Environmental and Health Benefits of the Cebu ... - Clean Air Initiative

Environmental and Health Benefits of 

the Cebu City BRT 

Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) Center 

In partnership with 

Urban Emissions Pvt Ltd 

Hong Kong Polytechnic University 

30 October 2012

©2012 Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities Center. All rights reserved. Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) 

Center, 2012. “Environmental and Health Benefits of the Cebu City BRT Corridor”. Pasig City, Philippines. 

© Cover photo from Integrated Transport Planning, Ltd. 

This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part in any form for educational or non-profit purposes without 

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Disclaimer 

The views expressed in this publication are those of CAI-Asia Center staff, consultants and management, and do 

not necessarily reflect the views of the Board of Trustees of the CAI-Asia Center. The CAI-Asia Center does not 

guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and does not accept responsibility for consequence 

of their use. 

Acknowledgments 

This study was conducted with funding from the Agence Francaise de Developpement and the invaluable support 

of these partners: the Cebu City Government, Environmental Management Bureau (Region 7), Department of 

Health (Region 7), Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Manila Observatory, University of San Carlos, and University 

of the Philippines Cebu. The main authors of this report are: Bert Fabian, Sudhir Gota, Atty. Glynda Bathan- 

Baterina, Dr. Wing-tat Hung, Prof. Frank Lee, Dr. Sarath Guttikunda, Benjamin Roa, and Donald Grospe. 

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About CAI-Asia 

CAI-Asia promotes better air quality and livable cities by translating knowledge to policies and actions that reduce 

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

Environmental and Health Benefits of the Cebu City BRT: Final Report 

Cebu City is set to become the first city in the Philippines to implement a more integrated public transport 

system with the planned Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) System. BRT systems, when implemented well, are able to 

provide mass transportation that effectively matches the supply of and demand for public transport at a 

lower cost compared to conventional rail-based mass transport systems. BRT systems also prioritize the 

integration of non-motorized transport into the system. In the case of Cebu City, better walking environment 

and pedestrian facilities are planned. Because of these features – prioritization of public transportation and 

integration of non-motorized modes, BRT systems can greatly mitigate air pollution and greenhouse gas 

emissions, and help make cities more livable. 

This study assessed the environmental and health benefits of the Cebu BRT system. It conducted: 

a) air sampling to determine baseline air quality along the proposed BRT corridor ; 

b) an analysis of the environmental benefits of the BRT corridor using the Transportation Emissions 

Evaluation Model for Projects (TEEMP) tools which have been adopted and used by several 

international organizations such as the Global Environment Facility (GEF), the Asian Development 

Bank (ADB) and the World Bank; and 

c) an analysis of the health benefits from the proposed BRT, using the Simple Interactive Models for 

better air quality (SIM-air) tools developed by UrbanEmissions.info and which have been applied to 

more than ten cities worldwide. 

Recommendations were also provided to set up an air quality monitoring system for the BRT corridor and on 

how to best communicate the environmental and health benefits of the BRT to the public. 

The roadside air quality monitoring at the two sampled locations (along the Escario-Osmeña Junction and 

along N. Bacalso Avenue near the South Bus Terminal) showed that fine particulates (PM2.5), carbon 

monoxide (CO), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), particularly benzene and 1,3 butadiene, are at elevated 

levels and higher than ambient air quality guidelines of the Philippine Department of Environment and 

Natural Resources (DENR) and the World Health Organization (WHO). It should be noted, though, that these 

measurements along the BRT corridor do not represent the ambient air quality conditions for the whole city 

and that roadside concentrations are usually higher than the ambient concentrations. 

The analysis of the potential environmental and other benefits of the BRT showed that: 

• Carbon dioxide (CO2) savings from the project is about 3,500 tons/km/year (average of low, high and 

feasible scenarios). When the land use impact of the BRT system is considered, savings could be 

about 8,000 tons/km/year (average of low, high and feasible scenarios). The savings are comparable 

to similar scale BRTs in Asia and elsewhere. The Feasibility Report (ITP, 2012) financed by the World 

Bank indicates savings of 3,700 to 8,500 tons/km/year. 

• Particulate matter (PM) savings from this project is around 167 to 239 tons or 0.5 to 0.75 

tons/km/year. The Gold standard BRT in Asia (i.e. Guangzhou BRT of 22.5 km) saves around 40 tons 

of PM over 10 years (i.e. 0.2 tons/km/year). 1 The Rio de Janeiro BRT saves around 0.1 to 0.3 tons 

1 http://www.itdp.org/documents/20110810-ITDP-GZBRTImpacts.pdf 

2


/km/year. 2 The Jakarta BRT corridor saves around 0.8 tons/km/year. 3 The higher savings in Cebu 

compared with Guangzhou and Rio de Janeiro is due to a large modal shift from jeepneys to the BRT 

and the high number of pre-Euro vehicles which still ply the roads of Cebu City. The PM savings are 

conservative because the analysis assumed that tighter vehicle emission standards would be 

enforced during the BRT’s operation resulting in a much cleaner fleet in Cebu. 

• Total nitrogen oxides (NOx) savings is in the range of 1,160 to 1,780 tons or 4 to 5.5 tons/km/year. In 

comparison, the Guangzhou BRT saves around 20 tons/km/year. The high savings in Guangzhou is 

due to the increase in mixed traffic speed parameter and high efficient buses being introduced as 

BRT buses (Euro IV). Rio de Janeiro BRT saves around 1 to 3 tons/km/year and Jakarta BRT corridor 

saves around 5.5 tons/km/year which is comparable to the Cebu BRT system. 

• One of the limitations of the study is the use of general emission factors based on literature survey 

and expert judgment as the Philippines does not have local emission factors for different vehicle 

types and equivalent emission standards. The government and other stakeholders should support 

development of local emission factors for deriving better emission estimates. However, the emission 

estimates used in this study are comparable with those in other Clean Development Mechanism 

(CDM) and other BRT projects. 

• In terms of vehicle kilometer travel reductions, the project over its 20-year lifecycle removes an 

equivalent of 20,000 to 30,000 new cars from the road; 600 to 1,000 2-stroke tricycles contributing 

to PM reductions; and 250 to 350 new pre-Euro buses contributing to NOx reductions. 

• The project costs US$60-90 for 1 ton of reduction of CO2. 

• The project over its lifetime saves more fuel and CO2 emissions than one to two years of fuel 

consumed and CO2 emissions produced by the transport sector in Cebu. 4 

• In terms of accident fatalities, the project over its lifecycle saves around 727 lives, almost as high as 

the Philippines’ annual traffic fatality. 

The estimated health savings from the planned BRT are: 

• Estimated total monetary savings ranging from US$94 to 137 million over 20 years of BRT operation 

(or US$4.7 to 6.8 million per year) from reduction of premature mortality, adult chronic bronchitis, 

child acute bronchitis, respiratory hospital admissions, cardiac hospital admissions, emergency room 

visits, asthma attacks, restricted activity days, and respiratory symptom days. 

• When impacts on land use are considered the total monetary savings is in the range of US$269-385 

million over the 20-year lifecycle of the BRT (or US$13 to 19 million per year). 

• To calibrate the Cebu BRT’s estimated PM emission reduction, the results were compared with 

several BRT systems. It is difficult to do a similar calibration with PM concentrations; to do so would 

require comparing Cebu City, a port city with high winds and with a proposed BRT of 10-16 km to a 

city with similar characteristics, but not, for example, with Bogota with different meteorological 

conditions and with hundreds of kilometers of BRT. 

• A limitation of the study is that the calculations are for emissions reduced from the BRT only. It did 

not conduct a total dispersion modeling with all the emission sources (i.e., mobile, stationary, area). 

2 http://164.67.121.27/files/UP/Posters%202012/26%20Lupita%20Ibarra.pdf 

3 http://esci-ksp.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/Energy-and-Environmental-Impacts-of-BRT-in-APEC-Economies.pdf 

4 http://www.climateinvestmentfunds.org/cif/sites/climateinvestmentfunds.org/files/Approval_by_Mail_CTF_Philippines_upda 

ted_investment_plan_Dec_2011.pdf 

3


There will be some reduction in the ambient concentrations from BRT, but to evaluate whether this 

brings the ambient concentrations to below national and WHO guidelines cannot be said. 

BRT + Area Traffic Control (ATC) Scenario 

As part of the Cebu BRT project, travel demand management measures are planned to be implemented including an Area 

Traffic Control (ATC) system. The pre-feasibility report (ITP, 2010) estimated considerably high emission savings from the 

BRT+ATC Scenario; the report suggests a cumulative impact of 9,700 tons of PM reductions (for period 2012 to 2035) which 

translates to 25 tons/km/year. It is unclear whether the pre-feasibility analysis considered the expected significant 

improvements in vehicle technology and fuel quality in this 24-year period based on current trends in the Philippines and also 

the ASEAN. 

The health savings resulting from the combined BRT+ATC scenario was estimated at US$2,181 million for the appraisal period 

of 2012 to 2035 or US$91 million per year for 24 years. It should be noted that the CAI-Asia project team did not conduct an 

analysis of the emissions savings from the BRT+ATC scenario. It used the estimated PM reductions from the pre-feasibility 

report (ITP, 2010) to estimate the health savings from BRT+ATC. Compared to estimated health savings only from the BRT 

which is the subject of this report, the BRT+ATC scenario yields considerably high health savings mainly because of the high 

emission savings estimates taken from the pre-feasibility report (ITP, 2010). 

