Broadening Horizons 3. Conference of Young Researchers - Khalili ...

Ferran Borrell Tena, Mònica Bouso García, Anna Gómez Bach, 

Carles Tornero Dacasa & Oriol Vicente Campos (eds.) 

Broadening Horizons 3. Conference of 

Young Researchers Working in the 

Ancient Near East 

Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona 

Servei de Publicacions 

Bellaterra, 2012 

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Broadening Horizons 3 : Conference of Young Researchers Working in the Ancient Near East / Ferran Borrell Tena, 

... [et al.] (eds.) — Bellaterra (Barcelona) : Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. Servei de Publicacions, 2012. — 

(Congressos de la Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona; 8) 

ISBN 9788449028861 

I. Borrell Tena, Ferran ed. 

1. Orient Mitjà - Història - Congressos 

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Summary 

Broadening Horizons 3 

F. Borrell, M. Bouso, A. Gómez, C. Tornero & O. Vicente (eds.) 

Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 

Josep Manuel Rueda Torres 

Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 

Manel López-Béjar 

Introduction .to .the .Broadening Horizons 3 .Conference .Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . 15 

Ferran Borrell, Mònica Bouso, Anna Gómez, Carles Tornero, Oriol Vicente 

The .Italian .Prehistoric .Survey .in .the .Jazr .(Idlib .District-North .West .Syria) . . 

Preliminary .Investigation .of .human .occupation .from .Paleolithic . . 

to .Chalcolithic .times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 

Claudia de Gregorio, Massimiliano Pepe, Daniele Aureli 

Les .derniers .chasseurs-cueileurs .et .les .premiers .agriculteurs .dans .le .Leja . . 

(Syrie .du .Sud): .nouvelles .donnees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 

Joana Boix, Khaled Abdo 

Taphonomic .agents .in .the .formation .of .mortuary .deposits: .excavation . . 

methods .and .treatment .of .human .bones .at .the .pre-pottery .neolithic . . 

sites .of .Bal’as .and .Tell .Halula .(Syria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 

Anabel Ortiz, Bérénice Chamel 

Quantitative .analysis .of .use-wear .patterns: .a .functional .approach .to .the . . 

study .of .grinding .stones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 

Maria Bofill 

Sourcing .the .flint .raw .materials .found .at .the .Neolithic .complex .of .Mamarrul . . 

Nasr .(Douara .Basin, .Syria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 

Ferran Borrell, Oriol Vicente 

Les .foyers .de .Tell .Aswad .et .leurs .modes .de .cuisson .possibles . .Essai .de . . 

reconstitution .des .pratiques .domestiques .et .sociales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 

Diaa Eddin Albukaai 

001-352 Broadening horizons.indd 7 17/07/2012 16:38:26 

7

8 

Summary 

Tell .al-Baharia: .an .important .site .in .the .Damascus .basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 

Ghada Sulaiman 

A .northeast .African .‘Preformal’ .perception .of .‘Formal’ .space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 

Martin Uildriks 

Burial .practices .in .the .middle .Euphrates .area .during .the .early .Bronze .Age: . . 

The .contribution .of .the .hypogeum .of .Tell .Ahmar .(North .Syria) . . . . . . . . . . 137 

Cristina Baccarin 

Urbanism, .social .organization .and .economic .dynamics .in .third .millennium . . 

BC .Northern .Palestine .and .Transjordan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 

Elisabetta Gallo, Valentina Tumolo 

Fortification .and .burial .grounds .in .Tell .Afis .(Syria) .between .middle . . 

Bronze .Age .and .Late .Bronze .Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 

Angelo di Michele, Maria Elena Pedrosi 

Satellites, .surveys .and .site .destruction: .using .satellite .imagery .to .monitor . . 

damage .to .archaeological .sites .in .Syria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 

Emma Cunliffe 

Did .the .assyrians .occupy .the .Euphrates-elbow .in .the .Middle .Assyrian . . 

period .(Late .Bronze .Age)? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 

Jaume Llop-Raduà 

Géographie .sacrée .dans .l’Égypte .Ancienne: .méthodologie .et .perspectives . . 

