Electrosurgery Self-Study Guide

Electrosurgery
Self-Study Guide

Brenda Cole Ulmer, RN, MN, CNOR
Brenda C. Ulmer is a Senior Clinical Educator for Valleylab. In this capacity
she creates and presents programs of importance to perioperative nurses
and surgeons on topics focusing on patient safety in the operating room.
Prior to this position, Ms. Ulmer was Director of Surgical Services at
Northlake Regional Medical Center in Atlanta, Georgia. Previous work
experience includes staff charge positions at Emory University Hospital in
Atlanta.
Ulmer received an associate degree in nursing in 1974 from DeKalb
College, a bachelors in 1983 from Georgia State University, and a
masters in nursing education from the University of Phoenix in 1996.
She has been a certified nurse of the operating room (CNOR) since
1980. Ulmer is also a member of Sigma Theta Tau’s nursing honor
society.
Ulmer has served on local and national committees for the
Association
of periOperative Registered Nurses (AORN) since 1977. She served
three terms as member of the national AORN Board of Directors, and
was elected President-Elect for AORN on April 1, 1999 in San
Francisco. Since 1995, Ulmer has been working with the AORN,
OSHA, NIOSH, ANA, physicians and nurses to facilitate the publication
of workplace safety guidelines
from OSHA on smoke evacuation. OSHA signed off the draft
guidelines internally in the spring of 1998. They are currently under
final review for publication in the Federal Register in 1999.
From 1989 to 1994, Ulmer was a member of the CBPN Board of
Directors (CBPN Formerly NCB: PNI). She served as President 1990-
91 and 1993-94. During her tenure the Board published its first
CNOR Study Guide, and started a Registered Nurses First Assistant
Certification exam (CRNFA).
Ms. Ulmer has presented numerous programs on nursing issues
throughout the world. In 1983 she published the first nursing text on
ambulatory surgery: Ambulatory Surgery: A Guide to Perioperative
Nursing Care. She is widely published in nursing journals and textbooks.

ELECTROSURGERY
SELF-STUDY GUIDE
September, 1999
A self-study guide intended to assist
surgeons, perioperative nurses and
other healthcare team members to
provide safe and effective patient care
during electrosurgery procedures.
by
Brenda C. Ulmer, RN, MN, CNOR
Electrosurgery Self-Study Guide
3

Electrosurgery Self-Study Guide
Objectives
Upon completion of this activity the participant will be able to:
4
1.) Relate the properties of electricity to the clinical
applications of electrosurgery.
2.) Review four of the variables the surgeon controls
that impact surgical effect.
3.) Discuss the relationship between current
concentration and tissue effect.
4.) Identify potential patient injuries related to electro
surgery and technological advances designed to
eliminate these problems.
Accreditation
Statements
This activity has been planned and implemented in
accordance with the Essentials and Standard of the
Accreditation Council for Continuing Medical Education by
Valleylab. Valleylab is accredited by the ACCME to provide
continuing medical education for physicians
Valleylab designates this educational activity for a
maximum of 2 hours in Category 1 credit toward the AMA
Physician’s Recognition Award. Each physician should
claim only those hours of credit that he/she actually spent
in the educational activity.
This offering for two (2) contact hours was designed by the
Clinical Education Department of Valleylab, which is an
approved provider of nursing continuing education (CE) in:
Colorado: Valleylab is approved as a provider of
continuing education in nursing by the
Colorado Nurses’ Association, which is
accredited as an approver of continuing
education in nursing by the American
Nurses Credentialing Center’s
Commission on Accreditation.
Additional Valleylab provider numbers:
California: #CEP 12764
Iowa: #289
Florida: #27I1796
Kansas: #LT0134-0327
Disclaimer Statement
CNA “approved” refers to recognition of educational
offerings only and does not imply approval or
endorsement of any product of Valleylab.
A certificate of completion pertains only to the participant’s
completion of the self-study guide and does not, in any way,
attest to the clinical competence of any participant.
Verification of
Completion
A certificate will be provided to each person who
completes the offering. The certificate pertains only to
completion of the offering and is intended for recordkeeping
purposes.
Instructions
1. Complete the test questions and check the correct
responses with the key. A score of 70% or better is
recommended. Please review the self-study guide
portions related to missed questions, if necessary.
2. Complete the registration form.
3. Complete the evaluation form.
4. Send the completed registration/evaluation form
with the test question responses and $15.00 fee to:
Clinical Education Department A50
Valleylab
5920 Longbow Drive
Boulder, CO 80301-3299
For information call: 800-255-8522 EXT. 6240
5. Upon receipt of the required documents a certificate
of completion for two (2) credit/contact hours will be
sent. Please allow 3–4 weeks for the certificate to be
mailed after submission of required paperwork.
Valleylab will maintain a record of your continuing
education credit and provide verification if necessary
for five (5) years.
Expiration Date
This offering was originally produced for distribution in
September 1997. It was revised in September 1999 and
cannot be used after September 2002 without being
updated. Therefore, credit will not be issued after
September 30, 2002.
Note: The terms listed in the glossary are printed in bold in
the body of the text of the self-study guide.
Key Concepts
Electricity can be hazardous. Understanding how
electricity behaves and relates to electrosurgical function
and applications can contribute to its safe use. Many
different types of electrosurgical technologies are in use in
the surgical setting. The surgeon, perioperative nurse and
other healthcare team members must be aware of the
implications for use for each technology in order to ensure
safe patient care.