4

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 


ADB Asian Development Bank 

AUV Asian Utility Vehicle 

AFD Agence Française de Développement 

BRT Bus Rapid Transit 

CBD Central Business District 

COPD Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 

CO Carbon monoxide 

CO2 

Carbon Dioxide 

EMB Environmental Management Bureau 

EU European Union 

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme 

URTI Upper respiratory tract infection 

GC/MSD Gas Chromatography/ Mass Selective Detector 

GEF Global Environment Facility 

NO2 

Nitrogen dioxide 

PM Particulate matter 

OC/EC Organic Carbon/ Elemental Carbon 

RH Relative Humidity 

SO2 

Sulfur Dioxide 

SIM-air Simple Interactive Models for better air quality 

TEEMP Transport Emissions Evaluation Models for Projects 

TVOC Total volatile organic compounds 

WHO World Health Organization 

5

CONTENTS 


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................................................................................................. 2 

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................................................... 5 

1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 7 

2. AIR QUALITY, TRANSPORT AND HEALTH IN CEBU .................................................................................... 8 

3. ASSESSMENT OF ROADSIDE AIR QUALITY IN CEBU CITY......................................................................... 17 

4. EMISSIONS REDUCTION FROM CEBU BRT .............................................................................................. 39 

5. HEALTH SAVINGS FROM CEBU BRT ......................................................................................................... 54 

6. COMMUNICATING BENEFITS OF THE CEBU BRT ..................................................................................... 63 

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................ 65 

ANNEX A. Bus Maintenance ........................................................................................................................ 67 

ANNEX B. Simplified Atmospheric Transport Modelling System (ATMoS-4.0) for the SIM-air tool ........... 70 

ANNEX C. Summary of Meteorological Fields over Cebu City .................................................................... 71 

6

1. INTRODUCTION 


Cebu City is planning a Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system to alleviate traffic congestion and provide an efficient 

and integrated public transport system. The Agence Francaise de Developpement (AFD) and the World Bank 

are contemplating financing the BRT system in Cebu. Beyond the construction and operation of the BRT 

system, the intention is to use the BRT development as a catalyst for improving other transport-related areas, 

including improved infrastructure for pedestrians in BRT catchment areas and reducing carbon dioxide (CO2) 

and air pollutant emissions. 

The Cebu City Government, the Philippine government, particularly the Department of Transportation and 

Communications (DOTC), and the World Bank, have conducted various studies to assess the feasibility of 

introducing the BRT system. A pre-feasibility study was completed in July 2010 and a detailed feasibility study 

financed by the World Bank Clean Technology Fund was completed in August 2012. The AFD financed several 

additional studies in support of the project, including this one. 

Upon the Cebu City Government’s request, the AFD supported this study to quantify the environmental and 

health benefits of the Cebu BRT project and to recommend actions to strengthen air quality management in 

Cebu City. It also particularly requested that air sampling be done at strategic points along the BRT corridor to 

determine the baseline air pollution levels. The study was conducted by the Clean Air Initiative for Asian 

Cities (CAI-Asia), in partnership with Urban Emissions Pvt Ltd, an air quality think-tank based in Delhi, and the 

Hong Kong Polytechnic University. 

This report provides an analysis of air samples taken along the proposed BRT corridor and estimates the 

emissions reduction and health impacts from the proposed Cebu BRT. Chapter 2 describes the air quality and 

transport situation, and previous air quality initiatives in Cebu City. Chapter 3 provides the air quality 

monitoring assessment and the proposed air quality monitoring plan for the BRT corridor. The estimated 

emission reduction from the BRT is provided in Chapter 4 and the impact of the BRT on air pollution and 

health are provided in Chapter 5. Chapter 6 suggests how the environmental and health benefits of the BRT 

could be best communicated. 

7


2. AIR QUALITY, TRANSPORT AND HEALTH IN CEBU 

Cebu City is the capital of Cebu province and is considered the second most significant metropolitan area in 

the Philippines. 5 Cebu City covers an area of about 315 km 2 and has 882,445 inhabitants in 2011; 6 while 

Metro Cebu, comprising of 10 cities and municipalities, covers an area of about 1,163 km 2 with about 

2,551,100 people. 7 In comparison, Metro Manila covers an area of about 636 km 2 with a population of 

11,855,975 according to the latest census. 8 

Motor vehicles registered in Region 7 (of which Cebu City forms part) increased by 15% from 2009 to 2011. 

Total registered vehicles in 2011 were 574,623. The registered fleet comprised of motorcycles/ tricycles 

(57%), utility vehicles (25%), cars (8%), trucks (6%), sports utility vehicles (4%), and trailers and buses (less 

than 1%) (Figure 1). 9 In 2011, Cebu Province accounted for 74% of motor vehicle registration renewals and 

83% of new motor vehicle registrations. 

Figure 1: Motor Vehicles Registered in Region 7 (2011) 

Source: EMB Region 7, 2012 

5 Cebu City is considered the second biggest growth center next to Manila. Kitakyushu Initiative, 2003 

6 S. Ygona. August 28, 2012 presentation on State of Health of Cebu City’s Population citing NSO 2010 survey 

7 Metro Cebu covers these cities and municipalities: Cebu City, Mandaue City, Lapu-Lapu City, Talisay City, Naga, 

Minglanilla, Liloan, Consolacion, Cordova, and Compostela. ITP. Study and Concept Plan for a Demonstration Bus 

Rapid Transit Corridor (Final Report v1). June 2010. 

8 National Statistical Coordination Board, 2010. Census of Housing and Population 

9 Presentation of A. Castillon (EMB-Region 7) at Roundtable on Air Pollution and Health (3 July 2012). Cebu City 

8


Among the challenges brought by Cebu City’s motorization are: traffic congestion, air pollution, decrease in 

public transport patronage, and high number of traffic accidents. 10 This Chapter describes the air pollution 

levels, contribution of the transport sector to air pollution, health situation with focus on air pollution-related 

illnesses, and an overview of previous air quality studies and projects in Cebu City to help address these 

challenges. 

Particulate matter (PM10) levels in Cebu City’s ambient air from 2008-2011, 11 and in the first quarter of 2012 

exceed the 60µg/m 3 Philippine guideline value (annual) and the 20µg/m 3 World Health Organization (WHO) 

air quality guideline (annual) (Figure 2). Reducing PM levels is a must because of the serious health effects of 

exposure to ambient particulate pollution which include an increased risk for respiratory and cardiovascular 

diseases and also increased short- and long-term mortality. 12 

Ambient levels of sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and ozone (O3) from 2003 to 2011 (Figures 3 to 

5) were below the Philippine and WHO air quality guidelines. 13 No data for SO2, NO2, and O3 are available for 

the first quarter of 2012 as the OPSIS Telemetry System of the DENR was not functioning. 14 

10 

UP-NCTS, undated 

11 

Mabolo air quality monitoring station records higher concentration compared to the Cebu Business Park 

monitoring station. Presentation of A. Castillon (EMB-Region 7) at Roundtable on Air Pollution and Health (3 July 

2012). Cebu City 

12 

WHO. Air Quality Guidelines – Global Update 2005. 2006 

13 

DENR, 2010; CAI-Asia; 2010 

14 

Presentation of A. Castillon (EMB-Region 7) at Roundtable on Air Pollution and Health (3 July 2012). Cebu City 

9

Figure 2. : Levels of PM 10 Concentration in Cebu 

City for the 1st Quarter of 2012, Source EMB 

Region 7, (modified) 

Figure 4. Levels of NO2 Concentrations in Cebu 

From 2003 to 2011, Source EMB Region 7 (modified) 

The National Ambient Air Quality Guideline Values (NAAQGV) in the 

PM10, total suspended particulates (TSP), SO 

Compared with the World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines, the NAAQGV for PM 

annual) and SO2 (24-hour) are more lenient (Tab 

relatively more stringent than the WHO Guideline whilst the CO and Pb NAAQGVs are generally comparable 

with the WHO Guidelines. 15 

The National Ambient Air Quality Guideline Values (NAAQGV) in the Philippine Clean Air Act comprise of 

, total suspended particulates (TSP), SO2, NO2, carbon arbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O3), (O and lead (Pb). 

Compared with the World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines, the NAAQGV for PM10 PM (24-hour and 

hour) are more lenient (Table 1). On the other hand, the 8-hour hour NAAQGV for O3 O is 

relatively more stringent than the WHO Guideline whilst the CO and Pb NAAQGVs are generally comparable 

15 

Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities, 2010 


Figure 3. : Levels of SO2 Concentration in Cebu City from 

2003 to 2011, Source EMB Region 7 (modified) 

Figure 5. Levels of O3 Concentrations in Cebu 

From 2003 to 2011, Source EMB Region 7 (modified) 

10


Table 1. NAAQGV vs. WHO Guidelines (µg/m 3 ) 

Pollutant Average Time NAAQGV WHO Guidelines 

PM10 24-hour 150 50 

Annual 60 20 

TSP 24-hour 230 - 

Annual 90 - 

NO2 1-hour - 200 

24-hour 150 - 

SO2 10-minute - 500 

1-hour - - 

O3 1-hour 140 

8-hour 60 100 

24-hour - 

CO 1-hour 35,000 30,000 

8-hour 10,000 10,000 

Pb 3-month 1.5 - 

Annual 1.0 0.5 

The transport sector is a major contributor to air pollution in Cebu City. The 2011 emissions inventory for 

Region 7, of which Cebu City forms part, shows mobile sources contributing significantly to PM (50%), SOx 

(49%) and CO (77%) emissions (Figure 6). 16,17 

100% 

90% 

80% 

70% 

60% 

50% 

40% 

30% 

20% 

10% 

0% 

PM SOx NOx CO VOC/TOG 

Figure 6. Emissions Inventory 2011 for Region 7 

Source: EMB Region 7, 2012 (based on CAI-Asia re-calculated figures) 

The health impact of air pollution in Metro Cebu was documented in the 2002 World Bank Environment 

Monitor for the Philippines. It valued the health impacts and cost of exposure to PM10 in Metro Areas in the 

16 The DENR Environmental Management Bureau-Region 7 conducts emissions inventories of air pollution sources 

for the Central Visayas region (Cebu City included) once every three years. PIA, 2011 

17 Presentation of A. Castillon (EMB-Region 7) at Roundtable on Air Pollution and Health (3 July 2012). Cebu City 

Area 

Mobile 

Stationary 

11


Philippines in 2001 to about US$432 million. And out of this, costs in Metro Cebu totals US$16 million while 

for Metro Manila, $US392 million. These estimates include excess deaths, chronic bronchitis, and respiratory 

symptoms. 18 

Cebu City Health Office data shows that top four of the ten leading causes of death in Cebu City in 2011 − 

cardiovascular diseases (29%), pneumonia (24%), neoplasms (including lung cancers) (12%), and pulmonary 

tuberculosis (TB) (6%) (Figure 7), may be related to or aggravated by air pollution levels. 19 Of the ten leading 

causes of illness in Cebu City in 2011, pneumonia and upper respiratory tract infections may be related or 

aggravated by air pollution levels. 