à .partir .de .l’étude .du .territoire .des .deux .sceptres-w#s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 

Núria Torras Benezet 

The .Neo-Assyrian .and .Post-Assyrian .Settlement .in .the .Leilan .Region . . 

(North-Eastern .Syria) . .The .evidence .from .the .pottery .from .the .Tell . . 

Leilan .regional .survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 

Katia Gavagnin 

Recent .finds .in .the .Beqa .Valley .(Lebanon): .The .last .columns .of .the .Brisa . . 

inscription .in .Old-Babylonian .Script .(WBA) .of .Nebuchadnezzar .II . . 

(605-562 .BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 

Rocío Da Riva 




Architects .and .engineers .in .Babylonia .in .the .mid .First .Millennium .B .C .: . . 

some .considerations .on .the .form, .development .and .function .of .the . . 

“salle .à .quatre .saillants” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 

Riccardo la Farina 

Discontinuous .developments .in .settlement .patterns .and .socio-economic/ . 

political .relations .on .the .Malatya .Plain .in .the .4 th .and .3 rd .millennia .BC . . . . . 289 

Marcella Frangipane, Gian Maria di Nocera 

Rhythms .of .the .past: .Time .and .memory .at .late .Neolithic .Domuztepe . . . . . . . . 305 

Stuart Campbell 

Neolithic .Middle .East: .notes .on .the .neolithic .process .in .the .middle .Euphrates . . 

valley .and .the .contribution .made .by .the .Tell .Halula .(Syria) .project . . . . . . . . 325 

Miquel Molist 

Quo Vadis .young .researcher? .Archaeological .research .in .the .Near .East .from . 

a .young .researcher’s .perspective .and .trajectory .of .the .Broadening .Horizons . 

Conferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 

Ferran Borrell, Mònica Bouso, Anna Gómez, Carles Tornero, Oriol Vicente 


9

F. Borrell, M. Bouso, A. Gómez, C. Tornero & O. Vicente (eds.), Broadening Horizons 3. Conference of Young Researchers 

Working in the Ancient Near East. Congressos 8. Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. Servei de Publicacions. Bellaterra (2012). 

Sourcing the flint raw materials found at the 

Neolithic complex of Mamarrul Nasr (Douara 

Basin, Syria) 

Ferran Borrell 

School of Arts, Histories and Cultures, University of Manchester. 

SAPPO. Departament de Prehistòria, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. 

Oriol Vicente 

SAPPO. Departament de Prehistòria, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. 

Abstract 

This paper aims to establish the origins of the flint raw materials used in the newly discovered 

Neolithic complex at Mamarrul Nasr 2. Flint artefacts from Mamarrul Nasr 2 and 

the nearby flint outcrops have been sampled and the results compared using petrographic 

techniques. Thin sections from both the archaeological and geological samples showed no 

significant differences in their mineral and fossil content. All the features observed were 

very similar and it can be stated with confidence that Eocene flint (Arak Flint horizon) 

was the only raw material used at Mamarrul Nasr. 

1. Introduction 

The .area .under .investigation .has .not .been .reviewed .since .the .late .1980s .and .the .beginning 

.of .1990s, .when .a .model .was .designed .to .account .for .the .Neolithisation .of .the . 

region .within .the .broader .context .of .the .Northern .Levant .(Cauvin .1981; .1987-88; . 

Stordeur .1993; .2000) . .The .vast .semi-desert .central .Syrian .steppe .is .a .region .where . 

the .Neolithisation .process .was .not .documented .until .a .later .stage, .compared .with . 

other .regions, .from .the .Neolithic .period . .It .is .also .considered .to .have .been .sparsely . 

inhabited .from .the .end .of .the .9 th .millennium .cal . .BC .until .the .very .end .of .the .8 th .millennium 

.(Akazawa .1979a; .1979b; .Cauvin .1981; .1987-88; .Stordeur .1993; .2000) . . 

However, .after .7000 .cal . .BC, .archaeological .evidence .of .occupation .was .abundant, . 

especially .in .the .El .Kowm .region, .where .a .series .of .well .stratified .sites .(Qdeir .1, .El . 

