A Water and Sanitation Needs Assessment for Kumasi, Ghana

MCI SOCIAL SECTOR WORKING PAPER SERIES 

N 16/2010 

A WATER AND SANITATION NEEDS ASSESSMENT FOR KUMASI, GHANA 

Prepared by: 

Moumié Maoulidi 

September 2010 

432 Park Avenue South, 13th Floor, New York, NY, 10016, United States 

Phone: +1-646-884-7422/7418; Fax: +1-212-548-5720 

Website: http://mci.ei.columbia.edu

NB: This needs assessment was compiled by MCI Social Sector Research Manager Dr. Moumié 

Maoulidi, based on research conducted by Dr. Maoulidi, MCI Project Manager for Ghana 

Abenaa Akuamoa-Boateng and MCI Researcher Andrea Castro. It was edited by MCI Co- 

Director Dr. Susan Blaustein with editorial support from MCI intern Devon McLorg. 

. 

2

Figure 1. Map of Ghana Showing Kumasi 

Source: UN-HABITAT (2009) 

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

The Millennium Cities Initiative would like to thank the following individuals and institutions for their 

invaluable assistance: 

Ms. Abenaa Akuamoa-Boateng, MCI Ghana Project Manager 

Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly (KMA) 

The Honorable Mayor and CEO of the KMA, Mr. Samuel Sarpong 

Mr. Edward Afari Gyem, Metropolitan Coordinating Director 

Mr. Justice Kingsley-Offori, Head, Finance and Budget 

Mr. Samuel Brobbey, Principal Accountant 

Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL) 

Mr. Stevens Ndebugri, Director 

Mr. Quacoe William, GWCL Statistician 

Mr. Samuel M. Gikunoo, Regional GIS Officer 

Ms. Gloria Ofori-Yeboah, GWCL GIS Office 

Mr. Maxwell Akosah-Kusi, GWCL GIS Office 

Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly Waste Management Department (WMD) 

Mr. Anthony Mensah, Director 

Ms. Augustine Agyei-Boateng, Head, Research and Development 

Mr. John Donkor, Head, Public Health and Sanitation 

Mr. Asssibey Bonsu, Statistician 

International Water Management Institute (IWMI) 

Ms. Liqa Raschid-Sally, Wastewater Specialist 

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TABLE OF CONTENTS 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................ 4 

LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................... 6 

LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ 6 

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ......................................................................................................... 7 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................................ 8 

I. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 9 

1.1. Objectives .......................................................................................................................... 10 

1.2. Methodology ...................................................................................................................... 10 

1.3. Limitations ......................................................................................................................... 10 

1.4. Demographics .................................................................................................................... 10 

II. WATER AND SANITATION IN KUMASI ........................................................................... 11 

2.1. Background ........................................................................................................................ 11 

2.2. Kumasi’s Water System ..................................................................................................... 12 

2.3. Access to Water in Kumasi ................................................................................................ 14 

2.4. Kumasi’s Sanitation System .............................................................................................. 17 

2.5. Access to Sanitation in Kumasi ......................................................................................... 22 

2.6. Hygiene Education ............................................................................................................. 22 

III. FINANCING WATER AND SANITATION IN KUMASI .................................................. 23 

3.1. Financing Water and Sanitation ......................................................................................... 23 

3.2. Water and Sanitation Projects in Kumasi .......................................................................... 23 

3.3. Costing Model .................................................................................................................... 24 

3.4. Results of the Costing Model ............................................................................................. 26 

IV. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................... 28 

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 29 

APPENDIX 1. MONTHLY WATER PRODUCTION IN 2006 & 2009 .................................... 31 

APPENDIX 2. Sanitation Budget for 2008 .................................................................................. 32 

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LIST OF TABLES 

Table 1. Kumasi City Population, by Area ................................................................................... 11 

Table 2. Storage Capacity and Condition of Water Tanks at Suame............................................ 13 

Table 3. Water Demand Forecast (m 3 /day) for Kumasi ............................................................... 14 

Table 4. Definition of Improved and Unimproved Water Sources ............................................... 15 

Table 5. Types and Numbers of Public Toilets in Kumasi Metropolis (2008) ............................. 18 

Table 6. Waste Generation in Kumasi, by Sub-Metropolitan Area, 2006-2009........................... 19 

Table 7. Composition of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) in 2009. .............................................. 20 

Table 8. Definition of Improved and Unimproved Sanitation Facilities ...................................... 22 

Table 9. Sanitation Coverage in Kumasi (2000 & 2008) .............................................................. 25 

Table 10. Select Unit Costs Used in the Costing Model............................................................... 26 

Table 12. Alternative scenario ...................................................................................................... 27 

LIST OF FIGURES 

Figure 1. Map of Ghana Showing Kumasi ..................................................................................... 3 

Figure 2. Map of Kumasi Showing Sub-Metropolitan Areas and Major Roads ............................ 9 

Figure 3. Map of Kumasi Showing Surface Water Sources and Intake Points ............................ 12 

Figure 4. Water Pipelines in Kumasi ............................................................................................ 15 

Figure 5. Metering Status in Kumasi Metropolis and Peri-urban Areas. ...................................... 16 

Figure 6. Public Sanitation Facilities Used in Kumasi ................................................................. 18 

Figure 7. Treatment Plant at Asafo and Overloaded Anaerobic Pond at Ahesan ......................... 21 

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 

AVRL Aqua Vitens Rand Limited 

DACF District Assemblies Common Fund 

EPA Environmental Protection Agency 

GOG Government of Ghana 

GWCL Ghana Water Company Limited 

IDA International Development Association 

IWMI International Water and Management Institute 

KMA Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly 

KNUST Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology 

KVIP Kumasi Ventilated Improved Pit Latrine 

MSW Municipal Solid Waste 

NGO Non-Governmental Organization 

SANDEC Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries at the Swiss Federal 

Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag) 

SSP Strategic Sanitation Plan 

UESP Urban Environmental Sanitation Project 

UNDP United Nations Development Programme 

UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund 

WB World Bank 

WHO World Health Organization 

WMD Waste Management Department 

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

Kumasi, Ghana’s second largest city, is located in south-central Ghana and is a commercial, 

industrial and cultural center with a rapidly increasing population. 1 The city is making progress 

towards Target 7C of the Millennium Development Goals, which mandates that the number of 

people without sustainable access to water and sanitation be reduced by half by 2015. However, 

while access to piped water in Kumasi has increased from 66.2 percent in 2000 to 80 percent in 

2008, and solid waste collection is improving, about 40 percent of the city’s residents still rely on 

public and shared toilets. Since public and shared toilets are not considered to be ―improved 

sanitation facilities‖ by the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP), the city today, 

with little more than four years to go, remains far from attaining the sanitation target. 2 

Water production in Kumasi has been expanding in recent years, with an increase from 21 to 27 

million gallons per day between 2005 and 2010 (Blokhuis et al., 2005; GWCL, 2010). However, 

average per capita daily consumption has been declining, due largely to Kumasi’s fast-growing 

population, in light of which, both water production and the water supply network need to be 

expanded soon and significantly. Additional water supply challenges include the irregular water 

supply and leakages from pipes. Irregular, and hence, unreliable water supply is mainly the 

result of frequent power outages, a chronic problem afflicting all of Ghana in recent years. 