2% 

4% 

2%2%1% 

4% 

6% 

15% 

12% 

24% 

29% 

Cardiovascular diseases 

Pneumonia 

Neoplasms/ Cancers (Lung 

cancers – 76) 

Pulmonary TB 

Medico-legal cases 

End stage renal diseases 

Intra Uterine Fetal Death 

Diabetes Mellitus 

Diarrhea 

Bleeding Peptic Ulcer 

Disease 

Figure 7. Top 10 Leading Causes of Death in Cebu City for 2011 

Source: Cebu City Health Office, 2012 (based on CAI-Asia re-calculated figures) 

Trends in the number of respiratory-related deaths and illnesses, particularly pneumonia, bronchial asthma 

chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD), and lung cancer from 2007 to 2011 are plotted in Figure 8. 

Pneumonia deaths increased 120% from 2010 to 2011. Figure 9 shows the age distribution of the death 

cases. Pneumonia deaths are largest among the 15-64 years age group. Deaths from bronchial asthma occur 

most in the 50 to >65 years age group. COPD and lung cancer deaths occur most in the >65 years age group. 

Upper respiratory tract infection cases are on a steady rise from 28,390 in 2007 to 41,498 in 2011 (Figure 10). 

18 Simplified methodologies were used to calculate excess deaths, chronic bronchitis, and respiratory symptoms 

caused by PM10. The total cost caused by PM10 was estimated by multiplying the unit costs with the respective 

cases and then adding up the costs for different categories. It is expected that since only death, chronic bronchitis 

and respiratory symptoms caused by PM10 are included in the health damage estimation the total costs presented 

are conservative estimates of the total costs caused by air pollution. (World Bank, 2002. Philippines Environment 

Monitor: Air Quality) 

19 S. Ygona. August 28, 2012 presentation on State of Health of Cebu City’s Population 

12

8000 

6000 

4000 

2000 

Documented Number 

Pneumonia 

0 

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 

200 

150 

100 

50 

Cases Deaths 

0 

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 


1500 

1000 

0 

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 

Figure 8. Trends in Respiratory-related Deaths and Cases in Cebu City, 2007-2011 

Source: Cebu City Health Office, 2012 

100% 

90% 

80% 

70% 

60% 

50% 

40% 

30% 

20% 

10% 

0% 

COPD 

Cases Deaths 

PNEUMONIA BRONCHIAL 

ASTHMA 

Figure 9. Age Distribution of Deaths Due to Respiratory Disease for 2011 




500 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

Bronchial Asthma 

Cases Deaths 

Lung Cancer 

0 

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 

COPD LUNG CANCER 

Cases Deaths 

>65 yrs. 

50-64 yrs. 

15-49 yrs. 

5-14 yrs. 

1-4 yrs. 


45000 

40000 

35000 

30000 

25000 

20000 

15000 

10000 

5000 

0 


2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 

Figure 10. Upper Respiratory Tract Infection (URTI) cases, 2007 to 2011 


Map 1 shows the spatial relation of respiratory illnesses and deaths per barangay (village) in Cebu City and 

the planned Cebu BRT System. With emissions reductions anticipated from the planned Cebu BRT System, 

residents of these barangays would likely benefit from the improved air quality and reduced health impacts 

from roadside air pollution. 

14


Map 1. Respiratory Related Deaths for Selected Barangays in Cebu City, 2011 

Source: Data from Cebu City Health Office, 2012 

Previous foreign-assisted projects sought to strengthen Cebu City’s capacity to manage air quality (e.g., 

Kitakyushu City and PCAPI’s Metro Cebu Air Quality Monitoring Project in 2002, USAID Energy and Clean Air 

Project/ECAP 2004-2009). These projects helped set the foundation for science-based and participatory air 

quality management. The Air Quality Monitoring Project monitored the levels of a limited number of 

pollutants in several locations for five (5) months in Cebu City and nearby cities in 2002. The USAID ECAP, 

among others, supported stakeholders in the development of Clean Air Action Plan and the drafting and 

eventual approval of Cebu City’s Vehicle Emissions Control Ordinance (USAID ECAP, 2007). 

Previous studies also assessed air quality levels in Cebu City. A study conducted by Sinogaya and Galapate 

published in 2009 sampled NO2 and SO2 in the urban area of Metro Cebu (6 sampling sites) and remote sites 

(2 sampling sites). Higher NO2 levels were found in the urban sites compared to remote areas. NO2 levels at 

15


Jones Avenue (now called Osmeña Boulevard) consistently exceeded the maximum allowed value in the 

Philippine Clean Air Act. 20 

Ongoing and future initiatives in the City aimed at improving air quality and urban transport include the 

proposed Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system and the city’s anti-smoke belching campaign. 

Several important stakeholders (e.g., city government, church, youth, environment advocates) have openly 

expressed concern about the city’s air pollution and unsustainable transport woes. Among these civil society 

advocacies are the “Road Revolution Cebu” working for better public transport and pedestrian facilities and 

the “Movement for Livable Cebu” opposing recent plans for the construction of more flyovers. 

20 Sinogaya and Galapate. Spatial distributions and temporal variations of NO2 and SO2 in urban and remote sites in 

Cebu Metropolitan Area. Philippine Journal of Natural Sciences Vol 14 No 2 (2009) 99-112. 2009 

16


3. ASSESSMENT OF ROADSIDE AIR QUALITY IN CEBU CITY 

The project team took air samples along the proposed BRT route to determine the baseline roadside air 

quality, and assessed the existing air quality monitoring system in Cebu City. Based on these, an air quality 

monitoring plan for the Cebu BRT is proposed. 

3.1 Selection of air quality monitoring sites 

According to the Cebu BRT Feasibility Study (ITP, 2012), the proposed BRT route as shown in Figure 11 below 

consists of 16 kilometers from Bulacao to Ayala Shopping Mall. According to the Cebu City Traffic Operations 

Management (CITOM) and from site investigation by the project team, the busiest roads along the route are 

Escario Road and Osmeña Boulevard under the existing traffic conditions in terms of both vehicles and 

pedestrian flows. 

Figure 11. Proposed Bus Rapid Transit Route in Cebu 

Source: Environmental Impact Scoping Report for Cebu BRT Feasibility Study (ITP, February 2012) 

To identify suitable locations for the air sampling, the project team adopted these criteria: (a) the air quality 

to be measured be representative of the vehicular traffic emissions along the proposed BRT corridor; (b) 

there should be minimal disruption and disturbances owing to other activities such as loading/ unloading/ 

17


parking on the road to enable maximum data to be collected; and (c) there are no other major pollution 

sources, for example, factories and open burning, in the vicinity. 

With these criteria in mind, the project team performed a site investigation in June 2012 along the entire 

proposed BRT route to identify appropriate locations for the air sampling. Two locations, one at the signalcontrolled 

junction off Cebu Capitol and the other along a straight section of N. Bacalso Avenue off the South 

Bus Terminal were identified. Photographs of these two locations are shown in Figures 12 and 13 while 

Figure 14 shows the location of the sampling stations along the proposed BRT corridor. 

Figure 12: Location A at the Escario Road/ 

Osmeña Boulevard signalized controlled 

junction off Cebu Capitol 

Figure 13. Location B at the straight road section off 

the South Bus Terminal 

18


Figure 14. Location of Air Quality Sampling Stations 

Note: Figure is not to scale as sourced from Google Map 

3.2 On-site Air Sampling and Measurement 

Air sampling and measurements were carried out for three (3) hours during the morning and in the evening 

rush hours over three (3) days including on a weekend and weekdays. Table 2 presents the details of the 

sampling exercise. As such, indicative levels of the air quality with consideration to existing traffic conditions 

on both weekend and weekdays can be assessed. Table 3 shows the air pollutants sampled and the 

equipment used for air sampling. 

Table 2. Sampling Period 

Date Period Duration Location 

01 July 2012 (Sunday) Morning 0900–1200 A 

Evening 1730–1830 A 

02 July 2012 (Monday) Morning 0630–0930 A 

Evening 1730–2030 A 

03 July 2012 (Tuesday) Morning 0630–0900 B 

Evening 1700–2000 B 

19


The key objective of the air sampling was to measure the baseline air quality. For this purpose, three days of 

air sampling and measurements on two working days and a weekend day are sufficient. Students from the 

University of San Carlos Engineering Department and University of the Philippines Cebu, together with Cebu 

City Government staff participated in the air sampling and vehicle count. 

Figure 15. Air sampling and measurement off Cebu Capitol 

Table 3. Air Quality Monitoring Equipment Used 

Equipment/ Instrument Air Pollutant Sampled/ 

Measured 

Photograph 

TSI 8520 Dust Track Aerosol 

Portable Real-time Monitoring Equipment 

Particulate matter, with 

Monitor 

aerodynamic diameter ranging 

from 0.1 to 2.5 microns 

20

Q-track 8551 IAQ Monitor CO2, CO, temperature and 

humidity 

ppbRAE Plus TVOC Monitor Total volatile organic 

compounds (TVOC) levels, 

measured in parts per billion 

(ppb) 

Portable Sampling Equipment 

Airmetrics MiniVol Particulate Matter, with 

aerodynamic diameter less 

than 2.5 microns (PM2.5) 


21

Stainless Steel Canisters 

(Volume of 2.0 L) 


VOC toxic species 

The air pollutants measured were selected for specific reasons. Ultra-fine particulates (0.1 to 2.5 μm) were 

selected because these air pollutants are typical vehicular emissions that are most harmful to people’s 

health. CO2, CO, temperature and humidity were measured because CO2 is related to global warming, CO 

indicates the vehicle engine efficiency, and temperature and humidity affect formation of other pollutants. 