Kowm .2 .and .Umm .el .Tlel), .dating .to .the .first .half .of .the .7 th .millennium .cal . .BC .(Fi- 


85

86 

Ferran Borrell and Oriol Vicente 

Sourcing the flint raw materials found at the Neolithic complex of Mamarrul Nasr (Douara Basin, Syria) 

nal .PPNB), .were .excavated . .Furthermore, .a .high .number .of .Neolithic .flint .factory . 

sites .were .discovered .by .the .University .of .Tokyo .during .the .1960s .and .1970s .in .the . 

Douara .and .Palmyra .basins .(Akazawa .1979b) .which .were .dated .to .the .first .half .of .the . 

7 th .millennium .cal . .BC . .Although .some .researchers .had .previously .proposed .that .the . 

Douara .area .may .have .been .densely .occupied .during .the .PPNB .(Akazawa .1979b, . 

216; .Fujii .1986; .Fujii .et .al . .1987; .Nishiaki .2000, .94) . 

Four .seasons .of .fieldwork .including .field .survey, .topographic .studies, .excavation . 

and .a .study .season .have .been .undertaken .since .2006 .by .the .Universitat .Autònoma . 

de .Barcelona, .Paris .Ouest .Nanterre .la .Défense .and .the .General .Directorate .of .Museums 

.and .Antiquities .of .Syria .in .the .Douara .Basin .(Central .Syrian .Desert) .(fig . .1) . . 

The .project .focused .on .gaining .new .insights .into .the .Neolithic .period .of .the .central . 

Syrian .Desert, .where .there .was .an .evolution .that .differed .from .the .mainstream .processes 

.of .Neolithisation .observed .in .the .Euphrates .and .Tigris .valleys . .In .conducting . 

fieldwork .in .the .Douara .Basin, .a .better .understanding .of .the .Neolithic .period .of . 

that .region .has .been .obtained, .which .has .contributed .to .an .appreciation .of .the .heterogeneity 

. and . complexity . of . the . Neolithisation . process . in . the . Northern . Levant . 

(Borrell .2011; .Borrell .et .al . .2011; .in .press) . .This .paper .summarises, .by .way .of .background, 

.the .recent .discovery .of .a .concentration .of .Neolithic .sites .in .the .Mamarrul . 

Nasr .passage .(Douara .Basin); .it .then .goes .on .to .describe .the .flint .deposits .identified . 

Figure 1: Location of Mamarrul Nasr and other major Neolithic sites of the Northern Levant. 

N 

Ceyhan River 

Ras Shamra 

TURKEY 

el-Kerkh 2 

Orontes River 

Aleppo 

Nebi Mend 

SYRIA 

Gürcütepe 

Mezraa Teleilat 

Akarçay Tepe 

Halula 

Mureybet 

Balikh River 

Abu Hureyra 

Seker al-Aheimar 

Assouad 

Damishliyya 

Sabi Abyad 

Qdeir 1 

Umm el Tlel 

El Kowm 2 

MAMARRUL NASR 

Palmyra Douara Cave II 

Thaniyyet Wuker 

Euphrates River 

200 km 

Khabour River 

Tell Es-Sinn 

Bouqras 




in .the .Douara .Basin .and .finally .presents .the .initial .results .obtained .from .petrographic 

.analyses .of .both .archaeological .and .geological .samples .in .order .to .identify .the .flint . 

raw .materials .and .the .general .patterns .and .extent .of .their .use .during .the .Neolithic . 

period . 

2. The Neolithic complex of Mamarrul Nasr 

The .research .focused .on .field .surveys .along .the .northern .side .of .the .Jebel .Douara . 

(fig . .2) . .A .substantial .Neolithic .occupation .was .indicated .by .a .concentration .of . 

small .Pre-Pottery .sites .in .the .northern .passage .which .connects .the .Douara .Basin . 

and . the . flat . steppe . lands . between . Jebel . Douara . and . the . Palmyrides . mountains, . 

called .Mamarrul .Nasr .(Eagle’s .Passage) .(Borrell .et .al . .2011) . .Eleven .extremely .high . 

concentrations .of .flint .scatters .were .identified .under .rock .shelters .(Mamarrul .Nasr . 

