THE DHOFAR EPIGRAPHIC PROJECT A Description of the ...

Tables 1 - 2 ................................. 482 - 483
Append ix 1 ........ '" ........ flO '" ...... '" .. '" .......... '" ...... '" "" ........ '" ...... 484
Appendix 2 .......................... .,. ...................................... '" .. 485
Bibliography .................................. 486 - 487
Abbreviations ................................. 488 - 489
Maps 1 - 8
Figures 1 - 6 Script Table of Script 1
Figures 7 - 9 Script Table of Script 2
Figures 10 - 100 Facsimiles of the Inscriptions
Plates
iv

inscriptions found in the area of the Northwest Wadi Hadramawt
suggest that similar inscriptions are found there and, recently,
it has been reported that similar scripts have been found in the
Mahrah region of the Republic of the Yemen 2 . A few inscriptions
•
published from Socotra suggest that the same, or a closely
related script, was used there as well (Doe 1970: 5, Figs. 8 -
10) .
The inscriptions in
tantalising and fustrating as
letters to those occurring in
suggests that decipherment and
. .
§ 1
both types of script are
the similari ty of many of the
other South Semitic scripts,
translation should not be a
difficult task. Such optimism, however, has proved to be
unfounded. The number of ambiguous forms and the nature of the
material has meant that, at this stage, whilst some evidence can
be produced for the values of a few letters, at least in Script
1, little of it is satisfactory or conclusive. The aim of the
present publication is to make the material available to
scholars so that they are aware of the inscriptions and are able
to work on them. We have limited ourselves to a description of
the texts and some remarks that we feel that can be made after a
preliminary analysis of the sequences and various attempts at
assigning values to the letter forms.
NOTES:
1Mr Mahash has suggested that these structures should be called
•
"tetraliths" as they usually consist of four stones, three
standing upright and a fourth placed as a "capstone" on top.
.
See al-Shahri 1991a: 188 - 194 .
2Verbal communication with Professor Mikhail Piotrovsky.
2

§ 2. The Area
A general description of Dhofar and
geographical zones is given by Mr Mahash in
•
(al-Shahri . - 1991: 173 174, Pl. la) and he
-
distribution of his finds (al-Shahri 1991:
•
§ 2
The regions where inscriptions were recorded have been
divided up into 10 areas. In the eastern Jebel these divisions
are based largely on the asphalt roads running north to south
and west to east through the Jebel (see Map 1). Each area has
been given a capital letter and are defined as follows:
Area A - to the west of the Teetam . . road (Map 2)
Area B - between the Teetam and Thamrayt roads (Map 3)
• •
Area C - between the Thamrayt and Wadi Arzat roads (Map 4)
Area D - between the Wadi Arzat and Medinat al-Haq roads (Map
5)
Area E - between the Medinat al-Haq road and the town of Tawi
•
Atir (Map 6)
Area F - south of the Tawi Atir and Taqah roads (Map 6)
•
Area G - to the East of Tawi Atir (Map 7)
Area H - the western Jebel (Map 8)
Area I - the Negd in the western region
Area J - the Negd in the eastern region to the east of the
Thamrayt road.
The sites in Areas I and J are not marked on the maps.
3
.

§ 3. The Numbering of the Inscriptions.
§ 3
Within each area, the sites have been numbered, A1, A2,
A3 etc., B1, B2, B3, etc. The inscriptions have been given the
siglum K(ing) M(ahash), followed by the letter designating the
•
area in which it was found, KMA, KMB, KMC etc., and then
numbered in a continuous series for each area, so, for example,
KMA 1 - 4 come from Site A2, KMA 5 - 25 from A3, KMB 1 - 18 come
from Site B1, KMB 19 - 48 from Site B2 and so on.
The horizontal texts written in Script 2 have been
prefixed in the same way, so that it is easy see which area they
come from, and an H (orizontal) has been added to distinguish
them from the vertical texts. They are numbered in a separate
series, KMAH 1 (Site A1), KMBH 1 - 7 (Site B5) and so on.
Each line of the vertical script has been given a
number regardless of the possibility that two or more lines
wri tten close to each other might be the continuation of one
text. In a few instances, the letters a, b, c, have been added
to rectify mistakes made in the initial numbering of the
inscriptions (see KMB 67a - c, RMD 27a - b, RMD 48a - c, RME 66a
- b, RME 125a, KME 160a, KMH 28a, KMJ 21a).
For the texts in the horizontal script, where it seems
most likely that closely wri tten lines constitute one
inscription, the groups have been given only one number and the
individual lines distinguished by the letter a, b, c, d etc.
The text in a form of the Monumental South Arabian
Script has been given the siglum KMSA.
4

