Nanotechnology Green Building - esonn

Nanotechnology 

for 

Green Building 

Green Technology Forum 2007

Nanotechnology for Green 

Building 

© 2007 Dr. George Elvin 

Green Technology Forum

Table of Contents 

Executive Summary 

Part 1: Nanotechnology and Green Building 

1. Introduction 

1.1 Green Building 

1.2 Nanotechnology 

1.3 Convergence 

Part 2: Materials 

2. Insulation 

2.1 Aerogel 

2.2 Thin-film insulation 

2.3 Insulating coatings 

2.4 Emerging insulation technologies 

2.5 Future market for nano-insulation 

3. Coatings 

3.1 Self-cleaning coatings 

3.2 Anti-stain coatings 

3.3 Depolluting surfaces 

3.4 Scratch-resistant coatings 

3.5 Anti-fogging and anti-icing coatings 

3.6 Antimicrobial coatings 

3.7 UV protection 

3.8 Anti-corrosion coatings 

3.9 Moisture resistance 

4. Adhesives 

5. Lighting 

5.1 Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) 

5.2 Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) 

5.3 Quantum dot lighting 

5.4 Future market for lighting

6. Solar energy 

6.1 Silicon solar enhancement 

6.2 Thin-film solar nanotechnologies 

6.3 Emerging solar nanotechnologies 

7. Energy storage 

8. Air purification 

9. Water purification 

10. Structural materials 

10.1 Concrete 

10.2 Steel 

10.3 Wood 

10.4 New structural materials 

11. Non-structural materials 

11.1 Glass 

11.2 Plastics and polymers 

11.3 Drywall 

11.4 Roofing 

Part 3: Conclusions 

12. Additional benefits 

12.1 Nanosensors and smart environments 

12.2 Multifunctional properties 

12.3 Reduced processing energy 

12.4 Adaptability to existing buildings 

13. Market forces 

13.1 Forces accelerating adoption 

13.2 Obstacles to adoption 

14. Future trends and needs 

14.1 Independent testing 

14.2 Life cycle analysis 

14.3 Societal concerns 

14.4 Environmental and human health concerns 

14.5 Regulation 

References and links

cover: flexible solar panel from konarka 

acknowledgements: an initial study of energy-efficient nanomaterials was made possible by a 

fellowship at the center for energy research, education and service

Nanotechnology for Green Building © 2007 Dr. George Elvin 

Executive summary 

This report offers a comprehensive research review of current and near future 

applications of nanotechnology for green building. Its results suggest that the potential 

for energy conservation and reduced waste, toxicity, non-renewable resource 

consumption, and carbon emissions through the architectural applications of 

nanotechnology is significant. These environmental performance improvements will 

be led by current improvements in insulation, coatings, air and water purification, 

followed by forthcoming advances in solar and lighting technology, and more distant 

(>10 years) potential in structural components and adhesives. U.S. demand for nanoenhanced 

building materials totaled less than $20 million in 2006, but the market is 

expected to reach almost $400 million by 2016. Green building, meanwhile, accounts 

for $12 billion of the $142 billion U.S. construction market. 1 The convergence of 

green building and nanotechnology will result in economic opportunities for both 

industries and, most importantly, significant improvements in human and 

environmental health. 

Based on our research, we divide the timeline for nano-enhanced building materials 

into three phases. First, current architectural market applications of nanotechnology 

are led by nanocoatings for insulating, self-cleaning, UV protection, corrosion 

resistance, and waterproofing. Many of these coatings incorporate titanium dioxide 

nanoparticles to make surfaces not only self-cleaning but also depolluting, able to 

remove pollutants from the surrounding atmosphere. Insulating nanocoatings promise 

significant energy savings, particularly for existing buildings which can be difficult to 

insulate with conventional materials. Already gaining market share rapidly in 

industrial applications, insulating nanocoatings will soon have a major impact in 

architecture. 

Coming soon are nanotechnologies for solar energy, lighting, and water and air 

filtration. Nano-enhanced solar cell technologies such as organic thin-film and roll-toroll 

processing are also well under development and will gain an increasing share of 

the solar cell market in coming years. Not far behind is nano-enhanced lighting such 

as organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) and quantum dot lighting. Market 

applications of these technologies have already begun with small consumer devices 

like cellphone screens, are beginning to enter the architectural lighting market, and 

will gain an increasing percentage of that market in the future due to their energysaving 

capabilities. Nanotechnologies for water and air filtration, already widely 

available as consumer products, will gain an increasing percentage of the market for 

built-in filtration systems. 

In the future, advances in fire protection through nanotechnology suggest great 

opportunity as extensive research in this area moves from the universities and research 

centers into commercial production. Extensive research underway on nanoenhancement 

of structural materials including steel, concrete and wood suggests that 

1


dramatic improvements are possible in this area, although their marketplace 

applications are, in most cases, many years off. 

Public and building industry reaction to nanotechnology has been largely positive so 

far. Nanomaterials have already been used in hundreds of buildings, including highend 

projects like the Jubilee Church in Rome by Richard Meier and Partners and New 

York’s Bond Street Apartment Building by Herzog & de Meuron. We have even 

incorporated several nanocoatings into our office construction at Green Technology 

Forum with positive results. 

However, a number of factors stand in the way of widespread adoption. Current 

obstacles to the adoption of nanotechnology for green building include the high cost of 

many nanotech products and processes, risk aversion and the traditional hesitancy of 

the building industry to embrace new technologies, as well as uncertainty about the 

health and environmental effects of nanoparticles and public acceptance of 

nanotechnology. Lack of independent testing and the current reliance on manufacturer 

claims in determining the architectural and environmental performance of most nanoproducts 

could also hinder adoption. 

But as this report reveals, many nano-enhanced products are available today which 

offer substantial architectural and environmental performance improvements over 

conventional products. Many coatings, for example, can protect building surfaces and 

reduce the need for harsh chemical cleansers while producing no volatile organic 

compounds (VOCs) and even removing pollutants from their surroundings. If 

consumers embrace nanotechnology as a green technology, if building owners, 

architects, contractors and engineers accept uncertainty and risk and embrace 

innovation, and if the high cost of nano-products continues to fall, the tremendous 

promise of nanotechnology for green building will be realized. 

As prices for nano-enhanced building products continue to fall, as buyers weigh their 

life cycle and environmental cost advantages, and building industry leaders become 

more familiar with nanotechnology, its widespread adoption seems inevitable. 

Nanotechnology for green building will reduce waste and toxicity, as well as energy 

and raw material consumption in the building industry, resulting in cleaner, healthier 

buildings. In addition to the human health and environmental benefits nanotechnology 

for green building is poised to make, economic benefits for both the building industry 

and nanomaterials industry appear considerable. The demand for green building is at a 

an all-time high, and building owners, architects, contractors and engineers adopting 

nanotechnology for green building are likely to emerge as leaders and be rewarded 

accordingly for their services. For nanotechnology companies, green building 

represents one of the largest markets possible for new products and processes. 

The Green Technology Forum report on nanotechnology for green building identifies 

130 startups and established companies offering or developing nanomaterials for green 

building, 54 projects underway at universities and research centers, 43 recent patents 

available for licensing, and over 250 citations and links to these resources. 

2


Part 1. Nanotechnology and Green Building 

1. Introduction 

The design, construction and operation of buildings is a $1 trillion per year market as 

yet largely untouched by nanotechnology. Demand for nanomaterials in the U.S. 

construction industry in 2006 totaled less than $20 million. 2 However, as this report 

shows, the migration of the entire building industry toward more sustainable “green” 

practices is a multi-billion dollar opportunity for the makers and suppliers of 

nanotech-based materials and products. For architects, engineers, developers, 

contractors and building owners, new nanomaterials and nano-products offer 

extraordinary environmental benefits to help meet the rapidly growing demand for 

greener, more sustainable buildings. 

Nanotechnology, the manipulation of matter at the molecular scale, is bringing new 

materials and new possibilities to industries as diverse as electronics, medicine, energy 

and aeronautics. Our ability to design new materials from the bottom up is impacting 

the building industry as well. New materials and products based on nanotechnology 

can be found in building insulation, coatings, and solar technologies. Work now 

underway in nanotech labs will soon result in new products for lighting, structures, 

and energy. 

In the building industry, nanotechnology has already brought to market self-cleaning 

windows, smog-eating concrete, and many other advances. But these advances and 

currently available products are minor compared to those incubating in the world’s 

nanotech labs today. There, work is underway on illuminating walls that change color 

with the flip of a switch, nanocomposites as thin as glass yet capable of supporting 

entire buildings, and photosynthetic surfaces making any building façade a source of 

free energy. By 2016, the market for nanomaterials in U.S. construction is expected to 

reach almost $400 million, twenty times its current volume. 3 

1.1 Green building 

The advent of the nano era in building could not have come at a better time, as the 

building industry moves aggressively toward sustainability. Green building is one of 

the most urgent environmental issues of our time. The energy services required by 

residential, commercial, and industrial buildings are responsible for approximately 43 

percent of U.S. carbon dioxide emissions. Worldwide, buildings consume between 30 

and 40 percent of the world’s electricity. 4 Waste from building construction accounts 

for 40 percent of all landfill material in the U.S., and sick building syndrome costs an 

3


estimated $60 billion in healthcare costs annually. Deforestation, soil erosion, 

environmental pollution, acidification, ozone depletion, fossil fuel depletion, global 

climate change, and human health risks are all attributable in some measure to 

building construction and operation. Clearly, buildings play a leading role in our 

current environmental predicament. 

0% 

percentage of annual impact (us) 

Environmental impact of buildings 

Buildings figure prominently in world energy consumption, carbon 

emissions, and waste. (Source: Levin, “Systematic Evaluation and 

Assessment of Building Environmental Performance (SEABEP),” 

Buildings and Environment, Paris, June 9-12, 1997) 

But they also offer a vast opportunity to improve environmental quality and human 

health. Green building is a catch-all phrase encompassing efforts to reduce waste, 

toxicity, and energy and resource consumption in buildings. The green building 

movement has grown to the point that major cities like Chicago and Seattle now 

require new buildings to comply with strict environmental standards. More and more 

public and private owners are requiring that new construction meet stringent 

sustainability benchmarks like the U.S. Green Building Council’s Leadership in 

Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) criteria. The Council of American 

Building Officials' Model Energy Code (residential) and ASHRAE Standard 90.1 

(commercial) propose tougher energy saving requirements, and the proposed EU 

Directive on the Energy Performance of Buildings also sets minimum energy 

performance standards for new buildings. 

4 

50% 

energy use 42% 

atmospheric emissions 40% 

raw materials use 30% 

solid waste 25% 

water use 25% 

water effluents 20% 

100%


In 2007, the green building sector of the $142 billion U.S. construction market is 

expected to exceed $12 billion. 5 And as owners, architects and builders worldwide 

become increasingly committed to green building, a true paradigm shift is emerging, 

from buildings as one of the primary causes of environmental damage and global 

climate change to the industry with the greatest potential to reduce carbon emissions, 

waste, and energy consumption. 

Analyses of global climate change and global-scale plans to alleviate it affirm the 

importance of building as our primary opportunity to heal the planet. “Tackling 

Climate Change in the U.S.,” by the American Solar Energy Society, for example, 

suggests that 40 percent of the energy savings required to achieve necessary carbon 

reductions could come from the building sector, with transportation and industry 

providing about 30 percent each. 6 Better building envelope design, daylighting, more 

efficient artificial lighting, and better efficiency standards for building components 

and appliances are all opportunities to make the building industry the leader in fighting 

global climate change and advancing sustainable development and energy 

conservation. 

Green building practitioners seek to implement sustainable development, 

“development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of 

future generations to meet their own needs,” in the design, construction and operation 

of buildings. 7 They strive to minimize the use of non-renewable resources like coal, 

petroleum, natural gas and minerals, and minimize waste and pollutants. Energy 

conservation is critical to green building because it both conserves resources and 

reduces waste and pollutants. 

But a number of obstacles stand between green builders and these goals. Education 

and economics are certainly factors, and efforts are well underway to inform clients 

that initial design and construction costs for green buildings are typically less than 5 

percent more than the waste- and energy-intensive buildings of the past, and that life 

cycle costs for green buildings are actually lower. Policies, regulations and standards 

also play a role, and these are changing quickly in some areas to allow for greener 

alternatives like recycled materials and graywater systems. 

But for the building industry to achieve its potential as the leader in sustainable 

development, new materials are urgently needed. A trip to the lumber yard just a few 

years ago to buy materials for a new deck, for example, would turn up the unpleasant 

options of arsenic-laden pressure-treated lumber, non-renewable old-growth redwood, 

or environmentally toxic vinyl decking. An effort to conserve energy by installing attic 

insulation would meet with the alternatives of fiberglass, polystyrene, or cellulose 

laced with fire-retardant chemicals, all considered dangerous. Current windows are 

extremely poor insulators, leading to increased energy consumption. And alternatives 

to polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe for plumbing are healthier than this known 

carcinogen but scarce and costly. Now, however, a new frontier is opening in building 

materials as nanotechnology introduces new products and new possibilities. 

5


1.2 Nanotechnology 

Nanotechnology, the understanding and control of matter at dimensions of roughly 

one to one hundred billionths of a meter, is bringing dramatic changes to the materials 

and processes of science and industry worldwide. $13 billion worth of products 

incorporating nanotechnology were sold last year, with sales expected to top $1 trillion 

by 2015. 8 In 2004, over $8 billion was spent in the U.S. alone on nanotech research 

and development. 

Dimensions at the nanoscale 

The diameter of a nanoparticle is to the diameter of a soccer ball as the 

soccer ball’s diameter is to the Earth’s. (Source: Green Technology 

Forum) 

By working at the molecular level, nanotechnology opens up new possibilities in 

material design. In the nanoscale world where quantum physics rules, objects can 

change color, shape, and phase much more easily than at the macroscale. Fundamental 

properties like strength, surface-to-mass ratio, conductivity, and elasticity can be 

designed in to create dramatically different materials. 

Nanoparticles have unique mechanical, electrical, optical and reactive properties 

distinct from larger particles. Their study (nanoscience) and manipulation 

(nanotechnology) also open up the convergence of synthetic and biological materials 

6


as we explore biological systems which are configured to the nanoscale. Crossing the 

traditional boundaries between living and non-living systems allows for the design of 

new materials with the advantages of both, and it raises ethical concerns. Advances in 

biomaterials and biocomposites converge with advances in nanotechnology, and an 

increase in their application to construction seems certain to emerge in the future. 

Carbon nanotubes 

Carbon nanotubes can be up to 250 times stronger than steel and 10 

times lighter, as well as electrically and thermally conductive. (Source: 

Nanomix) 

But with new materials and technologies come new concerns. Uncertainty surrounding 

the interaction of nanoscale particles with the environment and the human body has 

led to caution and concern about toxicology, worker health and safety, and regulation. 

Regulations specific to nanomaterials and products have been slow to emerge, partly 

due to the inherent difficulty in regulating materials based on particle size, as well as 

lack of public outcry in favor of stiffer regulation and the success so far of selfregulation 

by industry and the avoidance of any nano-disasters. 

7


1.3 Convergence 

“It is not as though nanotechnology will be an option; it is going to be essential for 

coming up with sustainable technologies.” advises Paul Anastas, director of the 

American Chemical Society Green Chemistry Institute. 9 The nanotech community 

appears ready to meet Anatsas’ challenge, and the market for nano-based products and 

processes for sustainability is expected to grow from $12 billion in 2006 to $37 billion 

by 2015. 10 New materials and processes brought about by nanotechnology, for 

example, offer tremendous potential for fighting global climate change. According to 

the report, “Nanotechnologies for Sustainable Energy,” by Research and Markets, 

“Current applications of nanotechnologies will result in a global annual saving of 

8,000 tons of carbon dioxide in 2007, rising to over 1 million tons by 2014.” 11 

Globally, nanotechnologies are expected to reduce carbon emissions in three main 

areas: 1) transportation, 2) improved insulation in residential and commercial 

buildings, and 3) generation of renewable photovoltaic energy. 12 It is worth noting that 

the last two of these three areas are centered in the building industry, suggesting that 

building could in fact lead the green nano revolution. 

Many nano-enhanced products and processes now on the market can help create more 

sustainable, energy-conserving buildings, providing materials that reduce waste and 

toxic outputs as well as dependence on non-renewable resources. Other products still 

in development offer even more promise for dramatically improving the 

environmental and energy performance of buildings. Nano-enabled advances for 

energy conservation in architecture include new materials like carbon nanotubes and 

insulating nanocoatings, as well as new processes including photocatalysis. 

Nanomaterials can improve the strength, durability, and versatility of structural and 

non-structural materials, reduce material toxicity, and improve building insulation. 

Nanotechnology markets 2007 

Building construction is not yet a significant market for nanotechnology. 

(Source: Cientifica, “Nanotechnologies and energy whitepaper,” 2007) 

8 

chemical 53% 

semiconductor 34% 

electronics 7% 

aero/defense 3% 

pharma/health 2% 

automotive 1% 

food


Rank Technology 

1 Electricity Storage 

1 Engine Efficiency 

2 Hydrogen Economy 

3 Photovoltaics 

3 Insulation 

4 Thermovoltaics 

4 Fuel Cells 

4 Lighting 

6 Lightweighting 

6 

7 

8 

9 

Agriculture 

Pollution Reduction 

Drinking Water 

Purification 

Environmental 

Sensors 

8 Remediation 

Ranking of environmentally friendly 

nanotechnologies 

Most environmentally friendly nanotechnologies are well-suited to use 

in buildings (Source: Oakdene Hollins, “Environmentally Beneficial 

Nanotechnologies,” 2007) 

The chart and table above reveal that building construction is not yet a significant 

market for nanotechnology. But that is not necessarily bad news for either the 

construction industry or the marketers of nano-products. The construction industry has 

long been slow to adopt new technologies, and the nanotech era is proving to be no


exception. The demands of public and private building owners for greener materials, 

demands increasingly being enforced as regulations in many instances, will soon force 

architects and engineers to specify greener materials in buildings. This demand, 

combined with the environmentally friendly character of most nano-products for 

architecture, will create a synergy that we expect will result in a boom in demand for 

nanotechnology for green building. 

10


Part 2. Materials 

2. Insulation 

The market for green building materials and technologies will of course be determined 

more by market pull--the needs of architects, owners and contractors--than by the 

technological push of new nanomaterials discovered and developed in the laboratory. 

But the convergence of green building demands and green nanotechnology capabilities 

over the next 5-10 years appears very strong. It suggests eight categories of 

nanotechnology for green building that are the focus of this report. 

Insulation 

Coatings 

Adhesives 

Solar energy 

Lighting 

Air and water filtration 

Structural materials 

Non-structural materials 

The demand from both public and private enterprise for more energy efficient 

buildings will lead to significant growth in the insulation sector in the next few years. 

Valued at $7.2 billion value in 2005, it is expected to reach $9.5 billion by 2010. 13 

Current building insulation is estimated to save about 12 quadrillion Btu annually or 

42 percent of the energy that would be consumed without it. 14 Building insulation 

reduces the amount of energy required to maintain a comfortable environment. 

Reduced energy consumption, in turn, means reduced carbon emissions from energy 

production. Insulation is, in fact, the most cost-effective means of reducing carbon 

emissions available today. 

Improving on current building insulation could save even more energy and carbon 

emissions. EU households, for instance, are responsible for one quarter of EU carbon 

emissions, roughly 70 percent of which comes from meeting space heating needs. 

Space heating savings through better insulation in Germany, The Netherlands, Italy, 

UK, Spain and Ireland, would reduce EU carbon emissions by 100 million metric tons 

per year. 15 As the table below indicates, improved thermal insulation could meet over 

25 percent of EU carbon reduction goals by 2010. In the U.S., improved insulation 

could save 2.2 quadrillion Btu of energy (3 percent of total energy use) and reduce 

carbon emissions by 294 billion pounds annually. 16 

11


Improvement 

Thermal 

Insulation 

Glazing 

Standards 

Lighting 

Efficiency 

12 

CO2 Reduction (tons/yr) by 

2010 

174-196 

50 

50 

Controls 26 

Potential sources of EU CO2 emission reductions 

Buildings have the potential to become leading sources of CO2 

reductions. (Source: CALEB Management Services, "Assessment of the 

potential savings of CO2 emissions in European building stock", May 

1998) 

Today’s building insulation industry is in many ways a model of large-scale industrial 

recycling. Fiberglass insulation manufacturers are the second largest user of postconsumer 

recycled glass in the U.S., slag wool insulation typically contains 75 percent 

recycled content, and most cellulose insulation is approximately 80 percent postconsumer 

recycled newspaper by weight. 17 

Health effects of several insulating materials are a concern, however, and improved 

health and environmental performance could lead to greater use and therefore energy 

conservation. Some sources argue that the fibers released from fiberglass insulation 

may be carcinogenic, and fiberglass insulation now requires cancer warning labels. 

There are also claims that the fire retardant chemicals or respirable particles in 

cellulose insulation may be hazardous. And the styrene used in polystyrene insulation 

(often known by the brand name Styrofoam) is identified by the EPA as a possible 

carcinogen, mutagen, chronic toxin, and environmental toxin. 18, 19 Polystyrene also 

poses a resource concern because it is produced from ethylene, a natural gas 

component, and benzene, which is derived from petroleum. Two other insulating 

materials, polyisocyanurate and polyurethane, are also derived from petroleum. 

Nanotechnology promises to make insulation more efficient, less reliant on nonrenewable 

resources, and less toxic, and it is delivering on many of those promises 

today. Manufacturers estimate that insulating materials derived from nanotechnology 

are roughly 30 percent more efficient than conventional materials. 20


Nanoscale materials hold great promise as insulators because of their extremely high 

surface-to-volume ratio. This gives them the ability to trap still air within a material 

layer of minimal thickness (conventional insulating materials like fiberglass and 

polystyrene get their high insulating value less from the conductive properties of the 

materials themselves than from their ability to trap still air.) Insulating nanomaterials 

may be sandwiched between rigid panels, applied as thin films, or painted on as 

coatings. 

2.1 Aerogel 

Making nanofibers from cotton waste 

While cellulose insulation is made from 80 percent post-consumer 

recycled newspaper, the equivalent of 25 million 480-pound cotton 

bales are discarded as scrap every year in the garment industry. 

"Producing a high-performance material from reclaimed cellulose 

material will increase motivation to recycle these materials at all 

phases of textile production and remove them from the waste 

stream," said Margaret Frey, an assistant professor of textiles and 

apparel at Cornell. 

Frey and her collaborators are using electrospinning techniques to 

produce usable nanofibers from waste cellulose. These nanofibers 

could form the basis of new insulating materials from cellulose 

which, as the basic building block of all plant life, represents the 

most abundant renewable resource on the planet. 21 

Aerogel is an ultra-low density solid, a gel in which the liquid component has been 

replaced with gas. Nicknamed “frozen smoke”, aerogel has a content of just 5 percent 

solid and 95 percent air, and is said to be the lightest weight solid in the world. Despite 

its lightness, however, aerogel can support over 2,000 times its own weight. 

Because nanoporous aerogels can be sensitive to moisture, they are often marketed 

sandwiched between wall panels that repel moisture. Aerogel panels are available with 

up to 75 percent translucency, and their high air content means that a 9cm (3.5”) thick 

aerogel panel can offer an R-value of R-28, a value previously unheard of in a 

translucent panel. 22 Architectural applications of aerogel include windows, skylights, 

and translucent wall panels. 

13


Currently, major companies in the aerogel arena include the Cabot Corporation 

(makers of Nanogel,) Aspen Aerogels, Kalwall (using Cabot’s Nanogel,) and TAASI 

(makers of Prstina aerogels.) 

