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GJIROKASTRA REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY 2005 

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CONTRIBUTORS: 

Regional Council Administration, under the auspice of the Head of the Regional Council, Dr. Resul Llogo 

Deputy Head of the Regional Council Astrit Ajdini 

Programming & Development Department Shkelqim Nora Chief 

Kristofor Muka Inspector 

Theodhora Muka Inspector 

Service Department Besim Brahimi Chief 

Department for Foreign Relations Besnik Shehu Chief 

Department for Human Resources Fredi Mehilli Chief 

Department for Public Relations and Environment Shpresa Mino Chief 

Department for Finance Thanas Dhroso Chief 

Department for Land Protection and Administration Thanas Hanxhara Chief 

Department for Urban Planning Filip Çami Chief 

The Regional Communes 

The Regional Directorates 

“Eqerem Cabej” University 

Municipal Development Office 

TEAM OF EXPERTS: 

Prof. Dr. Kristaq Kikina, Dean of the “Eqerem Çabej” University 

Naxhi Mamani, Prof. Assoc. Dr. 

Elvira Shapllo, Historian 

Ilir Gushi, Economist 

Kristaq Çombi, Economist 

Vladimir Qirjaqi, Director of Monuments Branch of Gjirokaster 

CONSULTANTS: 

Translated by: 

Valbona Mazreku 

Nevila Como 

Supporting MDG Analyst: 

Engjell Skreli, Executive Director of the Albanian Institute for Public Policies 

Supporting Gender Analyst: 

Edit Olah, United Nations Children Fund 

Photography: 

Zyhdi Hyka 

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Preface 

The Gjirokastra Regional Council has regarded the 

establishment of regional policies and their harmonization 

with state policies as a key priority since the 

beginning of 2001; stemming from this desire, the 

Regional Council approved the study for “The 

Development Strategy for the Region of 

Gjirokastra.” Specialists from the administration 

worked diligently on the study in close co-operation 

with the development office in the Prefecture, 

specialists in the municipality, communes, administrative 

units and “Eqerem Çabej” University. 

Recommendations were solicited from the three 

districts and consultations were held with the 

community of every commune and municipality, 

with non-governmental organizations, representatives 

of the United Nations Development 

Programme, and with the Albanian Development 

Fund. The central local media organized several 

features related to the regional situation and its 

development perspective. For the same purpose, a 

regional conference was held on June 14, 2001. 

The study was debated in the regional forum, 

following which, in September 2002, the Regional 

Council approved the regional strategy that was 

later published by “Toena” Publishing House. The 

publication has been made available to every 

commune, municipality and administrative unit. 

During recent years it has served as a basis for 

defining the priorities for the local government and 

other administrative units. The Regional Council 

acknowledges that this study is not perfect but it 

has been of great assistance because we now have a 

document to work with and to improve in the 

years to come. Indeed, Gjirokastra Region was the 

first in Albania to formulate its own development 

strategy. 

As a development strategy is not a static document, 

and to better identify the shifting development trends 

and tendencies, the strategy was reviewed to ensure a 

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greater commitment of the participating stakeholders. 

This updated strategy will be utilized to better 

harmonize policy with the National Strategy for 

Socio-Economic Development and the EU Stabilization 

and Association process (SAp), as well as to 

strengthen co-operation with the United Nations and 

the global Millennium Development Goal campaign. 

The conclusion of the Gjirokastra Regional Development 

Strategy comes after intensive research 

conducted done by the region’s staff, local experts, 

university specialists, and other contributors, whom I 

thank for their high level of professionalism. I do 

also appreciate the great contribution given by the 

United Nations Development Programme representatives. 

However, I cannot end without mentioning 

the commitment of local government representatives, 

prefecture, and regional institutions staff. A 

special thanks goes to the print media and to the 

public who have shown their unwavering support 

for the strategy. One of the most striking characteristics 

during the process of this study was its allinclusive 

character. 

I would like to stress the fact that the Regional Development 

Strategy for Gjirokastra represents an important 

document, not only for the administration of the 

Regional Council and the municipalities and communes, 

but also for the entire regional community, as its main 

beneficiary. I would like to reiterate the conviction of 

the Regional Council and the utmost support that other 

local government institutions will provide for the 

successful implementation of the strategy. Expressing 

the highest appraisal for its conclusion, I hope that this 

document will act as an aid for everyone that is interested 

in contributing to Gjirokastra’s development, so 

as to make a better future for all. 

DR. RESUL LLOGO 

Chairman of the Regional Council 

Gjirokastra Region

List of Acronyms 


CBOs Community Based Organizations 

CCI Chamber of Commerce and Industry 

CSOs Civil Society Organizations 

CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women 

EIS Environmental Information Systems 

EU European Union 

GDP Gross Domestic Product 

GIS Geographic Information System 

GoA Government of Albania 

HDI Human Development Index 

HIV/AIDS Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 

ICT Information and Communications Technology 

INSTAT Institute of National Statistics 

IPH Institute of Public Health 

LGP UNDP Local Governance Programme 

MDC Millennium Development Compact 

MDGs Millennium Development Goals 

MoH Ministry of Health 

NGO Non-Governmental Organization 

NSSED National Strategy for Socio-Economic Development 

RBM Results Based Management 

RDS Regional Development Strategy 

SAp Stabilization and Association process 

Sida Swedish International Development Agency 

SME Small and Medium Enterprises 

UN United Nations 

UNDP United Nations Development Programme 

UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund 

WHO World Health Organization 

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Foreword 

Throughout the 1990s, there were a series of United 

Nations Global Summits and Conferences that were 

based on the most pressing and salient social, 

economic and environmental issues facing developed 

and developing countries. This culminated in the 

Millennium Summit in September 2000, where 147 

heads of State composed of 191 nations, including 

Albania, adopted the Millennium Declaration. 

Following the Declaration came the design of eight 

specific targets, known as the Millennium Development 

Goals (MDGs). The MDGs represent 

quantifiable commitments that Albania and all 

adopting nations will work towards achieving by the 

year 2015. 

At the national level, Albania’s Parliament approved a 

resolution on the MDGs in July 2003, thereby 

solidifying the country’s commitment to placing 

development at the fore. The resolution is based on 

the appreciation that “responsibilities undertaken 

before the international community under the 

Millennium Declaration require the total commitment 

of state structures and civil society to achieve 

the MDGs in Albania by 2015.” As a result, the 

Albanian government has undertaken a full incorporation 

of the MDGs into its National Strategy for 

Socio-Economic Development. More pointedly, the 

Gjirokastra MDG Regional Development Strategy 

(RDS) represents a breakthrough, as it has taken the 

MDGs and utilized them as a foundation for 

designing local level policy and initiating sustainable 

change. Simultaneously, the Gjirokastra MDG RDS 

has tied regional interests and local concerns with 

that of national and international political commitments. 

Importantly, the MDGs also support 

Albania’s overall objective of accession to the 

European Union. 

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The role of the UNDP is to act as the UN’s global 

development network to link and coordinate national 

and regional efforts in order to reach the MDGs by 

2015 and to lay the groundwork for expanded 

cooperation with the Albanian government, civil 

society, and donors. Assisting with integrating the 

MDGs into national and local level frameworks, 

including the National Strategy for Socio-Economic 

Development, is critical because although the Goals 

have been internationally identified to be realistic and 

attainable, they are being modified and adapted to the 

national context and particular regional conditions. It 

is on this basis that the Gjirokastra MDG RDS, 

employing the MDGs as a comprehensive, resultsbased 

indicator system for overall policy-making and 

accountability, has been revised for a second time. 

The Regional Council led the formulation of the 

strategy, with the assistance of local experts, in a 

participatory manner that engaged citizens of each 

district and many communes to reinforce and encourage 

local ownership. 

Judging by the initiative taken by the Gjirokastra 

region in the devising their first Regional Development 

Strategy, followed by the ambitious efforts to 

undertake this update, it is obvious that there are 

great possibilities for progress within the region. Its 

natural beauty, abundant resources, favourable 

geographic location, coupled with the extensive 

coordination offered by the MDGs means that 

sustainable development of the region is on its way 

and well within reach. 

Anna Stjarnerklint 

UN Resident Coordinator 

United Nations, Albania

Table of Contents 


1. Preface 4 

2. List of Acronyms 5 

3. Foreword 6 

4. Table of Contents 7 

5. Summary 8 

6. Introduction and the Development Strategy Process 11 

7. The Current Situation in the Gjirokastra Region 14 

· Poverty 

· Demography 

· Education 

· Health & Health Services 

· Agriculture 

· Infrastructure 

· Environment 

8. The Gjirokastra Region: Looking Ahead to 2015 90 

· Development Strategy for the Gjirokastra Region 

9. Annexes 118 

· Methodological Note for Project Selection and Prioritization 

· Indicator Description and a Note on the Indicators and Data Sets 

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Summary 

The Millennium Development Goals and the Millennium 

Development Compact 

The United Nations Millennium Declaration, 

adopted by Albania and the world’s leaders at the 

Millennium Summit of the United Nations in 2000, 

captured the aspirations of the international community 

for the new century. It envisioned a world that 

is both united by common values and that strives 

with renewed determination to achieve sustainability, 

peace and decent standards of living for every man, 

woman and child. This commitment includes 

making long-term radical improvements in poverty 

levels, health, and education, in the promotion of 

peace, human rights and protection of the environment. 

Encompassed within the Declaration are a 

series of global commitments, entitled the Millennium 

Development Goals (MDGs). These Goals 

are to be achieved by 2015 and are the vital component 

to this century’s global development initiative, 

representing specific and measurable objectives. 

The commitment on behalf of Albania, and all 

countries, to achieve the MDGs was affirmed in 

March 2002 at the Monterrey Consensus, where 

participating nations solidified their cooperation in 

support of the Goals. The agreement made by the 

Monterrey Consensus was followed by the formulation 

of the Millennium Compact, which compels the 

international community to concentrate on ensuring 

the successful accomplishment of the MDGs 

through a shared system of responsibility. 

The Gjirokastra Regional Development Strategy 

aims to fulfill many of the recommendations within 

the Compact by examining them against the particular 

character and specific needs of the region. In this 

way, strategies have been devised that are not only 

relevant, but also attainable at the regional and local 

levels. The result is an RDS that is consistent with the 

National Strategy for Socio-Economic Development 

and the July 2003 Parliamentary resolution, 

both of which incorporates the Albanian responsibil- 

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ity of focusing attention on realizing the MDGs. 

Significantly, priorities for development and change 

have been determined at the grassroots level, 

through a broad-ranging consultative process. The 

result is that Gjirokastra residents take direct ownership 

over the projects and programmes, thereby 

promoting self-reliant methodologies and encouraging 

investments in their communities and themselves. 

It is important to acknowledge the fact that local 

governing bodies have used the MDGs to further build 

their capacities. This means that revisions of the RDS 

will be conducted regularly, such that the most effective 

means for regional progression will be carried out in 

the shortest period of time, without compromising 

quality or overlooking details. By doing so, the differing 

agendas of the communal, regional, national, and 

global institutional levels will be harmonized. Coinciding 

with political accountability objectives of the 

Compact, the RDS allows regional citizens to track 

progress towards reaching the MDGs through a 

programme framework that is matched to a set of 

indicators. Since a prerequisite to achieving the MDGs 

is good governance, residents can also look forward to 

quarterly updates that review and measure the performance 

of their elected representatives. 

Although the Compact notes the necessity of donor 

financing, the Gjirokastra RDS goes beyond those 

typical expectations. It utilizes the MDGs as an 

instrument for resource mobilization by incorporating 

funding from a variety of sources, including the 

private sector, communities within the Gjirokastra 

region, the Albanian government and non-governmental 

organizations. By comprehensively integrating 

priorities stated in the Compact, this RDS 

represents a breakthrough, not only in Albania’s 

commitment, but also by revealing the Region’s 

dedication to attaining the MDGs.


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Introduction 

Gjirokastra Vision Statement 

“In 2015 the Region of Gjirokastra will have 

renewed cultural, educational and health values, 

stable economic development, a modern processing 

industry for agricultural products, a rich 

environment, continuous tourism, a high employment 

rate, and no poverty” 

Origins of the Regional 

Development Strategy 

Gjirokastra Regional Council has long since contemplated 

a development strategy, stemming from the 

problems that have emerged in the region, from an 

awareness of the area’s wealth of resources, and as a 

result of the obvious possibilities for radical improvement. 

Consequently, the region of Gjirokastra is amongst 

the first in the country to take the initiative in drafting a 

regional development strategy. The result is a document 

that has been conducted on the basis of participation by 

civil society, specialists, non-governmental organizations, 

and employees at all levels of government. 

The necessity for a widely approved strategy intensified 

following several seminars and conferences held in 

Gjirokastra, which focused on targeting the problems 

and shortcomings existing in the region despite its 

massive potential. Throughout the initial stages of the 

process leading up to the research for the development 

strategy, stakeholders and participants continued to 

touch upon a series of inter-related themes. These 

topics included demographic issues of the region, 

agricultural shortfalls, educational perspectives, health 

concerns, urban planning opportunities, the state of 

infrastructure, health standards, inter-border relations, 

environmental problems, and the overall culture of 

Gjirokastra society. Time and again, while liaising with 

members of civil society, non-governmental organizations, 

professors, engineers, health professionals, and 

private sector actors, it was recognized that these key 

issues are the ones plaguing long-term progress within 

the region. 

It was decided that a strategy for the socio-economic 

development of the region, taking advantage of local 

administrative units and experts working in the municipalities 

and communes, was the most effective way in 

which to address these overwhelming difficulties. Nine 


teams, each of which consulted a host of specialists and 

community representatives, carried out the research. In 

addition, fifteen roundtable discussions were held, in 

conjunction with meetings organized with non-governmental 

organizations operating within and outside of the 

region. These included representatives from United 

Nations Development Programme, the Albanian 

Development Fund, the Open Society Foundation for 

Albania, the Organization for Security and Cooperation 

in Europe, the German “Friedrich Herbert” Foundation, 

“Pacard” Foundation, and a number of others. Upon 

completion of the data collection and substantial analyses, 

it was concluded that the Strategy, which was a comprehensive 

and thorough document, be unanimously 

approved. 

Purpose of the Current Update 

The need for a greater commitment on the part of 

international institutions, such as the United Nations 

Development Program, World Bank, International 

Monetary Fund, the Organization for Economic and 

Development Co-operation, and of course the European 

Union has been noted over the last decade. As a 

result, these institutions have directed their attention to the 

challenging social issues that characterize underdevelopment. 

The aim of their focus was to study global and 

regional circumstances and variances in order to define 

the objectives for the new millennium. The MDGs are 

drafted based on these objectives, having an initial 

timeline of 15 years. The participating 147 state heads 

and representatives of 191 nations, including Albania, 

approved these Goals. It was in this context, in June 

2003, that the Regional Council prepared a report on the 

region of Gjirokastra and the MDGs for the period 

spanning 2003-2010. 

The face of the Regional Development Strategy took 

new shape following the co-operation of the Regional 

Council with the United Nations Development 

Programme’s Local Governance Programme in 

Gjirokastra. The Regional Council was responsive to the 

fact that the MDGs needed to be harmonized with the 

aims as set out by the strategy. A number of workshops, 

seminars, and consultations were specifically organized to 

benchmark statistical data and render a determination on 

the appropriateness of indices so that they accurately 

reflect the perspectives of the regional community. It 

was also recognized 

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that while the MDGs were intrinsic to regional 

advancement, it would be imperative to surpass 

This report defines ways to accomplish goals that are 

strategically aligned with priorities at the regional, 

national and international level. It is drafted so as to 

be concrete with respect to implementation, and farreaching 

in terms of targeted beneficiaries. The 

report itself represents a component of the development 

strategy, which is a living document; flexible 

and capable of adapting to future regional changes 

that will demand programme modification. The 

fundamental thematic content – spanning poverty, 

demography, education, health, agriculture, infrastructure, 

and the environment – forms the platform 

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some of the Goal’s objectives if certain alreadydefined 

priorities were to be met. 

for the design of community projects. 

Chronology of Major Events in the Formulation Process 

In light of the redrafting, the Regional Council 

believed there were significant other details to further 

canvass. These included examining regional and 

national reporting processes, defining what a monitoring 

policy would include, considering the importance 

of civil society participation at all stages of the 

development process, and developing methods to 

strengthen civil society capacities so that they are 

involved in policy-making, programme planning, 

and monitoring the strategy’s success. 

Date Activity 

June 2, 2001 Seminar entitled, Gjirokastra, values are fading away: Problems and 

July 14, 2001 

Responsibilities, which focused on the indisputable merits of the region and 

current government policies. 

Conference entitled, Situation and Socio-Economic Development Perspectives of 

the Gjirokastra Region, which concentrated on regional development policies in 

the employment sector and poverty alleviation. 

September 19, 2001 Regional Council meeting that approved the strategy, alongside a discussion 

series with sociologists, agronomists, economists, and engineers. 

October 2002- May 2003 Implementation of first Gjirokastra Regional Development Strategy. 

June 3, 2003 Workshop on Civil Society entitled, Role of Civil Society in the MDG Process: 

Reporting at the National and International Level . 

June, 2003 Regional Council s preparation of a report based on the region of Gjirokastra and 

the MDGs for the period spanning 2003-2010. 

February 21, 2004 Design of the Regional Development Strategy against the backdrop of the MDGs. 

January 19, 2004 Establishment of the Regional Public Standing Forum on Strategy Re-publication, 

which aimed at devising a work program for republishing the Regional 

Development Strategy. 

February 21, 2004 Drafting the Regional Development Strategy in the framework of the MDGs. 

During 2004 With reference to The Manual for Drafting of Regional Development Strategies , a 

publication of the Ministry of Economy, and the lessons of other regions, a new 

draft was prepared. While it revealed an innovative regional experience, following 

approval, further recommendations were solicited from citizens so as to reflect the 

concrete regional values of the people.

Role of the Regional Council 

The Regional Council is the highest decision-making 

body in the Gjirokastra region and has a multiplicity 

of functions. It operates to strengthen the political 

will within the region and acts to support the 

democratic process. The Council contributes to 

inter-regional development and works toward 

promoting civil society participation through integrating 

the efforts of both communes and municipalities. 

Encouraging initiatives in favor of cultural 

diversity is also fast becoming an important area of 

concern. Amongst all of this, the Regional Council 

has also turned its attention to relations with neighboring 

countries. Solid steps have been undertaken 

for shaping cross-border co-operation with Greece 

and given the interest of Albania in eventually 

acceding as a member to the European Union. 

Intended Readership 

and Partners 

The Gjirokastra Regional Development Strategy is 

intended for everyone, but especially for the citizens 

of the region since they will be the primary beneficiaries 

of project implementation. More pointedly, 

it is the citizens who will hold the local government 

accountable to the timelines by monitoring, alongside 

civil society actors, the success throughout 

every stage of the development process. The 

report will also serve as a useful tool for the local 

government in long-term planning, as it outlines 

priority tasks and details methods for achievement. 

Farther afield are the donors and international 

organizations that can use the strategy to become 

informed about the region. By doing so, they may 

make conversant determinations on potential 

initiatives to support, based on resources and 

timeframes. It should be understood, however, 

that this report is truly for everybody in Albania 

and those abroad. It can be used to demonstrate 

the resourcefulness of the Gjirokastra region and 

how a community of people can come together 


for their greater good and contribute to an end 

product that will lead to a stronger, more cohesive 

region. 

The Focus 

When reviewing this strategy, the reader must be 

cognizant of the fact that although the report 

addresses a myriad of the region’s most topical 

problems, it does not tackle every existing issue. As 

a result of the limited financial and human resources, 

the strategy involves the most pressing 

needs and priorities as determined by the communities 

themselves. Nevertheless, as this Regional 

Development Strategy represents a new updated 

edition, it will also be subject to the necessary 

modifications that will occur as a result of the 

dynamic regional situation. 

Report Outline 

This Strategy is divided into two broad sections: 

1. The Current Situation 

This segment describes the status of the 

Gjirokastra region at present based on seven 

different but inter-related sectors; 

2. Looking Ahead to 2015 

Under this heading there are detailed analyses of 

the specific regional priorities, based on goals and 

targets, culminating in concrete strategies for 

addressing the issues. It is important to acknowledge 

that the citizens of the region have selected 

the particular goals and targets as those that take 

precedence amongst all of their concerns. 

Indicator tables have been prepared as a tool to 

monitor progress towards achieving the MDGs 

as well as an itemized programme framework 

that describes potential projects to be carried out 

to accomplish the targets. 

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Part I 

The Current Situation 

in the Gjirokastra Region

Poverty 

Poverty in Albania, as explained in the Progress Report 

2003 of the National Strategy for Socio-Economic 

Development (NSSED), means more than just inequality 

in the distribution of goods. 1 It is a multidimensional 

concept that embodies basic living standards such as food, 

clothing, and shelter, and includes elements such as loss of 

hope, exclusion from economic and social life, an inability 

to preserve social traditions, lack of infrastructure, and low 

security. 2 Poverty also encompasses aspects of deprivation 

beyond material consumption, like the psychological pain 

of being poor, a sense of vulnerability to external events, 

and powerlessness toward the institutions of the state and 

society. 3 

The World Bank maintains that broad improvements in 

human welfare will not occur unless the impoverished 

receive access to higher quality health, education, water, 

sanitation, and electricity services. In the absence of 

improvements such as these, freedom from illness and 

freedom from illiteracy, which represent two of the most 

important ways the underprivileged can escape poverty, 

will remain elusive to many. 4 

The extent of poverty in the Gjirokastra region, however, 

cannot simply be described as a widespread phenomenon 

that affects all poor people in the same way. Rather, poverty 

is defined by a host of regional variations. Rugged geographical 

terrain, harsh climate, household size, as well as 

lengthy distances from health centers, educational facilities 

and urban centers, all influence regional poverty. 5 Further still, 

particular social categories that involve, amongst others, 

divisions of age, ethnicity, gender and ability, tend to 

complicate the definition of poverty in the region. 

Human Development Index (HDI) 

Human development is a process of enlarging people’s 

choices by expanding human potential. The three essential 

capabilities for human development are for people to lead 

long and healthy lives, to be knowledgeable, and to have a 

1Albania National Report: On Progress Toward Achieving the Millennium 

Development Goals, Ministry of Foreign Affairs & NSSED Department 

of the Ministry of Finance, Albania, 2004. 

2A Qualitative Assessment of Poverty in 10 Areas of Albania, World Bank , 

Washington D.C., June 2001. 

3 Human Development Sector Unit: Europe and Central Asia Region, Albania 


decent standard of living. If these basic elements are not 

achieved, many choices remain unavailable and many 

opportunities continue to be inaccessible. The realm of 

human development, however, goes a step further by 

acknowledging that essential areas of choice range from 

political, economic and social opportunities for being 

creative and productive, to enjoying self-respect, empowerment 

and retaining a sense of belonging to a community. 

The United Nations Development Programme describes 

the Human Development Index (HDI) as a composite 

index that measures the average achievements of a country 

based on three basic dimensions of human development: 

a long and healthy life, as measured by life expectancy at 

birth; knowledge, as measured by the adult literacy rate and 

the combined gross enrolment ratio for primary, secondary 

and tertiary schools; and a decent standard of living, as 

measured by GDP per capita in purchasing power parity 

(PPP) US dollars. 

The index is constructed using globally available indicators 

and a methodology that is simple and transparent. Thus, 

while the concept of human development is much 

broader than any single composite index can measure, the 

HDI offers a persuasive alternative to income as a measure 

of human well-being. 6 The calculation of the HDI is 

based on data from the Living Standards Measurement 

Survey (LSMS) 2002, conducted by the Albanian Institute 

of Statistics (INSTAT). According to the LSMS 2002, the 

geographical data for Albania are categorized as follows: 

Tirana: the Municipality of Tirana; 

Coastal area: Delvine, Durres, Fier, Kavaje, Lac, Lezhe, 

Lushnje, Mallakaster, Sarande, and Vlora; 

Central area: Berat, Devoll, Elbasan, Gjirokastra, 

Kolonje, Korce, Kruje, Kucove, Malesi e Madhe, Mat, 

Miredite, Peqin, Permet, Pogradec, Puke, Skrapar, 

Shkoder, and Tepelene; and 

Mountain area: Bulqize, Diber, Gramsh, Has, Kukes, 

Librazhd, and Tropoje. 

- Poverty Assessment, Vol. 1 of 1, World Bank, November 2003. 

4 World Development Report 2004: Making Services Work For Poor People, 

The World Bank Group (online). 

5 Human Development Sector Unit: Europe and Central Asia Region, Albania 

- Poverty Assessment, Vol. 1 of 1, World Bank, November 2003. 

6 Human Development Report Office, 2004 (online). 

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HDI by Geographic Area 7 

The Gjirokastra region, composed of the Gjirokastra, 

Permet, and Tepelene districts, fall under the “Central” 

geographic category. As such, the region’s HDI is 0.725 

ranks a low 3 rd overall. To further contextualize this, 

neighbouring Greece has an HDI of 0.902 (ranked 24 th 

in the world), the UN Administered Territory of 

Kosovo has an HDI of 0.733 (90 th in the world), and 

the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia has an 

HDI of 0.793 (ranked 60 th in the world). At the 

commune level, as displayed by the map, the majority 

of the districts of Tepelene and Gjirokastra have an 

HDI between 0.748-0.762. This is below the national 

HDI average (0.771) but above the HDI average for 

the Central geographic area (0.725). Within these two 

districts there are also pockets of communes where the 

HDI reaches between 0.763-0.801. The majority of 

the district of Permet has an HDI between 0.763- 

0.801, which is approximately equal to the national 

HDI average and above the HDI average for the 

Central category. To the far north and to the far south 

of the district of Permet, there are communes where 

the HDI is lower (0.748-0.762). The lowest HDI 

(0.711-0.747) can be found in several communes of the 

Gjirokastra district and on the periphery of Gjirokastra 

city. This particular average is far below the national 

HDI average and approximately equal to the HDI 

average of the Central category. This status clearly 

demonstrates that the region is not sheltered from the 

deepening divisions that exist between the rich and the 

poor, and the rich and extremely poor. 

Included under the ambit of the HDI is a component 

known as “income poverty”. Income poverty, as 

opposed to poverty that is marked by a lack of basic 

needs, defines people as “income poor” if per capita 

family income or expenditure falls below a specified 

level (called the poverty line). This measurement of 

poverty takes into account the numbers of people as 

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Total 

National Distribution 

Income Factor 

(1,000 Lek) 

Total GDP in 

PPP 

Total GDP in 

PPP Per 

Capita 

GDP 

Index 

Life 

Expectancy 

Index 

Education 

Index 

HDI 

Index 

Tirana 50,487,381 43.58% 6,550,701,752 10,194 0.772 0.823 0.894 0.830 

Coastal 40,569,276 35.02% 5,263,834,734 7,835 0.728 0.823 0.842 0.798 

Central 23,512,352 20.30% 3,050,710,881 2,131 0.511 0.823 0.840 0.725 

Mountain 1,279,708 1.10% 166,041,160.9 454 0.252 0.823 0.819 0.632 

Total 115,848,716 100.00% 15,031,288,528 4,830 0.647 0.823 0.843 0.771 

7 National Human Development Report, 2004. 


well as how far these people fall below the poverty 

line. 8 Simply put, income poverty relates to low or 

extremely low levels of personal revenues, and acts as a 

measure of poverty. By all accounts, the studies 

conclude that income poverty in Albania is very high, 

and the Gjirokastra region is no exception to this fact. 9 

Based on revenues, 25% of households, or 41,697 

people out of a total population of 166,788 in the 

Gjirokastra region, are very poor and cannot even meet 

their basic food needs. Even more alarming, though, is 

the fact that 58% of households, or 96,737 people, 

alternate between: 

1. being able to meet their food needs, but are incapable 

of covering other necessary expenses; and, 

2. being able to meet their basic household needs, such 

as food and clothing, but are incapable of covering 

any other expenses. 

The remaining 17% (28,354 people), on the other hand, 

are able to meet both their household needs as well as 

any extraneous expenses. To put this into context, 

residents that live on less than US$ 3 per day are 

primarily those that comprise the 58% category. As 

such, the ability of these inhabitants to meet their living 

needs is contingent upon secure employment, since the 

loss of a job immediately places them among the 25% 

who are incapable of meeting their basic food needs. 

When measuring income poverty, disaggregated data 

showing the percentage of female-headed households 

among all households that fall below the 

poverty line should be collected in the future. 

Female-headed households that have no access to 

remittances from male earners generally tend to be 

poorer than male-headed households. Femaleheaded 

households are also more vulnerable to 

9 The Albanian Response to the Millennium Development Goals, The 

Human Development Promotion Center, Tirana, May 2002.


PAGE 17


PAGE 18

unemployment and reductions in social assistance 

than male-headed households. The gender disaggregation 

of the above data could have important 

policy implications and would allow for targeted 

interventions to ensure that female-headed households 

have adequate economic and social protection. 

Poverty tends to be more widespread in the rural 

areas and is often higher than in the urban centers. 

Generally, people lack the means to acquire revenues 

for the improvement of their economic situation. 