§ 6.
6.1.
Script 1.
The Transliteration of the Inscriptions.
Many of the forms of the letters of the inscriptions
are similar to graphemes found in inscriptions written in other
South Semitic scripts and it is tempting to assume the letters
have the same values here. By assigning values to the letters on
the basis of comparisons of letters in other scripts, it is
possible, with some of the shorter lines, to identify roots that
occur in Arabic. An obvious interpretation of them would be that
they are personal names.
Short texts and such interpretations do not, however,
prove the value of the letters and difficulties are encountered
when trying to establish the values of more ambiguous forms.
Furthermore, the longer inscriptions, where there is some
context, have not, at this stage of analysis, provided
conclusive evidence for the values of either familiar forms or
the less common ones.
For these reasons r no attempt has been made in the
edi tion to attribute etymological or phonemic values to the
letters and the inscriptions in both Scripts 1 and 2 have simply
been transliterated into two separate fonts which represent, in
standardized forms, the original shapes of the letters.
Table 1 is a chart of the typed forms in Script 1. The
forms are arranged according to shape, reading from left to
right and down the page. Underneath each form are the number of
attested examples. Figures 1 - 6 is a script table of Script 1
wi th examples of the letters represented by each typed forms.
The last two columns of Figure 6 give some anomalous forms which
have not been transliterated into the typed script.
Most of the texts in Script 1 are wri tten vertically
8
§ 6

6.2. Script 1 - The Letters.
§ 6
This section lists the typed forms of the letters with
the number of attested examples given in brackets, comments on
the forms found in the inscriptions and gives comparative
examples from other South Semitic scripts. The comparative
examples are, on the whole, from scripts which are
well-established or from texts where the reading is certain. The
script table in Jamme 1963: 43, Fig. 1 of inscriptions from Wadi
Hadramawt, al-Wastah and al-tAbar, in the Repuplic of Yemen show
f ., ••
many forms of letters which
2. Unfortunately, however,
resemble those found in Script 1 and
the author has not published any
copies or photographs of the inscriptions in the article and so
his remarks about the values of the letters cannot be checked.
In some cases the great variety of letters listed under one
value suggest that perhaps he is dealing with more than one
script or that he has mistakenly identified the values of some
of the forms. Many of the signs listed as wusum by Jamme (1963:
47, Fig. 2) also resemble forms of letters found in both the
scripts from Dhofar.
6.2.1. [
(419)
The forms of [ are similar to those used in Sabaic
(Beeston 1984: 4), Safaitic, Thamudic E, Thamudic B, Dedanite,
North Minaic (Macdonald 1992: 419) and Lihyanite (Caskel 1954:
33 - 34) to represent b and there is evidence from sequences in
the texts that it has the same value here, see § 6.3.7.
6.2.2. J
(60)
examples of [.
The curve of J is less than that of most of the
12