Water loss from leakages, though, is expected to decline, given the ongoing effort of Ghana 

Water Company Limited (GWCL), to replace the old pipes and extend the water main. 

The Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly’s Waste Management Department (WMD) has also made 

significant progress in improving sanitation in the city. Public toilets are being rehabilitated, and 

the city has introduced both a house-to-house refuse collection scheme and a ―pay-as-you-dump‖ 

system to deal with its solid waste collection challenges. As a result, open defecation is not a 

major problem, and heaps of uncollected solid waste are no longer a common sight, as they were 

a decade ago. The city is also committed to ensuring that schoolchildren and the population at 

large are well informed about good hygiene practices. Nevertheless, major sanitation problems 

remain. ―A worrying trend is that about 40 percent of the city’s population uses public toilets, 

and only about half of all residents have toilet facilities at home.‖ Another persistent problem 

facing the WMD is inadequate revenue mobilization to finance sanitation services. 

The findings of this needs assessment indicate that with an average annual investment of $13 per 

capita, Kumasi has the opportunity to attain the MDG targets related to water and sanitation. 

The structure of the report is as follows: Section I presents an overview of the city, as well as the 

objectives, methodology and limitations of the study. Section II discusses key problems faced by 

residents, namely the availability, affordability and suitability of water and sanitation services. 

Section III focuses on the financing for water and sanitation in Kumasi City and outlines the 

results of the costing model. Section IV summarizes the needs assessment’s findings and offers 

some recommendations. 

1 MCI estimates the 2010 population at 1.6 million, with a daytime population estimated at roughly 2 million. 

2 The JMP defines an improved sanitation facility as any of the following: a pit latrine; a ventilated improved pit 

latrine; a pit latrine with slab; a composting toilet; and/or a flush toilet piped to a sewerage system or septic tank. 

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I. INTRODUCTION 

Kumasi is strategically positioned as the capital of Ghana’s Ashanti Region, one of the most 

heavily populated parts of the country. Located 300 km north-west of Accra, the national 

capital, Kumasi has been the crossroads between the northern and southern sections of Ghana 

since its establishment as the heart of the Ashanti Empire, around the turn of the eighteenth 

century. The city is easily accessible by road and has a large transient and immigrant population 

from all parts of the country, as well as from neighboring West African countries. Figure 2 

shows the city’s 10 sub-metropolitan areas and its major roads. 

Figure 2. Map of Kumasi Showing Sub-Metropolitan Areas and Major Roads 

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1.1. Objectives 

This paper aims to identify the main water and sanitation challenges facing the city of Kumasi in 

its efforts to achieve Target 7C (formerly Target 10) of Millennium Development Goal #7 -- to 

cut in half by 2015 the proportion of people without access to safe drinking water and basic 

sanitation. Going further, this study suggests specific interventions to improve that access and 

estimates their costs, enabling local, regional and national government and the development 

partners to plan accordingly. 

1.2. Methodology 

The research methodology used in this needs assessment includes field research, a desk review 

and site visits. The field research was initially conducted in between February and April 2008 by 

a researcher who travelled to Kumasi to gather preliminary information, work then followed up 

by MCI’s Social Sector Research Manager and Program Manager in Ghana in July 2010. 

Data and information were obtained from representatives of various agencies in Kumasi, 

including: Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL) and Aqua Vitens Rand Limited (AVRL); 

The Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly (KMA) Waste Management Department (WMD); the 

International Water Management Institute; KMA Metropolitan Health Directorate (MHD); the 

Metropolitan Education Directorate and the School Health Education Program (SHEP); the 

KMA Town and Country Planning Department; and the wastewater treatment lagoons at Asafo 

and Ahensan Housing Estates. 3 Personal contact with WMD and AVRL employees, the KMA 

Statistical Office and staff at the IWMI office also provided unique opportunities for discussing 

water and sanitation issues. 

1.3. Limitations 

A key challenge in conducting this assessment was that data regarding the number of people with 

access to improved water and sanitation sources differed in different documents, partly because 

different population projections were used. Another limitation was that Kumasi has a significant 

immigrant and transient population. People migrate to the city from different parts of Ghana and 

West Africa, and some Ashanti residents travel to Kumasi to work or trade during the day and 

then return home at night, making it difficult to estimate the water supply and sanitation 

resources and facilities needed to achieve the MDG water and sanitation targets. 

1.4. Demographics 

Kumasi is the most populous district in the Ashanti region. As of the 2000 census, the city had a 

population of 1,170,270. MCI projects that the 2010 population is 1,634,899. 4 Data collection 

3 Ahensan is also spelled Ahinsan. 

4 MCI’s population projections are based on the 2000 census and rely on an exponential growth function and a 

growth rate of 3.34 percent. Using this growth rate, the MCI population projection for 2007 (1,478,869) is the same 

as that in the Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly’s reports. However, other KMA documents, such as the 

―Development Plan for Kumasi Metropolitan Area (2006-2009),‖ use a different population growth rate (5.4 

percent) and show divergent population figures. 

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for the 2010 Ghana census is expected to begin in September 2010. Table 1 shows Kumasi 

City’s population by location, both at the time of the 2000 census and, as projected, in 2010. 

Table 1. Kumasi City Population, by Area 

Sub-Metropolitan 

Area 

Census population 

2000 

Oforikrom 124,869 

Asawase 131,418 

Bantama 101,409 

Nhyiaeso 64,505 

Kwadaso 118,039 

Subin 100,979 

Manhyia 163,986 

Suame 114,751 

Old Tafo 128,022 

Asokwa 122,292 

Total 1,170,270 

Source: Ghana Statistical Services (2005); MCI projections 

II. WATER AND SANITATION IN KUMASI 

2.1. Background 

Projected population 

2010 

174,445 

183,595 

141,671 

90,115 

164,904 

141,070 

229,093 

160,310 

178,850 

170,845 

1,634,899 

Area 

(sq.km) 

54.1 

29.5 

30.6 

30 

34.2 

8.5 

17.1 

14.6 

6 

29.3 

253.9 

The Government of Ghana’s key water and sanitation policy objectives are to accelerate the 

provision of safe water and adequate sanitation facilities and to ensure the sustainable 

management of those facilities. Strategies for achieving these objectives include: the 

development of District Water and Sanitation Plans (DWSPs); improving community-owned and 

-managed water supply systems; and strengthening public-private partnerships. The government 

is also interested in integrating hygiene education into water and sanitation delivery. 

The Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL) is a state-owned company responsible for 

producing and distributing potable water to the urban population nationwide. In Kumasi, GWCL 

provides water and manages household connections and public stand posts, as well as boreholes 

in peri-urban areas. The Ashanti Regional Office of Aqua Vitens Rand Limited is the company 

managing the water systems on behalf of GWCL. Sanitation services are provided by the Waste 

Management Department (WMD) of the Kumasi Metropolitan Authority (KMA). WMD 

supervises the design and construction of public sanitation facilities and oversees the activities of 

the companies sub-contracted to collect household waste in the metropolis. 