Knowledge of the preoperative, intraoperative and
postoperative medical and nursing considerations and
interventions can impact positive patient outcomes.
Overview
Electrosurgery came into wide use because of the urgent
need to control bleeding in operative procedures. There have
always been safety concerns when electricity is used in a
therapeutic manner. This module will cover the fundamentals
of electricity, principles of electrosurgery, clinical applications,
technologies, recommended practices and nursing care
during electrosurgery.
Introduction
The use of heat to stop bleeding goes back hundreds of years.
Over the years researchers constructed a variety of devices
which used electricity as a means to heat tissue and control
bleeding. Electrosurgery did not come into general use until
the late 1920’s. A neurosurgeon, Harvey Cushing, worked
with a physicist, William T. Bovie, in efforts to develop a
means to stop hemorrhage with electricity. Cushing had tried
implanting muscle tissue, using bone wax, fibrin clots, and
silver clips, but still had patients who could not be operated
on safely because of the threat of uncontrolled bleeding. In
1926, using Bovie’s device, Cushing applied high frequency
current during a neurosurgical procedure. The results were
excellent. Cushing then started bringing back his previously
inoperable patients because he at last had a means to prevent
death from hemorrhage in the operating room (Pearce,
1986). Cushing and Bovie widely published their work. As a
result electrosurgical units came into general use in operating
rooms around the world. The early units were big, ground
referenced units called Bovie’s. The technology remained
virtually unchanged until 1968 when a small, solid state unit
was developed by Valleylab. The solid state units heralded
the modern era of isolated outputs, complex waveforms, and
hand-activated controls (Pearce).
Fundamentals
of Electricity
Electricity is a phenomenon arising from the existence of
positively and negatively charged particles, which make
up all matter. All matter is made up of atoms. Atoms
consist of electrons (negatively charged), protons
(positively charged), and neutrons (neutral) particles.
Atoms that contain equal numbers of electrons and
protons are charge neutral. When forces are introduced
that cause electrons to leave their base atoms and move
to other atoms, the charges of the atom are changed:
those with fewer electrons than protons become
Electrosurgery Self-Study Guide
positively charged, and atoms with more electrons than
protons become negatively charged. During movement,
like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract.
This electron movement is termed electricity. There are
two natural properties of electricity that can impact
patient care in the operating room. Electricity, which
moves at nearly the speed of light, will, (1) always follow
the path of least resistance; and, (2) always seek to return
to an electron reservoir like the ground (Chernow, 1993).
Electrical current is produced as electrons flow through a
conductor. Electron flow is measured in amperes, or
amps. The path electricity follows as it makes its way
through a conductor and back to ground is the electrical
circuit.
Electricity Variables
There are variables associated with electricity that must
be considered when using it in a therapeutic manner.
Current
The two types of current that are used in the operating
room are direct current (DC), and alternating current (AC).
Direct current uses a simple circuit and electron flow is
only in one direction. Batteries employ this simple circuit.
Energy flows from one terminal on the battery and must
return to the other terminal to complete the circuit.
Alternating currents (AC) switch, or alternate, direction of
electron flow. The frequency of these alterations is
measured in cycles per second or Hertz (Hz), with one
Hertz being equal to one cycle per second. Household
current, in the United States, alternates at 60 cycles per
second, as does much of the electrical equipment used in
operating rooms. Alternating current at 60 Hertz causes
tissue reaction and damage. Neuromuscular stimulation
ceases at about 100,000 Hertz, as the alternating currents
move into the radio frequency (RF)range (Grundemann,
1995).
Resistance
Resistance is the opposition to the flow of current.
Resistance or impedance is measured in ohms. During
the use of electrosurgery one source of resistance or
impedance is the patient.
5

Electrosurgery Self-Study Guide
Voltage
Voltage is the force that will cause one amp to flow
through one ohm of resistance. It is measured in volts.
The voltage in an electrosurgical generator provides the
electromotive force that pushes electrons through the
circuit.
Power
Power is the energy produced. The energy is measured in
watts. In electrosurgical generators the power setting
used by the surgeon is either displayed on an LED screen
in watts; or, a percentage of the total wattage as indicated
on a numerical dial setting (Lister, 1984).
Principles of
Electrosurgery
Electrocautery
The electrocautery device is the simplest electrical
system used in the operating room today. It uses battery
power to generate a simple direct current (DC). The
current never leaves the instrument to travel through the
patient’s tissue. An example is the small hand-held eye
cautery (Figure 1). The battery heats up a wire loop at the
end of the device. The cautery is useful in ophthalmic
surgery and other very minor procedures in which very
little bleeding is encountered. Its use is limited because it
cannot cut tissue or coagulate large bleeders. It is further
limited because the target tissue tends to stick to the
electrode.
The term “electrocautery,” or “cautery,” is often, and
incorrectly, used to describe all types of electrosurgical
devices. Its use is only appropriate to describe the simple
direct current cautery device.
Figure 1 – Electrocautery
6
Electrosurgery and Radio Frequency
Current
A frequently asked question is why electrosurgery
generators do not shock patients. The answer is because
of the higher frequencies at which generators operate.
Radio frequency current alternates so rapidly that cells do
not react to this current. AM radio stations operate in the
550 to 1500 KiloHertz (kHz) range. Electrosurgery
generators operate in the 200 kHz to 3.3 megahertz
(MHz) range (Figure 2). Both of these are well above the
range where neuromuscular stimulation or electrocution
could occur (Harris, 1978).
60 Hz 100 kHz 550 - 1550 kHz 54 - 880 M
Household
Appliances
Muscle and Nerve
Stimulation Ceases
Electrosurgery
Figure 2 – Frequency Spectrum
200 kHz - 3.3 MHz
AM Radio TV

Bipolar Electrosurgery
Bipolar electrosurgery is the use of electrical current
where the circuit is completed by using two parallel poles
located close together. One pole is positive and the other
is negative. The flow of current is restricted between
these two poles. These are frequently tines of forceps, but
may also be scissors or graspers. Because the poles are in
such close proximity to each other, low voltages are used
to achieve tissue effect. Most bipolar units employ the cut
waveform because it is a lower voltage waveform, and
achieves hemostasis without unnecessary charring.
Because the current is confined to the tissue between the
poles of the instrument and does not flow through the
patient, a patient return electrode is not needed (Figure
3).
Figure 3 – Bipolar Circuit
Bipolar is a very safe type of electrosurgery. There are
some disadvantages to the use of bipolar, especially in the
microbipolar mode. Bipolar cannot spark to tissue, and
the low voltage makes it less effective on large bleeders
(Mitchell, 1978). However, there are newer bipolar
systems that incorporate a “macro” or bipolar “cut” mode
that has higher voltage and is designed for use with the
new generation of bipolar cutting instruments.
Bipolar, especially microbipolar, has been widely used in
neurosurgery and gynecologic surgery. It may be safer to
use when there is a question about the efficacy of using
more powerful monopolar electrosurgical units (e.g., with
pacemakers, implanted automatic cardiac defibrillators).
Monopolar Electrosurgery
The most frequently used method of delivering
electrosurgery is monopolar, because it delivers a greater
range of tissue effects. In monopolar electrosurgery, the
generator produces the current, which travels through an
active electrode and into target tissue. The current then
passes through the patient’s body to a patient return
electrode where it is collected and carried safely back to
Electrosurgery Self-Study Guide
the generator (Figure 4). This is the intended pathway for
the electrical current. The type of monopolar generator
used, along with appropriate surgeon and nursing
interventions can help to ensure that this is the path the
current takes through the patient.
Figure 4 – Monopolar Circuit
Current Concentration/Density
The purpose of both methods of delivery is to produce
heat for a desired surgical effect. When current is
concentrated, heat is produced. The amount of heat
produced determines the extent of the tissue effect.
Current concentration or density depends on the size of
the area through which the current flows. A small area
that concentrates the current offers more resistance,
which necessitates more force to push the current
through the limited space and therefore generates more
heat. A large area offers less resistance to the flow of
current reducing the amount of heat produced (Figure 5).
Low Current
Concentration
Figure 5 – Current Concentration/Density
High Current
Concentration
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Electrosurgery Self-Study Guide
Electrosurgical Mode
Differentiation
Electrosurgical generators can produce current in three
different modes, each with distinct tissue effects. The
modes are cut, fulguration and desiccation.
Electrosurgical Cut
The cutting current is a continuous waveform (Figure 6).
Figure 6 – Cut Waveform
Since the delivery of current is continuous, much lower
voltages are required to achieve the desired effect of
tissue vaporization. To achieve a cutting effect, the tip of
the active electrode should be held just over the target
tissue. The current vaporizes cells in such a way that a
clean tissue cut is achieved (Figure 7). The cut mode of
the generator is also a good choice for achieving
coagulation of tissue through desiccation.
Figure 7 – Vaporization or Cutting
Blended Mode
The blended mode on a generator is a function of the cut
waveform. Blended currents produce voltages higher
than that of the pure cut mode. The generator output is
modified to a dampened waveform that produces some
hemostasis during cutting (Tucker, 1998). There are
several blended waveforms that provide different ratios of
coagulation with the cutting current by modifying the
8
PURE CUT
100% on
duty (on/off) cycle (Figure 8). Examples of blend
waveforms from different generators are:
Blend 1 = 50% on/50% off
Blend 2 = 40% on/60% off
Blend 3 = 25% on/75% off
Variations of cut to coagulation blends may occur among
manufacturers. Generally, however, a higher blend
number means more coagulation.
Figure 8 – Blended Waveforms
Fulguration
BLEND 1 BLEND 2 BLEND 3
50% on
50% off
40% on
60% off
Tissue fulguration is achieved with the coagulation mode
on the generator. The coagulation mode produces an
interrupted or dampened waveform with a duty cycle that
is on about 6% of the time (Figure 9).
COAG
6% on
94% off
Figure 9 – Coagulation Waveform
25% on
75% off
The coagulation current produces spikes of voltage as
high as 5000 volts at 50 watts. The tissue is heated when
the waveform spikes, and cools down in between spikes,
thus producing coagulation of the cell during the 94% off
cycle of he waveform.