Brown University currently has several aerogel technologies available for licensing, 

including one that can be used as a coating to permit printing on materials that 

normally cannot be printed on. These aerogels can bind various gases for use as 

detectors, and can be colored or ground into very small particles and applied like ink 

using a printer. They are also transparent and have a low refractive index, making 

them useful as light-weight optical materials. 23 

Aerogel: the world’s lightest solid 

A 9cm (3.5”) thick aerogel panel can offer an R-value of R-28. (Source: 

Sandia National Laboratory) 

14


r-value per inch 

0 4 8 12 16 20 24 

Aerogels offer superior insulation 

Aerogels offer 2-3 times the insulating value of other common insulating 

materials. (Source: Aspen Aerogels) 

Nanogel panels provide translucency and 

insulation 

High-insulating Nanogel panels are available with up to 75 percent 

translucency. (Source: Kalwall) 

15 

aspen aerogels spaceloft 

polyisocyanurate foam 

polystyrene foam 

mineral wool 

fiberglass batts


2.2 Thin-film insulation 

Insulating nanocoatings can also be applied as thin films to glass and fabrics. Masa 

Shade Curtains, for example, are fiber sheets coated with a nanoscale stainless steel 

film. Thanks to stainless steel's ability to absorb infrared rays, these curtains are able 

to block out sunlight, lower room temperatures in summer by 2-3º C more than 

conventional products, and reduce electrical expenses for air conditioning, according 

to manufacturer claims. 24 

Heat absorbing films can be applied to windows as well. Windows manufactured by 

Vanceva incorporate a nanofilm “interlayer” which, according to the company, offers 

cost effective control of heat and energy loads in building and solar performance 

superior to that of previously available laminating systems. By selectively reducing 

the transmittance of solar energy relative to visible light, they say, these solar 

performance interlayers result in savings in the capital cost of energy control 

equipment as well as operating costs of climate control equipment. Benefits include 

the ability to block solar heat and up to 99 percent of UV rays while allowing visible 

light to pass through. 25 

uv blockage 

0% 100% 

masa shade curtain 84% 

untreated curtain 58% 

Stainless steel nanofilm improves UV light 

blockage 

Masa Shade Curtains reduce room temperatures and air conditioning by 

improving blockage of ultraviolet (UV) rays. (Source: Suzutora 

Corporation) 

3M has developed a range of nanotech-based window films that reduce heat and 

ultraviolet light penetration. Their films reject up to 97 percent of the sun's infrared 

light and up to 99.9 percent of UV rays. Unlike many reflective films, theirs are metalfree 

and therefore less susceptible to corrosion in coastal environments and less likely 

to interfere with mobile phone reception. These films also have less interior 

reflectivity than the glass they cover. 26 

16


Exterior reflectivity can also be controlled by nanofilms. Technology from Rensselaer 

Polytechnic Institute and Crystal IS, Inc. has led to highly anti-reflective coatings 

utilizing silicon dioxide and titanium dioxide nanorods for a variety of surfaces. Their 

coating has a refelctivity index of just 1.05, the lowest ever reported. 27 

Infrared (IR) rays can also be blocked using transparent IR-absorbing coatings for 

heat-absorbing films for windows. VP AdNano ITO IR5, used in transparent film 

coatings, improves solar absorption properties while maintaining optical transparency, 

according to its manufacturer, Degussa. The use of AdNano ITO on windows, they 

claim, improves heat management, greatly reducing the energy consumption of air 

conditioners, thereby lowering greenhouse gas emissions. Production of AdNano ITO, 

they add, does not pollute the environment with heavy metals, and consumes very 

little energy because drying and calcination take place at moderate temperatures. 28 

2.3 Insulating coatings 

Insulation can also be painted or sprayed on in the form of a coating. This is a 

tremendous advantage nanocoatings offer over more conventional bulk insulators like 

fiberglass, cellulose, and polystyrene boards, which often require the removal of 

building envelope components for installation. 

Because they trap air at the molecular level, insulating nanocoatings even a few 

thousands of an inch thick can have a dramatic effect. Nanoseal is one company 

already making insulating paints for buildings. Their insulating coating is also being 

used on beer tanks by Corona in Mexico, resulting in a temperature differential of 36 

degrees Fahrenheit after application of a coating just seven one thousands of an inch 

thick. 29 

Industrial Nanotechnology, the makers of Nansulate HomeProtect Interior paint, 

advertise that the average surface temperature difference when applied correctly is 

approximately 30 degrees Fahrenheit for three coats. For Nansulate HomeProtect 

ClearCoat, they claim an average surface temperature difference of approximately 60 

degrees Fahrenheit. Nansulate PT is being applied to aluminum ceiling panels in the 

new Suvanabhumi International Airport in Bangkok, the world’s largest airport. 30 

HPC HiPerCoat and HiPerCaot Extreme are currently used as thermal barrier coatings 

by NASA and NASCAR. Their ceramic-aluminum coating process, they report, 

reduces radiant heat and ambient underhood temperature in autos by more than 40 

percent. It also offers a corrosion-resistant alternative to environmentally harmful 

chrome-plating. 31 

Industrial Nanotech is even developing thermal insulation that will generate 

electricity. The thin sheets of insulation use the temperature differential that insulation 

creates as a source for generating electricity. “The fact that there is almost always, day 

or night and anywhere in the world, a difference between the temperature inside a 

building and outside a building gives us an almost constant source of energy 

17


generation to tap into,” said CEO Stuart Burchill. The company is now designing the 

first prototype material and filing patents. 32 

NanoPore Thermal Insulation uses silica, titania and carbon in a 3D, highly branched 

network of particles 2-20 nanometers in diameter to create a unique pore structure. 

According to its maker, NanoPore Thermal Insulation can provide thermal 

performance unequalled by conventional insulation materials. In the form of a vacuum 

insulation panel, It can have thermal resistance values as high as R-40/inch--7 to 8 

times greater than conventional foam insulation materials. 

NanoPore’s makers claim that its conductivity can actually be lower than air at the 

same pressure. Its superior insulation characteristics, they say, are due to the unique 

shape and small size of its large number of pores. Solid phase conduction is low due to 

the materials low density and high surface area, and NanoPore’s proprietary blend of 

infra-red opacifiers greatly reduces radiant heat transfer. 33 

Nanoparticles with extreme insulating value can also be incorporated into 

conventional paints, as in the case of INSULADD paints. As its manufacturer 

describes it, the complex blend of microscopic hollow ceramic spheres that makes up 

INSULADD have a vacuum inside like mini-thermos bottles. The ceramic materials 

have unique energy savings properties that reflect heat while dissipating it. The hollow 

ceramic microspheres in INSULADD create a thermal barrier by refracting, reflecting, 

and dissipating heat. 34 

expanded polystyrene nanopore 

Superior insulation with reduced thickness 

330 cm 3 of Nanopore insulating nanocoating (right) provides the same Rvalue 

as 7000 cm 3 of polystyrene (left). (Source: Nanopore Incorporated) 

18


Inside an insulating nanocoating 

Nansulate Shield is an insulation material designed specifically for 

the construction industry. It is an ultra-thin insulation that, 

according to its manufacturer, has an R-Value many times higher 

than the current best building insulation available. It is a 

nanocomposite insulation composed of 70 percent “Hydro-NM- 

Oxide” and 30 percent acrylic resin and performance additive. A 

liquid applied coating, the material dries to a thin layer and 

provides insulation as well as corrosion and rust protection. The 

manufacturers describe their product’s performance this way: 

“Thermal conduction through the solid portion is hindered by the 

tiny size of the connections between the particles making up the 

conduction path, and the solids that are present consist of very 

small particles linked in a three-dimensional network (with many 

"dead-ends"). Therefore, thermal transfer through the solid portion 

occurs through a very complicated maze and is not very effective. 

Air and gas in the material can inherently also transport thermal 

energy, but the gas molecules within the matrix experience what is 

known as the Knudsen effect and the exchange of energy is 

virtually eliminated. Conduction is limited because the "tunnels" 

are only the size of the mean-free path for molecular collisions, 

smaller than a wave of light, and molecules collide with the solid 

network as frequently as they collide with each other. The unique 

structure... nanometer-sized cells, pores, and particles, means poor 

thermal conduction. Radiative conduction is low due to small mass 

fractions and large surface areas.” 35 

Hydro-NM-Oxide ----------- 10 to 13 

Polyurethane Foam -------- 6.64 

Fiberglass (batts) ----------- 3.2 

Cellulose ---------------------- 3.2 to 3.7 

R-value comparison of insulation 

Similar to aerogel, insulating nanocoatings like 

the active ingredient in Nansulate Shield provide 

2-3 times the R-value of ordinary insulators 

(Source: Industrial Nanotech) 

19


2.4 Emerging insulation technologies 

Work is underway at many universities and research centers to develop new insulating 

materials based on nanotechnology. University of California scientists working at Los 

Alamos National Laboratory, for instance, have developed a process for modifying 

silica aerogels to create a silicon multilayer that enhances the current physical 

properties of aerogels. With the addition of a silicon monolayer, they say, an aerogel's 

strength can be increased four-fold. This could expand the range of applications for 

aerogels, which must currently be protected by surrounding panels. 36 

At EMPA Research Institute in Switzerland, work is underway to create vacuum 

insulated products using plastic films such as PET, polyethylene and polyurethane 

treated with an ultra-thin coating of aluminum. Only about 30 nanometers thick, the 

aluminum layer significantly reduces the gas permeability of the film while at the 

same time barely raising its thermal conductivity. The resulting cladding layer is thin, 

homogeneous and gas-tight. The higher cost (still about double that of conventional 

materials) is offset by the space-saving potential the new materials offer. 37 

Many products of current research on nano-insulation are available for licensing. For 

example, eight licensable patents for aerospace insulation materials are available 

through the Engineering Technology Transfer Center at the USC Viterbi School of 

Engineering, including “Composite Flexible Blanket Insulation,” “Durable Advanced 

Flexible Reusable Surface Insulation,” and “Flexible Ceramic-Metal Insulation 

Composite.” 38 

Also available for licensing are NASA’s Ames Research Center’s novel 

nanoengineered heat sink materials enabling multi-zone, reconfigurable thermal 

control systems in spacesuits, habitats, and mobile systems. This platform technology 

can be adapted to a wide range of form factors thanks to a flexible metallic substrate. 

2.5 Future market for nano-insulation 

If the field performance of nano-insulation products lives up to manufacturer claims, 

these products could foster dramatic improvements in energy savings and carbon 

reduction. However, independent testing of insulating nanomaterials and products in 

use will be necessary to verify manufacturer claims and convince potential buyers of 

their effectiveness. Some manufacturers are already making the results of such testing 

public, with encouraging results. 

One of the greatest potential energy-saving characteristics of nanocoatings and thin 

films is their applicability to existing surfaces for improved insulation. They can be 

applied directly to the surfaces of existing buildings, whereas the post-construction 

addition of conventional insulating materials like cellulose fiber, fiberglass batts, and 

rigid polystyrene boards typically require expensive and invasive access to wall 

cavities and remodeling. Nanocoatings could also make it much easier to insulate 

solid-walled buildings, which make up approximately one third of the UK’s housing 

20


stock. And unlike cellulose fiber, fiberglass batts, and rigid polystyrene boards, 

nanocoatings can be made transparent. Their application to existing structures could 

lead to tremendous energy savings, and they do not appear to raise the environmental 

and health concerns attributed to fiberglass and polystyrene. 

3. Coatings 

Insulating nanoparticles can be applied to substrates using chemical vapor deposition, 

dip, meniscus, spray, and plasma coating to create a layer bound to the base material. 

Other types of nanoparticle coatings can also be applied by these methods to achieve a 

wide variety of other performance characteristics, including: 

Self-cleaning 

Depolluting 

Scratch-resistant 

Anti-icing and anti-fogging 

Antimicrobial 

UV protection 

Corrosion-resistant 

Waterproofing 

Thanks to the versatility of many nanoparticles, surfaces treated with them often 

exhibit more than one of these properties. On this versatility and the environmental 

improvements possible through the use of nanocoatings, the European Parliament's 

Scientific Technology Options Assessment concluded: 

"At present, nanotechnologies and nanotechnological concepts deliver a variety of 

mostly incremental improvements of existing bulk materials, coatings or products. 

These improvements point in several directions and often are aimed at improving 

several properties at the same time. With respect to substitution this means that 

nanotechnological approaches often cannot lead to direct substitution of a hazardous 

substance, but may lead in general to a more environmentally friendly product or 

process." 39 

3.1 Self-cleaning coatings 

Self-cleaning surfaces have become a reality thanks to photocatalytic coatings 

containing titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles. These nanoparticles initiate 

photocatalysis, a process by which dirt is broken down by exposure to the sun’s 

ultraviolet rays and washed away by rain. Volatile organic compounds are oxidized 

into carbon dioxide and water. Today’s self-cleaning surfaces are made by applying a 

thin nanocoating film, painting a nanocoating on, or integrating nanoparticles into the 

surface layer of a substrate material. 

21


Self-cleaning facade systems utilizing the latter technology can be found in the Jubilee 

Church in Rome by Richard Meier and Partners, the Marunouchi Building in 

downtown Tokyo, the General Hospital in Carmarthen, UK, and Herzog & de 

Meuron’s Bond Street Apartment Building in New York. Self-cleaning windows are 

now available from most major window manufacturers including Pilkington, PPG, 

Saint-Gobain, and Andersen. While the Marunouchi Building and General Hospital 

have self-cleaning windows, in the Jubilee Church titanium dioxide nanoparticles are 

actually integrated into the precast concrete facade panels. The panel system’s 

manufacturer, Italcementi Group, has even tested TiO2 on road surfaces and found it 

reduced nitrogen oxide levels by up to 60 percent. At present, their self-cleaning 

facade system costs 30 to 40 percent more than regular concrete, but they believe that 

self-cleaning materials will save money in the long run. 40 

The fiber cement company, Nichiha, employs nanotechnology in three precast panel 

lines for exterior cladding; Canyon Brick, Field Stone and Quarry Stone. Working 

together with paint manufacturers, Nichiha created a self-cleaning finish on its fiber 

cement panels that allows a microscopic layer of water to protect the finish from dirt 

or soot. A simple rain, they say, will wash away stains leaving the exterior looking 

new. 41 

Ai-Nano is, according to its manufacturer, a non-toxic, environmentally friendly, 

hygienic photocatalytic coating. It creates a semi-permanent invisible coating on most 

surfaces to provide anti-bacteria, anti-mold, anti-fungus, UV protection, deodorizing, 

air purification, self-cleaning and self sanitizing functionality. 42 

Self-cleaning nanocoatings can also be applied as paint, and a variety of commercially 

available paints take advantage of TiO2’s properties. Herbol by Akzo Nobel, based on 

BASF’s nanobinder COL.9, displays much lower dirt pick-up and excellent color 

retention, according to its manufacturer. They say that during the production of COL.9 

binders, inorganic nanoparticles are incorporated homogeneously into organic polymer 

particles of water-based dispersions. These then form a three-dimensional network in 

the facade coating which ensures an extremely hard and hydrophilic surface(causing 

water to sheet) and a good balance between moisture protection and water vapor 

transmission. With Herbol-Symbiotec, falling water droplets wet the substrate evenly, 

meaning the facade dries faster and picks up less dirt. Similar paints containing TiO2 

are manufactured by Behr, Valspar, and a number of others. 

Nanotec offers a range of nanocoatings with varying functionalities. Their 

Nanoprotect product creates a self-cleaning effect on glass and ceramic surfaces. They 

report that nanoparticles in Nanoprotect adhere directly to the material molecule and 

allow the surface to deflect dirt and water. 

Self-cleaning windows were one of the first architectural applications of 

nanotechnology. The special hydrophilic coating on Pilkington Activ self-cleaning 

glass, for example, causes water to sheet off the surface, leaving a clean exterior with 

minimal spotting or streaking. Using daylight UV energy, the photocatalytic surface of 

22


Pilkington Activ gradually breaks down and loosens dirt, allowing it to be washed 

away by rain or hosing. 43 

Nanocomposite polymer makes paint last longer 

Facades coated with Herbol-Symbiotec paint based on BASF’s 

nanobinder COL.9 display reduced dirt pick-up and improved color 

retention. (Source: BASF) 

According to one report, nanotech surface treatments for stainless steel can reduce 

cleaning time by 80 to 90 percent and protect against pitting corrosion and metal oxide 

staining. Permanent coatings with corrosion protective properties are available but are 

not offered as an aftermarket product, the report says, and the average lifetime of such 

treatments is between 1 and 3 years. Certain application and curing processes require 

special devices and machinery which can only be offered during manufacturing. It is 

certain, the report concludes, that the products under development will replace the 

powder coating processes now widely used for corrosion protection. 44 

3.2 Anti-stain coatings 

In 2002, Eddie Bauer apparel became the first brand to employ Nano-Tex stain 

resistance technology in its designs. Protests by Topless Humans Organized for 

23


Natural Genetics (THONG) at the Eddie Bauer flagship store in Chicago soon 

followed, but today the clothier continues to expand its nano-enhaced line, and Nano- 

Tex has expanded to bring stain resistance to fabrics and other interior finishes. HON 

Company, KnollTextiles, Mayer Fabrics, Arc-Com, Architex, Carnegie, Designtex, 

and Kravet all employ Nano-tex in their textiles. Unlike conventional methods that 

coat the fabric, claims Nano-Tex, they use a process that bonds to each fiber, making 

textiles last longer, retain their natural hand, and breathe normally. This means that 

solid colors, lighter fabrics and delicate weaves can be used in places where spills and 

stains are likely. 

Nanoprotex by Nanotec is a water-based impregnator with very high penetration depth 

for textile. The product is repellent to water, and the adherence of foreign matter to the 

surface is decreased. The nanoparticles adhere directly to the substrate molecules, 

deflecting any foreign matter. 45 

P2i produces Ion Mask enhancement for many applications, including aircraft cabin 

trim, seats, carpets and uniforms. Originally developed as a military technology to 

protect soldiers from chemical attack, Ion Mask applies a protective layer, just 

nanometers thick, over the surface of a material by means of an ionized gas or plasma. 

Without changing the look, feel or breathability of the fabric, the treated material 

becomes hydrophobic (water-resistant), making coffee and red wine spills roll off the 

surface like beads of mercury. 46 

Anti-stain technology is also available from CG 2 . They incorporate ceramic 

nanoparticles that bond with the underlying material to create strong chemical forces 

which they say are around one million times more powerful than the purely physical 

interaction that is present in coatings made using standard mixing or deposition 

techniques. The particles can be designed for different capabilities such as antiadherence, 

scratch resistance, reduced friction, and corrosion resistance. The addition 

of only 3 percent silica nanoparticles, they report, can increase abrasion resistance by 

approximately 400 percent, while using 10 percent silica resulted in an increase of 

approximately 945 percent. 47 

G3i has introduced GreenShield, a soil- and stain-repellent textile finish produced 

using the principles of green nanotechnology. According to the company, the 

manufacturing process eliminates waste and uses ambient temperature and pressure as 

well as water-based solvents, minimizing the use of environmentally detrimental 

chemistries and reducing the amount of product needed to deliver desired properties. 

The company reports the new finish reduces the use of liquid- and stain-repelling 

fluorochemicals by a factor of 10 by using what it calls the principle of micro- and 

nano-roughness, which creates a pocket of air between the liquid or stain and the 

fabric, thereby preventing penetration into the fabric. GreenShield, they say, also 

safely provides antimicrobial properties and antistatic properties. 48 

LuxShield coating for Luxrae Decking protects by controlling moisture, heat and 

water content, UV radiation, and stains. LuxShield coating, says it manufacturer, will 

24


not diminish when exposed to the harsh elements. “LuxShield coating is not a sealer,” 

they say. Instead, its nanoparticles adhere directly to the substrate’s molecules and 

assemble into an invisible, ultra-thin nanoscopic mesh that provides an extremely long 

lasting hydrophobic surface. The hydrophobic effect creates an easy to clean protected 

surface with self-cleaning properties. All foreign particles are washed off by rain or 

when rinsed with water. LuxShield coating is non-toxic, environmentally-friendly, and 

UV-stable. It is, they say, resistant to friction and cannot be removed by water, normal 

cleaning agents, or high pressure equipment. 49 

Zirconia nanoparticles are graffiti’s demise 

Graffiti is an expensive social phenomenon, costing about $1.50 to 

$2.50 per square foot to clean. Last year alone the London tube 

spent over $15 million and the City of Los Angeles $150 million for 

graffiti cleanup. Those costs could go way down, along with the 

harmful effects of solvents used in the cleanup, thanks to new 

nanocoatings developed by Professor Victor Castaño, Senior 

Research Consultant at CG 2 . 

Dr. Castaño and his associates developed a novel approach using 

nanotechnology to chemically attach zirconia, a hard ceramic, to a 

typical polymer (PolyMethylMethAcrylate). In their process, 

ceramic nanoparticles are chemically “grown” on top of the 

polymeric surface, creating a “ceramic” surface to the exterior, with 

a much higher wear resistance. A coating of just 130 nm, which is 

99.9 percent transparent, passed through an ASTM 500 series wear 

test, demonstrated an improvement of over 55 percent compared 

to uncoated surfaces. 50 

Nanoprotect AntiG is a water-based anti-graffiti nano-treatment suitable for concrete, 

brickwork, sandstone, travertine, granite, natural cast stones, and mineral plaster. The 

treatment consists of a permanent impregnating undercoat and a semi-permanent 

topcoat. Graffiti, says the manufacturer, can be easily removed by low-pressure hot 

water, without the need for harsh detergents and chemicals. 51 

3.3 Depolluting surfaces 

Self-cleaning surfaces enabled by nanotechnology offer energy savings by reducing 

the energy consumed in cleaning building facades. They also reduce the runoff of 

environmentally hazardous cleansers. As surfaces self-clean, they are “depolluting”, 

removing organic and inorganic air pollutants like nitrogen oxide from the air and 

breaking them down into relatively benign elements. 

25


Depolluting nanocoatings show considerable promise in cleansing indoor air and 

reducing instances of sick building syndrome (SBS). The World Health Organization 

estimates that up to 30 percent of new or renovated energy-efficient buildings may 

suffer from SBS. 52 The EPA estimates that SBS costs the U.S. economy $60 billion 

per year in medical expenses, absenteeism, lost revenue, reduced productivity and 

property damage. 53 

Self-cleaning nanocoatings shed dirt through 

photocatalysis 

Nanocoatings containing titanium dioxide (left) can be self-cleaning as 

compared to untreated surfaces (right). (Source: AVM Industries, Inc.) 

MCH Nano Solutions, for example, recently introduced Gens Nano, which the 

company describes as a new easy to apply, green, environmentally friendly, 

transparent coating for exterior applications. Gens Nano uses titanium dioxide 

nanoparticles to keep the building exterior clean and at the same time purify the air 

near and on the surface by breaking down nitrous oxides, formaldehyde, benzene, and 

VOCs. 54 

26


A current drawback to self-cleaning photocatalytic coatings utilizing titanium dioxide, 

however, is that they require sunlight for activation, reducing their effectiveness 

indoors. As an alternative for indoor applications, coatings using layered double metal 

hydroxides (LDH), air-cleaning nanocrystals, can be applied to indoor surfaces to 

improve the indoor climate and reduce ventilation requirements, thereby improving 

the building’s energy efficiency. 55 To help overcome the current outdoor-only 

limitation of titanium oxide, researchers at the Institute for Nanoscale Technology in 

Sydney, Australia, are developing a variation that is activated by a standard 

lightbulb. 56 

Outdoors, photocatalytic coatings like the ones used in the Jubilee Church in Rome 

suggest the possibility of smog-eating roads and bridges for reducing outdoor air 

pollution. The Swedish construction giant Skanska is now involved in a $1.7 million 

Swedish-Finnish project to develop catalytic cement and concrete products coated 

with depolluting titanium dioxide. 57 

3.4 Scratch-resistant coatings 

Buildings are subjected to a great deal of wear and tear. Surface scratches can reduce 

the lifespan of many materials and add to the cost and energy required for 

maintenance and replacement. The susceptibility of many metals, wood, plastics, 

polymers and glazings to scratching can limit their potential applications in many 

areas. Nanocoatings can significantly reduce wear and surface scratches. 

Scratch-resistant nanocoatings are already common in the automotive industry. The 

2007 Mercedes-Benz SL series, for example, sports a protective coating of 

nanoparticles that provides a three-fold improvement in the scratch resistance of the 

paintwork. DuPont is also working on nanoparticle paint for autos. The paint, licensed 

from Ecology Coatings, is cured using UV light at room temperature, rather than in 

the 204º C (400 º F) ovens required for conventional auto paint. 

