report an ecological survey proposed shimba hills national reserve

ISRIC LIBRARY
KE - 1960.05
Wageningen
The Hether lands
REPORT
O N
AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY
OF THE
PROPOSED
SHIMBA HILLS NATIONAL RESERVE
By
P. E. Glover
Kenya National Parks

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REPORT
ON
AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY
OF THE
PROPOSED
SHIMBA HILLS NATIONAL RESERVE
By
P. E. Glover
Kenya National Parks
15X91
ISRIC LIBRARY
ja £QOS J
\V3geningen, The Netherlands

SPECIAL NOTE
My special thanks are due to the Chief
Executive, his Secretary and the staff of the
East African Wild Life Society for all they have
done to help me produce this report.

INTRODUCTION.
POSITION
HISTORY :
GEOLOGY
TOPOGRAPHY
CLIMATE
SOILS
HYDROLOGY
CONTENTS
Temperature
Atmospheric pressure
Wind .
Rainfall
Cloud
Relative humidity
Light intensity'
Soil pits
Soil moisture
Dew and mist
Stream flow
Composition of drainage waters

THE HABITAT • • •
1.
Page
e e a 53
VEGETATION • • • » • • • 53
1. FOREST
Chlorophora
• • • 54
Other species forest 54
Paramacrolobium
other species forest 59
Riverine forest • • • . " • ; 60
2. BUSHLAND • • • 61
Primary bushland • • • ,-..!•. 61
Secondary bushland • • • 62
3. SCRUBLAND • • • : 63
4. WOODED GRASSLAND • • • 64
5. OPEN GRASSLAND 7- . • * .», 65
- -. Orchids • • • 66
. .. Roadside vegetation ' 69
DESTRUCTION OF THE FORESTS • • • 69
ANIMALS • • •; • *• • 71
MAMMALS • • • • ..,. 72
INSECTIVORA • • • 72
PRIMATES • • • 72
Lorisidae • • • 72
• Gercopithecidae • • •
; • . ; • / • • 7 3
LAGOMORPHA *

PREDATION
POACHING
BIRDS
REPTILES
AMPHIBIA
RODENTIA
Hystricidae
Sciüridae
Muridae
CARNIVORA
Canidae
Mustelidae
Viverridae
Hyaenidae ....
Felidae
TUBULIDENTATA
Orycteropidae
PROBOSCIDEA
Elephantidae
HYRACOIDEA ......
ProcafViidae
UNGULATES,
ARTIODACTYLA •'•''•*'
Suidae
Bovidae ; ' '
Buffalo
Bushbuck •'•'-'''
Blue duiker
Grey duiker ,_ ,
Suhl
Dikdik ^ .,-.,
Ringed waterbuck
Bohor reedbùck'
Sable antelopet.

FISHES
INSECTS
ARACHNIDA ...
MYRIAPODA
MULTIPLE USE OF THE LAND
PROPOSALS FOR THE CREATION OF A
NATIONAL PARK
Preamble
Boundaries of the National Park
Buffer zones
Game corridors
ROLE OF THE FOREST DEPARTMENT
Experimental areas
Buffer zones
Plantation.damage by wild animals
ROLE OF KENYA NATIONAL PARKS
A. FIRST REQUIREMENTS IN THE SHIMBA
HILLS AS A NATIONAL PARK
Ma^n gates ... • •
Road barriers and Ranger
posts .....
Boundary trace ...
Roads ' ...
Lodges ...
Observation lodges ...
B. MANAGEMENT PLAN ;..
Fire control ...
Mown blocks ...
Salt licks ...
,. Reafforestation with indigenous
"' trees ...
Prevention of forest
exploitation
Pa£e
104
105
110
111
112
115
115
116
117
118
119
119
120
120
122
121
121
121
122
122
122
122
123
123
124
124
124
125

Sable antelope census
Daily observation patrols
C. . RESTOCKING WITH OTHER SPECIES
: White rhxnocëros- •••
Black rhinoceros ...
- Giraffe ' " " ...
Zebra ...
Coke's h'ärtebeest »..
• . • • . : . • . . - . I" • .'. ••.:, : 4 • ' - • ••' •'•
. . > . • < - •• . • • • • • • ' . , ,
Impala • r ...
Eland 3 ;.;-.; •:.,•»•••••
RESEARCH PROGRAMME ... ',».••
A. ANIMAL •iSTUDÏËS^'; .V\0. • y 'wV'.„*
Behaviour ....
- « — • ' -•••••• '•'#••>•• l .'- : .t"- f •'•.- v ;v.
Soil moisture survey .;.••• ,
Soil isMrVey.rV^^---'*'•'' r^ ( ''V*\--..V''-
Fire control 'experiments
.1.; Food preféir^ricé studies •
C •/•••'• METÉOROtOGÏCÂL STUDIES ' '
D. LONG-TERM PROBLEMSK^i »,i.7
SUGGESTIONS FOR THÉ'PRESERVATION OF .SABLE
ANTELOPE IN KENYA ;,-.•.••
ESTABLISHMENT M^ ÉST^IATE.D.'EXPÉNDIT'URE"
ESTABLISHMENT ^ . % ,; .,,..,.
,r/. .Sehxor .staff• y-."-r : ' '^.:. :;
Junior staff " ...
ESTIMATED CAPITAL EXPENDITURE
FIRST YEAR . ,; ,. .. ,. .
A. EQUIPMENT
Motor vehicles '. ....
Lighting plant ...
Field equipment ...
i-»'
Paße
125
125
125
126
126
JL26
• i . • j -
126
127
127
127
128
128
128
129
130
130
131
131
131
131
133
134
136
137
137
137
138
138
138
138
138
138

B. HOUSING ...
C. FURNITURE
TOTAL NON-RECURRENT ...
ESTIMATED RECURRENT EXPENDITURE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... ...
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PLATES
1. Soil profile, in burnt grassland
' south of Longo Magandi forest.
2. Eroded soil surface at Giriama
Point.
3. Soil profile in Vernonia
zanzibarensis scrub.
..- i
4. Burnt grassland near Longo
Magandi forest. February.'
1968 before the rains. :
5. Grassland near 'Longo
Magandi forest.- May I968
during the rains.. .
6. Forest grassland and thicket
patches - Longo Magandi area.
7. Chlorophora; other species
forest -. Longo Magandi.
• v ' 8. Paramacrolobimn forest to
the south of Longo Magandi'.
9. Vernonia zanzibarensis in
Forest Department experimental
plots.
10. Makadarà forest.
11. Shëldrick»s Falls.
i *
12. Small herd of sable antelope
in the Shimba forest area.
Page

APPENDICES
13« Herd of sable antelope in open
grassland near Giriama Point.
14* The top of the Shimba plateau.
15. A typical picture of the
southern edge of the Shimba
escarpment.
APPENDIX I
Climatic data in grassland.
APPENDIX II
Comparison of summarised climatic
records at Longo Magandi.
APPENDIX III
Soil analyses from Longo Magandi
and Shimba Hills Settlement.
APPENDIX IV
A plan for the management of
grazing areas for amenity and
preservation of the sable antelope
in the Shimba Hills Forest Reserve.

I
P O S T C R I P T
Since this report was written I have been
fortunate enough to acquire from Mr Gordon Jones of the
Forest Department, a copy of à report on "A Reconnaissance
Inventory Survey of the Indigenous Forest Areas of Kenya:
Part 2 - Shimba Hills Sampling Unit".
The work was carried out by Spartan Air Services
Limited in co-operation with the Kenya Forest Department
under the Government of Canada Special Commonwealth Aid
to Africa Programme. ,; ;?' v ^
This excellent report on the Shimba Hills
Sampling Unit contains much detailed information concerning
the utilisable timber resources of the Shimba Hills forests
and readers of my report are strongly advised to refer to
it.
SABLE ANTELOPE DISTRIBUTION
In November 1908, Mr IC©« Smith and Major Sheldrick
flew over the country to the south of the Shimba Hills and
they saw a herd of 10 sable antelope in the section, lying
betwe«*" Mrima Hill - Jombo Mountain and Vanga.
Mr Smith told me on the 19th November 1968 that
he thinks there are 30 - 40 of these animals in that area.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
II
I wish to thank the Chief Conservator of Forests
for kindly permitting me to include Mr Chapman's "First
Draft of a Plan for the Management of Grazing Areas for
Amenity and Preservation of the Sable Antelope" as an
appendix to this report.
In addition, I am very grateful to Mr Kisa,
Permanent Secretary; Mr R C Hodges, Consultant to the
Ministry of Economic Plaagiing, Mombasa and to Mr John
Henderson, Consultant to the Canadian Government for the
Shimba Hills Project, for their very kind collaboration.
Finally, I must thank Mr Jones for finding me
a set of aerial photographs of the Shimba Hills and for
his kindness in many other ways.
24th November 1968 P E GLOVER
Tsavo National Park (East)

INTR OD U e Tï O N
Risley (1966a) and .1966b) presented a charming but
very forceful plea for the development of the Shimba Hills
as a National Park, . Two years have now. elapsed and
although the.money .is available for the purpose, this
region has still not. been declared a. National Park - but
there are indications that it will soon be made a National
Reserve.
It is,.hoped that this report will supply the
factual evidence, required to dispel lingering doubts and
that Risley's proposals \tfill be implemented without
further delay. r,.
This survey was.mainly concerned with habitat

2
studies of sable antelope, Hippotragus niger roosvelti
(Heller). The Shimba Hills and the Malindi areas are
the northernmost limits of its distribution in East Africa
but owing to growing human population pressure and for
other reasons, this animal is now in grave danger of
extermination from Kenya.
Observations were also made on elephant, buffalo
and a number of other animals which live in the Shimba
Hills.
The project was financed by the African Wildlife
Leadership Foundation through the East African Wild Life
Society and the World Wildlife Fund. Investigations
were carried out under the auspices of the Trustees and
the Director of Kenya National Parks.
A camp was built on the southern edge of Longo
Magandi forest in the Shimba 'Hills, seven miles south-west
of Kwale town and about two miles north-west of Giriama
Point, on the 5th February 1968.
The next day an airstrip was made with a road
grader belonging to the Kwalé County Council so that
reconnaissance flights could be made over the area when
required.
The first observations on the animals in thé
region were made by two game scouts from the section of

3
the Gcim

4
The area surveyed in detail covers about 85
square miles - stretching from a short distance to the
north-east of Kwale to the edge of the Shimba Hills
Settlement Scheme at the base of the escarpment on the
south-western side. From there it extends to the foot
of the Marere hills on the west and north-western sides
of the escarpment (See Map 1).
HISTORY
Risley (1966a), who was a former District
Commissioner at Kwale, says that the word 'Shimba' means
'lion' in the local Digo dialect and as lions were numerous
in these hills, that is how they acquired the name. On
the other hand, it could be a corrupted version of 'Shambe',
the local name for sable antelope.
Little appears to be known of the early history
of the Shimba Hills. Claims have been made that much of
the country now lying within the Forest Reserves was once
cultivated and even 'Longo Magandi' is the name of a
village which existed near the present patch of forest
of that name long before the British came to Kenya.
According to Risley (1966b), the forested area
of the Shimba Hills was first demarcated in 1903« In
1924» intervening sections of grassland and bush on top of
the plateau were added to it. •
In 1947, 1,000 acres of forest reserve were

5
planted with 'mvule* trees ^Chlorophora excelsa (Welw.)
Benth & Hook.) in collaboration with the PWD Hydraulic
Engineer and the Water Resources Authority but the
experiment failed; apparently because of the poverty of
the soil and the slow growth of the trees.*
. In I.956, another section of the country on the
eastern and southern slopes of the plateau was included
in the forest reserve. This brought its size to 53,700
acres.
Further experiments were carried out by the
Forest Department with indigenous and exotic trees - with
unsatisfactory results - except for some plantings of
Casuarina equisetifolia and Pinus caribea. an exotic soft
wood.
In I963, an agreement was made for' part of the
Shimba Hills to become a Game Reserve 'managed jointly by
the Kwale County Council and the Forest Department,'• who
also undertook to restrict planting trials to a definite
area and to carry out rotational burning in favour of
better game management.
f
Detailed plans for the implementation of this
agreement were not submitted by. the District Council and
Footnote: * I would'say the experiment failed because
not enough was known of .the ecology of ' ;
Chlorophora at that time.

6
for sever ar other--treasons ,J;he plan was never formally
agreed by Government.
However, Mr. J. M.Ojai, Permanent Secretary to
the Ministry öf Natural Resources, writing in the East
African Standard in October 1966, stressed the statement
in the Kenya Government Development Plan 1966-1970 that
the Shimba Hills should be declared a National Park as it
had great faunal interest and is the only, place in Kenya
where sable antelope can be seen in any numbers.. It
could also become the counterpart of Nairobi National
Park for Mombasa and the coast.
On the 19th June 19'68, a plan was drawn up by the
Director of Kenya National Parks and the Director of
Surveys which was submitted to Government for creating a
National Reserve in the Shimba Hills. The extent of the
area demarcated as a National Reserve on the accompanying
map was approximately 47}550 acres (74.4 square miles), as
parts of Mkongani North and Mkorigani West Forests had
been retained as a Forest Reserve.
GEOLOG Y
' ' " . . '• J •. •
The geology of. the Mombasa-Kwale area has been
described in detail by Caswell and Baker (1953) in their
report on the 'Geology of the Mombasa-Kwale Area'.
Briefly, the Shimba Hills lie within the upper
horizons of the Duruma Sandstone Series which are of

Pernio—Triassic age -and,_JJuey--2i-ve rise to the Shimba
plateau which is, the dominant topographic feature of the
area. •..•'•.-
According, to Caswtell and Baker, the Upper Duruma
Series is composed largely of quartz and felspar grains;
the latter generally weathered and often kaolinised.
Mica and felspar are the commonest binding materials but
as neither substance forms a good cement, the rocks readily
disintegrate to sand.
It would seem.that the conditions of deposition
of the Upper Duruma Sandstones were more variable than
those of the earlier members of the series. The Upper
Duruma Sandstones appear to:have been laid down under
fairly shallow water initially,, for the lower-most rocks
are current-bedded. The rate of sedimentation outpaced
subsidence, however, for a fossil wood horizon - which can
be seen near Marere 7 appears to have been deltaic.
Higher still in the succession, the.sub-rounded:nature of
the grains and the high degree óf cross-bedding are -
suggestive of sub-aerial deposition with infrequent
aqueous incursions giving rise to flat-bedded horizons.
At the northern end of the Shimba Hills, the
sandstones are•succeeded by coarse grits that shew little
trace of bedding. They are also felspathic, being
highly weathered and kaolinised.
From this leyel upwards to near the top' of the
series, exposures are scarce but boulders indicate that

8
coarse sandstones and grits are present with uppermost
layers of coarse, poorly-bedded grits about 100 feet
thick. They contain wind-polished quartz pebbles up to
\ inch in diameter which are usually yellowish-white in
colour but sometimes reddish or purplish, resulting from
a surface concentration of iron hydroxide. These hard
upper beds are the Shimba Hills Grits which form a
resistant layer capping the Shimba plateau and preserving
it as a prominent feature of the landscape.
A good example of Shimba Hills Grits can be seen
on the northern slopes of Giriama Point where the boulder
level is exposed with an upper zone of laterised grit.
Caswell and Baker also said that the Shimba Hills
are horst-like and have a broad, shallow syncline.trending
NNE-SSW throughout their length. Faulting appears to have
occurred on all four sides of the plateau although it is
only on the northern side that there is conclusive evidence
of this fact. On the other sides, the steepness of the
slopes suggests faulting but this could have been caused
by differential weathering of the grit capping and the
underlying sandstones.
Relics of Pliocene Magarine sands occur in the
Shimba Hills and it is possible that the red sandy upper
horizons of the soils at Longo Magandi and on the top of
Marere Hill are this material.
Holes drilled to a depth of 20 feet inside the
Longo Magandi forest with a Jarrett soil borer penetrated

9
only apparently homogenous- red sandy material; whereas,
holes made in the open grassland about 100 yards outside
the forest encountered impenetrable lateritised grit at
a depth of nine feet.
T O P O G R A P H Y
Some idea of the topography of the Shimba Hills
is given in the section on geology. Makin (1968)
confirmed the point mentioned by Caswell and Baker (1953)
that there is a strong correlation between the topography
of the Shimba Hills and the texture of the bedrock. This
fact is reflected in the drainage patterns which indicate
the variations in the Duruma Sandstone.
The top of the region known as the Shimba Hills
proper consists of a dissected plateau rising steeply
from an altitude of about 400 feet on the coastal plain
to I5OO feet at the highest points in the Pengo and
Marere hills.
Makin described the Shimba Hills as consisting
of strongly upstanding, conical hill features and steep
ridges with a very broken landscape made up of winding
watersheds with narrow ridges running between the steep-
sided valleys. The heads of these valleys are often
precipitous and are still being cut back.
Actually, much of the top of the plateau is more
or less flat or gently sloping like the country around

10
Longo Magaiidi and to the north and west of it.
This point is important because it is on the top
of the plateau that the main concentration of sable
antelope exists today.
C LIMAT E
In general, the climate of the higher parts of
the Shimba Hills is cool and refreshing compared with that
of Mombasa and the surrounding, cpastal plain, particularly
during the hot, dry seasons.
TEMPERATURE
The"temperature figures available from various
sources are given below.
Those for Mombasa were taken from the East
African Meteorological Department (1964).

I
L 3
GEOLOGY
DIAGRAMMATIC SECTION OF THE SHIMBA HILLS
PEN60
HILL
SHIMBA GRIT OR
MAZERAS SANDSTONE
MARIAKAN I SANDSTONE
UPPER MAJI YA OHUMYI BEDS
COARSE FERRUGINOUS
GRIT
MB
KWALE
PLIOCENE
MAGARINI SANDS m
Ut
FAULT
UPPER JURASSIC SHALES
II I III II LIME-STONE

11
.'T' AB LE 1
TEMPERATURE »F
Mombasa (Port Reitz) ,1946 - 1962
Mean . .Mean Mean Mean
Month Max & Min Max Min Range
January 81,9 89.9 73.9 16.0
February- 82.4 90.3 74.4 15.9
March 83.4 91.0 75.7 15.3
April 81.9 88.5 • 75.0 13.5
May . ' 78.8 . 84.7 72.8 11.9
June 77.2 83.1 •70.3 13.8
July 75.4 81.8 68.5 : 13.3
August 75.7 82.7 68.5 14.2
September 77.2 84.3 69.8 14.5
October 78.8 85.8 71.7 14.1
November 80.4 88.2 73.4 14.8 •
Decess.ib:?.r 81.5 89.0 74.1 14.9
.(These figures are given to compare with those of
the Shimba Hills. See tables in Appendix I.)

12
Hursh and Pereira (1953) recorded air
temperatures three feet above the ground in *light
grassland cover' in the Shimba Hills between 1200 hours,
26th November 1952, and 0900 hours, 27th November 1952,
as follows:-
TABLE 2
Time in hours
1200 1500 1900 2400 0600 0900
87°F 80°F 73°F 69.5°F 69.5°F 83.5°F
Makin (1968) estimated that in the Shimba Hills
Settlement, which lies between altitudes 300 - 500 feet
above sea level, the mean maximum temperature would be
about 87°F and the mean minimum temperature about 73°F.
However, as .much of the country covered by our survey was
more than 1,000 feet .above sea level, these figures may
not apply to places on the top of the Shimba Hills such
as Kwale, Longo Magandi, Pengo Hill and Marere Hill.
Summarised temperature records kept at Longo
Magandi in open grassland between 7th February 1968 and
31st May 1968 are given below.
a

13
February Air temperatures outside the forest
at three feet above the ground ranged
from 71°F at 0700 hours to 92°F at 1400 hours on bright
sunny days. The highest range in temperature between 0700
hours and 1900 hours was 19°F. The lowest range was 9°F.
not rise above 80°F.
If the sky was cloudy, midday temperatures might
The average temperature for the month was 79°F.
All-night records were not kept but early morning
and maximum and minimum temperature readings indicated that
during the night temperatures did not drop below 70°F. No
regular readings were made during February (See temperature
tables in Appendix I).
March Temperatures varied on bright sunny days
from 75°F at 0700 hours to 92°F between
1200 and 1400 hours and fell again to 78°F at 1900 hours.
0n' ; cloudy and rainy days, midday temperatures might not
rise above 70°F. The average temperature for the month
was 76°F.
As the month progressed, the number of rainy
days increased and the diurnal temperature fell, e.g; on
25th March 1968 at 0700 hours, the temperature was 74°F;
there was a bank of cloud lying on the eastern horizon but
otherwise the sky was clear. At 1200 hours there was heavy
rain followed by a continuous drizzle and at 1400 hours
the air temperature had fallen to 70°F. The drizzle

14
stopped by 1600 hours but the sky was still overcast with
light cirrus cloud and by 1800 hours the temperature had
risen to only 74°F, dropping to 72°F by 1900 hours. The
next morning at 0700 hours, 26th March 1968, the temperature
was 71°F but as it was a bright morning the temperature
rose to 87°F by 1300 hours, falling to 80°F by 1400 hours
when the sky had become overcast and there was a light
drizzle. At 1900 hours the temperature was 75°F.
From these figures it can be seen that diurnal
air temperatures are greatly influenced by local weather
conditions but there may be a variation of as much as 19°F
between 0700 hours and 1400 hours on sunny days.
The average temperature for March a% 0700 hours
was 72.5°F, at 1400 hours it was 82.2°F and at 1900 hours
74.9°F. The average range in temperature between 0700 and
1400 hours was 10°F and between 1400 hours and 1900 hours,
8°F.
The maximum temperature range between 07Q0 hours
and I4OO hours on dry days was 19°F and between 1400 hours
and 1900 hours, 16°F.
The minimum temperature range between 0700 hours
and I40O hours on wet days was 1°F and between 1400 hours
and I90Ö hours, 0°F.
April Diurnal weather conditions were generally
more cloudy and there was more rain than
in March. In addition, the variation in temperature between

15
07OC hours--and midday (12 - 1400 hours) was lower ranging
between 68°F at 0700 hours to 88°F at 1400 hours.
On 24th April, the'température at 0700 hours was
77°F and higher than on any other day recorded at that time
during the past two months. At 1400 hours on the 24th,
the temperature was 88°F dropping to'74°F at 1900 hours.
On 25th April, thé température at 070Ö hours had fallen again
to 72°F but it rose to 82°F by 140Ö hours, dropping to 76°F
by 1900 hours. Heavy rain began to fall at 2000 hours "that
evening continuing throughout the night and all the next day
of the 26th when the temperature at 0?00 hours was as low as
69°F. At I400 hours, it was still 69°F and at 1900 hours it
was 68°F. Temperatures were low again on the 27th with a
variation of only 1°F between 0700 hours and 1400 hours.
Drizzle continued until 1600 hours on that day. Ón the 28th -
which was a dry day - the temperature was 69°F at 0700 hours,
rising to 8l°F at 1400 hours and falling to 7'3°F a * !900
hours.
The average temperature for the month at 0700
hours was 72°F, at 1400 hours 8Ö°F and at 1900 hours, 73°F.
The overall average was 75°F.
The average range in temperature between 0700
hours and 1400 hours was 8°F and between 1400 hours and 1900
hours, 6°F.
The maximum range between 0700 hours and 1400
hours was 12°F on dry days and'the minimum range 0°F on very
wet days.

16
The average range between 1400 hours and 1900
hours was 6°F.
The maximum range between 1400 hours and 1900
hours was 10°F on dry days and the minimum range was
0°F on very wet days.
May The average temperatures for this month
were, 70.5°F at 0700 hours, 76.7°F at 1400
hours and 71.4°F at 1900 hours. The overall average was
73°F. ••__
The highest temperature recorded at 0700 hours
was 75°F, at 1400 hours 84°F and at 1900 hours 74°F.
The lowest temperature recorded at 0700 hours was
67°F, at 1400 hours 70°F and at 1900 hours 69°F.
The highest range in temperature between 0700 and
1400 hours was 11°F and between 1400 hours and 1900 hours
it was 11°F.
The lowest.range in temperature between 0700 and
1400 hours was 0°F and between 1400 and 1900 hours it was
0°F (See temperature tables in Appendix I).
Conditions during May were similar to those in
April except that the sky was overcast for longer periods
and it was wetter because there were more rainy days and
this lowered the mean diurnal temperature range even more
than in the previous month.

17
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURÉ
No regular records of atmospheric pressure were
kept during February and March but for the following two
months an attempt was made to Obtain some information on
this subject by using a large compensated aneroid.
April The highest atmospheric pressure during
this month was recorded at 0700 hours.
There was an average range in pressure of 0.1 inches of
mercury between 0700 hours and 1400 hours but no significant
difference between readings taken at 1400 hours and 1900
hours.
The highest range in atmospheric pressure between
0700 hours and 1900 hours was 0.2 inches of mercury and the
lowest range during the same period was 0.075 inches of
mercury.
May Again, the highest atmospheric pressures
were recorded at 0700 hours. The highest
range in pressure between 0700 hours and 1900 hours was 0.2
inches of mercury which was the same as that for April but
the lowest range between 0700 hours and 1900 hours was 0.0,
indicating that atmospheric-pressure could remain constant
throughout the day. Sudden changes in atmospheric
pressure were not observed during these studies (See
atmospheric pressure tables in Appendix I)

18
WIND
According to Makin (1968), the north-east trade
winds prevail, in the Shimba Hills Settlement area between
December and April. From June to October, the wind is
generally southerly to south-easterly*
The two main rainy periods which are dependent
on monsoon winds influenced by the ; ' Intertropical
Convergence Zone'> usually occur from-October to December
and from April to July. During the rainy seasons, the
winds are lighter and more variable than in the dry period
between them.
In the daytime, the wind blows from the east and
south off the sea but sometimes it is south-westerly or
westerly, being influenced by a circular motion resulting
from the »orographic effect of the Shimba escarpment'.
• Land breezes blow weakly from the north-west at
some time oh most nights.
Records of wind.kept in open grassland at Longo
Magandi for the four months, February to the end of May,
gave the following results :.-
February
Direction;
Easterly
Northerly -
Southerly -
Westerly -
51.6$ of the records kept
35.6g " » " »
9.6$ " " n "
3.25S " " " »

March
Speed
19
Mean 19.2*63 --29.2.68 5.2 miles in the hour
Daytime 07Ô0 - 1900 = 7.9 m.i.h.
Nighttime 1900 - 0700 = N.R.*
Highest ;
Daytime 0700 - 1900 = 14.9 m.i.h.
Nighttime 1900 - 0700 = N.R.*
Lowest;
Daytime 0700 - 1900 = 1.2 m.i.h.
Nighttime 1900 - 0700 = N.R.*
Direction:
Speed :
Easterly - 41.1$
Westerly - 35.5$
Southerly -. 22.2$
Northerly -. 1>1$
Mean for thé month = 5-ni*«i.h.
Daytime 0700 - 1900 = 5.3 m.i.h.
Nighttime 1900 - 0700 = 3.1 m.i.h.
Footnote: *N.R. = No record.

20
Highest ;
Daytime - 12.2 m.x.h.
Nighttime - 5,1 m.i.h.
Lowest;
Daytime - 0.4 m.i.h.
Nighttime - 1.1 m.i.h,
Direction;
Easterly - 7-3$
Ttfesterly - 38.5$
Southerly - 54.2$
Speed ;
Mean for the month = 3«1 m
Daytime - 3.5 m.i.h
Nighttime - 2.4 m.i.h
Highest;
Daytime - 9*9 m.i.h
Nighttime - 6.5 m.i.h
Lowest ;
Daytime - 0.8 m.i.h
Nighttime - 0.8 m.i.h

1 '4
> •o d- D*
d- •fl H* »
•1 d- fl> H«
H- d- 3 H
H (D a
1 tu i
Ö) 3 e
•o 0) 3* c
3 a •o
a H- >i
CO 0 H-
S 'O 3
01 3
«^ 0 0 CO
• d- Hj d-
i-lî
0 3
/*» 0 0» 3
H 3 cm
09 (0 tu 5
0 0) h*
H 1 H« W
0 d- oo 'O
? H- o Ö
0 o
OQ C 1
H- H 3*
3* (D Ui &
0 O* P
CO •1 S 0
0 c H- co
DJ H T3
H> 1 (!) s*
3 «* CO (0
t» •1
> & H'
tJ S 0 o
•0 o
(!) »1 d- •0
3 0 5* •1
& 3* G (0
H- ># co
X 3 CO
> 0
H •o *1 %
• H- S*
(-> 1 M>
a 0
03 » i
3 CO
o. d-
0
S o *1
Q) H) d-
VI
'25 J»
CO * (t
KT (0 H'
0 H de
(D H
H •
& 0
3
er
(0 H
S*
1 ? CO
(D •1 da
(D
CO P
>w •1 c+ a
(0 »S c Os
CO H »1 O
co
(D d- Cu
a i Z
x> (m a (D
a 3* o* H)
(D c do
d-

May
Direction :
Speed :
21 .
Easterly - 25.0$
Westerly - 31.8$
Southerly - 43.252
Mean for the month = 2.9 m.i.h.
Daytime - 3.5 m.i.h.
Nighttime - 2.1 m.i.h.
Highest ;
Daytime - 8.7 m.i.h.
Nighttime - 3.3 m.i.h.
Lowest ;
Daytime - 0.9 m.i.h.
Nighttime - 1.3 m.i.h.
These figures indicate that in February the
prevailing wind was easterly and northerly. In March,
it was easterly and westerly but also southerly for a
fair proportion of the time. In April, it was southerly
and westerly and in May it was southerly and westerly but
also easterly for a fair proportion of the time.
Wind speeds are generally a little higher in
February and Graph 2 shews that there may be a steep

131
12
11
10-
Ui 7
5 6-1
10
Ui
=i 5
X
4A
GRAPH 2
WIND SPEED
Blh MARCH 1968
1 ï 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i
07-00 0B00 0900 10 00 II 00 1200 1300 14 00 IS 00 1600 1700 18 00 1900
TIME IN HOURS

^
•~J
Month ,
23
TA BLE
WINDSPEED ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
PORT RËITZ 1946 - 1962
0600 :
G.M.T.
knots
1200
G.M.T.
knots
0600
G.M.T.
millibars
1200
G.M.T.
millibars
January
6
12
1006.2 1002.4
February 5 13 1005.9 1002.1
March 4 12 1005.6 1002.9
April 5 12 1006.0 1003.1
May 7 13 1008.2 1005.7
June 7 14 1010.5 1008.7
July 6 13 1011.1 1009.0
August 6 13 1011.1 1008.7
September 6 13 1010.5 1007.7
October 5 12 1009.2 1005.8
November 3 12 1007.5 1003.9
December 5 11 1006.4 1002.8
N.B: G.M.T. =
1 knot =
East African Standard time +
3 hours
6080 feet or 1 minute of the
earth*s circumference

24
RAINFALL
Tables 4 and 5 below (E A Meteorological
Department 1964) for Port Reitz and for Kwale on the top
of the Shimba Hills, shew that on the average some rain
falls in every month of the year but the wettest time is
usually from April - June at the beginning of the southeast
monsoon, and the driest period is from December -
March at the end of the north-east monsoon.
Caswell and Baker (1953) gave the average annual
rainfall of Mombasa town up to 1950'as 47.84 inches, that
of Kwale as 41.30 inches, that of Marere as 44.97 inches
and that of Kinango, about 12 miles to the west of Kwale,
as 34.33 inches, indicating that there is a reduction in
annual rainfall from Mombasa westwards.
For the purpose of comparing weather conditions
at the coast and in the Shimba Hills, Tables 4 and 5 below
give the average rainfall figures for Port Reitz and for
Kwale.