The correct method for achieving fulguration when using
coagulation is to hold the tip of the active electrode
slightly above the target tissue (Figure 10).
Figure 10 – Fulguration
Desiccation
Electrosurgical desiccation can be produced using either
the cut or coagulation mode on the generator. The
difference between fulguration and desiccation is that
the tip of the active electrode must contact the target
tissue in order to achieve desiccation (Figure 11). The
desired mode to achieve tissue desiccation through direct
contact is the cut waveform.
CUT
Low voltage
waveform
100% duty
cycle
Figure 11 – Desiccation
COAG
High voltage
waveform
6% duty cycle
Other Variables That Impact Tissue Effect
The electrosurgical mode that the surgeon uses has a
definite impact on patient tissue. There are other variables
that can also alter the outcome of the electrosurgical
tissue effect:
TIME – The length of time that the surgeon uses the active
electrode determines the amount of tissue effect. Too long
an activation time will produce wider and deeper tissue
damage. Too short an activation time will not produce the
desired tissue effect.
Electrosurgery Self-Study Guide
POWER – The power setting the surgeon uses will alter
tissue effect. The surgeon should always use the lowest
setting to achieve the desired tissue effect. The setting will
differ from patient to patient. Muscular patients of weight
and height in proper portions will require lower power
settings than obese or emaciated patients. The location of
the return electrode in relation to the surgical site will
impact the power required to overcome the amount of
tissue mass (resistance) between the two (2) sites.
ELECTRODE – The size of the active electrode influences
the tissue effect of the generator. A large electrode needs
a higher power setting than a smaller one because the
current is dispersed over a wider surface area (Figure 12).
A clean electrode will need less power to do the same
work as a dirty one because eschar buildup has higher
resistance and will hamper the passage of the current.
Electrodes can be coated with Teflon (PTFE) or an
elastomeric silicone coating to reduce eschar buildup.
These coated blades wipe clean with a sponge and
eliminate that need for a “scratch pad” which causes
grooves on stainless steel electrodes that may contribute
to eschar build-up. These different types of blades should
be evaluated because some will enable the surgeon to use
lower power settings, reducing the potential for thermal
spread. In addition, some coated electrodes are bendable,
have a non-flake coating and retain their cleaning
properties longer than other coated electrodes.
Low current
concentration
(density)
increases
Current Concentration & Heat
decreases increases
Electrode size
Power Setting Requirement
decreases
High current
concentration
(density)
Figure 12 – Current Concentration Effect on Power Settings
TISSUE – Patient tissue can determine the effectiveness
of the generator. The physical characteristics of the
patient’s body will determine the amount of impedance
encountered by the electrosurgical current as it attempts
to complete the circuit through the return electrode to the
generator. A lean muscular patient will conduct the
electrosurgical current much better than an obese or an
emaciated patient.
9

Electrosurgery Self-Study Guide
Electrosurgical
Technologies
As the sophistication of surgical procedures has evolved
over time, so too have electrosurgical technologies.
Meeting the challenge of improved patient care is but one
of the goals of the medical manufacturing partner within
the health care arena. The surgeon and perioperative
nurse must be familiar with both long-standing
technologies and with emerging ones so that the safest
and most effective care is available to patients.
Ground-Referenced Generators
The first generation of electrosurgery units that were
developed in the early 1900’s were ground-referenced.
When using these units, it is earth ground that completes
the electrosurgical circuit. These units were spark-gap
systems with high output and high performance
(Hutchisson, 1998), making them popular with surgeons.
The major hazard when using a grounded system is that
current division can occur. If the electrical current finds
an easier (lower resistance) and quicker way to return to
ground, and if the current were sufficiently concentrated,
the patient could be burned at any point where the current
exits the patient’s body (Figure 13).
Figure 13 – Current Division
This could be where the patient’s hand touches the side of
the OR bed, a knee touches a stirrup, or any number of
alternate exit sites (Figure 14).
10
Figure 14 – Alternate Site Burn
In early models of ground-referenced generators, the
surgeon could use electrosurgery regardless of whether a
patient return electrode was attached to the patient. This
resulted in patient burns. Later models offered a cord fault
alarm, which alerted the staff if the patient return
electrode was not plugged into the generator. The
disadvantage was that electrosurgery could still be used
even if the patient return electrode was not on the
patient. Burns could also occur at the return electrode site.
In 1995 the Emergency Care Research Institute (ECRI)
stated that “spark-gap units are outdated and have been
largely superseded by modern technology”. The Institute
recommended that hospitals with surgeons who still insist
on using ground-referenced units should obtain signed
statements from these surgeons acknowledging the risk
of using spark-gap electrosurgical units (Kirshenbaum,
1996).
Solid-State Generators
Solid-state generators were introduced in 1968. These
units were much smaller and used “isolated” circuitry. In
isolated units, the electrical current produced by the
generator is referenced to the generator and will ignore all
grounded objects that may touch the patient except the
return electrode. With isolated generators current
division cannot occur and there is no possibility of
alternate site burns (Figure 15).