1 .to .8, .11, .12 .and .13) .and .one .concentration .of .lithic .artefacts .in .a .cave .(Mamarrul . 

Nasr . 10) . . A . large . semi-circular . dry . stone . wall . attached . to . a . bigger . rock . shelter . 

(Mamarrul .Nasr .9) .was .also .found . .Finally, .a .huge .structure .identified .as .a .desert- 

Figure 2: Map of the Douara Basin showing the location of the flint factory sites without pottery 

identified by the University of Tokyo team, the cluster of sites found at Mamarrul Nasr and the 

known flint outcrops (modified map from 2009 Google Earth ©). 

Syria 

38 

Douara Cave II 

Mamarrul Nasr 

F3 

36 

34 33 

F2 

35 

1 km 

Flint Factory Sites Mamarrul Nasr Sites Flint Outcrops 


F1 

87

88 



Figure 3: General view of Mamarrul Nasr 2 after the test pit. 

kite .(Mamarrul .Nasr .14) .was .found .in .the .lower .part .of .the .passage .itself . .It .is . 

worth .mentioning .that .chipped .flint .was .the .only .material .found .on .the .surface .of . 

any .of .the .sites . .The .flint .used .seems .to .have .been .the .same .at .all .sites . .The .selected . 

raw .material .was .an .excellent .material .for .knapping; .it .was .light .brown .to .dark . 

brown-black .in .colour .and .had .a .chalky .cortex . .No .pottery .or .white .ware .sherd .or . 

other .evidence .of .later .occupation .was .found .during .the .two .field .surveys . .It .was . 

also .remarkable .that .no .trace .of .earlier .occupation .was .found .during .the .surveys, . 

although .evidence .of .earlier .periods .was .abundant .in .the .Douara .Basin .itself .(Akazawa 

.1979a) . . 

In .2008, .Mamarrul .Nasr .2 .was .pit .tested .(fig . .3) . .Rich .archaeological .deposits, .40 . 

cm .deep, .were .found .from .surface .to .bedrock .from .which .nearly .10,000 .flint .artefacts . 

were .recovered . .The .flint .was .brown, .fine-grained .as .described .above, .and .macroscopically 

.there .was .an .apparent .lack .of .variability .within .the .assemblage . 

The .study .of .the .lithics .from .Mamarrul .Nasr .2 .and .a .preliminary .investigation .of . 

the .material .found .on .surface .at .the .rest .of .the .sites .revealed .a .lack .of .variability . 

within .the .assemblages .(fig . .4) . .The .technology .was .extremely .consistent .and .the .reduction 

.trajectory .was .blade-oriented .with .opposed-platform .cores . .Diagnostic .traits . 

of . a . specific . bi-directional . reduction . sequence . termed . the . “off-set . bi-directional . 

strategy” .were .identified .at .Mamarrul .Nasr .2 .and .at .the .other .sites .located .in .Mamar- 




Figure 4: Central bi-directional blade (1), end-scraper (2), dihedral burin (3), opposed-platforms 

core (4) and broken Byblos point (5). 


89

90 



rul .Nasr . 1 .The .relative .date .(no .C14 .dates .were .avaliable .at .this .point .in .the .research) . 

of .Mamarrul .Nasr, .was .established .at .between .the .end .of .the .8 th .millennium .cal . .BC . 

and .the .first .quarter .of .the .7 th .millennium .cal . .BC .(Late-Final .PPNB) .(Borrell .2011; . 

Borrell .et .al . .2011) . .This, .together .with .the .apparent .absence .of .both .earlier .and .later 

.occupation, .led .to .the .proposal .that .there .was .a .certain .degree .of .contemporaneity . 

between .the .sites .and .suggested .that .Mamarrul .Nasr .was .a .Neolithic .complex .comprising 

.a .series .of .different .types .of .inter-related .sites, .where .flint .tool .production . 

was .an .important .activity . 