Kumasi is located in a wet semi-equatorial zone and receives substantial amounts of rain each 

year. The major rainfall season is from April to July, and the minor season occurs between 

September and mid-November. Average yearly maximum rainfall is 214.3 mm in June and 165 

mm in September (KMA WMD, 2010). Figure 3 shows some of the open water sources, and the 

two water intake points in Kumasi. 

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Figure 3. Map of Kumasi Showing Surface Water Sources and Intake Points 

2.2. Kumasi’s Water System 

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Most of the water in Kumasi is obtained from rivers, such as the Offin and Owabi. These surface 

water sources are fed by several tributary streams, as shown in Figure 3. GWCL does not rely on 

boreholes for the city’s water supply. Rainwater harvesting used to be widely practiced in 

Kumasi, but urbanization and pollution have made it impractical. Emissions from a growing 

number of industries and vehicular fumes have increased the range and levels of pollutants in the 

city, including such toxic chemicals as platinum, palladium and lead. 

There are two water intake points: one at Owabi (located 10 km from the city); the other at 

Barekese (located 19 km from the city). 5 The abstracted water is treated at the Owabi and 

Barekese Water Treatment Plants. 6 The water is stored at the Owabi reservoir, a stone masonry 

gravity dam constructed in 1928 that is 135 meters long and 11 meters high, and at the Barekese 

reservoir, a 15 meters high and 600 meters long earth-filled dam built between 1967 and 1971 

and rehabilitated in 1998. 

Average water production at Owabi and Bakerese headworks is 122,638 m 3 /day, or 27 million 

gallons per day 7 (GWCL, 2010). This is an improvement from five years ago, when the average 

daily output was 95,000 m 3 /day (Blokhuis et al., 2005). However, given that the design capacity 

of Bakerese is about 220,000 m 3 /day and that of Owabi is 13,600 m 3 /day, the total water 

produced by the two waterworks amounts to just over half the design capacity. Low electrical 

power voltage is a factor contributing to this deficit in water production. For instance, in 2006, 

Mr. Timothy Nettey, then Project Manager for Kumasi Water and Rehabilitation Expansion, 

noted that the dams required 415 volts to run the pumps but were receiving fewer than 390 

volts. 8 

There are four pumps at Bakerese and Owabi, with a capacity to pump 4,500 cubic meters (m 3 ) 

per hour, which has improved the flow of water to residences and businesses (GWCL personal 

communication). After water is abstracted and processed at the treatment plants, it is pumped to 

a surface reservoir in Suame, for distribution to different parts of the city. Suame has an elevated 

tank and ground level tanks, with a total storage capacity of 19,090 m 3 (4.2 million gallons), as 

shown in Table 2. 

Table 2. Storage Capacity and Condition of Water Tanks at Suame 

Capacity Condition 

Tank # 1 10,000 m 3 

Tank #2 4,545 m 3 

Tank # 3 4,545 m 3 

Total 19,090 m 3 

Source: GWCL/AVRL 

Functional 

Good 

Good 

5 Note that Owabi and Barekese are outside the Kumasi district boundaries. These plants are also known as Owabi 

and Barekese Headworks. According to the KMA 2006-2009 Development Plan, Barekese is 16 km from the city. 

6 The treatment process involves chemical dosing, clarification, and filtration. 

7 1 cubic meter (m 3 ) is equal to 220.16 UK gallons. 

8 http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID=177728 

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While water production has been increasing, the average per-capita daily water consumption in 

Kumasi has been decreasing, mainly because the population growth has outstripped supply. 

Kuma et al (2010) estimate that, in 1996, daily per capita water consumption was 24.2 m 3 /year 

(0.066 m 3 /day or 66 liters/day) and argue that in 2009, it should have been 0.094 m 3 /day or 94 

liters/day. GWCL, on the other hand, notes that current per capita daily water consumption 

varies depending on socio-economic status. Low-income residents, for example, consume 

0.025-0.035 m 3 /day, while middle-income residents consume 0.060-0.075 m 3 /day and upperincome 

residents consume over 0.120 m 3 /day. 9 Average water consumption also varies, 

depending on the number of people per household and each household’s location. 

Kumasi’s water production clearly needs to increase to meet demand, as shown in Table 3. 

Table 3. Water Demand Forecast (m 3 /day) for Kumasi 

Demand in Liters Production in Coverage, 

Year per day Liters per day % 

1990 69,678,000 68,200,000 98% 

2010 242,735,348 122,727,273 51% 

2011 256,382,827 150,021,032 59% 

2012 270,797,618 177,297,600 65% 

2013 286,022,863 204,574,100 72% 

2014 302,104,126 231,818,182 77% 

2015 319,089,538 231,818,182 73% 


The catchment area of Barekese has been under intense human pressure in recent years, which 

has reduced the yield from the dam. For instance, encroachment by private land developers, 

farming and logging have contributed to high sediment levels entering the dam, which has 

detrimentally affected recent initiatives to expand water production at Bakerese. Water 

production at Owabi has not been adversely affected by encroachment, because the catchment 

area is the Owabi Forest Reserve which is restricted from human activity. However, Owabi only 

produces one sixth of the water produced at Barekese. 

Additional problems affecting the operations of the GWCL include leakages, illegal connections 

and non-payment of customers’ bills. 10 

2.3. Access to Water in Kumasi 

Table 4 lists the improved and unimproved sources of water as defined by the WHO/UNICEF 

Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP). 11 

9 3 3 3 

One liter per day (l/day) is equivalent to 0.001 m /day; hence, 0.025 m /day =25 liters per day, 0.075 m /day =75 

liters per day and 0.120 m 3 /day =120 liters per day. 

10 

In 2005 the Ashanti Regional Minister noted that consumers owed the GWCL 33.6 billion cedis ($3.5 million); 

(http://www.modernghana.com/news/74315/1/kumasi-water-consumers-owe-33-billion-cedis.html; the exchange 

rate used is $1 = 9607 old Ghana cedis and was derived from www.oada.com.) 

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Table 4. Definition of Improved and Unimproved Water Sources 

Improved Water Supply Source Unimproved Water Supply Source 

Individual household connection 

Piped water from a yard tap Tanker truck provided water 

Piped water obtained from a neighbor Vendor provided water 

Protected well/spring Unprotected well/spring 

Rain water harvesting Bottled water 

Source: http://www.wssinfo.org/definitions/infrastructure.html 

The Kumasi Water Supply System (WSS) currently has 1,005 km of pipeline, with diameters 

ranging between 13 and 600 mm. Pipes between 13 and 32 mm are being phased out and 

replaced with 25 mm pipes, because the former are prone to breakage (Kuma et al., 2010). 

Figure 4 shows the functioning and non-functioning water pipelines in Kumasi. 

Figure 4. Water Pipelines in Kumasi 

11 Tanker truck-provided and vendor-provided water are not considered improved sources because there is no 

quality control to ensure that the water is safe to drink. Bottled water is not considered improved because of concern 

for the quantity, rather than the quality, of supplied water. Using this JPM definition, it is estimated that 

approximately 80 percent of Kumasi residents had access to an improved water source in 2008. 