"After the UV hits it, it becomes a thin sheet of plastic," explained Ecology Coatings 

co-founder and chief chemist Sally Ramsey in a recent interview. "Abrasion-resistance 

and scratch-resistance is very much enhanced." 

"We are in the early stages of a profound industry change," added Bob Matheson, 

technical manager for strategic technology production at DuPont. He estimates the 

technology will reduce the amount of energy used in the coating-application process 

by 25 percent and reduce materials costs by 75 percent. 58 

Ecology Coatings makes coatings for metals, polycarbonates, and composites, and has 

also devised a method for waterproofing paper with nanoparticles. In 2005, the 

company granted a license to Red Spot Paint & Varnish to manufacture and sell its 

product in North America. 59 

27


Diamon-Fusion International (DFI) offers a patented scratch-resistant nanocoating 

tested and approved by a U.S. Army prime contractor, PAS Armored, Inc., for glass 

and other silica-based surfaces in military vehicles. The coating, they say, will 

improve vehicle safety under a wide range of adverse weather conditions. DFI’s 

nanocoating also integrates an antimicrobial property by inhibiting the growth of mold 

and bacteria on the treated surface. Like many of the nanocaotings described here, the 

DFI coating is multi-functional, incorporating water and oil repellency, impact and 

scratch resistance, protection against graffiti, dirt and stains, finger print protection, 

UV stability, additional electrical insulation, protection against calcium and sodium 

deposits, and increased brilliance and lubricity. DFI’s hydrophobic nanotechnology 

can also be found in Moen’s Vivid Collection, a new line of luxury faucets and 

accessories for kitchens and baths, where it will help guard against watermarks and 

deposits. 60 

Triton Systems manufactures NanoTuf coating, a clear protective coating for 

polycarbonate surfaces. NanoTuf coatings are created from a solution of nanometersized 

particles suspended in an epoxy-containing matrix. They are specifically 

designed to coat and protect polycarbonate surfaces such as eyewear, making them up 

to four times stronger than existing polycarbonate coatings. 61 

Move over diamond: carbon nanorods are world’s 

hardest substance 

Diamond is no longer the world’s hardest material. Researchers at 

the University of Bayreuth in Germany have created an even harder 

material they call aggregated carbon nanorods. They made the new 

material by compressing super-strong carbon molecules called 

buckyballs to 200 times normal atmospheric pressure while 

simultaneously heating them to 2226° C (4719° F). The new material 

is so tough it even scratches normal diamonds. 62 

3.5 Anti-fogging and anti-icing coatings 

Titanium dioxide becomes hydrophilic (attractive to water) when exposed to UV light, 

making it useful for anti-fogging coatings on windows and mirrors. G-40 Nano 2000 

by AVM Industries is an example of a product using this technology. Polymer 

coatings made of silica nanoparticles can also create surfaces that never fog, without 

the need for UV light. This coating also reduces reflectivity in glazed surfaces. 

The fogging of glazed surfaces is due to condensation. Condensation occurs when 

warm, humid air contacts a cold surface; the moisture in the air condenses and forms a 

layer on the colder surface. Condensation can be prevented by heating the cold 

surface. A team of researchers at the Fraunhofer Technology Development Group 

28


TEG in Stuttgart, Germany have developed a nanotechnology that warms the surface 

with a transparent coat of carbon nanotubes. When electrically charged, the coating 

acts as a continuous heater uniformly covering the cold surface without wires of other 

visible heating elements. 63 

Nanocoatings can also help reduce the buildup of ice. CG 2 makes an anti-icing coating 

that could offer improved environmental performance compared to heating, salts or 

chemicals often used to remove ice. According to the company, their product is an 

economical anti-ice coating that in independent tests demonstrated a reduction in ice 

adhesion by a factor of approximately four in comparison to bare aluminum. Potential 

uses include any application where even a relatively small reduction in ice adhesion is 

valuable and where a large surface area has to be coated. 64 

3.6 Antimicrobial coatings 

Many of the multifunctional coatings already mentioned incorporate antimicrobial 

properties. Others are marketed specifically for their antimicrobial properties. 

Antimicrobial products are marketed in sprays, liquids, concentrated powders, and 

gases. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency says that approximately $1 billion 

each year is spent on antimicrobial products. Conventional antimicrobial products can 

contain any of about 275 different active ingredients, including biocides, which may 

release into the environment. Some biocidal ingredients in antimicrobial products pose 

both environmental hazards and indoor air quality concerns. 

Antimicrobial nanocoatings reportedly offer the benefits of conventional antimicrobial 

products without these environmental and health concerns. Bioni, for example, offers 

nanocoatings with a combination of antimicrobial and heat deflective properties. Their 

low thermal conductivity and the ability to reflect up to 90 percent of the sun’s rays 

reduce heat absorption in coated walls, thereby reducing air conditioning and energy 

consumption. 65 

Researchers at the Fraunhofer Institute for Manufacturing Engineering and Applied 

Materials Research IFAM in Bremen and at Bioni CS have developed a process for 

binding antibacterial silver nanoparticles permanently to paint. According to Bioni, the 

coating is certified as emission-free, and can destroy antibiotic-resistant bacteria. They 

report that their coating has been used in more than 20 hospital projects in Europe and 

the Gulf region, including the 40,000 square meter Discovery Gardens project in 

Dubai. As with nanocoatings from other manufacturers, Bioni can “cross-link” a 

variety of nanoparticles to add additional functionality such as UV protection and 

improved wear resistance to their antimicrobial coating. Mirage Hardwood Floors of 

Canada currently uses these cross-linked nanocoatings. 

29


End of the line for subway-riding germs 

"Public transportation is a very common way, we know, of how 

diseases ... spread," said Ben Mascall, spokesman with MTR Corp., 

which operates the railway in Hong Kong and has bid for two new 

rail franchises in the U.K. 

In response, his company has coated its cars' interiors with titanium 

and silver dioxide nanocoatings that kill most of the airborne 

bacteria and viruses that come into contact with them. The London 

tube will soon do the same. 

Many surfaces that people touch every day in a subway carry 

thousands of bacteria and germs. With news of powerful flu strains 

like avian flu and hand-transmissible diseases like colds, public 

transportation operators like these pioneers are considering using 

new nano-enhanced disinfectants in their subways. Hong Kong is 

among the first cities to apply silver-titianium dioxide nanocoating 

to subway car interiors. Preliminary tests show the disinfectant 

reduced the presence of bacteria by 60 percent. 66 

BioQuest Technologies is marketing its BioShield 75, a nanotech- and water-based 

antimicrobial with no poisons, as a preventative product for use in homes and 

businesses in hurricane paths. Proactive application, they suggest, will reduce bacteria 

and provide an effective solution to microbial problems that continue to exist in homes 

and businesses after hurricane damage. 67 

Antimicrobial nanocoatings can also be incorporated into ceramic surfaces. The 

German plumbing-fixture manufacturer, Duravit, for example, has teamed with 

Nanogate Technologies to develop a product called Wondergliss. Wondergliss 

coating is fired over traditional ceramic glazing to create a surface so smooth that 

dirt, germs, and fungus cannot stick to it. In addition, water beads up and runs off the 

hydrophobic surface without lime and soaps being able to build up. 68 

Many paints contain nanoparticles (commonly titanium dioxide) to prevent mildew, 

including Zinsser’s Perma-White Interior Paint, Behr Premium Plus Kitchen & Bath 

Paint, and Lowe’s Valspar. 

30


Plumbing aint what it used to be 

Microban International offers Microban, which they call the first 

antimicrobial polymeric, a plastic resistant to germs, molds, yeast, 

and mildew. Microban is used in more than 450 products ranging 

from cleaning supplies, paints and caulking to medical products, 

plumbing fixtures, and other kitchen and bath products. Their 

product, they say, does not wash or wear off of its material substrate. 

As one reviewer of the technology put it: 

“It is easy to imagine this technology producing piping so smooth 

that it would have little or no friction loss, which would lead to 

smaller piping able to carry many more gallons of water at the same 

working pressure as today’s piping. Or drain pipe so smooth and 

slippery that it cannot plug up. Or pipes that never wear out. 

Someday, entire plumbing systems may follow nature’s design of a 

living system. Imagine a water piping system that could change its 

dimensions based on the flow demand and available pressure like 

our own circulatory systems. Septic tanks could generate electricity 

as they digest waste. Plumbers in the future will no doubt look back 

and wonder how we got by with such primitive materials and tools. 

Truly, plumbing aint what it used to be and it never will be again.” 69 

Nansulate LDX from Industrial Nanotech is designed to encapsulate lead-painted 

surfaces, making them inaccessible by providing an overcoat barrier. At the same 

time, it provides mold resistance, thermal insulation, and protection against corrosion. 

Three out of four homes built prior to 1978 contain lead-based paint, and according to 

the EPA, residential lead abatement has cost $570 billion and commercial $500 

billion. In the past fifteen years, encapsulation as an abatement technique has become 

a cost-effective alternative solution, typically costing 50 to 80 percent less than lead 

paint removal and replacement. 70 

Researchers at Yale University have found that carbon nanotubes can kill E. coli 

bacteria. In their experiments, roughly 80 percent of these bacteria were killed after 

one hour of exposure. The researchers said nanotubes could be incorporated during the 

manufacturing process or applied to existing surfaces to keep them microbe-free. The 

researchers also recognized that since nanotubes can kill bacteria, they could have a 

major impact on ecosystems. "Microbial function is critical in ecosystem sustainability 

and we rely on microbes to detoxify wastes in environmental systems," said Joseph 

Hughes of Georgia Tech. "If they are impaired by nanotubes, or other materials,” he 

concluded, “it is the cause for significant concern." 71 The EPA now regulates nanoproducts 

sold as germ-killing, believing they may pose unanticipated environmental 

risks. 

31


3.7 UV protection 

Ultraviolet (UV) light can break down many building materials. Wood, for example, is 

a desirable, renewable building material; it can be recycled and regenerated, and as a 

structural material, it can reduce heating and cooling loads because it is 400 times less 

conductive than steel, and up to 20 times less than concrete. It is also the only building 

material that takes in carbon dioxide and releases oxygen as it grows, working to 

counter the effects of carbon emissions. And it contributes far fewer of these 

emissions than its non-renewable counterparts, steel and concrete. But wood must be 

protected from environmental forces including water, pests, mold and UV radiation. 

When the use of wood-preserving chromium copper arsenate was discontinued for 

residential uses (in “pressure-treated” lumber) in 2003 due to environmental concerns, 

the wood industry began searching for cost-effective, long-lasting, antimicrobial 

products that would allow wood to perform well in outdoor applications. Today, 

nanocoatings are proving to fill that gap. 

Nanoscale UV absorbers added to protective coatings can help keep substrates from 

being degraded by UV radiation. The result is wood that lasts longer with less graying 

than unprotected wood. And the small size of the particles makes it possible to offer 

high protection without affecting the transparency of the coating. Nanovations Teak 

Guard Marine is one example of UV protection for wood. Nanovations provides 

sustainable wood protection solutions for Teak and other hardwoods. 72 

Many other materials can be protected by nanoparticles as well. SportCoatings makes 

a colorless, odorless Sports Antimicrobial System (SAS) based on AEGIS Microbe 

Shield, recently tested on synthetic turf fields, sports medicine training rooms, locker 

rooms, whirlpools, and wrestling rooms at Virginia Tech. “You could tell it worked 

quickly,” said Denie Marie, Facilities Manager of Virginia Tech’s Rector Field House. 

“Within 24 hours of the application it erased the typical locker room scent. It brought 

a noticeable freshness to our facilities.” SAS provides an invisible layer of 

antimicrobial protection they say will not leach any chemicals or heavy metals into the 

environment and will not rub off onto a player’s skin. 73 

Suncoat makes multifunctional adhesive films and “nano-adhesive transparent 

varnish” for UV protection of awnings and window glass. They say their product 

allows protected surfaces to maintain color quality over a longer period of time, shed 

dirt, resist scratches, and self-clean. 74 Centrosolar Glas makes Solarglas Clear and 

Solarglas PRISM glasses that can be supplied with nano-coated anti-reflective 

properties. 75 

Advanced Nanotechnology Limited's NanoZ product is a zinc oxide nanopowder 

coating that the company claims provides superior UV protection and anti-fungal 

properties to wood and plastic surfaces. At the nanoscale, zinc-oxide particles are 

invisible, enabling the creation of transparent varnishes with the same enhanced 

32


functionality of colored coatings. NanoZ is used, among other things, to provide UV 

protection in Bondall Paints. 76 

Tekon makes chemical-free treatments for keeping kitchens, baths, stone, glass, and 

countertops clean. Their sealing products protect surfaces from viruses, germs, 

bacteria, mold, and other harmful toxins. Tekon’s Bath, Stone, Countertop, and 

Stainless Steel Kits clean, protect and maintain surfaces in kitchens and bathrooms. 77 

Seal America sells a variety of nano-based sealants for wood, stone, tile, fabric, 

masonry, metal and concrete which they say are non-toxic and have no negative 

effects on human health or the environment. 78 Finally, AVM Industries offers nine 

multifunctional nanocoatings for metal, wood, concrete and glass. 79 

Research currently underway in universities will add even more functionality to the 

range of UV-protectant products already available. Researchers at the School of Forest 

Resources and Environmental Science at Michigan Technological University, for 

example, have discovered a way to embed organic insecticides and fungicides in 

plastic beads only about 100 nanometers across. Suspended in water, the beads are 

small enough to travel through wood when it is placed under pressure. Their 

technology has been licensed to the New Jersey-based company Phibro-Tech. 80 Recent 

patents for protective nanocoatings include “Interior protectant/cleaner composition,” 

by Hida Hasinovic and Tara Weinmann. 81 

3.8 Anti-corrosion coatings 

The cost of corrosion in the U.S. is estimated at $276 billion per year. In the Federal 

Republic of Germany, 4 percent of the gross national product is lost every year as a 

result of corrosion damage. Corrosion takes a toll not only on steel structures, but on 

concrete ones, which require steel reinforcing. In fact, 15 percent of all concrete 

bridges are structurally deficient because of corroded steel reinforcement. 82 

For protecting metal surfaces from corrosion, chrome plating is becoming an 

increasing concern because of the negative health and environmental effects of 

chromium. 83 But corrosion can be reduced by coating materials with chemically 

resistant nanofilms of oxides. CG 2 is one of several manufacturers marketing 

corrosion-resistant nanocoatings. Their technology consists of homogeneous thin films 

using alkoxides with chemically attached ceramic nanoparticles. 84 

Another system, Corrpassiv Primer epoxy by Ormecon, displayed “the best filiform 

corrosion results in the history of the institute,” in a study by the FPL Research 

Institute for Pigments and Paints in Stuttgart. Corrosion protection with Ormecon also 

offers environmental benefits by incorporating organic metals that are free from heavy 

metals. This makes it possible to replace not only lead compounds, chromate 

treatments and chromate, but also the zinc-rich coatings that will in the future be 

classified as containing heavy metals. 85 

33


Bonderite NT is said to be suitable for surface pretreatment for all conventional 

powder and wet paint coatings. It can be applied by dipping or spraying and creates a 

cohesive, inorganic, high-density layer incorporating nanoparticles. Measurements 

have shown that the nanoceramic coating delivers markedly better corrosion 

protection and paint adhesion than iron phosphating. Bonderite NT coatings do not 

require bath heating, and can be applied at room temperature, thus saving energy. 

They also offer significant environmental benefits. In addition to its low energy needs, 

Bonderite NT is distinguished by its lack of organic ingredients. Neither phosphates 

nor toxic heavy metals have to be disposed of, which means that far less sludge is 

generated in production. Outlay on wastewater treatment, waste disposal and plant 

cleaning and maintenance is significantly reduced. 86 

Ormecon has also released Organic Metal Nanofinish, a solderable surface finish for 

printed circuit boards, a technology that could be applied to architectural metals in the 

future. This new process consumes less than 10 percent of the energy compared to 

other metallic finishes, and promises to save more than 90 percent of raw materials. 87 

Integran makes nanoPLATE Coatings, nanostructured metal coatings with properties 

that meet or exceed those of hard chrome, including wear resistance, corrosion 

resistance, coefficient of friction, and also allow for the complete elimination of 

chromium. 88 

astm 

b537 

ranking 

10 

0 

0 500 1000 1500 2000 

exposure time (hrs) 

Nanocoatings offer superior corrosion resistance 

NanoPlate coatings (yellow) provide significantly greater corrosion 

resistance than HVOF (green) and hard chrome (blue) finishes, at half 

the thickness. (Source: Integran) 

NH 2015, available from Nanovations, is an oil-free, nanotechnology-enhanced 

surface treatment. Its makers report that it easily removes all staining and soiling and 

leaves behind a clean surface that is water and dirt repellent. It protects stainless steel 

against contamination for up to two years, even if fully exposed to weathering or harsh 

34


environments. During the lifetime of the coating, they say, maintenance is reduced to 

wiping the surface with a wet cloth. It is also VOC- and acid-free. 89 

On the research front, scientists in India have devised a method to protect copper from 

corrosion by coating it with conducting polymers. Their poly(o-anisidine) coatings 

reduce copper corrosion by a factor of 100. 90 

3.9 Moisture resistance 

Resistance to moisture penetration is critical to the durability of construction 

materials. Moisture causes rot in susceptible materials and feeds harmful mold and 

bacteria. Unfortunately, many conventional waterproofing materials, such as 

polyurethane, give off harmful volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as they cure. 

Nanocoatings, in contrast, provide moisture resistance without these harmful side 

effects. 

IAQM's Nano-Encap is a breathable antimicrobial sealant that protects wood, sheet 

rock and other porous materials from moisture. According to its manufacturer, Nano- 

Encap encapsulates any mold spores that might have settled on building materials and 

prevents future mold growth. Made up of cross-linking polymers, Nano-Encap bonds 

itself to the cellulose in wood and paper, eliminating mold's nutrient sources. This 

clear semi-gloss waterproofing protectant also keeps the treated surface cleaner than 

its original state and dissipates any moisture present in the material at the time of 

application. 91 

Water is a principal source of damage to concrete as well, and even dense, highquality 

concrete does not eliminate absorption of water and soluble contaminates 

through capillary action and surface permeability. This can cause efflorescence and 

corrosion of the reinforcement. Nanovations offers a water-based micro emulsion, 

called 3001, for reducing water absorption in concrete. It can be applied to the surface 

or blended into the concrete mix. The result, says the manufacturer, is a low water 

absorptive concrete that is salt and frost resistant and cannot be affected by 

efflorescence, moss or algae. Its penetration properties, they add, are similar to or 

better than solvent-based solutions. 3001 is VOC- and odor-free, and can be applied in 

any situation without dangerous fumes. Users can avoid the impact of solvent-based 

formulas on the environment, including contributing to photochemical smog and 

occupational health and safety concerns. 92 

Hycrete is an integral waterproofing system that eliminates the need for external 

membranes, coatings and sheeting treatments for concrete construction. With the 

Hycrete Waterproofing System, concrete is batched with Hycrete liquid admixture to 

achieve hydrophobic performance. Concrete treated with Hycrete shows less than 1 

percent absorption. Hycrete CEO David Rosenberg said in a Green Technology Forum 

interview that Hycrete transforms concrete from an open network of capillaries and 

cracks into an ultra-low absorptivity, waterproof, protective building material. 

35


Hycrete also coats reinforcing steel surface with a monomolecular film while 

providing waterproofing properties to the concrete. It reacts with metals in the water, 

concrete, and reinforcement to form a precipitate that fills the capillaries of the 

concrete, repelling water and shutting down capillary absorption. The product is so 

environmentally safe it is the first material certified by Cradle-to-Cradle, a new 

program that evaluates and certifies the quality of products by measuring their positive 

effects on the environment, human health, and social equity. 

hycrete 

percent absorption 

0 1 2 

control 

Reduced moisture absorption in concrete 

Hycrete, a Cradle-to-Cradle certified green nanomaterial for integral 

waterproofing, greatly reduces moisture absorption in concrete. (Source: 

Hycrete) 

Nanoprotect CS is a water-based solution with a very high penetration depth for 

concrete materials. The hydrophobic treatment, says its maker, is long lasting and can 

only be removed by damaging the surface. 93 Another exterior coating, Lotusan, 

possesses a highly water-repellent surface similar to that of the lotus leaf. Its 

microstructure has been modeled on the lotus plant to minimize the contact area for 

water and dirt. 94 

Self-cleaning awning fabrics from Markilux are made of Swela Sunsilk Nano Clean, 

which its manufacturer says is extremely dirt, grease, oil and water repellent. The 

highly dirt repellent finish of the fabric, they add, offers UV protection and ensures 

long lasting radiant colors. 95 

Because of their vast market applications, water-repellent nanocoatings are a popular 

subject of university research as well, and many of these projects are available for 

license. Ohio State University engineers, for example, are designing super-slick, 

water-repellent surfaces that mimic the texture of lotus leaves for application in selfcleaning 

glass. 96 Hong Kong University of Science and Technology has available, 

“Novel TiO2 Material and the Coating Methods Thereof.” 97 Other licensable patents 

for waterproofing nanomaterials are available through the Engineering Technology 

36


Transfer Center at the University of Southern California’s Viterbi School of 

Engineering. 98 

“Interior Protectant/Cleaner Composition” is an example of a recent patent in this area, 

combining natural camauba wax nanoparticles and zinc oxide nanoparticles with a 

quaternary siloxane compound. Its protectant composition cleans, protects, preserves 

and enhances the appearances of leather or vinyl surfaces used for covering items in 

the home or in vehicles. It dries quickly and leaves no oily residue behind. 99 

4. Adhesives 

While not the most glamorous technology, adhesives have revolutionized the 

construction industry. Construction adhesives were, in fact, voted the most significant 

technological advance of the last half of the 20 th century in one survey of industry 

professionals. But many contain environmentally harmful substances like 

formaldehyde. Just as we saw with moisture-resistant coatings, however, 

nanotechnology promises a more environmentally friendly alternative. But consumers 

eager to adopt these eco-friendly super-adhesives will have to wait for their 

commercialization in construction. The Nano Adhesive Co. of Taiwan, for example, 

makes nanoadhesives, but only for the cosmetics and medical industries. 100 

Much of the inspiration for nano-enabled adhesives comes from nature. Adopting 

nature’s tricks is sometimes referred to as biomimicry. Examples of how 

nanoscientists mimic nature can be found in the water-repellent properties of 

nanocoatings, which take their lessons from the hydrophobic lotus leaf, and in a new 

generation of nano-adhesives now under investigation, which are based on the 

remarkable feet of the gecko, which enable it to climb walls and even ceilings. 

Several years ago researchers created nanotube surfaces that matched the gecko’s 

tenacious toes for stickiness, but how to unstick, and thereby create a useful product, 

has eluded scientists—until now. Researchers at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and 

the University of Akron have created synthetic gecko nanotube tape with four times 

the gecko’s sticking power that can stick and unstick repeatedly. The material could 

have applications in feet for wall-climbing robots, reversible adhesives for electronic 

devices, and even aerospace, where most adhesives don’t work because of the 

vacuum. 101 The Center for Information Technology Research in the Interest of Society 

has also devised gecko-inspired adhesive nanostructures that will increase the 

capability of small robots to scamper up rocks, walls, and smooth surfaces. 102 

Researchers at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute have devised a new adhesive for 

bonding materials that don’t normally stick to each other. Their adhesive, based on 

self-assembling nanoscale chains, could impact everything from next-generation 

computer chip manufacturing to energy production. “The molecular glue is 

inexpensive--100 grams cost about $35--and already commercially available,” said 

project leader Ganapathiraman Ramanath. 103 

37


Self-assembling nanoscale chains form nano-superglue 

Researchers at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute have developed a new 

method using self-assembling nanomaterials to bond materials that 

don’t normally stick together. (Source: Rensselaer/G. Ramanath) 

Researchers at the University of California, Berkeley, meanwhile, have developed 

biomimetically inspired nanostructures that can stick to wet, dry, rough or smooth 

surfaces, and can be peeled off and reused. These materials are also self-cleaning, 

leave no residue, and are bio-compatible. Their technology is available for 

licensing. 104 

38


Biomimicry: learning from the lotus leaf 

Through nanoscience and molecular biology we are learning more 

about how natural systems, organisms, and materials behave, and 

nanotechnology and biotechnology give us the tools not only to 

intervene in those systems, but to create new ones based on their 

capabilities. 

