Energy foundation and the Ministry of Energy through
which a lot of surveys have been conducted. According to information gathered by the
Energy Foundation, a 1500 W air conditioner uses 1 kWh of energy in just 40
minutes, while the 70 W fan can be used for 14 hours before it uses the same amount
of energy (1 kWh), (Energy Foundation, 2005). This shows that the air conditioner
consumes a lot more energy than the fan but the main point here is how much the rich
spends on energy bills and the effects of general consumption of the nations energy
resources.
Although the ministry has identified the problem of using inefficient energy
equipment, the interviewed officer could not say much about how this was going to be
solved. The idea of using both the print and electronic media is good but the message
is more likely to be passed on to the middle and high income group who might
already have knowledge, ability to read and understand. The low income areas are
usually left out of this due to illiteracy, no access to television, no access to electricity
and poverty. However they might cause another kind of environmental impact
through the substitute use of firewood and charcoal for cooking. Depletion of forest
resources might set in at this stage. It is suggested that a nation wide team is set up to
educate residents preferably on a house to house education basis in their respective
local languages.
5.3.2. The Electricity Corporation of Ghana (ECG)
The interview of the ECG official was done at the third international building
exhibition. The ECG is responsible for providing electricity for both residential and
commercial purposes. They also see to the maintenance of power stations and power
lines, providing of meters that are used to determine the energy consumption rate by
which consumers are billed. Meter readers from ECG visit homes monthly to read
meters and give out bills for the previous month’s energy consumption. The official
was asked what the ECG was doing to monitor high consumption rates especially in
residential areas. He hinted that the ECG had started the installation of prepaid meter
systems in most homes and it was hoped to be completed by the end of 2005. Here the
whole idea is for residential consumers to buy the units of energy needed found in
various unit ranges of energy which will be loaded on to the meter system. The units
bought will constitute the amount of energy available for home use by the consumer.
58

This will be due to the fact that the various income groups will consume according to
how much they can afford and will not necessarily have pending bills that might lead
to the disconnection of their electricity as in some low income areas of this study.
According to the ECG official, the whole purpose of this is to avoid the idea of
availability of electricity which eventually leads to its misuse.
The main concern should be on the rich who can buy even more than they can afford
so might buy unnecessarily. Although some were of the view that the poor will be
sidelined, others thought that this would be a way to sustainably reduce the national
energy consumption to suit the capacity of the current energy resources of Ghana.
59

CHAPTER SIX: A COMPARATIVE DISCUSSION OF ATTRIBUTES OF
BUILDING SUSTAINABLY AND GOOD INDOOR CLIMATE
Sustainability in building as already discussed briefly in section 2.1 as the social,
economic and ecological aspects will be further discussed in this chapter. Attributes
of a good indoor climate will also be compared with respect to all three areas. These
aspects can also be discussed by architectural form of the building, quality and nature
of building materials used, quality of construction and operation and maintenance of
buildings (UN habitat, 1997). The above listed is not meant to be exhaustive but to
provide a general overview of the key issues to be considered. It is necessary to look
at the research questions that were put up and how they might be answered (see
section 1.3.1). Five questions were asked in relation to the three study areas but three
of the questions are addressed in this section for discussion purposes.
6.1. Good indoor temperature
Although indoor temperature was not measured in this study it was determined using
factors like how comfortable residents were in their homes without having to go out
and what contributed to heat in their rooms. The latter was caused mainly by cooking
in the low and middle income areas. Kitchens did not have too much space and
ventilation or were too near to the bed and sitting room areas. This is why some
residents in the low income area built themselves a temporary outhouse that could
serve the purpose of cooking. With the houses that had already been built in the
middle income areas changes would be hard to make but the problem had been
identified and would not be repeated in future houses built as pointed out by the
architect interviewed (see section 5.2.4). One cannot particularly say that the low and
middle income group were always comfortable indoors. Some residents could not stay
indoors when the heat became unpleasant unlike their rich counterparts who had no
complains about the indoor temperature.
Whilst some had views similar to those of the low income group that cement block
houses were safer than mud houses, others looked at it from the indoor temperature
point of view and were of the view that they would like to build their houses with
mud or burnt clay bricks because they knew the temperature would be cooler than
experienced now. This was very ironic because those who currently lived in the mud
60

