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REFERENCES ● KAPITÁNY ÁGNES – KAPITÁNY GÁBOR ● Theses about “Kadarism” ● Amin, S. Arrighi – G. Gunder-Frank, A. – Wallerstein, I. (1990) Transforming the Revolution, Social Movements and the World System. New York: Monthly Review Press. Arendt, H. (1958) The Origins of Totalitarism. Cleveland: World Pub. Co. Aron, R. (1990) Democracy and Totalitarianism. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Arrighi, G. (1994) The Long Twentieth Century: Mones, Power and the Origins of Our Time. London: Verso. Bell, D. (1976) The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism. London: Heinemann. Brzezinski, Z. (1976) Between Two Ages. America’s Role in the Technetronic Era. Middlesex: Harmondsworth. Davidson, B. (1957) What Really Happened in Hungary. London: Union of Democratic Control. Gouldner, A.W. (1979) The Future of Intellectuals and the Rise of the New Class. London – Basingstoke: Macmillan Press. György P. – Turai H. (eds) (1992) A művészet katonái. Sztálinizmus és kultúra. Budapest: Corvina. Hankiss, E. (1982, 1986) Diagnózisok 1–2, Budapest: Magvető. Haraszti, M. (1991) A cenzúra esztétikája. Budapest: Magvető. Háber J. – H. Sas J. (1980) Tankönyvszagú világ. Budapest: Akadémiai. Kapitány Á. – Kapitány G. (1983) “Metamorphoses, A szocializmus alakulásának szakaszai”. Mozgó Világ, 1, 107–120. pp. Kapitány Á. – Kapitány G. (1991) Quo Vadis Europe de l'Est. Paris: Actuel Marx, 178–194 pp. Kapitány Á. – Kapitány G. (1996) “Changes in the World-views (Hungary 1945-1980)”. Journal of Popular Culture, vol. 29.2 Fall 1995 pp. 33–34. Kolosi T. (1987) Tagolt társadalom. Struktúra, rétegződés, egyenlőtlenség Magyarországon. Budapest: Gondolat. Kornai J. (1982) A hiány. Budapest: KJK. Lomax, B. (1976) Hungary 1956. London: Allison and Busby. Losonczi Á. (1977) Az életmód az időben, a tárgyakban és az értékekben. Budapest: Gondolat. Makdisi, S. Casarino, C. – Karl, R.E. (eds.) (1996) Marxism Beyond Marxism. New York – London: Routledge Mallet, S. (1975) Essays on the New Working Class. Saint Louis: Telos. Richta, R. et al (1976) Civilization at the Crossroads. Prague. Szelényi, I. – Konrád, Gy. (1989) Az értelmiség útja az osztályhatalomhoz. Budapest: Gondolat. Vitányi I. (1985) Egyharmadország. Budapest: Magvető. Wallerstein, I. (1983) A modern világrendszer. Budapest: Gondolat. 32
SYSTEM CHANGE – SYMBOL CHANGE IN HUNGARY, 1989–1996 Radical social transformations are accompanied not only by political movements but by the struggle of symbols, too. The first measure taken by the conquistadors was to put a crucifix in place of idols. In Hungary, during the wars between Islam and Christianity the Cross alternated with the Crescent on top of the churches. The end of the Second World War was marked by boots trampling on the swastika. Broken red stars, and Stalinist arms cut out from flags signalled the beginning of the revolution in 1956. And so on. But the circle of symbols with political meaning is much wider than the circle of ideological-political emblems. We can distinguish three kinds of political symbols: 1. Political symbols in a narrow sense: symbols chosen consciously by political movements. 2. Unintentional (at least not always intentional) signs, acts, facts, events, behaviour of political actors: things which acquire political meaning by association. 3. Non-political events, facts, etc. which have an influence on the way people see the world of politics, and become in this sense political symbols. Below we use all three meanings. First: political symbols in a narrow sense. We have mentioned emblems of political movements. But, of course, there are living symbols, too: the actors of political life themselves, and all their circumstances may acquire a kind of symbolical meaning. Personalities might become political symbols themselves; every detail can acquire similar importance in the world of symbols. One is hair-style: an example is the opposition of the long-haired "Cavaliers" and the short-haired "Roundhead" Puritans at the time of the English revolution of the seventeenth century. Dressing can have similar importance (as it was the case of the "sans-culottes" way of dressing, or the Phrygian cap in the French Revolution; or the Garibaldi shirt and the hat and cloak of the Carbonari in Italian history; the leather coat of commissars, and the Dzerzhinsky rubashka in Russian history; the Mao jacket in China, etc.). The different modes for saluting also have a symbolic function (for example the Nazi arm-raising, the raised fist of communists, the victory sign of Churchill). The symbolic meaning of colours is also well-known (it certainly depends on culture, political connotation, and so on). Reds and Whites fought in the Russian civil war (even Greens and Blacks, too); fascism symbolized itself with black, brown and – in Hungary green – shirts. Even the number of colours became symbolic in the French Revolution (being connected with the threefold slogan: liberty, equality, fraternity), and from that time revolutionaries, rising up against the Habsburg Empire, used always tricolours (as did Austrian revolutions, too) against the imperial black and yellow colours. Every manifestation of human behaviour, every objectivation of the human being can acquire a symbolic meaning, either because it is connected to the old regime, or because it symbolizes something new in contrast to the old one. It is probably this opposition which made artistic representations and their destruction become a political-ideological symbol itself. (We know many examples from history – e.g. the Byzantine iconoclastic 33
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REFERENCES ● KAPITÁNY ÁGNES - K
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INTRODUCTION SYMBOLS AND COMMUNICAT
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Introduction SYMBOLS AND VALUES OF
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SYMBOLS OF HUNGARIAN NATIONAL IDENT
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