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were measured because some species of VOCs are toxic and 

carcinogenic; VOCs also contribute to photochemical reactions that form ozone and other pollutants. 

The equipment used for air sampling and measurement were of different types. Some measured and 

recorded data real-time (e.g., TSI 8520 Dust Track Aerosol Monitor, Q-track 8551 IAQ Monitor, ppbRAE Plus 

TVOC Monitor) while others collected samples requiring further analysis. Air samples collected using 

canisters needed to be further analyzed using Gas Chromatography/ Mass Selective Detector (GC/MSD) in 

the Hong Kong Polytechnic University laboratory. The Minivols captured PM samples using filters that needed 

to be further analyzed for Organic Carbon/ Elemental Carbon (OC/EC) composition. 

Vehicle composition surveys and vehicle flow counts were performed simultaneously with air sampling. The 

traffic information helps explain the variations of air quality. 

3.3 Results and Discussion 

A. Field Observations 

Table 4 presents observations during the course of the sampling exercise. The onsite conditions (i.e., 

weather conditions, traffic flow and others) may have influenced the air quality levels in the area at the time 

of sampling. 

Table 4. Site Observations during Sampling Exercise 

Date Period Duration Site Observations 

01 July 2012 

(Sunday) 

Morning 0900–1200 Intermittent rain showers from 0500 to 0800 prior to 

sampling start. 

Evening 1730–1830 Sampling was stopped due to change in weather (i.e., from 

22

02 July 2012 

(Monday) 

03 July 2012 

(Tuesday) 

B. Traffic Flow 


Morning 0630–0930 

drizzle to rain shower). 

No rain but the sky was overcast. 

Evening 1730–2030 Intermittent drizzles 

Morning 0630–0900 Clear skies with light to moderate winds (easterlysoutheasterly) 

Evening 1700–2000 Clear skies at first; heavy rain clouds blown by easterly winds 

started to cover the area around sunset (6PM), but it never 

rained during the sampling exercise. 

Figures 16 and 17 show the traffic flows in all directions near the Cebu Capitol (Location A) in the morning 

and evening peak on a Sunday (1 July2012) and a Monday (2 July2012). Referring to the Figures, traffic flow 

in vehicle per hour (veh/hr) at the Cebu Capitol on a Monday morning peak is much higher than that on 

Sunday, i.e., 11,610 veh/hr compared to 2,796 veh/hr. The corresponding evening peaks show very little 

difference, i.e., 3,533 veh/hr compared to 3,388 veh/hr. 

Two-wheelers are the major mode, followed by Asian Utility Vehicles (AUV)/Pick-up, Jeepneys, Taxis and 

Sedans. There is a very small number of buses. 

Figure 18 shows traffic flow in both directions near the South Bus Terminal (Location B) on a Tuesday (3 July 

2012) in both the morning and evening peak hours. There is not much difference in the morning and evening 

peak flow, i.e., 3,404 compared to 3,043 veh/hr. The major mode is again 2-wheelers, then taxis, multi-cabs 

and jeepneys. There are some buses as the location is just outside the South Bus Terminal. 

23

Figure 16. Traffic Flow off Provincial Capitol on Figure 17. Traffic Flow off Provincial Capitol on 

Sunday 

Monday 

C. Particulates 


Figure 18. Traffic Flow off South Bus Terminal on 

Tuesday 

PM2.5 concentrations were measured using the Mini-Volume sampler over a 3-hour hour period. This equipment 

measures PM using filters. 

The PM2.5 concentration off the Cebu Capitol is shown in Figure 19. The PM2.5 levels on both the weekend 

and weekday exceed the WHO air quality guideline (25 μg/m 

eight times higher than the WHO guideline value. 

3 levels on both the weekend 

for daily average); ; levels reached 200μg/m 200 

eight times higher than the WHO guideline value. 

3 , 

24

The PM2.5 concentration on Sunday is about 60% lower than that on Monday and especially in the evening, 

the difference could be more than 70%. This is most likely due to the traffic decrease on weekends. The 

traffic in the Monday morning peak was 11,610 vehicles per hour compared to 2,796 vehicles per hour on 

Sunday morning. Another factor which cannot be ignored is that it drizzled during the sampling period on 

Sunday; a relatively low PM2.5 might have been measured measured. 

Figure 19. PM2.5 Levels off Provincial Capitol 


Figure 20. PM2.5 Levels off Provincial Capitol 

(Location A) and South Bus Terminal (Location B) 

Figure 20 compares the PM2.5 levels at the two sites namely at Escario Road/ Osmeña Boulevard off the Cebu 

Capitol (Location A) and the straight road section off the South Bus Terminal (Location B). Location A has 31% 

and 51% more PM2.5 concentration than that of Location B at AM and PM periods respectively. The PM2.5 

levels at both sites exceed the World Heal Health Organization PM2.5 guideline values. . With reference to the traffic 

flows at these two locations, , traffic flows are much higher at Location A (particular particularly the number of 

Jeepneys). . Jeepneys in Cebu City, like most jeepneys in the Philippines, are diesel diesel-fueled and usually run on 

old second-hand engines which can be a major source of road roadside PM2.5 emissions. 

The graphs also compare air quality levels with the planned PM2.5 standard (75 μg/m 

24-hr average. The Philippines does not have any ambient PM 

led by Department of Environment and Natural Resources 

Guideline value for PM2.5. A draft administrative order 

3 ) for the Philippines for 

. The Philippines does not have any ambient PM2.5 standards. However, discussions are ongoing 

t of Environment and Natural Resources on the setting of National Ambient Air Quality 

A draft administrative order is pending approval. 

While air sampling was done at roadside, the air quality levels are compared with ambient ai air ai quality 

guidelines of the World Health Organization necessitating an explanation of how ambient air quality 

monitoring results are related with roadside air quality monitoring results. 

Ambient monitoring is an example of community-representative monitoring. ing. Monitoring sites are usually 

located beyond the zone of influence of a single source. . Pollutants from ambient air quality vary significantly 

25


from particulates, ozone, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), VOCs and carbonyls depending on the 

sources of pollutants. 

Roadside monitoring refers to measurement of pollution in a source zone of influence site which is commonly 

placed right next to and downwind (of prevailing wind) a suspected emissions source, such as a major 

roadway. Major types of air pollutants in the roadside air quality are gaseous, particulate and VOCs which are 

primarily from motor vehicles. As the measurements are taken close to the sources, primary pollutants 

including CO and NOx are measured. Roadside monitoring stations are commonly installed within 2-5 meters 

from the road. 

Roadside air pollutant levels are an important indicator of the effectiveness or impact of transport-related 

measures on air quality while ambient monitoring is an approximation of the short-term and long-term 

exposures of large numbers of people where they live, work, and play. 

The World Health Organization (WHO) has not established roadside air quality guidelines and very few 

countries have adopted any. The Philippines has no such standards. But in practice, air quality monitoring 

networks include measurements at both roadside and ambient air quality stations to quantify products from 

fossil fuel burning which contains regulated pollutants: particulate, NOx, NO2, SO2, CO, CO2 and O3 and 

unregulated pollutants: Benzene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene, M/p-xylene and 0-xylene (BTEX), formaldehyde and 

carbonyls which are toxic and carcinogenic. 

As the vehicle emissions are emitted and dispersed in the air (or atmosphere) which people breathe, roadside 

emission concentrations is compared to ambient air quality standards which are set to protect human health. 

This is especially useful if there are a large number of people exposed at the traffic areas for long periods of 

time. 

D. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) 

Figures 21 and 22 show the measured concentrations of two toxic species of VOCs, i.e., benzene and 1,3butadiene 

at the two sampling sites. Standards for individual VOCs (e.g., benzene) exist in Europe. European 

ambient air quality standards for benzene (5 μg/m 3 ) and 1,3-butadiene (2.4 μg/m 3 ) are adopted as references 

because the Philippines does not have guidelines for ambient levels of these pollutants. The mean 

concentrations of benzene at Location A and Location B are 2.13 μg/m 3 and 7.96 μg/m 3 . The mean 

concentrations of 1, 3-butadiene are 10.35 μg/m 3 and 1.44 μg/m 3 at Location A and B, respectively. Benzene 

and 1,3-butadiene are carcinogenic. The exceedance of the relevant standards indicates health threatening 

situations in both sites. 

26

Figure 21. Benzene Levels off Provincial 

Capitol (Location A) 

E. Carbon monoxide (CO) & Carbon dioxide ( (CO2) 


Figure 22. 1,3 Butadiene Levels off Provincial 

Capitol (Location A) and South Bus Terminal 

(Location B) 

Carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO (CO2) were measured in this study. CO2 is one of the important 

greenhouse gases and is produced by fuel combustion. Anthropogenic production by combustion of fossil 

fuel is the most important nt contributor of CO and CO CO2 in urban areas. CO can bind with hemoglobin in the 

lungs and form carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) decreasing the oxygen-carrying carrying capacity of the blood, reducing 

oxygen needed by body tissues and causing hypoxia. A recent study in Guangzhou, gzhou, one of the Chinese mega- mega 

cities, showed that per 0.5 ppm increase in the average lag 11–2 

2 (previous two days) exposure to CO was 

associated with 3.04%, 3.62% and 3.72% increases in excessive risks of total, cardiovascular and respiratory 

mortality. CO is mostly produced by the incomplete combustion of fossil fuel and biomass burning. In urban 

areas, , industrial emissions and vehicular emissions are the main contributor contributors to CO. 