25
Î ABLE 4
RAINFALL
Port Reitz - Altitude 182 ft
• Average... .1946; - 1962
E.A. Meteorological Department (1964)
Rain Sunshine Cloud
Month mm in dayshours. Average total
O6OO 1200
G.M.T.
January- : 31 1.24 5 254 •5.6 4.2
February **:. .. 0.76 • •3- 255 • 5.4 3.3
March •'
6 l 2.44 •:-.8-- 282 5.1 3.8
April 169 6.76 '•••M7; 231 ''- 5.7 5.2/ '-
May 244 9.77 19 201 5.8 5.7
June 63 2.52 14 23I 5.2 5.3
July 68 2.72 14 211 5.4 5.6
August 59 2.36 16 248 5.3 5.4
September 83 3.32 13 255 5.5 4.7
October- • 89 3.56 1-4 273 5.7 3.7
November. 74 2.56 10 276 5.5 3.8
December . 77 3.08 11 270 5.5 4., 4
TOTAL 1037 41.08 144 249 5.5 4.6
Cloud average is calculated in eighths

26
TABLE 5
RAINFALL
Kwale, Agricultural Department - Alt. 1294 ft.
Average 1908 - 1962
E.A. Meteorological Department (I964)
Month
Average
mm in
Highest Lowest
mm in ': . .'.'. mm in
Rain
days
January '33 1.32 159 6.36 0 0 4
February 19 0.76 121 4»-&4^-"' : 0 0 4
March 59 2.36 254 10.16 0 0 7
April 155 6.20 509 20.36 0 0 15
May 230 9.20 715 28.60 28 1.12 20
June 95 3.80 326 13.04 7 O.28 15
July 81 3.24 208 8.32 4 O.I6 14
August 61 2.44 223 8.92 0 0 13
September 68 2.72 520 20.80 0 0 11
October 90 3.60 339 I3.56 0 0 11
November . 94 3.76 275 11.00 0 0 . 10
December 82 3.28 189 7.56 0 0 10
1067 42.68 1889 75-56 438 17.21 134
N.B. * These figures do not apply to a particular year -
therefore they do not represent the year of
highest or lowest precipitation but only the
month.

27 -
The average monthly and annual rainfall of the Shxmba Hills Settlement
Scheme over a period of twelve years is shewn in Table 5 below. The lowest and
highest totals are over the 15 years 1951 - 1966. Makin (1968).
TABLE 5
RAINFALL - SHIMBA HILLS SETTLEMENT
AMOUNT JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC TOTAL
in ) 1.98
Average{ agej
0.50 2.44 9.02 9.87 3.78 4,16 3.U 2.59 5.03 4.12 3-10 49.70
mm > )49.50 12.50 61.00 225.50 246.75 94.50 104.00 77.75 64.75 125.75 103.00 77-50 1242.50
in )
Lowest I
f )
0 0 0.06 3.28 3.25 0.56 0.82 0.61 0.45 1.20 0.21 0.41 34.20
mm ) 0 0 1.50 82.00 81.25 14.00 20.50 15.25 11.25 3.00 5.25 10.25 855.00
Highest,
total
in ) 3.24 2.16 8.31 20.00 21.48 3.99 9.59 6.50 14.32 12.79 8.65 7.16 67-30
mm )81.00 54.00 207-75 500.00 537.00 199.75 239.75 162.50 358.00 319.75 216.25 179.00 1682.50

28
Observations made over the four months from
5th February to the end of May i968 indicated that the
rainfall for different places in the Shimba Hills proper
during this period was variable and patchy. Frequently,
when there was heavy rain at Kwalè ór 'óver the Shimba
Hills settlement, little or no rain fell at Longo Magandi.
Table 7 below shews the amount of rain recorded
in open grassland at Longo Magandi in the Shimba Hills
during these four months.
TABLE
RAINFALL ' : '•
LONGO MAGANDI Alt. 1250 ft. " KWALE Alt.1294 ft.
-il-
1 96 8 , Average 1908 - 1962
Month Rain Rain Rain . Rain
inches m.m. days inches m.m. days
FEBRUARY 0.82 21.00 3 0.76 19.00 4
MARCH 7.55 190.60 13 2.36 59.00 7
APRIL 14.24 352.90 ,16 6.20 155.00 15
MAY 16.37 411.80 23 9.20 230.00 20
TOTAL 38.56 976.30 55 I8.52 463.OO 46

29
From these figures, it can be seen that the
rainfall for Longo Magandi during the four months was more
than double the average rainfall for Kwale for this time
of year - calculated oyer a period of 54 years. (See
rainfall tables in Appenidx I),; ;
CLOUD
February was the sunniest month and also the
warmest but there was always some cloud in the sky, usually
consisting of broken-up, fleecy patches periodically
obscuring the sun.
, ..,.... ••••>•• "
The amount of cloud increased each month until
in May there were long periods or rain and drizzle when the
sky might remain overcast all day and mist settle on the
hilltops round and in the valleys. Thus, for a large
proportion of the time in April - and particularly in May -
it was dangerous, and frequently impossible, to use aircraft
for observation or even to approach the Shimba Hills from
out'side.
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
No figures are available for the relative humidity
or evaporation rates of the Shimba Hills proper but Makin
(1968) said that in the Shimba Hills Settlement Scheme the
relative humidity exceeds 80 per cent, except during
January to March when it averages about 75 per cent.

a:
JOn
20-
10-
GRAPH 3
RAINFALL
3 STATIONS COMPARED
SHIMBA
SETTLEMENT
1953—1965
1 3=E_ -n-J^ 1
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 3 9 10 II12
49-70 In
JAN FEB
—i—
MAR APK MAY
KWALE
1908- 1962
I 2 3 i 5 6 7 8 910 II 12
42-68 in
MONTHS
—i 1 1
JUNE JULY AUG
PORT REITZ
1946 — 1962
J]
] c£ !3
; 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10II 12
41-08 in
SEPT OCT
—r—
NOV
—I
DEC

30
Observations at Longo Màgandi between 5th
February 1968 and 31st May 1968, using a whirling hygrometer
at a height of thr*ee = f eet above the ground in open
grassland > indicated that/there was 'a wide diurnal' 'ränge
of relative-humidity on dry days'- even during'thé rainy
season - but because of the proximity of the sea 'arid the
direction of the prevailing wind, there was a sharp rise
in relative humidity between 1800 and 1900 hours. There
was al«o an acute drop in relative humidity between 0800
hours and 0900 hours (See Graph 3).
--• ... . , , ..,,.. ••• •'• %:.• ! v r.T/M '.:• -';.':-Jr--rO£
: • : • ; . ' • • • • . . " ' '•'-• '•'""••' '• • ' • . q :P. : - • • " " ' • • - :
Formal estimates of potential evaporation from
open water surfaces (Penman - Eo) in the Shimba Hills
Settlement Scheme given by Makin, indicate figures/';öß\\
2,000 mm and 2,200 mm but actual observations of cloud
coyer suggest that 1,900 mm might be nearer the mark.
The tables in Appendix I shew that at Longo
Magandi the diurnal range in relative humidity was lowest
in April and May but it was about three per cent higher ."> •'in
May at 1400 hours than it was in April. This is a •;• ••'.•'-rv
reflection of the more prolonged periods of daytime "*=-.•
drizzle which occurred in May. J '-? .•-
During the dry season in February it was often /. • .
observed that a light gust of wind might change the -:.'. •'•
relative humidity as much as ten per cent within a few r^i;••..*•.
seconds but such variations were, transient. .•.'•:=. •:
Table 8 below.gives average conditions prevailing. *
at Port Reitz on the Coast (E A Meteorological Department,; .;
1964).

31
JEW POjNT
Dew did not occur .„every night in February but
it was observed that at Longo ^agandi from March onwards
the dew point was reached before 2100 hours and sometimes
by 1900. hours.
T A B L E
MOISTURE CONTENT OF THE AIR - PORT REITZ 1946-1962
ALTITUDE I82" ft.
RELATIVE HUMIDITY DEW.;: POINT >v'i EVAPORATION
Month O3OO
hrs GMT
. ' * • %
1200
hrs GMT
0600
hrs GMT
1200
hrs GMT
°F °F
IO58 - i?63
Type "10 Pan"
Average. Highei st Lowest
mm mm mm
January 92 63 72.86 72.50 227 244 201
February 92 61 73.22 72.68 226 238 213
March 92 62 75.02 74.12 239 261 205
April 94 68 75.02 74.30 192 220 172
May 94 73 73.58 72.68 164 211 13 1
June 93 • 68 71.24 69.44 158 187 139
July 94 69 69.26 68.36 147 171 11}
August 94 67 69.80 68.18 171 192 m
September 94 65 70.52 68.90 197 218 17Q
October 94 65 72.14 70.70 219 243 190
November' • 94 67 73.94 72.68 213 242 171
December 94 67 74.12 73.76 200 213 . 188

32
^ No records could be found for places nearer the
Shimba Hills-but as- there is a very close correlation
in average rainfall between Port Reitz and Kwale, it might
be reasonable to suppose that these figures are relevant
also (See relative humidity tables in Appendix I).
LIGHT INTENSITY
•Light intensity readings were taken with a
Weston photo-electric cell by holding the instrument
horizontal at breast height, and measuring the light
reflected directly upwards off the ground in open burnt
grassland 60 yards south of the southern edge of Longo
Magandi forest, in exactly the same place each time.
Light intensities during the day are variable
if there are clouds in the sky and changes of as much as
300 foot candles can occur within a few seconds as a
result of clouds temporarily obscuring the sun.
Light readings were taken at 0700 hours, 0800
hours, I30O hours, 1400 hours, 1800 hours and 1900 hours,
but no regular records were kept in February. However,
the following information may give some idea, of the
average light intensity at different times of the day
between February and May.

33
TABLE 9
LIGHT INTENSITY
Foot candles
TIME
Hrs
Month 0700 0800 1300 1400 . 1800 1900
February 26.20FC
March 7.90FC 36.70FC
April 8.9 FC 46.20FC
May 6.30FC 2O.3OFC
125.00FC I.6OFC
113.20FC 124.30FC 7.10FC Too dark
114.80FC 89.00FC 3.90FC -do-
86.6OFC IO3.8OFC 1.90FC -do-
The light intensity in the early morning, midday
and evening for February and March was similar. In April,
the average light intensity was higher at 1300 hours than
at 1400 hours but in May the average light intensity was
lower at 1300 hours and higher at 1400 hours than it was in
April. Both of these months had heavy rain and the sun was
covered by cloud for much of the time.
Reference to Graph 5 shews that on 8th March there
was a sharp rise in light intensity from 4.5 foot candles
at 0700 hours to 200 foot candles at 1000 hours, then there
was a period of cloud between 1000 hours and 1300 hours
when the light intensity fell to 35 foot candles with a
very steep rise again to 300 foot candles between 1300 and

34
1400 hours during,„a period of bright sunlight. By 1500
hours the light intensity had fallen to 200 foot candles
and then there was a steady decline until 1Ç00 hours
when it was too dark to take readings.
This graph is a good example of light intensity
on an average day in March (See light intensity tables
in Appendix I).
SOILS
An exhaustive survey of the soils in the Shimba
Hills Settlement and surrounding areas was made by Makin
(1968). He also covered some of the country on the lower
slopes of the Shimba Hills.
Makin said that the steepness of the Shimba
topography has caused much 'colluviation' and erosion.
Thus the hill tops are covered with deep soil which has
been generally weathered in situ from Mazeras Sandstone
but the hill slopes are blanketed by very colluvial
materials, ranging from coarse sand to coarse sandy clay,
depending on local conditions prevailing during deposition.
This is so - but there are also deep pockets of
red soil at Longo Magandi and in the Makadara and Mkongani
forests which resemble Magarini sand. Makin realised this
fact, for he said that certain hill summits and ridges at
Shimba are covered with deep deposits of unconsolidated
coarse sands and sandy loams and that these can probably

- -35
be explained as relic deposits of Magarini sand, but in
general the severity of the topography reflects the
coarseness of the underlying sandstone. On the other
hand, relatively gentle topography usually derives from a
finer-textured sandstone and consequently gives rise to
finer weathering products. It was the variable conditions
that prevailed during the original deposition of these
sandstones that'resulted in marked deviations in the
distribution of size grades and hence the resulting
relief. The finer colluvial fractions tend to be
differentially eroded and are deposited on the lower apron
slopes as loam and clay.
Maliin (1968) gave detailed descriptions of all
the different soil types occurring in the areas he
surveyed but many of them may not be relevant to this
survey. However, Makin's description of SOIL 1 under
"well drained soils" might apply to the Shimba plateau.
It consists of a very dark greyish-brown topsoil of
quartzitic sandy loam overlying red to yellowish^brown
coarse sandy clay loam or sandy clay subsoil. The texture
becomes heavier with depth and is characteristic of highlying
soil in the Shimba Hills.
The coarse sandy loam topsoil may extend to a
depth of three feet before it changes to a heavier texture
but it can be only six inches deep when this change takes
place as a result of truncation.
There is a decrease of pH with depth. The top
soil averages pH 5.1 at three feet. There is a

- 36 -
concentration of soil bases in the top soil mainly
derived~-fronr~organic matter.
Makin said that forest litter has an average
pH of 4.5 but it is very rapidly decomposed and very light
in colour. There appears to be an accumulation of dark
surface 'humus' under grass but he found little difference
in the carbon content in this soil under forest and under
grass.
The process of leaching out of the silica and
bases from the top soil and their concentration lower
down in a hydrated condition combined with iron and
aluminium oxide to form kaolinite is cailed 'laterisation'.
This process accounts for the increased clay content and
mottling in the sub-soil.
Laterised hard layers occur in the subsoil at
Longo Magandi and elsewhere. The coarse grits which form
a resistant capping to the tops of the hills mentioned by
Makin, are usually cemented with laterite or kaolinite.
Further,. Makin said that the ivell-drained acid
soils of the type found at Longo Magandi and elsewhere in
the Shimba plateau,are low in salts, .calcium compounds,
alkali and deficient in phosphate.
.However, the samples we collected from Longo
Magandi shew that the top soil in the forest is richer in
plant nutrients than that in open grassland or Vernonia
scrub (See tables of soil analyses in Appendix III).

ios bsnis-tb-llow *d& ±*rl& bisa- jfx'isM ,i9ritiu1
ni oi&ri^afesia bas i^sgsN O^TOJ cf« snuoï o'.rjtf 3ïi* 3o alios
^sbnwoqiaoG Kiifioilsc tr-.:fls£ ni VJC-I 9^t;/3s:hlq s-JmirîS add
~" . s^.:ïqî;c.'ï r '-; JTX cri:.-?isx^ob biis ' XIGÎÎXS
„ Makin*s SOIL 8 is an important „f prm JLn the Shimba
o3ficJ mort toJMüoo 3w Es.Lqr^fig 9;sa tiuv^vio..:-.
SiHSrfe^ a ^ e dîl^ SB^iA^ïot^S^fA %ÜdP«lflfe e Ï6(SlilafiM
near Vfffl* £?£$& n&sQnn&^&të&ti^Vfà dunos
spiciformis Benth. near Kwale Borna and in the valley to
thé north-east of the wireless repeater station.
Here the soil surface is often bare or covered
with alga or lichen; it has a high silt content throughout
the profile and Malcin suggested that it may have developed
on ancient alluvium. It has toxic levels of acidity in
the lower horizons.
This soil is variable in texture and it may range
from sandy loam to clay J.oam.r. „ It Vis highly ...erod able.
Its drainage is usually imperfect, and,'the „subsoil ^shews -„-, .
distinct mottlingi. Where it „has, ,beenr.trunpàted,.,the,p -,-••.••-
surface becomes imperméable when, dessicated.- .,-.r. It-has--a- -~
very low organic "matter content; it is deficient in every
important plant nutrient and its average „pH is. about 4.5
(S.ee tables in. Appendix. III),.. ^ „,^__ r,j._.. -,„•.-..•- I,-?^ ^rr^n
ajnomeV *io fonslaasig nsqo ni cJ-ßdd nsrid- a-txisxTtchun chaßlq
, Makjui' s SOIL 80 is, a variable, deposit jriQrmally~p
„(IXx xißneqqß nx as3\p.snß iiuu io dzrx^.a.j' £/_«...;" ^.~ «roes
found at the basé" of V-shaped valleys in the Shimba Hills.
Its sand fraction is coarse and its pH ranges between 5.5
in the topsoils to 4.5 in the subsoil but it may rise to
7v0 in the subsoil if there 'is a concentration of sodium.
This soil occurs extensively in the lower-lying basins of
the Magarini sands and often forms permanent swamp in open
scrub woodland or grassland like that to the north-east of
Longo Magandi airstrip. It is normally covered in raw

38
humus and is dex-cient in all major plant nutrients,
particularly phosphate, but there may be a rise in sodium
and magnesium contents in the deeper layers. It has a
good water-retaining capacity and a low permeability.
SOIL PITS
Three soil pits, ten feet deep, were dug in the
Longo Magandi area.
Pit 1 was 60: yards beyond the southern edge of
Longo Magandi forest in open burnt grassland on a slight
southerly slope.
The top soil was grey and friable with a dense
concentration of grass roots in the first three inches.
The depth of the humic layer was variable but it
extended for about 18 inches. From there downwards, the
soil became bright red, hard and compacted.
There was a network of narrow cracks in the soil
from the .surface to the bottom of. the pit. Each crack
was associated with a grass tussock or other plant and
there were roots running down the cracks so that these
cracks might play an important part in assisting the
survival of perennial plants in times of drought (Photograph
1). The cracks go right down into the heavier levels of
the subsoil. Photograph 2. shews the surface of a severely
truncated soil layer at Giriama Point which illustrates the
pattern of the cracks.

39
At Longo MagandJL indopen grassland, there was a
dark organic sheath..Lining-the cracks - presumably as à
result of root activity.
When Pit 1 was dug in the grassland, it was
observed that the moisture content of the soil appeared
to increase from a depth of about three feet down to
about eight feet, then it seemed to get drier again. The
clay content increased with depth (See tables in Appendix
III).
An examination of visible soil moisture penetration
about 12 hours after 0.48 inches of rain had fallen,
indicated that the top layers of soil were so porous that
there was a better penetration of water into the bare patches
of soil between the grass tussocks than there was under the
tussocks, which is somewhat different from findings in
Masailand (Glover et al 1963).
In this pit there was a network of fine roots in
the upper humic layer, decreasing in number with depth.
One large root , 2^ inches in diameter, running horizontally
at a depth of 18 inches from a Syzygium cordatum Höchst,
ex Krauss tree, 57 feet away, was cut through by the soil
pit but no .other big roots were seen.
Pit 2 was 100 yards inside Longo Magandi forest.
Here the first three inches of soil consisted of leaf
litter and mulch. It was dark grey in colour, very light
and friable, and contained a network of dense, fine roots.

40
The. topsoil, or humic layer, was dark grey to
a depth of 18 inches, becoming lighter and bright red with
increasing depth. There were no cracks and it was easily
friable to three feet. At six feet it became harder to
dig but there was no mottling. Holes dug to a depth of
20 feet with a Jarrett soil borer in this forest by staff
of the East African Agriculture and Forestry Organisation
indicated that this soil was more or less uniform in
texture all the way down.
Analyses of the soil samples from Pit 2 shew
that there is an increase in the clày content from 20 per
cent iii the top three inches to 48 per cent àt a depth of
nine feet.
There was much large root activity in the.top 18
inches, of soil, mainly from Conopharyngia holstii (K.Schum.)
Stapf. One big root, two inches in diameter, appeared at
a depth of four feet urith several smaller roots, \ inch in
diameter. One root, \ inch in diameter, was found at 5
feet 6 inches.
The burnt base of a tree just below the soil
surface with charred roots to a depth of one foot,
indicated that there.had been fire inside, this forest at
some time.
Dead logs, branches, twigs and leaves lay in
profusion on the forest floor.
Although the leaf canopy above it was fairly

41
open, no water stood in the bottom of the pit even after
heavy rain during April and May.
Pit 2. was d u S in a patch of Vernonia zanzibarensis
Less, within a Forestry Department experimental plot once
planted with pines which had not thrived. It was on a
slight westward slope. The top soil was dark grey to a
depth of ten inches, becoming bright red at two feet.
A gravel line appeared at 28 inches running down
to 3 feet 6 inches and then rising again to form a depression.
The gravel consisted of pieces of angular, laterised
sandstone up to ^ inch in diameter and about one or two
layers deep (Photograph 3).
The subsoil became streaked with yellow and was
mottled below the gravel line. The clay content increased
markedly with depth and there were numerous sub-angular quartz
grains up to 1/1Oth inch in diameter in the soil. In addition
there were a few bigger pieces of angular quartz present up
to ^ inch in diameter.
The soil above the gravel line was soft and
friable but hard and compacted beneath it. There was dense
grass root activity in the first three inches of soil and
Vernonia zanzibarensis was observed to have extensive shallow
lateral root development not reaching much below six inches
in depth.
The phenomenon of soft layers of soil over-lying
harder compacted ones was also observed in Pit 1 and another

42
shallower pit about 30 yards to the west of it. Thus the
impression was gained that the hard compacted layers in
these pits represented old truncated soil surfaces which
had become covered over with more recent material. Both
Caswell and Baker (1953) and Makin (1958) mention the
presence of old erosion surfaces in the Shimba Hills and
from evidence produced by the soil bores, Longo Magahdi
forest is growing on a former valley cut into Shimba Grit
which has since been infilled'with Magarini Sànd.*
SOIL MOISTURE
In order to gain some idea of the soil moisture
condition beneath the surface at different times of the
year, gypsum blocks - or electrical resistence units'- were
established at Intervals of one foot-down to a depth of 20
feet, 160 yards inside Longo Magahdi forest; just inside
the edge of the forest; just outside the edge'of the forest
in open grassland; right out in open grassland and inside
a small thicket patch in open grassland.
Readings are taken by the Forest Department staff
at Kwale once a week, by attaching an Ohm meter to the :
electrodes of each resistance unit. At 'the samè : time,'daily
rainfall records are kept and these results are sent to the
East African Agriculture and Forestry Organisation at the
end of each month.
" " " " " * — — ^ •"» • • • N — — ! ! • • • IHM I • II • I.. Ill ! • • , ; . • I 111 I •• •]• •••• l' I ••! • • !••• • «II I — • ^ ^ — P —
Footnote: * Soil samples were collected from the 3 pits
at depths of inches 0-3, 6-9, 12-15, 24-27,
36-39, 72-75, 108-111 and 120-123. These were sent to the
Scott Agricultural Laboratories in Nairobi for physical and
chemical analyses (See tables in Appendix III).

43
HYDROLOGY
The Shimba Hills is the rainfall catchment area
for several fairly large permanent river systems, such as
the Ramisi and Mkurumuji in the south-west and south, and
the Manolo and Marere, together with a number of smaller
streams, in the west and north which run into the Chashimba
or Pemba river. In fact, the Shimba Hills is the source
of almost the entire water supply for the coast south of
Port Reitz.
There is a pumping station on the headwaters of
the Marere river which now only supplies water to Kwale but
it was once the water supply for Mombasa. In this connection,
Hursh and Pereira (1953) indicated that the construction of
the pipeline from Mzima Springs to Mombasa would not lessen
the need for local water resources in the Coast area south
of Kilindini estuary where much industrial development was
in progress.
The importance of the water resources in the
Shimba Hills has been recognised for a long time. As early
as 1949 Anderson and Starmans stressed the need for proper
catchment management. They also made specific recommendations
as to how this could be done. They pointed out that small
parts of the Shimba Hills were still under dense forest but
most of the land was covered by open grassland.
Anderson and Starmans drew particular attention to

RIVERINE
FOREST
HYDROLOGY
DIAGRAMMATIC SECTION
LONGOMAGANDI
FOREST
I
MAGARINI
SAND
RAINWATER
SHI MBA GRIT
/ / / / /
FORMER EROSION SURFACE
WITH
COMPACTED KAOLINISED LAYER
OVERLAYING SHIMBA GRIT
YARDS
SWAMP
3000 4000 5000
* " . > ' . • • . -> "f i ' >

A y .
lu
SO'
GRAPH I
AIR TEMPERATURE
6(h MARCH 1968
^ • • *
-• Open grassland.
• • Inside forest.
70
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 i
0700 OB 00 09 00 10 00 1100 12 00 13 00 14 00 1500 16 00 1700 18 00 IS 00
TIME IN HOURS
-•»•«.
- • • *
V.
*•.
„•

44
the sparseness of the grass cover which they claimed was a
result of annual grass fires. The grass was generally
found in clumps about six inches in diameter and 9-36 inches
apart. Where fires had been most frequent, the grass
clumps were furthest apart but because of the limited amount
of vegetation present in the grasslands, it was concluded
that transpiration would be less than from an area of
denser plant cover. Thus it was assumed that a larger
proportion of water entering the soil would be available .
for recharging ground water aquifers.
Unfortunately, most of Anderson and Starmans 1
conclusions appear to have been based on .assumption, for
it was shewn by Glover et al (1955) that annual burning
actually increases the perennial grass cover in the
Brachvstegia woodlands- of the Abercorn district of Northern
Rhodesia. This finding was confirmed by Cook ( in Phillips
1965) who stated that in some grassland burning experiments
which had been in progress for 30 years on the University
of Witwatersrand experimental farm in South Africa, the
greatest alteration in composition and quality of the
vegetation was in the control plot which had been protected
from fire. Here there was more bare ground between the
tussocks and there were more dicotyledons present. In the
plots that had been burnt annually for 30 years, there was
practically no change.
In addition, Anderson and Starmans did not seem
to take into account steepness of slope which affects runoff,
nor soil type which can influence runoff, soil moisture
penetration and vegetation.