Figure 15 – Isolated Circuit
An isolated generator will not work unless the patient
return electrode is attached to the patient. However,
without additional safety features, the generator cannot
determine the status of the contact at the pad/patient
interface. Should the patient return electrode be
compromised in the quantity or quality of the pad/patient
interface in some way during surgery, a return electrode
burn could occur (Figure 16). The perioperative nurse
must be certain that the patient return electrode is in
good contact with the patient throughout the surgical
procedure.
Figure 16 – Pad Site Burn
Contact Quality Monitoring
Patient return electrodes employing a contact quality
monitoring system were introduced in 1981. Contact
quality monitoring uses a split pad system whereby an
interrogation current constantly monitors the quality of the
contact between the patient and the patient return
electrode (Figure 17).
Electrosurgery Self-Study Guide
Figure 17 – Return Electrode Monitoring System
If a condition develops at the patient return electrode
site that could result in a patient burn, the system
inactivates the generator while giving audible and visual
alarm signals. This represents a major safety device for
patients and perioperative personnel since return
electrode burns account for a majority of patient burns
during electrosurgery. According to ECRI many
electrosurgery burns could be eliminated by a patient
return electrode quality contact monitoring system (ECRI,
1999).
Monopolar Electrosurgical Hazards
During Minimally Invasive Surgery
In the past few years the number of laparoscopic
procedures has risen dramatically and is expected to
continue (Figure 18) (MDI, 1996).
1800
1400
1200
1000
800
600
Procedure Volume in 000’s 1600
400
200
0
Estimated Increase in Laparoscopy for the Six Leading
General Surgical Procedures by Volume
1994 2000
Open
Laparoscopic
Figure 18 – Estimated Increase in Laparoscopy for the Six
Leading General Surgical Procedures by Volume
11

Electrosurgery Self-Study Guide
This increase has brought concerns about monopolar
electrosurgery when used during minimally invasive
procedures. There have been reports of severe illness and
death following laparoscopy where use of electrosurgery
has been implicated as a cause (ECRI, 1995). The hazards
associated with endoscopic electrosurgery use are:
12
• direct coupling
• insulation failure
• capacitive coupling
Each of these can cause severe patient injury if the current
is highly concentrated at the point of contact.
In determining when and how these hazards occur, it is
useful to divide the active electrode and cannula system
into four zones (Figure 19).
One intended
Three unintended
Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4
Figure 19 – Four Zones of Injury
Zone 1 is the area at the tip of the active electrode in
view of the surgeon. Zone 2 encompasses the area just
outside the view of the surgeon to the end of the cannula.
Zone 3 is the area of the active electrode covered by the
cannula system. This is also outside the view of the
surgeon. Zone 4 is the portion of the electrode and
cannula that is outside the patient’s body. The greatest
concern is the unseen incidence of stray electrosurgery
current in Zones 2 and 3 (Harrell, 1998).
Direct coupling occurs when the active electrode is
activated in close proximity or direct contact with other
conductive instruments within the body. This can occur
within Zones 1, 2, or 3. If it occurs outside the field of
vision and the current is sufficiently concentrated a patient
injury can occur.
Insulation failure occurs when the coating that is applied
to insulate the active electrode is compromised. This can
happen in multiple ways that range from repeated uses to
rough handling to using very high voltage current. There is
also concern that some active electrodes may not meet
the standards for electrosurgical devices set by the
Association for the Advancement of Medical
Instrumentation (AAMI), and the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI). Insulation failure that occurs
in Zones 2 or 3 could escape detection by the surgeon
and cause injury to adjacent body structures if the current
is concentrated (Figure 20).
Figure 20 – Insulation Failure
Capacitive coupling is the least understood of the
endoscopic electrosurgical hazards. Anytime two
conductors are separated by an insulator a capacitor is
created. For example, a capacitor is created by inserting
an active electrode, surrounded by its insulation, down a
metal cannula (Figure 21).
Abdominal Wall
Laparoscopic View
Conductor
(Electrode Tip)
Insulator
(Electrode Insulation)
Conductor
(Metal Cannula)
Figure 21 – Instrument/Metal Cannula Configuration
Capacitively coupled electrical current can be transferred
from the active electrode, through intact insulation and
into the conductive metal cannula. Should the cannula
then come in contact with body structures, that energy
can be discharged into these structures and damage them
(Harrell). With an all-metal cannula, electrical energy
stored in the cannula will tend to disperse into the patient
through the relatively large contact area between the
cannula and the body wall. Because the contact area is
relatively large, the electrical energy is less concentrated
and less dangerous. For this reason it is unwise to use

plastic anchors to secure the cannula because it isolates
the current from the body wall. Some institutions use
plastic trocar cannula systems because they wrongly
believe them to be safer. The plastic systems can also be
dangerous because the patient’s own conductive tissue
within the body can form the second conductor, creating a
capacitor. The patient’s omentum or bowel draped over
the plastic cannula could discharge stored energy to
adjacent body structures.
Recommendations to avoid electrosugical complications
during minimally invasive surgery are:
• Inspect insulation carefully
• Use lowest possible power setting
• Use low voltage (cut) waveform
• Use brief intermittent activation vs. prolonged
activation
• Do not activate in open circuit
• Do not activate electrode in close proximity or direct
contact with metal/conductive object
• Use bipolar electrosurgery when appropriate
• In the operative channel for activated electrodes
- Select an all metal cannula system as the safest
choice
- Do not use a hybrid system (metal and plastic
components)
• Utilize available technology
- Tissue response generator to reduce capacitive
coupling in the low voltage waveform
- Active electrode monitoring system to eliminate
concerns with insulation failure and capacitive
coupling
Active Electrode Monitoring
The risks posed to the patient by insulation failure and
capacitive coupling can be alleviated with active
electrode monitoring. The active electrode monitoring
system is used together with the electrosurgical unit
(Figure 22). When in place, this system continuously
monitors and actively shields against stray electrosurgical
current. According to ECRI, active electrode monitoring is
the most effective means to minimize the potential for
patient injuries due to insulation failure or capacitive
coupling (Kirshenbaum, 1996).
Exposed Active
Electrode
Integrated Electrode
Conductive Shield
Outer Insulator
Internal Active Insulator
Trocar Cannula
Figure 22 – Active Electrode Monitoring
Electrosurgery Self-Study Guide
Argon Enhanced Electrosurgery
In the late 1980’s an argon delivery system was combined
with electrosurgery to create argon enhanced
electrosurgery. This modality of electrosurgery should not
be confused with a laser. The argon gas shrouds the
electrosurgery current in a stream of ionized gas that
delivers the spark to tissue in a beam-like fashion (Figure
23). Argon is an inert, nonreactive gas. It is heavier than
air, and easily ionizes. Because the beam concentrates the
electrosurgical current a smoother, more pliable eschar is
produced. In addition, the argon disperses blood,
improving visualization. Because the heavier argon
displaces some of the oxygen at the surgical site, less
smoke is produced. When used during surgery, argonenhanced
electrosurgery can reduce blood loss and
surgical time (Rothrock, 1999).
Figure 23 – Argon Enhanced Electrosurgery
Active
Return
ESU
Inhibit
adapter
AEM Monitor
13