houses did not appreciate it much and rather wanted the block house and in this area,
vice versa.
6.2. Energy use and indoor climate
One of the research questions asked was “what the correlation was with energy
efficiency and a good indoor climate”? These two have a lot to do with each other as
an energy efficient building facilitates a good indoor climate or vice versa.
The correlation between energy use and indoor climate is very important for this
study. In the low income areas it was evident that the lack of both electricity and good
ventilation caused a poor indoor climate for residents. The middle income group on
the other hand had both electricity and cross ventilation but the problem was the
orientation of the building that caused lots of dust when their windows were opened.
The high income group were wasteful when it came to the use energy.
Most residents in all three study areas admitted that it was sometimes inconvenient
when these meter readers had to come in to read their meters during the day when
they were at work or out. Others said that there had been instances where their
absence had caused the ECG disconnection officers to disconnect electricity supply to
their homes because there was no one to show the officers the receipts of their paid
bills. This brought about a lot of troubles because they had to pay a reconnection fee
when this was done. To some of the residents, this prepaid meter system would put a
stop to all these inconveniences.
The reality is that high energy use should not be associated with good indoor climate
if the houses are well ventilated. At least that would be the option of the low and
middle income group but from the studies done of the high income group they had the
option of using the natural ventilation but they would rather prefer to use their
electricity driven equipment. In other informal settlements of Accra where houses
were usually illegally built, electricity is often absent or illegal electrical connections
are made and most residents in these areas are normally only home at night to sleep.
Houses should not necessarily have much energy use to have a good indoor climate.
In the Ghanaian context the idea of good indoor climate can be summed up as being
affordable or preferably free like natural ventilation, adaptable and most of all being
energy efficient with as little impact as possible on the environment.
61

6.3. Building materials
“What kinds of materials and methods of building will be most appropriate for good
indoor temperature”?
Poor constructions either from bad planning or inferior building materials could
endanger the safety of inhabitants. There were a lot of complains from the low income
area about their houses and how the bad building materials had caused cracks in their
walls as was the case with some of the middle income group who also complained of
cracks. Improvement or maintenance should be the main focus in their current homes.
The main difference between these same problems was the fact that the low income
residents saw this as a building material problem whilst some of the middle income
residents blamed it on poor construction. However, one cannot happen without the
other in this case because a building material that is not durable will result in a poor
construction. Focus should be on getting the best of both.
Although wattle and daub houses are not found in any of the three study areas it can
be found in a few suburbs not included in this study. Bamboo for roofing and floor
covering techniques could also be an option for the low income majority but bamboo
houses are yet to be adopted for residential buildings.
6.4. The social aspect
Discussions in the previous chapters have dealt with the current situation in all three
areas. It is necessary to also discuss what the situation should have been in the social
aspects of building sustainably. In a built environment social factors that should be
considered include health, safety and good indoor temperature for all.
From the viewpoint of health, the indoor temperature and quality of indoor air is
equally important as outdoor air. Good indoor climate decreases the number of
illnesses and sick building syndrome symptoms, and improves comfort and
productivity (see section 2.2). Good indoor climate is one of the most important goals
of design and construction. As discussed about the low income group in section 4.1.4,
the main health risk was that from the congestion in the rooms that could cause easy
transmission of contagious diseases and also the fact that disease vectors could hide
and develop from the cracked mud walls. Fortunately for the middle and high income
62