6.2.3. J
(14)
6 . 2 . 4 . U
(6 )
6.2.5. U
(20)
6.2.6. <
(168)
§ 6
The forms of < are similar to those used in Dedanite,
North Minaic (Macdonald 1992: 419, 5 - 6) and Lihyanite (Caskel
1954: 33 - 34) to represent r and to those used in Safaitic
(Macdonald 1992: 419, 1 - 2) and, in some cases, Thamudic E
1
(King 1990: Fig. 4) to represent s. There is a degree of
evidence from the sequences that, at least in some instances,
the form has the value b in these texts, see § 6.3.8.
6.2.7. >
(21)
It is possible that > is the same grapheme as

oval shape is used in Safai tic and Thamudic B to represent g
(Macdonald 1992: 419, 2) and a near circle in North Minaic to
represent f (Macdonald 1992: 419, 6).See § 6.3.6f for comments
on 0 and e and see § 6.6.5.
6.2.33. []
(28)
6.2.34. e
(198)
§ 6
A circle with a dot in the middle is occasionally used
in Thamudic E to represent C and a larger circle with a dot very
occasionally represents Q (King 1990: Fig. 3, KJA 138, and Fig.
5, KJA 64). See § 6.3.6f for comments on 0 and e.
6.2.35. 8
(280)
The letter resembles the form of w in Sabaic (Beeston
1984: 4), Lihyanite (Caskel 1954: 33 - 34), Safaitic, Thamudic
E, Thamudic B, Dedanite and North Minaic (Macdonald 1992: 419, 1
- 6).
6.2.36. IB
(29)
The letter is very occasionally used to represent w in
Thamudic E (King 1990: Fig. 6, KJC 408).
6.2.37. 6
(266)
The form resembles the grapheme y in Sabaic (Beeston
1984: 4), Lihyanite (Caskel 1954: 33 - 34), Safaitic, Thamudic
E, Thamudic B, Dedanite and North Minaic (Macdonald 1992: 419, 1
- 6). See §§ 6.4.3 - 4.
18

(403)
§ 6
It seems likely from the number of texts in which - and
occur together, that the two forms have a different value
rather than being the same grapheme with a different stance. See
§ 6.2.49.
6.2.49.
(139)
See § 6.2.48. A straight line is used to represent 1 in
Safai tic (Macdonald 1992: 419, 2), n in Thamudic B (Macdonald
1992: 419, 4), r in Thamudic D (Winnett 1937: Plate X), S2 in
Thamudic E (King 1990: Fig. 4, Macdonald 1992: 419, 3).
6.2.50. -....
(192)
6.2.51. II
(13)
Three of the examples of II are doubtful and two of the
texts (KMB 11 and 67c) are written horizontally. Although the
stance of some of the other letters in these texts has been
changed, it seems likely that the vertical stance of = has been
kept. It is possible that some of the examples of II should be
interpreted as a sequence of I and I.
6.2.52. -- (92)
6.2.53. III
( 4)
One of the attested examples of III stands alone and two
of the other examples occur in KMB 67c which is written
horizontally where it seems likely that the stance used in
vertical texts has been kept. Cf. II in § 6.2.51.
21

§ 6
The number of forms distinguished in the inscriptions
in Script 1 is 80, which greatly exceeds the numbers of
consonants in any of these languages and this is clearly
because, at this stage, it has not been possible to identify
which forms are variations of the same grapheme. There is
evidence from the sequences to reduce the number by 5 and
possibly 6 24 , and further reductions would certainly be valid but
it is difficult to prove them at the moment. There are several
hypothetical ways of reducing the alphabet, one possibility is
given in Appendix 1 which reduces the number of letters to 37.
Two further points should be made. Firstly, we do not
know at this stage whether we have the full complement of the
graphemes in the alphabet 25 and, secondly, some forms in the
script table which have been identified with similar forms might
26
actually belong elsewhere .
6.6. The Values of the Graphemes.
6.6.1. Some evidence has been given for assigning the
following values to a few forms:
J
a
b
t
1
n
y
t
c
+
Forms similar to 0 and e occur across the whole
spectrum of the South Semi tic scripts wi th the values q and w
respectively and it is quite likely they have maintained those
values here.
38