The lotus leaf is a good example. By studying its molecular makeup, 

scientists have unlocked its hydrophobic (water-repellent) 

properties and incorporated them into a new breed of materials 

capable of shedding water completely. The NanoNuno umbrella, for 

instance, dries itself completely after a downpour with just one 

shake. Developers are applying the hydrophobic properties of the 

lotus leaf in a wide range of products and materials from selfcleaning 

windows to car wax. 

Nature offers endless lessons that could be applied to future 

products, processes and materials. By examining the nanoscale 

structure of gecko feet, for instance, scientists have created gloves 

so adhesive a person wearing them can hang from the ceiling. All of 

these lessons will enable us to learn from nature to create systems, 

materials and devices that are less wasteful and more efficient than 

those available today. Nature does not waste, and through 

biomimicry we will learn to model our own systems with the 

efficiency, beauty and economy of natural systems. 

Scientists are even developing materials that adhere without the use of adhesives. 

Scientists at the Max Planck Institute for Metals Research in Stuttgart, Germany, have 

developed materials whose surface structure allows them to stick to smooth walls 

without any adhesives. The extremely strong adhesive force of these materials is the 

result of very small, specially shaped hairs based on the soles of beetles' feet. Their 

artificial adhesive system lasts for hundreds of applications, does not leave any visible 

marks, and can be thoroughly cleaned with soap and water. Potential applications 

include protective foil for delicate glasses and reusable adhesive fixtures. The new 

material will soon be used in the manufacture of glass components. 105 

39


5. Lighting 

Adhesion without adhesives 

Scientists have developed materials whose surface structure allows them 

to stick to smooth walls without any adhesives. (Source: Max Planck 

Institute for Metals Research) 

Lighting and appliances consume approximately one third of the energy used in 

building operation. Not only do lighting fixtures consume electricity, but most produce 

heat that can add to building cooling costs. Incandescent lights, for example, waste as 

much as 95 percent of their energy as heat. Fluorescent lights use less energy and 

produces less heat, but contain trace amounts of mercury. 

Because of the heat generated by lighting, most office buildings run air conditioning 

when the outside air temperature is above 12°C (55°F). In fact, the cores of most 

buildings over 20,000 square feet require cooling even during the winter heating 

season. 106 Because of this effect, every three watts of lighting energy conserved saves 

about one additional watt of air cooling energy. 107 The energy-saving potential in more 

efficient lighting is therefore tremendous. 

40


Residential energy consumption 

41 

heating/cooling 44% 

lighting + other 

appliances 33% 

water heating 14% 

refrigerator 9% 

Lighting and other appliances (purple) consume one third of all energy 

in buildings (Source: US Department of Energy) 

5.1 Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) 

One of the most promising technologies for energy conservation in lighting is lightemitting 

diodes (LEDs). In a global lighting market of $21 billion, the current market 

for high brightness LEDs exceeds $4 billion. Current uses of LEDs include civil works 

like traffic lights and signs, as well as some building applications like the facade of the 

Galleria Shopping Mall in Seoul by UN studio. 

Some LEDs are projected to have a service life of about 100,000 hours and offer the 

lowest long term cost of operation available. Potential energy savings from LEDs are 

estimated at 82 to 93 percent over conventional incandescent and fluorescent lighting. 

LEDs could save 3.5 quadrillion BTUs of electricity and reduce global carbon 

emissions by 300 million tons per year, potentially cutting global lighting energy 

demand in half by 2025. The principal obstacle to greater adoption of LEDs, however, 

is cost; they currently cost at least 10 times more than fluorescent ceiling lights. 108 

Heat dissipation can be a problem with bright long-lasting LEDs, and the nanotech 

company, Celsia, is working with leading LED companies to develop LED cooling 

solutions. These include laminating their NanoSpreader technology with PCB film, so 

that LED circuitry can be attached to form an integrated cooler. 109


Light-emitting diodes: always low prices! 

Wal–Mart expects to save $2.6 million in energy costs and reduce 

carbon emissions by 35 million pounds per year by using lightemitting 

diode (LED) refrigerated display lighting by GE. The retailer 

is outfitting refrigerated display cases in over 500 U.S. stores with the 

technology, and expects to net up to 66 percent energy savings, 

compared with fluorescent technology. Occupancy sensors and LED 

dimming capabilities will reduce the time the LED refrigerated 

display cases are at 100 percent light levels from 24 to 

approximately 15 hours per day. 110 

LED lighting uses one-third the energy 

Wal–Mart expects to save $2.6 million in energy costs 

and reduce carbon emissions by 35 million pounds per 

year with LED refrigerated display lighting. (Source: GE) 

42


BridgeLux InGaN (indium gallium nitride) power-LED chips replace traditional bulb 

technologies with solid state products that provide a powerful and energy-efficient 

source of blue, green, or white light. BridgeLux chips are currently found in mobile 

appliances, signage, automotive, and various general lighting applications. 111 

Let there be light, but hold the heat 

PlexiLight, a startup out of Wake Forest University, plans to 

develop a new lighting source that is lightweight, ultra-thin, and 

energy efficient because it uses nanotechnology to produce visible 

light directly rather than as a byproduct of heating a filament or 

gas. Its unique properties suggest a wide range of residential and 

commercial applications. 

Light without heat 

“It looks like a sheet of plexiglass that lights up,” 

professor David Carroll says of PlexiLight, a new 

lighting source that may lead to heat-free lighting. 

(Source: Wake Forest University) 

Many other companies occupy the LED field, and opportunities for licensing abound. 

Two available nanotech-specific LED technologies are “Nanowires-Based Large-Area 

Light Emitters and Collectors,” from Harvard University, and “Luminescent Gold (III) 

Compounds, Their Preparation and Light-Emitting Devices,” from the Hong Kong 

University of Science and Technology. 112,113 Recent patents in nano-enhanced LED 

43


lighting include “Method for fabricating substrate with nano structures, light emitting 

device and manufacturing method thereof,” by Jong Wook Kim and Hyun Kyong 

Cho. 114 

PlexiLight has received startup funding from Wake Forest University and 

Connecticut-based NanoHoldings, which specializes in building early-stage 

nanotechnology companies around exclusive licenses from leading research 

universities. PlexiLight could target development of a substitute for the fluorescent 

ceiling light fixtures used in nearly all commercial buildings. The new technology may 

lead to higher-efficiency panels that would have no bulbs or ballasts to wear out and 

would not give off heat that requires additional energy to cool buildings. 115 

efficacy (lm/w) 

0 50 100 150 200 

LEDs lead in lighting efficiency 

LEDs provide extremely efficient lighting—more than ten times that of 

today’s incandescent bulbs. (Source: Dowd, “Low Cost Hybrid Substrates 

for Solid State Lighting Applications,” Cleantech 2007, May 24, 2007, 

Santa Clara, CA) 

5.2 Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) 

Among the most promising nanotechnologies for energy conservation in lighting are 

organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs). When electricity is run through the strata of 

organic materials that make up an OLED, atoms within them become excited and emit 

44 

white led 150 

hp sodium 132 

metal halide 90 

fluorescent 90 

halogen 20 

incandescent 13


photons. OLEDs are highly efficient, long-lived natural light sources that can be 

integrated into extremely thin, flexible panels. Their introduction in the marketplace 

has so far been limited to small electronic components like cellphone displays, but 

their applications continue to grow in scale. OLEDs offer unique features like extreme 

flexibility, transparency when turned off, and tunability to produce variable colored 

light. 

OLED structure 

Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) are highly efficient, long-lived 

natural light sources that can be integrated into extremely thin, flexible 

panels. (Source: HowStuffWorks.com) 

OLEDs could be used to create windows and skylights that mimic the look and feel of 

natural light after dark and could be applied to any surface, flat or curved, to make it a 

source of light. With this technology, walls, floors, ceilings, curtains, cabinets and 

tables could become light sources. Carbon nanotube-organic composites could even 

lead to structural panels capable of integrating lighting. This multifunctional ability of 

surfaces integrating OLEDs could lead to energy savings not only because OLEDs are 

more efficient than today’s lighting technologies, but by more efficiently integrating 

lighting into other building components. Scientists in Germany, for example, recently 

developed OLEDs that are transparent. Transparent OLEDs could be embedded into 

laminated glass, enabling windows to switch between transparent glazing and 

informational display panels, or act as both simultaneously. 

Universal Display Corporation is an OLED technology developer providing OLED 

manufacturers and product developers with phosphorescent, flexible, transparent and 

45


top emission OLEDs. Their flexible organic light-emitting diode (FOLED) 

technologies apply to thin, lightweight displays that use little power and provide easyto-read, 

vibrant color, transparency, and flexibility. 116 

FOLEDs make lighting flexible and efficient 

Flexible light-emitting diodes (FOLEDs) could free lighting and displays 

to bend with architectural surfaces. (Source: Universal Display 

Corporation) 

5.3 Quantum dot lighting 

Quantum dots are nanoscale semiconductor particles that can be tuned to brightly 

fluoresce at virtually any wavelength in the visible and infrared portions of the 

spectrum. They can be used to convert the wavelength, and therefore the color, of light 

emitted by LEDs. 

Evident Technologies has developed technologies for dispersing quantum dots into a 

number of polymeric materials including standard LED thermal curing encapsulant 

materials (silicones and epoxies), injection moldable polymers, printable matrix 

materials, and semiconductor conjugated polymers. Their quantum dot composites can 

46


be applied to LEDs, molded into fluorescent components and light guides, or printed 

onto any substrate. 117 

Quantum dot LEDs 

Quantum dot composites can be applied to LEDs, molded into 

fluorescent components and light guides, or printed onto any substrate. 

(Source: Evident Technologies) 

Displays from E Ink and LG Phillips are less than 300 microns thick, as thin and 

flexible as construction paper. Their prototype 10" screen achieves SVGA (600x800) 

resolution at 100 pixels per inch and has a 10:1 contrast ratio with four levels of 

grayscale. E Ink Imaging Film is a novel display material that looks like printed ink on 

paper and has been designed for use in paper-like electronic displays. Like paper, the 

material can be flexed and rolled. As an additional benefit, the E Ink Imaging Film 

uses 100 times less energy than a liquid crystal display because it can hold an image 

without power and without a backlight. They are 80 percent thinner and lighter than 

glass displays, and they do not break like glass displays. 118 

47


"This will completely change the way we use 

lighting" 

Carbon nanotube-organic composites may significantly reduce 

energy running costs, thus reducing carbon dioxide emissions at 

power generating stations. The Advanced Technology Institute (ATI) 

at the University of Surrey, for example, was recently awarded a 

£200,000 grant by the Carbon Trust to produce prototype solid state 

lighting devices using nano-composite materials. Their Ultra Low 

Energy High Brightness (ULEHB) technology may offer a costefficient 

and clean replacement for mercury based fluorescent lamps 

and many other low efficiency, heat producing light sources. 

Carbon nanotube lighting 

The Advanced Technology Institute is producing 

prototype solid state lighting devices like this Ultra Low 

Energy High Brightness (ULEHB) device using nanocomposite 

materials. (Source: Advanced Technology 

Institute, University of Surrey) 

48


New quantum dot technologies available for licensing from several universities and 

research centers include “Process to Grow a Highly-Ordered Quantum DOT Array, 

and a Quantum Dot Array Grown in Accordance with the Process,” from Brown 

University, “Biomolecular Synthesis of Quantum Dot Composites,” University of 

Massachusetts, Lowell, “Self-Organized Formation of Quantum Dots of a Material 

On a Substrate,” Oak Ridge National Laboratory, and “Fabrication of Quantum Dots 

Embedded in Three-Dimensional Photonic Crystal Lattice,” from the University of 

Delaware. 119,120,121,122 

The Advanced Technology Institute is experimenting with Ultra Low Energy High 

Brightness (ULEHB) devices made of nano-composite materials. Potential uses such 

as variable mood lighting over a whole wall or ceiling opens up a range of exciting 

applications. ULEHBs are also expected to have wide uses in signage, displays, street 

lighting, commercial lighting, public buildings, offices and image projectors. The 

patented technology can also be used for low cost solar cell production and has the 

versatility to be tuned to produce colored light.123" 

This will completely change the way we use lighting," predicted project leader 

Professor Ravi Silva. “ULEHB lighting will produce the same quality light as the best 

100 watt light bulb, but using only a fraction of the energy and last many times 

longer." 

5.4 Future market for lighting 

As costs decline, experts anticipate that LEDs will take an increasing share of the task 

lighting market (for reading and other activities requiring bright, focused light) while 

OLEDs will be increasingly popular for ambient lighting (low-light conditions like 

hotel lobbies and high-end restaurants.) As the transition from conventional lighting to 

solid-state LEDs and OLEDs evolves, solid-state lamps will be made to fit existing 

incandescent and fluorescent fixtures. These advanced light fixtures will offer users 

the ability to change room color with the turn of a conventional dimmer switch, as is 

already possible with LED lighting in some high-end hotels and night clubs. Mass 

commercialization of LEDs and OLEDs, however, will depend on improvements in 

their efficiency. Most current LEDs and OLEDs provide efficiency of roughly 30-160 

lumens, whereas 1000 lumens will be required for their widespread adoption. 124 

6. Solar energy 

The sun offers a free, renewable source of energy capable of meeting all our energy 

needs . . . if an efficient, economical means of converting solar to electrical energy can 

be found. Current silicon-based solar cell technologies, however, have only achieved 

modest conversion efficiencies at relatively high costs. But conversion technologies 

are improving, and the market for solar energy is expected to grow from $15.6 billion 

in 2006 to $69.3 billion by 2016. And while solar represents less than .5 percent of 

today’s total energy market, it is growing rapidly at 30 percent annually. 

49


Some experts believe that the pace of solar development will be slowed due to the 

rising cost of its primary raw material, silicon. Today, at least 90 percent of 

photovoltaic sales are made from silicon-based solar cells, and at least half of their 

cost is in the initial silicon wafer. Most of the silicon used by the solar industry comes 

from reject silicon wafers found unsuitable for use by computer chip manufacturers, 

and high-grade processed silicon is in such high demand among chip makers and solar 

panel manufacturers that competition for silicon from the computer chip industry has 

driven the price of silicon up dramatically. 

Due to increased demand, the price of silicon has skyrocketed from about $25 per 

kilogram in 2004 to roughly $200 per kilogram in 2006. The result has been a 

significant shortage of solar-quality silicon. The high price and short supply of silicon 

is expected to pose a serious obstacle to solar power growth, leading some analysts to 

suggest that solar growth may decline to 20 percent in coming years. 125 

Breaking silicon’s hold on solar 

Nanotechnology will eventually outshine silicon technology in 

solar cell manufacturing, said Bo Varga, Managing Director of 

Silicon Valley Nano Ventures, in an interview with Green 

Technology Forum. 

“I don’t think the current paradigm of using silicon and 

semiconductor processes [for solar cells] is viable for a very simple 

economic reason,” said Varga. “When I’m making a memory or a 

computer chip, I’m fundamentally taking a raw material and 

marking it up by one hundred times, or even one thousand times 

for a quad processor, so the cost of the pure silicon versus what 

Intel or AMD sells a CPU for is a thousand percent markup. 

In silicon solar cells today, forty percent of the cost is materials, and 

the best studies I’ve seen say that in five years that will be reduced 

to thirty percent. When you’re looking at thin-film solar using 

nanotechnology, the cost of goods might be one percent or onehalf 

of one percent. 

So I think that by creating nanostructures which are the most 

efficient at harvesting the light at different wavelengths, reducing 

the amount of materials we use from two hundred microns thick in 

the case of silicon to ultimately just a few nanometers with 

nanomaterials, and converting from the batch process used today 

to roll-to-roll, solar will be able to compete with coal, natural gas, 

and other current energy sources.” 126 

50


6.1 Silicon solar enhancement 

Nanotechnology is not only an alternative to silicon-based solar. It is also contributing 

significantly to today’s silicon-based solar market. Innovalight, for example, has 

developed a technology they say has the potential to greatly reduce the cost of siliconbased 

solar cells. They have developed a silicon nanocrystalline ink that could make 

flexible solar panels as much as ten times cheaper than current solutions. Their silicon 

process lends itself to low cost, high throughput manufacturing. 127 

Meanwhile, Solaicx has designed and built a proprietary single crystal silicon wafer 

production system for the silicon-based photovoltaic manufacturing industry. Their 

system, they report, allows the manufacture of low cost, high quality single crystal 

silicon ingots at high volume for conversion into solar wafers. Solaicx expects their 

process to be up to 5 times more productive than traditional methods. They also 

anticipate that silicon utilization will be greatly improved because they will be able to 

slice thinner silicon wafers of between 300 to 150 microns, allowing excess silicon to 

be recycled back into the manufacturing process. 128 

Transparent and semitransparent solar panels 

Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) awnings can provide shade 

from the sun’s heat, saving energy while also producing electricity. 

(Source: Spire Solar) 

51


Spire Solar produces nanostructured materials, fabricating solar cells with greater 

efficiency than conventional devices while providing color options for improved 

aesthetics when integrated into building designs. Their Building Integrated 

Photovoltaics (BIPV) solutions include curtain wall systems in which panels can be 

mounted vertically on an exterior wall. These transparent and semitransparent panels 

can also be mounted on a roof, acting as a power-generating skylight. This allows the 

panel to be visible from indoors, providing partial shade. Their BIPV awnings can 

provide shade from the sun’s heat, saving energy while also producing electricity. 

These can be mounted over windows, integrated into louvers and shutters, and built 

into carports and patios. Their rooftop installation helps power the Chicago Center for 

Green Technology, a LEED platinum certified building. 129 

Octillion is developing what they call a first-of-its-kind transparent glass window 

capable of generating electricity using silicon nanoparticles. While conventional 

photovoltaic solar cells lose about 50 percent of incident energy as heat, silicon 

nanocrystals can produce more than one electron from a single photon of sunlight, 

providing a way to convert some of the energy lost as heat into additional 

electricity. 130 

6.2 Thin-film solar nanotechnologies 

While nanotechnology is leading to advances in silicon-based photovoltaics, it appears 

likely to supplant silicon wafer technology as the primary technology behind solar 

cells with new nanocrystalline materials, thin-film materials, and conducting 

polymeric films. Revolutionary thin-film and organic solar cells are now entering the 

market and are expected to be significantly less expensive than current silicon-based 

solar cells by 2010. 131 

Organic thin-film, or plastic solar cells, use low-cost materials primarily based on 

nanoparticles and polymers. They are formed on inexpensive polymer substrates 

which can take advantage of the relatively inexpensive “roll-to-roll” production 

methods used in newspaper presses. 

The other dramatic advantage of organic thin films is their flexibility, which will 

enable their integration into far more building applications than conventional flat glass 

panels. This will open new architectural possibilities and overcome the aesthetic 

concerns some architects hold against rigid flat panels, which can hardly be integrated 

into building facades. Thanks to their flexibility and thinness, thin films could be 

integrated into windows, roofs, and facades, potentially making almost the entire 

building envelope a solar collector. 

Cost savings could also be dramatic, with the price of plastic solar cells projected at as 

little as one fiftieth the cost of silicon based solar cells. 132 Predictions for thin-film 

efficiency go as high as 30 percent, and they also appear to pose fewer environmental 

concerns than silicon. Thin-film development will continue to be spurred by the large 

amount of funding going into both nanotechnologies and renewable energy. Obstacles 

52


to its adoption currently include cost, limited efficiency, energy storage and 

conversion. 133 

Thin-film solar nanotechnology is entering the marketplace already. Nanosolar 

employs semiconductor quantum dots and other nanoparticles in their SolarPly BIPV 

panels to create large-area, solar-electric “carpet” for integration with commercial 

roofing membranes. SolarPly can be utilized in a variety of building products because 

the cells are both non-fragile and bendable. Nanosolar will soon open the world's 

largest solar cell factory in California’s Silicon Valley. The plant will triple U.S. solar 

cell production and produce enough cells to power 325,000 homes. 134 

Konarka makes light-activated “power plastic” that can be coated or printed onto a 

surface. Their photovoltaic fibers and durable plastics bring power-generating 

capabilities to structures including tents, awnings, roofs, windows and window 

coverings. 135 

Flexible solar panels 

Flexible, lightweight “power plastic” from Konarka brings powergenerating 

capabilities to awnings, roofs, and windows. (Source: Konarka 

Technologies, Inc.) 

A technology pioneered by startup Solexant captures infrared (IR) radiation (forty-five 

percent of total solar radiation,) which is typically not captured by traditional siliconbased 

solar cells. The company uses IR photon absorbing nanostructures and 

broadband thin-film solar cells that can be combined with traditional solar cells to 

create hybrid cells. The technology could be used to create window films that generate 

energy and reduce heat gain. 136 

53


Solar startup Stion says its thin-film solar cell technology will have a lower 

installation cost than its competitors and will be 25 to 30 percent efficient, much 

higher than the efficiency of silicon solar cell technologies produced by existing 

public companies. Stion plans to begin production in 2010. 137 

Solar cells can also be embedded in glass windows. The Carvist Corporation is one of 

the first to do this, turning glass facades and roofs of buildings into solar-energy 

receivers able to generate most, or perhaps all, of a building's power needs. 138 

Nanoexa is another company moving into production of large-format thin-film solar 

cells, their Director of Business Development, Michael Sinkula, said in an interview 

with Green Technology Forum. Nanoexa plans to combine its computational modeling 

capabilities and design expertise to tailor materials to become much more efficient, 

enabling low-cost manufacturing of solar cells. 139 

Dramatic improvements are also looming as carbon nanotube technology for solar 

energy develops. "Efficiencies reaching 4.4 percent have already been achieved and 

hopefully 10-15 percent efficiencies are feasible in the near-future upon further 

optimization," says Emmanuel Kymakis, author of "The Impact of Carbon Nanotubes 

on Solar Energy Conversion." 140 

"Once this obstacle is tackled,” says Kymakis, “the lifetime issue, which is directly 

related to the cell temperatures, can be explored. A working environment combining 

the strengths of scientists and business leaders may soon result in rapid 

commercialization of this technology." 

6.3 Emerging solar nanotechnologies 

Quantum dot technology could also play a role in solar’s future. In silicon, one photon 

of light frees one electron from its atomic orbit. But researchers at the National 

Renewable Energy Laboratory have now demonstrated that quantum dots of lead 

selenide can produce up to seven electrons per photon when exposed to high-energy 

ultraviolet light. These dots would be far less costly to incorporate into solar cells than 

the large crystalline sheets of silicon used today. A photovoltaic device based on 

quantum dots could have an efficiency of 42 percent, far better than silicon's typical 

efficiency of 12 percent. 141 

Other nanotech advances include spray-on polymer-based solar collecting paint in 

development at Wake Forest University. "You just paint it on," said Professor David 

Carroll of the new nano-phase material with an efficiency of six percent, double that 

of similar cells, but still well shy of silicon cells' 12 percent efficiency. "I strongly 

believe we can get there [12 per cent] within the next year," said Carroll. 142 

Wake Forest University has also launched FiberCell, a startup company with plans to 

develop the next generation of solar cells based on a novel architecture that utilizes 

nanotechnology and optical fibers to dramatically boost efficiency. The technology 

54


FiberCell is using stems from research Wake Forest scientists conducted in 

conjunction with New Mexico State University. Using the new fiber optic structure, 

They expect to raise the efficiency rate soon to a level that will make plastic solar cells 

competitive with existing silicon and proposed non-silicon systems. While solar 

collectors with the new technology might look similar to existing panels, they could be 

installed in new ways because their efficiency is not as dependent on the angle of the 

sun. 143 

Making solar smaller and stronger 

Dr. Jiwen Liu of the Wake Forest University Center for Nanotechnology 

and Molecular Materials tests a new solar cell. (Source: Wake Forest 

University) 

Researchers at New Jersey Institute of Technology have also developed an 

inexpensive solar cell that can be painted or printed on flexible plastic sheets. The 

solar cell combines carbon nanotubes with carbon fullerenes (or Buckyballs), which 

are significantly better conductors than copper. The Buckyballs trap electrons, and the 

nanotubes make the electrons or current flow. 

