Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities - Division on ...

<strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong>
<strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong>
<strong>in</strong>
<strong>Developmental</strong>
<strong>Disabilities</strong>
Special Conference Issue
Best Practices for Practitioners
Focus<strong>in</strong>g on <strong>in</strong>dividuals with
cognitive disabilities/mental retardation, autism, <strong>and</strong> related disabilities
Volume 44 Number 3 September 2009

September 2009 <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong> Vol. 44, No. 3, pp. 289–432

<strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>
The Journal of the <strong>Division</strong> on <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>,
The Council for Exceptional Children
Editor: Stanley H. Zucker
Arizona State University
Consult<strong>in</strong>g Editors
Mart<strong>in</strong> Agran
Reuben Altman
Phillip J. Belfiore
Sharon Borthwick-Duffy
Michael P. Brady
Fredda Brown
Mary Lynne Calhoun
Sharon F. Cramer
Carol<strong>in</strong>e Dunn
Lise Fox
David L. Gast
Herbert Goldste<strong>in</strong>
Robert Henderson
Carolyn Hughes
Larry K. Irv<strong>in</strong>
James V. Kahn
H. Earle Knowlton
Barry W. Lavay
Rena Lewis
Kathleen J. Marshall
Editorial Assistant: Hannah H. Ha<strong>in</strong>l<strong>in</strong>e
Arizona State University
John McDonnell
Gale M. Morrison
Gabriel A. Nardi
John Nietupski
James R. Patton
Edward A. Polloway
Thomas G. Roberts
Robert S. Rueda
Diane L. Ryndak
Edward J. Sabornie
Laurence R. Sargent
Gary M. Sasso
Tom E. C. Smith
Scott Sparks
Fred Spooner
Robert Stodden
Keith Storey
David L. Westl<strong>in</strong>g
John J. Wheeler
Mark Wolery
<strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong> is sent to all members of the <strong>Division</strong> on <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong> of The Council
for Exceptional Children. All <strong>Division</strong> members must first be members of The Council for Exceptional Children. <strong>Division</strong> membership dues
are $25.00 for regular members <strong>and</strong> $13.00 for full time students. Membership is on a yearly basis. All <strong>in</strong>quiries concern<strong>in</strong>g membership,
subscription, advertis<strong>in</strong>g, etc. should be sent to the <strong>Division</strong> on <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>, 1110 North Glebe Road, Arl<strong>in</strong>gton, VA 22201.
Advertis<strong>in</strong>g rates are available upon request.
Manuscripts should be typed, double spaced, <strong>and</strong> sent (five copies) to the Editor: Stanley H. Zucker, Special <strong>Education</strong> Program, Box
872011, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-2011. Each manuscript should have a cover sheet that gives the names, affiliations, <strong>and</strong>
complete addresses of all authors.
Edit<strong>in</strong>g policies are based on the Publication Manual, the American Psychological Association, 2001 revision. Additional <strong>in</strong>formation is
provided on the <strong>in</strong>side back cover. Any signed article is the personal expression of the author; likewise, any advertisement is the responsibility
of the advertiser. Neither necessarily carries <strong>Division</strong> endorsement unless specifically set forth by adopted resolution.
<strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong> is abstracted <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dexed <strong>in</strong> Psychological Abstracts, PsycINFO, e-psyche, Abstracts
for Social Workers, International Journal of Rehabilitation Research, Current Contents/Social <strong>and</strong> Behavioral Sciences, Excerpta Medica,
Social Sciences Citation Index, Adolescent Mental Health Abstracts, <strong>Education</strong>al Adm<strong>in</strong>istration Abstracts, <strong>Education</strong>al Research Abstracts,
<strong>and</strong> Language <strong>and</strong> Language Behavior Abstracts. Additionally, it is annotated <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dexed by the ERIC Clear<strong>in</strong>ghouse on H<strong>and</strong>icapped <strong>and</strong>
Gifted Children for publication <strong>in</strong> the monthly pr<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong>dex Current Index to Journals <strong>in</strong> <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> the quarterly <strong>in</strong>dex, Exceptional Child
<strong>Education</strong> Resources.
<strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong> Vol. 44, No. 3, September 2009, Copyright 2009 by the <strong>Division</strong> on <strong>Developmental</strong>
<strong>Disabilities</strong>, The Council for Exceptional Children.
<strong>Division</strong> on <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>
The Council for Exceptional Children
Board of Directors
Officers
Past President Polly Parrish
President J. David Smith
President-Elect Emily Bouck
Vice President Teresa Taber-Doughty
Secretary Toni Merfeld
Treasurer Gardner Umbarger
Members
L<strong>in</strong>da Laz
Nikki Murdick
Robert S<strong>and</strong>ieson
Angie Stone-MacDonald (Student Governor)
Dianne Zager
Debora Wichmanowski
Executive Director
Tom E. C. Smith
Publications Chair
Jack Hourcade
Communications Chair
Darlene Perner
Conference Coord<strong>in</strong>ator
C<strong>in</strong>dy Perras
The purposes of this organization shall be to advance the education <strong>and</strong> welfare of persons with developmental disabilities, research <strong>in</strong> the
education of persons with developmental disabilities, competency of educators <strong>in</strong> this field, public underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g of developmental disabilities,
<strong>and</strong> legislation needed to help accomplish these goals. The <strong>Division</strong> shall encourage <strong>and</strong> promote professional growth, research, <strong>and</strong> the
dissem<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>and</strong> utilization of research f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs.
EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES (ISSN 1547-0350) (USPS 0168-5000) is published quarterly <strong>in</strong>
March, June, September, <strong>and</strong> December, by The Council for Exceptional Children, <strong>Division</strong> on <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>, 1110 North
Glebe Road, Arl<strong>in</strong>gton, Virg<strong>in</strong>ia 22201-5704. Members’ dues to The Council for Exceptional Children <strong>Division</strong> on <strong>Developmental</strong>
<strong>Disabilities</strong> <strong>in</strong>clude $8.00 for subscription to EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES. Subscription to
EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES is available without membership; Individual—U.S. $40.00 per
year; Canada, PUAS, <strong>and</strong> all other countries $44.00; Institutions—U.S. $175.00 per year; Canada, PUAS, <strong>and</strong> all other countries
$179.50; s<strong>in</strong>gle copy price is $25.00. U.S. Periodicals postage is paid at Arl<strong>in</strong>gton, Virg<strong>in</strong>ia 22204 <strong>and</strong> additional mail<strong>in</strong>g offices.
POSTMASTERS: Send address changes to EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES, 1110 North Glebe
Road, Arl<strong>in</strong>gton, Virg<strong>in</strong>ia 22201-5704.

<strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong>
<strong>Disabilities</strong>
Editorial Policy
<strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong> focuses on the education <strong>and</strong>
welfare of persons with developmental disabilities. ETDD <strong>in</strong>vites research <strong>and</strong>
expository manuscripts <strong>and</strong> critical review of the literature. Major emphasis is on
identification <strong>and</strong> assessment, educational programm<strong>in</strong>g, characteristics, tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g
of <strong>in</strong>structional personnel, habilitation, prevention, community underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong>
provisions, <strong>and</strong> legislation.
Each manuscript is evaluated anonymously by three reviewers. Criteria for acceptance
<strong>in</strong>clude the follow<strong>in</strong>g: relevance, reader <strong>in</strong>terest, quality, applicability,
contribution to the field, <strong>and</strong> economy <strong>and</strong> smoothness of expression. The review
process requires two to four months.
Viewpo<strong>in</strong>ts expressed are those of the authors <strong>and</strong> do not necessarily conform to
positions of the editors or of the officers of the <strong>Division</strong>.
Submission of Manuscripts
1. Manuscript submission is a representation that the manuscript is the author’s
own work, has not been published, <strong>and</strong> is not currently under consideration for
publication elsewhere.
2. Manuscripts must be prepared accord<strong>in</strong>g to the recommendations <strong>in</strong> the Publication
Manual of the American Psychological Association (Fifth Edition, 2001).
Laser or high density dot pr<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g are acceptable.
3. Each manuscript must have a cover sheet giv<strong>in</strong>g the names <strong>and</strong> affiliations of all
authors <strong>and</strong> the address of the pr<strong>in</strong>cipal author.
4. Graphs <strong>and</strong> figures should be orig<strong>in</strong>als or sharp, high quality photographic
pr<strong>in</strong>ts suitable, if necessary, for a 50% reduction <strong>in</strong> size.
5. Five copies of the manuscript along with a transmittal letter should be sent to the
Editor: Stanley H. Zucker, Special <strong>Education</strong> Program, Box 872011, Arizona
State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-2011.
6. Upon receipt, each manuscript will be screened by the editor. Appropriate
manuscripts will then be sent to consult<strong>in</strong>g editors. Pr<strong>in</strong>cipal authors will receive
notification of receipt of manuscript.
7. The Editor reserves the right to make m<strong>in</strong>or editorial changes which do not
materially affect the mean<strong>in</strong>g of the text.
8. Manuscripts are the property of ETDD for a m<strong>in</strong>imum period of six months. All
articles accepted for publication are copyrighted <strong>in</strong> the name of the <strong>Division</strong> on
<strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>.

<strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>
VOLUME 44 NUMBER 3 SEPTEMBER 2009
Best Practices <strong>in</strong> Cognitive <strong>Disabilities</strong>/Mental Retardation, Autism, <strong>and</strong> Related
<strong>Disabilities</strong> 291
STANLEY H. ZUCKER, CINDY PERRAS, DARLENE E. PERNER, <strong>and</strong> J. DAVID SMITH
Multiculturalism, Religion, <strong>and</strong> Disability: Implications for Special <strong>Education</strong>
Practitioners 295
A. BROOKE BLANKS <strong>and</strong> J. DAVID SMITH
Juvenile Literature <strong>and</strong> the Portrayal of <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong> 304
TINA TAYLOR DYCHES, MARY ANNE PRATER, <strong>and</strong> MELISSA LEININGER
Evidence-Based Social Skills Interventions for Children with Autism: A Meta-analysis 318
PEISHI WANG <strong>and</strong> ANNE SPILLANE
Learn by Do<strong>in</strong>g: A Collaborative Model for <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> Teacher-C<strong>and</strong>idate Students
<strong>in</strong> Autism 343
MICHAEL B. RUEF, NICOLETTE NEFDT, DANIEL OPENDEN, SHARON ELMENSDORP,
KATHLEEN C. HARRIS, <strong>and</strong> SUZANNE ROBINSON
Research-Based Techniques for Teach<strong>in</strong>g Early Read<strong>in</strong>g Skills to Students with
Intellectual <strong>Disabilities</strong> 356
JILL H. ALLOR, PATRICIA G. MATHES, TAMMI CHAMPLIN, <strong>and</strong> JENNIFER P. CHEATHAM
Pentop Computers as Tools for Teach<strong>in</strong>g Multiplication to Students with Mild
Intellectual <strong>Disabilities</strong> 367
EMILY C. BOUCK, LAURA BASSETTE, TERESA TABER-DOUGHTY, SARA M. FLANAGAN, <strong>and</strong>
KATHRYN SZWED
Effectiveness of Parent <strong>and</strong> Therapist Collaboration Program (PTCP) for
Teach<strong>in</strong>g Self-Care <strong>and</strong> Domestic Skills to Individuals with Autism 381
ATILLA CAVKAYTAR <strong>and</strong> ELENA POLLARD
Effects of Instructional Rubrics on Class Engagement Behaviors <strong>and</strong> the
Achievement of Lesson Objectives by Students with Mild Mental Retardation <strong>and</strong>
Their Typical Peers 396
EUNJUNG LEE <strong>and</strong> SOHYUN LEE
Increas<strong>in</strong>g Comprehension of Students with Significant Intellectual <strong>Disabilities</strong>
<strong>and</strong> Visual Impairments dur<strong>in</strong>g Shared Stories 409
PAMELA J. MIMS, DIANE M. BROWDER, JOSHUA N. BAKER, ANGEL LEE, <strong>and</strong>
FRED SPOONER
Evaluat<strong>in</strong>g the Acceptability <strong>and</strong> Effectiveness of Family Assessment Portfolios 421
HEDDA MEADAN, JAMES R. THOMPSON, MAYUMI HAGIWARA, JULIE HEROLD,
SARAH HOEKSTRA, <strong>and</strong> SAMANTHA MANSER
Manuscripts Accepted for Future Publication <strong>in</strong> <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong>
<strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong> 290
The <strong>Division</strong> on <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong> reta<strong>in</strong>s literary property rights on copyrighted articles. Up to 100
copies of the articles <strong>in</strong> this journal may be reproduced for nonprofit distribution without permission from the
publisher. All other forms of reproduction require permission from the publisher.

Manuscripts Accepted for Future Publication <strong>in</strong> <strong>Education</strong>
<strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>
December 2009
It all depends on where you st<strong>and</strong>: Differences between employee’s <strong>and</strong> supervisor’s evaluations of
work performance <strong>and</strong> support needs. Kyle Bennett, Michael Fra<strong>in</strong>, Michael P. Brady, Howard
Rosenberg, <strong>and</strong> Tricia Sur<strong>in</strong>ak, Center for Autism & Related <strong>Disabilities</strong>, Florida Atlantic University,
777 Glades Rd., Boca Raton, FL 33431.
Parental stress <strong>and</strong> autism: Are there useful cop<strong>in</strong>g strategies. G. Richard Mancil, Brian A. Boyd,
<strong>and</strong> Pena Bedesem, Western Kentucky University, Kelly Autism Program, 1906 College Heights
Blvd. #71030, Bowl<strong>in</strong>g Green, KY 42101-1030.
Impacts of family support <strong>in</strong> early childhood <strong>in</strong>tervention research. Anna Friend, Jean Ann
Summers, <strong>and</strong> Ann P. Turnbull, Beach Center on Disability, University of Kansas, 1200 Sunnyside
Avenue, 3111 Haworth Hall, Lawrence, KS66045.
Review of teacher <strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>in</strong> the applied <strong>in</strong>tervention research for children with autism
spectrum disorders. Russell Lang, Wendy Machalicek, Mark O’Reilly, Jeff Sigafoos, M<strong>and</strong>y Rispoli,
Karrie Shogren, <strong>and</strong> April Regester, 3901 Burn<strong>in</strong>g Oak, Side B, Aust<strong>in</strong>, TX 78704.
Comparison of self, other, <strong>and</strong> subjective video models for teach<strong>in</strong>g daily liv<strong>in</strong>g skills to <strong>in</strong>dividuals
with developmental disabilities. Toni Van Laarhoven, Leslie M. Zurita, Jesse W. Johnson, Katie M.
Grider, <strong>and</strong> Krist<strong>in</strong> L. Grider, Department of Teach<strong>in</strong>g & Learn<strong>in</strong>g, Northern Ill<strong>in</strong>ois University,
Dekalb, IL 60115-2854.
Teach<strong>in</strong>g organizational skills to children with high function<strong>in</strong>g autism <strong>and</strong> asperger’s syndrome.
Kimberly Powers Dorm<strong>in</strong>y, Deanna Luscre, <strong>and</strong> David L. Gast, 3250 Brown Thrasher Place,
Cumm<strong>in</strong>g, GA 30041.
Fourth grade outcomes of children with a preschool history of developmental disability. Christ<strong>in</strong>e
E. F. Delgado, Department of Psychology, Child <strong>Division</strong>, P.O. Box 249229, Coral Gables, FL
33124-0751.
Academic achievement profiles of children with high function<strong>in</strong>g autism <strong>and</strong> Asperger Syndrome:
A review of the literature. Peggy J. Schaefer Whitby <strong>and</strong> G. Richmond Mancil, University of Central
Florida, 1407 Cather<strong>in</strong>e Street, Orl<strong>and</strong>o, FL 32801.
Acquisition <strong>and</strong> generalization of cha<strong>in</strong>ed tasks taught with computer based video <strong>in</strong>struction to
children with autism. Kev<strong>in</strong> Ayres, Amy Maguire, <strong>and</strong> Desiree McClimon, University of Georgia,
College of <strong>Education</strong>, Department of Special <strong>Education</strong>, 537 Aderhold Hall, Athens, GA 30602-
7153.
Functional curriculum models for secondary students with mild mental impairment. Emily C.
Bouck, 5146 BRNG Hall, Purdue University, 100 N. University Street, West Lafayette, IN 47907.
Autism spectrum disorders <strong>and</strong> sibl<strong>in</strong>g relationships. Julia Beyer, 104 Longhill Lane, Chatham, NJ
07928.
Field test of a method to assess work task preferences. Virg<strong>in</strong>ie Cobigo, Diane Mor<strong>in</strong>, <strong>and</strong> Yves
Lachapelle, 141 Hillcrest, app. 1, Montreal, QC H8R 1J3 CANADA.
Address is supplied for author <strong>in</strong> boldface type.

Best Practices <strong>in</strong> Cognitive <strong>Disabilities</strong>/Mental Retardation,
Autism, <strong>and</strong> Related <strong>Disabilities</strong>
Stanley H. Zucker
Arizona State University
Darlene E. Perner
Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania
On October 8-10 2008, the Council for Exceptional
Children <strong>Division</strong> on <strong>Developmental</strong>
<strong>Disabilities</strong> (DDD) sponsored its “Practitioner-
Focused” Eleventh International Conference:
Best Practices <strong>in</strong> Cognitive <strong>Disabilities</strong>/Mental
Retardation, Autism, <strong>and</strong> Related <strong>Disabilities</strong>.
The conference was held at the Sheraton San
Diego Hotel & Mar<strong>in</strong>a. The DDD Board of Directors
decided to devote this issue of <strong>Education</strong>
<strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong> to
conference papers. The conference brought
together educators from school <strong>and</strong> college
classrooms from all over the world. The conference
<strong>in</strong>cluded pre-conference tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>stitutes
<strong>and</strong> str<strong>and</strong>s on assistive technology,
autism/autism spectrum disorder, cognitive
disability-evidence based practices, mild mental
retardation, transition, multiple disabilities,
<strong>and</strong> paraprofessionals. The conference
provided many parents, teacher educators, researchers,
teachers, <strong>and</strong> other practitioners an
opportunity to gather to learn the most current
<strong>in</strong>formation related to provid<strong>in</strong>g services
for <strong>in</strong>dividuals with mental retardation, autism,
<strong>and</strong> other developmental disabilities.
This special issue can enable those who attended
the conference to see exp<strong>and</strong>ed papers,
prepared by presenters, <strong>and</strong> also give
those who were unable to attend an opportunity
to benefit from the thoughtful work done
by conference participants.
Presenters were asked to submit papers
Correspondence concern<strong>in</strong>g this article should
be addressed to Stanley H. Zucker, Special <strong>Education</strong>
Department, College of Teacher <strong>Education</strong>
<strong>and</strong> Leadership, Box 872011, Arizona State University,
Tempe, AZ 85287-2011. Email: etdd@asu.edu
<strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>, 2009, 44(3), 291–294
© <strong>Division</strong> on <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>
C<strong>in</strong>dy Perras
Peel District School Board, Ontario, Canada
J. David Smith
University of North Carol<strong>in</strong>a at Greensboro
based on their conference presentations. Papers
submitted were reviewed by the Guest
Editors who selected the papers for publication.
We th<strong>in</strong>k the selection of papers represents
an <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g assortment of topics <strong>and</strong>
formats rang<strong>in</strong>g from discussion papers to databased
research to descriptions of classroom
techniques. The papers selected do not necessarily
represent all the topics covered at the
conference but they do give a good idea of the
variety <strong>and</strong> quality of the presentations. We
would like to thank those authors who submitted
papers for their efforts <strong>in</strong> mak<strong>in</strong>g this
Special Conference Issue possible.
The first article was based on the presentation
entitled “Multiculturalism, Religion <strong>and</strong>
Disability: Implications for Special <strong>Education</strong>
Practitioners” by A. Brooke Blanks <strong>and</strong> J.
David Smith. It exam<strong>in</strong>es the fact that educators
are often reluctant to discuss religious
beliefs when work<strong>in</strong>g with students with developmental
<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities <strong>and</strong>
their families. It asks, however, whether this
limits our ability to fully underst<strong>and</strong> the experience
of liv<strong>in</strong>g with disability. It discusses religious
beliefs, traditions, <strong>and</strong> practices that
are important to teacher education <strong>and</strong> as
part of the zeitgeist of work<strong>in</strong>g with children
<strong>and</strong> their families. This article exam<strong>in</strong>es images
<strong>and</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>gs about disabilities <strong>in</strong> three
of the religions practiced most widely <strong>in</strong> the
United States: Judaism, Christianity, <strong>and</strong> Islam.
In the second article, the authors <strong>in</strong>vestigated
how <strong>in</strong>dividuals with developmental disabilities
<strong>in</strong> children’s books are portrayed to
young readers. In “Literature <strong>and</strong> the Portrayal
of <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>,” T<strong>in</strong>a
Taylor Dyches, Mary Anne Prater, <strong>and</strong> Melissa
Best Practices / 291

Le<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>ger exam<strong>in</strong>ed 41 children’s books that
qualified for the 2006 or 2008 Dolly Gray Children’s
Literature Award sponsored by the <strong>Division</strong>
of <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong> (DDD) of
the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC)
<strong>and</strong> the Special Needs Project. The <strong>in</strong>dividuals
with disabilities portrayed <strong>in</strong> the books
reviewed were analyzed <strong>and</strong> categorized
across four themes: “characterization of the
<strong>in</strong>dividual with developmental disabilities, relationships
between the character with developmental
disabilities <strong>and</strong> others, changes <strong>in</strong>
characters without developmental disabilities,
<strong>and</strong> special topics <strong>in</strong> the field of developmental
disabilities.” The themes are described <strong>and</strong>
analyzed precisely based on how the <strong>in</strong>dividuals
are portrayed <strong>in</strong> the books. Individual
books are cited provid<strong>in</strong>g examples of the
themes identified. The portrayal of <strong>in</strong>dividuals
with developmental disabilities is discussed
from a variety of contexts <strong>and</strong> compared to
two earlier studies. Recommendations are also
made to future authors <strong>and</strong> to educators.
“Evidence-Based Social Skills Interventions
for Children with Autism: A Meta-analysis”,
authored by Peishi Wang <strong>and</strong> Anne Spillane,
provides a synthesis of research studies published
<strong>in</strong> the last ten years on <strong>in</strong>terventions to
<strong>in</strong>crease social skills for children <strong>and</strong> adolescents
with ASD. Additionally, the article exam<strong>in</strong>es
the outcomes of these studies <strong>and</strong> evaluates
whether a given <strong>in</strong>tervention meets the
criteria for evidence-based practice. Of the 38
studies <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> this review, 36 were s<strong>in</strong>gle
subject research studies <strong>and</strong> 2 were group experimental
studies; results varied widely both
between <strong>in</strong>tervention types, <strong>and</strong> with the different
studies with<strong>in</strong> each <strong>in</strong>tervention type.
While social stories, peer-mediated, <strong>and</strong> video-model<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>in</strong>terventions all met the criteria for evidence-based,
a closer look at the percentage
of non-overlapp<strong>in</strong>g data po<strong>in</strong>ts reveals that
only video-model<strong>in</strong>g meets criteria for be<strong>in</strong>g evidence-based
as well as demonstrat<strong>in</strong>g high
effectiveness as an <strong>in</strong>tervention strategy. The
article concludes with a discussion on the implications
for practice, which is of particular
importance for practitioners who utilize videomodel<strong>in</strong>g
to teach social skills to students with
ASD.
With the large number of students with autism
enter<strong>in</strong>g the educational system, the
need for empirically supported treatment
292 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
(EST) <strong>in</strong> the classroom, <strong>and</strong> special education
teachers with tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> autism <strong>and</strong> ESTs, is
becom<strong>in</strong>g critical. In their article, “Learn by
Do<strong>in</strong>g: A Collaborative Model for <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong>
Teacher-C<strong>and</strong>idate Students <strong>in</strong> Autism”, Michael
B. Ruef, Nicolette Nefdt, Daniel
Openden, Sharon Elmensdorp, Kathleen C.
Harris, <strong>and</strong> Suzanne Rob<strong>in</strong>son describe a collaborative
model between two universities
aimed at (1) provid<strong>in</strong>g teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate
graduate students tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> ESTs for children
with autism <strong>and</strong> (2) provid<strong>in</strong>g empirically
supported treatments to local families
with children with autism. Pivotal response
treatment (PRT) was the treatment selected
for <strong>in</strong>clusion <strong>in</strong> the teacher tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g program:
PRT is a comprehensive service delivery
model that uses both a developmental approach
<strong>and</strong> applied behavior analysis (ABA)
procedures <strong>and</strong> aims to provide opportunities
for learn<strong>in</strong>g with<strong>in</strong> the context of the child’s
natural environment. The article provides an
overview on the three components of the
model: (1) the community-based service delivery
system, (2) the Masters/special education
credential program <strong>and</strong> (3) tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> PRT.
Issues relat<strong>in</strong>g to student, family <strong>and</strong> university
participation are discussed along with possible
solutions <strong>and</strong> future directions. The authors
conclude the article with a discussion on
the benefits of the model, particularly with
respect to produc<strong>in</strong>g highly qualified teachers
<strong>in</strong> autism, <strong>and</strong> the implications for <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g
autism tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> teacher tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g programs.
In their article entitled “Research-Based
Techniques for Teach<strong>in</strong>g Early Read<strong>in</strong>g Skills
to Students with Intellectual <strong>Disabilities</strong>,” Jill
Allor, Patricia Mathes, Tammi Champl<strong>in</strong>, <strong>and</strong>
Jennifer Cheatham discuss the orchestrated
<strong>in</strong>tegration of key skills <strong>and</strong> strategies that are
explicitly l<strong>in</strong>ked to mean<strong>in</strong>g. These strategies
are organized accord<strong>in</strong>g to the major components
of read<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>struction: oral language
<strong>and</strong> vocabulary, phonological awareness,
phonics <strong>and</strong> word recognition, fluency <strong>and</strong>
comprehension. The article describes key
techniques used <strong>in</strong> exam<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g effective methods
for teach<strong>in</strong>g students with <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities
to read.
The next article by Emily Bouck, Laura Bassette,
Teresa Taber-Doughty, Sara Flanagan,
<strong>and</strong> Kathryn Szwed. It exam<strong>in</strong>es the effectiveness
of pentop computers <strong>in</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g multi-

plication facts to middle school students with
<strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities. A multiple probe design
was used to assess the progress of students
us<strong>in</strong>g this <strong>in</strong>tervention. The results <strong>in</strong>dicated
that students us<strong>in</strong>g a pentop program improved
<strong>in</strong> the percentage of correct math facts
completed. Limitations <strong>and</strong> suggestions for
future research are <strong>in</strong>cluded.
The natural <strong>in</strong>structors to teach self-care
<strong>and</strong> domestic skills to children with autism are
their parents. In their article, “Effectiveness of
Parent <strong>and</strong> Therapist Collaboration Program
(PTCP) for Teach<strong>in</strong>g Self-Care <strong>and</strong> Domestic
Skills to Individuals with Autism,” Atilla
Cavkaytar <strong>and</strong> Elena Pollard present the results
from a study they conducted to evaluate
the effectiveness of the Parent <strong>and</strong> Therapist
Collaboration Program (PTCP). The researchers
developed, implemented <strong>and</strong> evaluated
the PTCP to determ<strong>in</strong>e its effectiveness
<strong>in</strong> help<strong>in</strong>g three parents, <strong>in</strong> collaboration with
their child’s habilitation therapist, to successfully
<strong>in</strong>struct their children with autism <strong>in</strong> the
acquisition of specific self-care <strong>and</strong> domestic
skills. The parents <strong>and</strong> therapists were tra<strong>in</strong>ed
us<strong>in</strong>g the “Teach<strong>in</strong>g Self-Care <strong>and</strong> Domestic
Skills Manual” prior to the home-based <strong>in</strong>struction.
The authors describe <strong>and</strong> discuss
the results of their study <strong>in</strong> terms of each
mother’s success <strong>in</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g the self-care <strong>and</strong>
domestic skills to their child with autism <strong>and</strong>
its relation to the <strong>in</strong>volvement of the habilitation
therapist.
Instructional rubrics can be an effective assessment
tool <strong>in</strong> direct<strong>in</strong>g students’ learn<strong>in</strong>g.
In their article, “Effects of Instructional Rubrics
on Class Engagement Behaviors <strong>and</strong> the
Achievement of Lesson Objectives by Students
with Mild Mental Retardation <strong>and</strong> Their Typical
Peers,” EunJung Lee <strong>and</strong> SoHyun Lee
<strong>in</strong>vestigated the use <strong>and</strong> effectiveness of
<strong>in</strong>structional rubrics on students’ class engagement
behaviors <strong>and</strong> their achievement of
lesson objectives. Their <strong>in</strong>vestigation was conducted
<strong>in</strong> three classrooms dur<strong>in</strong>g Korean language
<strong>in</strong>struction. The participants <strong>in</strong> each
class consisted of one female teacher, <strong>and</strong> one
male student with mild cognitive disabilities
<strong>and</strong> his general education classroom peers. All
participants were tra<strong>in</strong>ed on the rubrics that
targeted st<strong>and</strong>ard-based lesson objectives (i.e.,
the orig<strong>in</strong>al <strong>and</strong> modified ones) <strong>and</strong> an ontask
rubric application form designed for the
students with mild cognitive disabilities. Class
engagement behaviors were measured us<strong>in</strong>g
partial–<strong>in</strong>terval record<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>and</strong> the achievement
of lesson objectives was determ<strong>in</strong>ed
through self-assessment. The <strong>in</strong>vestigators
provide a thorough discussion of the positive
results that were found related to class engagement
behaviors of the students with cognitive
disabilities, <strong>and</strong> the achievement of lesson objectives
for all student participants.
Literacy is one of the most important educational
goals yet educators of students with
severe <strong>and</strong>/or multiple disabilities are often <strong>in</strong>
search of strategies to develop literacy skills. A
review of the research on literacy <strong>in</strong>struction
<strong>in</strong>dicates that students with significant <strong>in</strong>tellectual
disabilities <strong>and</strong> visual impairments are
underrepresented. In their article, “Increas<strong>in</strong>g
Comprehension of Students with Significant
Intellectual <strong>Disabilities</strong> <strong>and</strong> Visual Impairments
dur<strong>in</strong>g Shared Stories”, Pamela J.
Mims, Diane M. Browder, Joshua N. Baker,
Angel Lee, <strong>and</strong> Fred Spooner explore readaloud,
or shared stories, as a potential <strong>in</strong>tervention.
Shared stories have been shown to
help <strong>in</strong>crease emerg<strong>in</strong>g literacy skills <strong>in</strong> students
with significant <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities.
In this study, the least-to-most prompt system
was used to promote listen<strong>in</strong>g comprehension,
a critical literacy development skill, dur<strong>in</strong>g
shared stories for two students with significant
<strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities <strong>and</strong> visual
impairments. Outcomes <strong>in</strong>dicate that both
students improved on the correct number of
responses to comprehension questions <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>gly,
one of the students demonstrated
an ability to generalize responses across people
<strong>and</strong> sett<strong>in</strong>gs as well as ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> results.
The article concludes with suggestions from
the authors on apply<strong>in</strong>g this <strong>in</strong>tervention to
practice <strong>and</strong> a discussion on directions for
future research.
Parents, who wanted to improve collaboration
with their children’s school, <strong>and</strong> provide
mean<strong>in</strong>gful <strong>in</strong>formation (e.g., through scrapbooks
<strong>and</strong> student profiles) about their children
with disabilities, helped to <strong>in</strong>itiate the
development of the Family Assessment Portfolio
(FAP). In the article, “Evaluat<strong>in</strong>g the Acceptability
<strong>and</strong> Effectiveness of Family Assessment
Portfolios,‘ Hedda Meadan, James R. Thompson,
Mayumi Hagiwara, Julie Herold, Sarah
Hoekstra, <strong>and</strong> Samantha Manser first describe
Best Practices / 293

the FAP, which was developed <strong>and</strong> enhanced
to <strong>in</strong>clude multimedia materials (e.g., movies
<strong>and</strong> webpage), then report the purpose of
their study which focuses on evaluat<strong>in</strong>g the
acceptability <strong>and</strong> effectiveness of the FAPs.
The participants of this study were parents,
FAP facilitators, <strong>and</strong> pre-service <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>-service
teachers. These three groups provided feedback
about the goals, procedures <strong>and</strong> outcomes
of the FAP through questionnaires
<strong>and</strong>/or <strong>in</strong>terviews after hav<strong>in</strong>g some experience
with or exposure to the FAPs. Results
<strong>and</strong> discussion of this study center on support-
294 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
<strong>in</strong>g the social validity of the FAP as a means to
communicate mean<strong>in</strong>gful <strong>in</strong>formation about
a child. The authors provide the perceptions
of <strong>and</strong> suggestions for the FAPs as offered by
each group of participants.
The conference provided researchers <strong>and</strong>
educators with the opportunity to explore
current research, topical issues <strong>and</strong> best
practices relat<strong>in</strong>g to mental retardation, autism,
<strong>and</strong> other development disabilities. We
hope readers of this Best Practices Special
Conference Issue f<strong>in</strong>d the <strong>in</strong>formation valuable
<strong>and</strong> timely.

Multiculturalism, Religion, <strong>and</strong> Disability: Implications for
Special <strong>Education</strong> Practitioners
A. Brooke Blanks <strong>and</strong> J. David Smith
University of North Carol<strong>in</strong>a at Greensboro
Abstract: Religious beliefs permeate many aspects of culture. Often, however, educators are reluctant to discuss
religious beliefs when work<strong>in</strong>g with children with developmental <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities <strong>and</strong> their families.
Ignor<strong>in</strong>g the salience of religious teach<strong>in</strong>gs about the nature <strong>and</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>g of disabilities as they relate to both
<strong>in</strong>dividuals <strong>and</strong> society, however, limits the opportunity to fully underst<strong>and</strong> the experience of liv<strong>in</strong>g with
disability. Discussion of religious beliefs, traditions, <strong>and</strong> practices should be <strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong>to teacher education,
<strong>and</strong> should be part of the zeitgeist of work<strong>in</strong>g with children <strong>and</strong> families. This article exam<strong>in</strong>es images of <strong>and</strong>
teach<strong>in</strong>gs about disabilities <strong>in</strong> three major world religions widely practiced <strong>in</strong> the United States; Judaism,
Christianity, <strong>and</strong> Islam.
Spirituality <strong>and</strong> religion are important to millions
of <strong>in</strong>dividuals across all cultures. Until
recently, however, the spirituality of people
with disabilities has been largely ignored by
both communities of faith <strong>and</strong> secular social
service <strong>and</strong> educational systems. (Avery-Wall,
2006; Rogers-Dulan, 1998; Stolberg, 2008) Neglect<strong>in</strong>g
the importance of religious belief <strong>and</strong>
experience <strong>in</strong> the lives of many <strong>in</strong>dividuals
with disabilities <strong>and</strong> their families, may imply a
view of their <strong>in</strong>nate humanity that is <strong>in</strong>complete
or less complex than other people
(Sw<strong>in</strong>ton, 1997). Spiritual beliefs may greatly
<strong>in</strong>fluence perceptions of people with disabilities,
of themselves, others, <strong>and</strong> the world (Dellassoudas,
2000). Multicultural education <strong>and</strong>
programs designed to build cultural competence
must necessarily <strong>in</strong>clude <strong>in</strong>struction <strong>in</strong>
religious practices <strong>and</strong> spiritual beliefs (Richards,
Browne, & Forde, 2007). There is a grow<strong>in</strong>g
body of literature <strong>in</strong> the help<strong>in</strong>g professions
around tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g practitioners to
consider <strong>and</strong> underst<strong>and</strong> the <strong>in</strong>fluence of religion
on people with disabilities <strong>and</strong> their
families as part of a system of care (Benjam<strong>in</strong>s,
2005; Forster, McColl, & Fardella, 2007;
Correspondence concern<strong>in</strong>g this article should
be addressed to Brooke Blanks, University of North
Carol<strong>in</strong>a at Greensboro, Department of Specialized
<strong>Education</strong> Services, P. O. Box 26170, Greensboro,
NC 27462-6170.
<strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>, 2009, 44(3), 295–303
© <strong>Division</strong> on <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>
Hurst, 2007; Selway & Ashman, 1998). Unfortunately,
special education has thus far largely
neglected consider<strong>in</strong>g religion as part of an
evolv<strong>in</strong>g commitment to multicultural practice,
<strong>and</strong> build<strong>in</strong>g cultural competence among
students <strong>in</strong> teacher education programs.
Religion <strong>in</strong> the Modern World
Only recently has science advanced to the
po<strong>in</strong>t where humans have a reasonably broad
ability to mediate <strong>and</strong> manage the impact of
the natural world <strong>in</strong> ways that are predictable
<strong>and</strong> stable. People <strong>in</strong> the so-called developed
world tend to believe that they have a fairly
high degree of control over their health, lives,
<strong>and</strong> dest<strong>in</strong>y. We now know that vitam<strong>in</strong> A
deficiency can cause bl<strong>in</strong>dness <strong>and</strong> that diet
can prevent it. We know that the cognitive
impact of phenylketonuria can be avoided
through dietary manipulation <strong>and</strong> control.
Technologies now allow 50 year old women to
give birth to healthy babies <strong>and</strong> people without
legs can be competitive runners (Rob<strong>in</strong>son,
2008). Prior to the time when the degree
of control that we can now exert over the
natural <strong>and</strong> physical world was possible, people
largely understood the world only as controlled
by unseen, supernatural forces. Religion
served to expla<strong>in</strong> many of the mysteries
of the natural world. The power to expla<strong>in</strong> the
unknown is also the power to control behav-
Multiculturalism, Religion, <strong>and</strong> Disability / 295

ior. Religious teach<strong>in</strong>g often def<strong>in</strong>es what people
should believe to be true about the world
around them, <strong>and</strong> it prescribes how people
should act <strong>in</strong> accordance with these beliefs
(Goldberg, 2006). Religious beliefs have been
the foundations of civilizations. Public <strong>and</strong>
private behaviors were usually governed by the
codes of conduct described <strong>in</strong> religious law. It
is relatively impossible to parse religious <strong>and</strong>
civil leadership <strong>in</strong> ancient (<strong>and</strong> not so ancient)
cultures. Even today despite public discourse
around the need to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> a secular,
civil society <strong>in</strong> this country <strong>and</strong> elsewhere <strong>in</strong>
the world, it is naïve to underestimate the
extent to which religious thought <strong>in</strong>fluences
th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g on a wide variety of issues, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g
disability. To deny or ignore religious <strong>in</strong>fluences
on conceptualizations of disability is to
overlook a profound aspect of the human experience
<strong>and</strong> our underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g of what it
means to have <strong>and</strong> live with a disability. As
special educators <strong>and</strong> researchers we are just
beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g to explore the relationships between
the <strong>in</strong>fluence of religion on cultural
<strong>and</strong> personal underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>gs of disability.
Religion <strong>in</strong> America
Americans often po<strong>in</strong>t to the separation of
church <strong>and</strong> state m<strong>and</strong>ated by the First
Amendment as proof that we live <strong>in</strong> a secular
society. However, momentary consideration of
the follow<strong>in</strong>g examples <strong>in</strong>dicates that religious
thought clearly pervades our th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g. An obvious
example is the cont<strong>in</strong>ued legal debate
over the teach<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>in</strong>telligent design (Slack,
2007). Religious beliefs have always pervaded
attitudes <strong>and</strong> policies on a variety of controversial
issues. The deliverance narratives of
the Hebrew <strong>and</strong> Christian traditions certa<strong>in</strong>ly
<strong>in</strong>fluenced the debates around Civil Rights
<strong>and</strong> desegregation (Cone, 1975; K<strong>in</strong>g, 1968).
Another example is the <strong>in</strong>teraction between
religion <strong>and</strong> culture that is evident <strong>in</strong> public
school vacation calendars. Without fail, extended
periods of vacation co<strong>in</strong>cide with major
Christian holidays. For an example from
public policy, objections to gay marriage are
fundamentally religious objections. Religion
matters <strong>in</strong> modern America <strong>and</strong> yet we rarely
explore how it relates to beliefs about students
with disabilities. Underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g what religions
say about disability can deepen the ability to
underst<strong>and</strong> how to improve the services provided
to students with <strong>in</strong>tellectual <strong>and</strong> developmental
disabilities <strong>and</strong> their families.
Religion <strong>and</strong> Disability
With these issues <strong>and</strong> ideas <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>d, we can
beg<strong>in</strong> to explore images of disability <strong>in</strong> three
major world religions. The <strong>in</strong>tent here is simply
to argue that multicultural teacher preparation
for special educators is <strong>in</strong>complete unless
it <strong>in</strong>cludes an exam<strong>in</strong>ation of religion. It is
<strong>in</strong> the best <strong>in</strong>terests of our students <strong>and</strong> their
families that we tra<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> expect special educators
to reflect on the ways religious ideas
<strong>in</strong>fluence practice. We make no claims that
our research on religious images of disability
is comprehensive. Choices about what <strong>in</strong>formation
to <strong>in</strong>clude <strong>and</strong> exclude <strong>in</strong> this discussion
were made largely on the basis of the big
ideas available <strong>in</strong> a survey of the literature.
What we have tried to do is gather sufficient
<strong>in</strong>formation to open the conversation. With
this goal <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>d, this article only provides an
<strong>in</strong>troduction to important scholarly work <strong>in</strong>
disability studies <strong>and</strong> religious studies. Our
hope is that this <strong>in</strong>troduction will <strong>in</strong>spire our
colleagues <strong>in</strong> special education to further explore
the scholarly work represented here <strong>and</strong>
cont<strong>in</strong>ue to reflect on issues around religion,
disability, <strong>and</strong> special education.
Religion <strong>in</strong> this discussion is limited to the
three Abrahamic traditions: Judaism, Christianity,
<strong>and</strong> Islam. The simple criteria for this
project were (a) religions with which the authors
have sufficient familiarity to comprehend
the scholarly work available, <strong>and</strong> (b)
religions that are prevalent enough <strong>in</strong> the
United States that most teachers will have at
least heard of them <strong>and</strong> have an elemental
sense of their belief systems.
Abrahamic Traditions
296 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
Judaism, Christianity, <strong>and</strong> Islam fall under the
umbrella of the Abrahamic traditions because
all three recognize the historical figure Abraham
<strong>and</strong> his descendants as central <strong>and</strong> orig<strong>in</strong>al
figures <strong>in</strong> the culture of the faith. There is
significant overlap <strong>in</strong> the sacred texts of each
faith <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> their treatment of people with
disabilities. Similarly, each faith is <strong>in</strong>consistent
<strong>and</strong> seem<strong>in</strong>gly contradictory <strong>in</strong> the images of

disability that are conveyed through sacred
text <strong>and</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>gs. When viewed as literary
works <strong>and</strong> policy documents it is evident that
they have evolved <strong>and</strong> changed over time as a
function of social need <strong>and</strong> cultural change. It
is easy to see that contradictions <strong>in</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>gs
are the result of changes to documents that
prescribed behavior <strong>and</strong> functioned as civil
law for many centuries. However, the l<strong>in</strong>ger<strong>in</strong>g
consequences of these <strong>in</strong>consistencies are
ambivalence <strong>and</strong> confusion among teach<strong>in</strong>gs
about the mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> orig<strong>in</strong> of disabilities as
well as the ways <strong>in</strong> which people with disabilities
should be treated. On one h<strong>and</strong> there are
historical narratives connect<strong>in</strong>g disability to
evil. However, people with disabilities are also
held up as objects of pity <strong>and</strong> function as
opportunities for the faithful to demonstrate
their own goodness through acts of charity
(Rose 1997). Recently, however, religious <strong>in</strong>stitutions
<strong>and</strong> spiritual communities have begun
to underst<strong>and</strong> that <strong>in</strong>dividuals with <strong>in</strong>tellectual
<strong>and</strong> developmental disabilities have
spiritual lives <strong>and</strong> religious needs that are fully
their own, <strong>and</strong> quite similar to the needs of
<strong>in</strong>dividuals without disabilities (Coll<strong>in</strong>s, Epste<strong>in</strong>,
Rice, & Lowe, 2003; Sw<strong>in</strong>ton, 1997;
Yong, 2007).
Judaism
The Hebrew bible’s central character, Yahweh,
a s<strong>in</strong>gle deity, is responsible for conditions
of disability <strong>and</strong> this is a major shift from
previous polytheistic traditions <strong>in</strong> ancient Mesopotamia
(Hentrich, 2007; Walls, 2007). In
the Yahweh stories, disabilities are generally
negative degradations of the perfect body God
bestowed upon Adam <strong>in</strong> the creation story. As
such, disabilities are perceived as div<strong>in</strong>e punishments.
People with disabilities are considered
impure <strong>and</strong> they carry the danger of
br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g pollution to their surround<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>and</strong>
other people (Hentrich). The emphases on
perfection surround<strong>in</strong>g the ritual acts <strong>in</strong>volved
<strong>in</strong> mak<strong>in</strong>g sacrifices as offer<strong>in</strong>gs to God
as prescribed <strong>in</strong> Hebrew scripture conflate the
ideas of pollution <strong>and</strong> disability (Melcher,
2007). Jewish law describes <strong>in</strong> detail the need
for perfection <strong>in</strong> both the sacrificial object
<strong>and</strong> the preparer of the sacrifice (Miles,
2002a). Although there are legal prohibitions
about who can perform certa<strong>in</strong> k<strong>in</strong>ds of ritu-
alistic tasks, such as an <strong>in</strong>sistence that the
priest who exam<strong>in</strong>es an animal before sacrifice
have clear vision, there is no scriptural
precedent for exclud<strong>in</strong>g a man with bl<strong>in</strong>dness
from memoriz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> speak<strong>in</strong>g the sacred
texts (Miles, 2002b; Wertlieb, 1988). The
David stories, however, communicate more
negative images of disability <strong>and</strong> the roles for
people with disabilities <strong>in</strong> society. David is understood
to st<strong>and</strong> for an idealized man <strong>in</strong>
ancient Israelite culture (Hentrich). As David
moves to depose Saul <strong>in</strong> order to establish the
dynastic house of David, Saul’s son Ishboshet
is killed, yet his other son, Meribaal, is spared.
Apparently, Meribaal is no threat to David
because Meribaal has a physical disability that
legally excludes him from assum<strong>in</strong>g the
throne (Hentrich; Schipper, 2006). Although
the historical record is unclear as to the exact
nature of Meribaal’s disability, he is described
as “lame” or “crippled”. (Hentrich). The legal
basis of Meribaal’s <strong>in</strong>ability to rule is unclear.
It is possible that either purity laws associated
with religious practice or civil laws about physical
disabilities were responsible for his disqualification.
What is important <strong>in</strong> the story is
the fact that David did not kill Meribaal because
he was perceived as no threat because of
his disability. The Meribaal story communicates
a status of reduced manhood <strong>and</strong> otherness
result<strong>in</strong>g from physical disabilities.
The exclusion of persons with disabilities
from the temple also appears to orig<strong>in</strong>ate <strong>in</strong>
the David stories. As David moves to conquer
Jerusalem, the defend<strong>in</strong>g army surrounds the
city with soldiers who have disabilities-either
congenital or result<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>in</strong>juries or illness.
The tactical reasons for this action are unclear
but some scholars suggest that cultural taboos
<strong>in</strong> ancient Jerusalem would have caused David
to hesitate to engage with such a force for fear
of pollution (Heller, <strong>in</strong> Hentrich, 2007). A
more positive <strong>in</strong>terpretation offered by Brunet
(<strong>in</strong> Hentrich) is that the city was surround<strong>in</strong>g
itself with a “moral wall” which David
would not dare to attack <strong>in</strong> fear of div<strong>in</strong>e
vengeance that would convey disabilities upon
David’s soldiers. David, however, cont<strong>in</strong>ued
undeterred <strong>and</strong> after assum<strong>in</strong>g power <strong>in</strong>
Jerusalem banned people with disabilities
from the temple (Hentrich). It is unclear
whether David was exact<strong>in</strong>g revenge on those
who opposed him or if he was concerned
Multiculturalism, Religion, <strong>and</strong> Disability / 297

about issues of purity <strong>and</strong> pollution (Hentrich).
In practical terms, the David narratives
of exclusion have cont<strong>in</strong>ued to <strong>in</strong>fluence religious
practice. However, as Judaism evolved
over time <strong>and</strong> exp<strong>and</strong>ed geographically, the
emphasis on physical perfection became secondary
to an emphasis on <strong>in</strong>tellectualism
(Abrams, 1998). The shift mediated negative
attitudes toward people with disability. Jewish
philosophers came to believe that physical
perfection (as they def<strong>in</strong>ed it) was not required
to have a relationship with God
(Abrams). Consequently, people with certa<strong>in</strong>
disabilities, particularly bl<strong>in</strong>dness, were gradually
brought back <strong>in</strong>to the temple <strong>and</strong> began
to assume important roles. Modern Jewish
scholars <strong>and</strong> theologians cont<strong>in</strong>ue to revisit
<strong>and</strong> re<strong>in</strong>terpret sacred texts as they work to
become more <strong>in</strong>clusive <strong>and</strong> welcom<strong>in</strong>g to Jews
with diverse physical <strong>and</strong> cognitive abilities
(Artson, 2006). The Jewish community is reexam<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g
ideas about what constitutes wholeness
<strong>and</strong> what ways of be<strong>in</strong>g are considered
defects. Artson raises important questions
about who among us is truly free of human
shortcom<strong>in</strong>gs. Arbitrary decisions about what
is <strong>and</strong> is not acceptable to God it is argued,
distract Jews from a primary responsibility to
“glorify the Torah <strong>and</strong> to testify to God’s sovereignty
as we might” (Artson). In the modern
era, the words “as we might” recognize the
diversity of human experience <strong>and</strong> promote
<strong>in</strong>clusion of all Jews, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g those with <strong>in</strong>tellectual
<strong>and</strong> developmental disabilities.
Christianity
As the second of the Abrahamic religions,
Christianity builds from the history of the Hebrew
bible as the Old Testament <strong>and</strong> becomes
a separate tradition with the birth of Jesus.
The New Testament conta<strong>in</strong>s stories of what
happened dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> after his birth. It is important
to recognize that ancient Christianity
<strong>in</strong>herited the historical perspectives of its Jewish
roots <strong>and</strong> built upon these themes to serve
social <strong>and</strong> political ends (Miles, 2001). Disability
serves a markedly different literary function
<strong>in</strong> the New Testament than <strong>in</strong> the Hebrew
bible. Rather than simply function<strong>in</strong>g as
punishment <strong>and</strong> a visible rem<strong>in</strong>der of God’s
wrath, people with disabilities become the me-
298 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
dia through which God communicates messages
of mercy <strong>and</strong> power.
A story <strong>in</strong> the book of John has Jesus clarify
the mean<strong>in</strong>g of disability. Jesus expla<strong>in</strong>s that
people are not born with disabilities because
of s<strong>in</strong> but <strong>in</strong>stead they are born with disabilities
<strong>in</strong> order to provide opportunities for God
to demonstrate his power (Miles, 2002b). This
is a very different message then the one conveyed
<strong>in</strong> Exodus which teaches that children
may bear the weight of their parents’ s<strong>in</strong>s
which are manifested as disabilities (Miles,
2001).
The Jesus stories are narratives of social reform
(Wills, 2006) <strong>and</strong> not exclusively focused
on improv<strong>in</strong>g the lives of people with disabilities.
Hebrew rules around issues of impurity
<strong>and</strong> pollution (orig<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> God’s m<strong>and</strong>ates
about the priesthood to Aaron <strong>and</strong> his descendants
<strong>and</strong> furthered through the David narratives)
exp<strong>and</strong>ed to marg<strong>in</strong>alize people with
disabilities <strong>in</strong> multiple aspects of social life
(Bishop, 1995). Stories of Jesus heal<strong>in</strong>g people
with disabilities <strong>in</strong> public are also stories of
cross<strong>in</strong>g social boundaries <strong>and</strong> build<strong>in</strong>g community
(Senior, 1995).
Christian narratives have often served as the
basis of civil law <strong>and</strong> social norms <strong>in</strong> Western
culture s<strong>in</strong>ce Roman occupiers began to convert
around 200 A.D. The New Testament has
been <strong>in</strong>terpreted <strong>and</strong> re<strong>in</strong>terpreted on a regular
basis for centuries <strong>and</strong> the treatment of
people with disabilities has varied with these
changes. S<strong>in</strong>ce 400 A.D. various Christian
theologians have offered <strong>in</strong>terpretations of <strong>in</strong>tellectual
disabilities as evidence that immorality
is <strong>in</strong>heritable (Miles, 2001). Fifteen centuries
later similar arguments were used to
support the eugenics movement <strong>in</strong> the United
States <strong>and</strong> elsewhere, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Nazi Germany.
Sixteenth century reformer, Mart<strong>in</strong>
Luther made remarks about drown<strong>in</strong>g children
with disabilities based on his belief that
these were not actually human children but
rather <strong>in</strong>carnations of the devil (Miles). Not
all theological <strong>in</strong>terpretations of disability <strong>in</strong>
Christianity are so negative. Indeed many people
with disabilities were treated far more
k<strong>in</strong>dly by social service <strong>in</strong>stitutions run by the
church than they would have been <strong>in</strong> state
operated prisons or asylums. The overwhelm<strong>in</strong>g
message of the Jesus narratives, however,
serves to set people with disabilities apart from

the rest of society until acted upon by God.
Implicit <strong>in</strong> the message is the idea that those
who are not healed or do not live well with a
disability are <strong>in</strong> some way removed from God
<strong>and</strong> therefore from the community.
Islam
Of the Abrahamic traditions, Islam is the most
recent <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> many ways the most <strong>in</strong>clusive of
people with disabilities. The word Islam
means “submission to the will of Allah”. Muslims
believe that we are each born <strong>in</strong> the body
that Allah <strong>in</strong>tends us to have. Allah is perfect
as is his work. Therefore, to dishonor or exclude
people with disabilities from civil society
or religious life is to disrespect <strong>and</strong> disregard
the will of Allah (Miles, 2002b). Health is
benevolence from Allah, however, disease <strong>and</strong>
disability are not expressions of div<strong>in</strong>e punishment
or wrath. Rather, disability tests <strong>in</strong>dividuals
<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the process allows opportunities
for atonement (Rispler-Chaim, 2007). <strong>Disabilities</strong>
are considered normal aspects of the human
experience by the Qu’ran <strong>and</strong> Islamic
law as evidenced by the prescriptions for how
<strong>and</strong> to what extent <strong>in</strong>dividuals with disabilities
can <strong>and</strong> should participate <strong>in</strong> religious <strong>and</strong>
secular life (Miles, 2001; Rispler-Chaim). The
Hebrew Bible <strong>and</strong> Christian Old Testament
describe the ways <strong>and</strong> extents to which participation
<strong>in</strong> religious <strong>and</strong> social life should be
limited or restricted for people with disabilities.
Islamic law <strong>and</strong> the Qu’ran call explicitly
for the <strong>in</strong>clusion of people with disabilities <strong>in</strong>
social life through emphatic denials of ideas
about contagion or pollution associated with
disability (Rispler-Chaim). Participation <strong>in</strong> religious
life <strong>and</strong> activities are required of all
Muslims, with or without disabilities. Accommodations
are offered to people with disabilities
to make their participation <strong>in</strong> religious
life possible to the greatest extent. They are
also excused without consequence from religious
requirements that are simply beyond an
<strong>in</strong>dividual’s ability. The <strong>in</strong>dividual is clearly
not def<strong>in</strong>ed socially or religiously by his disability
(Miles). In marked contrast to its Abrahamic
predecessors, Islam treats people with
disabilities as fully participat<strong>in</strong>g members of
the social <strong>and</strong> spiritual community (Miles).
Perhaps more so than the other two Abrahamic
traditions, the Qu’ran <strong>and</strong> its teach<strong>in</strong>gs
also function as the basis for modern civil law
<strong>in</strong> Islamic societies. As far back as the seventh
century Muslim courts were debat<strong>in</strong>g whether
or not men with <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities should
be allowed to own property. Arguments
around the issue would be considered progressive
today. A man who may not manage
property because of an <strong>in</strong>tellectual disability
should still be allowed to try to do so. On the
other h<strong>and</strong> is it the responsibility of the community
to prevent potential harm from com<strong>in</strong>g
to this man by protect<strong>in</strong>g him from the
risk of los<strong>in</strong>g property as a result of his <strong>in</strong>ability
to manage it? The debate tends to give
more weight to the idea that to deny a man
the right to own property is a greater harm
than would come to him were he to lose his
property (Miles). Additionally, part of honor<strong>in</strong>g
the will of Allah, accord<strong>in</strong>g to the Qu’ran,
is the idea that people <strong>in</strong> a community are
responsible for each other because each person
is created by Allah <strong>and</strong> should be honored
as such. A practical consequence of this teach<strong>in</strong>g
is an enhanced sense of community responsibility
for provid<strong>in</strong>g people with disabilities
with what they are unable to provide for
themselves (Miles). Contradictions exist however,
between Qu’ranic teach<strong>in</strong>gs that Allah is
perfect <strong>and</strong> therefore people are created as
Allah <strong>in</strong>tends them to be, <strong>and</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>gs that
“for each illness, Allah has provided a remedy”
(Miles). In practical terms, modern Muslims
may f<strong>in</strong>d themselves confused as to the appropriateness
of <strong>in</strong>terventions that can alter a
state of disability. Such acts might be <strong>in</strong>terpreted
as an act of rebellion or an avoidance
of a trial Allah has <strong>in</strong>tended for the person.
Overall, the Qu’ran <strong>and</strong> Islamic law are
most remarkable <strong>in</strong> the relative little they say
about people with disabilities compared to the
other Abrahamic traditions. As previously discussed,
images of disability are used repeatedly
<strong>in</strong> the Hebrew <strong>and</strong> Christian Bibles as
representations of God’s wrath, punishment
for s<strong>in</strong>s, metaphors for turn<strong>in</strong>g away from
God, or to provide opportunities for demonstrations
of div<strong>in</strong>e benevolence <strong>and</strong> greatness
through miraculous heal<strong>in</strong>g. These narratives
are conspicuously absent from Islamic writ<strong>in</strong>gs
(Miles, 2001; Rispler-Chaim, 2007). Beyond
efforts to clearly articulate ideas of <strong>in</strong>clusion
<strong>and</strong> civil protection, relatively little else is said
about people with disabilities. A possible rea-
Multiculturalism, Religion, <strong>and</strong> Disability / 299

son for this absence is an effort to normalize
disability <strong>and</strong> to th<strong>in</strong>k of abilities <strong>and</strong> disabilities
as one aspect of human condition with<strong>in</strong>
the range of possible characteristics bestowed
by Allah. As such, people with disabilities are
full members of the community who may have
specific needs that must be met <strong>in</strong> order to
fulfill Allah’s will but whose needs do not
marg<strong>in</strong>alize them or limit their access to the
full experience of liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> community with
other Muslims (Miles).
Personal Religious <strong>and</strong> Spiritual Experiences
As <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g as the history of religion <strong>and</strong>
the images of disability presented there<strong>in</strong> are,
none of it matters if disconnected from the
lived experiences of <strong>in</strong>dividuals with disabilities
<strong>and</strong> their families. As has been exam<strong>in</strong>ed,
there is a long tradition of ambiguity about
the mean<strong>in</strong>g of disability <strong>and</strong> the place <strong>in</strong>dividuals
with disabilities have <strong>in</strong> a culture based
on religious history. On one h<strong>and</strong> rarely have
<strong>in</strong>dividuals with disabilities been allowed to
articulate their own needs <strong>and</strong> faith experiences
as fully function<strong>in</strong>g members of spiritual
communities. Recently, however, religious
<strong>in</strong>stitutions have begun to underst<strong>and</strong>
that <strong>in</strong>dividuals with <strong>in</strong>tellectual <strong>and</strong> developmental
disabilities have spiritual lives <strong>and</strong> religious
needs that are fully their own <strong>and</strong> quite
similar to the needs of <strong>in</strong>dividuals without
disabilities (Coll<strong>in</strong>s et al., 2003; Sw<strong>in</strong>ton, 1997;
Yong, 2007).
Religious beliefs, spirituality, <strong>and</strong> faith traditions
provide structure that <strong>in</strong>dividuals with
disabilities (<strong>and</strong> others) use to create mean<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>in</strong> their lives. The religious experiences of
<strong>in</strong>dividuals with disabilities <strong>and</strong> the religious
experiences of their families or other caregivers
are often overlooked <strong>in</strong> the multicultural
pedagogy of special education <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the practices
of otherwise culturally competent special
educators. There is a grow<strong>in</strong>g body of literature,
however, that <strong>in</strong>dicates that religion is
personally relevant <strong>and</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>gful to <strong>in</strong>dividuals
with disabilities <strong>in</strong> their daily lives.
Spirituality <strong>and</strong> Individuals with Disability
Children with <strong>and</strong> without disabilities th<strong>in</strong>k
quite a lot about God, <strong>in</strong> whatever form dictated
by the iconography of their culture (Tor-
300 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
stenson-Ed, 2006). The diversity of religious
beliefs among children <strong>in</strong> classrooms should
automatically dictate the <strong>in</strong>clusion of religion
<strong>in</strong> a multicultural pedagogy. As seen <strong>in</strong> the
exploration of the Abrahamic traditions, however,
religious teach<strong>in</strong>gs about disability add a
layer of complexity to children’s religious
th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g. Webb-Mitchell (2008) writes about
his experiences work<strong>in</strong>g with children with
emotional disabilities <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities
<strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>stitutional sett<strong>in</strong>g. He found that
spirituality was the common ground on which
he could meet <strong>and</strong> talk with these children.
Although the framework is <strong>in</strong> the Christian
tradition, the belief system or the doctr<strong>in</strong>e is
not the po<strong>in</strong>t of the stories he shares. Rather,
children who had great difficulty underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g
the external reality of the world around
them <strong>and</strong> the <strong>in</strong>ternal work<strong>in</strong>gs of themselves
because of emotional or <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities,
expressed deep <strong>and</strong> prolonged <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong>
both the practical <strong>and</strong> metaphysical aspects of
their religious experiences. The examples
Webb-Mitchell (2008) provides describe products
of childhood religious imag<strong>in</strong>ation that
are not noticeably different from the religious
<strong>in</strong>terests of other children.
Nearly 50 years ago Margaret Mead shared
her observations of the power religious <strong>in</strong>struction
has to promote wholeness among
people with <strong>in</strong>tellectual <strong>and</strong> developmental
disabilities (Smith & Johnson, 1997). She described
the implicit recognition of a person’s
humanity when she is fully <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the
ritual <strong>and</strong> doctr<strong>in</strong>e of a spiritual community.
Israeli parents of children with <strong>in</strong>tellectual
<strong>and</strong> developmental disabilities describe the
normative function of the bar <strong>and</strong> bat mitzvah
rituals (Vogel & Reiter, 2004). Temples,
churches, <strong>and</strong> mosques across the country are
develop<strong>in</strong>g programs <strong>and</strong> practices to become
more <strong>in</strong>clusive <strong>and</strong> recogniz<strong>in</strong>g the important
contributions that people with <strong>in</strong>tellectual
<strong>and</strong> developmental disabilities make to spiritual
communities (Harris, 2006; Vogel, Polloway,
& Smith, 2006).
Families <strong>and</strong> caregivers of <strong>in</strong>dividuals with
developmental disabilities often report that
their faith <strong>in</strong>forms their attitudes <strong>and</strong> decisions
around issues concern<strong>in</strong>g children <strong>and</strong>
other family members who have disabilities.
Some <strong>in</strong>terpret their experiences of car<strong>in</strong>g for
a child with <strong>in</strong>tellectual or developmental dis-

abilities as an opportunity for spiritual growth.
Other families <strong>in</strong>terpret the experience as a
test of faith (Marshall, Olsen, M<strong>and</strong>leco, Dyches,
Allred, & Sansom, 2003). Parents may
also <strong>in</strong>terpret children’s disabilities as punishment
for their own misdeeds (Glover & Blankenship,
2007) <strong>and</strong> therefore they feel significant
shame or guilt. Religious beliefs <strong>in</strong>form
parents’ attitudes about what <strong>in</strong>terventions
can or should be implemented for their children.
Similarly, families who are adhere to
determ<strong>in</strong>istic religious beliefs may not want
services they believe will <strong>in</strong>terfere with whatever
plan or reason God had by creat<strong>in</strong>g their
child’s disability (Cho, S<strong>in</strong>ger, & Brenner,
2000). Internalized blame <strong>and</strong> shame about
disabilities can contribute to a parent’s lack of
participation <strong>in</strong> decision processes. Special educators
must be sufficiently aware of these
issues to be able to <strong>in</strong>clude religion <strong>in</strong> discussions
with families when design<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dividualized
education plans <strong>and</strong> services for children.
Parents who believe that God will heal their
child through prayer may not be <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong>
elaborate or <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong>terventions that
schools are eager to try. On the other h<strong>and</strong>,
however, schools should also be aware that
participation <strong>in</strong> religious rituals like Bar <strong>and</strong>
Bat Mitzvahs can be very important to families.
Part of culturally responsive teach<strong>in</strong>g is to provide
services that allow children <strong>in</strong>creased access
to activities that are developmentally, age,
<strong>and</strong> culturally appropriate (Rogers-Dulan,
1998). Special educators need to be aware of
religious activities, traditions, <strong>and</strong> cultural
milestones that may be important to students
<strong>and</strong> their families so that they can work together
to support children’s full participation
<strong>in</strong> these cornerstones of childhood experiences
(Vogel & Reiter, 2004). Reach<strong>in</strong>g beyond
the school walls <strong>and</strong> lend<strong>in</strong>g expertise to
religious organizations as they work to become
more <strong>in</strong>clusive <strong>and</strong> accessible to people
with developmental <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities
<strong>and</strong> their families is important (Summers
& Jones, 2007). Special educators <strong>in</strong> our
global community have an obligation to <strong>in</strong>quire
<strong>and</strong> underst<strong>and</strong> the spiritual needs of
<strong>in</strong>dividuals with developmental <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tellectual
disabilities <strong>in</strong> order to plan <strong>in</strong>struction
that <strong>in</strong>creases access to the normal functions
of daily life to which all people are entitled.
Discussion
Given the extent to which religious <strong>and</strong> political
thought are historically <strong>in</strong>tertw<strong>in</strong>ed, it is
reasonable to question the extent to which
various <strong>in</strong>terpretations of scripture have been
<strong>in</strong>fluenced <strong>and</strong> changed over time. We cannot
ignore the fact that religious th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>forms
conceptions of disability. As special educators
we must also underst<strong>and</strong> that the efficacy of
our work may depend on the ability to work
with <strong>in</strong>dividuals <strong>and</strong> families who are <strong>in</strong>fluenced
by religious or spiritual conceptions of
disability that may or may not agree with our
own. The brief <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>complete survey of Abrahamic
texts presented here should make clear
the extent to which religious teach<strong>in</strong>gs are
ambivalent <strong>and</strong> often contradictory <strong>in</strong> the
messages they present about both the nature
of <strong>and</strong> responses to disability. Religion <strong>and</strong>
spirituality are mean<strong>in</strong>gful experiences for
people with <strong>and</strong> people without developmental
disabilities (Matthewes-Green, 2005). Furthermore,
people with disabilities can enrich
the spiritual life of a religious community (Vogel
et al., 2006). Special educators have a responsibility
to <strong>in</strong>quire about <strong>and</strong> consider the
ways <strong>in</strong> which faith traditions <strong>in</strong>fluence the
beliefs, feel<strong>in</strong>gs, <strong>and</strong> behaviors of <strong>in</strong>dividuals
with developmental <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities
so that we can work with them to promote
access to the full experiences of life with the
greatest autonomy <strong>and</strong> self determ<strong>in</strong>ation
possible (Dellassoudas, 2000).
Conclusion
Future research should <strong>in</strong>clude an exploration
of religion <strong>and</strong> disability that is wider <strong>and</strong>
deeper than the current <strong>in</strong>troductory survey
presented here. Other belief systems may <strong>in</strong>terpret
disability <strong>in</strong> ways that are substantially
different than the Abrahamic traditions. For
example, disability is has an important role <strong>in</strong>
the central tenets of Buddhism <strong>and</strong> can be
seen as a desirable quality when one is seek<strong>in</strong>g
to distance oneself from society (Miles,
2002a). How do ideas like these <strong>in</strong>fluence
students with disabilities, families, <strong>and</strong> teachers?
There is far more to explore <strong>in</strong> the Hebrew
<strong>and</strong> Christian bibles <strong>and</strong> the Qu’ran
both <strong>in</strong> the images of disability presented <strong>and</strong>
the act of religious literary criticism itself.
Multiculturalism, Religion, <strong>and</strong> Disability / 301

Qualitative research should explore what
teachers th<strong>in</strong>k about religion, disability, <strong>and</strong>
the <strong>in</strong>tersection of the two <strong>in</strong> their practice.
Students, parents, <strong>and</strong> special educators need
opportunities <strong>in</strong> which to reflect on their beliefs
about their spiritual <strong>and</strong> religious beliefs
about developmental <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities
<strong>in</strong> order to underst<strong>and</strong> how, when, <strong>and</strong>
why these beliefs <strong>in</strong>fluence needs, service delivery
<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>structional practices.
References
Abrams, J. Z. (1998). Judaism <strong>and</strong> disability: Portrayals
<strong>in</strong> ancient texts from the Tanach through the Bavli.
Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, D.C. Gallaudet University Press.
Artson, B. S. (2006). ‘Im ani kan, hakol kan’ If I am
here, all is here: A contemplation on “Defects”
<strong>and</strong> “Wholeness”. In J. Z.Abrams & W. C. Gaventa
(Eds.), Jewish perspectives on theology <strong>and</strong> the human
experience of disability (pp. 5–8). New York: Haworth
Pastoral Press.
Avery-Wall, V. (2006, August 21). Are You Religion-
Sensitive?. AHA News, 42(17), 8–8. Retrieved July
26, 2008, from Bus<strong>in</strong>ess Source Premier database.
Benjam<strong>in</strong>s, M. (2005). Social determ<strong>in</strong>ants of preventive
service utilization. Research on Ag<strong>in</strong>g, 27,
475–497.
Bishop, M. E. (1995). Foreword. In M. Bishop (Ed.),
Religion <strong>and</strong> disability: Essays <strong>in</strong> scripture, theology,
<strong>and</strong> ethics (pp. v-x). Kansas City, MO: Sheed &
Ward.
Cho, S., S<strong>in</strong>ger, G., & Brenner, M. (2000). Adaptation
<strong>and</strong> accommodation to young children with
disabilities: A comparison of Korean <strong>and</strong> Korean
American parents. Topics <strong>in</strong> Early Childhood Special
<strong>Education</strong>, 20, 236–249.
Coll<strong>in</strong>s, B., Epste<strong>in</strong>, A., Reiss, T., & Lowe, V. (2001).
Includ<strong>in</strong>g children with mental retardation <strong>in</strong> the
religious community. Teach<strong>in</strong>g Exceptional Children,
33(5), 52.
Cone, J. (1975). God of the oppressed. New York: Seabury
Press.
Dellassoudas, L. (2000). Church <strong>and</strong> social <strong>in</strong>tegration
of disabled people. Greek Orthodox Theological
Review, 45, 597–627.
Forster, D., McColl, M., & Fardella, J. (2007). Spiritual
transformations <strong>in</strong> cl<strong>in</strong>ical relationships between
social workers <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals liv<strong>in</strong>g with
disabilities. Journal of Religion & Spirituality <strong>in</strong> Social
Work, 26, 35–51.
Glover, N.M. & Blankenship, C.J. (2007). Mexican
<strong>and</strong> Mexican Americans’ belief about God <strong>in</strong> relation
to disability. Journal of Rehabilitation-Wash<strong>in</strong>gton,
73(4), 41–50.
Goldberg, M. (2006). K<strong>in</strong>gdom Com<strong>in</strong>g: The Rise of
302 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
Christian Nationalism. New York: W. W. Norton &
Company.
Harris, J. C. (2006). Intellectual disability: Underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g
its development, causes, classification, evaluation,
<strong>and</strong> treatment. New York: Oxford University Press,
US.
Hentrich, T. (2007). Mascul<strong>in</strong>ity <strong>and</strong> disability <strong>in</strong>
the Bible. In H. Avalos, S. J. Melcher, & J. Schipper
(Eds.), Reth<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g disabilities <strong>in</strong> biblical studies
(pp. 73–90). Atlanta, GA: Society of Biblical Literature.
Hurst, J. (2007). Disability <strong>and</strong> spirituality <strong>in</strong> social
work practice. Journal of Social Work <strong>in</strong> Disability &
Rehabilitation, 6, 179–194.
K<strong>in</strong>g, M. L. (2001). I’ve been to the mounta<strong>in</strong>top.
In C. Carson & K. Shepard (Eds.) A call to conscience:
The l<strong>and</strong>mark speeches of Dr. Mart<strong>in</strong> Luther
K<strong>in</strong>g, Jr. New York: Intellectual Properties Management.
(Orig<strong>in</strong>al work published <strong>in</strong> 1968).
Marshall, E. S., Olsen, S. F., M<strong>and</strong>leco, B. L., Dyches,
T. T., Allred, K. W., & Sansom, N. (2003).
This is a spiritual experience‘: Perspectives of
Latter-Day Sa<strong>in</strong>t families liv<strong>in</strong>g with a child with
disabilities. Qualitative Health Research, 13, 57–76.
Mathewes-Green, F. (1995, October 23). A ramp is
not enough. Christianity Today, 39(12), 68.
Melcher, S. J. (2007). With whom do the disabled
associate? Metaphorical <strong>in</strong>terplay <strong>in</strong> the latter
prophets. In H. Avalos, S. J. Melcher, & J. Schipper
(Eds.), Reth<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g disabilities <strong>in</strong> biblical studies
(pp. 115–130). Atlanta, GA: Society of Biblical
Literature.
Miles, M. (2001). Mart<strong>in</strong> Luther <strong>and</strong> childhood disability
<strong>in</strong> 16 th century Germany: What did he
write? What did he say? Journal if Religion, Disability,
& Health, 5(4), 5–36.
Miles, M. (2002a). Disability <strong>in</strong> an eastern religions
context: Historical Perspectives. Journal of Religion,
Disability, & Health, 6(2/3), 53–76.
Miles, M. (2002b).Some <strong>in</strong>fluences of religions on
attitudes towards disabilities <strong>and</strong> people with disabilities.
Journal of Religion, Disability, & Health,
6(2/3), 117–129.
Richards, H., Brown, A., & Forde, T. (2007). Address<strong>in</strong>g
diversity <strong>in</strong> schools: Culturally responsive
pedagogy. Teach<strong>in</strong>g Exceptional Children, 39(3),
64–68.
Rispler-Chaim, V. (2007). Disability <strong>in</strong> Islamic Law.
Dordrecht, The Netherl<strong>and</strong>s: Spr<strong>in</strong>ger.
Rob<strong>in</strong>son, J. (2008, January 10). Study suggests that
amputee holds an unfair advantage. New York
Times. Retrieved April 20, 2008 from http://www.nytimes.com
Rogers-Dulan, J. (1998). Religious connectedness
among urban African American families who
have a child with disabilities. Mental Retardation,
36, 91–103.
Rose, A. (1997). Who causes the bl<strong>in</strong>d to see: Dis-

ability <strong>and</strong> quality of religious life. Disability &
Society, 12, 395–405.
Schipper, J. (2006). Disability studies <strong>and</strong> the Hebrew
Bible: Figur<strong>in</strong>g Mephibosheth <strong>in</strong> the David Story. New
York: T&TClark, 2006.
Selway, D., & Ashman, A. (1998). Disability, religion
<strong>and</strong> health: A literature review <strong>in</strong> search of the
spiritual dimensions of disability. Disability & Society,
13, 429–439.
Senior, D. (1995). Beware of the Canaanite Woman:
Disability <strong>and</strong> the Bible. In M. Bishop (Ed.), Religion
<strong>and</strong> disability: Essays <strong>in</strong> scripture, theology, <strong>and</strong>
ethics (pp. 1–26). Kansas City, MO: Sheed & Ward.
Slack, G. (2007). The evolution of creationism. Salon.com.
Retrieved March 8, 2008, from http://
www.salon.com/news/feature/2007/11/13/
<strong>in</strong>telligent_design/
Smith, J. D., & Johnson, G. L. (1997). Margaret
Mead <strong>and</strong> mental retardation: Words of underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g,
concepts of <strong>in</strong>clusiveness. Mental Retardation,
35, 306–309.
Stolberg, T. L. (2008). Attend<strong>in</strong>g to the spiritual
through the teach<strong>in</strong>g of science: a study of preservice
primary teachers’ attitudes. International
Journal of Children’s Spirituality, 13, 71–180.
Summers, S., & Jones, J. (2004). Cross-cultural work<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>in</strong> community learn<strong>in</strong>g disabilities services:
cl<strong>in</strong>ical issues, dilemmas <strong>and</strong> tensions. Journal of
Intellectual Disability Research, 48, 687–694.
Sw<strong>in</strong>ton, J. (1997). Restor<strong>in</strong>g the image: Spirituality,
faith, <strong>and</strong> cognitive disability. Journal of Religion &
Health, 36, 21.
Torstenson-Ed, T. (2006). Children <strong>and</strong> God <strong>in</strong> the
multicultural society. British Journal of Religious
<strong>Education</strong>, 28, 33–49.
Vogel, G., & Reiter, S. (2004). Significance of a
Bar/Bat Mitzvah ceremony for parents of Jewish
children with developmental disabilities. Mental
Retardation, 42, 294–303.
Vogel, J., Polloway, E., & Smith, J. (2006, April).
Inclusion of people with mental retardation <strong>and</strong>
other developmental disabilities <strong>in</strong> communities
of faith. Mental Retardation, 44, 100–111.
Walls, N. (2007). The orig<strong>in</strong>s of the disabled body:
Disability <strong>in</strong> ancient Mesopotamia. In H. Avalos,
S. J. Melcher, & J. Schipper (Eds.), Reth<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g
disabilities <strong>in</strong> biblical studies (pp. 13–30). Atlanta,
GA: Society of Biblical Literature.
Webb-Mitchell, B. (2008). Confession: A journey
toward reconciliation between the church <strong>and</strong>
people with disabilities. Liturgy, 23(2), 47–55.
Wertlieb, E. C. (1988). Attitudes towards disabilities
as found <strong>in</strong> the Talmud. Journal of Psychology <strong>and</strong>
Judaism, 12, 192–214.
Wills, G. (2006, April 9). Christ among the partisans.
New York Times. Retrieved March 12, 2008,
from www.nytimes.com.
Yong, A. (2007). Disability, the human condition,
<strong>and</strong> the spirit of the eschatological long run: Toward
a pneumatological theology of disability.
Journal of Religion, Disability & Health, 11, 5–25.
Multiculturalism, Religion, <strong>and</strong> Disability / 303

<strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>, 2009, 44(3), 304–317
© <strong>Division</strong> on <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>
Juvenile Literature <strong>and</strong> the Portrayal of <strong>Developmental</strong>
<strong>Disabilities</strong>
T<strong>in</strong>a Taylor Dyches, Mary Anne Prater, <strong>and</strong> Melissa Le<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>ger
Brigham Young University
Abstract: Because characters with developmental disabilities (DD) <strong>in</strong> children’s books are often the first images
many children encounter, their accurate <strong>and</strong> multidimensional portrayal is critical. Therefore, the depictions of
characters with DD <strong>in</strong> 41 children’s books were analyzed. These books were eligible for the biennial Dolly Gray
Children’s Literature Award, <strong>and</strong> were published between 2004 <strong>and</strong> 2007. Data were analyzed for four ma<strong>in</strong>
themes, namely characterization, relationships, changes <strong>in</strong> characters, <strong>and</strong> special topics. Trends across this <strong>and</strong>
two previous studies (Dyches, Prater, & Cramer, 2001; Dyches & Prater, 2005) <strong>in</strong>clude a grow<strong>in</strong>g number of
books published annually, <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g numbers of characters with DD who are culturally diverse, more positive
portrayals, characters who are be<strong>in</strong>g more self-determ<strong>in</strong>ed, engag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> more caregiv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g roles, <strong>and</strong>
enjoy<strong>in</strong>g more <strong>in</strong>clusionary recreational activities. Recommendations for future authors <strong>and</strong> educational service
providers are provided.
Many children’s books <strong>in</strong>clude characters with
disabilities. Each of the 13 disabilities recognized
<strong>in</strong> the Individuals with <strong>Disabilities</strong> <strong>Education</strong>
Improvement Act of 2004 can be found
<strong>in</strong> fictional works written for children. However,
many of these books are written to <strong>in</strong>struct
the reader about the disability rather
than to <strong>in</strong>clude a character with a disability <strong>in</strong>
an engag<strong>in</strong>g, well-written story (Prater & Dyches,
2008).
Even though tens of thous<strong>and</strong>s of juvenile
books are published annually, not all of them
are considered of high quality. Quality juvenile
literature is judged <strong>in</strong> terms of characterization,
sett<strong>in</strong>g, plot, <strong>and</strong> theme. Characters
should be real to children. They should be
credible <strong>and</strong> consistent. Even though they
may change <strong>and</strong> grow, the character should
not be a totally different person as a result of
what occurs <strong>in</strong> the story. A dynamic character
is well developed, has a variety of traits mak<strong>in</strong>g
him or her believable, <strong>and</strong> changes throughout
the story (e.g., from shy to poised, selfless
to selfish) (Lukens, 2007). A static character
does not change as a result of the story’s plot.
Correspondence concern<strong>in</strong>g this article should
be addressed to T<strong>in</strong>a Taylor Dyches, Brigham
Young University, 340-F McKay Build<strong>in</strong>g, Provo, UT
84602. Email: T<strong>in</strong>a_dyches@byu.edu
304 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
In terms of other elements impact<strong>in</strong>g quality
literature, the sett<strong>in</strong>g is def<strong>in</strong>ed as the geographic
location <strong>and</strong> time period, as well as
the cultural aspects of the environment. The
plot refers to the events that take place dur<strong>in</strong>g
the story <strong>and</strong> the theme is the abstract ideas
embedded <strong>in</strong> the story, such as strengthen<strong>in</strong>g
friendships, recogniz<strong>in</strong>g prejudice, <strong>and</strong> becom<strong>in</strong>g
more <strong>in</strong>dependent (Sawyer, 2009).
High quality literature also has an engag<strong>in</strong>g
narrative style. “The style is reflected <strong>in</strong> the
choice of words, the figures of speech, the
rhythmic pattern of the language, the structure
of sentences, <strong>and</strong> the use of rhetorical
devices” (Sawyer, 2009, p. 87). Included <strong>in</strong> the
style is the po<strong>in</strong>t of view or the perspective
from which the story is told. Children’s books
are usually told from the perspective of a
child. In addition, high quality illustrations
are evaluated <strong>in</strong> terms of artistic modes (e.g.,
pa<strong>in</strong>t, crayon, chalk), <strong>in</strong>tegration with the
text, as well as attention to detail, texture, <strong>and</strong>
color (Sawyer). Quality illustrations clarify
<strong>and</strong> amplify the text, “extend<strong>in</strong>g it beyond the
words or the reader’s imag<strong>in</strong>ation” (Lukens,
2007, p. 44).
Given that all literature expresses values,
books must be judged on the values they express
(Mills, 2002). Books with characters with
disabilities often endorse demean<strong>in</strong>g attitudes

TABLE 1
Dolly Gray Children’s Literature Award W<strong>in</strong>ners
Title Author (Illustrator) Disability
toward <strong>in</strong>dividuals with disabilities, equate low
<strong>in</strong>telligence with poor moral character,
present positive attitudes but <strong>in</strong> a preachy way,
or compensate for the character’s disability by
giv<strong>in</strong>g them more of someth<strong>in</strong>g else (e.g.,
heart, soul, compassion) (Mills). Books portray<strong>in</strong>g
characters with disabilities should be
judged, not only on the attributes of high
quality literature, but on the values it promotes
as expressed <strong>in</strong> the portrayal of the
character with disabilities.
Several authors have created guidel<strong>in</strong>es
aga<strong>in</strong>st which to evaluate <strong>and</strong> select such
books (e.g., Blaska, 2003; Dyches & Prater,
2000; Heim, 1994). Characters with disabilities
<strong>in</strong> contemporary sett<strong>in</strong>gs should be both
positive <strong>and</strong> realistic. For example, the character
with disabilities should be shown to be
act<strong>in</strong>g upon high expectations <strong>and</strong> choices, as
well as mak<strong>in</strong>g positive contributions. The
strengths, not just limitations of the character
should be portrayed; <strong>and</strong> they should be
shown engag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> reciprocal relationships
with others, <strong>and</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g afforded the same citizenship
rights as others (Dyches & Prater,
2005). Portrayals should also be realistic <strong>in</strong>
terms of physical, behavioral, <strong>and</strong> language
attributes. This is not unlike the st<strong>and</strong>ard for
all quality books—their portrayals should be
considered “credible, consistent, multidimensional—characters
who cont<strong>in</strong>ue to grow <strong>and</strong>
develop” (Dyches & Prater, 2005, p. 202).
Books that meet both the high st<strong>and</strong>ards for
juvenile literature <strong>and</strong> high st<strong>and</strong>ards for the
Year
Awarded Type
The Curious Incident of the
Dog <strong>in</strong> the Night-Time
Mark Haddon Asperger Syndrome 2004 Chapter
Ian’s Walk Laurie Lears
(Karen Ritz)
Autism 2000 Picture
Keep<strong>in</strong>g Up with Roo Sharlee Glenn
(Dan Andreason)
Intellectual Disability 2006 Picture
Me <strong>and</strong> Rupert Goody Barbara O’Connor Intellectual Disability 2002 Chapter
My Brother Sammy Becky Edwards
(David Armitage)
Autism 2002 Picture
A Small White Scar K. A. Nuzum Down Syndrome 2008 Chapter
So B. It Sarah Weeks Intellectual Disability 2006 Chapter
Tru Confessions Janet Tashjian Intellectual Disability 2000 Chapter
portrayal of disabilities are rare. To recognize
books that do meet these criteria, the <strong>Division</strong>
on <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong> of the Council
for Exceptional Children established the Dolly
Gray Children’s Literature Award <strong>in</strong> 2000. This
award is granted to authors <strong>and</strong> illustrators of
high quality literature who portray characters
with developmental disabilities <strong>in</strong> positive <strong>and</strong>
appropriate ways. S<strong>in</strong>ce the establishment of the
award, three picture books <strong>and</strong> five chapter
books have received the award (see Table 1).
Three previous studies have analyzed the
portrayal of developmental disabilities <strong>in</strong> children’s
literature. First, Prater (1999) reviewed
68 children’s fiction books that portrayed <strong>in</strong>dividuals
with mental retardation published
between 1965 <strong>and</strong> 1996. The books were <strong>in</strong>cluded
<strong>in</strong> the study if they appeared <strong>in</strong> at least
2 of the 27 sources. Prater found that few
stories were told from the perspective of the
character with mental retardation (MR), most
characters with MR did not develop, <strong>and</strong> most
served as a catalyst for another character to
change. Most of the characters with MR were
portrayed as victims, with other characters be<strong>in</strong>g
the perpetrator or protector. They were
also portrayed as be<strong>in</strong>g dependent on family
members, particularly sibl<strong>in</strong>gs. Many books
portrayed a character without a disability ga<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g
greater appreciation, affection, or underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g
of the character with MR. Only a few
<strong>in</strong>cluded school<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> when they did, the
characters were attend<strong>in</strong>g segregated schools.
Almost all characters lived at home <strong>and</strong> when
Juvenile Literature <strong>and</strong> the Portrayal of DD / 305

employment was discussed, it centered on
sheltered workshops.
In the second study, Dyches, Prater, &
Cramer (2001) analyzed the characterization
of mental retardation <strong>and</strong> autism <strong>in</strong> 12 picture
<strong>and</strong> chapter books published <strong>in</strong> 1997 <strong>and</strong>
1998. Efforts were made to locate all books
published dur<strong>in</strong>g those years. They concluded
that more characters with mental retardation
or autism were portrayed as be<strong>in</strong>g educated
<strong>in</strong> more <strong>in</strong>clusive sett<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>and</strong> mak<strong>in</strong>g choices
for themselves than Prater (1999) had discovered.
Most of the portrayals were male <strong>and</strong>
all of the illustrations depicted characters
as European-American. Proportionately, more
books were picture books than <strong>in</strong> the Prater
study. In terms of relationships, results were
similar to the previous study. Many characters
were protected from victimization <strong>and</strong> dependent
on others. Characters with MR or autism
were beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g, however, to emerge as protectors,
teachers, <strong>and</strong> caregivers.
Dyches <strong>and</strong> Prater (2005) <strong>in</strong> the third study
exam<strong>in</strong>ed 34 picture <strong>and</strong> chapter books portray<strong>in</strong>g
developmental disabilities published
between 1999 <strong>and</strong> 2003. They reported similar
results from the Dyches et al. (2001) study. A
strong majority of portrayals of characters
with developmental disabilities (DD) were realistic
<strong>and</strong> positive. However, males with DD
were overrepresented. When compared to the
previous study, more books (a) depicted autism
spectrum disorders, (b) <strong>in</strong>cluded characters
from diverse cultures, <strong>and</strong> (c) portrayed
characters with DD grow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>in</strong> realistic ways. In addition, there were fewer
characterizations of Down syndrome <strong>and</strong> the
most common primary relationship for the
character with DD shifted from sibl<strong>in</strong>gs to
peers. Also, the characters with DD were receiv<strong>in</strong>g
more appropriate educational services,
but their recreational activities were not
aligned with best practices.
In their conclusion, Dyches <strong>and</strong> Prater
(2005) called for authors to add depth <strong>and</strong>
multidimensionality to characters with DD.
“These characters should be shown mak<strong>in</strong>g
deliberate choices that significantly impact
their lives <strong>and</strong> the lives of others; serv<strong>in</strong>g more
as protectors, teachers, <strong>and</strong> caregivers of others;
<strong>and</strong> engag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>clusionary recreational
activities.” (p. 215). The purpose of this study
was to analyze the general characterization of
<strong>in</strong>dividuals with DD <strong>in</strong> juvenile literature published
<strong>in</strong>itially <strong>in</strong> 2004–2007 <strong>and</strong> compare
these results with two previous studies.
Method
We exam<strong>in</strong>ed 41 juvenile books us<strong>in</strong>g a qualitative,
descriptive design, <strong>and</strong> compared
these characterizations with those described
<strong>in</strong> two earlier studies (Dyches & Prater, 2005;
Dyches et al., 2001). The design, method, <strong>and</strong>
purpose are simply descriptive (see S<strong>and</strong>elowski,
2000).
Book Selection
306 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
To be <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the study, the books were
required to meet four criteria. They must have
(a) <strong>in</strong>cluded a ma<strong>in</strong> or support<strong>in</strong>g human
character with a developmental disability;
(b) been recognized as a picture or chapter
book written for children or young adults, <strong>in</strong>
story format, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g biographies written
<strong>in</strong> story format; (c) been published <strong>in</strong>itially <strong>in</strong>
English between 2004 <strong>and</strong> 2007; <strong>and</strong> (d) been
published by a commercial publisher rather
than through vanity press.
The first step was to identify children’s
books that <strong>in</strong>clude characters with disabilities.
The authors consulted with children’s literature
librarians <strong>and</strong> used search terms such as
developmental disability, mental retardation, <strong>in</strong>tellectual
disability, Down syndrome, multiple disability,
autism, <strong>and</strong> Asperger Syndrome to locate
books <strong>in</strong> relevant issues of Children’s Books <strong>in</strong>
Pr<strong>in</strong>t (R.R. Bowker’s Database Publish<strong>in</strong>g
Group, 2007) <strong>and</strong> from various pr<strong>in</strong>t <strong>and</strong> electronic
book lists.
Next, each book was reviewed to determ<strong>in</strong>e
if the ma<strong>in</strong> or support<strong>in</strong>g character had a
developmental disability. For this study, developmental
disability was def<strong>in</strong>ed as a condition
which occurs before a person is 22 years of age
that limits him/her <strong>in</strong> at least three of seven
major life activities (e.g., receptive <strong>and</strong> expressive
language, self-care, <strong>and</strong> economic selfsufficiency),
<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>cludes conditions such as
<strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities, autism, Asperger Syndrome,
Down syndrome, fetal alcohol spectrum
disorder, <strong>and</strong> multiple disabilities. More
than 70 children’s books were found which
did not qualify for the study, because they
<strong>in</strong>cluded non-human characters, <strong>in</strong>dividuals

who did not clearly have a developmental disability
or who were m<strong>in</strong>or characters, books
that were not written <strong>in</strong> story format, or were
self-published. All books analyzed <strong>in</strong> this
study qualified to be considered for either the
2006 or 2008 Dolly Gray Children’s Literature
Award.
Data Analysis
Characterizations were submitted to content
analysis accord<strong>in</strong>g to qualitative methods described
by Denz<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> L<strong>in</strong>coln (1994). Ten
reviewers, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g special education teachers,
parents of children with developmental
disabilities, adults with developmental disabilities,
children’s literature librarians, special
education professors, <strong>and</strong> children’s literature
illustrators, provided written evaluations
based upon guidel<strong>in</strong>es adapted from Dyches
et al. (2001). These guidel<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong>cluded evaluations
of the portrayal of the <strong>in</strong>dividuals with
developmental disabilities, social <strong>in</strong>teractions,
exemplary practices, <strong>and</strong> sibl<strong>in</strong>g relationships
(if applicable), along with literary <strong>and</strong> artistic
elements (see Table 2 for a brief synopsis of
the disability-related guidel<strong>in</strong>es).
The researchers then compared data from
the reviewers, <strong>and</strong> compiled a quantitative
<strong>and</strong> descriptive summary of each item on the
evaluation <strong>in</strong>strument. When disagreement
existed, two of the authors reviewed sections
from the books <strong>in</strong> question <strong>and</strong> came to consensus.
In addition, the authors conducted a
separate analysis which <strong>in</strong>cluded evaluation of
the characterization, personal relationships,
changes <strong>in</strong> characters with developmental disabilities,
changes <strong>in</strong> nondisabled characters,
<strong>and</strong> special topics.
One author performed an audit trail, accord<strong>in</strong>g
to the method described by S<strong>and</strong>elowski
(1986) to establish trustworth<strong>in</strong>ess of
the analysis method <strong>and</strong> the results. The audit
trail confirmed the themes that had been
identified, as agreement was shown between
the authors <strong>and</strong> the auditor regard<strong>in</strong>g these
themes.
Results
Of the 41 books eligible for review, 13 were
picture books <strong>and</strong> 28 were chapter books, with
42 characters with DD <strong>in</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> or support<strong>in</strong>g
TABLE 2
Sample Guidel<strong>in</strong>es From the Dolly Gray
Children’s Literature Award Rat<strong>in</strong>g Scale for
Evaluat<strong>in</strong>g Children’s Books
Personal Portrayal
Portrays characteristics of DD accurately.
Describes the character(s) with DD as realistic.
Character(s) with DD are fully developed.
Does not portray only disabilities of the
character(s), but portrays abilities, <strong>in</strong>terests, <strong>and</strong>
strengths of the character(s).
Emphasizes similarities, rather than differences,
between characters with <strong>and</strong> without DD.
Uses nondiscrim<strong>in</strong>atory language that avoids
stereotypic portrayals.
Social Interactions
Depicts character(s) with DD engag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>
socially <strong>and</strong> emotionally reciprocal relationships.
Depicts acceptance of the character(s) with DD.
Promotes empathy, not pity for the character(s)
with DD.
Portrays positive social contributions of
person(s) with DD.
Promotes respect for the character(s) with DD.
Exemplary Practices
Depicts character(s) with DD hav<strong>in</strong>g full
citizenship opportunities <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrated sett<strong>in</strong>gs
<strong>and</strong>/or activities.
Depicts character(s) with DD receiv<strong>in</strong>g services
appropriate for their age, skill level, <strong>and</strong>
<strong>in</strong>terests.
Depicts valued occupations for character(s) with
DD (if appropriate).
Promotes self-determ<strong>in</strong>ation.
Sibl<strong>in</strong>g Relationships (if applicable)
Sibl<strong>in</strong>g(s) of the character(s) with DD
experience a wide range of emotions.
Sibl<strong>in</strong>g(s) of the character(s) with DD have
opportunities for growth that are not typical for
sibl<strong>in</strong>gs of children without DD.
The sibl<strong>in</strong>g relationship is reciprocal.
The sibl<strong>in</strong>g(s) are not given unusually
burdensome household <strong>and</strong> family duties.
The sibl<strong>in</strong>g(s) appear aware of the nature of the
disability <strong>and</strong> its effects on the character with
DD.
roles. Three books <strong>in</strong>cluded more than one
character with DD, but <strong>in</strong> two of them several
characters were not analyzed because they
were considered m<strong>in</strong>or (Accidents of Nature
<strong>and</strong> The Decod<strong>in</strong>g of Lana Morris). In one picture
book, We Go <strong>in</strong> a Circle, the characters
with DD were analyzed as a group rather than
Juvenile Literature <strong>and</strong> the Portrayal of DD / 307

<strong>in</strong>dividually, due to the brief <strong>and</strong> non-specific
nature of their characterization. A few books
also <strong>in</strong>cluded characters with other disabilities,
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g selective mutism, stutter<strong>in</strong>g,
<strong>and</strong> orthopedic impairments. A list of the
books <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the title, author, illustrator (if
applicable), year published, <strong>and</strong> appropriate
read<strong>in</strong>g/<strong>in</strong>terest levels is displayed <strong>in</strong> Table 3.
Themes <strong>in</strong> the Field of <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>
Portrayals of the 42 <strong>in</strong>dividuals with developmental
disabilities were analyzed <strong>and</strong> categorized
across four themes: (a) characterization
of the <strong>in</strong>dividual with DD, (b) relationships
among characters with <strong>and</strong> without DD,
(c) changes <strong>in</strong> characters without DD, <strong>and</strong>
(d) special topics related to the field of DD.
Each theme will be discussed <strong>in</strong> detail, with
representative examples from the various
books.
Characterization
Characterizations of the <strong>in</strong>dividuals with DD
were analyzed <strong>in</strong> terms of (a) level (ma<strong>in</strong> or
support<strong>in</strong>g), (b) personal characteristics,
(c) realistic depiction, (d) positive portrayal,
(e) character development, <strong>and</strong> (f) po<strong>in</strong>t of
view from which the story was told. Brief summaries
of these characteristics are provided <strong>in</strong>
Tables 4 <strong>and</strong> 5.
Level (ma<strong>in</strong> or support<strong>in</strong>g). Ma<strong>in</strong> characters
are critical to the plot, often as protagonists or
antagonists, while support<strong>in</strong>g characters are
typically important to the growth of the ma<strong>in</strong>
characters. M<strong>in</strong>or characters enrich the plot,
but their presence is not essential to the development
or resolution of the climax of the
story. The level of characterization was determ<strong>in</strong>ed
as ma<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> 20 characters with DD
(48%), <strong>and</strong> support<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> 22 characters (52%).
One book, The Very Orderly Existence of Merilee
Marvelous, portrayed more than one ma<strong>in</strong> or
support<strong>in</strong>g character with DD.
Personal characteristics. Ages of characters
with developmental disabilities ranged from
<strong>in</strong>fant to adult. One character was an <strong>in</strong>fant, 3
were pre-schoolers, 24 were elementary age
children, 10 were teenagers, 2 were adults, the
age of one character was not evident (Autistic
Planet), <strong>and</strong> the support<strong>in</strong>g characters with
308 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
DD <strong>in</strong> We Go <strong>in</strong> a Circle appeared to be of
various ages.
Of the 42 characters with developmental
disabilities, 22 (52%) were <strong>in</strong>dividuals with
autism spectrum disorders, almost half of
whom (n 9, 41%) had Asperger Syndrome.
The rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 20 characters with DD <strong>in</strong>cluded
those with <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities (n
8, 19%), Down syndrome (n 6, 14%), unspecified
developmental disabilities (n 3,
7%), fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (n 2,
5%) <strong>and</strong> multiple disabilities (Cerebral Palsy
<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities; n 1, 2%).
A majority of the characters with DD were
males (n 25, 60%). Of those exhibit<strong>in</strong>g
symptoms of <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g
Down syndrome, fetal alcohol spectrum
disorder, multiple disabilities, <strong>and</strong> unspecified
developmental disabilities), 10 were male <strong>and</strong>
9 were female. One book, We Go <strong>in</strong> a Circle,
<strong>in</strong>cluded several boys <strong>and</strong> girls with various
unspecified disabilities. Of the 22 characters
with autism spectrum disorders, 14 were male
<strong>and</strong> 8 were female.
Several books depicted characters with developmental
disabilities or characters without
disabilities either <strong>in</strong> illustrations or text as be<strong>in</strong>g
from ethnically diverse cultures. However,
the determ<strong>in</strong>ation of some ma<strong>in</strong> or support<strong>in</strong>g
characters’ diversity was subjective if the
text <strong>and</strong>/or illustrations were ambiguous. In
this analysis, n<strong>in</strong>e (21%) depictions of characters
with developmental disabilities appeared
to be culturally diverse, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Hispanic
(Crist<strong>in</strong>a Keeps a Promise; The Duchess to the Rescue;
Holy Smoke); African American (Accidents
of Nature; Jazz Off-Key); Asian (Ann Drew Jackson;
Jackson Whole Wyom<strong>in</strong>g), <strong>and</strong> undeterm<strong>in</strong>ed
(Autistic Planet). The rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 32
characters did not give any <strong>in</strong>dication of represent<strong>in</strong>g
ethnically diverse populations, <strong>and</strong>
the characters <strong>in</strong> We Go <strong>in</strong> a Circle were considered
as a group to be ma<strong>in</strong>ly Caucasian.
Realistic depiction. Most of the portrayals of
the characters with DD were considered to be
realistic (n 31, 74%) because their disabilities
were similar to descriptions found <strong>in</strong> the
professional literature. Portrayals that were
partially realistic showed the character exhibit<strong>in</strong>g
many of the symptoms of the disability,
but also exhibited <strong>in</strong>consistencies <strong>in</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g
speech or actions, or the author provided lit-

TABLE 3
Juvenile Literature with Ma<strong>in</strong>/Support<strong>in</strong>g Characters with DD Analyzed <strong>in</strong> this Study
tle <strong>in</strong>formation by which the portrayal could
be judged. For example, <strong>in</strong> Brothers, Boyfriends
<strong>and</strong> Other Crim<strong>in</strong>al M<strong>in</strong>ds, Larry, a 14-year old
Title, Author (Illustrator), Year, Read<strong>in</strong>g/Interest Levels
Autism Spectrum Disorders
Adam Canfield, Watch Your Back!, Michael W<strong>in</strong>erip, 2007, Middle
Adam’s Alternative Sports Day, Jude Welton, 2005, Middle
Al Capone Does My Shirts, Gennifer Choldenko, 2004, Middle
Ann Drew Jackson, Joan Clark (Nathan Clark), 2007, Upper Elem.
Apart, R.P. MacIntyre & Wendy MacIntyre, 2007, High School
Autistic Planet, Jennifer Elder (Marc Thomas), 2007, Lower Elem.
Baj <strong>and</strong> the Word Launcher, Pamela Victor, 2006, Upper Elem.
The Duchess to the Rescue, Alex<strong>and</strong>ra Eden, 2006, Upper Elem.
The Flight of a Dove, Alex<strong>and</strong>ra Day, 2004, Lower Elem.
Holy Smoke, Alex<strong>and</strong>ra Eden, 2004, Upper Elem.
It’s Time, Judith Mammay (Todd Fargo), 2007, Lower Elem.
Jackson Whole Wyom<strong>in</strong>g, Joan Clark, 2005, Middle
Jay Grows an Alien, Carol<strong>in</strong>e Anne Lev<strong>in</strong>e, 2007, Upper Elem.
Kickoff, Donna K<strong>in</strong>g, 2007, Upper Elem.
Look<strong>in</strong>g after Louis, Lesley Ely (Polly Dunbar), 2004, Lower Elem.
My Best Friend Will, Jamie Lowell & Tara Tuchel, 2005, Upper Elem.
Play<strong>in</strong>g by the Rules, Dena Luchs<strong>in</strong>ger (Julie Olson), 2007, Lower Elem.
Rules, Cynthia Lord, 2006, Middle
Runn<strong>in</strong>g on Dreams, Herb Heiman, 2007, Middle
Sariah McDuff Will Walk With You, Lee Ann Setzer (Bob Bonham), 2005, Upper Elem.
Sundays with Matthew, Matthew Lancelle & Jeanette Lesada, 2006, Lower Elem.
To Be Me, Rebecca Etl<strong>in</strong>ger (Mark Tomassi), 2005, Upper Elem.
Down syndrome
The Best Worst Brother, Stephanie Stuve-Bodeen (Charlotte Fremaux), 2005, Lower Elem.
Jazz Off-Key, D<strong>and</strong>i Daley Mackall, 2007, Upper Elem.
Me, Hailey, Sheri Plucker, (Todd Fargo), 2005, Lower Elem.
A Small White Scar, K. A. Nuzum, 2006, Middle
Sophie’s Encore, Nancy Rue, 2006, Upper Elem.
The Year of My Miraculous Reappearance, Cather<strong>in</strong>e Ryan Hyde, 2007, High School
Intellectual Disability
Accidents of Nature, Harriet McBryde Johnson, 2006, High School
Brothers, Boyfriends <strong>and</strong> Other Crim<strong>in</strong>al M<strong>in</strong>ds, April Lurie, 2007, High School
The Decod<strong>in</strong>g of Lana Morris, Laura & Tom McNeal, 2007, High School
Hunger Moon, Sarah Lamste<strong>in</strong>, 2004, High School
Keep<strong>in</strong>g Up with Roo, Sharlee Glenn (Dan Andreasen), 2004, Upper Elem.
The Silver Cup, Constance Leeds, 2007, High School
So B. It, Sarah Weeks, 2004, Middle
This Side of the Sky, Marie-Franc<strong>in</strong>e Hébert; translated by Susan Ouriou, 2006, High School
Multiple <strong>Disabilities</strong>
Cruise Control, Terry Trueman, 2004, Middle
Unspecified or Various <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>
Crist<strong>in</strong>a Keeps a Promise, Virg<strong>in</strong>ia L. Kroll (Enrique O. Sanchez), 2006, Lower Elem.
The Moon Children, Beverley Brenna, 2007, Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder, Upper Elem.
The Very Ordered Existence of Merilee Marvelous, Suzanne Crowley, 2007, Asperger Syndrome <strong>and</strong> Fetal
Alcohol Syndrome, Middle
We Go <strong>in</strong> a Circle, Peggy Perry Anderson, 2004, Lower Elem.
boy with an <strong>in</strong>tellectual disability, had previously
been educated <strong>in</strong> a special school, but
once he entered his neighborhood general
Juvenile Literature <strong>and</strong> the Portrayal of DD / 309

TABLE 4
Characterizations <strong>in</strong> Picture Books
Book Character(s)
education school, he demonstrated an extraord<strong>in</strong>ary
ability to play the drums <strong>and</strong> was
soon <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> a rock b<strong>and</strong>.
Positive portrayal. Portrayals of characters
with DD were characterized as positive if they
were judged to meet most or all of the follow<strong>in</strong>g
values that guide <strong>in</strong>teractions with <strong>and</strong>
services provided to <strong>in</strong>dividuals with disabilities:
(a) realistic emphasis on strengths rather
than weaknesses, (b) high expectations, (c)
mak<strong>in</strong>g positive contributions beyond promot<strong>in</strong>g
growth <strong>in</strong> other characters, (d) becom<strong>in</strong>g
self-determ<strong>in</strong>ed, (e) be<strong>in</strong>g given full
citizenship <strong>in</strong> the home <strong>and</strong> community, <strong>and</strong>
Personal
Characteristics Level Depiction Portrayal
Character
Development Po<strong>in</strong>t of View
Autistic Planet Unnamed Female Autism Ma<strong>in</strong> Realistic Mixed Static Unnamed
female with
Autism
The Best Worst Isaac 3-year old male Support<strong>in</strong>g Realistic Mixed Slightly Dynamic Older sister,
Brother
Down syndrome
Emma
Crist<strong>in</strong>a Keeps
a Promise
Victor Elementary age male
Unspecified
<strong>Developmental</strong>
Disability
Betsy 3-4 year old female
Autism
Support<strong>in</strong>g Realistic Mixed Slightly Dynamic Narrator
The Flight of a
Ma<strong>in</strong> Partially Mixed Slightly Dynamic Narrator
Dove
Realistic
It’s Time Tommy Second grade male
Autism
Ma<strong>in</strong> Realistic Negative Static Narrator
Keep<strong>in</strong>g Up Aunt Roo Adult female Support<strong>in</strong>g Realistic Mixed Static Narrator
with Roo (Ruth) Intellectual
Disability
Look<strong>in</strong>g after Louis Elementary age male Ma<strong>in</strong> Realistic Mixed Slightly Dynamic Girl <strong>in</strong>
Louis
Autism
Louis’s
class
Me, Hailey Hailey K<strong>in</strong>dergarten female
Down syndrome
Ma<strong>in</strong> Realistic Positive Static Narrator
My Best Will Elementary age male Ma<strong>in</strong> Realistic Mixed Static 5
Friend Will
Autism
th grade girl,
Jamie
Play<strong>in</strong>g by the Josh Elementary age male Ma<strong>in</strong> Neutral Mixed Static Sister, Jody
Rules
Autism
Sundays with Matthew 11-year old male Ma<strong>in</strong> Realistic Positive Static Art therapist,
Matthew
Autism
Jeanette
To Be Me David 10-year old male
Asperger
Syndrome
Ma<strong>in</strong> Realistic Positive Dynamic David
We Go <strong>in</strong> a Several Various
Support<strong>in</strong>g Realistic Mixed Static Injured race
Circle children <strong>Developmental</strong>
<strong>Disabilities</strong>
horse
310 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
(f) exp<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g reciprocal relationships (Turnbull,
Turnbull, & Wehmeyer, 2007). Of the 42
characters portrayed, 17 (40.5%) were judged
to be positive. Characterizations were described
as be<strong>in</strong>g mixed if some of the attributes
of positive characterizations were present
(n 17, 40.5%) <strong>and</strong> negative if these characterizations
were rarely shown (n 8, 19%).
Most of the books mentioned or alluded to
the strengths of the characters with DD; however,
only a few authors used these strengths
to contribute to the plot of the story. One
example of the portrayal of strengths is Verity
Buscador, a teenage girl with Asperger Syn-

TABLE 5
Characterizations <strong>in</strong> Chapter Books
Character
Development Po<strong>in</strong>t of View
Book Character(s) Personal Characteristics Level Depiction Portrayal
Support<strong>in</strong>g Realistic Mixed Static Camper, Jean
Support<strong>in</strong>g Realistic Positive Static Narrator
Ma<strong>in</strong> Realistic Positive Dynamic Narrator
Support<strong>in</strong>g Realistic Positive Dynamic Younger brother,
Moose
Ma<strong>in</strong> Realistic Mixed Static Classmate, Hillary
Support<strong>in</strong>g Partially Realistic Negative Static Older sister, Jess
<strong>and</strong> Sween
Ma<strong>in</strong> Partially Realistic Positive Dynamic Narrator
Accidents of Nature Margie Teenage female
Intellectual Disability
Adam Canfield, Theodore Middle school male
Watch Your
(Shadow) Unspecified <strong>Developmental</strong>
Back!
Disability
Adam’s Alternative Adam 9-year old male
Sports Day
Asperger Syndrome
Al Capone Does My Natalie 15-year old female
Shirts
Autism
Ann Drew Jackson Jackson Fifth grade male
Asperger Syndrome
Apart Timmy 10-year old male
Autism
Baj <strong>and</strong> the Word Baj Elementary age male
Launcher
Asperger Syndrome
Brothers, Boyfriends, Larry 14-year old male
<strong>and</strong> Other
Intellectual Disability
Crim<strong>in</strong>al M<strong>in</strong>ds
Cruise Control Shawn 14-year old male
Multiple <strong>Disabilities</strong>
The Decod<strong>in</strong>g of Tilly 16-year old female
Lana Morris
Intellectual Disability
The Duchess to the Verity 12-year old female
Rescue
Asperger Syndrome
Holy Smoke Verity 12-year old female
Asperger Syndrome
Hunger Moon Eddy Elementary-age male
Intellectual Disability
Jackson Whole Jackson Fifth grade male
Wyom<strong>in</strong>g
Asperger Syndrome
Support<strong>in</strong>g Partially Realistic Mixed Dynamic Neighbor, April
Support<strong>in</strong>g Realistic Negative Static Older brother,
Paul
Support<strong>in</strong>g Realistic Positive Static Narrator
Ma<strong>in</strong> Realistic Positive Dynamic Officer, Bones
Ma<strong>in</strong> Realistic Positive Dynamic Officer, Bones
Support<strong>in</strong>g Realistic Mixed Static Older sister,
Ruthie
Support<strong>in</strong>g Realistic Positive Static Friend, Tyler
(cont<strong>in</strong>ued)
Juvenile Literature <strong>and</strong> the Portrayal of DD / 311

TABLE 5
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued
Character
Development Po<strong>in</strong>t of View
Book Character(s) Personal Characteristics Level Depiction Portrayal
Ma<strong>in</strong> Realistic Positive Slightly Dynamic Narrator
Support<strong>in</strong>g Realistic Mixed Static Narrator
Support<strong>in</strong>g Partially Realistic Negative Static Narrator
Ma<strong>in</strong> Realistic Positive Dynamic Narrator
Support<strong>in</strong>g Realistic Mixed Static Older sister,
Cather<strong>in</strong>e
Ma<strong>in</strong> Realistic Positive Dynamic Just<strong>in</strong> & Narrator
Ma<strong>in</strong> Realistic Mixed Slightly Dynamic Sariah
Support<strong>in</strong>g Realistic Negative Static Narrator
Support<strong>in</strong>g Realistic Positive Dynamic Tw<strong>in</strong> brother,
Will
Support<strong>in</strong>g Realistic Positive Static Daughter, Heidi
Jay Grows an Alien Jay Elementary-age male
Asperger Syndrome
Jazz Off-Key Kendra 13-year old female
Down Syndrome
Kickoff Shirelle 5-year old female
ADD, possibly autism
The Moon Children Billy 11-year old male
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum
Disorder
Rules David 8-year old male
Autism
Runn<strong>in</strong>g on
Just<strong>in</strong> 15-year old male
Dreams
Autism
Sariah McDuff Will Chrissy Elementary-age female
Walk With You
Autism
The Silver Cup Thomas 6-year old male
Intellectual Disability
A Small White Scar Denny 15-year old male
Down syndrome
So B. It Sofia Adult female
Intellectual Disability
Sophie’s Encore Hope Infant female
Down syndrome
This Side of the Sky Angélique 8-year old female Intellectual
Disability
The Very Ordered Merilee 13-year old female
Existence of
Asperger Syndrome
Merilee
Biswick 8-year old male
Marvelous
Fetal Alcohol
The Year of My Bill 3-year old male
Miraculous
Down syndrome
Reappearance
312 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
Support<strong>in</strong>g Partially Realistic Mixed Static Narrator
Support<strong>in</strong>g Partially Realistic Mixed Static Older sister,
Mona
Ma<strong>in</strong> Partially Realistic Positive Dynamic
Merilee
Merilee
Static
Positive
Partially Realistic
Support<strong>in</strong>g
Support<strong>in</strong>g Realistic Mixed Slightly Dynamic Older sister,
Cynnie

drome <strong>in</strong> The Duchess to the Rescue, who used
her computer skills to help identify who
pa<strong>in</strong>ted graffiti <strong>in</strong> town.
When expectations were set high for the
characters, those portrayed positively were
able to meet them. For example, Natalie, a
15-year old girl <strong>in</strong> Al Capone Does My Shirts, is
expected to learn to speak better <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>teract
appropriately with other children so she will
be allowed to attend a special school, which
was a privilege rather than a right <strong>in</strong> the 1930s.
Many of the characters made positive contributions
to their families, <strong>and</strong> some even
contributed to their schools <strong>and</strong> communities.
Although most of these contributions were
not <strong>in</strong>tentional, such as provid<strong>in</strong>g circumstances
whereby others can learn patience,
tolerance, <strong>and</strong> compassion, some contributions
were <strong>in</strong>tentionally made by the character
with DD. For example, Aunt Ruth (Roo) a
woman with an <strong>in</strong>tellectual disability <strong>in</strong> Keep<strong>in</strong>g
Up with Roo, taught her niece how to read.
Also, Verity, a 12-year old girl with Asperger
Syndrome, makes critical contributions toward
solv<strong>in</strong>g cases <strong>in</strong> The Duchess to the Rescue
<strong>and</strong> Holy Smoke.
Although most characters with DD made
some attempts toward becom<strong>in</strong>g more selfdeterm<strong>in</strong>ed,
most of their choices did not
make much of an impact on the story or on
the characters’ development. For example,
characters with DD often chose to engage <strong>in</strong>
their favorite activities, such as watch<strong>in</strong>g TV or
videos. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, many characters
were given opportunities to make important,
life-alter<strong>in</strong>g choices. One notable example of
this positive characteristic was found <strong>in</strong> A
Small White Scar, when Denny made the bold
decision to follow his brother off the ranch,
<strong>and</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>ue on horseback <strong>in</strong>to the wilderness.
Many characters with DD were depicted as
hav<strong>in</strong>g age-appropriate citizenship rights <strong>in</strong>
their families, schools, <strong>and</strong> communities. For
example, <strong>in</strong> Adam Canfield, Watch Your Back,
Shadow, a middle school boy with an unspecified
developmental disability, becomes part
of the journalism staff alongside peers without
disabilities. Further, the characters with Asperger
Syndrome <strong>and</strong> high function<strong>in</strong>g autism
were most frequently shown to have similar
rights as those similar to their age, be<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>in</strong>cluded with nondisabled peers <strong>in</strong> general
education environments, recreational activities,
<strong>and</strong> work sett<strong>in</strong>gs (Autistic Planet, It’s Time,
Look<strong>in</strong>g After Louis, My Best Friend Will, To Be
Me, Adam’s Alternative Sports Day, Ann Drew
Jackson, Baj <strong>and</strong> the Word Launcher, The Duchess
to the Rescue, Holy Smoke, Jackson Whole Wyom<strong>in</strong>g,
Jay Grows an Alien, Runn<strong>in</strong>g on Dreams, The Very
Ordered Existence of Merilee Marvelous).
Character development. Character development
<strong>in</strong> a story helps readers relate to <strong>and</strong>
learn from the characters’ experiences. Characters
<strong>in</strong> children’s literature are developed
through their actions, relationships with others,
their sense of themselves, <strong>and</strong> the roles
they play <strong>in</strong> the plot (Temple, Mart<strong>in</strong>ez,
Yokota, & Naylor, 2002). Dynamic characters
are important because they develop or grow
through the story, while static characters show
no growth. In many stories <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g characters
with disabilities, growth occurs primarily
for characters without disabilities. However,
characters with DD should not be <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong>
a story only to evoke growth <strong>in</strong> others, but they
should learn <strong>and</strong> grow, even if their development
is slow or difficult to detect (e.g., Betsy,
a 3-year old girl with autism try<strong>in</strong>g to talk <strong>in</strong>
The Flight of a Dove, Victor w<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g a Special
Olympics race <strong>in</strong> Crist<strong>in</strong>a Keeps a Promise). Of
the 42 characters with DD portrayed, 24
(57%) were identified as dynamic, <strong>and</strong> the
rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g were classified as static. Some of
the changes <strong>in</strong> character with DD <strong>in</strong>clude:
learn<strong>in</strong>g to communicate <strong>and</strong> socialize better
(e.g., Al Capone Does My Shirts; Baj <strong>and</strong> the Word
Launcher; It’s Time; Look<strong>in</strong>g After Louis; Play<strong>in</strong>g
by the Rules; The Very Ordered Existence of Merilee
Marvelous), us<strong>in</strong>g personal strengths to solve
problems (e.g., The Duchess to the Rescue; Holy
Smoke), successfully ventur<strong>in</strong>g out beyond familiar
territory (e.g., A Small White Scar), <strong>and</strong>
develop<strong>in</strong>g new talents or skills (e.g. Brothers,
Boyfriends, <strong>and</strong> Other Crim<strong>in</strong>al M<strong>in</strong>ds; The Moon
Children; Runn<strong>in</strong>g on Dreams).
Po<strong>in</strong>t of view. Most of the stories were told
from the po<strong>in</strong>t of view of a family member,
usually a sibl<strong>in</strong>g, or a peer. In one unique
book, the family member was the daughter of
a woman with DD (So B. It). However, some of
the stories (n 4; 10%) were told from the
po<strong>in</strong>t of view of the <strong>in</strong>dividual with DD (Autistic
Planet; To Be Me; Runn<strong>in</strong>g on Dreams; The
Very Ordered Existence of Merilee Marvelous). Runn<strong>in</strong>g
on Dreams was uniquely told from the
Juvenile Literature <strong>and</strong> the Portrayal of DD / 313

perspective of both Jason, a 15-year old boy
with autism, <strong>and</strong> a narrator. The rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g
stories were told by a narrator.
Relationships among Characters With <strong>and</strong>
Without <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>
In reciprocal relationships each party contributes,
learns, <strong>and</strong> grows from their association.
However, often <strong>in</strong> books conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g characters
with DD, relationships are one-sided, with
the character with a disability be<strong>in</strong>g the recipient
of care, be<strong>in</strong>g watched after, <strong>and</strong> the
presence of their disability is the primary
change agent for another’s growth. In this
study, some levels of social reciprocity were
found between several characters (n 19,
45%). For example, David, a 10-year old boy
with Asperger Syndrome <strong>in</strong> To Be Me, <strong>in</strong>dicates
that he is friends with the students <strong>in</strong> his class,
“even those who wear glasses.” In The Very
Ordered Existence of Merilee Marvelous, Merilee, a
13-year old girl with Asperger Syndrome, befriends
a newcomer to town, Biswick, an 8-year
old boy with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome.
The books were evaluated to determ<strong>in</strong>e the
nature of the relationships found between
characters with DD <strong>and</strong> others. The follow<strong>in</strong>g
were exam<strong>in</strong>ed: (a) primary relationship, (b)
victim, perpetrator, <strong>and</strong>/or protector, (c) dependent
or caregiver, (d) pupil or <strong>in</strong>structor.
Of the 42 characters depicted, most had primary
relationships with their families (n 20,
48%), followed by friends (n 18, 43%, with
72% of those friends not hav<strong>in</strong>g disabilities),
<strong>and</strong> paid personnel or volunteers (n 5,
12%). Eighteen characters with DD (43%)
were depicted as victims, usually of teas<strong>in</strong>g,
name call<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> ridicule, but occasionally of
abuse or neglect (e.g., Hunger Moon; The Very
Ordered Existence of Merilee Marvelous; The Year of
My Miraculous Reappearance). While most were
shown be<strong>in</strong>g dependent upon others, <strong>in</strong> five
cases, <strong>in</strong>dividuals with DD were caregivers
(12%; i.e., Accidents of Nature, The Duchess to the
Rescue, Holy Smoke, Jay Grows an Alien, The Very
Ordered Existence of Merilee Marvelous). In two of
these <strong>in</strong>stances, care is given to people without
disabilities (The Duchess to the Rescue; Holy
Smoke). F<strong>in</strong>ally, 10 characters assumed the role
of <strong>in</strong>formal teacher, usually by teach<strong>in</strong>g others
about someth<strong>in</strong>g related to their disability
(e.g., Autistic Planet; Me, Hailey; To Be Me). In
one book, an aunt with DD teaches her niece
how to read (Keep<strong>in</strong>g Up with Roo).
Changes <strong>in</strong> Characters without <strong>Developmental</strong>
<strong>Disabilities</strong>
In many books, ma<strong>in</strong> or support<strong>in</strong>g characters
without disabilities learned to accept or underst<strong>and</strong>
the <strong>in</strong>dividual with DD (n 19,
46%), yet most just ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed their feel<strong>in</strong>gs
<strong>and</strong> attitudes (n 22, 54%), which were generally
positive. One book depicted an <strong>in</strong>crease
<strong>in</strong> negative feel<strong>in</strong>gs by a significant nondisabled
character toward the character with DD
(set <strong>in</strong> the 1060s, Thomas, a 6-year old boy
with an <strong>in</strong>tellectual disability is ab<strong>and</strong>oned <strong>in</strong>
the woods by his mother <strong>in</strong> The Silver Cup).
Special Topics
314 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
The books were also exam<strong>in</strong>ed for treatment
of special topics <strong>in</strong> the field of developmental
disability, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g: (a) school<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> education,
(b) recreation, (c) residence, <strong>and</strong> (d)
family characteristics.
School<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> education. Elements of school
life for school-aged characters with DD were
evident <strong>in</strong> 24 books. The types of school sett<strong>in</strong>gs
varied along a cont<strong>in</strong>uum of placements
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g no school<strong>in</strong>g (e.g., The Silver Cup—
set <strong>in</strong> the 1060s, A Small White Scar—set <strong>in</strong> the
1950s, This Side of the Sky—era undeterm<strong>in</strong>ed),
board<strong>in</strong>g school (e.g., Al Capone Does My Shirts
—set <strong>in</strong> the 1930s), special schools (e.g., The
Flight of a Dove; Jazz Off Key; Sariah McDuff Will
Walk With You); special classrooms with<strong>in</strong> general
education schools (e.g., Adam Canfield,
Watch Your Back; Brothers, Boyfriends, <strong>and</strong> Other
Crim<strong>in</strong>al M<strong>in</strong>ds; Cruise Control; Runn<strong>in</strong>g on
Dreams), <strong>and</strong> general education classrooms
with various levels of support (e.g., It’s Time;
Jackson Whole Wyom<strong>in</strong>g; Jay Grows an Alien; Look<strong>in</strong>g
After Louis; Me, Hailey; To Be Me). The most
frequently depicted educational placement
was <strong>in</strong>clusionary sett<strong>in</strong>gs (n 13, 54%).
Recreation. Individuals with DD engaged <strong>in</strong>
recreational activities, usually as <strong>in</strong>formal
events (e.g., play<strong>in</strong>g on computers, mak<strong>in</strong>g
art, play<strong>in</strong>g chess, listen<strong>in</strong>g to music, play<strong>in</strong>g
with blocks, watch<strong>in</strong>g TV). Very few formal
activities were <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the stories, <strong>and</strong>
when they were <strong>in</strong>cluded, they were organized
for groups of people with disabilities (e.g.,

Special Olympics). Most of the recreational
activities mentioned <strong>in</strong>volved peers or sibl<strong>in</strong>gs
(e.g., Autistic Planet, Keep<strong>in</strong>g Up with Roo, Look<strong>in</strong>g
After Louis, My Best Friend Will, To Be Me, Al
Capone Does My Shirts, This Side of the Sky)
rather than solitary activities.
Residence. In the books where residence
was depicted, all ma<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> support<strong>in</strong>g characters
with DD lived <strong>in</strong> their family home, except
for characters <strong>in</strong> The Decod<strong>in</strong>g of Lana Morris
(Tilly <strong>and</strong> other m<strong>in</strong>or characters with DD live
<strong>in</strong> a foster home) <strong>and</strong> Apart (Timmy, a 10-year
old boy with autism is sent to live <strong>in</strong> a group
home).
Family characteristics. Various types of families
were depicted <strong>in</strong> the books, but primarily
the characters with DD lived <strong>in</strong> traditional
families (e.g., mother <strong>and</strong> father at home).
However, some lived with s<strong>in</strong>gle parents (e.g.,
divorced or widowed), or foster parents. Sibl<strong>in</strong>gs
were portrayed <strong>in</strong> many of the families,
<strong>and</strong> were often the primary caregivers of the
<strong>in</strong>dividuals with DD. The book, So B. It, isan
exceptional illustration of a family situation.
In this book the character with a developmental
disability, Sofia, is cared for by her daughter
who does not have a disability.
Discussion
Children’s books <strong>in</strong> this study were evaluated
to determ<strong>in</strong>e how characters with developmental
disabilities are portrayed to young
readers. Specifically, four topics were evaluated:
(a) characterization of the <strong>in</strong>dividual
with DD, (b) relationships between the character
with DD <strong>and</strong> others, (c) changes <strong>in</strong> characters
without DD, <strong>and</strong> (d) special topics related
to DD. Results of this analysis will be
discussed <strong>and</strong> compared to two previous studies
of children’s books that <strong>in</strong>clude characters
with DD (Dyches & Prater, 2005; Dyches et al.,
2001).
This study analyzed 41 books that <strong>in</strong>cluded
ma<strong>in</strong> or support<strong>in</strong>g characters with developmental
disabilities published between 2004
<strong>and</strong> 2007. Annually, this rate of publication is
10.25 books per year, which is an <strong>in</strong>crease
from 2005 (8.5 per year) <strong>and</strong> 2001 (6 per
year). The criteria for <strong>in</strong>clusion <strong>in</strong> this current
evaluation excluded several books which were
self-published or <strong>in</strong>cluded non-human characters
with developmental disabilities, <strong>and</strong> no
such exclusions existed <strong>in</strong> the previous studies.
Therefore, we can conclude that more
commercially-published books with human
characters with developmental disabilities are
be<strong>in</strong>g published than <strong>in</strong> the recent past.
Books <strong>in</strong> this study depicted characters with
several types of developmental disabilities,
with the proportion of characters with <strong>in</strong>tellectual
disabilities decreas<strong>in</strong>g from 75% <strong>in</strong>
2001 to 47% <strong>in</strong> 2005, <strong>and</strong> 48% <strong>in</strong> this study,
<strong>and</strong> characters with autism spectrum disorders
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g from 25% <strong>in</strong> 2001 to 53% <strong>in</strong>
2005, <strong>and</strong> 52% <strong>in</strong> this study. This representation
is disproportionate to reported enrollment
of school-aged children with these
disabilities <strong>in</strong> the U.S., where students with
mental retardation represent 9.6% of the special
education population, <strong>and</strong> autism represents
only 2.3% (U.S. Department of <strong>Education</strong>,
2007). However, the recent <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong>
children’s fiction that features characters with
autism spectrum disorders may be reflect<strong>in</strong>g
the recent media attention to the significant
<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> children with this diagnosis with
a rate of 6 per 10,000 for autism, Asperger
Syndrome, <strong>and</strong> Pervasive <strong>Developmental</strong> Disorder—Not
Otherwise Specified comb<strong>in</strong>ed
(Dyches, <strong>in</strong> press). Also, <strong>in</strong> the present study
almost half (n 9, 41%) of the characters
with autism spectrum disorders were portrayed
specifically as hav<strong>in</strong>g Asperger Syndrome.
Of the 20 characters identified with
<strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities or unspecified developmental
disabilities, only 6 (30%) had Down
syndrome, down from 53% <strong>in</strong> 2005 <strong>and</strong> 64%
<strong>in</strong> 2001. The books <strong>in</strong> this study also <strong>in</strong>cluded
characters with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder
<strong>and</strong> Multiple <strong>Disabilities</strong>, which were previously
not represented.
More male characters than females with DD
were depicted <strong>in</strong> the books reviewed; however,
the trend is decreas<strong>in</strong>g (from 86% <strong>in</strong> 2001 to
87% <strong>in</strong> 2005, <strong>and</strong> 61% <strong>in</strong> this study). A decreas<strong>in</strong>g
trend was found <strong>in</strong> males with <strong>in</strong>tellectual
disabilities from 86% <strong>in</strong> 2001 to 78% <strong>in</strong>
2005 <strong>and</strong> only 58% <strong>in</strong> the present study. The
current percentage is lower than actual proportions
of those with <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities
<strong>in</strong> the U.S. population (1.5 male to 1 female)
(American Psychiatric Association, 2000).
Results <strong>in</strong>dicate a decreas<strong>in</strong>g trend of males
with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). All
characters with ASD <strong>in</strong> 2001 were male, de-
Juvenile Literature <strong>and</strong> the Portrayal of DD / 315

creas<strong>in</strong>g to 84% <strong>in</strong> 2005 <strong>and</strong> 64% <strong>in</strong> the current
study. This most recent proportion of
males to females is low, based upon the estimated
population ratio for autism be<strong>in</strong>g 4–5
boys to 1 girl (75–80%) <strong>and</strong> at least 5 times
higher (80%) for Asperger Syndrome (American
Psychiatric Association, 2000).
There was an <strong>in</strong>crease of characters with DD
from diverse cultures <strong>in</strong> this set of books compared
to the previous studies, from no characters
<strong>in</strong> 2001 to 14% <strong>in</strong> 2005 <strong>and</strong> 21% <strong>in</strong> the
present study. This representation gives readers
more realistic perceptions of how developmental
disabilities may affect people from all
races, cultures, <strong>and</strong> ethnicities. Current U.S.
Census (2004) estimates the population to be
81% White alone (not <strong>in</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ation with
another race), 12.7% Black, 12.6% from Hispanic
orig<strong>in</strong>, <strong>and</strong> 3.8% Asian. In the n<strong>in</strong>e
books that feature culturally diverse ma<strong>in</strong> or
support<strong>in</strong>g characters with DD, Hispanics <strong>and</strong>
Blacks are underrepresented—each with 7%
of the 42 characters. Conversely, Asians are
slightly overrepresented with 5% of the characters.
However, these data should be treated
with caution s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>in</strong> some cases the authors
<strong>and</strong> illustrators did not dist<strong>in</strong>ctly <strong>in</strong>dicate race
or culture of their characters with DD.
Several dimensions of the characterizations
of <strong>in</strong>dividuals with DD varied across the three
studies. Generally, there was an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g
trend of positive portrayals, from 71% of the
depictions judged to be positive <strong>in</strong> 2001, to
72% <strong>in</strong> 2005, <strong>and</strong> 81% <strong>in</strong> the current study.
These portrayals were more positive <strong>in</strong> part
because over time the characters were <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly
more self-determ<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>and</strong> enjoyed more
reciprocal relationships with a wider range of
people. While characters <strong>in</strong> the present study
had primary relationships with fewer friends
than <strong>in</strong> the 2005 study, two-thirds of these
friendships were with nondisabled peers.
The characters with DD who were victimized
<strong>in</strong>creased from the 2005 study (from 39%
to 43%), but this rate was far below that of the
2001 study (83%). Most of the victimization
occurred by teas<strong>in</strong>g or name call<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> a
new derogatory term was <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong> The
Decod<strong>in</strong>g of Lana Morris, Snicks (an acronym
for “Special Needs Kids” or “SNKs”).
More characters with DD were depicted as
hav<strong>in</strong>g important roles <strong>in</strong> society, either as
<strong>in</strong>formal teachers (24% <strong>in</strong> the current study,
an <strong>in</strong>crease from the previous studies), or as
caregivers (12% <strong>in</strong> the current study, also an
<strong>in</strong>crease). Their teach<strong>in</strong>g often went beyond
teach<strong>in</strong>g about their disability, to teach<strong>in</strong>g
skills <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation to others.
F<strong>in</strong>ally, characters with DD were portrayed
<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly <strong>in</strong>clusionary recreational activities
over the past three studies, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g activities
such as mak<strong>in</strong>g art, play<strong>in</strong>g chess, listen<strong>in</strong>g
to music, <strong>and</strong> play<strong>in</strong>g with friends. The
educational environments for the last study
were <strong>in</strong>clusionary <strong>in</strong> 46% of the <strong>in</strong>stances, <strong>and</strong>
for the current study it <strong>in</strong>creased to 54%. This
level of <strong>in</strong>clusion is higher than reported <strong>in</strong>
national school data (U.S. Department of <strong>Education</strong>,
2007), where 43.9% of the students
with autism <strong>and</strong> 51.8% of the students with
<strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities spent greater than 60%
of their time outside of the general education
classroom. The high level of <strong>in</strong>clusion portrayed
<strong>in</strong> the books may be expla<strong>in</strong>ed by the
eight students with Asperger Syndrome be<strong>in</strong>g
educated <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>clusionary environments, while
only five other characters with DD were educated
<strong>in</strong> general education sett<strong>in</strong>gs.
Conclusions
316 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
More commercially-published children’s fiction
that features <strong>in</strong>dividuals with developmental
disabilities is available than <strong>in</strong> the past.
The depictions of these <strong>in</strong>dividuals represent
a trend of <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g cultural diversity. Also,
the proportion of books <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g characters
with ASD is overrepresented based upon national
school-based data, <strong>in</strong> comparison to the
underrepresentation of characters with <strong>in</strong>tellectual
disabilities.
Previously, male characters with <strong>in</strong>tellectual
disabilities were overrepresented, but <strong>in</strong> the
current study, they were underrepresented.
Similarly, males with ASD are underrepresented
<strong>in</strong> the present study.
The characters with DD have been depicted
more multidimensionally across the past decade.
An <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g trend for these depictions
to represent more positive portrayals with <strong>in</strong>dividuals
be<strong>in</strong>g more self-determ<strong>in</strong>ed, engag<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>in</strong> more caregiv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g roles,
<strong>and</strong> enjoy<strong>in</strong>g more <strong>in</strong>clusionary recreational
activities is positive. This upward trend meets
each of the charges given to authors of children’s
books <strong>in</strong> 2005 by Dyches <strong>and</strong> Prater to

“add depth <strong>and</strong> multidimensionality to the
characters that they portray” (p. 515). Future
authors are encouraged to <strong>in</strong>clude a more
representative sample of characters with <strong>in</strong>tellectual
disabilities, more realistic depictions of
characters with developmental disabilities,
<strong>and</strong> more characters who make important decisions
for their lives which show their selfdeterm<strong>in</strong>ation.
<strong>Education</strong>al services providers are encouraged
to seek out quality literature that conta<strong>in</strong>s
images of children with disabilities who
are seen as “people whom readers would like
to know or be friends with” (Smith-D’Arezzo,
2003, p. 76). These books should express the
values they <strong>in</strong>tend to teach, thereby shap<strong>in</strong>g
the “evolv<strong>in</strong>g moral character of its readers”
(Mills, 2002, p. 531). The current study provides
an analysis of 41 books, based upon values
often depicted <strong>in</strong> the professional literature,
<strong>and</strong> the results can serve as a guide for
select<strong>in</strong>g books that <strong>in</strong>clude <strong>in</strong>dividuals with
developmental disabilities.
References
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic
<strong>and</strong> statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.,
text rev.). Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, DC: Author.
Blaska, J. K. (2003). Us<strong>in</strong>g children’s literature to learn
about disabilities <strong>and</strong> illnesses (2 nd ed.). Moorhead,
MN: Practical Press.
R. R. Bowker’s Database Publish<strong>in</strong>g Group. (2007).
Children’s books <strong>in</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>t 2008: An author, title, <strong>and</strong>
illustrator <strong>in</strong>dex to books for children <strong>and</strong> young adults.
New Providence, NJ: R. R. Bowker.
Denz<strong>in</strong>, N. K., & L<strong>in</strong>coln, Y. S. (1994). H<strong>and</strong>book of
qualitative research. Thous<strong>and</strong> Oaks, CA: Sage.
Dyches, T. T. (<strong>in</strong> press). Educat<strong>in</strong>g Children with
Autism <strong>and</strong> Related Disorders <strong>in</strong> E. Baker, B.
McGaw, <strong>and</strong> P. Peterson (Eds.), The International
Encyclopedia of <strong>Education</strong>: Special <strong>Education</strong> (3 rd
ed.). Elsevier Limited.
Dyches, T. T., & Prater, M. A. (2000). <strong>Developmental</strong>
disability <strong>in</strong> children’s literature: Issues <strong>and</strong> annotated
bibliography. Reston, VA: The <strong>Division</strong> on Mental
Retardation <strong>and</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong> of
the Council for Exceptional Children.
Dyches, T. T., & Prater, M. A. (2005). Characterization
of developmental disability <strong>in</strong> children’s fic-
tion. <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>,
40, 202–216.
Dyches, T. T., Prater, M. A., & Cramer, S. F. (2001).
Characterization of mental retardation <strong>and</strong> autism
<strong>in</strong> children’s books. <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong>
Mental Retardation <strong>and</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>,
36, 230–243.
Heim, A. B. (1994). Beyond the stereotypes: Characters
with mental disabilities <strong>in</strong> children’s books.
School Library Journal, 40, 139–142.
Lukens, R. J. (2007). A critical h<strong>and</strong>book of children’s
literature (8 th ed.). Boston: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.
Mills, C. (2002). The portrayal of mental disability
<strong>in</strong> children’s literature: An ethical appraisal, Horn
Book Magaz<strong>in</strong>e, 78, 531–642.
Prater, M. A. (1999). Characterization of mental
retardation <strong>in</strong> children’s <strong>and</strong> adolescent literature.
<strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> Mental Retardation
<strong>and</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>, 34, 418–431.
Prater, M. A., & Dyches, T. T. (2008). Teach<strong>in</strong>g about
disabilities through children’s literature. Westport,
CN: Libraries Unlimited.
S<strong>and</strong>elowski, M. (1986). The problem of rigor <strong>in</strong>
qualitative research. Advances <strong>in</strong> Nurs<strong>in</strong>g Science, 8,
27–37.
S<strong>and</strong>elowski, M. (2000). Whatever happened to
qualitative description? Research <strong>in</strong> Nurs<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong>
Health, 23, 334–340.
Sawyer, W. E. (2009). Grow<strong>in</strong>g up with literature (5 th
ed.). Clifton Park, NY: Delmar.
Smith-D’Arezzo, W. M. (2003). Diversity <strong>in</strong> children’s
literature: Not just a black <strong>and</strong> white issue.
Children’s Literature <strong>in</strong> <strong>Education</strong>, 34(1), 75–94.
Temple, C., Mart<strong>in</strong>ez, M., Yokota, J., & Naylor, A.
(2002). Children’s books <strong>in</strong> children’s h<strong>and</strong>s: An <strong>in</strong>troduction
to their literature (2 nd ed.). Boston: Allyn
& Bacon.
Turnbull, A., Turnbull, R., & Wehmeyer, M. L.
(2007). Exceptional lives: Special <strong>Education</strong> <strong>in</strong> Today’s
Schools (5 th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson.
U.S. Census Bureau (2004) U.S. Interim Projections by
Age, Sex, Race, <strong>and</strong> Hispanic Orig<strong>in</strong>. Retrieved December
1, 2008 from www.census.gov/population/
www/projections/us<strong>in</strong>terimproj/natprojtab01a.pdf
U. S. Department of <strong>Education</strong>, Office of Special
<strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> rehabilitative Services, Office of
Special <strong>Education</strong> Programs (2007). The Twentyseventh
annual (2005) report to Congress on the implementation
of the Individuals with <strong>Disabilities</strong> <strong>Education</strong>
Act. Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, DC: U.S. Government
Pr<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g Office.
Juvenile Literature <strong>and</strong> the Portrayal of DD / 317

<strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>, 2009, 44(3), 318–342
© <strong>Division</strong> on <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>
Evidence-Based Social Skills Interventions for Children with
Autism: A Meta-analysis
Peishi Wang
Queens College, City University of New York
Anne Spillane
National University
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to provide a synthesis of research studies published <strong>in</strong> the last ten years
on <strong>in</strong>terventions to <strong>in</strong>crease social skills for children <strong>and</strong> adolescents with ASD, exam<strong>in</strong>e the outcomes of these
studies <strong>and</strong> evaluate whether a given <strong>in</strong>tervention meets the criteria for evidence-based practice. Thirty-eight
studies were <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> this review, of which 36 were s<strong>in</strong>gle subject research studies <strong>and</strong> 2 group experimental
studies. Results varied widely both between <strong>in</strong>tervention types, <strong>and</strong> with the different studies with<strong>in</strong> each
<strong>in</strong>tervention type. While Social Stories, Peer-Mediated, <strong>and</strong> Video-Model<strong>in</strong>g all met the criteria for evidencebased,
a closer look at percentage of nonoverlapp<strong>in</strong>g data po<strong>in</strong>ts (PND) shows that only Video-Model<strong>in</strong>g meets
criteria for be<strong>in</strong>g evidence-based as well as demonstrat<strong>in</strong>g high effectiveness as an <strong>in</strong>tervention strategy.
Interact<strong>in</strong>g with one’s peers can have a significant
positive impact on the lives of <strong>in</strong>dividuals
with disabilities, allow<strong>in</strong>g them to build <strong>and</strong>
participate more fully <strong>in</strong> their communities.
Numerous <strong>in</strong>terventions to teach social skills
have been developed over the years (Carter &
Hughes, 2005, Vaughn, et al., 2003, White,
Keonig, & Scahill, 2007). However, many of
these methods do not meet the requirements
for evidence-based practice. New regulations
<strong>in</strong> the reauthorization of IDEA <strong>in</strong> 2004 require
that evidence-based practices be used to
ensure <strong>in</strong>dividuals with disabilities receive the
highest quality <strong>in</strong>struction.
Autism is a developmental disorder whose
prevalence rate has been <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g dramatically
over the past decade. One <strong>in</strong> 150 children
<strong>in</strong> America today have an autism spectrum
disorder (Centers for Disease Control
<strong>and</strong> Prevention, 2007). The Autism Society of
America (ASA) estimates that 1.5 million
Americans <strong>and</strong> their families are now affected.
Correspondence concern<strong>in</strong>g this article should
be addressed to Peishi Wang, Graduate Programs <strong>in</strong>
Special <strong>Education</strong>, Department of <strong>Education</strong>al <strong>and</strong>
Community Programs, Powdermaker Hall 032J,
Queens College, City University of New York, 65-30
Kissena Blvd, Flush<strong>in</strong>g, NY 11367. Email: peishi.
wang@qc.cuny.edu
318 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
In fact, autism is grow<strong>in</strong>g at a startl<strong>in</strong>g rate of
10-17 percent per year, <strong>and</strong> has become a
national health crisis, cost<strong>in</strong>g the U.S. at least
$35 billion annually (Autism Society of America,
2007).
Deficits <strong>in</strong> social skills are one of the core
features of autism spectrum disorders (ASD),
<strong>and</strong> are a major source of impairment regardless
of the <strong>in</strong>tellectual or language ability of
persons with ASD (Carter, Davis, Kl<strong>in</strong>, & Volkmar,
2005). Individuals hav<strong>in</strong>g better social
skills are more likely to be accepted <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrated
sett<strong>in</strong>gs, live more <strong>in</strong>dependently, <strong>and</strong>
work <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrated sett<strong>in</strong>gs (Scheuermann &
Webber, 2002). However, treat<strong>in</strong>g the social
deficits of <strong>in</strong>dividuals with ASD rema<strong>in</strong>s a
challenge (Weiss & Harris, 2001).
There have been many <strong>in</strong>terventions used
to teach social skills to <strong>in</strong>dividuals with ASD.
These <strong>in</strong>clude social stories (e.g. Delano &
Snell, 2006), peer-mediated strategies, (e.g.
Laushey & Hefl<strong>in</strong>, 2000), video model<strong>in</strong>g
(e.g. Paterson & Arco, 2007), cognitive behavioral
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g (e.g. Bock, 2007), pivotal response
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g (e.g. Jones & Freely, 2007),
Theory of M<strong>in</strong>d (e.g. Ch<strong>in</strong>, Bernard-Opitz,
2000), among others. Additionally, a number
of meta-analyses have looked at social skills
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g for <strong>in</strong>dividuals with ASD (Bell<strong>in</strong>i &
Akullian, 2007; Carter & Hughes, 2005; Cook,