In this study, the project team measured extremely high levels of CO and CO CO2 during the sampling period in 

July 2012 (Figures 23 to 26). ). The elevated CO CO2 levels in the roadside environments as well as the high traffic 

flow recorded definitely show that CO CO2 was mainly emitted by vehicles. The range of CO varied from 8-30 8 

parts per million (ppm) and 6-13 13 ppm at the two roadside stations, locations ocations A and B, respectively. The 

results of the instantaneous continuous measurements of CO are shown in Figures 25 and 26. The measured 

CO levels exceed National Ambient Air Quality Guideline Va Values of Philippines ines (NAAQGV, 9 ppm 8-hr 8 average) 

during weekends and weekdays. Although the results were based on three (3) days monitoring, CO levels at 

both sites were higher than those measured in the roadside environment in many other Asian cities (Bei (Beijing, (Bei 

Hong Kong, Seoul, Bangkok etc., ranging from


Cebu should not be neglected and it also calls for a more in-depth study on this subject matter. One obvious 

reason for high CO levels is the wide use of inefficient vehicle engines, either implying a lack in maintenance, 

use of outdated/obsolete engines, or vehicle overloading (i.e., overworked engines). 

Specific analysis has been conducted to determine the possible source of such high levels of CO. In this study, 

CO has evident correlations with CO2 in most cases at both sites (Figure 27). 

Location A: c(CO)= 0.0254 c(CO2) - 4.745, R² = 0.6426 (Weekend) 

c(CO) = 0.0229 c(CO2) - 5.5216, R² = 0.3666 (Weekday) 

Location B: c(CO) = 0.0437c(CO2) - 9.0247, R² = 0.5193 (Weekday) 

The correlations show the connection between CO and CO2, pointing to the contribution of vehicular 

emissions in the roadside environments. At Location A (off the Cebu Capitol), we observed similar ratios of 

ΔCO/ΔCO2, which were 0.0254 ppm/ppm and 0.0229 ppm/ppm. However, the ΔCO/ΔCO2 ratio at Location B 

(off the South Bus Terminal) was 0.0437 ppm/ppm, higher than that at Location A. It suggests that the 

emission of CO was higher at the roadside environment outside the bus terminal. In other words, many 

vehicles at this site have worse combustion efficiency. During the sampling period, the categories and 

numbers of the vehicles were noted. This site had more buses and the traffic speed was lower. The higher CO 

emissions would be attributed to the difference of driving patterns at the two sites. More vehicles off the bus 

terminal can easily cause worse traffic conditions which induce higher chance of incomplete fuel combustion. 

An effort to reduce traffic jam and to bring an unimpeded traffic flow would also be beneficial to the local air 

quality. 

28

CO 2 (ppm) 

1000 

900 

800 

700 

600 

500 

400 

300 


9:21:08 

9:41:08 

10:01:08 

10:21:08 

10:41:08 

11:01:08 

11:21:08 

11:41:08 

6:54:15 

7:14:15 

7:34:15 

7:54:15 

8:14:15 

8:34:15 

8:54:15 

9:14:15 

17:29:21 

17:39:21 

17:49:21 

17:59:21 

Morning, 1 st July 2012 Afternoon, 1 st July 2012 

Morning, 2 nd July 2012 

Afternoon, 2 nd July 2012 

17:21:46 

17:46:46 

18:11:46 

18:36:46 

19:01:46 

19:26:46 

19:51:46 

Figure 23. CO2 Concentrations off Cebu Capitol (Location A) on 1-2 July 2012 

CO 2 (ppm) 

500 

450 

400 

350 

7:00:26 

7:25:26 

7:50:26 

8:15:26 

8:40:26 

9:05:26 

9:30:26 

Figure 24. CO2 concentration off South Bus Terminal (Location B) on 3 July 2012 

CO 2 

1000 

900 

800 

700 

600 

500 

400 

300 

29

CO (ppm) 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

Morning, 2 nd July, 2012 


9:21:08 

9:41:08 

10:01:08 

10:21:08 

10:41:08 

11:01:08 

11:21:08 

11:41:08 

Morning, 1 st July, 2012 

6:54:15 

7:14:15 

7:34:15 

7:54:15 

8:14:15 

8:34:15 

8:54:15 

9:14:15 

17:24:21 

17:29:21 

17:34:21 

17:39:21 

17:44:21 

17:49:21 

17:54:21 

17:59:21 

18:04:21 

Afternoon, 1 st July, 2012 

Afternoon, 2 nd July, 2012 

17:21:46 

17:46:46 

18:11:46 

18:36:46 

19:01:46 

19:26:46 

19:51:46 

Figure 25. CO concentration off Cebu Capitol (Location A) during 1-2 July 2012 

CO (ppm) 

15.0 

12.5 

10.0 

7.5 

5.0 

7:00:26 

7:25:26 

7:50:26 

8:15:26 

8:40:26 

9:05:26 

9:30:26 

Figure 26. CO concentration off South Bus Terminal (Location B) on 3 July 2012 

CO 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

CO (ppm) 

30

CO (ppm) 


Figure 27. Relationship between CO2 and CO at both Locations A and B 

3.4 Air Quality Monitoring Action Plan 

30 

20 

10 

0 

Capitol July 1 

Capitol July 2 (am) 

Southbus Terminal 

400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 

CO 2 (ppm) 

To alleviate the current health threatening situation owing to heavy vehicular traffic, the proposed BRT 

system is expected to have health benefits from reduced traffic emissions. The reduction in air pollutant 

concentrations from the BRT system’s operation needs to be monitored and evaluated. 

Air quality monitoring done along the proposed BRT route serves as a good reference for future evaluation of 

the air quality improvement resulting from the proposed BRT system. The field study and interviews with 

environment authorities revealed that there is no existing air quality monitoring station close to the 

proposed BRT route in Cebu that can serve this evaluation purpose. 

• Cebu has one fixed ambient air quality monitoring station located at the University of San Carlos 

(Talamban Campus), about 7 kilometers from the city’s downtown area. This automatic ambient air 

quality monitoring station, an OPSIS Telemetry System, was installed in 2003 and uses open-path 

technology which measures these criteria pollutants: SO2, NO2, CO, O3, and PM10, and continuously 

reports average concentrations on an hourly basis. As of the interview with Environmental 

Management Bureau - Region 7 (EMB-Region 7) last July 2012, this monitoring station needs repairs 

and was not operating in the first quarter of 2012. 

• Two manual stations for PM10 are being operated by EMB-Region 7 at Ayala Cebu Business Park and 

Mabolo Police Station. The former is in a mixed commercial, institutional, and residential area while 

the latter is very close to the road leading to one of the huge commercial malls in the city. 

• Total suspended particle (TSP) levels are monitored by EMB-Region 7at two locations: EMB-Region 7 

premises and Naga City, a city in the southern part of Cebu Province which is home to a power plant 

and several industries. 

31


• In some reports and presentations, there is also mention of a manual station for PM10 in Cebu City 

(DENR National Air Quality Status Report, 2003-2004 & DENR, 2010). 

To this end, a new air quality monitoring system is recommended to be set up. Based on the information and 

data collected during the city visit, the following air quality monitoring plan is proposed. 

A. Air Quality Monitoring Station Locations 

There should be at least two air quality monitoring stations, ideally situated at the same locations as this 

baseline study, i.e., at the Escario Road / Osmeña Boulevard junction off the Cebu Capitol and at the straight 

road section outside the South Bus Terminal. These stations are along the proposed BRT route. Both 

vehicular and pedestrian traffic are typically heavy and there are no other significant air pollution sources 

nearby. Both locations have spaces for installing either fixed or stationary, or mobile air quality monitoring 

stations. 

B. Target Environmental Parameters and Pollutants 

CO, CO2, particulates and VOCs were monitored in this initial exercise. These are major air pollutants from 

vehicular exhausts. CO has acute impact while particulates and VOCs have longer term impacts on human 

health. CO can further reveal the combustion efficiency of engines and thus serves as a quick health check on 

the vehicles. CO2 is a greenhouse gas. Apart from these pollutants, NOx and SOx are common gaseous 

pollutants to be monitored as they are very often regulatory air pollutants. These two pollutants would 

reflect the engine combustion efficiency as well as the fuel quality. 

It is imperative for the authorities to define clearly the purposes of the future air quality monitoring stations. 

If these stations serve solely the purpose of assessing the environmental benefits of the proposed BRT 

system, the most critical air pollutants such as those monitored in this study would be sufficient. However, if 

these stations would eventually serve as permanent roadside air quality monitoring stations, all regulatory air 

pollutants stated in the Philippine Clean Air Act (Republic Act 8749) should be monitored. 

In any case, the common environmental parameters including temperature, relative humidity, wind speed 

and direction should be monitored. These parameters help explain spikes and low pollution incidents. 

C. Equipment and Methodology 

a. CO2, Temperature and Relative Humidity (RH) 

Portable Q-Trak monitor (Model 8551, TSI Inc.) is commonly used to monitor the roadside CO2 

concentrations, temperature and relative humidity. The CO2 analyzer is able to detect CO2 based on the 

mechanism of non-disperse infrared detection. This analyzer is equipped with a thermistor and a thin film 

capacitive sensor for temperature and relative humidity measurements. Before sampling, the Q-Trak is 

32


calibrated with span CO2 gas at a known concentration. Pre- and post-zero checking of this air monitor needs 

to be carried out. 

b. PM2.5 and Carbon 

PM2.5 sampling can be conducted by a pre-fired (900 o C, 3 h) 47 mm Whatman QM-A quartz-fiber filters, using 

a minivolume air sampler (Airmetrics, Eugene, OR, USA) at a flow rate of 5 L min -1 . The samplers are set upon 

desktops with about 1 meter above the ground. One field blank is collected at each site to subtract positive 

artifacts that result from passive adsorption of gas-phase organic compounds onto the filter during and/or 

after sampling. Meteorological data should be recorded. Quartz-fiber filters are analyzed gravimetrically for 

mass concentrations using a Sartorius MC5 electronic microbalance with ±1 μg sensitivity (Sartorius, 

Gottingen, Germany). These filters are weighed after 24-hour equilibration at temperature between 2 o C and 

23 o C and relative humidity (RH) between 35% and 45% following the US Environmental Protection Agency 

(USEPA) methodology. Each filter is weighed at least three (3) times before and after sampling. The 

difference among the three (3) repeated weightings has to be less than 10 μg for a blank filter and less than 

20 μg for a sampled filter. 