Electrosurgery Self-Study Guide
Tissue Response Technology
The latest technology in electrosurgical generators uses a
computer-controlled tissue feedback system that senses
tissue impedance (resistance). This feedback system
provides consistent clinical effect through all tissue types.
The generator senses tissue resistance and automatically
adjusts the current and output voltage to maintain a
consistent surgical effect. This feedback system reduces
the need to adjust power settings for different types of
tissue. It also gives improved performance at lower power
settings and voltages, which helps to reduce the risk of
patient injury (Figure 24).
Figure 24 – Tissue Response Technology
Vessel Sealing Technology
A specialized generator/instrument system has been
developed that is designed to reliably seal vessels and
tissue bundles for surgical ligation both in laparoscopic
and open surgery applications. It applies a modified form
of bipolar electrosurgery in combination with a regulated
optimal pressure delivery by the instruments in order to
fuse the vessel walls and create a permanent seal (Figure
25).
The output is feedback-controlled so that a reliable seal is
achieved in minimal time independent of the type or amount
of tissue in the jaws. The result is reliable seals on vessels up
to 7 mm in diameter or tissue bundles with a single activation.
The thermal spread is significantly reduced compared to
traditional bipolar systems and is comparable to ultrasonic
coagulation. The seal site is often translucent, allowing
evaluation of hemostasis prior to cutting. The seal’s strengths
are comparable to mechanical ligation techniques such as
sutures and clips and are significantly stronger than other
energy-based techniques such as standard bipolar or
ultrasonic coagulation. The seals have been proven to
withstand more than three times normal systolic blood
pressure.
14
Tissue Resistance
INPUT
Computer Controlled
OUTPUT
Figure 25 – Vessel Sealing Technology
Bipolar Generator
• Low Voltage - 180V
• High Amperage - 4A
• Tissue Response
Instruments
• High pressure
• Open (reposable)
• Laparoscopic (disposable)
System Operation
• Applies optimal pressure to vessel/tissue bundle
• Energy delivery cycle:
- Measures initial resistance of tissue and
chooses appropriate energy settings
- Delivers pulsed energy with continuous
feedback control
• Pulses adapt as the cycle progresses
- Senses that tissue response is complete and
stops the cycle
Figure 26 – Vessel Sealing System Operation
Smoke
Evacuation
In 1994 the Association of Operating Room Nurses
(AORN) first published recommended practices stating

that patients and perioperative personnel should be
protected from inhaling the smoke generated during
electrosurgery (AORN, 1999). Smoke evacuation should
be part of room set-up whenever smoke or plume
generating equipment is used. That could include
electrosurgical units or lasers.
Toxic fumes and carcinogens have been isolated from
surgical smoke (Ulmer, 1997). Formaldehyde and
benzene are but two of the substances that have been
isolated from smoke. The Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA), has issued a booklet with
recommendations for protecting workers from the
hazards of benzene (OSHA, 1987). Using protective
equipment, such as a smoke evacuator, can decrease the
risk associated from inhaling these substances. In
September, 1996, the National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH) issued a hazard alert through
the Centers for Disease Control’s (CDC) healthcare facility
network. The alert recommended that laser and
electrosurgical smoke be evacuated and filtered to protect
healthcare workers (NIOSH, 1998).
Patients, as well as surgical staff, are exposed to smoke
during laparoscopic procedures. Researchers have
determined that the byproducts contained in smoke are
absorbed into the patient’s bloodstream, producing
substances such as methemoglobin and
carboxyhemoglobin that can pose a potential hazard to
the patient (Ott, 1997).
Before surgery the perioperative nurse should determine the
volume of smoke that will be produced during the procedure,
and select the appropriate smoke evacuation system. The
vacuum source should be portable, easy to set up and use.
Figure 29 – Smoke Evacuator System
Electrosurgery Self-Study Guide
A filtration system with a triple filter offers the greatest
protection. This system consists of a prefilter to filter out
large particles; an Ultra Low Penetrating Air (ULPA) filter to
capture microscopic particles; and a charcoal filter to adsorb,
or bind to the toxic gases (Figure 27)
Prefilter
ULPA
Charcoal
Figure 27 – Triple Filter System
The vacuum source should be able to pull 50 cubic feet per
minute of air through the system. This ability provides the
most effective evacuator, and will offer the nurse the
flexibility to select the appropriate capture device to use with
it. The surgical team may elect to use a carriage that mounts
on the electrosurgical pencil to evacuate the smoke (Figure
28).
Figure 28 – Electrosurgical Pencil with Smoke Evacuation
Attachment
This is the most convenient method to evacuate smoke,
but it may be less effective during procedures that
produce a large volume of smoke. A system that gives the
perioperative staff the option of selecting evacuation
settings will be of use in a wide variety of surgical
procedures (Figure 29).
15