groups, this was not much of an issue but the main concern for both categories was
the risk of having respiratory problems through the frequent use of cooling gadgets
like the air conditioners and fans. Other issues that should contribute to good health
are the amount of light that a room receives and noise levels that usually could
become a source of conflict either between neighbours or residents and authorities.
All these should be combined effectively if the health of inhabitants is to be
guaranteed.
Safety as mentioned earlier in section 2.2 forms part of the performance attributes that
make up a sustainable home. The most common safety threat that has been
experienced by Ghanaians is burglary. This is why it is necessary to use durable and
long lasting building materials that thieves will not be able to break through. In the
low income area windows were seldom opened because of the fact they are bare and
thieves could scale through easily. The middle income group experienced this
problem but they have barred windows to protect them from intruders. The high
income group had little or none of this problem because of the amount of security
they had (see section 4.3.4). Safety should not be a luxury or be determined by social
classes but a basic right. A neighbourhood and home that does not make its residents
feel safe cannot be considered as being sustainable. In the low income group the same
metal bars and mosquitoes nets could be used as a protective shield from intruders
like with the middle income group.
Good indoor climate encompasses a lot of elements one of which is indoor
temperature (See section 2.2.1). Indoor temperature can be achieved in numerous
ways and keeping a good indoor air quality is a contributory factor. Most of the
residents interviewed were of the view that being comfortable for them did not
constitute the material things they bought to decorate their homes but rather the ability
for them to stay in their home for long hours without feeling the need to stay out due
to indoor heat. The only difference between the three social classes studied was that
the low and middle classes were always striving to achieve a good indoor temperature
against all odds but the high income group could do this with ease.
One thing that needs to be emphasised is that despite what social class one belongs to
they always seek the same indoor temperature. The only way to do this is to give
63

esidence the best, cheapest and available option of cross ventilation which they can
regulate when the need arises.
6.5. The economical aspect
Building a house could be an expensive task in Ghana. Of all the factors contributing
to the lack of decent accommodation for the low income citizenry, non-affordability is
the ultimate (Opoku, 2003). For those who attempt to build it is necessary that the
right type of building is put up with good technical expertise. However, in Ghana and
Accra in particular, the informal settlements are much more common and slums have
sprung up in most places. The emphasis for these settlers has been more on finding a
place to sleep than having the right type of house.
In Ghana, the use of technical expertise is very expensive but the prices of land and
building materials makes it worse for the low income and some middle income
residents to own a house. Whilst the low income people might only be able to build a
simple mud house back home (see section 4.1.4), the middle income group could
spend their whole working life paying for the house they might want to own when
they retire (see section 4.2.4). The issue to be concerned with should be how to make
houses affordable for all and not make home ownership a privilege but a right. It is
good to know that the government has taken the initiative to make this dream a reality
for the poor especially through the government affordable housing project.
As discussed in earlier sections of this thesis, the low and middle income groups
complained about the bad maintenance they experienced. Building materials did not
seem durable enough and not much could be done as they were not responsible for
maintenance as well. The rich had little or none of these problems. Durability and low
maintenance involves the combination of having long lasting houses and the ability to
affordably renovate every residential building. This will help to reduce the operational
cost of the building on the management responsible for this. Materials used should be
durable enough to survive the vagaries of the Ghanaian weather and also parts should
be replaceable without major changes in the structure of the building. It should not
cost a fortune to renovate a building. Although natural disasters are sometimes
inevitable they should not in the slightest cases tear buildings down. There should be
more involvement of residents in decision-making that concerns their houses.
64

Residents should also have the mandate to maintain their houses if the authorities will
not do it for them. One way of doing this is form residents’ associations with
representatives that could forward their concerns to the authorities. Each household
could make some monetary contributions to the associations that could be used
develop the neighbourhood.
6.6. The environmental aspect
The environmental aspect is the main focus of this research. Building sustainably
involves a combination of both the economical and social aspects discussed in the
previous sections of this chapter. The environmental aspect could be discussed from
two angles. The environment represents the nature which is made up of the natural
resources that sustain generations after generations. In this discussion the latter will be
the main focus. Some factors that affect these natural resources include building,
building materials extraction and energy.
“Can there be a quick adaptation to new building methods and improvement of
existing housing in Accra to achieve environmental sustainability through analysing
the three study areas?” The issue of quick adaptation can be discussed under
affordability, how easily the residents are willing to accept these new changes in their
homes and neighbourhoods and the role of the authorities in ensuring implementation.
A building should be energy efficient. As in many countries all over the world this is
also very essential in Ghana. An efficient house in Ghana should basically be able to
use as little energy as possible and not be too reliant on the appliances that use energy.
Apart from the focus on using energy resources efficiently inhabitants are not doing
enough to promote the building of energy efficient homes and using energy efficient
appliances. If this is ensured there will be savings from reduced energy consumption
on an individual or national basis as the building will be functional in itself. See
discussion on energy in section 2.2.2.
In relation to building energy efficient homes, it is encouraging to know that the
government of Ghana has in recent times taken the initiative of providing affordable
housing especially for the poor and middle income groups in Ghana. Below is a
picture taken of one of the housing plans that the government has proposed. The good
thing about this plan is that there is more emphasis on the cross ventilation and natural
65