As a consequence, poverty in the rural areas has 

continued to dominate living conditions, which have 

been slow to improve. Besides the uncertain 

economic situation, which demonstrates the high 

level of poverty, there has also been an increase in 

the attitude of people of the Gjirokastra region that 

there is little hope for a better future. This mentality 

has and will likely continue to contribute to the rising 

emigration rate, which has caused the virtual abandonment 

of areas such as Lopes in the Tepelene 

district, Frasher in the Permet district, and Zagori in 

the Gjirokastra district. 10 

Gender-Related 

Development Index (GDI) 

The 2003 Gender-Related Development Index 

(GDI), which measures the same indicators as the 

Human Development Index and adjusts them for 

gender disparity, ranks Albania 73 out of 175 

countries. 11 In regional context, neighbouring Greece 

ranks 24, while Italy is 21. Although the GDI is not 

available for the Former Yugoslavian Republic of 

Macedonia and Bosnia-Herzegovina, which would 

allow for better regional comparison, Albania lags 

behind other Balkan countries, such as Bulgaria and 


Romania, that both show better gender parity with 

rankings of 51 and 57 respectively. 

The GDI clearly shows that poverty has a gender 

element in Albania. It is important to note that 

although women in the combined primary, secondary 

and tertiary gross enrollment ratio outperform 

men by 3% nationally, they do not seem to benefit 

from their higher level of education in the labour 

market, where their estimated earned income is 

slightly more than 50% of what men earn. In the 

future, a Gender-Related Development Index by 

geographic area in Albania should also be prepared 

to examine to what extent human development in 

the Gjirokastra region displays gender disparity. 

Receipt of Social Aid 

Residents Receiving Partial or Total Social Assistance 13 

10 Statistical Register of Districts, Regional Council, 2003. 

11 Human Development Report, 2003. 

Measuring the proportion of the population that is 

dependent on social assistance is a broad indicator 

of poverty. Although it fails to consider the underlying 

causation of deprivation in the region, it serves 

to demonstrate how many inhabitants rely on this 

source of income to sustain their lives. There are a 

striking number of residents in the three districts that 

rely on social assistance in the Gjirokastra region. In 

Tepelene, for instance, nearly 15% of the district’s 

population relies on social assistance, whereby the 

phenomenon is most prominent in the communes 

of Buz, Kurvelesh, Krahes, Lopes, and Luftinje. In 

the district of Permet, dependence on social aid is 

most marked in the communes of Frasher, Ballaban, 

and Suke (approximately 11% of the district’s 

population). As for the district of Gjirokastra, 

reliance on social assistance is the highest in the 

communes of Lazarat, Picar and Cepo (approximately 

3.7% of the district’s population). 5 

2000 2003 

Total City Village Total City Village 

Gjirokastra 3,594 2,766 828 3,024 2,160 864 

Tepelene 8,718 3,222 5,496 7,014 3,426 4,488 

Permet 4,704 2,370 2,334 4,296 2,070 2,226 

Total 17,016 8,358 8,658 15,234 7,656 7,578 



PAGE 19


Reliance on Pensions 

While an examination of the number of people who 

rely on pensions in the region fails to pinpoint the 

exact cause of poverty, it does illustrate the extent to 

which people depend on assistance to sustain their 

lives. As a result, the number of people in a specified 

area who receive a pension, along with the 

amount that they receive, represents a broad indicator 

of poverty. Within the region, a considerable 

portion of those who are impoverished are composed 

of the elderly, the disabled, and widows or 

widowers. Of this portion of the population, many 

rely on their pension as their primary, and sometimes 

singular, source of income. 

In the Gjirokastra region, a total of 26,480 people, 

or 23.9% of the population, depend on their 

pension. In urban areas, 16,198 inhabitants rely on 

their pensions to improve their lives, which is 

approximately 14.6% of the total population. The 


PAGE 20 

great majority of these urban residents receive a 

retirement pension (12,121), followed by those 

receiving a survivor’s pension (2,946), and those 

receiving a disability pension (1,095). The average 

monthly urban retirement pension is worth 7,055 lek, 

a survivor’s pension is worth 3,551 lek per month, 

and a disability pension is worth 5,846 lek per 

month. Among the 10,282 individuals who live 

rurally and receive a pension (9.3% of the region’s 

population), 9,012 receive a retirement pension, 995 

receive a survivor’s pension, and 77 receive a disability 

pension. The average monthly rural retirement 

pension is worth 1,940 lek, a survivor’s pension is 

worth 871 lek per month, and a disability pension is 

worth 1,954 lek per month. 14 These data reveal, in 

concurrence with the region’s low HDI, that many 

residents who are dependant on their pension for 

subsistence in the Gjirokastra region live in circumstances 

plagued by poverty.


PAGE 21


PAGE 22

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) 

Economic growth is measured in terms of an 

increase in the size of a country’s or region’s 

economy. A broad indicator of an economy’s size, 

therefore, is its output. The most widely used 

measure of economic output is the Gross Domestic 

Product (GDP). GDP is a standard form 

National GDP by Geographic Area 15 

As the table illustrates, the Central area’s GDP ranks a 

low third as between the four geographic categories. 

At the commune level, the map indicates that the 

majority of the districts of Tepelene and Gjirokastra 

fall between a GDP of 0.458-0.532, which is below 

the national GDP average (0.647), but approximately 

equal to the Central category’s GDP average (0.511). 

There are pockets of communes that reach a GDP 

between 0.533-0.633, which falls just below the 

national GDP average, but above the Central 

category’s GDP average. Nearly all of the district of 



measurement that expresses the total market value 

of goods and services produced by workers and 

capital within a country or region, over usually a 

period of one year. Consequently, GDP acts as a 

stong indicator of a nation’s or a region’s economic 

well-being. 

Permet, except for one commune, has a relatively high 

GDP that falls between 0.533-0.633. The lowest 

GDP can be found in the Gjirokastra district (0.446- 

0.457), which is far below the national GDP average 

and below the Central geographic area’s GDP 

average. Not surprisingly, the figures of this map 

directly coincide with each commune’s average HDI. 

As such, the economy in the Gjirokastra region is not 

economically healthy. A detailed analysis, however, of 

the causal factors contributing to this status are 

necessary before conclusions can be drawn. 

PAGE 23


PAGE 24

Living Space 

Poverty can also be viewed from the perspective of 

living space, and by specifically considering the 

dimensions of family homes. This can be an 

important indicator when combined with family size, 

heating systems, and water supply. By and large, in 

the Gjirokastra region, families share a space measuring 

40-69 square meters, and, to a lesser extent, 70- 

99 square meters. Very few families enjoy the luxury 

of accommodation ranging from 100-130 square 

meters, or more than 130 square meters. Scores of 

families in Lunxheri, Zagori, and Qender in the 

district of Gjirokastra, Carcove and Ballaban in the 

district of Permet, and many in the district of 

Tepelene, have less than 40 square meters of space 

to live in. 

Heating Systems 

Lack of access to basic services is yet another way in 

which poverty can be examined. Inability to secure 

basic needs such as heat, water, shelter and clothing, 

and combinations thereof, illustrate, not only poverty, 

but also the depths to which poverty reaches. 

Heating as been a longstanding problem in Albania, 

which has been slow to improve. As many as 

99.9% of the population lack central heating, and 

more than 50% resort to using wood as their main 

resource for heating. 16 The situation in the 



Gjirokastra region does not deviate from this trend. 

As the map illustrates, all three districts make use of 

individual heating systems (which includes wood, 

even though woodcutting is illegal; see chapter 

“Environment”), and, to a far smaller extent, central 

heating systems. 

It is only in Memaliaj in the district of Tepelene and 

in Odrie in the district of Gjirokastra, that there are 

families living without any type of heating system. 

Judging by the estimated number of families living 

in both Memaliaj and Odrie, in comparison to more 

densely populated areas, it can at least be said that 

the number of families suffering from a lack of 

heating is small. That being said, no family in the 

region should be living without operational heating 

facilities, especially considering the cold, wet winter 

season. 

It is worth noting that although the region is faring 

well with regard to access to heating, this should not 

be taken as a clear and positive indication of the 

level of poverty. Statistics such as these demonstrate 

that poverty in the Gjirokastra region is complex, 

and that it may be more likely to take other forms. 

For instance, poverty may reveal itself more strikingly 

in terms of ill health, substandard education, or 

insufficient water supply. 

PAGE 25


PAGE 26


PAGE 27


Access to Water 

Access to a safe and reliable water source can have a 

major effect on many facets of daily living and quality 

of life. It can mean the difference between living with 

disease or taking care of an ill member of the family 

versus being healthy and robust with the ability to 

maintain economic activity. Due to traditional social 

roles, women are key agents in managing water 

resources since they are the ones who collect and use 

water in the household. Poor water access and quality 

influences the amount of labour women expend in 

acquiring water and also affects the overall health of the 

family. In cases of water-borne disease, as in any cases 

of diseases, it is usually women who take care of sick 

family members. Thus, any shortages in water or 

difficulties in accessing safe water means women in the 

Gjirokastra region often have to shoulder the additional 

burden. Even though there are numerous water sources 

that are renowned for their purity and curative properties, 

the region is unable to provide continual, treated 

water to the urban and rural areas. Poor water quality 

results from the absence of wastewater treatment 

facilities, deteriorated networks that contaminate 

drinking water, and inadequate chlorination. This leads 

to waterborne diseases, such as schistosomiasis/ 

bilharzia, cholera, and giardia, which directly impact 

upon productivity. Consequently, the poor conditions 

of the water supply sector, which has had major 

problems with capacity, coverage, access, quality, and 

management, continues to act as an obstacle to sustain- 

Regional Reservoirs & Pumping Stations 18 

Despite repairs to the water supply network, urban 

centers receive water during very limited hours per 

day. For instance, parts of the city of Gjirokastra 

and Libohove in the district of Gjirokastra do not 

receive water for more than 2 hours per day, and 

parts of Tepelene and Memaliaj in the district of 

Tepelene, and Permet and Kelcyre in the district of 

Permet, do not receive water for more than 3 hours 

per day. Not surprisingly, the situation in rural areas 



PAGE 28 

able growth in the region. 

While consistent water supply has always been problematic, 

the situation has degenerated further in recent 

years. The increase in demand for water supply, 

coupled with too few investments in the water supply 

infrastructure, dating back to the communist period, 

are chiefly to blame. Only 53.1% of the Albanian 

population has access to in-house running water, 

barely 16% percent have outside access, while a 

disturbing 30% of the population have no access to 

running water whatsoever. This lack of investment is 

accompanied by mismanagement of existing resources, 

whereby enormous areas of the country 

suffer lengthy shortages of water. In particular, 47% 

of the population enjoys continuous daily running 

water, in contrast to the rest of the country who cope 

with only 6 hours of daily water supply. As is usually 

the case, poorer families suffer the most from the lack 

of supply and the lack of resources to secure basic 

water services. 17 The water supply and sewerage 

systems in both the urban and rural areas of the 

Gjirokastra region are completely inadequate because 

they fail to meet even minimal requirements of the 

population, whilst damaging the environment in the 

process. The table below illustrates the situation of 

neglect concerning the water supply network. It 

reveals that less than half of the reservoirs and 

pumping stations that exist are currently operative. 

Reservoirs Pumping Stations 

Total In Operation Total In Operation 

Gjirokastra 31 31 16 2 

Tepelene 14 8 29 4 

Permet 25 5 22 7 

Total 70 44 67 13 

is far worse. 19 The following map indicates that most 

families in the district of Gjirokastra (except for 

nearly one-quarter in Cepo), and most in the district 

of Permet (except for one-third in Frasher) have 

access to indoor water supply, outdoor water supply, 

or well or tank water. However, an alarmingly high 

proportion of those in the Tepelene region are 

completely without access to water. Incidentally, 

Tepelene is also the district in which there is the 

19 Statistical Register of Districts, Regional Council, 2003.

largest proportion of families who lack heating 

facilities. In areas such as Lopes, Krahes, and 

Luftinje, where between 50-75% of families suffer 

from lack of water, the situation is critical and 

immediate action is necessary. Importantly, problems 

with illegal tapping of water supply networks 

in the region complicate the issue because when 

water safety is compromised, risks to health are 

significantly increased. 

Roma & Poverty 

National and local governments have failed to 

employ internally consistent, sustainable approaches 

to Roma communities, and since no European 

country has developed successful solutions for their 

issues, replication is impossible. Regardless, trends 

that stretch beyond borders, marked by Roma 

exclusion and widespread discrimination, imply that 

underlying Roma issues have so far been neglected 

or ignored. 

Among minorities (estimated as up to 2% of the 

Albanian population), Roma constitute the majority 

of those experiencing marginalization in the country. 

While many households strive to make a living in 

order to support their families, many have immigrated 

to Greece. Some find that they are only able 

to beg on the streets for sustenance and eventually 

return to the community they left behind. Importantly, 

analyses of Roma household incomes provide 

crucial information regarding poverty and quality of 

20 The Roma in Central and Eastern Europe: Avoiding the 

Dependency Trap 

– A Regional Human Development Report, UNDP, December 

2002. 

21 Hermine De Soto, Ilir Gedeshi, Sabine Beddies, & Daniel 


life, but data on national (and especially regional) 

household incomes and expenditures that are 

disaggregated by ethnicity and gender are scarce. 20 

As such, a 2004 World Bank report 21 was conducted 

on the basis of Roma self-assessments. It found that 

Roma understand poverty in a number of different 

ways. Life struggles, such as the inability to afford 

food, clothing, and shelter, emotional stress, and the 

feeling of being excluded from social and economic 

life, are all encompassed within their definition of 

poverty. Poverty can also mean feeling vulnerable, 

insecure, and incapable of continuing family traditions. 

22 It is also evident that the inability to afford 

food, clothing, and shelter, leads to social exclusion 

and discrimination of Roma by majority communities. 

In accordance with their ability to meet their needs, 

Roma families in Albania can be categorized by four 

socio-economic levels. “Extremely poor” families 

are characterized as those that cannot afford to buy 

food or that cannot afford daily necessities. Likewise, 

“poor” families are distinguished by the fact 

that they can afford food, but are unable to afford 

clothing. On the other hand, “non-poor” families 

can afford daily necessities, and “relatively prosperous” 

families are described as having enough money 

to save. In comparison to the percentage of the 

very poor in the majority population (29%), 75% of 

Roma families consider themselves to be extremely 

poor. This estimation of familial poverty level is 

exceptionally high. 

Perez, Roma and Evgjits in Albania: From Social Exclusion to 

Social Inclusion or The Gold Coin Dilemma, Report I: Recommendations 

and Policy Implications, World Bank, April 2004. 

22 Technical Paper No. 520, Poverty in Albania: A Qualitative 

Assessment, World Bank, 2002. 

PAGE 29


PAGE 30


Self-Assessment of Roma Families’ Socio-Economic Conditions 23 

Assessment of Socio-Economic 

Conditions 

Government statistics demonstrate that an estimated 

20% of the population receives economic assistance. In 

all regions of the country, it was found that Roma 

households represent a higher percentage of all households 

that collect social aid, as measured against their 

percentage in the total population. 24 When reliance on 

social aid is combined with low levels of aspiration, 

proactive life strategies are more easily forfeited. This 

issue is a key cause of ethnic intolerance, Roma exclusion, 

The end result is that a delicate compromise must be 

found between providing Roma with adequate social 

protection while still giving them the incentive and 

support to invest in themselves. 27 

Self-assessments confirm that Roma household incomes 

are less than half of national urban household incomes. 

The average Roma monthly household income is 16,492 

lek, whereas their average household expenditure totals 

% That Selected This 

Assessment 

Socio-Economic Category 

Cannot afford food 40 Extremely Poor 

Cannot afford daily necessities 35 Extremely Poor 

Can afford food, not clothing 7 Poor 

Can afford daily necessities 14 Non-Poor 

Have enough money to save 4 Relatively Prosperous 

Total 100 

120% 

100% 

80% 

60% 

40% 

20% 

0% 

district 

Have Y ou Ever Felt Discriminated Against? 

Roma by District 

Fier Durres Tirana Fushe 

Kruja 

Gjirokastra Sarand a/ 

Delvina 23 Hermine De Soto, Ilir Gedeshi, Sabine Beddies, & Daniel Perez, 

Roma and Evgjits in Albania: From Social Exclusion to Social 

Inclusion or The Gold Coin Dilemma, Report I: Recommendations 


24 Hermine De Soto, Ilir Gedeshi, Sabine Beddies, & Daniel Perez, Roma 

and Evgjits in Albania: From Social Exclusion to Social Inclusion or The 

Gold Coin Dilemma, Report I: Recommendations and Policy Implications, 

World Bank, April 2004. 

and discrimination, because while many Roma are seen 

as beneficiaries of social assistance, they are simultaneously 

perceived as never contributing to them. The 

result is that the majority consistently perceives Roma as 

parasitic, thereby leading to rational economic arguments 

for ethnic intolerance and discrimination. 25 

In the following chart 26 , it is clear that in the Gjirokastra 

region more than 40% of Roma surveyed feel that they 

are discriminated against often. 

Korca 

Shkodra Vlora 

Elbasan B 

t 

a 

r 

e 

Once 

Rarely 

Often 

Never 

25,867 lek. Sixty-four percent of their monthly expenditure 

goes toward purchasing food. In terms of incomegeneration, 

Roma receive money from trading used 

clothing, collecting cans and bottles, musical performance, 

and informal and casual work, consisting mainly 

of construction. Outside of expenditures on food, 

Roma use their remaining incomes to repay debts, and 

pay for health, utilities, and transportation 

25 The Roma in Central and Eastern Europe: Avoiding the Dependency Trap 

– A Regional Human Development Report, UNDP, December 2002. 

26 Hermine De Soto, Ilir Gedeshi, Sabine Beddies, & Daniel Perez, 

Roma and Evgjits in Albania: From Social Exclusion to Social Inclusion 

or The Gold Coin Dilemma, Report I: Recommendations and Policy 

Implications, World Bank, April 2004. 



PAGE 31


Average Monthly Household Expenditures for Roma (US$) 28 

140 

120 

100 

With regard to living space parameters, 75% of Roma 

live in one or two-room houses, averaging 6.04 family 

members per household. An estimated 40% of these 

homes are without potable water. Compounding this 

is the fact that high levels of poverty are negatively 

correlated to child welfare, such that the larger the 

family size, the greater the probability of undernourishment. 

Similarly, early marriages, which are the norm, 

prostitution, and child trafficking, are ways in which 

overwhelming poverty is sometimes dealt with. These 

activities, however, inevitably contribute to deepening 

Roma’s, particularly Roma women’s, socio-economic 

problems. 29 

Consequences of Poverty: 

Human Trafficking 

The problem of trafficking in Albania is severe and well 

known. Poverty, migration, organized crime, porous 

borders, lack of awareness on human rights, and the 

close proximity of rich countries all contribute to the 

trend. As human trafficking is a clandestine activity exact 

figures on the number of trafficked human beings are 

hard to determine. It is estimated that in the last decade 

anywhere from 1,000 to 10,000 Albanian women and 

children have been trafficked to western countries. 

Generally, women and girls are trafficked for the 

purpose of sexual exploitation and children are trafficked 

with the intention of forcing them into labour. 

Women and girls living in rural areas often fall prey to 

PAGE 32 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

Expenditure (US$) 


Roma and Evgjits in Albania: From Social Exclusion to Social 

Inclusion or The Gold Coin Dilemma, Report I: Recommendations 


traffickers, as they are particularly vulnerable due to high 

poverty and unemployment rates prevalent among rural 

females. In search of a better life, they may be deceived 

by false promises of marriage or work abroad. Children 

whose families live in poverty are also at risk of 

being trafficked since the family may see an income 

supplementing opportunity in their child’s labour abroad. 

As a result of high female unemployment and the fact 

that poverty is rampant, it can be presumed that trafficking 

takes place in the region. However, to what extent 

the Gjirokastra region is affected by human trafficking 

should be explored in the future. Efforts must be made 

to address this issue and programmes developed based 

on the four pillar approach – prevention, protection, 

repatriation and reintegration. 

Employment 

Food 

Clothing 

Electricity, Water, Heat, Rent 

Education and Culture 

Transportation 

Paying on Credit 

Health Care/Medicines 

Other 

It is obvious that poverty and employment are inextricably 

linked to one another. In Albania, the rate of 

unemployment for those considered “poor” is approximately 

twice as much as the rate of unemployment for 

those considered “non-poor”. Similarly, the rate of 

unemployment for those considered “extremely poor”, 

is almost triple the rate of unemployment for those 

considered “non-poor”. It is also important to make a 

distinction between “unemployment” and “underemployment”. 

Unemployment is common to urban areas, 

as reflected in unemployment indices. Underemployment, 

however, is a typically rural occurrence, as suggested 

by the high number of farming house 

129Roma and Evgjits in Albania: From Social Exclusion to Social 

Inclusion or The Gold Coin Dilemma, Report I: Recommendations and 

Policy Implications, World Bank, April 2004.

holds (71,887) that receive partial economic assistance. 

As such, the connection between poverty and 

employment is most compelling in the remote and 

rural areas because the typical definition of “unemployment” 

fails to take into account the 

underutilization or underemployment of human 

capital. 30 

According to the latest NSSED 31 , national unemployment 

has fallen over the last three years from 

16.3% to 14.9%. Nevertheless, there has also been a 

reduction in the total workforce from 1,101,082 to 

1,089,255. Notably, while employment levels are 

relatively high, level of skill is generally low. For 

instance, the majority of the labour force in the 

Gjirokastra region have completed only basic or less 

than basic education (see chapter, “Education”). In 

terms of frequency of unemployment, it is greatest 

among women (19.1% of women versus 13.6% of 

men), and young people. 


Employment by Geographic Area 

As the table below displays, the Central category 

(inclusive of the Gjirokastra region) ranks a low 

third out of the four geographic areas with respect 

to the percentage of people that have full-time jobs 

(56% of the total employed population). It also 

ranks second out of the four categories in regard to 

the percentage of people that work part-time, 

equaling 44% of the total employed population in 

the Central area. Although the majority of the 

employed population in the Central category works 

full-time rather than part-time, the difference is fairly 

small (56% versus 44%). The large proportion of 

residents who do work part-time as compared to 

the Coastal, Mountain and Tirana areas, demonstrates 

a number of important factors. Part-time 

employment, as opposed to full-time employment, 

typically means less job security, little or no benefits, 

inflexibility of working hours, and often less pay. 

Employment by Geographic Area (% of the working age population, 

over 14 years of age) 32 

Area 

Coastal Central Mountain Tirana 

Working Full-Time 36.4 31.9 28.1 33.7 

% of Total Employed 67.5 56.0 48.6 86.9 

Working Part-Time 17.5 25.1 29.6 5.1 

% of Total Employed 32.5 44.0 51.4 13.1 

Total Employed 54.0 57.0 57.7 38.8 

Unemployment by Demographics 

The tables below indicate that of the 4,351 people 

that are unemployed, more than 50% are women 

(2,513) and more than 33% are household heads 

(1,668). The majority of the unemployed are over 

the age of 35. Based on the total unemployed 

population in the region, 49.3% have completed 

primary education, 48.6% have completed secondary 

education, and 2.1% have graduated from university. 

Unemployment is encountered more in women than 

in men and more frequently at a young age. Data 

collected in 2003 shows that the unemployment rate 

30 Albania National Report: On Progress Toward Achieving the 

Millennium Development Goals, Ministry of Foreign Affairs & 

NSSED Department of the Ministry of Finance, Albania 2004. 



for women is 19.1%, whereas for men it is 13.6%. 

Unemployment has historically been higher for 

women than men, and this gender gap tends to 

increase when a more relaxed definition of unemployment 

is applied. Women face many obstacles in 

attempting to integrate into the labour market, 

especially when they move to a new location. Fortyone 

percents of migrant women, compared to 23% 

of migrant men, are unemployed. 33 In addition, 

issues of social security and social care institutions, 

such as a lack of daycare and kindergartens, and the 


32 Human Development Sector Unit: Europe and Central Asia Region, 

Albania - Poverty Assessment, Vol. 1 of 1, World Bank, November 2003. 

33 Migration in Albania, INSTAT, 2004. 

PAGE 33


influence of narrow-minded attitudes, also contribute 

to the low representation of women in the 

labour force. Consequently, the national unemployment 

rate and the incidence of long-term unemployment 

are higher among females than for males. 34 On 

average, the Gjirokastra region is characterized by 

higher female than male unemployment, similar to the 

national unemployment trend that affects women to a 

greater extent. Upon examination of the unemployed 

population by gender, the district of Tepelene has a 

Unemployment by District for 2003 35 

Economically Inactive Population 

The “economically inactive” population refers to 

those individuals who are incapable of job seeking, 

such as homemakers, the elderly, students, and the 

handicapped. This is especially true in Odrie (one of 

the two places where families lack heating) and in 

Zagori in the Gjirokastra district, where nearly 75% 

of the population are economically inactive. The 

numbers are also large in the entire district of 

Tepelene, especially in Kurvelesh, Lopes (where 

more than half of families are without water supply) 

and Memaliaj (where the largest proportion of 

families lack heating). These economically inactive 


35 Indicators by Prefecture: 2002-2003, INSTAT, 2004. 

PAGE 34 

somewhat higher ratio of male unemployment versus 

female unemployment. However, the districts of 

Gjirokastra and Permet have a higher ratio of female 

unemployment than male unemployment. Eliminating 

gender inequality in the labour market could 

increase both the incomes of women and contribute 

to the regional income base. Studies show that 

increasing incomes for women benefits the whole 

family as women’s incomes tend to be spent on food, 

health and schooling. 

Total 

Gjirokastra 

Districts 

Tepelene Permet 

Unemployed 4,351 1,997 1,437 917 

Women 2,513 1,315 706 492 

Household Heads 1,668 658 637 373 

15-19 years 457 408 40 9 

20-24 years 823 505 264 54 

25-34 years 1,111 469 412 230 

35 years and over 1,960 615 721 624 

persons are, thus, dependent on other people or 

outside sources to maintain and improve their 

livelihood. The gender distribution of the inactive 

population in the Gjirokastra region must be examined 

in the future. There is evidence at the national 

level that the activity rate of women fell from 88.7% 

in 1989 to 56 % in 2001. 36 Numerically, 210,523 

women have withdrawn from economic activity 

over a three-year period. Explanations for this 

phenomenon vary from the return to traditional 

family values, the difficulties women face finding 

employment, and the dependence on remittances 

4 Migration in Albania, INSTAT, 2004.


PAGE 35


Employment Type 

Of the region’s population that is presently employed, 

the majority of residents are engaged in 

permanent employment, particularly in the Tepelene 

and Permet districts. Second to permanent employment, 

there is a considerably smaller proportion of 

people working seasonal jobs. The most alarming 

rate, however, lies in Carcove in the Permet district, 

where three-quarters of those employed rely on 

seasonal work. There is also a significant share of 

people working in temporary employment all across 

the region, which is most prominent in Lopes in the 

Tepelene district, in Permet in the Permet district, 

and throughout the district of Gjirokastra. To a 

much lesser extent, but still noteworthy, are the 

numerous people who engage in occasional employment 

in the Gjirokastra district. 

Importantly, those who are dependent on temporary, 

seasonal or occasional employment are 

always at a disadvantage, in terms of job stability 

and availability of benefits, to those who secure 

full time work. The danger lies in the fact that 

these families are always at risk of finding themselves 

jobless for any uncertain period of time 

without adequate savings to keep them afloat. 

PAGE 36 

Bear in mind that the next opportunity that may 

arise for temporary, seasonal or occasional employment 

may be highly dependent on weather, 

crop yields and other factors that lie beyond 

anyone’s control. 

Highlighting once again the complexity of poverty in 

the region is Frasher in the district of Permet. 

There, permanent employment is the highest, which 

typically means income security, and female unemployment 

is nonexistent. Yet, the number of families 

who lack water supply are significantly high. It 

becomes evident, therefore, that examining indicators 

of poverty in a vacuum, will lead to a distorted 

understanding of the regional situation. 

Employment by Age 

By examining the different age groups of those 

employed in the region, the majority of employed 

persons are generally between the ages of 31-45, and 

over 45. The 15-30 age group, however, follows 

closely behind. In general, there appears to be a 

balanced mix of age groups currently employed in 

all districts of the region.


PAGE 37


PAGE 38

Roma & Employment 

In Central and Eastern Europe, Roma unemployment 

is estimated to be between 50-90%. Falling victim to 

massive job cuts when the land they worked on, 

through collective farms of the socialist period, were 

returned to their original owners, Roma currently 

experience great difficulty in securing employment. 

National unemployment rates are telling. In 2002, 

Albanian unemployment was approximately 16%, 

whereas the unemployment rate for Roma hit 71%. 

This is partly due to discrimination in the formal 

labour market. According to self-assessments, 30% 

of Roma perceive that their ethnicity is the main 

stumbling block to employment. Moreover, evidence 

does suggest that some private sector businesses 

prefer Albanians to Roma, and in some cases, do not 

hire Roma. 37 The crux of this issue lies in determining 

when ethnic discrimination against Roma outweighs 

the competence and skill of Roma women and men. 

Commonly, Roma men and women turn to the 

informal labour market by engaging in casual work, 

musical performance, scrap collection, and panhandling. 

These jobs, however, supply only limited 

incomes and are characterized by high economic 

insecurity. Many approach this dilemma by focusing 

on Roma traditional skills (e.g., smiths, spindle-makers, 

horse-traders), even though several of these skills are 

unmarketable and largely obsolete in an industrializing 

society. 

Rather than concentrating on outdated handicrafts, the 

focus for the short-term might be placed on the 

flexibility and service-oriented nature of Roma 

occupations, suggesting that Roma could compete 

and excel in the ever-expanding service industry. As 

such, their advantage would stem not from the 

cultural distinctiveness of their skills, but from their 

inherent entrepreneurial nature. In the long-term, 

however, increases in rates of enrolment and continuation 

through higher levels of education will be the 

most important way in which to ensure improved 

Roma male and female employment prospects in 

more lucrative sectors. 38 

The issue facing Roma women and men and their 

employment opportunities in the Gjirokastra Region 





are largely unknown. As such, it is necessary to 

undertake detailed analysis of this issue within the 

overall context of employment opportunities for all 

citizens of the Region. 