45
:••:.' v :>.' Harsh and Pereira (1953) reported some results of
a survey of catchment conditions made by them in the Shimba
Hills between June arid October 1952« They confirmed the
sparseness of the grass cover, which becomes accentuated
when the 'top hamper' is burnt off.
The worst effect is of early grass burning when
the soil lies exposed to the rays of the sun for months
during the dry seasons and surface temperatures of 140°F
or more may be reached at midday.
Hursh and Pereira obtained soil temperature
readings under light grass cover of as much as 8l°F at a
depth of 48 inches, 84°F at 12 inches and 69.5 Ö F on the
surface at midnight ón the 26th November 1952. These high
sub-surface temperatures would result in the vaporisation
of .moisture in the porous, sandy horizon of the soil. The
movement of the moisture in the soil towards the cooler
upper surface would result in its loss as evaporation or,
under' favourable circumstances, to condensation near the
surface, but it would evaporate the following day when the
surface was heated by the sun's rays.
However, I think that nighttime condensation of
moisture near the surface of the soil could be used to
advantage by tufted, perennial grasses, most of tirhich have
dense root development within the top three inches of soil.
Under forest conditions, the soil surface is
protected by shade from the foliage, porous leaf litter and
mulch. Graph 6 shews that on 8th March 1968, in open

GRAPH 6
SOIL SURFACE TEMPERATURE
8th MARCH 1968
130-{F
e Open grassland.
• Forest floor.
i i i i 1 1 1 i • i i
07-00 Oe-00 0900 1000 1100 12-00 13-00 1400 15-00 IS 00 1700 1800 18-00
TIME IN HOURS

46
burnt grassland at Longo Magaridi, the soil surface
temperature reached 125°F at 150Ö hours whereas inside.the
forest at the same time, the soil surface temperature was
only 79°F - ä difference of 46°F. ; Graph 5 shews that the
intensity of light reflected off open'burnt grassland at
1400 hours was 300 foot candles, whereas that reflected off
leaf litter ón thé forest floor at the same time was only
one foot candle.
The depression in light intensity which occurred
in the open grassland shewn in Graph 5 is reflected in the
temperature chart in Graph 6 but little effect is registered
in either the light intensity or soil surface temperature
charts for inside the forest.
The highest soil surface temperature recorded in
open grassland during our survey was 140°F at 1200 hours on
24th February 1968. By 1300 hours on the same day the soil
surface temperature in open grassland was still 139°F but
inside the forest it was 8l°F - a difference of 58 Ô F.
The-soil surface temperature tables in Appendix II
shew that the average soil surface temperature in open burnt
grassland at I300 hours in the rainy months of April and May
1968 was reduced by 15°F and 2l°F respectively compared with
March.
Pan measurements were made by Hursh and Përèira
and in November on three successive nights for 12 hours,
100 per cent relative humidity was recorded at 70°F. The
grass was covered by beads of moisture but the gains in

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48
there are some extensively eroded.areas especially on the
upper: southern slopes of the hills. . Therefore", it would
. ... seem that • the. soil" type .referred to in the Government
reports mentioned by Hursh and Pereira is Makin*s.SOIL 2
(1968).
Unfortunately, : Hursh and;Péreira did not indicate
exactly where their investigations took place in the Shimba
Hills except that it was somewhere near Kwale, for from
their descriptions it would seem that they were dealing
with Makin*s SOIL 1 which is not really comparable with
SOIL 2.
Clay zones retard.percolation of free ground :
water and hold it close enough to the surface to bring about
rapid evaporation from' exposed soil under suitable conditions,
so that the water comes back into the atmosphere instead of
recharging underlying aquifers.
Confirmation of the compact nature of the clay
at the depth of five feet was obtained by Hursh and Pereira
by using a penetrometer but why'they had the impression that
an impervious clay layer at a depth of five feet is normal
in the.Shimba Hills is not known - for it is not so. What
they were obviously, dealing with, was the coarse sandy loam
deposited on top of the original sandy clay subsoil which
had been truncated at an earlier date, such as that described
by Makin (1968) as SOIL 1. Makin said that the depth of
the clay horizon below the surface may vary from six inches :
to three feet. In one pit'dug during this survey in open
grassland at Longo Magandi, a compacted kaolinised horizon

49
was met at a depth of 18 inches. In the pit in the Vernonia
zanzibarensis community, the clay zone appeared at a depth
of 28 inches but inside Longo Magandi forest it was not
apparent at a depth of 20 feet.
Therefore it would seem from Makin's report and
our own findings, that the most important factors in the
hydrology of the Shimba Hills are:-
1. Annual precipitation of rain.
2. The presence of hard, kaolinsed layers
of Mazeras Sandstone at various depths.
3. The presence of old erosion or truncated
surfaces of compacted, impervious, sandy
clay at various depths.
4. The presence of Makin's SOIL 80 which is
normally associated with swamps in valley
bottoms.
5. The presence of dense forest patches.
DEW AND MIST
Because the wind blows off the sea for most of
the time and is heavily charged with moisture, dew occurs
throughout the year in the Shimba Hills. The lower
temperatures during the south-east monsoon not only produce
a heavier dew but mist and fog. This collects on plant
parts with which it comes into contact and dew condenses
on the leaves and stems that radiate heat fast enough to
become cooler than the saturated night air. Therefore,

GRAPH 4
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
8th MARCH 1968
0700 OB 00 0900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 16-00 1700 1800
TIME IN HOURS

s' •».-
GRAPH 5
300
LIGHT INTENSITY
8th MARCH 1968
-c Open grassland.
• o Inside forest.
T 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r
0700 08-00 0900 1000 1W0 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 18-00 1900
TIME IN HOURS

50
Hursh and Pereira reasoned that considering the amount of
leaf and stem surface on which mist and dew can collect,
it is obvious that the plant surface in : the grassland is
'only a fraction of that exposed in the forest. Also,
whatever condensation takes place in the grassland soon
disappears after the sun comes up in the morning but the
dense forest may continue tö drip moisture well after
mid-morning.
At Longo Magandi in April and May 1968, fog and
mist only occurred during or after periods of prolonged
rain and drizzle when the sky was heavily overcast. Water
did drip from the plants in the forest at night when it
was not raining but never enough to measure in the two rain
gauges which had been installed inside the forest.
Unfortunately, this survey did not continue long enough to
discover whether there was an increase in fog and mist in
June and July and hence in forest drip.
Litter and soil samples taken by Hursh and
Pereira in June 1952 shewed: a daily increase of about l/lOth
of an inch of water in the upper six inches of mineral soil
and a similar increase in the litter and debris mulch
overlying the mineral soil.
An important factor which was observed'during .our
survey from February to May 1968,was that some of the trees
have buttressed bases with large, spirally-twisting, surface
roots sticking up above the ground which dam up the rainwater.'
In addition, the forest floor is criss-crossed by
a network of large roots which do the same thing. Water

51
caught in this way soon—soaks—into the soil after heavy
rain and must contribute substantially to the replenishment
of aquifers in the deep soil underlying the forest. Most
root activity is in the top 18 inches of soil in the forest.
No large roots were observed in the forest soil pit below
a depth of six feet.
STREAM FLOW
Stream flow records have been kept in the Shimba
Hills for many years for estimating minimum dependable
water yields but in the time of Hursh and Pereira they were
not adequate to construct a continuous hydrograph of stream
flow. However, Hursh and Pereira said that the drainage
area of the Mwachemwana river south of Longo Magandi merits
study in terms of independent catchments. Here the
natural topography provides fairly definite watershed
boundaries. Stream flow within this drainage basin
represents the outflow from definite catchment areas and
can be used to compute unit yields. Hursh and Pereira also
indicated that much of the Mwachemwana river basin is in
dense forest and bush which detracts from conclusions
reached in earlier reports that forests, are unfavourable to
high yields of water in the Shimba Hills.
A point of interest hère is that a little lower
down ón the same river system, there is a beautiful
waterfall inside a remote patch of forest. It carries a
fair volume of water. It has been named 'Sheldrick's
Falls' as it was first observed from the air by Major

52
Sheldrick. It was unknown to the local people.
Hursh and Pereira ended their report by
concluding that under the natural forest which once
occupied the Shimba Hills, the water economy favoured
maximum sustained water yield. Such changes as have taken
place since then have resulted in changes in the field
moisture balance leading to a reduction in the total
circulating water capital and in the total water yield.
They considered that the re-establishment of the dense
forest"~in the natural coastal mist belt would be the
greatest insurance possible for obtaining the maximum
yield of water from the Shimba Hills.
Hursh and Pereira were right. Every effort
must be made to preserve the existing forest and increase
its extent before it is too late, even if this is done
only to protect the water supply for the Coast south of
Mombasa.
COMPOSITION OF DRAINAGE WATERS
Makin (1968) analysed the drainage waters
flowing off the Shimba plateau and other catchments in
the areas he surveyed.
The Mkanda and Mkurumuji rivers, which come from
the southern side of the Shimba Hills, both have a low
mineral content and a near-neutral reaction. Makin thought
that these waters are representative of streams flowing off

53 -
the Mazeras and Mariakani sandstones of the Shimba Hills and
that they are well suited for irrigation.
On. the other hand, streams running through the
leached, coarse Magarini Sands, such as the Mwatambwi and
Mwazare, are somewhat acid and though low in electrolyte,
contain a fine suspension of peaty humate.
The Ramisi river, which drains the south-western
side of the Shimba plateau, has a high concentration of
electrolyte in its water and though it may be much diluted
during heavy rains, it can be classified as having medium
to high salinity.
THE HABITAT
VEGETATION
During this survey, 1,150 numbers of plants were
collected. These consisted of five or more specimens of
each number whenever enough material was available - but
sometimes only one specimen could be found among the rarer
plants.
So far, it has been possible for only a few of
these plants to be named by the East African Herbarium,
so that detailed lists of those which occur.in each
community cannot yet be given but some of the dominant or
most common species will be mentioned below.

54
The main vegetation types occurring in the
Shimba Hills are:-
1. Forest
2. Bushland
3. Scrubland
4. Wooded grassland
5. Open grassland
1. FOREST
There are three forest types:
a) Chlorophora other species forest
b) Paramacrolobium other species forest
c) Riverine forest
Chlorophora other species forest occurs on the
deep red soil
(probably Magarini sand). It is rich in species and contains
an amazing number of the Rubiaceae ranging from big trees
to small prostrate herbs. .
This forest type is now a relic - probably of
former wetter times, as it contains trees such as Chlorophora
excelsa (Welw.) Benth. & Hook., Bombax rhodognaphalon K.Schum.
ex Engl., Mimusops aedificatoria Mildbr., Pachystela brevipes
(ßak.) Engl., Julbernardia magnistipulâta (Harms) Troupin
and Combretum schumannii Engl. Some of these plants might
be expected to grow in regions of 80-120 inches of rain per
annum but the average rainfall for Kwale is now only 42

55
inches. '
Chlorophora other species forest has close
affinities with the forests of Kakamega in north-western
Kenya and the Usambara mountains of north-eastern Tanzania.
It is also related to the tropical rain forests of Uganda
and West Africa.
Some of the tall emergent trees in this forest,
such a Chlorophora itself, may be as much as 140 feet high.
On the forest floor,' there is a litter of fallen
leaves and twigs and many large; dead logs lying here and
there. Some of the trees are buttressed with spirallytwisting
roots sticking up well above the ground. This
fact may be important in assisting soil moisture penetration,
as we have mentioned in the chapter on hydrology.
Saprophytic fungi are common on dead wood and on
the forest floor. There' are also numbers of small
herbaceous plants in the forest and in some places there
are patches of shade-loving, stoloriiferous grasses forming
, a mat.'..'.
In thick, mature forest there is a séries of
height zones, the lower ones consisting mainly of rubiaceous
shrubs 3-6 ft high but there are also several species of
Ochha and other plants among them. Then there is a layer
of branches and leaves formed by small trees up to 35 ft
high, such as Conopharyngia holstii (K.Schum.) Stapf, which
has broad leaves. Some of the rubiaceous plants also have

56
broad leaves and a similar habitat. Next, there is an
understorey of .medium-sized trees 60-70 ft high. The final
upper storey consists of tall émergents mentioned above.
There, are many creeping and climbing plants in
the. forests*:the most spectacular of them being a bright
red-flowered.Combretum which was. too high to .collect..
Entada phaseoloides (L.) Merr. drapes the.trees it climbs on,
particularly on the forest edge. It has huge seed pods.
Landolphia sp., which has masses of fragrant white flowers,
is. very conspicuous at certain times. ... Among the creepers
are members of the, Vitaceae and Cucurbitaceae. Clematis
t • i i — .• - h — — — i ••••in jinn IIMIIII i • • ' IM i •• m i m —
was observed as well, but it was not in flower; Similarly,
there were several species of Dioscorea present - they too
were not in flower. . ,
Epiphytic ferns are common, though only a few
species were found.
Epiphytic orchids occur in the forest but many of
the trees have straight trunks and are so.tall that it is
impossible to collect, these plants. , Rhipsalis was seen
trailing down from the upper branches of a very big tree.
There, are quite a number of Araceae in the. fo.rest
and one very attractive, small arum was found near Sheldrick's
Falls. -

Climate
57
The depth of shade in the forest depends on the
density of the canopy above but-in many places the light
intensity inside the forest in the daytime may be less
than 1/300th of that outside in open grassland. In the
hot, dry'season it is cool and pleasant inside thé forest
and the air température may be as much as 10°F lower than
it is outside in open grassland.
It was found that in general the precipitation
of rain into gauges 18 inches above the ground inside the
forest is'less than it is outside in open grassland,
depending on the depth of the canopy above. However,
some interesting anomalies were observed with two rain
gauges. One was placed 60 yards inside the forest and the
other 160 yards inside it. Both had a deep leaf canopy
above them but the first one had broad-leaved Conoph aryngi a
growing above it and the one further inside the forest
had smaller-leaved plants above it.
The first gauge usually caught about l/3rd less
rain than a gauge outside in open grassland and the one
furthest inside the forest usually caught about 2/3rd less
water than the one in open grassland outside. However, on
a number of days the gauge 60 yards inside the forest had
more water in it than the one outside in open grassland,
and in May the total amount of rain caught for the month by
this gauge was greater than that in the one outside in open
grassland (See rainfall tables in Appendix II).

v- . 58. •• >-
It is possible that the size of the leaves in
the canopy above the gauge and the direction of the wind
may have had something to do with this phenomenon.
In the daytime, the relative humidity inside
the forest was usually a little higher than that outside
in the open grassland. During the rains, the humidity
inside the forest was very high and everything was damp
all the time.
It has been shewn in an earlier chapter that the
soil surface temperature inside the forest is more constant
and very much lower than it is outside in open grassland.
This fact is important because it means that the members
of the forest habitat are not subjected to the diurnal
stresses suffered by plants outside in open grassland.
(For further details regarding climate inside and outside
the forest - see Appendix II).
Moomaw (i960) found no differences in the soils
inside and outside this forest, but reference to the tables
in his appendix indicates that his investigations were
superficial in more ways than one, for he does not appear
to have examined the soil inside or outside the forest to
a greater depth than two feet - otherwise he would have
discovered that Longo Magandi forest is on deep soil and
the grassland outside the forest is on shallower, truncated
soil. Nor does he seem to have taken into account the
complexity of ecological factors constituting this forest
community.

59
Dale (1939) was right when he said that loss of
soil materials following destruction of forest limits its
potential for regeneration - but there'are many more factors
involved than this in forest regrowth in the Shimba Hills
as we have shewn in previous- chapters.
Chlorophora other species, forest is a climax
community capable of self-perpetuation under optimal
conditions. Nevertheless, when the annual rainfall decreases
and the forested areas are ravished annually by bush fires -
while at the same time the large timber trees are exploited
by 'loggers 1 - it is amafcing.that this forest has survived
at allI It would not-have done so: but for the efforts of
the Forest Department., It will not continue to survive
unless greater .efforts, are made to preserve it. •
'"•'• Paramacrolobium other species forest grows on
"' "' "' ' Makin's (1968)
SOIL 8. Often, Paramacrolobium is associated with or
replaced by Brachystegia spiciformis Behth., especially
at lower altitudes.
* In some places, patches of Paramacrolobium forest
are quite extensive but frequently they are just small
islands or clumps like those between Longo Magandi and
Giriama Point.
Paramacrolobium coeruleum (Taub.) J.Leonard is
a spreading tree with a wide canopy. It often occurs in
almost pure stands but may be associated with Afzelia

- 60
cuanzensis Welw. and Erythrophleum guineense G.Don., as well
as Brachystegia and other plants.
Sometimes the patches of Paramacrolobium forest
are surrounded by a zone of loose, light brown sand with
a low grass cover, but in places where the soil has been
truncated the surface may be hard and compacted
Creeping ferns are common on the Paramacrolobium
forest floor where they can form quite dense, leafy
communities. These ferns also climb up the trees.
Epiphytic orchids are common on the trees, which are lower
than those in the Chlorophora other s ecies forest so that
the orchids are much easier to collect. A climbing Vanilla
orchid v/as found in a forest patch near Giriama Point.
There are fallen logs, leaf litter and twigs on
the forest floor and there may be light surface mulch but
the soil is loose and sandy. Saprophytic fungi may be
locally common or even abundant.
There may be several height zones in this forest
and rubiaceous and other shrubs 3-6 ft high often form an
understorey.
When the upper canopy is closed, the light
intensity can be as low as that in the Chlorophora other
species forest.
Riverine forest occurs along the streams. It
contains a number of the

61
constituents of Chlorophora other species forest but many
of the plants in it are specifically riparian, such as
Svzvgium guineense (Willd.) DC, Trichilia roka (Forsk.)
Chiov., Adina microcephala (Del.) Hiem, and the palms
Raphia, ruf f ia (Jacq.) Mart. and Phoenix reclinata Jacq.
Tall ferns and sedges line the water 1 s edge and
where there are open stagnant pools water lilies, Nvmphaea
sp.,may cover the surface with their leaves. A pink
balsam (Impatiens sp.) is common along many of the streams
and a trailing pink Dissotis occurs among the sedges and
grasses on the water's edge.
2. BUSHLAND
There appear to be two main phases of bushland:
a) Primary bushland
b) Secondary bushland
Primary bushland is found in patches and along
drainage lines. It is normally
only about 30-40 ft high but it is dense and has the
appearance of a climax community in that it has upper and
lower storeys with a mulch and leaf litter on the bushland
floor. It appears to be similar in type and floral
composition to the patches of coast hinterland bushland
which occur in the unburnt, drier areas to the south and
west of the Shimba Hills to about as far inland as Maungu.
Manilkara is often a dominant tree and it may 'be associated

62
with Cassine schweinfurthiana Loes., Rhus natalensis Bernh.,
Antidesma membranaceum Mull. Arg,,. Fagara sp., Apodytes
dimidiata E»May ex Bernh., Royena macrocalyx Gurke,
Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv.. a number-«-of rubiaceous shrubs,
etc.
Secondary bushland is an invading, fire-resistant
community resulting from
cultivation followed by intermittent burning, or it may be
caused by fire alone.
Dale and Greenway,(I96I) call this type 'coastal
savanna 1 . . It covers quite extensive areas.in the Shimba
Hills. ' . . , .
Makin (l968) divides.secondary bushland into two
types: i.e. that found in the,-Kikoneni sector south of the
Ramisi river, which tends to; be taller arid denser than the
second type.in the Shimba Hills to. the north,but they are
really edaphic communities., . :
A few of the most,typical plants in the secondary
bushland are:- Securidaca 1ongepedunculat a Fres., Stereospermum
kunthianum Cham., Heeria mucronata. Bernh.. Tetracera boiviniana^
Bail.1.,, Ormocarpum kirkii S.Moore, with local patches of
Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight and Arn. which can form
thickets on overgrazed ground where the grass cover is low.
Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.) Milne-Redhead
grows on heavy, soil.which may be.seasonally waterlogged.

63
Byrsocarpus biovinianus (PaiJJLO: Schellenb.., which
occurs in profusion on the^red soil, around Longo Magandi.,.. is ,._
extremely resistant to fire and small plants dug up on the
airstrip were found to have numerous fire scars at ground
level. In addition, this plant is able to shoot from
pieces of root left in the ground after the main stem has
been dug out.
3. SCRUBLAND
There are two main types of scrubland in the Shimba
Hills which rapidly invade unburnt grassland. They also
form a fringe to the forest patches. They are :- Lantana
camara L. and Vernonia zanzibarensis Less. The Lantana is
an exotic plant from India which has occupied large areas
of the coast. It is spread by birds which eat its berries.
The Vernonia is a local plant which would probably play a
a normal role in forest succession if allowed to do so. It
has invaded some big areas in the Forest Department
experimental plots that have been protected from fire for a
long time. It is very shallow-rooted and appears to be a
good accumulator of humus in the top soil.
According to Màkin (1968), the Lantana usually grows
on finer grained soil than the Vernonia but they may be found
together. Both these plants are vulnerable to fire. They
are known locally as 'sage bush'.
Risley (1966a), said that in those parts of the
Shimba Hills where fire has been excluded a major change has
taken place - which, if unchecked, could alter the whole

64
nature and ecology of the Shimba Hills. As a result, the
open grasslands on which the sable antelope live are
becoming choked with a free-seeding and rapidly-spreading
form of sage bush (Vernonia) and each year less and less
grazing* remains - for nothing eats the sage bush.
This is so. It is a normal successional
process from grassland back to climax forest.
However, there was plenty of grassland for the
sable antelope when we were there. The real problem
lies in keeping the grassland attractive for the sable
antelope at ail times of the year to prevent them from going
down towards the settlement areas at the foot of the
ascarpment. Nevertheless, it is also essential that in
the forested areas the Vernonia community should be allowed
to develop as a normal process of forest succession.
"'. ' 4. WOODED GRASSLAND
There are two main kinds of wooded grassland:-
a) A very open type with single trees or small
clumps of bush scattered throughout it. The
single trees may consist of any of the plants
mentioned under Bushland - but near Longo
Magandi and at Giriama Point, odd trees of
Syzygium cordatum are scattered here and there
in otherwise open grassland.
b) Stands of Hyphaene parvula Gàertri. occur on

65
many of the ridges on poor sandy soil with a
sparse grass cover. Hvphaene coriaria Gaertn.
is also common and it grows on a wider range
of soil types. In a few places there are
relic stands of Borassus aethiopum Mart. -
usually where the drainage is seasonally
impeded.
5. OPEN GRASSLAND
There are several distinct types of grassland in
the Shimba Hills, all of which.are influenced by edaphic
factors but they are all dependent on fire though they may
have resulted originally from cultivation.
The Aadropoeon referred to by Hursh and Pereira
(1953) and by Makin (1968), is common and conspicuous
especially on the red soils around Longo Magandi where
A.dummeri Stapf occurs but it may be associated with a large
number of other perennial grasses and forbes. In fact,
the Shimba Hills grasslands are rich in species and a fairly
thorough collection has been made of them.
Panicum maximum Jacq. grows in clumps on deep soil
around the forest edge and in some valley bottoms.
Themeda triandra Forsk. was found on the edge of
the Shimba forest on the way to the wireless repeater station.
Setaria trinervis Stapf & C E Hubbard is common

66
in the sward near Giriama Point.
Hyparrhenia filipendula ,(Höchst.) Stapf grows
around the thicket edges and along the roadsides.
Digitaria milan.jiana (Rendle) Stapf forms pure
patches in many places especially near the. roadside at •
Longo Magandi.
Good stands of Chloris gayana Kunth. were
observed in the grasslands to the east of Longo Magandi.
Ctenium somalense (Chiov.) Chiov. is a common
associate of Andropogon dummeri on the red soils.
Cymbopogon excavatus (Höchst.) Stapf is a common
constituent of open grassland. .
Eragrostis racemosa (Thunb.) Steud. is abundant
in the open sward.
On the red soils - such as those around Longo
Magandi - there is a good stable cover of perennial tufted
grasses which becomes evident after fire has swept over it.
There is also a network of deep cracks in the soil with which
the tufted grasses seem to be associated. .
Orchids One of the most attractive features of the
Shimba Hills grasslands is the flush of ground orchids which
occurs at thé beginning of the rains in March and lasts for
about two months. Three conspicuous species of Eulophia

67
were observed. One - about 18 inches high - which had
mauve f lowers,' grew abundantly in open grassland on the
red Longo Magandi soil. Another larger one, with bigger,
deeper-coloured mauve flowers, grew in small groups on the
looser, richer soil, especially where Vernonia had been burnt.
The third one was rarer; it grew in swampy, grassland in
valley bottoms and had yellow flowers. A very pretty,
small Disa-like orchid, with apricot-pink flowers, was also
found on swampy ground.
A very small ground orchid, growing to only about
1^ inches above the ground, with, a thread-like, stem, no
leaves and small-white flowers with- a. purplish throat, was
found in the grassland on Risley's Ridge on 28th. March*
On 2nd April we met Mr-John G Williams at Giriama Point and
he had just found the same little orchid in the grassland
there.
A tall Gladiolus appeared at the same time as the
orchids and was quite common in open grassland as well as
seasonally swampy areas. It had large yellow flowers
sometimes tinged with brownish stippled streaks inside the
throat.
The following list of orchids from the Shimba
Hills was kindly identified by Mrs J Stewart:-
4.6I Bulbophyllum sp.
463 Bulbophyllum oxypterum (Lindl.) Rchb.f.
464 Cyrtorchis arcuata (Lindl.) Schltr.
583 Vanilla sp.

68
586 Polystachya sp»
588 Diaphananthe sp.
Several other' small ground orchids with flat
basal leaves were observed in the grassland on the edge of
Longo Magandi forest and in a patch of Brachystegia forest
but they had not come into flower by the time the survey
had ended. ^
One Ansellia sp. (leopard orchid) was collected
from a Syzygium cordatum tree in the grassland to the south
of Longo Magandi forest
.• By the end of the dry season much of the grassland
in the Shimba Hills has been burnt and has produced fresh,
palatable, short leaves so that it is attractive to plains
game such as sable antelope but by the end of May the grass
has grown tall with an average height of three or four 'feet.
It has become coarse and unpalatable and because of its
tallness it is no longer safe for plains animals. They then
move away to areas where the grass is shorter.
Within the open grassland, particularly in valley
bottoms, there are some areas that are permanently waterlogged
or swampy. Here the Cyperaceae are common. There are also
many other hydroseral plants present which have been
collected but not yet identified, including the Dissotis
mentioned earlier.
A very striking feature of the grasslands is the
phenology of the different species within them. Each plant

69
has its own time of flushing, shooting, flowering, fruiting,
seeding and dying off. Thus the presence of geophytes,
such e.s ground orchids, may.never Dé suspected until they
appear above the surface. Even then, it may be impossible
to_identify them until they flower and fruit.
. Finally, only prolonged studies can really give
a valid picture of habitat conditions because some seasons
are wetter or dryer than others and it is seldom that two
consecutive years are the same.
Roadside vegetation This can be a distinct type
with quite a large variety
of plants in it, such as annual and stoloniferous grasses,
tall Hyparrhenia and a number of weeds. However, some
attractive plants also grow there such as a slenderj upright,
dark blue Polygala and a yellow, shrubby Bidens. Both of
these are common along the roadside near Giriama Point.
DESTRUCTION OF THE FORESTS
The main factors concerned with the destruction
of the forests in the Shimba Hills are:-
1. Timber cutters .
2. Bush fires
3. Elephant damage
4. Wood boring insects
5. Fungal disease

70
It is surprising that timber merchants should still
be allowed to fell big trees in the small remaining patches
of forest in the Shimba Hills.
Our studies revealed that it is not so much the
removal of the timber tree that causes the damage, but
all that goes with it. This involves hacking out roads
through the forest and clearing the vegetation for some
distance around the tree to be cut.
Chlorophora appears to be the tree most exploited
but I never saw a young Chloropora or even a seedling of this
plant in the Longo Magandi forest or anywhere else. However,
I am told that there are some places where young Chlorophora
are developing in the forests in the Shimba Hills.
„It would seem that if ^the existing patches of
forest were left alone, they might hold their own against
burning and other types of destruction - but when roads are
cut into them and patches are cleared by woodcutters, fire
can penetrate. Then it is only a matter of time before
these forests are replaced by scrub savannah and grassland,
\irtiich is unlikely ever to revert to this type of forest
again - unless it is protected for an indefinite period.
Even then, the same species may not return.
The ravages of timber cutters were all too evident
in the Kivumoni, fciakadara and Mkongani forests.
Elephants are obviously doing damage to the big
trees in the forest, by stripping their bark. This not

71
only causes direct injury to the trees but exposes them
to wood-boring insects and infection by fungal disease.
Nevertheless, it was observed that many of the
largest- trees which shewed"no signs of elephant injury,
had been attacked by wood borers and fungi.' So much so,
that it is dangerous to camp in the forest except well away
from big trees because the sound of their falling is a
daily occurence. Sometimes they drop down-with such force
that the ground trembles even when the tree concerned is
hundreds of yards away.
Elephants do not appear to be doing too much damage
to the understorey vegetation but it is the apparent absence
of recruitment of the large emergent tree species such as
Chlorophora and Bombax which is the disturbing thing about
these forests. Moomaw (i960) noted this fact.
AN I. M A L S
Risley (1966b) gives a very good general description
of the wildlife in thé Shimba Hills and readers should refer
to him. For a general idea of the distribution of the
large mammals in Kenya, reference should be made to Stewart
and Stewart (I963K
From the day-to-day observations made by us of
tracks on the roads, animals.actually seen and from the
records available, the following species actually exist or

72
may be presumed to occur in the area surveyed:-
MAMMALS
INSECTIVORA
No observations were made on small mammals such
as hedgehogs, shrews and bats though some or all of them
must exist in this area. Nor do there seem to be any
records about them from this part of Kenya*
Risley (1966b) mentions the presence of the elephant
shrew Rhvnchocyon petersi Bocage (Rhinonax petersi petersi
(Bocage)) in the Shimba Hills. Allen (1939) records this
species from Tanganyika Territory but indicates that
Rhvnonax chrysopygus (Günther) occurs oh "River Mombasa"
and says its range is the "East coast of Kenya Colony".
LORISIDAE
PRIMATES
Galago crassicaudatus lasiotis (Peters) - Bush
babies * occur at Mombasa (Allen 1939) and inhabit the
forests. They make a lot of noise at night and can be
heard jumping about among the branches of the trees.

CERCOPITHECIDAE
73
Colobus polvkomos palliatus Peters - Colobus monkeys -
occur in the coastal ranges of northern Tanzania and southern
Kenya (Allen 1939) and are common in the forests, particularly
along the rivers. They are black and white in colour but
are different from those up-country in that they have short
hair.
A young colobus monkey was found half eaten in the
Makadara forest. It was thought that it had been caught
by a leopard.
Cercopithecus mitis kibonotensis Lonnberg - Sykes
monkeys - have been recorded from Mazeras (Allen 1939).
They are frequent in the Longo Magandi forest.
Papio cynocephalus cynocephalus (Linnaeus) - Yellow
baboons - were often seen in troops on the forest edge and
out in the open grassland.
LEPORIDAE
LAGOMORPHA
. Lepus capensis crawshayi de Winton - Hares - are
found in the plains and savannah country and have been
recorded east of the Athi river (Allen 1939). They were

74
seen occasionally in the car lights at night.
HYSTRICIDAE
RODENTIA
The tracks of porcupines , their quills and
droppings were seen several times during the survey but
as they are nocturnal, the actual animals were not
observed. They are probably Hystrix galéata ambxgua
Lonnberg (Astley Maberly 1966).
SCIURIDAE
Two kinds of squirrei were seen but it is
likely that three or more are present.
a) Euxerus eurythropus fulvior (Thomas) - Ground
squirrels - sometimes scuttle across the road in front of
the Land Rover.
b) Protoxerus strangei bea Heller (Astley Maberly
I960) - Giant squirrels. Large, reddish-brown squirrels were
seen occasionally in the Longo Magandi forest.
Two other tree squirrels recorded from the
Mombasa area are:- Heliosciurus undulatus daucinus Thomas
arid Paraxerus flavivittis ibeanùs Hinton (Allen 1939) but
they were not seen by us in the Shimba forest although it
is likely that they were there.

MURIDAE
75
Rats and mice are numerous in the Shimba Hills
but as no collections were made by us, it is not possible
to name the species present. However, one large, dark
grey mouse was very troublesome in the camp. It scuttled
over the tents all night, gnawed through the tent ropes,
chewed holes in the Rangers 1 clothing, fouled the tables
with excreta and bits of fungi it had been eating, ate
away the rubber around the base of the gear levers in the
Land Rovers and made nests under the seats.
Many of these mice were caught in traps but it
made no difference to their numbers.
From the literature available, it would seem that
collections of small mammals have never been made in the
Shimba Hills.
Cricetomys gambianus kenyensis Osgood. A halfeaten,
freshly-killed carcase of a giant rat was found in
a patch of forest in the Marere area. It still had
numbers of live orange-yellow, earwig-like, ecto-parasites,
Hemimerus sp., in its fur. It had probably been caught
by a crowned hawk eagle.
Taterillus sp. A gerbil was found drowned in
water which had accumulated in the bottom of a soil pit
in open grassland. Allen (1939) records Tatera nigricauda
nigricauda (Peters) from Ndi in the Taita area and
Taterillus osgoodi Wroughton from Voi, but there do not seem

76
to be any records of gerbils from the Mombasa or Kwale
areas.
CANIDAE
CARNIVORA
Canis mesomelas elgonae Heller - Black.-backed
or silver-backed jackals - Tracks were observed on the
roads every day but the animals themselves were not seen.
MUSTELIDAE
Mellivora capensis sagulata Hollister - Honey
badgers - Tracks were observed on the roads almost
every day but they are nocturnal animals and were not seen
in the daytime.
VIVERRIDAE
Genetta genetta neumannii Matschie - Genet cats -
were seen occasionally in the daytime but they are nocturnal
and tracks were observed quite frequently on the roads in
the mornings.
Herpestes sanguineus ibea (Wroughton) (Astley
Maberly 1966) - Black-tipped mongooses •» and Helogale
undulata rufula Thomas - dwarf mongooses - were recorded
by our daily patrols.

HYAENIDAE
77
Crocuta crocuta germinans (Matschie) - Spotted
hyaenas - are quite common in the Shimba Hills though
they are not abundant. Their tracks were seen on the
roads every morning and their cries were heard at night.
Their tracks revealed that they went about singly or in
groups of two or three. One very large animal appeared
in the headlights of the Land Rover one night on the road
between Longo Magandi and Shimba Settlement.
FELIDAE
Felis lvbica taitae Heller (Astley Maberly 1966) -
Wild cats - Tracks of wild cats were recorded frequently
on the roads.
Panthera leo massaica (Naumann) - Lions -
are not numerous now in the Shimba Hills. The tracks of
one pride of three and sometimes four were seen daily on
the roads and occasionally just outside the camp. One was
a large male. The tracks of a big male lion were also
observed on the road between Longo Magandi and Shimba
Settlement but it may have been the same one as mentioned
above. Lions were heard roaring on many nights, sometimes
very close by. Three female lions were seen by a visitor
from Kwale one Sunday afternoon in March to the north of •
Longo Magandi between the road and the water-hole near the
airstrip. Two of them followed his car for some distance.
One day, a large male lion was observed stalking a herd of
sable antelope in the Marere area but it was intercepted

y the Rangers.
78
These lions do not seem to stay for long in one
place but they did remain within the area of the Forest
Reserve while we were there. We estimated that the total
lion population covering the Giriamà Point, Longo Magandi,
Forest Department experimental plots, Marere, Makadara
and Pengo Hill sectors was four.
Panthera pardus pardus (Linnaeus) -. Leopards -
are common in the Shimba Hills. Their tracks were seen
frequently on the roads, sometimes revealing the presence of two
adult animals. Occasionally a single leopard appeared
during the daytime. We saw one big. specimen standing in
the road between the turn-off to the main Tanga road and
Longo Magandi. No leopard kills were found except the
half-eaten young colobus monkey but as there are plenty of
baboons, monkeys and small antelopes, there can be no
shortage of food for leopards in the Shimba Hills.
ORYCTEROPIDAE
TUBULIDENTATA
Orycteropus afer lademanni Grote - Antbears or
Aardvarks - were not seen, nor were their holes common in
the Shimba Hills but it is assumed that they exist there.