lighting. It is hoped that building will prove to be more energy efficient if more
emphasis is put on this. This could also help to achieve a good indoor air quality as
has been discussed earlier in section 5.1 (second paragraph).
Picture 11: Government plan for affordable housing. Source: Picture taken from field
work at Building Exhibition in Accra, 2005.
Some of the economic benefits of building sustainably in the neighbourhoods of the
study area and Accra as a whole are avoiding capital costs for expanding water supply
and sewer systems, creation of industries and local markets for them. Although it
cannot be said that the water supply and sewage system in the low income area is the
best it is hoped that if renovations are done in the neighbourhood, it will become more
attractive for more local investments. The middle and high income areas were seen
more with some high level of development when it came to these benefits. In other
informal settlements of Accra the situation is quite different. The social amenities are
often absent because these are illegal settlements or slums. There are usually no
efforts to provide them with any facilities.
The use of natural resources cuts across all boundaries when building. The issues of
depleting natural resources cannot be overlooked. The environment is explored in
various ways when putting up a building. One area that natural resources are needed
is in the area of acquiring building materials. Bamboos, mud, wood, straw, sand,
rocks and stones are all natural resources that could be used for building (see section
2.2.3). In Ghana, lots of trees are cut down in areas where building constructions are
66

to be made and forest trees are also cut down for lots of purposes including building,
depleting the forest resources and disturbing the wildlife that exist in these eco-
systems. As the years go by these natural sources of building materials are used but
has anyone thought that in the near future these resources will not be as abundant as it
is today? Our frequent use of these resources today will determine its depletion rate in
the future.
Pollution can set in when inefficient energy building lead to the use of more
appliances that causes airborne pollution like CFCs and HCFCs. Most air conditioners
mainly used by most rich residents in Ghana are known to release some of these
gases. Some companies that sell air conditioners in Ghana have in recent times
introduced some air conditioners that they say does emit little or none of these gases.
The question that remains is that apart from creating this awareness, is there any other
way to monitor who uses what? Other harmful gases like carbon dioxide (CO2) and
nitrogen oxide (NOx) all add up to the green house effects that has become a global
problem.
In conclusion, it is would be fair to say that most of decisions taken especially in the
social and economic contexts have been in favour of the rich who do not need much
attention. The reality remains that while the poor might destroy their local
environment by depleting the forest, the rich contribute to bigger problems on an
international level through the emission of these harmful gases. The main problems
are always overlooked and profit making takes precedence over helping the less
fortunate in society.
67

CHAPTER SEVEN: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1. Conclusion
Building sustainably should involve all parties but there have obviously been the
exclusion of some parties. This can be achieved if everyone gets involved and there is
awareness. Local involvement will be the most profitable way to help the residents of
the low and middle income areas. It is obvious that the focus of organisations,
decision makers, the various building professionals and technical advisors has been on
the rich who do not need all the attention. It is time that more emphasis is placed on
the poor and their needs.
7.2. Recommendations
Most of these recommendations have been mentioned in some sections of this
research and reference will be made to them when needed. It is essential for them to
be reemphasized.
In the low income area, it was obvious that most of the residents were not able to
afford to pay for their electricity. It can be suggested that low income neighbourhoods
who lack the money to pay for the electricity bills could be allowed to have some
grocery stores by their houses like the rich that can provide them with some extra
income as well. After all, these structures will not be permanent.
It is most likely that in the middle income area the payment of bills by the university
can be expected to reduce with the start of prepaid meter use. This could also reduce
the misuse of electricity by some of the residents of the university as they will take
more responsibility for their energy consumption. The consumption of energy in the
rich neighbourhood is what should be taken seriously by the Government, the ECG
and the Ministry of Energy. Affordability should not mean waste. Costly tariffs could
be set by ECG to make it unattractive to consume more electricity for the rich
especially. Tariffs could be instituted according to the neighbourhood of residence or
the social class of the residents.
The pilot project on installing prepaid meters in all homes should be fully carried out.
This will help low or middle income residents to be more inclined to using cheaper
68