Gresham, Kern, Barreras, Thornton, & Crews,
2008; Hwang & Hughes, 2000; Vaughn et al.,
2003; White et al., 2007). None of this research
has discussed whether the studies met
criteria for be<strong>in</strong>g evidence-based practice.
Def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Evidence-Based Practices
National policies, such as No Child Left
Beh<strong>in</strong>d (NCLB) require that teachers use
evidence-based practices <strong>in</strong> their classrooms.
Also, new regulations <strong>in</strong> the reauthorization
of IDEA <strong>in</strong> 2004 require that evidence-based
practices be used to ensure <strong>in</strong>dividuals with
disabilities receive the highest quality <strong>in</strong>struction.
However, there has never been a clear
def<strong>in</strong>ition of what evidence-based practice is.
Therefore, <strong>in</strong> January 2003, the Council for
Exceptional Children (CEC) <strong>Division</strong> for Research
established a task force to address the
issue of evidence-based practices. A special
issue of Exceptional Children (2005) was dedicated
to establish<strong>in</strong>g criteria for evidencebased
practice <strong>in</strong> special education.
First, let’s clarify what a practice is. Accord<strong>in</strong>g
to Horner, Carr, Halle, McGee, <strong>and</strong> Wolery
(2005), a “practice refers to a curriculum,
behavioral <strong>in</strong>tervention, systems change, or
educational approach designed for use by
families, educators, or students with the express
expectation that implementation will result
<strong>in</strong> measurable, educational, social, behavioral,
or physical benefit.” (p. 175)
In the 2005 special issue of Exceptional
Children, Odom et al. set the context for the
development of research quality <strong>in</strong>dicators
<strong>and</strong> guidel<strong>in</strong>es for evidence of effective practices
provided by different methodologies <strong>in</strong>
special education, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g group experimental
or quasi-experimental research, s<strong>in</strong>gle
subject research, correlational research <strong>and</strong>
qualitative research. For the purpose of this
article, we will focus on two types of research
methodologies: group experimental or quasiexperimental
<strong>and</strong> s<strong>in</strong>gle subject research.
These two methodologies are largely used to
identify cause-effect relationships between <strong>in</strong>terventions
<strong>and</strong> target behaviors, therefore,
they are more appropriate for identify<strong>in</strong>g
evidence-based practices.
Specifically, for group experimental <strong>and</strong>
quasi-experimental research articles <strong>and</strong> reports,
Gersten et al. (2005) presented the fol-
low<strong>in</strong>g quality <strong>in</strong>dicators: (1) participants <strong>in</strong> a
given study are sufficiently discussed <strong>and</strong> their
disability conditions are confirmed; (2) r<strong>and</strong>om
assignment to study conditions are attempted
<strong>and</strong> when r<strong>and</strong>omization is not feasible,
other alternatives are used to ensure
participants are comparable across conditions;
(3) sufficient <strong>in</strong>formation is provided
regard<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>terventionists <strong>and</strong> procedures
implemented to ensure they are comparable
across conditions; (4) <strong>in</strong>tervention strategies
are implemented with fidelity, (5) multiple
outcome measures are used to capture the
<strong>in</strong>tervention’s effect, (6) data analysis <strong>in</strong>clude
effect size calculations <strong>in</strong> addition to <strong>in</strong>ferential
statistics (p. 152).
Furthermore, the panel suggested that a
practice is considered evidence-based “when
there are at least four acceptable quality studies
or two high quality studies that support the
practice <strong>and</strong> the weighted effect size is significantly
greater than zero.” (Gersten et. al.,
2005, p. 162)
When evaluat<strong>in</strong>g research studies us<strong>in</strong>g
the s<strong>in</strong>gle subject methodology, Horner et al.
(2005) stated that “s<strong>in</strong>gle-subject research
documents a practice as evidence based when
(a) the practice is operationally def<strong>in</strong>ed,
(b) the context <strong>in</strong> which the practice is to be
used is def<strong>in</strong>ed; (c) the practice is implemented
with fidelity; (d) results from s<strong>in</strong>gle
subject research document the practice to be
functionally related to change <strong>in</strong> dependent
measures, <strong>and</strong> (e) the experimental effects
are replicated across a sufficient number of
studies, researchers, <strong>and</strong> participants to allow
confidence <strong>in</strong> the f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs” (p. 175-176).
Additionally, documentation of an evidencebased
practice typically requires multiple s<strong>in</strong>gle
subject studies. “A practice may be considered
evidence-based when (a) m<strong>in</strong>imum of
five s<strong>in</strong>gle subject studies that meet m<strong>in</strong>imally
acceptable methodological criteria <strong>and</strong> document
experimental control have been published
<strong>in</strong> peer-reviewed journals, (b) the studies
are conducted by at least three different
researchers across at least three different geographical
locations, <strong>and</strong> (c) the five or more
studies <strong>in</strong>clude a total of at least 20 participants”
(Horner et al., 2005, p.176).
Although there have been a few review articles
published on this topic <strong>in</strong> recent years
(e.g. Matson, Matson, & Rivet, 2007; McCon-
Evidence-Based Social Skills Interventions / 319

nell, 2002; Rogers, 2000; Weiss & Harris,
2001), they tend to be more descriptive of the
various <strong>in</strong>terventions <strong>and</strong> lack quantitative
evaluations of treatment effectiveness, that is,
the researchers relied on the conclusions
drawn by the studies’ authors. In addition,
these qualitative reviews do not compare treatment
effectiveness across different <strong>in</strong>tervention
strategies. Furthermore, they fail to address
the critical issue of evidence-based
practices. The purpose of this study was to
provide a synthesis of research studies published
<strong>in</strong> the last ten years on <strong>in</strong>terventions to
<strong>in</strong>crease social skills for children <strong>and</strong> adolescents
with ASD, exam<strong>in</strong>e the outcomes of
these studies <strong>and</strong> evaluate whether a given
<strong>in</strong>tervention meets the criteria for evidencebased
practice.
Method
A comprehensive review of the literature was
conducted us<strong>in</strong>g the follow<strong>in</strong>g procedures.
First, an electronic search was conducted for
studies published between 1997 <strong>and</strong> 2008
August us<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>Education</strong>al Resources Information
Center (ERIC) <strong>and</strong> PsycINFO databases.
Searches were carried out us<strong>in</strong>g a comb<strong>in</strong>ation
of the follow<strong>in</strong>g descriptors: autism,
autism spectrum disorder, ASD, social skills, social
behavior, social development, conversational skills,
play skills, social <strong>in</strong>itiations, request<strong>in</strong>g, social responses,
social <strong>in</strong>teractions, social relationships,
jo<strong>in</strong>t attention, eye contact, video model<strong>in</strong>g, peermediated
<strong>in</strong>terventions, videotape model<strong>in</strong>g, pivotal
response tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, theory of m<strong>in</strong>d, cognitive behavioral
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong>cidental teach<strong>in</strong>g, social stories,
perspective tak<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> naturalistic teach<strong>in</strong>g. Second,
a manual search was conducted with the
follow<strong>in</strong>g peer-reviewed journals: Research <strong>and</strong>
Practice for Persons with Severe <strong>Disabilities</strong>, Journal
of Applied Behavior Analysis, Exceptional Children,
<strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>,
American Journal on Mental Retardation,
<strong>and</strong> Focus on Autism <strong>and</strong> Other <strong>Developmental</strong>
<strong>Disabilities</strong>. In all, 104 studies were located <strong>in</strong>
this <strong>in</strong>itial search of journal articles.
Studies were selected for review based on
the follow<strong>in</strong>g criteria. First, participants must
have been identified as hav<strong>in</strong>g ASD between the
age of birth <strong>and</strong> 21. Second, study participants
were students receiv<strong>in</strong>g special education services
either at home or <strong>in</strong> school sett<strong>in</strong>gs. Stud-
320 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
ies conducted exclusively <strong>in</strong> community-based
sett<strong>in</strong>gs, employment sett<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>and</strong> other sett<strong>in</strong>gs
that were not clearly described were excluded
from this synthesis. Third, the study must have
used outcome measures that targeted social
skills. Studies that measured functional skills
such as daily liv<strong>in</strong>g skills, reduction of problem
behaviors, or non-social communication skills
were not <strong>in</strong>cluded. Fourth, the study must have
assessed the effectiveness of social skill <strong>in</strong>terventions.
Studies that used pharmacological
<strong>in</strong>terventions were excluded from this analysis.
Fifth, the review comprised an empirical,
<strong>in</strong>tervention-based <strong>in</strong>vestigation <strong>and</strong> was published
<strong>in</strong> a peer-reviewed journal between 1997
<strong>and</strong> 2008. Dissertation studies were not <strong>in</strong>cluded
<strong>in</strong> this synthesis. Sixth, the study must meet the
criteria for evaluat<strong>in</strong>g evidence-based <strong>in</strong>tervention
strategies outl<strong>in</strong>ed by the Council for
Exceptional Children <strong>Division</strong> for Research
(2005). For the purpose of this review, only
those studies that utilized group experimental
or quasi-experimental <strong>and</strong> s<strong>in</strong>gle subject research
were evaluated <strong>and</strong> analyzed. For group
designs, presentation of effect sizes along
with <strong>in</strong>ferential statistics is recommended. However,
some studies <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> this meta-analysis
did not report the effect size of the <strong>in</strong>tervention
<strong>in</strong> the orig<strong>in</strong>al study, they were <strong>in</strong>cluded only
when such calculation could be <strong>in</strong>ferred based
on available statistics reported. Effect sizes are
expressed positively when change occurred <strong>in</strong>
the predicted direction <strong>and</strong> negatively when
changes were opposite to those predicted. An
effect size of .20 is small, .50 moderate, <strong>and</strong> .80
large. The usually accepted m<strong>in</strong>imum cl<strong>in</strong>ically
acceptable effect size for educational <strong>in</strong>terventions
is 0.33 (McCartney & Rosenthal, 2000).
If a study uses s<strong>in</strong>gle subject research design,
the study must demonstrate experimental
control through the use of multiple basel<strong>in</strong>e,
reversal or alternat<strong>in</strong>g treatment designs
as outl<strong>in</strong>ed by the Council for Exceptional
Children <strong>Division</strong> for Research (2005). Additionally,
the study must present data <strong>in</strong> graphical
displays that depicted <strong>in</strong>dividual data
po<strong>in</strong>ts as these graphical displays were critical
for the calculation of PND (percentage of
non-overlapp<strong>in</strong>g data po<strong>in</strong>ts), the metric analysis
employed <strong>in</strong> this meta-analysis. Scruggs,
Mastropieri, <strong>and</strong> Castro (1987) suggested that
“PND is the only major evaluative criterion
that can consistently be applied <strong>in</strong> the largest

number of cases of s<strong>in</strong>gle subject studies”
(p. 27). PND is usually computed by divid<strong>in</strong>g
the number of treatment data po<strong>in</strong>ts that exceeds
the highest basel<strong>in</strong>e data po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> an
expected direction by the total number of
data po<strong>in</strong>ts <strong>in</strong> the treatment phase. A PND
between 91 <strong>and</strong> 100 is considered a highly
effective <strong>in</strong>tervention, between 71 <strong>and</strong> 90
moderately effective, between 51 <strong>and</strong> 70
mildly effective, <strong>and</strong> between 0 <strong>and</strong> 50, noneffective
(Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1998).
Us<strong>in</strong>g these methods <strong>and</strong> criteria, we identified
38 studies for <strong>in</strong>clusion <strong>in</strong> this review, of
which 36 were s<strong>in</strong>gle subject research studies
<strong>and</strong> 2 group experimental studies.
Classification
For the 36 s<strong>in</strong>gle subject research studies,
we used a cod<strong>in</strong>g system established by Mastropieri
<strong>and</strong> Scruggs (1985-1986) <strong>and</strong> made
modifications based on the criteria outl<strong>in</strong>ed
by Horner et al. (2005). Each study was analyzed
across the follow<strong>in</strong>g categories: (1) participant
characteristics, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the number
of participants, diagnosis, sett<strong>in</strong>gs, age <strong>and</strong>
functional levels; (2) description of target behaviors
<strong>and</strong> skills; (3) description of <strong>in</strong>tervention;
(4) research design; (5) <strong>in</strong>tervention results
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tervention, ma<strong>in</strong>tenance <strong>and</strong>
follow-up, <strong>and</strong> generalization effects as measured
by PND; <strong>and</strong> (6) confirmation of
whether the study measured treatment <strong>in</strong>tegrity
<strong>and</strong> social validity.
Interrater Agreement
To establish <strong>in</strong>terrater reliability for the cod<strong>in</strong>g
procedure <strong>and</strong> the PND analysis, the first
author coded all the s<strong>in</strong>gle subject studies <strong>and</strong>
calculated the PND while the second author
r<strong>and</strong>omly selected 30% (12) of s<strong>in</strong>gle subject
studies, <strong>in</strong>dependently coded <strong>and</strong> calculated
the PND for those studies. Interrater agreement
was obta<strong>in</strong>ed by divid<strong>in</strong>g the total number
of agreements by the total number of
agreements plus disagreements <strong>and</strong> multiply<strong>in</strong>g
by 100. The mean <strong>in</strong>terrater agreement
between the two authors was 97% (range 78%-
100%).
Results
A summary of the participants, target behaviors,
<strong>in</strong>tervention strategies, <strong>and</strong> research de-
sign was constructed <strong>and</strong> presented <strong>in</strong> Table
1. Table 2 provides descriptive <strong>in</strong>formation on
<strong>in</strong>tervention results, study effect size or PND,
ma<strong>in</strong>tenance, follow-up <strong>and</strong> generalization results,
treatment <strong>in</strong>tegrity <strong>and</strong> social validity
measures.
Overall F<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs
S<strong>in</strong>gle subject designs were used to evaluate
<strong>in</strong>tervention effects <strong>in</strong> 36 studies <strong>and</strong> group
designs were used <strong>in</strong> 2 studies. Five categories
of different <strong>in</strong>terventions emerged from these
38 studies, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Social Stories (n 6),
Peer Mediated (n 9), Video Model<strong>in</strong>g (n
11), Cognitive Behavior <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> (n 3), <strong>and</strong>
Others (n 9).
A total of 147 participants were <strong>in</strong>cluded.
Thirty-one studies used a variation of a multiple
basel<strong>in</strong>e or probe design, five studies used
a reversal design, <strong>and</strong> two studies used pretest
<strong>and</strong> posttest with a control group design.
Treatment <strong>in</strong>tegrity was reported <strong>in</strong> 14 studies,
of which 11 reported agreement percentage,
rang<strong>in</strong>g from 77% to 100%. Social validity
was measured <strong>in</strong> 16 studies.
Participants <strong>and</strong> Sett<strong>in</strong>gs
Of the 147 participants with ASD, among the
studies that reported on gender, 73 participants
were boys, <strong>and</strong> 6 were girls. Additionally,
seven studies reported participation of a total
of 68 typical peers. Participants with ASD
ranged <strong>in</strong> age from 2 to 17 years old. The vast
majority of participants were between the ages
of 6-12 (82 participants), with thirty participants
be<strong>in</strong>g five years or younger, <strong>and</strong> three
participants be<strong>in</strong>g over 12 years of age. Not all
studies reported ages of participants.
The studies primarily took place <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrated
sett<strong>in</strong>gs at public schools. Some studies
were conducted across more than one sett<strong>in</strong>g.
Ten studies reported be<strong>in</strong>g conducted <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrated
public school sett<strong>in</strong>gs not otherwise
specified, 9 <strong>in</strong> specialized class sett<strong>in</strong>gs at a
public school. Six studies reported lunch, hallway,
or other <strong>in</strong>tegrated school sett<strong>in</strong>gs, three
studies took place <strong>in</strong> general education classroom
sett<strong>in</strong>gs. Four studies took place <strong>in</strong>
home or community sett<strong>in</strong>gs, three studies
took place <strong>in</strong> private segregated sett<strong>in</strong>gs, <strong>and</strong>
one study took place <strong>in</strong> a private <strong>in</strong>tegrated
sett<strong>in</strong>g.
Evidence-Based Social Skills Interventions / 321

TABLE 1
Evidence-based Social Skills Interventions: Method <strong>and</strong> Research Design
Study Participants/Sett<strong>in</strong>gs Target Behavior Interventions Research Design
Social Story was read twice a day Multiple-basel<strong>in</strong>e across
participants
Social Stories (n 6)
Sportsmanship
Ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g conversation
Jo<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>
3 boys with Asperger Syndrome
(Ages 9, 10, 11 yrs)
2 boys <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrated private schools
1 <strong>in</strong> private school for children with
LD
All three boys have average or above-
Sansosti & Powell-Smith
(2006)
Social Story was read once a day Multiple-probe-across
participants
Duration of appropriate
social engagement
behavior
Frequency of 4 social skills:
Seek<strong>in</strong>g attention,
<strong>in</strong>itiat<strong>in</strong>g comments,
<strong>in</strong>itiat<strong>in</strong>g requests,
cont<strong>in</strong>gent responses
4 target behaviors:
cont<strong>in</strong>gent responses,
secur<strong>in</strong>g attention,
<strong>in</strong>itiat<strong>in</strong>g comments,
<strong>in</strong>itiat<strong>in</strong>g requests
Prompt<strong>in</strong>g needed for choice
mak<strong>in</strong>g; appropriate play
(with peers & materials)
Appropriate social
<strong>in</strong>teractions
average IQ
Delano & Snell (2006) 3 boys with autism (Ages 6, 6, & 9)
Integrated sett<strong>in</strong>gs
6 typical peers (3 boys & 3 girls)
served as tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g peers <strong>and</strong> play
partners
Multiple basel<strong>in</strong>e design
across two or three
behaviors
Social stories, pictorial written
text cues, video feedback
5 boys with autism (Ages 6-12 yrs)
3 boys were fully <strong>in</strong>tegrated, 2 were
<strong>in</strong>tegrated for 30% of the day
10 typical peers
Thiemann & Goldste<strong>in</strong>
(2001)
Social stories* ABCD multiple-basel<strong>in</strong>e
design across two subjects
Barry & Burlew (2004) 1 7-yr-old girl & 1 8-yr-old boy with
severe autism <strong>in</strong> self-conta<strong>in</strong>ed
322 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
Multiple basel<strong>in</strong>e across
participants
Social Stories written to address
<strong>in</strong>itiations <strong>and</strong> responses for
appropriate social <strong>in</strong>teractions
for target students dur<strong>in</strong>g free
sett<strong>in</strong>g
3 boys 8-13 with ASD free time
activities across the school day
Scattone, T<strong>in</strong>gstrom, &
Wilczynski (2006)
time activities
Social Story Multiple basel<strong>in</strong>e across
behaviors & multiple
basel<strong>in</strong>e across participants
Decrease excessive directions
to sibl<strong>in</strong>gs, <strong>in</strong>crease
compliments to sibl<strong>in</strong>gs
2 boys, 9&12yrsoldwith PDD-NOS
both <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>clusive sett<strong>in</strong>gs
Average IQ
Dodd, Hupp, Jewell, &
Krohn (2008)
(cont<strong>in</strong>ued)

TABLE 1
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued
Study Participants/Sett<strong>in</strong>gs Target Behavior Interventions Research Design
ABAB
2 boys, 5 yrs
1 with severe Autism; 1 with mild
PDD-NOS
Inclusive sett<strong>in</strong>g
Two boys with autism; moderate <strong>and</strong>
profound MR
Laushey & Hefl<strong>in</strong>
(2000)
Multiple basel<strong>in</strong>e design
across peer tra<strong>in</strong>ers <strong>and</strong>
across 2 participants
Multiple basel<strong>in</strong>e across
participant
Peer Mediated (n 9)
Ask<strong>in</strong>g & respond<strong>in</strong>g Buddy System-Multiple peers as
Gett<strong>in</strong>g attention
tutors
Wait<strong>in</strong>g for turn
Eye contact
Ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong>teractions; Multiple peer use of pivotal
Initiates conversation; response tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g
Initiates play
Frequency of eye contact; Social <strong>in</strong>teractive tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g
frequency of jo<strong>in</strong>t
strategies (peer-mediated):
attention; frequency of cont<strong>in</strong>gent imitation; naturally
motor imitation
occurr<strong>in</strong>g re<strong>in</strong>forcement;
expectant look; &
environmental arrangement
Social <strong>in</strong>teraction Peer-Assisted Learn<strong>in</strong>g
Strategies; common stimuli
activities; peer tutor<strong>in</strong>g
Peer directed comment<strong>in</strong>g; Two children with autism were
language diversity &
paired <strong>and</strong> received the plan-
complexity
play-report treatment
simultaneously
Pierce & Schreibman
(1997)
3 preschool boys with autism (32-43
months)
play area <strong>in</strong> an early <strong>in</strong>tervention
program classroom
Hwang & Hughes
(2000)
ABA withdrawal <strong>and</strong> multiple
basel<strong>in</strong>e across peers
Multiple basel<strong>in</strong>e across
three dyads
One five-year old boy with ASD &
DD; high function<strong>in</strong>g; Study took
place <strong>in</strong> the special ed classroom
5 boys & 1 girl with mild/moderate
autism (ages 6-8) study took place
<strong>in</strong> a sectioned off area of a large
hallway <strong>in</strong> a public school with
high % of children with autism
3 primary grade students with autism
<strong>and</strong> 15 typical peers study took
place dur<strong>in</strong>g scheduled play <strong>and</strong>
academic times <strong>in</strong> regular
education sett<strong>in</strong>gs
Petursdottir, McComas,
McMaster, & Horner
(2007)
Loncola & Craig-
Unkefer (2005)
Multiple basel<strong>in</strong>e probe
design across sett<strong>in</strong>gs,
nested with multiple
basel<strong>in</strong>e across students
with autism
Augmentative communication
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, peer tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g,
implement<strong>in</strong>g peer networks
(cooperative group activities
with augmentative
communication system)
Social <strong>in</strong>teraction between
target students <strong>and</strong> their
peers, use of augmentative
communication systems
Collateral behaviors:
expressive verbalizations,
reduction of <strong>in</strong>appropriate
behaviors, non-target peers
use of communication
system, peer acceptance
Garrison-Harrell,
Kamps, & Kravits
(1997)
Evidence-Based Social Skills Interventions / 323
(cont<strong>in</strong>ued)

TABLE 1
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued
Study Participants/Sett<strong>in</strong>gs Target Behavior Interventions Research Design
ABAB, <strong>and</strong> BABA: work<strong>in</strong>g
with 1 or 2 peers
Peer tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g to adapt class
activities, provide <strong>in</strong>struction,
implement behavior plans,
provide frequent feedback,
promote communication for
the participat<strong>in</strong>g students with
disabilities
Social <strong>in</strong>teractions
(acknowledgement of
another student us<strong>in</strong>g verbal
or nonverbal behaviors),
coded for who they
occurred with, <strong>and</strong> the
quality of <strong>in</strong>teraction;
Contact <strong>and</strong> consistency
with general education
curriculum
Synchronous reciprocal
<strong>in</strong>teractions, child affect
3 students (2 with autism) ages 12, 13,
&17
6 general education students <strong>in</strong> classes
with target students <strong>in</strong> a middle <strong>and</strong>
high school English <strong>and</strong> science
class.
Carter, Cush<strong>in</strong>g, Clark,
& Kennedy (2005)
Multiple basel<strong>in</strong>e across
participants
Contextually supported play
dates: activities selected to be
mutually re<strong>in</strong>forc<strong>in</strong>g for both
child with autism <strong>and</strong> typically
develop<strong>in</strong>g peer, cooperative
arrangements set up by adults
with<strong>in</strong> activities (participation
of both critical to the activity)
Triads were developed—with two
peers <strong>and</strong> one target child with
autism dur<strong>in</strong>g recess;
naturalistic <strong>in</strong>tervention
2 primary grade children with autism
14 typically develop<strong>in</strong>g peers play
dates occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> natural sett<strong>in</strong>gs
Koegel, Werner,
Vismara, & Koegel
(2005)
Concurrent multiple basel<strong>in</strong>e
across participants
Ga<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g attention, # of turn
tak<strong>in</strong>g exchanges, # of
<strong>in</strong>itiations to play
2 boys, 8 <strong>and</strong> 9 yrs old with autism <strong>in</strong>
<strong>in</strong>clusive sett<strong>in</strong>gs
Harper, Symon, & Frea
(2008)
324 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
Multiple basel<strong>in</strong>e across play
behavior with a withdrawal
phase
Video model<strong>in</strong>g (by male adult);
social praise
Video Model<strong>in</strong>g (n 11)
Appropriate verbal play
behavior & motor play
behavior; repetitive verbal
play <strong>and</strong> motor play
behavior
Experimenter I: Social
<strong>in</strong>itiation; reciprocal play;
imitative response; object
engagement; other
behaviors
Paterson & Arco (2007) 2 boys with autism (Ages 6&7yrs)
high function<strong>in</strong>g play room <strong>in</strong> the
school’s special education center
Multiple basel<strong>in</strong>e across
subject
Video model<strong>in</strong>g (by a 10-yr old
boy with LD & average social
skills); Verbal <strong>in</strong>structions;
model<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> vivo; Behavior
rehearsal
Experiment I: 3 boys with autism
(Ages 6.5; 6.5; & 7) <strong>in</strong> a sem<strong>in</strong>aturalistic
room of a special school
Nikopoulos & Keenan
(2007)
(cont<strong>in</strong>ued)

TABLE 1
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued
Study Participants/Sett<strong>in</strong>gs Target Behavior Interventions Research Design
Video model<strong>in</strong>g (by a peer) Multiple basel<strong>in</strong>e across
subjects
Video model<strong>in</strong>g (by a peer of Multiple basel<strong>in</strong>e across
the same age <strong>and</strong> sex);
subjects with a return to
In-vivo model<strong>in</strong>g
basel<strong>in</strong>e
Multiple basel<strong>in</strong>e across
behaviors (garden<strong>in</strong>g &
cook<strong>in</strong>g tasks) across two
Video model<strong>in</strong>g (with adults
h<strong>and</strong>s only)
Social <strong>in</strong>itiation; reciprocal
play behavior
Affective responses: show<strong>in</strong>g
sympathy; show<strong>in</strong>g
appreciation; show<strong>in</strong>g
disapproval
Different types of pretend
play actions performed
Nikopoulos & Keenan 3 boys with autism (btwn 7-9 yr)
(2004)
sett<strong>in</strong>g unspecified
Gena, Couloura, & 3 preschool boys with autism (Ages
Kymissis (2005) 5, 4, 3 yr)
Mild to moderate mental retardation;
Home sett<strong>in</strong>g for each participant
H<strong>in</strong>e & Wolery (2006) 2 girls with autism (Ages 30, 43
months) <strong>in</strong>clusive sett<strong>in</strong>g
participants
Spontaneous requests Video self model<strong>in</strong>g Multiple basel<strong>in</strong>e across
subjects
Comply<strong>in</strong>g with teacher Embedded video model<strong>in</strong>g (by Multiple probe across
directions; greet<strong>in</strong>g others; typical peers) <strong>and</strong> computer participants
shar<strong>in</strong>g materials
based <strong>in</strong>struction*
4 boys with autism (Ages 5.5; 4.5; 4;
5 yrs) unspecified school sett<strong>in</strong>g
2 boys <strong>and</strong> 2 girls with autism (Ages
5, 5, 6, & 6)
All participants were <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong>
general ed classroom for part of
the day
5 boys <strong>and</strong> 1 girl with autism (Ages
8, 7, 10, 11, & 7) after-school
behavior therapy program therapy
room
Wert & Neisworth
(2003)
Simpson, Langone, &
Ayres (2004)
Multiple basel<strong>in</strong>e across
subjects; multiple basel<strong>in</strong>e
with child across two
model<strong>in</strong>g conditions <strong>and</strong>
with<strong>in</strong> each model<strong>in</strong>g
condition across two tasks
In vivo <strong>and</strong> video model<strong>in</strong>g (by
familiar adults)
Subject 1: Expressive label<strong>in</strong>g
of emotions
Subject 2: Independent play
Subject 3: Spontaneous
greet<strong>in</strong>gs; oral
comprehensions
Subject 4: Conversational
speech; cooperative play
Subject 5: Social play
Charlop-Christy, Le, &
Freeman (2000)
Multiple basel<strong>in</strong>e across
subjects
Compliment-giv<strong>in</strong>g behaviors Experiment I:
1) Video model<strong>in</strong>g
2) VM re<strong>in</strong>forcement
3) re<strong>in</strong>forcement only
Experiment I: 2 boys with Asperger’s
Syndrome (both 5 yrs)
Study took place <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrated
preschool classroom dur<strong>in</strong>g free
play time
Apple, Bill<strong>in</strong>gsley, &
Schwartz (2005)
Experiment II:
Self-management
Evidence-Based Social Skills Interventions / 325
(cont<strong>in</strong>ued)

TABLE 1
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued
Study Participants/Sett<strong>in</strong>gs Target Behavior Interventions Research Design
Multiple basel<strong>in</strong>e across
participants
Social <strong>in</strong>itiations Videotaped self-model<strong>in</strong>g,
3-m<strong>in</strong>ute video show<strong>in</strong>g
participants engag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> typical
positive social <strong>in</strong>teractions
Perspective tak<strong>in</strong>g Video model<strong>in</strong>g of 5 first-order
perspective tak<strong>in</strong>g tasks
Pivotal Response <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> (n 1)
Buggy (2005) 2 students with autism dur<strong>in</strong>g lunch,
recess, <strong>and</strong> free time <strong>in</strong> a small
<strong>in</strong>clusive school
Multiple basel<strong>in</strong>e across children
<strong>and</strong> with<strong>in</strong> child across tasks
3 boys with autism, ages of 6, 6 <strong>and</strong>
9 yrs low function<strong>in</strong>g
Charlop-Christy &
Daneshvar (2003)
Jones & Feely (2007) 3 preschool age children with autism Jo<strong>in</strong>t Attention: respond<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> PRT, discrete trial format* Multiple probe design across
<strong>in</strong>itiat<strong>in</strong>g
two jo<strong>in</strong>t attention skills
Theory of M<strong>in</strong>d (n 1)
Ch<strong>in</strong>, Bernard-Opitz 3 high-function<strong>in</strong>g children with Conversational skills, shared Initiat<strong>in</strong>g conversations, Turn- Multiple basel<strong>in</strong>e across
(2000)
autism, 5-7 years old, primary <strong>in</strong>terest, contextually appropriate tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> conversation,
participants
caregivers, one peer who
responses, false beliefs (ToM) listen<strong>in</strong>g, ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g
participated <strong>in</strong> the generalization
conversation topic, chang<strong>in</strong>g
sessions, participants’ homes
topic appropriately
Cognitive Behavioral <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> (n 3)
Lopata, Thomeer, 21 boys with AD 6-13 years old Social Skills, Adaptability, <strong>and</strong> 6 weeks of the treatment Pre <strong>and</strong> posttest design. 2
Volker, & Nida (2006) 6-week summer treatment program Atypicality from the BASC, program 6 hrs/day, 5 days/ groups: Social Skills
to enhance social behaviors parent rat<strong>in</strong>g scales (PRS) week. 4 70-m<strong>in</strong>ute treatment <strong>in</strong>struction only (SS) <strong>and</strong>
<strong>and</strong> teacher rat<strong>in</strong>g scales (TRS) cycles daily
Social Skills <strong>in</strong>struction <strong>and</strong>
One group had a behavioral Behavioral Treatment
management po<strong>in</strong>t system with (SSBT)
response cost
Baumr<strong>in</strong>ger (2002) 15 high-function<strong>in</strong>g children with Social cognition <strong>and</strong> emotional Adapted social skills curriculum Pre-post test design: Problem
autism
underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g, overt social taught 3 hours/week over a solv<strong>in</strong>g measure, Emotion
function<strong>in</strong>g
7 month period*
<strong>in</strong>ventory, Observations of
Social Interaction, <strong>and</strong>
Social Skills Rat<strong>in</strong>g (SSRS-T)
Bock (2007) 4 boys 9-10 years old elementary Participate <strong>in</strong> cooperative learn<strong>in</strong>g Social-behavioral learn<strong>in</strong>g Multiple basel<strong>in</strong>e across
school where students attended: activities, play organized sport strategy <strong>in</strong>tervention
sett<strong>in</strong>gs
social studies cooperative group games, <strong>and</strong> visit with peers (SODA)*
activities, noon recess, <strong>and</strong> lunch dur<strong>in</strong>g lunch
326 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
(cont<strong>in</strong>ued)

TABLE 1
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued
Study Participants/ Sett<strong>in</strong>gs Target Behavior Interventions Research Design
Textual cues were embedded <strong>in</strong> Multiple basel<strong>in</strong>e across
the child’s activity schedules; participants
script fad<strong>in</strong>g
Keys to Play Multiple basel<strong>in</strong>e probe
Others (n 7)
Scripted <strong>in</strong>teraction;
elaborations, unscripted
<strong>in</strong>teraction
Play <strong>in</strong>itiation; engagement
time; play repertoire
Incidental teach<strong>in</strong>g Multiple basel<strong>in</strong>e across
participants
Two social phrases: “all right”
<strong>and</strong> “you know what?”
Krantz & McClannahan 3 boys with autism (ages 4-5) small
(1998)
classroom at the participants’
school
Nelson, McDonnell, 4 preschool children with autism
Johnston, Crompton, (ages 3-4)
Nelson (2007)
McGee & Daly (2007) 3 preschool boys with autism
university based preschool, with
majority of typically develop<strong>in</strong>g
children
Charlop-Christy, 3 boys with autism 3-12 years old
Carpenter, Le, Sessions were conducted <strong>in</strong> empty
LeBlanc, & Kellet tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g rooms, the child’s
(2002)
classroom, <strong>and</strong> the child’s home
Speech: spontaneous speech PECS tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Multiple basel<strong>in</strong>e across
<strong>and</strong> imitation
participants
Social communicative:
cooperative play, jo<strong>in</strong>t
attention, request<strong>in</strong>g,
<strong>in</strong>itiation
Verbal <strong>in</strong>itiations, <strong>and</strong> verbal Tactile prompt<strong>in</strong>g device for ABAB
responses to peer
<strong>in</strong>itiat<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>in</strong>itiations
Behavior management skills Social skills tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g us<strong>in</strong>g Reversal design with two
for typical peers
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g scrips, social skills <strong>in</strong>tervention conditions
Greet<strong>in</strong>gs, us<strong>in</strong>g names <strong>and</strong> tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g plus re<strong>in</strong>forcement
conversations, imitation
<strong>and</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>structions,
shar<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> turn-tak<strong>in</strong>g,
ask<strong>in</strong>g for help
Conversational speech Conversational Scripts, cue cards Multiple basel<strong>in</strong>e across
subjects with embedded
multiple probes with<strong>in</strong>
each child across
conversations
Shabani et al. (2002) 3 k<strong>in</strong>dergarten boys with autism,
typically develop<strong>in</strong>g peers at school
<strong>and</strong> home
4 children with autism, ages 5-7 years
old, 12 typical k<strong>in</strong>dergarten <strong>and</strong>
first grade children <strong>in</strong> the same
elementary school special
education classroom
Gonzalez-Lopez &
Kamps (1997)
3 boys with autism, ages 8, 8, <strong>and</strong> 11
verbal, literate
Charlop-Christy & Kelso
(2003)
Evidence-Based Social Skills Interventions / 327
* Interventions were implemented by classroom teachers, paraprofessionals or parents.

TABLE 2
Evidence-Based Social Skills Interventions: Results, Effects, Treatment Integrity
Ma<strong>in</strong>tenance/Follow up/
Generalization Treatment Integrity Social Validity Measures
Study Results
Social Stories (n 6)
Follow-up data were collected two Two participants data were reported,
weeks after the treatment 88% & 92%
FPND50%
3
Ma<strong>in</strong>tenance results not reported
rd Yes
child’s family failed to provide
needed <strong>in</strong>fo
Intervention was gradually faded Mean93% (78%-100%) Yes
(2 phases)
2 participants demonstrated ga<strong>in</strong>s
<strong>in</strong> their general ed classroom
sett<strong>in</strong>gs
MPND81.57%
2 boys generalized to untra<strong>in</strong>ed Not reported Yes.
social behaviors; 1 generalized
7 gen ed teachers <strong>and</strong> 6 SLP
with<strong>in</strong> classroom
graduate students who are
MPND37.97%
bl<strong>in</strong>d to the study rated
participants’ performance
pre-<strong>and</strong> post-treatment via
2-m<strong>in</strong> video vignettes.
Generalization effects were Not reported Not reported
reported via anecdotal
evidence—the girl transitioned
to a general ed classroom due
to the significant ga<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> her
social skills
None 100% for 2 students, 86% for 1 IRP-15 scores all <strong>in</strong> the
student
acceptable range
Increased target behavior (2/3)
PND59.57%
Sansosti & Powell-Smith
(2006)
Delano & Snell (2006) Improved performance on all
target behaviors across all
three participants (3/3)
PND90%
3/4 target behaviors were
obta<strong>in</strong>ed by 3 boys; 2/4 target
behaviors were obta<strong>in</strong>ed by
2 boys
PND47%
Thiemann & Goldste<strong>in</strong>
(2001)
Barry & Burlew (2004) Both participants made ga<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong>
mak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dependent choices
<strong>and</strong> play appropriately dur<strong>in</strong>g
free play time <strong>in</strong> the selfconta<strong>in</strong>ed
sett<strong>in</strong>g
328 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
PND100%
Increase <strong>in</strong> appropriate social
<strong>in</strong>teractions for 2/3
participants
PND46.7%
Increased target behaviors for
both boys
PND60% (zero basel<strong>in</strong>e)
Scattone, T<strong>in</strong>gstrom, &
Wilczynski (2006)
Yes
Participant 1100%;
Participant 2 97.1%
Reported for only 1 subject
MPND100%
Dodd, Hupp, Jewell, &
Krohn (2008)
(cont<strong>in</strong>ued)

TABLE 2
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued
Ma<strong>in</strong>tenance/Follow up/
Generalization Treatment Integrity Social Validity Measures
Study Results
Peer Mediated (n 9)
Only 1 participant reported Yes Focus group was used to
follow up data <strong>in</strong> general ed
validate the DV & IV
classroom <strong>and</strong> he ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed
the ga<strong>in</strong>s
FPND100% (1 child only)
Both participants generalized Not reported Not reported
their ga<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong>to other sett<strong>in</strong>gs
with novel people as well
MPND66.67%
FPND71.05%
Generalization of eye contact <strong>and</strong> Yes Yes
motor imitation were found
across new sett<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> different
partner; jo<strong>in</strong>t attention rarely
generalized
Not reported 81% (range 56%-92%) for the Yes
K-PALS; 91% (range 86-96%)
for common stimuli activities
Significant improvement <strong>in</strong>
social skills for both
children
PND100%
Laushey & Hefl<strong>in</strong>
(2000)
Both participants made
significant ga<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> their
social skills
PND71.01%
Pierce & Schreibman
(1997)
3/3 participants <strong>in</strong>creased
target behavior;
PND72.22%
Hwang & Hughes
(2000)
No effects of peer tutor<strong>in</strong>g
alone on social <strong>in</strong>teractions.
Add<strong>in</strong>g play-related
common stimuli to the
peer-tutor<strong>in</strong>g activity
<strong>in</strong>creased social <strong>in</strong>teractions
dur<strong>in</strong>g free play.
PND36.17%
All dependent variables
improved across all subjects
PND56.72%
Petursdottir, McComas,
McMaster, & Horner
(2007)
Not reported 98% (80%-100%) Not reported
Loncola & Craig-
Unkefer (2005)
(cont<strong>in</strong>ued)
Evidence-Based Social Skills Interventions / 329

TABLE 2
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued
Ma<strong>in</strong>tenance/Follow up/
Generalization Treatment Integrity Social Validity Measures
Study Results
None Not reported Not reported
Increased duration of peer
<strong>in</strong>teractions across
sett<strong>in</strong>gs, <strong>in</strong>creased use of
augmentative
communication system,
some <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong>
verbalizations, <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong>
peer acceptance
Frequency of <strong>in</strong>teractions
PND48%
Duration of <strong>in</strong>teractions
PND 95%
Higher level of social
<strong>in</strong>teractions, <strong>and</strong>
contact with the
general curriculum
when supported
by 2 peers
PND35.09%
Significant <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>in</strong>
unprompted synchronous
reciprocal <strong>in</strong>teractions
PND100%
Both participants improved
their social peer
<strong>in</strong>teractions dur<strong>in</strong>g recess
PND75% (zero basel<strong>in</strong>e)
Garrison-Harrell,
Kamps & Kravits
(1997)
None Not reported Not reported
Carter, Cush<strong>in</strong>g, Clark,
& Kennedy (2005)
None Not reported Frequency of reciprocal
<strong>in</strong>vitations—more
<strong>in</strong>vitations extended by
Koegel, Werner,
Vismara, & Koegel
(2005)
330 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
peers after treatment
Yes but through anecdotal
reports
Yes
Data were reported <strong>in</strong> a table,
rang<strong>in</strong>g from 78%-100%
Yes
GPND100%
Harper, Symon, & Frea
(2008)
(cont<strong>in</strong>ued)

TABLE 2
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued
Ma<strong>in</strong>tenance/Follow up/
Generalization Treatment Integrity Social Validity Measures
Study Results
Video Model<strong>in</strong>g (n 11)
1 boy generalized motor play Not reported Not reported
with three related toys; follow
up data were recorded 1 week
after treatment was withdrawn
for both boys
FPND100%
Paterson & Arco (2007) Both participants
<strong>in</strong>creased their
appropriate verbal <strong>and</strong>
motor play behavior
across toys; their
repetitive verbal <strong>and</strong>
motor play behavior
decreased;
Not reported The social validation of the
treatment outcomes was
assessed by ten mothers of
school-aged children.
Generalization to a novel peer
was measured for all three
participants; Follow up data
were taken at 1- <strong>and</strong> 2-months.
FPND100%
Follow-up tests conducted at 1
<strong>and</strong> 3 months after the study
FPND100%
PND100%
Experiment I: mixed
results across subjects
<strong>and</strong> behaviors
PND90.57%
Nikopoulos & Keenan
(2007)
Not reported Not reported
Not reported Not reported
Follow-up at 1- <strong>and</strong> 3-months
GPND100%
FPND100%
M95% (83.3% to 100%) Yes
Generalization across materials
<strong>and</strong> across sett<strong>in</strong>gs were
measured
MPND100%
Nikopoulos & Keenan All participants <strong>in</strong>creased
(2004)
the duration of
reciprocal play; social
<strong>in</strong>itiation improvement
results were mixed
PND72.41%
Gena, Couloura, & All 3 participants
Kymissis (2005)
<strong>in</strong>creased their affective
categories
In vivo model<strong>in</strong>g
PND88%
Video model<strong>in</strong>g
PND79%
H<strong>in</strong>e & Wolery (2006) Both participants showed
improvement <strong>in</strong> both
pretend play behaviors
PND70.45%
Evidence-Based Social Skills Interventions / 331
(cont<strong>in</strong>ued)

TABLE 2
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued
Ma<strong>in</strong>tenance/Follow up/
Generalization Treatment Integrity Social Validity Measures
Study Results
Not reported Not reported
Yes
MPND100%
Wert & Neisworth
(2003)
Not reported Not reported Not reported
All 4 participants showed
significant improvement
PND97%
All 4 participants showed
significant improvement
PND97.30%
Overall, video model<strong>in</strong>g
led to quicker
acquisition of skills than
<strong>in</strong> vivo model<strong>in</strong>g.
In vivo model<strong>in</strong>g
PND72.88%
Video model<strong>in</strong>g
PND76.92%
Simpson, Langone, &
Ayres (2004)
Not reported
Yes. For the <strong>in</strong> vivo condition, the
model<strong>in</strong>g sessions were videotaped
<strong>and</strong> rated at 99%.
Generalization probes across
different stimuli, persons, <strong>and</strong>
sett<strong>in</strong>g were conducted dur<strong>in</strong>g
basel<strong>in</strong>e <strong>and</strong> also 3 to 5 days
after criterion performance was
demonstrated <strong>in</strong> treatment.
In vivo
GPND58.82%
Charlop-Christy, Le, &
Freeman (2000)
M90% (84%-97%) Parents <strong>and</strong> teachers reports
Video GPND84.62%
Experiment I
Initiation
FPND20%
Response
FPND100%
Dur<strong>in</strong>g video model<strong>in</strong>g,
both participants were
able to acquire the skills
of compliment-giv<strong>in</strong>g
responses
Experiment II:
Self-management
<strong>in</strong>creased subjects’
<strong>in</strong>dependence <strong>in</strong>
monitor<strong>in</strong>g their own
compliment-giv<strong>in</strong>g
behavior
Video Model<strong>in</strong>g
Respond to others
PND100%
Initiate
PND0%
Apple, Bill<strong>in</strong>gsley, &
Schwartz (2005)
332 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
(cont<strong>in</strong>ued)

TABLE 2
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued
Ma<strong>in</strong>tenance/Follow up/
Generalization Treatment Integrity Social Validity Measures
Study Results
Results ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed
MPND100%
FPND100%
VM Re<strong>in</strong>forcement
Initiation
PND100%
Response
PND100%
Re<strong>in</strong>forcement
Initiation
PND100%
Response
PND100%
(Zero basel<strong>in</strong>e)
Experiment #2
Video Model<strong>in</strong>g
Respond
PND100%
Initiate
PND0%
Self Management
Initiation
PND100%
Response
PND100%
Buggy (2005) Ga<strong>in</strong>s made <strong>in</strong> frequency of social
<strong>in</strong>itiations (0 to 4.4; <strong>and</strong> .17 to
4.25 <strong>in</strong>itiations/day)
PND90.91%
Not reported Not reported
Not reported Not reported
Wider range of generalizations
were reported
GPND40.35%
MPND46.67%
(Zero basel<strong>in</strong>e for one participant)
Various ga<strong>in</strong>s made by all
participants
PND52.21%
(Zero basel<strong>in</strong>e)
Charlop-Christy &
Daneshvar (2003)
Evidence-Based Social Skills Interventions / 333
(cont<strong>in</strong>ued)

TABLE 2
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued
Ma<strong>in</strong>tenance/Follow up/
Generalization Treatment Integrity Social Validity Measures
Study Results
Not reported
Pivotal Response <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> (n 1)
Performance cont<strong>in</strong>ued dur<strong>in</strong>g Video-taped record<strong>in</strong>gs: 86-97%
6-30 ma<strong>in</strong>tenance sessions, <strong>and</strong> presentation
dur<strong>in</strong>g generalization probes 80-100% prompt<strong>in</strong>g
GPND100%
77-96% consequences
Jones & Feely, (2007) All 3 children achieved mastery
(90% <strong>in</strong>dependent correct
respond<strong>in</strong>g, across 2
consecutive sessions <strong>and</strong> days)
PND66.11%
Not reported Increased eye contact,
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g topic, <strong>and</strong>
tak<strong>in</strong>g turns accord<strong>in</strong>g to
social validity assessment
questionnaire
Theory of M<strong>in</strong>d (n 1)
1 child <strong>in</strong>creased shared <strong>in</strong>terest
time, percentage of
contextually appropriate
responses with typically
develop<strong>in</strong>g peer
GPND100%
Increased time spent <strong>in</strong> shared
<strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> conversations
Increased percentage of
responses appropriate to
context of conversation
Score of 0 for all students on
first or second order False
Belief tasks.
PND80.77%
Ch<strong>in</strong>, Bernard-Opitz
(2000)
Cognitive Behavioral <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> (n 3)
None Not reported Not reported
Significant ma<strong>in</strong> effects were
found from parent rat<strong>in</strong>gs for
general improvement for
social skills, adaptability, <strong>and</strong>
atypicality. Staff rat<strong>in</strong>gs had
significant improvements for
social skill, but nonsignificant
rat<strong>in</strong>gs for adaptability, <strong>and</strong>
significant rat<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> the
opposite direction for
atypicality
Effect size social skills: .24
Effect size adaptability: .59
Effect size atypicality: .39
Lopata, Thomeer,
Volker, & Nida
(2006)
334 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
(cont<strong>in</strong>ued)

TABLE 2
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued
Ma<strong>in</strong>tenance/Follow up/
Generalization Treatment Integrity Social Validity Measures
Study Results
None Not reported Not reported
Ma<strong>in</strong>tenance probes 1/month
for 5 months <strong>in</strong>dicated high
performance levels ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed
after <strong>in</strong>tervention tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g
MPND100%
Baumr<strong>in</strong>ger (2002) Post treatment results <strong>in</strong>dicated
significantly greater ability to
suggest relevant solutions, higher
number of social solutions, few
non-social solutions
Significant improvement <strong>in</strong>
knowledge of emotions
Significant ma<strong>in</strong> effects for
<strong>in</strong>itiat<strong>in</strong>g positive <strong>in</strong>teractions,
<strong>and</strong> respond<strong>in</strong>g positively
to peers
Significantly higher post-treatment
scores on cooperation <strong>and</strong>
assertion on SSRS-T
Effect size positive <strong>in</strong>teractions: 1.24
Effect size cooperation: .47
Effect size assertion: .69
Bock (2007) Increase <strong>in</strong> participation <strong>in</strong>
cooperative learn<strong>in</strong>g activities,
play<strong>in</strong>g organized sport games at
recess, <strong>and</strong> visit<strong>in</strong>g with peers at
lunch for all students
PND100%
Not reported Not reported
Not reported Not reported
Others (n 7)
Ga<strong>in</strong>s ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed to new
<strong>in</strong>teractions/activities
GPND100%
Verbal elaborations <strong>and</strong> unscripted
<strong>in</strong>teraction <strong>in</strong>creased;
PND83.52%
(Zero basel<strong>in</strong>e)
Krantz & McClannahan
(1998)
(cont<strong>in</strong>ued)
Evidence-Based Social Skills Interventions / 335

TABLE 2
Cont<strong>in</strong>ued
Ma<strong>in</strong>tenance/Follow up/
Generalization Treatment Integrity Social Validity Measures
Study Results
Not reported Yes
Solicited op<strong>in</strong>ions from local
area preschool teachers
us<strong>in</strong>g questionnaires
Teach<strong>in</strong>g sessions videotaped,
monitored occurrences of
procedural errors
Initiations are generalized with<strong>in</strong>
the classroom
MPND100%
Generalization probes occurred
dur<strong>in</strong>g free-play activities at least
2 hrs after teach<strong>in</strong>g sessions
GPND44.44%
Not reported Not reported
Results ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed dur<strong>in</strong>g post
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g follow-up
MLU FPND100%
Cooperative Play, Jo<strong>in</strong>t Attention,
Eye Contact & Comb<strong>in</strong>ed
Initiations <strong>and</strong> Requests
FPND96.67%
Partial ma<strong>in</strong>tenance of behavior Not reported Not reported
dur<strong>in</strong>g prompt-fad<strong>in</strong>g
MPND100%
None Not reported Not reported
Nelson, McDonnell, Increased <strong>in</strong>itiation & engagement
Johnston, Crompton, duration; improved sophistication
Nelson (2007) PND48.57%
McGee & Daly (2007) Children were able to acquire target
social phrases, <strong>and</strong> transfer use of
those phrases to situations where
there were no prompts or
re<strong>in</strong>forcement for their use
PND36.78%
(Zero basel<strong>in</strong>e)
Charlop-Christy, Increases <strong>in</strong> spontaneous speech
Carpenter, Le, <strong>and</strong> imitation
LeBlanc, & Kellet Increases <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>itiations, requests,
(2002)
<strong>and</strong> jo<strong>in</strong>t attention
MLU PND27.78%
Cooperative Play, Jo<strong>in</strong>t Attention,
Eye Contact & Comb<strong>in</strong>ed
Frequency of Initiation <strong>and</strong>
Requests
PND76.32%
Shabani et al. (2002) Increases <strong>in</strong> verbal <strong>in</strong>itiations <strong>and</strong>
responses
PND89.13%
Gonzalez-Lopez & Increased frequency <strong>and</strong> duration
Kamps (1997) of <strong>in</strong>teractions for all students
Frequency of <strong>in</strong>teractions
PND 59%
Duration of <strong>in</strong>teractions
PND67%
Charlop-Christy & All participants made ga<strong>in</strong>s
Kelso (2003) PND89.47%
336 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
Not reported Not reported
Generalization probes were taken
with different conversational
partners, sett<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>and</strong> topics
GPND72%

Target Behaviors
A number of social behaviors were targeted
across the studies; many studies targeted more
than one behavior. Ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g conversation
<strong>and</strong>/or appropriate social behavior was targeted
<strong>in</strong> 28 studies, 17 studies targeted <strong>in</strong>itiat<strong>in</strong>g
conversations or social behavior (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g
greet<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>and</strong> requests), 5 studies targeted
<strong>in</strong>itiat<strong>in</strong>g play. Eight studies targeted appropriate
play skills (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g turn-tak<strong>in</strong>g), two
studies targeted eye contact, <strong>and</strong> two studies
targeted perspective-tak<strong>in</strong>g.
Research Designs
The vast majority of studies (31) utilized a
multiple basel<strong>in</strong>e design. Twenty-four studies
were conducted across participants, six studies
were conducted across behaviors, three studies
were conducted across sett<strong>in</strong>gs, three studies
were conducted across other <strong>in</strong>dividuals,
<strong>and</strong> two studies were conducted across tasks.
Some of the studies were conducted across
multiple categories with<strong>in</strong> the study.
Of the other seven studies, five utilized the
ABAB or reversal design, <strong>and</strong> two studies utilized
the group experimental design. Both of
the experimental studies followed a pre-posttest
format with a control group.
Outcome Measures across Interventions
Social Stories. Six studies used Social Stories
to teach social skills. The PND scores ranged
from 46.7% to 100% with a mean of 67.21%,
which represents questionable effectiveness as
an <strong>in</strong>tervention accord<strong>in</strong>g to Scruggs <strong>and</strong> Mastropieri
(1998). Although Social Stories met
the criteria for evidence-based practice accord<strong>in</strong>g
to Horner et al. (2005), the effectiveness
of Social Stories as an <strong>in</strong>tervention for
improv<strong>in</strong>g social skills is questionable due to
the low PND scores.
Peer Mediated. A total of n<strong>in</strong>e studies <strong>in</strong> this
review used peer mediated strategies. The
PND scores ranged from 35.09% to 100% with
a mean of 60.69%, which represents low to
questionable effectiveness. Twenty-four participants
were <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> these studies. The
studies were conducted by 25 researchers
across n<strong>in</strong>e geographic areas. However, the
effectiveness of peer mediated strategies to
improve social skills <strong>in</strong> children with autism
rema<strong>in</strong>s to be questionable due to the low
PND scores.
Video Model<strong>in</strong>g. There were eleven studies
used video model<strong>in</strong>g to teach social skills. The
PND scores ranged from 50% to 100% with a
mean of 84.25%, which represents effective
<strong>in</strong>tervention. Video Model<strong>in</strong>g met the criteria
for evidence-based <strong>in</strong>tervention <strong>and</strong> its PND
scores shows that it is an effective <strong>in</strong>tervention
for teach<strong>in</strong>g social skills to children with
autism.
Cognitive Behavioral <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong>. Three studies
were <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> this category to exam<strong>in</strong>e
the effects of cognitive behavior tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g on
social skills, two of which were group experimental
designs. We used available data reported
<strong>in</strong> the orig<strong>in</strong>al studies to obta<strong>in</strong> the
effect size due to the absence of such results <strong>in</strong>
the orig<strong>in</strong>al studies. The effect size for Lopata
et al (2006) ranged from .59-.24 <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g
moderate to mild effects, while the effect size
for Baumr<strong>in</strong>ger (2002) ranged from 1.24-.47
<strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g high to moderate effects. The third
study used a multiple basel<strong>in</strong>e across sett<strong>in</strong>gs
design. The PND for <strong>in</strong>tervention was calculated
at 100%, which is very promis<strong>in</strong>g. However,
more studies are needed to confirm the
efficacy of cognitive behavioral tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g.
Others. In this category, most of the <strong>in</strong>terventions
were represented by only one study,
i.e. pivotal response tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g (n 1), Theory
of M<strong>in</strong>d (ToM, n 1), scripts <strong>and</strong> cue cards
(n 2), Keys to Play (n 1), <strong>in</strong>cidental
teach<strong>in</strong>g (n 1), PECS tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g (n 1),
tactile prompt<strong>in</strong>g device (n 1) <strong>and</strong> social
skills tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g with scripts <strong>and</strong> re<strong>in</strong>forcement
(n 1). Even though some of the studies
reported fairly promis<strong>in</strong>g PND scores, (e.g.
ToM PND 80.77%, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g an effective
<strong>in</strong>tervention), more studies are needed with
more participants <strong>and</strong> by different researchers
to further evaluate their effectiveness as
evidence-based <strong>and</strong> effective <strong>in</strong>terventions.
Intervention Ma<strong>in</strong>tenance <strong>and</strong> Generalization
Effects
Twelve out of 36 studies reported the ma<strong>in</strong>tenance
effects of the <strong>in</strong>tervention. The PND
scores ranged from 38% to 100%, with a mean
of 78.5%. N<strong>in</strong>e studies reported the generalization
effects of the <strong>in</strong>tervention. The PND
Evidence-Based Social Skills Interventions / 337

scores ranged from 40% to 100% with a mean
of 80.95%. In addition, n<strong>in</strong>e studies reported
the follow-up data of the <strong>in</strong>tervention. The
PND scores ranged from 60% to 100%, with a
mean of 92.15%. However, these averages
were obta<strong>in</strong>ed across five categories of <strong>in</strong>terventions,
mak<strong>in</strong>g it impossible to conclude
whether the impact of <strong>in</strong>dividual <strong>in</strong>terventions
was effectively ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>and</strong> generalized
due to limited number of studies <strong>in</strong> each
category report<strong>in</strong>g such results.
Treatment Integrity
Fourteen studies assessed the extent to which
<strong>in</strong>tervention conditions were implemented as
<strong>in</strong>tended; eleven studies actually reported
numerical data on treatment <strong>in</strong>tegrity. Researchers
<strong>in</strong> 3 studies discussed that treatment
<strong>in</strong>tegrity was monitored but provided no numerical
data. In studies <strong>in</strong> which treatment
<strong>in</strong>tegrity was reported, <strong>in</strong>terventions were implemented
with a high degree of fidelity. Because
most studies did not <strong>in</strong>clude assessment
of treatment <strong>in</strong>tegrity, we f<strong>in</strong>d it difficult to
draw def<strong>in</strong>ite conclusions that the changes <strong>in</strong>
the target behaviors are the results of the <strong>in</strong>terventions.
Also because most studies reviewed
<strong>in</strong> this article were implemented by
researchers, additional research is needed to
determ<strong>in</strong>e whether <strong>in</strong>terventions can be implemented
with high fidelity by teachers, parents,
or others. Otherwise, the generality of
these <strong>in</strong>terventions for use <strong>in</strong> the real school
sett<strong>in</strong>gs rema<strong>in</strong>s to be unclear.
Social Validity
Measures of social validity were reported <strong>in</strong> 16
studies. Most studies provided evidence for
the social importance of <strong>in</strong>tervention outcomes.
Assessment of social validity was obta<strong>in</strong>ed
either through <strong>in</strong>terviews or questionnaires.
It is important that parents <strong>and</strong>
classroom teachers believe that the selected
<strong>in</strong>tervention strategies are effective <strong>and</strong> appropriate.
If the <strong>in</strong>tervention lacks social validity,
parents <strong>and</strong> teachers are less likely to
exert the necessary effort to implement the
<strong>in</strong>tervention, thus dim<strong>in</strong>ish<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>tervention
fidelity.
Discussion
Results varied widely both between <strong>in</strong>tervention
types, <strong>and</strong> with<strong>in</strong> each <strong>in</strong>tervention type.
While Social Stories, Peer-Mediated, <strong>and</strong>
Video-Model<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terventions all met the criteria
for evidence-based practices accord<strong>in</strong>g to
Horner et al. (2005), a closer look at PND
scores shows that only Video-Model<strong>in</strong>g meets
criteria for be<strong>in</strong>g evidence-based as well as
demonstrat<strong>in</strong>g high effectiveness as an <strong>in</strong>tervention
strategy. The PND scores of two of the
six Social Stories <strong>in</strong>tervention studies (Barry &
Burlew, 2004; Delano & Snell, 2006), <strong>and</strong>
three of the n<strong>in</strong>e Peer-Mediated <strong>in</strong>tervention
studies (Garrison-Harrell, Kamps, & Kravits,
1997; Koegel, Werner, Vismara, & Koegel,
2005; Laushey & Hefl<strong>in</strong>, 2000), demonstrated
high effectiveness. Look<strong>in</strong>g more closely at
those highly effective studies could provide
clues to implement<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terventions <strong>in</strong> ways
that will be effective. Cognitive behavioral
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g is another <strong>in</strong>tervention that shows
great promise; more research is needed <strong>in</strong>
this area to demonstrate both its status as an
evidence-based practice, <strong>and</strong> its overall effectiveness.
Zero Basel<strong>in</strong>e Effects
Seven out of the 36 s<strong>in</strong>gle subject studies reported
zero basel<strong>in</strong>e, by which is meant all
basel<strong>in</strong>e data are equal to zero. Such data are
problematic due to the fact that a m<strong>in</strong>or effect
could result <strong>in</strong> relatively high levels of nonoverlapp<strong>in</strong>g
data. In the case of zero basel<strong>in</strong>es,
it is often difficult to believe that “the subject
was exhibit<strong>in</strong>g no task-relevant behavior at all.
It often seems that the observational measure
was not sensitive to relevant levels of behavior
that were be<strong>in</strong>g exam<strong>in</strong>ed” (Scruggs, et al.,
1987, p. 30). Therefore, dur<strong>in</strong>g f<strong>in</strong>al data
analysis, we need to be more cognizant
whether a specific treatment was effective only
<strong>in</strong> the presence of “zero basel<strong>in</strong>e” data. In
such case, conclusions regard<strong>in</strong>g the effectiveness
of a particular treatment should be <strong>in</strong>terpreted
with caution.
Implications for Practice
338 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
This review described a variety of <strong>in</strong>terventions
that have been developed <strong>and</strong> evaluated

to promote social skills <strong>in</strong> children with autism
spectrum disorders. The results of the present
study are consistent with those of previous
meta-analysis <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that social skills <strong>in</strong>terventions
are m<strong>in</strong>imally effective for children
with ASD (Bell<strong>in</strong>i et al. 2007; Vaughn et al.,
2003). The exception to this is video model<strong>in</strong>g;
that <strong>in</strong>tervention was shown to meet the
criteria for evidence based practice, as well as
be<strong>in</strong>g highly effective. Practitioners implement<strong>in</strong>g
video-model<strong>in</strong>g as a method for
teach<strong>in</strong>g social skills can do so with greater
confidence of its effectiveness. While social
stories <strong>and</strong> peer-mediated strategies can be
said to be evidence-based practices, practitioners
should monitor these strategies closely
when implement<strong>in</strong>g them as they may have
limited effectiveness. Other strategies should
be implemented carefully, with the underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g
that they have not met criteria as
evidence-based practices, <strong>and</strong> require cont<strong>in</strong>uous
monitor<strong>in</strong>g for effectiveness.
Most of studies <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> this review were
conducted by researchers with a few exceptions
that were implemented by classroom
teachers, paraprofessionals or parents. However,
social skills tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> general is carried
out by teachers <strong>and</strong> parents <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrated sett<strong>in</strong>gs.
If the <strong>in</strong>terventions implemented by
professional researchers yield mixed results, it
would be a real challenge for classroom teachers
<strong>and</strong> parents with limited resources <strong>and</strong>
time to achieve the same or better outcomes.
Limitations
This synthesis only evaluated social skills <strong>in</strong>terventions
for children with ASD published between
1997 <strong>and</strong> August 2008. Evaluat<strong>in</strong>g studies
over a longer period of time may have
resulted <strong>in</strong> more <strong>in</strong>terventions meet<strong>in</strong>g the
criteria for evidence-based practice, or more
studies demonstrat<strong>in</strong>g a higher level of effectiveness.
However, the criteria for evidencebased
practices were only recently established;
studies done before 1997 would have been
even more less likely to meet those criteria.
We also only looked at studies that were primarily
implemented <strong>in</strong> school-based sett<strong>in</strong>gs;
the effectiveness of these <strong>in</strong>terventions on social
skills <strong>in</strong> community sett<strong>in</strong>gs or for adults
with ASD cannot be determ<strong>in</strong>ed from this
meta-analysis.
Suggestions for Future Research
Although our <strong>in</strong>itial search of the literature
found 104 studies that targeted social skills, <strong>in</strong>
the end only 38 of those met criteria to be
evaluated as evidence-based practice, as well as
allow<strong>in</strong>g for the calculation of treatment effects.
Future research <strong>in</strong> this area should be
planned <strong>and</strong> implemented <strong>in</strong> such a way that
meets the criteria for evidence-based practice,
as well as reports treatment effects.
Most of the studies targeted students between
the ages of 5-12; many of the rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g
studies targeted preschool children. Only
three studies were implemented with <strong>in</strong>dividuals
over 12 years of age. Studies target<strong>in</strong>g
these older children would be beneficial <strong>in</strong>
determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g if particular <strong>in</strong>terventions are
more effective with this age group.
Generalization of skills is an <strong>in</strong>tegral component
of social skills <strong>in</strong>terventions. Future
studies are needed to exam<strong>in</strong>e the generalization
of skills across multiple sett<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>and</strong> with
multiple persons. Researchers <strong>and</strong> teachers
should create an explicit plan for promot<strong>in</strong>g
generalization when develop<strong>in</strong>g a social skills
<strong>in</strong>tervention.
S<strong>in</strong>gle subject designs were used to evaluate
<strong>in</strong>tervention effects <strong>in</strong> 36 out of the 38 studies
<strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> this review. Multiple basel<strong>in</strong>e designs
were utilized <strong>in</strong> almost all of the studies
to establish the experimental control. Although
such designs are well-suited to demonstrate
analyses, certa<strong>in</strong> limitations do apply—it
does not allow for comparison of different
<strong>in</strong>terventions. Future research is needed to
determ<strong>in</strong>e which <strong>in</strong>tervention is most effective
for which students. Compound<strong>in</strong>g this limitation
is the presence of near or at zero basel<strong>in</strong>e
performance by the participants <strong>in</strong> many studies.
Because most social skills <strong>in</strong>terventions are
likely to boost social <strong>in</strong>teraction above the
floor levels, comparative analysis can assist researchers
<strong>in</strong> identify<strong>in</strong>g which <strong>in</strong>tervention
achieves this objective most effectively.
References
References marked with an asterisk <strong>in</strong>dicate studies
<strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the meta-analysis.
*Apple, A. L., Bill<strong>in</strong>gsley, F., & Schwartz, I. S.
(2005). Effects of video model<strong>in</strong>g alone <strong>and</strong> with
self-management on compliment-giv<strong>in</strong>g behav-
Evidence-Based Social Skills Interventions / 339

iors of children with high-function<strong>in</strong>g ASD. Journal
of Positive Behavior Interventions, 7, 33-46.
Autism Society of America (2008). http://www.
autism-society.org/site/PageServer?pagename
about_whatis
*Barry, L. M., & Burlew, S. B. (2004). Us<strong>in</strong>g social
stories to teach choice <strong>and</strong> play skills to children
with autism. Focus on Autism <strong>and</strong> Other <strong>Developmental</strong>
<strong>Disabilities</strong>, 19(1), 45-51.
*Baumr<strong>in</strong>ger, N. (2002). The facilitation of socialemotional
underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> social <strong>in</strong>teraction
<strong>in</strong> high-function<strong>in</strong>g children with autism: Intervention
outcomes. Journal of Autism <strong>and</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong>
Disorders, 32, 283-298.
Bellni, S., & Akullian, J. (2007). A meta-analysis of
video model<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> video self-model<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terventions
for children <strong>and</strong> adolescents with autism
spectrum disorders. Exceptional Children, 73, 264-
287.
Bell<strong>in</strong>i, S., Peters, J. K., Benner, L., & Hopf, A.
(2007). A meta-analysis of school-based social
skills <strong>in</strong>terventions for children with autism spectrum
disorders. Remedial <strong>and</strong> Special <strong>Education</strong>, 28,
153-162.
*Bock, M. A. (2007). The impact of social-behavioral
learn<strong>in</strong>g strategy on the social <strong>in</strong>teraction
skills of four students with asperger syndrome.
Focus on Autism <strong>and</strong> Other <strong>Developmental</strong> Disorders,
22, 88-95.
*Buggy, T. (2005). Video self-model<strong>in</strong>g applications
with students with autism spectrum disorder <strong>in</strong> a
small private school sett<strong>in</strong>g. Focus on Autism <strong>and</strong>
Other <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>, 20, 52-63.
*Carter, E. W., Cush<strong>in</strong>g, L. S., Clark, N. M., &
Kennedy, C. H. (2005). Effects of peer support
<strong>in</strong>terventions on students’ access to the general
curriculum <strong>and</strong> social <strong>in</strong>teractions. Research <strong>and</strong>
Practice for Persons with Severe <strong>Disabilities</strong>, 30, 15-25.
Carter, A. S., Davis, N. O., Kl<strong>in</strong>, A., & Volkmar, F. R.
(2005). Social development <strong>in</strong> autism. In F. R.
Volkmar, R. Paul, A. Kl<strong>in</strong>, & D. Cohen (Eds,),
H<strong>and</strong>book of autism <strong>and</strong> pervasive developmental disorders:
Vol. 1. Diagnosis, development, neurobiology,
<strong>and</strong> behavior. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Carter, E. W., & Hughes, C. (2005). Increas<strong>in</strong>g social
<strong>in</strong>teraction among adolescents with <strong>in</strong>tellectual
disabilities <strong>and</strong> their general education
peers: Effective <strong>in</strong>terventions. Research & Practice
for Persons with Severe <strong>Disabilities</strong>, 30, 179-193.
Centers for Disease Control <strong>and</strong> Prevention (2007).
http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/overview.htm
*Charlop-Christy, M. H., Carpenter, M., Le, L.,
LeBlanc, L. A., & Kellet, K. (2002). Us<strong>in</strong>g the
Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS)
with children with autism: Assessment of PECS
acquisition, speech, social-communicative behavior,
<strong>and</strong> problem behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 35, 213-231.
340 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
*Charlop-Christy, M. H., & Daneshvar, S. (2003).
Us<strong>in</strong>g video model<strong>in</strong>g to teach perspective tak<strong>in</strong>g
to children with autism. Journal of Positive Behavior
Interventions, 5, 12-21
*Charlop-Christy, M. H., & Kelso, S. E. (2003).
Teach<strong>in</strong>g children with autism conversational
speech us<strong>in</strong>g a cue card/written script program.
<strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> Treatment of Children, 26, 108-127.
*Charlop-Christy, M. H., Le, L., & Freeman, K. A.
(2000). A comparison of video model<strong>in</strong>g with <strong>in</strong>
vivo model<strong>in</strong>g for teach<strong>in</strong>g children with autism.
Journal of Autism <strong>and</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> Disorders, 30,
537-552.
*Ch<strong>in</strong>, H. Y. & Bernard-Opitz, V. (2000). Teach<strong>in</strong>g
conversational skills to children with autism: Effect
of the development of a theory of m<strong>in</strong>d.
Journal of Autism <strong>and</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> Disorders, 30,
569-583.
Cook, C., Gresham, F., Kern, L., Barreras, R.,
Thornton, S., & Crews, S. (2008, September).
Social skills tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g for secondary students with
emotional <strong>and</strong>/or behavioral disorders: A review
<strong>and</strong> analysis of the meta-analytic literature. Journal
of Emotional <strong>and</strong> Behavioral Disorders, 16, 131-
144.
*Delano, M. E., & Snell, M. E. (2006). The effects of
social stories on the social engagement of children
with autism. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions,
8, 29-42.
*Dodd, S., Hupp, S. D. A., Jewell, J. D., Krohn, E.
(2008). Us<strong>in</strong>g parents <strong>and</strong> sibl<strong>in</strong>gs dur<strong>in</strong>g a social
story <strong>in</strong>tervention for two children diagnosed
with PDD-NOS. Journal of <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>and</strong> Physical
<strong>Disabilities</strong>. 20, 217-229.
*Gena, A., Couloura, S., & Kymissis, E. (2005). Modify<strong>in</strong>g
the affective behavior of preschoolers with
autism us<strong>in</strong>g In-Vivo or video model<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> re<strong>in</strong>forcement
cont<strong>in</strong>egies, Journal of Autism <strong>and</strong>
<strong>Developmental</strong> Disorders, 35, 545-556.
*Garrison-Harrell, L., Kamps, D., & Kravits, T.
(1997). The effects of peer networks on socialcommunicative
behaviors for students with autism.
Focus on Autism <strong>and</strong> Other <strong>Developmental</strong> Disorders,
12, 241-255.
Gersten, R., Fuchs, L., Compton, D., Coyne, M.,
Greenwood, C., & Innocenti, M. (2005). Quality
<strong>in</strong>dicators for group experimental <strong>and</strong> quasiexperimental
research <strong>in</strong> special education. Exceptional
Children, 71, 149-164.
*Gonzalez-Lopez, A., & Kamps, D. M. (1997). Social
skills tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g to <strong>in</strong>crease social <strong>in</strong>teractions between
children with autism <strong>and</strong> their typical
peers. Focus on Autism <strong>and</strong> Other <strong>Developmental</strong> Disorders,
12, 2-15.
*Harper, C. B., Symon, J. B. G., Frea, W. D. (2008).
Recess is Time-<strong>in</strong>: us<strong>in</strong>g peers to improve social
skills of children with autism. Journal of Autism <strong>and</strong>
<strong>Developmental</strong> Disorders, 38, 815-826.

*H<strong>in</strong>e, J. F., & Wolery, M. (2006). Us<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t-ofview
video model<strong>in</strong>g to teach play to preschoolers
with autism. Topics <strong>in</strong> Early Childhood Special <strong>Education</strong>,
26, 83-93.
Horner, R. H., Carr, E. G., Halle, J., McGee, G.,
Odom, S., & Wolery, M. (2005). The use of s<strong>in</strong>glesubject
research to identify evidence-based practices
<strong>in</strong> special education. Exceptional Children, 71,
165-179.
*Hwang, B., & Hughes, C. (2000). Increas<strong>in</strong>g early
social-communicative skills of preverbal preschool
children with autism through social <strong>in</strong>teractive
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g. Journal of Association for Persons with
Severe H<strong>and</strong>icaps, 25, 18-28.
*Jones, E. A. & Feeley, K. M. (2007). Parent implemented
jo<strong>in</strong>t attention <strong>in</strong>tervention for preschoolers
with autism. SLP-ABA, 2, 253-268.
*Koegel, R. L., Werner, G. A., Vismara, L. A., &
Koegel, L. K. (2005). The effectiveness of contextually
supported play date <strong>in</strong>teractions between
children with autism <strong>and</strong> typically develop<strong>in</strong>g
peers. Research <strong>and</strong> Practice for Persons with Severe
<strong>Disabilities</strong>, 30, 93-102.
*Krantz, P. J., & McClannahan, L. E. (1998). Social
<strong>in</strong>teraction skills for children with autism: A
script-fad<strong>in</strong>g procedure for beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g readers.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 31, 191-202.
*Laushey, K. M., & Hefl<strong>in</strong>, L. J. (2000). Enhanc<strong>in</strong>g
social skills of k<strong>in</strong>dergarten children with autism
through the tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g of multiple peers as tutors.
Journal of Autism <strong>and</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> Disorders, 30,
183-193.
*Loncola, J. A., & Craig-Unkefer, L. (2005). Teach<strong>in</strong>g
social communication skills to young urban
children with autism. <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong>
<strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>, 40, 243-263.
*Lopreta, C., Thomeer, M. L., Volker, M. A., &
Nida, R. E. (2006). Effectiveness of a cognitivebehavioral
treatment on the social behaviors of
children with asperger disorder. Focus on Autism
<strong>and</strong> Other <strong>Developmental</strong> Disorders, 21, 237-244.
Mastropieri, M. A., & Scruggs, T. E. (1985-1986).
Early <strong>in</strong>tervention for socially withdrawn children.
The Journal of Special <strong>Education</strong>, 19, 429-442.
Matson, J. L., Matson, M. L., & Rivet, T. T. (2007).
Social-skills treatments for children with autism
spectrum disorders: An overview. Behavior Modification,
31, 682-707.
McCartney, K., & Rosenthal, R. (2000). Effect size,
practical importance, <strong>and</strong> social policy for children.
Child Development, 71, 173-180.
McConnell, S. R. (2002). Interventions to facilitate
social <strong>in</strong>teraction for young children with autism:
Review of available research <strong>and</strong> recommendations
for educational <strong>in</strong>tervention <strong>and</strong> future research.
Journal of Autism <strong>and</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> Disorders,
32, 351-372.
*McGee, G. G., & Daly, T. (2007). Incidental teach-
<strong>in</strong>g of age-appropriate social phrases to children
with autism. Research <strong>and</strong> Practice for Persons with
Severe <strong>Disabilities</strong>, 32, 112-123.
*Nelson, C., McDonnell, A. P., Johnston, S. S.,
Crompton, A., & Nelson, A. R. (2007). Keys to
play: A strategy to <strong>in</strong>crease the social <strong>in</strong>teractions
of young children with autism <strong>and</strong> their typically
develop<strong>in</strong>g peers. <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong>
<strong>Disabilities</strong>, 42, 165-181.
*Nikopoulos, C. K., & Keenan, M. (2004). Effects of
video model<strong>in</strong>g on social <strong>in</strong>teractions by children
with autism. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 37,
93-96.
*Nikopoulos, C. K., & Keenan, M. (2007). Us<strong>in</strong>g
video model<strong>in</strong>g to teach complex <strong>and</strong> sequences
of children with autism. Journal of Autism <strong>and</strong>
<strong>Developmental</strong> Disorders, 37, 678-693.
Odom, S. L., Brantl<strong>in</strong>ger, E., Gersten, R., Horner,
R. H. Thompson, B., & Harris, K. R. (2005).
Research <strong>in</strong> special education: Scientific methods
<strong>and</strong> evidence-based practices. Exceptional Children,
71, 137-148.
*Paterson, C. R., & Arco, L. (2007). Us<strong>in</strong>g video
model<strong>in</strong>g for generaliz<strong>in</strong>g toy play <strong>in</strong> children
with autism. Behavior Modification, 31, 660-681.
*Petursdottir, A., McComas, J., McMaster, K., &
Horner, K. (2007). The effects of scripted peer
tutor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> programm<strong>in</strong>g common stimuli on
social <strong>in</strong>teractions of a student with autism spectrum
disorder. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,
40, 353-357.
*Pierce, K., & Schreibman, L. (1997). Multiple peer
use of pivotal response tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g to <strong>in</strong>crease social
behaviors of classmates with autism: Results from
tra<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>and</strong> untra<strong>in</strong>ed peers. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 30, 157-160.
Rogers, S. J. (2000). Interventions that facilitate
socialization <strong>in</strong> children with autism. Journal of
Autism <strong>and</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> Disorders, 30, 399-409.
*Sansosti, F. J., & Powell-Smith, K. A. (2006). Us<strong>in</strong>g
Social Stories to improve the social behavior of
children with Asperger Syndrome. Journal of Positive
Behavior Interventions, 8, 43-57.
*Scattone, D., T<strong>in</strong>gstrom, D. H., & Wilczynski, S. M.
(2006). Increas<strong>in</strong>g appropriate social <strong>in</strong>teractions
of children with autism spectrum disorders us<strong>in</strong>g
social stories. Focus on Autism <strong>and</strong> Other <strong>Developmental</strong>
Disorders, 21, 211-222.
Scheuermann, B., & Webber, J. (2002). Autism:
Teach<strong>in</strong>g does make a difference. Toronto: Wadsworth.
Scruggs. T. E., & Mastropieri, M. A. (1998). Summariz<strong>in</strong>g
s<strong>in</strong>gle-subject research: Issues <strong>and</strong> applications.
Behavior Modification, 22, 221-242.
Scruggs, T. E., Mastropieri, M. A., & Casto, G.
(1987). The quantitative synthesis of s<strong>in</strong>gle-subject
research: Methodology <strong>and</strong> validation. Remedial
<strong>and</strong> Special <strong>Education</strong>, 8, 24-33.
Evidence-Based Social Skills Interventions / 341

*Shabani, D. B., Katz, R. C., Wilder, D. A.,
Beauchamp, K., Taylor, C. R., & Fischer, K. J.
(2002). Increas<strong>in</strong>g social <strong>in</strong>itiations <strong>in</strong> children
with autism: Effects of a tactile prompt. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 35, 79-83.
*Simpson, A., Langone, J., Ayres, K. M. (2004).
Embedded video <strong>and</strong> computer based <strong>in</strong>struction
to improve social skills for students with autism.
<strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>,
39, 240-252.
*Thiemann, K. S., & Goldste<strong>in</strong>, H. (2001). Social
Stories, written text cues, <strong>and</strong> video feedback:
Effects on social communication of children with
autism. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34,
425-446.
Vaughn, S., Kim, A. H., Sloan, C. V. M, Hughes,
342 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
M. T., Elbaum, B., & Sridhar, D. (2003). Social
skills <strong>in</strong>terventions for young children with
disabilities. Remedial <strong>and</strong> Special <strong>Education</strong>, 24,
2-15.
Weiss, M. J., & Harris, S. L. (2001). Teach<strong>in</strong>g social
skills to people with autism. Behavior Modification,
25, 785-802.
*Wert, B. Y., & Neisworth, J. T. (2003). Effects of
video self-model<strong>in</strong>g on spontaneous request<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>
children with autism. Journal of Positive Behavior
Interventions, 5, 30-34.
White, S. W., Keonig, K., & Scahill, L. (2007). Social
skills development <strong>in</strong> children with autism spectrum
disorders: A review of the <strong>in</strong>tervention research.
Journal of Autism <strong>and</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> Disorders,
37, 1858-1868.