Comparison .of .the .lithic .assemblages .from .Mamarrul .Nasr .and .those .found .by . 

the .University .of .Tokyo .(Akazawa .1979a; .1979b) .in .the .Douara .Basin .and .Palmyra . 

region .indicated .that .they .were .extremely .similar .and .that .the .high .number .of .Neolithic 

.flint .factory .sites .discovered .during .the .1960s .and .1970s .in .the .Douara .and . 

Palmyra .basins .(Akazawa .1979b) .constituted .part .of .the .same .specific .techno-complex 

.(Borrell .2011; .Borrell .et .al . .2011) . 

3. Geological framework and flint availability in the Douara Basin 

The .Jebel .Douara .is .a .horseshoe-shaped .range .of .mountains, .which .open .out .toward . 

the .east . .These .mountains .enclose .the .Douara .Basin .which .has .been .eroded .by .the . 

action .of .Wadi .Khawabi .El-Kharrar .and .Wadi .Jaria, .along .the .axis .of .a .Paleogene . 

limestone .dome .structure . .The .upper .and .lower .parts .of .the .hill .slopes .are .formed .of . 

Eocene .limestone .and .Paleocene .Eocene .marls .respectively .(Sakaguchi .1978; .1987) . . 

Based . on . geomorphological . evidence, . the . climate . of . the . Palmyra . district . since . 

600,000 .BP .has .fluctuated .between .semi-arid .and .semi-humid .environments . .The . 

hypothesis .that .lakes .occupied .the .Palmyra .Basin .in .the .past .was .made .during .the . 

mid .1970s .and .the .beginning .of .the .1980s .(Sakaguchi .1987) . .It .was .suggested .that . 

lakes .existed .until .at .least .7000 .cal . .BC .and .Lake .B .probably .disappeared .around . 

6000 .cal . .BC .and .after .this .the .Palmyra .Basin .evolved .to .a .playa, .in .which .temporary . 

lakes .were .sometimes .formed .and .the .climate .became .similar .to .that .of .the .present . 

day .(Sakaguchi .1978; .1987) . 

The .Douara .and .Palmyra .basins .delineate .a .region .which .has .extensive .and .accessible 

.flint .deposits . .The .central .Palmyrides .region .of .Syria .contains .two .major .geological 

.flint .horizons: .the .Middle .Eocene .Arak .Flint .horizon .and .the .Upper .Cretaceous 

.R’mah .flint .horizon .(Brew .et .al . .2001; .Julig .et .al . .2007; .Long, .Julig .2007) . . 

These .two .flint .types .have .similar .geological .origins, .having .formed .on .the .same .type . 

1 . . Reconstruction .of .the .opposed-platform .knapping .sequence .from .Mamarrul .Nasr .2 .has .contributed .to . 

the .understanding .of .bi-directional .technology .in .the .Northern .Levant .and .the .context .in .which .this .specific . 

lithic .production .was .undertaken, .as .well .as .the .knappers, .knapping .expertise .and .the .transmission .of .knowledge 

.(Borrell .2011) . 




Figure 5: Arak Flint horizon outcrops (F2 in figure 2) in the Douara Basin. 

of .open .marine .carbonate .shelf . .Both .provided .good .to .excellent .material .for .stonetool 

.making, .and .they .occurred .in .surface .exposures .as .bedded .and .nodular .forms . . 

Palaeolithic .and .Neolithic .populations .in .central .and .eastern .Syria .made .use .of .both, . 

depending .on .local .availability .and .other .factors .(Krasheninnikov .et .al . .1996; .Diethelm 

.2004; .Julig .et .al . .2007) . .The .Eocene .flint .deposits .were .most .extensive . . 

Reconnaissance .surveys .in .Douara .Basin .have .enabled .three .major .extensive .flint . 

outcrops .near .the .Neolithic .sites .(fig . .2) .to .be .identified . .The .flint .was .light/dark . 

brown .to .black .in .colour .(though .some .nodules .are .slightly .lighter .toward .the .centre), 

.fine-grained .and .homogeneous; .which .made .it .an .excellent .material .for .knapping 

. .It .had .a .chalky .cortex .5-10 .mm .thick . .Both .nodules .and .discontinuous .layers . 

of .flint .lay .in .exposed .sections .(seams .of .flint .nodules .in .wadi .exposure) .within .the . 