Tourism Development Strategy 

Tourism development in the Gjirokastra Region is one 

of the most effective ways of reaching the primary 

objective of this Development Strategy, namely 

reduction of poverty in the rural and urban areas. 

Tourism development is made possible through the 

abundant resources that this region offers that can 

support: 

Development of cultural tourism 

Development of green tourism 

Development of eco-tourism 

The Gjirokastra Region, which can be called one of 

the gateways to Europe, is connected with Greece, a 

member of European Community, through three 

customs points in Kakavija, Three Bridges and Sopik. 

This enables the entrance of tourists into all the 

Region’s tourist areas by using the developed road 

infrastructure of Greece. 

Part of the great Region’s tourist potential is the 

existence of 150 natural monuments, 4200 hectares 

of National Parks, 7060 hectares of scientific reservation, 

and 13500 hectares of protected scenic areas. 

A – Development 

of Cultural Tourism 

This type of tourism is the most widespread in the 

Region, especially in the city of Gjirokastra as the city 

is one of the few European cities which continue to 

preserve numerous medieval constructions with a rare 

architecture and an invaluable wealth of cultural and 

historical significance. The city itself is a giant amphitheater, 

built on five different mountainsides with a 

historic castle in its center from where this city has its 

origin. 

The newly constructed hotels have boosted tourism 

development; yet, the actual conditions of several old 

buildings in the city as well as the lack of investments 




PAGE 39


for their maintenance decrease the level of tourist 

visits to the city. 

Castle repair has been conducted through investments 

from European programs of inter-neighboring 

cooperation with the Ioannina Prefecture, 2004 restoration 

funds from the Government, as well as the efforts 

to include this city under UNESCO protection. 

Resources for development of cultural tourism are 

complemented by the archeological treasures that are 

being unearthed in the Drinos valley; the ancient city 

of Antigonea and the amphitheater of Adrianopol are 

the key historic sites. 

Resources for cultural tourism development are also 

completed by several religious sites distributed 

throughout the Region; the most important of these 

are the churches of Labova, Leuses, Benja, the 

Monasteries of Cepo, Çatista, Pepeli, Tekke of 

Melanit Zalli, te Hormoves etj. Amongst these sites 

can be mentioned the old church frescos, with 

amazing icons. 

All these historical sites, which should be maintained, 

can be visited by tourists in 3 days. 

B – Development 

of Green Tourism 

The resources of this Region fulfill the conditions 

necessary for development of all forms of green 

tourism, such as: 

Development of alpine tourism 

Development of tourism of river sports 

Development of exploration/adventure tourism 

The mountainous terrain of the Gjirokastra Region, 

specifically in the canyons of mountain Nemecka, 

over the village of Kaludh in Permet, and the canyons 

in Benca valley create possibilities not only for the 

alpine tourism, but also possibilities for organizing 

alpine world championships – an area that has been 

studied by foreign specialists. 

The Vjosa river creates possibilities for development 

of tourism focusing on river sports; this form of 

tourism requires little investment. 

Numerous caves with stalactite and stalagmite formations 

exist in Progonat and Nivica of Kurvelesh; most 

of these caves have not been explored thereby 

PAGE 40 

creating the possibilities of organizing adventure 

tourism. 

Development of green tourism is also stimulated by 

the existence of many natural monuments that exhibit 

nature’s generosity toward Gjirokastra Region. Some 

of the sights include: 

Tourist Landscape of Cold Water in Tepelena 

Tourist Landscape of the artificial lake in Vrion 

National Natural Park of Hotova in the district of 

Permet 

Fir Forest of Sotira and the tourist landscape of this 

village. 

At the same time, the field of Cajup, Llufa of Nivica 

in Kurvelesh and the thermal waters of Benja in the 

district of Permet (know for their large curative 

values) have the potential for becoming important 

tourist attractions. 

C – Development of Rural 

Tourism (Eco-Tourism) 

In the past, this type of tourism was based on visits 

of small tourist groups who stayed in villages for 

several days; whilst residing the villages, the tourists 

lived and worked together with the villagers. Villagers 

learned from tourists about different countries, while 

tourists learned more about village life, customs, and 

the way the villagers provided their food and the way 

they lived. 

Nowadays, tourists typically go to villages in big 

groups by bus and stay there only a few hours for 

short walks and photographs. There is no longer any 

exchange of experiences, points of view and customs 

between villagers and tourists, and as such villagers do 

not benefit as much from the tourists’ visits. 

Under the motto of environment protection ecotourism 

has been developed worldwide. This type of 

tourism is an industry which is experiencing growth 

worldwide. Eco-tourists are interested in discovering 

the natural environment and in participating in the 

traditional life. They value and enjoy the “difficulties” 

that accompany this environment, such as isolated 

places in the villages and the limited infrastructure. At 

the same time they respect the nature and environment 

of these villages. They are generally interested to learn 

about local culture, meet people, and cohabit with 

nature, and are ready to share their experiences. 

Through eco-tourism initiatives, phenomena associ

ated with rural poverty can be transformed into 

economic advantages, since bad infrastructure, lack of 

electricity and water can be translated into the language 

of “adventure” and exploration. Besides these 

factors, the development of eco-tourism as one of 

the essential sources of income in certain villages is a 

possibility due to other favorable factors including: 

In all mountain villages throughout the Region 

there are unused houses which can be transformed 

into sleeping places for tourists. The 

renovations require modest investment and can 

generate income. 

Eco-tourism in this region is unique since the 

cultural and natural places are original and almost 

all natural places remain untouched. 

Service prices in Albania are, without doubt much 

lower than in any other European country. 

Persons who will be performing services within 

the sphere of eco-tourism will not need highly 

developed professional skills and will instead only 

need some short training on tourism. 

Cuisine, as well as livestock and horticulture 

processing in this Region are very clean and in 

great. Such factors increased the possibilities for 

development of eco-tourism. Butter and cheese 

production, butter-milk and jam processing and 

wine and raki distillation all afford great possibilities 

for development of this type of tourism. 

As noted, the possibilities for tourism development 

in the Region are great. Tourism will likely be one 

of the essential resources and means increasing 

income, not only for those who deal directly with it, 

but also for the Local Governments in communes 

and municipalities through the income generated by 

applying several taxes in accordance with the legislation 

(which in the future is expected to improve). 

This observation is based also on the excellent 

experience from the neighboring region of Ioannina 

Prefecture. Local Governments at all levels should 

become promoters of this development, through: 

Organization and management of all types of 

tourism; 

Training of certain passionate persons on tourism 

and its existing types; 

Continuously updating the internet with the 

different information on the many types of 

tourism that the Gjirokastra Region offers; 

Publishing the Region’s Tourist Guide (to be accomplished 

by the Regional Council) within 2005; 

Opening tourist agencies and finding international 


partners for tourism exchanges; 

Improving road infrastructure in general, and 

particular those roads that lead to the tourist zones; 

a key concern will be to establishing traffic signs 

with names of zones or villages for all the roads ; 

Defining tourist zones and villages, as well as 

improving water and food supplies, sleeping 

facilities, and entertainment and recreation facilities; 

Identifying donors for implementing the study on 

usage of thermal waters in Benja of Permet, as 

well as for investing in Vjosa river, etc.; 

Begin work on establishing parks and constructing 

modern infrastructure in the Cold Water and in 

Viroi park; 

Identifying donors to construct tourist villages in 

Cajup, Hotove and Llufe. 

Tourism development in this Region will be 

greatly enabled by the construction of the airport 

in Gjirokastra, which will be accomplished in 

accordance with the completed draft study. 

Throughout Gjirokastra Region there are many 

monuments of historical and archeological value, 

as well as of environmental and scenic value. 

In regards to museums and archaeology, Gjirokastra 

has many unique historic, artistic, architectonic and 

urbanistic areas, and is also rich in other invaluable 

archeological, historic and cult monuments, such as 

Antigonea, Adrianopol Theatre, archeological zones 

of Lekli, Matohasanaj, Nivica etc. Up to the castle 

of Ali Pasha in Tepelena, church of Labova e 

Kryqit, Zervat, Goranxi, Poliçan, Monastery of 

Cepo, Spilea, complex of churches in Sotira, etc.. 

These monuments, if combined with other zones 

which have environmental values (such as Sotira, 

Çajupi, Viroi, Fir of Hotova, Zone of Lengarica, 

Pigions Cave and forest of Maqellara and Fir of 

Castle, Cave of Spilea, Cold Water in Tepelena and 

Llufa of Kurvelesh, and many others) give tourism 

in this zone another dimension. 

The two rivers that traverse the Region – the Drino 

and Vjosa create not only economic resources through 

using the energy of their waters and fish cultivation, 

but also create other possibilities for creating beach 

zones, which at a certain level are being used even 

now. Judged from the standpoint of their usage for 

touristic purposes, they constitute a considerable 

resource of economic income for the region. 

It must be noted that until the neccesary infrastructure 

for tourism development in the region is 

created, an immediate task remains identification and 

preservation of the natural and historic assets. 

PAGE 41


Demography 

The Gjirokastra region is located at the southeastern 

most point of Albania. It borders the Albanian 

regions of Fier, Korca, and Vlora, with Greece 

sitting to the east and southeast. The total surface 

area of the region is approximately 332,677 hectares, 

or 2,880 square kilometers, whereby the Vsoja River 

and the Drino River pass through its entirety. The 

region has a typically Mediterranean climate where 

the winters are generally marked by rainfall and the 

summers are often plagued by drought. 

The region is organized in 3 districts, composed of 6 

municipalities and 26 communes (population of 

166,788), whereby the majority of residents live rurally: 

Demographic Data for the Region 40 


PAGE 42 

The district of Gjirokastra has 2 municipalities and 

11 communes (population 80,898); 

The district of Tepelena has 2 municipalities and 8 

communes (population 46,879); and 

The district of Permet has 2 municipalities and 7 

communes (population 39,011). 39 

The administrative center of the region is the city 

of Gjirokastra. There, the Regional Council is 

the highest decision-making body and is comprised 

of 43 members, 6 of whom are mayors, 

26 are commune heads, and 11 are members 

representing the municipality and commune 

councils. 

1990 1995 2000 2003 

Population 158,833 166,434 169,586 166,788 

Municipality 51,590 64,373 69,748 70,244 

Females 31,837 35,050 35,240 

Males 32,536 34,698 34,789 

Communes 107,243 102,061 99,838 96,544 

Females 49,621 48,806 47,931 

Males 52,441 51,029 48,848 

Total Births 3,802 1,784 1,531 

City Births 1,167 599 

Village Births 2,635 932 

Newcomers 1,725 2,310 

Migrated Away 3,152 3,997 

Villages 272 272 272 271 

Households 40,315 41,476 

40 Civil Registration Office of the Districts, Regional Council, 2003.


PAGE 43


Gender Composition 

Albania’s population is, by all accounts, genderbalanced, 

with females equaling approximately 51% 

of the total population. 41 Likewise, the population 

of the Gjirokastra region by gender is almost 50/50, 

with women slightly trailing. As the map displays, 

regardless of how sparsely or densely populated a 

particular commune is, the gender composition 

remains relatively equal throughout. This gender 

composition means that women represent half the 

resources and half the potential in the Gjirokastra 

region. This potential will be unrealized if women 

are constrained by inequality in the social, economic 

and political spheres. Equal access to education, 

health care, the labour market and representation in 

decision-making will serve to reinforce sustainable 

and equitable development in the region. 

Population Trends 

Migration is perhaps the single most important 

political, social, and economic phenomena in postcommunist 

Albania, and has been a dominating fact 

of everyday life in the last decade. Since 1990, 

approximately one-fifth of the total population of 

the country has left and is living abroad, and there 

have been large-scale movements of population 

from rural to urban areas. In addition, there are 

many citizens of the Gjirokastra region who can be 

considered seasonal or temporary workers overseas. 

Regardless, the effects of these migrations on the 

economy are profound, and correlate with regional 

poverty levels. The maintenance of families through 

overseas remittances has fast become a very important 

means of household sustainability. Migration, 

whether rural to urban or international to Greece, is 

probably the most important livelihood coping 

strategy employed by rural households in the region, 

and represents a form of economic adjustment to 

changes in the economy. 42 A study conducted by 

INSTAT has revealed that there are gender specific 

migration models in Albania. 43 While young men 

dominate the realm of external migration, 54% of 

internal migrants are young women. There are also 

inherent gender-related problems that arise as a result 

of migration and emigration, since it is largely 

41 Progress Report 2003 on Implementation of the National Strategy 

for Socio-Economic Development, Council of Ministers, Tirana 2004. 



PAGE 44 

working-age males that depart in search of more 

prosperous economic activity: 

Especially in the beginning, men are faced with 

more difficulties and increased pressure of 

migrant or emigrant life; 

Women are forced into a weaker position in the 

family as they wait for remittances to arrive and 

for their husband to return; 

Women become excluded from social life, resulting 

from the absence of their spouse; 

Women’s contact with the world is severely restricted, 

as they remain without a profession and 

trapped in agricultural labour, which offers only 

low wages; 44 and 

Women may be left defenseless against criminal 

activities such as human trafficking. 

Regionally, the mass exodus of people moving from 

the rural areas to the urban centers has been nothing 

short of chaotic, unexpected, and rapid. For 

instance, some areas like Frasher in the district of 

Permet, Lopes and Kurvelesh in the district of 

Tepelene, and Zagori, Pogon and Picar in the district 

of Gjirokastra, lost as many as 60% of their inhabitants 

to more populated vicinities as a result of this 

remarkable shift. The majority of the population 

that moved to urban centers was generally between 

the ages of 18-35 and were people who sought a 

better life for themselves and for their children. The 

consequence, however, of this trend is that many 

identifiable villages and communes have been left 

with an aging citizenry, composed mostly of residents 

over the age of 50. Besides the aging of the 

population in the region, another concern resulting 

from migration is brain drain. Young, well-educated 

men and women leave for the economic centers, 

such as Tirana and Durres, or for main towns on the 

coast, like Vlora. Consequently, 96% of migrant 

young men and young women have secondary or 

higher education. 45 These phenomena contain great 

risks because, firstly, agricultural labour shortages 

reduce substantially the possibility of development in 

those affected rural areas. Secondly, the region is 

also robbed of its well-educated, more innovative 

population that can without a doubt have an inverse 

effect on the future economic development of the 

43 Migration in Albania, INSTAT, 2004. 


45 Migration in Albania, INSTAT, 2004.

egion. 46 Evidence also indicates that a large share 

of non-migrants have considered the option of 

migrating and many have tried and failed, which lead 

to dramatic results. Households are often worse off 

than before their attempt at migration and end up 

suffering from social dislocation. 47 Therefore, 

although migration and remittances are likely to 

continue to be indispensable to rural development in 

the region, the necessity of devising more appropri- 

ate sustainable strategies to alleviate rural household 

poverty and promote regional growth must be 

stressed. 

The charts below, detailing the average population 

change in the region and within the three districts, are 

Population Change 

in the Region 48 

120,000 

100,000 

80,000 

60,000 

40,000 

20,000 

0 

Municipality 51,590 70,244 

Commune 107,243 96,544 

Population Change in the 

District of Permet 50 

40,000 

30,000 

20,000 

10,000 

0 

1990 2003 

1990 2003 


Commune 30,701 22,848 



Albania - Poverty Assessment, Vol. 1 of 1, World Bank, November 

2003. 


telling. Regionally, between 1990-2003, there has 

been a significant increase in the population of the 

municipalities and a marked decrease in the population 

of the communes. In the districts of Tepelene 

and Permet, for instance, there has been an increase 

in the population of the municipalities but a more 

substantial decrease in the population of the communes. 

This indicates that not only have rural 

dwellers migrated to the urban centers, but they have 

also increasingly migrated away from the region, for 

example, to neighbouring Greece to augment their 

meager agricultural earnings. In the district of 

Gjirokastra, however, there has been an increase in 

the populations of both the municipality as well as 

the communes. 


District of Tepelene 49 

40,000 

30,000 

20,000 

10,000 

0 

1990 2003 


Commune 36,609 30,139 


District of Gjirokastra 51 

50,000 

40,000 

30,000 

20,000 

10,000 

0 

1990 2003 


Commune 39,933 43,557 

48 Annual Register of Districts, Regional Council, 2003. 




PAGE 45


Density 

Evidence shows that migration has caused a change 

in regional density throughout the country. The table 

below details the national trend towards urbanization 

during the period of transition. For instance, it is 

obvious that the urban centers of Tirana and Durres 

have undergone considerable rapid growth. Urban- 

Density by Region 52 

Age Structure 

Albania has a young population where the average 

age is 29 years old. In contrast to the over 60 

population, which constitutes only 11%, the 0-19 

age group represents 42% of the total population. 53 

According to the map, and in keeping with this 

youthful characterization of the country, the 

Gjirokastra region is host to a majority population 

52 INSTAT: REPOBA, 2001. 

53 Progress Report 2003 on Implementation of the National Strategy 

PAGE 46 

ization is caused by the movement of people for 

reasons based, in large part, on finding economic 

opportunity and improving the lifestyle of oneself 

and one’s family. This trend is emphasized in the 

Gjirokastra region by the overall lack of employment 

possibilities available to its inhabitants. 

Country Roma Population Total Population % of Roma 

Albania 95 3,421 2.0 

Bosnia & Herzegovina 45 4,383 1.0 

Bulgaria 750 8,459 8.9 

Croatia 35 4,788 0.7 

Czech Republic 275 10,323 2.7 

Hungary 575 10,280 5.6 

FYR Macedonia 240 2,191 10.9 

Poland 45 38,446 0.1 

Romania 2,150 22,761 9.4 

Slovak Republic 480 5,345 9.4 

Slovenia 10 1,993 0.4 

Yugoslavia 425 10,675 4.0 

Age by District 54 

District 

Civil Status 

Transition has brought about fundamental changes in 

Albanian society. Opportunities to pursue tertiary 

education, migration, difficulties facing young adults 

entering the labour market have all resulted in 

Age Group 

0-14 15-64 65+ 

that ranges between 16-30, and 31-45 years old. 

The 0-15 age group is also sizeable. The number 

of inhabitants ranging in age from 46-60 and over 

60, however, are less prominent. The statistics in 

the table below, which are slightly less specific, 

clearly support the conclusions displayed in the 

map. 

Total 

Tepelene 9,307 20,472 2,625 32,404 

Permet 6,704 16,445 2,631 25,780 

Gjirokastra 14,149 35,255 5,243 54,647 

delayed marriage. As a result, over the past decade, 

the average age at which females tend to marry has 

risen from 22.6 to 24.1 years of age. For males it 

has risen from 27.2 to 29.3 years of age. Research 

for Socio-Economic Development, Council of Ministers, Tirana 2004 

54 INSTAT: REPOBA, 2001


PAGE 47


shows that generally younger women have little or 

no decision-making power at home and husbands 

or parents decide marriage for them. Consequently, 

as the wife’s age at marriage increases, the disparity 

concerning power relations between the couple may 

Civil Status by Gender 56 

District 

In the Gjirokastra region, approximately 49.6% of 

the population is married and approximately 45.6% 

is single. Those comprising widows or widowers 

make up an estimated 4.4%, while 0.4% of the 

population is divorced. The low level of divorce is 

important to note. In traditional rural societies, 

women rarely initiate divorce due to the social 

stigma attached to divorced women. Women are 

solely blamed for the failure of marriage and 

oftentimes are ostracized within the family and the 

community. Economic dependency on male earners 

can be a further factor for not seeking divorce. In 

addition, a cumbersome legal system and outdated 

laws on divorce also act as a deterrent. Women of 

the region experience a greater proportion of 

divorce than men in each of the districts, but most 

remarkable is that female widows outnumber male 

widows by a startling 3,373 (of the widowed 

population, 16.2% are males versus 83.8% of 

females). This statistic is a testament to the fact that 

gender is a primary determinant of vulnerability 

because if a woman becomes the primary house- 

PAGE 48 

decrease, positively influencing the wife’s autonomy 

and drive for self-fulfillment. Due to changing social 

norms and attitudes, as well, the number of divorces 

has also witnessed an increase from 8.7 to 9.6 per 

100 marriages. 55 

Male Civil Status Female Civil Status 

Single Married Widowed Divorced Single Married Widowed Divorced 

Tepelene 8,535 7,571 214 45 7,111 7,697 1,179 52 

Permet 6,333 6,463 202 25 5,177 6,619 916 45 

Gjirokastra 13,250 13,741 395 91 11,021 13,917 2,089 143 

Total 28,118 27,775 811 161 23,309 28,233 4,184 240 

55 Progress Report 2003 on Implementation of the National Strategy for 

Socio-Economic Development, Council of Ministers, Tirana 2004. 


hold income earner, she is more likely to suffer from 

higher levels of poverty than a male primary household 

income earner. Moreover, since women as 

opposed to men are commonly stigmatized for 

divorcing, women very rarely remarry whereas 

divorced men often do. 

Life Expectancy 

Average life expectancy in Albania is 69 years for 

men and 75 years for women, with an average of 

72. This average is only slightly lower than the 

average recorded in Western Europe but it has been 

declining in recent years. The average life expectancy 

within the Gjirokastra region is 73.78. In the context 

of the Mediterranean and Eastern Europe, the 

average life expectancy is 78.2 in Greece, 70.9 in 

Bulgaria, 70.4 in Turkey, 74.1 in the UN Administered 

Territory of Kosovo, 73.5 in the Former 

Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia, 74.0 in Bosnia, 

and 78.7 in Italy. In the United States the average life 

expectancy is 77.0 years. 57 


Socio-Economic Development, Council of Ministers, Tirana 2004.


PAGE 49


Roma & Demography 

The virtual absence of basic Roma demographic 

data makes it difficult to address their issues. For 

instance, the lack of concrete statistics on something 

so fundamental as the actual size of Roma populations 

is a major shortcoming, such that the magnitude 

of their problems remains elusive. Interpreting 

the little data that does exist is also risky since broad 

PAGE 50 

generalizations are likely to be inaccurate. A complicating 

factor is that Roma often avoid identifying 

themselves for fear of becoming stigmatized by the 

larger community. 58 It has been estimated that in 

Albania alone, there are at least 95,000 Roma, which 

comprise 2% of the total population. These statistics, 

however, are dated. 

Distribution of Roma Population in Southeast and Central Eastern Europe 

Between 1991-1994 (1,000) 59 

Country Roma Population Total Population % of Roma 

Albania 95 3,421 2.0 

Bosnia & Herzegovina 45 4,383 1.0 

Bulgaria 750 8,459 8.9 

Croatia 35 4,788 0.7 

Czech Republic 275 10,323 2.7 

Hungary 575 10,280 5.6 

FYR Macedonia 240 2,191 10.9 

Poland 45 38,446 0.1 

Romania 2,150 22,761 9.4 

Slovak Republic 480 5,345 9.4 

Slovenia 10 1,993 0.4 

Yugoslavia 425 10,675 4.0 

A survey of the most recent data sources, ranging 

from Albanian local government estimates, Roma 

association information, the U.S. State Department, 

to several non-Albanian authors of the Balkans 

Estimated Population of Albanian Roma by District 60 






(Poulton, Bugajski, Bruner), reveal that there are 

between 60,000-150,000 Roma in Albania. In the 

Gjirokastra region, there are somewhere between 

1,200-2,000. 





World Bank, April 2004.

Regional Council data for the region, however, is based 

solely on the southernmost part of Gjirokastra city, on the 

road that leads to Lazarat, where approximately 660 Roma 

live. The majority of these families are composed of 10-13 

people, and nearly 300 are capable of being economically 

active, even though unemployment is presumed to be 

exceptionally low. As mentioned previously, many Roma 

migrate for short periods, to Greece for instance, when 

income from the formal and informal markets are too 

small to maintain their livelihoods. Nevertheless, while 

migration is a poverty reduction tactic, it normally leads to 

higher levels of poverty in the long-term. Since most 

migrants are unable to secure a visa to the host country of 

their destination, they travel illegally. As the costs associated 

with black-market visas are exuberant, migrants will usually 

go without, which forces them to work in low-skilled 

positions that offer nominal wages. Remittances are most 

commonly spent on subsistence needs and for paying off 

debts to local shopkeepers. By the time international 

migration expenditures are covered and consumption 

expenses are met, Roma are sometimes left with less than 

before they migrated. 

Migration also means that children are not enrolled in school 

for lengthy periods, workers are not subscribed to any type 

of pension program, and debts continue to grow, causing 

many to continue migrating. Women marry or are married 

off young in order to bear children to help with the expense 

of living. Typically, Roma men marry at 18.2 years of age, 

Roma women marry at 15.5 years of age and average 

family size is approximately 6.4 people. Importantly, early 

marriage has harmful consequences for young girls. It can 

lead to the denial of education, as married girls tend not to 

continue their education. It also relates to severe health 

problems, such as premature pregnancies, and increased 

maternal and child mortality rates. Despite the difficulties in 

the collection and accuracy of statistical data, more Romaspecific 

demographic information on gender composition, 

age structure, civil status, and life expectancy is necessary in 

order to design appropriate policies aimed at addressing 

Roma issues. 

Education 

Besides lack of resources in the education sector, Albania has 

endured two periods of mayhem that saw educational 

facilities destroyed and massive population movements, 

which have placed new economic demands on the already 

unstable academic system. The turmoil following the end 



2003. 


of the communist regime and the collapse of pyramid 

schemes brought about vandalism of public property that 

did not spare educational facilities. Buildings were damaged 

to such lengths that substantial investments are now required 

to fully rehabilitate them. Furthermore, mass migration 

from rural to urban settings has exerted excessive pressure 

on urban schools that were ill prepared to receive the influx 

of students from rural areas. Subsequently, two major 

challenges have begun to surface. First, there are a substantial 

number of children that need to be educated and their 

distribution is increasingly unbalanced. Second, migrants 

relocating from areas where educational quality is lacking 

means that the needs of these students differ from those of 

city children and must be adequately addressed. 61 

The residents of the Gjirokastra region have always had a 

desire to learn, despite the difficulties that people in the region 

have faced. Following the intense economic, social and 

political changes in the country during the past decade, it has 

become a priority to regenerate the educational system to 

accommodate, not only the new generation, but also all age 

groups. Notwithstanding, educational standards have been 

in rapid decline for years, as have national enrolment rates. 62 

The low level of education has been a major contributing 

factor to the high percentages of the unemployed. A direct 

result of the many young people having left school in the 

1990s is that they now represent a large contingent of those 

who are jobless. 

The Education Index 

& The Equally Distributed 

Education Index 63 

The education index measures a country’s relative achievement 

in both adult literacy and combined primary, secondary 

and tertiary gross enrolment. The equally distributed 

education index takes disaggregated data on gender and uses 

the education index to measure the difference between male 

and female relative achievement in both adult literacy and 

combined primary, secondary and tertiary gross enrolment. 

The gender composition of the second chart below 

illustrates gender disparity in school attendance in most 

regions of the country. Since there are more females in 

the population aged 6-23 than males, there should be 

more females attending school. This is only true, however, 

for Tirana. In all other regions the case is the 

contrary, whereby male enrolment outnumbers female 

enrolment. 


Human Development Promotion Center, Tirana, May 2002. 


PAGE 51


The male Education Index for the “Central” geographic 

category, which includes the Gjirokastra 

region, is 0.866 for males, which is just slightly above 

the male national average of 0.863. On the other 

hand, the female Education Index for the Central 

region, which is 0.815, falls below the female national 

average of 0.823. The total Equally Distributed 

Education Index for the Central region equals 0.839. 

It also falls below the total national average of 0.842. 

Generalizing these results, it is evident that enrolment 

in primary, secondary and tertiary level education, and 

rates of literacy, require much improvement in the 

Gjirokastra region if they are to reach the national 

average and surpass it. More importantly though, 

progress needs to be realized in female enrolment and 

literacy rates, as they are lagging behind not only the 

national averages, but also male enrolment and literacy 

rates in all geographic locations of the country, except 

Tirana. 

PAGE 52 

Students in Primary, 

Secondary and 

Tertiary Education 

Population 

6-23 Years 

Enrolment 

Rate 

Illiteracy 

Rate 

Educational Status 

Literacy 

Rate 

Tirana 70,396 94,120 74.8% 3.3% 96.7% 

Coastal 204,966 319,613 64.1% 5.8% 94.2% 

Central 286,823 452,854 63.3% 5.7% 94.3% 

Mountain 83,503 139,060 60.0% 7.2% 92.8% 

Total 645,688 1,005,647 64.2% 5.6% 94.4% 

A more specific picture of the average academic level 

of the population in the region can be seen in the 

following map, which outlines the distribution of 

residents by their level of education. In all three 

districts it is glaringly obvious that the majority of 

residents have failed to achieve beyond levels 5-8 of 

primary school education. Furthermore, throughout 

the region, there are a significant proportion of 

individuals who have not been educated beyond levels 

1-4 of primary education. In Odrie in the district of 

Gjirokastra, and in Carcove in the district of Permet, 

areas in which indicators of poverty are relatively high, 

the number of people who have not been educated 

beyond the first four levels is the highest. Optimistically, 

there is also a considerable proportion of people 

who have completed secondary education, particularly 

in Kurvelesh in the district of Tepelene, Permet in the


PAGE 53


district of Permet, and Gjirokastra and Antigone in 

the district of Gjirokastra. And, while the number 

of people who are university educated is slim, the 

largest numbers of graduates can be found in 

Tepelene in the district of Tepelene, Permet in the 

district of Permet, and Gjirokastra in the district of 

Gjirokastra. This clearly reflects that high levels of 

education are more common to the densely 

populated urban centers. One reason for this trend 

Rural Female and Male Educational Attainment by District 64 

Urban Female and Male Educational Attainment by District 65 


PAGE 54 

likely results from issues of accessibility and proximity 

to higher education. Additionally, different perceptions 

of the importance of education may also play a 

role. 