For thermal/optical carbon analysis, a 0.5 cm 2 punch from the filter is analyzed for eight (8) carbon fractions 

following the Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments (IMPROVE) thermal/optical 

reflectance (TOR) protocol on a DRI model 2001 carbon analyzer (Atmoslytic Inc., Calabasas, CA). This 

produces four Organic Carbon (OC) fractions (OC1, OC2, OC3, and OC4 at 120°C, 250°C, 450°C, and 550°C, 

respectively, in a helium [He] atmosphere); Optical Pyrolysis (OP) is a pyrolyzed carbon fraction determined 

when reflected or transmitted laser light attained its original intensity after oxygen [O2] is added to the 

analysis atmosphere; and three Elemental Carbon (EC) fractions (EC1, EC2, and EC3 at 550°C, 700°C, and 

800°C, respectively, in a 2% O2/98% He atmosphere). IMPROVE_TOR OC is operationally defined as OC1 + 

OC2 + OC3 + OC4 + OP and EC is defined as EC1 + EC2 + EC3-OP. 

c. Instantaneous PM2.5 

A Dust-Trak air monitor (Model 8520, TSI Inc.) can be used to measure the instantaneous PM2.5 

concentrations. The Dust-Trak is an optical instrument that detects particles in the air matrix by optical 

scattering, using the optical diameter instead of the aerodynamic diameter. Therefore, a separate calibration 

has to be carried out to convert the Dust-Trak data into corresponding concentrations obtained by the 

gravimetric method. The dust monitor measures PM10 at 1-min interval at a flow rate of 1.7 L/min. Pre- and 

post-zero checks of the Dust-Trak monitor has to be carried out. Before each measurement, the Dust-Trak is 

re-zeroed. 

d. TVOCs 

A ppbRAE monitor (Model PGM 7240, RAE Systems, Sunnyvale, CA, USA) can be used to measure TVOC 

concentrations. The ppbRAE monitor is an advanced VOC gas monitor and its Photo-ionization Detector (PID) 

has a detection range from 1 ppb to 10,000 ppm. The ppbRAE TVOC monitor has to be calibrated using a 

calibration gas (isobutylene) with a known concentration of 10 ppm supplied by the manufacturer. 

33

e. VOCs species 


Sampling and analysis of VOCs are conducted in accordance with the USEPA Method TO-14. A batch of clean 

canisters for VOCs sample collection is evacuated before sampling. The SUMMA® canisters are cleaned for 

five times by sequential evacuating and pressurizing with humidified zero air. Background checks are 

performed on 25% of the cleaned evacuated canisters to clarify that the concentrations of all target 

compounds are less than 0.2 ppbv. Collected samples are analyzed using a combined cryogenic concentrator 

(NUTECH 3350A, USA) with gas chromatograph (HP 6891A) fitted with mass selective detector (MSD) (HP 

5973). 250 ml of sample is loaded and the target compounds are trapped in the cryogenic concentrator with 

liquid nitrogen. The analytes are desorbed rapidly from -190 o C to 150 o C. For GC/MS, a capillary column 

(Restek RTX-1 column, 60 m × 0.32 mm ID × 0.3 μm) is used with an initial oven temperature of -30 to 80 o C 

at a rate of 10 o C min -1 and then is raised to 220 o C at a rate of 5 o C min -1 . Target VOCs are then identified 

from the mass spectra and quantified by multipoint calibration. A total of 42 VOC species are identified by 

the GC/MSD (Gas Chromatography/ Mass Selective Detector) system. The calibration system used TO-14 

standard calibration gas (Toxi-Mat-14M Certified Standard, Matheson) at nominal concentrations of 1 ppmv 

in nitrogen to be diluted with nitrogen using Dynamic Dilution Calibrator-Model 700 (Advanced Pollution 

Instrumentation, Inc.). A multipoint dynamic calibration (three levels plus zero air) is performed. 

Table 5 lists the proposed equipment for future air quality monitoring in Cebu City. The costs of equipment 

(low, medium and high cost, respectively) are estimated. There are three purchasing options of set-up for 

each monitoring station, i.e., low, medium and high costs which amount to US$83,672, US$117,850, and US 

$294,869 respectively. 

Generated data quality is better with better equipment. For low cost equipment, it is acceptable for short 

term monitoring but not good for long-term ambient air quality study. For example, Dust-Trak air monitor 

(Model 8520, TSI Inc.) can be used to measure the instantaneous PM2.5 concentrations, but a separate 

calibration has to be carried out to convert the Dust-Trak data into corresponding concentrations obtained by 

the gravimetric method because Dust-Trak is an optical instrument that detects particles in the air matrix by 

optical scattering. Medium and high cost equipments are much more stable and can produce reliable data for 

long-term monitoring. Besides, regular maintenance and calibration are essential to ensure data quality and 

method precision. 

For rental option, the annual rental fee for each category of equipment would be at least 30% of the 

purchasing costs. 

Moreover, an average of 10% of the total purchasing costs should be reserved for equipment maintenance 

(calibration cost, replaceable accessories and equipment shipping fee) annually. 

34

Measured Parameters 

PM2.5 Filter-based Particle 

Mass 

PM2.5 online monitoring 

CO2 

CO 

SO2 

NO-NO2-NOx 

TVOCs 


Table 5. Proposed Monitoring Equipment and Estimated Costs 

Type Equipment Type Estimated 

Cost (in USD) 

Low Cost BGI from OMNI TM Ambient Air Sampler 5,468 

Medium Cost Mini-volume Sampler 6,410 

High Cost URG 3000A Sampler 64,102 

Low Cost Dust Trak 3,846 

Medium Cost MetONe E-BAM 16,025 

High Cost TEOM 64,102 

Low Cost Q-trak (Model 8551, TSI Inc. 3,846 

Medium Cost LI-COR CO2 Analyzer 5,673 

High Cost Thermo Scientific CO2 monitor 12,820 

Low Cost Q-trak (Model 8551, TSI Inc. 3,846 

Medium Cost 2B CO monitor 6,410 

High Cost Thermo Scientific CO 12,820 

Low Cost 2B SO2 Monitor 6,410 

Medium Cost ECTHCO SO2 Monitor 12,820 

High Cost Thermo Scientific SO2 monitor 25,641 

Low Cost 2B NOx Monitor 6,410 

Medium Cost ECTHCO SO2 Monitor 12,820 

High Cost API NOx monitor 25,641 

Low & Medium 

Cost 

ppbRAE monitor 7,692 

High Cost Thermo Scientific NMHC 38,461 

Low & Medium 

Cost 

Canister GC/MS Analysis 50,000 

35


Speciated VOCs High Cost Online-GC/FID Analysis 51,282 

Estimated Equipment 

Cost 

Purchase Cost Low cost equipment for each monitoring sites 87,518 

Equipment Rental 

Fee 

Medium cost equipment for each monitoring 

sites 

117,850 

High cost equipment for each monitoring sites 294,869 

Low cost equipment for each monitoring sites 25,101.60 

Medium cost equipment for each monitoring 

sites 

D. Establishment of Management Structure and Training of Staff 

35,355.00 

High cost equipment for each monitoring sites 88,460.70 

Air quality monitoring has to be performed by trained personnel comprising management and technical 

people. The minimum staffing should include one (1) manager, one (1) technical officer and one (1) field 

officer. The basic tasks for each staff member are: 

Manager 

• Responsible for the implementation and control of the data collection management system 

• Responsible for verifying data reports before release 

• Responsible for communication of results to the public 

• Monitors and advises on all aspects of quality in the station 

• Responsible for the technical operation of the quality assurance and oversees system audits, 

system review and data audits 

• Responsible for verifying that corrective actions arising from performance audit, system audit 

and system review are implemented and completed 

• Oversees the preparation and updating of the QA/QC Manual and manuals for quality assurance 

and audits 

• Ensures that all members of technical staff are properly trained 

• Reports to top management on the performance of the management system and any need for 

improvement 

Technical Officer 

• Responsible for the technical operations of field stations, technical operation of the data 

processing and maintenance laboratory in accordance with the management system and policy 

• Responsible for the preparation and updating of the data processing procedure and data 

validation manuals 

36


• Reviews and evaluates feedback on the operations of field stations, data processing and 

maintenance laboratory and initiates corrective actions as required 

• Oversees the preparation and updating of quality control and associated technical manuals 

• Ensures that all quality control procedures are followed, including use of standards, calibration, 

precision checks, and proper equipment maintenance and servicing 

• Oversees the preparation and updating of site reports for fixed monitoring stations 

Field Officer 

• Responsible for the operation of monitoring stations, following the procedures of air quality 

monitoring field operation 

• Responsible for the acquisition and acceptance of field operation equipment and consumables 

• Implements all quality control procedures including use of standards, calibration, precision 

checks, and proper field maintenance and servicing 

• Responsible for the validation of measured air quality data 

• Investigates abnormal measured air quality data 

• Compiles and updates the relevant annexes of QA/QC manual on equipment operating 

procedures 

• Provides support to conduct siting review for the monitoring stations 

• Provides feedback and technical evaluation on field operation and proposes corrective action 

• Trains technical staff (if available) on field operation 

Setting up of the air quality monitoring system also requires (a) formulation of codes of practices, equipment 

operation manual, data processing manual as well as quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) procedures 

and (b) staff training through short courses. 