Middle/Early .Holocene .formations .(fig . .5 .and .6) . .These .nodules .were .large, .typically 

.30-40 .cm .long, .sometimes .larger, .and .they .were .generally .flat .and .easy .to .obtain 

.(figs . .7 .and .8) . .No .direct .evidence .of .flint .exploitation .was .observed .at .the .outcrops 

. This .raw .material .was .extremely .abundant .in .the .Douara .Basin .itself .and .its . 

macroscopic .features .suggested .that .these .sources .belonged .to .the .regionally .extensive 

.Arak .Flint .horizon . 


91

92 



Figure 6: Arak Horizon flint outcrops (F1 in figure 2) in the Douara Basin. 

Figure 7: Flat nodule found at the Eocene outcrops (F3 in figure 2) in the Douara Basin. 




Figure 8: Large flat nodule found at the Eocene outcrops (F3) in the Douara Basin. 

4. Flint petrography 

Prior .to .this .study, .some .of .the .geological .and .petrographic .characteristics .of .Syrian . 

flints .were .described .by .several .researchers .(Delaune-Mayère .1978; .Saito, .Tiba .1978; . 

Diethelm .1995; .Krasheninnikov .et .al . .1996; .Julig .et .al . .2007; .Long, .Julig .2007) . . 

These .studies .concluded .that .flint .was .locally .abundant .in .two .main .strata .in .the .central 

.Syrian .Desert: .late .Cretaceous .(late .Campanian .to .early .Maastrichtian) .and .middle 

.Paleogene .(Eocene, .Ypresian) .age .(fig . .9) . . 

Both .the .Cretaceous .(R’Mah) .flint .and .the .Eocene .(Arak) .flint .lacked .abundant . 

clay .minerals .and .iron .oxides . .The .R’Mah .flint .tended .to .be .light .grey .to .brownish . 

grey .in .colour . .It .can .be .highly .fractured .with .irregular .or .poorly .developed .conchoidal 

.fractures .and .typically .contains .no .fossils .(Diethelm .1995; .Long, .Julig .2007) . .On . 

the .other .hand, .flints .from .the .Eocene/Ypresian .strata .of .the .Arak .Flint .horizon .have . 

a .dense .and .subvitreous .appearance .and .are .predominantly .light .brown .to .brown, . 

with .darker .brown .and .black .colours .present .only .in .the .thicker .nodules .(Saito, .Tiba . 

1978) . .The .Arak .Flint .horizon .flints .are .rarely .fractured .and .have .excellent .conchoidal 

.fractures . .Previous .petrographic .studies .of .Arak .Flint .have .identified .a .series .of . 

characteristic .microscopic .features . .Thin .sections .displayed .abundant .pseudomorphs . 


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Figure 9: Geological map of central Syria (from Julig et al. 2007). 

after .foraminifera, .as .well .as .sponge .spicules .and .scattered .pseudomorphs .of .carbonate 

.grains . .Clear .chalcedonic .quartz .appeared .to .have .infilled .pore-spaces .in .the .interiors 

. of . foraminifera, . prior . to . the . replacement . of . the . tests . with . cryptocrystalline . 

quartz .(Saito, .Tiba .1978) . .Other .petrographic .analyses .of .the .Arak .Flint .horizon .indicated 

. that . they . were . replacement . flints . that . contained . pseudomorphs . and . foraminifera 

.(Long, .Julig .2007), .which .were .partly .recrystallised .with .microcrystalline . 

quartz .fill . .Most .of .the .samples .examined .were .massive .or .weakly .stratified . 

Representative .geological .samples .were .collected .during .the .field .survey .from .the . 

three .outcrops .identified .(F1, .F2 .and .F3) .and .archaeological .samples .from .Mamarrul . 

Nasr .2 . .A .total .of .15 .thin .sections .have .been .analyzed, .including .nine .from .Mamarrul . 