The following tables outline data on the different levels 

of education attained, as between rural males and rural 

females, and urban males and urban females in the 

three districts of the Gjirokastra region 

65 INSTAT: REPOBA, 2001.

As between the districts, Gjirokastra contains the 

highest number of people without a diploma, but it 

also hosts the highest numbers of people in all other 

categories of educational attainment, followed by 

Tepelene and Permet. This dichotomy is, in all 

probability, due to the district’s considerably larger 

population and recent migration of both low and 

high skilled populations from rural and urban areas. 

Fewer females than males have earned a diploma in all 

districts but they exceed males in completion of lower 

elementary school education in the districts of Permet 

and Gjirokastra. In all other categories of higher 

education, male attainment exceeds female. 

The difference between social norms and mentality 

influencing the perception of education is prevalent in the 

differentiation between urban and rural school attendance. 

Interestingly, many more rural males and rural 

females have completed lower elementary and upper 

vocational education than urban males and urban females 

in each district. Despite these substantially higher rates, as 

academic level increases, more urban males and urban 

females complete upper general, upper technical, and 

university studies in all three districts. Nonetheless, 

enrolment rates in secondary education and above, as 

compared to basic education, require much improvement. 

Again, the reasons for this are complex and likely 

include issues of access, particular familial situations, and 

perceptions about the usefulness of academic involvement 

and higher education. For instance, as rural children 

get older, they become faced with the pressure of 

generating income for the household. It becomes 

increasingly hard for parents to rationalize the expenses 

associated with sending their sons and daughters to 

school in far away urban centers, while considering the 

loss of earnings they experience by not pulling them out 

of school to help bring in revenues for daily subsistence. 

Social convention dictating that women do not need the 

same level of schooling as males also contributes to 

decreased female school enrolment beyond the elemen- 



2003. 


tary level. In addition, security concerns may also play a 

role, as long distances in rural areas from homes to 

schools pose the risk of being kidnapped and trafficked. 

There are a number of factors that determine 

secondary school enrolment in urban and rural areas 

of Albania. In urban areas, the variables include 

education level of the household head, education level 

of his or her spouse, and the age of the child. The 

price of notebooks and pens are also a significant 

deterrent to enrolment. In rural areas, the main 

determinants of enrolment include the presence of a 

secondary school in the community, education level of 

the spouse of the household head, per capita household 

consumption, and ownership of cattle. Variables 

that negatively affect enrolment in rural areas involve 

the ownership of horses, the ownership of sheep, and 

the presence of other secondary school aged children 

in the home. Essentially, households that owned cattle 

generally only owned one head, whereas households 

that own sheep or horses own approximately fourteen 

heads. As such, sheep and horse-owning households 

require more work than cattle-owning households, 

thereby necessitating children to remain at 

home. 66 

Students 

Over the past decade there has been a marked 

decrease in the national number of children registered 

in elementary schools. For instance, during the 2000- 

2001 academic year, there were 19% fewer students 

attending school than during the 1989-1990 academic 

year. 67 Excluding university populations, there are 

approximately 22,474 students in the Gjirokastra 

region, whereby 13.7% are in kindergarten, 58.9% are 

in primary school, 23.4% are in general secondary 

school, and 4% are in vocational school. In the 2003- 

2004 academic year, there were also 2,397 university 

students in total in the region. 

Students Attending Kindergarten, Primary & Secondary School in 2003-2004 68 

Gjirokastra 

Region 

Total 

3,082 

Kindergarten 

From 

Rural 

Areas 

1,113 

(36%) 

From 

Urban 

Areas 

1,969 

(64%) 

# of Students in Primary 

School 

From From 

Total Rural Urban 

Areas Areas 

13,232 

6,596 

(49.8%) 

6,636 

(50.2%) 

# of Students in Secondary School 

Total General Vocational 

6,160 

5,267 

(85.5%) 

893 

(14.5%) 




PAGE 55


Literacy 

According to UNICEF’s 2000 report, overall 

literacy was 87.7%, composed of approximately 

85% of females and 91% of males. The literacy 

rate of 15-24 year olds was approximately 93%. 69 

Today, more than 90% of the population above 

the age of 14 can read and write without difficulty. 

The nearly 5% of adults who are unable to read 

and write, or do so with difficulty, belong to older 

generations. For instance, approximately 15% of 

citizens older than 50 are illiterate but among 

Albanian youth, 98% are fully literate. 70 Nevertheless, 

illiteracy continues to be a problem in particu- 

69 Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey Report, UNICEF, Tirana 2000. 


PAGE 56 

lar parts of the country due to economic, demographic, 

and social changes resulting from the 

transition period. 

As the previous tables for the Education Index and 

the Equally Distributed Education Index outline 

above, the illiteracy rate in the Central geographic 

location is 5.7%, and the literacy rate is 94.3%. Of 

the male population in the Central area, 96% are 

literate, whereas of the female population, 92.6% are 

literate. The following map also indicates that 

illiteracy is relatively low throughout the region 


2003.


PAGE 57


School Facilities 

The structures of school buildings have been 

deteriorating of late, including adequate electricity 

and reliability of heating. In addition, 42% of 

schools are without bathrooms, which is likely to 

negatively affect the enrollment rate of adolescent 

girls. 71 Even in the largest urban centers, schools are 

either lacking equipment or classroom facilities are 

decrepit. Moreover, on average, the number of 

students per class, which are often “mixed” (different 

age groups and different levels of ability), is 

between 45-50. 72 While the number of school 

facilities does not directly reflect on quality of 

education, it does relate to issues of accessibility by 

Educational Facilities 73 

Enrolment rates in Albanian universities have reached 

a gross enrolment rate of 11% and and a net 

enrolment rate of an estimated 9%. These rates are 

so low that the country has the lowest participation 

in universities in Europe. As between the transition 

economies in Europe and Central Asia, only 

Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan have lower enrolments 

rates. 74 The Gjirokastra region also has only one 

university, which means that enrolment and attendance 

requires students to relocate to the city of 

Gjirokastra, as the nearest and most feasible option. 

This effort may not only be inconvenient for students 

but also too costly. 

School Dropouts 

According to the Ministry of Education and 

71 Common Country Assessment, United Nations – Albania, 2004. 




PAGE 58 

resident children and youth of the region. Proximity 

and access to schools is necessary to ensure both 

regular attendance and completion of education. As 

the table below illustrates, while there are a significant 

number of kindergartens and primary schools in the 

rural areas of the region, where most of the population 

live, there are exceedingly few secondary 

schools. This acts as a serious impediment to those 

interested in pursuing higher education. Furthermore, 

school facilities have largely fallen into a state 

of disrepair, as most lack proper heating, continuous 

electricity supply, and as windows, doors and walls 

are seriously dilapidated. 

Science, the dropout rate of school children 

reached its peak in 1991-1992, decreasing to 2.3% 

in 2001. In the Gjirokastra region, as outlined in 

the table below, it is evident that dropping out 

varies among districts. In the Gjirokastra district, 

for instance, the dropout rate is quite low, and 

relatively low in the district of Permet. The district 

of Tepelene, however, experiences the highest 

dropout rate in the region for both primary and 

secondary school. It more than triples the rate of 

the district of Permet and shatters the Gjirokastra 

district’s dropout rate. Extreme poverty in families 

is a major cause for school dropouts because, 

amongst other reasons, families with low incomes 

have difficulty in purchasing books and in providing 

a favourable environment necessary for regular 

school attendance. 75 



75 Education in Albania: Changing Attitudes and Expectations, World 

Bank, Tirana 2000.


School Dropouts by District in Primary and Secondary School 76 

Districts Total Drop-outs # in Primary School # in Secondary School 

Gjirokastra 12 3 9 

Permet 60 7 53 

Tepelene 195 46 149 

Total 267 56 205 

School abandonment is also highest in the rural areas, 

which is positively correlated with higher levels of 

poverty. According to the results drawn from a 

study supported by UNICEF in 2001, even though 

males drop out of school less than females, the 

number of males dropping out of school for 

economic reasons is 1.4 times higher than for 

females. It is obvious that gender factors affect this 

difference. According to tradition and mentality, 

males are considered more capable of bringing 

incomes into the family, so they are pulled out of 

school and obligated to assist their parents with daily 

subsistence activities or sent abroad to work. 77 

Similarly, “hidden” dropout occurs when students 

do not officially drop out, but fail to advance in their 

studies. One report demonstrates that the number 

of children that drop out of school is significantly 

less than the number of hidden dropout students. 

Thus, the hidden dropout rate may represent 

approximately one-third of the total number of 

children attending primary school, in some areas. 78 

Other issues that influences the dropout rate revolve 

around the government’s limited competencies in 

enforcing the law on compulsory education, internal 

Number of Teachers and Their Qualifications 80 

District 

Total 

Teaching in 

Primary & 

Secondary 

Schools 

# Teaching 

in Primary 

Schools 

# With a 

Middle 

School 

Degree 

76 Assessment of Social and Economic Conditions of Districts of Albania, 

UNICEF, 2000. 

77 School Dropout: Causes, Recommendations, Development of Education 

Association and supported by UNICEF, Tirana, December 2001. 

78 Study on Hidden Dropout, Education for All Association, Tirana, 

and external migration, the reactivation of the blood 

feud in some areas, and the low level of education 

and low salaries of many teachers. 79 

Teachers 

As a result of declining education standards, parents 

are opting to have their children taught privately or, 

worse, not at all. The disparity between the access 

and quality of education in rural versus urban sectors 

is also widening, as village families are experiencing 

greater difficulty in obtaining a proper education for 

their young ones. Many teachers are without basic 

qualifications and salaries are particularly low. As the 

table below indicates, only 25% and 28% of primary 

school teachers in the Tepelene and Permet districts, 

respectively, hold a university degree. In the 

Gjirokastra district, just over half of primary school 

teachers hold a university degree. The figures for 

teacher qualifications are significantly better for those 

teaching in secondary schools though. Nevertheless, 

since the majority of students are in primary schools 

(and as many currently never go beyond), it is 

essential that at that level, as at all levels of education, 

teachers have acceptable credentials. 

# With a 

University 

Degree 

# Teaching 

in 

Secondary 

Schools 

# With a 

Middle 

School 

Degree 

# With a 

University 

Degree 

Tepelene 449 196 147 (75%) 49 (25%) 253 89 (35%) 164 (65%) 

Permet 356 155 111 (72%) 44 (28%) 201 40 (20%) 161 (80%) 

Gjirkokastra 549 225 105 (47%) 120 (53%) 324 52 (16%) 272 (84%) 

Region 1,354 576 363 213 778 181 597 

December 2001. 

79 Financing, Efficiency and Equity in Albanian Education, World Bank, 

Tirana, 2000. 

80 Assessment of Socioeconomic Conditions of Districts in Albania, 

UNICEF, 2000. 

PAGE 59


Roma & Education 

Poverty, the low importance placed on education, and 

discrimination, are major factors that impede Roma 

from moving beyond elementary school education. It 

has been reported that 64% of Roma nationwide 

between the ages of 7-20 have never attended school. 

Consequently, 62% of Roma in the country are 

PAGE 60 

illiterate, making it much more difficult for them to 

compete for jobs. In the Gjirokastra region, 36% of 

Roma between the ages of 7-20 are illiterate, which is 

the highest Roma illiteracy rate of all regions in the 

country. As well, on average, Roma women and men 

have completed only 3.56 years of schooling. 

Illiteracy Rates and School Years Completed for Roma Aged 7-20, by Region 81 

Location Illiteracy (%) Number of School Years Completed 

Shkodra 100 0 

Fushe Kruja 97.9 3 

Durres 60.4 4.05 

Tirana 61.9 3.36 

Elbasan 86.9 2.18 

Fier 66.2 4.67 

Vlora 38.0 5.16 

Berat 59.7 3.81 

Korca 41.7 3.78 

Gjirokastra 36.0 3.56 

Saranda/Delvina 51.6 4.6 

Total 62.2 4.02 

The cost of books and school supplies can be insurmountable. 

More than 67% of Roma families simply 

cannot afford them, in addition to feeding and clothing 

their children adequately. 82 Caring for younger siblings 

or engaging in economic activity can also restrict 

attendance. If Roma children do attend, many go to 

school hungry, which makes learning difficult. As well, 

poor household conditions can hinder children from 

completing work assignments, and unfortunately, many 

uneducated Roma parents will have a difficult time in 

assisting their children when they require help. 83 

Another obstacle involves language. Many Roma who 

speak Romani in the home have inevitable difficulties 

with understanding lessons, as well as with being 

discriminated against. Roma girls and boys, who 

struggle through the first few years, often end up 

dropping out. Even factors such as distance to 

education facilities are restrictive to many Roma 

families. Since many families in the Gjirokastra region 








migrate to Greece during the peak agricultural season 

from May to October, children are pulled out of 

school and are unable to enroll in schools abroad due 

to language barriers, because they, too, are working, or 

due to the temporary nature of the migration. The lack 

of multicultural content in school curriculum adds to 

the problem of exclusion and discrimination. The 

Albanian experience is the only one taught, and minority 

cultural histories are ignored and neglected in lessons 

and in textbooks. On average, the teaching of “minority 

issues” with regard to inter-ethnic relations is limited 

to 2-3 hours of class time per school year. 84 

Long-term solutions are two-fold. There must be 

strategies to encourage attitudes among Roma families 

that value education as an asset. Moreover, the educational 

system has to be responsive to the individual 

needs of Roma girls and boys, recognizing their 

circumstances and employing their best efforts to 

accommodate them. 







Implications, World Bank, April 2004.

Health and Health Services 

The health care sector in Albania is largely publicly owned 

and the private sector is generally limited to the distribution 

and commercialization of pharamceuticals and to 

dental care services. The Ministry of Health is the major 

service provider, administering health care throughout the 

regions, and is primarily funded by way of budget 

allocations. 85 

The objective of the Albanian health care system is to 

ensure universal coverage, with a heavy focus on primary 

health care. While there has been success with respect to 

improving average life expectancy and reducing infant 

and child mortality rates, recent policies have failed to 

lead to significant improvements. This is especially true 

for the most impoverished of the country who continue 

to lack essential care. 86 While quality and access to health 

care services are extremely important, approximately 

80% of respondents in one study said that their health is 

average to good, but 41% believed that the health of 

household members has worsened since 1990. Alternatively, 

only 20% believed that household health has 

improved. 87 

Primary health care services represent the first 

Health Care Personnel per 1,000 Inhabitants 88 



2003. 



contact that residents have with the health system. 

As a result, the system of primary health care must 

be viewed as a social service. In addition, community 

participation is key for the promotion of 

health, and cooperation between the health sector 

and other relevant sectors of society is vital to 

achieving access to health care for all people living 

in the Gjirokastra region. This foundation, however, 

is not currently evident in the regional policies 

of the health sector. 

Health Care Professional 

& Health Care Facilities 

The map reveals that the Gjirokastra region has one 

of the lowest numbers of general practitioner 

doctors in the country. The ability of the region to 

attract and retain doctors is proving more and more 

difficult. Doctors are migrating to areas where they 

can access a larger client base, better infrastructure, 

and higher salaries. Again, the rural population of 

the region is the one who suffers the most from the 

declining doctor base, as proximity and access 

becomes increasingly more challenging. 

Region District Specialists Nurses Dentists Pharmacists 

Central Berat 0.68 4.37 0.11 0.04 

Elbasan 0.55 3.74 0.11 0.04 

Gjirokastra 1.14 6.19 0.19 0.07 

Korce 0.89 4.53 0.15 0.05 

Shkoder 0.68 4.34 0.11 0.05 

Coastal Durres 0.75 3.18 0.16 0.04 

Fier 0.52 2.85 0.10 0.03 

Lezhe 0.56 4.05 0.16 0.04 

Vlore 1.00 4.62 0.16 0.06 

Mountain Diber 0.56 4.96 0.07 0.05 

Kukes 0.80 5.85 0.12 0.07 

Tirana Tirana 1.69 4.09 0.15 0.11 





PAGE 61


PAGE 62


PAGE 63


PAGE 64

While the averages for the Gjirokastra region in the 

table above are the highest, except for specialists, in 

comparison to other parts of the country, the 

inhabitants of the Gjirokastra region are still in dire 

need of greater numbers of experienced health care 

personnel in order to achieve the goal of universal 

primary health care. This is especially true when 

considering how few health care centers and hospitals 

there are in the region. 

Doctors, Nurses 

and Health Centers 

In Gjirokastra Region there are 58 physicians, 214 

nurses and 42 health centers. 89 In terms of facilities, 

there is a severe shortage. Hospitals, as can be seen on 

the following map, only total three for a population of 

166,788. There is one hospital in each of the districts, 

located in the cities of Gjirokastra, Tepelene, and 

Permet. Since the hospitals are located in urban centers, 

they fail to be accessible to the majority of residents of 

the region. Of the hospitals in the region, there are less 

than 370 beds, which amounts to the least number of 

beds out of all the regions in the country. As a result, 

residents must rely on health centers, which are 

seriously inadequate. There are only 42 for the entire 

Outpatient Care Expenditure by Area 90 


region and they are often under-equipped. 

While the situation is tenuous, there have been 

increases in training sessions by specialists and in the 

establishment of labs and dispensaries. Also, due to 

the work of Doctors Sans Frontiers, health centers 

now contain refrigeration units. 

Health Care Expenditures 

Health care expenditures represent a significant 

obstacle to many families in the Gjirokastra region 

attempting to seek medical assistance for child 

illnesses, care of the elderly, and care for themselves. 

The table below exhibits that inhabitants of the 

Central region spend the second highest amount in the 

country for both treatment, and for transportation to 

and from health care facilities. Medicines, however, 

constitute the greatest expenditure for people seeking 

outpatient care. Likewise, although, inhabitants of the 

region rank third out of the four geographic areas 

with reference to the amount they pay as a “gift” 

when obtaining outpatient care, 128.5 US$ per month 

for Central residents is still almost four times the 

amount paid by residents of Tirana (ranked fourth), 

who pay on average 32.2 US$ per month. 

Treatment Gifts Medicines Lab Tests Transportation Total 

Average Monthly Payment 

Coastal 263.2 227.1 1645.0 425.3 164.1 2728.7 

Central 437.7 128.5 1203.2 212.8 373.0 2353.1 

Mountain 527.6 200.3 1467.6 256.6 483.6 2928.1 

Tirana 166.0 32.2 970.6 214.0 11.7 1401.2 

Total 360.9 163.2 1368.9 294.0 278.6 2465.8 

These “gifts”, or informal payments, constitute unofficial 

payments to a health care provider for services, 

which are supposed to be provided at no charge to the 

patient. Although in some European countries there is 

a common practice for patients to offer an unsolicited 

gratuity to their health care provider, there is ample 

evidence that a large proportion of informal payments 

are involuntary, and either expected or requested. 

Informal payments can act as a barrier to accessing 

health care services and can also distort government 

efforts to improve equity and efficiency in the health 

care system. 91 





Birth Rate 

Major political, economic and social changes beginning 

in the 1990s have affected the birth rate. For instance, 

family planning policies and programs, the growing 

number of abortions as a result of its legalization, the 

extension of marriage age for girls (especially in urban 

areas), the difficulties in securing the means to live, and 

women’s somewhat limited choices in the labour 

market, are all factors that contribute to the decreasing 

birth rate. 92 The birth rate in the Gjirokastra region, per 

capita, is the sixth highest in the country with 19.36 


92 The Albanian Response to the Millennium Development Goals, The Human 

Development Promotion Center, Tirana, May 2002. 

PAGE 65


births per 1,000 inhabitants. The birth rate demonstrates 

that there is a clear deficiency in consultation 

centers, as noted in the tables below, illustrating the need 

for more health care services that specifically manage 

mother and child-related matters. 

Infant & Child Health 

Child protection and development is one of the main 

concerns for the Albanian government and local governing 

bodies. Both girls and boys, as citizens, enjoy not only 

equal rights under the Albanian constitution, but also special 

rights protected by the state. This is reflected clearly in 

related legal frameworks and government programs. 3 

Irrespective, the Albanian mortality rate for children under 

the age of five years old continues to be the highest in 

Europe. In 2002, the infant mortality rate was 17.4 deaths 

per 1,000 live births, and in 2003 the rate was 16.8 deaths 

per 1,000 live births. 94 

According to most recent statistics across the region, the 

under five infant mortality rate was 16.43 births per 1,000 

inhabitants in the Gjirokastra district, 12.96 in the Permet 

district, and 15.72 in the Tepelene district. In total, the 

infant mortality rate for the Gjirokastra region was an 

estimated 14.95 95 (in comparison to the national average in 

2000 of 33 per 1,000 live births 96 ). As this information is 

slightly dated, however, it is imperative for the region to 

undertake a new round of data collection. The Ministry 

of Health and the Institute of Public Health cite the main 

reasons for the high mortality rate as attributable to 

respiratory diseases, congenital anomalies, diarrhea and 

infectious diseases. Of these, respiratory diseases rank the 

highest. 97 Some of these types of diseases are directly 

related to difficult living conditions, as characterized by 

malnutrition, poor access to services, improper treatments, 

and lack of emergency facilities. The outcome is that high 

infant and child mortality rates are positively correlated to 

other poverty indicators. 

High mortality rates in rural areas depend on physical 

access to health care services, general living conditions, the 

94 Progress Report 2003 on Implementation of the National Strategy for Socio-Economic 

Development, Council of Ministers, Tirana 2004. 

95 Assessment of Socioeconomic Conditions of Districts in Albania, UNICEF, 2000. 

96 The Albanian Response to the Millennium Development Goals, The Human 

Development Promotion Center, Tirana, May 2002. 

97 Albania End Decade Review, UNICEF, Tirana 2000. 

98 Country Family Culture: Evolution and Problems, The “Woman and Family” 

Committee, Tirana 2002. 

99 Albania National Report: On Progress Toward Achieving the Millennium 

Development Goals, Ministry of Foreign Affairs & NSSED Department of the 

PAGE 66 

cost of care (which may be high as a consequence of 

“gifts” or informal payments), the level of efficiency of 

health services resulting from the absence of medical 

equipment and appropriate techniques for medical 

treatment, and the educational level of many mothers, 

reflected particularly by infant malnourishment. In rural 

areas, the level of infant mortality tends to be higher 

because of a lack of access to intensive care health services 

and the lack of information disseminated to the population 

pertaining to health matters, including reproductive 

health, family planning, and child care. 98 

The standards of most functioning health care centers in 

the Gjirokastra region are low, particularly for mother and 

child care services. A comparison of the total number of 

villages in the region reveals that 60% are without health 

care consultation services for mother and child. 99 Furthermore, 

outpatient clinics, where they exist, often lack the 

necessary equipment to manage health care properly. 100 

Between 1990-2000, approximately 61% of all 3-monthold 

babies in Albania were breastfed. Compared to the 

European average of 60.33%, this statistic is very promising. 

The introduction of industrial milk in the 1990s, 

however, seriously impacted upon the numbers of 

mothers who decided not to breast-feed. To counter this 

trend, UNICEF has supported a national program to 

promote breastfeeding through the training of health 

personnel in maternal health education. 101 In the 

Gjirokastra region breastfeeding still dominates over 

artificial milk in the districts, and yet the importance of 

maintaining such campaigns cannot be overemphasized. 102 

Maternal Health 

Although women represent 50.1% of the population in 

Albania, many aspects of gender equality, including health 

matters, are yet to be recognized and addressed. Maternal 

mortality in Albania in 2000 was 50% lower than in 1990, 

but compared with other European countries it is still high 

(21.3 deaths per 100,000 live births in 2003). 103 Specific 

data on maternal mortality rates in the Gjirokastra region 

are currently unreliable, and as such, data collection is 

necessary to devise a regionally comprehensive analysis. 

Ministry of Finance, Albania 2004. 




Ministry of Finance, Albania 2004. 




Ministry of Finance, Albania 2004.

Since 1990, because of the lack of statistical data with 

regard to specific regions, fluctuations in maternal mortality 

have not yet found a definite explanation. Given that the 

Albanian system of reporting only records deaths that 

occur during childbirth and deaths caused by abortion, it is 

more than likely that abortion, hemorrhage, epilepsy, 

complications from anesthesia and infections, are not the 

only causes of maternal mortality. 104 

As the maternal mortality rate remains high despite recent 

declining trends, the greatest risk occurs over the course of 

pregnancy, during the birthing process, and following 

delivery. Recent years have seen lower access to pre-natal 

services and assisted births, which 

adversely affects maternal mortality. The percentage of 

pre-natal visits has declined by 5.1% between 1990 and 

2001. The periodic visits of pregnant women to specialized 

medical personnel remain low. On average, only 18% 

of women have their first visit during their first trimester 

of pregnancy. Forty-five percent make visits in their 

second trimester, while a high proportion, 37%, visit for 

the first time during their last three months of pregnancy. 105 

An estimated 93% of births take place in health care 

facilities, while the remaining 7% occur at home. Of the 

latter group, skilled health personnel are in attendance 

during 6.2% of deliveries, but 0.8% receive no medical 

assistance whatsoever. Giving birth at home may be 

attributed to the low access and low quality of health care 

services, a shortage of health professionals, especially 

midwives in rural areas, a desire to deliver children at home 

(influenced by social conventions), and the poor infrastructure 

in maternity wards, which often function in spite of 

shortages of water, heating, and electricity. 106 Additional 

factors that affect maternal mortality include sanitary 

conditions before pregnancy, complications during 

pregnancy and delivery, and a lack of trained and motivated 

health personnel, especially in rural areas. It is also 

worth mentioning that the collection and dissemination of 

relevant health care information in addition to the education 

of women on safeguarding their health, and the health 

of their unborn child, is minimal to nonexistent in the 

region. What is evident is that there is a lack of exact data 

relating to maternal mortality in the three districts. 






Socio-Economic Development, Council of Ministers, Tirana 2004. 


Abortions 

Legalization of abortion has created an opportunity for 

Albanian women to increase the control they have over 

their lives and their bodies. Just as regional statistics on 

maternal mortality are scant, so are rates of abortion. 

Consequently, a campaign to collect this data, along with 

compiling statistics on prevalence of contraception use and 

the exercise of family planning methods, needs to be 

undertaken. It is known, however, that women nationally 

tend to abort as a result of poverty, unemployment, and 

for health reasons. Some women also wish to limit the 

number of children they have, and as such, abortion 

continues to be a commonplace method of family 

planning. 107 Another factor that may influence the abortion 

rate involves the sex of the unborn child. Albanian families 

have typically favoured males over females because males 

pass on the family name and are traditionally thought to 

have better prospects for assisting the family in meeting 

financial obligations. Nonetheless, as the Ministry of Health 

fails to disaggregate statistics on infant death by gender, it is 

unknown whether such a cultural bias affects the higher 

mortality rates among girls. 108 The reduction of illegal 

abortions and an increase in contraceptive use may also 

contribute to the reduction of the maternal mortality rate. 

Consequently, abortion has decreased by an estimated 24% 

between 1990-1999, although the number of procedures 

being performed remains high. Research conducted by 

the Ministry of Health demonstrates that in 1990, approximately 

50% of maternal mortality cases were caused by 

illegal abortion. Moreover, the use of contraception is 

positively correlated to the reduction of maternal mortality 

cases in Albania. 109 

Immunization 

Concerted efforts have been made by the Albanian 

government to improve vaccination coverage of 

children nationwide. An immunization programme, 

expanded over the years, has been successful in 

enhancing the management of vaccination strategies. 

Recently introduced into the obligatory scheme is the 

immunization against Measles, Diphtheria, Tetanus, 

Pertussis, Tuberculosis, Poliomyelitis, Hepatitis B and 







PAGE 67


Rubella. Consequently, there is a high level of 

immunization in the country, reaching more than 

95%, which greatly contributes to the reduction of 

the infant mortality rate caused by infectious diseases. 

Irrespective, statistics on rates of immunization in the 

Gjirokastra region are unreliable, and as such, efforts 

need to be made to track these numbers in the 

interests of health promotion. 110 

Dental Services 

Dental care is often an aspect of health that is 

neglected, resulting in poor oral hygiene, severe 

decay, tooth loss, and disease. Most important is 

encouraging families to address the oral care of their 

infants and to teach their children about the importance 

of dental maintenance. This, however, will 

never become a priority if access to dental health 

care services is out of reach for the majority of 

residents. The Gjirokastra region is in dire need of 

many more dentists and oral hygiene professionals 

that are closer in proximity to the wider population. 

Prevalence of HIV/AIDS HIV/AIDS112 Accordingly, while documented cases of sexually 

transmitted diseases in Albania are low, the country is 

considered at high risk for these infections because 

of the sizeable population of youth, increases in 

migration and emigration levels, the escalation of 

prostitution, and the lack of disseminated information 

about HIV/AIDS. In terms of transmission, 

the predominant mode in nearly 90% of cases has 

been through sexual relations (heterosexual and 

homosexual). As well, HIV/AIDS is developing 

fastest among the mobile population, whereby 

approximately 80% of cases have contracted the 

PAGE 68 

Approximately 4 public dentists and 6 private 

dentists are located in the city of Gjirokastra. In 

addition, there are 2 dentists based out of Dropull I 

Poshtem. All 12 dentists in the region are located in 

the district of Gjirokastra and are great distances 

away from both rural areas and from residents from 

the districts of Tepelene and Permet. 