Electrosurgery Self-Study Guide
Electrosurgical
Accessories
Electrosurgical units are only part of the electrosurgical
system. Another, integral, part is the accessories. These
include active electrodes, holsters, and patient return
electrodes (grounding pads).
Active Electrodes
Active electrodes deliver concentrated current to the
target tissue. There is a wide assortment of active
electrodes available for both bipolar and monopolar units.
Active electrode pencils or forceps may be controlled by
handswitches or foot pedals. Pencil tips are available in
needles, blades, balls, and loops (Figure 30). Some active
electrodes are a combined suction and coagulation
instrument. As minimally invasive surgery has gained
popularity, active laparoscopy electrodes have also been
developed. They are available as disposable and reusable
products.
Figure 30 – Active Electrodes
In 1991 an electrosurgical device was developed for use
with the ultrasonic surgical aspirator (Figure 31). The
ultrasonic surgical aspirator handpiece attaches to a
command console. When in operation, the ultrasonic
handpiece vibrates at a frequency of 23,000 times per
second. That frequency is above the range of human
hearing, thus the name ultrasonic. The device does not
emit sound waves or light waves. Its vibrating tip works by
contacting tissue. When it does, fragmentation occurs.
16
By itself, the ultrasonic handpiece provides no hemostasis.
When an electrosurgical module is added to the
handpiece, the surgeon is able to fragment, cut or
coagulate tissue, simultaneously or independently.
Figure 31 – Ultrasonic Surgical Aspirator Handpiece with
Electrosurgical Module Attachment
Holsters
Holsters are a vital safety component of the
electrosurgical system. When active electrodes are not in
use, they should be placed in holsters where they will be
easily accessible and visible to the surgical team. They
should be of the
type recommended by the manufacturer for use with
electrosurgical active electrodes, and should meet
standards for heat and fire resistance. Patient safety can
be threatened by the use of pouches and other makeshift
holsters not intended for use with electrosurgery active
electrodes.
Patient Return Electrodes
Patient return electrodes, or grounding pads, collect the
monopolar current that has entered the patient and allow
it to be safely removed and returned to the generator.
There are many types of patient return electrodes used,
ranging from metal plates to dual section pads. Reusable
metal plates are made of stainless steel and fit under the
patient. With such plates, conductive gel must be used to
improve the conductive plate/patient interface. The
quality of contact depends on gravity and the amount of
gel used. A disposable version of this plate is also used. It
is made of cardboard and covered with foil. Neither type
plate conforms to body contours and effectiveness may
vary. Pre-gelled, disposable foam pads adapt well to body

contours and an adhesive edge helps to hold the pad on
the patient. They come in many shapes and sizes. When
using them, it is important to store cartons flat so that the
gel does not accumulate on one side of the pad. During
use the drier side of an improperly stored pad could
contribute to an electrosurgical burn. Gelled pads can also
dry out during long storage periods, thereby
compromising their conductivity. When using gelled pads,
care must be taken to rotate the stock and store the
cartons properly.
Conductive adhesive pads are similar to gel pads but
instead of gel they use a layer of adhesive over the pad
surface. The adhesive promotes conductivity and good
contact with the patient’s skin. These pads may be a dry
conductive adhesive or a high moisture conductive
adhesive. Both conform well to body contours. A high
moisture product will tend to increase patient skin
conductivity during use. These types of pads are also
available in the split dual section design. The split pad
design incorporates an “interrogation circuit” which is part
of a system to actively monitor the amount of impedance
at the patient/pad interface because there is a direct
relationship between this impedance and the contact area.
The system is designed to deactivate the generator before
an injury can occur, if it detects a dangerously high level of
impedance at the patient/pad interface.
It is important to place the return electrode properly on the
patient. The patient return electrode should be as close as
possible to the surgical site and should be positioned over a
large muscle mass. Muscle conducts electrical current
better than fatty tissue, scar tissue or bony prominences
(Fairchild, 1997). Patient return electrodes should not be
placed over metal prostheses because the scar tissue
surrounding the implant increases resistance to the flow of
electrical current. The pad site should be clean and dry, and
free from excessive hair. The patient return electrode
should not be placed where fluids are likely to pool during
surgery. If the patient has a pacemaker, the patient return
electrode should be placed as far away as possible so that it
directs the current away from the pacemaker. The
pacemaker manufacturer should be consulted to determine
whether or not the pacemaker is susceptible to electrical
interference. The pacemaker should be checked for proper
function postoperatively.
It is also important to read and follow the manufacturer’s
recommendations for the patient return electrode being
used. These recommendations are legal and binding
Electrosurgery Self-Study Guide
instructions when using the product. Failure to follow
recommended use could constitute negligence should an
incident occur.
Perioperative Care of the
Patient
Care of the patient during electrosurgery can be
enhanced by following routine and systematic procedures.
Points to include during perioperative care of the patient
during electrosurgery include, but are not limited to:
Preoperative
• Know which Electrosurgical unit (ESU) will be used
and how to use it. Consult the instruction manual for
specific instructions or questions.
• Have all equipment and accessories available and
use only accessories designed and approved for use
with the unit.
• Check the operation of the alarm systems.
• Avoid the use of flammable anesthetics.
• Place EKG electrodes as far away from the surgery
site as possible.
• Do not use needle EKG monitoring electrodes, they
may transmit leakage current (Atkinson, 1992).
• Check the line cord and plug on the ESU. Extension
cords should not be used.
• Do not use any power or accessory cord that is
broken, cracked, frayed or taped.
• Check the biomedical sticker to insure the generator
has undergone a current inspection.
• Cover the foot pedal with a plastic bag.
• Document the generator serial number on the
perioperative record.
• Record exact anatomical pad position and skin
condition of the pad site.
• Do not cut or alter a patient return electrode.
Intraoperative
• If alcohol based skin preparations are used, they
should be allowed to dry prior to draping (Meeker,
1991).
• Use the lowest possible power settings that achieve
the desired surgical effect. The need for abnormally
high settings may indicate a problem within the
system.
17

Electrosurgery Self-Study Guide
18
• Position cords so that people cannot trip over them.
Do not roll equipment over electrical cords.
• If the patient is moved or repositioned, check the
patient return electrode to be sure that it is still in
good contact with the patient. Patient return
electrodes should not be repositioned. If the patient
return electrode is removed for any reason, a new
pad should be used.
• When an active electrode is not in use, remove it
from the surgical field and from contact with the
patient. An insulated holster should always be used.
• Do not coil active electrode cables, or grounding
pad cables. This will increase leakage current and
may present a potential danger to the patient.
• If possible, avoid “buzzing” hemostats in a way that
creates metal to metal arcing. If “buzzing” a hemostat
is necessary, touch the hemostat with the active
electrode and then activate the generator. This will
help eliminate unwanted shocks to surgical team
members.
• Use endoscopes with insulated eye pieces.
• Keep active electrodes clean. Eschar build-up will
increase resistance, reduce performance, and require
higher power settings.
• Do not submerse active accessories in liquid.
• Note the type of active electrode used on the
perioperative record.
• If an ESU alarm occurs, check the system to assure
proper function. Document any alarm intervention.
• Do not use the generator top as a storage space for
fluids. Spills could cause malfunctions (Hutchisson,
1998).
Postoperative
• Turn off the ESU.
• Turn all dials to zero.
• Disconnect all cords by grasping the plug, not the
cord.
• Inspect patient return electrode site to be sure it is
clear of injury (AORN, 1999).
• Inspect patient return electrode after removal. If an
undetected problem has occurred, such as a burn,
evidence of that burn may appear on the pad.
• Discard all disposable items according to hospital
policy.
• Remove and discard the plastic bag covering the foot
pedal.
• Clean the ESU, foot pedal, and power cord.
• Coil power cords for storage.
• Clean all reusable accessories.
Routine Care and Maintenance of
ESU Equipment
• Routinely replace all reusable cables and active
electrodes at appropriate intervals, depending upon
usage.
• Have a qualified Biomedical Engineer inspect the unit
at least every six months.
• If an ESU is dropped, a Biomedical Engineer should
inspect it before it is used again.
• Replace adapters that do not provide tight
connections.
• Inspect “permanent” cords and cables for cracks in
the insulation.
Proper use and maintenance of electrosurgical equipment
can prolong its life and reduce costly repairs.
Summary
Surgeons and perioperative nurses have the opportunity
to combine their unique technical skills and knowledge
with the latest technology to provide high quality patient
care. Positive patient outcomes can be successfully
achieved through good medical and nursing practice
combined with careful documentation. The importance of
skill and knowledge is especially critical during the use of
electrosurgery. An educated surgeon or nurse is the
patient’s best advocate.