Nasr .2 .and .six .from .outcrops .F1 .and .F2 .(fig . .10, .11) . .Macroscopically, .all .the .flints . 

were .predominantly .light .brown .to .brown, .with .grey .shaded .areas .caused .by .carbonaceous 

.matter . .The .dark .brown .colour .is .commonly .due .to .disseminated .organic .material 

. .Bedding .was .often .observed .and .appears .to .be .due .to .alternating .layers .with . 

differing .amounts .of .carbonate .grains . .All .samples .examined .represent .replacement . 

flints .from .an .original .limestone .composed .by .intrabasinal .grains .with .a .packstone . 

depositional .texture, .as .reported .by .other .authors .(Dunham .1962) . .Thin .sections . 

have .enabled .the .identification .of .pseudomorphs .after .foraminifera .as .well .as .other . 

abundant .unidentified .carbonate .grains . .In .the .samples, .chalcedonic .and .microcrys- 




talline .quartz .have .replaced .the .grains .while .the .surrounding .matrix .was .replaced .by . 

dark .coloured .microcrystalline .quartz . .No .evidence .of .terrestrial .input .was .observed . . 

The .matrix .of .some .samples .appeared .to .contain .small .crystals .of .relict .calcite, .indicating 

.incomplete .replacement .of .limestone .by .silica, .though .the .results .of .tests .using . 

dyes .on .some .samples .indicated .that .the .presence .of .calcite .was .minimal . 

Figure 10: Thin section (x 30) of Arak Flint showing abundant foraminifera. 

The .same .features .were .found .in .both .the .geological .and .archaeological .samples, . 

which .fall .within .previous .descriptions .of .the .Arak .Flint .horizon .samples .made .by . 

different .scholars .(Krasheninnikov .et .al . .1996; .Saito, .Tiba .1978; .Brew .et .al . .2001; . 

Long, .Julig .2007; .Julig .et .al . .1999) . .This .strongly .suggests .that .all .the .samples .analyzed 

.were .derived .from .the .Eocene .strata .and .belonged .to .the .Arak .Flint .horizon . . 

5. Results and conclusions 

The .petrographic .analyses .have .enabled .the .statement .to .be .made .that .Eocene .flint . 

belonging .to .the .Arak .Flint .horizon .was .the .main .source .of .flint .in .the .Neolithic . 

complex .of .Mamarrul .Nasr .and .potentially .in .the .area .around .the .Douara .Basin .and . 

Palmyra, .as .previously .suggested .by .others .(Krasheninnikov .et .al . .1996; .Long, .Julig . 

2007) . .Even .though .Eocene .flint .was .also .extensively .exploited, .together .with .Cretaceous 

.flint, .for .stone .tool .production .during .the .Palaeolithic .(Diethelm .2004; .Julig .et . 


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Figure 11: Detail of a thin section (x 60) of Arak Flint. Note the numerous ghosts of foraminifera 

replaced by silica. 

al . .2007), .the .Arak .flint .seems .to .have .been .the .only .raw .material .exploited .at .the . 

Neolithic .sites .studied .around .the .Douara .Basin . .The .grey .to .tan .and .olive .coloured . 

Cretaceous .flint .was .not .used . .Rather, .the .best .quality .Arak .Flint, .extensively .available 

.close .to .the .sites .in .different .parts .of .the .Douara .Basin, .was .preferred .and .deliberately 

.chosen .for .production .of .lithic .tools . .The .homogeneity .and .lack .of .variability .of . 

the .lithic .assemblage .is .striking .and .other .non-local .flints .were .also .absent . .There .was . 

no .trace .of .flint .from .the .Euphrates .terraces .(with .characteristic .eroded .cortex), .nor .of . 

the .characteristic .pink/purple/red .flint .whose .presence .was .recurrent .during .the .Pre- 

Pottery .Neolithic .in .the .Levant .which .was .found .at .different .regions .such .as .the .Mesozoic 

.Baer-Bassit .Ophiolite .Complex .in .north-west .Syria .(Long, .Julig .2007), .the .Upper 

.Cretaceous .Amman .Silicified .Limestone .deposits .distributed .on .the .Jordanian . 