“The process is simple,” said lead researcher professor Somenath Mitra. “Someday 

homeowners will even be able to print sheets of these solar cells with inexpensive 

home-based inkjet printers. Consumers can then slap the finished product on a wall, 

roof or billboard to create their own power stations.” 144 

55


Among the many technologies in this area available for licensing are NASA’s “Novel 

Solar Cell Nanotechnology for Improved Efficiency and Radiation Hardness,” Oak 

Ridge National Laboratory’s “Textured Substrate for Thin-Film Photovoltaic Cells 

and Method for Preparation” and “High Capacity, Thin-Film, Solid-State 

Rechargeable Battery for Portable Power Applications,” and “Approaches for 

Inexpensive, Sheet-to-Sheet Manufacturing of Dye Sensitized Nanoparticle Based 

Solar Modules” from the University of Massachusetts, Lowell. 145,146147,148 

The Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory currently has seven nanotech-based solar 

technologies available for licensing, including “Novel Concentrating Nanoscale Solar 

Cells” and “High Efficiency Fullerene/Polymer Solar Cells.” 149 In addition, the 

National Renewable Energy Laboratory has two patents in nano-solar technologies 

available for licensing. 150 

7. Energy storage 

Improved energy storage can reduce our dependence on fossil fuels, lowering carbon 

dioxide emissions from energy production. Currently, energy for homes and offices is 

not stored onsite. Instead, it is delivered on an as-needed basis from power lines. 

However, the separation of energy source from its point of use, as when the energy in 

subterranean coal deposits must be converted and transported to coal-burning power 

plants, then transmitted along power lines to homes and offices, wastes most of the 

energy latent in the original fuel source. This inefficiency can be overcome by 

producing energy at the point of use, as in the case of building integrated 

photovoltaics. However, as the table below shows, a significant contribution from 

nanotechnology to energy storage is still many years off. Other projections similarly 

suggest that nanotechnology for energy savings will play a much greater role in future 

markets than nanotech for energy storage. 151 

Nanotechnology’s possible contributions to the future of energy storage include 

improved efficiency for conventional rechargeable batteries, new supercapacitors, 

advances in thermovoltaics for turning waste heat into electricity, improved materials 

for storing hydrogen, and more efficient efficient hydrocarbon based fuel cells. 152 

Altairnano is one of the most established companies using nanotechnology to develop 

new batteries, including their NanoSafe product, to be used in the new line of Phoenix 

motorcars. 153 AlwaysReady, a wholly owned subsidiary of mPhase Technologies, is 

bringing to market its Smart Nanobattery. 154 

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Application Impact 

Fuel 

efficiency 

Infrastructural 

Change 

Critical Low 

57 

Benefit 

(Mte 

CO2/yr) 

Implementation 

Timeline (yrs) 


Flexible display screens have considerable potential in the architectural market, but 

flexible devices won’t work unless scientists can come up with batteries that bend, 

fold and twist. One response to that challenge is a new battery made out of paper 

impregnated with carbon nanotubes. Researchers at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute 

used a piece of paper containing carbon nanotubes as a cathode and evaporated a layer 

of lithium onto the other side to serve as an anode. They then sandwiched it between 

sheets of aluminium foil, which served as current collectors. The team says the next 

step will be to develop different formulations of cellulose and electrolyte that will 

increase their paper battery’s storage capacity. 155 

Many universities and research centers have nanotechnologies for energy storage 

available for licensing, including hydrogen storage technologies from the University 

of Montana and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. “Lithium-Ion Battery 

Incorporating Carbon Nanostructures Materials” is available from Hong Kong 

University of Science and Technology. 156,157,158 

Small yet powerful batteries 

The Smart Nanobattery has survived forces up to 50,000 Gs. (Source: 

AlwaysReady) 

58


8. Air purification 

Americans spend up to 90 percent of their time indoors, and in 90 percent of U.S. 

offices the number one complaint is lack of outdoor air. The EPA estimates that poor 

indoor air quality results in $60 billion per year in medical expenses. But indoor air 

quality can be improved by using materials that emit few or no toxins and volatile 

organic compounds (VOCs), resist moisture thereby inhibiting the growth of 

biological like mold, and adding systems, equipment and products that identify indoor 

air pollutants or enhance air quality. 159 

Nanotechnology is contributing to indoor air quality on all of these fronts. Samsung 

Electronics, for example, has launched its new Nano e-HEPA (for electric High 

Efficiency Particulate Arrest) filtration system. The system sifts the air to filter 

particles, eliminate undesirable odors, and kill airborne health threats. It uses a metal 

dust filter that has been coated with 8-nanometer silver particles. The Kitasato 

research center of environmental sciences in Japan found the nanofilter killed 99.7 

percent of influenza viruses. Up to 98 percent of odors were eliminated, and another 

nanofilter eliminated all noxious VOC fumes from paint, varnishes and adhesives. 160 

Ultra-Web nanofiber media from Donaldson Filtration Systems uses a layer of 

nanofibers that encourage dust particles to rapidly accumulate on the filter surface 

building a thin, permeable dust-stopping filter cake. Ultra-Web, says its maker, cleans 

the air better by filtering even submicron contaminants. It efficiently filters 0.3 micron 

and larger particles by capturing them on the surface of the media, solving premature 

filter plugging and making contaminants easier to pulse off compared to depth-loading 

80/20 blend or cellulose commodity media. Independent lab tests concluded that 80/20 

and cellulose media have lower MERV efficiency ratings and are not suitable for 

capturing submicron particulate. 161 

ConsERV brand energy recovery ventilator products are said by their manufacturer, 

Dais Analytic Corporation, to improve heating, ventilating and air conditioning 

systems in buildings. They are promoted as reducing the energy required to heat, cool 

and dehumidify, working best when outdoor weather is extreme and energy demand is 

highest, and bringing in the freshness of outdoors while controlling uncomfortable 

humidity and moisture that can lead to mold. Unlike other energy recovery products, 

ConsERV uses patented polymer membranes in a highly efficient and reliable solid 

state enthalpy exchange core that has no moving parts. 162 

Another product, the NanoBreeze room air purifier, utilizes a patented fluorescent 

light tube coated with phosphor to produce UVA radiation and blue light. The outside 

of the tube features a fiberglass mesh where each strand is coated with a thin layer of 

40-nanometer semiconductor crystals. The air circulating over the light tube is cleaned 

by photocatalytic oxidation. 163 

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9. Water purification 

Water is the source of all life on Earth, and yet 1.3 billion people do not have access to 

safe drinking water. Furthermore, water is implicated in 80 percent of all sickness and 

disease according to the World Health Organization. And less than 1 percent of the 

world’s drinking water is actually fit for drinking. If the world’s water were 

compressed into a single gallon, only 4 ounces would be fresh. Of that, only two drops 

would be easily accessible, and only one would be suitable for human use. In part 

because of this scarcity, the current global water market for water purification is 

estimated at $287 billion, and is expected to rise to $413 billion by 2010. 

Water must be purified in order to remove harmful materials and make it suitable for 

human uses. Contaminants can include metals like cadmium, copper, lead, mercury, 

nickel, zinc, chromium and aluminium; nutrients including phosphate, ammonium, 

nitrate, nitrite, phosphorus and nitrogen; and biological elements such as bacteria, 

viruses, parasites and biological agents from weapons. UV light is an effective 

purifier, but is energy intensive, and application in large-scale systems is sometimes 

considered cost prohibitive. Chlorine, also commonly used in water purification, is 

undesirable because it is one of the world’s most energy-intensive industrial processes, 

consuming about 1 percent of the world’s total electricity output in its production. 164 

Running dry: global water supply 

60 

saltwater 97% 

available freshwater 2% 

unavailable freshwater 1% 

Less than 1% of the world’s water is readily available freshwater. (Source: 

Investopedia.com) 

Nanotechnology is opening new doors to water decontamination, purification and 

desalinization, and providing improved detection of water-borne harmful substances. 

“We envision that nanomaterials will become critical components of industrial and 

public water purification systems,” said Dr. Mamadou Diallo, Director of Molecular


Environmental Technology at the California Institute of Technology, recipient of an 

EPA grant for nanotechnology research. 165 

For example, iron nanoparticles have a high surface area and reactivity, and can be 

used to detoxify carcinogenic chlorinated hydrocarbons in groundwater. They can also 

render heavy metals like lead and mercury insoluble, reducing their contamination. 

Dendrimers, with their sponge-like molecular structure, can clean up heavy metals by 

trapping metal ions in their pores. Nanoscale filters have a charged membrane, 

enabling them to treat both metallic and organic contaminant ions via both Steric 

filtration based on the size of openings and Donnan filtration based on electrical 

charge. They can also be self-cleaning. 166 

Gold nanoparticles coated with palladium have proven to be 2,200 times better than 

palladium alone for removing trichloroethylene from groundwater. In addition, 

photocatalytic nanomaterials enable ultraviolet light to destroy pesticides, industrial 

solvents and germs. Titanium dioxide, for example, can be used to decontaminate 

bacteria-ridden water. When exposed to light, it breaks down bacterial cell 

membranes, killing bacteria like E. coli. 167 Purification and filtration of water can also 

be achieved through nanoscale membranes or using nanoscale polymer "brushes" 

coated with molecules that can capture and remove poisonous metals, proteins and 

germs. 

Water without the mercury menace 

Mercury is one of the most harmful contaminants present in water. 

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimate that one in 

eight women have mercury concentrations in their bodies that 

exceed safety limits. Self-Assembled Monolayers on Mesoporous 

Supports (SAMMS), which removes mercury and other toxic 

substances from industrial waste streams, was created by Pacific 

Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) and licensed to Steward 

Environmental Solutions through Battelle. 

SAMMS can be tailored to selectively remove metal contaminants 

without creating hazardous waste or by-products. Steward intends 

to initially market SAMMS for treating stack emissions from coal fired 

power plants, process industry, and municipal facilities. In tests at 

PNNL, SAMMS removed 99.9 percent of mercury in simulated waste 

water. It can also be easily adapted to recover many other toxic 

substances, including toxic metals such as lead, chromium and 

arsenic, as well as radionuclides. 168 

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A new sterilizer, the RVK-NI, mixes ozone nano-bubbles with oxygen micro-bubbles 

to produce, according to manufacturer Royal Electric, almost completely bacteria-free 

water for food processing. Ozone gas is a naturally occurring type of oxygen that is 

formed as sunlight passes through the atmosphere. It can be generated artificially by 

passing high voltage electricity through oxygenated air. Because ozone is an unstable, 

highly reactive form of oxygen, it is 51 times more powerful than chlorine, the 

oxidizer used by most food processors. With it, manufacturers can forego the use of 

environmentally harmful chlorine or other chemicals used in conventional water 

disinfection processes. The ozone process is also said to kill bacteria and other 

microbes 3,000 times faster than chlorine. 

Japan's Research Institute for Environmental Management Technology, which worked 

with Royal to develop the m process behind the RVK-NI, reported that it uses very 

little energy. And they concluded, "When this technology is applied to wastewater 

treatment of the organic effluents discharged from a food processing plant, virtually all 

organic components can be decomposed efficiently into water and CO2." 169 

Seldon Laboratories employs nanotechnology they say reliably removes 

microorganisms from fluids without the use of heat, ultra-violet radiation, chemicals, 

contact time, or significant pressure. "We've invented and produced a new purification 

media … that is porous so you can pour water through it and when you do pour water 

through it we clean the water, we remove the virus and bacteria, and we remove other 

harmful chemicals and other contaminants," CEO Alan Cummings said. The company 

has delivered prototype portable water purification systems to the Air Force for 

testing. 170 

Nanocheck from Altairnano is a lanthanum-based compound that binds with 

phosphate anions to starve algae by removing its primary food source. Nanocheck’s 

high surface area enables quicker response and higher capacity than other chemicals, 

says Altairnano. It can be used in a variety of water treatment applications, from 

recreational pools to industrial water management. 171 

Desalinization is another critical area of water purification. Dais Analytic Corporation, 

for example, is currently preparing its Nanoclear desalinization process for 

commercialization. 172 

Many other companies have entered the nanotech-for-water-purification field, 

including Trisep, Argonide, KX Industries, Nanomagnetics, Generale Des Eaux, 

Ondeo, Ambri, Nanochem, Emembrane, Taasi, Rossmark, Inframat, Fluxxion, 

NanoSight, Applied Nanotech, AqWise, Crystal Clear Technologies, Aqua Pure, 

NanoH2O, Vortex Corporation, Stonybrook Water Purification, Novazone, JMAR 

Technologies, Pionetics, Bio-Pure Technology and RainDance Water Systems. 

Research on water purification is also proliferating, with experiments underway at 

Rice University's Center for Biological and Environmental Nanotechnology, NanoVic, 

Monash University, Swinburne University, the University of Aberdeen, the Center of 

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Advanced Materials for the Purification of Water with Systems, Molecular 

Environmental Technology at the California Institute of Technology, and the 

Department of Energy’s Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. 

Researchers at Queensland University of Technology, for example, have developed a 

novel form of titanium and a process for fabrication of an environmentally-friendly 

product that purifies water. They say their innovative photocatalyst has twice the 

efficiency of current state of the art materials and is an ideal platform technology to 

complement existing product portfolios. Together with bluebox, the university’s 

technology transfer company, they are currently seeking partnerships to develop their 

technology further. 173 Other water purification nanotechnologies available for 

licensing include “Biofunctional Magnetic Nanoparticles for Pathogen Detection,” 

from Hong Kong University of Science and Technology. 174 

Lead- and arsenic-free water for the developing 

world 

Keith Blakely, CEO of NanoDynamics, explained his company’s Cell- 

Pore technology for water filtration and bioremediation in an 

interview with Green Technology Forum. 

“One of the things that has us very excited is that testing against a 

number of contaminants in soil, air and water appears to indicate 

that the Cell-Pore technology, which has very, very high surface area 

but at the same time produces very little back pressure, is capable of 

reacting with a large range of fairly common and problematic 

impurities in soil, water and gas streams and removes them very 

effectively with very little cost.” 

“One of the approaches that we’re taking right now involves 

depositing active materials that will react with, for example, lead and 

arsenic in water supplies, complex with those impurities as the water 

flows by, and completely eliminate them from the water stream. So 

you can imagine that in a number of places where these particular 

contaminants are problematic, having a very simple cartridge or 

filter that one could pass these contaminated water streams through 

and wind up with pure and potable water could be very 

advantageous, particularly in developing parts of the world where 

clean water is at a premium.” 175 

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Water purification at twice the efficiency 

Researchers at Queensland University of Technology use titanium 

nanoparticles to create an environmentally-friendly water purification 

system with twice the efficiency of current materials. (Source: 

Queensland University of Technology) 

64


10. Structural materials 

Material strength is critical in a building, defining its structure, longevity, and 

resistance to gravity, wind, earthquake and other loads that act to tear it down. 

Strength is equally important in non-structural components like windows and doors for 

security and durability. A load-bearing structural material’s strength/weight ratio is 

particularly important because stronger, lighter materials can carry greater loads per 

unit of material. A higher strength/weight ratio means fewer materials, which in turn 

means fewer resources and energy consumed in production. 

Nanotechnology promises significant improvements in structural materials in two 

ways. First, nano-reinforcement of existing materials like concrete and steel will lead 

to nanocomposites, materials produced by adding nanoparticles to a bulk material in 

order to improve the bulk material’s properties. Eventually, when cost and technical 

know-how permit, we will see structures made from altogether new materials like 

carbon nanotubes. 

New structural possibilities with carbon nanotubes 

Architecture students at Ball State University experiment with the 

potential of nano-enhanced structural materials. (Source: Andy 

Naunheimer/George Elvin, nanoSTUDIO.com) 

65


10.1 Concrete 

Nanotech yacht is stronger, lighter 

One of the largest nanocomposite structures built to date is the 

350SR racing yacht from Synergy Yachts. Zyvex, the company 

producing the nanocomposite, is often referred to as the first 

nanotechnology company. They developed nanocomposite 

materials for NASA by dispersing carbon nanotubes into an epoxy 

matrix to provide stiffer and tougher composite structures. 

With a tensile strength 5-10 times higher than carbon fibers, carbon 

nanotubes reinforce the epoxy and make the entire structure 

significantly stronger. The yacht’s hull is constructed with highmodulus 

carbon fiber that is impregnated with NanoSolve enhanced 

epoxy resin, increasing its strength without added weight or work in 

the construction process. Even the paint on the yacht is enhanced 

through nanotechnology; Zyvex claims it prevents any marine 

growth under the waterline of the yacht without the need for 

toxins. 176,177 

Concrete is the world’s most widely used manufactured material; about one ton of 

concrete is produced each year for every human being in the world (some 6 billion 

tons per year.) Global annual trade in concrete is estimated at $13-14 trillion. Energy 

consumption, carbon emissions and waste are all major environmental concerns 

connected with concrete production and use. Portland cement, the dry powder “glue” 

that holds aggregate, water and lime together to make concrete, accounts for about 12 

percent of its volume, but 92 percent of its energy demand. For every ton of cement 

produced, 1.3 tons of C02 is released into the atmosphere. Worldwide, cement 

production generates over 1.6 billion tons of carbon, more than 8 percent of total 

carbon emissions. Waste is also considerable, as concrete accounts for more than twothirds 

of construction and demolition waste with only 5 percent currently recycled. 178 

Nanotechnology is leading to new cements, concretes, admixtures (concrete 

performance-enhancing additives,) low energy cements, nanocomposites, and 

improved particle packing. The addition of nanoparticles, for example, can improve 

concrete’s durability through physical and chemical interactions such as pore filling. 

In part because the bulk synthesis of nanoparticles such as carbon nanotubes is still too 

expensive for widespread use and concrete is such a high-volume material, few 

commercial products incorporate them. One that does is NanoCrete by EMACO, a 

concrete repair mortar with improved bond strength, tensile strength, density and 

66


impermeability, as well as reduced shrinkage and cracking, according to its 

manufacturer. 179 

Conventional concrete must be reinforced with steel to resist tension loads, and 

placing steel “rebar” in forms prior to the introduction of wet concrete is a timeconsuming 

and expensive process. Nanofiber reinforcement, including the 

introduction of carbon nanotubes, has been shown to improve the strength of concrete 

significantly. Even simply grinding Portland cement into nanoscale particles has been 

shown to increase compressive strength four-fold. 180 

“We mix cement with aggregate to create concrete, which we often reinforce with 

steel rebar,” said Vanderbilt University professor Florence Sanchez. “The rebar 

corrodes over time, leading to significant problems in our transportation and building 

infrastructure.” Sanchez was recently awarded a CAREER Award from the National 

Science Foundation to strengthen concrete by adding randomly oriented fibers ranging 

from nanometers to micrometers in length and made of carbon, steel or polymers. 

According to Sanchez, carbon nanofibers could one day be added to concrete bridges, 

heating them during winter or allowing them to self-monitor for cracks because of the 

fibers’ ability to conduct electricity. 181 

compressive strength (mpa) 

0 50 100 

w/o nanobinders 45.2 

w/ nanobinders 91.7 

Nanobinders double concrete’s compressive 

strength 

The compressive strength of concrete with (top) and without (bottom) 

nanobinders after curing 28 days. (Source: Sobolev K. and Ferrada- 

Gutiérrez M., “How Nanotechnology Can Change the Concrete World: 

Part 2,” American Ceramic society Bulletin, No. 11, 2005) 

Carbon nanotubes also have the potential to effectively hinder crack propagation in 

cement composites. Reinforcing concrete with nanofibers will produce tougher 

concretes by interrupting crack formation as soon as it is initiated. Development of 

low energy cements will also contribute to increased use of supplementary cementing 

67


materials like fly ash and slag while making concrete production more 

environmentally sustainable. 182 

“Development of nano-binders can lead to more than 50 percent reduction of the 

cement consumption,” report Konstantin Sobolev and Miguel Ferrada-Gutiérrez, 

“capable to offset the demands for future development and, at the same time, combat 

global warming,” The results of their experiments studying the mechanical properties 

of cement-based materials with nano-SiO2, TiO2 and Fe2O2 demonstrated an increase 

in compressive and flexural strength of mortars containing nanoparticles. 183 

Adding nano-SiO2, or nano-silica, to concrete promises many benefits. It can, for 

example, improve concrete’s mechanical properties by creating denser particle 

packing of the micro and nanostructure. Nano-silica can also improve durability by 

reducing calcium leaching in water and blocking water penetration. It can even allow 

for more fly ash to be added to the concrete without sacrificing strength and curing 

speed, which can improve concrete durability and strength while reducing the overall 

volume of cement required. 

TiO2 nanoparticles can also improve the environmental performance of concrete. It 

can, for example, be added to cement to enhance sterilization since it breaks down 

organic pollutants, volatile organic compounds, and bacterial membranes through 

powerful catalytic reactions. It can even reduce airborne pollutants when applied to 

outdoor surfaces. Additionally, it is hydrophilic, giving self-cleaning properties to 

surfaces to which it is applied. 

Carbon nanotubes are also likely to play an important role in the future of concrete. 

Adding small amounts of carbon nanotubes can improve compressive and flexural 

strength compared to unreinforced concrete. The high defect concentration on the 

surface of the oxidized multiwalled carbon nanotubes could also create better linkage 

between nanostructures and binders, thereby improving the mechanical properties of 

the composite. 

Obstacles to the integration of carbon nanotubes into concrete include their propensity 

for clumping together and the lack of cohesion between them and the surrounding bulk 

material. Cost is the other great obstacle to incorporating carbon nanotubes into any 

material, as they can cost as much as $200,000 per pound. But considerable industry, 

government and academic resources are being devoted to reducing their cost, which 

will continue to drop until carbon nanotube composites become cost effective. 

Concrete is attacked by carbon dioxide and choride ions, resulting in corrosion and 

separation of reinforcing steel. Chinese researchers have created sensors that monitor 

reinforced concrete for acidity and chloride ions, the primary causes of deterioration 

and failure. These sensors can be embedded directly in the concrete mix to enable 

monitoring in place throughout the life of a structure. 184 

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Nanosensors can also be integrated directly into concrete to collect performance data 

on concrete density and viscosity, curing and shrinkage, temperature, moisture, 

chlorine concentration, pH, carbon dioxide, stresses, reinforcement, corrosion and 

vibration. They could even monitor external conditions such as seismic activity, 

building loads, and, in roadways, traffic volume and road conditions. The latter are 

examples of “smart aggregates”, in which micro-electromechanical devices are cast 

directly into concrete roadways. Valuable information from these sensors can be 

gathered by monitoring vehicles or monitored wirelessly. 185 

Experimentation is also underway on self-healing concrete. When self-healing 

concrete cracks, embedded microcapsules rupture and release a healing agent into the 

damaged region through capillary action. The released healing agent contacts an 

embedded catalyst, polymerizing to bond the crack face closed. In fracture tests, selfhealed 

composites recovered as much as 75 percent of their original strength. They 

could increase the life of structural components by as much as two or three times. 186 

Self-healing concrete 

When cracks form in this self-healing concrete, they rupture 

microcapsules, releasing a healing agent which then contacts a catalyst, 

triggering polymerization that bonds the crack closed. (Source: Scott 

White, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign) 

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10.2 Steel 

Nanotechnologies available for licensing include “Concrete Durability Enhancing 

Admixture,” and “Prestressing of FRP Sheet Technique for Repair and Strengthening 

of Concrete Members,” both from Hong Kong University of Science and 

Technology. 187,188 

“Fiber reinforced concrete/cement products and method of preparation,” is an example 

of a recent patent in this area, focusing on “concrete and/or cement products and mixes 

with reinforcing carbon graphite fibers having a length of about 2½ inches to about 3½ 

inches, and/or nano and/or micron sized carbon fibers, and a method of reinforcing 

concrete.” 189 

Steel is a major component in reinforced concrete construction as well as a primary 

construction material in its own right. Light gauge steel framing for residential-scale 

buildings is the fastest growing use of steel. The U.S. consumes about 130 million 

tons of steel per year, and more than half of annual spending for steel is on residential 

framing. 