alternatives to achieving a good indoor climate if necessary. This will be particularly
encouraging for the low income group who are up till now of the notion that energy
use can never be affordable to them. If the goal of the Ministry of Energy is “to
provide high quality energy services to all sectors of the economy”, (see section
5.3.1.) then it should in collaboration with the ECG do so. Once again the cheapest
available way of obtaining a good indoor climate is to have a cross ventilation and
good indoor temperature that is habitable for residents.
One way that this can be achieved especially in the low and the middle income areas
is to lay more emphasis on making houses less dependent on energy and the cheapest
way of doing this is to have lots of natural ventilation without any barriers
whatsoever. It was evident from discussions with some sales people at the building
exhibition visited that the modern air conditioners currently introduced into the
Ghanaian market consumed less energy than older versions that also emitted a lot of
harmful gases that could depleted the ozone layer but again the focus is on the rich
and decreasing their unrestricted use of energy. If appliances are to be used,
affordable environmentally friendly ones are recommended for all as earlier suggested
in sections 2.2.2 and 4.1.2 because that is the reason for the poor not buying them.
These have been introduced into most shops all over the country and especially in
Accra. The notion of new things being expensive in Ghana makes it impossible for
most people to buy new products no matter how good they are. Cross ventilation is of
major importance. Benefits of this will be on individual and national basis as the
country’s energy resources will be conserved as explained in section 4.6.2. This will
be an energy efficient way.
Recommendations for building materials for the middle and low income group is
almost impossible as these houses were built by the authorities. Some of these
buildings materials have been mentioned throughout this research.
For roofing, the corrugated aluminium sheets, Micro-concrete tiles, slates and recently
Metrotile are used in Ghana. Corrugated aluminium roofing sheet are known to
absorb lots of heat making the rooms very warm but unfortunately it appears to be
relatively cheaper than the other roofing materials mentioned earlier.
69

Perhaps, one way to deal with the direct effects of the sun in houses as in the low
income area (see section 4.1.1) will be to build a second protective ceiling that could
serve as a shield from the heat and possible reptile invasions. In the middle income
area there were more corrugated aluminium roofing sheets in the study area but new
structures put up out side the study area but on the university campus had been
replaced with burnt clay tiles. It is hoped that the roofing for the present houses will
be replaced in the near future. For the rich, there is a variety of roofing options are
available to them. Hence they can be more or less blamed for what they use and how
they use it.
Metrotile, a newly introduced roofing material to the Ghanaian building industry by a
New Zealand company looks promising as it seemed lighter, more heat and weather
resistant but can everyone afford it? Most modern houses in Accra have been found to
have this kind of roofing. Acrylic clay tiles have been recently introduced into
building in Ghana and are known to have a good heat reflecting property due to the
acrylic painted surface. Some houses in Accra but not necessarily in the study areas
have this kind of roofing. It is the recommended roofing materials used by house
owners and it is believed to leave rooms feeling really cool and comfortable.
For walling and partitions, the common materials that were used in the three areas of
study were mud bricks (Adobe) and cement blocks. At the moment, it is undisputed
that cement blocks are often used for most people who want to own houses.
In the low income areas, the building could be subject to renovation from the
management or the government especially with the use of the mud bricks. If they
cannot be changed entirely then they could at least be treated with some plaster until
they are ready to do some major works on them. With the middle income areas, it was
more of the cracks in the cement blocks they were afraid of and that the houses would
one day cave in on them. The concrete cement blocks used might not have had the
right amount of cement binding material to hold them to together. It is hoped that this
will be corrected with the future houses.
However, research conducted by the Building and Road Research institute (BRRI) has
shown that more is being done to find a way to make mud bricks more durable and
long lasting so that there will be less infestation by bugs as was witnessed in some
low income houses (see section 4.5.2). There could also be an improvement on how
70