Learn by Do<strong>in</strong>g: A Collaborative Model for <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong>
Teacher-C<strong>and</strong>idate Students <strong>in</strong> Autism
Michael B. Ruef
California Polytechnic State University,
San Luis Obispo
Daniel Openden
Southwest Autism Research & Resource
Center & Arizona State University
Kathleen C. Harris
California Polytechnic State University,
San Luis Obispo
Nicolette Nefdt
Support & Treatment for Autism & Related
Disorders, Inc.
Sharon Elmensdorp
University of California, Santa Barbara
Suzanne Rob<strong>in</strong>son
California State University, Fullerton
Abstract: With the large number of students with autism enter<strong>in</strong>g the educational system, the need for empirically
supported treatment (EST) <strong>in</strong> the classroom <strong>and</strong> special education teachers with tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> autism <strong>and</strong> ESTs
is necessary now more than ever. This paper describes a collaborative model between 2 universities aimed at
provid<strong>in</strong>g teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate graduate students tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> community-based practice <strong>in</strong> an EST, pivotal
response treatment (PRT). Three components of the model are described: (1) the community-based service delivery
system, (2) the Masters/special education credential program <strong>and</strong> (3) tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> PRT. Additionally, issues
around student <strong>and</strong> family participation are discussed along with possible solutions <strong>and</strong> future directions.
F<strong>in</strong>ally, model benefits are described with regard to graduate students, children with autism, families <strong>and</strong> the
community.
The prevalence of children <strong>and</strong> youth diagnosed
with an autism spectrum disorder
(ASD) has <strong>in</strong>creased at an alarm<strong>in</strong>g rate. Recent
statistics from the Centers for Disease
Control <strong>and</strong> Prevention <strong>in</strong>dicate that as many
as one <strong>in</strong> every 150 children today may be
affected. The number of cases of autism now
surpasses that of all types of cancer, diabetes,
<strong>and</strong> AIDS comb<strong>in</strong>ed. 560,000 <strong>in</strong>dividuals <strong>in</strong>
the US birth–21 years of age are liv<strong>in</strong>g with
ASD. Of the children born <strong>in</strong> the US <strong>in</strong> 2007,
more than 26,000 will eventually be diagnosed
with ASD (Centers for Disease Control <strong>and</strong>
Prevention, 2007).
Due to this <strong>in</strong>crease, along with an unfortunate
longst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g tradition <strong>and</strong> legacy of accept<strong>in</strong>g,
condon<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> even promot<strong>in</strong>g
Correspondence concern<strong>in</strong>g this article should
be addressed to Michael B. Ruef, California Polytechnic
State University, College of <strong>Education</strong>,
Build<strong>in</strong>g 2, Room 106, San Luis Obispo, CA 93407.
<strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>, 2009, 44(3), 343–355
© <strong>Division</strong> on <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>
methods <strong>and</strong> strategies that lack efficacy <strong>and</strong>
proven utility (Gresham, Beebe, Frankenberger,
& MacMillan, 1999; Simpson, 2005),
there is a need for widespread access to empirically
supported treatments (EST’s) for
these children <strong>and</strong> their families. Even with
the body of research support<strong>in</strong>g behavioral
analytic <strong>in</strong>tervention procedures as effective
EST’s for <strong>in</strong>dividuals with autism (DeMyer,
H<strong>in</strong>gtgen, & Jackson, 1981; National Research
Council, 2001), effective dissem<strong>in</strong>ation of
these EST’s has not grown along with the
disorder, creat<strong>in</strong>g a large need for families
often drawn to a myriad of highly promoted,
non-efficacious treatments (Croen, Grether,
Hoogstratge, & Selv<strong>in</strong>, 2002; Koegel, Koegel,
Harrower, & Carter, 1999; Sperry, Whaley,
Shaw, & Brame, 1999; Stahmer & Gist, 2001;
Symon, 2001). Although the gap between research
<strong>and</strong> practice <strong>in</strong> education has been
well-documented (Brown, Odom, & Conroy,
2001; Iovannone, Dunlap, Huber, & K<strong>in</strong>caid,
2003; K<strong>in</strong>g-Sears, 2001; Lerman, Vorndran,
Learn by Do<strong>in</strong>g / 343

Addison, & Kuhn, 2004; Simpson, McKee,
Teeter, & Bevtien, 2007; Snell, 2003; Stahmer,
Coll<strong>in</strong>gs, & Pal<strong>in</strong>kas, 2005), bridg<strong>in</strong>g the research-practice
gap <strong>in</strong> the field of special education
is even more difficult due to a number
of challenges present <strong>in</strong> the tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g of special
education teachers.
Problems with Special <strong>Education</strong>
Certification
One problem cited by the Study of Personnel
Needs <strong>in</strong> Special <strong>Education</strong> [SPENSE] (2002)
<strong>and</strong> others (Scheuermann, Webber, Boutot, &
Goodw<strong>in</strong>, 2003; U.S. Department of <strong>Education</strong>,
2002) is the chronic shortage of special
education teachers (Bergert & Burnett, 2001;
Bill<strong>in</strong>gsley, 2004; Boyer & Gillespie, 2000; Gersten,
Keat<strong>in</strong>g, Yovanoff, & Harniss, 2001; Sach,
1999). This shortage has prompted states to
hire uncertified or partially certified teachers
<strong>and</strong> has also prompted a movement to alternative
certification programs. The goal of
such alternative programs is to shorten the
length of time required to earn a teach<strong>in</strong>g
certificate. Although students <strong>in</strong> alternative
programs perform adequately <strong>in</strong> terms of pass
rates on certification exams (U. S. Department
of <strong>Education</strong>, 2002), research conducted
by Darl<strong>in</strong>g-Hammond (2002) suggests
that these students are less able when evaluated
on measures of student performance.
A second problem stems from the nature of
the teacher certification programs themselves.
While certification requirements vary from
state to state, the shortage of special education
teachers nationwide has produced a trend favor<strong>in</strong>g
noncategorical or multicategorical certification
where disability-specific tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong>
licensure is not provided (Ma<strong>in</strong>zer & Horvath,
2001; National Information Center for Children
<strong>and</strong> Youth With <strong>Disabilities</strong> [NICHY],
1997; Scheuermann et al., 2003). Those concerned
with these traditional <strong>and</strong> alternative
special education teacher preparation approaches
question the ability of such programs
to provide <strong>in</strong>struction <strong>in</strong> the range of
specialized skills needed by special education
teachers whose students enter classrooms with
widely diverse backgrounds <strong>and</strong> with widely
diverse needs (Kle<strong>in</strong>er, Porch, & Farris, 2004;
McLeskey, Tyler, & Flipp<strong>in</strong>, 2004). In particular,
traditional categorical <strong>and</strong> alternative “fast
track” programs may be of limited usefulness
for special educators who serve specific populations
with significant need, such as students
with autism <strong>and</strong>/or behavioral challenges
(Henderson & Kle<strong>in</strong>, 2005) unless such programs
<strong>in</strong>clude autism-specific tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g or
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> applied behavior analysis.
Autism Specific <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong>
344 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
A major concern related to the tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g of
special education teachers is the lack of tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g
specific to the education of children with
autism. Given the complexity, comprehensiveness,
<strong>and</strong> spectrum of autism symptoms, coupled
with the fact that only a small percentage
of the vast array of <strong>in</strong>terventions for children
with autism are supported by rigorous research
(Simpson, 2005), there is also a need to
ensure that teachers <strong>in</strong> tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g learn about
those <strong>in</strong>terventions that are empirically validated
(Lerman et al., 2004).
In an effort to create a model that would
attempt to address these concerns, two universities
collaborated <strong>and</strong> adapted an exist<strong>in</strong>g
non-categorical special education teacher
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g program <strong>in</strong> mild to moderate disabilities
to <strong>in</strong>clude tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> an EST for children
with autism. S<strong>in</strong>ce one of the universities was
well-known for the development of the EST,
Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT), this was
the method chosen to <strong>in</strong>clude <strong>in</strong> the teacher
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g.
PRT is documented as one of only four of
33 <strong>in</strong>terventions/treatments to receive the
highest rank<strong>in</strong>g, a “scientifically based practice,”
<strong>in</strong> a study conducted by Simpson (2005).
PRT is a comprehensive service delivery
model that uses both a developmental approach
<strong>and</strong> applied behavior analysis (ABA)
procedures <strong>and</strong> aims to provide opportunities
for learn<strong>in</strong>g with<strong>in</strong> the context of the child’s
natural environment. Pivotal areas are those
that, when targeted, lead to large collateral
changes <strong>in</strong> other-often untargeted-areas of
function<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> respond<strong>in</strong>g. Pivotal responses,
once acquired, result <strong>in</strong> widespread
<strong>and</strong> generalized improvement <strong>in</strong> children
with autism (Koegel, Openden, Fredeen, &
Koegel, 2006, p. 4). PRT is also characterized
by the coord<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>in</strong>volvement of relevant
stakeholders (e.g., parents, sibl<strong>in</strong>gs, teachers,
consultants, peers) so that the <strong>in</strong>tervention

implemented is consistent across people <strong>and</strong>
environments thus provid<strong>in</strong>g the child with
the most comprehensive of treatments with
the primary goal of movement toward a typical
developmental trajectory (Koegel et al.).
This article describes the collaborative effort
to: 1) tra<strong>in</strong> teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate graduate
students <strong>in</strong> EST’s for children with autism,
<strong>and</strong> 2) provide empirically supported treatments
to local families with children with autism.
Also described are issues that arose dur<strong>in</strong>g
program implementation, <strong>and</strong> the benefits
the program yielded for teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate
graduate students, children with autism <strong>and</strong>
their families.
The Collaborative Model
The follow<strong>in</strong>g section will describe: a) the nature
of the two universities participat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the
collaborative model, b) the three tiered service
delivery system used by the “research university”
to provide PRT to families, c) the Integrated
M.A./Special <strong>Education</strong> Credential
Program of the “teacher prep university” <strong>and</strong>
d) the <strong>in</strong>clusion of teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate graduate
students <strong>in</strong> the three tiered service delivery
model.
Universities
The program was delivered by two collaborat<strong>in</strong>g
western <strong>in</strong>stitutions of higher education
located 100 miles apart. One university is a
master’s-grant<strong>in</strong>g university with a primary
mission of tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g teachers. This university
will be referred to hereafter as the “teacher
prep university.” Although, cl<strong>in</strong>ical services
are available to families <strong>in</strong> the “teacher prep
university” county, this university had not
been active <strong>in</strong> the provision of PRT or any
other EST for families with children with autism
prior to the start of the program.
The second university is a research <strong>in</strong>stitution
with an established autism research center,
cl<strong>in</strong>ic, <strong>and</strong> a doctoral tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g program <strong>in</strong>
special education with a specialization <strong>in</strong> autism
<strong>in</strong>tervention. This research center <strong>and</strong>
cl<strong>in</strong>ic is particularly well known for its work <strong>in</strong>
PRT. Cl<strong>in</strong>ical services are provided by this research
center both to local families as well as
to families located <strong>in</strong> other states <strong>and</strong> coun-
tries. This university will hereafter be referred
to as the “research university.”
Community-based Model <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> of
Teacher-C<strong>and</strong>idate Graduate Students
The three tiered service delivery model used
to deliver cl<strong>in</strong>ical <strong>in</strong>tervention for children
with autism <strong>and</strong> tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g for their families by
the “research university” was adapted to fit the
collaborative, two university project.
Tier One
In Tier One, undergraduates or B.A. level
persons receive cl<strong>in</strong>ical tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> PRT <strong>and</strong>
provide direct support to children with autism.
Tier One cl<strong>in</strong>icians receive <strong>in</strong>itial didactic
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> then videotape themselves as
they work with children each week <strong>and</strong> br<strong>in</strong>g
their tapes to supervision/tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g sessions
held each week with their Tier Two supervisor
(see description of Tier Two below). Tier One
cl<strong>in</strong>icians are paid employees whose salaries
are generated by State monies used to support
services for children with disabilities <strong>and</strong> their
families.
Tier Two
In Tier Two, M.A. level cl<strong>in</strong>icians with both
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> experience <strong>in</strong> PRT provide parent/family
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g as well as view <strong>and</strong> provide
feedback on videotaped footage provided by
Tier One cl<strong>in</strong>icians. Tier Two cl<strong>in</strong>icians also
provide direct support to children with autism
as needed. As they have more tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> are
responsible for parent tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, Tier Two cl<strong>in</strong>icians
are paid employees at a higher rate of
pay than Tier One cl<strong>in</strong>icians.
Tier Three
In Tier Three, a Ph.D. Level or doctoral c<strong>and</strong>idate
cl<strong>in</strong>ician views videotaped footage of all
children on a weekly basis, provides feedback
<strong>and</strong> supervision to Tier Two cl<strong>in</strong>icians, <strong>and</strong>
visits families/children on an as-needed basis.
As the Tier Three cl<strong>in</strong>ician is the person primarily
responsible for the cl<strong>in</strong>ical program
<strong>and</strong> has advanced tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, s/he is a paid at a
higher rate of pay than Tier Two cl<strong>in</strong>icians.
Learn by Do<strong>in</strong>g / 345

TABLE 1
Theoretical <strong>and</strong> Practical Components of Program: Autism Emphasis
Theory Practice
Fall Fall
Objectives
1. Learn basics of qualitative <strong>and</strong>
quantitative research methods
2. Learn to access the research literature
End product
Literature review related to student <strong>in</strong>terest
W<strong>in</strong>ter W<strong>in</strong>ter
Objectives
1. Learn to evaluate published research
2. Beg<strong>in</strong> to learn how to formulate a
research study
End product
Inquiry Project Begun
Integrated M.A./Special <strong>Education</strong> Credential
Program
Approximately 15–20 graduate students are
carefully selected each year from a competitive
pool of applicants to participate <strong>in</strong> a oneyear,
full-time professional tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g program.
Successful completion of the program results
<strong>in</strong> both an M. A. <strong>in</strong> Special <strong>Education</strong> with
autism as the special education emphasis area
<strong>and</strong> a non-categorical prelim<strong>in</strong>ary special education
credential for mild to moderate disabilities.
To be admitted <strong>in</strong>to this program, all applicants
must have: (a) experience with children
<strong>and</strong> youth both with <strong>and</strong> without disabilities,
(b) successfully completed pre-requisites <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g
coursework <strong>and</strong> tests (e.g. basic skills,
subject matter competence exams, health <strong>and</strong>
f<strong>in</strong>gerpr<strong>in</strong>t screen<strong>in</strong>g) <strong>and</strong> (c) demonstrated
the potential to become educational leaders.
Admitted teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate graduate stu-
1. Students matched to families
2. Students meet families <strong>and</strong> beg<strong>in</strong> to visit families
weekly
3. Students receive a manual describ<strong>in</strong>g the
procedures of Pivotal Response Treatment
4. Students observe <strong>in</strong>tervention by tra<strong>in</strong>ed cl<strong>in</strong>icians
1. Students learn to assess child/family needs <strong>and</strong>
identify <strong>in</strong>tervention goals
2. Students are <strong>in</strong>troduced to PRT procedures
3. Students beg<strong>in</strong> implement<strong>in</strong>g PRT procedures <strong>and</strong>
receive weekly videotape supervision
Spr<strong>in</strong>g
Objectives
Spr<strong>in</strong>g
Students complete research project: 1. Students learn to evaluate their <strong>in</strong>tervention
● A research question
● Dependent & Independent Variables
● Procedure
● Basel<strong>in</strong>e & Intervention data
End product
Present research projects to families <strong>and</strong> local
<strong>and</strong> educational community
2. Students cont<strong>in</strong>ue to provide empirically
supported treatment for children with autism
346 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
dents represent a range of age-ranges <strong>and</strong>
experiences.
The program is cohort based <strong>and</strong> courses
are strategically clustered across the year <strong>in</strong>
a way that maximizes the opportunity for
student learn<strong>in</strong>g. The program consists of
12 courses <strong>and</strong> related fieldwork experiences.
The courses <strong>and</strong> fieldwork are spread
equally across the academic year. The first
cluster of courses (fall quarter) emphasizes
family systems theory, collaboration, assessment
<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>struction of culturally <strong>and</strong> l<strong>in</strong>guistically
diverse students <strong>and</strong> an <strong>in</strong>troduction
to research methods <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the
collection of basel<strong>in</strong>e data. The second cluster
of courses (w<strong>in</strong>ter quarter) emphasizes
positive behavioral support (PBS), the <strong>in</strong>itiation
of a PRT <strong>in</strong>tervention, current educational
issues <strong>and</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g methods for students
with mild to moderate disabilities.
The last cluster of courses (spr<strong>in</strong>g quarter)

concludes the program with an emphasis on
educational assessment, student teach<strong>in</strong>g,
<strong>and</strong> analysis of <strong>in</strong>tervention data taken while
implement<strong>in</strong>g PRT. Major themes embedded
across the cohort-based program <strong>in</strong>clude:
a) collaboration, b) family support,
c) positive behavioral support <strong>and</strong> d) autism/PRT.
Inclusion of Teacher-C<strong>and</strong>idate Graduate
Students <strong>in</strong> Service Delivery Model
As part of the <strong>in</strong>tegrated M. A. <strong>in</strong> <strong>Education</strong>/
prelim<strong>in</strong>ary special education credential program
(<strong>in</strong> mild-moderate disabilities), teacherc<strong>and</strong>idate
graduate students at the “teacher
prep university” are required to take a three
course, year-long, research sequence. As a
function of this sequence, “teacher prep university”
graduate students receive didactic
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> PRT, are subsequently matched
with families, <strong>and</strong> beg<strong>in</strong> their year-long “learn
by do<strong>in</strong>g” practicum <strong>in</strong> the provision of <strong>in</strong>tervention
us<strong>in</strong>g PRT. A doctoral student from
the “research university” near<strong>in</strong>g degree completion
serves as “teacher prep university” adjunct
faculty <strong>and</strong> assists <strong>in</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g the
courses <strong>in</strong> the research sequence that focus on
empirically supported treatment methods <strong>and</strong>
support<strong>in</strong>g families of children with autism.
The description that follows focuses on the
portion of the <strong>in</strong>tegrated M.A. <strong>in</strong> Special <strong>Education</strong>/prelim<strong>in</strong>ary
Special <strong>Education</strong> Credential
program that addresses tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> autism
(See Table 1).
First 10 Week Period
Dur<strong>in</strong>g this first 10 week period (fall quarter),
the program plan comb<strong>in</strong>es both academic/
theoretical <strong>and</strong> cl<strong>in</strong>ical work <strong>in</strong> autism. In
their academic/theoretical work, students:
a) learn the basics of s<strong>in</strong>gle subject research,
b) learn the basics of PRT, c) learn to access
literature <strong>in</strong> the area of autism, <strong>and</strong> d) learn
how to write literature reviews <strong>and</strong> evaluate
research literature
Simultaneously, teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate graduate
students ga<strong>in</strong> cl<strong>in</strong>ical experience. They are
organized <strong>in</strong> pairs, <strong>and</strong> each pair is assigned
to one family. In their cl<strong>in</strong>ical position, the
teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate graduate students: a) become
members of exist<strong>in</strong>g family support
teams organized by the “research university”,
b) observe tra<strong>in</strong>ed cl<strong>in</strong>icians support<strong>in</strong>g children
us<strong>in</strong>g PRT, c) establish a schedule of
weekly visits, d) support families <strong>in</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>gful
ways that preclude expertise <strong>in</strong> PRT, <strong>and</strong>
e) collect videotaped basel<strong>in</strong>e data of themselves
as they provide generic support to the
children with autism.
Second 10 Week Period
The second ten week phase (w<strong>in</strong>ter quarter)
also <strong>in</strong>volves a comb<strong>in</strong>ation of academic/
theoretical <strong>and</strong> cl<strong>in</strong>ical work. Academically,
students: a) cont<strong>in</strong>ue their learn<strong>in</strong>g regard<strong>in</strong>g
how to evaluate published research, b)
are given didactic <strong>in</strong>struction <strong>in</strong> PRT procedures,
c) learn how to formulate a research
question <strong>and</strong> d) plan a s<strong>in</strong>gle subject research
study. Cl<strong>in</strong>ically, students: a) learn to
assess child/family needs <strong>and</strong> identify <strong>in</strong>tervention
goals, b) beg<strong>in</strong> to implement PRT
procedures, <strong>and</strong> c) receive weekly videotape
supervision on their performance. Videotape
supervision occurs <strong>in</strong> the context of
their university course where each pair of
students br<strong>in</strong>gs videotape footage filmed <strong>in</strong>
the family context the previous week. Based
on “research university” adjunct faculty
feedback provided to each student pair, student
pairs then adjust <strong>and</strong> improve their
ability to employ PRT dur<strong>in</strong>g the follow<strong>in</strong>g
week. Students communicate with families
on an on-go<strong>in</strong>g basis. The student-provided
PRT support, thus, provides families with no
cost, “value added” extra hours of PRT that
overlaps with the support provided by
tra<strong>in</strong>ed cl<strong>in</strong>icians already be<strong>in</strong>g provided by
the “research university” <strong>in</strong> the communitybased
service delivery model.
Third 10 Week Period
In the third 10 week phase (spr<strong>in</strong>g quarter),
teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate graduate students cont<strong>in</strong>ue
implementation of the <strong>in</strong>tervention weekly. As
<strong>in</strong> the second 10 week period, graduate students:
a) present videotape footage <strong>and</strong> other
data with analysis to faculty members, b) adjust
their cl<strong>in</strong>ical methods based on faculty
feedback, <strong>and</strong> data analysis, <strong>and</strong> c) communicate
with families on an ongo<strong>in</strong>g basis. An
expectation <strong>in</strong> this period is that the students
Learn by Do<strong>in</strong>g / 347

ecome more active participants <strong>in</strong> videotape
analysis. In addition, teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate graduate
students conclude their tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g by present<strong>in</strong>g
both written summaries <strong>and</strong> Microsoft
PowerPo<strong>in</strong>t presentations of their data analysis
<strong>and</strong> conclusions.
Issues <strong>and</strong> Adjustments
As the collaborative model evolved, program
staff made adjustments to better meet the
needs of the teacher c<strong>and</strong>idate graduate students
<strong>and</strong> the families <strong>and</strong> children with autism.
This section will describe the issues that
arose <strong>and</strong> the adjustments recommended for
improved program success.
Teacher-C<strong>and</strong>idate Graduate Students
The issues that arose for the graduate students
<strong>and</strong> faculty <strong>in</strong>cluded: a) the overall stress encountered
as part of the tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g program, b)
logistical difficulties <strong>in</strong> match<strong>in</strong>g teacher c<strong>and</strong>idate
graduate students with families (time
available, geography, age, sex, <strong>and</strong> characteristics
of child etc.) <strong>and</strong> c) personal characteristics/“goodness
of fit”.
Stress
Participat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a one year <strong>in</strong>tegrated tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g
program lead<strong>in</strong>g to both an M. A. <strong>in</strong> Special
<strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> a prelim<strong>in</strong>ary special education
teach<strong>in</strong>g credential is a time <strong>in</strong>tensive
experience. Given both the “fast track” nature
of the 10 week quarter system, programmatic
requirements to assume leadership roles <strong>in</strong>
class as well as participate <strong>in</strong> year-long, “learn
by do<strong>in</strong>g” fieldwork placements <strong>in</strong> both
schools <strong>and</strong> with families, students were challenged
to exercise time management as well as
to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> the level of energy needed to
fulfill all requirements. This resulted <strong>in</strong> reported
stress for most teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate graduate
students. In addition, the cohort nature
of the program (with each course offered only
one time per year <strong>and</strong> the consequent necessity
to wait a calendar year to complete or
retake any course not taken or completed)
<strong>and</strong> the high level of performance expected
(overall 3.0 GPA), <strong>in</strong>tensified the stress for
some students who had either underestimated
348 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
the dem<strong>and</strong>s of the program or <strong>in</strong>curred
health problems over the course of the year.
Stress solutions. Efforts to ameliorate this
stress consisted of a collaborative effort to
build the course of study <strong>and</strong> provide student
advisement. Courses were collaboratively
planned by faculty so that they could be offered
<strong>in</strong> a logical sequence <strong>and</strong> so that students
could see the <strong>in</strong>terconnectedness of the
subject matter. Collaborative plann<strong>in</strong>g also
enabled faculty to view learn<strong>in</strong>g outcomes
across a series of courses vs. course by course,
<strong>and</strong> space major assessments across the term.
For example, one faculty plann<strong>in</strong>g session resulted
<strong>in</strong> a decision to overlap the read<strong>in</strong>gs
from one text <strong>in</strong> two courses be<strong>in</strong>g concurrently
taught—family support <strong>and</strong> collaboration.
As the tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g program is truly a “program”
<strong>and</strong> not just a series of courses, <strong>and</strong> as expectations
for student <strong>in</strong>itiative <strong>and</strong> performance
are high, the nature <strong>and</strong> expectations of the
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g program along with faculty <strong>and</strong> student
responsibilities was presented to students
both <strong>in</strong>dividually, <strong>and</strong> as a cohort, at multiple
po<strong>in</strong>ts. These po<strong>in</strong>ts <strong>in</strong>cluded program <strong>in</strong>formation
meet<strong>in</strong>gs for potentially <strong>in</strong>terested
c<strong>and</strong>idates, pre-program counsel<strong>in</strong>g for admitted
students, orientation sem<strong>in</strong>ar immediately
prior to the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of the program,
<strong>in</strong>dividual meet<strong>in</strong>gs as per faculty or student
request, planned class periods to elicit feedback,
formative assessments (See Table 2 for
The Scholar Pretest) <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>termittent <strong>in</strong>formal
conversations dur<strong>in</strong>g social opportunities.
In addition, faculty communicated regularly
with both participat<strong>in</strong>g mentor teachers <strong>and</strong>
families of children with autism to gather <strong>in</strong>formation
about teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate graduate
student performance <strong>and</strong> stress level which
<strong>in</strong>creased predictably as each quarter progressed.
Through the aforementioned efforts to
frequently meet with students <strong>and</strong> to create
a “cohesive” program, students’ stress level
may have been lowered. Despite these efforts,
however, it was evident that some of
the students still experienced difficulty. Students,
used to tak<strong>in</strong>g s<strong>in</strong>gle courses <strong>and</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g
told what to do, were less familiar with
hav<strong>in</strong>g to make connections between <strong>and</strong>
among courses <strong>and</strong> to participate actively <strong>in</strong>
their own learn<strong>in</strong>g. While the stress level

TABLE 2
Scholar Pretest
Directions: Rate yourself on each of the follow<strong>in</strong>g items from 1 (low) to 5 (high).
seemed <strong>in</strong> some cases <strong>in</strong>tensified, <strong>in</strong> challeng<strong>in</strong>g
students to participate actively <strong>in</strong>
their own learn<strong>in</strong>g, faculty hoped to stimulate
life-long learn<strong>in</strong>g.
Logistical Difficulties <strong>in</strong> Match<strong>in</strong>g Teacher-
C<strong>and</strong>idate Graduate Students with Families
Match<strong>in</strong>g teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate graduate students
with families <strong>in</strong>volved several factors: a) time,
b) geography, <strong>and</strong> c) “goodness of fit” between
the personal characteristics of teacher-
Item Low High
1 2 3 4 5
1. Skill <strong>in</strong> manag<strong>in</strong>g positive environments for all students. 1 2 3 4 5
2. Knowledge of connections between prevent<strong>in</strong>g discipl<strong>in</strong>e problems <strong>and</strong>
curriculum, <strong>in</strong>struction, <strong>and</strong> management. 1 2 3 4 5
3. Knowledge of general <strong>in</strong>formation on disability, disability policy <strong>and</strong> laws relat<strong>in</strong>g
to special education. 1 2 3 4 5
4. Skill <strong>in</strong> prepar<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>struction to meet the needs of students with disabilities <strong>in</strong>
general education classrooms. 1 2 3 4 5
5. Knowledge about the structure of language <strong>and</strong> the process of acquir<strong>in</strong>g a second
language. 1 2 3 4 5
6. Knowledge of <strong>in</strong>structional <strong>and</strong> assessment practices for English Language
Learners (ELL). 1 2 3 4 5
7. Knowledge of cultural diversity, cultural awareness, <strong>and</strong> culturally responsive
school<strong>in</strong>g. 1 2 3 4 5
8. Knowledge of contemporary issues fac<strong>in</strong>g American <strong>Education</strong>. 1 2 3 4 5
9. Skill <strong>in</strong> diagnos<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> remediat<strong>in</strong>g read<strong>in</strong>g problems. 1 2 3 4 5
10. Knowledge of read<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>struction. 1 2 3 4 5
11. Knowledge of ethical <strong>and</strong> legal practices <strong>in</strong> special education. 1 2 3 4 5
12. Skill <strong>in</strong> apply<strong>in</strong>g the Family Systems Framework. 1 2 3 4 5
13. Knowledge of the essential components of an Individualized Transition Plan. 1 2 3 4 5
14. Knowledge of norm referenced, criterion referenced, <strong>and</strong> curriculum based
assessment. 1 2 3 4 5
15. Skill <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>terpret<strong>in</strong>g student assessment data. 1 2 3 4 5
16. Skill <strong>in</strong> design<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>structional programs based on student assessment data. 1 2 3 4 5
17. Knowledge of <strong>in</strong>structional strategies for students with mild/moderate disabilities. 1 2 3 4 5
18. Knowledge of organization of classroom environments for students with mild/
moderate disabilities. 1 2 3 4 5
19. Knowledge of school collaboration activities. 1 2 3 4 5
20. Skill <strong>in</strong> conduct<strong>in</strong>g school-based collaboration activities. 1 2 3 4 5
21. Skill <strong>in</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g effective communication, <strong>in</strong>terpersonal, <strong>and</strong> problem solv<strong>in</strong>g skills. 1 2 3 4 5
22. Skill <strong>in</strong> search<strong>in</strong>g professional literature. 1 2 3 4 5
23. Skill <strong>in</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g Pivotal Response <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> (PRT). 1 2 3 4 5
24. Skill <strong>in</strong> design<strong>in</strong>g, implement<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>terpret<strong>in</strong>g action based research. 1 2 3 4 5
c<strong>and</strong>idate graduate students <strong>and</strong> the families
<strong>and</strong> their children with autism.
Time. The time available for teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate
graduate students <strong>and</strong> children with
autism to work with one another was limited.
Graduate students had class beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g at 4:10
p.m. four days/week. Children with autism
often had multiple appo<strong>in</strong>tments after school
(2:00 p.m. <strong>and</strong> later) several days/week with
speech therapists, occupational therapists, or
other therapists.
Geography. In addition, even though graduate
students <strong>and</strong> children with autism all
Learn by Do<strong>in</strong>g / 349

lived <strong>in</strong> the same county, the county encompassed
3600 square miles with driv<strong>in</strong>g distances
between families rang<strong>in</strong>g up to 60
miles. Given the time constra<strong>in</strong>ts for both
teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate graduate students <strong>and</strong> children
with autism, geography was an important
variable when establish<strong>in</strong>g “matches.”
“Goodness of fit” between teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate graduate
students <strong>and</strong> families. F<strong>in</strong>ally, it was challeng<strong>in</strong>g
to anticipate the “goodness of fit” with
regard to personal characteristics dur<strong>in</strong>g the
match<strong>in</strong>g process. Over the course of the program,
some teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate graduate students
seemed more <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>and</strong>/or more
able to function as cl<strong>in</strong>icians <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>teract with
children with autism <strong>and</strong> their families than
others. Although <strong>in</strong>itially no data were taken
on this phenomenon, many teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate
graduate students described feel<strong>in</strong>g “nervous”
or “anxious” <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>itial stages of <strong>in</strong>teract<strong>in</strong>g
with families <strong>and</strong> provid<strong>in</strong>g generic support
for children with autism. For their part, some
participat<strong>in</strong>g families also reported some concern
over the students’ ability to provide support
for their child <strong>in</strong> the home. Over the
course of the year, as they became more
knowledgeable <strong>in</strong> the areas of family systems
theory, PBS, <strong>and</strong> PRT, the students’ sense of
nervousness dissipated <strong>and</strong> families reported
more confidence <strong>in</strong> the students’ abilities. In
many cases the teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate graduate
students <strong>and</strong> families developed friendships
<strong>and</strong> have rema<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> contact years after they
completed their program. In a few cases, discomfort
cont<strong>in</strong>ued on the part of the student
or family <strong>and</strong> required additional <strong>in</strong>volvement
by faculty members (see below).
Logistical Solutions <strong>in</strong> Match<strong>in</strong>g Teacher-
C<strong>and</strong>idate Graduate Students with Families
Logistical difficulties were <strong>in</strong>itially addressed
on a case by case basis. There were, however,
enough commonalities to eventually result <strong>in</strong>
programmatic changes important to consider
when implement<strong>in</strong>g a program of this nature.
These are detailed below.
Time. With regard to the students’ limited
time, <strong>in</strong> cases where children with autism had
no free period of time between the hours of 2
<strong>and</strong> 3:30 p.m. dur<strong>in</strong>g the week, teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate
graduate students provided support on
Saturdays. In other <strong>in</strong>stances, faculty members
350 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
“pushed back” the start time for particular
courses from 4:10 to 4:30 or 4:45 to accommodate
student <strong>and</strong> family schedules. After the
second year of the program, faculty moved the
start time for university coursework back one
hour from 4:10 p.m. to 5:10.
Geography. In terms of the geographic distance
that separated teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate graduate
students from families with children who
had autism, faculty began by plac<strong>in</strong>g students
who lived or worked <strong>in</strong> communities farthest
from the university with families who also lived
<strong>in</strong> those same, more geographically distant
communities. Then, once the logistically difficult
matches were made, faculty placed the
rema<strong>in</strong>der of the teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate graduate
students who lived closest to campus.
“Goodness of fit” between teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate graduate
students <strong>and</strong> families. With all families
parental preferences (e.g., preference for a
particular sex or level of experience) were
taken <strong>in</strong>to account when matches were made.
In an effort to <strong>in</strong>crease “goodness of fit”
between family/child <strong>and</strong> teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate
graduate students, faculty <strong>in</strong>creased their contact
with families to more closely monitor
family-graduate student <strong>in</strong>teractions. This <strong>in</strong>cluded
regular contact made <strong>in</strong> person, via
telephone or via e-mail. In addition, after the
second year of the program, <strong>in</strong>stead of match<strong>in</strong>g
one graduate student with one family, two
graduate students were paired <strong>and</strong> then each
pair was assigned to a family. This solution
simplified match<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> facilitated “goodness
of fit.” Match<strong>in</strong>g pairs of teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate
graduate students with a family helped lessen
student anxiety.
Even after these adaptations, however,
problems persisted. For example, one family
dur<strong>in</strong>g the program’s three-year history asked
that a teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate graduate student not
return to their home to provide services. Although
these <strong>in</strong>stances of poor matches are
very <strong>in</strong>frequent, they create substantial difficulty
<strong>and</strong> unneeded stress for families. In an
effort to identify students who may need extra
support <strong>in</strong> order to function successfully <strong>in</strong>
provid<strong>in</strong>g cl<strong>in</strong>ical support to children with autism
faculty plan to implement an additional
strategy. Faculty will create early opportunities
<strong>in</strong> school sett<strong>in</strong>gs to observe teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate
graduate students work<strong>in</strong>g with small
groups of children, <strong>and</strong> where, possible, chil-

dren with autism. If, through these observations
<strong>and</strong> subsequent conversations with
teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate graduate students, faculty
members determ<strong>in</strong>e that “h<strong>and</strong>s-on” work
with families <strong>and</strong> children may not be appropriate
for particular teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate graduate
students, those graduate student will be
given the opportunity to support families of
children with autism <strong>in</strong> other important ways
such as organiz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> conduct<strong>in</strong>g sibl<strong>in</strong>g
support groups.
Children <strong>and</strong> Families
Time availability <strong>and</strong> family satisfaction arose
as areas that needed to be addressed for the
families with children with autism.
Time. Time availability was also a constra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g
factor for families <strong>and</strong> children.
Lack of available time was addressed on a
case-by-case basis but, <strong>in</strong> cases where family
schedules were too full, participation was not
possible.
Family satisfaction. The second issue that
arose <strong>in</strong>volved family satisfaction. That is, families
differed <strong>in</strong> their level of satisfaction. Dissatisfaction
with the tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g program, although
<strong>in</strong>frequent, sometimes resulted <strong>in</strong> a
family exit<strong>in</strong>g the program. As the “research
university” was one of many providers of service,
families were able to switch from one
provider to another. Reasons for switch<strong>in</strong>g to
another service provider <strong>in</strong>cluded lack of satisfactory
progress toward designated goals, desire
for more hours of support than could be
provided, <strong>and</strong> differences <strong>in</strong> philosophy regard<strong>in</strong>g
behavioral <strong>in</strong>tervention. In one case,
for example, the family was unable to participate
at home as <strong>in</strong>tervention agents. As parents
are viewed as an <strong>in</strong>tegral part of their
child’s program <strong>and</strong> as primary <strong>in</strong>tervention
agents <strong>in</strong> the PRT model (Koegel et al., 2006),
this served as a cause for the parents to change
service providers.
In an effort to address the family satisfaction,
faculty members will beg<strong>in</strong> adm<strong>in</strong>ister<strong>in</strong>g
The Family Partnership <strong>and</strong> Quality of
Life Survey (Beach Center on Disability, University
of Kansas, 2003) to participat<strong>in</strong>g families.
This survey will be adm<strong>in</strong>istered each year
at the onset of the program <strong>and</strong> aga<strong>in</strong> as the
academic year comes to a close. The purpose
of the Family Quality of Life Scale will be to
measure if, as a result of the autism support
services provided, a family’s quality of life had
improved. Families are asked questions about
a) the services they receive or need, b) how
families feel about the ma<strong>in</strong> person who works
with them <strong>and</strong> their child. c) th<strong>in</strong>gs that make
life together as a family good, <strong>and</strong> d) <strong>in</strong>formation
about the families <strong>in</strong> general. Based on
the results of the Family Quality of Life Scale,
faculty members will review both what services
are provided, who is provid<strong>in</strong>g them, <strong>and</strong> how
they are provided. <strong>and</strong> make adjustments as
necessary <strong>in</strong> order to better meet family
needs. For example, if a family marked “receives
behavioral support but not enough”,
the number of hours of behavioral support
could be <strong>in</strong>creased.
Unresolved Issues <strong>and</strong> Recommendations
Unresolved issues fall <strong>in</strong>to two categories: a)
university issues <strong>and</strong> b) state agency disability
fund<strong>in</strong>g issues.
University issues. University issues were
largely the result of the small nature of the
special education program at the “teacher
prep university”. Small programs by def<strong>in</strong>ition
mean that more responsibilities fall on fewer
people. In the case of this program, with only
two tenure track faculty members, the program’s
very existence was completely dependent
on the extra time the two faculty members
were will<strong>in</strong>g to devote. In addition, s<strong>in</strong>ce
the adjunct faculty member provid<strong>in</strong>g supervision
for the children’s programs was based
at the “research university” (located 100 plus
miles away from the participat<strong>in</strong>g families), it
was difficult to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> ideal levels of supervision
<strong>and</strong> contact with the families.
University recommendation. A third tenure
track faculty member at the “teacher prep
university” with expertise <strong>in</strong> autism would
help ensure the <strong>in</strong>stitutionalization of this
program.
State agency issues. As the state agency authorized
<strong>and</strong> paid providers, such as the autism
center at the “research university,” to
provide services to families with children who
have disabilities, their participation was essential
for the tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g program’s existence. Challenges
presented <strong>in</strong> work<strong>in</strong>g with this agency
<strong>in</strong>cluded: 1) their schedule of meet<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>and</strong>
2) their vendor reimbursement rate.
Learn by Do<strong>in</strong>g / 351

The local office of the state agency’s requirement
for face-to-face quarterly meet<strong>in</strong>gs
for every child exacerbated the issue of limited
time. The practice of hold<strong>in</strong>g face-to-face
quarterly meet<strong>in</strong>gs, vs. telephone or web cam
conferenc<strong>in</strong>g, was determ<strong>in</strong>ed locally <strong>and</strong> was
not a procedure that was practiced statewide.
While time consum<strong>in</strong>g for local service providers,
this practice worked an undue hardship
on “research university” staff as they
spent four or more hours on the road <strong>in</strong> order
to attend each of these meet<strong>in</strong>gs.
Service providers that are authorized by the
local branch of the state developmental services
agency are reimbursed for services they
deliver to children <strong>and</strong> families at relatively
low pay rates. In an effort to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> fiscal
viability, service providers seek to provide service
to large numbers of families us<strong>in</strong>g tiered
service delivery systems. In tiered systems, direct
service provision is provided by less well
tra<strong>in</strong>ed staff members who work for a modest
hourly rate. These direct service staff, <strong>in</strong> turn,
are supervised by higher paid staff persons
with more experience <strong>and</strong> tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g. The supervisory
staff persons <strong>in</strong>teract directly with
families on a less frequent basis.
Given the reimbursement-for-service rate
provided by the developmental services
agency as well as the sometimes <strong>in</strong>adequate
number of hours of funded support families
were allowed, all local vendored service providers
are challenged to provide the quality
<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tensity of services necessary to achieve
agreed upon goals. In addition, as mentioned
above the “research university” <strong>and</strong> their supervisory
staff were located 100 or more miles
away from the participat<strong>in</strong>g families, the
amount of compensation the “research university”
as authorized service provider received,
was barely enough to cover out-ofpocket
costs.
State agency recommendations. 1) Grant a
one-time fund<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>crease to service providers
based on the average rate provided to service
providers statewide. 2) Grant a one-time research
grant to evaluate the results of <strong>in</strong>tegrat<strong>in</strong>g
teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate graduate students <strong>in</strong>
the provision of services to children with autism
<strong>and</strong> their families. 3) Grant yearly costof-liv<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>in</strong>creases to all service providers. 4)
Allow for phone <strong>and</strong> video conferenc<strong>in</strong>g for
quarterly meet<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> require face-to-face
meet<strong>in</strong>gs once a year only. 5) Initiate an <strong>in</strong>dependent
review process for families who believe
the authorized number of vendored <strong>in</strong>tervention
hours is <strong>in</strong>adequate to meet the
targeted needs of their children. 6) Lobby for
the passage of a law m<strong>and</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>surance
companies to cover the costs of autism services.
Model Benefits
This section will describe those possible benefits
for the follow<strong>in</strong>g stakeholder groups:
a) teacher education graduate students, <strong>and</strong>
b) children with autism <strong>and</strong> their families c)
community.
Teacher-C<strong>and</strong>idate Graduate Students
352 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
Teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate graduate students benefit
from this tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g program <strong>in</strong> many ways.
First, they receive cl<strong>in</strong>ical tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong>
h<strong>and</strong>s-on practice <strong>in</strong> two empirically supported
strategies, PBS & PRT, methodologies
that will not only equip them with necessary
skills needed to work <strong>in</strong> their future classrooms
but will also allow them to provide state
of the art services to the children they will be
teach<strong>in</strong>g. Secondly, they learned how to assess,
to critique <strong>and</strong> to present the <strong>in</strong>tervention
plans they developed <strong>and</strong> implemented
over the year. Dur<strong>in</strong>g this process of analysis
<strong>and</strong> critique students also learned how to collect
<strong>and</strong> analyze data, a skill that will improve
their ability to provide effective <strong>in</strong>terventions
<strong>and</strong> monitor the progress of their students.
Thirdly, they learned to review the literature
<strong>and</strong> discrim<strong>in</strong>ate effective EST’s from pass<strong>in</strong>g
fads. This important ability will serve them
well when faced with a variety of choices <strong>and</strong>
dem<strong>and</strong>s for specific <strong>in</strong>tervention strategies
that may or may not be empirically based.
Fourthly, <strong>in</strong> times of limited state funds for
schools, teacher use of EST’s <strong>in</strong> classrooms is
fiscally defensible <strong>and</strong> can help position
schools for both external fund<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> recognition.
Lastly, teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate graduate students
learned to support, communicate <strong>and</strong>
collaborate with the families they supported.
For the majority of teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate graduate
students <strong>in</strong> special education programs,
“learn by do<strong>in</strong>g” experience is limited to the

classroom. This program not only gave students
an opportunity to support children with
disabilities <strong>in</strong> the classroom <strong>and</strong> underst<strong>and</strong>
the teacher perspective, but also to experience
disability at home <strong>and</strong> underst<strong>and</strong> the
family perspective. Both the sett<strong>in</strong>g (child’s
home) <strong>and</strong> the teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate graduate
students’ position as a “learner” created possibilities
for: 1) parent-graduate student relationships
to develop, <strong>and</strong> 2) graduate students
to recognize parents as a source of knowledge
on their child. These experiences may help
facilitate future partnerships that are truly collaborative;
partnerships where both parents
<strong>and</strong> professionals view each others’ knowledge
as important <strong>and</strong>/or equal as they work
together to meet the unique needs of <strong>in</strong>dividual
children. Characteristic of teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate
graduate student feedback, one commented,
“I learned the necessity of effective
<strong>and</strong> motivat<strong>in</strong>g re<strong>in</strong>forcers to build a new skill
that is extremely difficult for a child. I also
learned the importance of <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g the whole
family <strong>in</strong> behavioral <strong>in</strong>terventions. It also became
clear to me that autism looks very different
<strong>in</strong> every child . . . I realized that autism has
very serious impacts on high-function<strong>in</strong>g children
as well”.
Children with Autism <strong>and</strong> their Families
The first major benefit for children <strong>and</strong> families
with autism was the extra support they
received from teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate graduate
students. The teacher-c<strong>and</strong>idate graduate student
support was provided at no charge to the
state agency or to parents <strong>and</strong> was <strong>in</strong> addition
to the amount of support they received via the
state agency vendored <strong>in</strong>tervention program
provided by the “research university.” Support
was also provided <strong>in</strong> the form of respite services,
<strong>in</strong>formation gather<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> advocacy.
Secondly, as no service providers <strong>in</strong> the community
had previously provided PRT as a
choice to families, the entry of the “research
university” as a service provider allowed families
one more EST from which to choose.
The third major benefit for children <strong>and</strong>
families result<strong>in</strong>g from the experience was the
opportunity to participate <strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> receive research-based
didactic tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g. The students,
under the guidance <strong>and</strong> supervision of two
Ph.D. level faculty members, provided cl<strong>in</strong>ical
support to parents <strong>and</strong> children with autism
that was analyzed, critiqued <strong>and</strong> improved on
a weekly basis.
Community
Community benefits, although not as well def<strong>in</strong>ed,
were clearly present. S<strong>in</strong>ce the program
was publicized by the “teacher-prep university”
it <strong>in</strong>creased autism awareness <strong>in</strong> the
“teacher-prep university” community. In addition
to services provided by graduate students,
“teacher-prep university” sponsored tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>gs
<strong>and</strong> lectures which allowed parents <strong>and</strong> the
public at large to access nationally <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternationally
known figures <strong>in</strong> the field, an opportunity
they may not have had without this
program.
Conclusion
Although data document<strong>in</strong>g the positive
change both <strong>in</strong> graduate students <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the
children with autism they supported are still
be<strong>in</strong>g analyzed, the purpose of this article was
to describe a) the model, b) the difficulties
that arose as it was implemented, c) adjustments
that were made <strong>in</strong> response to the difficulties,
<strong>and</strong> d) the positive effects such a
program can produce for various stakeholder
groups. While this tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g program was not
able to address all of the issues challeng<strong>in</strong>g
special education teacher preparation programs
(as described by Scheuermann (2003),
it was successful <strong>in</strong> many respects. First, the
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g program serves as an example of how
a small, non-categorical special education
teacher education program, by creatively <strong>in</strong>tegrat<strong>in</strong>g
M.A. <strong>and</strong> credential<strong>in</strong>g requirements
<strong>and</strong> by collaborat<strong>in</strong>g with a neighbor<strong>in</strong>g university,
provides teacher c<strong>and</strong>idates with a
level of competence <strong>in</strong> autism treatment procedures
previously absent. Second, the program
provides an example of how a university
can deliver an <strong>in</strong>tegrated M.A./special education
credential program with<strong>in</strong> the one year
timel<strong>in</strong>e m<strong>and</strong>ated by the state. Third the
program provides empirically based support
for children with autism <strong>and</strong> their families.
Fourth, <strong>and</strong> perhaps most importantly, the
program produces highly qualified teachers <strong>in</strong>
autism; teachers, who over the course of their
Learn by Do<strong>in</strong>g / 353

careers, will support thous<strong>and</strong>s of children
with autism <strong>and</strong> their families.
Although the tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g program is a “work <strong>in</strong>
progress” <strong>and</strong> will cont<strong>in</strong>ue to be ref<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong>
the com<strong>in</strong>g years, it is the authors’ hope that
readers will be prompted by this article to
discover other ways to <strong>in</strong>clude autism tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g
with<strong>in</strong> their teacher tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g programs.
References
Beach Center on Disability. (2003). Partnership <strong>and</strong>
Quality of Life Survey. Lawrence, KS: Author.
Bergert, S., & Burnette, J. (2001). Educat<strong>in</strong>g exceptional
children: Statistical approach. ERIC
Clear<strong>in</strong>ghouse on <strong>Disabilities</strong> <strong>and</strong> Gifted <strong>Education</strong>.
Retrieved July 2, 2008, from ERIC Document Reproduction
Service No. ED452649
Bill<strong>in</strong>gsley, B. (2004). Special education teacher retention
<strong>and</strong> attrition: Critical analysis of research
literature. Journal of Special <strong>Education</strong>, 38(1), 39–
55.
Boyer, L., & Gillespie, P. (2000). Keep<strong>in</strong>g the committed,
the importance of <strong>in</strong>duction <strong>and</strong> support
programs for new special educators. Teach<strong>in</strong>g Exceptional
Children, 33(1), 10–15.
Brown, W., Odom, S., & Conroy, M. (2001). An
<strong>in</strong>tervention hierarchy for promot<strong>in</strong>g young children’s
peer <strong>in</strong>teractions <strong>in</strong> natural environments.
Topics <strong>in</strong> Early Childhood Special <strong>Education</strong>, 21, 162–
175.
Centers for Disease Control <strong>and</strong> Prevention. (2007).
Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorders-Autism
<strong>and</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong> Monitor<strong>in</strong>g Network,
14 Sites, United States, 2002. Surveillance
Summaries. MMWR 2007: 56 (No. SS-1).
Croen, L. A., Grether, J. K., Hoogstrate, J., & Selv<strong>in</strong>,
S. (2002). The chang<strong>in</strong>g prevalence of autism <strong>in</strong>
California. Journal of Autism <strong>and</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> Disorders,
32, 207–215.
Darl<strong>in</strong>g-Hammond, L. (2002). Research <strong>and</strong> rhetoric
on teacher certification: A response to
“Teacher Certification Reconsidered.” <strong>Education</strong>
Policy Analysis Archives, 10 (36). Retrieved from
http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v10n36
DeMyer, M. K., H<strong>in</strong>gtgen, J. N., & Jackson, R. K.
(1981). Infantile autism reviewed: A decade of
research. Schizophrenia Bullet<strong>in</strong>, 7, 388–451.
Gersten, R., Keat<strong>in</strong>g, T., Yovanoff, P., & Harniss,
M. K. (2001). Work<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> special education: Factors
that enhance special educators’ <strong>in</strong>tent to stay.
Exceptional Children, 67, 549–567.
Gresham, F. M., Beebe-Frankenberger, M. E., &
MacMillan, D. L. (1999). A selective review of
treatments for children with autism: Description
<strong>and</strong> methodological considerations. School Psychology
Review, 28, 559–575.
354 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
Henderson, K., Kle<strong>in</strong>, S., Gonzalez, P., & Bradley, R.
(2005). Teachers of children with emotional disturbances:
A national look at preparation, teach<strong>in</strong>g
conditions, <strong>and</strong> practices. Behavioral Disorders,
31, 6–17.
Iovannone, R., Dunlap, G., Huber, H., & K<strong>in</strong>caid, D.
(2003). Effective educational practices for students
with autism spectrum disorders. Focus on
Autism <strong>and</strong> Other <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>, 181,
150–165.
K<strong>in</strong>g-Sears, M. E. (2001). Institutionaliz<strong>in</strong>g peermediated
<strong>in</strong>struction <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>terventions <strong>in</strong> schools:
Beyond “Tra<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> Hope.” Remedial <strong>and</strong> Special
<strong>Education</strong>, 22(2), 89–101.
Kle<strong>in</strong>er, B., Porch, R., & Farris, E. (2002). Public
Alternative Schools <strong>and</strong> Programs for Students at Risk
of <strong>Education</strong>al Failure (NCES 2002–2004) Wash<strong>in</strong>gton,
DC: National Center for <strong>Education</strong>al Statistics,
United States Department of <strong>Education</strong>.
Koegel, L. K., Koegel, R. L., Harrower, J. K., &
Carter, C. M. (1999). Pivotal response <strong>in</strong>tervention
I: Overview of approach. Journal of the Association
for Persons with Severe H<strong>and</strong>icaps, 24, 174–185.
Koegel, R. L., Openden, D., Fredeen, R., & Koegel,
L. K. (2006). Overview of Pivotal Response Treatment.
In R. L. Koegel & L. K. Koegel (Eds.),
Pivotal Response Treatments for autism: Communication,
social <strong>and</strong> academic development (pp. 3–30).
Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
Lerman, D., Vorndran, C., Addison, L., & Kuhn, S.
(2004). Prepar<strong>in</strong>g teachers <strong>in</strong> evidence-based
practices for young children with autism. School
Psychology Review, 33, 510–526.
Ma<strong>in</strong>zer, R., & Horvath, M. (2001). Issues <strong>in</strong> prepar<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>and</strong> licens<strong>in</strong>g special educators. Arl<strong>in</strong>gton, VA:
Council for Exceptional Children.
McLeskey, J., Tyler, N. C., & Flipp<strong>in</strong>, S. S. (2004).
The supply of <strong>and</strong> dem<strong>and</strong> for special education
teachers: A review of research regard<strong>in</strong>g the
chronic shortage of special education teachers.
The Journal of Special <strong>Education</strong>, 38(1), 5–21.
National Information Center for Children <strong>and</strong>
Youth with <strong>Disabilities</strong>. (1997). Who’s teach<strong>in</strong>g our
children with disabilities? Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, DC: Author.
National Research Council. (2001). Educat<strong>in</strong>g children
with autism. Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, DC: National Academy
Press, Committee on <strong>Education</strong>al Interventions
for Children with Autism, <strong>Division</strong> of
Behavioral <strong>and</strong> Social Sciences <strong>and</strong> <strong>Education</strong>.
Sach, J. (1999). All classes of special education
teachers <strong>in</strong> dem<strong>and</strong> throughout the nation. <strong>Education</strong>
Week on the Web. http://www.edweek.org/ew.
articles/1999/03/24/28speced.h18.html?querystr<strong>in</strong>g
special%20education (accessed July 2, 2008).
Scheuermann, B., Webber, J., Boutot, A., & Goodw<strong>in</strong>,
M. (2003). Problems with personnel preparation
<strong>in</strong> autism spectrum disorders. Focus on Au-

tism <strong>and</strong> Other <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>. 18, 197–
207.
Simpson, R., McKee, M., Teeter, D., & Beytien, A.
(2007). Evidence-based methods for children <strong>and</strong>
youth with autism spectrum disorders: Stakeholder
issues <strong>and</strong> perspectives. Exceptionality, 15,
203–217.
Simpson, R. (2005). Evidence-based practices <strong>and</strong>
students with autism spectrum disorders. Focus on
Autism <strong>and</strong> other <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>, 20, 140–
149.
Snell, M. E. (2003). Apply<strong>in</strong>g research to practice:
The more pervasive problem? Research <strong>and</strong> Practice
for Persons with Severe <strong>Disabilities</strong>, 28, 143–147.
Sperry, L. A., Whaley, K. T., Shaw, E., & Brame, K.
(1999). Services for young children with autism
spectrum disorder: Voices of parents <strong>and</strong> providers.
Infants <strong>and</strong> Young Children, 11(4), 17–33.
Stahmer, A., Coll<strong>in</strong>gs, N., & Pal<strong>in</strong>kas, L. (2005).
Early <strong>in</strong>tervention practices for children with autism:
Descriptions from community providers. Focus
on Autism <strong>and</strong> Other <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>,
20, 66–79.
Stahmer, A. C., & Gist, K. (2001). The effects of an
accelerated parent education program on technique
mastery <strong>and</strong> child outcome. Journal of Positive
Behavior Interventions, 3, 75–82.
Study of Personnel Needs <strong>in</strong> Special <strong>Education</strong>.
(2002b, May 7). Recruit<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> reta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g high
quality teachers. Retrieved from www.spense.org/
results.html
Symon, J. B. (2001). Parent education for autism:
Issues <strong>in</strong> provid<strong>in</strong>g services at a distance. Journal of
Positive Behavior Interventions, 3, 160–174.
U.S. Department of <strong>Education</strong>. (2002). Meet<strong>in</strong>g the
highly qualified teachers challenge. The secretary’s
annual report on teacher quality. Wash<strong>in</strong>gton,
DC: Author.
Learn by Do<strong>in</strong>g / 355

<strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>, 2009, 44(3), 356–366
© <strong>Division</strong> on <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>
Research-Based Techniques for Teach<strong>in</strong>g Early Read<strong>in</strong>g Skills
to Students with Intellectual <strong>Disabilities</strong>
Jill H. Allor, Patricia G. Mathes, Tammi Champl<strong>in</strong>, <strong>and</strong> Jennifer P. Cheatham
Southern Methodist University
Abstract: Teach<strong>in</strong>g students with <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities (ID) to read is extremely challeng<strong>in</strong>g. Fortunately, the
outlook for students with ID is improv<strong>in</strong>g because we now know much more about how to teach read<strong>in</strong>g to
students who struggle, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g those with ID. The central theme of this article is that read<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>struction for
students with ID must be a carefully orchestrated <strong>in</strong>tegration of key skills <strong>and</strong> strategies that are explicitly l<strong>in</strong>ked
to mean<strong>in</strong>g. Organized accord<strong>in</strong>g to the major components of read<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>struction, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g (a) oral language
<strong>and</strong> vocabulary, (b) phonological awareness, (c) phonics <strong>and</strong> word recognition, (d) fluency, <strong>and</strong> (e) comprehension,
this article describes key techniques used <strong>in</strong> research exam<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g effective methods for teach<strong>in</strong>g students
with ID to read. We provide specific examples from our research study describ<strong>in</strong>g how these skills are be<strong>in</strong>g taught
to students with ID.
Teach<strong>in</strong>g students with <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities
(ID) to read is extremely challeng<strong>in</strong>g. These
students face severe deficits <strong>in</strong> memory <strong>and</strong>
language that make it very difficult for them to
learn to read. Further, behavior issues may
<strong>in</strong>terfere with their learn<strong>in</strong>g. Although there
are many examples of students with ID who
successfully learn to read, most students with
ID learn very few, if any, basic read<strong>in</strong>g skills. In
fact, only 1 <strong>in</strong> 5 students with ID achieve even
m<strong>in</strong>imal literacy skills (Katims, 2001). Fortunately,
the outlook for students with ID is
improv<strong>in</strong>g because we now know much more
about how to teach read<strong>in</strong>g to students who
struggle, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g those with ID (Allor,
Mathes, Jones, & Roberts, <strong>in</strong> press; Browder,
Ahlgrim-Delzell, Courtade, Gibbs, & Flowers,
<strong>in</strong> press; Mathes & Denton, 2002; O’Connor,
The work presented <strong>in</strong> this article was supported
by Grant No. H324K040011-05 from the Institute of
<strong>Education</strong> Sciences. This article does not necessarily
reflect the positions or policies of this fund<strong>in</strong>g
agency <strong>and</strong> no official endorsement should be <strong>in</strong>ferred.
We thank the teachers <strong>and</strong> students who
participated <strong>in</strong> this research. Correspondence concern<strong>in</strong>g
this article should be addressed to Jill H.
Allor, Department of Teach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> Learn<strong>in</strong>g, Annette
Caldwell Simmons School of <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong>
Human Development, Southern Methodist University,
P.O. Box 750381, Dallas, TX 75275-0381. Email:
jallor@smu.edu
356 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
Bocian, Beebe-Frankenberger, L<strong>in</strong>klater, <strong>in</strong>
press; Torgesen, 2002). The encourag<strong>in</strong>g
news is that we are currently gather<strong>in</strong>g evidence
<strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that the same general techniques
proven to work with struggl<strong>in</strong>g readers
who have average to high IQs are also effective
for students with ID (Allor et al., <strong>in</strong> press;
Browder et al., <strong>in</strong> press).
Read<strong>in</strong>g research has advanced tremendously
<strong>in</strong> recent decades as we have learned
how good readers read <strong>and</strong> how to assist struggl<strong>in</strong>g
readers so that they can become good
readers. Theoretical models of the read<strong>in</strong>g
process reflect that good readers employ multiple
language systems as they fully process
text, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g phonology, orthography, <strong>and</strong>
the mean<strong>in</strong>g of language (Adams, 1990).
Good readers simultaneously process the <strong>in</strong>ternal
structure (i.e., complete spell<strong>in</strong>gs) of
words as they effortlessly read with expression
<strong>and</strong> deeply comprehend the mean<strong>in</strong>g of text
(Adams, 1990; Ehri, 2005). Research on effective
methods for teach<strong>in</strong>g students who struggle
to read is extensive. Effective early read<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>in</strong>terventions <strong>in</strong>clude multiple components
that are explicitly <strong>in</strong>tegrated, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g oral
language, phonological awareness, phonics,
word recognition, fluency, <strong>and</strong> comprehension
(see National Read<strong>in</strong>g Panel, 2000;
Rayner, Foorman, Perfetti, Pesetsky, & Seidenberg,
2001; Snow, Burns, & Griff<strong>in</strong>, 1998).

Typically students with low IQs, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g
those with ID, have been excluded from research
on effective early read<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terventions
(O’Connor et al., <strong>in</strong> press); however, recent
studies <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g these students are demonstrat<strong>in</strong>g
that the same general techniques are
effective for both types of students (see Allor,
Mathes, Jones, & Roberts, <strong>in</strong> press; Browder et
al., <strong>in</strong> press). For some time, we have known
that students with ID are capable of learn<strong>in</strong>g
isolated skills, such as sight word recognition
<strong>and</strong> basic phonics (see Browder, Wakeman,
Spooner, Ahlgrim-Delzell, & Algozz<strong>in</strong>e, 2006;
Browder & X<strong>in</strong>, 1998; Conners, Rosenquist,
Sligh, Atwell, & Kiser, 2006). What is new is
that we are now measur<strong>in</strong>g the impact of comprehensive
programs that address multiple
skills simultaneously <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>clude explicit <strong>in</strong>struction
to teach students to <strong>in</strong>tegrate <strong>and</strong>
apply those skills <strong>in</strong> context. An important
f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g from our research is that students with
ID who received comprehensive read<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>struction,
on average, outperform their peers
on measures of phonological awareness, word
recognition, oral language, vocabulary, <strong>and</strong>
basic comprehension. In other words, when
taught explicitly <strong>and</strong> carefully, most students
<strong>in</strong> our study are able to read at least simple
connected text with mean<strong>in</strong>g, demonstrat<strong>in</strong>g
their ability to successfully apply phonemic
awareness <strong>and</strong> phonics skills (Allor, Mathes,
Jones, & Roberts).
One factor contribut<strong>in</strong>g to the low numbers
of students with ID who learn to read is that
typically teachers of students with ID have
been provided very little tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g about how to
teach read<strong>in</strong>g. College courses focused on
teach<strong>in</strong>g students with ID most often <strong>in</strong>clude
very limited <strong>in</strong>formation about how to teach
read<strong>in</strong>g or no <strong>in</strong>formation at all (Katims,
2000). In this article, we take some prelim<strong>in</strong>ary
steps <strong>in</strong> remedy<strong>in</strong>g this problem by describ<strong>in</strong>g
effective techniques for teach<strong>in</strong>g
early read<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the context of students with
ID who are <strong>in</strong> the primary grades. The central
theme of this article is that read<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>struction
for students with ID must be a carefully orchestrated
<strong>in</strong>tegration of key skills <strong>and</strong> strategies
that are explicitly l<strong>in</strong>ked to mean<strong>in</strong>g. This
article is organized accord<strong>in</strong>g to the major
components of read<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>struction, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g
(a) oral language <strong>and</strong> vocabulary, (b) phonological
awareness, (c) phonics <strong>and</strong> word rec-
ognition, (d) fluency, <strong>and</strong> (e) comprehension.
These are the 5 components identified
by the National Read<strong>in</strong>g Panel with the addition
of oral language, which is particularly
important for students with ID who typically
experience severe deficits <strong>in</strong> oral language
(National Read<strong>in</strong>g Panel, 2000). We provide
specific examples from our research study describ<strong>in</strong>g
how these skills are be<strong>in</strong>g taught to
students with ID, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g how we explicitly
<strong>in</strong>tegrate skills to one another <strong>and</strong> l<strong>in</strong>k skills
to mean<strong>in</strong>g. We provide a brief discussion of
how these multiple str<strong>and</strong>s overlap <strong>and</strong> are
<strong>in</strong>tegrated <strong>in</strong> effective read<strong>in</strong>g programs, such
as the one used <strong>in</strong> our research, Early Interventions
<strong>in</strong> Read<strong>in</strong>g (Allor, Mathes, & Jones, <strong>in</strong>
press; Mathes & Torgesen, 2005; Mathes,
2005). We chose this curriculum because Levels
1 <strong>and</strong> 2 already had a proven track record
of efficacy with other populations (Mathes, et
al., 2005; Tong, Irby, Lara-Alecio, & Mathes,
2008; Vaughn, Cir<strong>in</strong>o, et al., 2006; Vaughn,
L<strong>in</strong>an-Thompson, et al., 2006; Vaughn, L<strong>in</strong>an-
Thompson, Mathes, Duradola, & Cardenas-
Hagan, 2007).
Instructional Str<strong>and</strong>s with<strong>in</strong> Comprehensive
Early Read<strong>in</strong>g Programs
Effective early read<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>struction is comprehensive,
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g multiple str<strong>and</strong>s that are
carefully <strong>and</strong> explicitly taught so that students
will apply multiple skills <strong>and</strong> strategies as they
fluently read with comprehension (see Coyne,
Zipoli, & Ruby, 2006; Carn<strong>in</strong>e, Silbert,
Kame’enui, & Tarver, 2004; O’Connor, 2007).
Before describ<strong>in</strong>g techniques for teach<strong>in</strong>g
each of these str<strong>and</strong>s <strong>in</strong>dividually, we emphasize
the importance of conspicuously teach<strong>in</strong>g
students to <strong>in</strong>tegrate <strong>and</strong> apply skills by teach<strong>in</strong>g
students how skills relate to one another
<strong>and</strong> specifically how to use those skills as they
read connected text. Any one lesson <strong>in</strong>cludes
<strong>in</strong>struction <strong>and</strong> practice <strong>in</strong> multiple str<strong>and</strong>s.
As skill <strong>in</strong> one str<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>creases, that skill is
applied to other str<strong>and</strong>s. To illustrate, here
are two brief examples. In the first example,
students comb<strong>in</strong>e phonemic awareness blend<strong>in</strong>g
skill <strong>and</strong> letter-sound correspondence as
they sound out words. First, students practice
a basic phonemic awareness skill, blend<strong>in</strong>g
spoken phonemes <strong>in</strong>to words. When the
teacher says <strong>in</strong>dividual sounds, /s/ /a/ /t/,
Read<strong>in</strong>g Techniques / 357

the students blend those sounds to form the
word, sat. Then students practice the sounds
of pr<strong>in</strong>ted letters, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the sounds represented
by s, a, <strong>and</strong> t. In early lessons, students
practice both of these skills daily. Once students
beg<strong>in</strong> to develop these skills, blend<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>in</strong>dividual phonemes orally <strong>and</strong> say<strong>in</strong>g the
sounds of a few letter-sound correspondences,
then the teacher <strong>in</strong>tegrates these skills <strong>in</strong>to a
new activity <strong>in</strong> which they sound out pr<strong>in</strong>ted
words, such as sat. The teacher uses language
<strong>in</strong> the new activity that is consistent with the
language <strong>in</strong> the two separate activities, clear<strong>in</strong>g
l<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g activities. Teach<strong>in</strong>g students to
transfer skills from one activity to another is
extremely important for students with low
IQs, who typically do not spontaneously apply
learned skills to new activities. A second example
of skill <strong>in</strong>tegration is connect<strong>in</strong>g the recognition
of <strong>in</strong>dividual words to the comprehension
of sentences. As students ga<strong>in</strong> skill <strong>in</strong>
recogniz<strong>in</strong>g sight words <strong>and</strong> decodable words,
they practice read<strong>in</strong>g these words from word
cards <strong>and</strong> use the cards to build logical, mean<strong>in</strong>gful
sentences. Although these examples
may seem simple, design<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>struction that
follows a sequence with<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> across str<strong>and</strong>s
while foster<strong>in</strong>g successful <strong>in</strong>tegration of skills
is challeng<strong>in</strong>g, particularly when teach<strong>in</strong>g students
with ID who often experience extreme
difficulty reta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g skills <strong>and</strong> apply<strong>in</strong>g them.
In each of the sections below, we discuss develop<strong>in</strong>g
skills <strong>in</strong> isolation <strong>and</strong> then provide
brief examples of how these skills are connected
to other str<strong>and</strong>s.
Three Students
As we describe the teach<strong>in</strong>g techniques, we
will refer to three specific students who participated
<strong>in</strong> our research study, Jacob, Carl,
<strong>and</strong> Rachel. Jacob, a student with Williams’
Syndrome <strong>and</strong> an IQ <strong>in</strong> the moderate range of
ID (44), began the project when he was 8
years old. Carl, whose IQ is also <strong>in</strong> the moderate
range of ID (55), began the project
when he was 9 years old. Rachel, whose IQ is
<strong>in</strong> the mild range of ID (63), began the
project when she was 6 years old. All three
students have participated <strong>in</strong> the research
project for approximately three years. We
chose to highlight these three students because
they reflect a range of performance
with<strong>in</strong> our study. It is important to mention
that it is difficult to identify truly representative
cases as students with ID are highly variable
<strong>and</strong> must be considered <strong>in</strong>dividually.
However, all three of these students faced significant
challenges <strong>in</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g to read due to
memory <strong>and</strong> language deficits, but all three
have made important progress. Although
each student is friendly <strong>and</strong> generally eager to
please, when they began the project they all
experienced significant difficulty stay<strong>in</strong>g on
task <strong>and</strong> required consistent re<strong>in</strong>forcement to
participate fully <strong>in</strong> lessons. Early <strong>in</strong> the study
each of these students was taught <strong>in</strong> a small
group of 2 to 3 students; however, by the end
of the study Jacob <strong>and</strong> Rachel were both be<strong>in</strong>g
taught <strong>in</strong>dividually. Jacob is be<strong>in</strong>g taught <strong>in</strong>dividually
because the students with whom he
was orig<strong>in</strong>ally grouped made much faster
progress than he did. Rachel is be<strong>in</strong>g taught
<strong>in</strong>dividually because of schedul<strong>in</strong>g conflicts.
Techniques for Teach<strong>in</strong>g Oral Language <strong>and</strong>
Vocabulary
Oral language <strong>and</strong> vocabulary underlie all
other str<strong>and</strong>s of read<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>struction. The
mean<strong>in</strong>g of our spoken language should be
explicitly connected to all read<strong>in</strong>g activities,
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g phonemic awareness <strong>and</strong> phonics;
however, dur<strong>in</strong>g the early stages of read<strong>in</strong>g
development when students are able to read
very little, if any, text, it is critically important
to focus on the development of oral language
through books read aloud to them. In our
research, we selected narrative <strong>and</strong> expository
books to read to the students. We targeted
specific vocabulary words <strong>and</strong> provided students
with structured opportunities to talk
about the books read to them.
Us<strong>in</strong>g Read Alouds to Foster Vocabulary
Development
358 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
In teach<strong>in</strong>g vocabulary, we employed one or
more of several techniques, depend<strong>in</strong>g on
which technique best fit the vocabulary word.
When appropriate, we used kid-friendly def<strong>in</strong>itions,
such as Protect means to keep from be<strong>in</strong>g
hurt. We also used pictures, videos, <strong>and</strong> gestures
to demonstrate the mean<strong>in</strong>gs of words.
Words were practiced with a simple game of
thumbs up or down dur<strong>in</strong>g which students

applied the vocabulary word to a given situation.
For example, Jacob successfully participated
<strong>in</strong> this activity as he learned the mean<strong>in</strong>g
of the words disturb <strong>and</strong> delight. Jacob
correctly responded as his teacher asked him,
“Give me a thumbs up if what I say might
disturb someone who is sleep<strong>in</strong>g.” She then
listed specific situations one at a time as Jason
responded with a thumbs up or down: turn<strong>in</strong>g
on a bright light, play<strong>in</strong>g loud music, whisper<strong>in</strong>g,
etc. As stories were read, students listened
for <strong>and</strong> discussed the target words. Teachers
encouraged students to use these words appropriately
<strong>in</strong> complete, spoken sentences.
Teachers provided scaffold<strong>in</strong>g by us<strong>in</strong>g target
words <strong>in</strong> appropriate sentences <strong>and</strong> extended
student language by model<strong>in</strong>g sentences that
built on student sentences or phrases.
Us<strong>in</strong>g Read Alouds to Foster Oral Language
Development
Most often books were read aloud to students
on three separate occasions. Prior to a story
be<strong>in</strong>g read for the first time, teachers guided
the students to predict story events <strong>and</strong> describe
what was happen<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the pictures.
The first story read<strong>in</strong>g was followed by brief
discussion. The second time a story was read
the teacher stopped occasionally <strong>and</strong> encouraged
discussion of events <strong>and</strong> vocabulary
with<strong>in</strong> the story. After the third read<strong>in</strong>g of a
story, the teacher guided discussion through
questions designed to assess student comprehension
<strong>and</strong> provide opportunities to develop
oral language. Dur<strong>in</strong>g all discussion, teachers
supported student language by restat<strong>in</strong>g student
responses, extend<strong>in</strong>g student language,
<strong>and</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g targeted vocabulary words <strong>in</strong> sentences.
The primary goal was to improve expressive
language skills, specifically focus<strong>in</strong>g
on <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g sentence length <strong>and</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g targeted
vocabulary words <strong>in</strong> context. For example,
if a student po<strong>in</strong>ted to the cat <strong>and</strong> the girl
<strong>in</strong> a book say<strong>in</strong>g, “Cat, girl,” the teacher would
say, “The cat lived with the little girl.” Then
the teacher would encourage the student to
repeat the new sentence. Jacob, Carl, <strong>and</strong>
Rachel all participated <strong>in</strong> these activities.
Integrat<strong>in</strong>g Skills
One technique we used to relate oral language
to pr<strong>in</strong>t was through an activity we
called Po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>and</strong> Read. Simple sentences related
to the storybook read aloud were pr<strong>in</strong>ted
<strong>in</strong> large text with picture support. Dur<strong>in</strong>g this
activity the teacher would first read the sentence
to the students, po<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g to each word as
it was read. Then the students repeated the
sentence as they po<strong>in</strong>ted. In this manner, students
were build<strong>in</strong>g oral language, relat<strong>in</strong>g
oral language to pr<strong>in</strong>t, <strong>and</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g exposed to
concepts of pr<strong>in</strong>t such as text be<strong>in</strong>g read from
left to right. Initially, Carl was unable to repeat
sentences with more than two words, but as he
practiced, he was able to “po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>and</strong> read” the
sentences <strong>in</strong> the curriculum, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g those
with four to seven words. Jacob <strong>and</strong> Rachel
experienced more success with this activity.
The purpose of the activity was not to identify
specific pr<strong>in</strong>ted words, but to recognize that
pr<strong>in</strong>t is mean<strong>in</strong>gful <strong>and</strong> related to spoken language.
Techniques for Teach<strong>in</strong>g Phonological
Awareness
Focus<strong>in</strong>g on Key Skills
In teach<strong>in</strong>g phonological awareness to the students
<strong>in</strong> our research study, we employed several
techniques. First, we chose to focus specifically
on blend<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> segment<strong>in</strong>g at the
phoneme level. For younger students, teachers
should work with larger units of spoken
language (syllables with<strong>in</strong> words or words
with<strong>in</strong> sentences), but currently research has
not proven that these levels of phonological
awareness must be mastered prior to develop<strong>in</strong>g
phonemic awareness (i.e. phonological
awareness at the phoneme level). Therefore,
<strong>in</strong> our research with students with ID who
were <strong>in</strong> the primary grades we chose to focus
most of the <strong>in</strong>structional time on the two most
important phonemic awareness (PA) skills to
develop, blend<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> segment<strong>in</strong>g. Although
we used a variety of activities to keep student
engagement high while they practiced blend<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>and</strong> segment<strong>in</strong>g, our rout<strong>in</strong>es <strong>and</strong> teacher
language were consistent. When blend<strong>in</strong>g, the
teacher said the <strong>in</strong>dividual phonemes one
sound at a time <strong>and</strong> the child blended those
sounds <strong>in</strong>to the correct word. The script <strong>in</strong>
our <strong>in</strong>tervention used the follow<strong>in</strong>g term<strong>in</strong>ology:
Read<strong>in</strong>g Techniques / 359

Teacher: Now we are go<strong>in</strong>g to play Say the
Word. Remember, Maxwell (puppet) can say
words only <strong>in</strong> a funny way. Whenever he says
a word, it is stretched. You have to tell me
what word he said the fast way. Listen.
/mmmaaat/. What word? (cue students)
Students: mat
When segment<strong>in</strong>g, the teacher said the whole
word <strong>and</strong> the child segmented the word, say<strong>in</strong>g
each phoneme one at a time. The script
for segment<strong>in</strong>g was as follows:
Teacher: Now we are go<strong>in</strong>g to play Stretch the
Word. Remember, I will say a word, <strong>and</strong> you
will tell me the sounds you hear <strong>in</strong> the word.
Sit. (pause) Stretch sit.
Students: /sss/ /iii/ /t/
Focus<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>struction on these two critical skills
<strong>and</strong> keep<strong>in</strong>g teacher language consistent was
successful with the students <strong>in</strong> our study, although
they required extensive practice.
Stretch <strong>and</strong> Connect
A second technique we found to be successful
<strong>in</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g phonemic awareness was stretch<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>and</strong> connect<strong>in</strong>g phonemes dur<strong>in</strong>g the activities.
We found our students much more
readily blended words when we stretched cont<strong>in</strong>uous
sounds (such as /fff/ /mmm/ /sss/)
for 1–2 seconds <strong>and</strong> connected cont<strong>in</strong>uous
sounds to the sound follow<strong>in</strong>g the cont<strong>in</strong>uous
sound. For example, it was easier for students
to blend /s/ /a/ /t/ <strong>in</strong>to sat when the teacher
stretched the cont<strong>in</strong>uous sounds <strong>and</strong> did not
stop between sounds (i.e. /sssaaat/). It was
important not to pause after cont<strong>in</strong>uous
sounds. We also used stretch<strong>in</strong>g sounds as a
method for provid<strong>in</strong>g scaffold<strong>in</strong>g. For example,
if a student was unable to say the first
sound <strong>in</strong> sun, the teacher asked aga<strong>in</strong>, “What
is the first sound <strong>in</strong> /sssun/?” stretch<strong>in</strong>g the
/sss/ for emphasis. A word of caution worth
not<strong>in</strong>g is that it is important to carefully pronounce
sounds <strong>in</strong> isolation just as they are
pronounced <strong>in</strong> words. Speech therapists,
read<strong>in</strong>g coaches, or other read<strong>in</strong>g specialists
are excellent resources for assistance. For example,
students will f<strong>in</strong>d it difficult to blend
/suh/ /a/ /tuh/ <strong>in</strong>to sat. In other words, it is
important not to distort sounds by add<strong>in</strong>g
/uh/ to the end of the consonant as many
people do without realiz<strong>in</strong>g it.
Careful Sequenc<strong>in</strong>g
A third technique was carefully <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the
difficulty of the blend<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> segment<strong>in</strong>g
tasks. Initially, students blended <strong>and</strong> segmented
words at the onset-rime level. At this
level, students segmented by identify<strong>in</strong>g the
first sound <strong>in</strong> a spoken word (teacher: What’s
the first sound <strong>in</strong> sun? student: /sss/). When
blend<strong>in</strong>g, the teacher provides the onset <strong>and</strong>
rime before the child says the word (teacher:
/sss/ /un/, What word? student: sun). Gradually,
students blended <strong>and</strong> segmented one
phoneme at a time (Say the Word <strong>and</strong> Stretch
<strong>and</strong> Blend, as above). A carefully designed curriculum
should also gradually <strong>in</strong>crease the
phonological difficulty of the words be<strong>in</strong>g
blended <strong>and</strong> segmented. For example, words
with cont<strong>in</strong>uous sounds <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>itial position
(e.g., sat, man) are easier to blend <strong>and</strong> segment
than words beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g with stop sounds
(e.g., tag, bat).
Mak<strong>in</strong>g Phonemic Awareness Activities
Mean<strong>in</strong>gful
360 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
PA was l<strong>in</strong>ked to oral language by l<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g
mean<strong>in</strong>g to the words practiced dur<strong>in</strong>g the
activities. We did this <strong>in</strong> several ways. Early on,
we used a set of picture cards that were carefully
developed to represent words that gradually
<strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong> phonological difficulty, but
were also clearly recognizable from the picture.
For example, the teacher asked, “Which
word beg<strong>in</strong>s with /sssun/?” <strong>and</strong> the students
responded by po<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g to the picture of the
sun. For some students we supplemented the
<strong>in</strong>tervention with poster scenes <strong>and</strong> practiced
blend<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> segment<strong>in</strong>g words related to the
scene. As needed, teachers referred to the
scene to support the mean<strong>in</strong>g of the words
be<strong>in</strong>g practiced (i.e., after blend<strong>in</strong>g run, the
teacher would po<strong>in</strong>t to the boy runn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong>
say a sentence, such as “The boy likes to run <strong>in</strong>
the park.”). As students progressed, words
were practiced <strong>in</strong> the PA activities prior to
be<strong>in</strong>g read <strong>in</strong> connected text.