ELEPHANTIDAE
79
PROBOSCIDEA
Loxodonta africana (Blumenbach) - Elephants -
are numerous in the Shimba Hills and sometimes more than
60 were seen in the evening around Longo Magandi but there
was abundant evidence of their presence everywhere in the
area surveyed.
Risley and others hâve stated that the elephants
used to move southwards seasonally from the Shimba plateau
but now they appear to be resident there. This is
understandable because the base of the plateau is surrounded
by cultivation and settlement and there is no longer a
safe migration route to the south for them to take.
In spite of the fact that a number of elephants
were shot as a control measure when the Shimba Hills
Settlement was first established, the ones on top of the
plateau at present are remarkably indifferent to the presence
of man. They never attempted to molest any of us in the
Longo Magandi forest though they did walk through the camp
occasionally. It was observed, however, that they were
afraid of motor vehicles and disappeared into the forest
as soon as they saw one.
Although they seem to be permanently resident
on the plateau, they move about within the area of the
forest reserves. They disappeared for several days at a
time from Longo Magandi while we were there.

80
The actual elephant population of the Shimba
Hills is not known as it is impossible to count them in
the forest from the air. However, from the evidence
available there might be up to 200 in the area.
In the vicinity of Longo Magandi, elephants
were seen in family groups ranging from two to 13
individuals. They usually kept inside the forest in
the daytime and sallied out into, the open at dusk.
Occasionally, one or two appeared outside the forest
during the day but these were usually bulls.
On the evening of 23rd February, ten family
groups were counted emerging from Longo Magandi forest
(See Table 12 below):-
- .
TA RL E 12
ELEPHANTS
Group Adult Adult Young with Very Total
No. male female 6» tusks young
1
6
2
5 13
2 7 2 9
3 5 5
4 4 1 5
5 5 3 8
6 2 2
7 1 1 2
8 7 7
9 2 2 . 4
10 2 • - 2
TOTAL 2 39 5 11 57
PERCENT 3.5 68>5 8.8 19.2 • 100$
• . "

81
One evening, two bull elephants fought each
other on the road just to the south of Longo Magandi
forest and churned up the soil surface with their feet
by pushing each other about. A few days later, a bull
elephant which emerged from the forest in the evening,
had a large swelling on its rump. It was seen on
successive days accompanying a herd of about 13»
PROCAVIIDAE
HYRACOIDEA
Dendrohyrax arboreus bettoni (Thomas and Schwann) -
Tree hyraxes - were heard in the forest but not seen. The
above species was probably the one concerned (Astley Maberly
I960) but it might well have been Dendrohyrax validus
neumanni (Matschie) which has been recorded on the north
coast of Tanzania and on the island of Pemba (Allen 1939)•
SUIDAE
UNGULATES
ARTIODACTYLA
Potamochoerus poreus keniae Lonnberg - Bushpig
are said to be numerous in the forests of the Shimba Hills
but day-to-day records of tracks did not reveal that they
ventured out of the forests onto the roads, even at night,

82
although they are nocturnal.
Actually, only five bushpig were seen altogether
and those were in the Marere a^ea. They consisted of a
group of one,male, two females and a. young.one - and ,one
female on another occasion.
Phacochoerus aethiopicus aeliani,(Cretzschmar) -
Warthog - are also said to be numerous•in the Shimba Hills
and being plains or savannah animals which are diurnal in
habit, they should have been seen frequently but only lone
animals were observed on three occasions - once in the
Marere area and twice near Longo Magandi. Tracks of
single warthog were recorded on the roads in the Marere
area four times......
BOVIDÀE
Svncerus cafer. . cafër. (Sparrman)

83
they are difficult to locate at first.
With the amount of vegetative cover available,
it would be difficult to make an accurate assessment of
the buffalo population except over a long period of time
with a larger staff than we had.
Tragelpahus scriptus olivaceus Heller - Bushbuck -
are quite common in the Shimba Hills. Allen (1939) records
them from Maji-ya Chumvi. Single animals were seen on the
edge of the forest or thicket dashing for cover. Sometimes
two appeared together.
Sylvicapra grimmia deserti Heller - Grey duikers -
were seen singly on several of the daily patrols. One
lived on the edge of Longo Magandi forest near the airstrip,
another had its abode near Giriama Point and a third resided
on the edge of the bush in the Marere area. According to
Lydekker (1926), this animal inhabits the coast region
from the Tana river southwards to Tanzania.
Cephalophus caerulus musculoides Heller - Blue
duikers - may occur in the forests of the Shimba Hills
because they have been recorded from the Kakamega forest.
C.caerulus pembae Kershaw is found on the island of Pemba
which is not very far from the Mombasa coast and C.caerulus
sundevalli Fitzinger occurs on Zanzibar (Allen 1939).
Nesotragus moschatus deserticola Heller - Sunis
were reported four times by the daily patrols. They were
usually seen singly but once a pair was observed. All were

84
in the Makadara forest area to the south-west of Longo
Magandi. Allen (1939) recorded suni - or pygmy antelope -
from Maji-ya-Chumvi. Lydekker (1926) described its
distribution as extending from the. Tana river southwards
into Tanganyika.,
Rhynchotragus kirkii nyikae Heller - Dikdik -
Daily patrols recorded seeing a single animal on one occasion
on the road to the north-west of Longo Magandi. The Rangers
may have mistaken a suni for a dikdik but it is also possible
that one might have strayed up from the drier savannah
country around Kinango to the west at the base of the
escarpment only a few miles away. Lydekker (1926) indicated
that this species inhabits the country to the west of the
Tana river and its range extends southwards into. Tanganyika.
Kobus ellipsiprymnus kuru Heller - Ringed waterbuck
- are said to be fairly common in the Shimba Hills but were
seen only twice during the four months of'this survey. Once
a pair was observed a short distance to the north-west of
Longo Magandi and the second time a single animal appeared
just to the south-west of Longo Magandi forest. According
to Lydekker (1926), Heller reported that this species extends
along the coast from the Tana river southwards into
Tanganyika.
Redunca redunca tohi Heller - Bohor feedbuck -
were observed frequently by the patrols, either singly or
in pairs. They were usually lying in the grass near the
forest edge and jumped up and ran away when disturbed.
According to Lydekker (1926), this animal occurs in the coast

85
country between the Tàna and Sabaki rivers and southwards
into Tanganyika.'
Hippotragus higer roosvelti (Heller) - Sable
antelope - (Swahili name: Shambe. 'Msambweni* means
'the place of the sable antelope'). Sable antelope still
exist in the Shimba Hills but they are not now as numerous
as they were. According to lé Roux (verbal communication),
265 were counted in the Shimba Hills area in i960. Risley
(1966b) states that in 1963, when he was District Commissioner
at Kwale, ' 186 sable antelope were counted in one day. He
also says that originally sablé antelope occurred all the
way from Port Reitz creek along the coast southwards into
Tanganyika Territory but by far the largest number of them
used to live in that part of the Shimba region which has been
taken over for the agricultural settlement scheme,because the
best grazing was there. Now all the sable antelope have
gone from there and from the coast hinterland where they
were plentiful 20 years ago.
It has been said that sable antelope used to
migrate between the top of the Shimba Hills and the Lunga
Lunga - Mrima - Jombo areas, 15-20 miles to the south,and
back again - but it is unlikely that they do so now.
On 8th April 1968, I made enquiries from the local
people on the western foot of Jómbó mountain about the
presence of sable antelope iri the vicinity and was told there
were none but' that there were some buffalo about. This
information may not have been reliable.

86
The same'day'we* drove through the country between
Jombo and Mrima and saw some sparsely scattered cultivation.
I gained the impression that because of the presence of
human habitation- in that region, any sable antelope that
might be there would be leading a precarious existence.
On 11th April 1968, the Provincial Game Warden
from Mombasa, Mr Ken Smith, came to see us. Sergeant
Mwanzia of the Game Department, who knows the coast south
of Mombasa very well, was with him.
Sergeant Mwanzia said that in February 1967* 21
sable antelope had been seen to the north-east of Mrima
hill and in February 1968, 11 others were seen to the southwest
of Mrima. Also, Corporal Barisa, of the Shimba Hills
Game Department post at Makobe, had seen 13 sable antelope
between Jombo mountain and the Ramisi river early this year.
Later the same day, Major Sheldrick and I fiew
over the country between Longo Magandi, Jombo and Mrima
hills, as well as the areas mentioned by Sergeant Mwanzia -
but we did not see anything except one reedbuck, some herds
of cattle and occasional patches of cultivation.
Nevertheless, this piece of country is so big that much more
thorough searches are required than the one we made, to
establish what the present situation is regarding sable
antelope in the region to the south of the Shimba Hills.
The sable antelope in the Giriama Point, Longo
Magandi and Marere areas, allowed people or a vehicle to
approach to within less than 50 yards of them but the herds

87
in the Shimba Forest and Risleyi-S" Ridge sectors were
wilder, and more difficult to study.
The observers were instructed to obtain detailed
information regarding herd movements, numbers, sex, age
groups and general behaviour of the sable antelope. The
National Parks' rangers had a pair of binoculars.
Records.of the.herds in the different sectors
were kept in notebooks.which were brought to me twice daily
to check after each patrol.
In addition, periodical counts were made from the
air to check the information obtained on the ground.
• ^
.It was discovered that there were distinct herds
of sable antelope in the areas mentioned above.. .There
were four black bulls which appeared to ;be territorial.
Their ranges were as follows:- ,;
1. The open country to the immediate north, south
and east of Longo Magandi, including the
airstrip, and extending to the ridge running
southwards from Giriama Point.
2. The area to the east and north of Longo Magandi -
known as the Shimba Forest - including part of
the Forest Department experimental plots, and
.. . having a steep escarpment on the eastern side.
3. The open country to the west of Longo Magandi
known as the Marere area.

88 -
4. The strip of open grassland three or four
miles to the south-east of Longo Magandi
known as Risley's Ridge.
It sometimes.' happened that. one r .h\erd. would move
out of its own territorial range into that of another, and
the two herds might then join together for a few days.
When this happened, the black bull usually stayed behind
within his own territory.
Herd Structure
The size of the resident herds in the Shimba Forest,
Marere and Risley's Ridge ranges remained constant but the
herd in the Giriama Point-Longo Magandi area varied in
' • • • • • i -• ' • ' ' • ' '
number from 36 to 16. It really consisted of two herds of
20 and 8, as well as two small groups of two and three and
one black bull. The big herd would split up for some days
after being chased by lions and then come together again.
A count was made from the ground on 15tH-March 1Ç68
(See Table 13).

89
TABLE 13
SABLE ANTELOPE HERD STRUCTURE
RANGE ADULTS
M F
- B R
15th March 1968
YEARLINGS
M F
VERY
M
YOUNG
F
TOTAL
Longo Magandi 1 2 11 3 6 1 24
Shimba Forest 1 3 2 3 1 10
Marere area 1 2 6 3 1 13
Ri siey's Ridge 1 3 1 2 .
7
.- . . 4 7
: TOTAL 11 22 4 14 3 54
PER CENT 20.4 40.7 7.4 25.9 5.5 99.9$
M = Male
F = Female
B = Black
R = Red
Yearlings = Young animals from three months to
one year old.
Very Young = Calves less than three months old.

90
On 24th March 1968, a count of the sable antelope
was made from the air (See Table I4):-
LONGO MAGANDI -
GIRIAMA POINT
SHIMBA FOREST
MARERE HILL
RISLEY« S RIDGE
MKONGANI WEST
TABLE 14
AERIAL COUNTS
24th March i968
TOTAL
just N E of the
airstrip 1 black bull 1
,
*
1 black bull ;
1 young calf 1 » ' "•' 33
31 others
1 yoüng ; calf '
7 others
1 black bull ;
1 young calf ' '
3 others
8
1 black bull ;
1 young calf ' 1 8
6 others
on the forest
edge 0 1 black bull 1
N.B: * This calf had been born within the past week
Çf This black bull had one horn. It was on the
edge of the forest near the Shimba Settlement
5

91
Comparison of, these figures with those of 15th
March shews that they are identical except for the young
calf which was born between 15th March and 24th March. It
was a male. The black bull with one horn had not been seen
before.
The birth of four calves was recorded between 15th
February and 15th March. Two appeared within a week of
each other on the airstrip and three of them were females.
Our daily observations revealed that more than
40 per cent of the adult females were pregnant, so that at
least eight calves should have been produced within the next
three months - making a 15 per cent rise in the population.
Unfortunately, after the end of March when the grass had
grown long, it became difficult to locate the hercls on the
ground every day so that it was no longer possible to keep
consistent records. The reason for this was discovered by
a flight over the area which revealed that the sable antelope
had moved to the more remote parts of the hills where shorter
grass existed.
Table 13 shews that the preponderance of females
over males in the sable antelope population is significant -
72 per cent females compared with 28 per cent males. It
was thought at first that the reason for this phenomenon was
that surplus young males would be in constant conflict with
the older bulls and would tend to wander away from the herds
and, as a result, they would be more vulnerable to predators
and poachers. However, the figures in Table 13 shew that
the sex ratio in the newly-born calves is about 25 per cent

92
males and 75 per cent females and is consistent with that of
the whole population. -They also indicate a strong biological
response for survival. Unfortunately, this information is
based only on the four calves which were produced- while we
were there. More prolonged records are necessary to prove
this point conclusively.
Distribution of sable antelope in the Malindi area
Mr Ken Smith said that he, with Mr Gordon #arvey,
saw 23 sable antelope near Vitengeni to the;northrwest of
Kilifi in 1952 and in 1956 he saw the tracks of a herd of
about 20 in the same vicinity. He said also that Mr McCabe,
the Game. Warden at Màlindi, had seen tracks there in 1967,
so that it might be worthwhile'investigating the situation
around.Mwangea hill beyond the Arabukó forest to the west -•
of Malindi, as Sergeant Mwanzia had seen five sable antelope
there in I965. ,
On Saturday, 20th April 1968, Mr Ian.Parker told
me he had seen a couple of herds of about 30 : sable antelope.in
the country behind Malindi.
On Sunday, 21st April 1968,-Major Sheldrick and I
flew over the Vitengeni and Mwangea areas and saw nine sable
antelope to the west of the Arabukb forest near Mwangea.
They were in two groups - one of seven individuals consisting
of two dark brown adults, two young calves and three halfgrown
animal s> The second group was two black bulls.
It is possible that there may be more sable

93
' antelope in the Malindi area than 'there 'are in the Shimba
Hills -but their chances of survival are- s&àll. We saw
numerous game fences, groups of huts, 'patches of' cultivation
and much charcoal burning going on there.
Poaching must be rife in this area and there can
be little hope for the sable antelope - especially if dogs
are used for hunting - as they are-móre;likeïy to stand, at
bay than run away from dogs.
Notes on sable antelope behaviour
• 1. The territorial behaviour of black bulls has. been
mentioned and the fact that they tend to remain
inside their own rangelands when the rest of the herd moves
out temporarily. It has been suggested that the reason for
this behaviour might be that because the black bulls are old,
they may not be as strong as some of the younger males who
drive them out of the herd. This could be so - but why do
the black bulls rejoin the herd when it returns to their
territorial* range? ' '
2. An interesting point already noted is that the
territorial black bulls become timid, and
unapproachable when the herd has gone away, yet when it
rejoins them they are as tame as the other animals.
3- It was observed by the National: Parks' Rangers
that very young calves in the Giriama Point - Longo Magandi
herd stayed near the black bull, who tried to keep them in
front of him when the herd was disturbed. This behaviour

was confirmed by me.
94
4. Two dark brown sable antelope bulls were first
seen by themselves in an open grassy glade about
half a mile to the south-east' of Longo Magandi. Sometimes
they moved around with the big herd and were seen near the
airstrip but they always kept slightly apart from the rest
and frequently returned : to the place where they were first
seen.
5. Lions harrassed the large herd of sablé antelope
very'much, often breaking them up into a number
of splinter groups and dispersing them widely - but they
always re-gathered again after a feiv days and no kills were
ever seen.
6. Both male and female sable antelope had a tendency
to take cover in a patch of thicket when disturbed.
The reasons for this behaviour in plains animals are not
understood, because by doing so they make themselves more
vulnerable to predators and to packs of poachers' dogs than
if they kept in the open.
7. The relationships between individual animals in a
herd seemed to be peaceful and little sparring or
aggressive action towards each other was observed among the
males in the herds we studied.
8. Early on bright, sunny mornings, the members of
the Longo Magandi - Giriama Point herd liked to
frolic around and chase each other about, particularly the

95
young calves and adolescent animals.
9. The herd on Risley J s Ridge stayed by itself in the
same sector all the time and never mingled with
any of the other groups, but this may have been because it
was isolated from the others by patches of dense forest and
several deep valleys. This herd was much wilder than.the
others, probably because.it lived closest to the Shimba
Settlement.
10. Sable antelope do not like long grass and were
never seen on old, rank, unburnt grass even if it
was not very tall.
The food of sable antelope
To gain some idea of the feeding habits of sable
antelope, the Rangers were instructed to approach the herds
as closely as,possible without disturbing them and to collect
any plants they actually saw them eating.
From the information thus obtained, it appeared
that sable antelope are mainly grazers but they do browse
as well..
On three occasions a.female sable antelope was seen
chewing a bone and when she was approached, she ran away with
it in her mouth. The bones were collected. They consisted
of a disc from an elephant's spinal column, a scapula and a
pelvis - .both probably from a sable, antelope.

96
We have seen in a previous chapter that the soils
on the Shimba Hills are deficient in lime, phosphate, etc.
so that the sable'antelope themselves must be short of
these minerals.
The plants observed to be eaten by sable antelope
are listed in Table 15-
TAB L E 15
NAME PLACE: NO.OF FEEDS
GRAMINEAE
" *" "I iiimil • • •• * » •
Andropogon dummeri Stapf
Brachiaria brizantha (A.Rich.)Stapf
Ctenium somalense (Chiov.) Chiov.
Cymbopogon excavàtus (Höchst.)Stapf
Digitaria milan.jiana (Rèndle)Stapf
Diheteropogon amplectens (Nées)
Clayton var. amplectens
Eragrostis racemosa (Thunb.) Steud.
Hyparrhenia filipendula (Höchst.)
Stapf var. filipendula
Hyperthelia dissoluta (Steud.)
Clayton
Panicum infestum Anderss.
Panicum maximum Jacq.
Giriama Point 1)
Longo Magandi 2)
Longo Magandi
Marere Hill
Marere Hill
Giriama Point
Longo Magandi 1)
Marere Hill 2)
Marere Hill
Giriama Point
Risley's Ride 1)
Marere Hill 1)
Longo Magandi l)
Giriama Point
Risley's Ridge 2)
Marere Hill 1)
1
1
2
3
3
1
1
3

97
Panicum trichocladum K.Schuin«
Setaria trinervia Stapf & C.D.Hubb.
Soorobolus pyramidalis Beauv.
BROWSE PLANTS
Albizia adianthifolia (Schumach.)
W.F.Wight
Albizia? gummifera (J.F.Gmel.)
CA. Smith
Securidaca longipedunculata Fresen
Ximenia africana L.
Elephant spinal disc
? Sable antelope pelvis
? Sable antelope scapula
BONES
Total number of observations = 34
Marere Hill 1)
Longo Magandi 1)
Longo Magandi 2)
Risley's Ridge 1)
Risley*s Ridge
TOTAL
Giriama Point
Longo Magandi
Longo Magandi
Longo Magandi
TOTAL
Longo Magandi
Longo Magandi
Longo Magandi
TOTAL

98
PRE DA T 1 i> N
Although the three large predators - lion, leopard
and hyaena - are present in the Shimba Hills, ho sable
antelope kills were observed in the four months of this
survey.
The bones of a fairly recently killed buffalo
were seen once from"the air and the half-eaten remains of
a young colobus monkey were found in the Makadara forest.
Strangely, there are no vultures in the Shimba
Hills so it was not possible to locate kills by watching
these birds.
Nevertheless, although' the lions chased buffalo
and sable antelope almost nightly, the evidence of actual
kills was so meagre that it is puzzling to know what their
staple diet is - because four full-grown lions would need to
kill at least once every three or four days.
It was suggested that the lions might be living on
bushpig, as one of the National Parks' Rangers found some
lion faeces with bushpig hair in it but our daily observations
did not indicate that the bushpig population is very big.
Another puzzle is - what do the hyaenas live on?
Particularly as there are no villages nearby for them to
scavenge around. ,

99
Regarding leopard, the situation is different and
we noted earlier that there appears to be an abundance of
available food for them.
Jackals are present but they can subsist on birds,
small mammals and insects; so can wild cats and the
Viverridae.
Risley (1966b) said that the crovraed hawk eagle
preys on monkeys and suni. We found a half-eaten giant
rat which must have been caught by one of these birds
because a giant rat is a fairly large animal weighing
several pounds. The rat we found had lost its head, neck
and shoulders but its skin was intact.
POACHING
There is settlement all around the base of the
Shimba Hills but it is densest to the west and south and
Game Department scouts are kept busy controlling elephant
and buffalo that wander onto the farms there.
That poaching is rife, there is no doubt -
because raids made into the villages at the foot of the
escarpment by Game and Forest Department scouts during March
1968 revealed large quantities of bows, arrows, snares and
other poaching equipment.
The presence of Forest Guards on the top of the
Shimba Hills is a strong deterrent to poaching up there

100
but down below on the edge of the .settlement, it is almost
impossible to control. ..
Risley (1966b) states that the villagers at the
base of the hills deliberately burn the grass to attract
buffalo, sable and other grazing animals.. He says:
"There are some : pretty.whole-hearted poaching
villages - villagers who build miles of fencing
laced with pit-traps and who also hunt in large
groups with dogs. These people have in the past
taken a very heavy toll of the sable and other
animals and probably still do today."
I think that poaching, as: a result of increasing
population pressure, is the greatest hazard facing the sable
antelope today and unless drastic steps are taken quickly
to protect them, the last few herds of these animals will
disappear from the whole of Kenya within a very short time
from now.
BIRDS .-•..,,
Birds in the Shimba Hills are a complete study in
themselves far outside our resources. - Nevertheless, brief
mention must be made of them;
One of the most striking things in the Shimba Hills
is the absence of vultures. However, Risley (1966b) notes
the presence of the palm-nut vulture Gypohierax angolesis

101
(Gmelin) which used to roost in the palm trees in his
garden at night. It is a white bird with a black band on
its tail.
Mackworth-Praed and Grant (1957) say that this
bird is associated with the presence of the oil palm
Elaeis guineensis Jacq. It eats the skin of the fruits of
the oil palm and the pericarp of the Raphia palm but it also
feeds on carrion, fish, moluscs and insects.
Stephanoaetus coronatus (Linnaeus) - Crowned hawk
eagles - occur in the Shimba Hills. They have been
mentioned earlier but are not really very common.
Bucanistes brevis Friedmann - Silvery-cheeked
hornbills - are frequently seen flying in small flocks from
one patch of forest to another. They roost in the trees at
night and make a loud, squawking noise at dawn.
Tauraco fischeri (Reichenow) - Fisher's turacos -
are mentioned by Risley (1966b). They are very beautiful
and mainly bright green in colour but they have a red patch
on the neck and crimson flight feathers. Their call can
be heard in the forest.
Merops nubieus Gmelin - Carmine bee-eaters -
charmed Risley very much. They are migrant but were present
in fair numbers up to April this year. They were seen most
frequently on the Shimba Settlement road near to the turnoff
to the main Tanga road.

102
Pternistes_cranchii- (Leach) - Red-necked spurfowl
were the commonest and most obvious of the three species of
francolin observed« It was from the Swahili name for this
bird that the town of Kwale got its name. They can be seen
every day on the roads in the early.morning or late afternoon.
They are particularly numerous on the roads after a shower of
rain. ,
Guttera pucherani Hartlaub. - Crested guinea
fowl - inhabit the forests. We saw a flock of 26-30 on a
woodcutters track in the Kivumoni forest. They were tame
and ran for some distance close in front of the Land Rover
which was going very slowly.
REPTILES
Several different types of snakes were seen both
inside and outside the forest but there must be many more.
Those observed inside the forest consisted of a
small black snake, about nine inches long, which was usually
found hiding under leaf litter.
Green tree snakes are common. One evening, a
green snake, about three feet long, fell out of a tree in
the camp. It had narrow, black, transverse stripes and a
bright red head. The upper part of its body from beneath
its head for some distance downwards was widely inflated
longitudinally - which indicated that it might be a bird
snake. Thelotornis (Pitman 1938).

lQk3
One day, one of ~bke Labourers - who had been
digging a soil pit outside in the grassland - reported that
he had found a snake, with two heads. It turned out to be
a greyish-black' snake, about one foot long and half ah inch
in diameter. At first it was impossible to distinguish
the snake's head from its tail, as its body was the same
thickness at both ends. It looked like a large Typhlops.
pr blind worm, and.the men were told to let it go as it
was harmless.
A few days later, in the Vernonia scrub to the
west of Longo Magandi, there were two small Rana-type frogs
in the bottom of a soil pit ten feet deep which had about
two inches of water in it. They were apparently healthy
and were sitting on the edge of the water. The next day,
there was a snake.in the bottom of the pit similar to the
one described above. One of the frogs was lying dead on
the edge of the water where it had been seen the day before
and the other had disappeared. When we first saw it, the
7 snake was trying to climb'the wall of the pit. Our attention
was temporarily d'iverted elsewhere.and when we returned to
the pit a few minutes ïàter, it had gone - but there was a
small round hole in tee 1 " soft soil just at the top of the
pit. The specimens ä^escribed above may have been the
burrowing snake, Chilorhinophis (Pitman 1938).
ƒ"'•*.
'-.. • Pythons were frequently seen on the daily patrols
r, and one night a very big cobra crossed the road in front of
the Land Rover near the turn-off to thé main Tanga road.
One Sunday morhingy a small puffadder lay coiled

104
up in the sand at the side of:the road opposite the airstrip.
My son John - not seeing it - stepped within half an inch of
it but it did not move.
Two slender, long-tailed lizards used to sun
themselves daily on the path in front óf the camp. Small
tree lizards and geckos are common in thé forest.
Varanus, or, monitor lizards were not seen but .
they must exist in the Shxmba Hills, particularly along the
streams.
Chameleons are common in thej forest.
Tortoises were sometimes .observed on the daily
patrols. .,-•-•.• : ' .'• ;
AMPHIBIA
Frogs inhabited the streams and pools; toads were
quite common in the grassland and tree frogs were abundant
in the forest.
'FISH ES • • -•
The types of fish present in the streams and
pools were not studied.

105
INSECTS
There is a wealth of insect life in the Shimba
Hills, especially inside the forest.
Interesting butterflies and moths were seen and
I was told by Mr Carcasson, Curator of the National Museum
in Nairobi, that the insect fauna of the Shimba Hills has
close affinities with that of the Usambara mountains in
Tanzania but it is not as rich in species.
A great variety of insects came to the light at
night from dusk onwards. So much so, that inside the forest
it was impossible to read or write at night because of
insects getting into one's eyes, hair and down one's neck -
so that life after dark outside a net was a misery.
Several species of flying termites came in swarms
at the beginning of the rains.
Large cicadas were quite frequent and dashed
themselves against the light at night.
Many kinds of beetles, bugs, moths, etc. were
attracted by the light but the most numerous of all were
cock-chafers, or lamellicorn beetles. Large mantids
sometimes came to the light, presumably to prey on other
insects. Big oval, wingless cockroaches were common in
the leaf litter in the forest.
Tenebrionid bettles were seen in the forest and

io6 :-
large carabid beetles were observed ; outside, in the ópen
grassland;- . • . - ' • .
:Wood-boring beetles of the 'families Bostrichidae .
C e.vmaby c id à e and Buprestidae were sometimes seen but from
ithe evidence on the trees, they must be very numerous and
do great damage to the timber, especially after injuries
to the trees from other causes.
TERMITES • ,
There are many species of ants arid termites in
the. ;Shimba-Hills but a special note was made only of a few'
of them. ",•:.'' " !
- • „ , Cubit ermes make small, pagod a-like nests in the
Paramacrolobium and Brachystegia forest patches.
. , Odontotermes build- runways'covered with earth up
the. trunks of trees and attack arty dead wood available.
One species of termite built runways up the legs of our camp
tables and ate the covers of the books; on top of them.
Microcerotermes make nests high up'in the trees.
Macrotermes build very large, dome-shaped mounds
inside the forest and thicket patches. '
ANTS • • • • • • • .
• -•< Paltothyreus tarsatus F. Stink ants are very

107
common on the forest floor. They are large, shiny black
and emit a very unpleasant, pungent odour if trodden on or
disturbed. They are also able to sting like a small wasp.
They prey on a variety of insects and even small earthworms
Lumbricus - but a state of incessant warfare exists between
them and the termites, especially Macrotermes (Glovër 1967)*
Stink ants were numerous on the paths in the camp
in the forest. One afternoon, Macrotermes workers were
seen coming out in lines from three holes along one of the
paths. They were chewing leaf litter along the edges of the
path and then running back into the holes. The lines of
workers were protected at intervals by soldiers with shiny,
honey-coloured heads and big menacing mandibles. There
were two sizes of soldiers and one was much bigger than the
other. The big ones stayed just inside the holes or came
orixy a SuGri/ uisi/Sncc outside them. Tiierc were stinx ants
running about on the path and whenever one came too near to
the termites,.the soldiers lunged forward and snapped their
mandibles, at the same time beating their thoraxes on the
ground. The stink ants seemed to be afraid of the termite
soldiers and jumped back or ran away. They were not observed
to attack the termite soldiers which did not leave the line
of workers and did not follow it up when they made a lunge
at the stink ants.
The next day at 1500 hours the termites were
active again - operating from five holes on the paths.
This time, a few stink ants were seen carrying away
Macrotermes workers. One stink ant pounced on a termite
worker that had strayed away from the others and stung it

108
under the thorax. Another ant Jiad a small soldier in its
jaws. Nevertheless, the stink ants still seemed to be afraid
and jusiped away if they came too close to a termite runway
with soldiers guarding it. Their method of catching thé
termites seemed to be haphazard. They went around searching
aimlessly under bits of leaf litter and other litter with
their antennae. They seemed to be able to detect the
termites only with their antennae and not by sight.
Two other ants which deserve mention are:-
Megaponera foetens Fab., which is similar to Paltothyreus,
only more slender and not so shiny black. It does not
stink as its name suggests. It also stings its prey and
hunts in well 'disciplined 1 troops. It is a much more
redoubtable enemy of the termites than Paltothyreus. A
company of Mageponera foetens was seen occasionally crossing
the road but they do not seem to be very numerous in the
Shimba Hills.
The most formidable of all the ants found in the
Shimba Hills are the Dorilinae 'driver'ants', 'safari ants',
also called 'siafu' in Swahili. These insects infest the
forests and move about from place to. place in long columns,
sometimes digging runways into the soft soil. When they
are hunting, they spread out over the forest floor and attack
every living thing from earthworms to elephants. They are
so numerous that they must play a very important part in the
forest ecology. They are a serious menace when they come
into camp but they can be controlled by spraying with
insecticides. In fact, whole colonies can be exterminated
in this way. They can also be diverted by laying a line of

109
fresh ash around the tents or bandas.
Leaf ants are quite common in the Shimba Hills.
They live in nests made by fastening leaves together with
silk provided by their larvae.
Camponotus - sugar ants - ran about under the camp
tables at night looking for grains of sugar or other morsels
of food.
FLIES
Musca domestica - house flies - were numerous
outside the forest but were not very troublesome in the
camp.
BITING INSECTS
Mosquitoes
. The following three types of mosquito were seen in
the forest: Aedes, Culex and Anopheles. All of them were
common though Culex were not as numerous as might have been
expected.
Stomoxys calcitrans is very active in the early
morning on the forest edge, settling on one's back and
biting through one's stockings.
Tsetse Flies
There are two common species of Glossina in the

Shimba Hills.
no
1. : G.pallidipes Austen - which inhabits the thicket
edge and savannah country.^ It was occasionally caught in
the Land Rover in the day time. ' ; • ,
.2.. G.brevipalpia Newstead ^ :.which is a forest fly.
T^en the camp was first erected in the forest, G.brevipalpis
used to be attracted to us'in the early morning and in the
evening. Sometimes they came to the Land Rover. However,
from April onwards few tsètse'flies were seen - probably
because the average temperature, during the rains was too low
for them to be active.
Horseflies
Cleggs, or horseflies, are very numerous in the
grasslands and open swampy areas in the Shimba Hills. In
fact, after the start of the rains in March they attacked
the Land Rover in swarms. They must cause great irritation
to sable antelope, buffalo and other animals that wander
about in the grasslands. Oldroyd (1952) records Haematopota
maculosi fascies Austen from the Mida area of the coast of
Kenya. " . . . .
A R A C H N I D A
Spiders are numerous in the forest but they were
not studied.