15

GWCL/AVRL recently upgraded and extended Kumasi’s water transmission mains, under the 

World Bank/GoG Urban Water Project. 12 The main objectives of this project were to increase the 

supply of water in the city by replacing worn-out water distribution networks and extending the 

water transmission mains by 45.9 km. 13 According to former Managing Director of the Ghana 

Water Company Limited (GWCL), Mr. Kwaku Botchway, the upgrade and extension were 

necessary because the lines were faulty, resulting in significant wastage of treated water. 14 

To reduce the number of unbilled customers, GWCL/AVRL has also been installing 20,000 new 

meters and replacing 1,776 existing ones, as part of the Kumasi Water Supply Rehabilitation 

Project. This initiative will ensure that households with access to piped water pay, which is 

important because many Kumasi houses are built as rows of rooms around a central courtyard, 

where the water taps tend to be located. Figure 5 shows the metering status in 2010 in the 

Kumasi metropolis and the surrounding peri-urban areas. As can readily be seen, each area 

includes a substantial number of customers still without meters. 

Figure 5. Metering Status in Kumasi Metropolis and Peri-urban Areas. 


12 This project focused not only on water supply in Kumasi but also in Obuasi, Accra and Mampong. 

13 The 61.8-kilometer length of the water transmission mains, comprised of 45.9 km in Kumasi and 15.9 km in 

Obuasi, was added at a cost of GH¢400,600 ($276,275), with funding from the World Bank and the GoG. 

14 Areas benefitting from the extension include: the airport roundabout to Kenyase; Santase to Atasemanso; 

Kwadaso to Edwenase, and Edwenase to the Police Depot; Buokrom through Asabi to Aboabo junction; Tafo 

through Pankrono to Mampong road; Santase to Brofoyedu; Fankyenebra through Apere to Edwenase; and the 

Santase roundabout through Sofoline to Abrepo junction. 

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Water Quality 

Water produced in Kumasi is generally of acceptable quality, but the use of chemicals near river 

bodies is threatening the quality of the water supply. According to the KMA, chemicals used by 

farmers and fishermen have been polluting streamlets that feed streams, which, in turn, supply 

water to the Bakerese and Owabi dams. The discharge of liquid waste from sewers and drains 

into rivers also threatens water quality. 

According to the GWCL, another issue has been the infestation of bloodworms in the Owabi 

River, which dramatically diminishes the quality of the water from that source. These organisms 

contaminate the water by invading the filtration system and breeding in distribution tanks. 

2.4. Kumasi’s Sanitation System 

The KMA Waste Management Department (WMD) is the institution responsible for 

environmental sanitation services in the city. It supervises the design, construction and 

management of public sanitation facilities and provides financial and technical assistance for 

their establishment and maintenance (KNUST, 2007). 

In 1999, KMA produced a Strategic Sanitation Plan for Kumasi (SSP-Kumasi), under the UNDP 

Water and Sanitation Program. The first SSP-Kumasi was for the 1999-2000 period, but it was 

then updated and another strategic plan was adopted for the period between 1996 and 2005. The 

plans recommended different sanitation systems for different areas of the city. 15 Simplified 

sewerage was recommended for high-population density areas, Kumasi Ventilated-Improved Pits 

(KVIP)s for medium-density areas and WCs with septic systems for low-density areas. In 

addition, unhygienic bucket latrines were to be phased out, and an eight-kilometer simplified 

sewerage scheme, serving a population of 20,000, was installed in the Asafo tenement. 

Kumasi residents rely on five different sanitation technologies: the water closet (WC); the KVIP; 

the Enviro-Loo; the aqua privy; and the bucket/pan latrine. 16 Water closets (flush toilets) are 

either linked to septic tanks or sewers. Unfortunately, many septic tanks lack properly 

functioning drain fields and tend to overflow, causing a risk of ground and surface water 

pollution (Owusu-Addo, 2006). Enviro-Loos and aqua privy toilets are generally found at public 

facilities in Kumasi; bucket or pan latrines are mostly used by low-income individuals and are 

unhygienic because they have to be emptied by laborers who collect the buckets several times 

per week. The contents of bucket latrines are deposited into tanks located at various sanitary 

sites. 

Most WCs in Kumasi are connected to septic tanks, as a result there are only a few small sewer 

networks. For instance, there are estate sewers managed by associations whose responsibilities 

include their day-to-day operations, maintenance and revenue collection. The associations 

engage private contractors to undertake management and maintenance. In addition, the city has 

15 According to the plans, houses in Kumai could be categorized into four groups: high-population density (also 

known as tenement areas); medium density (indigenous areas); low density (new government and high-cost areas). 

16 An Enviro-Loo is an on-site, dry sanitation toilet system that functions without water, while an aqua privy is a pit 

toilet with a tank under the latrine floor. 

17

three small-scale sewerage systems, one serving the university, one serving the hospital and the 

other serving central parts of the 4BN army barracks. 

Many Kumasi residents also rely on public latrines scattered throughout the city. Figure 6 shows 

public sanitation facilities in Kumasi, by type. It can be seen that, in 2008, about half of the 

public toilets were aqua privy toilets and a quarter were water closet (flush) toilets. 

Figure 6. Public Sanitation Facilities Used in Kumasi 

Source: KMA WMD (2009) 

The cost of using a public toilet is between GH¢ 0.05 and 0.20 ($0.03-0.14). Table 6 shows the 

number of public toilets in the city by sub-metro location in 2008. 

Table 5. Types and Numbers of Public Toilets in Kumasi Metropolis (2008) 

Type of Toilet 

Sub-Metro Aqua WC Plan KVIP Env-Loo Total 

Area Privy 

Latrine 

Asawase 19 5 0 4 3 31 

Asokwa 20 7 0 9 2 38 

Bantama 27 6 2 2 0 37 

Kwadaso 10 3 0 4 1 18 

Manhyia 26 22 0 6 5 59 

Nhyiaeso 8 6 0 8 2 24 

Oforikrom 18 2 0 7 7 34 

Suame 20 7 0 7 2 36 

Subin 17 24 2 4 2 49 

Tafo 12 5 0 3 1 21 

Total: 177 87 4 54 25 347 


After a public toilet is built, the maintenance and management become the responsibility of the 

Unit Committee 17 (UC) in the community where the toilet is located. However, UCs face several 

challenges, including the inability to generate sufficient funds, and the indiscriminate disposal by 

17 Unit Committees are supposed to be the main channels of communication between the KMA and local 

communities. 

Aqua Privy WC Plan Latrine KVIP Env-Loo 

1% 

25% 

16% 

7% 

51% 

18

inhabitants of their solid waste. In addition, public WC toilets have to be de-sludged once every 

six weeks, and the cost, GH¢50 ($34) per de-sludge, is prohibitive to some UCs (KNUST, 2007). 

Public toilets are also costly to maintain, because they require electricity and water to function, 

and they often break down, resulting in the poor maintenance of some public toilets. The WMD 

nonetheless estimates that 62 percent of public toilets are in good condition, with the rest in 

satisfactory condition. 