Jacob, Carl, <strong>and</strong> Rachel Develop Phonemic
Awareness
Jacob, Carl, <strong>and</strong> Rachel each responded well
to PA <strong>in</strong>struction, though their progress was
very slow. Jacob began the study with some PA
skills, scor<strong>in</strong>g approximately 25 segments per
m<strong>in</strong>ute on the phoneme segmentation fluency
(PSF) measure of Dynamic Indicators of
Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS; Good &
Kam<strong>in</strong>ski, 2002), while Carl <strong>and</strong> Rachel began
the study scor<strong>in</strong>g 0 on this measure. Even
though Jacob began the study with some PA,
he struggled to <strong>in</strong>crease his skills <strong>in</strong> this area
because of severe deficits <strong>in</strong> short-term memory.
However, with<strong>in</strong> about 5 months he
reached the benchmark <strong>and</strong> with<strong>in</strong> approximately
10 months, his scores never dipped
below benchmark aga<strong>in</strong>, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g he had
clearly mastered the skill. Carl <strong>and</strong> Rachel
responded more slowly to <strong>in</strong>struction <strong>in</strong> PA,
requir<strong>in</strong>g extensive practice <strong>and</strong> scaffold<strong>in</strong>g at
the earliest levels of PA. With Carl <strong>and</strong> Rachel,
we used picture support <strong>and</strong> extensive practice
<strong>and</strong> scaffold<strong>in</strong>g at the onset-rime level of
PA. Carl began to show progress after approximately
5 months of <strong>in</strong>struction <strong>and</strong> now performs
very near the benchmark of 35. Rachel
began to show progress on PSF after approximately
one year of the <strong>in</strong>tervention <strong>and</strong>
reached mastery a few months later.
Techniques for Teach<strong>in</strong>g Phonics <strong>and</strong> Word
Recognition
Focus<strong>in</strong>g on Key Skills
Like PA <strong>in</strong>struction, phonics <strong>and</strong> word recognition
activities focused on several key skills
that were <strong>in</strong>tegrated over time <strong>and</strong> gradually
<strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong> difficulty. The first skill was basic
letter-sound correspondence which began
with students identify<strong>in</strong>g the most common
sound of <strong>in</strong>dividual letters <strong>and</strong> gradually students
learned the sounds for various letter
patterns. Second, students were taught to read
words sound by sound. These words were
made up of the letters <strong>and</strong> patterns that had
been taught, with students <strong>in</strong>itially read<strong>in</strong>g
words <strong>in</strong> which each letter represented its
most common sound (ex. ran, last, milk, sun,
etc.) <strong>and</strong> gradually <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> difficulty as
students learned long vowel patterns (ex. like,
ra<strong>in</strong>, light) <strong>and</strong> variant vowel patterns (ex.
sound, claw, clown). F<strong>in</strong>ally, students learned
high frequency words by sight if the words
were irregularly spelled (ex. was, have) or if
the sounds <strong>in</strong> the word had not been taught
yet (ex. the word on is taught before the sound
for short o is taught).
Teach<strong>in</strong>g Letter-Sound Correspondence
Although teach<strong>in</strong>g letter-sound correspondence
is fairly straightforward, we do wish to
highlight a few teach<strong>in</strong>g techniques that are
important. As with most early read<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terventions,
we used mean<strong>in</strong>gful mnemonic
clues when <strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g new letter sounds to
l<strong>in</strong>k the abstract sound to someth<strong>in</strong>g concrete
(ex. nose associated with n). We also provided
extensive, cumulative review through a quick
activity dur<strong>in</strong>g which students simply pronounced
the sound for the letter on the chart
when the teacher touched under the letter.
To facilitate memory <strong>and</strong> the transfer of lettersound
correspondence to the sound<strong>in</strong>g out
strategy, teachers held a f<strong>in</strong>ger under the letter
for two seconds when the letter was a cont<strong>in</strong>uous
sound (ex. /mmm/) <strong>and</strong> tapped under
the letter if it was a stop sound (ex. /t/).
In this way, students became accustomed to
stretch<strong>in</strong>g sounds when they saw letters that
represented cont<strong>in</strong>uous sounds <strong>and</strong> more easily
stretched those sounds dur<strong>in</strong>g sound<strong>in</strong>g
out activities. Our curriculum also sequenced
letter-sound <strong>in</strong>troduction carefully, <strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g
the most common sounds early, <strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g
easier sounds prior to more difficult
sounds, <strong>and</strong> separat<strong>in</strong>g confus<strong>in</strong>g letters <strong>and</strong>
sounds.
Jacob, Carl, <strong>and</strong> Rachel Develop Letter-Sound
Correspondence
At the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of the study, Jacob, Carl, <strong>and</strong>
Rachel knew very few, if any, letter sounds. We
measured their progress on this skill us<strong>in</strong>g
DIBELS Nonsense Word Fluency (NWF) <strong>and</strong>
all three consistently scored 0 on this measure
early <strong>in</strong> our study. Jacob’s scores began to
improve somewhat after only one month of
<strong>in</strong>struction, but he did not reach the benchmark
of 50 letter sounds per m<strong>in</strong>ute until he
had participated <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>tervention for approximately
two <strong>and</strong> a half years. Carl strug-
Read<strong>in</strong>g Techniques / 361

gled with letter-sound correspondence because
of severe speech problems prevent<strong>in</strong>g
him from articulat<strong>in</strong>g sounds correctly. Carl’s
speech therapist <strong>and</strong> teacher used gestures to
help Carl remember sounds <strong>and</strong> pronounce
them correctly. With<strong>in</strong> about 5 months of <strong>in</strong>struction,
Carl’s NWF score began to <strong>in</strong>crease,
<strong>and</strong> he is currently very near mastery on this
measure. Rachel’s NWF scores began to improve
somewhat after a few months of the
<strong>in</strong>tervention, but she did not reach the benchmark
of 50 until she had participated <strong>in</strong> the
<strong>in</strong>tervention for almost two years.
Teach<strong>in</strong>g Students to Read Words Sound by
Sound
In our curriculum, students are taught the
strategy of read<strong>in</strong>g words sound by sound (i.e.,
sound<strong>in</strong>g out). As described earlier, this strategy
requires students to apply their knowledge
of letter sounds <strong>and</strong> PA. As letter sounds are
taught, students quickly apply letter sound
knowledge to words made up of those letters.
The sequence is also carefully organized to
gradually <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> difficulty. Initially, the
teacher leads the pac<strong>in</strong>g of sound<strong>in</strong>g out, requir<strong>in</strong>g
students to slowly say each sound before
say<strong>in</strong>g the entire word. As student skill
with sound<strong>in</strong>g out <strong>in</strong>creases, the amount of
time the teacher allows for sound<strong>in</strong>g out decreases.
Eventually the students no longer say
the sounds aloud, but are taught to say the
sounds only when they do not know the word
immediately. Later <strong>in</strong> the curriculum, students
learn to become flexible decoders. In
other words, they are taught that many words
do not sound out quite right, but that sound<strong>in</strong>g
out usually produces a pronunciation that
is close enough to figure out the word.
Integrat<strong>in</strong>g Phonemic Awareness <strong>and</strong> Word
Recognition Skills
A technique we used to assist students <strong>in</strong> transferr<strong>in</strong>g
PA skills to pr<strong>in</strong>t was Stretch <strong>and</strong> Spell.
Us<strong>in</strong>g the same term<strong>in</strong>ology used dur<strong>in</strong>g PA
activities, students stretched each word <strong>and</strong>
wrote the correct spell<strong>in</strong>g of the word. After
participat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>tervention for approximately
one year, Jacob was stretch<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong>
spell<strong>in</strong>g words such as sack, star, <strong>and</strong> help. As
Jacob wrote each word, he repeated the
sounds one at a time, writ<strong>in</strong>g the letters that
represented each sound. This technique
l<strong>in</strong>ked PA (i.e., segment<strong>in</strong>g), letter-sound correspondence,
<strong>and</strong> sound<strong>in</strong>g out words.
Jacob, Carl, <strong>and</strong> Rachel Develop Sound<strong>in</strong>g Out
Skills
Jacob, Carl, <strong>and</strong> Rachel have all made
progress with sound<strong>in</strong>g out, but to vary<strong>in</strong>g
degrees. Early <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>tervention, sound<strong>in</strong>g
out was a challenge for both Jacob <strong>and</strong> Carl,
as they struggled with severe deficits <strong>in</strong> shortterm
memory. While sound<strong>in</strong>g out a word,
they would frequently forget the first sound,
so mat became at <strong>and</strong> ran became an. Currently,
Jacob is able to read many words without
sound<strong>in</strong>g them out first, though Carl cont<strong>in</strong>ues
to struggle <strong>in</strong> this area. Rachel has
made excellent progress with this strategy <strong>and</strong>
is now learn<strong>in</strong>g to decode words more flexibly,
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g multisyllabic words.
Teach<strong>in</strong>g High Frequency Sight Words
362 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
The last skill <strong>in</strong> the word recognition str<strong>and</strong>
was high frequency sight words. These words
were presented as tricky words that should be
recognized quickly. Once students recognized
letters, a few sight words were <strong>in</strong>troduced, but
the pace of the <strong>in</strong>troduction of sight words
<strong>in</strong>creased as phonics skills developed. Jacob
struggled to keep up with the other students
<strong>in</strong> his group. His teacher provided him with
extra time to practice these words so he could
rema<strong>in</strong> with his <strong>in</strong>structional group. Carl <strong>and</strong>
Rachel also needed extensive practice with
these words, but progressed at least as quickly
as the other students <strong>in</strong> their <strong>in</strong>structional
group. Teachers assisted students <strong>in</strong> apply<strong>in</strong>g
this skill dur<strong>in</strong>g text read<strong>in</strong>g. They provided
scaffold<strong>in</strong>g by rem<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g students that a word
was a “tricky word” <strong>and</strong> ask<strong>in</strong>g them to read it
fast, supply<strong>in</strong>g the word when needed.
Mak<strong>in</strong>g Word Recognition Activities Mean<strong>in</strong>gful
One technique we used to l<strong>in</strong>k mean<strong>in</strong>g to
word recognition activities was build<strong>in</strong>g sentences
with word cards. Although not specifically
found <strong>in</strong> our <strong>in</strong>tervention, our teachers
adapted sentences from the decodable text,
writ<strong>in</strong>g the words on sentence strips <strong>and</strong> cut-

t<strong>in</strong>g them apart. Jacob responded particularly
well to this activity as he would frequently be
able to read words <strong>in</strong> lists or from cards, but
cont<strong>in</strong>ued to struggle with those same words
<strong>in</strong> connected text. By build<strong>in</strong>g his own sentences,
he practiced read<strong>in</strong>g words <strong>in</strong> a mean<strong>in</strong>gful
context. His teacher provided scaffold<strong>in</strong>g
dur<strong>in</strong>g this activity, but this scaffold<strong>in</strong>g was
gradually decreased as his ability to make
mean<strong>in</strong>gful sentences improved. In one lesson,
his teacher gave him four words (Zip, a,
rabbit, is) to use to build a sentence, ask<strong>in</strong>g
him to read them all <strong>and</strong> build a sentence that
made sense. His teacher prompted him to
read all four words aloud before mak<strong>in</strong>g the
sentence. He first made <strong>and</strong> read, “A rabbit is
Zip,” but immediately recognized that this did
not make sense. The teacher provided further
scaffold<strong>in</strong>g by ask<strong>in</strong>g him, “How could you
make it make sense?” <strong>and</strong> “If you want to tell
about Zip, what should come first?” Then he
made <strong>and</strong> read, “Is a Zip rabbit?” He immediately
realized it did not make sense. His
teacher asked aga<strong>in</strong>, “What should come first
if you want to tell about Zip?” “Where is first
position?” He then moved Zip to the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g
of the sentence <strong>and</strong> made “Zip is a rabbit.”
He then made the next sentence without
assistance, “A truck is <strong>in</strong> the mud.”
Techniques for Teach<strong>in</strong>g Fluency
Teach<strong>in</strong>g Word Level Fluency
Several techniques were used <strong>in</strong> our study
to improve fluency. First, the word level activities
just described <strong>in</strong>cluded techniques to
gradually <strong>in</strong>crease student fluency with <strong>in</strong>dividual
words. Dur<strong>in</strong>g these activities, teachers
prompted students to gradually <strong>in</strong>crease the
speed with which they were able to recognize
whole words. For example, students were <strong>in</strong>structed
to read the words “the fast way” when
they did not need to sound out the word. This
specific prompt was very important as many of
the students <strong>in</strong> our study cont<strong>in</strong>ued to read
words sound by sound even when they were
able to identify the word without sound<strong>in</strong>g
out. Many of the students <strong>in</strong> our research
project, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Jacob, Carl, <strong>and</strong> Rachel
needed to be taught when to use the sound<strong>in</strong>g
out technique <strong>and</strong> when it was no longer necessary
(i.e., when you knew the word).
Teach<strong>in</strong>g Passage Fluency
Other techniques used to build fluency were
read<strong>in</strong>g decodable text, unison read<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong>
repeat<strong>in</strong>g decodable storybooks until fluency
goals were reached. Early <strong>in</strong> the curriculum,
read<strong>in</strong>g connected, decodable text was a part
of every lesson, with the text gradually <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>in</strong> complexity as students learned new
skills. Over time, the text became <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly
more engag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> challeng<strong>in</strong>g. Teachers
modeled good pac<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> guided students to
gradually <strong>in</strong>crease their pace dur<strong>in</strong>g teacherled
unison read<strong>in</strong>g. Students also read decodable
storybooks two to three times until predeterm<strong>in</strong>ed
fluency criteria were met. Across
time, the criteria required <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly faster
read<strong>in</strong>g, even as the text difficulty became
more complex. Both Jacob <strong>and</strong> Carl struggled
to meet these goals <strong>and</strong> required extensive
practice with stories. Rachel consistently met
fluency goals dur<strong>in</strong>g lessons.
Jacob, Carl, <strong>and</strong> Rachel Develop Fluency
All three students have made important
progress toward becom<strong>in</strong>g fluent readers,
though their rates of growth are quite different.
Carl has made the least amount of
progress <strong>in</strong> this area. After participat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the
<strong>in</strong>tervention for approximately one year, he
began to show slight improvement on DIBELS
oral read<strong>in</strong>g fluency (ORF) passages on end<strong>in</strong>g
first-grade level. However, he is currently
far from the end<strong>in</strong>g first-grade level benchmark
of 40, as his recent scores are approximately
10 words per m<strong>in</strong>ute. Jacob has made
more progress, though he showed no improvement
on first-grade ORF passages until
he had participated <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>tervention for
about two years. Currently he is read<strong>in</strong>g approximately
36 words per m<strong>in</strong>ute, which is
near the first-grade end of the year benchmark
of 40 words per m<strong>in</strong>ute.
Rachel has made excellent progress <strong>in</strong> fluency.
Although she did not show any improvement
<strong>in</strong> ORF until after two years of <strong>in</strong>tervention,
s<strong>in</strong>ce then her rate of improvement
has been remarkable. Currently, she is <strong>in</strong> 4 th
grade <strong>and</strong> work<strong>in</strong>g toward grade-level goals.
She met end<strong>in</strong>g first-grade level goals <strong>in</strong> just
over two years of <strong>in</strong>tervention. After three
years of <strong>in</strong>tervention, she met end<strong>in</strong>g second-
Read<strong>in</strong>g Techniques / 363

grade level goals with scores higher than 90
words per m<strong>in</strong>ute. Recently, she scored 142
words per m<strong>in</strong>ute on an end<strong>in</strong>g third-grade
level passage, well above the third-grade
benchmark of 110 words per m<strong>in</strong>ute. Currently,
she is be<strong>in</strong>g tested on fourth-grade
level passages, with recent scores of 86 <strong>and</strong> 93.
Techniques for Teach<strong>in</strong>g Read<strong>in</strong>g
Comprehension
Early Comprehension Development
As soon as students read connected text, simple
strategies are taught to facilitate comprehension
of sentences <strong>and</strong> then passages; however,
until basic word recognition skills are
mastered, comprehension is primarily taught
through storybooks read aloud. We have already
discussed how we use these storybooks
to develop oral language <strong>and</strong> vocabulary, but
we also use these read alouds to build background
knowledge essential for comprehension.
The storybooks were selected accord<strong>in</strong>g
to themes (e.g., animal homes, sea animals,
gett<strong>in</strong>g along with others, etc.) <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>clude
both narrative <strong>and</strong> expository text. Comprehension
strategies taught early <strong>in</strong> the curriculum
are applied through the books read orally
to the students <strong>and</strong> the decodable texts read
by the students. Early strategies <strong>in</strong>clude basic
story grammar, sequenc<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> the use of
simple graphic organizers.
Later Comprehension Development
As word recognition skill <strong>in</strong>creases, the focus
of comprehension is on text students read
themselves. Like the read alouds used early <strong>in</strong>
the curriculum, text <strong>in</strong> the later portion of the
curriculum is grouped by themes to build
background knowledge. Novels <strong>and</strong> expository
text provide students with general knowledge
related to content areas, such as social
studies. Through these themes students build
knowledge <strong>and</strong> apply comprehension strategies.
Strategies taught early <strong>in</strong> the curriculum
cont<strong>in</strong>ue <strong>and</strong> new strategies are added. These
<strong>in</strong>clude mak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> check<strong>in</strong>g predictions, sequenc<strong>in</strong>g,
mak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>ferences, story grammar
for narrative text, content webb<strong>in</strong>g for <strong>in</strong>formational
text, <strong>and</strong> writ<strong>in</strong>g summaries. In one
lesson on <strong>in</strong>ferenc<strong>in</strong>g, students review what
they have learned about mounta<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> a previous
lesson <strong>and</strong> then read text about animals
to <strong>in</strong>fer where different animals live. For example,
the text about mounta<strong>in</strong> goats <strong>in</strong>cludes
clues that help students figure out
that mounta<strong>in</strong> goats live on the rocky slopes
of mounta<strong>in</strong>s (i.e., mounta<strong>in</strong> goats use their
hooves to climb rocks <strong>and</strong> steep slopes).
Jacob, Carl, <strong>and</strong> Rachel Develop Comprehension
Jacob, Carl, <strong>and</strong> Rachel are able to read text
with comprehension at levels at least commensurate
with their oral language ability. They
consistently demonstrate their underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g
of stories <strong>and</strong> expository text, answer<strong>in</strong>g literal
comprehension questions <strong>and</strong> discuss<strong>in</strong>g the
details from text. As would be expected, their
comprehension is better when text is more
concrete <strong>and</strong> familiar, rather than abstract
<strong>and</strong> unfamiliar. It is also not surpris<strong>in</strong>g that
these students struggle with <strong>in</strong>ferential comprehension;
however, their ability to apply basic
strategies is gradually improv<strong>in</strong>g. In spite
of their significant challenges with oral language,
all three students are read<strong>in</strong>g with basic
levels of comprehension.
Conclusion
364 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
The purpose of this article is to provide teachers
of students with ID specific <strong>in</strong>formation
about practical, research-based techniques for
teach<strong>in</strong>g their students to read. As Jacob, Carl,
<strong>and</strong> Rachel illustrate, students with ID who
face significant challenges can make important
progress <strong>in</strong> early read<strong>in</strong>g skills. The curriculum
<strong>and</strong> techniques that are effective for
students with much higher IQs are also effective
for students like Jacob, Carl, <strong>and</strong> Rachel,
but they must be implemented with high
degrees of fidelity by skilled teachers. Curriculum
<strong>and</strong> techniques should provide for
explicit, systematic <strong>in</strong>struction that is comprehensive
<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>cludes extensive cumulative review.
Further, students should be explicitly
taught how to <strong>in</strong>tegrate <strong>and</strong> apply strategies
<strong>in</strong> the context of read<strong>in</strong>g connected text. Unfortunately,
most teachers of students with
ID receive very little tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g about effective
techniques for teach<strong>in</strong>g read<strong>in</strong>g. This article
is only one step toward provid<strong>in</strong>g these teachers
with specific guidance. Obviously, teachers

cannot provide this type of <strong>in</strong>struction without
adequate support. We encourage teachers
to seek out additional resources (Coyne et al.,
2006; Carn<strong>in</strong>e et al., 2004; Kame’enui, Carn<strong>in</strong>e,
Dixon, Simmons, & Coyne, 2002), <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g
those that focus on oral language <strong>and</strong>
vocabulary (e.g., Arnold & Whitehurst, 1994;
Coyne, Simmons, Kame’enui, & Stoolmiller,
2004), word recognition (e.g., O’Connor,
2007) <strong>and</strong> comprehension (e.g., Kl<strong>in</strong>gner,
Vaughn, & Boardman, 2007). In addition to
effective curricular materials <strong>and</strong> tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g,
teachers need access to educators with expertise
<strong>in</strong> read<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> behavior who can assist
them <strong>in</strong> tailor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>struction to meet the
needs of their students <strong>and</strong> provid<strong>in</strong>g
the positive behavioral support necessary for
students to participate fully <strong>in</strong> lessons. We also
wish to emphasize the importance of persistence
on the part of the students <strong>and</strong> teachers.
The journeys of Jacob, Carl, Rachel, <strong>and</strong> their
teachers have been ones of patience, dedication
<strong>and</strong> perseverance. F<strong>in</strong>ally, we urge teachers
to make all aspects of their read<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>struction
as mean<strong>in</strong>gful as possible. Letter sounds
should be taught for the purpose of apply<strong>in</strong>g
those sounds to words that mean someth<strong>in</strong>g to
students. If students with ID are to underst<strong>and</strong>
what they read, it is imperative that read<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>in</strong>struction be l<strong>in</strong>ked to mean<strong>in</strong>g that is relevant
to them.
References
Adams, M. J. (1990). Beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g to read: Th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong>
learn<strong>in</strong>g about pr<strong>in</strong>t. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts
Institute of Technology.
Allor, J. H., Mathes, P. G., & Jones, F. G. (<strong>in</strong> press).
Early <strong>in</strong>terventions <strong>in</strong> read<strong>in</strong>g: Foundation level. Columbus,
OH: SRA/McGraw-Hill.
Allor, J. H., Mathes, P. G., Jones, F. G., & Roberts,
J. K. (<strong>in</strong> press). Teach<strong>in</strong>g students with moderate
<strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities to read: An experimental
exam<strong>in</strong>ation of a comprehensive read<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tervention.
<strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong>
<strong>Disabilities</strong>.
Arnold, D. S., & Whitehurst, G. J. (1994). Accelerat<strong>in</strong>g
language development through picture
read<strong>in</strong>g: A summary of dialogic read<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> its
effects. In D. K. Dick<strong>in</strong>son (Ed.), Bridges to literacy:
Children, families, <strong>and</strong> school (pp. 102–128). Cambridge,
MA: Blackwell.
Browder, D. M., Ahlgrim-Delzell, L., Courtade, G.,
Gibbs, S. L., & Flowers, C. (2008). Evaluation of
the effectiveness of an early literacy program for
students with significant developmental disabilities.
Exceptional Children, 75, 33–52.
Browder, D. M., Wakeman, S. Y., Spooner, F., Ahlgrim-Delzell,
L., & Algozz<strong>in</strong>e, B. (2006). Research
on read<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>struction for <strong>in</strong>dividuals with significant
cognitive disabilities. Exceptional Children, 72,
392–408.
Browder, D. M., & X<strong>in</strong>, Y. P. (1998). A meta-analysis
<strong>and</strong> review of sight word research <strong>and</strong> its implications
for teach<strong>in</strong>g functional read<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>in</strong>dividuals
with moderate <strong>and</strong> severe disabilities. The
Journal of Special <strong>Education</strong>, 32, 130–153.
Carn<strong>in</strong>e, D. W., Silbert, J., Kame’enui, E. J., &
Tarver, S. G. (2004). Direct <strong>in</strong>struction read<strong>in</strong>g (4th
ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill
Prentice Hall.
Conners, F. A., Rosenquist, C. J., Sligh, A. C., Atwell,
J. A., & Kiser, T. (2006). Phonological read<strong>in</strong>g
skills acquisition by children with mental retardation.
Research <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>, 27, 121–
137.
Coyne, M. D., Simmons, D. C., Kame’enui, E. J., &
Stoolmiller, M. (2004). Teach<strong>in</strong>g vocabulary dur<strong>in</strong>g
shared storybook read<strong>in</strong>gs: An exam<strong>in</strong>ation of
differential effects. Exceptionality, 12, 145–162.
Coyne, M. D., Zipoli Jr, R. P., & Ruby, M. F. (2006).
Beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g read<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>struction for students at risk
for read<strong>in</strong>g disabilities: What, how, <strong>and</strong> when.
Intervention <strong>in</strong> School & Cl<strong>in</strong>ic, 41, 161–168.
Ehri, L. C. (2005). Learn<strong>in</strong>g to read words: Theory,
f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs, <strong>and</strong> issues. Scientific Studies of Read<strong>in</strong>g, 9,
167–188.
Good, R. H., & Kam<strong>in</strong>ski, R. A. (2002). Dynamic
<strong>in</strong>dicators of basic early literacy skills (6 th ed.). Eugene,
OR: Institute for the Development of <strong>Education</strong>al
Achievement.
Kame’enui, E. J., Carn<strong>in</strong>e, D. W., Dixon, R. C.,
Simmons, D. C., & Coyne, M. D. (2002). Effective
teach<strong>in</strong>g strategies that accommodate diverse learners
(2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice
Hall.
Katims, D. S. (2000). Literacy <strong>in</strong>struction for people
with mental retardation: Historical highlights <strong>and</strong>
contemporary analysis. <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong>
Mental Retardation <strong>and</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>,
35, 3–15.
Katims, D. S. (2001). Literacy assessment of students
with mental retardation: An exploratory <strong>in</strong>vestigation.
<strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> Mental Retardation
<strong>and</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong> 36, 363–371.
Kl<strong>in</strong>gner, J. K., Vaughn, S., & Boardman, A. (2007).
Teach<strong>in</strong>g read<strong>in</strong>g comprehension to students with learn<strong>in</strong>g
difficulties. New York: Guilford Press.
Mathes, P. G. (2005). Early Interventions <strong>in</strong> Read<strong>in</strong>g,
Level 2. Columbus OH: SRA/McGraw-Hill.
Mathes, P. G., & Denton, C. A. (2002).The preven-
Read<strong>in</strong>g Techniques / 365

tion <strong>and</strong> identification of read<strong>in</strong>g disability. Sem<strong>in</strong>ars
<strong>in</strong> Pediatric Neurology, 9, 185–191.
Mathes, P. G., Denton, C. A., Fletcher, J. M., Anthony,
J. L., Francis, D. J., & Schatschneider, C.
(2005). The effects of theoretically different <strong>in</strong>struction
<strong>and</strong> student characteristics on the skills
of struggl<strong>in</strong>g readers. Read<strong>in</strong>g Research Quarterly,
40, 148–182.
Mathes, P. G., & Torgesen, J. K. (2005). Early Interventions
<strong>in</strong> Read<strong>in</strong>g, Level 1. Columbus OH: SRA/
McGraw-Hill.
National Read<strong>in</strong>g Panel. (2000). Teach<strong>in</strong>g children to
read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research
literature on read<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> its implications for
read<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>struction. Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, D.C.: National Institute
of Child Health <strong>and</strong> Human Development.
O’Connor, R. E. (2007). Teach<strong>in</strong>g word recognition:
Effective strategies for students with learn<strong>in</strong>g difficulties.
New York: Guilford Press.
O’Connor, R. E., Bocian, K., Beebe-Frankenberger,
M., & L<strong>in</strong>klater, D. L. (<strong>in</strong> press). Responsiveness
of students with language difficulties to early <strong>in</strong>tervention
<strong>in</strong> read<strong>in</strong>g. The Journal of Special <strong>Education</strong>.
Rayner, K., Foorman, B. R., Perfetti, A., Pesetsky, D.,
& Seidenberg, M. S. (2001). How psychological
science <strong>in</strong>forms the teach<strong>in</strong>g of read<strong>in</strong>g [Monograph].
Psychological Science, 2, 31–74.
366 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
Snow, C. E., Burns, M. S., & Griff<strong>in</strong>, P. (Eds.).
(1998). Prevent<strong>in</strong>g read<strong>in</strong>g difficulties <strong>in</strong> young children.
Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, DC: National Academy Press.
Tong, F., Irby, B., Lara-Alecio, R., & Mathes, P.
(2008). English <strong>and</strong> Spanish acquisition by second
graders <strong>in</strong> developmental bil<strong>in</strong>gual programs:
A 3-year longitud<strong>in</strong>al r<strong>and</strong>omized study.
Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 30, 500–529.
Torgesen, J. K. (2002). The prevention of read<strong>in</strong>g
difficulties. Journal of School Psychology, 40(1), 7–26.
Vaughn, S., Cir<strong>in</strong>o, P. T., L<strong>in</strong>an-Thompson, S.,
Mathes, P. G., Carlson, C. D., Cardenas-Hagan, E.,
et al. (2006). Effectiveness of a Spanish <strong>in</strong>tervention
<strong>and</strong> an English <strong>in</strong>tervention for English-Language
Learners at risk for read<strong>in</strong>g problems.
American <strong>Education</strong>al Research Journal, 43. 449–479.
Vaughn, S., L<strong>in</strong>an-Thompson, S., Mathes, P. G.,
Cir<strong>in</strong>o, P. T., Carlson, C. D., & Pollard-Durodola,
S. D. (2006). Effectiveness of Spanish <strong>in</strong>tervention
for first-grade English language learners at
risk for read<strong>in</strong>g difficulties. Journal of Learn<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>Disabilities</strong>, 39, 56–73.
Vaughn, S., L<strong>in</strong>an-Thompson, Mathes, P. G., Duradola,
S., & Cárdenas-Hagan, E. (2007). Firstgrade
English language learners at-risk for read<strong>in</strong>g
problems: Effectiveness of an English
<strong>in</strong>tervention. Elementary School Journal, 107, 153–
180.

Pentop Computers as Tools for Teach<strong>in</strong>g Multiplication to
Students with Mild Intellectual <strong>Disabilities</strong>
Emily C. Bouck, Laura Bassette, Teresa Taber-Doughty, Sara M. Flanagan,
<strong>and</strong> Kathryn Szwed
Purdue University
Abstract: The effectiveness of a pentop computer when teach<strong>in</strong>g multiplication facts to three middle school
students with mild <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities was exam<strong>in</strong>ed. A multiple probe design was used to assess the
students learn<strong>in</strong>g of one <strong>and</strong> two digit multiplication facts over a 2-3 week <strong>in</strong>tervention period. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the
<strong>in</strong>tervention phase, students used a FLY Pentop Computer (LeapFrog © ) to practice multiplication problems.
Follow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tervention, students were assessed on their ability to solve multiplication problems without the tool.
The results <strong>in</strong>dicated that all three students improved <strong>in</strong> the percentage of correct math facts completed <strong>and</strong>
support the use of the pentop computer when teach<strong>in</strong>g multiplication to students with mild <strong>in</strong>tellectual
disabilities. Limitations <strong>and</strong> suggestions for future research are discussed.
Mathematics education is a high priority <strong>in</strong>
the United States (Ellis & Berry, 2005). The
majority of students <strong>in</strong> the third through
eighth grades are now annually evaluated on
their mathematical abilities under the requirements
of No Child Left Beh<strong>in</strong>d (NCLB, 2002).
Additionally, these students are expected to
reach proficiency <strong>in</strong> this doma<strong>in</strong> by the 2013–
2014 school year (Yell & Drasgow, 2005). Research
suggests that students <strong>in</strong> the United
States perform worse than their <strong>in</strong>ternational
counterparts (Beaton, Mullis, Mart<strong>in</strong>, Kelly, &
Smith, 1996); as such, mathematics is considered
an important <strong>and</strong> critical content doma<strong>in</strong>
for <strong>in</strong>struction <strong>and</strong> evaluation for students
with <strong>and</strong> without disabilities. Yet,
researchers <strong>and</strong> teachers document that many
students with disabilities struggle with mathematics
(Grise, 1980). These struggles can <strong>in</strong>clude
skills rang<strong>in</strong>g from computational fluency
to know<strong>in</strong>g one’s basic facts as well as
problem solv<strong>in</strong>g (Cawley, Parmar, Fley,
Salmon, & Roy, 2001; Jitendra, DiPipi, & Per-
Correspondence regard<strong>in</strong>g this article should be
sent to Emily C. Bouck, Purdue University, Dept. of
<strong>Education</strong>al Studies, 100 N University Street, West
Lafayette, IN 47907-2098. Email: bouck@purdue.
edu
<strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>, 2009, 44(3), 367–380
© <strong>Division</strong> on <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>
ron-Jones, 2002; Montague, 1992; Parmar,
Cawley, & Miller, 1994; Woodward & Montague,
2002).
While students with mild <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities,
learn<strong>in</strong>g disabilities, <strong>and</strong> emotional/
behavior disorders are aggregated grouped together
<strong>in</strong> studies, these students may actually
experience very different needs <strong>in</strong> mathematics
education (Parmar et al., 1994). Previous
research suggests that students with mild <strong>in</strong>tellectual
disabilities may not benefit from the
same mathematics curriculum <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>struction
as students with learn<strong>in</strong>g disabilities, <strong>and</strong> furthermore,
students with <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities
might actually struggle to a greater extent
than students with learn<strong>in</strong>g disabilities <strong>in</strong> this
doma<strong>in</strong> (Parmar et al.; Van Luit & Naglieri,
1999). Parmar et al. <strong>in</strong>dicated that secondary
students with mild <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities <strong>and</strong>
learn<strong>in</strong>g disabilities are qualitatively <strong>and</strong>
quantitatively different <strong>in</strong> the area of mathematics.
They suggested that the scores for students
with mild <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities did not
<strong>in</strong>crease across years or only <strong>in</strong>creased slightly.
In addition, the students with <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities
demonstrated difficulty with underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g
the mathematics concepts be<strong>in</strong>g presented.
Unfortunately, little research exam<strong>in</strong>ed
mathematics <strong>and</strong> students with mild <strong>in</strong>tellectual
disabilities, particularly at the secondary
FLY Pen Math / 367

level (Butler, Miller, Lee, & Pierce, 2001). In
their review of the literature on mathematics
<strong>and</strong> students with <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities, Butler
et al. found only three studies that <strong>in</strong>volved
secondary students: two focus<strong>in</strong>g on middle
school students with mild <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities
<strong>and</strong> one that <strong>in</strong>volved students with mild
<strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities <strong>in</strong> elementary through
high school. One study <strong>in</strong>volved basic computation
<strong>in</strong>struction <strong>and</strong> the other two focused
on technology. In the computation study,
Mor<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> Miller (1998) taught three middle
school students with <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities
multiplication facts us<strong>in</strong>g the concrete-representational-abstract
teach<strong>in</strong>g method, along
with mnemonic devices that were added dur<strong>in</strong>g
the abstract phase. The results <strong>in</strong>dicated
that all students learned their basic multiplication
facts <strong>and</strong> improved from pretest to
posttest.
Other recent research suggests that students
with mild <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities benefit
from develop<strong>in</strong>g fluency <strong>in</strong> mathematical
skills, such as multiplication (Cooke, Guzaukas,
Pressley, & Kerr, 1993). Fluency can be
def<strong>in</strong>ed as “the effortless, automatic ability to
perform mathematical operations” (Houch<strong>in</strong>s,
Shippen, & Flores, 2006, p. 324). In other
words, mathematical fluency refers to the
speed, accuracy, <strong>and</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g of errors that
students have when complet<strong>in</strong>g mathematical
problems. In addition, fluency with basic facts
or basic operations assists students <strong>in</strong> problem
solv<strong>in</strong>g, such as when solv<strong>in</strong>g word or story
problems (Houch<strong>in</strong>s et al.). Several strategies
focused on <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the mathematical
fluency of students with developmental disabilities,
such as mild <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities,
were exam<strong>in</strong>ed: teach<strong>in</strong>g via the concreterepresentation-abstract
method (Mor<strong>in</strong> &
Miller, 1998); us<strong>in</strong>g timed trials, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g
constant time delay (Matt<strong>in</strong>gly & Bott, 1990;
Miller, Hall, & Heward, 1995); use of a supplemental
program (Jolivette, Houch<strong>in</strong>gs,
L<strong>in</strong>go, Barton-Arwood, & Shippen, 2006); <strong>and</strong>
peer tutor<strong>in</strong>g (Harper, Mallette, Maheady,
Bentley, & Moore, 1995). In addition to these
strategies, another way suggested to <strong>in</strong>crease
the mathematical fluency of students with
mild <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities was through the
use of technology (Macc<strong>in</strong>i & Gagnon, 2005)
Technology, Math, <strong>and</strong> Students with Intellectual
<strong>Disabilities</strong>
Despite the <strong>in</strong>creased emphasis of technology
<strong>in</strong> the teach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g of students with
disabilities <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased opportunities for
technology <strong>in</strong> the area of mathematics, little
research exam<strong>in</strong>ed technology, mathematics,
<strong>and</strong> students with mild <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities.
Although Mastropieri, Scruggs, <strong>and</strong> Shian
(1997) called for <strong>in</strong>creased attention <strong>in</strong> this
area a decade ago, the focus on technology,
mathematics, <strong>and</strong> students with mild <strong>in</strong>tellectual
disabilities never materialized. With<strong>in</strong> the
research that does exist, Masteropieri et al.
used a computer-assisted <strong>in</strong>struction (CAI)
program to teach problem solv<strong>in</strong>g to four upper
elementary students with mild <strong>in</strong>tellectual
disabilities. They concluded that these students
improved their scores from pretest to
posttest as well as reported enjoyment us<strong>in</strong>g
the computer program.
Additionally, Horton, Lovitt, <strong>and</strong> White
(1992) exam<strong>in</strong>ed the use of calculators as
compared to traditional paper-<strong>and</strong>-pencil
method for solv<strong>in</strong>g subtraction with middle
school students with mild <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities.
They concluded that students improved
<strong>in</strong> their performance on the subtraction problems
after they used calculators. The use of
calculators was attributed to <strong>in</strong>creased accuracy
<strong>in</strong> the students. Jaspers <strong>and</strong> Van Lieshout
(1994) also found benefits from <strong>in</strong>tegrat<strong>in</strong>g
technology <strong>in</strong>to mathematics <strong>in</strong>struction for
students with mild <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities
across the span of elementary to high school.
They found that allow<strong>in</strong>g students to touch
key words on a computer screen <strong>in</strong> a story
problem was beneficial to students when they
took paper-pencil tests.
Smart Toys
368 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
Prior research on technology <strong>and</strong> mathematics
for students with mild <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities
is limited to more traditional forms of
educational technology (i.e., calculators,
CAI), <strong>and</strong> this field failed to take advantage of
explor<strong>in</strong>g more advanced technological ways
to educate these students. One type of new
technology <strong>in</strong>cludes smart toys. Smart toys are
an <strong>in</strong>novative form of technology which has
recently <strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong> popularity (Bouck,

Okolo, & Courtad, 2007). Smart toys are described
as toys that are programmed to respond
to a child though microprocessors that
recognize <strong>and</strong> transmit <strong>in</strong>put from the child
(Roderman, 2002). An early example of a
smart toy is the Furby, which is a toy that spoke
English (Ma<strong>in</strong>e, 2004). Other examples of
smart toys further <strong>in</strong>corporated computer
technology <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>clude: LEGO M<strong>in</strong>dstorms
which are programmable bricks <strong>and</strong> Logo
Turtles a robotic creature which could be programmed
to perform comm<strong>and</strong>s (Papert,
1993). More recent smart toys <strong>in</strong>clude I-Dog a
robotic dog which reacts to music; Share-A-
Story from Care Bears where the bears read
“children stories” aloud to the children (Gibson,
2005); <strong>and</strong> the FLY Pentop Computer
from LeapFrog © (Pogue, 2005).
The FLY Pen is a pentop computer that
provides auditory output <strong>and</strong> prompts users to
complete a variety of tasks. The FLY Pen
<strong>in</strong>cludes a variety of software options that can
be used with the pen (Pogue, 2005). The different
software options allow the pen to be
used as a calculator, a calendar, a piano keyboard,
a journal<strong>in</strong>g assistance tool, a Spanish
dictionary, as well as provide assistance with
mathematics, social studies, science, spell<strong>in</strong>g,
<strong>and</strong> writ<strong>in</strong>g. Although this software is marketed
for students to use with academic areas,
little research explored its potential for assist<strong>in</strong>g
students. Furthermore, despite its potential,
no research could be found that exam<strong>in</strong>es
the impact of us<strong>in</strong>g this tool as a form of
assistive technology for students with disabilities.
Research Project
Previous research illustrated that secondary
students with mild <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities experience
a variety of difficulties at school <strong>in</strong>
regards to learn<strong>in</strong>g their mathematics curriculum
(Parmar et al., 1994; Van Luit & Naglieri,
1999). Additionally, there is a lack of
research which focuses on ways to improve
mathematics <strong>in</strong>struction for students with
mild <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities (Butler et al.,
2001). The use of a pentop computer (i.e., the
FLY pen) as a form of assistive technology may
provide assistance <strong>in</strong> a uniquely beneficial way
for students with mild <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities
who struggle with mathematics by improv<strong>in</strong>g
the student’s fluency. Previous research that
focuses on us<strong>in</strong>g assistive technology to improve
math skills <strong>in</strong>dicates that these students
can benefit from similar types of <strong>in</strong>terventions
(Mastropieri et al., 1997; Horton et al., 1992).
Yet, no studies could be found that analyzed
the effects of the FLY Pen technology as an
effective <strong>in</strong>structional strategy for teach<strong>in</strong>g
mathematics to students with mild <strong>in</strong>tellectual
disabilities. The purpose of the present <strong>in</strong>vestigation
was to determ<strong>in</strong>e if students with mild
<strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities who use the FLY Pen
could improve their multiplication skills. It
was hypothesized that <strong>in</strong>struction with the
FLY Pen would improve the students’ abilities
<strong>in</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g to solve multiplication problems.
Method
Participants
Three middle school students, Diane, Joe <strong>and</strong>
Sam, participated <strong>in</strong> this study. Each was selected
to participate based on a) a mild cognitive
level of function<strong>in</strong>g (IQ 55-70), b) similar
chronological age, c) similar mathematics
skill level, d) will<strong>in</strong>gness to participate, e) absence
of sensory disabilities, <strong>and</strong> f) no previous
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g or experiences <strong>in</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g the FLY
Pen. All students were educated primarily <strong>in</strong>
the same special education pull-out classroom,
although all participated <strong>in</strong> “specials”
with<strong>in</strong> general education sett<strong>in</strong>gs (i.e., art,
music, physical education, <strong>and</strong> keyboard<strong>in</strong>g).
Table 1 provides <strong>in</strong>formation about the three
participants.
Diane was a 12 year-old Hispanic female
who was shy <strong>in</strong> her classroom <strong>and</strong> sought to
please her teachers. At home, Diane primarily
spoke Spanish. She was a diligent student <strong>and</strong>
always tried to complete her work on time.
She tended to be quiet <strong>and</strong> would only <strong>in</strong>teract
with her closest friends. All of Diane’s
content areas were taught <strong>in</strong> the special education
classroom <strong>and</strong> she was <strong>in</strong> general education
for less than 40% of the day, where she
was <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> specials. At the start of the
study, Diane was perform<strong>in</strong>g at a fourth-grade
mathematics level <strong>and</strong> her assignments primarily
<strong>in</strong>cluded one- <strong>and</strong> two-digit addition
<strong>and</strong> subtraction problems.
Joe was a 12 year-old Hispanic male who
FLY Pen Math / 369

TABLE 1
Student Demographic Information
Student Age/Grade Ethnicity
enjoyed <strong>in</strong>teract<strong>in</strong>g with his peers whenever
possible <strong>and</strong> was well liked by his classmates
due to his good sense of humor. At times,
however his sense of humor could become a
distraction, as he would <strong>in</strong>terrupt himself <strong>and</strong>
others from complet<strong>in</strong>g work by talk<strong>in</strong>g to his
classmates. Joe primarily spoke English at
home. Like Diane, he was primarily served <strong>in</strong>
a self-conta<strong>in</strong>ed resource sett<strong>in</strong>g for more
than 60% of the day <strong>and</strong> was only <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong>
specials. He was also perform<strong>in</strong>g at a fourthgrade
math level at the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of the study
<strong>and</strong> his math work prior to the study <strong>in</strong>cluded
arithmetic <strong>and</strong> subtraction problems.
Sam was a 12 year-old Hispanic male who
enjoyed play<strong>in</strong>g sports, particularly soccer. At
home, Sam spoke both Spanish <strong>and</strong> English.
Sam was outgo<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> was well received by his
peers <strong>and</strong> teachers. He was typically a hard
worker <strong>and</strong> enjoyed answer<strong>in</strong>g questions <strong>in</strong>
class; however, at times he would allow himself
to be distracted from his work. Sam participated
<strong>in</strong> academic <strong>in</strong>struction <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>clusive
classroom dur<strong>in</strong>g more than 60% of the day
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g language arts <strong>and</strong> specials. He participated
<strong>in</strong> the same special education math
class as Diane <strong>and</strong> Joe. He was also perform<strong>in</strong>g
at a fourth-grade math level with a focus on
addition <strong>and</strong> subtraction problems prior to
the start of the study.
Sett<strong>in</strong>gs
WISC-R
IQ
All participants attended a self-conta<strong>in</strong>ed
mathematics class dur<strong>in</strong>g the same class period
<strong>and</strong> were provided mathematics <strong>in</strong>struction
by their primary special education
teacher. The students were taught their math
lessons us<strong>in</strong>g the Saxon mathematics curriculum
(grades 4/5) (Saxon Math, 2008). The
ISTEP
overall
math
Time <strong>in</strong> General
<strong>Education</strong>
class <strong>in</strong>cluded six other students who were not
<strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the study, of which four participated
were <strong>in</strong> the same mathematics lessons as
the target students. The other two students
were taught separately with a paraprofessional.
In the students’ classroom, the desks
were arranged <strong>in</strong> rows with Sam <strong>and</strong> Joe
seated next to each other <strong>in</strong> the back row <strong>and</strong>
Diane seated <strong>in</strong> front of Joe. The students who
were taught by the paraprofessional worked at
a separate table which was sectioned off from
the rest of the classroom.
The assessments for each of the phases
(basel<strong>in</strong>e, <strong>in</strong>tervention, <strong>and</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>tenance) as
well as the FLY Pen tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g sessions were
conducted <strong>in</strong> a separate room (the school
counselor’s room), which was across the hall
from the self-conta<strong>in</strong>ed classroom so the other
students were not distracted. In the separate
room, the students worked at a round table.
The students were either seated next to each
dur<strong>in</strong>g times when the phases overlapped, or
were assessed <strong>in</strong>dividually. Typically, only the
researcher <strong>and</strong> the students were <strong>in</strong> the room
dur<strong>in</strong>g the assessments, however dur<strong>in</strong>g some
of the sessions the school counselor was <strong>in</strong> the
room work<strong>in</strong>g at his desk which was placed
beh<strong>in</strong>d the table where the students worked.
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>tervention phase, the participants
used the FLY Pen (with ear phones)
dur<strong>in</strong>g their regular math <strong>in</strong>struction as well
as <strong>in</strong> the separate classroom.
Independent <strong>and</strong> Dependent Variable
Secondary
Disability
Diane 12, 6 th grade Hispanic 63 417/646 Less than 40% None
Joe 12, 6 th grade Hispanic 62 422/464 Less than 40% Communication
Sam 12, 6 th grade Hispanic 62 427/464 Less than 40% None
370 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
The use of the FLY Pen as a mathematical
<strong>in</strong>structional strategy was the <strong>in</strong>dependent
variable for the study. After demonstrat<strong>in</strong>g
mastery <strong>in</strong> how to correctly use the FLY Pen,
students were <strong>in</strong>structed to use the pentop

computer for all multiplication problems that
they worked on dur<strong>in</strong>g their mathematics
class. Students used the FLY Pen to complete
assigned multiplication problems given
on a worksheet designed by the teacher or
assigned problems from their textbook.
The percentage of multiplication problems
solved correctly dur<strong>in</strong>g each assessment session
was the dependent variable. Prior to the
start of the study, all three of the students
received <strong>in</strong>struction from their special education
teacher on how to solve multiplication
problems. Additionally, at the start of the
study (<strong>and</strong> throughout the completion) the
students’ underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g of basic multiplication
facts was assessed through daily timed
tests. A set of 57 r<strong>and</strong>om multiplication problems
was created for the assessments. Of the
57 problems, 31 were basic multiplication
facts (s<strong>in</strong>gle digit numbers multiplied by s<strong>in</strong>gle
digit number, i.e., 3 4) <strong>and</strong> 26 were
mixed problems (double digit numbers multiplied
by a s<strong>in</strong>gle digit number, i.e., 34 5).
The problem set was developed based on the
Saxon mathematics curriculum used by the
students’ teacher. The set was generated
through stratified r<strong>and</strong>om sampl<strong>in</strong>g to ensure
that the multiplication problems <strong>in</strong>cluded a
wide range of numbers from 1-99. The researcher
created the set by arbitrarily select<strong>in</strong>g
non-sequential multiplication problems that
used an assorted selection of digit comb<strong>in</strong>ations.
Specifically, diverse problems such as
8 8, 2 7, <strong>and</strong> 6 5 were chosen for the
set <strong>and</strong> sequential problems such as 8 8,
8 7, <strong>and</strong> 8 6 were <strong>in</strong>tentionally omitted
from the set. A variety of the basic <strong>and</strong> mixed
problems total<strong>in</strong>g ten or fewer questions per
assessment were r<strong>and</strong>omly drawn from the set
of problems dur<strong>in</strong>g each phase of the study.
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the basel<strong>in</strong>e phase, four basic facts
problems <strong>and</strong> three mixed problems were
used. Initially, three, two digit times two digit
problems (i.e. 42 63) were assessed dur<strong>in</strong>g
the basel<strong>in</strong>e phase, however the students were
not assigned problems like this to work on <strong>in</strong>
class with the FLY Pen therefore these data
were not <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the f<strong>in</strong>al data analysis.
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>tervention <strong>and</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>tenance
phases, the probes consisted of five basic facts
problems <strong>and</strong> five mixed problems.
Materials
FLY pentop computer. The FLY Pen, a
pentop computer developed by LeapFrog © ,
was used dur<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>tervention phase. This
pentop computer is a device slightly larger
than a pen <strong>and</strong> uses special paper called
FLY Paper. The FLY Pen writes as a pen,
can assist students with calculations, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>cludes
various games that support the pen’s
use. In addition, educational software can be
purchased for this device, such as software for
spell<strong>in</strong>g, multiplication <strong>and</strong> division, algebra,
<strong>and</strong> writ<strong>in</strong>g. When the software cartridge is
<strong>in</strong>serted <strong>in</strong>to the top of the FLY Pen <strong>and</strong>
used with the special FLY Paper, students
have access to assistance <strong>in</strong> spell<strong>in</strong>g activities,
solv<strong>in</strong>g multiplication <strong>and</strong> division problems,
<strong>and</strong> organiz<strong>in</strong>g one’s writ<strong>in</strong>g. The FLY Pen
comes with a Launch Pad which provides <strong>in</strong>structions
for the pentop computer <strong>and</strong> activities
that can be done with the FLY Pen.
Multiplication <strong>and</strong> division software. This
study used the FLY Pen multiplication <strong>and</strong>
division mathematics software. The multiplication
<strong>and</strong> division software <strong>in</strong>cluded a software
cartridge, the FLY Control Panel tablet,
FLY Paper used to complete the math problems,
<strong>and</strong> a manual with example problems
<strong>and</strong> directions. The FLY Control Panel tablet
conta<strong>in</strong>ed 40 pages of the FLY grid paper
for students to write multiplication or division
problems follow<strong>in</strong>g a format specified <strong>in</strong> the
manual. This software required students to
use specific steps while solv<strong>in</strong>g their multiplication
or division problems. To ensure that
steps were followed correctly, the FLY Pen
provided auditory prompts about which functions
needed to be completed before mov<strong>in</strong>g
to subsequent steps. When each student
started the <strong>in</strong>tervention phase of the study,
s/he was assigned a box with the study materials
that were stored <strong>in</strong> a nearby cab<strong>in</strong>et for
easy access dur<strong>in</strong>g each math class.
Experimental Design
A multiple probe across students design was
used to determ<strong>in</strong>e the effectiveness of a FLY
Pen on the acquisition of multiplication skills.
The multiple probe design was chosen s<strong>in</strong>ce it
provided a means to decrease the collection of
data across the multiple basel<strong>in</strong>es while at the
FLY Pen Math / 371

same time ensur<strong>in</strong>g that no significant
changes occurred before the <strong>in</strong>troduction of
the <strong>in</strong>tervention. Additionally, the multiple
probe design allowed the researchers to determ<strong>in</strong>e
if a functional relationship existed between
the <strong>in</strong>tervention (practic<strong>in</strong>g multiplication
with the FLY Pen) <strong>and</strong> students
improv<strong>in</strong>g their multiplication skills as measured
by the assessments (Kennedy, 2007). A
multiple basel<strong>in</strong>e design is frequently used
when academic learn<strong>in</strong>g is <strong>in</strong>volved (Alberto
& Troutman, 2006); as such, this design was
selected because it best controlled for possible
learn<strong>in</strong>g or carry-over effects as a result of
student exposure to the FLY Pen.
Data Collection
Event record<strong>in</strong>g was used to determ<strong>in</strong>e the
number of multiplication problems solved
correctly dur<strong>in</strong>g each of the phases <strong>in</strong> the
study. This method was selected because it
provides simplicity <strong>and</strong> accuracy with discrete
event data collection (Kennedy, 2007). Each
assessment conducted provided a record of
the student’s work when solv<strong>in</strong>g the assigned
multiplication problems, which was used to
analyze the effects of the FLY Pen.
Procedure
Basel<strong>in</strong>e. Prior to <strong>in</strong>tervention, students
were assessed on multiplication facts learned
through traditional <strong>in</strong>structional methods,
two or three times per week for a m<strong>in</strong>imum of
two weeks. These assessments <strong>in</strong>cluded a r<strong>and</strong>om
selection of four basic math problems
(s<strong>in</strong>gle-digits multiplied by s<strong>in</strong>gle-digit problems)
<strong>and</strong> three mixed math problems (double-digit
numbers multiplied by s<strong>in</strong>gle-digit
numbers) for a total of seven problems per
assessment. The percentage correct out of
seven was calculated for each basel<strong>in</strong>e session.
Students cont<strong>in</strong>ued <strong>in</strong> the basel<strong>in</strong>e phase
based on the order they were selected to beg<strong>in</strong>
the <strong>in</strong>tervention. The order of the students
was based on the teacher’s suggestion. Diane
began the <strong>in</strong>tervention first while Joe <strong>and</strong> Sam
cont<strong>in</strong>ued <strong>in</strong> the basel<strong>in</strong>e phase with the traditional
<strong>in</strong>struction. Joe began us<strong>in</strong>g the FLY
Pen second; Sam cont<strong>in</strong>ued <strong>in</strong> the basel<strong>in</strong>e
phase us<strong>in</strong>g the traditional <strong>in</strong>struction <strong>and</strong>
was the last student to beg<strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>tervention.
372 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
The students only began the <strong>in</strong>tervention
phase once basel<strong>in</strong>e stability was established.
Pre-tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the basel<strong>in</strong>e period,
students were <strong>in</strong>troduced to the FLY Pen.
Initially, students used the Launch Pad, an
orientation booklet to the FLY Pen software.
Launch Pad activities <strong>in</strong>cluded select<strong>in</strong>g objects
us<strong>in</strong>g the FLY Pen, respond<strong>in</strong>g to
prompts, <strong>and</strong> play<strong>in</strong>g various games. Students
also operated the FLY Pen while complet<strong>in</strong>g
multiplication activities us<strong>in</strong>g the FLY Pen
math paper. Dur<strong>in</strong>g this time, students were
taught how to properly use the FLY Pen to
solve multiplication problems. Tasks <strong>in</strong>cluded
teach<strong>in</strong>g the student how to hold the pentop
computer to ensure the software recognized
the numbers they wrote, teach<strong>in</strong>g the students
how to write the multiplication problems on
the FLY Pen paper, <strong>and</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g the student
how to use the buttons on the FLY Pen
math tablet so they could enter <strong>and</strong> solve the
multiplication problems (as well as use the
h<strong>in</strong>t button as needed). The pre-tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g
phase also served as an opportunity for the
students to ask questions about how to use the
pentop computer. The pre-tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g phase was
considered complete when each student was
able to <strong>in</strong>dividually complete three practice
multiplication problems us<strong>in</strong>g the FLY Pen.
Intervention. The <strong>in</strong>tervention phase took
place over a m<strong>in</strong>imum of three weeks. Dur<strong>in</strong>g
this phase, students participated <strong>in</strong> mathematics
<strong>in</strong>struction us<strong>in</strong>g the FLY Pen, software,
<strong>and</strong> worksheet materials for learn<strong>in</strong>g their targeted
multiplication facts. Dur<strong>in</strong>g each mathematics
lesson <strong>in</strong> their regular classroom, students
were <strong>in</strong>structed to get their assigned
FLY Pen <strong>and</strong> then use the pentop computer
to solve the multiplication problems assigned
for that day. Typical assignments <strong>in</strong>cluded
teacher made worksheets or problems assigned
from the students’ textbook. These assignments
provided an opportunity for the
students to write <strong>and</strong> solve multiplication
problems us<strong>in</strong>g the large grid FLY Pen paper.
When us<strong>in</strong>g the FLY Pen for their multiplication
problems, students were first
prompted to tap “start” so that the pen would
recognize that the student was writ<strong>in</strong>g a problem.
Next, the student pressed “Start Problem”
<strong>in</strong> the FLY Control Panel tablet. As the
student wrote the multiplication problem, the

software immediately repeated the numbers
aloud. This allowed the student to hear what
the FLY Pen <strong>in</strong>terpreted from their writ<strong>in</strong>g.
Students were then able to re-write the number
if the FLY Pen misidentified a number
or they were able to move on to the next step.
After the pentop comptuer correctly recognized
each number <strong>and</strong> operation (i.e., multiplication),
students were prompted to confirm
that the problem was correct <strong>and</strong> press
the “Enter” button on the tablet. The student
was then prompted to select “Yes” or “No” if
the entire problem was read correctly. Additional
assistance was provided only after the
problem was read correctly <strong>and</strong> the student
selected “Yes.”
As the students worked to solve the problems,
they were required to complete the multiplication
steps <strong>in</strong> the correct order, as specified
by the FLY Pen, which allowed the
software to recognize what the student had
written. For example, when the problem <strong>in</strong>volved
the multiplication of two numbers, the
student was first required to write the numbers
<strong>in</strong> their answer from right-to-left plac<strong>in</strong>g
the correct digit <strong>in</strong> the ones place prior to
writ<strong>in</strong>g the number to be carried or before
writ<strong>in</strong>g a number <strong>in</strong> the tens or hundreds
place (i.e., When solv<strong>in</strong>g 12 9, first the
student must multiply the 9 digit by the 2 digit
<strong>and</strong> write the number eight or write the carried
one before proceed<strong>in</strong>g to write the zero
<strong>in</strong> the tens place or the one <strong>in</strong> the hundreds
place [12 9 108]). As the student cont<strong>in</strong>ued
to solve the problem, the FLY Pen provided
re<strong>in</strong>forcement (i.e., beeps) for correct
responses, prompts for <strong>in</strong>correct ones such as
“switch your digits” or “remember to carry”
h<strong>in</strong>ts, <strong>and</strong> page numbers for example problems
<strong>in</strong> the Launch Pad. Once the student
f<strong>in</strong>ished writ<strong>in</strong>g what they believed was the
solution, the student tapped “F<strong>in</strong>ish” <strong>and</strong> the
pentop computer responded by <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g
whether the solution was correct or <strong>in</strong>correct.
If the solution was <strong>in</strong>correct, a specific h<strong>in</strong>t
about where the error was made was provided.
For example, when solv<strong>in</strong>g 13 4 if the student
put a 53 <strong>in</strong>stead of a 52, a h<strong>in</strong>t may have
prompted the student to multiply 3 4 aga<strong>in</strong>.
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>tervention phase, students
were required to use the FLY Pen <strong>and</strong> associated
multiplication <strong>and</strong> division software for
all multiplication problems. The materials
used by the students dur<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>tervention
<strong>in</strong>cluded the pen, multiplication <strong>and</strong> division
software cartridge, earphones, FLY Pen
Math paper, <strong>and</strong> the pen storage conta<strong>in</strong>er.
When each student started the <strong>in</strong>tervention
phase of the study, s/he was assigned a box
with the study materials that were stored <strong>in</strong> a
nearby cab<strong>in</strong>et for easy access dur<strong>in</strong>g each
math class.
Follow<strong>in</strong>g their <strong>in</strong>-class practice with the
pentop computer, students were then assessed
on the multiplication facts acquired dur<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>in</strong>struction three or four per week. These assessments
required the students to solve similar
types of problems to what they had previously
practiced; however, they were not
allowed to use their FLY Pen dur<strong>in</strong>g the
assessment sessions. The assessment sessions
<strong>in</strong>cluded a r<strong>and</strong>om selection of five basic multiplication
problems (s<strong>in</strong>gle digits multiplied
by s<strong>in</strong>gle digits problems) <strong>and</strong> five mixed multiplication
problems (double digit numbers
multiplied by s<strong>in</strong>gle digit numbers) for a total
of ten problems per assessment. The percentage
correct out of ten was calculated for each
<strong>in</strong>tervention session.
Ma<strong>in</strong>tenance. Follow<strong>in</strong>g a m<strong>in</strong>imum of a
one week break from <strong>in</strong>tervention, students
completed a ma<strong>in</strong>tenance assessment <strong>in</strong>
which their ma<strong>in</strong>tenance of the multiplication
facts was determ<strong>in</strong>ed. These assessments were
conducted <strong>in</strong> the same format as the basel<strong>in</strong>e
<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tervention assessments. Specifically,
they <strong>in</strong>cluded a r<strong>and</strong>om selection of five basic
multiplication problems (s<strong>in</strong>gle digits multiplied
by s<strong>in</strong>gle digits problems) <strong>and</strong> five
mixed multiplication problems (double digit
numbers multiplied by s<strong>in</strong>gle digit numbers)
for a total of ten problems per assessment.
The percentage correct out of ten was calculated
for each ma<strong>in</strong>tenance session.
Social Validity
Twice dur<strong>in</strong>g this <strong>in</strong>vestigation—first follow<strong>in</strong>g
the pre-tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g phase <strong>and</strong> aga<strong>in</strong> after the
<strong>in</strong>tervention phase—students <strong>and</strong> their
teacher were <strong>in</strong>terviewed to determ<strong>in</strong>e the social
validity of us<strong>in</strong>g FLY Pens for acquir<strong>in</strong>g
multiplication skills (see Table 2 for a list of
the student <strong>and</strong> teacher pre <strong>and</strong> post social
validity questions). Students <strong>and</strong> teachers
were <strong>in</strong>terviewed <strong>in</strong>dividually <strong>and</strong> were asked
FLY Pen Math / 373

TABLE 2
Pre <strong>and</strong> Post Social Validity Questions
Student Interview Questions (pre <strong>in</strong>tervention)
1. What do you th<strong>in</strong>k about the FLY Pen?
2. Do you th<strong>in</strong>k you will like us<strong>in</strong>g the FLY Pen to do your math or spell<strong>in</strong>g?
3. What do you like most about it?
4. What do you like least about it?
5. Do you th<strong>in</strong>k it is important to learn spell<strong>in</strong>g or math skills? Why?
6. How do you th<strong>in</strong>k the FLY Pen will help <strong>in</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g spell<strong>in</strong>g or math?
Student Interview Questions (post <strong>in</strong>tervention)
1. Did you like us<strong>in</strong>g the FLY Pen?
2. Did the FLY Pen help you to learn writ<strong>in</strong>g skills?
a. If it did, how do you th<strong>in</strong>k it helped?
b. If it did not, why do you th<strong>in</strong>k it did not?
3. What did you like most about the FLY Pen?
4. What was the worst th<strong>in</strong>g about the FLY Pen?
5. Would you want your teacher to let you keep us<strong>in</strong>g the FLY Pen to do your writ<strong>in</strong>g?
6. Would you like to use a FLY Pen for other school work like science or math?
7. Would you like to use the FLY Pen <strong>in</strong> other classes?
8. Did it help you learn?
Teacher Interview Questions (pre <strong>in</strong>tervention)
1. What do you th<strong>in</strong>k about the FLY Pen?
2. Do you th<strong>in</strong>k the FLY Pen will assist students <strong>in</strong> acquir<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g writ<strong>in</strong>g skills?
3. What traits or characteristics of the FLY Pen do you th<strong>in</strong>k are useful <strong>in</strong> the learn<strong>in</strong>g process?
4. Do you th<strong>in</strong>k that us<strong>in</strong>g the FLY Pen <strong>and</strong> its software will allow you as the teacher to be more
efficient <strong>and</strong> effective <strong>in</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g?
5. What are your concerns about us<strong>in</strong>g the FLY Pen with students for writ<strong>in</strong>g activities?
6. What benefits do you foresee <strong>in</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g the FLY Pen for <strong>in</strong>struction?
7. Do you th<strong>in</strong>k the FLY Pen is someth<strong>in</strong>g you would use often with students?
Teacher Interview Questions (post <strong>in</strong>tervention)
1. Did you like the FLY Pen?
2. Do you th<strong>in</strong>k it was helpful <strong>in</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g students writ<strong>in</strong>g skills?
3. Do you th<strong>in</strong>k it was better, worse, or equivalent to traditional <strong>in</strong>struction? Why?
4. What did you like most <strong>and</strong> least about the FLY Pen?
5. What did you like most <strong>and</strong> least about the FLY Pen software?
6. Would you use the FLY Pen aga<strong>in</strong>?
7. Would you consider us<strong>in</strong>g the FLY Pen to teach or re<strong>in</strong>force other academic skills if software were
available?
about their likes <strong>and</strong> dislikes of the FLY Pen
when learn<strong>in</strong>g multiplication. All students <strong>in</strong>dicated
that they liked the FLY Pen after
us<strong>in</strong>g it dur<strong>in</strong>g the pre-tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g phase. Additionally,
all <strong>in</strong>dicated that they liked that the
pen gave audible h<strong>in</strong>ts about ways to solve
math problems. After us<strong>in</strong>g the FLY Pen
dur<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>tervention phase, students <strong>in</strong>dicated
they enjoyed us<strong>in</strong>g it <strong>and</strong> felt it helped
them learn their multiplication; however,
there were some aspects of the tool that the
students did not like. Specifically, Diane did
not like us<strong>in</strong>g the pentop computer <strong>in</strong> front of
the rest of the class because she believed it
374 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
made her st<strong>and</strong> out <strong>and</strong> she was more comfortable
us<strong>in</strong>g it <strong>in</strong> the separate room. Joe <strong>and</strong>
Sam disliked that the FLY Pen required
them to rewrite the multiplication problems
on the FLY Pen paper. Typically, the
teacher h<strong>and</strong>ed out worksheets with the problems
already written on them so the students
just had to solve the problems <strong>and</strong> not write
them out. Both Joe <strong>and</strong> Sam felt that hav<strong>in</strong>g to
rewrite every problem slowed them down <strong>in</strong>
complet<strong>in</strong>g their work.
When asked about her op<strong>in</strong>ions of the
FLY Pen, the teacher also expressed likes
<strong>and</strong> dislikes about us<strong>in</strong>g it as an <strong>in</strong>structional

tool. Prior to the <strong>in</strong>tervention, she believed
that the pen would help the students learn
multiplication because it provided audible
h<strong>in</strong>ts <strong>and</strong> feedback to the students which she
felt would help engage the students <strong>and</strong> be
more fun. Follow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tervention, she believed
that us<strong>in</strong>g the pen was helpful, particularly
for Diane. She also stated that it did slow
the students down <strong>in</strong> complet<strong>in</strong>g their work.
Overall, the students <strong>and</strong> the teacher felt that
us<strong>in</strong>g the FLY Pens was beneficial for learn<strong>in</strong>g
multiplication.
Reliability
Interobserver agreement data were collected
by a tra<strong>in</strong>ed second observer. For Diane <strong>and</strong>
Sam, reliability data were collected for 40% of
the basel<strong>in</strong>e sessions, 43% of the <strong>in</strong>tervention
sessions, <strong>and</strong> 50% of the ma<strong>in</strong>tenance sessions.
For Joe, reliability data were collected
for 43% of the basel<strong>in</strong>e sessions, 43% of the
<strong>in</strong>tervention sessions, <strong>and</strong> 50% of the ma<strong>in</strong>tenance
sessions. Interobserver agreement was
calculated by divid<strong>in</strong>g the number of agreements
by the number of agreements plus disagreements
of the number of problems solved
correctly <strong>and</strong> then multiply<strong>in</strong>g this number by
100. Agreement was 100% for all three students
<strong>in</strong> each of the phases of the study. When
given the assessments, the students were asked
to write each problem <strong>and</strong> answer legibly.
These <strong>in</strong>structions helped ensure clarity <strong>in</strong> the
students’ writ<strong>in</strong>g; thus, the second observer
did not f<strong>in</strong>d any errors <strong>in</strong> the calculations
conducted by the primary observer.
Treatment Integrity
A checklist was developed to assess treatment
<strong>in</strong>tegrity dur<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>tervention phase. The
checklist <strong>in</strong>cluded three steps to ensure that
the teacher was <strong>in</strong>struct<strong>in</strong>g the students to use
the FLY Pen to practice solv<strong>in</strong>g their multiplication
problems <strong>in</strong> their mathematics class.
Treatment <strong>in</strong>tegrity data were collected dur<strong>in</strong>g
44% of the observations for Diane, 53% of
the observations for Joe, <strong>and</strong> 66% of the observations
for Sam. Dur<strong>in</strong>g each observation
<strong>in</strong> which treatment <strong>in</strong>tegrity data were collected,
the researcher assessed whether the
teacher implemented each step as <strong>in</strong>dicated.
For Diane, treatment <strong>in</strong>tegrity was 100% for
all of the sessions observed, for Joe, treatment
<strong>in</strong>tegrity was 96%, <strong>and</strong> for Sam the treatment
<strong>in</strong>tegrity was 100%. For Joe, the treatment
<strong>in</strong>tegrity was lower because the teacher forgot
to prompt Joe get his FLY Pen <strong>and</strong> he had to
be rem<strong>in</strong>ded by the researcher to get his pen.
The teacher corrected this oversight dur<strong>in</strong>g
subsequent sessions.
Results
Results <strong>in</strong>dicate that students demonstrated
<strong>in</strong>creases <strong>in</strong> the percentage of multiplication
problems solved correctly from basel<strong>in</strong>e. Each
student showed relevant ga<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> correct performance
between basel<strong>in</strong>e <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tervention
<strong>and</strong> basel<strong>in</strong>e <strong>and</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>tenance conditions.
Figure 1 illustrates the percent of multiplication
problems solved correctly while us<strong>in</strong>g the
FLY Pen dur<strong>in</strong>g each of the study conditions.
Diane
Dur<strong>in</strong>g Diane’s basel<strong>in</strong>e, the mean percent of
problems solved correctly was 11.4%. A visual
analysis of data demonstrate that there was a
considerable <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the number of problems
solved correctly dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tervention with
a mean performance score of 62.9%. The percentage
of non-overlapp<strong>in</strong>g data between the
basel<strong>in</strong>e phase <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tervention phase was
100% <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that the <strong>in</strong>tervention was effective
for Diane. Similarly, the ma<strong>in</strong>tenance
mean (75%) <strong>in</strong>creased from both the basel<strong>in</strong>e
<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tervention means. Additionally, the percentage
of non-overlapp<strong>in</strong>g data between the
basel<strong>in</strong>e phase <strong>and</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>tenance phase was
100% show<strong>in</strong>g that the results of the <strong>in</strong>tervention
were able to be ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed over time.
Joe
Joe’s mean percent of problems solved correctly
dur<strong>in</strong>g basel<strong>in</strong>e was 30.6%. Dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tervention,
he achieved a mean of 50.0%, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g
an <strong>in</strong>crease over basel<strong>in</strong>e levels. His
mean performance score dur<strong>in</strong>g the ma<strong>in</strong>tenance
condition decreased slightly to 45%.
Visual analysis <strong>in</strong>dicated some variability <strong>in</strong>
Joe’s performance; however, he did demonstrate
a rapid <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the number of problems
solved correctly when the <strong>in</strong>tervention
FLY Pen Math / 375