Glossary
Active Electrode
An electrosurgical instrument or accessory that
concentrates the electric (therapeutic) current at the
surgical site.
Active Electrode Monitoring
A system that continuously conducts stray current from
the laparoscopic electrode shaft back to the generator and
away from patient tissue. It also monitors the level of stray
current and interrupts the power should a dangerous level
of leakage occur.
Alternating Current
A flow of electrons that reverses direction at regular
intervals.
Bipolar Electrosurgery
Electrosurgery where current flows between two bipolar
electrodes that are positioned around tissue to create a
surgical effect (usually desiccation). Current passes from
one electrode, through the desired tissue, to another
electrode, thus completing the circuit without entering
any other part of the patient’s body.
Bipolar Instrument
Electrosurgical instrument or accessory that incorporates
both an active and return electrode pole.
Blend
A waveform that combines features of the cut and coag
waveforms; current that cuts with varying degrees of
hemostasis.
Capacitive Coupling
The condition that occurs when electrical current is
transferred from one conductor (the active electrode),
through intact insulation, into adjacent conductive
materials (tissue, trocars, etc.).
Cautery
The use of heat or caustic substances to destroy tissue or
coagulate blood.
Circuit
The path along which electricity flows.
Coagulation
The clotting of blood or destruction of tissue with no
cutting effect; electrosurgical fulguration and desiccation.
Contact Quality Monitoring
A system that actively monitors tissue impedance
(resistance) at the interface between the patient’s body
Electrosurgery Self-Study Guide
and the patient return electrode and interrupts the power
if the contact quality and/or quantity is compromised.
Current
The number of electrons moving past a given point per
second, measured in amperes.
Current Density
The amount of current flow per unit of surface area;
current concentration directly proportional to the amount
of heat generated.
Current Division
Electrical current leaving the intended electrosurgical
circuit and following an alternate path of least resistance
to ground; typically the cause of alternate site burns when
using a grounded generator.
Cut
A low-voltage, continuous waveform optimized for
electrosurgical cutting.
Cutting
Use of the cut waveform to achieve an electrosurgical
effect that results from high current density in the tissue
causing cellular fluid to burst into steam and disrupt the
structure. Voltage is low and current flow is high.
Desiccation
The electrosurgical effect of tissue dehydration and
protein denaturation caused by direct contact between
the electrosurgical electrode and tissue. Lower current
density/concentration than cutting.
Diathermy
The healing of body tissue generated by resistance to the
flow of high-frequency electric current.
Direct Coupling
The condition that occurs when one electrical conductor
(the active electrode) comes into direct contact with
another secondary conductor (scopes, graspers). Electrical
current will flow from the first conductor into the
secondary one and energize it.
Direct Current
A flow of electrons in only one direction.
Electrosurgery
The passage of high frequency electrical current through
tissue to create a desired clinical effect.
ESU
ElectroSurgical Unit.
19

Electrosurgery Self-Study Guide
Frequency
The rate at which a cycle repeats itself; in electrosurgery,
the number of cycles per second that current alternates.
Fulguration
Using electrical arcs (sparks) to coagulate tissue. The
sparks jump from the electrode across an air gap to the
tissue.
Generator
The machine that coverts low-frequency alternating
current to high-frequency electrosurgical current.
Ground, Earth Ground
The universal conductor and common return point for
electric circuits.
Grounded Output
The output on a electrosurgical generator referenced to
ground.
Hertz
The unit of measurement for frequency, equal to one cycle
per second.
Insulation Failure
The condition that occurs when the insulation barrier
around an electrical conductor is breached. As a result,
current will travel outside the intended circuit.
Isolated Output
The output of an electrosurgical generator that is not
referenced to earth ground.
Leakage Current
Current that flows along an undesired path, usually to
ground; in isolated electrosurgery, RF current that regains
its ground reference.
Monopolar Electrosurgery
A surgical procedure in which only the active electrode is
in the surgical wound; electrosurgery that directs current
through the patient’s body and requires the use of a
patient return electrode.
Monopolar Output
A grounded or isolated output on an electrosurgical
generator that directs current through the patient to a
patient return electrode.
Ohm
The unit of measurement of electrical resistance.
Pad
A patient return electrode.
20
Patient Return Electrode
A conductive plate or pad (dispersive electrode) that
recovers the therapeutic current from the patient during
electrosurgery, disperses it over a wide surface area, and
returns it to the electrosurgical generator.
Power
The amount of heat energy produced per second,
measured in watts.
Radio Frequency
Frequencies above 100 kHz that transmit radio signals;
the high-frequency current used in electrosurgery.
Resistance
The lack of conductivity or the opposition to the flow of
electric current, measured in ohms.
RF
Radio frequency.
Tissue Response Technology
An electrosurgical generator technology that continuously
measures the impedance/resistance of the tissue in
contact with the electrode and automatically adjusts the
output accordingly to achieve a consistent tissue effect.
Vessel Sealing Technology
An electrosurgical technology that combines a modified
form of electrosurgery with a regulated optimal pressure
delivery by instruments to fuse vessel walls and create a
permanent seal.
Volt
The unit of measurement for voltage.
Voltage
The force that pushes electric current through resistance;
electromotive force or potential difference expressed in
volts.
Watt
The unit of measurement for power.
Waveform
A graphic depiction of electrical activity that can show
how voltage varies over time as current alternates.