The WMD has embarked on a project to improve the public latrines. It is worth noting, 

however, that the UNICEF/WHO Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) does not consider public 

toilets to be improved sanitation facilities. KMA’s 2006-2009 Development Plan states that the 

long-tem plan is to reduce the dependence on public toilets in favor of household toilets (KMA 

& MLGRD, 2009). Given that almost 40 percent of Kumasi residents rely on public toilets, it is 

unlikely that the city will achieve the MDG sanitation target if the focus remains on providing 

one toilet per household and shared toilets are not considered to be improved sanitation 

facilities. This suggests that communal toilets (one used by 5-6 households) could be a 

preferable alternative to public toilets. 

Solid Waste 

In 1995, the rate of domestic waste generation in Kumasi was estimated at 600 tons per day 

(Post, 1999). By 2005, 1000 tons of solid waste was generated each day in the city; three years 

later, the WMD was collecting 1,200 tons a day, and a 2010 WMD document shows that 1,500 

metric tons of waste is now generated in Kumasi each day. Most of the waste is generated in the 

Subin sub-metro area, largely because there are two markets there. Table 6 shows the total 

domestic, commercial and industrial (non-toxic and non-hazardous), as well as the market and 

restaurant waste generated during the 2006-2009 period. 

Table 6. Waste Generation in Kumasi, by Sub-Metropolitan Area, 2006-2009 

2006 Estimated Waste 

Generation 


Generation 


Generation/Day 

Metric tons/day 1000 1200 1500 

Source: KMA & MLGRD (2006); KMA WMD (2010) 

The main site for the disposal of collected solid waste is the Dompoase sanitary landfill. Prior to 

the construction of the landfill, uncollected waste was routinely dumped in open spaces, in drains 

or was burned. A 1999 study estimated that two-thirds of residential waste was dumped in open 

lots or on the banks of natural streams (Post, 1999). The uncollected waste posed a serious 

health hazard and contaminated surface water sources. 

To deal with solid waste collection challenges, the city has introduced a house-to-house refuse 

collection scheme and has assigned solid waste collection to the private sector. Kumasi has been 

divided into seven zones, each with its own private contractor, who is responsible for the houseto-house 

refuse collection in that zone. 18 

18 As of July 2010, the private contractors operating in Kumasi are: Anthoco, Aryetey Brother Company Limited 

(ABC), Kumasi Waste Management Limited (KWLM), Meskworld, Sak-M Company Limited, Waste Group Ghana 

Limited (WGG) and Zoomlion Ghana Ltd. 

19

Households pay monthly fees for house-to-house waste collection. The rates are on a sliding 

scale, determined according to income: the wealthiest households pay about GH¢ 5 per month 

($3.50), while middle-income households pay GH¢ 4 per month ($2.75). In 2009, 55,000 

households participated in the house-to-house waste collection scheme (KMA WMD, 2010). 

Poor households generally rely on the pay-as-you-dump system, whereby communal metal 

containers/skips are placed at designated sites, and households pay between GH¢ 0.10 and 0.20 

($0.07-0.14) per load. Typically, about five households share a communal small container; in 

2009 there were 540 such containers. Residents also use 12,000 bins, with storage capacities of 

120 or 240 liters. One problem with the containers is that they are too high for small children, 

who then sometimes leave or throw the waste on the ground. Strategically placed ladders can 

resolve this problem. KMA, the Department of Parks and Gardens and the Forestry Services 

Division also plan to plant trees around skips, to improve the appearance and reduce the odors 

emitted by these facilities. 

Solid waste is collected at least twice a week by 20 refuse trucks and three tractors, all in 

satisfactory condition (KMA WMD, 2010). 

Although most household waste generated in Kumasi is organic, recycling and composting are 

not widely practiced in Kumasi. Some residents and a few enterprises salvage such materials as 

plastic bottles, metals and bags, and some people re-use items like plastic bottles to store 

different types of liquids, but recycling is still not officially part of solid waste disposal 

management. Nor do the private contractors engaged by KMA to collect and haul solid waste 

engage in recycling. The WMD estimates that paper, plastics, metals and rubber constitute about 

eight percent of total household waste (KMA WMD, 2010), and the KMA is currently in the 

process of identifying land on which to build a material recovery facility plant. Table 7 shows 

the estimated composition of municipal solid waste (MSW) in 2009. 

Table 7. Composition of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) in 2009. 

Percentage of Municipal 

Material 

Solid Waste 

Biodegradable 47% 

Paper 3.1% 

Plastic 3.5% 

Glass 0.6% 

Metal 0.6% 

Inert, ash, debris 44.6% 

Total 100% 


Recycling clearly needs to be given heightened consideration as a means of reducing the volume 

of waste sent to landfill sites. A 2007 KNUST study notes that in order for recycling to be a 

viable option for household waste treatment, the waste must be separated at the source (KNUST, 

2007). The KMA will, therefore, have to educate residents to separate waste at the source, i.e., 

before it is deposited into containers or trash cans. 

20

Liquid Waste 

The main sewage treatment plant(s) in Kumasi is the Dompoase Septage Treatment Facility 

Treatment Plant (STW), built in 1958. However, even though a number of industries generate 

significant amounts of effluent, leachate and spillage, there is little wastewater treatment in 

Kumasi. Industrial wastewater, domestic grey water and storm water flow through open sewers 

and discharge into rivers like Subin, Abaoba and Sissai, without being treated. 19 

According to the KMA’s 2006-2009 Metro Development Plan, most of the industrial wastewater in 

Kumasi is generated by two breweries, Guinness Ghana and Coca Cola Bottling Company, and the 

Kumasi Abattoir. Together they generate more than 1,510 m 3 of effluent daily, all of which ends up 

in the city’s drains (KMA & MLGRD, 2006). Enterprises such as the Suame Magazine Complex 

and the sawmills also generate significant amount of waste oil and leachate, respectively, adding to 

environmental degradation. As industrial production increases, wastewater production is more than 

likely to increase. 

Less than 10 percent of Kumasi’s households are connected to a sewer. 20 Sewage treatment 

lagoons are located in three residential areas: Asafo, Ahensan, and Kyirapatre Housing Estates, 21 

as well as the Kumasi National University of Science and Technology (KNUST). Figure 7 

shows the treatment plant at Asafo (left) and an overloaded anaerobic pond at Ahesan. 

Figure 7. Treatment Plant at Asafo and Overloaded Anaerobic Pond at Ahesan 

Source: IWMI 

Wastewater treatment plants in Kumasi need to be rehabilitated, and the maintenance of these 

facilities needs to improve. The treatment plant on the KNUST campus, installed in the 1950s, 

was out of order for about 20 years, until pumps and pipes were replaced and/or restored in 2007 

(Erni, 2007). Waste stabilization ponds 22 are another alternative that have been proposed as an 

19 KMA Metro Development Plan, 2006-2009, p. 115. 

20 Waste Management Department. Action Plan for the Improvement of Waste Management in the Kumasi 

Metropolis. 