these building look so the beauty of the building is not lost and can be built in any
neighbourhood. It is suggested that the BRRI take up the task of not only making the
bricks durable but also presentable. Bamboo is also being recommended for building
by some researchers (see section 2.2.3) due to its strong durable properties but is
vulnerable to fire just like any other wood product.
Most mud and burnt bricks houses are known to give a good indoor climate if built in
the right way which is why the methods of building are also very important. Although
these materials were used for building in the low income area the methods used did
not make it comfortable for its inhabitants. Other factors like the type of roofing and
the design of the home also play an important role. Expert advice should be sought by
all groups of people who would like to build. It would be a step in the right direction
if architects and contractors also were trained not only to build but also to advice their
clients on the best building materials for a good indoor climate rather than building
anything they are asked to because of the money they are paid. Only then will the
suitable material use yield better results.
The low income residents were obviously sceptic about the building materials and
method of building in their neighbourhood. The management could start by
renovating the houses with burnt bricks which have been found to be more durable
than the mud bricks that are currently being used. Proper windows fitted with
protective metal bars and mosquito nets, which can be shut and opened, should be
provided so that ventilation can be better improved. If management is slow in taking
the needed action and the residents want to make these changes themselves then they
should be encouraged and compensated rather than fined. With the upspring of new
building methods and materials for roofing and wall partitioning in Accra as earlier
discussed the middle income residents who are building or will do so in the future
could take a cue from the mistakes made in their present houses so that its not
repeated in their newly built houses.
The issue of affordability cannot be overemphasized when it comes to owning or
renting a house in Accra. A few suggestions can be given. The government could
intervene by providing affordable houses for the low and middle group at a reduced
rate and maybe eventually they can be able to own it by gradually paying for it. This
will make it easier for the residents since they will not have to go through all the
71

ureaucratic processes that one experiences to own a house and the right
environmental procedures will be strictly adhered to. A project is underway as could
be seen in one of the building plans shown in picture 11. Also the government can
subsidize the prices of building related materials so make them affordable for all if
that is within its means.
Residents on the other hand can be willing to accept changes if they are properly
educated on the benefits on building sustainably. Areas of focus in this education
process should be on the destruction that building causes the environment from the
construction to the operation phase. Focus should also be on the impacts of
exploitation on the environment by the residents who depend on it for survival.
Cheaper alternatives like the kerosene stove could be used instead of wood. Education
on energy use in homes should be a major focus. As repeated time and again in this
thesis, environmentally sustainable appliances should be used especially with the rich
neighbourhoods to reduce the impact global warming, which the world is currently
battling against.
It is hoped that this education will encourage the residents to be more involved in
decisions that affect their homes and neighbourhoods. As mentioned earlier in the
previous chapter, a residents’ association could also be formed by residents with
representative(s) who will serve as channels between them and the authorities. All
grievances and decisions that need to be taken could be made through a dialogue
between the representative(s) and the authorities concerned.
The organisations contacted for this research all have a role to play when it comes to
environmental sustainability but the organisation that should be more involved than it
is now is the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). At the moment its
involvement is mainly with the estate developers and for most commercial buildings
but obviously they are not the only people who build (see section 4.4.1). It is hence
necessary to focus more on the individual home owners as well. Other institutions like
the Ministry of Works and Housing and CSIR should all get actively involved with
the implementation of good environmental practices so that they do not just remain
regulations on paper. The building code could also be simplified in this respect.
72