We have seen how nanotechnology is improving corrosion resistance in steel, but it is 

not yet impacting the structural steel market. However, several forms of steel using 

nanoscale processes are available today. A brand of steel reinforcing bar for concrete 

construction, for example, is now marketed as MMFX steel. MMFX steel is, 

according to its manufacturer, five times more corrosion-resistant and up to three 

times stronger than conventional steel. MMFX steel products are used in structures 

across North America including bridges, highways, parking structures, and residential 

and commercial buildings. The added strength of MMFX steel results in a decrease in 

the amount of conventional steel necessary to accomplish the same task. 190 

Steel produced using MMFX’s technology has a unique nanoscale structure--a 

laminated lath structure resembling plywood--that limits the formation of 

microgalvanic cells, the primary corrosion initiator that drives the corrosion reaction. 

MMFX’s “plywood” effect reportedly makes the steel very strong and increases 

corrosion resistance, ductility and toughness. 

Another steel product employing nanotechnology, though not yet available in 

structural dimensions, is Sandvik Nanoflex, which offers a high modulus of elasticity 

combined with extreme strength resulting in thinner and lighter components than those 

made from aluminium and titanium. Sandvik Nanoflex was first used in medical 

equipment like surgical needles and dental tools. It has since been used in larger-scale 

applications like ice axes. The strength and surface properties of Sandvik Nanoflex are 

also creating opportunities for the automotive industry, replacing hard-chromed low 

alloy steels. Thus, the environmentally unfriendly hard-chromizing process can be 

eliminated. 191 

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stress 

(ksi) 

200 

100 

0 

0 .1 .2 

strain (in/in) 

Sustaining twice the stress with nano-steel 

Nano-laminated MMFX steel (yellow) can sustain twice the stress of 

ASTM A615 Grade 60 steel (blue) (Source: MMFX Technologies Corp.) 

Nanotubes give ancient sword its cutting edge 

Nanotechnology is nothing new for steel. Researchers recently 

discovered that Damascus swords, made in the eighth century and 

known for their unusual hardness and sharpness, incorporated 

naturally occurring nanoparticles including iron carbide nanowires 

and carbon nanotubes into their structure. 

“These nanotube-nanowire bundles may give the swords their 

special properties,” said Peter Paufler, a crystallographer. “The 

carbon nanotubes in the sword are the first nanotubes ever found in 

steel.” 192 

ChemNova Technologies, a spin-off from Northern Illinois University started by 

Professor Chiu-Tsu Lin, is working to market a chrome-free single-step in-situ 

phosphatizing/silicating (ISPC) for coating metal. Their patented coating process uses 

a chemical bond to enhance paint adhesion to metal surfaces and inhibit substrate 

corrosion. The ISPC process eliminates the need for potentially toxic chromating baths 

and other high-waste procedures found in traditional coating methods. 193 

PComP nanocomposite coatings from Powdermet are marketed as a low cost, 

environmentally friendly substitute for hard chrome plating. MComP metallic 

nanocomposites, including nanocomposite aluminum, titanium and magnesium 

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products, are said to offer revolutionary advances in strength-weight compared to 

traditional wrought and cast materials. 194 

A research team at the University of Liverpool has also devised a new manufacturing 

process for fabricating metals by weaving them into ultra-fine lattice structures 

weighing just half as much as conventional steel or titanium. The team plans to begin 

commercial production this year. 195 

Nanotechnology is also impacting the welding process. Welds and the Heat Affected 

Zone (HAZ) adjacent to them can be brittle, failing without warning when subjected to 

sudden dynamic loading. The addition of magnesium and calcium nanoparticles, 

however, can reduce the size of HAZ grains to about 1/5th their standard size, greatly 

increasing weld toughness. This is a sustainability as well as a safety issue, as an 

increase in toughness at welded joints would result in a smaller resource requirement 

because less material is required in order to keep stresses within allowable limits. 

Other research has shown that vanadium and molybdenum nanoparticles can improve 

the delayed fracture problems associated with high strength bolts. 196 

10.3 Wood 

While concrete is the most consumed construction material by weight, on a volume 

basis, wood is the most-used construction material in the United States. Over 1.7 

million housing units were constructed of wood in the U.S. in 2004 alone. Woodframe 

construction is relatively inexpensive, easy to build with, and flexible in its 

structural and stylistic applications. Today, half of the wood products used in housing 

are engineered wood such as “gluelams” and I-joists. Wood is attractive from an 

environmental standpoint because it is renewable and can be readily recycled and 

reused. 

Nanotechnology promises to improve the structural performance and serviceability of 

wood by giving scientists control over fiber-to-fiber bonding at a microscopic level 

and nanofibrillar bonding at the nanoscale. It could also reduce or eliminate the 

formation of the random defects that limit the performance of wood today. 197 Experts 

foresee nanotechnology as “a cornerstone for advancing the biomass-based renewable, 

sustainable economy.” Nanocatalysts that induce chemical reactions and make wood 

even more multifunctional than it is today, nanosensors to identify mold, decay, and 

termites, quantum dot fiber tagging, natural nanoparticle pesticides and repellents, 

self-cleaning wood surfaces, and photocatalytic degradation of pollutants are all 

envisioned by today’s wood engineers. 198 

One of the great problems facing wood construction is rot. Pressure-treating wood can 

delay the problem, but the metallic salts employed can pose a health and 

environmental hazard. Safer organic insecticides and fungicides, however, are often 

insoluble, making it difficult for them to permeate the lumber. Scientists at Michigan 

Technological University’s School of Forest Resources and Environmental Science 

have discovered a way to embed organic compounds in nanoscale plastic beads. The 

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beads can permeate wood fibers because of their tiny size. This technology, which 

allows the industry to use more environmentally friendly biocides, has been licensed 

to the New Jersey-based company Phibro-Tech. 199 

Enertia Building Systems turn structural wood members in houses into thermal 

batteries. Zeolitic seed crystals are injected into the wood, altering the molecular 

structure at the nanoscale, so it becomes a solar energy storing device. Enertia has 

been named among the top 25 Inventions of 2007 in the Modern Marvels Invent Now 

Challenge. 200 

Nanotechnology and wood: “previously 

undreamed of growth opportunities” 

“Employing nanotechnology with wood and wood-based materials 

could result in previously undreamed of growth opportunities for 

bio-based products,” says Jerrold E. Winandy, PhD, leader of the U.S. 

Department of Agriculture’s Engineered Composites Science 

Project. “Nanotechnology will result in a unique next generation of 

bio-products that have hyper-performance and superior 

serviceability. These products will have strength properties now only 

seen with carbon-based composite materials. These new hyperperformance 

bioproducts will be capable of longer service lives in 

severe moisture environments.” 

“Enhancements to existing uses will include development of resinfree 

biocomposites or wood-plastic composites having enhanced 

strength and serviceability because of nano-enhanced and nanomanipulated 

fiber-to-fiber and fiber-to-plastic bonding. 

Nanotechnology represents a major opportunity for wood and 

wood-based materials to improve their performance and 

functionality, develop new generations of products, and open new 

market segments in the coming decades.” 201 

Wood/plastic composites are another intriguing possibility raised by nanotechnology. 

Rakesh Gupta, PhD, a professor of chemical engineering at West Virginia University, 

is using carbon nanofibers and nanoclays to improve stiffness and other mechanical 

properties in wood/plastic composites. His goal is to produce a less-toxic alternative to 

traditional treated lumber as a construction material. 202 A related technology, 

“Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Polypropylene Composites,” is available for licensing 

from the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology. 203 

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10.4 New structural materials 

While the introduction of nanomaterials into building structural components has begun 

with the reinforcement of conventional materials like wood, concrete and steel, 

breakthrough materials made primarily from nanomaterials are changing smaller-scale 

products like sporting equipment and will eventually scale up to impact the building 

industry. Nanotubes, nanofibers and nanosheets of carbon and similar materials may 

eventually form the structural skeletons of new buildings. 

Building with Buckypaper 

Carbon nanotube sheets, “Buckypaper”, could help shape the structural 

materials of the future. (Source: Brookhaven National Laboratory) 

A carbon nanotube is a one-atom thick sheet of graphite rolled into a seamless 

cylinder with a diameter of approximately one nanometer. Multi-walled carbon 

nanotubes have been tested to have a tensile strength of 63 GPa as compared to highcarbon 

steel with a tensile strength of approximately 1.2 GPa. 204 While this strength 

may not be maintained when nanotubes are combined to form macroscale structural 

components, it nonetheless suggests that exponential improvements in strength may be 

possible. 

Researchers at the University of Texas at Dallas together with an Australian colleague 

have produced transparent carbon nanotube sheets that are stronger than the same- 

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weight steel sheets. These can be made so thin that a square kilometer nanotube sheet 

would weigh only 30 kilograms. 205 The prospect of transparent sheet materials 

stronger than steel not only holds tremendous energy-saving potential, it promises to 

dramatically transform conventional assumptions about the relationship between 

building structure and skin. Could, for example, a super-thin nanotube sheet serve as 

both skin and structure, eliminating the need for conventional structural systems 

altogether? 

Buckypaper: “10 times lighter than steel but 250 

times stronger” 

The Florida Advanced Center for Composite Technologies (FAC2T) is 

one of many groups exploring the potential of so-called 

buckypaper, a material formed by combining carbon nanotubes into 

larger sheets. Buckypaper owes its name to Buckminsterfullerene, or 

Carbon 60—a type of carbon molecule whose powerful atomic 

bonds are said to make it twice as hard as diamond. 

"At FAC2T, our objective is to push the envelope to find out just how 

strong a composite material we can make using buckypaper," said 

FAC2T director Ben Wang. "In addition, we're focused on developing 

processes that will allow it to be mass-produced cheaply." 

The Army Research Lab recently awarded FAC2T a $2.5 million grant, 

while the Air Force Office of Scientific Research awarded them $1.2 

million to develop new, high-performance composite materials they 

say are 10 times lighter than steel but 250 times stronger and highly 

conductive of heat and electricity. 206 

The prospect of transparent sheet materials stronger than steel that are highly 

conductive of heat and electricity vividly illustrates one of the key energy-saving 

attributes of emerging nanomaterials--their versatility. For example, the nanotubes in 

buckypaper can be used as electrodes for bright organic light-emitting diodes 

(OLEDs). They can be lighter, more energy-efficient, and allow for a more uniform 

level of brightness than current cathode ray tube (CRT) and liquid crystal display 

(LCD) technology. They could be used to illuminate surfaces in buildings which also 

serve to support the structure. 

Nanomaterials and nanoreinforcement of existing materials could greatly extend the 

durability and lifespan of building materials, resulting in reduced maintenance and 

replacement costs as well as energy conservation. Researchers at the University of 

Bayreuth, for instance, recently developed aggregated diamond nanorods which have 

replaced natural diamonds as the world’s hardest substance. While they may never be 

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used structurally, these materials together with similar ones like carbon nanotubes 

suggest that their use as reinforcing and eventually stand-alone materials may 

dramatically extend the life span, durability, strength and sustainability of many 

building materials. 207 

11. Non-structural materials 

11.1 Glass 

Reducing heat loss and heat gain through windows is critical to reducing energy 

consumption in buildings. Energy lost through residential and commercial windows 

costs U.S. consumers about $25 billion a year. 208 Nanotechnology is reducing heat loss 

and heat gain through glazing thanks to thin-film coatings and thermochromic, 

photochromic and electrochromic technologies. Thin film coatings are spectrally 

sensitive surface applications for window glass. They filter out unwanted infrared light 

to reduce heat gain in buildings. Thermochromic technologies are being studied which 

react to changes in temperature and provide thermal insulation to give protection from 

heating while maintaining adequate lighting. Photochromic technologies react to 

changes in light intensity by increasing their light absorption. Finally, electrochromic 

coatings react to changes in applied voltage by using a tungsten oxide layer, becoming 

more opaque at the touch of a button. All these applications are intended to reduce 

energy use in cooling buildings and could help bring down energy consumption in 

buildings. 209 

SageGlass electrochromic glass switches from clear to darkly tinted at the push of a 

button, reducing undesirable effects such as fading, glare, and excessive heat without 

losing views and connection to the outdoors. This grants architects the freedom to 

design with more daylighting without the drawbacks typically associated with glass. 

SageGlass is designated an environmentally preferable building product and listed in 

the GreenSpec directory. It can also earn LEED credits when used in projects. 210 

SmartGlass International also makes electronically controlled glass panels that can 

change opacity to control lighting, temperature and privacy. 211 

“Active and Adaptive Photochromic Fibers, Textiles and Membranes,” is a 

nanotechnology available to license from the University of Delaware. In this 

technology, mats, membranes and nonwoven textiles formed from fibers can 

reversibly change color depending on the wavelength of light they are exposed to. 

Uses range from nonwoven textiles and membranes that change color depending on 

the wavelength of light impinging on them to optical switches and sensors. 212 Other 

nanotechnologies available for licensing in this area include “Fullerene-Containing 

Optical Materials with Novel Light Transmission Characteristics,” and “Light 

Emitting Material,” both from Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, as 

well as “Ultrahydrophobic Nanopost Glass,” from Oak Ridge National Laboratory. 

213,214,215 

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From transparent to tinted with the flip of a switch 

SageGlass switches from clear to darkly tinted with the push of a button, 

reducing fading, glare, and excessive heat without losing views and 

connection to the outdoors. (Source: SageGlass) 

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11.2 Plastics and polymers 

Vinyl (polyvinyl chloride or PVC), which is used in a wide range of building 

materials, has come under fire recently as detrimental to human health. Phthalates, 

used to make PVC flexible, have been cited as bronchial irritants and potential asthma 

triggers. In addition, PVC production is the world’s largest consumer of chlorine gas, 

using about 16 million tons of chlorine per year worldwide. 216 

New alternatives to many conventional plastics will in time result from nanocomposite 

research. For example, glass microspheres, or microballoons, created using a spray 

pyrolysis process, can be cast in a polymer matrix to create syntactic foam with 

extremely high compressive strength and low density. Naturally occurring nanoscale 

aggregates can also be used in making nanocomposites. The crystalline structure of 

these ceramic materials allows them to be easily separated into flakes or fibers. 

Nanoclays making GM vehicles lighter, more 

efficient 

A nanocomposite of fine-grained nanoclays suspended in a plastic 

resin is used by General Motors for auto parts. The huge surface 

areas of these nanoclays relative to other additives like talc result in 

exceptional improvements in the properties of the plastics. A 

composite with as little as 2.5 percent inorganic nanoclay is as stiff as 

and much lighter than parts with 10 times the amount of 

conventional talc filler. Nanocomposite parts are stiffer, lighter and 

less brittle in cold temperatures. They are also more easily recycled. 

"The potential market opportunities for our nanoclays involve parts 

that help GM meet its goal of lighter weight vehicles,” said Vern 

Sumner, President of Southern Clay, GM’s partner in the project. 217 

“Most properties of polymers are based on nanostructures,” says Franz Brandstetter, a 

polymer researcher at BASF. “We are creating new polymerization methods to create 

micro- and nano-structures.” BASF predicts that sheets made using this method will 

have half the thermal conductivity of its Basotect foam. In BASF’s nanostructuring 

process, chemical molecules self-align, allowing engineers to design molecules with 

more specific properties. “Now,” Brandstetter says, “instead of asking ‘What will this 

material do?’ we can ask ‘What properties do we want?’” 218 

Fiberline Composites says its nano-reinforced polyester provides excellent thermal 

and electrical insulation while remaining strong and lightweight. The material is 

corrosion resistant, has a high fatigue limit, good impact strength, and fine surface 

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finish. It can also be used as a load-bearing structural material. It has been used in 

bridges, doors, windows, facades, and structural systems. 219 

Framing with nano-reinforced polyester 

Fiberline Composites makes a polyester reinforced with glass nanofibers 

that provides thermal and electrical insulation while remaining strong 

and lightweight. (Source: Fiberline Composites) 

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Scientists at the GE Global Research Center Nano Lab have created a polymer that 

repels water-based fluids. The team modified GE’s Lexan plastic, a commonly 

available, inexpensive plastic, to create a superhydrophobic surface. 220 

ECORE wall coverings are low-VOC, PVC-free, and recyclable. Their manufacturer 

even includes a post-use reclamation program. They are said to be exceptionally 

resistant to stains and tears while boasting a Class A fire rating. They are lowmaintenance 

and can be installed without special tooling or training. 221 

ECORE is based on Evolon microfilament technology. Evolon makes a wide range of 

products, including sound absorption materials and window treatments. By using 

water jets to split microfibers into even smaller strands, they create microfibers that 

are soft, light, strong, washable, absorbent, quick-drying and breathable. They are also 

chemical-, binder-, and solvent-free, earning them the Oeko-Tex mark (standard 100, 

product class 1). ECORE acoustic drapes can reduce sound levels by 6-10 decibels 

while also providing UV protection and other attributes. 222 

Multifunctional microfibers 

ECORE wall coverings are low-VOC, PVC-free, and completely recyclable, 

as well as stain- and tear-resistant while providing a Class A fire rating. 

(Source: Freudenberg Evolon) 

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The aliphatic polyesters that make biodegradable plastics decompose are seldom used 

in engineering plastics because of their poor thermal and mechanical properties. 

Researchers from Osaka University in Japan, however, have synthesized a 

biodegradable polyester with superior mechanical strength using chemicals found in 

plants. Its molecules are found naturally as precursors to lignin and can be broken 

down by microbes. And it is so strong that the researchers foresee its use in 

environmentally friendly plastics for the automobile, aircraft, and electronics. 223 

The plastics common in buildings are typically so flammable they require the addition 

of flame-retardant chemicals, many of which come with health and environmental 

concerns. The state of Washington has even banned one class of flame-retardants from 

use in household items. But now scientists from the University of Massachusetts 

Amherst have created a synthetic polymer that requires no flame-retardants because it 

simply will not burn. Their polymer uses bishydroxydeoxybenzoin as a building 

block, which releases water vapor when it burns instead of hazardous gasses. The 

synthetic polymer is clear, flexible, durable and much cheaper to make than hightemperature, 

heat-resistant plastics in current use, which tend to be brittle and dark in 

color. 224 

A team of University of Virginia researchers are using carbon nanotubes to unite the 

virtues of plastics and metals in a new ultra-lightweight, conductive material. This 

new nanocomposite material is a mixture of plastic, carbon nanotubes and a foaming 

agent, making it extremely lightweight, corrosion-proof and cheaper to produce than 

metal. Their experiments revealed that while the nanotubes make up only 1 percent to 

2 percent of the nanocomposite, they increase its electrical conductivity by 10 orders 

of magnitude. The addition of carbon nanotubes also increased the material’s thermal 

conductivity, improving its capacity to dissipate heat. 

“Metal is not only heavy; it corrodes easily,” said team leader Mool C. Gupta. “And 

plastic insulators are lightweight, stable and cheaper to produce, but cannot conduct 

electricity. So the goal, originally, was to take plastic and make it electrically 

conductive.” 225 

11.3 Drywall 

The average new American home contains more than 7 metric tons of gypsum, 

making gypsum one of the most prevalent materials in construction today. North 

America alone produces 40 billion square feet of gypsum board (drywall) per year. 

But drywall raises many environmental issues. Panels must be dried at 260° C (500º 

F), making their processing energy consumption a concern. Drywall also consumes 

100 million metric tons of calcium sulphate, a non-renewable resource, per year. 

Synthetic gypsum avoids this problem, but its processing by flue gas desulfurization 

releases mercury. 226 Waste is yet another concern, since as much as 17 percent of all 

drywall is lost during manufacturing and installation. Finally, drywall can be a 

breeding ground for Stachybotrys and other harmful molds. 227 

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Nanotechnology shows promise in the manufacture of lighter yet stronger drywall. 

ICBM, Innovative Construction and Building Materials, has developed a gypsumpolymer 

replacement for gypsum that they say significantly improves strength-toweight 

ratio and mold resistance. 228 

Laboratory experiments elsewhere on nanosized gypsum show significant 

improvement in mechanical properties, including an up to three times higher hardness 

of nano-gypsum as compared to conventional micron-sized gypsum. 229 

Other experimenters have added nanoscale silicon dioxide (SiO2) to drywall. The 

results show that nano SiO2 is helpful for the improvement of various properties, 

including modulus of rupture (improved by 44.44 percent) and modulus of elasticity 

(improved by 108.38 percent.) 230 

Nano-gypsum could reduce environmental impacts 

and improve performance 

Calcium sulphate nano-needles entwine in this scanning electron 

micrograph of nano-gypsum, while the inset image (lower right) shows a 

pressed nano-gypsum pill. (Source: Neil Osterwalder/ ETH Zurich) 

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Nanowire sheets cut, bend and fold like paper 

University of Arkansas researchers have created assemblies of nanowire 

"paper" that show potential in applications such as flame-retardant fabric, 

armor, bacteria filters, and decomposition of pollutants. 

This two-dimensional "paper" can be shaped into three-dimensional devices. 

It can be folded, bent , cut, or used as a filter, yet is chemically inert, robust, 

and can be heated to 700° C (1300° F). 

Super-strong nanowire "paper" 

Two-dimensional "paper" made from titanium dioxide 

nanowires can be folded, bent, cut, and shaped into threedimensional 

materials. (Source: Ryan Tian/University of 

Arkansas) 

Researchers used a hydrothermal heating process to create long nanowires 

out of titanium dioxide and from there created free-standing membranes. 

The resulting material is white in color and resembles regular paper. It can 

be cast into different three-dimensional shapes like tubes, bowls and cups. 

These three-dimensional hollow objects can be manipulated by hand and 

trimmed with scissors. 231 

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11.4 Roofing 

Asphalt shingles make up more than 80 percent of the $30.18 billion U.S. roofing 

market. Heating their asphalt binders, however, can pose health hazards and the 

release of hazardous air pollutants. 232 In addition, many asphalt shingles are reinforced 

with fiberglass, which has its own environmental and health hazards. 

Although nanotechnology has yet to reach the asphalt shingle market, research is 

underway at a number of universities and research centers on its application to asphalt 

in general. The University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, for example, is looking to 

improve asphalt’s durability, stiffness, and resistance to moisture damage in its 

project, “Potential Applications of Nanotechnology for Improved Performance of 

Asphalt Pavements.” 233 

Outside of asphalt, nanotechnology is beginning to make an impact on roofing. Erlus 

Lotus, for example, offers what they refer to as the world’s first self-cleaning clay 

roof. The tile’s burned-in surface finish destroys dirt particles, grease deposits, soot, 

moss and algae with the aid of sunlight. 234 In another application, Palo Alto’s Nanosys 

has a partnership with Matsushita Electric Works to market solar roofing tiles 

embedded with nanorods. 235 

Cabot Corporation has a supply and marketing agreement with Centerpoint 

Translucent Systems for the use of Nanogel translucent aerogel in energy efficient 

daylighting roofing systems. The Nanogel daylighting material combines high light 

transmission with energy efficiency and sound insulation. It will be incorporated into 

polycarbonate panels made specifically for translucent roofing applications. The 

combined panel provides more than five times the energy efficiency of glass panels 

typically used in residential sloped glazing. Centerpoint's roofing structure is 

engineered to allow penetration of natural, filtered daylight into home living areas 

without the energy loss and increased heating and cooling costs associated with 

traditional glass roof inserts. 236 

Bioni Roof, says its manufacturer, is a premium roof coating system with outstanding 

long term protection and performance characteristics for restoring roof finishes. Bioni 

Roof not only reflects up to 90 percent of sunlight, says its manufacturer, but also 

prevents the growth of moss and algae by the use of active nanotechnology 

components. Reduced energy costs and improved environmental ratings can be 

archived, they suggest, without compromising the aesthetics of the roof. Bioni Roof is 

a suitable coating for the renovation of numerous roofing materials such as clay tiles, 

concrete roofing tiles, artificial slate tiles, or corrugated iron, and is available in 

common roofing colors. 237 

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12. Additional benefits 

The benefits of nanotechnology for green building transcend categories of specific 

materials. Their versatility, adaptability to existing buildings, and ability to conserve 

processing energy, together with the introduction of nanosensors for smart materials 

and smart environments will contribute to improved environmental performance in 

buildings. 