Figure 1. Percent of multiplication problems solved correctly for Diane, Joe, <strong>and</strong> Sam when us<strong>in</strong>g the FLYPen
as a mathematical <strong>in</strong>structional tool.
376 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009

was first <strong>in</strong>troduced. Specifically, when compar<strong>in</strong>g
the last two sessions of at the end of the
basel<strong>in</strong>e phase <strong>and</strong> the first two sessions at the
beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of the <strong>in</strong>tervention phase, there
was an <strong>in</strong>crease from 14.3% of the problems
be<strong>in</strong>g solved correctly to 50% of the problems
be<strong>in</strong>g solved correctly (an <strong>in</strong>crease of 35.7%)
<strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g an immediate change of level for
Joe.
Sam
Dur<strong>in</strong>g Sam’s basel<strong>in</strong>e, the mean percent of
problems solved correctly was 48.6%. The
mean dur<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>tervention phase was
74.3%, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the overall
problems solved correctly. The mean for
Sam’s ma<strong>in</strong>tenance phase was 70.0%, suggest<strong>in</strong>g
a slight decrease <strong>in</strong> the problems Sam
solved correctly once the <strong>in</strong>tervention ended.
Visual analysis <strong>in</strong>dicated that Sam demonstrated
a high variability of performance dur<strong>in</strong>g
the basel<strong>in</strong>e phase; however, less variability
was observed dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tervention.
Additionally, the median for the basel<strong>in</strong>e
phase was 28.6% of the problems solved correctly
<strong>and</strong> the median for the <strong>in</strong>tervention
phase is 100% of the problems solved correctly
signify<strong>in</strong>g an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the level dur<strong>in</strong>g
the <strong>in</strong>tervention phase. There was also a rapid
<strong>in</strong>crease observed between the last session of
basel<strong>in</strong>e where the assessment score was
14.3% solved correctly <strong>and</strong> the first session of
the <strong>in</strong>tervention phase where the assessment
score was 50.0% (<strong>in</strong>crease of 35.7%), which
reveals an immediate change of level.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to exam<strong>in</strong>e the
effectiveness of the FLY Pen when used as a
mathematical <strong>in</strong>structional tool for students
with mild <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities. The results
<strong>in</strong>dicate an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> students’ assessment
scores on multiplication facts dur<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>tervention
phase; however, the extent of these
results was variable among the students. The
results suggest that all three participants experienced
an immediate <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the percentage
of problems solved correctly when they
<strong>in</strong>itially began us<strong>in</strong>g the FLY Pen. These
results support previous research that found
technology may be beneficial when used to
teach math skills to students with mild <strong>in</strong>tellectual
disabilities (Horton et al., 1992; Jaspers
& Van Lieshout, 1994; Masteropieri et al.,
1997).
Dihoff, Brosvic, Epste<strong>in</strong>, <strong>and</strong> Cook (2005)
exam<strong>in</strong>ed the improvement of mathematics
abilities of students with mild disabilities. They
found that students who received immediate
feedback from an educator or from an Immediate
Feedback Assessment Technique (IF
AT) on mathematical assessments demonstrated
reductions <strong>in</strong> errors <strong>and</strong> a greater retention
of the material. The FLY Pen similarly
provides students with immediate
feedback through its beeps (<strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g a correct
number or answer was written) or
prompts <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g an <strong>in</strong>correct answer (i.e.,
the pen say<strong>in</strong>g “not there yet, there’s more to
do”). Dihoff et al. called for an <strong>in</strong>strument
that can be used by students with disabilities
that can not only assess correct answers but
also provide feedback <strong>and</strong> correct misunderst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>gs
of material. The audible output provided
by the FLY Pen does this through the
feedback given when a student answers a question
<strong>in</strong>correctly. The prompts assist students
<strong>in</strong> identify<strong>in</strong>g where errors are made <strong>and</strong> allow
them to cont<strong>in</strong>ue work<strong>in</strong>g on solv<strong>in</strong>g
problems until a correct answer is obta<strong>in</strong>ed. A
teacher who is work<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dividually with a student
typically would provide this type of oneon-one
feedback. S<strong>in</strong>ce the pentop computer
can provide this feedback <strong>in</strong>stead, this may
help to decrease the amount of time teachers
spend work<strong>in</strong>g one-on-one with students.
While the FLY Pen does provide immediate
feedback, there was variability <strong>in</strong> the students’
assessment scores <strong>and</strong> responses to the
<strong>in</strong>tervention. Diane, who expressed a dislike
for us<strong>in</strong>g the technology <strong>in</strong> front of her classmates,
demonstrated the most significant
changes <strong>in</strong> her assessment scores dur<strong>in</strong>g the
<strong>in</strong>tervention <strong>and</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>tenance phases. When
Diane expressed discomfort <strong>in</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g the pentop
computer <strong>in</strong> front of her classmates, she
was accommodated by be<strong>in</strong>g allowed to use
the FLY Pen <strong>in</strong> a separate room across the
hall. Diane expressed an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> motivation
for learn<strong>in</strong>g her multiplication facts after
us<strong>in</strong>g the FLY Pen. Although allowed to use
a multiplication table (<strong>in</strong> addition to the
FLY Pen) for her work, Diane tended to
only use the FLY Pen. Follow<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>ter-
FLY Pen Math / 377

vention phase, the teacher <strong>in</strong>dicated that Diane
received 100% on her daily timed tests.
Diane tended to want to please her teachers
<strong>and</strong> this motivation to demonstrate cont<strong>in</strong>uous
improvements <strong>in</strong> her classroom assessments
may have <strong>in</strong>fluenced her ma<strong>in</strong>tenance
results. Diane had the longest break between
the end of her <strong>in</strong>tervention phase <strong>and</strong> the
ma<strong>in</strong>tenance phase; however, of the three students,
she received the highest average percent
correct dur<strong>in</strong>g the ma<strong>in</strong>tenance phase.
Joe’s variability <strong>in</strong> his assessments has a variety
of possible explanations. Joe expressed
dislike <strong>in</strong> hav<strong>in</strong>g to rewrite the multiplication
problems on the FLY Pen paper <strong>and</strong> experienced
difficulty with his basic multiplication
facts. In addition to us<strong>in</strong>g the FLY Pen, Joe
also relied on us<strong>in</strong>g his multiplication tables
when complet<strong>in</strong>g his mathematics worksheets
<strong>in</strong> class. Joe was encouraged to only use the
pentop computer <strong>and</strong> not the multiplication
table; however, Joe was not always able to fully
comprehend the auditory prompts provided
by the FLY Pen result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> him becom<strong>in</strong>g
frustrated with the tool. He would repeatedly
tap the h<strong>in</strong>t button to try to get different h<strong>in</strong>ts
from the pen <strong>and</strong> then ultimately ask if he
could use his table. Joe also had a secondary
diagnosis of a communication disorder <strong>and</strong>
this may have impacted his ability to accurately
comprehend certa<strong>in</strong> prompts provided
by the pentop computer. Joe’s reliance on
us<strong>in</strong>g the multiplication table <strong>and</strong> dislike of
rewrit<strong>in</strong>g the problems possibly contributed to
the variability of Joe’s assessment scores. The
decreases <strong>in</strong> scores observed dur<strong>in</strong>g Joe’s
ma<strong>in</strong>tenance phase <strong>in</strong>dicate a lack of retention
<strong>in</strong> his ability to solve the multiplication
facts. Additionally, the assessment dur<strong>in</strong>g the
ma<strong>in</strong>tenance phase where Joe scored 20%,
although r<strong>and</strong>omly drawn, <strong>in</strong>cluded a majority
of higher digit problems (problems with 7s,
8s, <strong>and</strong> 9s <strong>in</strong> them). These are the type of
problems with which Joe tended to struggle
<strong>and</strong> he would typically rely on his multiplication
table to solve. The multiplication tables
were not allowed to be used by students dur<strong>in</strong>g
the assessments conducted <strong>and</strong> this was
possibly a factor <strong>in</strong> Joe’s low score.
Of the participants, Sam seemed to enjoy
us<strong>in</strong>g the pen the most. However, like Joe, he
expressed a dislike <strong>in</strong> hav<strong>in</strong>g to rewrite every
problem on the FLY Pen paper. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the
<strong>in</strong>tervention phase, there was less variability <strong>in</strong>
Sam’s scores <strong>and</strong> this may be a reflection of
Sam’s enjoyment <strong>in</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g the pentop computer.
Dur<strong>in</strong>g one of the <strong>in</strong>tervention assessments,
Sam <strong>in</strong>dicated that he was hav<strong>in</strong>g a
difficult time <strong>and</strong> even said, “I wish I had my
FLY Pen, this is hard.” One notable f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g
was that Sam <strong>in</strong>dicated he felt that sometimes
the FLY Pen did not help him learn multiplication
because, on occasion, it would just
give him the answer. This made him not have
to th<strong>in</strong>k about solv<strong>in</strong>g the problem because
the pen would just say the answer without
requir<strong>in</strong>g the student to attempt to solve the
problem. This would occur at times if a student
cont<strong>in</strong>ued to use the h<strong>in</strong>t button before
writ<strong>in</strong>g what they believed to be the answer
down.
The results of this study have important
implications for the use of smart toys <strong>in</strong> special
education classrooms. The <strong>in</strong>creased requirements
for schools to demonstrate mathematical
proficiency for all students, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g
those with disabilities, will cont<strong>in</strong>ue to be an
important topic <strong>in</strong> the field of special education
(NCLB, 2002). One way to assist teachers
<strong>and</strong> schools with this m<strong>and</strong>ate may be through
the use of assistive technology such as smart
toys. This study found that there were ga<strong>in</strong>s
made by all of the students <strong>in</strong> this study; however,
these variable results may warrant
teacher discretion when consider<strong>in</strong>g us<strong>in</strong>g a
pentop computer as an assistive technology
<strong>in</strong>tervention, particularly if they have limited
funds to spend on classroom supplies. Many
smart toys can be rather expensive; the cost of
the FLY Pen itself tends to be around $80
per pentop computer with an additional cost
of $15–30 per software.
Limitations <strong>and</strong> Future Directions
378 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
One of the limitations <strong>in</strong> this study is that only
three of the students <strong>in</strong> the classroom served
as participants. If all of the students <strong>in</strong> the
class were able to participate, the students who
participated may have reported different perceptions
of the FLY Pen. Specifically, Diane
may not have felt like she stood out as much if
all of the students <strong>in</strong> the class had been us<strong>in</strong>g
the tool. Also, if all of the students were required
to use the FLY Pen, Joe <strong>and</strong> Sam may
not have felt like they were be<strong>in</strong>g slowed down

ecause all of the students would be required
to rewrite the multiplication problems on the
FLY Pen paper. Additionally, the teacher
<strong>in</strong>dicated that one dislike she had with us<strong>in</strong>g
the technology was that she always had to
rem<strong>in</strong>d the students to use their pentop computer.
If all of the students <strong>in</strong> the class were
able to use a FLY Pen then it was easier for
the teacher to rem<strong>in</strong>d all of the students at
once, <strong>in</strong>stead of <strong>in</strong>dividual students. For this
study, only three students <strong>in</strong> the classroom
were selected as participants due to these students
hav<strong>in</strong>g the same disability classification
<strong>and</strong> a similar math level; however, future studies
may seek to exam<strong>in</strong>e the effects of us<strong>in</strong>g
the FLY Pens <strong>in</strong> a classroom where all of the
students have access to us<strong>in</strong>g the pens. Another
limitation was the student’s access to
us<strong>in</strong>g multiplication tables dur<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>tervention
phase. Future studies may want to
exam<strong>in</strong>e the effect of the FLY Pens for
learn<strong>in</strong>g multiplication with students who do
not use multiplication tables as part of the
class.
Future replication studies should be conducted
to better assess the effects of the FLY
Pen as an <strong>in</strong>structional tool <strong>in</strong> the area of
mathematics for students with mild <strong>in</strong>tellectual
disabilities as well as for students with
other types of disabilities. Only one student <strong>in</strong>
the current study had a secondary disability
(communication disorder), <strong>and</strong> it would be of
<strong>in</strong>terest to exam<strong>in</strong>e the effectiveness of FLY
Pens between groups of students with different
types of disabilities. Furthermore, Leap-
Frog developed a variety of software that can
also be used as <strong>in</strong>structional tools with the
FLY Pens. Future studies may want to exam<strong>in</strong>e
how the FLY Pen can provide assistance
<strong>in</strong> other academic areas or mathematical content
areas for students with disabilities (i.e.,
spell<strong>in</strong>g, writ<strong>in</strong>g, algebra, Spanish). In addition
to future studies that focus on students
with disabilities, it would be of <strong>in</strong>terest to exam<strong>in</strong>e
how this type of technology might be
useful for students without disabilities <strong>in</strong> general
education sett<strong>in</strong>gs.
References
Alberto, P. A., & Troutman, A. C. (2006). Applied
behavior analysis for teachers. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.
Beaton, A., Mullis, I., Mart<strong>in</strong>, M., Kelly, D., & Smith,
T. (1996). Mathematics achievement <strong>in</strong> the middle
school years: IEA’s Third International Mathematics
<strong>and</strong> Science Study (TIMSS). Boston: International
Association for the Evaluation of <strong>Education</strong>al
Achievement.
Bouck, E. C., Okolo, C. M., & Courtad, C. A. (2007).
Technology at home: Implications for children
with disabilities. Journal of Special <strong>Education</strong> Technology,
22(3), 43–56.
Butler, F. M., Miller, S. P., Lee, K., & Pierce, T.
(2001). Teach<strong>in</strong>g mathematics to students with
mild-to-moderate mental retardation: A review of
the literature. Mental Retardation, 39, 20–31.
Cawley, J., Parmar, R., Fley, T. E., Salmon, S., & Roy,
S. (2001). Arithmetic performance of students:
Implications for st<strong>and</strong>ards <strong>and</strong> programm<strong>in</strong>g. Exceptional
Children, 67, 311–328.
Cooke, N. L., Guzaukas, R., Pressley, J. S., & Kerr, K.
(1993). Effects of us<strong>in</strong>g a ratio of new items to
review items dur<strong>in</strong>g drill <strong>and</strong> practice: Three experiments.
<strong>Education</strong> & Treatment of Children, 16,
213–234.
Dihoff, R. E., Brosvic, G. M., Epste<strong>in</strong>, M. L., & Cook,
M. J. (2005). Adjunctive role for immediate feedback
<strong>in</strong> the acquisition <strong>and</strong> retention of mathematical
fact series by elementary school students
classified with mild mental retardation. The Psychological
Record, 55, 39–66.
Ellis, M. W., & Berry III, R. Q. (2005). The paradigm
shift <strong>in</strong> mathematics education: Explanations <strong>and</strong>
implications of reform<strong>in</strong>g conceptions of teach<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>and</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g. The Mathematics Educator, 15(1),
7–17.
Gibson, J. (2005). Smart toys. The Sydney Morn<strong>in</strong>g
Herald, Retrieved September 29, 2008, from
http://www.smh.com.au/news/icon/smart-toys/
2005/11/30/1133311090876.html
Grise, P. S. (1980). Florida’s m<strong>in</strong>imum competency
test<strong>in</strong>g programm<strong>in</strong>g for h<strong>and</strong>icapped students.
Exceptional Children, 47, 186–193.
Harper, G. F., Mallette, B., Maheady, L., Bentley,
A. E., & Moore, J. (1995). Retention <strong>and</strong> treatment
failure <strong>in</strong> classwide peer tutor<strong>in</strong>g: Implications
for further research. Journal of Behavioral
<strong>Education</strong>, 5, 399–414.
Horton, S. V., Lovitt, T. C., & White, O. R. (1992).
Teach<strong>in</strong>g mathematics to adolescents classified as
educable mentally h<strong>and</strong>icapped: Us<strong>in</strong>g calculators
to remove the computational onus. Remedial
<strong>and</strong> Special <strong>Education</strong>, 13, 36–60.
Houch<strong>in</strong>s, D. E., Shippen, M. E., & Flores, M. M.
(2006) Math assessment <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>struction for students
at-risk. In R. Colarusso & C. O’Rourke
(Eds.), Special education for all teachers (pp. 313–
356). DuBuque, IA: Kendall Hunt.
Jaspers, M. W. M., & Van Lieshout, E. C. D. M.
(1994). The evaluation of two computerized <strong>in</strong>-
FLY Pen Math / 379

struction programs for arithmetic word-problem
solv<strong>in</strong>g by educable mentally retarded children.
Learn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> Instruction, 4, 193–215.
Jitendra, A., DiPipi, C. M., & Perron-Jones, N.
(2002). An exploratory study of schema-based
word-problem-solv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>struction for middle
school students with learn<strong>in</strong>g disabilities: An emphasis
on conceptual <strong>and</strong> procedural underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g.
Journal of Special <strong>Education</strong>, 36, 23–38.
Jolivette, K., Houch<strong>in</strong>s, D. E., L<strong>in</strong>go, A. S., Barton-
Arwood, S. M., & Shippen, M. E. (2006). Build<strong>in</strong>g
math fluency for students with developmental disabilities
<strong>and</strong> attentional difficulties us<strong>in</strong>g Great
Leaps Math. <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong>
<strong>Disabilities</strong>, 41, 392–400.
Kennedy, C. H. (2005). S<strong>in</strong>gle-case designs for educational
research. Boston: Allyn <strong>and</strong> Bacon.
LeapFrog © (2008). Personal learn<strong>in</strong>g tools. Retrieved
October 21, 2008 from http://www.leapfrog
schoolhouse.com/do/f<strong>in</strong>dpage?pageKeyplt
Macc<strong>in</strong>i, P., & Gagnon, J. C. (2005). Mathematics
<strong>and</strong> technology-based <strong>in</strong>terventions. In Edyburn,
D., Higg<strong>in</strong>s, K., & Boone, R. (Eds.), H<strong>and</strong>book of
special education technology research <strong>and</strong> practice (pp.
599–622). Whitefish Bay, WI: Knowledge by Design,
Inc.
Ma<strong>in</strong>e, S. W. (2004). Toys get smarter. Asia One.
Retrieved September 29, 2008, from http://it.
asia.l.com.sg/newsdaily/news002_20041206.html
Mastropieri, M. A., Scruggs, T. E., & Shian, R.
(1997). Can computers teach problem-solv<strong>in</strong>gstrategies
to students with mild mental retardation?:
A case study. Remedial <strong>and</strong> Special <strong>Education</strong>,
18, 157–165.
Matt<strong>in</strong>gly, J. C., & Bott, D. A. (1990). Teach<strong>in</strong>g
multiplication facts to students with learn<strong>in</strong>g
problems. Exceptional Children, 56, 438–449.
Miller, A. D., Hall, S. W., & Heward, W. L. (1995).
Effects of sequential 1-m<strong>in</strong>ute time trials with <strong>and</strong>
without <strong>in</strong>ter-trial feedback <strong>and</strong> self-correction on
general <strong>and</strong> special education fluency with math
facts. Journal of Behavioral <strong>Education</strong>, 5, 319–345.
380 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
Montague, M. (1992). The effects of cognitive <strong>and</strong>
metacognitive strategy <strong>in</strong>struction on the mathematical
problem-solv<strong>in</strong>g of middle school students
with learn<strong>in</strong>g disabilities. Journal of Learn<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>Disabilities</strong>, 25, 230–248.
Mor<strong>in</strong>, V. A., & Miller, S. P. (1998). Teach<strong>in</strong>g multiplication
to middle school students with mental
retardation. <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> Treatment of Children,
21, 22–36.
No Child Left Beh<strong>in</strong>d Act of 2001, Pub. L. No.
107-110, 115 Stat. 1425 (2002).
Papert, S. (1993). M<strong>in</strong>dstorms. Children, computers,
<strong>and</strong> powerful ideas (2 nd ed.). New York: Basic
Books.
Parmar, R. S., Cawley, J. F., & Miller, J. H. (1994).
Differences <strong>in</strong> mathematics performance between
students with disabilities <strong>and</strong> students with
learn<strong>in</strong>g disabilities. Exceptional Children, 60, 549–
563.
Pogue, D. (2005, November 18). Review: The f<strong>in</strong>e
po<strong>in</strong>ts of a high-perform<strong>in</strong>g pen. International Herald
Tribune. Retrieved October 21, 2008, from
http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/11/18/news/
ptpogue19.php
Roderman, L. S. (2002). Technology <strong>and</strong> the very
young: Lapware, smart toys, <strong>and</strong> beyond. Retrieved
September 29, 2008, from http://archive.
cpsr.net/essays/2002/2edll.html
Saxon Math (2008). Saxon math home. Retrieved October
21, 2008 from http://saxonpublishers.
harcourtachieve.com/en-US/sxnm_home
Van Luit, J. E. H., & Naglieri, J. A. (1999). Effectiveness
of the MASTER program for teach<strong>in</strong>g special
children multiplication <strong>and</strong> division. Journal of
Learn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Disabilities</strong>, 32, 99–107.
Woodward, J., & Montague, M. (2002). Meet<strong>in</strong>g the
challenge of mathematics reform for students
with LD. The Journal of Special <strong>Education</strong>, 36, 89–
101.
Yell, M. L., & Drasgow, E. (2005). No Child Left
Beh<strong>in</strong>d: A guide for professionals. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Effectiveness of Parent <strong>and</strong> Therapist Collaboration Program
(PTCP) for Teach<strong>in</strong>g Self-Care <strong>and</strong> Domestic Skills to
Individuals with Autism
Atilla Cavkaytar
Anadolu University
Elena Pollard
Guthrie Ma<strong>in</strong>stream Services, AZ
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to develop <strong>and</strong> determ<strong>in</strong>e the effectiveness of a Parent <strong>and</strong> Therapist
Collaboration Program for teach<strong>in</strong>g self care <strong>and</strong> domestic skills to <strong>in</strong>dividuals with autism with vary<strong>in</strong>g
educational needs, age, <strong>and</strong> severity of disability. Three <strong>in</strong>dividuals with autism, one habilitation provider, <strong>and</strong>
three parents participated <strong>in</strong> the study. A multiple probe design with probe conditions across skills was used <strong>in</strong>
order to exam<strong>in</strong>e the effectiveness of <strong>in</strong>dependent variables on the dependent variable. The <strong>in</strong>dependent variable
of the study was Parent <strong>and</strong> Therapist Collaboration Program (PTCP) for teach<strong>in</strong>g self care <strong>and</strong> domestic skills
for <strong>in</strong>dividuals with autism. <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> is completed when the parents <strong>and</strong> therapists determ<strong>in</strong>e that they are
proficient <strong>in</strong> the tasks expla<strong>in</strong>ed dur<strong>in</strong>g the meet<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>and</strong> home visits, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g how to complete various
record<strong>in</strong>g forms for target skills <strong>and</strong> how to apply teach<strong>in</strong>g methods. Result show that the PTCP was effective
for teach<strong>in</strong>g self-care <strong>and</strong> domestic skills to children with autism.
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to The Revised Fourth Edition of
Diagnostic <strong>and</strong> Statistical Manual, (DSM-IV-
TR), autism is characterized as hav<strong>in</strong>g: Qualitative
impairments <strong>in</strong> social <strong>in</strong>teractions <strong>and</strong>
communication skills, <strong>and</strong> repetitive <strong>and</strong> stereotyped
patterns of behavior (American Psychiatric
Association, 2000). In addition, people
with autism often acquire self-care <strong>and</strong>
daily liv<strong>in</strong>g skills, but require additional supports
<strong>in</strong> the form of supervision <strong>and</strong> prompt<strong>in</strong>g
to ensure <strong>in</strong>dependent performance
(Hibbert, Kost<strong>in</strong>as, & Luiselli, 2002). Many
The first author completed this study when he
was a visit<strong>in</strong>g Professor at Arizona State University,
<strong>Division</strong> of Curriculum & Instruction. Thanks to all
who assisted <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Dr. Samuel DiGangi <strong>and</strong>
Special <strong>Education</strong> faculty. Special thanks to the
Guthrie Recreation <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> Therapy Center,
a private center for children with developmental
disabilities <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>and</strong>ler, AZ. We would also like to
extend a warm thank you to the families, children,
<strong>and</strong> therapists who participated <strong>in</strong> the study. Correspondence
concern<strong>in</strong>g this article should be addressed
to Atilla Cavkaytar, Anadolu University, Faculty
of <strong>Education</strong>, Eskisehir, 26470, TURKEY.
Email: acavkayt@anadolu.edu.tr
<strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>, 2009, 44(3), 381–395
© <strong>Division</strong> on <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>
<strong>in</strong>dividuals with autism have deficits <strong>in</strong> their
ability to function <strong>in</strong>dependently <strong>and</strong> need
multiple forms of <strong>in</strong>struction to master daily
liv<strong>in</strong>g skills (Carothers & Taylor, 2004). An
<strong>in</strong>dividual who has essential self-care skills
such as dress<strong>in</strong>g, eat<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> toilet<strong>in</strong>g skills is
considered as one who has taken important
steps toward ga<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g an <strong>in</strong>dependent life. As
a ma<strong>in</strong> aspect of American Association on
Intellectual <strong>and</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>
(AAIDD-formerly AAMR—American Association
on Mental Retardation) def<strong>in</strong>ition, help<strong>in</strong>g
an <strong>in</strong>dividual with a developmental disability
ga<strong>in</strong> practical skills <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g self-care skills
are important for <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g his <strong>in</strong>dependence
<strong>and</strong> participation <strong>in</strong> society (AAMR,
2002).
Matthews <strong>and</strong> Hudson (2001) po<strong>in</strong>ted out
that the parent tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g methods by which
parents are taught parent<strong>in</strong>g strategies should
follow sound <strong>in</strong>structional pr<strong>in</strong>ciples based on
established theories of learn<strong>in</strong>g. There is a
great deal of evidence that applied behavioral
analysis (ABA) is a highly effective form of
<strong>in</strong>tervention for children with autism (Dillenburger,
Keenan, Gallagher, & McElh<strong>in</strong>ney,
Parent <strong>and</strong> Therapist Collaboration / 381

2004; Feldman & Werner, 2002). Cooper,
Heron <strong>and</strong> Heward, (2007) stated that “ABA is
the science <strong>in</strong> which tactics derived from the
pr<strong>in</strong>ciples of behavior are applied systematically
to improve socially significant behavior
<strong>and</strong> experimentation is used to identify the
variables for behavior change.” (p. 20). This
method utilizes behavioral pr<strong>in</strong>ciples such as
positive re<strong>in</strong>forcement to teach <strong>in</strong>dividuals
with special needs skills <strong>in</strong> a planned, systematic
manner, <strong>and</strong> offers repeated opportunities
across the day, sett<strong>in</strong>gs, people, <strong>and</strong> materials
to practice their new skills.
As <strong>in</strong> many parts of the world, the United
States provides educational supports for people
with developmental disabilities <strong>in</strong> two
forms: educational assistance with<strong>in</strong> public
<strong>and</strong> private schools, <strong>and</strong> home <strong>and</strong> center
based therapy services. <strong>Education</strong>al assistance
with<strong>in</strong> public <strong>and</strong> private schools is funded
through the Department of <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong>
consists of special education <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>clusive
regular education classrooms with special education
support that <strong>in</strong>cludes but is not limited
to: speech, occupational, <strong>and</strong> physical
therapies; counsel<strong>in</strong>g services <strong>and</strong>; Individualized
<strong>Education</strong> Plan (IDEA, 2004). These
supports are offered from the time a student
enters preschool until they have graduated
high school if the team f<strong>in</strong>ds the need to be
ongo<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> can be provided <strong>in</strong> a public
school sett<strong>in</strong>g or with<strong>in</strong> private sett<strong>in</strong>gs that
specialize <strong>in</strong> their specific disability. Home
<strong>and</strong> center-based therapy services are funded
through the Department of Economic Security
<strong>and</strong> provide one on one treatment that
may <strong>in</strong>clude: speech, occupational, physical,
<strong>and</strong> music therapy; behavioral <strong>in</strong>terventions;
respite care; attendant care; habilitation
therapies (Arizona Department of Economic
Security, 1996). These services are provided
from the time a child is diagnosed with a
developmental disability until such time as
the services are not necessary or they show
enough progression that they no longer meet
the criteria for the diagnosis.
The use of paraprofessionals <strong>in</strong> public
schools has become one of the primary mechanisms
by which students with disabilities are
be<strong>in</strong>g supported <strong>in</strong> general education classes
(Giangreco, Edelman, Broer, & Doyle, 2001;
Giangreco, Smith, & P<strong>in</strong>ckney, 2006). Paraprofessionals
can be used to support the edu-
382 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
cation of student with, or without, disabilities.
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to Giangreco, et al. paraprofessionals
need orientation <strong>and</strong> support. Just as educators
<strong>in</strong> the school sett<strong>in</strong>gs rely on the assistance
of these paraprofessionals to work one
on one with the child with a disability, so do
sett<strong>in</strong>gs that provide home <strong>and</strong> center-based
behavioral therapies. Some states have a specific
system <strong>in</strong> place that provides state <strong>and</strong>
federally funded therapy <strong>and</strong> other forms of
assistance to children <strong>and</strong> adults with developmental
disabilities. Many of these services provide
assistance by tra<strong>in</strong>ed personnel that work
one on one <strong>in</strong> the client’s home, or at therapy
centers that cater to each person’s <strong>in</strong>dividual
needs. These personnel, called “habilitation
therapists” <strong>in</strong> the state of Arizona, carry out
behavioral <strong>in</strong>terventions that a team of professionals
have designated <strong>in</strong> order for the
client to meet their specific goals. As def<strong>in</strong>ed
by the Arizona Department of Economic Security
habilitation services: “provide a variety
of <strong>in</strong>terventions such as applied behavior analysis,
social skill tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, sensory <strong>in</strong>tegration
therapy <strong>and</strong> are designed to maximize the
function<strong>in</strong>g of the person with developmental
disabilities” (Arizona Department of Economic
Security, 1996).
Due to the amount of services that are
needed to care for a person with developmental
disabilities, often states can only provide
low hourly wages for personnel work<strong>in</strong>g one
on one. This does not afford highly educated
professionals to carry out the <strong>in</strong>dividual’s service
plan on a daily basis. Therefore it is crucial
to tra<strong>in</strong> highly motivated personnel that
work under the supervision of the team of
professionals <strong>in</strong> order to carry out the behavioral
<strong>in</strong>tervention plan. Although the welltra<strong>in</strong>ed
personnel are a very important addition
to the education of an <strong>in</strong>dividual with
autism, parents <strong>and</strong> families are the most vital
part of the team. Symon (2001) po<strong>in</strong>ted out a
large body of research which shows the importance
of parent <strong>and</strong> family participation <strong>in</strong> the
education of children with autism. Brookman-
Frazee, Vismara, Drahota, Stahmer, <strong>and</strong>
Openden (<strong>in</strong> press) also highlight multiple
parent tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g models <strong>and</strong> the efficacy of
deliver<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tervention through the primary
caregiver. Parent education is found to be
effective on reduc<strong>in</strong>g problem behaviors <strong>and</strong>
also teach<strong>in</strong>g various skills to these children. It

is well known that when parents learn the
pr<strong>in</strong>ciples of ABA regard<strong>in</strong>g skill <strong>in</strong>struction,
they implement the system successfully (Batu,
2008; Cavkaytar, 2007; Weiss & Rutgers, 2006).
Although there are some research studies
show<strong>in</strong>g the effectiveness of parent implement<strong>in</strong>g
ABA, there is still a need to see the
effects of parent-therapist collaborations <strong>and</strong>
partnership (Hanna & Rodger, 2002). Some
of the research showed that home-based parent
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g programs, based on ABA were
effective for teach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dependent life skills.
For example, Batu exam<strong>in</strong>ed the effectiveness
of caregiver delivered home-based <strong>in</strong>struction
on teach<strong>in</strong>g cha<strong>in</strong>ed home skills. Results of
the study showed that the care givers were
successful at provid<strong>in</strong>g the tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g to their
children <strong>and</strong> the children acquired, ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed
<strong>and</strong> generalized the target behaviors.
When the literature was reviewed some studies
show<strong>in</strong>g effectiveness of parent-therapist collaboration
or parent-teacher partnership were
found. For example Hanna <strong>and</strong> Roger suggest
that parent-therapist partnership helped to acquire
better therapy outcomes for the children
<strong>and</strong> their families. The authors also concluded
that the partnership had assisted
children <strong>and</strong> families to reach mean<strong>in</strong>gful,
functional goals <strong>in</strong> their daily lives. Also Ruble
<strong>and</strong> Dalrymple (2002) mentioned that children
with autism would benefit more if they
attend more to the <strong>in</strong>structional context.
Therefore it is said that hav<strong>in</strong>g parents participate
<strong>in</strong> the educational process <strong>and</strong> deliver
therapeutic methods <strong>in</strong> the home environment
is crucial <strong>in</strong> the lives of children with
autism.
The present study was designed <strong>in</strong> accordance
with past research f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs regard<strong>in</strong>g
the importance of parent <strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>in</strong> therapy
implementation. It is the hypothesis of
this study that <strong>in</strong>dividuals with autism would
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> generalize mastered skills, if parents
<strong>and</strong> habilitation therapists teach<strong>in</strong>g techniques
based on ABA work <strong>in</strong> collaboration
with one another, rather than therapists
teach<strong>in</strong>g the skills alone. In order to exam<strong>in</strong>e
the hypothesis, Cavkaytar’s (1999) parent
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g program about teach<strong>in</strong>g self-care <strong>and</strong>
domestic skills (PTP-TSEDOS) was chosen.
The program was shown to be effective with
mothers on teach<strong>in</strong>g self-care <strong>and</strong> domestic
skills to their children <strong>in</strong> Turkey (Cavkaytar,
1999, 2007). Parents with various educational
backgrounds took part <strong>in</strong> the program. In
both studies, the mothers who completed the
program have managed to teach the targeted
self-care <strong>and</strong> domestic skills to their children
at home. At the end of the program, children
acquired the skills that were taught by their
mothers. The program was replicated for
teach<strong>in</strong>g self-care <strong>and</strong> domestic skills by
teacher aides. Teacher aides who were work<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>in</strong> a private rehabilitation center participated
<strong>in</strong> the study. At the end of the program
the implementations of the teacher aides were
found to be effective as well (Sabanova &
Cavkaytar, 2007). Also, the program was applied
<strong>in</strong> order to teach toilet skills to children
with autism <strong>and</strong> mental retardation <strong>and</strong> was
found to be effective for mothers <strong>in</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g
these skills to their children (Ozcan & Cavkaytar,
2009). At the end of the study, the program
was seen as effective <strong>and</strong> mothers who
participated <strong>in</strong> the study managed to teach
toilet skills to their children. Therefore; this
study <strong>in</strong>tends to exp<strong>and</strong> evidence-based practices
on specifically teach<strong>in</strong>g practical adaptive
skills (e.g., self care <strong>and</strong> domestic skills).
The purpose of the current study was to determ<strong>in</strong>e
the effectiveness of a Parent <strong>and</strong>
Therapist Collaboration Program (PTCP) for
teach<strong>in</strong>g self care <strong>and</strong> domestic skills to <strong>in</strong>dividuals
with autism. The researchers were also
<strong>in</strong>terested to see if the program was most effective
when taught by a parent alone, a therapist
alone, or a parent <strong>and</strong> therapist team.
The follow<strong>in</strong>g research questions were addressed
for each <strong>in</strong>dividual child participat<strong>in</strong>g
to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the effectiveness of the PTCP:
(1) Was child Aa able to perform targeted
skills that were “sweep under the table”, “tooth
brush<strong>in</strong>g”, <strong>and</strong> “us<strong>in</strong>g remote control” taught
by her mother A who was work<strong>in</strong>g as a therapist
<strong>in</strong> center? (2) Was child Bb able to perform
targeted skills that were “wash<strong>in</strong>g
h<strong>and</strong>s”, “putt<strong>in</strong>g shoes on”, <strong>and</strong> “tooth brush<strong>in</strong>g”
taught by both mother B <strong>and</strong> his therapist
BT? (3) Was child Cc able to perform
targeted skills that were “tooth brush<strong>in</strong>g”, “put
toys away”, <strong>and</strong> “talk<strong>in</strong>g on the phone” taught
by his mother? (4) What were the mothers’
op<strong>in</strong>ions about PTCP?
Parent <strong>and</strong> Therapist Collaboration / 383

Method
Participants
Participants <strong>in</strong>cluded three children with autism,
their mothers, <strong>and</strong> one habilitation therapist
that worked with children with autism.
All participant children were receiv<strong>in</strong>g state
funded therapy services through the <strong>Division</strong>
of <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong> <strong>in</strong> Arizona. In
order to receive these services they must have
a documented diagnosis of autism given by a
child psychologist or developmental pediatrician.
No records of their <strong>in</strong>dividual IQ scores
were available. Children were attend<strong>in</strong>g the
G.R.E.A.T. Kids center (Guthrie Recreation
<strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> Therapy), a private center for
children with developmental disabilities <strong>in</strong>
Ch<strong>and</strong>ler, Arizona. The first mother A was 33
years old <strong>and</strong> atta<strong>in</strong>ed an associate degree.
She was married <strong>and</strong> had two children, one of
which was diagnosed with autism. She was a
work<strong>in</strong>g mother who was a former habilitation
therapist that was promoted to a supervisory
role. She conducted the <strong>in</strong>tervention both at
the center <strong>and</strong> at home with her daughter <strong>in</strong>
parallel sessions. Mother A was placed as “parent
as therapist” <strong>in</strong> this study. Her daughter
Aa was five years old <strong>and</strong> could follow two-step
<strong>in</strong>structions, <strong>and</strong> was learn<strong>in</strong>g to read <strong>and</strong>
write at that time.
The second mother B was 41 years old <strong>and</strong>
has a Master’s degree. She was married <strong>and</strong>
had three children, two with developmental
disabilities, one of which was diagnosed with
autism. Her four year old son Bb was mostly
nonverbal with a few s<strong>in</strong>gle words, <strong>and</strong> had
difficulty <strong>in</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g more than one-step directions.
His therapist BT was a high school
graduate. The therapist BT worked with him
for three-hour sessions per week for several
months. The <strong>in</strong>tervention with Bb would be
conducted by the mother B <strong>and</strong> the therapist
BT at the same time both at home <strong>and</strong> at the
center. The third mother C was work<strong>in</strong>g, married,
<strong>and</strong> had two children, one of which was
diagnosed with autism. Her seven year old son
Cc was able to follow all s<strong>in</strong>gle-step <strong>and</strong> some
two-step directions, had limited verbal language,
<strong>and</strong> could recognize letters, numbers
<strong>and</strong> read s<strong>in</strong>gle words. This mother worked
alone. She did not have a therapist work<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>
the study with her. The participation criteria
for parents were as follows <strong>in</strong> the study:
(a) they should read <strong>and</strong> write; (b) they
should voluntarily attend tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g sessions <strong>and</strong>
be capable of carry<strong>in</strong>g out tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g procedures
at home. The follow<strong>in</strong>g criteria was also
considered for children to be participants:
(a) they should be between ages of 3 to 7,
(b) diagnosed with autism, <strong>and</strong> (c) could follow
simple one-step directions such as “come,
go, sit down, st<strong>and</strong> up, open, <strong>and</strong> close.” The
follow<strong>in</strong>g criteria for the habilitation therapists
were taken <strong>in</strong>to account for be the participat<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>in</strong> the study: (a) to have at least two
months of experience on teach<strong>in</strong>g skills to
people with developmental disabilities, (b) to
have completed 10 hours of tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g given by
the State of Arizona’s <strong>Division</strong> of <strong>Developmental</strong>
<strong>Disabilities</strong>, that outl<strong>in</strong>es how to effectively
teach skills to people with developmental disabilities
us<strong>in</strong>g methods of Applied Behavioral
Analysis, <strong>and</strong> (c) to voluntarily attend tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g
sessions <strong>and</strong> be capable of carry<strong>in</strong>g out tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g
procedures at the therapy centers <strong>and</strong>
provide tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g to parents <strong>in</strong> their home.
Sett<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>and</strong> Materials
Three different sett<strong>in</strong>gs were used <strong>in</strong> this
study: Meet<strong>in</strong>g room for parent <strong>and</strong> therapist
<strong>in</strong>structional meet<strong>in</strong>gs at the center, therapy
room for therapist work<strong>in</strong>g on skills, <strong>and</strong> children’s
home for home supervision. The parent
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g sessions were conducted <strong>in</strong> the
meet<strong>in</strong>g room at the center. The other sett<strong>in</strong>g
was the children’s own home. All the house
sett<strong>in</strong>gs were as designed by the parents. No
additional accommodation was planned. All
teach<strong>in</strong>g sessions <strong>and</strong> the home visits were
conducted <strong>in</strong> the natural environment of children’s
daily lives. There were no selected specific
materials such as toys, daily furniture or
items on data collection <strong>and</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g periods.
All materials were natural materials used <strong>in</strong>
daily rout<strong>in</strong>es.
Design
384 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
As one of the methods of s<strong>in</strong>gle subject designs,
a multiple probe research design across
behaviors was used <strong>in</strong> order to f<strong>in</strong>d out the
effects of <strong>in</strong>dependent variables on the dependent
variables. The <strong>in</strong>dependent variable of
the study was Parent <strong>and</strong> Therapist Collabora-

tion Program (PTCP) for teach<strong>in</strong>g self care
<strong>and</strong> domestic skills for <strong>in</strong>dividuals with autism.
The dependent variable was performance
level of children with autism on self care <strong>and</strong>
domestic skills taught by their mothers <strong>and</strong>
therapist.
Data Collection
In the study, accord<strong>in</strong>g to the multiple probe
design across behaviors, the children’s basel<strong>in</strong>e
phase, tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g phase, probe phase <strong>and</strong>
follow up phase data concern<strong>in</strong>g performance
level of acquisition of children on the target
skills were collected. Basel<strong>in</strong>e, probes <strong>and</strong>
follow up phase data were collected by the
researchers <strong>in</strong> accordance with the research
model. The s<strong>in</strong>gle opportunity method was
used <strong>in</strong> data collection procedures. Accord<strong>in</strong>g
to that method, firstly the materials to be used
were prepared <strong>and</strong> the sett<strong>in</strong>g was organized.
Secondly, the record<strong>in</strong>g procedures were <strong>in</strong>itiated
by giv<strong>in</strong>g the child or adult discrim<strong>in</strong>ative
stimuli. The skill steps carried out correctly
were marked as correct (). When the
child had no response with<strong>in</strong> 10 skill steps,
application would be stopped <strong>and</strong> the rest of
the items would be marked as wrong ().
When the child had a correct response for
one item <strong>and</strong> an <strong>in</strong>correct response for the
next item, the correct ones were marked as
(), the <strong>in</strong>correct or skipped ones were
marked as (). The tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g phase data for
each skill were collected by the participant
parent <strong>and</strong> therapist us<strong>in</strong>g the Data Record<strong>in</strong>g
Form for <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> Procedure (DRFTP)
provided by the program. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>itial
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g program, how to fill <strong>in</strong> the forms was
expla<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> detail. Social validity data were
collected from mothers by “PTCP Exit<strong>in</strong>g
Questionnaire.” The questionnaire <strong>in</strong>cluded
n<strong>in</strong>e questions about satisfaction of the mothers
regard<strong>in</strong>g the study. The questionnaire
was sent to the mothers by e-mail when the
study was completed, <strong>and</strong> the mothers were
asked to send the answers of the questionnaire
through e-mail as well.
Independent Variable
Parent <strong>and</strong> Therapist Collaboration Program
(PTCP) for teach<strong>in</strong>g self-care <strong>and</strong> domestic skills.
The purpose of the PTCP was to enable par-
ents <strong>and</strong> therapists of <strong>in</strong>dividuals with autism
to teach self-care <strong>and</strong> domestic skills to their
children/student. PTCP has been adapted
from the parent tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g program for teach<strong>in</strong>g
self-care <strong>and</strong> domestic skills to children
with mental retardation developed by Cavkaytar
(1999, 2007).
PTCP consisted of group <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual
(one-to-one) teach<strong>in</strong>g activities with parents
<strong>and</strong> habilitation therapists. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the application
of these procedures, the “Teach<strong>in</strong>g
Self-Care <strong>and</strong> Domestic Skills Manual”
(TSCDSM), which was replicated by Cavkaytar
(1999) <strong>in</strong> accordance with the program objectives,
was used. The purpose of the TSCDSM
was to make the parents <strong>and</strong> habilitation therapists
knowledgeable <strong>and</strong> skillful about the
program’s objectives <strong>and</strong> content. TSCDSM
had three parts: <strong>in</strong>troduction, prepar<strong>in</strong>g before
skill <strong>in</strong>struction, <strong>and</strong> skill <strong>in</strong>struction. An
appendices section was also <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the
manual. The manual consisted of lists <strong>and</strong>
forms for parents to prepare dur<strong>in</strong>g the study.
As part of the program, group <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual
meet<strong>in</strong>gs with parents <strong>and</strong> habilitation
therapists were planned <strong>and</strong> conducted. First,
as group tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g part of the program, group
meet<strong>in</strong>gs were conducted. The purpose was to
give tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g to parents about the topics <strong>in</strong>
TSCDSM. Second, the <strong>in</strong>dividual (one-to-one)
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g part of the program, home visits with
parents, <strong>and</strong> center visits with habilitation
therapists were planned <strong>and</strong> conducted with
parents <strong>and</strong> habilitation therapists. The purpose
of the tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, one-to-one teach<strong>in</strong>g aspect
of the program, was three-fold; (1) to
enable the parents <strong>and</strong> habilitation therapists
transform the knowledge they ga<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong>
group meet<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong>to practice, (2) to see the
parents, habilitation therapists <strong>and</strong> the child
<strong>in</strong> a one-to-one practice under the supervision
of an expert <strong>and</strong>, (3) to give tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g to the
parent <strong>and</strong> habilitation therapists while apply<strong>in</strong>g
the program.
Procedure
Intervention started with the first group meet<strong>in</strong>g.
Three group meet<strong>in</strong>gs, each of which
lasted 1.5 hours, <strong>and</strong> a home visit to the parents’
home of each parent lasted 1.5 hours
were conducted. Also visits to the center of
therapist BT last<strong>in</strong>g 1.5 hours were con-
Parent <strong>and</strong> Therapist Collaboration / 385

ducted. Group meet<strong>in</strong>gs were held <strong>in</strong> a meet<strong>in</strong>g
room <strong>in</strong> the school of participant students.
Each group meet<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> each home <strong>and</strong> center
visit lasted until the mothers were competent
<strong>in</strong> terms of the objectives identified. In
the first parent meet<strong>in</strong>g, extensive <strong>in</strong>formation
was provided to participants regard<strong>in</strong>g
(a) how the program works, (b) how to use
the <strong>in</strong>troduction section of the TSCDSM, <strong>and</strong>
(c) how to identify the child’s performance
<strong>and</strong> the rewards as <strong>in</strong>dicated <strong>in</strong> the second
part of the manual. Second, participants were
asked to identify the skills, which their children/student
were or were not able to perform.
They were also asked to put the skills
they identified <strong>in</strong> order of priority <strong>and</strong> to
identify rewards they would like to use <strong>in</strong> their
home activities. In the second meet<strong>in</strong>g, the
follow<strong>in</strong>g activities took place. First, extra activities
given to the mother <strong>and</strong> habilitation
therapist <strong>in</strong> the first meet<strong>in</strong>g were exam<strong>in</strong>ed.
Second, some explanation was made about
plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>structional activities as <strong>in</strong>dicated
<strong>in</strong> the second part of the manual. F<strong>in</strong>ally, the
first skill <strong>in</strong> the list prepared by the participants
dur<strong>in</strong>g home/center activities was chosen
as the sample skill <strong>and</strong> DRFTP was prepared.
All mothers chose cutt<strong>in</strong>g nails as the
sample skill. In the third meet<strong>in</strong>g, some explanation
was provided about important po<strong>in</strong>ts
that the participants should be careful before
start<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>g apply<strong>in</strong>g the skill tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g
activities as <strong>in</strong>dicated <strong>in</strong> the third part of the
manual. In addition some cues concern<strong>in</strong>g
the skill tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g were provided to participants.
Participants were tra<strong>in</strong>ed on creat<strong>in</strong>g
visual aids for each skill by way of photo books.
For each skill a photo of someone perform<strong>in</strong>g
each step was taken, <strong>and</strong> a typed label with
step number was adhered to the specific step.
The photos were placed <strong>in</strong> the book from
front to back, <strong>in</strong> the order that each step was
performed. The books were to be used <strong>in</strong>
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g as another form of prompt when a
child was stuck on a particular skill step. Participants
also used the photo book to discuss
the skill with the child outside of tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g
sessions, by turn<strong>in</strong>g the pages <strong>and</strong> label<strong>in</strong>g the
steps together.
After complet<strong>in</strong>g three group meet<strong>in</strong>gs,
one visit to each mother’s home was made by
the researchers. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the home/center visit,
the participants, under the supervision of the
researcher, carried out the <strong>in</strong>structional activity
of the sample skill. At the end of the visit,
three <strong>in</strong>dependent skills, which each participant
would like to work with her own child/
student, were identified together with the participations.
All these steps were carried out by
the participants themselves under the supervision
of the researcher. Follow<strong>in</strong>g the visit,
participants cont<strong>in</strong>ued <strong>in</strong>struction of the sample
skill they started with the researcher dur<strong>in</strong>g
home visit until there was consistency <strong>in</strong>
the data after three consecutive sessions. At
the same time, they prepared DRFTP for each
of the three skills identified. When there was
consistency <strong>in</strong> the data, participants called the
researchers. The researcher visited each parent
<strong>in</strong> order to get follow up data of the
sample skill <strong>and</strong> the probe <strong>and</strong> basel<strong>in</strong>e data
of the other skills. In the first part of the visit,
the researchers carefully exam<strong>in</strong>ed the
DRFTP prepared by the participants for three
skills. Then, they obta<strong>in</strong>ed the probe data
once for these three skills.
Reliability
In order to provide reliability across observers,
habilitation therapists of participant children
at the private center were chosen as the <strong>in</strong>dependent
observers. They were first tra<strong>in</strong>ed for
“record<strong>in</strong>g procedure”. Follow<strong>in</strong>g this, reliability
across observers was determ<strong>in</strong>ed for
each skill us<strong>in</strong>g the “agreement/agreement
disagreement 100” formula (Tawney & Gast,
1984) for at least 20% of the data. Reliability
was 100% for the first participant child, 75%
for the second <strong>and</strong> the third participant child.
Across all skills for all participant children,
overall <strong>in</strong>ter-rater reliability was found as 94%.
Social Validation
386 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
Social validity data were gathered via a n<strong>in</strong>e
items questionnaire from participant mothers.
Seven of the items were Likert type scale; two
of the questions were open ended. The questionnaire
had five rat<strong>in</strong>g scales: strongly disagree,
disagree, neutral, agree, <strong>and</strong> strongly
agree. The questions were as follow: (a) Prior
to beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g this study, I felt comfortable with
teach<strong>in</strong>g self care skills to my child with autism,
(b) Prior to this study, I understood the
basic pr<strong>in</strong>ciples of Applied Behavioral Analysis

(re<strong>in</strong>forcers, prompt levels, break<strong>in</strong>g skills
<strong>in</strong>to steps, etc.) <strong>and</strong> how to implement them
<strong>in</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g my child with autism, (c) I felt
that the photo books I made were helpful
when teach<strong>in</strong>g the skills to my child, (d) I felt
that the tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>gs given prior to the study
were easy to underst<strong>and</strong>, even for someone
who has little experience with teach<strong>in</strong>g skills
to children with autism, (e) I would recommend
the tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>gs to other parents of children
with autism, (f) Upon completion of this
study, I feel comfortable with teach<strong>in</strong>g self
care skills to my child, (g) Upon completion
of this study, I underst<strong>and</strong> the basic pr<strong>in</strong>ciples
of Applied Behavioral Analysis (re<strong>in</strong>forcers,
prompt levels, break<strong>in</strong>g skills <strong>in</strong>to steps, etc.)
<strong>and</strong> how to implement them <strong>in</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g my
child with autism. The open ended questions
were: (h) What I liked most about this
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g program <strong>and</strong>, (i) What I liked least
about this tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g program. The questionnaire
was e-mailed to the parents. The data
from the questionnaires were analyzed by the
first author by gather<strong>in</strong>g similar answers from
the participants.
Results
Results for “Aa”
Data obta<strong>in</strong>ed from the study were analyzed
graphically. Figure 1 illustrates mother A’s
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g activities with her child Aa about
“sweep under table”, then “tooth brush<strong>in</strong>g”,
<strong>and</strong> lastly “us<strong>in</strong>g remote control” at home <strong>and</strong>
also at the center.
Aa was able to perform very few of the skill
steps at basel<strong>in</strong>e for all skills, as illustrated by
the first data po<strong>in</strong>ts on each graph. Probe data
obta<strong>in</strong>ed from all skills seems to be consistent
with the basel<strong>in</strong>e data. A noticeable <strong>and</strong> sometimes
fluctuat<strong>in</strong>g process can be seen for each
of the three skills throughout the tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g
process. All skills were performed above 80%
at completion. Moreover, follow up data were
consistent with those of teach<strong>in</strong>g phase. Accord<strong>in</strong>g
to these results, the PTCP provided to
the mother A <strong>in</strong> addition to her tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g as a
therapist was considered as effective.
Results for “Bb”
Figure 2 illustrates skills taught to Bb, by his
therapist BT at center <strong>and</strong> also mother at
home. The skills are shown <strong>in</strong> the order they
were taught, beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g with “wash<strong>in</strong>g h<strong>and</strong>s”,
then “putt<strong>in</strong>g shoes on”, <strong>and</strong> lastly “tooth
brush<strong>in</strong>g.”
Participant Bb was unable to perform any of
the skill steps at basel<strong>in</strong>e for the skills “wash<strong>in</strong>g
h<strong>and</strong>s”, “putt<strong>in</strong>g shoes on” <strong>and</strong> “tooth
brush<strong>in</strong>g”, as illustrated by the first data po<strong>in</strong>t
on each graph. Probe data obta<strong>in</strong>ed from all
skills seems to be consistent with the basel<strong>in</strong>e
data. Child Bb’s noticeable process can be
seen for first <strong>and</strong> second skills throughout the
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g process. First <strong>and</strong> second skills were
performed above 94-100% respectively. His
mother stated that she did not take much data
on the third skill however did work on the
teach<strong>in</strong>g methods with him. She mentioned
that she was able to take data for two trials to
show his progress, <strong>and</strong> he was at 80% <strong>in</strong>dependence.
This data is consistent with the f<strong>in</strong>al
probe data taken. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to these results,
parent tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g provided to mother <strong>in</strong>
conjunction with her therapist BT can be considered
effective for “wash<strong>in</strong>g h<strong>and</strong>s” <strong>and</strong>
“putt<strong>in</strong>g shoes on”. The skill of “tooth brush<strong>in</strong>g”
was taught successfully us<strong>in</strong>g the teach<strong>in</strong>g
methods, although the data to support this
claim is limited. Figure 3 illustrates habilitation
therapist BT’s data for same skills as
“wash<strong>in</strong>g h<strong>and</strong>s”, then “putt<strong>in</strong>g shoes on”, <strong>and</strong>
lastly “tooth brush<strong>in</strong>g.”
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to habilitation therapist BT’s
data, child Bb was unable to perform any of
the skill steps at basel<strong>in</strong>e for the skills “wash<strong>in</strong>g
h<strong>and</strong>s”, “putt<strong>in</strong>g shoes on” <strong>and</strong> “tooth
brush<strong>in</strong>g”. Probe data obta<strong>in</strong>ed from all skills
seems to be consistent with the basel<strong>in</strong>e data.
An acceptable process can be seen for first
<strong>and</strong> second skills throughout the tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g process.
First <strong>and</strong> second skills were performed
above 80%. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the third skill child Bb
experienced a change <strong>in</strong> his habilitation therapist
BT three times, <strong>and</strong> the teach<strong>in</strong>g methods
<strong>and</strong> data collection did not rema<strong>in</strong> consistent.
There was a small amount of data
taken <strong>in</strong> the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of the sessions with the
therapist BT. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to these results, parent
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g provided to mother <strong>in</strong> conjunction
with the therapist BT can be considered
as effective <strong>in</strong> “wash<strong>in</strong>g h<strong>and</strong>s” <strong>and</strong> “putt<strong>in</strong>g
shoes on”. Child Bb also completed third skill,
“tooth brush<strong>in</strong>g” as shown on Figure 3.
Parent <strong>and</strong> Therapist Collaboration / 387

Figure 1. Percentage of correct responses for Aa dur<strong>in</strong>g basel<strong>in</strong>e, teach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> follow up sessions.
Results Regard<strong>in</strong>g Targeted Child “Cc”
Figure 4 illustrates skills taught to Participant
Cc, by his mother C at home. The skills are
shown <strong>in</strong> the order they were taught, beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g
with “tooth brush<strong>in</strong>g”, “put toys away”,
<strong>and</strong>, “talk<strong>in</strong>g on the phone”.
Child Cc was unable to perform any of the
skill steps at basel<strong>in</strong>e. Probe data obta<strong>in</strong>ed
from all skills seem to be consistent with the
basel<strong>in</strong>e data. First skill was performed above
75%, although the f<strong>in</strong>al probe <strong>in</strong>dicated it was
388 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
mastered above 80%. Mother C misplaced the
last data sheet show<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dependence. Second
skills were performed above 80%. It was determ<strong>in</strong>ed
by his mother that the third skill, “Talk<strong>in</strong>g
on the phone” was not appropriate for
him at this time. Child Cc has noted auditory
sensitivities <strong>and</strong> adverse reactions to the voice
com<strong>in</strong>g through the phone. He refused the
skill after multiple trials <strong>and</strong> re<strong>in</strong>forcement,
<strong>and</strong> no data was taken. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to these
results, parent tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g provided to mother can

Figure 2. Percentage of correct responses for Bb dur<strong>in</strong>g basel<strong>in</strong>e, teach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> follow up sessions accord<strong>in</strong>g
to the mother B’s data.
be considered as effective <strong>in</strong> “Tooth brush<strong>in</strong>g”
<strong>and</strong>, “Putt<strong>in</strong>g toys away”, but not effective <strong>in</strong>
determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g target behaviors for this child.
Social Validity of the PTCP
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the social validity data, all parents
agreed that they were comfortable with
Parent <strong>and</strong> Therapist Collaboration / 389

Figure 3. Percentage of correct responses for Bb dur<strong>in</strong>g basel<strong>in</strong>e, teach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> follow up sessions accord<strong>in</strong>g
to the therapist BT’s data.
teach<strong>in</strong>g self-care <strong>and</strong> domestic skills us<strong>in</strong>g
the method of ABA with their children after
the study was completed. They agreed that
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> meet<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>and</strong> home visits were easy
to underst<strong>and</strong>. Photo book was helpful <strong>in</strong>
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g sessions with the children. All parents
390 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
agreed that they would recommend this tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g
to other parents of children with autism.
What they liked most about this tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g program
was that it was easy to apply with their
child. First mother A said “it was easy for
my child to comprehend due to the visual

Figure 4. Percentage of correct responses for Cc dur<strong>in</strong>g basel<strong>in</strong>e, teach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> follow up sessions.
aids <strong>and</strong> repetitiveness”. Second mother B
said “what I like most about the program was
the picture books show<strong>in</strong>g the skill steps.” The
third mother C mentioned that “learn<strong>in</strong>g to
break skills <strong>in</strong>to parts, teach us<strong>in</strong>g correct
prompt levels, <strong>and</strong> hav<strong>in</strong>g pictures of the
steps” were the parts she liked most about
the program. Participants stated the parts
they liked least about this program were data
collection, time l<strong>in</strong>e <strong>and</strong> busy family’s schedule.
The first mother A said “I have no timel<strong>in</strong>e
given for how long to teach the skill”. She
Parent <strong>and</strong> Therapist Collaboration / 391

had difficulty tak<strong>in</strong>g videotape of her child,
which was needed due to his refusal to complete
the skills <strong>in</strong> front of the raters. The
second mother B said “I felt like it was often
difficult to teach skills due to my family’s busy
schedule <strong>and</strong> felt that it would be easier hav<strong>in</strong>g
a habilitation therapist to help her with
implementation. I was teach<strong>in</strong>g the skills twice
per day for some skills”. The third mother C
said “It was difficult tak<strong>in</strong>g the data. I felt that
hav<strong>in</strong>g the habilitation therapist <strong>in</strong>volved was
helpful <strong>and</strong> feels confident teach<strong>in</strong>g future
workers how to teach skills to her child.”
In conclusion, data obta<strong>in</strong>ed from the study
showed that the children were unable to perform
the skill steps at the basel<strong>in</strong>e for most of
these skills <strong>and</strong> probe data were consistent
with basel<strong>in</strong>e data. First of all, tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g started
a quick progress for most of the skills, fluctuat<strong>in</strong>g
progress for some other skills throughout
the tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g process was observed. At the
end of the teach<strong>in</strong>g process, all children were
able to reach the criteria for all three skills,
except Bb’s tooth brush<strong>in</strong>g skill. Follow up
data were collected at the end of the each
teach<strong>in</strong>g stage. But most of the children
couldn’t reach the <strong>in</strong>dependence level. Follow
up data were observed to be consistent
with teach<strong>in</strong>g phase. Mothers said they were
happy to apply skill teach<strong>in</strong>g to their children.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to determ<strong>in</strong>e
the effectiveness of a PTCP for teach<strong>in</strong>g self
care <strong>and</strong> domestic skills to <strong>in</strong>dividuals with
autism. Results revealed that PTCP was effective
<strong>in</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g self-care <strong>and</strong> domestic skills to
<strong>in</strong>dividual with autism. Results were that the
mother who was previously a therapist, <strong>and</strong>
mother-therapist dyad that completed PTCP
were effective <strong>in</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g self-care <strong>and</strong> domestic
skills to their children <strong>and</strong> student with
autism by the tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g activities provided by
the program. These results were parallel with
the results of the previous research on the
program focused <strong>in</strong> this study. For example,
Cavkaytar (1999, 2007) applied the program
to mothers who have children with mental
retardation. After the tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g phase, mothers
taught self-care <strong>and</strong> domestic skills to their
children at their home. All mothers com-
392 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
pleted the program were work<strong>in</strong>g alone with
their children.
In another study, Sabanova <strong>and</strong> Cavkaytar
(2007), worked with teacher aides who are
work<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a private special education center
for teach<strong>in</strong>g self-care <strong>and</strong> domestic skills at
school. Results of the study showed that the
program was effective <strong>in</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g self-care
<strong>and</strong> domestic skill. Ozcan <strong>and</strong> Cavkaytar
(2009) replicated the program <strong>in</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g
toilet skills to children with autism <strong>and</strong> mental
retardation. The program was aga<strong>in</strong> found to
be effective <strong>in</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g toilet skills.
The first mother A was previously tra<strong>in</strong>ed as
a therapist <strong>and</strong> had received additional tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g
<strong>in</strong> ABA prior to the study, <strong>and</strong> worked with
her child at home. She felt very comfortable
teach<strong>in</strong>g the skills to her child <strong>and</strong> felt comfortable
tak<strong>in</strong>g data <strong>and</strong> fad<strong>in</strong>g prompt levels.
She did feel overwhelmed at times <strong>and</strong> stated
that it was very difficult to teach the skills
consistently by herself without the help of her
habilitation therapist. Like most work<strong>in</strong>g
mothers, her work, home, <strong>and</strong> family responsibilities
consumed such a large portion of her
time that she felt the support of an additional
therapist would have been very helpful <strong>and</strong>
that the skills would have progressed at a
faster rate.
The second mother B worked at home; her
therapist worked at the center on the same
skills simultaneously. The mother’s <strong>and</strong> therapist’s
data <strong>in</strong>dicated that they taught the targeted
skills <strong>in</strong> conjunction with one another.
This mother had two children at home with a
disability <strong>and</strong> discussed how <strong>in</strong>valuable it was
to have additional help <strong>and</strong> support implement<strong>in</strong>g
her child’s <strong>in</strong>tervention. She also felt
that hav<strong>in</strong>g the skills taught across multiple
environments was part of the success of his
master<strong>in</strong>g so quickly. Although ideally children
would benefit most from receiv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tervention
<strong>in</strong> their natural environments by their
primary caregiver, it is not always an easy feat
to achieve. Therefore hav<strong>in</strong>g parents tra<strong>in</strong>ed
to the best of their ability to implement <strong>in</strong>terventions
at home, <strong>in</strong> conjunction with collaborat<strong>in</strong>g
with other professionals <strong>in</strong> the
child’s environment would provide cont<strong>in</strong>uity
of care. This also allows parents’ access to a
tra<strong>in</strong>ed professional that can offer suggestions
<strong>and</strong> adaptations to skill teach<strong>in</strong>g when a child

is not progress<strong>in</strong>g or refus<strong>in</strong>g to complete skill
steps.
The third mother C participated <strong>in</strong> the
PTCP, but she could not complete the third
skill teach<strong>in</strong>g after the first <strong>and</strong> second skill.
The result may be related to the absence of
support from her therapist <strong>and</strong> school. She
discussed her satisfaction with the program
<strong>and</strong> the new empowerment that she felt after
be<strong>in</strong>g able to successfully teach her child
skills. She stated how different her son with
autism was from his typical sibl<strong>in</strong>gs, <strong>and</strong> how
teach<strong>in</strong>g methods were also quite different for
each. She expla<strong>in</strong>ed that if no one spent the
time teach<strong>in</strong>g parents how to use methods
such as ABA, <strong>and</strong> visually supported <strong>in</strong>struction
then they would cont<strong>in</strong>ue re<strong>in</strong>forc<strong>in</strong>g the
wrong behaviors <strong>and</strong> become just as frustrated
as the child. So many parents feel so helpless
when they have a child with autism, because
their <strong>in</strong>teractions are often unsuccessful. This
mother stated that giv<strong>in</strong>g her the power <strong>and</strong>
confidence to teach her child even basic skills
made her feel successful <strong>and</strong> more comfortable
teach<strong>in</strong>g him. Special educators <strong>and</strong> the
paraprofessionals or therapists with whom
they work need to establish <strong>and</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> a
collaborative relationship to better serve the
children assigned to them (Hauge & Babkie,
2006). Werts, Harris, Tillery, <strong>and</strong> Roark
(2004) have reported that most parents <strong>in</strong>
their sample reported paraeducators work<strong>in</strong>g
with their children were do<strong>in</strong>g a good job.
The result of their study <strong>in</strong>dicates that paraeducators
are perceived by parents as professionals,
highly valued service providers, <strong>and</strong>
they should be treated as such. Communication
<strong>and</strong> collaboration are required of paraeducators;
therefore, tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> these areas is
vital. Eyberg <strong>and</strong> Matarazzo (1980), po<strong>in</strong>ted
that parents can act as their own therapist by
develop<strong>in</strong>g mother child <strong>in</strong>teraction if they
tra<strong>in</strong> on <strong>in</strong>dividual parent-child <strong>in</strong>teraction
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g programs. The first mother who was
work<strong>in</strong>g at the education center as a therapist
completed teach<strong>in</strong>g for three skills dur<strong>in</strong>g a
total of 85 sessions alone with her child. The
second mother completed teach<strong>in</strong>g for three
skills dur<strong>in</strong>g a total of 55 sessions <strong>in</strong> collaboration
with her child’s therapist. The third
mother did not complete the teach<strong>in</strong>g period
for all three of the skills. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to these
results, the first mother effectively completed
the teach<strong>in</strong>g period for all skills. The second
mother who worked with her therapist completed
the skills more efficiently than first
mother work<strong>in</strong>g alone. These results <strong>in</strong>dicate
that the mother who tra<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>and</strong> applied the
PTCP program with her child’s therapist, can
teach her child self-care <strong>and</strong> domestic skills
most effective <strong>and</strong> efficiently. In addition the
mother who also had previous tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong>
completed the PTCP program taught her
child the skills over a longer duration. This
may po<strong>in</strong>t to the need for children to learn
skills across several contexts <strong>in</strong> order to generalize
<strong>and</strong> master the skills <strong>in</strong>dependently.
The child work<strong>in</strong>g with his mother <strong>and</strong> therapist
received tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> both the therapy
center <strong>and</strong> at home.
Limitations <strong>and</strong> Suggestions
Results of the current study should be considered
with the follow<strong>in</strong>g limitations. Data on
the teach<strong>in</strong>g phase of the study was gathered
by participants who are mother or therapist.
Although the researchers were present to take
basel<strong>in</strong>e <strong>and</strong> all probe data, it was not feasible
to be present <strong>in</strong> the homes or at the center
each time a participant took data on the skills.
Therefore the study had some limitations
about the correct implementation reliability.
We cannot be certa<strong>in</strong> that data was taken correctly
<strong>and</strong> consistently, although at each visit
data collection methods were reviewed with
the participants. The researchers also did not
anticipate that child Cc would not perform
any of the skills <strong>in</strong> front of anyone but his
mother. His mother was gracious enough to
take video of him perform<strong>in</strong>g the skills, <strong>and</strong>
basel<strong>in</strong>e <strong>and</strong> probe data was taken from the
videos. Parent who was work<strong>in</strong>g alone also
compla<strong>in</strong>ed about not hav<strong>in</strong>g enough time to
work on skills consistently. This illustrates further
the importance of a supportive collaboration
between parents <strong>and</strong> the professionals
work<strong>in</strong>g with the child with autism so that they
are constantly receiv<strong>in</strong>g tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g on these
much needed skills. Social validity data
showed that mothers found it easy to learn
<strong>and</strong> apply the PTCP to their children with
autism at home.
Some suggestions to be presented can be as
follows: First of all, this program can easily
apply to children with autism for teach<strong>in</strong>g
Parent <strong>and</strong> Therapist Collaboration / 393

self-care <strong>and</strong> domestic skills by parent as a
therapist or parent-therapist collaboration.
Future research is needed to verify the results
of this study, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g replication for children
with other developmental disabilities
<strong>and</strong> their family members such as peers <strong>and</strong>
gr<strong>and</strong>parents. A larger sample size with vary<strong>in</strong>g
levels of severity would provide more <strong>in</strong>sight
<strong>in</strong>to the coexist<strong>in</strong>g variables that may
<strong>in</strong>fluence the speed at efficiency of how the
skills are taught <strong>and</strong> mastered. Follow up data
after mastery at vary<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tervals would also
give us <strong>in</strong>formation about the cont<strong>in</strong>u<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dependence
on the skills taught.
References
American Association on Mental Retardation
(AAMR). (2002). Mental retardation: Def<strong>in</strong>ition, classification
<strong>and</strong> systems of supports. (10 th ed.). Wash<strong>in</strong>gton,
DC: Author.
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Pervasive
developmental disorders. In Diagnostic <strong>and</strong> statistical
manual of mental disorders (Fourth edition—
text revision) (DSM-IV-TR). Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, DC:
American Psychiatric Association, 69–70.
Arizona Department of Economic Security. (1996).
<strong>Division</strong> of <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong> Reference
Manual (1 st ed.).
Batu, S. (2008). Care-giver provided home-based
<strong>in</strong>struction us<strong>in</strong>g simultaneous prompt<strong>in</strong>g for
teach<strong>in</strong>g home skills to <strong>in</strong>dividuals with developmental
disabilities, <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong>
<strong>Disabilities</strong>, 43, 541–555.
Brookman-Frazee, L. Vismara, L., Drahota, A., Stahmer,
A., & Openden, D. (<strong>in</strong> press). Parent <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong>
<strong>in</strong>terventions for children with autism spectrum
disorders. In J. Matson (Ed.) Applied behavior
analysis for children with Autism Spectrum Disorders: A
h<strong>and</strong>book.
Carothers, D. E., & Taylor, R. L. (2004). How teachers
<strong>and</strong> parents can work together to teach daily
liv<strong>in</strong>g skills to children with autism. Focus on Autism
<strong>and</strong> Other <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>, 19, 102–
104.
Cavkaytar, A. (1999, February).The parent tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g
program for teach<strong>in</strong>g self-care <strong>and</strong> domestic skills. 15th
Pacific Rim Conference on <strong>Disabilities</strong>. Center on
Disability Studies Hawaii University Affiliated
Program (UAP) University of Hawaii, Honolulu,
Hawaii.
Cavkaytar, A. (2007). Turkish parents as teachers:
Teach<strong>in</strong>g parents how to teach self-care <strong>and</strong> domestic
skills to their children with mental retardation.
<strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong>
<strong>Disabilities</strong>. 42, 85–93.
394 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
(2006). Applied behavior analysis (2 nd ed.). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice-Hall.
Dillenburger K., Keenan, M., Gallagher, S., & McElh<strong>in</strong>ney,
M. (2004). Parent education <strong>and</strong> homebased
behaviour analytic <strong>in</strong>tervention: An exam<strong>in</strong>ation
of parents’ perceptions of outcome.
Journal of Intellectual & <strong>Developmental</strong> Disability, 29,
119–130.
Eyberg, S. M., & Matarazzo, R. G. (1980). <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong>
parents as therapists: A comparison between <strong>in</strong>dividual
parent-child <strong>in</strong>teraction tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong>
parent group didactic tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g. Journal of Cl<strong>in</strong>ical
Psychology, 36, 492–499.
Feldman, M. A., & Werner, S. E., (2002). Collateral
effects of behavioral parent tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g on families
of children with developmental disabilities. Behavioral
Interventions, 17, 75–83.
Giangreco, M., Edelman, S., Broer, S., & Doyle, M.
(2001). Paraprofessional Support of Students <strong>Disabilities</strong>:
Literature from the Past Decade. Exceptional
Children, 68, 45–63.
Giangreco, M., Smith, C., & P<strong>in</strong>ckney, E. (2006).
Address<strong>in</strong>g the paraprofessional dilemma <strong>in</strong> an
<strong>in</strong>clusive school: A program description. Research
& Practice for Persons with Severe <strong>Disabilities</strong>, 31,
215–229.
Hanna, K., & Rodger, S. (2002). Towards familycentered
practice <strong>in</strong> pediatric occupational therapy:
A review of the literature on parent-therapist
collaboration. Australian Occupational Therapy
Journal, 49, 14–24.
Hauge, J. M., & Babkie, A. M. (2006). Develop
collaborative special educator–paraprofessional
teams: One para’s view. Intervention <strong>in</strong> School <strong>and</strong>
Cl<strong>in</strong>ic, 42, 51–53.
Hibbert, D., Kost<strong>in</strong>as, D., & Luiselli, J. K. (2002).
Improv<strong>in</strong>g skills performance of an adult with
mental retardation through peer-mediated <strong>in</strong>structional
support. Journal of <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>and</strong>
Physical <strong>Disabilities</strong>, 14, 119–127.
IDEA. (2004). Individuals with <strong>Disabilities</strong> <strong>Education</strong>
Improvement Act, 2004. (P.L.) § 300.24.
Matthews, J. M., & Hudson, A. M. (2001). Guidel<strong>in</strong>es
for evaluat<strong>in</strong>g parent tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g programs.
Family Relations, 50, 77–86.
Ozcan, N., & Cavkaytar, A. (2009). Parents as teachers:
Teach<strong>in</strong>g parents how to teach toilet skills to
their children with autism <strong>and</strong> mental retardation.
<strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>,
44, 237–243.
Ruble, L. A., & Dalrlmple, N. J. (2002). Compass: A
parent-teacher collaborative model for students
with autism. Focus on Autism <strong>and</strong> Other <strong>Developmental</strong>
<strong>Disabilities</strong>, 17, 76–83.
Sabanova, N., & Cavkaytar, A. (2007). Teach<strong>in</strong>g self-

care <strong>and</strong> domestic skills to children with mental
retardation by teacher aides. European Journal of
<strong>Education</strong>al Research, 27, 43–57.
Symon, J. B. (2001). Parent education for autism.
Journal of Positive Behavior Intervention, 3, 160–174.
Tawney, W. J., & Gast, L. D. (1984). S<strong>in</strong>gle subject
research <strong>in</strong> special education. Columbus: Merrill
Publish<strong>in</strong>g Company.
Weiss, M. J., & Rutgers, L. D. (2006). The relationship
between early learn<strong>in</strong>g rates <strong>and</strong> treatment
outcome for children with autism receiv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tensive
home-based applied behavior analysis. The
Journal of Behavior Today, 7, 96–111.
Werts, M. G., Harris, S., Tillery, H. Y., & Roark, R.
(2004). What parents tell us about paraeducators.
Remedial <strong>and</strong> Special <strong>Education</strong>, 25, 232–239.
Parent <strong>and</strong> Therapist Collaboration / 395

<strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>, 2009, 44(3), 396–408
© <strong>Division</strong> on <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>
Effects of Instructional Rubrics on Class Engagement
Behaviors <strong>and</strong> the Achievement of Lesson Objectives
by Students with Mild Mental Retardation <strong>and</strong> Their
Typical Peers
EunJung Lee
Seoul Sogang Elementary School, Korea
SoHyun Lee
Ewha Womans University
Abstract: Align<strong>in</strong>g st<strong>and</strong>ards <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual needs of students with disabilities has been emphasized as a
prerequisite for the students’ access to, <strong>and</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>gful progress <strong>in</strong>, the general curriculum. As <strong>in</strong>clusive
assessment tools, <strong>in</strong>structional rubrics are believed to have potential <strong>in</strong> effectively l<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g st<strong>and</strong>ards <strong>and</strong> the
Individualized <strong>Education</strong> Program (IEP) goals of students with disabilities <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> enhanc<strong>in</strong>g self-directed
learn<strong>in</strong>g of all students <strong>in</strong>volved with the <strong>in</strong>-depth application dur<strong>in</strong>g class. This study exam<strong>in</strong>ed the effects of
<strong>in</strong>structional rubrics on class engagement behaviors <strong>and</strong> the achievement of lesson objectives by students with
mild mental retardation <strong>and</strong> their same-age peers. The results demonstrated that class engagement behaviors of
the students with mild mental retardation drastically improved. The achievement of lesson objectives by all the
participants evaluated through rubrics was statistically significant. Implications for practitioners <strong>and</strong> for future
researchers were also discussed.
Inclusive education already has been a solid
option for the education of students with special
needs. Similar with the statistics <strong>in</strong> the
U.S. that almost half of all students with disabilities
ages 6 through 21 served under the
Individuals with <strong>Disabilities</strong> <strong>Education</strong> Act
(IDEA) are educated for most of their school
day <strong>in</strong> the regular classroom (U.S. Department
of <strong>Education</strong>, 2007), the counterpart <strong>in</strong>
Korea constitutes up to 63% <strong>in</strong> 2007 (Korea
National Institute of Special <strong>Education</strong>, 2007).
With the current registration of the No Child
Left Beh<strong>in</strong>d Act of 2001 (NCLB), the population
has been challenged to make mean<strong>in</strong>gful
progress through access to general education
beyond simply engag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> it (Kle<strong>in</strong>ert &
Thurlow, 2001; Wehmeyer, Latt<strong>in</strong>, Lapp-
R<strong>in</strong>cker, & Agran, 2003). The m<strong>and</strong>ate of hav<strong>in</strong>g
students with disabilities <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>clusive as-
Correspondence concern<strong>in</strong>g this article should
be addressed to EunJung Lee, Flat B5, Forster
Court, 7 Charles Babbage Road, Cambridge, CB3
0FY, UK. Email: eunjung723@hotmail.com
396 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
sessment for the evidence of academic
achievement has become a challenge with respect
to address<strong>in</strong>g their <strong>in</strong>dividual needs <strong>in</strong>
the general curriculum while keep<strong>in</strong>g the content
of the curriculum <strong>in</strong>tact.
For students with disabilities to be successful
<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>clusive assessment, <strong>in</strong>dividualized education
program (IEP) goals of the students
should be reasonably aligned with st<strong>and</strong>ards
of the general curriculum, followed by consistent
progress monitor<strong>in</strong>g through formative
assessments that are carefully developed with
consideration of goals <strong>and</strong> daily <strong>in</strong>struction
(Fisher & Frey, 2001; Kl<strong>in</strong>ger & Vaughn,
1999). For example, performance of students
with disabilities could be accurately evaluated
with the validity of the assessment ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed
only when the same adaptation methods were
available dur<strong>in</strong>g the assessment as were <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>struction
(e.g., Edgemon, Jablonski, & Lloyd,
2006; Ysseldyke et al., 2001). However, there is
a strict contrast when it comes to reference of
assessment as typical academic assessment for
students with disabilities is <strong>in</strong>dividual-refer-

enced based on IEP goals, whereas regular
students are evaluated by criterion-referenced
methods based on st<strong>and</strong>ards of the general
curriculum (Nolet & McLaughl<strong>in</strong>, 2000). If
the performance criterion for students to target
dur<strong>in</strong>g class is specified based on st<strong>and</strong>ards,
it would make the process to set an
<strong>in</strong>dividual but st<strong>and</strong>ards-based goals for students
with disabilities <strong>and</strong> for them to effectively
participate <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>clusive assessment
clearer. Instructional rubrics seem to have potential
to effectively align IEP goals with st<strong>and</strong>ards
as a criterion-specific assessment as well
as to be closely related to ongo<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>structional
practices (Glatthorn, Braqaw, Dawk<strong>in</strong>s,
& Parker, 1998).
With more highlighted <strong>in</strong>structional functions
<strong>in</strong> rubrics, which are evaluation tools
with st<strong>and</strong>ards-based criterion <strong>and</strong> scales of
various performance levels, <strong>in</strong>structional rubrics
can be utilized as an <strong>in</strong>structional tool or
used <strong>in</strong> the process of <strong>in</strong>formed feedback on
the progress of students <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>-depth evaluation
on the f<strong>in</strong>al work (Andrade, 2005). Instructional
rubrics are suggested as an alternative
way for progress monitor<strong>in</strong>g of IEP goals
of students with disabilities (Etscheidt, 2006);
they feature dist<strong>in</strong>ct twofold elements as follows:
First, <strong>in</strong>structional rubrics enable student-centered
assessment represented by its
self-assessment feature through better awareness
of what are expected from <strong>in</strong>struction.
For example, many research utiliz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>structional
rubrics have reported the positive effects
on students’ <strong>in</strong>creased responsibility for
their own learn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> cooperative relationship
between teachers <strong>and</strong> students (Shepard,
2000; Skill<strong>in</strong>gs & Ferrell, 2000), enhanced empowerment
on evaluation (Han & Lee, 2004;
James, Abbot, & Greenwood, 2001), <strong>and</strong> active
self-/colleague-assessment on both learn<strong>in</strong>g
process <strong>and</strong> outcomes (Andrade & Boulay,
2003; Barry & Moore IV, 2004; Saddler & Andrade,
2004). As a support strategy for selfdirected
learn<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong>structional rubrics are
comb<strong>in</strong>ed with graphic organizers <strong>and</strong> process-composition
model (James et al.), <strong>and</strong> are
utilized along with self-directed organizational
strategy <strong>in</strong>struction for writ<strong>in</strong>g competency
tests (Barry & Moore IV). It requires attention
that exact awareness of learn<strong>in</strong>g goals <strong>and</strong>
performance criterion, alongside with self-assessment,
is essential to lead to self-regulation
of students while engag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g activities
(Andrade & Boulay).
Second, <strong>in</strong>structional rubrics can be flexibly
applied to a wide range of students with diverse
needs (Smith, Brewer, Heffner, & Algozz<strong>in</strong>e,
2003; Whittaker et al., 2001). It might
be because it is easier to establish an objective
performance criterion, which enables every
student <strong>in</strong>volved to target if the goals of <strong>in</strong>struction
to be accomplished through certa<strong>in</strong>
tasks are explicit with the possible differentiation
or accommodations for <strong>in</strong>dividual students
with disabilities. Actually, not only typical
students but students with disabilities
could effectively learn various subjects <strong>and</strong>
learn<strong>in</strong>g skills us<strong>in</strong>g rubrics (eg. F<strong>in</strong>son &
Ormsbee, 1998; Loeffler, 2005; Schirmer &
Bailey, 2000), <strong>and</strong> their applicability has been
extended from young children (Byan & Hyan,
2005) to college students (P<strong>in</strong>diprolu, Lignugaris/Kraft,
Rule, Peterson, & Slocun, 2005).
For example, Loeffler implemented <strong>in</strong>structional
rubrics for spell<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>struction for students
with learn<strong>in</strong>g disabilities <strong>and</strong> found that
they were useful as a tool to enhance <strong>in</strong>tended
lesson objectives through self-assessment <strong>and</strong>
discussion about their ongo<strong>in</strong>g progress. A
group of students with hear<strong>in</strong>g impairments
also improved their writ<strong>in</strong>g skills us<strong>in</strong>g a rubric
(Schirmer, Bailey, & Fitzgerald, 1999).
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to James <strong>and</strong> colleagues (2001),
<strong>in</strong>structional rubrics can be applied as an <strong>in</strong>structional
strategy for students with disabilities
<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>clusive classrooms with the use of
guidance towards develop<strong>in</strong>g needed accommodations
for <strong>in</strong>dividual students, <strong>and</strong> make
the IEP process <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>dicators of the
student’s progress <strong>in</strong> the general curriculum
run more efficiently (Stanford & Siders,
2001).
In South Korea, as many as 80% of the
students with disabilities <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>clusive sett<strong>in</strong>gs,
who are ma<strong>in</strong>ly work<strong>in</strong>g on general curriculum-irrelevant-IEP
goals, are excluded from
both formal <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>formal assessment <strong>in</strong> the
regular classroom (Kim, Kwon, Kim, & Park,
2003). Moreover, the results of performance
tests based on IEPs typically done by special
education teachers either <strong>in</strong> a resource room
or <strong>in</strong> a self-conta<strong>in</strong>ed class are rarely reported
to the pr<strong>in</strong>cipal or adm<strong>in</strong>istrators <strong>in</strong> charge
(Sh<strong>in</strong>, 2005); thus there is no accountability
check of the related personnel for the stu-
Effects of Instructional Rubrics / 397

dents’ adequate academic progress <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>clusive
sett<strong>in</strong>gs. With more than 50% of general
education teachers who currently have students
with disabilities <strong>in</strong> their class never hav<strong>in</strong>g
seen IEPs developed for the students (Kim
et al.), even <strong>in</strong> the case where IEPs are st<strong>and</strong>ards-related,
it cannot be guaranteed that
the students could proceed towards a mean<strong>in</strong>gful
academic achievement through access<strong>in</strong>g
the general curriculum <strong>and</strong> gett<strong>in</strong>g proper
support. Meanwhile, the research on assessment
for students with disabilities focuses on either
diagnosis-related issues (e.g., Han & Park, 2004)
or tests for students <strong>in</strong> special schools (e.g., Kim
& Kim, 2004), leav<strong>in</strong>g few empirical studies for
those students to successfully participate <strong>in</strong>
<strong>in</strong>clusive assessments.
In practice, regard<strong>in</strong>g the assessment for
regular elementary school students, apart
from the guidel<strong>in</strong>es written <strong>in</strong> the state-level
curriculum, a specific criterion on targeted
‘concepts’ or ‘generalization’ of each subject
st<strong>and</strong>ard is much needed across contents (M.
Lee, 2004). Therefore, it might benefit all
students <strong>in</strong>volved if <strong>in</strong>structional rubrics with
a specific criterion are carefully developed <strong>in</strong>
the light of universal design for learn<strong>in</strong>g
(UDL; Rose & Meyer, 2006) <strong>and</strong> applied for
daily <strong>in</strong>struction <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>clusive classrooms with
diverse learners. Based on such needs <strong>in</strong> the
field, this study exam<strong>in</strong>ed the effects of <strong>in</strong>structional
rubrics on class engagement behaviors
<strong>and</strong> the achievement of lesson objectives
by students with mild mental retardation
<strong>and</strong> their typical peers.
Method
Participants
Three students with mild mental retardation
<strong>in</strong> grades five <strong>and</strong> six participated <strong>in</strong> the study.
The range of IQ score of the participants was
from 57 to 59 on the Korean-Wechsler Intelligence
Scales for Children-III (Kwak, Park, & Kim,
2001). All participants were reportedly <strong>in</strong>
need of improv<strong>in</strong>g basic class engagement behaviors
to make progress <strong>in</strong> the general curriculum.
Student 1 was a twelve-year-old male student
<strong>in</strong> the sixth grade with a full scale IQ of 57.
Based on the curriculum-based measurement,
he could read <strong>and</strong> write short sentences with
three to four simple words, but demonstrated
difficulties <strong>in</strong> comprehension of complicated
words <strong>and</strong> paragraphs. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the pre-basel<strong>in</strong>e
observation, he barely showed <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong>
class, spend<strong>in</strong>g most of the time scribbl<strong>in</strong>g on
or fold<strong>in</strong>g the paper, with no textbook or
material prepared on the desk.
Student 2 was an eleven-year-old male student
<strong>in</strong> the fifth grade with a full scale IQ of
59. Though produc<strong>in</strong>g some errors, he could
read <strong>and</strong> write sentences with four to five
words <strong>in</strong> various formats based on the curriculum-based
measurement, <strong>and</strong> demonstrated
relative strengths <strong>in</strong> read<strong>in</strong>g comprehension.
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the pre-basel<strong>in</strong>e observation, he prepared
the textbook <strong>and</strong> looked at the teacher
or other students from time to time; however,
when asked to participate <strong>in</strong> the activity, he
became extremely shy lower<strong>in</strong>g his head <strong>and</strong>
not even mov<strong>in</strong>g a f<strong>in</strong>ger.
Student 3 was an eleven-year-old male student
<strong>in</strong> the fifth grade with a full scale IQ of
58. Based on the curriculum-based measurement,
he could read <strong>and</strong> write short sentences
with three to four simple words, but demonstrated
difficulties <strong>in</strong> comprehension of complicated
words <strong>and</strong> paragraphs. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the
pre-basel<strong>in</strong>e observation, he scarcely showed
<strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> class, lay<strong>in</strong>g down his head on the
desk most of the time, with no textbook or
material prepared.
The typical peers of the <strong>in</strong>clusive classes <strong>in</strong>
which these three participants with mild mental
retardation were study<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> three teachers
of the classes also participated <strong>in</strong> the study.
Class 1 <strong>in</strong> which Student 1 was enrolled had 30
students without disabilities, 29 <strong>in</strong> Class 2 of
Student 2, <strong>and</strong> 29 <strong>in</strong> Class 3 of Student 3. All
of the teachers were female <strong>and</strong> their teach<strong>in</strong>g
experience <strong>in</strong> the field ranged from 6 to 18
years.
Sett<strong>in</strong>g
398 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
Both tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tervention took place <strong>in</strong>
the regular classroom of each group of participants.
In addition, the sett<strong>in</strong>g for extra tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g
given to the students with mild mental
retardation was a resource room where they
were educated partly dur<strong>in</strong>g the day.

TABLE 1
Def<strong>in</strong>ition of Target Behaviors by Four Subcategories
Instrument
Categories Def<strong>in</strong>ition
Listen to a lecture Look at a teacher who is speak<strong>in</strong>g with attention or behaviors that are related with the
ongo<strong>in</strong>g lecture (e.g., answer a teacher’s question, look at other students who are
answer<strong>in</strong>g a teacher’s question, or ask a question)
Take down notes Write down what a teacher wrote on the board or delivered to students verbally
Work with peers Work on a task or an activity together with one or more peers (Peers provide physical,
verbal, or material support)
Work <strong>in</strong>dependently Work on a task or an activity which is related (same or similar) with the ongo<strong>in</strong>g class
(e.g., read<strong>in</strong>g, writ<strong>in</strong>g, speak<strong>in</strong>g, manipulat<strong>in</strong>g, or present<strong>in</strong>g)
Instructional rubric. Based on related studies
(Hall & Salmon, 2003; Whittaker et al.,
2001), the <strong>in</strong>structional rubric for this study
was developed to target <strong>in</strong>dividual but st<strong>and</strong>ards-based
lesson objectives for students with
mild mental retardation, <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ards-based
lesson objectives on the Korean language for
typical students. Specific components of the
two-page-long rubric were: 1) st<strong>and</strong>ards-based
lesson objectives for typical students <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ards-related
but <strong>in</strong>dividually accommodated
lesson objectives based on IEP goals for students
with mild mental retardation; 2) levels
of performance criterion (four levels for typical
students; three for students with mild mental
retardation); 3) examples of performance
<strong>in</strong>dicators for each level that represent the
characteristics to which the assessment task
should perta<strong>in</strong>; <strong>and</strong> 4) section for self-assessment.
Individual lesson objectives for students
with mild mental retardation specified the levels
of content <strong>and</strong> process st<strong>and</strong>ards of Korean
language for a specific grade, which were
related to the students’ IEP goals, led by analyz<strong>in</strong>g
the fundamental functions of target<strong>in</strong>g
st<strong>and</strong>ard (Hoover & Patton, 2004; Wehmeyer,
Lance, & Bash<strong>in</strong>ski, 2002).
Students with mild mental retardation received
an ‘on-task-rubric-application-form’ on
a daily basis along with the rubric. The form
conta<strong>in</strong>ed specific task-related objectives
based on <strong>in</strong>dividual lesson objectives on the
rubric, questions for self-monitor<strong>in</strong>g on class
engagement behaviors, <strong>and</strong> a section for selfevaluation
<strong>and</strong> teacher-check. A set of rubrics,
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g an on-task-rubric-application form,
were provided to all students <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>clusive
class so that typical students could be <strong>in</strong>formed
about <strong>in</strong>dividual lesson objectives <strong>and</strong>
<strong>in</strong>structional support for the students with
mild mental retardation.
Initially developed rubrics went through a
content validity check by one general education
teacher <strong>and</strong> one special education
teacher, each hold<strong>in</strong>g a master’s degree,
based on ‘guidel<strong>in</strong>es for review<strong>in</strong>g quality of
<strong>in</strong>structional rubrics’ (Stigg<strong>in</strong>s, 2005), <strong>and</strong> 12
rubrics, four for each class, were f<strong>in</strong>ally implemented
for <strong>in</strong>tervention.
Data Collection Procedures
Dependent variables. Two dependent variables
were measured <strong>in</strong> the study. First dependent
variable was class engagement behaviors
of students with mild mental retardation.
Class engagement behaviors consisted of four
subcategories (listen to lecture, take down
notes, work with peers, work <strong>in</strong>dependently)
under the operational def<strong>in</strong>itions, which are
<strong>in</strong>dicated <strong>in</strong> Table 1. Us<strong>in</strong>g the 15 m<strong>in</strong>-partial<strong>in</strong>terval
record<strong>in</strong>g method, the target behaviors
were observed for 25 m<strong>in</strong>. dur<strong>in</strong>g class
after five to six m<strong>in</strong>. passed from the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g
of the class. The occurrence of the behaviors
was calculated by divid<strong>in</strong>g the number
of <strong>in</strong>tervals that the behaviors occurred with
the total number of the <strong>in</strong>tervals <strong>and</strong> multiply<strong>in</strong>g
it by 100. The second dependent variable
was performance level of class objectives
of all participants. Until the students with mild
mental retardation reached the <strong>in</strong>tervention
term<strong>in</strong>ation criterion, which was more than
80% of occurrence of the target behaviors <strong>in</strong>
three consecutive sessions, four <strong>in</strong>structional
Effects of Instructional Rubrics / 399

ubrics were applied to each class. All participants
assessed their own performance level <strong>in</strong>
the lesson objectives us<strong>in</strong>g the rubrics (1–4
po<strong>in</strong>ts for typical students; 1–3 po<strong>in</strong>ts for students
with mild mental retardation) before
<strong>and</strong> after the <strong>in</strong>tervention of each rubric was
implemented. The data were analyzed with
SPSS for W<strong>in</strong>dows 12.0 program us<strong>in</strong>g pairedsamples
t-test.
Interobserver agreement. Before the actual
agreement check, the second observer who has
a master’s degree on special education <strong>and</strong> the
first author practiced to reach an agreement of
over 90% on the observation of the target behaviors
by watch<strong>in</strong>g the videotaped data. The
<strong>in</strong>terobserver agreement counted for 25% of
data r<strong>and</strong>omly chosen across the <strong>in</strong>tervention
conditions rang<strong>in</strong>g from 94.3% to 95.2%.
Social validity data. Teachers of the three
classes <strong>and</strong> six typical students, two from each
class, were asked for the social validity data.
Us<strong>in</strong>g a questionnaire with a five-po<strong>in</strong>t Likert
scale, the mean scores of the answers of teachers
are as follows: significance of the target
behaviors (5), participation <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>tervention
(4.3), outcomes from the <strong>in</strong>tervention
(4.6), st<strong>and</strong>out of disability (1.6), usability of
the <strong>in</strong>tervention (4.3), <strong>and</strong> efforts needed for
the <strong>in</strong>tervention (3.6). The typical students
who participated <strong>in</strong> a 10- to 15-m<strong>in</strong>. long semiorganized
<strong>in</strong>terview perceived a positive
change on both students with mild mental
retardation <strong>and</strong> themselves, such as exact
awareness of class objectives <strong>and</strong> their performance
level <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased participation <strong>in</strong>
class of students with mild retardation.
Treatment fidelity. For 25% of the <strong>in</strong>tervention
sessions, treatment fidelity of participat<strong>in</strong>g
teachers <strong>and</strong> typical students was assessed
on six items organized <strong>in</strong>to three sections: 1)
rem<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g the class of the objective written on
a rubric or a rubric-application-form; 2) giv<strong>in</strong>g
prompts for participation <strong>in</strong> class to the student
with mild mental retardation; <strong>and</strong> 3)
monitor<strong>in</strong>g self-assessment of performance us<strong>in</strong>g
the rubric. The mean scores ranged from
5.2 to 5.75 out of 6 po<strong>in</strong>ts.
Experimental Design <strong>and</strong> Procedure
Class engagement behaviors of students with mild
mental retardation. In order to exam<strong>in</strong>e the
effects of <strong>in</strong>structional rubrics on class engage-
400 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
ment behaviors of students with mild mental
retardation, a s<strong>in</strong>gle-subject multiple probe
across participants design was employed (Tawney
& Gast, 1984).
Basel<strong>in</strong>e. Dur<strong>in</strong>g basel<strong>in</strong>e, the class engagement
behaviors of the participants were
observed for 25 m<strong>in</strong>. dur<strong>in</strong>g Korean language
class, while the students were given no special
support or prompts for participation <strong>and</strong> the
teachers led the class <strong>in</strong> the usual way. The
probes were adm<strong>in</strong>istered after the basel<strong>in</strong>e
was stable for at least three sessions before
<strong>in</strong>tervention was implemented.
Intervention
<strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> for teachers. The teachers of <strong>in</strong>clusive
classes received two <strong>in</strong>structional sessions,
each last<strong>in</strong>g approximately 40 m<strong>in</strong>. Dur<strong>in</strong>g
the first session, the purpose of the study <strong>and</strong>
important elements of the <strong>in</strong>tervention, such
as <strong>in</strong>structional rubrics, IEP goals, <strong>and</strong> curricular
accommodations for students with disabilities,
were expla<strong>in</strong>ed. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the second
session, they were <strong>in</strong>formed about the process
of develop<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>structional rubric with <strong>in</strong>dividual
lesson objectives for students with disabilities
along with general lesson objectives
for typical learners (though the researchers
developed the <strong>in</strong>structional rubrics used for
the <strong>in</strong>tervention). The practices they need to
perform dur<strong>in</strong>g class implement<strong>in</strong>g the rubrics
were then taught as follows: 1) rem<strong>in</strong>d
both general lesson objectives <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual
ones for students with mild mental retardation;
2) provide the students with mild mental
retardation prompts to participate <strong>in</strong> class, if
needed; <strong>and</strong> 3) ask all the students to evaluate
their performance us<strong>in</strong>g the rubric.
<strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> for all students. The typical students
of <strong>in</strong>clusive classes <strong>and</strong> tree students
with mild mental retardation received four
<strong>in</strong>structional sessions together, each last<strong>in</strong>g
approximately 20 to 40 m<strong>in</strong>. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the first
session for 40 m<strong>in</strong>. before the <strong>in</strong>tervention
began, the <strong>in</strong>struction started with the <strong>in</strong>troduction
of <strong>in</strong>structional rubrics <strong>and</strong> the need
for <strong>in</strong>dividual lesson objectives for the students
with mild mental retardation. Based on
the suggestions of related studies (Hall &
Salmon, 2003; Whittaker et al., 2001), the participants
had exercises on evaluat<strong>in</strong>g their
own performance or current status accord<strong>in</strong>g

to the criteria <strong>in</strong> the rubric by compar<strong>in</strong>g
them with examples of each level of performance.
At the designated section on the rubric,
they were asked to write down the result
<strong>and</strong> the specific performance <strong>in</strong>dicator to focus
on dur<strong>in</strong>g the next class. Additionally, the
peers who sat next to or were <strong>in</strong> the same
group with the student who has mild mental
retardation were taught to check the <strong>in</strong>dividual
lesson objectives from the on-task-rubricapplication
form together with the student <strong>in</strong>
need; they then monitored whether the student
did the self-evaluation of performance
on the rubric.
After f<strong>in</strong>ish<strong>in</strong>g a unit us<strong>in</strong>g each rubric, the
students received another <strong>in</strong>structional session
for approximately 15 m<strong>in</strong>. each. They
shared a couple of good examples among the
student rubrics that specified th<strong>in</strong>gs to improve
on <strong>in</strong> detail based on the self-evaluation
of performance, which were mutually picked
by the researchers <strong>and</strong> the teacher of the class;
they also discussed how the students with mild
mental retardation had performed so far.
Extra tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g for students with mild mental
retardation. In addition to the tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g for all
student participants, students with mild mental
retardation received six extra <strong>in</strong>structional sessions,
last<strong>in</strong>g approximately 20–30 m<strong>in</strong>. each.
Based on K<strong>in</strong>g-Sears <strong>and</strong> Carpenter (1997), the
<strong>in</strong>struction consisted of three stages: 1) underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g
target behaviors; 2) underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g a
self-monitor<strong>in</strong>g/assessment tool; <strong>and</strong> 3) practic<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>and</strong> evaluat<strong>in</strong>g mastery of the usage. Dur<strong>in</strong>g
the first session, the students were taught to
differentiate target behaviors from non-target
behaviors by watch<strong>in</strong>g video clips of the students
<strong>and</strong> their peers <strong>in</strong> class or us<strong>in</strong>g work samples.
Target behaviors were examples of excellent
performance <strong>in</strong>dicators on the rubric that represented
lesson objectives as well as basic class
engagement behaviors, which will enable the
students to achieve the lesson objectives.
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the second session, the students
were taught how to use the rubric <strong>and</strong> the
on-task-rubric-application form for self-assessment
of performance. The first author modeled
the steps of self-assessment as follows: 1)
check the lesson objective <strong>and</strong> on-task objective;
2) participate <strong>in</strong> class as <strong>in</strong>formed by the
objective; 3) check the lesson objective <strong>and</strong>
on-task objective aga<strong>in</strong>; 4) monitor their own
performance accord<strong>in</strong>g to the questions on
the application form; <strong>and</strong> 5) evaluate performance
with the level on the rubric <strong>and</strong> choose
a performance <strong>in</strong>dicator to improve on for the
next class. The students then practiced those
steps with the researcher’s guidance <strong>and</strong> feedback.
The third <strong>in</strong>structional session consisted
of <strong>in</strong>dependent practice of the self-assessment
steps taught <strong>in</strong> the previous session <strong>and</strong> the
evaluation of mastery of their usage. Based on
the evaluation results, the students received
corrective feedback <strong>and</strong> practiced specific
steps repeatedly. Three additional <strong>in</strong>structional
sessions consist<strong>in</strong>g of the differentiation
of new target behaviors <strong>and</strong> the practice of
self-assessment steps us<strong>in</strong>g rubric were provided
one by one just before a new rubric was
applied.
Additional support for students with mild mental
retardation dur<strong>in</strong>g class. Dur<strong>in</strong>g Korean language
class, the students with mild mental
retardation received additional support such
as the on-task-rubric-application form where a
task-related objective <strong>and</strong> behavior monitor<strong>in</strong>g
questions were specified alongside with
needed <strong>in</strong>structional accommodations (e.g., a
material with easier level of difficulty). The
class teacher then checked the application
form right after the class <strong>and</strong> gave feedback to
the student based on the result. The students
received guidance from the researcher <strong>and</strong>
the teacher on the process of pick<strong>in</strong>g a performance
<strong>in</strong>dicator to improve on for the next
class. With the chosen <strong>in</strong>dicator considered,
the task-related objective <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>structional accommodations
for the next class were decided
accord<strong>in</strong>gly.
Generalization. For generalization of target
behaviors, data on those behaviors were collected
three times dur<strong>in</strong>g social studies class
under the same condition as the basel<strong>in</strong>e,
right after the <strong>in</strong>tervention condition was term<strong>in</strong>ated.
Ma<strong>in</strong>tenance. Dur<strong>in</strong>g ma<strong>in</strong>tenance condition,
data on target behaviors were collected
dur<strong>in</strong>g Korean language class under the same
condition as the basel<strong>in</strong>e, a month after the
<strong>in</strong>tervention condition was term<strong>in</strong>ated.
Performance Level of Class Objectives of All
Participants
In order to exam<strong>in</strong>e the effects of <strong>in</strong>structional
rubrics on the achievement of class ob-
Effects of Instructional Rubrics / 401

Figure 1. Percentage of occurrence of class engagement behaviors.
jectives by all participants, a pre-/post-test design
on the performance level of lesson
objectives through self-assessment by the participants
was employed. Before <strong>and</strong> after each
rubric was applied to Korean language class,
the students assessed their own performance
level of lesson objectives us<strong>in</strong>g the rubric, result<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>in</strong> four pre-/post-test scores. Students
with mild mental retardation reviewed the assessment
result with the researcher <strong>and</strong> the
teacher before they put their f<strong>in</strong>al scores on
the rubric.
Results
402 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
Class Engagement Behaviors of Students with
Mild Mental Retardation
Results <strong>in</strong>dicated that the <strong>in</strong>tervention of implement<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>in</strong>structional rubrics <strong>in</strong> Korean
language class was effective <strong>in</strong> improv<strong>in</strong>g class
engagement behaviors of all participants with
mild mental retardation (See Figure 1). As
demonstrated <strong>in</strong> Figure 2, the overall occurrence
of the three subcategories of target be-

Figure 2. Percentage of occurrence of class engagement behaviors by subcategories (W/I: work <strong>in</strong>dependently,
W/P: work with peers, T/N: take down notes, L/L: listen to a lecture).
haviors, except ‘take down notes’ category,
substantially improved, especially ‘work <strong>in</strong>dependently’
category, which dramatically <strong>in</strong>-
creased across all conditions. The occurrence
of class engagement behaviors of Student 1
<strong>in</strong>creased to an average of 71.6% (range
Effects of Instructional Rubrics / 403

TABLE 2
Changes of Performance Level of Lesson Objectives
Results M SD
Class Before After Before After
Class 1 (N 31) 1.60 2.95 0.29 0.45 18.214*
Class 2 (N 30) 1.48 3.25 0.28 0.35 23.515*
Class 3 (N 30) 1.78 3.47 0.22 0.31 33.561*
* p .001
49.0% to 92.0%) dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tervention phase
from an average of 5.3% (range 4.0% to
6.0%) dur<strong>in</strong>g basel<strong>in</strong>e. Among the subcategories
of behaviors, ‘work <strong>in</strong>dependently’ category
took the highest stage with an average of
37.1% dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tervention from 0% dur<strong>in</strong>g
basel<strong>in</strong>e, followed by ‘work with peers’ category
(1.0% to 17.9%) <strong>and</strong> ‘listen to a lecture’
category (4.3% to 18.9%). Start<strong>in</strong>g with the
70% of sudden hype dur<strong>in</strong>g the first session of
<strong>in</strong>tervention, Student 2 demonstrated an <strong>in</strong>crease
on the target behaviors from an average
of 25.8% (range 19.0-31.0) dur<strong>in</strong>g basel<strong>in</strong>e
to an average of 81.9% (range 66% to
96%) dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tervention. ‘Work <strong>in</strong>dependently’
category led the <strong>in</strong>crease with an average
of 41.8% (range 19% to 70%) from 13.6%
dur<strong>in</strong>g basel<strong>in</strong>e, followed by an average of
29.2% of ‘listen to a lecture’ category from
10%. Student 3 improved <strong>in</strong> the target behaviors
by an average of 77.9% (range 57% to
90%) dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tervention from a low average
of 9.2% (range 5% to 15%) dur<strong>in</strong>g basel<strong>in</strong>e.
‘Work <strong>in</strong>dependently’ category had the most
<strong>in</strong>crease with an average of 30.9% leap<strong>in</strong>g
from 1.3% dur<strong>in</strong>g basel<strong>in</strong>e, followed by ‘work
with peers’ category with an average of 27.6%.
Dur<strong>in</strong>g generalization, though the overall
occurrence of the behaviors relatively decreased
from last session of the <strong>in</strong>tervention
condition, all students averaged around 70%
(range 69.3% to 77.7%). This is attributed to
‘listen to a lecture’ category (range 27% to
40%) <strong>and</strong> ‘work <strong>in</strong>dependently’ category
(range 26% to 36.7%).
On the ma<strong>in</strong>tenance probes four weeks after
the <strong>in</strong>tervention was term<strong>in</strong>ated, all students
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed the improved class engagement
behaviors with an average above 75%
(range 75.3% to 78%), contributed primarily
by ‘work <strong>in</strong>dependently’ category (range 20%
to 49.7). Interest<strong>in</strong>gly, Student 1 <strong>and</strong> Student
2 demonstrated a high occurrence rate <strong>in</strong>
‘work with peers’ category with an average of
20.3% <strong>and</strong> 24%, respectively, across all conditions.
Performance Level of Lesson Objectives of All
Participants
As <strong>in</strong>dicated <strong>in</strong> Table 2, the mean score of all
three classes <strong>in</strong>creased from 1.6(SD 0.29)
for Class 1, 1.48(SD 0.28) for Class 2, <strong>and</strong>
1.78(SD 0.22) for Class 3 <strong>in</strong> the pre-tests to
2.95(SD 0.45), 3.25(SD 0.35), <strong>and</strong>
3.47(SD 0.31), respectively, <strong>in</strong> the post-tests,
<strong>and</strong> the differences were statistically significant
(p .001). With the consideration that
the performance level of lesson objectives for
all participants significantly <strong>in</strong>creased, the <strong>in</strong>tervention
of apply<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>structional rubrics to
the Korean language class was effective on the
achievement of targeted lesson objectives by
the participants.
Discussion
404 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
This study <strong>in</strong>tended to exam<strong>in</strong>e the effects of
<strong>in</strong>structional rubrics on class engagement behaviors
<strong>and</strong> the achievement of lesson objectives
<strong>in</strong> the Korean language class by students
with mild mental retardation <strong>and</strong> their typical
peers. The results demonstrated that class engagement
behaviors of all participants with
mild mental retardation drastically improved,
<strong>and</strong> the improved behaviors were generalized
<strong>and</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed after the <strong>in</strong>tervention was term<strong>in</strong>ated.
The difference <strong>in</strong> performance levels
on lesson objectives for Korean language
class for all participants before <strong>and</strong> after the
t

<strong>in</strong>tervention was shown to be statistically significant
<strong>in</strong> all three classes.
Impact on Class Engagement Behaviors of
Students with Mild Mental Retardation
The improvement on class engagement behaviors
of the participants with mild mental
retardation can be considered as a mean<strong>in</strong>gful
progress because ‘engagement’ <strong>in</strong> a regular
class has been emphasized as a prerequisite
for students to achieve <strong>in</strong>dividual academic
goals through access to the general curriculum
(Cush<strong>in</strong>g, Clark, Carter, & Kennedy,
2005; Wehmeyer et al., 2003). The result <strong>in</strong>dicates
that the rubrics functioned as an <strong>in</strong>structional
guide on learn<strong>in</strong>g for the students as
suggested by previous studies (e.g. Andrade &
Boulay, 2003; Lee & Lee, 2006; Loeffler,
2005). Specifically, by utiliz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>structional
rubrics, the participants could be better aware
of lesson objectives they were target<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong>
could systematically manage self-monitor<strong>in</strong>g
of their own performance dur<strong>in</strong>g class. Although
it dem<strong>and</strong>s, as the first step for students
with disabilities, to successfully learn <strong>in</strong>
<strong>in</strong>clusive sett<strong>in</strong>gs (Prater, 2003), the participants
were either explicitly <strong>in</strong>formed about
<strong>in</strong>dividual lesson objectives they were expected
to target or provided accommodated
tasks or materials <strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e with the objectives.
The positive result of implement<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>structional
rubrics, especially on ‘<strong>in</strong>dependent
work’ category, is not only supported by the
related research that suggest the effectiveness
of <strong>in</strong>structional rubrics as a strategy for selfdirected
learn<strong>in</strong>g (Andrade & Boulay; Hall &
Salmon, 2003; James et al., 2001), but also
underscores the significance of exact awareness
of lesson objectives <strong>and</strong> self-monitor<strong>in</strong>g/
evaluation of performance for students with
disabilities to learn successfully <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>clusive
class (Copel<strong>and</strong> & Huges, 2002; Grossi &
Heward, 1998).
Furthermore, more specific <strong>and</strong> goal-oriented
support provided by typical peers to the
participants with mild mental retardation under
the awareness of the participants’ <strong>in</strong>dividual
lesson objectives might contribute to the
positive result. All three participants improved
<strong>in</strong> ‘work with peers’ category at least more
than 10% dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tervention, <strong>and</strong> the <strong>in</strong>creased
behavior was ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed with a
higher occurrence rate than the one dur<strong>in</strong>g
the <strong>in</strong>tervention for Student 1 <strong>and</strong> Student 2.
As related studies reported that cooperation
among students was enhanced through specific
colleague evaluation <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>formed feedback
on performance us<strong>in</strong>g rubrics (Schirmer
et al., 1999; Smith et al., 2003), hav<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dividual
objectives <strong>and</strong> performance monitor<strong>in</strong>g
questions for the participants with mild
mental retardation specified <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>clusive
assessment tool might lead to efficient <strong>and</strong>
consistent peer support for the participants
dur<strong>in</strong>g class rather than spontaneous or unsystematic
ones. For <strong>in</strong>stance, as the <strong>in</strong>tervention
progressed, it was observed that the peers
of Student 2 <strong>and</strong> Student 3 actively recognized
the two students’ participation <strong>in</strong> class activities
<strong>and</strong> voluntarily <strong>in</strong>volved them <strong>in</strong> a cooperative
task. It can be analyzed that the peers’
overall expectation for the participants with
mild mental retardation went higher as they
noticed the improvement on class engagement
behaviors of the participants work<strong>in</strong>g on
tasks for <strong>in</strong>dividual but st<strong>and</strong>ards-based lesson
objectives (Cha, 2002; McDonnell, McLaughl<strong>in</strong>,
& Morrison, 1997). Exposure to specific
ways to support the participants with mild
mental retardation, such as <strong>in</strong>structional adaptations
<strong>and</strong> self-monitor<strong>in</strong>g questions,
might also contribute to the natural empowerment
of peers <strong>in</strong> terms of cooperative work
with students with disabilities.
Impact on the Achievement of Lesson Objectives by
All Participants
The positive result on the achievement of lesson
objectives by all participants, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g
students with mild mental retardation, by implement<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>in</strong>structional rubrics extends the
f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs of previous studies that reported the
effects of <strong>in</strong>structional rubrics on performance
<strong>in</strong> various subjects (Andrade & Boulay,
2003; Barry & Moore IV, 2004; Goodrich,
1996; James et al., 2001; Loeffler, 2005;
Shirmer et al., 1999). Moreover, it highlights
its implication as an ultimate outcome for students
with disabilities <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>clusive sett<strong>in</strong>gs beyond
just ‘engag<strong>in</strong>g’ <strong>in</strong> the general curriculum
(Clayton, Burdge, Denham, Kle<strong>in</strong>ert, &
Kearns, 2006; Cush<strong>in</strong>g et al., 2005). The positive
<strong>in</strong>fluence on achievement for all participants,
not only for the participants with mild
Effects of Instructional Rubrics / 405

mental retardation, also po<strong>in</strong>ts out that carefully
designed <strong>and</strong> executed <strong>in</strong>structions for
students with disabilities can be beneficial for
all the students <strong>in</strong>volved (S. Lee, 2004; Mc-
Donnell et al., 1997; O’Connor & Jenk<strong>in</strong>s,
1996).
Specifically, exact awareness of lesson objectives
<strong>and</strong> regular self-evaluation through the
rubric might make a positive impact on the
achievement of lesson objectives by all participants.
This result demonstrates that appropriate
progress monitor<strong>in</strong>g by students based on
their awareness of learn<strong>in</strong>g goals is closely
related with enhanc<strong>in</strong>g academic achievement
(Deno, 2003; Fuchs & Fuchs, 1986), <strong>and</strong>
extends the suggestion that <strong>in</strong>structional rubrics,
especially with self-evaluation of performance,
can function as a stepp<strong>in</strong>g stone that
assists students to self-regulate over learn<strong>in</strong>g
activities (Andrade & Boulay, 2003; Saddler &
Andrade, 2004; Shepard, 2000). In addition,
<strong>in</strong>dividual support for students with disabilities
to successfully participate <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>clusive
assessment was specified <strong>in</strong> this study. For example,
the participants received extra tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g
for self-monitor<strong>in</strong>g/evaluation to utilize <strong>in</strong>structional
rubrics before the <strong>in</strong>tervention <strong>in</strong>
addition to the regular tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g for all participants.
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>tervention, <strong>in</strong>structional
accommodations <strong>in</strong> objectives, materials/activities,
<strong>and</strong> scor<strong>in</strong>g system were provided
along with an aid for performance monitor<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>and</strong> feedback on the result us<strong>in</strong>g an application
form. Consider<strong>in</strong>g the need for ‘special
support’ for students with disabilities to
achieve mean<strong>in</strong>gful progress <strong>in</strong> the general
curriculum even <strong>in</strong> cases when a universal
design of lean<strong>in</strong>g is employed (McGuire,
Scott, & Shaw, 2006; Wehmeyer et al., 2003),
these additional tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> support employed
for the participants can be suggested as
necessary elements to consider <strong>in</strong> utiliz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>structional
rubrics as an <strong>in</strong>clusive assessment
for diverse learners.
There are some limitations to be noted <strong>in</strong>
the study. First, the participants were students
with mild mental retardation <strong>and</strong> their typical
peers <strong>in</strong> elementary grades. Thus, the results
of the study might not be generalized to other
students with different disabilities <strong>and</strong> their
peers or those from different age groups. Second,
this study employed the participants’ selfevaluation
on their own performance level
<strong>and</strong> it may not exclude the possibility that the
result of self-evaluation might not be the same
as the real performance level of the participants.
Despite the limitations, this study presents
several implications for future research <strong>and</strong>
practice. It suggests the utility of <strong>in</strong>structional
rubrics not only as an <strong>in</strong>clusive class-wide assessment
tool, but also as an <strong>in</strong>structional
strategy that systematically assists students with
disabilities to make mean<strong>in</strong>gful progress <strong>in</strong>
the general curriculum. Specific considerations
to address <strong>in</strong>dividual needs of students
with disabilities demonstrated <strong>in</strong> the study will
guide practitioners to design <strong>and</strong> implement
an <strong>in</strong>clusive assessment for diverse learners to
successfully participate <strong>in</strong> with appropriate
support. In the future, research is needed to
implement an <strong>in</strong>structional rubric on students
with various disabilities <strong>and</strong> from different age
groups. Additionally, employ<strong>in</strong>g a control
group for comparison would make an elaborate
analysis of the effects of an <strong>in</strong>structional
rubric on the achievement of certa<strong>in</strong> objectives
possible.
References
406 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
Andrade, H. G. (2005). Teach<strong>in</strong>g with rubrics: The
good, the bad, <strong>and</strong> the ugly. College Teach<strong>in</strong>g,
53(1), 27–30.
Andrade, H. G., & Boulay, B. A. (2003). Role of
rubric-referenced self-assessment <strong>in</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g to
write. The Journal of <strong>Education</strong>al Research, 97(1),
21–34.
Barry, L. M., & Moore IV, W. E. (2004). Students
with specific learn<strong>in</strong>g disabilities can pass state
competency exams: Systematic strategy <strong>in</strong>struction
makes a difference. Prevent<strong>in</strong>g School Failure,
48(3), 10–15.
Byan, Y., & Hyan, E. (2005). Development of a
rubric for assess<strong>in</strong>g creativity of young children <strong>in</strong>
an art program us<strong>in</strong>g children’ books. Journal of
<strong>Education</strong> for Young Children. 25, 272–301
Cha, S. (2002). Effects of different strategies for enhanc<strong>in</strong>g
attitudes of typical students <strong>in</strong> elementary grades
towards students with disabilities. Unpublished master’s
dissertation, Ewha Womans University,
Seoul.
Clayton, J., Burdge, M., Denham, A., Kle<strong>in</strong>ert, H. L.,
& Kearns, J. (2006). A four-step process for access<strong>in</strong>g
the general curriculum for students with
significant cognitive disabilities. TEACHING Exceptional
Children, 38(5), 20–27.
Copel<strong>and</strong>, S. R., & Hughes, C. (2002). Effects of

goal sett<strong>in</strong>g on task performance of persons with
mental retardation. <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong>
Mental Retardation <strong>and</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>,
37, 40–54.
Cush<strong>in</strong>g, L. S., Clark, N. M., Carter, E. W., &
Kennedy, C. H. (2005). Access to the general
education curriculum with significant cognitive
disabilities. TEACHING Exceptional Children,
38(2), 6–13.
Deno, S. L. (2003). Developments <strong>in</strong> curriculumbased
measurement. The Journal of Special <strong>Education</strong>,
37, 184–192.
Edgemon, E. A., Jablonski, B. R., & Lloyd, J. W.
(2006). Large-scale assessments: A teacher’s
guide to mak<strong>in</strong>g decisions about accommodations.
TEACHING Exceptional Children, 38(3),
6–11.
Etschedit, S. K. (2006). Progress monitor<strong>in</strong>g: Legal
issues <strong>and</strong> recommendations for IEP team. Teach<strong>in</strong>g
Exceptional Children, 38(3), 56–60.
F<strong>in</strong>son, K. E., & Ormsbee, C. K. (1998). Rubrics <strong>and</strong>
their use <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>clusive science. Intervention <strong>in</strong> School
<strong>and</strong> Cl<strong>in</strong>ic, 34, 79–88.
Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2001). Access to core curriculum:
Critical <strong>in</strong>gredients for student success. Remedial
<strong>and</strong> Special <strong>Education</strong>, 22, 148–157.
Fuchs, L. A., & Fuchs, D. (1996). Comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g performance
assessment <strong>and</strong> curriculum-based measurement
to strengthen <strong>in</strong>structional plann<strong>in</strong>g.
Learn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Disabilities</strong> Research <strong>and</strong> Practice, 11, 183–
192.
Glatthorn, A. A., Braqaw, D., Dawk<strong>in</strong>s, K., & Parker,
J. (1998). Performance assessment <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ardsbased
curricula: The achievement cycle. N.Y.: Eye On
<strong>Education</strong>, Inc.
Goodrich, H. (1996). Student self-assessment: At the
<strong>in</strong>tersection of metacognition <strong>and</strong> authentic assessment.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Harvard University,
Cambridge, MA.
Grossi, T. A., & Heward, W. L. (1998). Us<strong>in</strong>g selfevaluation
to improve the work productivity of
tra<strong>in</strong>ees <strong>in</strong> a community-based restaurant tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g
program. <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> Mental Retardation
<strong>and</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>, 33, 246–261.
Han, J., & Lee, Y. (2004). Application of studentcentered
rubric <strong>in</strong> performance assessment of
technology class. Korean Journal of Vocational <strong>Education</strong>,
23, 99–121.
Han, S., & Park, H. (2004). Development of assessment
tool for students with sensory impairments
<strong>and</strong> on-l<strong>in</strong>e system for related professionals. Korean
Journal of Special <strong>Education</strong>. 38, 433–458.
Hall, E. W., & Salmon, S. J. (2003). Chocolate cookies
<strong>and</strong> rubrics: Help<strong>in</strong>g students underst<strong>and</strong> rubrics
<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>clusive sett<strong>in</strong>gs. TEACHING Exceptional
Children, 35(4), 8–11.
Hoover, J. J., & Patton, J. R. (2004). Differentiat<strong>in</strong>g
st<strong>and</strong>ards-based education for students with di-
verse needs. Remedial <strong>and</strong> Special <strong>Education</strong>, 25,
74–78.
James, L. A., Abbott, M., & Greenwood, C. R.
(2001). How Adam become a writer: W<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g
writ<strong>in</strong>g strategies for low-achiev<strong>in</strong>g students.
TEACHING Exceptional Children, 33(3), 33–37.
Kim, E., Kwon, T., Kim, J., & Park, H. (2003). Analysis
on current situation of adm<strong>in</strong>istrat<strong>in</strong>g self-conta<strong>in</strong>ed
class <strong>and</strong> resource room. Ansan, Kyonki-do:
Korea National Institute of Special <strong>Education</strong>.
Kim, S., & Kim, Y. (2004). Assessment of writ<strong>in</strong>g of
students with hear<strong>in</strong>g impairment utiliz<strong>in</strong>g CBM.
Korean Journal of Special <strong>Education</strong>. 39(1), 97–120.
K<strong>in</strong>g-Sears, M. E., & Carpenter, S. L. (1997). Teach<strong>in</strong>g
self-management to elementary students with developmental
disabilities. Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, DC: American
Association on Mental Retardation.
Kle<strong>in</strong>ert, H. L., & Thurlow, M. L. (2001). An <strong>in</strong>troduction
to alternate assessment. In H. L. Kle<strong>in</strong>ert
& J. F. Kearns (Eds.), Alternate assessment: Measur<strong>in</strong>g
outcomes <strong>and</strong> supports for students with disabilities
(pp. 1–12). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
Kl<strong>in</strong>ger, J. K., & Vaughn, S. (1999). Students’ perceptions
of <strong>in</strong>struction <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>clusive classrooms:
Implications for students with learn<strong>in</strong>g disabilities.
Exceptional Children, 66, 23–37.
Korea National Institute of Special <strong>Education</strong>
(2007). Current situation of students with special
needs. Ansan, Kyongi-do.
Kwak, K., Park, H, & Kim, C. (2001). Korean-Wechsler
Intelligence Scale for Children III. Seoul: Special <strong>Education</strong>
Press.
Lee, M. (2004). Analysis of the guidel<strong>in</strong>es for evaluation
<strong>in</strong> the 7 th National Curriculum for students
<strong>in</strong> elementary grades. Korean Journal of Elementary
<strong>Education</strong>. 17, 207–225.
Lee, S. (2004). Effects of social <strong>in</strong>teraction activity to
enhance social Inclusion for young children with
disabilities on social behaviors of typical young
children. Korean Journal of <strong>Education</strong> for Young Children.
24, 159–179.
Lee, E., & Lee, S. (2006). The effects of <strong>in</strong>structional
rubrics on class engagement behaviors of
students with mental retardation. Korean Journal of
Special <strong>Education</strong>. 13, 67–90.
Loeffler, K. A. (2005). No more Friday spell<strong>in</strong>g
tests?: An alternative spell<strong>in</strong>g assessment for students
with learn<strong>in</strong>g disabilities. TEACHING Exceptional
Children, 37(4), 24–27.
McDonnell, L. M., McLaughl<strong>in</strong>, M. J., & Morrison,
P. (1997). Educat<strong>in</strong>g one <strong>and</strong> all: Students with disabilities
<strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ards-based reform. Wash<strong>in</strong>gton,
DC: National Academy Press.
McGuire, J. M., Scott, S. S., & Shaw, S. F. (2006).
Universal design <strong>and</strong> its applications <strong>in</strong> educational
environment. Remedial <strong>and</strong> Special <strong>Education</strong>,
27, 166–175.
Nolet, V., & McLaughl<strong>in</strong>, M. J. (2000). Access<strong>in</strong>g the
Effects of Instructional Rubrics / 407

general curriculum: Includ<strong>in</strong>g students with disabilities
<strong>in</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ards-based reform. Thous<strong>and</strong> Oaks, CA: Corw<strong>in</strong>
Press.
O’Connor, R. E., & Jenk<strong>in</strong>s, J. R. (1996). Cooperative
learn<strong>in</strong>g as an <strong>in</strong>clusion strategy: A closer
look. Exceptionality, 6, 29–51.
P<strong>in</strong>diprolu, S. S., Lignugaris/Kraft, B., Rule, S.,
Peterson, S., & Slocun, T. (2005). Scor<strong>in</strong>g rubric
for assess<strong>in</strong>g students’ performance on functional
behavior assessment cases. Teacher <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong>
Special <strong>Education</strong>, 28, 79–91.
Prater, M. A. (2003). She will succeed!: Strategies
for success <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>clusive classrooms. TEACHING
Exceptional Children, 36, 58–64.
Rose, D. H., & Meyer, A. (2006). A practical reader <strong>in</strong>
Universal Design for Learn<strong>in</strong>g (Eds.). Cambridge,
MA: Harvard <strong>Education</strong> Press.
Saddler, B., & Andrade, H. (2004). The writ<strong>in</strong>g
rubric: Instructional rubrics can help students
become self-regulated writers. <strong>Education</strong>al Leadership,
62(2), 48–52.
Schirmer, B. R., & Bailey, J. (2000). Writ<strong>in</strong>g assessment
rubric. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 33,
52–58.
Schirmer, B. R., Bailey, J., & Fitzgerald, S. W.
(1999). Us<strong>in</strong>g a writ<strong>in</strong>g assessment rubric for writ<strong>in</strong>g
development of children who are deaf. Exceptional
Children, 65, 383–397.
Schirmer, B. R., & Lockman, A. S. (2001). How do
I f<strong>in</strong>d a book to read? Middle <strong>and</strong> high school
students use a rubric for self-select<strong>in</strong>g material for
<strong>in</strong>dependent read<strong>in</strong>g. TEACHING Exceptional Children,
34(1), 36–42.
Shepard, L. A. (2000). The role of assessment <strong>in</strong> a
learn<strong>in</strong>g culture. <strong>Education</strong>al Researcher, 29(7),
4–14.
Sh<strong>in</strong>, S. (2005). Current situation of assessment of
academic achievement by students with disabilities <strong>in</strong>
self-conta<strong>in</strong>ed classrooms by special educators. Unpublished
mater dissertation, Ewha Womans University,
Seoul.
408 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
Skill<strong>in</strong>gs, M. J., & Ferrell, R. (2000). Teach<strong>in</strong>g read<strong>in</strong>g.
Student-generated rubrics: Br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g students
<strong>in</strong>to the assessment process. The Read<strong>in</strong>g Teacher,
53, 452–455.
Smith, J., Brewer, D. W., Heffner, T., & Algozz<strong>in</strong>e, B.
(2003). Us<strong>in</strong>g portfolio assessments with young
children who are at risk for school failure. Prevent<strong>in</strong>g
School Failure, 48, 38–40.
St<strong>and</strong>ford, P., & Siders, J. A. (2001). Authentic assesment
for <strong>in</strong>tervention. Intervention <strong>in</strong> School <strong>and</strong>
Cl<strong>in</strong>ic, 36, 163–167.
Stigg<strong>in</strong>s, R. J. (2005). Student-<strong>in</strong>volved assessment for
learn<strong>in</strong>g (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Prentice Hall.
Tawney, J. W., & Gast, D. L. (1984). S<strong>in</strong>gle subject
research <strong>in</strong> special education. Columbus, OH: Merrill.
U.S. Department of <strong>Education</strong> (2007). Twenty-seventh
annual report to congress on the implementation of
Individuals with <strong>Disabilities</strong> <strong>Education</strong> Act, 2005.
Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, DC: Author.
Wehmeyer, M. L., Lance, G. D., & Bash<strong>in</strong>ski, S.
(2002). Promot<strong>in</strong>g access to the general curriculum
for students with mental retardation: A multilevel
model. <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong>
<strong>Disabilities</strong>, 37, 223–234.
Wehmeyer, M. L., Latt<strong>in</strong>, D. L., Lapp-R<strong>in</strong>cker, G., &
Agran, M. (2003). Access to the general curriculum
of middle school students with mental retardation:
An observational study. Remedial <strong>and</strong> Special
<strong>Education</strong>, 24, 262–272.
Whittaker, C. R., Salend, S. J., & Duhaney, D.
(2001). Creat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>structional rubrics for <strong>in</strong>clusive
classrooms. TEACHING Exceptional Children,
34(2), 8–13.
Ysseldyke, J., Thurlow, M., Biel<strong>in</strong>ski, J., House, A.,
Moody, M., & Haigh, J. (2001). The relationship
between <strong>in</strong>structional <strong>and</strong> assessment accommodations
<strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>clusive state accountability system.
Journal of Learn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Disabilities</strong>, 34, 212–220.

Increas<strong>in</strong>g Comprehension of Students with Significant
Intellectual <strong>Disabilities</strong> <strong>and</strong> Visual Impairments
dur<strong>in</strong>g Shared Stories
Pamela J. Mims, Diane M. Browder, Joshua N. Baker, Angel Lee,
<strong>and</strong> Fred Spooner
University of North Carol<strong>in</strong>a at Charlotte
Abstract: Shared stories have been shown to help <strong>in</strong>crease emerg<strong>in</strong>g literacy skills <strong>in</strong> students with significant
<strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities. One important literacy skill is the development of listen<strong>in</strong>g comprehension. In this study,
least-to-most prompt system was used to promote listen<strong>in</strong>g comprehension dur<strong>in</strong>g shared stories for two students
with significant <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities <strong>and</strong> visual impairments. The procedure was evaluated via a multiple
probe design across materials (i.e., books). Outcomes <strong>in</strong>dicate that both students improved on the correct number
of comprehension questions answered dur<strong>in</strong>g all three books. In addition, Student 1 was able to generalize
responses across people <strong>and</strong> sett<strong>in</strong>gs as well as ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> results. Future research <strong>and</strong> implications for practical
team implementation of the least-to-most prompt system to teach listen<strong>in</strong>g comprehension are discussed.
Literacy is one of the most important educational
goals for all students because of the
opportunities it provides to ga<strong>in</strong> strategies for
further learn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> access to <strong>in</strong>formation
about the world. For students with significant
<strong>and</strong> complex disabilities, strategies for promot<strong>in</strong>g
literacy are difficult to identify. For
example, <strong>in</strong> a comprehensive review of read<strong>in</strong>g
for students with significant disabilities,
Browder, Wakeman, Spooner, Ahlgrim-Delzell,
<strong>and</strong> Algozz<strong>in</strong>e (2006) found most studies
focused on students with moderate <strong>in</strong>tellectual
disabilities <strong>and</strong> sight word read<strong>in</strong>g. When
students have visual impairments, as well as
severe <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities, f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g a model
for literacy can be especially challeng<strong>in</strong>g.
Support for this research was provided <strong>in</strong> part by
Grant No. H324K040004 of the U.S. Department of
<strong>Education</strong>, Institute of <strong>Education</strong> Sciences, awarded
to the University of North Carol<strong>in</strong>a at Charlotte.
The op<strong>in</strong>ions expressed do not necessarily reflect
the position or policy of the Department of <strong>Education</strong>,
<strong>and</strong> no official endorsement should be <strong>in</strong>ferred.
Correspondence concern<strong>in</strong>g this article
should be addressed to Pamela Mims, Department
of Special <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> Child Development, University
of North Carol<strong>in</strong>a at Charlotte, 9201 University
City Blvd, Charlotte, NC 28223-0001. Email:
pjbednar@uncc.edu
<strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>, 2009, 44(3), 409–420
© <strong>Division</strong> on <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>
This challenge may be the reason that 92%
of teachers of students with visual impairments
<strong>and</strong> multiple disabilities surveyed by
Dur<strong>and</strong>o (2008) were <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> receiv<strong>in</strong>g
additional tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g on literacy for this population.
Fewer than half viewed read<strong>in</strong>g as appropriate
for all students <strong>and</strong> most relied on variables
such as cognitive ability, communication
skills, <strong>and</strong> functional vision to determ<strong>in</strong>e
whether or not to teach literacy. While these
variables have sometimes been used to determ<strong>in</strong>e
eligibility for literacy <strong>in</strong>struction, an alternative
perspective would be to give all students
the opportunity for literacy learn<strong>in</strong>g
even if all do not become fully literate. What is
needed is a strategy for <strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g this literacy
<strong>in</strong>struction. Unfortunately, the research
on how to teach literacy tends to focus on
students who only have <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities
or visual impairments, not both (Browder et
al., 2006; Corn & Koenig, 2002; Park 2004; van
Kleeck, 2006).
Erickson <strong>and</strong> Hatton (2007) propose a conceptual
framework specifically for students
with visual impairments who are work<strong>in</strong>g on
emerg<strong>in</strong>g literacy skills. Their framework focuses
on three areas for learn<strong>in</strong>g: (a) oral
language (i.e., narrative knowledge, vocabulary,
<strong>and</strong> knowledge of the world), (b) metal<strong>in</strong>guistic
skills (i.e., phonological awareness
Increas<strong>in</strong>g Comprehension / 409

<strong>and</strong> syntactic awareness), <strong>and</strong> (c) literacy
knowledge (i.e., conceptual knowledge, functions
of pr<strong>in</strong>t, perceptions of self as learner,
emergent read<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> context, procedural
knowledge, phonetic spell<strong>in</strong>g, alphabetic
knowledge, <strong>and</strong> letter-sound knowledge). By
focus<strong>in</strong>g on all three areas, students with visual
impairments ga<strong>in</strong> skills for beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g
read<strong>in</strong>g. Similarly, Browder, Gibbs, et al. (<strong>in</strong>
press) proposed a conceptual model of literacy
that emphasizes beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g read<strong>in</strong>g skills
for young students. This model also promotes
the use of shared literature for all ages with
the use of read alouds or other means to
access text for students who are not <strong>in</strong>dependent
readers.
Read alouds, also called “shared stories”,
are often used with young children to promote
early literacy (Coyne, Simmons,
Kame’enui, & Stoolmiller, 2004; van Kleeck,
2006). Shared story experiences can foster literacy
concepts such as: (a) pr<strong>in</strong>t awareness;
(b) phonological awareness; (c) alphabet
knowledge; <strong>and</strong> (d) metal<strong>in</strong>guistic awareness
(Justice & Kaderavek, 2002). For example,
Coyne et al. found benefits for us<strong>in</strong>g shared
stories on literacy skills of students at risk for
read<strong>in</strong>g failure. Shared stories have also been
shown to be effective <strong>in</strong> promot<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>creases
<strong>in</strong> communication <strong>and</strong> literacy development
for students with disabilities, (Al Otaiba, 2004;
Crowe, Norris, & Hoffman, 2004; Justice &
Kaderavek, 2002, 2003; Justice, Kaderavek,
Bowles, & Grimm, 2005; Justice & Pullen,
2003) visual impairments, <strong>and</strong> bl<strong>in</strong>dness
(Corn & Koenig, 2002; Park 2004; van Kleeck,
2006).
In a study specific to students with severe
<strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities, Skotko, Koppenhaver,
<strong>and</strong> Erickson (2004) used shared story activities
with four girls diagnosed with Rett Syndrome
at the pre-symbolic communication
level (i.e., primarily used objects <strong>and</strong> vocalizations).
The <strong>in</strong>tervention consisted of the use
of augmentative communication devices <strong>and</strong>
opportunities to communicate (e.g., ask<strong>in</strong>g
prediction questions). One important aspect
of this study is that the <strong>in</strong>terventionist did not
wait for the participants to acquire “prerequisite”
communication skills, but assumed <strong>and</strong>
promoted underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> expression <strong>in</strong>
the context of the lessons. For example, the
students ga<strong>in</strong>ed mean<strong>in</strong>g of AAC symbols by
410 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
us<strong>in</strong>g them <strong>in</strong> the context of the story, rather
than <strong>in</strong> isolation. Results <strong>in</strong>dicated that an
<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> communication <strong>and</strong> engagement
with literacy materials was shown with all four
participants.
To extend the research of Skotko et al.
(2004), to students with visual impairments
<strong>and</strong> severe <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities it may be
necessary to make two changes—add<strong>in</strong>g objects
<strong>and</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g systematic prompt<strong>in</strong>g. First,
experts have recommended us<strong>in</strong>g real objects
to add concrete <strong>in</strong>formation that will allow the
learner to relate to the text <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>teract more
with the story (Erickson & Hatton, 2007; Park,
2004). Second, students with severe <strong>in</strong>tellectual
disabilities may need systematic <strong>in</strong>struction
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g repeated opportunities to respond
with prompt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> feedback to use
the objects <strong>in</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>gful ways. Systematic <strong>in</strong>struction
is a method for teach<strong>in</strong>g discrete
<strong>and</strong> cha<strong>in</strong>ed skills to students with significant
disabilities that has a strong research base
(Westl<strong>in</strong>g & Fox, 2004). For example, <strong>in</strong> the
literature review by Browder et al. (2006), systematic
<strong>in</strong>struction was the most used evidence-based
practice to teach vocabulary sight
words (88 studies), vocabulary pictures (17
studies), comprehension (16 studies), <strong>and</strong> fluency
(12 studies).
A specific form of systematic <strong>in</strong>struction
that may be especially useful <strong>in</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g the
exploration <strong>and</strong> use of objects to build mean<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>in</strong> stories is the least-to-most prompt system,
also known as the system of least prompts
(SLP). The system of least prompts is used
after the target stimulus is presented <strong>and</strong> the
student is provided with a chance to respond
<strong>in</strong>dependently; if an error or no response occurs,
the least <strong>in</strong>trusive prompt is delivered as
well as another opportunity to respond. This is
cont<strong>in</strong>ued until the student responds correctly
or the most <strong>in</strong>trusive prompt <strong>in</strong> the
prompt hierarchy is delivered (Doyle, Wolery,
Ault, & Gast, 1988). In a literature review of
SLP, researchers found that 11 % of the studies
used this strategy with students that had
visual impairments (Doyle et al.). The SLP has
often been used <strong>in</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ation with a task
analysis. A task analysis is the process of break<strong>in</strong>g
down a cha<strong>in</strong>ed behavior <strong>in</strong>to smaller
components <strong>and</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g each small component
one at a time (Coll<strong>in</strong>s, 2007).
Browder, Trela, <strong>and</strong> Jimenez (2007) ap-

plied systematic prompt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> the use of a
task analysis to teach shared stories to students
with moderate <strong>and</strong> severe <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities.
In this study, they exam<strong>in</strong>ed the effects
of tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g teachers to engage students <strong>in</strong> a
shared story us<strong>in</strong>g a book adapted from middle
school literature. Results <strong>in</strong>dicated an <strong>in</strong>crease
<strong>in</strong> participation <strong>in</strong> the read<strong>in</strong>g activities.
Although, this study implemented systematic
<strong>in</strong>struction, adaptations would need
to be made for students with visual impairments
<strong>in</strong> both the adaptation of the book <strong>and</strong>
mode for student respond<strong>in</strong>g (e.g., salient objects,
touch response).
Browder, Mims, Spooner, Ahlgrim-Delzell,
<strong>and</strong> Lee (<strong>in</strong> press) also applied systematic
prompt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> the use of a task analysis to
<strong>in</strong>crease participation <strong>and</strong> communication of
students with significant multiple disabilities.
In this study, they exam<strong>in</strong>ed the effects of
<strong>in</strong>dividualiz<strong>in</strong>g a task analysis to help <strong>in</strong>crease
student engagement <strong>in</strong> a shared story. In addition,
books were adapted with salient objects
as all participat<strong>in</strong>g students required the use
of salient objects. Results <strong>in</strong>dicated an <strong>in</strong>crease
<strong>in</strong> participation <strong>and</strong> communication <strong>in</strong>
the shared story with all three participat<strong>in</strong>g
students. Once aga<strong>in</strong>, this study demonstrates
the importance of systematic <strong>in</strong>struction, but
adaptations would still need to be made for
students with visual impairments.
Although studies like those by Skotko et al.
(2004) <strong>and</strong> Browder, Mims, et al. (<strong>in</strong> press)
offer guidance for plann<strong>in</strong>g shared stories,
there currently are no studies demonstrat<strong>in</strong>g
their applicability to students with visual impairments
<strong>and</strong> significant <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities.
An extension to this population is especially
important because students who have
both visual impairments <strong>and</strong> severe <strong>in</strong>tellectual
disabilities present multiple challenges to
literacy learn<strong>in</strong>g. Due to the complex comb<strong>in</strong>ation
of disabilities <strong>and</strong> earlier views about
“eligibility” for literacy, they may have had
little to no prior literacy <strong>in</strong>struction. Because
of this, they may not underst<strong>and</strong> the most
basic conventions of a read aloud like <strong>in</strong>teract<strong>in</strong>g
with a book <strong>and</strong> respond<strong>in</strong>g to questions
about text. These students may also need
to build language concepts concurrently with
literacy exposure <strong>and</strong> knowledge. For example,
students may not underst<strong>and</strong> even literal
concepts presented <strong>in</strong> the book like “tree” or
“box.” F<strong>in</strong>ally, students may need many repetitions
with a book to underst<strong>and</strong> the story
<strong>and</strong> be able to produce comprehension responses.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate a
strategy for engag<strong>in</strong>g students with visual impairments
<strong>and</strong> severe <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities
<strong>in</strong> literacy <strong>in</strong>struction through the use of a
shared story. Specifically, the study evaluated
whether a least-to-most prompt<strong>in</strong>g system
would <strong>in</strong>crease the number of <strong>in</strong>dependent
comprehension responses dur<strong>in</strong>g a storybased
lesson.
Method
Participants <strong>and</strong> Sett<strong>in</strong>g
Participants for this study <strong>in</strong>cluded two students
with significant <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities
who were visually impaired. Participat<strong>in</strong>g students
were required to meet the follow<strong>in</strong>g
criteria: (a) classified by the school system as
hav<strong>in</strong>g a “severe or profound” <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities
(IQ <strong>and</strong> adaptive behaviors 55), (b)
developmental levels below 1 year as measured
by an adapted behavior scale, <strong>and</strong> (c)
receiv<strong>in</strong>g services for visual impairments.
Teachers <strong>in</strong> a large urban school system <strong>in</strong> the
Southeast were asked to identify students who
met these eligibility criteria. Student eligibility
was then verified by review<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>formation
provided from the student’s psychological
evaluations.
Three students were <strong>in</strong>itially identified who
met the criteria to participate. Only two students
completed the study as the third had
compet<strong>in</strong>g self stimulatory behavior that <strong>in</strong>terfered
with mak<strong>in</strong>g the literacy responses. Although
this student began to show some <strong>in</strong>terest
<strong>in</strong> the stories, the compet<strong>in</strong>g behavior
was not adequately reduced <strong>in</strong> the timeframe
of the study to be able to prompt the comprehension
responses.
Demographic <strong>in</strong>formation for the two participat<strong>in</strong>g
students is shown <strong>in</strong> Table 1. The
two students attended two different public
schools <strong>and</strong> received their <strong>in</strong>struction <strong>in</strong> self
conta<strong>in</strong>ed special education classrooms for
students with severe disabilities. For Student 1,
most assessments <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>terventions were conducted
<strong>in</strong> a separate tutorial room for <strong>in</strong>dividualized
literacy <strong>in</strong>struction; although, general-
Increas<strong>in</strong>g Comprehension / 411

TABLE 1
Student Demographic
Student Age Gender
Student 1 6 Male <strong>Developmental</strong>ly Delayed;
Multih<strong>and</strong>icapped;
Cortical Visual
Impairment; Cerebral
Palsy; Bronchopulmonary
Dysplasia
Student 2 9 Female <strong>Developmental</strong>ly Delayed;
Multih<strong>and</strong>icapped;
Severe visual
impairment/severe
nearsightedness <strong>in</strong> each
eye; Cerebral Palsy;
Microcephaly; Seizures
ization data were collected <strong>in</strong> the special
education classroom <strong>and</strong> the cafeteria. For
Student 2, all assessments <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>terventions
were conducted <strong>in</strong> the student’s elementary
special education classroom. The first author,
a doctoral student <strong>in</strong> special education <strong>and</strong>
former licensed special education teacher
with seven years of experience with students
with multiple disabilities, served as the <strong>in</strong>terventionist.
In addition, all data collection,
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g procedural fidelity <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>ter-rater
reliability, were conducted by the other members
of the research team.
Materials
Three popular elementary picture books were
used for the <strong>in</strong>tervention. Each book was
adapted to conta<strong>in</strong> 5 specific concrete objects
mentioned <strong>in</strong> the book. These objects were
tactile representations of nouns embedded
throughout the story (e.g., “flower”). Each object
was attached to the page on which the
noun would be read <strong>and</strong> could be removed
(attached with Velcro). The same objects detached
from the page, <strong>and</strong> distractor objects,
were used for students to express comprehension
responses. Five objects appeared two
times <strong>in</strong> each book. Objects were selected <strong>and</strong>
adapted for the maximum sensory dist<strong>in</strong>ctiveness
possible (e.g., soft cloth, textured surface,
dist<strong>in</strong>ct smell like an orange). The books were
Diagnoses Accord<strong>in</strong>g to
School Records Aids <strong>and</strong> Services Communication And Literacy
Wheel chair; s<strong>in</strong>gle
switch; OT, PT,
Speech, Vision
Services
Wheelchair; s<strong>in</strong>gle
switch; OT, PT,
Speech, Vision
Impairment
Services
also adapted to abbreviate text <strong>and</strong> add a repeated
story l<strong>in</strong>e to promote underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g.
Table 2 gives examples of the adaptations
used for each book <strong>and</strong> a list of the objects
used as noun referents.
Data Collection Procedures
412 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
Inconsistent communication
attempts; <strong>in</strong>consistent
response to objects;
<strong>in</strong>consistent respond<strong>in</strong>g
dur<strong>in</strong>g read alouds
Laughs or screams to
communicate mood;
<strong>in</strong>consistent response to
object or pictures;
<strong>in</strong>consistent respond<strong>in</strong>g
dur<strong>in</strong>g read alouds
Dependent variable. The dependent variable
was the number of correct <strong>in</strong>dependent
selection of one of two objects to answer comprehension
questions asked throughout the
read aloud of the story. The <strong>in</strong>terventionist
recorded the student’s response to each of 10
preplanned comprehension trials dur<strong>in</strong>g the
read aloud (each object occurred twice). Although
for purposes of <strong>in</strong>struction, the <strong>in</strong>terventionist
recorded the level of prompt the
student required (e.g., verbal, model, physical),
only responses scored as unprompted
correct () were graphed.
Inter-rater reliability. Inter-rater reliability
was measured by us<strong>in</strong>g an item-by-item formula.
A second observer viewed videotapes of
the sessions <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dependently scored each of
the 10 comprehension trials. If item-by-item
agreement was not 90% (9/10 trials), the two
observers met to discuss the responses to be
observed prior to the cod<strong>in</strong>g of the next video.
Inter-rater reliability was calculated by tak<strong>in</strong>g
the number of agreements <strong>and</strong> divid<strong>in</strong>g it by

TABLE 2
Book Adaptations
Book Dirty Bertie
By David Roberts
Adaptations Book was shortened (pages
removed <strong>and</strong> l<strong>in</strong>es were cut
from text), pages were
lam<strong>in</strong>ated, 5 objects were
velcroed <strong>in</strong>to the text,
added appropriate text to
<strong>in</strong>clude a second
appearance of the 5 objects.
the number of agreements plus disagreements
<strong>and</strong> multiply<strong>in</strong>g by 100.
Procedural fidelity. Another member of the
research team scored procedural fidelity dur<strong>in</strong>g
all checks of <strong>in</strong>ter-rater reliability. Data
was collected on the number of steps the <strong>in</strong>structor
followed while implement<strong>in</strong>g the
story-based lesson. The steps <strong>in</strong>cluded read<strong>in</strong>g
the story aloud until the text that was associated
with the predeterm<strong>in</strong>ed comprehension
questions were reached. At this po<strong>in</strong>t the <strong>in</strong>structor
would request for the student to “read
with me” while plac<strong>in</strong>g the students h<strong>and</strong>s
on the correlat<strong>in</strong>g object. After read<strong>in</strong>g the
targeted l<strong>in</strong>e of text, the <strong>in</strong>structor would then
ask the comprehension questions <strong>and</strong> progress
through the least-to-most prompt system as
necessary. The team member checked to see if
each segment was present () or not present
(). The number of present items was divided
by the total number of items <strong>and</strong> multiplied by
100 to obta<strong>in</strong> a procedural reliability score. In
addition, procedural fidelity was collected on
the implementation of the least-to-most
prompt system <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>cluded a check of the
delivery of the appropriate prompt hierarchy
as well as the predeterm<strong>in</strong>ed wait time of 5
seconds between prompt levels.
Social validity. Social validity was collected
to measure procedures <strong>and</strong> outcomes by hav<strong>in</strong>g
each student’s special education teacher
take a survey. This was designed to recognize
Alex<strong>and</strong>er <strong>and</strong> the Terrible,
Horrible, No Good, Very
Bad Day
By Judith Viorst
Book was shortened (pages
removed <strong>and</strong> l<strong>in</strong>es were cut
from text), pages were
lam<strong>in</strong>ated, 5 objects were
velcroed <strong>in</strong>to the text,
added appropriate text to
<strong>in</strong>clude a second
appearance of the 5 objects.
Repeated story l<strong>in</strong>e No Bertie, that’s dirty Bertie! Terrible, horrible, no good,
very bad day.
Objects used to Stuffed dog, piece of c<strong>and</strong>y, Gum, c<strong>and</strong>y bar, cereal box,
promote listen<strong>in</strong>g rubber worms, an orange, shoe laces, pillow.
comprehension. flowers.
the teachers perspective of the effect of the
least-to-most prompt<strong>in</strong>g system on the number
of correct comprehension questions answered
throughout the story-based lesson.
Research Design
I Missed You Everyday
By Simms Tabak
Book was shortened (pages
removed <strong>and</strong> l<strong>in</strong>es were cut
from text), pages were
lam<strong>in</strong>ated, 5 objects were
velcroed <strong>in</strong>to the text,
added appropriate text to
<strong>in</strong>clude a second
appearance of the 5 objects.
I missed you every day.
Ribbon, wrapp<strong>in</strong>g paper,
envelope, pen, box.
A multiple probe across materials (i.e., books)
design with concurrent replications for two
students was used to exam<strong>in</strong>e the number of
correct comprehension questions answered
(Tawney & Gast, 1984). Basel<strong>in</strong>e data were
collected on the two students to identify their
current level of responses to the comprehension
questions dur<strong>in</strong>g story-based lessons with
three different books. Dur<strong>in</strong>g basel<strong>in</strong>e, the
<strong>in</strong>terventionist read the book aloud <strong>and</strong> provided
objects to answer the comprehension
questions, but did not prompt respond<strong>in</strong>g.
Once a stable or decreas<strong>in</strong>g basel<strong>in</strong>e was seen,
<strong>in</strong>struction was <strong>in</strong>itiated with the first book.
Once the students demonstrated a change <strong>in</strong>
trend <strong>and</strong>/or level <strong>in</strong> their graphed data with
the first book the second book was <strong>in</strong>troduced.
This cont<strong>in</strong>ued until both students
had been <strong>in</strong>troduced to all three books with
the <strong>in</strong>tervention. Ma<strong>in</strong>tenance probes were
conducted on Student 1 approximately 2
weeks after a functional relationship was determ<strong>in</strong>ed,
but could not be obta<strong>in</strong>ed for Student
2 due to the end of the school year.
Increas<strong>in</strong>g Comprehension / 413

TABLE 3
Comprehension Questions
Comprehension
Questions Dirty Bertie
Procedure
Basel<strong>in</strong>e phase. Dur<strong>in</strong>g basel<strong>in</strong>e, the <strong>in</strong>structor
(first author) progressed through
each story, provided objects affixed to the
book pages, <strong>and</strong> asked the preplanned comprehension
questions, as shown <strong>in</strong> Table 3,
giv<strong>in</strong>g the student the object <strong>and</strong> a distractor
to respond. The <strong>in</strong>structor did not prompt or
provide feedback dur<strong>in</strong>g basel<strong>in</strong>e conditions.
At the appropriate place <strong>in</strong> the story, the <strong>in</strong>structor
asked the comprehension question,
placed the objects by the student’s h<strong>and</strong>s on
the table, <strong>and</strong> waited 5 s for a response. Be-
Alex<strong>and</strong>er <strong>and</strong> the Terrible,
Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day I Missed You Everyday
Question 1 What did Bertie pick up off What did Alex<strong>and</strong>er go to sleep with What did she wrap herself with?
the ground <strong>and</strong> eat? that got stuck <strong>in</strong> his hair?
Answer: Sucker Answer: Gum Answer: Wrapp<strong>in</strong>g Paper
Question 2 What did Bertie put up his What didn’t Alex<strong>and</strong>er f<strong>in</strong>d a toy What did she tie herself with?
nose <strong>and</strong> then try to eat? <strong>in</strong>?
Answer: Orange Answer: Cereal Box Answer: Ribbon
Question 3 What did Bertie go hunt<strong>in</strong>g What didn’t Alex<strong>and</strong>er get <strong>in</strong> his What did she jump <strong>in</strong>side?
<strong>in</strong> the garden for?
lunch box?
Answer: Worms Answer: Chocolate Bar Answer: A Box
Question 4 Who would Bertie lick <strong>in</strong> the What didn’t Alex<strong>and</strong>er get with his What did she use to write your
face?
shoes?
address with?
Answer: The dog Answer: Blue Shoelaces Answer: A Pen
Question 5 What did Bertie try <strong>and</strong> eat What did Alex<strong>and</strong>er’s Brother take What was <strong>in</strong> the mailbag she
after watch<strong>in</strong>g his cat? from him?
jumped <strong>in</strong>to?
Answer: Flowers Answer: Pillow Answer: Envelopes
Question 6 What did Bertie learn not to What did Alex<strong>and</strong>er eat that didn’t What can you f<strong>in</strong>d her wrapped
eat because he got all
wet?
get stuck <strong>in</strong> his hair?
<strong>in</strong>?
Answer: Flowers Answer: Gum Answer: A Box
Question 7 What did Bertie learn no to What did Alex<strong>and</strong>er f<strong>in</strong>d a toy <strong>in</strong>? After pay<strong>in</strong>g the postman, what
play with when his sister
dumped them on his
head?
will be on their way?
Answer: Worms Answer: Cereal Box Answer: The Envelopes
Question 8 What did Bertie learn not to What did Alex<strong>and</strong>er get <strong>in</strong> his What does she need to be
eat off the ground? lunch box?
unwrapped from?
Answer: Suckers Answer: Chocolate Bar Answer: Wrapp<strong>in</strong>g Paper
Question 9 After gett<strong>in</strong>g hair <strong>in</strong> his What did Alex<strong>and</strong>er f<strong>in</strong>d with his What should you not forget to
mouth, who did Bertie
learn not to lick?
shoes at the shoe store?
untie?
Answer: The dog Answer: The Blue Shoe Str<strong>in</strong>gs Answer: The Ribbon
Question 10 What does Bertie still put What did Nick give to Alex<strong>and</strong>er? What did she use to write the
up his nose <strong>and</strong> then eat?
thank you letter?
Answer: Oranges Answer: Pillow Answer: A Pen
414 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
cause of physical challenges, both students
selected responses by slid<strong>in</strong>g their arm across
the table to touch one object. The <strong>in</strong>structor
waited until all movement stopped to be sure
that the student had made the selection <strong>and</strong>
was not scann<strong>in</strong>g the objects. At the end of 5 s,
the <strong>in</strong>structor scored the response <strong>and</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>ued
read<strong>in</strong>g the story up to the next comprehension
question <strong>and</strong> so on until all 10 questions
were asked. This was repeated for all
three books across days until a stable or decelerat<strong>in</strong>g
trend <strong>in</strong> the basel<strong>in</strong>e data was observed.