21 Also spelled Chirapatre, 

22 Waste stabilization ponds are also referred to as oxidation ponds, or lagoons. 

21

appropriate wastewater treatment technology for developing countries (Ramadan and Ponce, 

2008). In 2004, the KMA built a series of waste stabilization ponds for faecal sludge treatment 

at Dompoase, in the south of Kumasi. However, improper management and inefficient treatment 

have resulted in the pollution of surface water sources by effluents (Buama Ackon, 2006). 

2.5. Access to Sanitation in Kumasi 

According to the WHO/UNICEF JMP, a household is considered to have adequate access to 

sanitation if it has a flush toilet that is connected to a public sewer or septic tank, a ventilated 

improved pit latrine (VIP) or a pit latrine. As Table 8 shows, public and shared toilets and open 

pit latrines are all considered to be unimproved sanitation. 

Table 8. Definition of Improved and Unimproved Sanitation Facilities 

Improved Sanitation Unimproved Sanitation 

Connection to a public sewer Bucket latrine 

Connection to a septic tank Public or shared latrine 

Pour-flush toilet Latrines with open pit 

Simple pit latrine Flying toilets 

Ventilated improved pit latrine (VIP) 

Source: http://www.wssinfo.org/definitions/infrastructure.html 

Using the JPM definition, MCI estimates that in 2008, only 43 percent of Kumasi residents had 

access to improved sanitation (Ghana DHS, 2008). 

2.6. Hygiene Education 

The KMA has an Environmental Health and Sanitation Department (EHMD) that engages in a 

wide range of hygiene education and health-related activities. For instance, EHMD educates 

Unit Committees, Town Councils and schoolchildren about hygiene; encourages the Unit 

Committees to educate communities about waste management; and ensures that dumpsites are 

sprayed with chemicals, to reduce mosquito-related diseases. 

An important sanitation-related problem, according to the EHMD, is that although residents are 

encouraged to wash their hands, facilities sometimes do not provide soap. Schools and public 

toilet facilities, therefore, need to provide sufficient water and soap for regular hand-washing 

after toilet visits. 

The WMD also houses a health education unit, which is in charge of administering the School 

Health Education Programme (SHEP). One of the objectives is to provide Ghana Education 

Service (GES) schools with access to relevant quality education on hygiene education. SHEP 

also works on de-worming and school feeding issues and organizes debates and panel 

discussions in the schools. 

Environmental health officers also engage in hygiene education by conducting house-to-house 

inspections to identify sanitation issues that can have adverse health effects. Community fora are 

22

also convened, print and electronic media campaigns are conducted and traditional leaders are 

engaged to mobilize people. 23 

III. FINANCING WATER AND SANITATION IN KUMASI 

As a result of Ghana’s successful decentralization, the provision of social services such as water 

and sanitation is the responsibility of local governments. However, district assemblies such as 

the KMA do not have the financial and human resources needed to ensure effective service 

delivery. 

The rapid increase in Kumasi’s population has put pressure on the KMA to improve the water 

supply and sewer infrastructure. To meet the rising demands of urbanization, the KMA needs 

additional revenue to pay for both the services and the infrastructure. 

3.1. Financing Water and Sanitation 

The main sources of revenue for the KMA include transfers from the central governmental, 

internally generated funds (IGF) and funds from international sources. IGF is derived from 

property taxes, user fees and consumption taxes, such as value-added taxes (VAT), as well as 

from water and sanitation tariffs. 

Transfers from the central government are the KMA’s most important source of revenue. For 

instance, it is constitutionally mandated that at least 7.5 percent of total Government of Ghana 

(GoG) revenues will be provided to metropolitan, municipal and district assemblies via the 

District Assemblies Common Fund (DACF). One problem affecting the financing of water and 

sanitation activities at the local level is that the GoG often fails to release funds from the DACF 

to the assemblies in a timely fashion (Amu-Mensah et al, 2008). 24 Given that the assemblies 

were created to implement government policy at the local level, delays in the transfers of funds 

impede the KMA’s capacity to provide adequate social services to its residents, thereby 

hindering the development of Kumasi’s water and sanitation systems. 25 

3.2. Water and Sanitation Projects in Kumasi 

In recent years, several projects have been initiated to improve the water supply and sanitation in 

Kumasi City. 

Between 1996 and 2002, the World Bank and GoG implemented the Urban Environmental 

Sanitation Project (UESP) with an IDA credit of $71 million. 26 The five main components of 

23 

10 sub-chiefs are paid a GH¢ 100 ($69) honorarium to participate in three-day training sessions on malaria and 

HIV. 

24 

The DACF distribution to assemblies is based on a formula and funds have to be approved by Parliament. 

25 

This phenomenon, in part a cash-flow problem at the national level, is not unique to water and sanitation, 

adversely affecting the delivery on KMA budgetary commitments in numerous other social sectors. 

26 

The project covered Ghana's five major cities: Accra, Kumasi, Sekondi-Takoradi, Tema and Tamale. The $71 

million was for the 5 cities, to which the Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development and municipal 

assemblies also contributed funds. 

23

this project were: storm drainage; sanitation; solid waste; upgrading of low-income urban areas; 

and capacity-building (World Bank, 1996). In Kumasi, the USEP storm drain component 

consisted of rehabilitating the primary channel from the Zoo through Kejetia to the Asafo 

Market, and building four new secondary drains to reduce flooding in the Central Market, the 

Asafo Market and the Kejetia Lorry Park neighborhoods. The sanitation component supported 

the construction or rehabilitation of public sanitation facilities at markets. The solid waste 

component provided for the construction of the Dompoase landfill. The landfill was finalized in 

2003, and although publications such as Post (1999) claim that the Dompoase landfill has an 

expected lifetime of 25 years, the KMA’s WMD informs that the expected lifetime is 15 years, 

hence the remaining lifetime is nine years, rather than 18. USEP also financed construction of 

sanitation facilities at primary and junior secondary schools. 

In 2004, the World Bank Board approved an IDA credit of $62 million to support the Second 

Urban Environmental Sanitation Project in Ghana (UESP II). 27 The objectives of UESP II are to 

further improve storm drainage, as well as household and public sanitation facilities and solid 

waste management. Community infrastructure upgrades, and institutional strengthening for 

environmental sanitation, are also included in UESP II. 

In 2006, to alleviate problems affecting water supply, such as low power voltage, the Dutch 

Government contributed €37 million ($50 million) 28 to expand water production in Kumasi. The 

total amount consisted of a grant from the Dutch government and loans contracted by the Ghana 

government from commercial banks in the Netherlands. The project involved the rehabilitation 

and expansion of the Barekese and Owabi head-works as well as the construction of an 

additional 90 kilometers of distribution lines in Kumasi metropolis and its peri-urban areas. The 

funds were used to purchase filters, lift pumps and clarifiers and to build booster stations. 29 

In 2007, the Oforikrom Water and Sanitation (OWAS) project targeted five low-income urban 

and peri-urban communities in Southeast Kumasi. 30 The objectives of the projects were to 

improve sanitation and hygiene education and to provide piped water to 108,000 inhabitants. 