12.1 Nanosensors and smart environments 

While nanotechnology will bring dramatic performance improvements to building 

materials, its most dramatic impact may come in the area of nanosensors. Nanosensors 

embedded in building materials will gather data on the environment, building users, 

and material performance, even interacting with users and other sensors until buildings 

become networks of intelligent, interacting components. 

Initially, building components will become smarter, gathering data on temperature, 

humidity, vibration, stress, decay, and a host of other factors. This information will be 

invaluable in monitoring and improving building maintenance and safety. Dramatic 

improvements in energy conservation can be expected as well, as, for instance, 

environmental control systems recognize patterns of building occupancy and adjust 

heating and cooling accordingly. Similarly, windows will self-adjust to reflect or let 

pass solar radiation. Eventually, networks of embedded sensors will interact with those 

worn or implanted in building users, resulting in “smart environments” that self-adjust 

to individual needs and preferences. Everything from room temperature to wall color 

could be determined based on invisible, passive correspondence between sensors. 

Work on smart environments is already underway. Leeds NanoManufacturing Institute 

(NMI), for example, is part of a €9.5 million European Union-funded project to 

develop a house with special walls that will contain wireless, battery-less sensors and 

radio frequency identity tags to collect data on stresses, vibrations, temperature, 

humidity and gas levels. 

"If there are any problems, the intelligent sensor network will alert residents 

straightaway so they have time to escape," said NMI chief executive Professor Terry 

Wilkins. 

The self-healing house walls will be built from novel load bearing steel frames and 

high-strength gypsum board, and will contain nano polymer particles that will turn 

into a liquid when squeezed under pressure, flow into the cracks to harden and form a 

solid material. 238 

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Smart environments integrate nanosensors and 

microsensors 

Nanosensors and microsensors could enable “smart environments” that 

gather information from their environment and users (Source: Bob 

Ching/Queensgate Instruments) 

12.2 Multifunctional properties 

One of the most important aspects of nanotechnology is that it enables the design of 

multifunctional materials with multiple properties. This versatility means that a single 

nanomaterial can perform the work of several traditional materials. Titanium dioxide 

nanoparticles incorporated into a facade, for instance, can make it both self-cleaning 

and depolluting. New nanocompisites could easily be made fireproof, electrically 

conductive, and super-strong. The ability to design multifunctional materials from the 

bottom up will undoubtedly save energy and costs in tomorrow’s buildings. As 

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nanoscientists have said, we will no longer have to make due with materials that meet 

some performance criteria and fall short of others. In the long run, we will design 

materials to meet multiple criteria. 

Nanoscale design for versatility is already occurring. Carbon nanotubes, as we have 

seen, are amazingly versatile—strong, flexible, and electrically and thermally 

conductive. Nanocoatings also take advantage of the diverse properties of titanium 

dioxide and other nanoparticles to create self-cleaning, depolluting, antimicrobial 

surfaces. 

Germany’s Nanogate AG is creating multifunctional surfaces for various product lines 

manufactured by a leading bathroom fixtures company. Their work includes coating 

glass surfaces with an invisible, eco-friendly finish that repels water, limescale and 

dirt, protects them from glass corrosion, and is easy to clean. 239 

Flexible heat-activated displays 

This light-emitting display combines flexibility, conductivity, and heat 

dissipation to create devices that reduce energy use. (Source: Weijia 

Wen/Hong Kong University of Science and Technology) 

Professor Weijia Wen at the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology has 

developed a paper-like, thermally activated display fabricated from thermochromic 

composite and embedded conductive wiring patterns, shaped from a mixture of 

metallic nanoparticles in polydimethylsioxane using soft lithography. The 

nanomaterials’ combination of light-emitting characteristics, flexibility, conductivity 

and heat dissipation combine to create a display that exhibits good image quality and 

ease of control, reduces energy consumption, improves image quality control, and has 

excellent mechanical bending flexibility. 240 

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12.3 Reduced processing energy 

Because buildings typically use five times as much energy in their operation as in all 

other phases of their life cycle, energy saving strategies focus primarily on reducing 

operating energy costs. However, nanotechnology is demonstrating considerable 

savings during the manufacturing of building-related products as well. DuPont, for 

instance, has licensed nanoparticle paint from Ecology Coatings that will reduce the 

energy used in coating application by 25 percent and materials costs by 75 percent. 

The savings come because the paint is cured using ultraviolet (UV) light at room 

temperature, rather than in the 204ºC (400ºF) ovens required for conventional auto 

paint. The same technology could be applied to factory-coated facade panels and 

surfaces for the building industry. 241 

12.4 Adaptability to existing buildings 

The market for nanomaterials in insulation for all industries is projected to reach $590 

million by 2014. 242 We believe that the application of insulating nanocoatings to 

existing buildings will be one of the greatest contributions of nanotechnology to the 

reduction of carbon emissions worldwide in the 21 st century. 

ECOFYS estimates that adding thermal insulation to existing European buildings 

could cut current building energy costs and carbon emissions by 42 percent or 350 

million metric tons. But while insulation is the single most cost effective strategy for 

reducing carbon emissions, existing buildings can be difficult to insulate with 

conventional materials like rigid boards and fiberglass bats because wall cavities 

where the insulation needs to go are inaccessible without partial demolition. Insulating 

nanocoatings could exceed the insulating values of conventional materials through the 

much simpler application of an invisible coating to the building envelope. Aerogels 

could also play a major role in insulating existing structures. Further study is needed to 

determine the exact insulating value of nanocoating products, but considering that half 

of the buildings that will be standing at mid-century have already been built, the 

prospect of easily improving their energy conservation capabilities is urgent. 

The other great carbon emission reducer will likely be thin-film organic solar 

technology enabled by nanotechnology. Thin-film solar cells can be produced on 

plastic rolls, bringing dramatic price reductions over traditional glass plate technology. 

In addition, flexible plastic solar cells are much more adaptable to building facades 

than rigid glass plates, making building integrated photovoltaics both more affordable 

and adaptable. Nanosolar’s construction of a plant that will triple U.S. solar cell 

production shows that now is nano-enabled solar energy’s time to shine. 

Energy savings from light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and organic light-emitting diodes 

(OLEDs) will also be substantial, given their dramatically superior efficiency as 

compared to conventional lighting. Wal–Mart’s projected $2.6 million energy cost 

savings and 35 million pound carbon emission reductions by using LED refrigerated 

display lighting show that these are also technologies whose time has come. 

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Part 3. Conclusions 

13. Market forces 

The next five to ten years will see a boom in nanotechnology for green building. 

Current nanomaterials and nano-products show demonstrable environmental 

improvements including energy savings and reduced reliance on non-renewable 

resources, as well as reduced waste, toxicity and carbon emissions. Some can even 

absorb and break down airborne pollutants. The benefits of nanotechnology for green 

building will accrue first from coatings and insulating materials available today, 

followed by advances in solar technology, lighting, air and water purification, and, 

eventually, structural materials and fire protection. 

13.1 Forces accelerating adoption 

While the construction industry is generally slow to adopt new technologies, we 

believe five converging forces will accelerate the adoption of nanotechnology for 

green building: 

Forces accelerating nanotechnology adoption 

1. Increasing green building requirements 

2. $4 billion per year in nanotechnology research and development 

worldwide 

3. Proliferation of nanotechnology products and materials 

4. Demonstrated environmental benefits of nanotechnology products 

and materials 

5. Declining costs of nanotechnology products and materials 

Increasing demand for more sustainable buildings will necessarily require new, more 

environmentally friendly building materials. The green building sector of the $142 

billion U.S. construction market is expected to exceed $12 billion in 2007. 243 We 

expect it to grow rapidly as government agencies adopt increasingly stringent 

environmental standards. Widely accepted benchmarks for measuring sustainability 

rely heavily on material specifications. Architects able to demonstrate improved 

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environmental performance in the materials they specify will be rewarded with higher 

ratings for their buildings and more work for their firms. 

The demand for greener buildings will not only be borne out of the desire to do the 

right thing for the environment—increasingly, it will be required by law and corporate 

policy. Because the ability to meet accepted environmental performance criteria like 

LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) offers a definable measure 

of sustainability, an increasing number of municipalities and corporations are 

requiring that new buildings meet them. The cities of Vancouver and Portland now 

require new city facilities to meet LEED gold standards; Seattle and San Francisco 

require silver, and Atlanta requires LEED certification, providing these cities with 

tangible evidence they are meeting their green goals. 244 

Most importantly, nanotechnology for green building can help us achieve goals for 

reducing carbon emissions and the effects of global climate change. Building is a 

logical point of focus in those efforts. Buildings consume roughly 40 percent of U.S. 

energy, emit 40 percent of carbon, and contribute 40 percent of landfill waste, but 

these alarming numbers also suggest that building must become a focal point in the 

global fight for a greener, healthier world. 

“By some conservative estimates,” says one United Nations report, “the building 

sector world-wide could deliver emission reductions of 1.8 billion tonnes of C02. A 

more aggressive energy efficiency policy might deliver over two billion tonnes or 

close to three times the amount scheduled to be reduced under the Kyoto Protocol." 245 

These conclusions combined with our own suggest that nanotechnology for green 

building will be in great demand to meet not only municipal and corporate 

sustainability requirements, but increasing national and international pressures to 

reduce carbon emissions as well. We can already see national carbon emission policies 

affecting the building industry as in, for example, the Danish Building Regulations 

and Parliamentary decision from 2005 requiring reduction in building energy 

consumption of 25 percent by 2015. 246 

These green building requirements will create unprecedented demand for green 

materials. In a $1 trillion dollar per year market like building, such a shift in criteria 

for material selection opens up enormous opportunities for new materials, new 

processes, and new business. And as this study has shown, many current and nearterm 

nanomaterials and nano-products have demonstrable environmental benefits 

enabling them to meet the criteria established by LEED and other benchmarking tools 

for sustainability. The convergence of growing demand for green building products 

with the explosion in available nanomaterials and nano-products makes building 

construction and operation a prime market for nanotechnology. Four billion dollars per 

year in nanotechnology research and development worldwide will help ensure a steady 

flow of new nanomaterials and nano-products into the market indefinitely. 

90


13.2 Obstacles to adoption 

Markets are full of uncertainty, especially when new technologies are introduced. The 

application of nanotechnology to a market as broad as the building industry poses 

many challenges for businesses, professionals, and government agencies. There are 

three primary forces that could thwart a boom in nanotechnology for green building: 

Forces with potential to slow adoption 

1. Prolonged high cost of nanomaterials and nano-products 

2. Construction industry resistance to innovation 

3. Public rejection of nanotechnology 

The immediate adoption of nanotechnology into the building industry is being slowed 

by the mismatch between a short term cost-conscious industry and the high cost of 

most nano-products relative to conventional building materials. Carbon nanotubes, for 

example, can cost $200,000 per pound. Even readily available nano-products like 

germ-killing paints are sold as premium products at the high end of the price scale. 

However, nanotechnology is still a relatively young enterprise, and prices are certain 

to drop just as they do with any new technology over time. 

That the industry’s tendency to move cautiously in adopting new technologies could 

slow the pace of nanotechnology adoption was confirmed by a recent Danish study on 

nanotechnology for the construction industry. The study found the industry knows 

very little about nanotechnology and its implications, and that architects fear 

nanomaterial and nano-product costs will be too high. 

“The overall picture on the demand for, knowledge of, and views on nanotechnology 

in the construction sector,” the report states, “is that knowledge and expertise are 

currently too fragmented to allow for a substantial uptake, diffusion and development 

of nanotechnological solutions in the construction industry. At present, only very 

vague ideas of the possible benefits can be identified among key agents of change 

such as architects, consulting engineers and facility managers. Furthermore the 

demand side will be reluctant about introducing nanotechnological materials until 

convincing documentation about functionalities and long-term effects is produced.” 247 

A larger concern is the uncertainty surrounding public acceptance of nanotechnology. 

So far, the public has been largely positive about nanotechnology. However, a single 

instance of harm attributable to nanotechnology could be enough to quickly change 

public perception. For example, in 2006 a German cleanser called Magic Nano was 

recalled after it caused respiratory problems in some users. An investigation later 

proved there were in fact no nanoparticles in Magic Nano (the name was basically a 

91


marketing gimmick,) but one sufferer complained memorably, “I blame 

nanotechnology!” 

While a wholesale public rejection of nanotechnology is implausible, an event or 

report linking nanotechnology to significant human or environmental health hazards 

could brand nanotechnology as environmentally unfriendly. If that occurs, even 

nanomaterials and nano-products with proven environmental benefits could be 

stricken from the green building palette. Recall that the U.S. Food and Drug 

Administration, for instance, initially planned to allow certified organic produce to 

contain genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and only changed its position after 

public outcry. Nanotechnology, however, enjoys a more positive reputation than 

GMOs among the general public, making its branding as environmentally unfriendly 

unlikely. 

14. Future trends and needs 

The fulfillment of nanotechnology’s promise for green building will require effort on 

the part of both the nanotech community and the building industry. As it is in so many 

aspects of life, communication will be the key. Further research is needed to bridge the 

gap between nanotech potential and current construction practice. Research focusing 

on the following areas will help overcome construction industry resistance to 

innovation and public fears about nanotechnology. 

14.1 Independent testing 

Consumers need accurate product information in order to make informed buying 

decisions. One primary hurdle in assessing the environmental performance of 

nanomaterials—their “greenness”—is the current lack of objective performance data. 

Independent testing is needed to determine precisely the thermal resistance, embodied 

energy, toxicity, waste stream, and other quantifiable environmental performance data 

for nanomaterials. This data would help consumers overcome the skepticism that often 

accompanies reliance on manufacturer claims. For example, nanomaterials for green 

building appear to reduce the buildup of volatile organic compounds (VOC's) and 

persistent bioaccumulative toxics (PBTs), resulting in improved indoor air quality. 

Data demonstrating favorable comparisons to existing materials (as well as data that 

raises environmental concerns) should be collected, analyzed, and disseminated to 

facilitate decision making. 

14.2 Life cycle analysis 

Independently defined environmental performance data should encompass the entire 

life cycle of the products tested. A specific insulation product, for example, could 

appear to save energy in its application but consume great amounts of energy in its 

92


raw material processing and manufacture, distribution, and disposal or reuse. Life 

cycle energy and waste analyses should include data on raw material acquisition, raw 

material processing and manufacture, product packaging, product distribution, product 

installation, use and maintenance, disposal, reuse and recycling. 

Life cycle considerations 

1. Where did this material come from? 

2. Is it renewable? 

3. How much energy was used in mining/harvesting? 

4. What effect on habitat? 

5. How was it processed or fabricated? 

6. How much energy was used in manufacture? 

7. What were the environmental impacts of manufacture? 

8. How did it arrive on-site? 

9. How can it minimize construction waste? 

Energy life cycle 

1. Embodied energy 

Energy used in manufacture of building components 

2. Gray energy 

Energy used in transportation and distribution of materials 

3. Induced energy 

Energy used to construct building 

4. Operating energy 

Energy used to run building, equipment and appliances 

93


demolition/recycling 

Life cycle energy consumption in buildings 

Building operation consumes five times as much energy as all other 

phases of building life combined (Source: United Nations Environmental 

Programme, “Buildings and Climate Change,” 2007) 

14.3 Societal concerns 

operating energy 

induced energy 

gray energy 

embodied energy 

0 30 60 

Buildings will be one of the primary points of contact between people and 

nanomaterials. People know they will be in constant contact with materials and 

products allowed into their homes and offices. The pervasiveness, uncertainty, 

complexity, and rapid development of nanotechnologies for building combine to 

create a potentially volatile environment. Some environmental groups, for example, 

have warned that nanotechnology could prove to be “the next asbestos,” a reminder of 

the grave health consequences wrought by a once-promising building technology. 

Because nanotechnology is a new and powerful technology full of uncertainty, care 

should be taken to listen to the concerns expressed by consumers, workers and 

building users. 

Aside from environmental and human health concerns, less direct societal concerns 

could also arise. Nanosensors, for example, raise questions of privacy and control. 

Who will control the transparency of windows in public places or a child’s room, for 

instance? How will data gathered about individual building users be used? The rise of 

“smart environments” may even have implications for the design professions as 

buildings become more dynamic networks of smart assemblies interacting with their 

environment and users. 

14.4 Environmental and human health concerns 

The uncertainty surrounding the effects of nanoparticles on the environment and the 

human body is sure to continue as a concern in the development from experimental 

94 

time (years)


nanoscience to marketplace products. Reports find, for example, that ultrafine particles 

behave differently and can be more toxic than equivalent larger-sized particles of a 

given material at similar doses per gram of body weight. 248, 249 Regulation of nanobased 

products based solely on particle size, however, is proving extremely difficult. 

Consumers of nanotechnology’s architectural applications will undoubtedly be 

concerned about potential environmental and human health hazards, and the fear of 

them, whether justified or not, could impede the spread of nanotechnology in the 

marketplace. 

14.5 Regulation 

Like any new technology, nanotechnology raises concerns. By virtue of their size, for 

example, nanoparticles are more readily absorbed into the body than larger particles. 

In addition, little is known about how they accumulate in the body or the environment. 

Silver nanoparticles, for instance, are proven antibacterial agents incorporated into 

many nanotech paints and coatings. Samsung even coats some of its appliances with 

silver nanoparticles to kill germs. 250 But concerns that nanosilver could accumulate in 

the environment, killing beneficial bacteria and aquatic organisms, as well as human 

health concerns, have led the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to make 

products containing silver nanoparticles the subject of the first EPA regulations 

applying to nanotechnology. Now, any company looking to sell products advertised as 

germ-killing and containing nanosilver or similar nanoparticles will first have to 

provide scientific evidence that the product does not pose an environmental risk. But 

the EPA has long regulated silver because it is a heavy metal known to cause health 

and environmental problems in sufficient quantities. 251 

Because of the large number of people employed in the construction industry, 

workplace regulation of nanotech-based materials and processes could also become a 

concern. The harmful side effects of carbon nanotube manufacturing, for example, 

have been described in a new study. Researchers found cancer-causing compounds, air 

pollutants, toxic hydrocarbons, and other substances of concern. They are now 

working with four major U.S. nanotube producers to help develop strategies for more 

environmentally friendly production. 252 At present, however, the National Institute for 

Occupational Safety and Health only offers guidelines for workplace safety for 

workers in contact with nanomaterials. 253 

Since buildings are the primary source of contact between people and materials 

through both dermal and respiratory absorption, architects and engineers along with 

manufacturers will need to stay attuned to regulations affecting nanotechnology. So 

far, however, nanotechnology has a clean record. You’ve been absorbing titanium 

dioxide nanoparticles for years through your sunscreen—it’s used in many cosmetics 

and other dermal applications to make white particles disappear into the skin. 

And while not every environmental group finds current nanotech regulations 

sufficient, many do. 254 In fact the desire to “get it right” has brought together 

95


previously unlikely partners like DuPont and Environmental Defense to iron out 

regulatory policies agreeable to all parties. 255 

While this report details the wide range of nanomaterials and products available today 

that can benefit green building, the best is yet to come. With $4 billion per year going 

into nanotechnology research and development worldwide, the pipeline is full of 

exciting materials and products that will dramatically change the way future buildings 

are made. As the findings of this report demonstrate, nanotechnology for green 

building is an enormous market with equally enormous potential for environmental 

benefit. 

96

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99 Hasinovic, Hida, and Tara Weinmann, “Interior Protectant/Cleaner Composition,” 2007, 

http://www.freshpatents.com/Interior-protectant-cleaner-compositiondt20070719ptan20070163463.php 

100 Nano Adhesive Co., Ltd., “Welcome”, 2006, http://www.nano-adhesive.com/ 

101 Berger, Michael, “Nanotube adhesive sticks better than a gecko's foot,” Nanowerk, June 18, 2007, 

http://www.nanowerk.com/news/newsid=2094.php 

102 Fearing, Ron, and Robert Full, “Adhesive Toes for Legged Mobile Robots,” Center for Information 

Technology Research in the Interest of Society, http://www.citrisuc.org/research/projects/adhesive_toes_for_legged_mobile_robots 

103 “Inexpensive ‘Nanoglue’ Can Bond Nearly Anything Together,” Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, press 

release, May 16, 2007, http://news.rpi.edu/update.do?artcenterkey=2154&setappvar=page%281%29 

104 “Nano Structure for Adhesion, Friction and Conduction,” Office of Intellectual Property and Industry 

Research Alliances, University of California, Berkeley, 2005, 

http://otl.berkeley.edu/inventiondetail.php/1000614 

105 Max Plank Society, Beetle Feet Stick to their Promises,” press release, November 3, 2006, 

http://www.mf.mpg.de/de/organisation/gs/gs-extern/presse/PMengl_BeetleFeet.pdf 

106 EnergyIdeas Clearinghouse, “Energy Conservation Ideas for Building Operators,” Northwest Energy 

Efficiency Alliance, 2004,

http://www.betterbricks.com/default.aspx?pid=article&articleid=204&typeid=10&topicname=operation 

smaintenance&indextype= 

107 Lighting design lab, 2006, http://www.lightingdesignlab.com/ 

108 United Nations Environmental Programme, “Buildings and Climate Change,” 2007, 

http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=502&ArticleID=5545&l=en 

109 Celsia Technologies, “LED Lighting,” 2006, http://www.celsiatech.com/industry_solutions.asp#Displays 

110 

General Electric Company, “Wal–Mart Uses GE LED Refrigerated Display Lighting to Save Green,” press 

release, 2007, 

http://www.geconsumerproducts.com/pressroom/press_releases/lighting/gelcore/Walmart_LED_display 

.htm 

111 Bridgelux, “Delivering brilliance,” 2006, http://www.bridgelux.com/ 

112 Narayanamurti, Venkatesh, “Nanowires-Based Large-Area Light Emitters and Collectors,” Massachusetts 

Technology Transfer Center, http://www.masstechportal.org/IP1821.aspx 

113 Kwok, Hoi Sing et.al., “Luminescent Gold (III) Compounds, Their Preparation and Light-Emitting Devices,” 

Hong Kong University of Science and Technology and RandD Corporation Ltd., 2005, 


114 Kim, Jong Wook, and Hyun Kyong Cho, “Method for fabricating substrate with nano structures, light 

emitting device and manufacturing method thereof,” 2007, http://www.freshpatents.com/Method-forfabricating-substrate-with-nano-structures-light-emitting-device-and-manufacturing-method-thereofdt20070719ptan20070166862.php 

115 Wake Forest University, “WFU launches two nanotechnology startup companies,” press release, July 20, 

2007, http://www.wfu.edu/news/release/2007.07.20.n.php 

116 Universal Display Corporation, “Creating Innovative Display Technology,” 2007, 

http://www.universaldisplay.com/ 

117 Evident Technologies, “LED/ Display Business Unit,” 2007, http://www.evidenttech.com/business-units/led- 

displays.php 

118 E Ink Corporation, “World’s first tablet-size flexible electronic paper display,” press release, October 19, 

2005, http://www.eink.com/press/releases/pr87.html 

119 Xu, Jimmy et.al., “Process to Grow a Highly-Ordered Quantum DOT Array, and a Quantum Dot Array 

Grown in Accordance with the Process,” Brown University, 2004, 

http://research.brown.edu/btp/technologies_detail.php?id=1138723199 

120 Lawton, Carl, “Biomolecular Synthesis of Quantum Dot Composites,” Massachusetts Technology Transfer 

Center, http://www.masstechportal.org/IP303.aspx 

121 Oak Ridge National Laboratory, “Self-Organized Formation of Quantum Dots of a Material On a Substrate,” 

Non-licensed Nanotechnologies, http://www.nanovalley.us/library/cms/Image/nonlicensed%20nanotech.pdf 

122 Murakowski, Janusz, et.al., “Fabrication of Quantum Dots Embedded in Three-Dimensional Photonic Crystal 

Lattice,” University of Delaware, 2006, http://www.ovpr.udel.edu/OVPR/do/index?pageId+20 