§ 7. Script 2.
§ 7
Texts written in Script 2 come from the following sites:
Site Ai KMAH la - le
Site B5 KMBH 1 - 7
Site D3 KMDH 1 - 3
Site Dll KMDH 4 - 6
Site El0 KMEH la - ld
Site E27 KMEH 2a - 6b
Site G2 KMGH 1
Site G4 KMGH 2
Site G5 KMGH 3a - 4
Site G7 KMGH 5 - 10
Site G12 KMGH 11 - 12
Site G21 KMGH 13 - 14
Site H2 KMHH 1a - 6b
Site H3 KMHH 7a - 13d
Site H4 KMHH 14a - 20e
Site H5 KMHH 21a - 31c
Site H6 KMHH 32 - 35d
Site H7 KMHH 36a - KMHH 48b
Site Ii KMIH 1 - 3
7.1- The Transliteration of the Inscriptions.
As with Script 1 , the texts have been transliterated
into typed forms of the original letters. Table 2 is a chart of
the forms arranged according to shape and reading left to right
across the page and then down. The number of attested examples
is given in brackets. Figures 7 - 9 give examples of the signs
represented by the typed forms. All the inscriptions are written
horizontally, except for KMB 1 - 5 (Site B5) where the letters
have been turned on their side and read downwards. The ductus of
some of the letters shows that some of the texts read from right
to left and some from left to right and different typed forms
have been used for the following:
43

7.2.26. 0
(11)
7.2.27. 0
( 4 )
The examples of this letter (KMEH 4d, 6b, 20d, 35a) are
doubtful. A diamond shape represents f in Sabaic (Beeston 1984:
4) •
7.2.28. B
(4 )
All the examples of this letter come from the same
si te, H6, and three of them from the same inscription (KMHH
34d). A similar form represents rJ in Sabaic (Beeston 1984: 4)
Lihyani te (Caskel 1954: 33 - 34) and North Minaic (Macdonald
1992: 419, 6). It is possible that the form is a variation of a,
see 7.2.30.
7.2.29. m
( 4)
One example of the letter is doubtful (KMGH 10). The
form resembles that used to represent t in Sabaic (Beeston 1984:
4) and North Minaic (Macdonald 1992: 419, 6). It is possible
that the form is a variation of a, see § 7.2.30.
7.2.30. e
(72)
§ 6.2.35.
7.2.31. 9)
The form resembles the grapheme w found elsewhere, see
(14)
See § 6.2.36.
48
§ 7

is perhaps a sign resembling the form used to represent $ in
Sabaic (Beeston 1984:4), Safaitic (Macdonald 1992: 419, 2) and
Thamudic E (King 1990: Fig. 4), with the circle on the top of
the fork filled in.
7.2.39. S'::
( 1 )
§ 7
The form resembles the grapheme $ in North Minaic
(Macdonald 1992: 419, 6). Jamme 1963: 43, Fig. 1, 11. 2a - b
lists similar signs which he gives the value $.
7.2.40. '/I..
(1)
For the reading of similar forms from elsewhere with
the values $2, Q and $3, see § 6.2.46.
7.2.41. •
( 1 )
The reading of this letter (KMEH 4g) is doubtful, it is
possible that it is all that remains of another letter. Cf. §
6.2.47.
7.2.42.
(104)
For the values of a grapheme of a straight line in
other scripts, see § 6.2.49. There is evidence from the
sequences that it is used here as a word divider, see § 7.3.1.
There are some instances (KMHH 17, 26b, 28b, 39b 40a, 40b) where
there is a combination of two lines written together and it is
possible they should be interpreted as one sign, cf. = and II in
Script 1, §§ 6.2.50 and 6.2.51.
7.2.43.
(21)
50