HIV/AIDS 

While regional level statistics on the prevalence of 

HIV/AIDS is nonexistent, at the national level, 

there are at least 72 known cases of HIV and 15 

cases of AIDS. Taken as a whole, approximately 

90% of the infected population are between the 

ages of 20-35. Since the percentage of the 

infected population is less than 0.1%, Albania is 

currently ranked as having a very low prevalence 

rate for HIV/AIDS. Increasing rates of infection, 

however, are startling given that the number of 

infected persons in 2001 was five times higher than 

figures reported in 1999. 111 

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Total 

HIV - 2 9 12 7 3 5 4 10 20 72 

AIDS - - 1 4 3 2 1 - 4 - 15 

110 The Albanian Response to the Millennium Development Goals, 

The Human Development Promotion Center, Tirana, May 2002. 




virus outside the country as emigrants working 

abroad. 113 Partners or wives of migrant workers are 

at risk of getting infected due to the lack of awareness 

among migrant workers of sexually transmitted 

diseases and modern contraceptive methods. Moreover, 

due to traditional male-female power imbalances 

in relationships, there is often an inability of 

partners or wives to negotiate safe sex. 

HIV/AIDS is not only a health problem but a 

gender issue as well. Studies show that women and 

girls are disproportionately affected, as they are 




The Human Development Promotion Center, Tirana, May 2002.

more vulnerable to the epidemic biologically, socially 

and economically. There is also an increasing 

feminization of the epidemic in Albania, as women 

represented 24% of HIV/AIDS cases in 2003 

compared with 19% in 2002. 114 Girls and women 

are especially vulnerable to sexually transmitted 

infections including HIV due to gender disparities in 

the Albanian society that make it difficult for girls 

and women to refuse unwanted or unsafe sex. 

Subsidiary factors that contribute to Albania’s at-risk 

status include an ineffective regulatory framework to 

handle prevention and treatment, poor data collection 

methodologies, and the fact that health care 

facilities to treat these types of infections are in short 

supply. Consequently, men and women in the 

Gjirokastra region are especially at risk due to the 

region’s migratory patterns that frequently include 

travel abroad for work purposes. 

Violence Against Women 

An unfortunate and disgraceful phenomenon 

encountered too frequently in Albanian society is 

gender-based violence. Gender-based violence 

includes physical abuse, psychological or emotional 

abuse, such as insulting and the use of offensive 

language, sexual assault, forced social isolation, and 

economic abuse where the abuser controls the 

victim’s resources. Violence in the family is a social 

problem and when it occurs within the home, it can 

be analyzed from two perspectives: worldwide 

factors and situational factors inherent to a particular 

society. In the context of Albanian reality, for 

instance, poverty, unemployment, gender inequality, 

and alcohol abuse tend to exacerbate domestic 

violence. In most cases, the different forms of 

violence are inflicted simultaneously, thereby making 

the situation of the victims more brutal. Some of 

these factors include cultural mentality and tradition 

that place women in an inferior position. There are 

also serious deficiencies in legislation that do not 

succeed in protecting women within their homes and 

114 Institute of Public Health, Tirana, 2004. 

115 A Study on the Contribution in Writing of the Woman’s Movement 

in Albania: 1990-1998, The Woman’s Center, Tirana, 2000. 


117 On the Violence Exerted to Women, The Association of Women 


women who are homeless, as well as the grave 

problems with enforcement of existing laws. The 

difficult economic and social conditions of Albanian 

families, and of particularly women, in addition to 

the difficult period of transition that has caused a 

lack of hope and a high level of stress inflames the 

scourge of gender-based violence. Even the 

different ways in which males and females are 

socialized and the stereotyped images of women 

reinforced by the media play a role in the escalation 

of violence against women. 115 

Although in recent years statistics have not been 

collected on the incidence of in-family violence, a 

series of indices attesting to the presence of infamily 

violence and specific causal factors do exist. 

For instance, in a UNICEF study, 19 women out of 

55 interviewed (33%) had been subject to both 

physical and sexual violence. 116 As well, the examination 

of criminal records from the period between 

1990-1998 reveals that many serious criminal acts 

involved extreme physical violence exerted against 

women that were capable of, or did, result in loss of 

life. 117 Economic violence is another form of abuse 

in which women are the major victims. Traditionally, 

men have controlled household financial incomes 

and dominated financial decison-making in the 

family. Such practices, in many cases, create the 

mentality that property belongs to men and that 

women cannot enjoy the same right to property, 

though such a legal right exists. This poses a danger 

to woman’s substantive rights because in rural areas, 

for example, this mentality denies women the right 

of ownership. 118 Violence against women may 

occur in the workplace as well, and even though it is 

often severely under-reported, it exists in all forms. 

The reluctance of women and girls to denounce this 

kind of violence stems directly from a fear of losing 

their jobs. 119 Violence against women is typically 

committed on family premises, specifically in the 

own home of the abused. Abusers are usually 

Lawyers, US Embassy in Albania, Tirana 2000. 

118 On the Violence Exerted to Women, The Association of Women 

Lawyers, US Embassy in Albania, Tirana 2000. 


PAGE 69


persons who are known to the victim or who live 

under the same roof with her. Fathers and brothers 

are the worst offenders, as they exert the greatest 

amount of violence upon family members. 120 

Roma & Health 

Monitoring the health status of Roma is another area 

that is adversely impacted by the lack of statistical 

data. Regardless, it is unmistakable that Roma 

children represent a special at-risk group. Women’s 

health is another area of concern since these problems 

reflect both socioeconomic factors (poverty, inadequate 

nutrition, lack of access to health services) and 

cultural patterns (limited education, early marriages, 

early births). 121 Self-assessments confirm that Roma 

suffer from declining health and that an estimated 

25% of Roma do not have the means to afford 

medicines or to pay for outpatient treatment. The 

lack of health services in rural vicinities increases their 

vulnerability, as many Roma live in remote areas. 

Frequently, however, discrimination by medical 

personnel is named as the main cause for lack of 

access to health care, as professionals are inclined to 

insist on extra charges for consultations. A Roma 

health issue that is equally serious involves the failure to 

seek treatment resulting from a lack of awareness that 

certain medical conditions require treatment. 

On the topic of gender, Roma traditions insist that 


121 The Roma in Central and Eastern Europe: Avoiding the Dependency 

Trap – A Regional Human Development Report, UNDP, December 

2002. 


PAGE 70 

women be wives and mothers, which leads to early 

marriages and early births. Very few women receive 

formal family planning training, and as such, the use of 

birth control is exceedingly rare (used by only approximately 

10% Roma). A general mistrust, a lack of 

knowledge about methods, and a common refusal by 

men to use contraceptives are all reasons why birth 

control practices are minimally used. Likewise, it is the 

role of women to handle unwanted pregnancies 

through methods of abortion. Abortion rates within 

Roma populations are very high. Self-assessments 

reveal that 56% of Roma women have had one 

abortion and 77% have had two or more. More 

startling is the finding that, even though a doctor 

performs the majority of abortion procedures, a 

disturbing 17% of Roma perform abortions themselves. 

122 Furthermore, due to their difficult socioeconomic 

circumstances, Roma are disproportionately 

exposed to risks related to Hepatitis B and C, sexually 

transmitted diseases, and HIV/AIDS. As poverty and 

discrimination drive Roma to seek income-generating 

opportunities in the underground economy, a growing 

number of Roma women and men (either of their 

own volition or through forced exploitation) are 

entering HIV/AIDS-risk industries and activities, 

including drug trafficking, drug use, and commercial 

sex work. While insufficient data on health matters limit 

the drawing of definite conclusions, it is clear that 

Roma health status is substantially worse than that of 

the majority population. 123 





– A Regional Human Development Report, UNDP, December 2002.

Agriculture 

Agriculture is the largest sector of Albania’s 

economy and accounts for a very large proportion 

of Albania’s labour, producing 50-55% of the 

nation’s GDP. Irrespective of its actual share of 

GDP, land is a very important safety net since 

landowners without significant sources of income 

depend on agricultural production for their own 

subsistence needs. 124 There was a massive slump in 

production related to the turmoil of the postcommunist 

years. State control and subsidies 

diminished and there was widespread abandonment 

and destruction of irrigation systems, decreases in 

raw materials, and a virtual disintegration of marketing 

and agro-processing industries. Policies based on 

liberalization resulted in the collapse of 550 state and 

collective farms and by 1994, 94% of farmland was 

privatized. While this system may have hindered any 

increase in productivity, allotting small parcels of 

land served to provide an important form of social 

security to the rural population. 125 Currently, there 

has been an expansion in the agricultural sector, 

however, nearly half of landowners do not sell 

produce on the market and many use their farms for 

subsistence, which provides a significant source of 

rural families’ daily food intake. Most do not have 

enough land to provide adequate sustenance or 

variety and the majority rely on a small set of staple 

crops and products for their meals. Likewise, the 

parcels of land that farming households do own are 

usually too few in hectares to produce for family 

consumption in addition to yielding surplus for sale 

on the market. Unfortunately, some landowners 

have simply let their land lie fallow. 126 

Agriculture is a key sector in the Albanian economy 

where women play a major part. The disappearance 

of cooperatives led to increased female unemployment 

in rural areas. As a consequence, rural women 

were relegated back to the domestic sphere and 

became passive receivers of remittances, which 

reinforce culturally determined notions of male and 

female roles. 127 In agricultural programmes women’s 

productive role should not be overlooked. It is 

124 Technical Paper No. 520, Poverty in Albania: A Qualitative Assessment, 

World Bank, 2002. 





important to pay attention to gender perspectives to 

identify the roles of women and men, and to gain a 

better understanding of the use of agricultural 

resources by both women and men. To promote 

equitable and sustainable development in agriculture, 

a gender-balanced approach is crucial to ensuring 

equal access to land, tools and credit. 

The Gjirokastra region represents a regrettable 

example of underutilization and mismanagement of 

agricultural resources. Furthermore, agricultural 

progress in the region has been plagued by numerous 

obstacles, which taken together, have caused 

serious underdevelopment of this vital sector. Some 

of these hurdles include: 

poor infrastructure, particularly the transport, 

drainage and irrigational network; 

minimal organization of the agricultural market; 

exceptionally small and inefficient divisions of 

farmland; 

scarcity of agricultural machinery; 

high costs of procurement, including seeds, 

fertilizers and pesticides; 

outdated processing technology; 

nominal crediting schemes; and 

the social turbulence of the preceding years. 

Land 

The relatively equitable distribution of land in the 

1990s to rural households resulted in a fragmentation 

of landholdings. As noted, plots are usually too 

small and frequently distant from the family home. 

Some plots of land are poor quality for agricultural 

purposes and families who have emigrated have 

abandoned others. Presently, the process of consolidating 

small, disjointed plots of land into larger, 

contiguous, and more productive agricultural fields is 

occurring, but very slowly. If this process is not 

stimulated and encouraged more fully, the average 

dimensions of these plots (1.26 hectares per family 

in the region) indicate that there will be very little 

room for enlarging agricultural operations. 128 

2003. 

127 Gjermeni e, Perci Z., et al., Report on Gender and Agriculture, 2003. 

128 Technical Paper No. 520, Poverty in Albania: A Qualitative Assessment, 

World Bank, 2002. 

PAGE 71


With respect to land reforms, the region has seen 

little progress in the completion of land registrations 

or in the making of full and final determinations on 

the proper division of land. This is evidenced, in 

part, by the fewer number of land deeds issued by 

the region versus the greater number of households 

that were allocated parcels of land in all three 

districts (see table below). The significance of this 

shortcoming cannot be overestimated because 

individuals can only use land as an asset after land 

registration has been completed. For instance, a 

landowner, following proper land registration 

procedures, will have the ability to take out a loan 

against his or her piece of property and thereby 

increase the economic activity they engage in for the 

purposes of generating revenue. Since land is the 

fundamental means of production in the region, 

resolution of land claim disputes is the first stage in 

the process of modernizing the agricultural sector. 

The coordination of a land registry project by 

Territorial Composition 129 

District 

Gjirokastra 

Tepelene 

Permet 

PAGE 72 

Hectares 

of Land 

113,734 

(39.4%) 

81,734 

(28.3%) 

93,000 

(32.2%) 

Hectares of 

Agricultural 

Land 

17,693 

(39%) 

13,055 

(28.8%) 

14,600 

(32.2%) 

Hectares of 

Divided Land 

district in the communes would act as an essential 

step to the resolution of these conflicts and would 

lead to the freeing up of arable land that is currently 

lying fallow or that is being underutilized. The 

surveying and completion of land registration would 

give farmers the collateral they require to increase 

their economic activity, boost family incomes, and 

raise standards of living, while ensuring certainty and 

security of property rights and entitlement in the 

future. 

In terms of distribution of land within the region, as 

divided between the districts, Gjirokastra holds the 

majority of hectares, followed by Permet, and then 

Tepelene. Upon division of land by the state, rural 

population size dictated that residents of the district 

of Gjirokastra received the most land, followed by 

Tepelene and then Permet. On average, rural families 

obtained 1.26 of hectares of land each, but families 

of both the district of Gjirokastra and Permet 

received larger parcels than families in Tepelene. 

15,354 

(48%) 

7,375 

(23%) 

9,261 

(29%) 

# of Families 

that Received 

Land 

10,050 

(45.6%) 

7,160 

(30.3%) 

6,390 

(27.1%) 

Average 

Hectares Per 

Family 

# of Land 

Deeds 

Issued 

1.45 9,632 

0.99 6,200 

1.43 5,500 

Total 288,468 45,348 31,990 23,600 1.26 21,332 


According to the map based on classification of 

land, the majority of agricultural land is owned, 

rather than rented or merely used, in all three districts. 

To a lesser extent, in Tepelene and Luftinje in 

the district of Tepelene, there is also a significant 

portion of people who have been allotted land, but 

who neither own nor pay rent for cultivating it. An 

owner may allot land to another family for use 

(without passing on ownership or taking rent) in 

order to ensure that it does not go to waste and 

become unproductive. Also, in Odrie and Drophull 

I Poshtem in the district of Gjirokastra, there are a 

small proportion of residents who rent agricultural 

land for use. 

In the map describing the categories of land use in 

the region, it is evident that most of the land is used 

for agricultural purposes, with varying degrees of 

underdevelopment throughout. For instance, in 

Kurvelesh, and especially Lopes, in the district of 

Tepelene, Carcove (and other areas to a smaller 

degree) in the district of Permet, and Lunxheri, 

Pogon, and Drophull I Siperm in the district of 

Gjirokastra, a considerable proportion of the 

agricultural land is being underutilized and, in effect, 

mismanaged. These large portions of unused 

agricultural land, if properly exploited, could result 

in immediate increased revenues for scores of 

households and act as a valuable asset in the longterm. 

Crops 

Problems in the crop production sector of the 

region are partly to blame for negatively affecting 

revenue growth. Namely, low market demand has 

caused lower crop production, particularly with 

maize. For instance, in 2002, harvest production was 

24.4 quintals per hectare, while at the national level 

the harvest production was 32.9 quintals per hectares. 

130 This decrease in demand has lead to an 

increase in total production costs for farmers. 

Likewise, farmers often place themselves at a 


131 Rural Northern Ireland: Farm Diversification Section, Rural 


disadvantage by making inefficient use of both the 

resources and the options available to them. For 

example, the growing of cereals and crops essential 

to producing bread are sometimes undertaken in 

areas where land is incapable of producing high 

yields. This, inevitably, results in losses to farmers 

and adversely affects household standards of living. 

Accordingly, farmers could greatly benefit from the 

planning and implementation of a farm diversification 

project. Farm diversification is a way of 

branching out from traditional farming activities and 

taking on new income-generating enterprises. The 

types of enterprise can vary widely, as new businesses 

may be undertaken in tourism and leisure 

related activities, in specialist crops or livestock, in the 

services or manufacturing sectors, as well as in valueadding 

ventures. Farmers and members of the 

farmer’s family can all be involved in diversification 

projects, thereby benefiting from increased personal 

and family farm success, improved finances, better 

efficiency of farmland, and the making use of nonarable 

land or redundant or unused buildings. 

Moreover, diversifying means that farmers can 

boost farm income, tackle changing circumstances, 

capitalize on an opportunity or gap in the market, 

create additional employment on the farm, make 

arrangements for retirement, or even provide for a 

successor. 131 

With regard to tobacco harvesting, although it has 

traditionally been a staple of the region and while 

revenues in the past have been high, the lack of 

adequate machinery and labour power (young ablebodied 

women and men in the villages) has resulted 

in the virtual abandonment of tobacco production. 

Acres of land and hillsides fertile for tobacco 

production have not been planted, particularly in 

areas that would likely yield large crops. These areas 

include Lunxheri in the district of Gjirokastra, 

Krahes in the district of Tepelene, and all areas 

across the district of Permet. This waste represents 

a major missed opportunity for enhancing the living 

conditions of many rural families. 

Development Department of the Government of the United 

Kingdom, 2001 (online). 

PAGE 73


PAGE 74


PAGE 75


PAGE 76


PAGE 77


Grape production, on the other hand, has increased 

steadily over the past 2-3 years. Despite the decline 

that grapes faced during the transitional years, it is now 

recovering and quickly becoming a staple product for 

farmers. This is true even in communes where the 

tradition was typically uncommon. Its rising popularity 

is based on market demands for grapes themselves, 

as well as the increase in demand for products 

that use grapes as a vital ingredient, such as wine. The 

Gjirokastra region, in 2003, was home to 499 hectares 

of grape fields. As the previous map indicates, most 

of the districts of Permet and Gjirokastra are plentiful 

in grape trees, especially in remote and rural areas 

where the greatest benefits of production could be 

realized. However, the benefits of grape production 

are not being taken advantage of in extremely poor 

but potentially successful areas like Odrie and 

Lunxheri in the district of Gjirokastra, Buz, Memaliaj 

and Luftinje in the district of Tepelene, and Suke and 

Ballaban in the district of Permet. A successful revival 

of grape production in the region will only be 

possible, however, if outdated agro-processing 

technology is replaced and the necessary restoration 

of older, smaller factories is accomplished. To this 

end, a strategic wine production project could act as a 

catalyst for both short and long-term economic 

growth in the region, with possibilities of future 

expansion. This type of undertaking would require 

the organization of farmers and coordination of 

labour, as well as the assistance of local government 

and non-governmental organizations. Donor invest- 

Agricultural Production for 2003 (1,000 hectares) 132 

Livestock 

Of great importance to the Gjirokastra region is the 

income generated from livestock via sales from meat, 

whole milk, and milk by-products, which remain 

staple foods for most households. Bear in mind, 

PAGE 78 

ment for the purposes of production materials and 

specific training of farmers could result in large 

returns to a cooperative of farmers, should they be 

able to maintain adequate supply of, and market, their 

product effectively. For instance, success may be 

achieved by marketing the wine on the domestic 

market as a novel and unique regional specialty, under 

a legally registered brand name. In the long-term, this 

venture could also lead to the brand’s eventual sale of 

export quality wine on the foreign market and act as 

another factor for attracting tourism, such as through 

vineyard and wine-tasting tours in the region. 

The preceding map also displays the prevalence of 

olive trees in Permet in the district of Permet, their 

occurrence across the district of Tepelene, and to a 

lesser extent, their existence in some areas of the 

district of Gjirokastra. Olive harvesting could 

create excellent opportunities for economic 

growth. Similarly, orange production in Odrie and 

Qender Libohove in the district of Gjirokastra, 

and Permet in the district of Permet, is also a 

potential source of income with the appropriate 

investment. Besides grapes, olives and oranges, the 

region is rich with fruits such as cherries, apricots, 

apples, pears, plums, figs, and also varieties of nuts. 

Special attention should be paid to these products, 

as they are capable of thriving in great numbers 

and their distribution, particularly pears, plums and 

nuts, are widespread throughout the region in all 

three districts. 

Grassland Vineyards Olive Wheat Rye Barley Maize Potato Fallow 

Gjirokastra Region 98.9 0.6 0.3 3.6 0.0 0.1 1.0 0.5 0.3 

Livestock Production for 2003 133 

however, that only residents who live in close proximity 

to urban centers and have access to refrigeration 

units are able to sell meat and milk, as speedy transport 

is a necessity to keep the products from spoiling. 

Cows Milk Sheep Milk Goat Milk Eggs Sheep Wool 

Thousand Tonnes Millions Tonnes 

Gjirokastra Region 30 11 12 16 337 

132 Indicators by Prefecture: 2002-2003, INSTAT, 2004. 133 Indicators by Prefecture: 2002-2003, INSTAT, 2004.

Livestock breeding, such as cattle, sheep, and goats, 

is likely be one of the primary means of economic 

development in the region, especially since numbers 

of livestock have risen over the last few years. The 

recent transfer of large plots of agricultural land for 

Livestock for 2003 (1,000 heads) 134 


pasturing purposes has also accompanied this 

increase. However, as a result of low production 

capacity, livestock breeding is not being used to its 

full potential and the economic situation of many 

breeders has been stagnating. 

Cattle Sheep Goats Pigs Poultry 

Gjirokastra Region 25.6 307.2 173 2.3 300.3 

Disadvantageous breeds common to the region are 

named as one vital factor that has restricted the increase 

of net revenues for breeders. As such a breed improvement 

program, with the support of the International 

Cow Project and the Government of Albania, 

could be of immeasurable benefit to increasing profits 

for the many breeders in the region who are experiencing 

difficulties as a result of a problem that, if remedied, 

would change the face of the livestock industry 

in the region permanently. In addition, residents have 

experienced a need to access better quality feed, to 

invest in advertising, and to improve technology for 

processing waste. Moreover, livestock breeders are 

quite scattered and could reap the benefits of formalizing 

themselves into a single organization. 

Medicinal Plants 

There are nearly 120 varieties of medicinal and traditional 

herbs found in the region, such as laurel leaves, 

mountain tea, common sage, wild marjoram, and 

rockweed. Increasing revenues can be accomplished 

through the planting and harvesting of traditional plants 

for the purposes of medicinal herbs. In particular, 

people from mountainous areas, such as Frasher in the 

district of Permet, Buz in the district of Tepelene, and 

Zagori and Pogon in the district of Gjirokastra, which 

have lower populations, can ensure better financial 

security by collecting these types of plants for sale 

domestically. If a strategic proposal was able to secure 

the necessary investment, along with storage space, 

packaging facilities for the products, and research-based 

marketing, a harvesters’ cooperative could potentially 

create a niche in the domestic market and significantly 

raise personal revenues. 

Plant Protection 

In order to protect valuable plants of the agricultural 


and farming industry, there has been an increase in 

the deployment of pesticides on properties to 

counter insect outbreaks that lead to low crop yields. 

However, the region lacks implementation of a 

system for pesticide licensing and for instructing 

farmers on how to properly apply pesticides and 

insecticides in order to reduce the risk of harm to 

water sources, plants, wildlife, local residents and 

themselves. This is particularly important since the 

elderly, young children, and fragile ecosystems are 

acutely vulnerable to the damaging effects of these 

toxins. 

Consideration should be had to formulating an integrated 

pest management (IMP) program, consisting of 

research, policy change, and farmer participatory training 

programmes, as an alternative approach to plant protection 

through pesticide use. In this way, farmers are 

responsible for diagnosing pest problems and for 

participating in the development of solutions, whereby 

their expertise is recognized and enhanced. An IPM 

approach would necessarily involve field staff from 

national and local government departments and nongovernmental 

organizations, and would serve to increase 

ecological awareness, decision-making and other business 

skills, while boosting farmer confidence. As such, the 

socio-economic benefits would last far beyond the initial 

objective of plant protection. For instance, investing in a 

farmers’ field school (FFS), as currently undertaken in 

parts of Asia, with a group of farmers who agree to 

meet once a week for an entire crop season, is a potential 

starting point. This would mean 12-16 meetings of at 

least half a day each. The farmers would break into five 

small field teams and spend one to two hours in the field 

making observations, counting population densities of 

different species, assessing crop physiological conditions 

and recording observations. Each team then reassembles 

outside the field and discusses, analyzes and interprets 

their data. The farmers’ first-hand observations validate 

PAGE 79


the concept of the balance of nature and of population 

regulation. The individual teams discuss their observations 

with the other teams and come to decisions on pest 

control and on the need for other agronomic practices. 

The understanding of farmers can be further increased 

through experimentation, such as studies of the effects 

of pesticides on natural enemies and the artificial simulation 

of insect damage to show that a plant can sustain 

some insect damage without a yield decrease. Furthermore, 

while farmers in the region hold a wealth of 

traditional knowledge with respect to horticulture care, 

there exist new methodology for increasing efficiency 

that farmers could benefit from by incorporating then 

into their own practices. 135 

Drainage and Irrigation 

The lack of irrigation restricts agricultural production 

significantly and causes entire rural economies to weaken. 

Remote and rural areas suffer the most because rough or 

Irrigation and Drainage Schemes for Implementation 137 

PAGE 80 

District 

Total # of 

Irrigation 

Schemes 

As a result of this degeneration, a number of 

schemes for restoration have already been identified 

and planned, with the assistance of the Ministry of 

Agriculture and the World Bank acting as creditors. 

In the district of Gjirokastra there are 5 large-scale 

and 19 small-scale irrigational schemes planned that 

will cover an estimated 12,730 hectares of land. 

These irrigational schemes include both reservoirs 

and pumping stations, specifically in the areas of 

Drophull Poshtem, Drophull I Siperm, Fushe e 

Suhes, Lunxheri and Odrie combined, and Cepune 

and Mashkullore combined. A series of 7 drainage 

schemes will also be instigated as well. In the district 

of Tepelene there are 9 large-scale and 13 small-scale 

135 Plant Production and Protection Division of the Food and 

Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2004 

(online). 

Hectares of Land 

for Irrigation 

steep terrain means that installation of irrigation works is 

difficult and costly. Even in some cases where irrigation 

works are functioning, they are often overwhelmed by 

demand and cannot service farmers adequately. Aside 

from that, irrigation may be too expensive for many 

farmers to use, even if they are lucky enough to have 

access to it. 136 

Seventy to eighty percent of irrigation infrastructure in the 

Gjirokastra region, including dykes, drainage channels and 

pumping stations, have fallen into disrepair. Consequently, 

the surface area of irrigated and drained land in the region 

has decreased dramatically in preceding years. For instance, 

irrigated land fell from 23,875 hectares in 1990, to 5,375 

hectares in 2000. Similarly, as much as 14,300 hectares of 

land was drained in 1990, but only 5,412 hectares of land 

was drained in 2000. Current legislation, unfortunately, fails 

to adequately address the protection of water works or 

discuss measures to combat erosion that exacerbate the 

already serious situation in the region. 

Total # of 

Drainage 

Schemes 

Hectares of Land 

for Drainage 

Gjirokastra 24 12,730 7 9,400 

Tepelene 22 5,598 8 1,752 

Permet 9 3,948 5 3,110 

Total 55 22,276 20 12,262 

irrigational schemes planned that will cover an 

estimated 5,598 hectares of land. These schemes 

also include reservoirs and pumping stations, 

specifically in the areas of Krahes and Toc combined, 

Kalivac, Qesarat, Vasjar Mogila, Dukaj, 

Luftinje, Lopes, Kurvelesh, and Buz. In addition, 

there is expected to be 8 drainage schemes put into 

place. Of the 9 irrigation schemes in Permet, 1 is 

large-scale and 8 are small-scale extending across 

3,948 hectares of land. Areas that will be affected 

include land from Bubsi to Kelcyre, Ranakoshi, 

Keraj, Gjon Kuci, Bubes, Xhanaj, Topojan, Shelqi, 

and Gorica, by tapping into the Vjosa River. Likewise, 

5 drainage schemes will also be constructed. 




Infrastructure 

While income poverty in Albania is high, the status of 

poverty as it relates to the condition of physical 

infrastructure and service provision is even worse. In 

conformity with this national perspective, the infrastructure 

of the Gjirokastra region has experienced serious 

decline. Regionally, households lack basic services and 

inequalities in their provision have become even more 

profound. The World Bank’s survey of poverty in 

Albania illustrates that after employment and income, 

many Albanians feel that infrastructure problems are the 

main cause of their difficulties and low standard of 

living. Respondents listed water and sewerage, electricity 

and roads as their most urgent priorities over 

housing, care for children and the elderly, and economic 

assistance. It has also been found that infrastructurerelated 

problems are a major reason why migrants 

decide to leave. Weak infrastructure also hurts both 

domestic and foreign investment in communities. 138 

Inadequate physical infrastructure is ranked as one of 

the most important constraints on future economic 

growth; a major factor limiting the development of the 

poorest communes in the Gjirokastra region and an 

increasingly significant obstacle in the efforts of achieving 

sustainable development. Clearly, the region cannot 

meet all the demands for services with its limited 

resources, national revenues or even donations. Nonetheless, 

international experience demonstrates that many 

public service activities are more effective if supported 

by the private sector and their investments. 

Urban & Rural Road Networks 

Initial investments into the road system concentrated on 

the main network that carried the most traffic, however, 

secondary and tertiary roads connecting rural 

villages to the main roads are still largely inadequate. 