Prior to the OWAS project, residents relied on distant community toilets and water vendors. The 

project reduced by 200 meters the distance community members had to travel to community 

toilets and lowered by five percent the monthly expenditures on water. 

3.3. Costing Model 

This study uses a needs assessment tool developed by the UN Millennium to estimate financial 

resources needed to achieve water and sanitation targets at the sub-national level. This Excel-based 

needs assessment tool relies on coverage targets and unit costs. 31 Data on water and sanitation 

coverage in 2000 are derived from the Population and Housing Census, while 2008 baseline data 

is derived from Ghana Water Company Limited/Aqua Vitens Rand Limited (GWCL/AVRL) and 

27 http://allafrica.com/stories/201007230662.html 

28 Using $1= €1.35 exchange rate. 

29 http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID=177728 

30 The communities included Oforikrom, Adukrom, Akorem, Kotei and Gyenyase. 

31 The model was initially developed by the United Nations Millennium Project, now administered by the United 

Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and applied here for the first time in a municipal context 

24

the KMA Waste Management Department (WMD). Water unit costs were obtained from 

GWCL/AVRL and sanitation unit costs were obtained from the KMA WMD and a 2004 water 

and sanitation MDGs country assessment compiled by the World Bank and the African 

Development Bank. 

Improved water sources or technologies identified by MCI as appropriate for Kumasi include: 32 

1. Individual household connection. 

2. Piped water from a yard tap. 

3. Public tap. 

4. Rainwater harvesting. 

It should be noted that the policy of the Government of Ghana is to phase out public taps. 

However, given that some people still rely on this water source, it is included in the scenarios 

presented in this needs assessment. 

Technologies included in this needs assessment as representing ―improved‖ sanitation facilities 

include: 

1. Water closet (flush toilet) connected to a septic tank or the public sewerage. 

2. Kumasi Ventilated improved pit latrine (KVIP). 

3. Communal latrine. 

Table 9. Sanitation Coverage in Kumasi (2000 & 2008) 

2000 2008 

KVIP, Pit Latrine 21.3 10 

WC (septic tank ) 27.3 25 

WC (simplified sewerage) 0.8 8 

Public latrines 36.8 38 

Communal (Shared) latrines 5.6 1 

Pan latrines/bucket 5.3 12 

Other (no access) 2.9 6 

Total 100 100 

Source: Ghana Statistical Service (2005); KMA (2008) 

Unit Costs 

The water unit costs were obtained from GWCL/AVRL officials. Sanitation unit costs were 

derived from KMA WMD officials as well as a 2004 World Bank/Africa Development Bank 

(WB/AFD) country assessment report. According to the KMA WMD, the unit cost for a twoseater 

pour flush toilet is GH¢ 4,000 ($2,759). This cost includes the super structure, the water 

closet and the cost of labor. MCI proposes that half the cost of this type of toilet should be 

financed by a grant and half by households. Moreover, we use the cost of a two-seater, three pit 

KVIP as a proxy unit cost for a communal toilet serving approximately 10 households. This 

includes cost for materials and labor. 

Water and sanitation unit costs used in the costing model are shown in Table 10. 

32 This list of interventions is presented as a reference and should not be viewed as an exhaustive set of options. 

25

Table 10. Select Unit Costs Used in the Costing Model 

Water GH¢ $ Source 

Household Connection (Private) 200 138 GWCL/AVRL 

Household Connection (Yard) 210 145 GWCL/AVRL 

Public Tap 755 521 GWCL/AVRL 

Rainwater Harvesting 43.5 30 Author 

Sanitation Facilities 

Kumasi Ventilated Improved Pit Latrine (KVIP)- one seater 2500 1724 KMA WMD 

Water Closet 4000 2759 KMA WMD 

Septic Tank 4000 2759 KMA WMD 

Public Toilet 5800 4000 WB/ADB (2004) 

Communal Toilet (two seater, 3 pit KVIP) 3500 2414 KMA WMD 

Sewer Connection 145 100 WB/ADB (2004) 

Source: GWCL/AVRL and KMA WMD 

3.4. Results of the Costing Model 

To identify the financial resources required to meet water and sanitation targets, two models are 

presented: a Baseline scenario and an Alternative scenario. 

Baseline scenario 

Interventions under this scenario will be rolled out at an even pace between 2010 and 2015; 

hence, a linear scale-up path has been chosen. The underlying assumptions with regard to water 

supply and sanitation are as follows: 

66.2 percent of Kumasi residents had access to piped water in 2000, and 80 percent had 

access in 2008. The goal is to increase coverage to 90 percent by 2015. 

Public toilets are not considered as ―improved‖ sanitation facilities, but we assume that 

communal toilets are improved sanitation facilities. As a result, 49 percent of Kumasi’s 

population had access to sanitation in 2000 and 44 percent had access in 2008. Sanitation 

coverage needs to increase from 44 percent in 2008 to 75 percent in 2015. 

Three households share a household tap water connection in a yard and a public tap 

serves approximately 13 households. 

Public latrines are designed for an average of 50 households per latrine, 33 while each 

communal latrine serves about 10 households. 

10 percent of WC and KVIP toilets, and 30 percent of public toilets, are defective. The 

cost of rehabilitating WC and KVIP is 5 percent of the capital cost. 

As recommended by Lenton and Wright (2004), the annual operating and maintenance 

cost for water and sanitation facilities is 5 percent of the capital cost, but the 

rehabilitation cost is 15 percent of capital cost. 

60 percent of the water and sanitation budgets is devoted to operational costs. 

The cost for primary and secondary wastewater treatment is taken into account, but the 

cost of tertiary treatment is assumed to be borne by the private sector. 

33 Amu-Mensah et al (2008). 

26

Based on these assumptions, the average annual per capita cost to meet the MDG water and 

sanitation targets between 2010 and 2015 is $13. This is mainly due to the high capital costs for 

sanitation. The supplementary intervention is the cost for three Lexmark T650dn printer which 

can be purchased locally at GH¢ 2,900 ($2,000) each. GWCL/AVRL needs these printers to 

improve billing. 

Table 11. Baseline Model 

Baseline Scenario Costs (USD) 

2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Average 

Water 2,711,209 2,906,874 3,114,804 3,335,677 3,570,206 3,819,142 3,242,985 

Sanitation 

Hygiene 

14,395,005 15,056,564 15,749,133 16,419,668 17,153,203 17,990,429 16,127,334 

Education 50,285 56,791 63,808 68,164 72,069 76,370 64,581 

Hospitals 

Human 

17,620 17,620 17,620 17,620 17,620 17,620 17,620 

Resources 

Supplementary 

3,880,345 3,880,345 3,880,345 3,880,345 3,880,345 3,880,345 3,880,345 

Intervention 6,000 

Total 21,167,384 22,053,538 22,972,465 23,886,672 24,878,171 25,989,301 23,491,255 

Per capita 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 

Alternative scenario 

In the Alternative scenario, public toilets are considered to be improved sanitation facilities. In 

addition to the assumptions about O&M and rehabilitation costs outlined in the Baseline 

scenario, the underlying assumptions in the Alternative scenario are as follows: 

The 2015 sanitation coverage target is 88 percent, and 44 percent of the toilets are public 

or shared toilets. Furthermore, whereas 25 percent of toilets are water closets in 2008, 

by 2015 only 18 percent of toilets are water closets. 