Plateau .(Quintero .1996; .Rollefson .et .al . .2007) .and .the .river .Euphrates .terraces .(Borrell 

.2010) . 

The .raw .material .could .have .been .extracted .from .primary .bedrock .from .any .of .the . 

nearby .extensive .Eocene .flint .deposits .that .occurred .in .surface .exposures .as .bedded . 

and .nodular .forms . .It .has .not .yet .been .possible .to .determine .local .variations .of .Eocene . 

flint, .although .further .analysis .could .help .in .doing .so . .This, .together .with .the .absence . 

of .direct .evidence .of .extraction .at .the .outcrops .located .in .the .Douara .Basin .itself, . 

make .it .difficult .to .establish .the .specific .outcrop .the .Neolithic .people .gathered .the . 

flint .from . . 


Figure 12: Panoramic view of the Douara Basin from Mamarrul Nasr. 



The .flint .was .taken .to .the .rock .shelters .in .the .Mamarrul .Nasr .passage, .again .indicating 

.the .importance .of .the .Mamarrul .Nasr .passage .as .a .strategic .spot .for .visual .control 

.of .the .steppe .(fig . .12) . .The .quality .of .the .Arak .flint .was .fully .adequate .for .percussion 

.flaking .and .was .extensively .used .for .bi-directional .blade .production .(Borrell .2011; . 

Borrell .et .al . .2011) . .The .size .and .shape .of .the .nodules .extracted .also .made .it .a .desirable . 

resource . .Preliminary .decortication .of .the .nodule .may .have .been .undertaken .next .to . 

the .outcrops .themselves, .since .there .were .only .a .few .cortical .flakes .at .the .sites, .although . 

no .direct .evidence .was .observed .at .the .outcrops . .Periodic .and .intensive .knapping .episodes 

.were .undertaken .at .the .rock .shelters, .and .included .shaping .out .opposed-platform 

.cores, .blade .production, .the .maintenance .and .the .abandonment .of .the .core .and . 

retouched .tool .production . .In .this .interpretation, .the .sites .identified .were .understood . 

as .short-time .shelters .and .suggested .the .existence .of .highly-mobile .groups .whose .presence 

.on .the .semi-arid .steppe .of .the .Central .Syrian .Desert .was .related .to .the .exploitation 

.of .steppe .animal .and .mineral .resources . .However, .it .is .not .yet .possible .to .determine 

.whether .these .sites .provided .evidence .of .nomadic .or .semi-nomadic .communities . 

who .lived .permanently .in .the .semi-arid .steppes .or .whether .these .groups .could .have . 

come .from .sedentary .settlements .far .from .the .Douara .Basin . 

In .conclusion, .the .Arak .Flint .horizon .played .a .major .role .in .the .extensive .use .of . 

mineral . resources . by . the . Neolithic . communities . who . settled . the . Central . Syrian . 

Desert .at .the .very .end .of .the .Pre-Pottery .Neolithic . 


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Acknowledgements 

We .would .like .to .express .our .gratitude .to .Dr . .E . .Boëda, .Dr . .M . .Molist, .and .Dr . .H . . 

al-Shakel .who .helped .to .make .this .work .possible .and .to .the .General .Directorate .of . 

Antiquities .and .Museums .(DGAM) .of .Syria . .We .also .wish .to .thank .Dr . .R . .Estrada . 

for .her .helpful .support .concerning .the .petrographic .analysis .of .the .flint .samples, .Dr . . 

Darrel .F .G . .Long .and .Dr . .Patrick .J . .Julig .for .their .help .with .the .geological .map, .and . 

the .anonymous .peer .viewers .for .their .interesting .comments . .Finally, .we .want .to .express 

.our .gratitude .to .our .funding .sources .including .the .French .Ministère .des .Affaires . 

Etrangères . et . Européennes, . the . Spanish . Ministerio . de . Ciencia . y . Tecnología . 

(HAR2010-18612), .the .Spanish .Ministerio .de .Ciencia .e .Innovación .(MICINN/Fulbright 

.2008-0125) .and .the .Generalitat .de .Catalunya .(SGR-2009-00607) . . 

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