Rural inhabitants agree that the insufficient road system 

holds back economic growth because, for example, 

farmers have difficulty accessing local markets, which 

precludes the sale of their produce and livestock or 

cause it to be more expensive. Significant transport 

improvements are capable of increasing access to farm 

inputs, expanding agro-processing potential, and 

reducing rural isolation. Moreover, considering that 



139 Human Development Sector Unit: Europe and Central Asia 

Region, Albania - Poverty Assessment, Vol. 1 of 1, World Bank, 


growth in the manufacturing sector is fundamental to 

economic development, and since investments in 

industry are predicated on reliable transport links for 

flows of raw materials and finished products (across 

borders and within the country), strengthening road 

infrastructure is an absolute necessity. 139 

Difficult, and often impassable, roads, combined with 

other infrastructure deficiencies, are a major cause of 

migration. Moreover, they adversely impact upon the 

delivery of education and health care services. Since 

approximately 88% of students in Albania travel to 

school on foot, it is likely that the distance from homes 

to school facilities in some areas causes low attendance. 

Likewise, people in remote and rural areas requiring 

urgent medical care are faced with extraordinarily poor 

road conditions that are made even worse during bad 

weather. 140 

The network of roads in the Gjirokastra region is an 

estimated 651 kilometers long, whereby approximately 

270 kilometers are national roads, and approximately 

381 kilometers are rural roads. 141 The national road 

network in the region is divided as follows: 

Tepelene 

Border of Mallakaster to border of Gjirokastra - 

48 kilometers 

Ura e Leklit to border of Permet - 12 kilometers 

Qafa e Kicokut to Qafe Gllave - 21 kilometers 

Telepene to border of Vlore - 35 kilometers 

Permet 

Permet to border of Tepelene - 25 kilometers 

Permet to border of Leskovik - 33 kilometers 

Kolonje to Ballaban to Border of Tepelene 

- 21 kilometers 

Carcove to Tre Urat - 10 kilometers 

Gjirokastra 

Border of Tepelene to Kakavija - 51 kilometers 

Jergucat to border of Sarande - 6 kilometers 

Kthesa Dhuvjan to Libohove - 8 kilometers 

Of particular importance is the system of roads making up 

November 2003. 




PAGE 81


the Kakavije-Gjirokaster-Tepelene network, which not only 

links the north and south, but also creates connections with 

Greece and Montenegro. In 2003, the number of vehicles 

carrying passengers on the Kakavije-Gjirokaster-Tepelene 

route totaled approximately 7,614, whereby 6,577 were 

automobiles, 991 were buses and minibuses, and 46 were 

motorcycles. The number of road vehicles carrying goods 

in 2003 totaled 3,329, whereby 2,327 were transport trucks, 

122 were tractors, and 880 were trailers. On this same 

network is where, in 2003, there were at least 33 road 

accidents, which caused 15 fatalities and 18 serious injuries. 

Since the number of transportation vehicles carrying both 

goods and travelers increases yearly, the repair and maintenance 

of the road network is imperative. 142 

The Rural Road Network by District 143 

PAGE 82 

The rural road network is composed of 342 kilometers 

of road, connecting communes with national roads and 

villages. While the maintenance of this network is the 

responsibility of the Rural Road Maintenance Enterprises 

of the districts of Gjirokastra, Tepelene, and Permet, 

only about 43 kilometers are paved and conditions 

remain poor throughout. It is obvious from the map 

that, outside of the national asphalted roads, there are 

few well-maintained roads. Besides the handful of wellmaintained 

roads, there are many seasonal and village 

roads in all three districts of the region. These seasonal 

and village roads are neither asphalted nor well maintained, 

and during wet and rainy conditions can be 

impossible and dangerous to use. 

District Commune Road Network 

Length (km) 

Total Paved 

Qender Libohov 

K/Suhes-Labovº E Sipºrme 

K/Goranxi-Bulo 

8 

3 

- 

- 

Cepo 

K/Mashkullore- Mashkullore 

K/ Ura Kardhiq- Fushbardhe 

5 

26 

5 

- 

Picar K/Votuc-Golem- Guri i Shpuar 20 - 

Ura e Drinos- Erind-˙ajup 22 6 

Lunxheri 

Dhoksat-Qestorat 3 - 

Erinde-Dhoksat 5 - 

Antigone 

Ura e Drinos- 

Sarqinisht 

14 - 

Gjirokastra 

Lazarat 

Odrie 

K/Lazarat-Lazarat 

Ura e Subashit - Labov 

Ura e Subashit Andon Poci 

3 

9 

6 

1 

- 

- 

Pogon 

Polocan-Sopik 

Stacioni Pyjor-˙atister 

12 

14 

- 

- 

K/Bularat-Bularat 4 4 

Drophull I Siperm 

K/Koshovic-koshovic 6 - 

K/Bularat-Bodrishte 4 4 

Drophull I Poshtem 

Entrances to the villages of 

Dropulli 

K/Glinºs-Glin 

3 

4 4 

Plant of Glinºs-Glin 1 - 

Zagori K/Libohovºs-Hoshtev 38 - 

Tepelene-Progonat-Nivice 31 - 

Qender 

Kufi Salari-Salari 

Kufi Salari-Salari Nivic 

4 

20 

- 

- 

Subash-Qender- hormov 9 - 

Tepelene 

Bridge of Dragotit-Sektori N.B. 5 - 

Kurvelesh 

Border of Gusmar-Gusmar 

Cemetery of Progonat-Kufi Gjiro 

2 

3 

- 

- 

Buz Border Gllav-Reperditori 2 - 

Luftinje 

Luftinje-Sektori 4 

Agency- Luftinje-Ivory 

2 

17 

2 

17 

Ballaban Ki ok-Malas 10 - 

Kthesa Katundisht- Katundisht 4 - 

Dishnice 

Baduqas-Tolar 4 - 

Degezim-Luarº g 

5 - 

Permet 

Suke Sukº-Kthesa Zhepovº 2 - 

Petran-Benja 7 - 

Petran 

Degezim-Boder 5 - 

Pºrmet-Badelonjº 3 - 

Qender 

Degezim-Kosinº 

Piskovº -Frashºr 

1 

31 

- 

43 

142 Indicators by Prefecture: 2002-2003, INSTAT, 2004. 143 Statistical Register of Districts, Regional Council, 2003.


PAGE 83


Electricity Supply 

The crisis in the power sector has slowed down 

productivity growth in Albania. It has also acted as a 

significant disincentive for new investment in industry 

and deters tourism. Demand is on the rise but there are 

not enough resources to meet it and existing resource 

have not been managed properly. In some cases, 

transmission networks have degraded as a result of 

being overburdened, which causes short-circuiting of 

transformers and a compromising of the entire system. 

Since the 1990’s, on average, 85.7% of households have 

suffered from daily power shortages lasting 8 hours. 

This situation has turned the issue of power supply into 

one of the most acute problems that Albanian society 

faces today. 144 

The World Bank reports that electricity follows close 

behind water and sewerage disposal as an urgent 

priority of residents. Thirty-six percent say that it ranks 

as one of the top two priorities and nearly 75% feel it is 

Consumption of Electric Power (MWh) 147 

Gjirokastra Region 

Except for Memaliaj mine and some small, ill-functioning 

hydropower stations, the Gjirokastra region does not 

currently have an operational hydropower plant. Decade 

old studies reveal, however, that the region contains 

considerable resources, including the Vjosa River and 

various untapped river branches. Consequently, initiating 

work in Kalivac, Suke and Kelcyre in the district of 

Permet, would open doors to developing the length of 

the Vsoja River and also offer employment possibilities in 

the long-term. Furthermore, there are also proposed 

projects aimed at the construction of a hydropower 

plant in the gorge of Selcka that would be prudent to 

explore. 

Airport Reconstruction 

The reconstruction of the airport in the city of 

Gjirokastra would be advantageous to the region in 

PAGE 84 

one of the top four priorities, ahead of housing, food 

and other economic assistance, care for children and the 

elderly, and schools. 145 Problems exist throughout the 

power generation and distribution networks, depending 

on the locality in the region. As the table below 

outlines, households are the largest consumers of 

electricity. However, not only do people experience 

lengthy interruptions of power, but when the power is 

functioning, it is often too low to operate school 

computers or even domestic appliances. Another 

problem involves the fact that many people are simply 

unable to afford electric power. For instance, if 

electricity costs 45 lek per one kilowatt-hour (as set by 

the World Bank and which is below the cost of 

generating it), but a family receive only 2,000 lek on 

which to live, they are unable to pay a 1,500 lek 

electricity bill each month. 146 Indeed, illegal power 

connections also intensify the strain on the already 

overburdened system. 

Households Industry Agriculture Retail Trade Others Total 

65,572 

(69.1%) 

5,666 

(6%) 




286 

(0.3%) 

10,186 

(10.7%) 

13,248 

(14%) 

many respects. It would mean better access to a larger 

market for agricultural and other regional products. 

There would be an increase in the mobility of residents 

of the region and a faster, safer way for Albanians and 

foreigners to visit, thereby stimulating tourism and greater 

foreign investment. Even in the short-term, a large 

undertaking such as this would create jobs for many at 

the construction stage, and would lead to numerous 

permanent employment positions in a multitude of 

areas. 

Telecommunication & Internet 

94,958 

Rapid progress has occurred in the Albanian telecommunications 

sector, including fixed telephone services, 

mobile communications, and Internet access provision. 

In addition to Albtelecom, licenses have been 

issued to 45 telephone operators in rural areas, with a 



147 Indicators by Prefecture: 2002-2003, INSTAT, 2004.

growing number of users. The broadest expansion in 

the market in 2003 involved the field of mobile 

communication. There were 996,288 mobile phone 

users in June 2003, up from approximately 800,000 at 

the end of 2002. 148 Important upgrades have been 

undertaken by Albtelecom in the Gjirokastra region 

for extending their lines and substituting outdated 

equipment for modern technology. In 1996, a new 

digital station was installed in the city of Gjirokastra, 

with a capacity of 2,000 numbers. This was increased 

in 1998 by the addition of another 3,000 numbers. In 

2001, Albtelecom installed 2,500 more numbers, 

reaching the capacity of 7,500 (1,000 were installed in 

Libohov in the district of Gjirokastra, 2,000 in 

Tepelene and 1,500 in Memaliaj in the district of 

Tepelene, and 2,000 in Permet and 1,000 Kelcyre in 

the district of Permet). Transmission systems were 

improved in all of the region’s cities after the installment 

of digital radio transmitters. In 2003-2004, 

cable telephone networks were eventually installed in 

every city of the region. In rural areas, four-channel 

radios were installed in the commune post offices. 

Statistics show that the number of telephone subscribers 

in the region in 2002 was 6,236. The majority 

were family subscribers (5,894), and the remaining 

were office subscribers (342). 149 Following approval 

of the third license for mobile telephones by 

Albtelecom, the telephone services for the region of 

Gjirokastra should be complete in 2005. With 

reference to the Internet, during 2003-2004, each city 

in the region was capable of tapping into the worldwide 

web. An upcoming and essential objective of 

Albtelecom is to instigate more technically precise 

billing procedures. 

148 Progress Report 2003 on Implementation of the National 

Strategy for Socio-Economic Development, Council of Ministers, 

Tirana 2004. 



Postal Service 

The postal service in the region has begun to become 

more organized and now extends to all parts of the 

region. Apart from its traditional services, postal outlets 

now distribute pensions and collect electricity and water 

bills. Here, also, the reliability and speed of service 

depends heavily on the quality of the road network, 

particularly in the remote and rural areas of the 

Gjirokastra region. 

Roma & Infrastructure 

Statistical data on infrastructure conditions of Roma communities 

is virtually nonexistent, especially by region. What can be 

said is that, in comparing the infrastructure of neighborhoods 

within the city of Gjirokastra, consistent water supply, reliable 

electricity service, road conditions, and telecommunications are 

by far the poorest in the Roma community. As a result, the 

majority of Roma live in extremely poor conditions with 

limited access to, or complete lack of, infrastructure. For 

instance, only 7% of Roma have a telephone in their home 

and approximately half of them cannot afford to pay their 

electricity bills. As Roma tend to retreat to neighbourhoods 

located on the periphery, they are often disconnected from 

utilities, the electricity grid, and lack transportation alternatives. 

Living in these types of conditions, in addition to their general 

lack of access to affordable health care, they typically live 10-15 

years less than non-Roma. In the Gjirokastra region, many 

more Roma live in rural areas, which exposes them to greater 

risks of being infrastructure deprived than those living in urban 

centers. 150 

150 Hermine De Soto, Ilir Gedeshi, Sabine Beddies, & Daniel 

Perez, Roma and Evgjits in Albania: From Social Exclusion to 

Social Inclusion or The Gold Coin Dilemma, Report I: Recommendations 


PAGE 85


Environment 

Environmental degradation is a serious concern to all 

areas of Albania because over the course of four 

decades, economic policies were focused solely on 

meeting production targets, without considerating 

the environmental impact. Consequently, natural 

resources were used indiscriminately, without any 

regard to their limitations. 151 In recent years, policies 

focusing on environmental protection and sustainable 

production have become priority. These 

aspects are intrinsic to long-term growth because it is 

only through improving quality of life in all environments 

that poverty reduction can be achieved. 

Poverty reduction in this context means, not only the 

basic needs of the rural areas (clean water, public 

health standards, disposal of wastes) but in the urban 

areas where there are different types of environmental 

deterioration. 152 

In 1991, a Committee of Environmental Protection 

(CEP) was established as a regulatory body and in 

1993 a network of 12 Regional Environmental 

Agencies was created. One Regional Environmental 

Agency was located in the Gjirokastra region, whose 

responsibility it was to carry out environmental 

impact assessments. In 1998, the CEP was transformed 

into the National Environmental Agency. 

Subsequently, the government established the 

country’s first Ministry of Environment in 2001. 

However, the Ministry’s roles and responsibilities 

continue to be so ambiguous that it continues to 

make key environmental decisions in the absence of 

cooperation among other government institutions. 

At the regional level, the Regional Environmental 

Agencies possess minimal legislative authority and 

inadequate resources. 

With respect to the nation’s land surface, Albania 

covers a total area of 28,748 square kilometers, out 

of which roughly 37% are covered by forests, 25% 

by agricultural land, 15% by pasture and meadows, 

and 23% by urban areas, unused rocky and mountain 

land, and lakes and waterways. 153 In 2000, 

productive forests represented 82.86% of the total 




152 Preparation of a Forest Cover Map and Reconnaissance Forest Inventory 

of Albania, International Development Association, May 1995. 

PAGE 86 

forest area, compared with 87.28% in 1993. Highland 

forests, that characterize an estimated 80% of 

standing wood material, are typically managed by 

traditional methods of thinning and clear-cutting. 

Regeneration is achieved naturally by leaving seed 

trees, or through re-plantation efforts. 154 There are 

332,677 hectares of total land in the Gjirokastra 

region. During the last decade, though, there has 

been a decrease in green space per capita. This trend 

has been most visible in cities like Gjirokastra, where 

the figure has dropped from 12 square meters to 3 

square meters per capita. Unfortunately, there have 

also been massive decreases in the number of trees 

that have been planted between 1990-2003. 155 

Forests 

The total forest area of the country in 2000 was 0.991 

hectares, or approximately 37%, compared to roughly 

1.07 million hectares in 1990. 156 This represents a 

forest cover change of approximately 8% compared 

to the reported growth of roughly 4% between 

1980-1990. 157 The preceding years have seen forests 

being overused and financial resources for expert 

management being stretched. There has been a lack 

of control over illegal activities such as indiscriminate 

woodcutting, overgrazing, and the occupation of 

forest and pasture land. Those responsible for the 

common occurrence of illegal logging are primarily 

commercial parties and the impoverished, especially 

the rural poor. The combination of forests and 

pastures cover 64% of the land in the region of 

Gjirokastra. It is home to a wide variety of fauna, 

such as rabbit, wolf, wild pig, and birds, like the 

partridge and blackbird. The pastures are invaluable 

as a source of grazing for livestock and also for the 

region’s nearly 120 medicinal herbs. The majority of 

forested area is found in the district of Permet, which 

also contains the largest portion of highland forests 

and shrubbery and bush land in the region, followed 

by the district of Gjirokastra. The district of 

Gjirokastra possesses the majority of lowland forests, 

followed closely by the district of Permet. 




156 Global Forest Resources Assessment. FAO, Rome 2001. 

157 Statistical Yearbook of Albania, INSTAT, Tirana 1991.

Composition of the Region’s Forests by District (Ha) 158 

By comparison, the district of Tepelene has significantly 

less highland forests, lowland forests, and 

shrubbery and bush land in the region. Notably, 

wood is the predominant fuel source for families, 

covering roughly 68% of rural household energy 

needs for heating and cooking during the winter, and 

roughly 53% of rural family energy needs during the 

summer. As well, fuel wood satisfies 79% of total 

heating needs of rural households. 159 Therefore, it is 

reasonable to infer that many families in the district 

of Tepelene live without any type of heating sources 

because the district also contains the least amount of 

forestland with which to heat their homes (even 

though the practice of woodcutting is illegal). 

During the transitional period there was indiscriminate 

cutting of forest and massive burning. The 

degradation of the region’s forests is severe, especially 

in the district of Permet, and in the areas of 

Hllomose and Kardhiqit. Accordingly, concerted 

reforestation efforts should be focused on the most 

affected areas of the region. Special attention should 

be paid to the preservation of government land, 

through reforestation of pine trees and other 

valuable wood resources. Consideration should also 

be had to planting trees that will intensify economic 

activity in the region, especially in poorer areas. The 

planting of herbs, medicinal, aromatic and other 

potentially economically valuable flora would be an 

excellent way in which to augment rural incomes. 

Secondary Forest Products 

The abundance of existing herbs, medicinal and 

aromatic plants, tree resin, and fruit, vegetable and other 

seeds can be important subsidiary products for sale 

domestically and for export. Due to a lack of processing 

facilities, many of these resources prior to 1990, 

were exported as raw materials. As well, during the 


District Total Highland Forests Lowland Forests 

Shrubbery & Bush 

Land 

Gjirokastra 

30,471 

(35.5%) 

4,680 

(33%) 

13,920 

(44.4%) 

11,871 

(29.5%) 

Tepelene 

17,284 

(20.2%) 

2,190 

(15.5%) 

5,194 

(16.6%) 

9,900 

(24.6%) 

Permet 

38,000 

(44.3%) 

7,300 

(51.5%) 

12,230 

(39%) 

18,470 

(45.9%) 

Total 85,755 14,170 31,344 40,241 




preceding decade there was unregulated privatization 

and massive collection and harvesting of these products, 

which caused serious degradation. Currently, the 

Directorate of Forests and Pastures is responsible for 

licensing private businesses and enforcing regulations, 

however, illegal collection of these products is still 

rampant, aggravating an already delicate situation. 

Pastures 

Pastures compose an estimated 98,823 hectares of the 

288,468 hectares of total land in the region. The 

district of Gjirokastra has approximately 45,809 

hectares of pastureland, the district of Tepelene has 

approximately 30,014 hectares, and 23,000 hectares of 

pastures belong to the district of Permet. The 

economic turmoil of the 1990s resulted in a considerable 

increase in demand for livestock products, which 

directly impacted pasture grounds by placing an 

inordinate amount of stress on the availability of this 

limited resource. Even today, with the expectation 

that livestock breeding will soon become a primary 

source of economic development in the region, it will 

be fundamental to ensure the sustainability of existing 

pasture ground. As previously mentioned, the 

number of livestock has been rising over the past few 

years, and as large plots of agricultural land have been 

transferred for pasturing purposes, the viability of 

these grounds will determine the success of any 

comprehensive breeding project undertaken in the 

region. 

Land Protected for 

Biological Diversity 

Relative to its size, Albania is rich in biological diversity, 

hosting 30% of European plant species and 42% of 

European mammals. 160 It also has the benefit of a variety 

of wetlands, lagoons, and large lakes that provide a winter 

160 Post-Conflict Environmental Assessment in Albania, UNEP, 

Geneva, November 2000. 

PAGE 87


habitat for many migratory birds. A network of protected 

areas was established in 1992, in concordance with 

the International Union on Conservation of Nature, 

whereby the total surface of protected areas has increased 

from 3.79% in 1998, to 5.8% in 2000. Although progress 

has been made, the size of current protected areas remains 

insufficient to ensure effective conservation of the country’s 



PAGE 88 

biological diversity. This is especially true in light of the fact 

that monitoring and enforcement activities are inadequate 

and comprehensive management plans are yet to be 

designed. 161 The table below details the existing and 

proposed protected areas within the region. Evidently, 

there are only three protected areas in the region and are all 

located in the Gjirokastra region 

Existing and Proposed Protected Areas (PA) of Gjirokastra Region 162 

PA s name PA s size Existing Status Proposed Status District 

Kelcyra gorge - 

Cold Water 

(Tepelene) - 

Subash 

Zheji 

Kardhiqi 

Sotira s fir 

Additionally, the World Bank has developed a longterm 

forest management and investment project 

entitled, “On the Integrated Development of 

Forests”. In it can be found two pilot projects that 

aim at investing in the lush ecosystems of Bredhi i 

Hotoves and Bredhi i Sotires in the Gjirokastra 

region. The former will be designated a 1,200 

hectare national park, and the latter will become a 

1,000 hectare national park. In addition, other areas 

identified as warranting protection include the valley 

of Bence, Gryka e Kelcyres, Uji i Ftohte, Rrepet e 

Prengjise, Fusha e Cajupit, and Llufe ne Nivice of 

Kurvelesh, which can be converted into reserves 

containing a variety of flora and fauna. 

Fauna 

50 km length of 

Vjosa and Drino 

rivers 

1500 ha 

None 

Varieties of fauna in the Gjirokastra are as numerous 

as they are exotic. Nearly half of the country’s 

mammals can be found in the region (31 of 65), in 

addition to a number of cave-dwelling bat species. 

With respect to birds, 93 of the 320 species in the 

country have been known to dwell in the region. 

The Drinos River valley and the Vsoja River act as an 

important migratory route, especially for the globally 

threatened species called Lesser Kestrel. The region 

also hosts 18 of the 37 species of reptiles in Albania, 

and an estimated 10 of the 15 species of the 

country’s amphibians. Regarding the 60 species of 

freshwater fish in the country, the Gjirokastra region 

boasts some 11 species, out of which 5 are tagged 

as endangered. 

Hunting 

Landscape 

Protected Area 

Natural Monument Scientific Nature 

Reserve 

Permet, Tepelene, 

and Gjirokastra 

districts 

Gjirokastra district 

1800 ha Scientific Reserve Scientific Reserve Gjirokastra district 

1740 ha Natural Monument 

Scientific Nature 

Reserve 

Gjirokastra district 

Prior to 1990, hunting was strictly regulated and rare. 

Only those belonging to the state hunting association 

were allowed to bear arms. Post 1990, illegal 

hunting has been completely uncontrolled, decimating 

numbers of wildlife native to the country. An 

enforcement framework to monitor the situation is 

necessary to ensure that wildlife are not depleted. 

Poverty is partly to blame for illegal hunting activities, 

and as such, alternatives must be put forward for 

those resorting to illegal means, alongside effective 

regulation techniques. The creation of specified 

hunting reserves as a means of revitalizing certain 

rural areas and for attracting tourism, should also be 

considered. Areas identified as potentially 

favourable for this purpose include Carcova, Bredhi 

i Hotoves, Izvore-Rabies, and Radat-Catiste for 

rabbit and deer hunting, and Sinanaj-Salari, for 

162 Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan – Albania, NEA, 1999.

partridge hunting. 

Atmospheric Pollution 

Environmental pollution is a serious problem in 

Albania because for nearly half a century economic 

policies focused on production without regard to its 

adverse affects. Compounding the problem is that 

fact that atmospheric pollution in Albania’s air is not 

extensively monitored and no statistics exist at the 

regional level. The general consensus is that atmospheric 

pollution, especially in urban centers, is a 

mounting problem. The major sources of poor air 




quality include oil extraction and refining, domestic 

heating, cement production, and garbage burning. 

Likewise, during the past decade there has been a 

rapid rise in the number of vehicles, 78% of which 

consume diesel fuel. 163 As calculated in 1999, the 

main greenhouse gas emitted in Albania is carbon 

dioxide, resulting largely from the energy and 

transport sector. Since Albania emits such low levels 

of carbon dioxide, it is under no obligation to 

implement immediate reduction measures. Nonetheless, 

the Ministry of the Environment has recommended 

measures for the 2002-2020 period in order 

to quell the escalating issue. 164 



PAGE 89


PAGE 90 

Part II 

Programme Framework: 

Looking Ahead to 2015

Goal 1: Alleviate Poverty and Income Insecurity 

Aligned Strategic Priorities 

NSSED and National 

Frameworks 165 

1) Reduction of the current 

level of poverty by more 

than 50% and elimination 

of extreme poverty; 

2) Doubled GDP growth per 

capita by 2015; 

3) Addressed the needs of 

women in poverty; 

4) Provided women with 

access to credit 

institutions; 

5) Increased women s 

employment opportunities; 

and 

6) Increased respect of 

minority rights by 

enhancing minority legal 

frameworks and 

implementation of a 

national Roma Strategy 

to improve living 

conditions. 167 

Description 

Despite its rich natural and human resources and 

favourable geographic location, the Gjirokastra region 

faces serious poverty issues. Although the region has a 

medium level HDI, its poverty level remains quite high. 

Twenty-one percent of the population in Gjirokastra 

lives below the poverty line and approximately 10% are 

considered very poor. Moreover, the HDI of the 

Gjirokastra region is far below its neighbouring country, 

Greece, which sits at an HDI of 0.902. Although 

poverty is a multifaceted phenomenon, the high income 

poverty rate is primarily associated with the underdeveloped 

agricultural, industrial, and tourism sectors, as well 

as the inadequate development of small and mediumsized 

enterprises. Underdevelopment of economic 

MDG EU 166 

1) 50% reduction in the 

proportion of people living on 

less than USD$1 per day and 

those who suffer from hunger; 

and 

2) Invested in human 

development nutrition, health 

(including reproductive health), 

education, water and 

sanitation to foster a 

productive labour force that 

can participate effectively in 

the world economy. 168 

165 The priorities regarding gender have been taken from the “National 

Platform of Action for the Improvement of the Status of Women in 

Albania” 

166 The information for these priorities have been taken from the “European 

Community CARDS Programme: Albania Country Strategy Paper 

2002-2006” published by the EC External Relations Directorate for the 

Western Balkans. 

167 The priorities regarding minorities, particularly Roma, were taken from 

the “Action Plan for the Implementation of European Partnership 


1) Development of the private 

sector through competitive 

and internationally 

integrated enterprise 

sectors in Albania, which is 

able to attract foreign direct 

investment (FDI); 

2) Creation of a secure 

business environment and 

improved legislative 

framework, and fiscal 

regimes aligned with EC 

and WTO requirements; 

3) Adoption and 

implementation of SMEs 

and trade promotion 

strategies; 

4) Formulation of a strategy 

for promoting the export of 

agricultural products; and 

5) Strengthened regulatory 

institutions in the field of 

food security. 

Gjirokastra Region 

1) Reduction of the level of 

poverty by 50% and 

elimination of extreme 

poverty; 

2) Increased commercial 

enterprise development 

and creation of competitive 

regional brands; 

3) Intensification of territorial 

planning and infrastructure 

development; and 

4) Women-specific poverty 

needs tackled and efforts 

concentrated on Roma 

issues. 

activity results in high unemployment, which is a major 

cause of income poverty in urban areas. As a result, the 

unemployment rate of 21% for the Gjirokastra region, 

though slightly lower than the country’s average of 

22.7% 169 , is still quite high. 

While both urban and rural areas face high levels of 

poverty, the poverty rate in rural areas remains slightly 

higher. 170 Be that as it may, both urban and remote 

rural areas faced with limited resources are exposed to 

high income insecurity. Specifically, the poverty situation 

tends to be more severe in urban, and especially rural, 

areas that are without sufficient agricultural resources. 

Rural areas in the Gjirokastra region face tremendous 

Priorities”, September 2004. 

168 This priority is stated in the Millennium Development Compact 

(published in 2003 as part of the Human Development Report). It is less 

a priority, than it is a statement of the multidimensional nature of poverty. 

169 INSTAT: REPOBA, 2001.1 The priorities regarding gender have 

been taken from the “National Platform of Action for the Improvement of 

the Status of Women in Albania” 

170 20.9% versus 20.4%. 

PAGE 91


problems. The high level of migration from rural to 

urban areas, and from the remote to areas closer in 

proximity to cities, has left behind an aging population 

and the near desertion of several villages. In addition, 

the Gjirokastra region suffers from scarce land resources 

and undersized, scattered farms. Despite these 

land shortages, the high rate of migration coupled with 

the low level of technology, means that there is underutilization 

of the little land that is available. 

A deeper analysis reveals that the agriculture sector in 

the Gjirokastra region has a dual nature. On one 

hand, there is a large majority of subsistence farmers 

who produce for their personal consumption and 

sell only the surplus beyond their food needs. 

Alternatively, there is a limited, but rapidly growing, 

number of emerging commercial farmers who produce 

for the market. Problems faced by subsistence farmers 

involve seed quality, inadequate sheep and goat breeds, 

insufficient animal health care, high prices for agricultural 

machinery, deficient irrigation systems, and poor road 

infrastructure to transport the surplus to city markets. 

Commercial farmers, in addition to these problems, also 

deal with property insecurity, unavailability of credit due to 

lack of collateral, poor marketing, minimal information 

about the market, inadequate wholesale market infrastructure, 

and distorted competition. Nevertheless, many 

subsistence farmers’ concerns are currently being addressed 

through public policy projects implemented by the 

Ministry of Agriculture and Department of Agriculture in 

the districts. These include programmes for land registration, 

goat and sheep breeding; pasture rehabilitation, and 

construction of water systems and rural road infrastructure. 