Ill
Ticks of various sizes are numerous in the forest
but the worst of all are the small tick larvae, or 'pepper
ticks', which are brushed off the leaves and branches in
passing. They bore into the skin "and cause very severe
irritation which may last for weeks in susceptible people.
Scorpions must occur in the Shimba Hills but they
may not be very common as none was seen during the survey.
They are numerous in some other parts of the coast.
M Y R I A P O D A
Large, shiny, blackish-brown millipedes up to six
inches long or more, are common in the forest. They exude
a yellowish fluid when disturbed which stains the skin and
can cause irritation.
Big centipedes are common in the leaf litter and
other debris in the forest.
Lumbricus - Earthworms are numerous in the
forest soil and even in the grassland. One specimen was
found in the wall of a soil pit about 18 inches down. Some
of them are more than a foot long. They are attacked by
stink ants and driver ants when they appear above the surface
of the soil.

112
••••••• M-U !f L T-Ï-P L Ë US E 'Ö' F '"' K T'H Ë' L À N D
The reasons, f or; the« delay' which : has followed;
the proposal to make the Shimba Hills a.National Park
are complex. ;•• '^vtt. .;:....• - •-•"' " '-•' " • / : '• " '.'*»••;;-.
:>;_ • Inj Oçtobçr 'IC^oj-Mr.J.MT.rOjali Permanent v
Secretary in . the c Minist ry of 'Natuur.al' Resources,• reviewed
the situation and gave some background information to what
he : called' .*. an- issue 4 somewhat.-.; charged with : emotion ' .
,..->-. .» -At present, ;the 5 äForest' department -ïwho ar'e in -
control ..of it - consider .the area;^has. .greater potential
from the :economie, employment and ;productive aspects if
timber-growing were included as part of the-land use plan 1 .
.-• ,'S^t.\. .Th© principle-.put-J;forw,ard:«by Mr,;0jal'was that
the fullest.j value of -a, forest lies, in multiple iuse of the
land such as is done in the USA where forestJareas»aremanaged
to supply a large part of the nation*s needs for
recreation, water* timber, forage arid wildlife conservation.
•-. The .application..öf: .this'concept-to the -Shimba " -
Hills' would:,- >;. ~- \ • : ,"•; \j,-...-...- ••'".; ^-.:•. >.>)• v •".• ••• ' •
"(a) preserve the sable antelope; . •> •
(b) conserve the unique flora and fauna;
(c,)- serve; the; economic belief its of tourism; and
,- . : (d;);r preserve theewater 1 catchment value of the '
.-,-/.: ,-.> Hills.";: ...,.•••• •'• ' '.-/• --""- •-.••'-

113
Mr Ojal suggested 'bh-at a timber planting programme
of 200 acres a year would provide a million cubic feet of
softwood annually only 20 miles from Mombasa in addition
to intermediate yields 'f rb& "thinnings.
Mr Ojal gave examples from abroad of the
successful combination of forestry, water production, game
management and tourism to support a case for a realistic
and nation-building solution based on hard facts.
Also, at that time a land use survey of Kenya's
coastal area was impending which could answer questions on
the future timber requirements of the coastal people, the
effects of burning on water production, the conversion of
grasslands to forest and the maintenance of the sable
antelope habitat.
Without these answers, Mr Ojal said, we would be
working in the dark and that would not be in the best
interests of the nation.
Since Mr Ojal wrote his article, a soil survey
has been completed of the Shimba Hills Settlement and the
country to the south of it (Makin 1Ç68). The results of
this survey do not conflict with the idea of creating a
National Park in the Shimba Hills - in fact, they support
it.
Makin (1968) even suggested that some of the
marginal areas which are not very good for agriculture
should be included in the Shimba Hills Forest Reserve as

--• 114
»buffer zonesu-^o protect the habitat from future
deterioration as a result of over-population by wild
animals. In addition, these buffer zones might be used
for forest development.- : '-'
The results of the Agricultural Department's
soil survey and our ecological survey of the Shimbä Hills
should have produced enough facts to formulate an unbiased
working plan for the development of the Shimba Hills as
a priceless natural resource* - :
The proposals put forward' below' are not contrary
to the interests of the Forest Department or anyone else
concerned with the future development of the Shimba Hills.

PREAMBLE
115
PROPOSALS FOR THE CREATION OF A NATIONAL
PARK IN THE SHIMBA HILLS
The following extract comes from the Kenya
Government Development Plan 1966/1970:-.
"Shxmba Hills - This range will be declared
a National Park. It has considerable faunal
interest and is the only place in Kenya where
the sable antelope can be seen in any numbers.
It could well become the counterpart of Nairobi
National Park for Mombasa and the Coast".
(Risley 1966a).
This statement by Government is most encouraging.
The Ministers and Government Officers who had the foresight
to recognise the true value of the Shimba Hills, deserve
the highest commendation.
In support of the Government's decision, Risley
(1966a) wrote: "Even if there were not a single four-footed
animal in the Shimba Hills, they would assuredly merit
National Park status in any country of the world because
of their beauty, their scenery and their ornithological
and botanical interest."
The results of the foregoing survey support

116.
absolutely Mr Risleyfs urgent plea for a National Park in
the Shimba Hills. '-.'•.'>•
The fact that Government is ready to make a
National Reserve in the' Shimba Hills immediately is a good
first step towards creating a National Park but nothing short
of a National Park can be the ultimate aim because only •
National Park status can give the Shimba Hills the protection
required to preserve their natural beauty and their importance
as a water catchment for ,the Coast south of Port Reitz* •
The urgency of the problem cannot be too strongly
stressed because we have seen from the results-of this, survey
that the number of sable antelope in the Shimba Hills is
dwindling fast. Only a handful remains and even that may
disappear very soon.
That the Shimba Hills could be the counterpart
of Nairobi National Park to Mombasa is certain; Already
many people from Mombasa, Nairobi and even from Europe and
America, come to the Shimba Hills to see the animals, enjoy
the fresh coolness and admire the scenery. .• -
1. Boundaries of the National Park
The existing boundaries encompassing the forest
reserves should be adopted as the perimeter 'of the Shimba
Hills National Park (See Map I). They include Kivumoni
forest, Shimba forest, Longo Magandi forest, Mkongani north
forest and Mkongani west forest. Within this area are
included the Wireless Repeater Station Hill, Giriama Point

117 T-
Marere Hill, Pengo Hill, Mweire Mdogo Hill, Risley's Ridgë
and Sheldrick Falls. The area of this piece of country
is about 85 square miles. It is irregular but it does
include all the important water catchments, grasslands
and woodlands that constitute the Shimba Hills habitat.
In addition, a small triangular section covering about 2,000
acres lying to the south-east of'Giriama Point between the
two intersecting cut lines should be included in the National
Park as a buffer between the Settlement at the foot of the
escarpment and the favoured haunts of the 'sable antelope
and elephant around Giriama Point and Longo Magandi. Both
sable „• antelope and elephant ;often wander down from the
plateau into this triangle and for that reason alone, it
should bé protected.. Also, it is:part'of the area to the
north-east of the Shimba Settlement recommended as a buffer'
zone by Makin - so that it has no great agricultural
potential (Map I).
2. Buffer Zones .y
Makin (1968) said that as the Shimbä Hills Reserve
is relatively small, x% is vital that adequate living space
should be maintained for the animals within it to prevent
habitat deterioration. .'•'.>..•

118
unsuitable for agriculture and here there are several
thousand acres of unfarmed land along the northern fringe
from Mwambila to Majimbqni..,•
As f arms are. being abandoned in this area, it
should be, possible to make a buffer zone between the
National Park and the agricultural settlement to the south
of the Mkurumuji river.
This idea is excellent if it is practical'to '
make the area into a buffer zone because it is here that
the worst poaching takes place. : • .*\~''
3.- Game Corridors
- : Makin (1968) doubted whether; big game could'"survive
in the.Shimba:Hills after the surrounding areas had been
developed for agriculture and thought it might be hecè'ssary
to have a game corridor so that the larger animals could :
migrate to Jombo mountain and southwards to the Marenje and
Chuna forests, as well, as the lower Mwena valley : which, it is
said, is still an important, elephant migration route. '
Such a corridor could go through the poor sandy
areas of Mikundi across the Ramisi river passing to the
west of Jombo mountain. louchingly, Makin said that firm
control of squatters is crucial before the habitat for
wildlife is forever destroyed.
The present indications are that this stage may
have been reached already in spite of the importance of

119
maintaining a nature reserve near to Mombasa and its
seaside resorts, which should have outweighed what really
amounts to 'third rate' settlement.
Makin's ideas are highly commendable but the
situation in the Shimba Hills is now really a salvage
operation and it may be too late to establish the buffer
zones and corridor he suggests. It is hoped, however,
that this is not so and that serious consideration will be
given to Makin's proposals by the Government.
ROLE OF THE FOREST DEPARTMENT
As Risley (1966a) said, it is almost entirely a
result of a rigid fire control policy enforced by the Forest
Department that any indigenous forests still remain in the
Shimba Hills. It is also largely thanks to the Forest
Department.that sable antelope and other animals still remain
there.
In addition, because their burning policies were
successful, a great deal must have been learnt by the
Forest Department about fire control in the Shimba Hills.
This knowledge should be invaluable in formulating future
management plans.
1. Experimental Areas
It is suggested that the Forest Department should
continue their experiments with growing exotic softwoods
and other trees in the Shimba Hills in the same way as they

120
are doing at present and that all the pianted-up areas
and forestry experimental plots should remain under their
control...
2. Buffer Zones
It is strongly recommended that Makin's proposals
for the creation of 'büffer zones' should be followed up
and that these areas should be' re-afforested with exotic
softwoods or indigenous trees of the type that existed there
before. Casuarina equisetifolia grows well almost anywhere
on the coast - even at the water's edge on the sea shore -
therefore it might be^worthwhile experimenting with this
plant in Makin's buffer zones. In fact, it might be profitable
to plant up a strip 50 yards wide all round the perimeter of
the Park.. This 'would supply ^quickly available 'softwood and
help to demarcate the boundaries clearly.
3. Plantation damage by large animals
One problem that arises in connection with the
Forest Department continuing to conduct their experiments
in the Shimba Hills is whether their experiments are
compatible with the presence of large herbivores such as
elephant and buffalo. However, they have been able to
withstand damage done by these animals for the past 40 years
so the question may riot be relevant.

121
ROLE OF KENYA NATIONAL PARKS
It is suggested that all the country outside the
Forest Department experimental plots should come under the
control of Kenya National Parks. It includes natural
forests, woodland, bushland, scrub patches and open
grasslands. It must be run and administered in exactly
the same way as other National Parks in Kenya with National
Parks personnel, equipment and housing. In-this-way, the
present Shimba Hills Reserve can be given full National
Parks status without further delay.
A. FIRST REQUIREMENTS IN THE SHIMBA HILLS AS A
NATIONAL PARK
(1) Main Gates Two official National Park entrances
or main gates must be established
(a) at the turnoff of the Shimba Hills Settlement
road from the main Tanga-Kwale road; and
(b) at the southern foot of the escarpment
where the Shimba Hills road enters the
Agricultural Settlement.
Two Rangers should be posted at both of the main
gates.
(2) Road barriers and Ranger posts should be established
(a) at the turnoff
to the Wireless Repeater Station on the main Kwale-
Mombasa road; and (b) at the boundary on the
track in the south-western corner of the Mkongani

122
west forest where "the track crosses the boundary
on the- edge of the Tiribe settlement.
Two Rangers should be placed at each of these *.
points.
Boundary trace A clearly demarcated' boundary
trace must be cut all around the
perimeter of the National Park.
Roads More roads of access to the ridges,
forests and--glades': within' the Park must
be made as soon as possible and existing roads
kept in good repair.
Lodges A proper, up-to-date lodge similar to
that at Kilaguni is required with, say,
50 beds and an appropriate view of the sea. The
promontory just to the south of Longo Magandi may
be a suitable site for a lodge as there is a stream
of permanent water nearby.
Observation lodges A hide, or observation lodge,
capable of accommodating eight
people, similar to the one in the northern area of
Tsavö National Park,'should be built on the slope
above the waterhole to the north-east of the Longo
Magandi airstrip. Many animals drink there,
particularly in the dry season, and if a salt lick was
established there as well, it could be made into a
permanent attraction to wild animals. Another '- :

123
good site for a lodge of this type is the
look-out point on Risley's Ridge.
MANAGEMENT PLAN
Once the Park has been established, a management
must be put into force on the following lines:-
) Fire Control In order to encourage the sable
antelope to stay on top of the
plateau and thus avoid the dangers of poaching, a
grass burning programme must be drawn up. This
should include early burning, late burning and
rotational burning.
Six sectors - 200-300 acres in extent - should be
1. at Giriama Point, to the east of Longo Magandi;
2. to the south of Longo Magandi;
3. around the airstrip to the north of Longo
Magandi;
4. in the Marere Hill area;
5• on the ridges about a mile to the south of
.Longo Magandi;
6. on Risley's Ridge still further southwards.
Roads must be cut around all these areas to demarcate
them and act as firebreaks; also to make access to
the sable antelope easier for visitors. Existing
roads should be used wherever possible.

- . .124•'•""' -•
A constant lookout should be kept for illegal grass
fires so that they can be distinguished, or at
ièast controlled. Culprits should be caught and
severely puriishedi •'-•"'-
A regime of strict fire control around all the
forest patches should be enforced in the same way
as the Forest Department has done in the past.
In addition, some patches of bushland and scrub
which are not required for grazing should be
protected from fire and allowed to revert to forest -
even though it takes a very long time for this to
happen. ""' -.'•"-:-•••
Mown blocks Six blocks' - each 25 acres in extent
' ! and not far from" water - should be
selected for mowing from April to August to make
open spaces with good visibility for the sable
antelope when the grass becomes tall after the
long rains have set in?, . -.'' ,;
Salt licks A patch - ^ten,yards, in^.-diameter - with
rock salt in., it, should be cleared in ;
the middle of each, mpwi), block?...,. ... ;...,,-.•.. .
, Reafforestation with indigenous trees. In the patches
of forest
where Chlorophora excel sa and other, large, trees are;
dying out without any visible replacement, young
trees should be planted so that these forests may
continue to exist.

125
(5) Prevention of forest exploitation Logging of
timber trees
and cutting of firewood must be prohibited. The
destruction of the Chlorophora forest at Taveta
is an example of what will happen in the Shimba
Hills if this advice is not taken.
(6) Sable antelope census A count pf the.sable
antelope within the
National Park must be made every three months both
from the ground and from the air.
(7) Daily observation patrols Daily patrols should
be made by the Park
Rangers by Land Rover and. on foot into the six
areas mentioned above. Records should be kept
of all animals seen and any other matters of
interest.
C. RESTOCKING WITH OTHER SPECIES
At present, the Shimba Hills Reserve is understocked
with sable antelope, buffalo, other ungulates and most
herbivores except perhaps elephant.
Therefore, to increase the variety of species would
make the Park more attractive to visitors and produce a
better grazing-browsihg pattern in the habitat.
With these ends in view, the following species
should be introduced:-

126
Ceratotherium simum simum (Burchell) - White
rhinoceros have been introduced successfully into the Mëru
National Park. This animal is a grazer and would be a
valuable asset to the Shimba Hills National Park. Mr Goss,
the Kenya National Parks' Warden who brought the ones into
the Meru National Park, has said that these animals can be
obtained from Swaziland and he would be prepared to fetch
them. A request should be made to the Swaziland Government
for'six white rhinoas.
Diceros bicornis bicornis (Linnaeus) - Black
rhinoceros should thrive in the Shimba Hills. They would
be easy to get- from Tsavo National Park (East) which is less
than 100 miles to the north-east. Ten animals - five males
and five females - should be introduced as soon as possible.
- Giraffa camelopardalis tippelskirchi Matschi -
Giraffe should not be difficult to introduce as they are
numerous in the ïsavo National Park as well as many other
parts of Kenya. Twelve animals are suggested - consisting
of two groups of six; one to occupy Marere Hill area and
one the Giriama Point-Longo Magandi areas.
Equus burchellii boehmi Matschie - Burchell's
zebra are common and even numerous in many parts of Kenya,
including the Tsavo National Park. They are grazers and it
is this kind of animal that is required for habitat management
in the Shimba Hills. It is suggested that several families
of zebra, up to a total of 30 animals, should be introduced
as soon as possible.

127
Alcelaphus baselaphus—

128
RESEARCH PROGRAMME
Russell (1968) considers it wise to allow the
interaction between animals and plants and between the
different types.of vegetation to take placé without human
interference in as far as is compatible with the maintenance
of reasonable, areas of the major habitats and reasonable
numbers, of the more important species. '
However, to implement such a policy it is
necessary to acquire as much scientific knowledge as
possible about existing conditions in the Park.
.With this concept in mind, the following lines
of investigation are suggested:- •> •
A. ANIMAL STUDIES
1. 'Studies of all the animals in the Park, which
include mammals, birds, reptiles, fishes, insects, etc.,
must be made to obtain more precise knowledge about the
different species living there. A collection of small
mammals might be rewarding as little seems to be known
about them in this area.
2. Behaviour Studies of sable antelope should be
easy and interesting as most of the
herds are very unconcerned at the presence of human beings

129
or motor cars and will allow them to approach very close.
3. Censuses An attempt should be made to count the
elephants in the Shimba Hills at least
twice a year but because of the dense cover this may not
be easy. Investigations into the effect of elephant upon
the habitat are an urgent necessity. These studies should
include their feeding habits. The local Digo tribesmen say
that elephant are very fond of Lantana. If this statement
is true, Lantana could become an important food plant to the
elephant. They might also help to control the spread of
this plant in the Shimba Hills.
Mr Ojal -suggested that the elephant population
in the Shimba Hills could be reduced by the gradual process
of preventing replenishment from the stock to the south
(Risley 1966b). Whether there is much recruitment now of
elephants from the south into the Shimba Hills is doubtful.
Attempts must also be made to count the buffalo
in the Shimba Hills. Habitat studies in connection with
these animals are probably as important as those of elephant
because I was told by the Chief Conservator of Forests that
buffalo cause more damage to experimental plantation trees
than do elephant.
4. Food preference studies of the large predators in
the Shimba Hills should be one priority; particularly as
it is known that lions disturb the sable antelope greatly,
yet no sable antelope kills were found during the four
months of our survey.

,130
These are obvious problems which need immediate
attention but many others could be suggested concerning the
behaviour and feeding habits of monkeys, the smaller
ungulates, birds, snakes, etc.
B. PLANT STUDIES
- As complete a collection as possible of the plants
in the different communities in the Shimba Hills must be
made and specimens sent to the East African Herbarium for
identification, because a thorough knowledge of the plants
is essential to sound habitat .studies.
It is doubtful as to how"much can be done by one
or two trained men in the-Shimba Hills National Park but
investigations along the•following lines must be undertaken
as and when it becomes possible. *
1. Soil Moisture Survey _ Soil moisture studies have
already been started in
collaboration with the East'African Agriculture and Forestry
Organisation and the Kenya Forest Department. Gypsum blocks
have been inserted into the soil to a depth of 20 feet in a
block of Pinus caribea at the Forestry Station at Kwale,
inside Longo Magandi forest. and outside in the open grassland -
but this is not enough. Gypsum blocks must be established
in all the important vegetation and soil types on the plateau
to solve the problem of the hydrology of these- hills
conclusively.

131
2. Soil Survey Makin (1968) made ah exhaustive
soil survey of the Shimba Hills
Settlement area, most of which lies below an altitude of
500 feet; but we are concerned with the top of the
plateau above 500 feet where pits must be dug in all the
main soil types to a depth of at least 12 feet,, and
samples sent to the Scott Agricultural Laboratories for
physical.and chemical analyses. In this way, a better
understanding of the relationship between soil conditions
and vegetation types will be gained.. -.••>••.

132
a. Rainfall
b. Air temperature
c. Soil temperature:
Depths - surface
3 inches
6 inches
12 inches
3 feet
6 feet
12 feet
d. Wind: direction
. speed
e. Cloud cover
f. Relative humidity
• ' • ' .
g. Saturation deficit and evaporation
rate
h. Light intensity
2. Permanent rain gauges must be established at
The Wireless Repeater station
The airstrip
Marere Hill
Pengo Hill
Risley's Ridge
Mwele Mdogo Hill

*33
D. LONG TERM PROBLEMS
In addition to the work suggested above, the
following long-term investigations should be made:-
1. Continued habitat studies.
2. Annual census of the larger herbivores
and predators.
3. Construction of a vegetation map of the
Park.
4. Construction of a soil map of the Park.
5. Studies of the history of the Shimba Hills -
both recently and before the British came
to Kenya.
6. All sources of information regarding
climatic cycles - both long and short term -
should be explored-.to. gain some idea of past,
present and possible future climatic trends.
7. Studies of the physiology, population
dynamics, reproductive behaviour, diseases
and ecto- and endo-parasites of the.
different animals.
8. A checklist of all the birds in the; Park
should be compiled. . . r! ..
9. A list of all the vertebrate animals in
the Park should be made.
10. A study of the invertebrate life in the
Park should be carried out and a list of
the common species produced.

134 -
SUGGESTIONS FOR THE PRESERVATION OF SABLE
ANTELOPE IN KENYA
Mr Ken Smith, Provincial Game Warden, Mombasa,
told me that he had put up a proposal in his Annual Report
that financial support should be sought from the East
African Wild Life Society for a scheme to investigate the
remaining areas containing sable antelope. These are
Mrima-Jombo-Lunga Lunga, south of Kwale, and Vitengeni and
Mwangea Hill between Kilifi and Malindi.
He also suggested that a plan should be devised
to translocate these remaining animals to the Shimba Hills.
Mr Smith's proposal deserves the strongest
support and it is hoped that a scheme to investigate the
sable antelope situation in the areas mentioned above will
be submitted by the Game Department to the East African
Wild Life Society as soon as possible.
There is little doubt that the sable antelope
remaining in these areas are in grave danger of extinction
and any animals still to be found there should be moved to
the Shimba Hills without delay.
However, to ensure the survival of the sable
antelope in Kenya, it is important that they should be
preserved in more than one area. Therefore, careful
consideration should be given to translocating some of

135 -
them to another place where they can be given complete
protection.
It is possible that such a place could be
found in the extreme eastern section of the Tsavo
National Park.

136
ESTABLISHMENT AND ESTIMATED EXPENDITURE
Required to create and maintain a
National Park
It is estimated that the following expenditure
will be required to establish a National Park in the
Shimba Hills in the first year:- '
Non-recurrent
Recurrent
TOTAL
£36,898
£18,703
£55,601
Recurrent expenditure after the first year is
estimated at £18,000.
Therefore, the sum required to establish and
run the Park for three years is - £90/898 - estimated
as follows:-
Capital Expenditure
Recurrent expenditure
TOTAL*
£36,898
£54,000
£90,898 - for three
11 • ••' - years

Senior Staff
137
E S T A 3 L I S H M E NT
1 V/arden
Junior Staff
.1 Biologist
Clerical
1 Clerk Grade A
1 Office messenger
Artisan
1 Mechanic
1 Carpenter
Transport
5 Drivers
Labour .
10 Labourers'
Ranger
1 Corporal
1 Lance Corporal
13 Rangers
HEADQUARTERS
FIELD FORCE

A. EQUIPMENT
138
ESTIMATED CAPITAL EXPENDITURE
(a) Motor Vehicles
FIRST YEAR
EA£
2 Toyota Land Cruisers @ £1500 3,000
.1 _5-ton truck 2,000
1 Morris Mini Moke 600
1 Fordson Super Major tractor 1,000
Accessories
1 tractor trailer
1 Gyramore grass cutter
1 road grader
Workshop tools
6. ,600
500
250
7: ,000
500
8; ,250
6,600
8,250
(b) Lighting plant 500
(c) Field equipment
1. Meteorological
6 Rain gauges
Thermometers: wet & dry bulb
maximum
minimum
standard
soil
recording
thermohygrographs 150
C/F 15,500

2. Biological
139
B/F 15,500
EA£
Microscopes: 1 high power 300
1 dissecting 150
35 mm camera 1' 200
1 binoculars 10 x 40 50
2 whirling hygrometers 8
2 light meters : 50
100 ft measuring chain 1 ' 10
100 ft measuring tape 1 10
20 plant presses - 15
Drying paper 10
Metal pegs ' 20
Camp
B. HOUSING
• . "• .-.-• -.:?•':. .• - ' . . - ' .
'- 823
2 radios •„ 900
2 officers' tents '200
2 large single fly tents ->> ,150
6 porters 1 tents 180
2 camp beds • 30
2 camp tables '15
4 camp chairs 30
2 camp baths and basins 10
2 tarpaulins 50
U. ,.-.%. /. •" - }> 565
Office - laboratory —- stóre : • 2, ,500
V/arden' s house 4, ,000
' ' • • • - • - . • ' • " Biologist * s house ,3, ,000
Clerk's house "" ; ... : .. 1, ,500
Ranger posts 1. ,000
Junior staff quarters 3a ,000
Garage - workshops - toolstore 1> ,000
Main gc »tes .
800
16, ,800
823
1,565
16,800
C/F 34,688

FURNITURE
140
1. Office and Laboratory
B/F 34,688
EA£
1 office typewriter ' 60
2 filing cabinets 100
1 office desk 25
1 large table 25
Laboratory benches, shelves,
cupboards, etc. 100
6 chairs 50
2. Houses
Standard FWD-type issue for
3 houses 8p0
Cables and electric wiring 6Ö0
2 refrigerators 300
2 cookers 150
36O 36O
1,850 1,850
TOTAL NON-RECURRENT £36,898

141
ESTIMATED RECURRENT EXPENDITURE
Senior Staff EA£ . £
Salaries: 1 Warden 2,500
1 Biologist 1,850
4,350 4,350
Social Security 5% ' 218
Medical Insurances 30
Air Passages 650
Baggage Allowance 250
Wages - Office & Clerical
1 Clerk ; 300
1 Office
messenger 100
400 400
Expenses - Office & Clerical . • " 50
Printing & Stationery 50
Postage & Telegrams 25
Telephone 10
Travelling & Subsistence Allowances 250
Upkeep of Vehicles
Licences 100
Insurances 150
Maintenance 1,000
Petrol &
Oils 2,000
3,250 3,250

Transport Staff
Artisans
Labour
Rangers
Other Charges
142
• '•!'
Wages -.5 drivers..,1,250
Expenses
100
Wages - Mechanic .'
'"•'"• Carpenter
Expenses... -. .
EA£"
1,350
360
360'
-.50
770
Wages; r- 10 labourers 1000
Expenses 100
., ,.. .1:100
Wages - 15 Rangers 2,500,
Expenses : : ; • :: ; 200
2,700
Maintenance of office equipment,
furniture & houses. .. .->. 300.
Maintenance of radios, etc. 50
Replacement of stores &
. equipment ; . • «, ^200
Staff clothing 300
Hire of aircraft •' ' 500
.Contingencies.- . .•;-.• ..;jlQ0
.. ''••• ••• ••.-••• r :• 'T • ;T- '1,450
:1-,3S0-
770
1;100.
2,700
1,450
TOTAL RECURRENT 16,903

143
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My grateful thanks are due to the African Wildlife
Leadership Foundation and Mr Prank Minot; to the World
Wildlife Fund, the East African Wild Life Society and the
Trustees and Director of the Kenya National Parks who made
this work possible. My gratitude is due also to Mr Risley
who provided me with some of the initial details and who
visited me whilst I was in the Shimbä Hills.
I wish too to express my thanks to the District
Commissioner, Kwale, and his staff for their very kind help
and co-operation; as well as to the Chief at Vuga who
produced the labourers for the survey - and I am much
indebted to Kwale County Council for lending us their road
grader to make an airstrip»
In addition, I must thank the Forest Officer,
Kwale, and his staff for their most considerate assistance
and collaboration throughout the survey and for undertaking
to keep weekly soil moisture records after we had left.
I am very grateful to:-
1. Major D L W Sheldrick, M.B.E., Warden of Tsavo
National Park (East), who loaned me a Lance
Corporal, a Ranger, a Driver and a Land Rover for this
survey. In addition, he flew me over the area several
times and helped to count the sable antelope from the air.
2. Mr Ken Smith, Provincial Game Warden, Mombasa,
and Corporal Dabasa at Kwale for seconding two
Game Scouts to us and for telling us about the sable antelope

.144
in the Jombo-Mrima and Kilifi-Maliridi areas i
3. Mr J B Gillett, Officer in Charge of the East
African Herbarium for.loaning us one of v his
Botanists and for supplying collecting materials for the
survey.
4. Dr N Dagg, Head of the Physics Division of the
East African Agriculture and Forestry Organisation
and Mr J R Blackie, who helped me to obtain the Ohm Meter
and gypsûm blocks for the soil moisture studies. Mr Blackie
f lev/ down to the Shimba Hills to choose the sites and sent a
small team to drill.the holes and insert the gypsum blocks
in the soil.
5- Mrs Joyce;Stewart of Nairobi, who identified some
of the orchids and Miss C H. S Kabuye of the East
African Herbarium, who named the sable antelope food plants.
6. Mr N N Nyandat of the Soil Survey Unit of the Scott
Agricultural Laboratories and Mr H R Kuria, who .
analysed the soil samples from Longo Magandi.
The following people deserve special thanks
because they actually took part in the survey.
Mr Frank Francis Magogo, who collected and pressed
the plants and helped me keep the daily meteorological
records.