REFERENCES
Aghemabiese, A., Berko, J., et al. (1996). Air Conditioning in the Tropics: Cool
Comfort or Cultural Conditioning. ACEEE Summer Study, Asimolar,
California ACEEE.
Auliciems, A. (1972). The Atmospheric Environment: A study of comfort and
performance. Toronto, University of Toronto Press.
Baker, N. and. Steemers K., (1999). Energy and Environment in Architecture: a
technical design guide. New York, E & FN Spon.
Bakke, J. V. and Lindvall, T., (1999). For a better Indoor Climate (building
materials). Economic, Legal and User Oriented Decision Base and
Procurement Tools. Report from a Nordic Workshop Copenhagen 19-21
October, 1999. Stockholm: Swedish Building Research Council. Retrieved on
2005- 05 -10 from:http://www.sensoryresearch.org/HealthyBuildingsLegal.asp
Brager, G. and. De Dear R., (1998). Thermal adaptation in the built environment: a
Literature review. Energy and Buildings 27: 83-96.
BBC- h2g2 (British Broadcasting Corporation), (2003). Earth building- Building
Using Natural Materials. Retrieved on 2005- 10- 30 from:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A1165448
BRRI (Building and Road Research Institute), (2004). Retrieved on 2005-10-24 from:
http://www.csir.org.gh/brri.html 2004.
CSSA (California State Students Association), (2003). Sustainable Building and
Clean, Renewable Energy. Retrieved on 2005- 10- 30 from
http://www.csustudents.org/campus_resource/web_reso_energy.shtml.
Cena, K. M., Ladd P. G., et al. (1990). A Practical Approach to Thermal Comfort
Surveys in Homes and Offices: Discussion of methods and concerns. ASHRAE
Transactions 96(1): 853-857.
Chappells, H., and Shove, E., (2003). An annotated bibliography of comfort research.
Published by Department of Sociology, Lancaster University.
Clements-Croome, D., Ed. (1997). Naturally Ventilated Buildings: Building for the
senses, economy and society. E&F Spon Press.
Cole, R. (2000). Fuel Poverty: A Costly Lesson. Building Research and Information
28(5/6): 419-425.
CLASP (Collaborative labelling and appliance standards program), (2005). Launch of
the Ghana Appliance Energy Efficiency Standards and Labelling Programme
for Room Air Conditioners and Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs).
Retrieved on 2005- 06- 09 on
http://www.clasponline.org/listnews.php3?no=306
73

Cooper, G. (1998). Air Conditioning America: Engineers and the Controlled
Environment, 1900-1960. Baltimore, the Johns Hopkins University Press.
Cudjoe, F., (2005). Ghana’s Parliament Review Its Position on the Kyoto Protocol?
Retrieved on 2005- 06 – 21 from
http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/features/artikel.php?ID=78298
De Dear, R. and. Auliciems A., (1988). Air conditioning in Australia II: User
Attitudes. Architectural Science Review 31: 19-27.
Eliasson, I. (2000). The use of climate knowledge in urban planning. Landscape and
Urban Planning 48(1-2): 31-44.
Energy Foundation, (2005). Energy Wise – Easy tips to reduce electricity
consumption and save money. Pg 9, 10, 16
EPA (Environmental Protection Agency), 2005. Environmental Assessment
Regulations (L.I.1652, 1999).
Fanger, O., (1970). Thermal Comfort Analysis and Applications in Environmental
Engineering. New York, McGraw Hill.
Fanger, O., (2001). Human requirements in future air-conditioned environments.
International Journal of Refrigeration 24(2): 148-153.
Fitch, J. M., (1972). American Building: The Environmental Forces That Shape It.
Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company.
Garett D., (2005). Building Performance & Comfort. Retrieved on 2005-05-10 from
http://www.bldgperformance.com/faqs.html.
Grant, R. and Yankson, P.,2003. "Accra: Profile." - Cities , 20, 65-74. Retrieved on
2006-03-01 from:
http://www.arch.columbia.edu/Studio/Spring2003/UP/Accra/PDF's%20to%20
printer/08%20-%20land%20use.pdf
Hackett, B., and Lutzenhiser L., (1991). Social Structures and Economic Conduct:
Interpreting Variations in Household Energy Consumption. Sociological
Forum 6: 449- 470.
Hart, K., and Hart, R., (2005). Keep Your Cool. Retrieved on 2005-06-09 from
http://www.greenhomebuilding.com/recyclematerials.htm
Healthy Climate Solutions, (1999). Indoor Air Quality: What's All The Fuss?
Retrieved on 2005- 07-20 from:
http://www.fenixheat.com/accessories/lennox_healthy_climate.htm
74