That being said, there remains a need for designing more 

formal monitoring, evaluating and accountability mechanisms 

for agricultural institutions at the regional level in 

order to radically improve the impact of such interventions. 

It is also necessary to devise new projects for the 

purpose of supporting subsistence farmers in circumventing 

poverty or to assist them in their goals of becoming 

commercial farmers. The focal point for potential projects 

may include improving seed quality, establishing agricultural 

machinery co-operatives, and improving access to market 

information. While the needs of subsistence farmers relate 

more to matters of public service, commercial farmers 

require commercial services, once the basics, such as land 

security, irrigation, and roads, are firmly in place. Commercial 

services involve access to market information, 

improvements in technology and marketing, and commercial 

credit schemes via co-operatives. Commercial 

PAGE 92 

farmers need the kind of professional and timely information 

that the public service lacks the capacity, motivation 

and resources to provide. As such, the development and 

implementation of a consultancy programme is a real 

necessity. The problems within the agricultural sector, in 

both the mid to long-term perspective, can only be 

properly dealt with through an integrated rural development 

strategy. The strategy must address, among other 

things, poverty issues surrounding business development, 

social policies, environmental concerns, and emigration. 

The aging and abandonment of several, remote rural areas 

associated with migration and emigration also deserves 

attention. With respect to sectorial priorities, the Gjirokastra 

region has great potential in developing the industries of 

dairy, cheese, a variety of vegetables, and alcoholic drinks, 

such as wine and rakia. 

Gjirokastra cheese is typically known as the best cheese in 

Albania, as evidenced by high domestic demand. Though 

the region is rich in pastures for sheep breeding necessary 

for increasing cheese production, the product quality, safety, 

and marketing methods are far from meeting export 

demand requirements. Given the potential for cheese 

industry development, investment in creating a 

“Gjirokastra Cheese” brand is an clear priority. Consequently, 

market research on domestic and foreign demand, 

and product requirements, should precede a carefully 

planned pilot project. It is also clear that the Gjirokastra 

region demonstrates great potential for the development 

of a vineyard sector, which includes rakia and wine 

production. The establishment and organization of 

vineyards, though, is a prerequisite for the development of 

this industry. The creation of a legally registered brand, 

such as “Permeti Rakia”, is also worth advancing through 

a pilot project. Similar to the cheese industry, market 

research on domestic and foreign demand, and product 

requirements, should precede a strategic pilot project. 

As previously mentioned, one of the major causes of 

poverty in the Gjirokastra region is the high unemployment 

rate. In 2003, the employment rate had fallen by a 

shocking 14% from 1997. This was partly due to the 

closing down of several large companies, such as the 

Memaliaj mine, “Recor Albania” shoe manufacturing 

plant, the Metal Plant in Gjirokastra, and other exporting 

companies. A few large companies and many small and 

medium-sized enterprises either closed down or left the 

region following the 1997 crisis caused by the collapse of 

nationwide pyramid schemes. Also in the last decade, 

female unemployment has grown faster than male 

unemployment, mainly due to the closing down of several 

large, state-owned companies that employed women.

This, in turn, has caused a regression in that many former 

female workers have returned to traditional roles in rural 

areas, which only allows them a very limited position 

outside of the household. 

Non-agricultural business also has a dual nature. Large 

companies operating in the region include Alpha Glina, 

Anonime Kakavi, Harri Lena Fresh Company. However, 

there is serious underdevelopment of the small and 

medium-sized enterprise sector, whereby the majority that 

do exist function in trade and services, rather than the 

industrial sector (less than 6% in 2003). Importantly, while 

the large companies are relatively immune to resource 

issues, the support given by public authorities, including 

regional and municipal, to small and medium-sized 

enterprises experiencing resource problems, becomes a 

question of survival. The start-up rate for small and 

medium-sized businesses is high (17% in 2003), but the 

problems they face can be insurmountable. There is a lack 

of a level playing field caused by inadequate rule of law 

and selective implementation of legislation, mainly 

regarding taxation and public procurement, insufficient 

access to credit due to collateral problems, quality of 

business plans, and minimal managerial knowledge and 

market information. Crucially, these problems must be 

addressed as a matter of priority if this sector, and related 

employment opportunities for both women and men, are 

to be developed. 

The region also has abundant natural resources by way of 

stone, rivers and thermal waters. These reserves contain 

potential for hydroelectric power generation, but they too 

remain untapped because of obsolete technology and a 

lack of investment. Attracting domestic and foreign direct 

investment to exploit these resources is priority such that 

concession contracts should be entered into in an attempt 

to attract new investment. A partnership between local 

government, central government, and parliament is 

necessary for taking advantage of regional resources that 

should be managed at the national level. 

The tourism prospects for the Gjirokastra region is 

immense if a serious rehabilitation and restoration 

programme is designed and implemented. The attractions 

include the Gjirokastra Castle, several old city houses with 

unique characteristics, archeological sites of Drino Valley, 

and a large number of ancient churches, monasteries and 

mosques. Furthermore, the mountainous landscape of the 

Gjirokastra region is ripe for the development of sport 

and eco-tourism. Based on the findings of a feasibility 

study, the promotion of these many sites for tourism 

development should be regarded as a matter of priority. 


Finally, the Gjirokastra region lacks well-functioning 

infrastructure. Development and improvement of roads, 

both rural and national, an airport, water and sewerage 

system, hydro-electric power, communications, and solid 

waste collection and disposal will be the foundation for 

economic stability and growth in the Gjirokastra region. 

To achieve this end, a regional and urban territorial 

planning, based on a GIS study, should constitute the basis 

for infrastructure development. The Regional Council is 

aware that there is no panacea for development but 

through this regional development strategy they intend on 

focusing on infrastructure, institution building, and on 

promoting investment in products and sectors where 

Gjirokastra already has confirmed strengths for growth 

and opportunity. Simultaneously, it is critical to find an 

effective balance between the market and government 

interventions in order for this strategy to succeed. 

Targets 

1.1. Halving the proportion of people that live on less than 

USD$2 per day by 2006 through promoting productivity 

of small farmers, including women farmers, and 

supporting intensive, market-oriented activity of 

commercial male and female farmers. 

1.2. Halving the proportion of people that live on less than 

USD$3 per day by 2010 and alleviating financial 

insecurity through job creation. Development of 

small and medium-sized enterprises, supporting and 

initiating income generating activities for women 

through access to small credit, training and technical 

support, cultivating the rich natural and cultural 

resources, and developing competitiveness through 

Gjirokastra brands, are key to long-term sustainable 

and gender-balanced development. 

1.3. Infrastructure development based on integrated 

regional territorial planning. 

Indicators 

A). Unemployment Rate: According to Eurostat, the 

unemployment rate in the EU is currently 8.1% 

(which has increased over the past year from 7.7%). 

Eurostat also provides information that employment 

growth averaged approximately 1.5% in the years 

previous (no data was available for the year 2002- 

2003). According to INSTAT statistics for 2002, the 

average unemployment rate for Albania from 1992- 

2001 was 18.79% (the rate in each year varied 

considerably – sometimes increasing, and other times 

decreasing). During this time, different methodologies 

were used in calculating the unemployment 

PAGE 93


rate and thus the figures can be misleading. 

From 1999-2001, the figures are more accurate 

and reflect an average decrease in unemployment 

of 2% per year. The latest INSTAT data confirms 

an unemployment rate of 15%. The indicator 

below is set based on a predicted decrease in 

unemployment of 1% per year. When considering 

the Gjirokastra region’s current unemployment 

rate of 12.7% it is feasible that the region could 

achieve EU norms for unemployment by 2015. 

There is a lack of reliable gender disaggregated 

data, though the data that is available indicates that 

women’s unemployment is predominant amongst 

the overall population of unemployed. There are 

large hidden numbers for both men and women 

since farmers are not registered as unemployed 

and many women do not register themselves as 

unemployed in the unemployment office. 

B). Percentage of Families Benefiting from 

Social Assistance: Numerous different social 

assistance schemes exist within the EU member 

states. As a result, it is almost impossible to 

formulate one definition of what social assistance 

is, and therefore, there are no clear EU 

indicators for this topic. Examination of the 

previous statistics for the receipt of cash assistance 

in EU countries for 1992 (Eurostat data) 

shows that 15.35% of the UK’s population 

Current and Forecasted Indicators: 

Target Indicators 

1.1.-1.2. 

1.1.-1.2. 

1.1.-1.3. 

PAGE 94 

1. 

Unemployment 

Rate (%) 

2. 

% of Families 

Benefiting from 

Social 

Assistance 

3. 

Infant Mortality 

Rate per 1,000 

Births 

received some form of assistance in comparison 

to Greece at 0.7%. The average receipt of cash 

assistance (based upon the rates of 12 of the 15 

EU countries) was 5.97%. It is unlikely that the 

Gjirokastra region will be able to meet this 

average by 2015 and as such the forecasted 

indicator has been set arbitrarily. 

C). Infant Mortality Rate: The Eurostat data 

notes that infant mortality rates in the EU 

continued to fall to 4.5 deaths for every one 

thousand live births in 2002 compared to 4.7 in 

2001. The lowest rates were recorded by 

Sweden (2.8) and the highest values were found 

in Greece (5.9). The lowest rates among the 

acceding countries were recorded in Slovenia 

(3.9) and the highest rate in Latvia (9.8). Considering 

the EU average of 4.5 and the current 

Gjirokastra regional average of 14.95 (which is 

lower than the national average of 20.5) it is 

feasible that the infant mortality rate can be 

brought down to EU norms by 2015. Of 

special concern is the higher numbers of girls’ 

infant mortality and the preference towards 

boys’ receipt of intensive health care and 

nutrition. 

This indicator is considered ‘indirect’, as it 

represents the overall improvement of the health 

situation as a result of poverty alleviation. 

GOAL 1: Eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger 

Albania 

National 

Average 

15% 

(INSTAT, 2003) 

22.06% 


20.5 

(2000, MoH) 

Gjirokastra 

Regional 

Baseline 

12.7 


10.20% 

(2001, 2003, 

Statistical Register of 

Districts/ Regional 

Council) 

14.95 

(2000, Assessment of 

Socio-Economic 

Conditions of Districts 

in Albania UNICEF) 

2006 2009 2012 2015 

11 10 9 8 

9 8 7 6 

13 10 7 4.5 

EU Average 

(Data from 

Eurostat unless 

otherwise noted) 

8% 

(2003 EU average) 

5.97% 

(1992, based on 

average of 

12 of 15 EU 

Countries) 

4.5 

(2002)


PAGE 95 

Development Programme 171 

Target 1.1.: Halving the proportion of people that live on less than USD$2 per day by 2006 through 

promoting productivity of small farmers, including women farmers, and supporting intensive, 

market-oriented activity of commercial male and female farmers 

1 See methodological note, Annex 171. 

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PAGE 96 

Target 1.2.: Halving the proportion of people that live on less than USD$3 per day by 2010 and alleviating 

financial insecurity through job creation. Development of small and medium sized enterprises, 

supporting and initiating income generating activities for women through access to credit, 

training and technical support, cultivating the rich natural and cultural resources, and developing 

competitiveness through Gjirokastra brands, are key to long-term sustainable and gender- 

balanced development. 

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PAGE 97 

Target 1.3.: Infrastructure development based on integrated regional territorial planning. 

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PAGE 98


Goal 2: Achieve Qualitative Universal Primary Education by the Year 2010 


Description 

The Gjirokastra region has historically been known for the 

high level of education of its inhabitants, however, the 

situation has changed substantially during the last decade. 

As a result of rapid political, social and economic change, 

the education system has deteriorated. The current 

education system fails to attract and provide all primary 

school-aged children with quality education. Likewise, the 

ratio of those enrolled in secondary education is quite low, 

while vocational education does not meet market needs. It 

is priority to provide all children, boys and girls, of the 

Gjirokastra region with a minimum of 8 years primary 

education. The current enrollment rate of 96%, coupled 

with the deterioration of education standards, demands 

immediate intervention. The most salient cause of falling 

enrollment rates is due to decreased demand. Parents, 

especially impoverished ones, are increasingly unaware that 

the cost of failing to enroll their children in school means 

less opportunity for them in the future, specifically in the 

long-term. Poor health and appalling building infrastructure 

also, to a lesser extent, contributes to the low demand. 

Consequently, addressing this decline for education is 

imperative. Assisting economically disadvantaged families, 

preventing school dropouts, and raising awareness in 

172 The information from the first priority of this section based on the 

Stabilization and Association process (SAp) objectives is taken from the June 

2001 report of the European Commission to the EU Council entitled, “On 

the Work of the EU/Albanian High Level Steering Group, in preparation for 

favour of the benefits of education for both boys and 

girls is crucial. Education promotion will only be successful, 

however, if the quality of education improves. This is 

true with respect to not only infrastructure renovation and 

availability of supplies, but also with reference to teacher 

qualification, motivation, and accountability. 

The rapid migration of residents from the remote to rural 

areas, and from rural to urban areas, have changed the 

supply and demand conditions for education. At present, 

there are schools in remote locations with insufficient 

numbers of children and also schools in rural and urban 

areas that are severely overcrowded. Undoubtedly, 

renewed investment and a tactical plan are necessary. One 

intervention involves restoration and reconstruction of 

schools in rural and urban areas, which includes proper 

equipment. Another intervention revolves around an 

elementary school programme for various remote and 

rural areas. Both are critical to education development in 

the region and directly correspond to the NSSED. 

Insufficient teacher credentials is another area of concern in 

light of the fact that many are without basic qualifications. 

As such, the Regional Council aims to replace inadequate 

staff with staff that is educated and to undertake a 

the negotiation of a Stabilization and Association Agreement with Albania.” 

The information for priorities 2-6 is taken from the “European Community 

CARDS Programme: Albania Country Strategy Paper 2002-2006”, 

published by the EC External Relations Directorate for the Western Balkans 

PAGE 99


training programme for upgrading the current skills 

of teachers in order that they fall in line with modern 

techniques. 

Unfortunately, no reliable data is available on the 

gender composition of teachers in the Gjirokastra 

region. It is only with an equal proportion of male 

and female teachers, however, that students will 

receive a balanced education and be exposed to 

more positive role models. Therefore, it is advisable 

to collect gender-disaggregated data and devise 

policies and programmes that eliminate the feminization 

of the profession and ensure a gender balance 

in teaching bodies. Oftentimes, community and 

parental involvement, as beneficiaries of the education 

system, is virtually nonexistent because primary 

school education is thought to be the responsibility 

of central and local government. The serious 

deficiency in mechanisms for direct monitoring of 

teachers by parents often results in extreme circumstances 

whereby teaching is either mediocre, or at 

worst, completely absent, particularly in remote and 

rural areas. Based on this situation, it is critical to 

design accountability mechanisms aimed at teachers. 

For instance, the organization of gender-balanced 

parent committees to evaluate teachers, their methods, 

and their commitment would help to influence 

the existing system of teacher hiring practices that are 

predominantly based on private and political links. 

Another major objective is to substantially increase 

enrollment in secondary school and universities, 

while also adapting vocational education to market 

needs. These issues bring to the fore that there are 

tremendous differences in enrollment rates in 

secondary schools and universities as between urban 

and rural youth. Specifically, enrollment in secondary 

education for urban youth is twice as much as for 

rural youth. And, the enrollment rate in universities 

for urban youth is nearly five times higher than for 

rural youth. Lastly, because vocational training in the 

Gjirokastra region fails to address market needs for 

professional education there is a need to restructure 

and improve what this educational training offers. 

Any such strategy, though, must be preceded by a 

market needs assessment. 

There is also a considerable gender gap in education 

in the region and the illiteracy rate is higher among 

women than men. Further, taking into consideration 

the population ratio between school aged males and 

females, it would be expected that more females 

PAGE 100 

would be enrolled in schools at all levels. This, 

however, is not the case, as fewer females than males 

have earned a diploma in all districts. Females do 

exceed males in completion of lower elementary 

school education in the districts of Permet and 

Gjirokastra (not in Tepelene) but in every other 

category of higher education, male attainment 

exceeds female. It is obvious that, in accord with 

social conventions, many believe that women do not 

need the same level of schooling as males, which 

contributes to decreased female school enrolment 

beyond the elementary level. In addition, security 

concerns revolving around the threat of trafficking 

may also play a role due to the long distances in rural 

areas between homes and schools. Measures must 

be taken to eliminate gender disparity in education 

and ensure the equal rights of girls and women in 

accessing education. 

Targets 

1.1 Eliminate the dropout rate entirely and improve 

education quality with a view to offering 4 years 

of universal primary education for all boys and 

girls by 2006, and 8 years of primary school 

education for all children by 2010. 

1.2 Substantially increase student enrollment in 

secondary school and university for males and 

females, and harmonize vocational training with 

market demands. 

Indicators 

A). School Attendance in Rural Areas for Secondary 

Education: In the 2002 document 

entitled “European Benchmarks in Education and 

Training: Follow-up to the Lisbon European 

Council,” the European Commission calls for all 

member states to halve the rate of early school 

leavers (in respect to the statistics recorded for 

2002) in order to achieve the EU average of 10% 

or less. “Early school leavers” are defined as 18- 

24 year olds with only lower secondary education. 

There is a current downward trend in the EU 

school dropout rate. The current EU average is 

19%, whereas the three best performing EU 

countries (Sweden, Finland and Austria) show an 

average of 10.3%. In Portugal the rate is currently 

45%, in Spain 29% and in Italy 26%. The goal of 

a 10% dropout rate for secondary school is 

especially useful for the Gjirokastra region because 

this is the level of schooling where the largest

issues are faced. The feasibility of reaching the 

10% dropout rate is questionable, however, as 

there are numerous factors influencing the ability 

and/or desire of students to attend school. 

B). Students/Teacher Ratio in Secondary 

Education: The EU average is 15.6 students per 

teacher in secondary school. As noted in the 

forecasted indicators chart, it is the desire to only 

slightly alter the current ratio in the Gjirokastra 

region. While seemingly simple to do, this 

actually represents a large challenge since there is 

also the intention to increase school attendance at 

the secondary level by approximately 50%. 

Thus, the number of teachers cannot remain 

static because the student population will grow. 

A more useful indicator that this strategy recom- 



mends to collect in the future is the student per 

class ratio which is often more useful in judging 

the quality of education of students. 

C). Level of Teachers’ Education in Primary 

Schools: This indicator is used to measure the 

percentage of primary teachers with a university 

diploma as against the total number of primary 

school teachers. The EU is currently developing a 

methodology to create a standard indicator for the 

myriad of different teacher training courses offered 

within it. As such, no EU standard applicable to 

the Albanian context exists. While the current 

indicators are set based on the assumption that all 

primary teachers should have a degree credential, it 

is the recommendation that this indicator be 

revisited in light of the EU indicator data. 

PAGE 101


Development Programme 

Target 2.1.: Eliminate the dropout rate entirely and improve education quality with a view to offering 4 

years of universal primary education for all boys and girls by 2006, and 8 years of primary 

school education for all children by 2010. 

PAGE 102


Target 2.2.: Substantially increase student enrollment in secondary school and university for males and 

females, and harmonize vocational training with market demands. 

PAGE 103


Goal 3: Improve Health Care 

Description 

The development of a regional health sector strategy will be a 

major undertaking for the Regional Council, given sectorial 

problems and changes in national health policies. The health 

sector in the Gjirokastra region suffers from a number of issues 

that result in low quality of service and insufficient coverage, 

mainly in rural areas. In addition, there remains high infant and 

maternal mortality rates, which compared to the neighboring 

country, Greece, are exceptionally high. Infant mortality in 

Greece for 2003 was 4.8 per 1,000 births and maternal 

mortality was 9 per 100,000. 175 Improvements in access to, and 

quality of, primary health care services for both rural and urban 

areas are critical. The existing infrastructure of health care 

services, including beds, water supply, and reliable electricity, is 

poor. Worse still, is the availability of necessary equipment, 

whereby, at times, even basic furniture is missing. There are 

insufficient trained medical personnel, who lack morale and 

who are unmotivated to do their job. Commonly, doctors 

working in primary health care centers and ambulatory care, 

while good practitioners, are often unaware of modern 

diagnostic and treatment practices. As a result, patients will often 

bypass the primary health care centers and cause an overburdening 

of hospital emergency wards. 

To address these deficiencies, doctor skills will be enhanced by 

173 The information on priorities for gender is taken from the “Platform 

of Action for the Improvement of Women’s Status in Albania”. 

174 The information for priority interventions in the health sector are 

taken from the “European Community CARDS Programme: Albania 

PAGE 104 

continuing education through a partnership programme with 

hospitals in neighbouring Greece or Italy. Increasing numbers 

of medical personnel will be accomplished through a project 

that will offer medical graduates incentives to come to the region 

and remain here. Optimistically, a new nursing branch has been 

opened at the “Eqerem Çabej” Univerity in Gjirokastra, and as 

a result, there are real opportunities to establish a permanent 

training course for currently employed health personnel. 

Nonetheless, achieving these health care objectives will only be 

possible if children, mothers, and families generally, are educated 

and informed about the importance of prevention. An 

ambitious health education programme, based on preventative 

care, will be the most effective intervention. The programme 

will include improvements in primary school health education 

curricula, training of teachers on the different aspects of health 

education, a public health education campaign through local 

media focusing on the mother and child, and HIV/AIDS 

awareness education in secondary schools and at the university 

level. 

Another step will concentrate on a total reformation of 

hospital services, as quality is extremely low and corruption 

often places patient lives at risk. The lack of competition in 

the offering of services in the region, due to existing national 

Country Strategy Paper 2002-2006”, published by the EC External 

Relations Directorate for the Western Balkans. 

175 Eurostat, 2003 (online).

health sector policies, is a major cause of these difficulties. 

For instance, hospitals are funded by state budgets and they 

possess very limited financial autonomy. Likewise, medical 

staff is seriously underpaid, but in light of this fact, there 

remains an absence of techniques to help boost morale, 

offer incentives, and foster more positive attitudes. This crisis 

necessitates a complete overhaul of hospital sector policy in 

accordance with the “Health System Strategy for Albania, 

2000-2010.” 176 The health system management scheme 

foresees the quasi-privatization of hospitals for the purpose 

of offering services to patients through the Health Insurance 

Institute or similar private health insurance companies. 

Patients will have the option to choose services based on 

quality, while simultaneously, hospital providers will have a 

higher degree of autonomy with respect to tasks such as 

recruitment, medical staff motivation, and investments, to 

name a few. This scheme is projected to result in an overall 

higher standard of health service quality and the entire 

elimination of corruption. It is the intention of the 

Gjirokastra Regional Council to pioneer the implementation 

of this scheme, with the confirmed support of contacts in 

Greek and Italian hospitals. A partial introduction of the 

new scheme is foreseen for the 2006-2009 period, in 

accordance with National Strategy for Socio-Economic 

Development Progress Report for 2003. 177 

Although the scheme addresses long-term issues for 

sustainable growth, short-term problems, such as too few 

beds, short water supply, and inadequate heating, must be 

immediately addressed. Besides infrastructure reform, staff 

skills need to be upgraded to fall in line with contemporary 

diagnostic and treatment practices. This objective can be 

accomplished through a carefully designed partnership 

programme, which will affect families, doctors, health 

centers, and hospitals. It is also proposed that combating 

corruption in the health sector be carried out by demanding 

medical staff accountability and enforcing professional ethics 

standards. Finally, the importance of reducing and eliminating 

infant and maternal mortality cannot be overemphasized. 

The inefficient and ineffective way in which information is 

collected, analyzed, and reported must also be streamlined. 

Furthermore, child vaccination is an urgent priority, especially 

for remote and rural areas. Vaccination campaigns will 

include increasing accessibility, lowering costs, raising 

awareness on the importance of inoculation, and staff 

training. Thought will also be put into initiatives that affect 

maternal education, such as reproductive health issues, and 

the setting up of a network of non-governmental organization 

working groups to support this cause. 

176 Health System Strategy for Albania: 2000-2010, Ministry of Health. 

177 Progress Report on Implementation of the National Strategy for Socio- 


Targets 

3.1. Improve access and quality of primary health care 

services for both the urban and rural populations. 

3.2. Radically improve the quality of health services in 

hospitals, in accordance with the national reformation 

scheme. 

3.3. Reduce and eliminate infant and maternal mortality, and 

fight gender discrimination. 

3.4. Improve awareness and capacity to eliminate violence 

against women. 

Indicators 

A). Ratio of Beds per 1,000 Inhabitants: Though the 

figures for the EU are somewhat dated, the indicator of 

6.87 beds per 1,000 people is still a useful benchmark for 

the region. This means that there should be an estimated 

33% increase in the number of available beds for the 

population to meet this standard. However, it should be 

cautioned that an appropriate study on the form of 

health care most relevant to the region should be 

undertaken to see if this is the type of care that is suitable 

for citizens, or whether different methods of care (such 

as home-based services) would be more fitting. Indeed, 

more beds are not enough. At this stage however, this 

ratio is still a useful indicator if accompanied by other 

health care reforms. 

B.) Ratio of Pharmacists per 1,000 inhabitants: In the 

EU, the statistics for this indicator are incomplete, 

however, the 2001 average for the countries of Austria, 

Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Luxembourg, 

and the Netherlands is .74 pharmacists per 1,000 

people. In comparison, Turkey’s ratio for the same year 

is .34 pharmacists per 1,000 people, while the 

Gjirokastra region is .07. While it is necessary to review 

population demand for pharmacists; however, it is clear 

that this sector needs improvement. 

C). Ratio of Dentists per 1,000 Inhabitants: According 

to Eurostat demographic information for 1995, there is 

approximately 1 dentist per 1,634 people in the EU, 

which is a ratio of .61 dentists per 1,000 people. In the 

Gjirokastra region, this ratio is approximately 50% lower 

than the EU average. Again, considering the relatively 

small population of the region it is feasible that EU 

standards will be able to be met. It should be noted that 

Economic Development for 2004: Objectives and Long Term Vision - 

Priority Action Plan, Ministry of Finance, 2004-2007. 

PAGE 105


the dentists to population ratio may not necessarily be 

the most accurate indicator, such that a study on the 

demand for dental services should be undertaken 

immediately and simultaneously with an improvement 

in dental services. Moreover, it also should be noted 

that a simple increase in the number of dentists 

practicing in the Gjirokastra region does not necessarily 

mean an automatic improvement in the quality of 

dental services or an increase in their accessibility to the 

general public. Therefore, it is important that this 

indicator not be viewed in isolation, but rather as one 



Target 3.1.: Improve access and quality of primary health care services for both the urban and rural populations. 

178 Provisional needs in the short-term (2005-2007) will be addressed, 

based on an assessment made by the Regional Council, which will 

PAGE 106 

of a number of ways to measure policy progress in 

this area. 

D). Infant Mortality Rate: This indicator is also used as 

in indirect indicator for the poverty eradication section 

of this strategy. For the health section, the infant 

mortality rate is considered a direct indicator representing 

the improvement of health care conditions (facilities 

and infrastructure), health of mothers, skills and 

capacities of doctors, and access to health facilities. 

identify strategic interventions and precise project costs. 

Effects


Target 3.2.: Radically improving the quality of health services in hospitals, in accordance with the national 

reformation scheme. 

Target 3.3.: Reduce and eliminate infant and maternal mortality, and fight gender discrimination. 

PAGE 107


Target 3.4.: Improved awareness and capacity to eliminate violence against women. 

PAGE 108

Goal 4: Ensure Environmental Sustainability 

Description 

The Gjirokastra region faces numerous environmental 

problems, many of which stem from poverty. Illegal 

activities, such as tree felling for production of wood coal, illicit 

connections to water supply networks, overexploitation of 

pastures through grazing, and the uncontrolled harvesting of 

herbs and medicinal plants, are all associated with income 

poverty. Other factors, besides poverty, have also heightened 

environmental issues. These include the lack of a clear vision 

and strategic planning at the regional, municipal and communal 

level, insufficient public investment, and minimal awareness 

by communities of the immediate and long-term effects of 

environmental degradation. Over the past decade, the region 

has suffered, not only from unrestrained deforestation by 

felling and fires, but also from insignificant re-plantation efforts 

and indiscriminate hunting, which have lead to the endangerment 

and extinction of wild animals. Failure to address the 

forestation problem will only exacerbate highly problematic 

mountain erosion, flooding and landslides. As such, a major 

priority for the region is the protection and development of 

resource potentials, such as forests, urban green spaces, soil and 

viable ecosystems, particularly through replanting and enforce- 

179 The information from the first priority of this section based on the 

Stabilization and Association process (SAp) objectives is taken from 

the June 2001 report of the European Commission to the EU Council 

entitled, “On the Work of the EU/Albanian High Level Steering 

Group, in preparation for the negotiation of a Stabilization and 


ment of protective measures. 

Additionally, the reforestation, protection, development and 

maintenance of ecosystems are also clear priorities. Two 

identified pilot projects, the fir forest of Hotove and the fir 

forest of Sotire, supported by the World Bank, will mark the 

start of new programmes related to the protection and 

development of other forests, valleys and hunting reserves, 

such as the valley of Bences, gorge of Kelcyra, cold water of 

Tepelene, fields of Çajupi, and Llufe ne Nivice. It will also 

eventually extend to a number of hunting reserves, such as 

Carcove, the fir forest of Hotove, Izvor and Radat for its 

rabbit and deer, Sinanaj-Salari for its partridge, and Benca for 

its wild pig, rabbit, deer and pheasant. Cities in the Gjirokastra 

region have undergone tremendous changes during the last 

decade of transition. Urban green spaces have been substantially 

reduced and public spaces suffer from excessive 

pollution. Improvements in the quality of life of urban 

populations would require ambitious green space rehabilitation, 

including city parks, and other related small-scale projects. 