The Cebu City Environment and Natural Resources Office (CCENRO) is to be consolidated with its other 

environment-related offices such as the Clean Air Law Enforcement Office, the Mines and Quarries Section of 

the City Planning and Development Office, the Coastline Management Board, Solid Waste Management 

Board, Bantay Dagat Commission, Cebu City Rivers Management Council and City Mining Regulatory Board, 

and the City Environmental Sanitation Enforcement Team. The Cebu City Mayor Michael Rama signed an 

executive order on 16 February 2011 to this effect and to arm the consolidated CCENRO with a budget of P7 

million. As of September 2012, such consolidation has yet to be implemented; the CCENRO only had one staff 

member. 

There are at least two universities in Cebu City with one or two faculty members who have experience in air 

quality monitoring and air quality modelling and who were involved in previous air quality research in the 

city. These are the University of the Philippines Cebu and the University of San Carlos. These universities 

could support the Cebu City Government in conducting air quality research. They could be engaged to 

perform the air quality monitoring function while the Cebu City Government has yet to form its air quality 

monitoring team. 

The Environmental Management Bureau Region 7 of the DENR also has staff of five persons involved in air 

quality management. Most of the EMB-7 staff, however, hold multiple responsibilities and are not dedicated 

37


to air quality management. EMB-7 mobilizes the airshed governing board, an inter-agency and multi-sectoral 

board created under the Philippine Clean Air Act. The airshed governing board has been quite active in antismoke 

belching operations and this year, it included as a priority a focus on the health impacts of air 

pollution. The City should continue to be actively involved in the airshed governing board as it will need the 

cooperation of the regional offices of national government agencies and other stakeholders who are 

members of the board to manage its air quality – the EMB-7, LTFRB-7, LTO-7, academe and non-government 

organizations. 

In summary, it is recommended that: 

• The city sets up at least two air quality monitoring stations along the BRT corridor to monitor air 

quality levels along the corridor; the cost of which could be integrated as part of the investments for 

the BRT system. 

• If these stations serve solely the purpose of assessing the environmental benefits of the 

proposed BRT system, the most critical air pollutants such as those monitored in this study 

would be sufficient (PM2.5, CO, CO2, and VOCs). However, if these stations would eventually 

serve as permanent roadside air quality monitoring stations, all regulatory air pollutants stated 

in the Philippine Clean Air Act (Republic Act 8749) should be monitored. In any case, the 

common environmental parameters including temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and 

direction should be monitored. These parameters help explain spikes and low pollution 

incidents. 

• An air quality monitoring team of at least three staff (Manager, Technical Officer, and Field Officer) 

be created as part of the consolidated CCENRO. 

• The city enters into a memorandum of agreement or understanding with academic institutions such 

as the University of the Philippines Cebu and the University of San Carlos to conduct joint air quality 

monitoring research. 

• The city continues to actively engage the airshed governing board in integrated air quality 

management in the region. 

38

4. EMISSIONS REDUCTION FROM CEBU BRT 

4.1 TEEMP Description 


Estimating emissions from transport is an important element in analyzing current and future transport 

scenarios in cities. Currently, cities embark on investing in transport infrastructure without adequately 

estimating the repercussions on the environment and climate. Traditional tools and methodologies for 

evaluating the emissions impacts of such projects require a lot of time, data and huge financial resources. 

Methodologies and tools that enable the rapid yet sound assessment of emission impacts of transport 

projects, such as simple excel-based models, using readily available data, are needed. 

In 2010, the CAI-Asia Center, together with Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (ITDP), Asian 

Development Bank (ADB), Cambridge Systematics and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) – 

Global Environment Facility (GEF) Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel, developed the excel-based, free-ofcharge 

spreadsheet models collectively called as “Transport Emissions Evaluation Models for Projects” 

(TEEMP). The TEEMP tools were initially developed for evaluating the emissions impacts of ADB's transport 

project and have been modified and extended for GEF projects. 21 In the current form, it can be easily applied 

for evaluating the ex-ante impacts of various transport measures at project level. To date, TEEMP has been 

used in more than twenty (20) cities to evaluate the impact of various types of transport projects including 

BRT. 

Data used for the TEEMP application to the planned Cebu City BRT System were as follows: 

• Project duration – Project analysis is carried out for 20 years. For the analysis, the starting year is 

assumed as 2015 and horizon year as 2034. 

• Ridership Projections – On the start of project BRT ridership, the BRTS Report “Study and Concept 

Plan for a Demonstration Bus Rapid Transit Corridor (2010)” suggests two demand forecasts − one a 

high case, which showed daily patronage of 352,266, and, a low case of 220,934. The two cases vary 

according to attraction of riders from existing jeepneys based on implementation of regulations to 

accommodate the BRT. Based on experience from different public transport projects around the 

world, the ridership projections are always very optimistic and actual ridership is much lesser than 

the projections. The project team considered the ridership projections for “high” and “low” scenarios 

and developed the emission analysis for these scenarios. However, the Draft Final Report for 

Feasibility Study for BRTS corridor or the Cebu BRT Feasibility Report (ITP, 2012) suggests a single 

scenario with BRT ridership of 330,000, thus, along with “low” and “high” scenario – a new scenario 

called “feasible” scenario was developed. 

The Feasibility Report (ITP, 2012) and the Study and Concept Plan for a Demonstration Bus Rapid 

Transit Corridor (ITP, 2010) suggest an annual growth rate of 4.3% and the same has been assumed 

for ridership projections. 

21 See http://www.thegef.org/gef/node/4638 

39

Thousands 

900.00 

800.00 

700.00 

600.00 

500.00 

400.00 

300.00 

200.00 

100.00 

0.00 

2015 

2016 

2017 

2018 

2019 

2020 


Ridership Projections 

2021 

2022 

2023 

2024 

Figure 28. Ridership Projections 

• Existing Trip Mode Share – Jeepneys currently carry the major traffic load with 65% of passenger 

trips. Two wheelers account for 17% and the remaining share is contributed by cars at 13% and taxis 

at 5%. It is interesting to note that: (a) Cars carry just 13% of trips despite accounting for about 30% 

of the vehicles on the corridor; and (b) In the absence of formal public transport modes, para-transit 

modes such as jeepneys account for 65% of trips while accounting for only 22% of the vehicles on the 

corridor. 

With BRT being introduced in the city, there would be substantial mode shift to BRT from existing 

transport modes based on many factors. The report on “Study and Concept Plan for a Demonstration 

Bus Rapid Transit Corridor” (ITP, 2010) suggests that motorization would increase in the absence of 

public transport improvement; car usage would increase by 45.5% between 2010 to 2020. The 

proposed trip growth rate from 2010 to 2020 is 50% for private trips and 26% for public trips. 

The mode shift to BRT from other modes as projected by the report on “Study and Concept Plan 

for a Demonstration Bus Rapid Transit Corridor” (ITP, 2010) is shown below. 

2025 

2026 

Low Scenario High Scenario 

2027 

2028 

2029 

2030 

2031 

2032 

2033 

2034 

40


Table 6. Mode Shift to BRT from other Modes 

Low Case High Case 

Car 5% 

Taxi 30% 

Jeepney 60% 90% 

2 Wheeler 10% 

Source: ITP, 2010. Study and Concept Plan for a Demonstration Bus Rapid Transit Corridor for Cebu City 

Considering the experience from other cities, the current mode share in Cebu City, future 

motorization growth rates, the modes shift to BRT for “high,” “low” and “feasible” scenarios are 

considered as shown below. 

Table 7. Assumed Mode Shift (%) to BRT 

2015 2024 2034 

Car 14 16 19 

2-wheeler 18 21 25 

Taxi 5 4 4 

Jeepney 63 58 53 

The above mode shift considered motorization growth rates of 5% private and 2.6% public, and 

forecasting mode shares over the 20-year project lifecycle. The main difference between these 

assumptions and the values given in the report on “Study and Concept Plan for a Demonstration Bus 

Rapid Transit Corridor” (ITP, 2010) is the relatively higher shift to BRT from Cars when compared to 

Taxis. Taxis are mainly used for non-work commuting (i.e. social and shopping), and thus it is more 

logical to assume shift from trips for commuting for work than for shopping. The Cebu BRT Feasibility 

Report (ITP, 2012) suggests a shift of 95% from jeepney to BRT. Such a high shift from existing public 

transport mode to BRT is difficult considering experience in existing BRT systems and hence not 

considered in the analysis. 

• Existing trip length – Considering that the BRT route is 16 km, the trip length of BRT passengers is 

assumed as 6 km and the BRT impact by mode shift is calculated using 6 km average trip length. 22 

• Speed (kilometer/hour)–In the previous report on “Study and Concept Plan for a Demonstration Bus 

Rapid Transit Corridor” (ITP, 2010) cites that: 

“In the travel speeds of selected corridors in Cebu City by time of day were surveyed by CITOM in 

2005. The travel speeds of Osmeña Boulevard towards the coastal area ranged from 7 kph to 17 kph 

while the travel speed of Juan Luna St. ranged from 4 kph to 18 kph. From the coastal area, the travel 

speeds of Osmeña Boulevard had a similar range from 6 to 17 kph while the same was true for Juan 

Luna with a range of 4 to 21 kph.” 

22 Different modes have different trip lengths. When a shift from different modes to BRT occurs, there are additional trips 

generated due to transfer to stations. Such trips are neglected. 

41


The speeds provided are journey speeds which account for stoppages and considering the speeds at 

peak hour, an average speed of 18 kph over the project life has been utilized for study computations. 

The BRT average speed has been considered as 25 kph based on the study. The TEEMP models use 

the average speeds and factor the emission factors proposed for 50 kph and replicate the impact at 

project speeds. 