Eight of the examples of t come from Site H6.
There is evidence that it performs the function of a word
divider, cf. § 7.2.42 and see § 7.3.1.
7.2.44. III
( 2 )
Cf. § 6.2.52 and § 6.2.53.
7.2.45. r 1
(17) (52)
§ 6.2.55.
7.2.46. 1
§ 7
The form resembles the grapheme 1 found elsewhere, see
(11)
A similar form is used in Sabaic and North Minaic to
represent g, see § 6.2.56.
7.2.47. T
7.2.48. H
( 1 )
The reading of this letter is doubtful, cf. § 6. 2.57.
(15 )
The form resembles the grapheme d in Taymanite, see §
6.2.58, for other comparisons.
7.2.49. +
(16)
The form resembles the grapheme t in Thamudic B, see §
6.2.60, for other comparisons. It is probably the same grapheme
as X, written with a different stance, see § 7.2.50.
7.2.50. X
51

doubtful example in Script 1.
58
§ 8

§ 9. The Drawings.
Mr Mahash has found many drawings painted in the caves
•
and inscribed on rocks in the desert areas (see al-ShaI:ri 1991:
180 - 184). As the fieldwork of the Dhofar Epigraphic Project in
1991 and 1992 was primarily concerned with the inscriptions, very
few of the drawings were recorded and only some of these have been
mentioned in the edition and included in the facsimiles. The same
siglum has been used for the drawings followed by dr (awing). A
number of the inscriptions are accompanied by handprints and some
are covered by dots. The following is a list of the subjects which
are depicted:
Camels
Camels with riders
Circle with grid
Cows
Dots
Handprints
Horses
Ibex
Men
Men on horseback
Mules
Ships
Trees
Unidentified animals
Unidentified drawings
§ 9
KMDdr 3, KMEdr 5, 7, 8, KMGdr 2,
10
Unidentified horned animals
Women
59
KMDdr 11
KMEdr 3
KMHdr 2, 3, 8 ?
See KMD 121 - 130, KME 73 - 74,
KMCdr 1 - 2, KMDdr 1, 5, KMEdr
1, KMGdr 4, 5
KMAdr1, KMDdr 2 ?
KMEdr 4, KMGdr 6, 9, KMHdr 6
KMBdr 1, KMDdr 4, 6, KMEdr 2,
9, KMGdr 1, 3, KMHdr 4, 5, 7 ,
9
KMCdr 4, KMCdr 5, KMGdr 7, 8,
KMDdr 2 ?
KMHdr 1
KMGdr 12
KMCdr 3, KMEdr 6
KMEdr 3
KMEdr 4
KMHdr 7
6 ,
8 I

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Albright, F. P. 1982 The American Archaeological Expedition in
Dhofar, Oman, 1952 - 1953, Publications of the American
Foundation for the Study of Man, Volume VI, Washington
DC.
Beeston, A. F. L. 1976 'The Settlement at Khor Rori'. Journal of
Oman Studies, 2: 39 - 42.
1984 Sabaic Grammar. Journal of Semitic Studies
Monograph No.6., Manchester.
Branden van den, A. 1956 Les Textes Thamoudeens de Philby, I,
Bibliotheque du Museon, 40. Louvain.
Caskel, W. 1954 Lihyan und Lihyanisch. Arbei tsgemeinschaft f tir
Forschung des Landes Nordhein-Westfalen, Heft 4. Koln
und Opladen.
Doe, D. Brian 1970 'Socotra, An Archaeological Reconnaissance in
1967', H. Field and E. M. Laird eds., Field Research
Projects, Coconut Grove, Miami, Florida.
Harding, G. L. 1971 An Index and Concordance of Pre-Islamic
Names and Inscription. Toronto.
Jamme, A. 1963 'Preliminary Report on Epigraphic Research in
North-Western Wadi Hadramawt and at al- Abar'. Bulletin
of the American chools of Oriental Research, 72: 41 -
54.
Jaussen, A. and Savignac, R. 1909, 1914 Mission archeologique en
Arabie. Vols. 1 - 2 and Atlas. Paris.
Johnstone, T. M. 1981 Jibbali Lexicon. Oxford University Press.
1987 Mehri Lexicon and English Mehri Word-List. School
of Oriental and African Studies. London.
King, G. M. H. 1990 Early North Arabian Thamudic E. Unpublished
Ph.D. Thesis, School of Oriental and African Studies,
London.
Macdonald, M. C. A. 1991 'HU 501 and the Use of S3 in
Taymanite' Journal of Semitic Studies, 36, No.1: 11 -
36.
1992 'Safaitic Inscriptions' in D. N. Freedman ed. The
486