References
AORN Standards and Recommended Practices for
Perioperative Nursing (1999). Denver: Association of
Operating Room Nurses.
Atkinson, L. J. Fortunato, N.M. (1996). Berry & Kohn’s
Operating Room Technique. (8th Ed.). St. Louis: Mosby.
Chernow, B.A., & Vallasi, G.A. (1993). The Columbia
Encyclopedia (5th Ed). New York: Columbia University
Press
ECRI (1995). Are Bovie CSV and other spark-gap
electrosurgical units safe to use? Health Devices 24(7). 293-
294.
ECRI (1999). Electrosurgery. Operating Room Risk
Management (Jan, 1999). 1-15.
Fairchild, S.S. (1997). Perioperative nursing: principles and
practice (2nd Ed.). Boston: Little, Brown. 341-345.
Grundemann, B. J., & Fernsebner, B. (Eds.). (1995).
Comprehensive Perioperative Nursing (Vol.1). Boston:
Jones and Bartlett.
Harrell, G.J., & Kopps, D.R. (1998). Minimizing patient risk
during laparoscopic electrosurgery. AORN Journal, 67(6).
1194-1205.
Harris, F.W. (1978). A primer on basic electricity for a
better understanding of electrosurgery. Boulder: Valleylab.
Henderson, M. (1999). A matter of choice: the insulscan
insulation tester. Surgical Services Management, 5(8). 8-
10.
Hutchisson, B.; Baird, M.G.; & Wagner, S. (1998).
Electrosurgery safety. AORN Journal, 68(5). 830-837.
Kirshenbaum, G. & Temple, D.R. (1996). Active electrode
monitoring in laparoscopy: the surgeon’s perspective.
Surgical Services Management, 2(2). 46-49.
Lister, E. C.(1984). Electric circuits & machines (6th Ed.).
New York: McGraw-Hill.
Medical Data International (MDI). US Surgical Procedure
Volumes (1996) Exhibits 6-1 & 6-2.
Electrosurgery Self-Study Guide
Meeker, J. J. , & Rothrock, J. C. (1999). Alexander’s Care
of the Patient in Surgery (11th Ed.). St. Louis: Mosby.
Mitchell, et al. (1978). A handbook of surgical diathermy.
Bristol: John Wright & Sons.
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH) (Mar.,1998). Control of smoke from laser/electric
surgical procedures. Cincinnati: NIOSH Department of
Health and Human Services publication no. 96-128.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (1987).
Hazards of Benzene (OSHA 3099). Washington, DC: US
Government Printing Office.
Ott, D.E. (1997). Smoke and Particulate Hazards During
Laparoscopic Procedures. Surgical Services Management
3(3). 11-12.
Pearce J.A. (1986) Electrosurgery. New York: John Wiley
& Sons.
Rothrock, J.C. (1999) The RN First Assistant (3rd Ed.).
Philadelphia: Lippincott. 327-333.
Tucker, R.D. (1998). Understanding electrosurgery better.
Contemporary Urology (October, 1998). 68-83.
Ulmer, B.C. (1997). Air quality in the OR. Surgical Services
Management, 3(3). 18-21.
21

Electrosurgery Self-Study Guide
Self-Study Guide Test Questions
1.) Electricity always seeks
a.) the path of most resistance to return to earth ground.
b.) the path of most resistance to return to its source.
c.) the path of least resistance to return to earth ground.
d.) the path of least resistance to return to its source.
2.) The properties of electricity include
a.) current, circuit, resistance and voltage.
b.) current, ground, current and voltage.
c.) current, resistance, hertz and voltage.
d.) current, circuit, ground and amperage.
3.) Neuromuscular stimulation from the flow of alternating
electric current ceases at frequencies above
a.) 50,000 cycles per second.
b.) 100,000 cycles per second.
c.) 200,000 cycles per second.
d.) 350,000 cycles per second.
4.) When current concentration/density is high
a.) the resistance is reduced.
b.) the resistance is unaffected.
c.) heat is produced.
d.) heat is dissipated.
5.) A patient return electrode is not required when using
bipolar electrosurgery because
a.) the voltage is too low to cause an injury.
b.) the voltage is confined to the target tissue.
c.) the current is confined between the two poles of
the instrument.
d) the current disperses in the tissue at the tip of the
instrument.
6.) As the current concentration is increased
a.) the power setting requirement is decreased.
b.) the power setting requirement is increased.
c.) the heat produced in the tissue remains the same.
d.) the heat produced in the tissue is decreased.
7.) The cutting waveform can be modified to provide
simultaneous hemostasis (blended waveform) by
a.) decreasing the voltage and increasing the duty
(on/off) cycle.
b.) increasing the voltage and decreasing the duty cycle.
c.) decreasing the voltage and decreasing the duty cycle.
d.) increasing the voltage and increasing the duty cycle.
8.) Contact quality monitoring is a system that
a.) constantly monitors the quality of the pad/patient
interface.
b.) constantly monitors the quality of the generator/pad
22
interface.
c.) combines isolated and interrogation circuitry to
monitor output.
d.) combines isolated and interrogation circuitry to
monitor resistance.
9.) The hazards associated with endoscopic
electrosurgery use include all of the following except
a.) direct coupling.
b.) current division.
c.) insulation failure.
d.) capacitive coupling.
10.) Tissue response technology incorporates a
computer-controlled tissue feedback system that
a.) automatically changes the power settings.
b.) automatically reduces the amount of power required.
c.) senses the conductivity of the target tissue.
d.) senses the impedance/resistance of the target
tissue.
11.) The smoke produced from the electrosurgical
device is
a.) not as harmful as laser plume and need not be
evacuated.
b.) not as harmful as laser plume, but should be
evacuated.
c.) potentially as harmful as laser plume and
evacuation is recommended.
d.) potentially as harmful as laser plume and
evacuation is optional.
12.) The site selected for the patient return electrode
should be all of the following except
a.) over a large muscle mass.
b.) as close to the surgical site as possible.
c.) protected from fluid invasion.
d.) close to a pacemaker to divert the current.
13.) Vessel sealing technology is incorporated into a
specialized electrosurgical generator that combines
a.) modified monopolar electrosurgery with
regulated pressure delivery.
b.) modified bipolar electrosurgery with regulated
pressure delivery.
c.) increased voltage electrosurgery with decreased
pressure delivery.
d.) decreased voltage electrosurgery with decreased
pressure delivery.
Test Key
13.) b
9.) b
10.) d
11.) c
12.) d
5.) c
6.) a
7.) b
8.) a
1.) c
2.) a
3.) b
4.) c

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Tel: +32 (0) 15 29 44 50
Fax: +32 (0) 15 29 44 55
tycohealthcare.belgium@tycohealth.
com
Tyco Polska
Healthcare Division
Ul. Pawinskiego 5A
02-106 Warszawa
POLAND
Tel: +48 22 668 7117
Fax: +48 22 658 4061
10/2002