- r 145.. - ,. .
Lance Corporal Dube
Lance Corporal Dokata
Ranger Marti
Game Scout Muramba
Game Scout Monday .
Driver Peter
all of whom carried out the daily observations on
sable antelope as well as performing many other duties;
. Mzee Ali Bandari, who helped Mr Magogo collect
plants and gave us the Digo names, uses and folk lore.for.
them;
Sudi Mabudzuma, who was the headman in charge of
the labour;
Our labourers, domestic staff and my son, John,
who helped to build the camp and airstrip, brought Mr ; Blackie
down to the Shimba Hills and flew the plant specimens and
soil samples to Nairobi.
Finally, I am very much indebted to Mrs Daphne:.
Sheldrick, who typed this report, and to Mrs Andre Richards,
who drew the maps and diagrams.
* * * * * * * *

146
B I B L I O G R.A P H Y
ALLEN, G.M. (1939). A checklist of African mammals.
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.
ANDERSON, D. and STARMANS,'G. (1949)- Preliminary
investigation of water resources of the
Shimba Hills. Hydrographie Survey, Coast
Division, Public Works Department files.
ASTLEY MABERLY, C.T. (1966)., Animals of East Africa.
D.A.Hawkins Ltd., Nairobi.
BOGDAN, A.V, (1958). A revised list of Kenya grasses«
Government Printer, 'Nairobi.
CASWELL, P.V. and BAKER, B.H. (Ï953). Geology of the MombasaT
Kivale area. Government Printer, Nairobi.
CHAPMAN,- E. (1967).. A plan for the management of
.grazing areas for amenity and preservation
of the sable antelope. Shimba Hills
Forest Reserve (First draft), Office of the
Conservator of Forests, Nairobi, files.
DALE, I.R. and GREENWAY, P.J. (I96I). Kenya trees and
shrubs. Nairobi, Buchanan's Kenya Estates
Limited.
EAST AFRICAN METEOROLOGICAL DEPARTMENT (1964). Collected
meteorological statistics for East African
stations. East African Common Services
Organisation, Nairobi.
GLOVER, P.E. (1967). Notes on some ants in Northern
Somalia. E.Afr.Wildl.J. , .£, 65-73.
GLOVER, P.E*, GLOVER^ J. and GWYNNE, M.D. (1962). Light
rainfall and plant survival in dry
grassland vegetation. J.Ecol.. 50» 199-206,

147
GLOVER, P.E., JACKSON, C.H.N., ROBERTSON. A.G. and
THOMSON, W.E.F. (1955). The extermination
of the tsetse fly Glossina morsitans
Westwood at Abercorn, Northern Rhodesia.
Bull.Ent.Res.. 46, 57-67.
HURSH, C.R. and PEREIRA, H.C. (1953). Field moisture balance
in the Shimba Hills, Kenya. E.Afr.Agric.J..
18» 1-7.
KENYA GOVERNMENT (1965). Development plan 1966-1970.
Government Printer, Nairobi.
LYDEKKER, R. (1926). The game animals of Africa.
London, Rowland Ward Limited.
MACKWORTH-PRAED,C.W. and GRANT, C.H.B. (1957). African
handbook of birds. Eastern and north-eastern
Africa. Volume 1. Longmans Green & Company,
London.
-do-
MAKIN, J.
MOOMAW, J.C.
0LDR0YD, H.
PHILLIPS, J.F.V,
(i960). African handbook of birds. Eastern
and north-eastern Africa. Volume 2.
Longmans Green & Company, London.
(1968). The soils in the country around
Shimba Hills Settlement, Kikoneni and Jombo
mountain. Soil Survey Unit, Department of
Agriculture.
(i960). A study of the plant ecology of
the coast region of Kenya Colony, British
East Africa. Government Printer, Nairobi.
(1952). The horse-flies of the Ethiopian
region. Volume 1. Haematopota and
Hippocentrum. London. Trustees of the
British Museum.
(1965). Fire - as master and servant: Its
influence in the bio-climatic regions of
trans-Saharan Africa. Proceedings Fourth
Annual Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference.
Tallahassee, Florida USA, 7-109

PITMAN, C.R.S.
RISLEY, E,
-do-
RUSSELL, E.W.
148
(I938). A guide to the snakes of Uganda.
Uganda Society, Kampala.
(1966a). An urgent plea for a National
Park to be created in the Shimba Hills.
Africana 2, No.9, 6-8.
(1966b). «Multiple use» of the land.
Africana 2. No.10, 18-19 and 39.
(I968). Management policy in the National
Parks. Tanzania Litho Ltd., Arusha.
SPARTAN AIR SERVICES LIMITED (1968). A reconnaissance
inventory survey of the indigenous forest
areas of Kenya. Part 2. Shimba Hills
sampling unit. Canadian Special Commonwealth
African Programme in co-operation with the
Kenya Forest Department.
STEWART, D.R.M. and STEWART,J. (1963). The distribution of
some large mammals in Kenya. Journ.E.A.
Nat.Hist.Soc.. 24. No. 3, 1-52.
* * * * *
X

APPENDIX I
CLIMATIC DATA IN OPEN GRASSLAND
The following tables have been included for
those interested in more detailed information
concerning the climate of the Shimba Hills during the
period of this survey.
All these records were taken in open burnt
grassland 60 yards south of the southern edge of Longo
Magandi forest.
* * * * * *

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Date
Time
Hours
.Temperature
Up
22 07. ,00 72
19. .00 74
Range
op
23 07. .00 11
09. .00 77 '
13. .00 83 12
17. • 30 77
19. • 00 74
24 07. .30 71
13. .00 90 19
16. .00 85
17. .00 81
19. .00 76
29 09-.00 74
14. .00 83 2.
18, .45 75
No regular temperature records were kept during this month
but the following information was deducted from the
information available:-
Average temperature for the month = 79°F.
Highest temperature recorded = 92 U F.
Lowest temperature recorded = 71 F.
Highest diurnal range = 19 F.
Lowest diurnal range = 9 F.

TEMPERATURE
MARCH. 1968
Time hours
07.00 - 14.00 Range
Date •op. op. up.
c.
Time hours
14.00 - 19.00 Range
op. °F. °F.
5
6
7
8
11
12
13
14
15
16
18
19
20
21
22
23
25
26
27
28
29
30
73
75
74
74
70
68
74
73
15.
• 73
72
71
72
74
69
73
74
71
73
74
73
71
84
86
88
85
82
85
86
2Z
76
80
85
89
74
86
72
83
JO
80
84
72
87
83
11
11
14
11
12
17
12
12
1
7
13
18
2 .
12
3
10
4
9
11
2
14
12
84
86
88
28
77
l
6
9
n
85
82
85
86
£2
76
80
85
89
74
86
72
83
20
80
84
72
87
83
76
IQ
75
76
76
. 74
73
74
75
75
76
73
76
72
75
76
72
76
76
11
9
12
10
10
16
2
7
11
14
1
10
1
7
2
5
8
0
11
7
Average 72.5°*'. 82.2°F. 10.3°F. 82.2°P. 74.9°F. 7.7°F.
Average temperature for the month = 76 F.
Highest
temp.
Time
Time
Highest
07>00 hrs. - 14.00 hrs. Range 14.00 hrs. - 19.00 hrs. Range
'off. — l)p. "OFT PFT
75°F. 92°F. 19°F. 92°F. 78°F.
Lowest
temp.
. ggO-p
70°F. 1°F* 70°F. 70°F.
u *". "Ü".
16°F.
0°F.
Average difference between temperatures at 07.00 hrs. and lg.00 hrs.
,0-r
Highest temperature recorded = 92QF.
Lowest temperature recorded = 68 P.
These figures are the highest and lowest ranges for the month.

TEMPERATURE
APRIL. 1968
Time hours
Date
1
070oo
°F.
74
• - '14.00
Op.
83
Range
W~.
9-
4 74
5 73
6 70
9 72
10 73
11 74
12 71
14 73
15 70
16 73
17 72
18 72
19 71
20 74
21 74
22 74
23 72
24 11
25 72
26 69
27 68
28 69
29' 69
30 71
Average 72.0°F,
75
79
79
80
84
78
76
83
82
82
81
82
83
74
83
81
78
88
82
62
70
81
77
81
79.7°F.
1
4
8<
8
11
5
5
10
12
11.
9
10
12
0
9
7
6
11
10
0
2
12
8
7.7°E. 10
Average temperature for the month = 75°F.
Time hours
14.00 - - 19.00
op. op.
Range
OF.
D.
83 76 7
75 73 2
79 75 4
79 73 6
80 74 6-
84 ' _ 74 10
78 74 • 4
. 76 73 3
83 74 9
82 73 9
82 74 8
81 74 . 7
82 73 ' 9
83 73 10
74 74 0 s
83 74 9
81 75 6
78 75 3
'88 74 4
82 76
69. 68
70 69
6
1
1
81 . 73 4
. .77 72 ' 5
81 72 9
79.7°F. 73.4°P. 6.3°F
Time Time
07.00 hrs. - 14..00 hrs. Range 14.00 hrs. - 19.00 hrs. Range
off. »ff. "F. up. up. upf 1
g 1 ^ hest 77°F. 88°F. 12°F. 88°F. 76°F. 10°F. r
Temp.
Lowest
Temp.
68°P. 69°F. 0°F. 69°F. 68°F. 1°F,
Average difference between temperature at.07.00'hrs. and'19.00 hrs
= 1.4°F.- •
Highest temperature recorded = 88 F.
Lowest temperature recorded = 68 F.

TEMPERATURE
MY, 1968
Time hours Time hours
07.00 - 14.00 Range 14.00 19.00 Range
U 6
Date op. oF# F.
F. oF.
1 70 78 8 78 24 4
2 74 79 5 79 73 6
3 72 82 10 82 73 9
4 72 77 5 77 72 5
5 74 .82 8 82 24 u
6 73 NR — NR MR —
7 25 84 9 M 73 11
8 70 79 9 79 71 8
9 70 76 6 76 71 •5
10 71 NR — NR 73 -
11 74 77 3 77 72 5
12 NR 81 — 81 73 8
13 71 . 78 7 78 72 6
14 69 75 6 75 71 4
.15 71 80 9 80 72 8
16 71 77 6 77 71 6
17 68 75 7 75 70 5
18 70 . ' 2Q 0 70 70 0
19 70 76 6 76 71 5
20 68 75 7 75 70 5
21 67 76 9 76 71 5
22 70 77 7 77 71 6
23 70 75 5 75 71 4
24 69 20 1 20 62 1
25 69 73 4 73 69. 4
26. 69 80 11 80 72 8
27 70 78 8 78 73 5
28 69 20 ' 1 70 2Q 0
29 71 20 1 22 èl 1
30 68 76 ' 8 76 71 5
31 70 78 8 78 71 7
71.4 U F, 5.3°F.
Average 70.5°E« 76.7°F. ôTi^F. 76.7 U F,
Average temperature for the month = 72 F.
Time
Time
07.00 hrs. - 14.00 hrs. Range 14.00 hrs. - 19.00 hrs. Range
U U
°F. op. OF. op.
F. F.
Highest 75°F. 84°F. 11°F. 84°F. 74°F. 10°F.
Temp.
Lowest
67°F. 70°F. 0°F. 70°F. 69°F. 0°F.
A.Average difference between temperatures at 07.00 hrs. and 19.00 hrs.
= 0.9°F.
Highest temperature recorded = 84°F.
Lowest temperature recorded = 67 F.
E.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
LONGO MAGANDI
No regular records were kept during Februar and March, but
the following tables for April and May give samples of 10 days' readings»
for each of these two months.
APRIL: The highest atmospheric pressures were recorded at 07.00 hours^
when the average reading for the 10 days was 29.80 inches of mercury or
1050 ft. At 14.00 hours the average reading.for the 10 days was 29.70
inches of mercury or 1150 ft. At 19.00 hours the average readings were
also 29.70 inches or 1150 ft. Thus, there was an average range of
0.1 inches of mercury between 07.00.and 14.00 hours but no difference
between 14.00 hours and 19.00 hours.
The highest range in pressure between 07.00 hours and 19.00
•hours was 0.2 inches of mercury or 200 ft. and the lowest was 0.075
inches of mercury or 75 ft. Each of these was recorded on one occasion
only.
MAY: Again, the highest atmospheric pressures were recorded at
07.00 hours when the average reading for the 10 days was 29.85 inches
of mercury or 1000 ft. At 14.00 hours the average reading for the
10 days was 29.775 inches of mercury or 1075 ft. At 19.00 hours the
average reading was 1100 inches of mercury or 29.75 ft.
The highest range in pressure between 07.00 and 19.00 hours
was 0.2 inches of mercury or 200 ft. The lowest range in pressure
between 07.00 and 19.00 hours was 0.0 inches of mercury-when the reading
remained at 29.80 inches throughout the day..
Sudden changes in atmospheric pressure were not observed
during these studies.

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Note: NR = No Record
Very gentle, wind speed less than 1 mile in the hour
. . gentle, „less than 2 miles in the hour
light. less than 6 miles in the hour
fresh, less than 10 miles in the hour
strong, more than 10 miles in the hour
gusty, variable speed, not measurable
WIND DIRECTIONS FOR PERIOD STUDIED. FEBRUARY 1968
E.
N.
¥.
N. E.
N. E. _ E.
N. N. E. — E.
N. • S B
E. N. E.
E. - N . E.
E. • N ,W. . — N • IJ*
S. E.
S. S. E. -. E • * - S
S. E. - N.
E.
E. N. E.
E. "" • N > E c
E. "• -
N • W. • - N
N.
1ST -i".\
IM c XJ P
N. E. — E.
>E.
N. N. E. — E.
N. » *• - S »
S. E,
b. .3. E. — E. _ S.
S. E. _ N.
W.
13
2
1
6
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
13
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
definite direction 16 = 51.6%
7°
variable direction 15 =48.4$
16 = 51.6$ E.
11 = 35.6$ N.
3 = 9.6$ S.
1 = 3.2$ W. .
I. (2)
Average wind speed for the period 19th - 29th February = 5.2 miles in
the hour.
Average day time wind speed =7.9 miles in the hour.
Average night time wind speed = not enough records to be significant.
Highest day time wind speed recorded over hourly periods =14.9 miles in
the hour.
Lowest day time wind speed recorded over hourly periods = 1.2 miles in
• • • -• the hour

Time- in Hours
08.45
19.00
08.00
19.15
19.00
08.00
18.00 •
19.00
07.00
14.00
19.00
07.00
10.00
14.00
18.00
19.00
07.00
14.00
17.00
18.00 - 19.00
07.00 - 08.00
13.00 - 14.00
15 .00 - 16.00
18.00 - 19.00
19.00 - 20.00
07.00
14.00
19.00
09.00
07.00
14.00 - 16.00
07.00
14.00
14.00 - 19.00
WIND
MARCH, 1968
Direction
W.
E.S.E.
E•S.E.
E.o.E »
Day
Measured in
1 hour
J. (1)
Speed
Miles in the Hour.
NR very light
NR very light
NR very light
NR light
E o S .E. NR very light
E. S • E.
S.
E.
E.
E.S.E.
E.b.E o
w.
S. E.
E.o.E.
E.
E.
E.
E.
E.
E.
E. - E.8.E.
E.
E.
E.
E.
¥.
E.
E.
NR very light
NR light gusts
NR fresh
NR very light'
NR gusty
NR fresh
NR very light
NR
NR fresh
NR fresh gusty
12.2 strong
NR very light
NR fresh
NR fresh
12.2 strong -
2.6 light gusty
6.7 fresh
12.9 strong
11.7 .strong
10.0 dropping
NR very gentle
NR fresh
NR very light
Night
12 hours
19.00 -
07.00
-
NR
3.1
3.2
3.5
4.2
S.W. - N.W. NR gusty NR
w.
NRvery gentle NR
E. - W.
6.5 fresh
W.
E.
E.
NR
NR
9.7 fresh
1.9
• /13 ...

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WIN D (contd.)
MARCH, 1968
Date Time in Hours Direction Speed
Miles in the Hour
Day
Measured in
1 hour
J. (3)
Night
12 hours
19.00 -
07.00
24- 08.00 W. NR very gentle NR
25 07.00 -
13.00 -
18.00 -
08.00
14.00
19.00
W.
w. -
w.
S.
26 07.00 -
13.00 -
19.00
08.00
14.00
w.
s.w. - E.
N.
0.8 very gentle
1.7 gentle
1.8 gentle
2.2 light
5.2 light
NR
NR
^1
27 07.00 -
. 14.00
19.00
08.00 E.
E.
E.
1.6 gentle
NR light, gusty
NR
2.1
28 07.00 -
13.00 -
18.00 -
08.00
14.00
19.00
E.
S. -
w.
W.S.W.
29
30
31
07.00 -
13.00 -
18.00 -
07.00 -
14.00
19.00
08.00 -
12.00 -
18.00 -
08.00
14.00
19.00
08.00
09.00
13.00
19.00
w.
S.S. W. - E.
s.
w.
s.
s.
w.
0..4 very gentle
4.6 gusty
2.4 light
4.8 light
5.3 light, gusty
4.9 gusty
2.4 gusty
NR
NR
5.7 light
6.1 fresh
3.2 light
1.1
2.0
3.5
NR
NR = No Record
w. -
• s. - s.
-W.
Average 5.3 3.1

N.
E.
W.
S.
E o S. E.
S.E .
N.E.
E. - W
W. - E.
W. - N.
¥. - S.
S. - W.
E. - E. s. E.
E. - N - S
W. - N - E
S. - S. E.
S. - S. E. —
S.S. rt. — E.
3. - s. W.
S.W. — E.
s. - w. S. tf.
s.w. — N. W.
« IND " (contd.")'
MARCH, 1968.
WIND DIRECTIONS FOR THE MONTH
1
26
27
8
8
3
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
- .W. 1
1
1
1
1
1 •
1
1
definite direction 62 = 68.8%
variable direction 28- = 31.1%
J. (4)
A large Negreti and Zambra standard animometer was used to obtain
wind speed records.
N.
E.
E.S.E.
E. — E.S.E.
E. - N. - S.
E. - W.
W.
W. - E.
E. — S o
W. - N.
W. - N. - E. • - W.
26 )
8 )
1 )
1 )
1 )
27 )
1 )
2 )
1 )
1 )
1.= 1.1% N-
37 = 41.1% E
35.5# W
/S.

S.
S.E.
S.W.
S, - S.E
s, . - S.E - S.W.
s, S.W. - E.
s, . - S.W.
W. - E.
s,
s,
8,
s,
- W.S.W.
W. - N.W.
- W.
MARCH. 1968 .
WIND DIRECTIONS FOR THE MONTH (contd.)
8
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
20 = 22.2%
Average wind speed for the month = 5 miles in the hour.
J. (5)
Average wind speed 07.00 - 19.00 hours = 5.3 miles in the hour
(measured at hourly intervals)
Average wind speed 19.00 - 07.00 =3*1 miles in the hour
(measured over 32 'hours)
Highest day time wind speed recorded at hourly intervals
"= 12.2 miles in the hour
Lowest day time wind speed recorded at hourly intervals
=0.4 miles in the hour
Highest night time wind speed recorded over 12 hours
= 5.1 miles in the hour
Lowest night time wind speed recorded over 12 hours
=1.1 miles in the hour

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WIN D (contd.)
APRIL, 1968
K. (3)
Time in Hours Direction . Speed
Miles in the ) Hour
• ' . . • . ' • - •
Dav
Measured at
hourly
intervals
Night
Measured
over
12 hours
07.00
14.00
19.00
W.
S.
B.W.
NR
NR
NR
*
5.6
3.0
07.00
14.00
18.00 - 19.00
S.W.
w.
w.
NR
NR
6.7 fresh
6.5
07.00 -
13.00 -
18.00 -
08.00
14.00
19.00
w. - S.W.
s. w.
s.
- w. .
3.3.light
6.0 fresh
6.6 fresh
5.0
07.00 -
13.00 -
18.00- -
08.00
14.00
19.00
s.w.
s. - S .ii.
s.
3.5 light, gusty
7.9 fresh, gusty
2.6 light, gusty
5.0
07.00 -
13.00 -
18.00 -
08.00
14.00
19.00
s.
w. -
s. - s.
W.
2.3 light
1.8
3.4 light, gusty
4.2 light
07.00 -
13.00 -
18.00 -
08.00
14.00
lQ.OO
S.W.
s.w.
2.2 light
6.0 fresh,
3.5 lisht. gusty
eustv
3.1
w. -
s. -
s.
Average 3.5 2.4
These figures represent miles in the hour calculated at
12 hourly intervals in the day time.
/Wind ...

w.
s.
WIND DIRECTIONS FOR THE MONTH - APRIL
21
20
E. 6
S".W. •Li
w. - s.w.
7
2
w. - w.s.w.
Q T •
s. - O o Vi •
3
s. - w.s.w.
1
s. - E. 1
w. - s.
2
s. - w.
1
s.w. — S.S.Ë. 1
s.w. - s.
2
2
s.w. - w.
s. - S.E. 1
w.
w. - S.
w. - s.w. -
w. - w.s.w.
21
2
7
2
E. 6
s. 20
s.w.
s. - s .w.
s. - w.s.w.
s.w. - s.
S. tf. - S.S-.E.
13
3
1
2
1
2
s. w. - w.
s. - S .a. 1
s. - E. 1
s. - w.
1
definite direction 47 = 56.6%
variable direction 36 = 43.3%
S. - W. direction = 53%
S. - E. direction = 4%
32 = 38.5% W.
K. (4)
6 = 7.3% E,
45 =54.2% S.
Average wind speed for the month =3.1 miles in the hour.
Average wind speed 07.00 - 19.00 hours =3.5 miles in the hour.
Average wind speed 19.00 - 07.00 hours =2.4 miles in the hour.
Highest day time wind speed recorded at hourly intervals
=9.9 miles in the hour.
Lowest day time wind speed recorded at hourly intervals
=0.8 miles in the hour.
Highest night time wind speed calculated over 12 hours
= 6.5 miles in the hour.
Lowest night' time wind speed calculated over 12 hour periods
=0.8 miles in the hour.

07.00
14.00
19.00
07.00 -
13.00 -
18.00' -
07.00
13.00 -
19.00
07.00 -
13.00 -
18.00 -
07.00
14.00
19.00
08, .00
14. .00
19-.00
14. .00
08. .00
14. .00
19. .00
W.
MR
NR
S.W.
S.
• S.W.
w.
s.w.
• w. ••
w. -
w.
s. -
w.
NR
S.
WIND
MAY, 1968
- w.
- w.'..
- w.
s.w..
s.w.
L. (1)
Time in hours
07.00
14.00
19.00
07.00
14.00
19.00
Direction
w.
E.
s.
S.
W.
S.
Speed
Miles in the Hour
Day
Night
Measured *at
hourly
Measured
intervals over
NR
12 hours
1.7*
2.8
8.7
*
NR v
1.5
3.4 X
2.5
07.00
14.00
19.00
07.00
14.00
19.00
¥.
S.
S.
w.
E.
E.
NR
3.6 X
4.9
NR
3.5*
4.3
1.7
1.7
07.00
14.00
19.00
S.
S.
NR
NR
2.6*
5-if
1.3
NR
NR
NR
1.3
7.8
3.2
•NR •
5.5*
3.6
3.8
3.5
3.1
NR
NR
NR
1.7
NR
1.7
*
2.2
1.4
/ll ...

Date Time in Hours
11
12
13
14
15
16
'17
18
19
20
07.00
14.00
19.00
07.00
14.00
19.00
07.00
24.00
19.00
07.00
14.00
19.00
07.00
13.00 -
19.00
07.00
14.00
19.00
07.00
14.00
19.00
14. ,00
07.00
14.00
18.00 - 19. .00
07.00 -
13.00 -
18.00 -
07.00 -
13.00 -
18.00 -
08. .00
14. .00
19. .00'
08. .00
14. .00'
19. .00
•
WIND (contd.)
MAY, 1968
Direction
w.
s.
S .E •
NR
S.S. ...
B.
E. /..'-
E.
E.
E.
S.
E.
W.
S.W. - E.
E.
W.
E.
w.
w.
s.w.
B.
E.
E.
W.
w. - s.w.
S. ^ ^ '
E.S.E. — E.
W.
S.S.W. — S.E.
E.
L. (2)
Speed
Miles in the Hour
Day Night
Measured at Measured
hourly intervals over
32 hours
NR
3. if
2.9
NR
NR
6.3
NR
4.8*
4.9 X
NR
1 ' 6 Ï
4.2 X
NR
6.2 gusty
7.8*
NR
3.9*
2.5
NR
3-3*
3.9 X
NR
2.7
6.2
4.2
4.7 light, gusty
4.9 gentle
2.5 gusty
4.9 gusty
1.1 very gentle
*
2.5
NR
1.9
2.6
2.0
2.3
2.4
1.9
2.5
2.5
/ £—J- e e 0

WIN D (contd.)
MAT, 1968
L. (3)
Date Tinß. in Hours Dire* 2tion ' ' Speed
Miles in the Hour
Day Night
Measured at Measured
hourly over
intervals 12 hours
21 07.00 -
13.00 -
18.00 -
22 07.00 -
13.00 -
18.00 -
23 07.00 -
13.00 -
18.00 -
08.00
14.00
19.00
S.W.
S. -
E.
S.E.
08.00
S.W.
14.00
19.00
E. - S.W. "
S. - S.E.
08.00
14.00
19.00
24 07.00
14.00
18.00 - 19.00
25 07.00 -
13.00 -
18.00 -
26 07.00 -
13.00 -
18.00 -
27 07.00 -
13.00 -
18.00 -
28 07.00 -
13.00 -
18.00 -
29 07.00 -
13.00 -
18.00 -
30 07.00 -
13.00 -
18.00 -
08.00
14.00
19.00
08.00
M.00
19.00
08.00
14.00
19.00
08.00
14.00
19.00
08.00
14.00
19.00
08.00'
14.00
19.00
W. -
S. -
s.
w.
s.
S.W.
S.E.
s.w. - S.
w. -
w. -
E. -
S.W.
E.
S.E.
w.
s.
s. - E.
w.
S.E.
E. -
W.
S.W.
E.
S «E.
S.
S.E.
S.
W. -
E.
- S. - S.E.
S .E.
- E.
- W.
S.
2.5
6.3
2.7
2.5
2.9
2.2
2.7
5.5
1.6
gusty 1.8
gusty
fresh
light 2.0*
gusty
gentle
*
gusty 2.0
gusty
gusty
NR light, gusty 2.8*
3.3 X
3.4 gentle
4.2
3.4
3.0
2.7
4.7
2.0
1.9
6.8
6.8
4.2
1.7
1.2
4.0
4.5
2.6
1.8
3.5
0.9
gusty 3.2
light, gusty
gentle, gusty
*
gentle 2.5
gusty
gentle
gentle, gusty 1.6
guBty
gusty
light, gusty 3.3
gusty
very gentle
*
gusty
gusty
gusty
1.7
*
gentle, gusty 2.5
gusty
very gentle
/31 ...

*
Tine in Hours
07.00 - 08.00
13.00 - 14.00
18.00 - 19.00
WIND .(contd.)
MAY', 1968
Direction
W.
S.E. - E.
E.
L. (4)
Speed
Miles in the Hour
Day Night
Measured at Measured
hourly over
intervals 12 hours
*
2.0 gentle, gusty 2..0
4.7 light, gusty
1.2 very gentle
Average 3.7 2.1
These figures represent miles in the hour calculated on
6 hourly intervals ^
These figures represent miles in the hour calculated on
12 hourly intervals.
WIND DIRECTIONS POR THE MONTH
MAY, 1968 '
( w.
( E.
( s.
21
19
17--
Per Cent
24.0% )
21.7°/° - )
19.3% )
( W. - S.W. 5 5.7%\ )
( S.W. - w. 3 3.4%' )
( s. - S.E« . 3 . ' 3.4% )
( S.E. 2 2.3%" )
( S.w. . . . 2 2.3# )
( S.E. - E. 2 2.3% ••)•
( E. - S.E. 2 2.3%" )
( s. -
E. 1 1.1$ )
( s. - w. 1 1.1$ )
( W. - s. 1 1.1%* )
( W. - E. 1 1.1%" )
( S.W. - S. 1 1.1%" )
( S.W. - E. 1 1.1$ )
( S. - S.W. 1 1.1$ )
( S.E. - w. 1 1.1%" )
( S.S. E. - S.W. 1 LI?« )
( S.S. W. - S.E. 1 1.1%' )
( S.E. — o • —• O.E. 1 1.1% )
( E.S. E. - E. 1 1.1% )
definite direction
57. = 64.8% .-
variable direction
31 =• 35.2%'
/B. ...

w.
w. - s.
WIND DIRECTIONS FOR MAY 1968 (Contd.)
21
1
W.--B. 1
W. - S.W. 5
E. 19
3•S.E• — E. 1
E. - S.E. 2
S. 17
S. - E. 1
o .E. 2
S.B. — E. 2
S.E. - W. 1
S.E. — S. — S.E. 1
S.S.E. - S.W. 1
S.S.W. - S.E. 1
S. - S.E. 3
S. - S.W. 1
S. - W. 1
S.W. 2
S.W. - W. 3
S.W. - S. 1
S.W. - E. 1
28 = 31.8% W.
22 = 25.0% E.
38 = 42.2%
L. (5)
Average wind speed for the month =2.9 miles in the hour.
Average wind speed 07.00 - 19.00 hours =3.5 miles in the hour.
Average wind speed 19.00 - 07.00 =2.1 miles in the hour.
The highest wind speed recorded between 07.00 hours and 19.00 hours
was 8.7 miles in the hour.
The lowest wind speed recorded between 07.00 hours and 19.00
hours was 0,9 miles in the hour.
The highest wind speed recorded for the 12 hours 19.00 - 07.00
hours was 3«3 miles in the hour.