Intervention. Like basel<strong>in</strong>e, each <strong>in</strong>tervention
session began with the <strong>in</strong>structor read<strong>in</strong>g
the book aloud <strong>and</strong> ask<strong>in</strong>g comprehension
questions after each page. In addition, the
<strong>in</strong>structor would ask the student to “read with
me” when read<strong>in</strong>g a page with an embedded
object. To help the student “read with me,”
the <strong>in</strong>structor would place the students h<strong>and</strong>
on the object that was attached to the page
<strong>and</strong> then read the text that conta<strong>in</strong>ed the
noun the object depicted (e.g., “Alex<strong>and</strong>er
woke up with gum stuck <strong>in</strong> his hair.” The book
page had a pack of gum attached.). The <strong>in</strong>structor
then placed the same object as <strong>in</strong> the
book (e.g., pack of gum) beside a distractor
object (e.g., one from another book) <strong>in</strong> front
of the student’s h<strong>and</strong>s on the table. After ask<strong>in</strong>g
the comprehension question, the teacher
waited for an <strong>in</strong>dependent response or that is,
for the student to slide an arm across the table
to select one of the objects. If no response
occurred, the <strong>in</strong>structor began to use the
least-to-most prompt system. If the student
made no response after 5 s, the <strong>in</strong>structor gave
the first level prompt. For the first level
prompt, the <strong>in</strong>structor said “F<strong>in</strong>d the one that
is like this” <strong>and</strong> placed students h<strong>and</strong> on page
with tactile object). Aga<strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>structor
waited 5 s for a response. If a correct response
occurred after the first level prompt, the student
was praised. If the student once aga<strong>in</strong>
made no response after 5 seconds, the <strong>in</strong>structor
used a second level prompt. The <strong>in</strong>structor
said, “F<strong>in</strong>d the one that is like this” <strong>and</strong> placed
students h<strong>and</strong> on page with tactile object,
then placed students h<strong>and</strong> on the correct object,
<strong>and</strong> then removed the student’s h<strong>and</strong>
while say<strong>in</strong>g “You f<strong>in</strong>d it.” The <strong>in</strong>structor then
waited another 5 seconds for a response, a
correct response resulted <strong>in</strong> praise. If no response,
the <strong>in</strong>structor used a third level, fully
physical prompt. The <strong>in</strong>structor said, “F<strong>in</strong>d
the one that is like this” <strong>and</strong> placed students
h<strong>and</strong> on page with tactile object <strong>and</strong> then
placed students h<strong>and</strong> on the correct object
<strong>and</strong> said “This is the ‘gum’ (or whatever the
object was)!” If at any time dur<strong>in</strong>g the prompt
hierarchy the student went for an <strong>in</strong>correct
response, the attempt was blocked <strong>and</strong> the
student was physically redirected to the correct
answer.
Ma<strong>in</strong>tenance <strong>and</strong> generalization. Ma<strong>in</strong>tenance
probes were collected on Student 1 on
all three books, approximately two weeks after
the <strong>in</strong>tervention ended. Generalization data
were collected with Student 1 <strong>in</strong> two additional
sett<strong>in</strong>gs to demonstrate generalization
across sett<strong>in</strong>gs (i.e., the student’s classroom
<strong>and</strong> the empty cafeteria). In addition, a peer
from the student’s school who was nondisabled
was recruited to conduct the <strong>in</strong>tervention
with Book 3 to demonstrate generalization
across people.
Results
Agreement. Procedural fidelity for delivery
of all steps of the <strong>in</strong>tervention was 100%
across all three books for both Student 1
<strong>and</strong> 2. Inter-rater agreement for scor<strong>in</strong>g student
1 respond<strong>in</strong>g was 98% for Book 1,
100% for Book 2, <strong>and</strong> 93% for Book 3. For
student 1, both procedural fidelity <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>ter-rater
agreement data were collected for
29% of the sessions for Book 1, 47% of the
sessions for Book 2, <strong>and</strong> 29% of the sessions
for Book 3. Inter-rater agreement for scor<strong>in</strong>g
student 2 respond<strong>in</strong>g was 100% for Book
1, 100% for Book 2, <strong>and</strong> 100% for Book. For
student 2, both procedural fidelity <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>ter-rater
agreement data were collected for
36% of the sessions for Book 1, 27% of the
sessions for Book 2, <strong>and</strong> 40% of the sessions
for Book 3.
Student 1 data. Student 1 performance
data are displayed <strong>in</strong> Figure 1. Dur<strong>in</strong>g basel<strong>in</strong>e,
Student 1 correctly answered a mean of
less than one question (.75) of the 10 comprehension
questions asked <strong>in</strong> Book 1, with a
range from 0 to 3 questions. After <strong>in</strong>tervention,
the responses <strong>in</strong>creased (M 5, range
from 1–9). Dur<strong>in</strong>g basel<strong>in</strong>e for book 2, Student
1 also correctly answered a mean of less
than one (.6) of the 10 comprehension questions
asked, with a range from 1 to 3 questions.
After <strong>in</strong>tervention, the responses <strong>in</strong>creased
(M 6.5, range from 3–8). For Book
3 dur<strong>in</strong>g basel<strong>in</strong>e, Student 1 correctly answered
a mean of 1.3 of the 10 comprehension
questions asked, with a range from 0 to 2
steps. After <strong>in</strong>tervention, the responses <strong>in</strong>creased
(M 5.6, range from 1 to 9).
Student 2 data. Student 2 performance
data are displayed <strong>in</strong> Figure 2. Dur<strong>in</strong>g basel<strong>in</strong>e,
Student 2 correctly answered a mean of
1.75 questions of the 10 comprehension ques-
Increas<strong>in</strong>g Comprehension / 415

Figure 1. Number of correct responses across three books for participant 1.
tions asked <strong>in</strong> Book 1, with a range from 0 to
4 questions. After <strong>in</strong>tervention, the responses
<strong>in</strong>creased (M5.14, range from 2–7). Dur<strong>in</strong>g
basel<strong>in</strong>e for book 2, Student 2 correctly answered
a mean of 2 of the 10 comprehension
416 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
questions asked, with a range from 1 to 4
questions. After <strong>in</strong>tervention, the responses
<strong>in</strong>creased (M 6.5, range from 4–9). For
Book 3 dur<strong>in</strong>g basel<strong>in</strong>e, Student 2 correctly
answered a mean of 2.8 of the 10 comprehen-

Figure 2. Number of correct responses across three books for participant 2.
sion questions asked, with a range from 1 to 6
steps. After <strong>in</strong>tervention, the responses <strong>in</strong>creased
(M 6.25, range from 4 to 8).
Social validity. Both classroom teachers
participated <strong>in</strong> a follow-up survey that measured
both the procedures <strong>and</strong> the outcomes.
Both teachers reported strongly
agree<strong>in</strong>g that the comprehension items se-
lected were appropriate, important, <strong>and</strong>
cost effective. In addition, the teachers
strongly agreed that the system of least
prompts, the prompt hierarchy used, as well
as the wait time between prompts were appropriate
for this student. The teachers reported
that they strongly agreed to use this
prompt procedure aga<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> the future for
Increas<strong>in</strong>g Comprehension / 417

additional skills as well as <strong>in</strong> future comprehension
skills with additional students. F<strong>in</strong>ally,
the teachers reported strongly agree<strong>in</strong>g
that the students overall comprehension
<strong>in</strong>creased as a result of the <strong>in</strong>tervention <strong>and</strong>
that overall the student had <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>in</strong>
mean<strong>in</strong>gful participation <strong>in</strong> literacy activities
as well as other academic <strong>and</strong> functional
activities.
Ma<strong>in</strong>tenance <strong>and</strong> Generalization. Student 1
was able to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> all skills by ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g
comprehension of all three books. Ma<strong>in</strong>tenance
data were collected about two weeks to
a month after the end of <strong>in</strong>tervention for each
book. Ma<strong>in</strong>tenance data were not collected
for student 2. Student 1 generalized the comprehension
responses across sett<strong>in</strong>gs (i.e., separate
literacy room, classroom). Student 1 was
not able to generalize the skill to a third sett<strong>in</strong>g
(i.e., cafeteria), as he became extremely
distracted by this environment. In addition to
generalization across sett<strong>in</strong>gs, student 1 was
able to correctly answer 7 out of 10 questions
asked dur<strong>in</strong>g story 3 (i.e., I Missed You Every
Day by Simms Tabak) read by a peer. Generalization
data across sett<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>and</strong> people as
well as ma<strong>in</strong>tenance were not collected for
Student 2 due to time constra<strong>in</strong>ts with the
school year end<strong>in</strong>g.
Discussion
Student 1 was able to show <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>in</strong> comprehension
across all three books. In addition,
the <strong>in</strong>tervention was replicated with another
student <strong>and</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed across time. Student 2
was also able to show <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>in</strong> comprehension
across all three books. These outcomes
add to the literature that shared stories promote
comprehension skills for young children
(Bus, van Ijzendoorn, & Pelligr<strong>in</strong>i, 1995;
Coyne et al., 2004; Justice & Kaderavek, 2003;
Senechal, Thomas, & Monker, 1995; Vacca et
al., 2006), <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g those with visual impairments
(Erickson & Hatton, 2007). Shared stories
also have been used <strong>in</strong> a few studies with
students with severe <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities
(Browder et al., 2007; Browder, Mims, et al.,
<strong>in</strong> press; Skotko et al., 2004). The unique
contribution of the current study was to demonstrate
how us<strong>in</strong>g objects that were noun
referents could be used to promote comprehension
responses dur<strong>in</strong>g shared stories. By
418 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
attach<strong>in</strong>g the object to the page, the student
ga<strong>in</strong>ed underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g that the page of the
book itself conta<strong>in</strong>ed the <strong>in</strong>formation. The
student then used the same object as a means
to communicate underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g of a comprehension
question.
The focus on listen<strong>in</strong>g comprehension also
makes an important contribution to the grow<strong>in</strong>g
research on us<strong>in</strong>g shared stories with students
with <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities. For example,
<strong>in</strong> Browder et al. (2007) <strong>and</strong> Browder,
Mims, et al. (<strong>in</strong> press) comprehension was
only one component of a series of responses
to engage with the text. In these prior studies,
the dependent variable was a task analysis of
participat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a read aloud (e.g., turn<strong>in</strong>g
pages, repeat<strong>in</strong>g a story l<strong>in</strong>e). In contrast, the
current study focused only on the comprehension
responses <strong>and</strong> thus provided a stronger
demonstration that students were ga<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g
mean<strong>in</strong>g from the read aloud. The <strong>in</strong>struction
also <strong>in</strong>cluded more opportunities (10) to
make comprehension responses. In fact, the
student answered a comprehension question
after the read<strong>in</strong>g of each page.
Besides us<strong>in</strong>g objects as referents <strong>and</strong> provid<strong>in</strong>g
multiple opportunities to make comprehension
responses, a third feature of the
<strong>in</strong>tervention was the use of least-to-most
prompt<strong>in</strong>g. Although prior studies used
prompt<strong>in</strong>g (e.g., Browder et al., 2007), the
current <strong>in</strong>tervention was uniquely designed
for students with visual impairments <strong>and</strong> for
ga<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g mean<strong>in</strong>g from the object <strong>in</strong> the story.
Each level of the prompt hierarchy helped the
student return to the page to f<strong>in</strong>d the object
of reference similar to the way a sighted student
might review the text on the page to f<strong>in</strong>d
the answer. By the end of the first book, the
students were beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g to grasp how to locate
the answer. For example, Student 1 was
much more likely <strong>in</strong>itiate a response <strong>in</strong> the
second <strong>and</strong> third books because of the familiarity
of the structured rout<strong>in</strong>e of objects embedded
<strong>in</strong> the book <strong>and</strong> the same object be<strong>in</strong>g
used <strong>in</strong> the response options for the comprehension
question.
Another consideration is the context for
<strong>in</strong>struction. Student 1 responded well to a
peer read aloud after becom<strong>in</strong>g familiar with
the third book. What is unknown is whether
the student would have acquired the responses
with peer tutor<strong>in</strong>g. What was deter-

m<strong>in</strong>ed is that this student needed a quiet
room to focus on the book <strong>in</strong> early <strong>in</strong>struction.
In the quiet room, the student was able
to build the auditory discrim<strong>in</strong>ation needed to
hear the text read <strong>and</strong> select the correct object.
Once the student became familiar with
the book, he was able to generalize the responses
to his classroom context. In contrast,
it is unknown whether this generalization
would have occurred for a new book. For Student
2 all <strong>in</strong>struction occurred <strong>in</strong> the student’s
self-conta<strong>in</strong>ed classroom, but all sessions
were conducted dur<strong>in</strong>g a time that the
other students had “quiet time.” In plann<strong>in</strong>g
replications of this research, consideration
should be given to whether students have the
level of quiet needed to focus on the read
aloud of the text dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>itial <strong>in</strong>struction <strong>and</strong>
how to fade this back <strong>in</strong>to typical classroom
contexts.
Although results of this study were encourag<strong>in</strong>g,
some limitations should be noted. First,
the <strong>in</strong>tervention was conducted by a member
of the research team rather than the classroom
teacher due to some of the logistics of
the context (e.g., time to implement three 1:1
read alouds). Future research should consider
hav<strong>in</strong>g the special or general education
teacher serve the role of the <strong>in</strong>terventionist
which might be feasible with small group <strong>in</strong>struction.
A second limitation is that <strong>in</strong>struction
was provided <strong>in</strong> a one-to-one format.
Whether <strong>in</strong> a general education or self conta<strong>in</strong>ed
class, students often receive literacy <strong>in</strong> a
group format. In contrast, students with both
<strong>in</strong>tellectual <strong>and</strong> visual impairments may need
some 1:1 <strong>in</strong>struction dur<strong>in</strong>g early acquisition
of skills for listen<strong>in</strong>g comprehension. A question
for future research is whether the students
would be able to acquire these responses
<strong>in</strong> a small group format if the context
were quiet. For example, the student might
participate <strong>in</strong> a mixed ability group <strong>in</strong> a general
education class. Prior research (Kliewer &
L<strong>and</strong>is, 1999; Ryndak, Morrison, & Sommerste<strong>in</strong>,
1999) suggests that <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g students
who are nondisabled <strong>in</strong> small group literacy
experiences can be beneficial. In a mixed ability
group, the students would use response
options appropriate for them (e.g., objects to
represent the answers, say<strong>in</strong>g answers aloud,
writ<strong>in</strong>g responses, etc.).
In apply<strong>in</strong>g this <strong>in</strong>tervention to practice, the
first step would be to identify literature appropriate
to the student’s age, grade, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>terests.
Consultation with a media specialist, general
education teachers or same age peers may
help identify books that have the appeal
needed for early literacy <strong>in</strong>struction. As
needed, these books can be modified as described
<strong>in</strong> Table 2, or the team may be able to
use computer software with digitalized text for
ease of access. Next, the <strong>in</strong>structor determ<strong>in</strong>es
the comprehension questions to ask dur<strong>in</strong>g
the shared story. In the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g, these may
be simple recall questions. Future applications
should target higher level comprehension
questions (e.g., sequenc<strong>in</strong>g, cause <strong>and</strong> effect).
Third, the <strong>in</strong>structor determ<strong>in</strong>es the prompt
hierarchy <strong>and</strong> wait time to use dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>struction.
Each level of prompt should return the
student to the page of the book to locate the
correct answer. In addition, an error correction
procedure <strong>and</strong> re<strong>in</strong>forcement procedures
should be determ<strong>in</strong>ed before <strong>in</strong>struction
beg<strong>in</strong>s. F<strong>in</strong>ally, <strong>in</strong>dependent correct
responses should be the targeted outcome,
but it may be helpful to monitor progress on
the prompt needed dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>struction. This
will allow the teacher to monitor that students
are us<strong>in</strong>g less prompt<strong>in</strong>g over time.
In conclusion, this study adds to the grow<strong>in</strong>g
research on us<strong>in</strong>g shared stories to promote
literacy skills for students with significant
<strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities. Students with
significant <strong>in</strong>tellectual disabilities <strong>and</strong> visual
impairments are underrepresented <strong>in</strong> the research
on literacy <strong>in</strong>struction. This is one of
the first demonstrations of the use of shared
stories <strong>and</strong> comprehension with this population.
While more research is needed to build
an evidence base for the use of shared stories
with this population, this may be viewed as a
promis<strong>in</strong>g practice for <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g comprehension
for students with limited communication
<strong>in</strong> the literature of their age group.
References
Al Otaiba, S. (2004). Weav<strong>in</strong>g moral elements <strong>and</strong>
research-based read<strong>in</strong>g practices <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>clusive
classrooms us<strong>in</strong>g shared book read<strong>in</strong>g techniques.
Early Child Development <strong>and</strong> Cure, 174, 575–
589.
Browder, D. M., Gibbs, S. L., Ahlgrim-Delzell, L.,
Courtade, G., Mraz, M., & Flowers, C. (<strong>in</strong> press).
Increas<strong>in</strong>g Comprehension / 419

Literacy for students with severe developmental
disabilities—what should we teach <strong>and</strong> what
should we hope to achieve? Remedial <strong>and</strong> Special
<strong>Education</strong>.
Browder, D. M., Mims, P. J., Spooner, F., Ahlgrim-
Delzell, L., & Lee, A. (<strong>in</strong> press). Teach<strong>in</strong>g elementary
students with multiple disabilities to participate
<strong>in</strong> shared stories. Research <strong>and</strong> Practice for
Persons with Severe <strong>Disabilities</strong>.
Browder, D. M., Trela, K. C., & Jimenez, B. A.
(2007). <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> teachers to follow a task analysis
to engage middle school students with moderate
<strong>and</strong> severe developmental disabilities <strong>in</strong> gradeappropriate
literature. Focus on Autism <strong>and</strong> Other
<strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>, 22, 206–219.
Browder, D. M., Wakeman, S. Y., Spooner, F., Ahlgrim-Delzell,
L., Algozz<strong>in</strong>e, B. (2006). Research
on read<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>struction for <strong>in</strong>dividuals with significant
cognitive disabilities. Exceptional Children, 72,
392–408.
Bus, A. G., van Ijzendoorn, M. H., & Pelligr<strong>in</strong>i, A. D.
(1995). Jo<strong>in</strong>t book read<strong>in</strong>g makes for success <strong>in</strong>
learn<strong>in</strong>g to read: A meta-analysis on <strong>in</strong>tergenerational
transmission of literacy. Review of <strong>Education</strong>al
Research, 65, 1–21.
Coll<strong>in</strong>s, B. (2007). Identify<strong>in</strong>g functional <strong>and</strong> ageappropriate
skills: A curriculum for students with
moderate <strong>and</strong> severe disabilities. In B. C. Coll<strong>in</strong>s
(Eds.), Moderate <strong>and</strong> severe disabilities: A foundational
approach (p. 108). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson/Merrill/Prentice Hall.
Corn, A. L., Koenig, A. J. (2002). Literacy for students
with low vision: A framework for deliver<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>in</strong>struction. Journal of Visual Impairment <strong>and</strong> Bl<strong>in</strong>dness,
96, 305–321.
Coyne, M. D., Simmons, D. C., Kame’enui, E. J., &
Stoolmiller, M. (2004). Teach<strong>in</strong>g vocabulary dur<strong>in</strong>g
shared storybook read<strong>in</strong>gs: An exam<strong>in</strong>ation of
differential effects. Exceptionality, 12, 145–162.
Crowe, L. K., Norris, J. A., & Hoffman, P. R. (2004).
<strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> caregivers to facilitate communication
participation of preschool children with language
impairment dur<strong>in</strong>g storybook read<strong>in</strong>g. Journal of
Communication Disorders, 37, 177–196.
Doyle, P. M., Wolery, M., Ault, M. J., & Gast, D. L.
(1988). System of least prompts: A literature review
of procedural parameters. The Journal of the
Association for Persons with Severe H<strong>and</strong>icaps, 13,
28–40.
Dur<strong>and</strong>o, J. (2008). A survey on literacy <strong>in</strong>struction
for students with multiple disabilities. Journal of
Visual Impairments & Bl<strong>in</strong>dness, 102, 40–45.
Erickson, K. A., & Hatton, D. (2007). Exp<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g
underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g of emergent literacy: Empirical
420 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
support for a new framework. Journal of Visual
Impairment & Bl<strong>in</strong>dness, 101, 261–277.
Justice, L. M., & Kaderavek, J. (2002). Us<strong>in</strong>g shared
storybook read<strong>in</strong>g to promote emergent literacy.
TEACHING Exceptional Children, 34(4), 8–13.
Justice, L. M., & Kaderavek, J. (2003). Topic control
dur<strong>in</strong>g shared storybook read<strong>in</strong>g: Mothers <strong>and</strong>
their children with language impairments. Topics
<strong>in</strong> Early Childhood Special <strong>Education</strong>, 23, 137–140.
Justice, L. M., Kaderavek, J., Bowles, R., & Grimm, K.
(2005). Language impairment, parent-child
shared read<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> phonological awareness: A
feasibility study. Topics <strong>in</strong> Early Childhood Special
<strong>Education</strong>, 25, 143–156.
Justice, L M., & Pullen, P. C. (2003). Promis<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>in</strong>terventions for promot<strong>in</strong>g emergent literacy
skills: Three evidence-based approaches. Topics <strong>in</strong>
Early Childhood Special <strong>Education</strong>, 23, 99–113.
Kliewer, C., & L<strong>and</strong>is, D. (1999). Individualiz<strong>in</strong>g
literacy <strong>in</strong>struction for young children with moderate
to severe disabilities. Exceptional Children, 66,
85–100.
Park, K. (2004). Interactive storytell<strong>in</strong>g: From the
book of genesis. British Journal of Special <strong>Education</strong>,
31, 16–23.
Ryndak, D. L., Morrison, A. P., & Sommerste<strong>in</strong>, L.
(1999). Literacy before <strong>and</strong> after <strong>in</strong>clusion <strong>in</strong> general
education sett<strong>in</strong>gs: A case study. The Journal of
the Association for Persons with Severe H<strong>and</strong>icaps, 24,
5–22.
Senechal, M., Thomas, E., & Monker, J. A. (1995).
Individual differences <strong>in</strong> vocabulary acquisition.
Journal of <strong>Education</strong>al Psychology, 87, 218–229.
Skotko, B. G., Koppenhaver, D. A., & Erickson, K. A.
(2004). Parent read<strong>in</strong>g behaviors <strong>and</strong> communication
outcomes <strong>in</strong> girls with Rett syndrome. Exceptional
Children, 70, 145–166.
Tawney, J. W., & Gast, D. L. (1984). S<strong>in</strong>gle subject
research <strong>in</strong> special education. Columbus, OH: Merrill.
Vacca, J., Vacca, R., Grove, M., Burkey, L., Lenhart,
L., & McKeon, C. (2006). Read<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g to
read (6 th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
van Kleeck, A. (2006). A matter of emphasis: Different
ways to share books <strong>and</strong> stories to foster different
language <strong>and</strong> literacy skills. In. A. van
Kleeck (Eds.), Shar<strong>in</strong>g books <strong>and</strong> stories to promote
language <strong>and</strong> literacy: A volume <strong>in</strong> the emergent <strong>and</strong>
early literacy series (pp. 3–11). San Diego, CA: Plural
Publish<strong>in</strong>g.
Westl<strong>in</strong>g, D. L., & Fox, L. (2004). Teach<strong>in</strong>g students
with severe disabilities (3 rd ed.). Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Pearson

Evaluat<strong>in</strong>g the Acceptability <strong>and</strong> Effectiveness of Family
Assessment Portfolios
Hedda Meadan, James R. Thompson, Mayumi Hagiwara, Julie Herold,
Sarah Hoekstra, <strong>and</strong> Samantha Manser
Ill<strong>in</strong>ois State University
Abstract: The Family Assessment Portfolio (FAP) is a new tool that <strong>in</strong>cludes scrapbooks, web-based profiles, <strong>and</strong>
movies that families create to <strong>in</strong>troduce their children to educators. FAP was developed to promote good
home/school communication <strong>and</strong> collaboration. Although FAPs appear to be a promis<strong>in</strong>g practice for the field
of special education, there is limited <strong>in</strong>formation about its social validity; the social importance of FAPs’ goals,
procedures, <strong>and</strong> outcomes. To evaluate the acceptability <strong>and</strong> effectiveness of the FAPs, data were collected,
through <strong>in</strong>terviews <strong>and</strong> questionnaires, from three groups of stakeholders: parents, FAP facilitators, <strong>and</strong>
educators. Participants reported that the goals of the FAPs are important for both families <strong>and</strong> educators. The
procedures for develop<strong>in</strong>g the FAP were considered to be appropriate <strong>and</strong> acceptable, <strong>and</strong> the f<strong>in</strong>al product was
evaluated as very useful <strong>and</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>gful. Participants also shared their perceived challenges related to the FAPs
<strong>and</strong> had suggestions for improvement. Implications for future research <strong>and</strong> practice are discussed.
In the field of special education there is widespread
consensus regard<strong>in</strong>g the merits of a
family-centered approach to provid<strong>in</strong>g services
<strong>and</strong> supports. Decades of research have
documented positive outcomes from family
participation <strong>in</strong> a child’s school<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> federal
special education legislation strongly encourages
parental <strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>in</strong> educational
plann<strong>in</strong>g (Turnbull, Turnbull, Erw<strong>in</strong>, &
Soodak, 2006). However, barriers to effective
family/school partnerships persist (Lake &
Bill<strong>in</strong>gsly, 2000).
A new tool, the Family Assessment Portfolio
(FAP), was developed to promote successful
home/school collaboration. FAPs <strong>in</strong>clude
scrapbooks, web-based profiles, <strong>and</strong> movies
that families create to <strong>in</strong>troduce their children
to educators. “Although FAPs are not a
panacea for all of the challenges associated
with home/school communication <strong>and</strong> collaboration,
FAPs can be used to (a) empower
The research reported here was supported <strong>in</strong> part
by fund<strong>in</strong>g from The Autism Program of Ill<strong>in</strong>ois
<strong>and</strong> the Ill<strong>in</strong>ois Council on <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>.
Correspondence concern<strong>in</strong>g this article
should be addressed to Hedda Meadan, Department
of Special <strong>Education</strong>, Ill<strong>in</strong>ois State University,
MC 5910, Normal, IL 61790-5910.
<strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>, 2009, 44(3), 421–430
© <strong>Division</strong> on <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>
families by <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g them <strong>in</strong> the assessment
process; (b) enhance opportunities for families
to communicate the <strong>in</strong>formation they
most want schools to know; (c) familiarize
future educators with students (e.g., likes, dislikes,
strengths, needs, <strong>and</strong> communication
skills); <strong>and</strong> (d) <strong>in</strong>crease the likelihood that
special education services <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>terventions
will truly address a child’s most important
needs” (Thompson, Meadan, Fansler, Alber,
& Balogh, 2007, p. 19).
The idea for develop<strong>in</strong>g FAPs orig<strong>in</strong>ally
came from parents <strong>in</strong> central Ill<strong>in</strong>ois who
wanted to encourage local schools to <strong>in</strong>clude
their children <strong>in</strong> general education classrooms.
They began creat<strong>in</strong>g materials (e.g.,
scrapbooks, student profiles) that provided <strong>in</strong>formation
about their children to future
teachers <strong>and</strong> adm<strong>in</strong>istrators prior to the start
of the school year. Although some of the <strong>in</strong>formation
<strong>in</strong> scrapbooks <strong>and</strong> student profiles
paralleled what one would expect to f<strong>in</strong>d <strong>in</strong>
typical assessment reports (e.g., <strong>in</strong>formation
about words known <strong>and</strong> how the child communicates,
functional descriptions of motor
abilities <strong>and</strong> challenges, <strong>and</strong> descriptions of
specialized equipment used), such <strong>in</strong>formation
was presented <strong>in</strong> an accessible, personal,
<strong>and</strong> “user friendly” format. Parents, teachers,
Family Assessment Portfolios / 421

<strong>and</strong> adm<strong>in</strong>istrators reported that these materials
promoted greater underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g of children
with disabilities <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased the
school’s commitment to <strong>in</strong>clude the children
<strong>in</strong> general education classrooms. With the <strong>in</strong>volvement
of faculty <strong>and</strong> students from local
universities, FAPs were further developed to
<strong>in</strong>clude a DVD/movie <strong>and</strong> a webpage. Guidel<strong>in</strong>es
for what <strong>in</strong>formation to <strong>in</strong>clude <strong>and</strong> how
to create multimedia materials were published
(Thompson et al., 2007). S<strong>in</strong>ce the portfolios
were mak<strong>in</strong>g an important contribution to the
assessment <strong>and</strong> decision mak<strong>in</strong>g efforts of
IFSP/IEP teams, the term Family Assessment
Portfolio (FAP) was co<strong>in</strong>ed.
Although FAPs appear to be a promis<strong>in</strong>g
practice for the field of special education, to
date, only a few FAPs have been developed
<strong>and</strong> used, <strong>and</strong> only anecdotal reports support
their effectiveness <strong>and</strong> acceptability by parents
<strong>and</strong> teachers. Systematically evaluat<strong>in</strong>g FAPs is
needed. Such an evaluation will not only provide
more objective evidence regard<strong>in</strong>g their
usefulness, but also could help improve their
effectiveness <strong>and</strong> contribute to wider dissem<strong>in</strong>ation.
Traditionally, researchers <strong>and</strong> practitioners
have evaluated practices <strong>in</strong> terms of outcomes.
They were primarily <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> assess<strong>in</strong>g
whether the practice produced significant effects.
However, these evaluations did not necessarily
afford <strong>in</strong>sights about the social importance
of the practices. Wolf (1978) argued that
society needs to validate the practices used
<strong>and</strong> he referred to it as “judgment of social
validity” (p. 207). Wolf suggested three levels
of social validity: (a) the social significance of
the goals, the importance of the goals for
society; (b) the social appropriateness of the
procedure, the acceptability of the practice by
the consumers; <strong>and</strong> (c) the social importance
of the effects <strong>and</strong> satisfaction with the results
of the practice.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate
the acceptability <strong>and</strong> effectiveness of the FAPs.
The research questions that guided the <strong>in</strong>vestigation
addressed the three levels of social
validity of the FAPs: (a) are FAPs important
<strong>and</strong> needed <strong>in</strong> the field of special education;
(b) is the process of develop<strong>in</strong>g the FAPs acceptable
<strong>and</strong> appropriate; <strong>and</strong> (c) are the effects
of the FAPs important <strong>and</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>gful.
Assessment of social validity is important be-
cause if practices are judged to be acceptable,
they are more likely to be <strong>in</strong>itiated. Practices
that show good outcomes <strong>and</strong> have positive
social validity measures are more likely be dissem<strong>in</strong>ated
<strong>and</strong> adopted by others (W<strong>in</strong>ett,
Moore, & Anderson, 1991).
Method
Participants <strong>and</strong> Data Collection
422 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
To evaluate the acceptability <strong>and</strong> effectiveness
of the FAPs, data were collected from three
groups of stakeholders: (a) parents who participated
<strong>in</strong> the project <strong>and</strong> created FAPs for
their children; (b) FAP facilitators, the practic<strong>in</strong>g
professionals (teachers <strong>and</strong> social workers)
<strong>and</strong> university students who provided
technical assistance <strong>and</strong> support to parents as
they were develop<strong>in</strong>g the FAPs; <strong>and</strong> (c) preservice
teachers <strong>and</strong> experienced educators who
served as a proxy for educators who receive
FAPs from parents. Consents for participation
were obta<strong>in</strong>ed prior to data collection from all
participants.
Parents. N<strong>in</strong>e families who created FAPs
for their children participated <strong>in</strong> this study. In
total, there were 10 parents (9 mothers <strong>and</strong> 1
father) that provided <strong>in</strong>formation to the researchers.
Overall, data from parents <strong>in</strong>clude
<strong>in</strong>formation related to eleven FAPs that were
developed, as two of the families had two children
with disabilities <strong>and</strong> therefore developed
two FAPs (one for each child). Data were collected
from the mother of each child, with the
exception of one case where both mother <strong>and</strong>
father provided <strong>in</strong>formation. All of the families
spoke English as the primary language at
home. However, for one family the parent’s
native language was H<strong>in</strong>di. Additional <strong>in</strong>formation
about the parents participat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> this
study <strong>and</strong> their children is provided <strong>in</strong> Table
1.
Parents were asked to complete a questionnaire
<strong>and</strong> participate <strong>in</strong> a face to face or a
phone <strong>in</strong>terview with the first author. The
items on the questionnaire are shown <strong>in</strong> Table
2, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>cluded 26 statements. Parents identified
their level of agreement with each statement
on a Likert scale from 1 (disagree) to 5
(agree). Twenty statements were worded positively
<strong>and</strong> 6 statements were worded negatively.
It is important to <strong>in</strong>clude both positively

TABLE 1
Characteristics of children <strong>and</strong> families
Variable n
Gender of children
Male 8
Female 3
Age of children at time FAP was completed
35 months or less 3
36 to 47 months 1
48 to 59 months 2
60 to 70 months 5
Disability Characteristics of children (parent
report)
<strong>Developmental</strong> delay 4
Autism Spectrum Disorder 7
Down syndrome 3
Low vision/Bl<strong>in</strong>dness 1
Physical disability: arm/h<strong>and</strong> limitations 1
Physical disability: mobility limitations 1
Epilepsy 3
Ethnicity of family
Euro-American 7
African-American 1
Other 1
<strong>and</strong> negatively worded items on a questionnaire
to control for response sets <strong>in</strong> respondents.
If every item on a questionnaire is
worded either positively or negatively, there is
a greater chance that respondents will not
thoughtfully read <strong>and</strong> answer each item
(Yamaguchi, 1997).
Parent <strong>in</strong>terviews lasted between 30–40
m<strong>in</strong>utes <strong>and</strong> were conducted at a convenient
time for the parents. The parents were asked
about their perceptions related to the importance/acceptability
of FAP goals, procedures,
<strong>and</strong> outcomes. All <strong>in</strong>terviews were recorded
<strong>and</strong> transcribed. Eight of the 10 families that
participated had parents who completed both
the questionnaire <strong>and</strong> an <strong>in</strong>terview. There was
one family where the parent only completed
the questionnaire <strong>and</strong> another family where
only the <strong>in</strong>terview was completed.
FAP facilitators. FAP facilitators were four
professionals (teachers <strong>and</strong> case managers)
<strong>and</strong> four university students (one graduate
student <strong>and</strong> 3 undergraduate students), who
worked with the parents to develop FAPs. The
professionals worked <strong>in</strong> either early childhood
special education (3-5) or early <strong>in</strong>tervention
(0-2) programs <strong>and</strong> were certified special education
teachers or licensed social workers.
Their professional work experience ranged
from 3 years to 12 years. The undergraduate
university students were prepar<strong>in</strong>g to be special
education teachers while the graduate student
had already completed a special education
teacher preparation program <strong>and</strong> was
pursu<strong>in</strong>g a master’s degree <strong>in</strong> special education.
All of the facilitators were female <strong>and</strong>
received tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g from a university professor
(the second author) on how to support parents
to create FAPs. The facilitators provided
“h<strong>and</strong>s-on” assistance to help the parents create
the three components of the FAP (i.e.,
scrapbook, movie, <strong>and</strong> web page). Although
some parents were more <strong>in</strong>volved than others
<strong>in</strong> the technical aspects of creat<strong>in</strong>g the materials,
<strong>in</strong> all the cases the facilitators provided
significant technical assistance to the parents.
FAP facilitators participated <strong>in</strong> this study by
complet<strong>in</strong>g an onl<strong>in</strong>e anonymous questionnaire.
Similar to the parents, the FAP facilitators
were asked about their perceptions related
to FAPs (i.e., goals, procedures, <strong>and</strong>
outcomes). Questionnaire items required Likert
scale responses to five statements as well as
short answer responses to 11 open-ended
questions.
Pre-service <strong>and</strong> experienced teachers. Because
it was not feasible to recruit educators who
had actually received FAPs from parents, 43
pre-service teachers (38 females <strong>and</strong> 5 males)
<strong>and</strong> 23 experienced teachers were recruited to
participate <strong>in</strong> the study. The pre-service teachers
were students attend<strong>in</strong>g a large university
<strong>in</strong> the midwestern region of the United States.
Twenty-eight of them were enrolled <strong>in</strong> a special
education teacher preparation program
<strong>and</strong> 15 were enrolled <strong>in</strong> an early childhood
teacher preparation program. These pre-service
teachers were predom<strong>in</strong>ately “traditional”
college age students, with only 4% older than
25 years of age. Eighty five percent of the
pre-service teachers identified themselves as
European-American, 8% as African-American,
<strong>and</strong> the rest as Other.
The pre-service teachers were enrolled <strong>in</strong>
two undergraduate education courses focus<strong>in</strong>g
on teach<strong>in</strong>g methods for children with
disabilities. The second author, who was not
the course <strong>in</strong>structor, provided a 5-m<strong>in</strong>ute
overview of FAPs <strong>and</strong> the purpose of the study,
Family Assessment Portfolios / 423

TABLE 2
Mean rat<strong>in</strong>gs on 5-po<strong>in</strong>t Likert scale (1 low, 5 high) reflect<strong>in</strong>g the extent of agreement with positively
worded items
<strong>and</strong> assured potential participants that it was
their choice on whether or not to participate
(all chose to participate). A movie from a FAP
was shown to each class section <strong>and</strong> the same
child’s web page was presented through an
LCD projector (i.e., <strong>in</strong>formation from the web
page was highlighted <strong>and</strong> hyperl<strong>in</strong>ks were
demonstrated). Scrapbooks from multiple
children were distributed among the participants
for their review. After the movie was
Item Parents
Pre-service
Teachers
Practic<strong>in</strong>g
Teachers
The FAP is an important tool for families of children with
disabilities.
5.00 4.33 4.61
The FAP is needed <strong>in</strong> the field of special education. 4.88 4.60 4.65
The FAP empowers family members by <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g them <strong>in</strong> the
assessment process of their child.
4.75 4.50 4.83
The FAP helps families to communicate <strong>in</strong>formation they
want schools to know about their child.
5.00 4.91 4.78
The FAP helps a child’s future teachers to underst<strong>and</strong> the
child better.
5.00 4.93 4.95
The FAP enhances positive home-school communication. 4.38 4.86 4.87
The process of creat<strong>in</strong>g the FAP is time consum<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong>
requires a lot of effort.
2.75 3.53 3.91
It is important that parents participate <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g FAPs
with school or agency professionals.
4.00 4.42 4.83
To develop a good FAP, parents need assistance from
someone who has good technology skills
4.25 3.77 3.91
To develop a good FAP, parents need assistance from
someone who underst<strong>and</strong>s the types of <strong>in</strong>formation that
should be <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> FAPs.
4.25 4.28 4.43
The scrapbook is an important part of the FAP. 4.88 4.61 4.30
The movie (DVD) is an important part of the FAP. 5.00 4.42 4.22
The Webpage is an important part of the FAP. 3.62 3.72 3.78
I am satisfied with the f<strong>in</strong>al product of the FAP. 5.00 4.84 4.39
The FAP enhanced the teacher’s underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g of the
family’s values, beliefs, <strong>and</strong> educational priorities.
4.13 4.58 4.57
The FAP is an effective tool that will <strong>in</strong>fluence the services
<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tervention a child will receive.
4.75 4.51 4.00
The FAP should be used by other families of children with
disabilities.
5.00 4.77 4.52
Parents can develop a good FAP with m<strong>in</strong>imal support form
professionals.*
2.50
I am satisfied with the outcomes (reactions <strong>and</strong> responses) of
teachers <strong>and</strong> others who have seen my child’s FAP.*
4.75
I was satisfied with the process of how the FAP was
developed on my child.*
4.63
* item only on parent questionnaire
424 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
shown, the web page demonstrated, <strong>and</strong> participants
had sufficient time to look over 3 to
4 scrapbooks <strong>and</strong> ask questions about FAPs,
each participant was asked to complete an
anonymous questionnaire that <strong>in</strong>cluded a demographic
section as well as 21 statements
about FAPs. The pre-service teachers identified
their level of agreement with each statement
on a Likert scale (1-disagree to 5-agree).
Data were collected from 23 experienced

educators. These educators were enrolled <strong>in</strong> a
master’s level course focus<strong>in</strong>g on teach<strong>in</strong>g
methods for children with Autism Spectrum
Disorder. All had teach<strong>in</strong>g or related service
experience <strong>in</strong> K-12 schools with the years of
experience rang<strong>in</strong>g from 1 to 31 (M 6.36
years). There were 19 females <strong>and</strong> 4 males <strong>in</strong>
this group with 82% report<strong>in</strong>g an ethnic background
of European American. Fourteen
were currently employed as special education
teachers, 2 were early childhood teachers, <strong>and</strong>
the rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 4 worked <strong>in</strong> different educational
roles (e.g., SLP, school psychologist).
Once aga<strong>in</strong>, the second author collected data
<strong>and</strong> was not the course <strong>in</strong>structor. The same
data collection procedures were used with the
experienced teachers as had been used with
the pre-service teachers. The only difference
was that the movie <strong>and</strong> web page that the
experienced teachers viewed was on a child
who was five years old (i.e., a different child
than the pre-service teachers viewed). Similar
to the pre-service teachers, the practic<strong>in</strong>g
teachers reviewed several scrapbooks <strong>and</strong> had
the opportunity to ask questions before anonymously
complet<strong>in</strong>g Likert scale rat<strong>in</strong>gs of extent
of agreement with the 21 statements related
to the social validity of FAPs.
Data Analysis
Interviews. Parents’ <strong>in</strong>terviews were audio
taped <strong>and</strong> transcribed. Two faculty members
(first <strong>and</strong> second authors) <strong>and</strong> two undergraduate
students <strong>in</strong>dependently analyzed the
transcripts of the eight <strong>in</strong>terviews. The four
researchers met to discuss their analyses, <strong>and</strong>
came to consensus regard<strong>in</strong>g themes <strong>in</strong> each
<strong>in</strong>terview. After discuss<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> summariz<strong>in</strong>g
each <strong>in</strong>dividual transcript, the researchers
came to consensus on a summary of themes
across the participants. These f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs were
organized <strong>in</strong>to three categories: (a) perceptions
related to the importance of the goals of
the FAPs, (b) perceptions related to the acceptability
of the procedures used to develop
the FAPs, <strong>and</strong> (c) perceptions related to the
outcomes <strong>and</strong> effectiveness of the FAPs.
Questionnaires. Data from questionnaires
were entered <strong>in</strong>to the Statistical Package for
the Social Sciences (SPSS 16.0 for Mac, 2007)
<strong>and</strong> descriptive statistics were generated for
each variable.
Results
Results from the data collection <strong>and</strong> data analysis
are presented accord<strong>in</strong>g to the three
groups of stakeholders (i.e., parents, FAP facilitators,
pre-service teachers, <strong>and</strong> experienced
educators) that participated <strong>in</strong> the
study.
Parents’ Perceptions
Parent <strong>in</strong>terviews. The parents who participated
<strong>in</strong> the project <strong>in</strong>dicated <strong>in</strong> their <strong>in</strong>terviews
that the FAP was an important tool for
families of children with disabilities (i.e., social
validity of the goals). Parents mentioned
that FAPs provided essential <strong>in</strong>formation
about their child (“what you see <strong>in</strong> the FAP is
what you get with my daughter”) <strong>and</strong> believed
FAPs could help educators to get to know
their child <strong>and</strong> guide them <strong>in</strong> their teach<strong>in</strong>g.
Parents believed the FAPs were useful especially
when the child transitions from one educational
sett<strong>in</strong>g to another (e.g., early <strong>in</strong>tervention
to school based services, one grade to
the next) or from work<strong>in</strong>g with one teacher/
therapist to a different one.
The parents felt that the FAPs were an important
tool for improv<strong>in</strong>g communication
<strong>and</strong> collaboration with school personnel, <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g
parents’ feel<strong>in</strong>g of empowerment
<strong>and</strong> provid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>formation about their child
that could guide teach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tervention
plans. Beyond the use of FAPs <strong>in</strong> an educational
sett<strong>in</strong>g, parents noted that FAPs were
useful <strong>in</strong> establish<strong>in</strong>g communication with
other professionals who provide services (e.g.,
therapists <strong>and</strong> physicians), family members,
<strong>and</strong> friends.
When asked about the social validity of the
procedures used to develop FAPs, parents <strong>in</strong>dicated
that creat<strong>in</strong>g FAPs required an <strong>in</strong>vestment
of time, but they felt that this time was
well spent <strong>and</strong> worthwhile because FAPs provided
them a means to make their voice
heard. It empowered them to communicate
comprehensive <strong>in</strong>formation about their child
that may have been difficult to accurately articulate
dur<strong>in</strong>g traditional <strong>in</strong>formation shar<strong>in</strong>g
opportunities such as IEP conferences.
Parents also <strong>in</strong>dicated that the process of creat<strong>in</strong>g
the FAPs was enjoyable.
Parents felt that support from professionals
Family Assessment Portfolios / 425

was very important to complet<strong>in</strong>g the FAP.
The parents <strong>in</strong>dicated the FAPs would be difficult
(if not impossible) to create without
technical assistance <strong>and</strong> support. Although
parents were not overwhelmed by the technology,
only one parent reported that she had
created an edited movie prior to the project.
Therefore, parents were <strong>in</strong> agreement that
hav<strong>in</strong>g someone who knew how to work with
the technology was critically important to creat<strong>in</strong>g
quality multimedia products.
Parents enjoyed the personal freedom to
make decisions about the content of the FAP.
Overall, they were satisfied <strong>and</strong> positive about
the procedures used to develop FAPs. However,
they did provide some constructive suggestions
for changes <strong>in</strong> the procedures. Suggestions
<strong>in</strong>cluded giv<strong>in</strong>g parents more specific
guidel<strong>in</strong>es <strong>and</strong> written <strong>in</strong>structions on what
type of <strong>in</strong>formation to <strong>in</strong>clude when record<strong>in</strong>g
video. Also, written <strong>in</strong>structions on specific
technical aspects of the process (e.g., how
to record the voice <strong>in</strong>put for the DVD) would
have been helpful. In addition, parents mentioned
the need for support when updat<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>in</strong>formation <strong>in</strong> the FAP <strong>in</strong> the future, as the
child grows <strong>and</strong> changes. With young children,
certa<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation <strong>in</strong> the FAP becomes
outdated <strong>in</strong> a relatively short period of time.
When asked about the social validity of the
outcome, parents were very positive <strong>and</strong> satisfied
with the three components of the FAP
(i.e., scrapbook, DVD, <strong>and</strong> webpage). The
book was portable <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>cluded essential <strong>in</strong>formation,
the movie was novel <strong>and</strong> showed
children as they were <strong>in</strong> their natural environments,
<strong>and</strong> the webpage was someth<strong>in</strong>g that
could be updated most easily <strong>and</strong> therefore
has the potential to provide the most current
<strong>in</strong>formation. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the parents, FAPs
provide different types of <strong>in</strong>formation than
the st<strong>and</strong>ardized assessments typically used <strong>in</strong>
special education. When FAPs are used <strong>in</strong> conjunction
with traditional assessment <strong>in</strong>formation,
a more holistic view of the child is presented.
Parents reported us<strong>in</strong>g the FAP with
IEP teams <strong>and</strong> meet<strong>in</strong>gs with new therapists or
care providers (e.g., respite workers). Parents
reported that reactions from people who
viewed FAPs have been overwhelm<strong>in</strong>g positive.
In addition, after shar<strong>in</strong>g FAPs parents
felt empowered <strong>and</strong> respected by educators
because the FAP revealed how knowledgeable
426 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
they were about their child <strong>and</strong> how <strong>in</strong>vested
they were <strong>in</strong> their child’s education. Parents
also mentioned that they have shared the
FAPs with many others outside the educational
system to communicate <strong>in</strong>formation
about their child, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g sibl<strong>in</strong>gs, extended
family members, babysitters, respite workers,
friends, other families who have children with
similar disabilities, <strong>and</strong> members of their religious
communities.
A few parents had concerns related to the
use of the FAPs. One parent mentioned that
there was not enough time to view the DVD
dur<strong>in</strong>g a meet<strong>in</strong>g with teachers <strong>and</strong> FAPs were
better shared before a meet<strong>in</strong>g as opposed to
at a meet<strong>in</strong>g. In addition, a few parents mentioned
that they are not sure if/how the teachers
utilized the <strong>in</strong>formation from the FAP to
guide their teach<strong>in</strong>g (“if the teachers don’t
use it, there is no po<strong>in</strong>t for us to do it.” “They
might use it, but I don’t know about it”).
Parents suggested hav<strong>in</strong>g a follow-up meet<strong>in</strong>g
with teachers/therapists to answer any questions
they have about their child <strong>and</strong> FAP <strong>and</strong>
to f<strong>in</strong>d out how the teachers/therapist use the
<strong>in</strong>formation.
Parent questionnaires. F<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs from parent
questionnaires (Tables 2 <strong>and</strong> 3) corroborate
the f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs from the <strong>in</strong>terviews. All parents
<strong>in</strong>dicated <strong>in</strong> the questionnaires that they
agree that the FAP is an important tool for
families of children with disabilities <strong>and</strong> that
the FAP is needed <strong>in</strong> the field of special education.
Parents also agreed that the FAPs enhance
positive home-school communication
<strong>and</strong> help communicate <strong>in</strong>formation about
their child. When asked about the procedures
used to develop the FAP, all parents <strong>in</strong>dicated
that they were satisfied with the process of
develop<strong>in</strong>g the FAPs, but two parents felt that
develop<strong>in</strong>g the FAP was time consum<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong>
required a lot of effort. Seven of the parents
felt that to develop a good FAP, parents
needed access to technical assistance.
Similar to the <strong>in</strong>terview data, all parents
<strong>in</strong>dicated <strong>in</strong> the questionnaires that they were
satisfied with the f<strong>in</strong>al product of the FAP <strong>and</strong>
felt that the FAP is an effective tool that will
<strong>in</strong>fluence the services <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tervention a child
will receive. The only outlier to this f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g
was <strong>in</strong> regard to the follow<strong>in</strong>g negatively
worded item: “It is unlikely that the FAP will
<strong>in</strong>fluence special education services <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>ter-

TABLE 3
Mean rat<strong>in</strong>gs on 5-po<strong>in</strong>t Likert scale (1 low, 5 high) reflect<strong>in</strong>g the extent of agreement with negatively
worded items
ventions that address a child’s most important
needs.” Parents overwhelm<strong>in</strong>gly agreed with
this statement, even though this f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g contradicts
data from several other items that are
concerned with the <strong>in</strong>fluence a FAP might
have on educators <strong>and</strong> services to the child.
In summary, <strong>in</strong> both <strong>in</strong>terviews <strong>and</strong> questionnaires,
parents <strong>in</strong>dicated that the goals of
the FAP are important for their family <strong>and</strong> for
the field of special education. The procedures
for develop<strong>in</strong>g the FAP were considered to be
appropriate <strong>and</strong> acceptable, <strong>and</strong> the f<strong>in</strong>al
product (i.e., the three components of the
FAP) was determ<strong>in</strong>ed very useful <strong>and</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>gful.
Parents had suggestions for improv<strong>in</strong>g
the procedures used for develop<strong>in</strong>g FAPs <strong>and</strong>
for us<strong>in</strong>g FAPs with future educators.
FAP Facilitator Perceptions
Item Parents
The FAP does not help teachers <strong>and</strong> professionals to
know more about the child’s family.
The FAP is not a needed tool for the field of special
education.
It is unlikely that the FAP will <strong>in</strong>fluence special
education services <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>terventions that address a
child’s most important needs.
The FAP does not help teachers <strong>and</strong> professionals to
know more about the child’s likes, dislikes, strengths,
<strong>and</strong> needs.
The FAP did not contribute to communication <strong>and</strong>
relationships between the family <strong>and</strong> the school.*
The FAP was not worth the time <strong>and</strong> trouble it took our
family to create it.*
* item only on parent questionnaire
Four professionals (i.e., teachers/case managers)
<strong>and</strong> four university students who created
FAPs with parents shared their perceptions of
the FAP through an <strong>in</strong>ternet-based questionnaire.
All eight respondents felt that creat<strong>in</strong>g
the FAP was an important <strong>and</strong> beneficial part
of a professional’s work. The respondents
mentioned that the FAP is an important tool
<strong>and</strong> could help future teachers to learn about
Pre-service
Teachers
Practic<strong>in</strong>g
Teachers
1.00 1.23 1.39
1.00 1.81 1.87
4.38 1.88 1.87
1.00 1.05 1.35
1.50
1.00
a new student, enhance positive communication
between school <strong>and</strong> home, <strong>and</strong> also help
parents share important <strong>in</strong>formation with
educators, therapists, family members, <strong>and</strong>
friends.
When asked about the procedures used to
develop FAPs, the responders mentioned that
the development of all components, especially
the DVD movie required considerable time
<strong>and</strong> effort. Much of the time <strong>and</strong> effort that
was <strong>in</strong>itially required was spent on learn<strong>in</strong>g
how to create the materials (e.g., prepare
scrapbooks for publication by an onl<strong>in</strong>e publisher,
edit the movies us<strong>in</strong>g consumer level
movie mak<strong>in</strong>g software, create web pages).
Neither the university students nor the professionals
came to the project with advanced
knowledge on how to create multimedia materials.
Because of the learn<strong>in</strong>g curve <strong>in</strong>volved
<strong>in</strong> creat<strong>in</strong>g the products, the respondents reported
the creation of the first FAP took much
more time than subsequent FAPs. As one respondent
said, “mak<strong>in</strong>g movies was timeconsum<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>and</strong> required a lot of effort <strong>and</strong>
multimedia skills. The first time is always challeng<strong>in</strong>g,
but by the second time I got used to
it.”
The FAP facilitators provided a few suggestions
for improv<strong>in</strong>g the process of develop<strong>in</strong>g
Family Assessment Portfolios / 427

FAPs. They suggested develop<strong>in</strong>g clearer
guidel<strong>in</strong>es for the parents related to what <strong>in</strong>formation
to <strong>in</strong>clude. In addition, they suggested
that giv<strong>in</strong>g parents specific timel<strong>in</strong>es
for completion of certa<strong>in</strong> sections was needed,
as the “open timel<strong>in</strong>e” encouraged procrast<strong>in</strong>ation.
One respondent mentioned that the
parents’ role was limited to provid<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>formation,
captur<strong>in</strong>g video footage, <strong>and</strong> provid<strong>in</strong>g
reactions <strong>and</strong> critiques of drafts of different
FAP components, <strong>and</strong> it would be
better if parents were more <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the
technical aspects of prepar<strong>in</strong>g FAPs.
All of the professionals <strong>and</strong> university students
who completed the facilitators’ questionnaire
reported that they ga<strong>in</strong>ed new
knowledge <strong>and</strong> skills about creat<strong>in</strong>g multimedia
products. They also stated that they could
not have created the FAPs if they were only
provided equipment <strong>and</strong> written <strong>in</strong>structions
at the start of the project. The assistance <strong>and</strong>
guidance provided by a university faculty
member (second author) <strong>and</strong> a university
technology director were helpful <strong>and</strong> essential
for develop<strong>in</strong>g FAPs. When asked if they will
be able to create new FAPs <strong>in</strong> the future without
any additional technical assistance, all but
one person said yes.
The FAP facilitators were very satisfied with
the f<strong>in</strong>al product of the FAP. Although a few
mentioned that the web-page is the least utilized
component <strong>in</strong> the FAP, they felt that all
components were important. When asked
about ideas for chang<strong>in</strong>g the f<strong>in</strong>al product,
the respondents reported the need to be able
to update the <strong>in</strong>formation <strong>in</strong> the FAP. One
person suggested giv<strong>in</strong>g parents work<strong>in</strong>g copies
(Word <strong>and</strong> iMovie files) of all the products
so they could update them when needed.
In summary, the FAP facilitators felt that
FAPs were essential for families <strong>and</strong> educators.
They reported that the process def<strong>in</strong>itely required
an <strong>in</strong>vestment of time <strong>and</strong> effort (especially
<strong>in</strong>itially). They also <strong>in</strong>dicated acquir<strong>in</strong>g
useful knowledge <strong>and</strong> skills while
develop<strong>in</strong>g the FAPs, both <strong>in</strong> terms of technology
<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> terms of underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g a child.
They felt that the experience of develop<strong>in</strong>g at
least one FAP with technical assistance <strong>and</strong>
guidance prepared them to <strong>in</strong>dependently develop
new FAPs <strong>in</strong> the future.
428 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
Pre-Service <strong>and</strong> Experienced Teachers’ Perceptions
To ga<strong>in</strong> a perspective on how “receiv<strong>in</strong>g teachers”
might view FAPs, 43 pre-service teachers
were surveyed along with 23 experienced educators.
Although it would have been ideal to
collect data from educators who actually received
FAPs from parents, there is no reason
to believe that the pre-service <strong>and</strong> experienced
educators who provided completed
questionnaires for this project are significantly
different than educators who are currently
work<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> K-12 schools.
It is important to mention that the preservice
<strong>and</strong> experienced educators completed
the same questionnaire as parents, except for
5 items that were only on the parent survey.
However, several items were worded slightly
different on the two surveys to assure that
parents were provid<strong>in</strong>g their impressions as
“FAP senders” who had actually experienced
shar<strong>in</strong>g a FAP <strong>and</strong> educators were provid<strong>in</strong>g
their impressions as “FAP receivers” who were
be<strong>in</strong>g asked to envision receiv<strong>in</strong>g a FAP on a
new student. For example, on the parent questionnaire
an item read “The FAP enhances
positive home-school communication”. The
parallel item on the educator questionnaire
read, “The FAP could enhance home-school
communication”. In another example, a negatively
worded item on the parent questionnaire
read, “The FAP does not help educators
to know more about the child’s likes, dislikes,
strengths, <strong>and</strong> needs” whereas the item on
educator questionnaire was “The FAP did not
help me to know more about the child’s likes,
dislikes, strengths, <strong>and</strong> needs”. The f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs
from the pre-service <strong>and</strong> experienced educator
questionnaires are shown <strong>in</strong> Tables 2 <strong>and</strong>
3. However, for ease of comparison <strong>and</strong> to
conserve pr<strong>in</strong>t space, only the word<strong>in</strong>g from
the parent questionnaire was shown.
Data on Tables 2 <strong>and</strong> 3 reveal that educators
had the same positive impressions toward
FAPs as parents. After review<strong>in</strong>g the three
components of the FAP, the majority of the
educators agreed that the FAP is an important
tool for families that could enhance positive
home-school communication <strong>and</strong> is needed
<strong>in</strong> the field of special education. Although the
number of parents respond<strong>in</strong>g to the survey
was small, it is <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g that educators were
just as likely as the parents to believe that FAPs

could help a teacher better underst<strong>and</strong> a child
<strong>and</strong> were slightly more likely than parents to
believe that FAPs could help teachers better
underst<strong>and</strong> a family’s values, beliefs, <strong>and</strong> educational
priorities. Although the sample size
of the parent group does not enable us<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>in</strong>ferential statistics to compare mean scores
between educators <strong>and</strong> parents, a cursory exam<strong>in</strong>ation
of the f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> Tables 2 <strong>and</strong> 3
show that parents <strong>and</strong> educators were quite
similar <strong>in</strong> their Likert scale rat<strong>in</strong>gs. In summary,
the two groups of educators felt that
FAPs were a viable tool.
There were sections on the survey that allowed
educators to ask questions <strong>and</strong> provide
additional comments. It is noteworthy that
many educators felt that FAPs could be beneficial
for families with whom they currently
work or may someday work, <strong>and</strong> they requested
additional <strong>in</strong>formation about FAPs so
they could consider us<strong>in</strong>g FAPs <strong>in</strong> the future.
Although the responses from the participants
were very positive overall, a few had constructive
suggestions for improv<strong>in</strong>g the development
of <strong>and</strong> the use of FAPs <strong>in</strong> the future. For
example, one respondent felt that relatively
too much <strong>in</strong>formation was provided on current
skill level (i.e., th<strong>in</strong>gs the child could do)
<strong>and</strong> relatively too little <strong>in</strong>formation was provided
on educational priorities of the family.
Also, educators were a bit wary of the time
commitment required to create the materials.
Discussion
Data from this evaluation study supported the
social validity of FAPs. The goals, procedures
<strong>and</strong> outcomes of FAPs were reported by different
stakeholders (i.e., parents, facilitators,
<strong>and</strong> educators) to be socially important. FAPs
can be considered to be a promis<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong>novative
“best practice” <strong>in</strong> the fields of special education
<strong>and</strong> developmental disabilities that
early <strong>in</strong>tervention, early childhood special education,
<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>clusive education programs
should be encouraged to try to implement.
There are two limitations to this research
study that are important to acknowledge.
First, only a limited number of FAPs have
been created <strong>and</strong> therefore the population of
parents <strong>and</strong> FAP facilitators was small. It will
be important to document the experiences
<strong>and</strong> impressions of additional family members
<strong>and</strong> FAP facilitators to determ<strong>in</strong>e the robustness
of f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs reported <strong>in</strong> this study.
A second potential limitation is the possibility
that because the project orig<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>in</strong> a
university sett<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong>volved work<strong>in</strong>g with relatively
novel multimedia software <strong>and</strong> materials,
<strong>and</strong> provided parents as well as FAP facilitators
some special opportunities, the parents
<strong>and</strong> FAP facilitators may have been predisposed
to evaluate the project positively. The
university researchers <strong>in</strong>vested a considerable
amount of time <strong>and</strong> effort with those <strong>in</strong>volved
<strong>in</strong> the project, <strong>and</strong> despite requests for honest
op<strong>in</strong>ions, people may have had reservations
about provid<strong>in</strong>g anyth<strong>in</strong>g other than positive
appraisals. Although provid<strong>in</strong>g socially desirable
responses could be an alternative explanation
for the f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs from the FAP facilitators
<strong>and</strong> the parents, it is less likely that the
pre-service <strong>and</strong> experienced educators would
have been <strong>in</strong>cl<strong>in</strong>ed to provide anyth<strong>in</strong>g less
than their frank op<strong>in</strong>ions. However, it is not
<strong>in</strong>conceivable that even some of these respondents
would be predisposed to be supportive
of a project that faculty members from their
university had <strong>in</strong>itiated. To offset these potential
confound<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>fluences, <strong>in</strong>dividuals who
have no connection to those <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> creat<strong>in</strong>g
the materials should conduct future
studies.
There are important implications for both
research <strong>and</strong> practice from this study. Further
research on the potential benefits as well as
implementation challenges is needed. One
important f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g from this study is how capable
the FAP facilitators became with the
technological applications <strong>in</strong> a relatively short
time. Although they reported <strong>in</strong>vest<strong>in</strong>g considerable
time <strong>and</strong> effort <strong>in</strong>to mak<strong>in</strong>g the materials,
when asked if they will be able to create
new FAPs <strong>in</strong> the future without any additional
technical assistance all but one person said
yes. Based on the experiences of this project,
it appears that educators can acquire competencies
needed to develop high quality multimedia
products if provided access to equipment
<strong>and</strong> “h<strong>and</strong>s-on” tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g.
One FAP facilitator’s comment was especially
important <strong>in</strong> terms of the feasibility of
implement<strong>in</strong>g FAPs on a large-scale basis. Although
this respondent was pleased that she
had learned useful new technology skills, felt
that “it was wonderful how the staff <strong>and</strong> fam-
Family Assessment Portfolios / 429

ilies worked together”, <strong>and</strong> commented that
“the end result was fabulous,” she also believed
that it “would be very difficult for teachers
to complete [FAPs] with numerous children.”
All of the FAPs <strong>in</strong> this project were
created on an <strong>in</strong>dividual basis with professionals
work<strong>in</strong>g directly with families. Future implementation
should explore creat<strong>in</strong>g FAPs <strong>in</strong>
a group sett<strong>in</strong>g, with facilitators work<strong>in</strong>g with
several parents at the same time <strong>in</strong> a systematic
manner. Perhaps parents could be recruited
to attend 3 to 4 workshop sessions <strong>in</strong> a
computer lab over the course of a semester,
with specific <strong>in</strong>structions to come to each session
with certa<strong>in</strong> materials (e.g., photos, video
footage) already gathered. FAP components
could be created dur<strong>in</strong>g these sessions <strong>in</strong> a
sequential manner, with the goal of creat<strong>in</strong>g
numerous FAPs with families without overwhelm<strong>in</strong>g
facilitators <strong>in</strong> terms of time <strong>and</strong>
effort.
The f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs from this study clearly reveal
that parents <strong>and</strong> educators perceived FAPs to
be very useful for the purpose of communicat<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>in</strong>formation about a child. As Berry <strong>and</strong>
Hardman (1998) po<strong>in</strong>t out, “the parents’ role
is to provide <strong>in</strong>formation about their son or
daughter, <strong>and</strong> the first role of the professional
is to solicit this <strong>in</strong>formation <strong>and</strong> to listen carefully
<strong>and</strong> empathetically when it is presented”
(p. 125). Based on f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs from this study, it
430 / <strong>Education</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Developmental</strong> <strong>Disabilities</strong>-September 2009
is evident that FAPs can assist with this important
first step of <strong>in</strong>formation exchange.
References
Berry, J. O., & Hardman, M. L. (1998). Lifespan
Perspectives on the Family <strong>and</strong> Disability. Boston: Allyn
& Bacon.
Lake, J. F., & Bill<strong>in</strong>gsly, B. S. (2000). An analysis of
factors that contribute to parent-school conflict
<strong>in</strong> special education. Remedial <strong>and</strong> Special <strong>Education</strong>,
21, 240–251.
Thompson, J. R., Meadan, H., Fansler, K. W., Alber,
S., & Balogh, P. (2007). Family assessment portfolios:
A new way to jumpstart family/school collaboration.
TEACHING Exceptional Children, 39(6),
19–25.
Turnbull, A., Turnbull, R., Erw<strong>in</strong>, E. J., & Soodak,
L. C. (2006). Families, professionals, <strong>and</strong> exceptionality
(5 th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice
Hall.
W<strong>in</strong>ett, R. A., Moore, J. F., & Anderson, E. S. (1991).
Extend<strong>in</strong>g the concept of social validity: Behavior
analysis for disease prevention <strong>and</strong> health promotion.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24, 215–
230.
Wolf, M. (1978). Social validity: The case for subjective
measurement or how applied behavior analysis
is f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g its heart. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 11, 203–214.
Yamaguchi J. (1997) Positive vs. negative word<strong>in</strong>g.
Rasch Measurement Transactions, 11. 567. Retrieved
on November 29, 2008 from http://www.rasch.
org/rmt/rmt112h.htm