The unit costs of public and shared toilets goes down because of economies of scale. 

The average annual per capita costs in the Alternative scenario for the 2010-2015 period is $11 

per capita, as shown in Table 12. 

Table 12. Alternative scenario 

Alternative Scenario Costs (USD) 

2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Average 

Water 2,711,209 2,906,874 3,114,804 3,335,677 3,570,206 3,819,142 3,242,985 

Sanitation 

Wastewater 

14,226,833 14,831,041 15,453,296 16,093,901 16,753,155 17,431,344 15,798,262 

Treatment 

Hygiene 

112,921 129,345 146,755 165,200 184,729 205,395 157,391 

Education 21,720 22,396 23,093 23,811 24,552 25,316 23,481 

Hospitals 

Human 

2,556 4,416 3,519 3,519 3,519 3,519 3,508 

Resources 

Supplementary 

3,880,345 3,880,345 3,880,345 3,880,345 3,880,345 3,880,345 3,880,345 

Intervention 6,000 

Total 17,072,682 17,889,656 18,737,947 19,618,589 20,532,642 21,481,196 19,222,119 

Per capita 10 11 11 11 11 11 11 

27

IV. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

For Kumasi to achieve Target 7C (formerly Target 10) of Millennium Development Goal #7—to 

cut in half, by 2015, the proportion of people without access to safe drinking water and basic 

sanitation—the water supply and sanitation infrastructure must be rehabilitated and/or expanded. 

For Kumasi, this will entail a significant, but not insurmountable estimated cost, of $11-13, 

depending on the scenario chosen. However, while the internationally agreed JMP definition of 

access to improved sanitation is a basis for comparing and measuring progress made among 

countries and regions, if Kumasi abides by this definition, the city cannot meet this target by 

2015. An overwhelming number of Kumasi residents still rely on public toilets and although 

WMD has taken steps to improve public toilets, communal latrines should also be promoted. If 

the definition is modified to include communal toilets, Kumasi can meet the target within time. 

The KMA WMD has significantly improved solid waste collection and successfully conducted a 

wide range of hygiene education activities. However, since most flush toilets in Kumasi are 

connected to septic tanks, faecal sludge composting must also be accorded priority. A pilot 

project recently initiated by WMD and groups like IWMI and SANDEC can serve as a model. 

GWCL/AVRL has successfully increased the number of new water connections and expanded 

delivery. It has also replaced obsolete equipment, repaired leaking pipes and introduced 

measures to reduce illegal connections and unpaid bills. However, GWCL/AVRL must continue 

expanding water production to meet the needs of a growing population. With increased 

urbanization in and surrounding the Kumasi metropolitan area and the concomitant growing 

threats to water quality, there is a need for a shift in thinking towards improving the efficiency of 

water use by better managing wastewater. Water re-use is a cost-effective option for increasing 

the city’s water supply. For instance, treated wastewater, as well as collected rainwater could be 

used to flush toilets. 

Access to safe water and adequate sanitation is clearly essential to good health; it is also critical 

for the attainment of the MDGs in education and gender, MDGs 2 and 3, respectively. Providing 

piped water to Kumasi residents, for instance, has the potential to reduce the time spent on such 

household chores as collecting water, particularly for women, who might otherwise be engaged 

in other income-generating or family-related activities, and for girls, whose fulfillment of such 

obligations is frequently given as a reason for their not being in school. Building safe sanitation 

facilities and ensuring adequate solid waste management can reduce the number of water-borne 

illnesses and unnecessary deaths. A significant number of under-five deaths can be attributed to 

diarrhea and other water-borne illnesses, including trachoma, cholera, typhoid, hookworm and 

roundworm, all of which can be prevented by providing clean water and scaling up hygiene 

education. The socio-economic costs of not investing in sanitation and water, according to the 

international NGO WaterAid, are significant, particularly factoring in the lost work days and 

missed school (WaterAid, 2008). 

Moreover, the KMA should consider creating sanitation courts capable of speedily adjudicating 

those who pollute surface water sources. This would entail hiring judges as well as sanitation 

monitors and inspectors to enforce existing laws and ordinances. 

28

REFERENCES 

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Amu-Mensah, F.K., Tettah, E.K. and Chonia J.D. (2008). ―What are the policy gaps hindering 

full implementation of community water and sanitation programmes in Ghana?,‖ 

(Nairobi: The African Technology Policy Studies Network [ATPS]). 

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2010. 

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(Kumasi: AVRL). 

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http://www.care.org/careswork/projects/GHA035.asp. accessed 24 June 2010. 

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Analysis of District Data and Implications for Planning (Accra: Ghana Statistical 

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Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly and Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development 

[KMA & MLGRD] (2006). Development Plan for the Kumasi Metropolitan Area [2006- 

2009] (Kumasi: Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly). 

29

Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly Waste Management Department [ KMA WMD] (2010). ―Data 

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30

APPENDIX 1. MONTHLY WATER PRODUCTION IN 2006 & 2009 

Owabi Barekese Owabi Barekese 

Month Production (m 3 ) Production (m 3 ) Production (m 3 ) Production (m 3 ) 

Jan 

Feb 

Mar 

Apr 

May 

Jun 

Jul 

Aug 

Sep 

Oct 

Nov 

Dec 

Annual 

2006 2009 

Raw Water Total 350,771 2,359,698 347,356 1,605,278 

Treated Water Total 339,830 2,174,000 331,070 1,502,000 























Raw Water Total 3,997,338 25,326,936 3,795,388 19,377,750 

Treated Water Total 3,840,080 23,381,000 3,655,650 18,151,664 


Note: the production shortfall in 2009 at Barekese and Owabi was mainly due to power failures 

31

APPENDIX 2. SANITATION BUDGET FOR 2008 

Sanitation Budget for 2008 

Category Number Salary/Month Total/Annum Total/Annum 

(GH¢ ) (GH¢ ) 

($) 

Labourers 80 80 76,800 52,966 

Mechanics 30 100 36,000 24,828 

Supervisors 30 300 108,000 74,483 

Engineers 10 500 60,000 41,379 

Total Salaries/Annum 

280,800 193,655 

Tools requirement/Annum 

30,000 20,690 

Equipment maintenance/annum 

10,000 6,897 

Total of salaries, equipment. Maintenance and 

tools 

320,000 220,690 

MANAGING WASTE 

Collection: 1,200 tons a day @GHc9.00 per ton 

*365 days 

Disposal: 900 tons a day @ GHc7.20 per ton 

*365 days 

Total: 

10% contingency 

Grand Total: 

Source: KMA WMD 

3,942,000 2,718,621 

2,365,200 1,631,172 

6,628,000 4,571,034 

662,800 457,103 

7,290,800 5,028,138 

32

A Water and Sanitation Needs Assessment for Kumasi, Ghana

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