SUMMARY •
WIND SPEED'
MARCH
Miles in the Hour
Samples of records for 10 days in each month
Time in Hours
Day 07.00 - 08.00 . 13.00 - 14.00 18.00 - 19.00
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
2.6
2.9
1.3.
1.6
5.9 .
2.9
3.6
6.5
0.8
0.4
6.7
' 6.6
8.3
2.2
6.8
3.0
5.2
4.2
1.7
4.6
' 11.7
' 6.8
3.6
5.1
4.1
3.3
3.8
5.7
1.8
2.4
Average 2.8 4.9. 4.8
2. 2
2. 3
3. 5
3. 3
3< 5
2. 6
1. 4
2. 1
1. 8
2. 7
APRIL
6, 0
3. 4
7. 9
6. 0
3. 7
5. 6
5. 2
4, 7
2, 9
3. 0
3. 5
4. 2
2. 6
6. 6
2. 8
3. 3
4. 5
2. 8
1. 5
4. 1
Average 2.5 4.8 3.6
4. 2
2. 7
1, 9
4. 2
'4. 0
1. 8
2, 5
2, 5
2. 5
2. 7
Average-2.9
MAY
3, 4
4, 7
6. 8
1. 7
4. 5
3. 5
4. 9
6. 3
2. 9
5j 5
4. 4
3 ,0
2 .0
6 ,8
1 .2
2 .6
0 .9
1 ,1
2 .7
2 ,2
1 £ 2
.4
M.

LIGHT I N T E N S I T Y
FEBRUARY 1968.
s. (i)
Date Time Light light in F.C. F.C
Sky
15 11.00
15.45
200
100-
Clear.
50$ cloud with smoke haze.
20 11.15 125
Lightly overcast, hazy with
12.30
13.30
15.30
16.30
200
200
75
38
17.30 25
18.30 1.6
smoke.
Lightly overcast.
Lightly overcast.
Overcast with light cloud. .
Lightly overcast, smoke haze
on horizon.
Lightly overcast, smoke haze
on horizon.
Getting dark.
21 08.00
30
Lightly overcast.
12.15
13.15
16.30
150 -
100 -
13
3.2
200
150
Sun intermittently obscured.
Sun intermittently obscured.
Heavily overcast in the West.
Overcast and hazy.
22 07.00 13
Lightly overcast.
18.45 0.4
Getting dark.
23 07.00
12
Clear of cloud, hazy.
09.00 100
Cirrus clouds on the horizon,
smoke haze.
13.00 75
Cloudy patches, sun periodically
obscured.
17.30 50
Clear above, light cirrus
cloud on horizon.
24 07.30 50
Sunlight, light cloud on
11.00 200
13.00
16.00
200
100
western horizon.
Patches of cloud periodically
obscuring the sun.
Partly overcast with light
cirrus cloud, sun not obscured.
29 08.45
75
Lightly overcast.
14.00 150 - 200
Light, cloud patches periodically
obscuring the sun.
18.45 1.2 Light cloud on the horizon.
/Note

LIGHT I N T E N S I T Y
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
FEBRUARY (contd.)
N. (2)
Note: These readings were made with a Weston photometer
measuring light refIß cted directly upwards from the "burnt
grassland 60 yards south of Longo Magandi forest edge.
The instrument was held horizontali 3 feet above the ground
with the sensitive area facing downwards.
Readings were recorded in foot candles'.
As no regular records were kept during this month, it would
appear from the figures available that the following average
light intensities might give some idea of conditions that
prevailed during the month.
Time
07.00 - 08.00 13.00 - 14.00 18.00 - 19.00
hours hours hours
26.2 PC 125 FC 1.6 FC

Date 07.00
F.C.
LIG HT I N T E N S I T Y
08.00
F.C.
LIGHT MEASUREMENTS
T ime in Hours
13.00
F.C.
14.00
F.C.
MARC H 1968
18.00
F.C.
O. (1)
19.00
F.C.
5 6.5 NR NR 150.0 NR 0.05
6 13.Ö NR MR. I5O.O-200.0 10.0-12.0 0.05
7 13.0 NR NR 200.0 9.0 0.05
8 4.5 50.0 35.0 200.0-300.0 I3.O 0.05
9 10.0-12.0 NR NR 100.0 NR NR
10 NR 37.0 NR
(09.00 hrs)
I5O.O 3.2 NR
11 1.6 . 13.0 100.0 I5O.O 4.5 Too dark
12 0.1 50.0 NR 100.0
(16.00 hrs) 11.0 0.5
13 0.3 75.0 50.0 5O.O-25O.O I3.O 0.5
14 0.3 .13.0 225.O 200.0 3.2 Too dark
15 16.0 25.0 75.0 37.0 6.5 Too dark
16 NR 50.0 NR 100.0 NR Too dark
17 NR 37.0 75.0 NR NR Too dark
18 6.5 13.0 100.0 75.0 3.2 Too dark
19 4.8 16.0 NR I5O.O
(I5.3O hrs)
8.0 Too dark
20 13.0 75.0 11.0 9.7 6.5 Too dark
21 11.0 50.0 200.0 200.0 9.7 Too dark
22 0.8 4.5 13.0 I3.O 3.2 Too dark
23 13.0 50.0 225.O 200.0 NR NR
24 NR NR NR NR NR NR
25 6.5 13.0 2.9 9.7 5.5 Too dark
26 7.6 19.5 200.0 37.0 NR NR
27 13.0 18.0 NR 200.0 NR Too dark
28 9.5 25.0 75.0 3.0 4.0 Too dark
29 13.0 50.0 200.0 50.0 6.5 Too dark
30 6.5 75.0 NR 200.0 NR Too dark
31 NR 50.0 225.0 200.0 2.4 Too dark
Ave raj ge 7.9 F.C. 36.7 F.C. II3.2 F.C . 124.3 F.C. 7.1 F.C. Too dark
/It ...

«
I I .G H T I I 1 O I I T ï
MARCH (contd.)
It would appear that for this month the light intensity
was strongest between 13.00 - 14.00 hours. At 07.00 and
18.00 hours it was at' about the same low level and at 19.00
it was too weak to register.
0. (2)

Date 07.00
F.C
L I G H T I N T E N S I T Y APRIL 1968
08.00
F.C
LIGHT MEASUREMENTS
Time in Hours
13.00 14.00
F.C.
18.00
F.C.
p. (1)
19.00
F.C.
1 9.7 50.0 200.0 200.0 NR Too dark
2 9.7 75.0 NR NR 9.7 NR
3 .6.5 .,. 13.0 NR 50.0
(16.00 hrs) 6.5
i • -
Too dark
4 9.7 50.0 13.0 60.0 2.4 Too dark
5 2.5 75.0 100.0. 13.0 NR Too dark
6 6.3 50.0 50.0 NR NR' NR
7 NR NR NR NR NR- NR
8 13.0 NR NR NR NR NR
9 NR 125.0
(15.00 hrs)
NR 37.0 NR Too dark
10 6.5 37.5 60.0 13.0 4.0 Too dark
11 17.0 37.0 NR NR 6.5 Too dark
12 6.5 37.0 100.0 75.0 3.2 Too dark
13 25.0 75.0 NR NR 3.2 Too dark
14 NR 37.0 NR 200.0 4.5 Too dark
15 NR 25.0 100.0 150.0 0.1
/ [18.30 hrs)
Too dark
16 9.7 75.0
(09.00 hrs)
200.0 50.0 6.5 Too dark
17 13.0 50.0 NR NR 3.2 Too dark
18 9.7 37.0 200.0 NR 3.2 Too dark
19 6.5 25.0 200.0 NR NR NR
20 NR NR NR NR NR NR
21 NR NR NR NR NR NR
22 NR NR NR NR NR NR
23 NR NR NR MR NR NR
24 NR NR NR NR NR NR
25 NR NR NR NR NR NR
26 NR NR NR NR NR NR
27 1.6 2.4 13.0 9.3 1.2 Too dark
28
29
30
8.0
2.8
6.5
50.0
9.7
37.0
150.0
37.0
100.0-200.0
150.0
NR
150.0
3.2
1.2
4.8
Too dark
Too dark
Too dark
Avéra ge8.9 F. C. 46.2 F.C. 114.8 F.C. 89.0 F.C. 3.9 F.C. Too dark

LIGHT INTENSITY"
APRIL, 1968 (contd.)
These figures seem to indicate slightly higher light
intensity at 13.00 hours than occurred in March with lower
readings at 14.00 hours.
P. (2)

o
-p H
cd
fi
cMto*H-mvoc--cotT«OH CM
H
to
"=t. in VQ.. [>r
r-[ ri rt H ca
H
CX.Q..H CM to •=*- in•- vo- O CO CT» O H -ij
HCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMtOtO
ü
c-
•
ft
ü
o •
• g
g fe
fe
O o
• •
to to
H H
0
00
I g
in in CM vo vo
vo vo to to o
00 m in in CO invo in
"vt-vo vo vo "* vDH vo
w1
Ml
cb|
KI
00*
o ft
EHI
o
ü P4 tó Ä
. Si z S;
fe
fe £
2 e
O O m
4 • • • C 3 « PH
5 o to «o fe 5 fe fe
m H
g
•2
O O O O O C M i n O O C T v c M O O
intoino in c- vo in in c— CO to in
CMHCMinCM CMCM HCM
fel
H|
H
M
O to
-H- H O
in
H
EH| EH E-4
to ft
îHtf ë
CJ
E
•r
o o
g
• • . & pi pi
O in o fe S fe
in c*- LT\
O fe;
O
CM
H CM H
P*
MJ pg m
Ml ë Ö
•rfel

LIGHT INTENSITY
MAY. 1968 (contd.)
These figures seem to indicate generally lower light
9*- (2)
intensities than occurred in March or April but the 14.00 hour
light intensities seem to be generally higher than they were
in April.

G)
-P
«
C- 00 CT. LTV
H
VO CTi
H H O
CvJ
H
CM
(M
C\J
Wl
«I
O
Ml
H H H O H

RELATIVE HUMIDITY
FEBRUARY, 1968 (contd.)
Date Time in Hours R H
Per Cent
Ranse
23 07. .00
09. ,00
13. .00
17. .30
19. .00
25%
78%
60%
74%
. 85%
35%
24 07. • 30
13. .00
16, .00
17. .00
19. .00
25%
42%
52%
6A7o
82%
£2%
29 09. .00
14, .00
18. .45
84%
59%
• 81%
2£%
R. (2)
So regular readings were made'during this month.but the
following information can be deduced from the above records:-
Highest R.H. recorded = 95% (on 2 occasions between
07.00 and 08.00)
Lowest R.H. recorded = 43% (once at 13.00 hours)
Highest diurnal rangé recorded = 52.% (once only)
. Lowest diurnal range recorded = 25%
Average R.H. for 49 readings = 73%
Average R.H. 07.00 - 09.00 hours = 85%
Average R.H. 13.00 - 14.00 hours = 54%
Average R.H. 18.00 - .21.00. hours = 85%
Average diurnal range = 33%

RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Ï4ARCH, 1968
Date 07.00 i hrs 14.00 hrs 19.00 hrs Range
1 90% (08.45 hrs) NR 90% (18.30 hrs) NR
2 95% (08.00 hrs) NR 90% (18.30 hrs) NR
3 NR NR NR NR
4 90% .•NR 87% NR
5 100% 72% 100% 28%
6 - 94% 62% 91% 32%
7 100% 63?' 78% 37%
8 90% 68% 91% 23%
9 95% 64% 100% 36%
10 90% 59% 82% 31%
11 100* 78% 95% 22%
12 100% 65% 95% 35%
13 95% 59% 90% 36%
14 95% 42% 90% 48%
15 90% 85% -9C% 5%
16 90% 79% . 90% 11%
17 91% (08.00 hrs) 865'« 96% 10%
18 95% 62% .95% 33%
19 20% 54% 82% 36%
20 100% 90% . 73% 27%
21 77% 62% ,.. 81% 19%
22 90% 90% ' 85% &
23 85% 68% 93$ 23^
24 957o NR NR NR
25 95% 100% 85% 15%
26 85% 82% 95% 13%
27 90% 7P^ 90% 18%
28 95% 100% 90% 5£
29 90% 59% 91% 32^
30 100% 68% 91% 32%
31 82% (08.00 hrs) 69% (13.00 hrs) 90% 21%
Average 92$
r
) 72% 89% 24%
Highest R.H. recorded during the month = 100% (6 times at 07.00 hrs,
2 at 14.00 hrs and 2 at 19.00 hrs).
Lowest R.H. recorded during 'the month = 47% (once at 14.00 hrs).
Highest diurnal range recorded during the month = 48% (on 1 occasion)
Lowest diurnal range recorded during the month = 5% (on 3 occasions).
Average R.H. for the month = 84%
Average R.H. at 07.00 hrs = 92%
Average R.H. at 14.00 hrs = 72%
Average R.H. at 19.00 hrs = 89%
Average diurnal range for the month =24%
S.

RELATIVE HUMIDITY
APRIL, 1968.
Date 07.00 hrs 14.00 hrs 19.00 hrs Range
1 95% 68% 91% 28%
2 96% NR 90% NR
3 90% 75% 90% 15%
4 95% 95% 95% 0%
5 90% 90% 96% 6%
6 90% 70% 96% 26%
7 NR NR NR NR
8 96% NR NR NR
9 96% 79% 95% 17%
10 95% 76% 91% 19%
11 96% 78% 96% 18%
12 100% 91% 100% 9%
13 96% NR 100% NR
14 96% 72% 91% 24%
15 100% 71% 96% 29%
16 96% 71% 95% 25%
17 90% 67% 96% 29%
18 96% 82% 96% 14%
19 96% 79% 100% 21%
20 100% 95% 95% 5%
21 95% 76% 95% 19%
22 95% 82% 96% 14%
23 1Q0% 91% 96% 9%
24 91% £6% 90% 22j
25 96% 79% 91% 17%
26 100% 100% 1005Ö 0%
27 100% 95% 100% 5%
28 90% 75% 90% 15%
29 100% 86% 95% 14%
30 95% 76% 100% 24%
Average 96% 80% 96% 16%
Highest R.H. recorded during the month = 100% (7 times at 07.00;
1 at 14.00 and 6 times at 19.00 hrs).
Lowest R.H. recorded for the month = 56% (once at 14.00 hrs).
Highest diurnal range recorded for the month = 35%.
Lowest diurnal range recorded in the month =0% (on 2 occasions)
Average R.H. for the month = 90%.
Average R.H. at 07.00 hrs = 96%.
Average R.H. at 14.00 hrs = 80%.
Average R.H. at 19.00 hrs = 96%.
Average diurnal range for the month = 1.6%.
1'

RELATIVE. HUMIDITY
MAY, 1968
Date 07.00 hrs 14.00 hrs 19.00 hrs .Ranse
1 100% 91% 100% 9%
2 95% 86% 96% 10%
3 100% 75% 96% 21%
4 96% 82% 100% 18%
5 95% 79% 90% 16%
6 96% NR NR NR
7 95% £5% 96% 21%
8 100% 78% 96% 22%
9 100% 90% 100% 10%
10 96% NR 90% NR
11 95% 82% 96% 14%
12 NR 75% 90% 15%
13 96% 82% 96% 14%
14 95% 86% 96% 14%
15 96% 66% 91% 25%
16 90% 78% 90% 12%
17 90% 85% 95% 10%
18 95% 100% 95% 5%
19 95?i 91% 95% 4%
20 100% 91% 95% 9%
21 100% 81$i 95% 19%
22 95% 74% 95% 21%
23 95% 85% 90% 10%
24 100% 95% 95% 5%
25 100% 86% 95% 14%
r\r?cf
75% 90% 20%
27 100% 78% 100% 22%
28 95% 100% 95% 5%
29 95% 100% 95% 5%
30 100% 82% . 90% 18%
31 95% . 74% 95% 21%
Average 96% 83% 95% 14%
Highest R.H. recorded during the month = 100% (10 times at 07.00 hrs,
3 times at 14.00 hrs and 4 times at 19.00 hrs)
Lowest R.H. recorded for the month = 65% (at 14.00 hrs).
Highest diurnal range recorded for the month = 31% (on one occasion).
Lowest diurnal range recorded for the month = 4% (on one occasion).
Average R.H. for the month = 91%.
Average R.H. at 07»00 hrs = 96%.
Average R.H. at 14.00 hrs = 83%.
Average R.H. at 19.00 hrs = 95%.
Average diurnal range for the month = 14%.

APPENDIX II
COMPARISON OF SUMMARISED CLIMATIC RECORDS
AT LONGO MAGANDI
STATION 1 In open, burnt grassland 60 yards south
of the southern edge of the forest.
STATION 2 Inside the forest 60 yards north of its
southern edge.
STATION 3 Inside the forest l60 yards north of
its southern edge.
NR = No record

TEMPERATURE
AIR
Average samples of ten days 1 readings for the
three Stations in each month.
Time: Hrs
STATION 0700 O8OO 1300 1400 1800 1900
1 73 75 80 80 75 74
2 72 74 78 77 75 74
3 NR 73 78 NR 74 NR
APRIL
070O O8OO 1300 1400 1800 1900
1 71 73 78 79 73 72
2 . 70 72 76 77 73 73
3 71 72
MAY
76 76 73 73
070O 0800 1300 1400 1800 1900
1 69 71 75 75 71 70
2 69 70 73 73 71 70
3 69 70 73 72 71 70
A.

TEMPER Ä-i-U RE
AIR
Comparison of average of ten day samples of
records in each month for the three stations.
Time: Hrs
STATION MONTH 0700 0800 1300 1400 1800 1900
°F oF
°F oF °F
•i'r' .' .
B.
(MARCH 73 75 80 80 75 74
1 5APRIL 71 73 .- 78.
79 73 72
(MAY 69 71 75 75 71 70
(MARCH 72 74 78 77 75 74
2 >APRIL 70 72 , •r\__ 76 77 73 73
•
(MAY 69 70 r7.3:0 73 71 70
(MARCH NR .73 7§v NR 74 NR
3 JAPRIL 71 72 76.. 76 73 73
(MAY 69 70 73 72 71 70

T E E R A T U R E
SOIL SURFACE
Average of samples of records for ten days
in each month for the three stations.
MARCH
Time : Hrs
STATION 0700 O8OO 1300 1400 1800 1900
oF op OF OF OF OF
1 74 77 101 98 81 77
2 73 74 75 75 74 74
3 NR 74 75 NR 75 NR
APRIL
O7OO 0800 1300 I400 1800 1900
1 72 75 86 91 79 77
2 72 72 74 74 73 73
3 72 72 74 74 74 74
MAY
0700 O8OO 1300 1400 1800 1900
1 70 72 80 82 75 74
2 70 70 71 72 71 70
3 70 70 72 72 71 71
c.

TEMPERATURE °F
SOIL SURFACE
Comparison of average of ten day samples
records in each month for the three stations.
Time: Hrs
STATION MONTH 0700 O8OO 1300 1400
-
18OO
(MARCH 74 77 101 98 81
1 )APRIL 72 75 86 91 79
(MAY 70 72 80 82 . 75
(MARCH 73 74 75 75 74
2 JAPRIL 72 72 74 74 73
fMAV TA
1 *
TO »71
1 *
(MARCH NR 74 75 NR 75
3 S APRIL 72 72 74 74 74
(MAY 70 70 72 72 71

R A N F A L L
Fa:??ARY 1968
STATION 1 ; . .-
LONGO MilGAJilDI in,open burnt, grassland. 60 yards;
DATE MILLIMETRES
south of the forest edge
INCHES
1
NR NR
2
3
A
5
6
7
8
NR ' " '
MR
NR
NR
Nil
Nil
Trace
NR
NR
NR
NR
Nil
Nil
Trace
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil '
Heavy
Light
Light
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
rain )
rain )
rain )
Nil
TOTAL 21 0.82
REMARKS
E.
No rain
No rain.
Very light intermittent
showers :0900 - 1400 hrs;
not enough to measure.
Occasional drop of rain;
not enough to measure.
No rain
: '
It II
II II
It It
It II
It It
It II
II It
H II
tl It
It II
It It
II It
II II
II II
Rain began l600 hours
0.82 inches fell
No rain .».-...

R A I N F A L L
FEBRUARY 1968
STATION 2
LONGO MAGANDI inside the forest 60 yards north of its
southern edge
DATE MILLIMETRES INCHES
1 ' NR NR
2 NR NR
3 NR NR
4 NR NR
5 NR- . NR
6 Nil Nil
. .7 • ,, -Nil - Nil
', 8 ^ Trace Trace
'9 '- Nil Nil
10 .. Nil Nil
11 Nil Nil
12 Nil Nil
13 Nil Nil
14 Nil Nil
15 Nil Nil
10 Nil Nil
17 Nil Nil
18 Nil Nil
19 Nil Nil
20 Nil Nil
21 Nil Nil
22 Nil Nil
23 Nil Nil
24 Nil Nil
25 Nil Nil
26 Heavy rain )
27 Light rain )
.28 Light rain )
29 Nil Nil
TOTAL *26.5 1.05
REMARKS
See Station 1
ti n n
* 1.05 inches
Number of rain days in the month =. 3
N.B.* Compare with Station 1
F.

ATÎ
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28 .
29
30
31
TOTAL
RAINFALL
MARCH 1968
STATION. 1
INCHES
y- -? -s Nil ;
Ü:il Nil
Nil Nil
12.0 0.48
3.7 - 0.14
4.0 0.17
Nil Nil
Nil Nil
1.6 0.06
16.8 0.66
11.2 0.45
43.5 1.74
Nil Nil
Nil Nil
1.5 0.06
Nil Nil
Nil Nil
4.2 0.16
Nil Nil
Nil Nil
2.5 0.09
Nil Nil
Nil Nil
16.0 0.63
Nil Nil
19.4 0.77
Nil Nil
Nil Nil
39.5 1.57
9.0 0.35
5.7 0.22
190.6 7-55
REMARKS
G.
No rain
No rain
Heavy shower at 1300 hours
Drizzle in the night
Drizzle in the night
No rain
No rain
No rain
Drizzle in the early
hours of the morning
Rained 1700-1900 hours
; 9.3.I968
Rained heavily in the
afternoon
No rain
No rain
Light drizzle 1300-1400 hrs
No rain
No rain .
Drizzle intermittently
during the day.
No rain
No rain
Light drizzle in the
afternoon.
No rain
No rain
No rain .
Rain started about
0530 hours
Rain II3O-I23O hours
No rain
No rain
Rain 1345-1500 hours
No rain
Rain 0300-0500 hours
Number of rain days in the month = 13
More than \ an inch of rain fell on five occasions

DATE • MILLIMETRES
R A I N F A L L
MARCH 1968
STATION 2
60 yards inside the forest
INCHES
'•• Nil -••• :
1 '•• Nil -••• : Nil
2 Nil • Nil
3 Nil :
Nil
4 12.00 O.48O
5 3.70' • 0.140
6 4.00 0.170
7 Nil Nil
8 Nil • Nil
9 *2.00 *0.O75
10 9.8O 0.390
11 10.60 0.420
12 32.20 1.280
13 • Nil •'"••• Nil
14 Nil Nil
15 O.3O 0.015
16;
IN XX
17 Nil . Nil
18 I.60 : •- 0.060
19 Nil Nil
20 •Nil '•':•• Nil
21 0.70 •'' 0.025
22 Nil- • Nil
23 Nil - Nil
24 9.50 O.37O
25' Nil Nil
26 10.70 0.420
27 Nil ' Nil
28 Nil Nil
29 27.70 1.170
30 • 0.25 :
0.010
31 *7.00 *0.270
TOTAL 132.05 5.29,5
ù V'
N.B. * Compare with Station 1
REMARKS
See Station 1

RAINFALL
APRIL 1968
STATION 1
DATE MILLIMETRES INCHES REMARKS
1 Nil Nil No rain
2
3
4
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
No rain
No rain
Heavy rain 1220-1245 hrs
5
6
10.3
10.0
0.41
0.40
Rain 1215-1245 hours
No rain
7
8
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
No rain
Rain at 1530 hours
9 9.0 0.40 No rain
10
11
Nil
Trace
Nil
Trace
Drizzle 1245-1315 hours
Heavy rain 1030 hours
12 39.5 1.57 Rain during the night.
Heavy showers 1100 hours
and 1530 hours
13
14
15
16
13.4
4.7
34.2
12.0
0.53
0.18
1.40
0.48
Heavy shower 1130 hours
No rain
Heavy rain 0100 hours.
Rain 2100 hours
No rain
17 Nil Nil No rain
18 Nil Nil No rain
19 ) Light rain 2100 hours
20 ) Light rain 1500 hours
21 ) Away from Camp No rain
22 )
23 )
24 )
25 )
26 )
27 )
28
29
199.0
7.2
5.2
8.07
0.27
0.20
No rain
Light rain 0800 hours
No rain
Heavy rain 2000 hours
Rain all day and all night
Drizzle till 1600 hours
No rain
Light drizzle early
morning
30 8.4 0.33
Rain in the night
TOTAL 352.9
14.24
Number of rain days in the month = 16
Heavy rain fell on the 11th; the early morning
of the 15th and between the 23rd and 27th.
I.

R A I N F A L L
APRIL 1968
STATION 2
60 yards inside the forest
DATE MILLIMETRES INCHES
1 . Nil Nil
2 Nil Nil
3 Nil Nil
A . Nil Nil
5 6.30 0.24
. 6 3.8O 0.14
7 Nil . Nil
. 8 .Nil Nil
9 3.00 0.11
10 .Nil , Nil
11 Trace Trace
12 30.50 1.21
13 .12.25 . 0.49
14 , -2.50 0.09
15 *48.50 1.74
16 11.50 0.46
17 Nil Nil
:18 Nil Nil
19 . Nil Nil
20 NR NR )
21 NR NR )
22 NR NR )
23 NR NR )
24 NR NR )
25 NR NR )
26 NR NR )
27 NR NR )
28 5.70 0.22
29 *6.30 0.24
30 *14.00- • 0.55
TOTAL 311.85 12.20
N.B. *" Compare with Station 1
REMARICS
See Station 1
I! II II
Total I67.50 mm
6.71 in.

R A I N F A L L
MAY 1968
STATION 1
1ILLIMETRE S INCHES
REMARKS
5.5
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
5.5
2.4
4-2
47.1
IO.3
Nil
I5.O
Nil
9.9
Nil
Nil
7.1
0.21
Nil
Nil
= * Nil
'" Nil
0.21
0.08
0.16
1.88 .
0.41
Nil .
0.59
Nil
0.39
Nil
Nil
0.18
Drizzle
No rain
No. rain
No. rain
No rain
Drizzle t
Light drizzle
Intermittent light drizzle
Heavy rain after midnight
Drizzle
No. rain
NR
No, rain
NR.
No- rain
No rain
Rain during day and night
28.2 1.12 Heavy rain all day
55.3
36.7
2.28
1.47
Drizzle all day
Rain all night; drizzle
in morning
3.8
3.0
O.14
0.11
Drizzle in night & morning
Intermittent light
drizzle all day
5.2
10.3
0.20
0.41
- '- • •
Intermittent drizzle all
day
Intermittent drizzle all
day
30.2
I5.O
1.20
0.59
Drizzle and heavy cloud
all day
Intermittent drizzle all
day
2.8
39.6
3O.3
44.2
0.2
0.20
1.57
1.20
1.76
0.01
Drizzle all day
Rain all night
Drizzle all day and night
Drizzle all day and night
Drizzle and cloud all day
411.8 16.37
Number of rain days in the month = 2 3
Number of days when more than 5 inch rain fell = 10
K.

R A I N F A L L
MAY 1968
STATION"2
DATE MILLIMETRES INCHES
1 5.70 0.22
2 Nil Nil
3 Nil Nil
4 Nil- Nil
5 Nil Nil
6 ::.: 4.40 0.17
, 7- 1.70 0.06 : ,
• .8 :•: 3.00 0.11
9 *82.90 *3.31
10 *10.80 *0.48
11 Nil Nil
12 12.00 0.48
13 Nil Nil
14 : 6.50 0.25
15
: •. Nil Nil
16 . •'•' Nil Nil
17 4.00 0.15 -
18 *35.80 *1.43' •
19 84.00 3.46
20 32.90 1.41
21 1.70 0.06
22 - 1.40 0.05 •
23 4.30 0.17
24 8*70 0.34 - .
25 *35.50 *1.42
26 11.30 0.45 -
27 0.50 0.02
28 *48.80 *1.95 •
29 *50.60 *2.01
30 43.00 1.71
31 0.30 0.01
TOTAL
'489.80 *19.62
N.B. * Compare with Station 1
REMARKS
See Station 1
ii
.H
H
ii
H
it
n
H
II
n
n
II
it
ti
it
n
tt
it
ti
H
,n
n
it
ti
n
II
it
tt
tt
ti
tt
tt
ti
it
tt
tt
ti
II
n
it
tt
tt
it
it
ti
it
II
it
it
it
it
tt
ii
it
it
ti
tt
tt
tt
tt
tt
ti
it
n
n
II
ti
tt
tt
ti
tt
it
tt
it
it
II
tt
tt
it
tt
tt
ti
it
it
n
it
II
it
tt
ti
L.