123 Scenta, “Grant for low-energy lighting,” October 31, 2006, 

http://www.scenta.co.uk/viewitem/1242215/grant-for-low-energy-lighting.htm 

124 Lebby, Michael, “Greentech Lighting: Seeking Efficiencies Through Solid State Technologies,” August 15, 

2007, http://www.oida.org/news/jul07/08_webinar_july07.html 

125 Hasan, Russell, “The Solar Silicon Shortage and Its Impact on Solar Power Stocks,” SolarHome.org, 2007, 

http://www.solarhome.org/newsthesolarsiliconshortage.html

126 Elvin, George, “GTF Interview: Bo Varga, Managing Director, Silicon Valley Nano Ventures,” April 12, 

2007, http://www.greentechforum.net/category/commentary/2007/04/12/gtf-interview-bo-vargamanaging-director-silicon-valley-nano-ventures/ 

127 Innovalight Inc., 2007, http://www.innovalight.com/ 

128 Solaicx, “Creating a Revolution,” http://www.solaicx.com/pages/pv.htm 

129 Spire Corporation, “Spire Solar,” 2007, http://www.spirecorp.com/spire-solar/index.php 

130 “U.S. Government Researchers Validate High Energy Capability of Nanoparticles, Key to Octillion’s 

NanoPower Windows,” Octillion Corp., August 21, 2007 

http://www.octillioncorp.com/OCTL_20070821.html 

131 Cientifica, “Nanotechnologies and Energy Whitepaper,” February 2007, 

132 Risø National laboratory, “NanoByg: A survey of nanoinnovation in Danish Construction,” 


133 Cientifica, “Nanotech and Cleantech - Reducing Carbon Emissions Today,” March 2007, 


134 Nanosolar, Inc., “Nanosolar Selects Manufacturing Sites,” press release, Dec. 12, 2006, 

http://www.nanosolar.com/pr7.htm 

135 Konarka Technologies, Inc., “About Konarka,” 2007, http://www.konarka.com/about/ 

136 Solexant, “High Efficiency Low Cost Solar Cells,” http://www.solexant.com/ 

137 Stion Corporation, “About us,” http://www.stion.com/ 

138 The Carvist Corporation, “Company Overview & Mission Statement,´http://www.carvist.net/ 

139 Elvin, George, “Interview with Michael Sinkula, Director of Business Development, Nanoexa,” March 6, 

2007, http://www.greentechforum.net/category/commentary/2007/03/06/interview-with-michaelsinkula-director-of-business-development-nanoexa/ 

140 

Kymakis, Emmanuel, “The Impact of Carbon Nanotubes on Solar Energy Conversion,” Nanotechnology Law 

and Business, Volume 3, Issue 4, 

http://www.nanolabweb.com/index.cfm/action/main.default.viewArticle/articleID/171/CFID/380831/C 

FTOKEN/98313612/index.html 

141 Talbot, David, “TR10: Nanocharging Solar,” Technology Review, March 12, 2007, 

http://www.technologyreview.com/Energy/18285/ 

142 Elvin, George, “Nanocoatings Transforming Automotive, Solar Cell and Wireless Industries,” 

http://www.nanotechbuzz.com/50226711/nanocoatings_transforming_automotive_solar_cell_and_wirel 

ess_industries.php 

143 Wake Forest University, “WFU launches two nanotechnology startup companies,” press release, July 20, 

2007, http://www.wfu.edu/news/release/2007.07.20.n.php 

144 New Jersey Institute of Technology, “NJIT Researchers Develop Inexpensive, Easy Process To Produce Solar 

Panels,” press release, July 18, 2007, http://www.njit.edu/publicinfo/press_releases/release_1040.php 

145 NASA TechFinder, “Novel Solar Cell Nanotechnology for Improved Efficiency and Radiation Hardness,” 

http://technology.nasa.gov/Program_Area_Detail.cfm?PKEY=816142&category=Program%20Area 

146 Oak Ridge National Laboratory, “Textured Substrate for Thin-Film Photovoltaic Cells and Method for 

Preparation,” Non-licensed Nanotechnologies, http://www.nanovalley.us/library/cms/Image/nonlicensed%20nanotech.pdf

147 Oak Ridge National Laboratory, “High Capacity, Thin-Film, Solid-State Rechargeable Battery for Portable 

Power Applications,” Non-licensed Nanotechnologies, 

http://www.nanovalley.us/library/cms/Image/non-licensed%20nanotech.pdf 

148 Chittibabu, Kethinni, “Approaches for Inexpensive, Sheet-to-Sheet Manufacturing of Dye Sensitized 

Nanoparticle Based Solar Modules,” Massachusetts Association of Technology Transfer Offices, 

http://www.masstechportal.org/IP1474.aspx 

149 Zettl, Alex, et.al., “Improving the Efficiency of Nanoscale Photovoltaic Devices,” Lawrence Berkeley 

National Laboratory Technology Transfer Department, http://www.lbl.gov/tt/techs/lbnl2338.html 

150 National Renewable Energy Laboratory, “Solar Technologies Available for Licensing,” 2006, 

http://www.nrel.gov/technologytransfer/ip/search_ip.php/solar 

151 Cientifica, ” Nanotechnologies and Energy Whitepaper,” February 2007 

152 Walsh, Ben, “Environmentally Beneficial Nanotechnologies,” Oakdene Hollins for Department for 

Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, May 2007, 

www.defra.gov.uk/environment/nanotech/policy/pdf/envbeneficial-report.pdf 

153 Altair Nanotechnologies, Inc., “Welcom to Altairnano,” 2007, http://www.altairnano.com/ 

154 mPhase Technologies Inc., “Welcome to mPhase Technologies,” 2007, http://www.mphasetech.com/ 

155 Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, “Beyond Batteries: Storing Power in a Sheet of Paper,” press release, Aug. 

21, 2007, http://news.rpi.edu/update.do?artcenterkey=2280 

156 Montana State University Technology Transfer Office, “Nanotechnology Available for License,” 

http://tto.montana.edu/documents/TechOpHydrogenReactor.pdf 

157 Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Technology Transfer Department, “Nanoporous Metal-Inorganic 

Materials for Hydrogen Storage,” http://www.lbl.gov/tt/techs/lbnl2303.html 

158 Tang, Zikang, et.al., “Lithium-Ion Battery Incorporating Carbon Nanostructures Materials,” Hong Kong 

University of Science and Technolgy and RandD Corporation Ltd., 2004, 


159 EnviroSystems, Incorporated, “What You Should Know About Biocides,” 2006, 

http://www.envirosi.com/TechInfo/technicaloverview.html 

160 Azonano.com, “Samsung Launches Nano e-HEPA Air Purifier System,” February 27, 2004, 


161 Donaldson, “Nanofiber Technology Is Cleaner,” http://www.ultrawebisalwaysbetter.com.au/cleaner.htm 

162 Dais Analytic Corporation, “Welcome to ConsERV,” 2005, http://www.conserv.com/ 

163 K & W Products Inc., “NanoBreeze”, 2006, http://www.nanobreeze.com/index.html 

164 Thornton, Joe, “Environmental Impacts of Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Building Materials,” 

http://www.healthybuilding.net/pvc/ThorntonPVCSummary.html 

165 Cosier, Susan, “Big Problems, Little Solutions,” Scienceline, September 22, 2006, 

http://scienceline.org/2006/09/22/env-cosier-nanotech/ 

166 Mann, Surinder, “Nanotechnology and Construction,” Institute of Nanotechnology, 2006 

167 Gray, Sarah, “Nanotechnology Applications in Water Management,” 2005, 

http://www.nanovic.com.au/downloads/water_management.pdf 

168 Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, “Mercury sponge technology goes from lab to market,” press release, 

May 23, 2006, http://www.pnl.gov/news/release.asp?id=159 

169 El Amin, Ahmed, “Ozone nano-bubbles harnessed to sterilise water,” beveragedaily.com, Feb. 28, 2007, 

http://www.beveragedaily.com/news/ng.asp?n=74577-ozone-steriliser-nano-bubbles

170 Edwards, Bruce, “Windsor firm expects to add nearly100 jobs,” Rutland Herald, December 14, 2006, 

http://www.rutlandherald.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20061214/NEWS/612140343/1003/NEWS02 

171 Altair Nanotechnologies, Inc., “Performance Materials,” 2007, 

http://www.altairnano.com/markets_perfmaterials.html 

172 Dais Analytic Corporation, “NanoClear desalinization,” http://www.daisanalytic.com/nanoclear.htm 

173 http://www.commercialisation.qut.edu.au/commercialopp/nanotech.jsp 

174 Bing XU, Biofunctional Magnetic Nanoparticles for Pathogen Detection,” Hong Kong University of Science 

and Teecchnology and RandD Corporation Ltd, 2005, 


175 Elvin, George, “Interview with Keith Blakely, CEO, NanoDynamics,” February 14, 2007, 

http://www.greentechforum.net/category/commentary/2007/02/14/interview-with-keith-blakely-ceonanodynamics/ 

176 Zyvex Corporation, “NanoSolve Materials,” 2007, 

http://www.zyvex.com/Products/CNT_FAQs.html#whatareNSprd 

177 Synergy Yachts, “Welcome to Synergy Yachts,” 2007, http://www.synergyachts.com/ 

178 Business Plan ISO/TC 71, “Concrete, reinforced concrete and pre-stressed concrete,” 2005, 

http://isotc.iso.org/livelink/livelink/fetch/2000/2122/687806/ISO_TC_071__Concrete__reinforced_con 

crete_and_pre-stressed_concrete_.pdf?nodeid=1162199&vernum=0 

179 BASF, “EMACO Nanocrete,” 2007, http://www.emaco-nanocrete.com/english.html 

180 Garcia-Luna, Armando, and Diego R Bernal,. “High Strength Micro/Nano Fine Cement,” 2nd International 

Symposium on Nanotechnology in Construction, Bilbao, Spain, November 13-16, 2005, pp. 285-292 

181 Vanderbilt University, “Vanderbilt engineering receives National Science Foundation ‘CAREER’ Award for 

nano-fiber concrete research,” press release, 12-7- 

2005, http://www.vanderbilt.edu/news/releases/2005/12/7/vanderbilt_engineering_receives_national_sc 

ience_foundation_%22career%22_award_for_nano-fiber_concrete_research 

182 National Research Council Canada Institute for Research in Construction, “Nanotechnology and Concrete: 

Small Science for Big Changes,” June 2005, http://www.nrccnrc.gc.ca/highlights/2005/0506nanotech_concrete_e.html 

183 Sobolev K. and M. Ferrada-Gutiérrez, “How Nanotechnology Can Change the Concrete World: Part 2,” 

American Ceramic Society Bulletin, No. 11, 2005, pp. 16-19. 

184 Du, Rong-Gui, “In Situ Measurement of Cl- Concentrations and pH at the Reinforcing Steel/Concrete 

Interface by Combination Sensors,” Anal. Chem.; 2006; 78(9) pp 3179 - 

3185;http://pubs3.acs.org/acs/journals/doilookup?in_doi=10.1021/ac0517139 


186 Kloeppel, James E., “Mimicking biological systems, composite material heals itself,” press release, University 

of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2/14/2001http://www.news.uiuc.edu/scitips/01/0214selfheal.html 

187 Zongiin LI, “Concrete Durability Enhancing Admixture,” Hong Kong University of Science and Technology 

and RandD Corporation Ltd., 2000, http://www.ttc.ust.hk/new_selected/doc/patent%20075.pdf 

188 “Prestressing of FRP Sheet Technique for Repair and Strengthening of Concrete Members,” Hong Kong 

University of Science and Technology and RandD Corporation Ltd., 

http://www.ttc.ust.hk/new_selected/mat.htm 

189 Ogden, J. Herbert, “Fiber reinforced concrete/cement products and method of preparation,” 

http://www.freshpatents.com/Fiber-reinforced-concrete-cement-products-and-method-of-preparationdt20050721ptan20050155523.php

190 MMFX Technologies Corporation, “Proprietary Patented Nanotechnology,” 2005, 

http://www.mmfxsteel.com/index.shtml 

191 Azonano.com, “Ultra High Strength Stainless Steel Using Nanotechnology,” September 29, 2003, 


192 Anitei, Stefan, “Ancient Damascus Swords, Product of Nanotechnology,” Softpedia.com, November 18, 

2006, http://news.softpedia.com/news/Damascus-Swords-Product-of-Nanotechnology-40503.shtml 

193 Lin, C.T., “Additive Package for In-Situ Phosphatizing Paint, Paint and Method,” Northern Illinois University 

Technology Commercialization Office, http://www.grad.niu.edu/tco/additive_package_print.htm 

194 Powdermet, Inc., “Powdermet Celebrates 10 year Aniversery - Opens Nanometals Reasearch Center,” 

http://www.powdermetinc.com/index.html 

195 Elvin, George, “Ultralightweight Metals Save Aircraft Weight, Fuel, and Emissions,” December 13, 2005, 

http://www.nanotechbuzz.com/50226711/ultralightweight_metals_save_aircraft_weight_fuel_and_emis 

sions.php 


197 ibid. 

198 Wegner, Ted, “Nanotechnology for the Forest Products Industry,” US Forest Service Forest Products 

Laboratory, Madison, WI, January 27, 2007 

199 “Treating It Right: Using Nanotechnology to Preserve Wood,” Michigan Technological University 

Faculty/Staaff Newsletter, May 10, 2006, 

http://www.thenanotechnologygroup.org/index.cfm?Content=88&PressID=1356 

200 Takahashi, Dean, “Modern Marvels Top 25 Winner: Using Wood For Battery Power,” The Tech Talk Blog, 

March 18, 2007, http://www.mercextra.com/blogs/takahashi/2007/03/18/modern-marvels-top-25winner-using-wood-for-battery-power 

201 Winandy, Jerrold E., “Achieving Resource Sustainability and Enhancing Economic Development through 

Biomass Utilization,” in International Workshop on Prefabricated Housing From Bamboo Based 

Panels, November24-25, 2005, Beijing, 

http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/pdf2005/fpl_2005_winandy005.pdf 

202 

West Virginia University, “WVU Enters the Nano Age,” June 1, 2007, 

http://wvnano.wvu.edu/news/nanoage.html 

203 “ Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Polypropylene Composites,” Hong Kong University of Science and Technology 

and RandD Corporation Ltd., http://www.ttc.ust.hk/new_selected/mat.htm 

204 Yu, Min-Feng et.al., “Strength and Breaking Mechanism of Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes Under Tensile 

Load,” Science 287, 2000, pp. 637-640 

205 McGregor, Steve, “U. T. Dallas-Led Research Team Produces Strong, Transparent Carbon Nanotube Sheets,” 

UT Dallas News Release, Aug. 18, 2005, http://www.utdallas.edu/news/archive/2005/carbon-nanotubesheets.html 

206 Ray, Barry, “FSU Researcher's ‘Buckypaper’ is Stronger than Steel at a Fraction of the Weight,” FSU News, 

Oct. 10, 2005, http://www.fsu.edu/news/2005/10/20/steel.paper/ 

207 “Aggregated Diamond Nanorods, The Hardest Material Known to Man,” September 14, 2005, 

http://www.azonano.com/news.asp?newsID=1407 

208 Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, “Seeing Windows Through,” 1995, 

http://eetd.lbl.gov/lab2mkt/l2m-windows.html 


210 Sage Electrochromics, Inc., “SageGlass glazing,” http://www.sage-ec.com/pages/benefits.html

211 SmartGlass International, “About SmartGlass International,” http://www.smartglassinternational.com/ 

212 Rabolt, John A. and Andrea Bianco, “Active and Adaptive Photochromic Fibers, Textiles and Membranes,” 

University of Delaware, March 16, 2004, http://www.ovpr.udel.edu/OVPR/do/index?pageId=20 

213 Tang, Ben-Zhong, “Fullerene-Containing Optical Materials with Novel Light Transmission Characteristics,” 

Hong Kong University of Science and Technology and RandD Corporation Ltd., May 23, 2000, 

http://www.ttc.ust.hk/new_selected/doc/patent%20030.pdf 

214 Sou, Iam-Keong, “Light Emitting Material,” Hong Kong University of Science and Technology and RandD 

Corporation Ltd., July 30, 1996, http://www.ttc.ust.hk/new_selected/doc/patent%20014.pdf 

215 “Ultrahydrophobic Nanopost Glass,” http://www.nanovalley.us/library/cms/Image/non- 

licensed%20nanotech.pdf 

216 Thornton,Joe, “Environmental Impacts of Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Building Materials,” briefing paper for 

the Healthy Building Network, http://www.healthybuilding.net/pvc/ThorntonPVCSummary.html 

217 “Exterior Automotive Application for Advanced Thermoplastic Olefin Nanocomposites,” September 5, 

2001, Azonano.com, http://www.azonano.com/details.asp?ArticleID=312 

218 Shelley, Tom, “Plastics giant thinks small,” Eureka Magazine, Dec. 15, 2006, 

http://www.eurekamagazine.co.uk/article/8249/Plastics-giant-thinks-small.aspx 

219 Fiberline Composites, “Plastic Composites,” http://www.fiberline.com/gb/home/index.asp 

220 Deng, Tao, “Honey rolls right off!,” GE Global Research Blog, 

01.26.06.http://www.grcblog.com/fullview.php?%20blog_id=18 

221 Omnova Solutions Inc., “Ecore Non-PVC Advanced Wall Technology,” 2007, 

http://www.omnova.com/ecore/ 

222 Freudenberg Evolon, “Evolution & Inspiration,” 2007, http://www.evolon.com/ 

223 Gould, Paula, “Biodegradable thermoplastics stay strong,” December 23, 2006, 

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6X1J-4MMXWMN- 

6&_user=10&_coverDate=02%2F28%2F2007&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_a 

cct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=e5495b57b798c58d940ba5baaa73f7 

79 

224 “New Enviro-Friendly Flame-Retardant Synthetic Polymer,” azonano.com, May 31, 2007, 

http://www.azom.com/details.asp?newsID=8719 

225 “U.Va. Engineering School-Developed Nanocomposite Material Wins Award,” University of Virginia News, 

June 28, 2007, http://www.virginia.edu/uvatoday/newsRelease.php?id=2322 

226 Heebink, Loreal V., and David J. Hassett, “Mercury Release from FGD,” 2003 International Ash Utilization 

Symposium, Center for Applied Research, University of Kentucky, 

http://www.flyash.info/2003/75heeb.pdf 

227 Rose, Judy, “Seek and Destroy,” IAQ News, Feb.19, 2003, 

http://www.iuoe.org/cm/iaq_asthmold.asp?Item=422 

228 Wu, Norm, “Beyond Nano-Tex: Portrait of a ‘Parallel Entrepreneur,’" ExtremeNano.com, May 5, 2005, 

http://www.extremenano.com/print_article/Beyond+NanoTex+Portrait+of+a+Parallel+Entrepreneur/15 

1353.aspx 

229 Osterwalder, Neil, et.al., “Preparation of Nano-Gypsum from Anhydrite Nanoparticles: Strongly Increased 

Vickers Hardness and Formation of Calcium Sulfate Nano-Needles,” Chemistry and Apllied 

Biosciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH Zurich), Wolfgang-Pauli Strasse 10, ETH 

Hönggerberg, HCI E 105, Zurich 8093, Switzerland, Journal of Nanoparticle Research, Volume 

9, Number 2, April 2007 , pp. 275-281(7)

230 Lei, Wen, et.al., “Mechanical properties of nano SiO2 filled gypsum particleboard,” Transactions of 

Nonferrous Metals Society of China, Volume 16, Supplement 1, June 2006, Pages s361-s364 

231 “Inventor Designs High-Tech Paper,” University of Arkansas, press release, 

http://www.uark.edu/ua/artp/news/index.shtml#newsitemEEylFZukVurUwuMSuW 

232 Calkins, Meg, “Greening the Blacktop,” Landscape Architecture Magazine, Oct. 2006, 

http://www.asla.org/lamag/lam06/october/ecology.html 

233 Selvam, R. Panneer, “Potential Applications of Nanotechnology for Improved Performance of Asphalt 

Pavements,” Transportation Research Board, July 1, 2006, 

http://rip.trb.org/browse/dproject.asp?n=13660 

234 Erlus AG, “Erlus Lotus,” 2006, http://www.erlus.de/index.php?lg=en 

235 Sandred, Jan, “Big bets on a small scale,” San Francisco Chronicle, February 2, 2004, http://sfgate.com/cgibin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/02/02/BUG274M8AO1.DTL 

236 

237 

“Cabot Corp and Centerpoint LLC Agree to Produce Translucent Nanogel-Filled Roofing Systems,” 

Azonano.com, May 11, 2005, http://www.azonano.com/news.asp?newsID=894 

Nanovations, “Nanotechnology Roof Coating,” 2006, http://www.nanovations.com.au/Roof.htm 

238 “Special House Walls Containing Nano Polymer Particles,” Azonano.com, April 4, 2007, 

http://www.azonano.com/news.asp?newsID=3930 

239 Nanogate AG, “Nanogate AG gains its first major U.S. customer,” 

http://www.nanogate.de/en/press/releases/2007-07-17-release.php 

240 

Liu, Liyu et.al., “Paperlike thermochromic display,” Applied Physics Letters -- 21 May 2007, Appl. Phys. 

Lett. 90, 213508 (2007), 

http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=APPLAB0000900000212135080 

00001&idtype=cvips&gifs=yes 

241 Gartner, John, “Nano Coatings Paint Green Future,” Wired, Feb. 10, 2006, 

http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2006/02/70117 

242 Research and Markets, "Nanotechnologies for Sustainable Energy: Reducing Carbon Emissions through 

Clean Technologies and Renewable Energy Sources (Portable Electronics Sector)” 



244 “Resolution”, Portlandonline.com, April 27, 2005, 

http://www.portlandonline.com/shared/cfm/image.cfm?id=112682 

245 

United Nations Environment Programme. " Buildings Can Play a Key Role in Combating Climate Change." 

Oslo, March 29, 2007. 

http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=502&ArticleID=5545&l=en% 

20 

246 Risø National laboratory, “NanoByg: A survey of nanoinnovation in Danish Construction,” 


247 ibid. 

248 Oberdörster, Günter, Eva Oberdörster, and Jan Oberdörster, “Nanotoxicology: An Emerging Discipline 

Evolving from Studies of Ultrafine Particles,” Environmental Health Perspectives, 

http://www.ehponline.org/docs/2005/7339/abstract.html

249 M.R. Wiesner, “Responsible development of nanotechnologies for water and wastewater treatment,” Water 

Science & Technology Vol 53 No 3 pp 45–51 2006, 

http://www.iwaponline.com/wst/05303/wst053030045.htm 

250 Samsung , “ Silver Nano Health System,” 2005, 

http://www.samsung.com/au/products/refrigerators/premiumsbs/srs700dss.asp#silver_nano 

251 Weiss, Rick, “EPA to Regulate Nanoproducts Sold As Germ-Killing,” Washington Post, November 23, 

2006, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/11/22/AR2006112201979.html 

252 Petkewich, Rachel, “Nanotube Synthesis Emits Toxic By-Products,” Chemical & Engineering News Aug. 

27, 2007, http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/85/i35/8535news9.html 

253 Howard, John, “Approaches to Safe Nanotechnology: An Information Exchange with NIOSH,” National 

Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 

http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/nanotech/safenano/summary.html#summary 

254 Friends of the Earth Germany (BUND), “For the Responsible Management of Nanotechnology,” discussion 

paper April 12, 2007, http://www.bund.net/lab/reddot2/pdf/bundposition_nano_03_07.pdf 

255 Walsh, Scott and Terry Medley, “Environmental Defense – DuPont Nano Partnership,” Draft, February 26, 

2007, http://environmentaldefense.org/documents/5989_Nano%20Risk%20Framework-final%20draft- 

26feb07-pdf.pdf

Dr. George Elvin, director of Green Technology Forum 

and author of this study, is a frequent speaker, author 

and advisor on emerging technologies. Published by 

Wiley and Princeton Architectural Press, Dr. Elvin is an 

Associate Professor at Ball State University, and a former 

Visiting Research Fellow at Edinburgh University’s 

Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and 

Fellow at the Center for Energy Research, Education and 

Service. For speaking and consulting services, contact: 

elvin@greentechforum.net 

Green Technology Forum is a research and advising 

firm focused on nanotechnology and biotechnology for 

growing green businesses. From green building to solar 

energy and water filtration, we provide the experience 

and expertise that help businesspeople decide where 

they want green technology to take them. We help 

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environment. 

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Indianapolis, IN 46256 

info@greentechforum.net 

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Nanotechnology Green Building - esonn

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