Anchor Bible Dictionary, 3: 418 - 423
Pirenne, J. 1975 'The Incense Port of Moscha (Khor Rori) in
Dhofar'. Journal of Oman Studies, 1: 81 - 96.
Ryckmans, J. [no date] List of names in the 10, 000 unpublished
Thamudic texts collected on the Ryckmans - Philby -
Lippens Expedition
to Saudi Arabia in 1952.
Unpublished.
al-Shahri, . Ali Ahmad . Mahash . 1991 'Recent Epigraphic Discoveries
in Dhofar'. Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian
Studies, 21: 173 - 191.
1991a 'Grave-Types and "Triliths" in Dhofar.' Arabian
Archaeology and Epigraphy, 2: 182 - 195.
Thesiger, W. 1959 Arabian Sands. London. Reprint Collins,
Glasgow, 1983.
Thomas, B. 1932 Arabia Felix: Across the Empty Quarter of
Arabia. London.
Winnett, F. V. 1937 A Study of the Lihyanite and Thamudic
Inscriptions. Toronto.
and Harding, G. L. 1978 Inscriptions from Fifty
Safaitic Cairns. Near and Middle East Series 9.
Toronto.
and Reed, W. L. 1970 Anci en t Records from North
Arabia. Toronto.
487

ABBREVIATIONS
HIn Harding 1971.
Ja South Arabian inscription read by Father A. Jamme in
Albright 1982.
JS Thamudic inscriptions in Jaussen Savignac 1909, 1914.
KJA Thamudic E inscriptions from Wadi Judayyid Site A in
King 1990.
KJB Thamudic E inscriptions from Wadi Judayyid Site B in
King 1990.
KJC Thamudic E inscriptions from Wadi Judayyid Site C in
King 1990.
KMA Inscriptions in Script 1 from Area A.
KMAdr Drawings from Area A.
KMAH Inscriptions in Script 2 from Area A.
KMB Inscriptions in Script 1 from Area B.
KMBdr Drawings from Area B.
KMBH Inscriptions in Script 2 from Area B.
KMC Inscriptions in Script 1 from Area C.
KMCdr Drawings from Area C.
KMD Inscriptions in Script 1 from Area D.
KMDdr Drawings from Area D.
KMDH Inscriptions in Script 2 from Area D.
KME Inscriptions in Script 1 from Area E.
KMEdr Drawings from Area E.
KMEH Inscriptions in Script 2 from Area E.
K11F Inscriptions in Script 1 from Area F.
KMG Inscriptions in Script 1 from Area G.
KMGdr Drawings from Area G.
KMGH Inscriptions in Script 2 from Area G.
KMH Inscriptions in Script 1 from Area H.
KMHdr Drawings from Area H.
KMHH Inscriptions in Script 2 from Area H.
KMI Inscriptions in Script 1 from Area 1.
KMIH Inscriptions in Script 2 from Area 1.
KMJ Inscriptions in Script 1 from Area J.
488

KMSA
Ph
Inscription in Sayhadic Script.
Inscriptions in Van den Branden 1956.
489

•••
AREA D - DID 28 - 48
0'
f
30
Pig. 26
-:-
•
31
SITE D.2
11_. J
49
50
AREA D - KHD 48& - 65
51
4Be
"
0""
.,l..
-c::r-
.J-
,.
.
\'
Fig. 27
52
.l- 53
'" .- , ... , .......
'-, . , -
.,.c:7
111111
A-
63
54
.L
nn
V
.J..
:J
SITE D2

AREA H - KMHH 13a - 14c, KMH 48 _ 50
Fig. 84
SITE H4
SITE HJ
48 49
II
o
'"
•••
• • • ::J
--
.-w-
:
...

1
Pig. 94
SITE Jl
AREA J - ltMJ 7 - 19
SIn Jl