R A I N F A L L
MAY 1968
STATION 3.
Inside Longo Magandi forest 160 yards north of
its southern edge
DATE MILLIMETRES
INCHES
~1 NR NR
2 NR "- NR
3 NR • NR
4 NR NR
5 NR NR
6 NR NR
7.' 1.20 0,050
8 2.00 O.O7O
9 *18.00 ^0.740
10 4.00 O.I5O
11 Nil Nil
12 I3.6O 0.540
13 Nil Nil
14 " 5.50 Ö.21Ó
15 -N±l Nilf
16 Nil Nil
17 6.40 0.250
18 17.00 0.670
19 22.80 0.920
20 28.00 1.110
2i 2.00 0.075
22 '. 1.00 0.040
23 2.20 O.08O
.24 6. 30. 0.240
25 8.00. 0.330-
26 5.5O 0.210
27 2.00 0.070
28 24.00 O.-96O:
29 13.40 0.530
30 18.80 0.740 -
31 0.10 0.002
TOTAL 201.80 7.987
- • REMARKS
See Station 1
tt 11 n
it tt n
n tt tt
it it 11
tt ti 11
It. . II,
N.B. * Compare with Stations 1 and 2

MONTH
FEBRUARY
MARCH
APRIL
MAY
TOTAL
R A I N F A L L -••
IONGO MAGANDI ,
Comparison of three Stations
mm in
21.00 0.82
190.60 7.55
352.90 14.24
411.80 16.37
STATION
2 1
N.
mm . in mm in
26.50 1.050 . NR NR
132.05 . 5.295 • ; NR NR
311.85, ,12.200 NR NR
976.30 38.98 957.20 38.165
489.80 19.620 . :20.1.80 7.987
February: During three days of rain, Station 2 received
5.5 nun or 0.13 inches more rain than Station 1.
March: Station 2 received 57.55 mm or 2.255 inches (29$)
less rain than Station 1.. •
April; Station 2 received 41.05 mm or 2.04' inches
(13.6$) less than Station 1.
Mavi Station 2 received 78.00 mm or 3*25 inches
(22.8$) more rain than Station 1 and 288.00 mm
or 11.64 inches (145%) more than Station 3.
The tables indicate that Station 2 often
received more rain than the other two stations
but once Station 3 received a little more
than Station 2. . T

LIGHT I N T E N S I T Y
Foot candle's '
Average of samples of records for ten days for
the three stations in each month.'
MARCH
Time: hrs
STATION 0700 0800 1300 1400 1800 1900
FC FC FC FC FC FC
1 9.91 34'. 35 115.19 64.74 6.13 0.00
' 2 0.30 0.80 1.80 1.16 O.17 0.00
3 NR .0.30 0.60 NR 0.07 0.00
APRIL
Time: hrs
• • _
O7OO O80O I30O I4OO 1800 I9OO
'1 8.97 42.69 123.23 77.40 4.28 0.00
2 0.20 0.79 1.07 0.96 0.12 0.00
3 O.O8 O.26 0.41 0.25 0.05 0.00
MAY
Time: hrs
07OO O8OO 13OO 1400 1800 1900
1 5.25 21.71 88.80 67.05 1.92 0.00
2 0.14 0.35 1.04 0.79 0.12 0.00
3 O.60 0.16 0.33 O.52 0.005 0.00
o.

LIGHT I N T E N S I T Y
Comparison of average of samples of records
for ten days in each month for the three stations.
Time: Hrs
STATION MONTH O7OO 0800 :• 13P0 1400 1800 1900
FC FC FC FC FC FC
(MARCtt 9.9I 34.35 II5.I9 64.74 6.13" O'.ÖO
1 j APRIL 8.97 42.69. I23.23 77.40 4.28 0.00
i (MAY ' 5.22 2i'! 71 88.80 67.05 1.92 ,0.00
(MARCH O.3O 0.80 1.80 1.16 0.17 0.00
2 {APRIL 0.20 0.7.9 .•1.07 0.96 0.12 0.00
(MAY 0.14 0.35 1.04 0.79 0.12 0.00
3
p.
(MARCH NR o.* .30 0.60 NR; 0.07 NR
(APRIL 0.08 0.26. 0.41 0,25 0.05 0.00
(MAY 0.Ö6 0.16 0.33 O.52 0.005 0.00

RELATIVE HUMIDITY
per cent
Y Average ,of samples of ten days'" readings for
the three stations in each month.
MARCH
Time: hrs
STATION . 0700 O8OO I3OO 1400 18OO 1900
1 92 78 73 75 84 87
2 93 90 78 79 87 88
3 '. NR 94 79 80 90 NR
- .
APRIL
Time: hrs
: 0700 O80Ó 1300 1400 .1800 :
1900
1 97 95 82 81 90 91
2 98 94 84 84 90 96
3 96 95 90 89 90 95
MAY
Time: hrs
0700 O8OO 1300 1400 1800 1900
1 97 94 86 84 91 93
2 98 95 90 87 93 93
3 98 97 94 93 94 95
fi.

R E L A T I V E H U M I D I T Y
Comparison of average of samples of records
for ten days in each month for the three stations.
Time: Hrs
STATION MONTH 0700 0800 1300 1400 1800 1900
R.
% %. % % % %
(MARCH 92 78 73 72 84 87
1 [APRIL 97 95 82 81 90 95
(MAY 97 94 86 84 91 93
(MARCH 93 90 78 79 87 88
2 [APRIL 98 94 84 84 90 96
(MAY 98 95 90 87 93 93
(MARCH NR 94 80 NR 90 NR
T /APRIL 96 95 - : 90 89 90 95
(MAY 98 97 94 93 94 95

APPENDIX III
SOIL ANALYSES FROM
LONGO MAGANDI
AND
SHIMBA HILLS SETTLEMENT
The physical and chemical tests were
carried out by the Soil Survey Unit at the
National Agricultural Laboratories in Nairobi.
The work in the Shimba Hills
Settlement area was done by Makin (1968).
•* -a- •* # -a-

S = sand.
FOREST
LONGO MAGANDI
100 yards inside the forest
SOIL PIT 2
£•' PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
L = i oam. C = clay.

Depth in
inches
FOREST
B. AVAILABLE NUTRIENTS
HV Hp c N P Mn Mg Ca Na K PH
0-3 4.2 0.1 1.70* 0.22 10 0.30 1.8 6.2 0.06 0.20 5.3
6-9 1.5 0.0 0.46 0.07 7 0.22 0.6 1.0 0.02 0.02 5.6
12 - 15 1.3 0.0 0.29 0.05 3 0.10 0.5 0.8 0.06 0.02 5.9
24 - 27 0.8 0.0 0.35 0.04 7 0.02 0.2 0.6 0.04 trace 5.9
36 - 39 .1.0 0.0 - ..-..• 8 0.05 0„. 1 Q...2 0.06 trace 6.0
72 - 75 . 1.5 0.0 .-. - .8 . 0.02 ] . 0.2 .0,2 0.Q8 trace 6.1
108 - ill 1.7 0.0 - . . - '.' 4. 0.02 0.6 trace .0.06 trace 5.2
120 - 123 . 2.1 0.0 - .3. trace 0.4 trace 0.10 trace 5.6
Hv, Hp,..Mn, Mg, Ca,. Na, IC. .= .. .miHirequivalents per cent
P = parts per million
N and C = per cent
* The low carbon content in the tôpsoil is not understood. According to Makin
(1968) "under forest there is nö visible surface organic layer and the bases are
leached out". This statement is not consistent with my field notes for this soil
sample, which read - "The first 3 inches of soil consist of leaf litter and mulch.
It is dark grey, very light and friable and contains profuse root activity".
Glover (1966) demonstrated that in the Mau forest of Kenya the carbon content in
the first 3 inches of topsoil was as high asl3«48 per cent.

Depth in
inches
• •i k >
pn - KCl H20 - EC ECe Cat.ex.
cap.
FOREST c.
C. EXCHANGEABLE BASES
E.S.P.
*
Mg Ca Na K
0-3 5.4 0.15 0.90 12.2 trace 2.2 6.4 trace 0.25
6-9 5.7 0.07 0.45 3.8 trace 1.2 1.8 trace 0.05
12 - 15 5.6 0.10 O.26 2.8 trace 0.8 1.2 trace 0.05
24 - 27 6.7 0.11 0.35 2.2 trace 1.2 0.8 trace 0.05
36 - 39 5.8 0.11 0.20 • 2.2 trace 1.1 0.6 trace 0.03
72 - 75 6.0 0.12 0.15 2.6 trace 1.1 0.8 trace 0.03
108 - 111 5.4 0.15 0.21 2.2 trace 1.1 0.4 trace 0.03
120 - 1.23 5.8 0.36 O.38 2.6 trace 1.3 0.4 trace 0.05
H2O-EC and ECe' = mmhos/cm ,
Mg, Ca, Na, K = milli-equivalents per cent
Cat.ex.cap. = öation exchange capacity in milli-èquivalents per cent

Depth in
inches
0-4
(0-10cm)
"4 - 19
(10-48cm)
19 - 53
(48-133cm)
S = sand
Depth in
inches
HIGH LYING SOILS
Makin»s Soil 10
Soil Pit No.55 (Makin 1968)
A. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Colour Class
very dark
brown .
Sand Silt
%
Clay
%
SCL 56 18 " . 26
dark brown... SCL .' ; "': .5.6:.." 14 . . ..30
yellowish
red
B.
Kp ; Hv
: o - 4
(0--10cm) — 7.2
4-19
(10-4 Som) '
19 - 53
{48-133cm)
•
....
SC 48 12 40
L = loam
AVAILABLE NUTRIENTS
' • •
C = clay
Mn Mg Ca Na K pH
1.7 225 1.28 5.2 10.8 0.14 0.87 6.6
6.2 16 1.52 2.5 3.2 0.07 0.47 5.6
0.1 4.2 6 0.58 1.2 2.8 0.12 0.12 5.2
Hp, Mn, Mg, Ca, K = milli-equivalents per cent
P = parts per million
C = per een-

Depth in
inches
0-4
(0-10 cm)
4-19
(10 - 48 cm)
19 - 53
(48 r 133 cm)
1 t y
HIGH LYING SOILS
C. EXCHANGEABLE BASES
pH - KCl H20 - EC V/ • fci • O • E.S.P. Mg Ca Na K
H?0-EC and C.E.C. = mmhos/cm
6.1 0.27 24.0 0.1 4.7 15.8 0.02 1.00
5.2 0.29 9.4 0.01 2.2 3.8 0.01 0.48
5.0 0.18 7- 6 0.4 0.9 2.8 0.03 0.39
Mg, Ca, Na, K = milli-equivalents per cent
N.B. The analyses of this soil have been included to compare with the foregoing
ones of Longo Magandi forest for although it occurs on Maji ya Chomvi
sandstone, it appears to be similar in some ways to the Longo Magandi
forest soil. Makin (1968) says that under high forest - e.g. Bombax and
Chlorophöra - the soil becomes very acid. It is leached of calcium
magnesium and potassium under the influence of a highly acid topsoil
organic litter, which releases Hp at the soil surface.
The phosphate content of the above soil sample seems very high.

• •
Depth in
inches
t-*
to
to
co „
*-*
o
oo
1
H*
EO
o •
CO
O
ÎO
1
1
1
1
co
1-*'
Un
to
co
en
to
co
CO
to
3
Cu
o
M
0
3
1
an
O?»
•J
CD • CD
*1
CD
o.
•1
(D
•1
CD
CD •
»1
CD
a
»1
CD
Cu
O
O
l>
•
CU
1 . O
•TJ a f
S GO o 70
H* CO s«
co O O o >
H H 3 o
O •f et. CO
>
r 1 •TJ H» g co
H a o
r-d CD
f
O
H
fi)
M
to
CO CO
CO
n
t- 1
CO
O
co
o
co
o
co
o
o
II
H*
O
ê
O H* et ö >
•"d 3* H
W CD 55
P«
H H> ö
H 0
M 1
co
03
•^3
a
oo
to
oo
to
>4
O •5*
OO
o
CO CD
CD
et
co
H-
"JAM
et
O
tO *° 'M to to to •fs» to
II
O
Di
M
•S3.»

Depth in
inches
GRASSLAND
B. AVAILABLE NUTRIENTS
Hv Hp C N P Mn Mg Ca Na K pH
0-3 1.7 0.0 0.89 0.10 4 0.14 0.9 1.6 0.06 0.08 5.7
6-9 2.4 0.4 0.69 0.06 4 0.03 0.3 0.2 0.02 0.02 5.5
12 - 15 1.8 0.3 0.52 0.06 3 0.03 0.2 trace 0.02 trace 5.4
24 - 27 1.9 0.1 0.29 0.04 6 trace 0.2 trace 0.18 trace 5.4
36 - 39 1.8 0.0 - - 6 trace 0.3 trace 0.06 trace 5.6
72 - 75 2.6 0,3 - - 4 trace 0.2 trace 0.10 trace .5.3
108 - ill 3.1 0.2 - - 4 0.02 0.1 trace .0.10 trace 5.2
120 - 123 2.7 0.2 - - 4 0.02 0.1 trace 0.08 trace 5.1
Hv, Hp, Mn, Mg, Ca, Na, K = milli-equivalents per cent
P = parts per million
C and N = per cent
Makin (1968) says that under grassland, bases and nutrients accumulate in the
top soil associated with a visible concentration of organic matter. This
statement is not supported by the information contained in the above table
which should be compared with Table B inside the forest.

Depth in
inches
pH-KCl H20-EC ECe
GR A S S L A N D
C. EXCHANGEABLE BASES
O aX • 6X »
cap.
E.S.P. Mg Ca Na K
0 - 3 6.1 0.11 0.22 .5.4. 4.'6 1.1 2.4 0.25 0.20
.6 - 9 5.2 0.07 0.16 3.6 trace 1.1 1.0 trace O.O3
12 *• 15 5.7 ' 0.06 0.20 3.0 trace 1.0 0.8 trace O.O3
24;- 27 6.2 0.11 0.18 ; 2.2 trace 1.2 0.6 trace .0.03
•Mr 39 6.6 0.10 0.12 2.0 trace 1.4 0.6 trace O..O3
72 - 75 5.7 0.06 0.11 2.8 trace 1.3 0.4 trace 0.03
108 - ill 6.0 0.05 0.09 *• 2.6 trace 0.9 0.4 trace Ój.05
120 - 123 5.4 0.24 0.44 2.6 trace 1.1 0.4. trace Q ^
H2O-EC and ECe (mmhos/cm) : Mg, Ca, Na, K = milli-equivalents per cent
Cat.ex.cap. = Cation exchange capacity in milli-equivalents per cent
H.

Depth in
inches
Colour Class
V E R N O N I A SCRUB I
Forestry Experimental Plots
SOIL PIT 3
A. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Sand
%
Silt CI ay
0-3 dark grey SCL 76 2 22
ƒ
6'. - 9 dark grey SCL 72 4 22
12 - 15 dark grey SCL 72 2 . . ' 26
24 - 27 dark grey SCL 68 2 30
36-•* 39 red SCL 60 6 34
72 - 75 red " C 38 2 60
108 - 111 red C 24 10 66
S = sand L = loam C - clay

Depth in
inches
-) •
VERNONIA SCRUB
B. AVAILABLE NUTRIENTS
Hv Hp C N P Mn Mg Ca Na K pH
9-3 2.8 0.1 1.12 0.10 5 0.14 1.6 1.4 0.11 0.06 5.6
\6 - 9 3.2 0.5 0.78 0.06 4 0.06 0.6 0.2 0.08 trace 5.5
12-15 2.8 0.5 0.63 0.16 4 0.03 0.3 trace 0.08 trace 5.3
24 - 27 2.0 0.3 0.29 0.04 5 0.03 0.2 trace 0.18 trace 5.2
36 - 39 1.8 0.2 - - 4 0.05 0.1 trace 0.06 trace 5.2
72 - 75 2.5 0.3 - - 3 trace 0.1 trace 0.08 trace 5.0
108 - 111 2.3 0.0 - - 4 0.05 0.1 trace 0.12 trace 5.2
Hv, Hp, Mn, Mg, Ca, Na, K = milli-equivalents per cent
P = parts per million
N and C = per cent

Depth in
inches
1 * 'i ¥ -i
pH-KCl H20-EC ECe jCat.ex.
cap.
VERNOKI A SCRUB K.
C. EXCHANGEABLE BASES
E.S.P. Mg Ca Na K
0-3 5.8 0.13 0.35 7.7 tracé 2.2 2.2 0.10 0.05
6-9 6.3 0.06 0.24 4.2 trace 1.2 1.2 0.10 0.03
12 - 15 6.4 0.05 0.18 3.6 trace 1.1 0.6 trace 0.03
24 - 27 5.5 0.11 0.17 2.6 trace. . 1-3 0.4 trace 0.03
36 - 39 5.5 0.05 " 0.13 2.2 il. 4 1.2 0.4 0.25 0.03
72 - 75 5.8 0.07 0.08 • 3.4' trace 1.1 0.4 trace 0.03
108 - 111 5.4 0.26 0.37 2.8 trace 1.4 . 0.4 trace 0.03
H2O-EC and ECe (mmhos/cm) : Mg, Ca, Na, IC = milli-equivalents per cent
Cat.ex.cap. = cation exchange capacity in milli-equivalents per cent

• \ '
\
I)et>th in
^inches
PARAMACROLOBIUM FOREST
MKURUMUJI VALLEY
Makin»s Soil 8
SOIL PIT NO.22 (Makin 1968)
A. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Colour Class
Sand
• *
Silt
%
\
A A 4 light brown SL 56 28 16
4 y 10
/ 1
brown -
strong brown
10-18 brown -
Clay
%
SCL 46 24 30
L 40 34 26
32+ light grey CL 40 20 40
S = sand L = loam C = clay

Depth in
inches
X f- o
PARAMACROLOBIUM FOREST M.
B. AVAILABLE NUTRIENTS
Hp C P .Mn • Mg , Ca Na., 'K -. pH
0 - 4; 1.6 0.5 1 0.05 0.6 trace 0.11 0.25 :4.5
4 - 10 5.2 3 trace !o.6 trace 0.08 0.24 4.3
10 - 18 6.7 trace trace .1.0 trace 0.22 0.10 4.5
. 32+ . 6.6 3 trace 2.1 trace 0.69 0.11 4.9
Hp, Mn, Mg, Ca, Na, K = milli-.equivalents per- cent
P = parts per million
C = per cent

Depth in
inches
pH
1:5 KCl
PARAMACROLOBIUM FOREST N.
C. EXCHANGEABLE BASES
D.C.
1:5 H20
y» . ij . v • E.S.P. Mg Ca Na K
0-4 4.1 0.05 5.2 3.5 0.3 1.0 0.18 1.35
4 - 10 3.9 6.06 8,4 '• 4.2 0.0 0.0 0.35 1.35
10 - 18 3.9 0.06 - 9.4 ; 1.3 1.3 0.5 0.12 1.20
32+ 3.9 0.07 11.0 9.6 3.0 o.5 • 1.06 1.30
H20 - E.C. and C.E.C, (mmhos/cm.) Mg, Ca, Na, K - milli-
equivalents per cent

-i h t; .*•- i t
Depth in
inches
. ' Colour- Class
0-6 very dark
brown
6-12 dark greyish
brown-
12 - 28 dark greyish
' brown
VERY POORLY DRAINED SOILS O.
Makin's Soil 81
SOIL PIT NO. 17 (Makin 1968)
A. ; PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Sand
%
Silt Clay
SL :., 54. .: . 30,, - 16
L 44 30 26
CL 40 - 20 '40.
\"46+ / grey " CL "' 40 ' 22 " ;38
S = sand L = loam C = clay

) * *
VERY POORLY DRAINED SOILS P.
B. AVAILABLE NUTRIENTS
Depth in
inches Kp C P Mn Mg Ca Na K pH
0-6 1.8 1.1 6 1.17 2.0 1.6 0.10 0.10 5.4
6-12 0.7 0.7 6 0.57 2.9 0.8 0.26 0.12 5.2
12 - 28 3.1 5 0.03 2.6 0.2 0.44 0.10 5.1
46+ 0.3 6 . 0.10 2.7 1.2 0.90 0.06 5.3
Hp, Mn, Mg Ca, Na, K = milli-equivalents per cent
P — parts per million C = per cent
Depth in
inches
pH
1:5 KCl
E.C.
1:5 H20
C. EXCHANGEABLE BASES
irf « ti # L/ • E.S.P. Mg Ca Na K
6 - 12 .4.2 0.05. 11.6 4.6 3.2 2.0 0.53 1.25
12 - 28 4.2 0.05 11.6 9.1 3.9 2.0 1.06 1.20
H20-E.C. and C.E.C, (mmhos/cm).
Mg, Ca, Na, K = milli-equivalents per cent

APPENDIX IV
A PLAN FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF GRAZING
AREAS FOR AMENITY AND PRESERVATION OF
THE SABLE ANTELOPE IN THE SHIMBA HILLS
FOREST RESERVE
BY
E. CHAPMAN
Asst. Conservator of Forests
(By kind permission of the
Conservator of Forests)

CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
2. OBJECTS OF MANAGEMENT :• ...
3. AREAS • - . • • ' . «
4. SUBDIVISION OF THE AREA INTO
5. FREQUENCY OF BURNING ..
6. RESEARCH ..
7. FINANCE •-..:.
8. CONTROL
9- PERIOD OF PLAN ..
10. REVISION OF PLAN
APPENDICES
LIST OF GRAZING AREAS
AUTHORITY FOR PLAN
VEGETATION/MANAGEMENT MAP -
GRAZING SERIES
APPENDIX 1
APPENDIX 2
APPENDIX 3

1. INTRODUCTION
1. This plan is prepared in accordance with Conservator
of Forests (East) letter 13/9/2/91 of 19/3/63, a copy of
which is attached.
2. It is stressed that the plan is not based on any proven
knowledge of the effect of burning on the catchment or the
flora and fauna of the area and a section is therefore
included to indicate the initial lines of research.
3. For the future, it is suggested that this plan should
be incorporated in the management of the Protection and
Amenity Working Circle of a Management Plan for the Shiiaba
Hills Forest.
4. The emphasis of this plan is upon rotational burning
as it is thought that the favourite habitat of the sable
antelope is an area of new gress.
5. The management of the forested areas with regard to
amenity and game has been omitted as beyond the scope of this
plan.
2. OBJECTS OF MANAGEMENT
6. (i) The protection and improvement of water supplies
derived from the Shimba Hills.
c.

7. (ü) As far as is-compatible with (i) and within the
limits of finance, to carry out controlled
rotational burning of the upper plateau in
order to encourage tourism, maintain the
amenity value of the area and keep the sable
antelope away from the populated areas below
the forest.
8. (iii) To carry out planned research in order that
the first and second objects of management
can be more efficiently achieved.
AREA
9. This plan has been prepared from a vegetation map
compiled from serial photographs of 1954 and 1958 and while
essentially correct, a great deal of ground work is required
particularly with regard to the siting of firebreaks and
the demarcation between bush"and"glade*
10. Small glades near the forest boundary or cultivation
have been deliberately excluded from the rotational
burning plan as it is felt that opportunities for poaching
are too great.
11. The total area available "for rotational burning is
about 7,600 acres.
D.

4. SUBDIVISION INTO GRAZING SERIES
12. The area has been subdivided into four units
corresponding generally with the subdivision of the forest
area into blocks for management purposes. It is proposed
that at any one time there will therefore be four freshly
burnt areas distributed about the forest.
13. The subdivisions and areas are as follows (figures
in acres) :-..-.
SERIES: KIVUMONI MARERE MAGANDI LONETREE
750 550 250 700
430 540 680 600
655
36O I26O
180
240
190
160
I835 1690 2540 ' 1480
,->£,.- • - •
There are no grazing areas in Manolo and Godeni blocks.
t
14. Each of the above series is broken down into 7 or 8
areas which are burnt in rotation.
5. FREQUENCY OF BURNING
15» No area should be burnt more frequently than once
every two years. It \\rill therefore be necessary to space
out the burns in any one series in time so that there is
E.

always an area of short-grass available. Furthermore, it
is desirable that each burn of a particular glade is at a
different time of year in order to give it greater chance
of recovery.
16. It is therefore prescribed that burns normally take
place three times a year - before the April rains; at the
end of the June rains and at the end of the December rains.
6. RESEARCH ......
17. Information is required urgently on the following:-
(1) the flora of the glades, both as to species
and quantities;
(2) the ecology of the' sable antelope;
(3) the effect on the glades of grazing by
(a) sable; (b) other animals;
(4) the effect of burning on the flora of the
glades;
(5) the effect of a change in flora of the
glades on the catchment;
(6) the ecology of "sage bush" and its effect
on the catchment.
(7) the effect of burning on the forest fringes.
18. Action has been taken on (1) above on the collection
and identification of grasses by Senior Forester, Kwale.
19. Items (2) and (3) are work to be carried out in close
liaison with the Game Department.
F.

20. Item 4 should be dealt with by the demarcation
of plots which are subjected to burning at varying
frequencies.
21. Item 5 is by far the most difficult item of
research and advice from hydrologists is required.
22. Item 6 is important as the introduction of sage
bush may prove to be a cheap way of improving the catchment
value of steep eroded slopes and a good nurse for other
colonising species.
23. Information on item 7 may be obtained readily
by putting in «burnt 1 and 'unburnt' strips on windward and
leeward sides of; a forest patch. .
7. FINANCE AND STAFF
24-. The burning programme and research can be met by
recurrent Forest Department funds and staff.
8. CONTROL
25. Each glade listed as part of a grazing series
has been given a sub-compartment number and must be
considered as a unit subject to.specialised forest
management.
26. It is therefore prescribed, that Compartment
G.

Register sheets and Compartment Ledger sheets be "opened for
each glade as required and a complete record of all work
done, costs, botanical and faunal notes be kept on these
sheets.
27. Prescriptions for burning should be decided by
D,F.O. on inspection and entered on the station Programme
of Work in the usual way.
9. PERIOD OF PLAN
28. This plan should start on 1st July 1963, i.e. with
the early burning at the end of the April-June rains, and
run for 23 months from that date.
10. REVISION OF PLAN
29. The plan should be completely revised in the light
of experience after l8 months; the revised plan to be
submitted to Conservator of Forests (East) for approval not
later than April 30th 1965. Future plans should be from
1st June 1965.
30. A page for notes is included at the end of this
plan.
11. DISTRIBUTION
31. Conservator of Forests (East) - 1
H.

Divisional; Forests Officer, Coast - 1
Senior Forester, Kwale r 1
Regional Goverrunent Agent, Kwale.,..— 1
Game Warden, Kaloleni - 1
APPENDIX
BLOCK COMPARTMENT
LIST OF GRAZING AREAS
KIVTJMONI GRAZING SERIES;
S/COMPARTMENT
I.
AREA (ACRE
Kivumoni
2
A (i) 200
A (Ü) 230
4 'A ' (i)
220
(Ü)
220
(iii)
215
Kivumoni 5 A (i)
300
(Ü)
250 '
(iii) .
200
1835

fr­
ühere are other small areas of grassland not
shown as such on the map but which may be suited to
burning. These are in Compt.l on the lower slopes
below Cha Shimba forest and in Compt.5 along the Forest
boundary.
MARmtE GRAZING SERIES :
BLOCK COMPARTMENT S/CO* IPARTMENT AREA (ACRES)
Marere 2 A 240
Marere 3 A (i)
300
(Ü)
240
Marere 4 F (i)
250
(Ü)
300
Marere 5 F (i)
180
(Ü)
180
1690
J.

• , . . .
MAGANDI GRAZING SERIES
BLOCK COMPARTMENT S/COMPARTMENT
Magandi 1
(ii)
300
(iii)
'Uri:
300
30Ó
Magandi 2 A 250
Magandi 3 A (i)
: A ••(!) 360
K.
AREA (ACRES)
. . 380
(Ü)
•. 300
Magandi 6 A (i) 190 *
-.•
Considered as one unit for burning
( 4 ,' >
. .• 1 An
A \J v
2540

LONE TREE GRAZING SERIES;
BLOCK COMPARTMENT S/COMPARTMENT
L.
AREA (ACRES)
Magandi 5
A (i) 300
(Ü)
200
(iii)
200
Lone Tree 1 A . (i)
200
(Ü)
200
(iii)
200
(iv)
180 *
*' In five small glades
1480
NOTE: If W.Mokongani A.D.C. Forest is to be
retained under F.D. management, Lone
Tree 1 (iv) could be replaced by or supplemented
by approx. 150 acres in one glade at the S.W;
corner of Shimba Hills Forest (Lone Tree 2).

APPENDIX 2
COPY
I3/9/2/9I OFFICE OF THE CONSERVATOR OF
FORESTS EAST OF THE RIFT,
P O BOX 3OO27,
NAIROBI.
Divisional Forest Officer,
COAST (2)
19th March 1963
SHIMBA HILLS MANAGEMENT
PROPOSED A.P.C. GAME PARK
Ref. your 16/2/1/245 of 13th March 1963
Your letter is ansxvered by the Permanent
Secretary's FOR 2/1/17/2-47 of 12-3-63 and there is no need
for you to discuss the estimates with the Provincial
Commissioner. ' :
Whether the scheme will go forward as an A.D.C.
Game Park now rests with the Ministry of Local Government,
but you will note that whatever the Ministry of Local
Government's decision, we are required to create 'conditions
favourable to Wild Life and to the enjoyment of the amenities
of this forest area by the public' in the Shimba Hills
Forest Reserve.
M.

. ' This means that; you should mow'go ahead with
(i) drawing up an early burning programme in
accordance with paragraph 5 of-the Chief
Conservator's Memorandum;
(ii).. : organise.forest work in.conformity with
paragraph 7 of the Memorandum, decide which
plantations totalling 300 acres i*ill be
retained under plantation research management,
and locate and initiate further species,
provenance and planting trials to the North
of the Tanga to Kwale road.
. I shall shortly send you .copies of a vegetation
map prepared from 1954 and 1958/59 photographs to help
you with your rotational ...burning programme. I am afraid
that you will probably find that there is now more bush
than is shown on this map and we shall have to decide
how much burning, to ;do,», _. .
You are authorised to continue to early burn
grassland areas to provide fresh grazing as required, but
you are not authorised to burn.off any areas of bush until
I have'approved your whole burning plan, • which please send
me as soon as possible. Your plan should be drawn up
in consultation with the District Commissioner.
You should not extend the road system until we
receive the Ministry of Local Government's decision, and
the legal aspect of putting a gate across the A.D.C. road

xdLll presumably be taken up by the Chief Conservator
of Forests.
(J.B.Smart)
Ag. Conservator of Forests (East)
c.c: Chief Conservator of Forests - with copy of D.F.C.'
-..,... letter referred to.
A P P E N D I X 3
It is agreed that from the game conservation
and tourist.point of view, early burning is necessary to:-
(a) induce and keep the game in areata Where it
can be seen easily;
(b) keep the game away from the main poaching
areas and the cultivation areas on the
fringe of the forest at the bottom of the
Hills.
It is understood that to this end early
burning will have to be carried out over 300 - 500 acres
every 2-3 months within each main game grazing block.
Whilst it is agreed that rotational early burning is
o.

practicable, its long term effect on the catchment area
cannot be foreseen. It is for this reason that the
continuance of the early burning programme would have
to be stopped, reviewed or modified if at any time
there are indications of a deterioration in the catchment
area.
Little is known about the effects of early
burning in an area like the Shxmba Hills and the Forest
Department will be obliged to initiate research into
this problem with particular reference to the prevention
of the further spread of sage bush on to the grasslands
as yet unaffected and its eradication from other
grasslands where it is considered game grazing would be
needed. It is recognised that on the steeper slopes
sage bush helps to combat erosion.
p.

5SSI b
MAP NATIONAL RESERVE - SHIMBA HILLS
Reserve Boundary — _ _
Forests ""s^sXX
32
Ma/n Ga fes »4
Ranger Posts X
MAOS wo woo 4000 6000
From 1.50,000 Sheets 200/2 & 4
Published by Survey of Kenya I960 del. Â. Rickards

iteîi &
MAP 3
SHIMBA HILLS
NATIONAL RESERVE
VEGETATION MAP
Scale 1-50,000
FOREST
BUSHLAND AND SCRUB
BUSHLAND AND GRASS
GRASSLAND
PLANTATIONS
ROADS
del. A.Rickards Copied from E.Chapman. Kenya Forest Department. 1968