Another major priority programme for the region will 

Association Agreement with Albania.” The information for priorities 

2-4 is taken from the “European Community CARDS Programme: 

Albania Country Strategy Paper 2002-2006”, published by the EC 

External Relations Directorate for the Western Balkans. 

PAGE 109


be erosion reduction initiatives, including soil reduction, 

mountain dyke construction, and storm water canalization. 

Another priority in the area of environment is 

providing urban and rural residents with safe and high 

quality drinking water, and reducing health hazards 

caused by improper solid waste disposal. Though 

statistics are limited, illegal connections tapping into water 

supply networks are capable of causing serious health 

hazards. As well, newly urbanized areas face tremendous 

sewerage problems that often affect sources of drinking 

water. Likewise, water sources in several rural areas are 

left unprotected. There are also cases when storm water 

mixes with drinking water sources, in which case, health 

risks rise significantly. Based on this fragile situation, 

protection of water supply networks and water sources 

in rural areas, investing in sewerage infrastructure in newly 

urbanized areas, repairing water supply infrastructure in 

rural areas, and community awareness-raising on potential 

health hazards associated with unprotected drinking 

water, is vital. 

Water purification in accordance with EU standards is 

another chief objective for the region. Proposed 

interventions relating to water quality improvement 

include establishing a water monitoring facility and 

moving away from purification methods that rely on 

substantial chlorination towards practices that incorporate 

more environmentally friendly methodologies. 

Solid waste management represents a key concern for 

urban centers of the Gjirokastra region. The current 

situation adversely affects inhabitant’s health, such that 

radical improvements in solid waste management 

systems are essential. Improvement in this sector is a 

complex undertaking that includes learning from best 

practices, upgrading landfills, contracting private 

companies, initiating community clean-up activities, 

formulation of recycling policy, awareness-raising, and 

installation of recycling receptacles. It should be 

emphasized that there is a need to learn from best 

practices and design working policies accordingly. The 

successful case of Tirana Municipality in improving 

solid waste management systems, with the assistance of 

Catawba County, USA, and USAID, serves as an 

excellent guideline. Therefore, technical assistance from 

Tirana Municipality should be the entry point for system 

improvement. 

Integrating principles of sustainable development in 

regional policies and reversing the loss of environment 

resources is also of great import. Identification of 

environment problems, prioritization of interventions, 

matching those interventions with the current legislative 

framework, and the development of a comprehensive 

PAGE 110 

programme should constitute the substance of a clear 

Environmental Management Policy (EMP) for the 

Gjirokastra region. The EMP study will be the product 

of a participative process, including both women and 

men, but should not hinder the progress of already 

identified priority issues, such as threatened species and 

habitat issues, capacity building, pasture and forest 

management, and civil emergency issues. 

Targets 

4.1. Reverse the loss of renewable environmental 

resources with specific attention paid to increasing 

forest areas, city parks and protected reserves. 

4.2. Providing men and women, both in urban and 

rural areas, with safe and high quality drinking 

water, and reducing health hazards caused by 

improper solid waste disposal. 

4.3. Integrate the principal of sustainable and equitable 

development in regional policies and programmes, 

especially with regard to the loss of environmental 

resources. 

Indicators 

A). Proportion of Land Area Covered by Forest: 

An essential part of the region’s environmental 

sustainability is based upon the forest coverage, not 

only for the habitat of wildlife, but also for economic 

prosperity and reducing illegal activities. It is 

well known that the Gjirokastra region has faced 

considerable degradation of its forests. Currently, 

25.77% of the land is covered with forest, which is 

significantly lower than in the past. Unfortunately 

accurate statistics for past forest coverage are not 

available, and thus the indicators can only be 

arbitrarily set based on a modest 2-3% increase for 

the first 6 years of the strategy. 

B). Endangered Fauna: As the data shows, the 

Gjirokastra region has a lower percentage of 

threatened species than the EU average. This 

should not be misinterpreted as a sign that there are 

no environmental problems. Indeed, there remains 

within the region a dire need to protect and preserve 

all categories of animals and insects and their 

habitat. To halt the increasing number of threatened 

species and reverse this trend, it will require a 

monumental effort on behalf of all actors, and the 

Gjirokastra region will strive for the lowest level of 

threatened species possible.




Target 4.1.: Reverse the loss of renewable environmental resources with specific attention paid to increasing 

forest areas, city parks and protected reserves. 

PAGE 111


Target 4.2.: Providing men and women, both in urban and rural, with safe and high quality drinking water and 

reducing health hazards caused by improper solid waste disposal. 

Target 4.3.: Integrate the principal of sustainable and equitable development in regional policies and 

programmes and the loss of environmental resources 

PAGE 112

Goal 5: Improve Governance 


Description 

Improved governance is a necessary prerequisite for the 

attainment of the MDGs at the regional level, since it is 

only through governance that regulations are enforced, 

effective local level environmental policy is created, and the 

roles of different players are defined and respected. In a 

broader context, good governance is both a primary 

condition for European integration and it also a political 

necessity for attracting donor assistance to Albania. As 

such, it represents a crosscutting priority in all strategic 

national agenda, such as the National Strategy of Socio- 

Economic Development, the Stabilization and Association 

process, and the MDGs. 

Governance problems at the regional level in Gjirokastra 

are numerous. They include insufficient empowerment of 

the local government, minimal level of citizen participation, 

the recruitment of public officials on the basis of political 

or private affiliation, inefficiency and token transparency of 

the administrative system, inadequate capacity of the local 

governments to manage local business development, and a 

lack of prioritization of gender sensitive issues. Specifically 

with regard to gender, the lack of equality is most visible in 

the Gjirokastra region by examining women’s participation 

in government institutions and in the political arena. In a 

survey of 65 institutions in the Gjirokastra region, only 9 

women, representing 13.8% of those holding leading 

positions, held high-ranking jobs. With respect to the 

180 The priorities for gender are taken from the Platform of Action for the 

Improvement of Status of Women in Albania. 

181 Although “Governance” is not specifically an MDG, the Millennium 

Development Compact provides the information under this heading and focuses on 

good governance as an essential aspect for the achievement and sustainability of 

meeting the MDGs and other goals. 


political realm and public administration, only 4.6% of the 

elected members of Regional Council are women, and 

only a minor 6% of elected members in the communes 

and municipalities are women. 183 Furthermore, regional 

government policies, programmes and budgets completely 

lack gender perspectives. There are no institutional 

mechanisms in place, such as a local commission dealing 

with women and gender issues, gender focal points, or 

gender-sensitivity training for regional government officials, 

to advance women. Efforts have not been taken either to 

increase women’s participation in decision-making or 

leadership. The result is that there is a desperate need to 

build the capacities for women political candidates and 

female government officials. 

The first stage in the area of governance is to empower 

communes and municipalities, while increasing the 

participation of residents, with particular attention paid to 

women’s participation. An entire body of legislation, 

including the Constitution, the National Strategy for 

Decentralisation and Local Autonomy, and the Law on 

the Organisation and Functioning of Local Government, 

aims at devolving authority and resources of the 

local governments in order to bring them closer to 

individual citizens. However, while decentralization is a 

high priority for Albania, the authority of local power with 

respect to clarity of functions to perform is still weak, their 

182 The information for these priorities interventions is taken from the 

“European Community CARDS Programme: Albania Country Strategy 

Paper 2002-2006”, published by the EC External Relations Directorate 

for the Western Balkans. 


PAGE 113


economic base is thin, and human capital is inadequate. 

Under these circumstances, local governments 

are passive and financial dependence on 

central government is excessive. For the time 

being, there is no genuine economic function at the 

local level in terms of raising revenues, spending on 

services, investing, or borrowing. 

The lack of proper authority and insufficient 

resources in the Gjirokastra region weakens the link 

between citizens as consumers and voters (especially 

the poor) and those who are elected because, 

at present, citizens have no expectations of the local 

government. Therefore, empowering governing 

bodies in terms of authority, capacity and resources 

(economic and human) is the starting point for a 

functional local level democracy. On the other 

hand, bringing services closer to citizens helps them 

improve their economic and social status, which 

includes poverty reduction. It is then that citizen 

participation becomes meaningful and more 

attractive. In order for citizen participation to 

occur, however, it must be supported and encouraged. 

As such, the Regional Council intends to 

promote participation of citizens in local affairs 

through establishing long-term partnerships with 

civil society organizations at the local level. 

An attractive avenue for initializing citizen participation 

in the short-term is through the budget preparation 

process. Citizen involvement in project 

prioritization and funding through local budgeting 

helps residents to not only access local government 

funds, but also to learn about the benefits of 

participation. Learning from good practices, such 

as in the case of the CESEDA project funded by 

USAID/World Learning, encourages future 

participation and involvement. Improved services 

to citizens are not possible without establishing a 

professional, reliable, transparent and genderbalanced 

local public administration. The 

Gjirokastra Regional Council will make this a 

fundamental target. At present, public administration 

at the local level suffers from biased nominations 

that result in hiring public officials with 

inadequate education and skills, who create administration 

instability, encourage serious political 

influence, and perform unsatisfactorily. Administrative 

stability is a problem for the central government 

as well, but at the local level the instability is a 

major concern because there is a lack of solid legal 

basis on which to recruit, promote, and dismiss, in 

PAGE 114 

addition to other psychological and cultural factors. 

Thus, at the Regional Council level it is important 

to agree on a set of rules and the enforcement 

mechanisms regarding gender-balanced recruitment, 

promotion and dismissal. This set of rules 

may even be based on the Law on Civil Service, 

although it might be more flexible. 

Another area of concern is the lack of knowledge 

by local officials on private, commune, and municipality 

interests, as well as the lack of mechanisms to 

protect public interests. A code of ethics is an 

appropriate instrument with which to create and 

develop a morally sound environment at all levels. 

The intentionis to prepare and implement a code 

of ethics for all communes and municipalities, 

including the Regional Council, based on examples 

from Vlora and other municipalities, as supported 

by USAID through MSI and Albanian NGOs. 

Institutional capacities with respect to performing 

assigned functions are also a concern for the region. 

As a result, organizational needs assessments will be 

conducted in the short-term followed by organizational 

structure remodeling. The preparation of an 

internal manual intended to clarify procedures is a 

short-term priority as well. 

There are large amounts of information produced 

at the local and regional level by communes, municipalities, 

and health, education, tax and customs, 

KESH, and telephone agencies. However, a number 

of other important players are in desperate need of 

information, such as citizens regarding public 

services, businesses regarding customs and taxation, 

communes and municipalities regarding performance 

of their functions, and universities and other 

development agents for their own specific needs. 

Under these circumstances, building a management 

information system (MIS) and providing all parties 

with reliable and timely access to records is fundamental. 

All projects and programmes prioritized in 

the strategy should impact upon people lives. 

Consequently, it is important to monitor the effects 

of interventions on living conditions. On that basis, 

building an MDG – Regional Development Strategy 

monitoring body at the Regional Council level will 

help to establish a link between interventions and 

their effect on people. 

Targets 

5.1. Empower local government and increase

citizen participation. 

5.2. Establish a professional, reliable, transparent 

and gender-balanced local public administration 

that is not influenced by political or private 

interests, and which is capable of providing all 

citizens, irrespective of political inclinations, 

with unbiased public services. 

5.3. Gender-mainstreaming in policies, 

programmes and budgets, and collection of 

gender disaggregated data. 

Indicators 

A). Number of Regional Council Meetings 

Held to Review Progress Towards Implementation 

of the Regional Development 

Strategy: Once implementation of the 

Gjirokastra Regional Development Strategy has 

begun, an important indicator will be for the 

Regional Council to review their efforts towards 

implementation and achievement of the targets 

outlined in the strategy. Such reviews should 

occur on a quarterly basis and consider the 

indicators that have been outlined throughout 

this document as the principal means to measure 

progress in achieving their goals. 

B). Number of Active Civil Society Organizations 

(CSOs): Currently there are 50 CSOs 

officially registered in the Gjirokastra region. 

However, of that total, only 16 are actively 

operating. Through its Country Strategy Paper, 

the EU has indicated that the participation of 

civil society, especially involvements related to 

anti-corruption initiatives, should be a priority 

target. In terms of quantifying improvement in 

this area, progress can be shown through 

bringing the number of “active” CSOs closer to 

the number of CSOs officially registered in the 

region. Thus, by 2015, the region should aim to 

increase in the number of active CSOs, especially 

in the rural areas. In support of this 

process, another indicator that could be used to 

help quantify this target would be to begin to 

assess the number public hearings initiated by 

CSOs in the region. 

C). Number of Functional Public Access 

Centres (PACs): An integral aspect in terms 

of measuring the strength of civil society is to 

assess the ability of citizens to access informa- 


tion about local government business, services 

and activities. According to the 2001 Human 

Development Report from Bulgaria, 47.5% of 

those surveyed declared that they would visit a 

municipal Internet site, whereby 19.2% would 

search for information about municipal 

services, 18.9% would examine the municipal 

budget, and 18.7% would visit the site to read 

the municipal development strategy. Currently 

there are two PACs in the Gjirokastra region 

and both are located in the municipality of 

Gjirokastra. While the development of an 

expanded network of PACs in the region by 

the year 2015 is somewhat contingent on a 

number of technical and capacity factors (e.g., 

dependable power network, expanded ISP 

market) its expansion is paramount both 

linking the citizens of Gjirokastra region to 

their local government and to the global 

network of information. Efforts should be 

made to increase the number of PAC sites 

from the 2 sites presently in operation to 10 

sites by 2015. 

D). Percentage of Women in the Regional 

Council: Currently, there are only 2 women 

members of 43 in the Regional Council. At the 

national level it is difficult to disaggregate the 

participation of women in the public service 

from women’s participation in other sectors of 

the workforce. The most closely related data 

from the 2002 UNDP Regional Human Development 

Report shows that, on average at the 

national level, 29.2% women are “self employed, 

employers or holders of decisionmaking 

positions in the public administration.” 

However, despite the lack of data, improving 

the ratio of women to men in the regional 

public service is an important component to the 

creation of a gender-sensitive system of public 

employment in the region. Moreover, improvements 

in this regard are in line with the proposed 

national framework objective, “Platform 

of Action for the Improvement of the Status 

of Women in Albania 2002-2005,” which 

outlines as a target an “increase [in] gendershared 

responsibility in governmental bodies 

and committees, in the judiciary system and in all 

public administration offices”. As such, by the 

year 2015, equity in the regional public service 

should be increased, if possible to the point of 

gender parity. 

PAGE 115




Target 5.1.: Empower local government and increase citizen participation. 

184 SPAI Regional Conference on Civil Society, “Empowering Civil 

Society Against Corruption in South Eastern Europe”, September 

2001. This figure is based upon the number of CSOs that are 

“active” in the country (as opposed to simply the number of CSOs 

PAGE 116 

nationally registered) 

185 While there are 50 registered CSOs, only an estimated 16 of these 

are active.


Target 5.2.: Establish a professional, reliable, transparent and gender-balanced local public administration 

that is not influenced by political or private interests, and which is capable of providing all 

citizens, irrespective of political inclinations, with unbiased public services. 

PAGE 117


Target 5.3.: Gender mainstreaming in policies, programmes and budgets and collection of gender disaggregated 

data. 

Annex 1 – Methodological note for project 

selection and prioritization 

The preceding development programmes are based 

on a holistic approach, taking into consideration the 

strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats to the 

Gjirokastra region. Programmes and projects aim at 

matching strengths, in terms resources and comparative 

advantages, with opportunities. The objective is 

to eliminate weaknesses and avoid threats regardless 

This Gjirokastra Regional Development Strategy calls 

for strong partnerships that involve public institutions, 

such as the Regional Council, municipalities, communes, 

central government, parliament, the private sector, civil 

PAGE 118 

of whether the programmes and projects function at 

the local government or central government level. 

However, since there are often a myriad of weaknesses 

and few opportunities to eliminate them, it 

becomes important to prioritize. Thus, the following 

system has been used to prioritize the programmes 

and projects for Gjirokastra region. 

society, and donors. The role of the Regional Council 

is to develop the vision, create a sequence and timeline 

for the interventions, and lobby the central government 

and donor community to support the strategy.

Annex 2 – Indicator 

Description 

Indicator Description 

This section provides a narrative description of each 

indicator, its relevance, and the calculation methodology. 

GOAL 1. ERADICATE EXTREME 

POVERTY AND HUNGER 

1. Labor Force Indicator: Unemployment Rate 

2. Social Assistance Indicator: % of Families Benefiting 

from Social Assistance 

3. Infant Mortality Rate 

1. Unemployment Rate 

Unit of Measurement: Employment/Unemployment 

Rate. 

Employment: This represents all persons employed during 

the statistic reference time (e. g., 2001), and 

includes the following categories of workers: 

agricultural sector; 

non-agricultural industries; 

part-time workers; 

full-time workers; 

self-employed persons; 

unpaid workers in family enterprises; 

domestic assistants. 

Those who hold more than one job, however, are 

counted only once. Persons with a job but temporarily 

not at work during the reference period for 

reasons of illness, training, or maternity leave, to 

name a few, are also included in this data. 

Unemployment: This represents persons who were 

not employed during the reference 

time, but who were actively seeking 

work, or waiting to be called back to a 

job from which they were laid off. 

Unemployment Rate: This is unemployment as a 

percentage of the overall labor force. 

Definition: Unemployment is the share of labor 

force that is without work but available 

and/or seeking employment. 


Calculation: Unemployment population/labor 

force population * 100. 

Data Sources: National Institute of Statistics (INSTAT) 

2003 and for Regional Level 2003, 

Statistical Register of Districts, Regional 

Council (regional level). 

Significance: The unemployment rate is an indicator of 

overall economic health. A low rate indicates 

a strong economy where job seekers can find 

employment quickly, whereas a high rate 

may indicate a weaker economy. On the 

other hand, businesses can find employees 

more easily when the unemployment rate is 

high. The definition of employment is 

broad as people in the Gjirokastra region 

frequently undertake several income generating 

activities simultaneously. 

2. Percent of Families Benefiting 

from Social Assistance 

Unit of Measurement: Percent. 

Definition: Social assistance is a monthly governmentfunded 

scheme providing income per 

person as a method of social protection 

and to assist people in accessing services. 

The amount varies per family depending 

on numerous criteria. 

Calculation: Number of population under the social 

assistance scheme against the total 

population of the region. 

Data Sources: INSTAT 2003 (national level) and 

2003 Statistical Register of Districts, 

Regional Council (regional level). 

Significance: In principle social protection is designed 

to provide cash assistance and services for 

people in need. Target groups include 

poor families with no income or insufficient 

income from market and nonmarket 

sources that do not enable them 

to meet minimal subsistence requirements. 

Although there is no clear evidence base 

(such as number of recipients and their 

geographical areas compared with 

poverty statistics), there is an obvious 

strong correlation between the receipt of 

social assistance and economic poverty, 

PAGE 119


thus making this a useful indicator for poverty (but 

only as one of several poverty indicators). 


Unit of Measurement: Rate (per 1,000). 

Definition: The infant mortality rate is the number 

of deaths of infants under one year 

of age, in a given period of time, per 

1,000 live births in the same period. 

Calculation: Number of Children under 1 year 

against the total number of live births 

* k (1,000). 

Data Source: Ministry of Health (national level) 

and 2000 – Assessment of Socio- 

Economic Conditions of Districts in 

Albania – UNICEF (regional level). 

Significance: Infant mortality rate is considered an 

important health indictor and a 

common indicator for the overall 

social development of a society. 

Disparities in infant mortality rate 

between regions or within them are 

often strong indicators of economic 

inequalities, inequality in terms of 

access to health care and different 

manifestations of gender inequality. 

GOAL 2. ACHIEVE UNIVERSAL 

PRIMARY EDUCATION 

1. School Attendance in Rural Areas for Secondary 

Education (ages 15-19) 

2. Students/Teacher Ratio in Secondary Education 

3. % of Teachers in Primary School with a University 

Degree 

1. School Attendance 

in Secondary Education 


Definition: The population aged 15-19 years that 

attend secondary education. 

Data Source: 2000 – Assessment of Socio- 


Albania – UNICEF (national level) 

and Statistical Register of Districts, 

PAGE 120 


Significance: This indicator has a special significance 

in reflecting the recent outcomes 

of the basic education process. It is a 

summary measure of the effectiveness 

of the education system. A high 

attendance among the 15-19 year olds 

suggests a high level of participation 

and retention in primary education. 

Because persons belonging to this age 

group are entering adult life, monitoring 

their school attendance is important 

in respect to national human 

resources policies, as well as for 

tracking and forecasting progress in 

these ages. This indicator can also be 

used in analysis to illustrate the different 

socio-economic pressures brought 

to bear on this population. It is a 

particularly useful indicator when 

combined with gender disaggregated 

data. 

2. Student/Teacher Ratio 

in Secondary Education 

Unit of Measurement: Ratio. 

Definition: Average number of students per 

teacher in secondary education in a 

given school year. Teachers are 

defined as persons who, in their 

professional capacity, guide and direct 

students’ learning experiences in 

gaining the knowledge, attitudes and 

skills that are stipulated in a defined 

curriculum programme. 

Calculation: Number of students in secondary 

education/teacher in secondary 

education. 

Data Sources: Ministry of Education as cited in 

INSTAT 2002-2003 Indicators by 

Prefecture. 

Significance: This indicator is used to measure the 

level of human resources input, in 

terms of number of teachers, in 

relation to the size of the student 

population. While a useful indicator to 

judge the overall student/teacher

interaction, it is best combined with a 

second “students per class” indicator. 

3. Level of Teachers’ Education 


Definition: Level of teachers’ education. 

Calculation: Number of teachers with a university 

diploma against the total number of 

the teachers in primary education. 

Data Sources: 2000 – Assessment of Socio- 



Significance: This indicator is used to measure the 

level of human resources input, in 

terms of level of a teachers’ education. 

While there is not necessarily a 

direct correlation between a level of 

teachers’ education and the quality of 

lessons imparted to students, this 

indicator is useful as it provides a basic 

reference to the overall quality of the 

teaching body in the region and 

illustrates important information in 

regards to the existing skills base that 

can be improved through further 

training. 

GOAL 3. IMPROVE 

HEALTH CARE 

1. Ratio of Beds/Pharmacists/Dentists per 1,000 

Inhabitants 

2. Infant Mortality Rate/1,000 Live Births 

3. Ratio of Beds/Pharmacists/Dentists per 1,000 

Inhabitants 

Unit of Measurement: Ratio. 

Definition: The number of pharmacists, dentists, 

and beds per population. 

Calculation: Ratio of pharmacists/dentists/beds 

per 1,000 inhabitants. 

Data Source: WHO HFA Database (national level) 

and 2003, Statistical Register of 

Districts, Regional Council, and 2001, 

MoH (regional level). 


Significance: Lack of health care personnel means 

that the population has less access to 

essential health services. A lack of 

beds often indicates the poor quality 

of health services and its ability to care 

for long term patients. It must be 

noted that neither of these indicators 

should be used by themselves as 

numerous beds without specialists are 

useless and vice-versa. 


Unit of Measurement: Rate (per 1,000). 

Definition: The infant mortality rate is the number 

of deaths of infants under one year 

of age, in a given period of time, per 

1,000 live births in the same period. 

Calculation: Number of children under 1 year 

against the total number of live births 

* k (1,000). 

Data Source: Ministry of Health (national level) 

and 2000 – Assessment of Socio- 



Significance: Infant mortality rate is considered an 

important health indicator and a 

common indicator for the overall 

social development of a society. 

Disparities in infant mortality rate 

between regions or within them are 

often strong indicators of economic 

inequalities, inequality in terms of 

access to health care and different 

manifestations of gender inequality. 

GOAL 4: ENSURE 

ENVIRONMENT SUSTAINABILITY 

1. Proportion of Land Area Covered by Forest 

2. Percentage of Endangered Fauna 

1. Proportion of Land 

Area Covered by Forest 


Definition: Percentage of forested area in comparison 

to overall area of the region. 

PAGE 121


Calculation: Area covered by forest divided by 

total area. 

Data Source: 2003, Statistical Register of Districts, 


Significance: The purpose of the indicator is to 

show the area covered by the forest 

during a specified time frame. Forests 

serve multiple ecological, socioeconomic, 

and cultural roles in many 

countries as well as being amongst the 

most diverse and widespread ecosystems. 

Forests provide many significant 

resources and functions including: wood 

products, recreational opportunities, 

habitat for wildlife, water and soil 

conservation, and a filter for pollutants. 

They support employment and traditional 

uses, and biodiversity. There is 

general concern over human impact on 

forest health, and the natural processes 

of forest growth and regeneration. 

2. Percent Endangered Fauna 

Unit of measurement: Percent. 

Definition: Percentage of mammals, birds, reptiles, 

insects and fish species that are endangered. 

Calculation: Number of endangered species in 

each of the above groups divided by 

total number of species in that group. 

Source: Red Book on species and environment in Albania. 

Significance: The percentage of endangered species is 

directly related to the preservation and 

rehabilitation of their environment. As 

landscapes, estuaries, rivers, lakes, and 

other habitats are preserved or repaired, 

the number of endangered species will 

decrease. Of course, it is essential that 

proper regulatory and enforcement 

procedures are simultaneously put into 

place and activated. 

GOAL 5. IMPROVE 

GOVERNANCE 

1. Number of Regional Council Meetings Held to 

Review Progress Towards Implementation of the 

Regional Development Strategy 

2. Number of Active Civil Society Organizations 

3. Number of Functional Public Access Centers 

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4. Male/Female Ratio in Regional Public Service 

1. Number of Regional Council 

Meetings Held to Review Progress 

Towards Implementation of the 

Regional Development Strategy 

Unit of Measurement: Total number. 

Definition: The number of Regional Council 

meetings held specifically to review the 

progress of implementing the MDG 

Regional Development Strategy. 

Calculation: Addition of all Regional Council 

meetings held concerning the 

Gjirokastra Regional Development 

Strategy implementation for a total. 

Data Sources: Regional Council of Gjirokastra. 

Significance: Once implementation of the 

Gjirokastra Regional Development 

Strategy has begun, an important 

indicator of good governance will be 

for the Regional Council to review 

their efforts towards implementation 

and achievement of the targets 

outlined in the RDS. Such reviews 

should occur on a quarterly basis and 

consider the indicators that have been 

outlined throughout this document as 

the principal means to measure 

progress in achieving the strategy 

goals. 

2. Number of Active Civil 

Society Organizations (CSOs) 


Definition: Registered CSOs that are currently conducting 

activities within the region and/or 

participating in regional/district/municipal, 

or commune level forums, discussions, 

meetings. 

Calculation: Addition of all active CSOs for a total. 

Data Sources: OSCE Gjirokastra Regional Office. 

Significance: An active body of CSOs will ensure 

citizen-driven development and assist in

the monitoring and implementation of 

the MDG Regional Development 

Strategy. The EU has also indicated that 

the participation of civil society, especially 

involvements related to anticorruption 

initiatives, should be a priority target for 

the region. 

3. Number of Functional Public 

Access Centers (PACs) 


Definition: Number of public access centers operating 

that provides information on local 

governance, business, services, and 

activities. 

Calculation: Addition of all active PACs for a total. 

Data Sources: Regional Council of Gjirokastra 

Significance: An integral aspect in terms of measuring 

the strength of civil society is to 

assess the ability of citizens to access 

information about local government 

business, services and activities. Currently 

there are two PACs in the 

Gjirokastra region. Both are located in 

the Municipality of Gjirokastra. While 

the development of an expanded 

network of PACs in the region by the 

year 2015 is somewhat contingent on a 

number of technical and capacity factors 

(e.g., dependable power network, 

expanded ISP market) its expansion is 

paramount both to linking the citizens 

of the Gjirokastra region to their local 

government and to the global network 

of information. 

4. Percent of Women 

in Regional Council 


Definition: The number of women in the Regional 

Council as a percent of the total number 

of members. 


Calculation: Percent (number of female Regional 

Council Members against the total 

number of members) 

Data source: Regional Council 

Significance: It is essential for the local government 

bodies of the Gjirokastra Region to 

achieve a gender balanced civil service. 

Gender-based discrimination is a violation 

of human rights. 

A Note on the Indicators 

and Data Sets 

The indicators presented in this document will 

provide the benchmark against which to monitor 

progress in the future. The availability of reliable 

information on the many facets of regional life is 

crucial to the design and implementation of effective 

indicators to achieve the MDG goals. The paucity of 

relevant statistical data at the district level was a 

major constraining factor for the forecasting of the 

indicators. Often, many of the surveys conducted 

by INSTAT do not provide disaggregated data at 

the district level. Complicating matters further, 

Albania has undergone a turbulent transition, alternating 

between periods of relative tranquility and 

steady growth to major unforeseen setbacks (1997, 

1999), thus skewing any forecasting based on trends 

in data dating 1991-2001. Furthermore, statistical 

data, as opposed to administrative information, has 

not been widely used until very recently. Previous 

data gathering for the measurement of these indicators 

in post-communist Albania has been sporadic, 

inconsistent and hardly comparable over time due to 

differences in sampling and data collection methodologies. 

It is clear that additional work is required 

through well-coordinated efforts between all 

stakeholders to have more reliable data (with 

multiple data sources) and to improve the regional 

capacity to monitor progress/regression in regards 

to the MDGs. Time series based on reliable data 

would be the best way of forecasting indicators. 

Due to the aforementioned difficulties, it is recommended 

that the indicators and their forecasting are 

reviewed regularly and adjusted. These indicators 

should not be viewed as static reference points, 

though the indicators for achievement of the MDGs 

by 2015 should remain, if feasible. 

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