Heerwagen, J. and Diamond R. C., (1992). Adaptations and Coping: Occupant
Response to Discomfort in Energy Efficient Buildings. ACEEE Summer
Study, Asimolar, California, ACEEE.
International Small-Hydro Atlas, (1999). Ghana- Energy and Power sectors.
Retrieved on 2005- 06- 07 from:
http://www.smallhydro.com/index.cfm?Fuseaction=countries.country&Countr
y_ID=33
Johansson, R. (2004). Theory of Science and Research Methodology- Case Study
Methodology. Revised September 2004. Department of Infrastructure, Royal
Institute of Technology (KTH), Stockholm.
Judd, C., (2005). Getting the balance right. Building Services and Environmental
Engineer (BSEE). Retrieved on 2005- 06- 08 from:
http://www.bsee.co.uk/news/fullstory.php/aid/3186/The_silent_killer.html
Liddament, M. W., (1996). Code GV- A Guide to Energy Efficient Ventilation.
Retrieved on 2005- 06- 10 from:
http://www.aivc.org/frameset/frameset.html?../Publications/guides/guide_to_e
ev.html~mainFrame,
Love, P., (2005). The silent killer. Building Services and Environmental Engineer
(BSEE). Retrieved on 2005- 06- 08 from:
http://www.bsee.co.uk/news/fullstory.php/aid/3186/The_silent_killer.html
Meyer, W. B., (2002). Why indoor climates change: A case study. Climatic Change
55(3): 395-407.
Ministry of Energy, (2005). Retrieved on 2005-10-24 from:
http://www.ghana.gov.gh/governing/ministries/infrastructure/energy.php
Ministry of Works and Housing, (2005). Retrieved on 2005-10-24 from:
http://www.ghana.gov.gh/governing/ministries/infrastructure/housing.php
National Building Regulations, (1996). L. I. 1630. Printed by Ghana publishing
Corporation (Assembly Press), Accra- Ghana.
NUS (National University of Singapore), (2005). Importance of Energy Studies.
Retrieved on 2005- 06-07 from: http://www.esu.com.sg/tools.html
Opoku G. M.K., (2003). Own a house- A Basic Guide. Julinda Press, Accra. ISBN
9988-0-1602-6
Pauken, M. (1999). Sleeping soundly on summer nights - the first century of
airconditioning. ASHRAE Journal 41(5): 40-47.
Rohracher, H., (2001). Managing the Technological Transition to Sustainable
Construction of Buildings: A socio-technical perspective. Technology
Analysis and Strategic Management 13(1): 137-150.
75

Rybczynski, W., (1987). Home: A short history of an idea. Harmondsworth, Penguin
Books
Stake, R., (1998). The Art of Case Study Research. Thousands Oaks, California: Sage
Säteri, J., (2004) Performance Criteria of Buildings for Health and Comfort. CIB-
ISIAQ Publication for task group TG42
UN habitat (United Nations Centre for Human Settlements), 1997. Building Materials
and Health. UNCHS ISBN -92- 1- 131- 338- 4
UNCED (United Nations Commission on Environment and Development), (2002).
The Bruntland Report, 1987- Our Common Future; OUP. Retrieved on 2006-
03-01
from:http://www.srds.ndirect.co.uk/sustaina.htm#Checklist%20of%20Key%20I
ssues%20in%20Sustainability
UNCED (United Nations Commission on Environment and Development), (2002).
Rio - the Earth Summit (1992). Retrieved on 2006-03-01 from:
http://www.srds.ndirect.co.uk/sustaina.htm#Checklist%20of%20Key%20Issues
%20in%20Sustainability
US- EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency), (2002). Waste Wise
Update- Building for the future. Retrieved on 2005- 11- 11 from:
http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/reduce/wstewise/pubs/wwupda16.pdf
Wall, M., (2005). Energy Information – Indoor Climate. Retrieved on 2005- 07-15
from:
http://www.ebd.lth.se/avd%20ebd/main/pemrsonal/Project%20home%20page/
main/homefiles/Linksforhome/IndoorClimate.htm
WHO (World Health Organisation), (2000). Health systems: improving performance.
Geneva.
Yin, Robert. (1994). Case Study Research: Design and Methods (2 nd Ed.). Thousand
Oaks, California: Sage. (First edition published in 1984)
76