4.2 Fuel Type, Emission Standards and Emission Factors (PM & NOx) 

In order to capture the impact of the proposed BRT on emissions, the current vehicle emission and fuel 

quality standards roadmap needs to be considered for a more representative estimate of the future. Data on 

vehicle technology penetration and fuel split are also needed to gauge fleet renewal. In absence of such data, 

the impact of BRT on emissions (PM, NOx) would be very high. However, it is to be noted that the Philippines 

has developed a roadmap for vehicle emission standards improvement by mandating the move to Euro 4 

vehicle emission standards and equivalent fuel quality (50ppm sulfur in gasoline and diesel) by 2016; it is 

expected that vehicles would emit less when compared to what they emit now. 

Under the National Environmentally Sustainable Transport (EST) framework, other tail-pipe policies like 

inspection and maintenance would improve over time and thus the emissions profile from vehicles and fuel 

quality would improve irrespective of the BRT implementation. In order to capture this impact, the fuel split 

and emission standards distribution of vehicles are considered based on vehicle parc data obtained from a 

previous study by CAI-Asia and ADB titled “Transport and Carbon Dioxide Emissions: Forecasts, Options 

Analysis, and Evaluation” (2009). 23 Under the CAI-Asia and ADB study, vehicle market research company 

Segment Y, Ltd 24 projected fleet renewal and projections for “vehicles on road” for many countries including 

the Philippines. Tables 8 and 9 provide the vehicle fuel mix and the vehicle technology standards mix 

assumptions. The 2015 mix are assumed as the same as of the present time. 

Private 

Public 

Table 8. Vehicle Fuel Mix Assumptions 

2015 2024 2034 

Petrol Diesel LPG Petrol Diesel LPG Petrol Diesel LPG 

Car 86% 14% 72% 28% 58% 32% 

2-wheeler 100% 100% 100% 

Taxi 10% 90% 10% 90% 10% 90% 

3-wheeler 100% 100% 100% 

Bus 100% 100% 100% 

Jeepney 65% 35% 41% 59% 23% 77% 

BRT 100% 100% 100% 

23 http://cleanairinitiative.org/portal/node/6775 

24 http://www.segmenty.com/ 

42

Private 

Public 


Table 9. Vehicle Technology Emissions Standards Split Assumptions 

Vehicle Type 

Pre-Euro 

Euro I 

Technology Split (%) 

2015 2024 2034 

Euro II 

Euro IV 

Pre-Euro 

Car 25% 17% 11% 47% 5% 95% 100% 

2-wheeler 100% 100% 100% 

Taxi 25% 17% 11% 47% 5% 95% 100% 

3-wheeler 1% 99% 100% 100% 

Bus 53% 5% 42% 8% 1% 91% 100% 

Jeepney 43% 13% 10% 34% 4% 2% 3% 91% 100% 

BRT 100% 100% 100% 

It is interesting to note that the latest communication from the BRT authorities suggest that Euro IV BRT 

buses would be used from 2015 onwards and hence in the “feasible scenario” all “Euro IV” BRT buses have 

been considered. 

Currently, the Philippines does not have local vehicle emission factors. Researchers use emission factors 

based on sample dynamometer studies, external literature and expert judgment. In this project, emission 

factors for PM and NOx emissions are considered based on a review of literature and Global Environment 

Facility (GEF) default values generated by CAI-Asia and ITDP. The studies considered for generating emission 

factors are: 

a. GEF, 2011. Manual for Calculating Greenhouse Gas Benefits of Global Environmental Facility 

Transportation Projects (GEF-STAP) 

b. ADB, 2009. Transport and Carbon Dioxide Emissions: Forecasts, Options Analysis, and Evaluation 

(ADB) 

c. Biona, et.al, 2007. Energy use and emissions of two stroke-powered tricycles in Metro Manila 

d. Biona, et.al, 2008. Fuel cycle analysis based evaluation of the fuel and emissions reduction potential 

of adapting the hybrid technology to tricycles 

e. International Energy Agency (IEA) Sustainable Mobility Project (SMP) Model 

f. Traffic and Transport Planners (TTPI), 2010. A strategic approach to climate change in the Philippines: 

an assessment of low-carbon interventions in the transport and power sectors – final report. April 

2010 

g. CAI-Asia and ITPS, 2010. International Study of Transport Systems in a Low Carbon Society: Southeast 

Asian Region 

h. Automotive Research Association of India (ARAI) - Emission Factor Development for Indian Vehicles 

i. Developing Integrated Emissions Strategies for Existing Land (DIESEL) Project Bangkok, Thailand. 

Euro I 

Euro II 

Euro IV 

Pre-Euro 

Euro I 

Euro II 

43 

Euro IV

Private 

Public 

Private 

Public 

Private 

The table below summarizes the emission factors assumed in this project 

Pre-Euro 

Euro I 


Table 10. Emissions factors used in the project 

PM Emission Factor (g/vkm) – Gasoline 

2015 2024 2034 

Euro II 

Euro IV 

Average 

Pre-Euro 

Euro I 

Car 0.01 0.01 0.01 

2wheeler 

0.06 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.02 0.02 

Taxi 

3- 

0.01 0.01 0.01 

wheeler 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.02 

Bus 0.01 0.01 0.01 

Jeepney 0.01 0.01 0.01 

BRT 0.01 0.01 0.01 

Pre-Euro 

Euro I 

Euro II 

Euro IV 

Average 

PM Emission Factor (g/vkm) – Diesel 

2015 2024 2034 

Euro II 

Euro IV 

Average 

Pre-Euro 

Euro I 

Car 0.15 0.06 0.02 0.05 0.07 0.15 0.06 0.02 0.05 0.05 0.15 0.06 0.02 0.05 0.05 

2wheeler 

0.06 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.02 0.02 

Taxi 

3- 

0.15 0.06 0.02 0.05 0.07 0.15 0.06 0.02 0.05 0.05 0.15 0.06 0.02 0.05 0.05 

wheeler 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.02 0 

Bus 2.01 0.61 0.15 0.05 1.12 2.01 0.61 0.15 0.05 0.21 2.01 0.61 0.15 0.05 0.05 

Jeepney 0.66 0.48 0.1 0.05 0.37 0.66 0.48 0.1 0.05 0.08 0.66 0.48 0.1 0.05 0.05 

BRT 2.01 0.61 0.15 0.05 0.15 2.01 0.61 0.15 0.05 0.05 2.01 0.61 0.15 0.05 0.05 

Pre-Euro 

Euro I 

Euro II 

Euro IV 

Average 

NOx Emission Factor (g/vkm) – Gasoline 

2015 2024 2034 

Euro II 

Euro IV 

Average 

Pre-Euro 

Euro I 

Car 0.95 0.2 0.12 0.05 0.31 0.95 0.2 0.12 0.05 0.05 0.95 0.2 0.12 0.05 0.05 

2wheeler 

0.05 0.54 0.54 0.05 0.54 0.54 0.05 0.54 0.54 

Euro II 

Euro IV 

Average 

Pre-Euro 

Pre-Euro 

Pre-Euro 

Euro I 

Euro I 

Euro I 

Euro II 

Euro II 

Euro II 

Euro IV 

Euro IV 

Euro IV 

Average 

Average 

Average 

44

Public 

Private 

Public 


Taxi 

3- 

0.95 0.2 0.12 0.09 0.33 0.95 0.2 0.12 0.09 0.09 0.95 0.2 0.12 0.09 0.09 

wheeler 0.2 0.53 0.53 0.2 0.53 0.53 0.2 0.53 0 

Bus 

Jeepney 0.95 0.2 0.09 0.03 0.45 0.95 0.2 0.09 0.03 0.07 0.95 0.2 0.09 0.03 0.03 

BRT 

NOx Emission Factor (g/vkm) – Diesel 

2015 2024 2034 

Pre-Euro 

Euro I 

Euro II 

Euro IV 

Average 

Pre-Euro 

Euro I 

Car 0.45 0.49 0.28 0.1 0.27 0.45 0.49 0.28 0.1 0.11 0.45 0.49 0.28 0.1 0.1 

2wheeler 

Taxi 

3wheeler 

0.45 0.49 0.28 0.1 0.27 0.45 0.49 0.28 0.1 0.11 0.45 0.49 0.28 0.1 0.1 

Bus 6.24 6.66 6.24 3.9 5.28 6.24 6.66 6.24 3.9 4.11 6.24 6.66 6.24 3.9 3.9 

Jeepney 1.71 1.6 0.82 0.8 1.3 1.71 1.6 0.82 0.8 0.85 1.71 1.6 0.82 0.8 0.8 

BRT 6.24 3.9 6.24 6.24 3.9 3.9 6.24 3.9 3.9 

• Occupancy of Vehicles – Vehicle occupancy for different modes has been assumed based on 

literature review. 

Euro II 

Euro IV 

Average 

Table 11. Vehicle occupancy for different modes 

Private 

Public 

• Fuel Efficiency at 50 kph (km/liter) 

Occupancy 

2015 2024 2034 

Car 1.5 1.5 1.5 

2-wheeler 1 1 1 

Taxi 1.8 1.8 1.8 

3-wheeler 1.8 1.8 1.8 

Bus 40 40 40 


BRT 40 40 40 

The TEEMP model, calibrates the fuel efficiency of different modes at different speeds using insights 

from existing models such as COPERT, CORINAR etc. The fuel efficiency at 50 kph is factored and 

Pre-Euro 

Euro I 

Euro II 

Euro IV 

Average 

45


lowered as per the speed reductions. The current fuel efficiency values have been taken from 

literature review (as indicated in the previous discussion of emission factors) and expert judgment 

as no local studies are available on fuel consumption of vehicles. The fuel consumption values 

proposed gets adjusted with speed and thus on road fuel consumption values are generated inside 

the model. 

Private 

Public 

Table 12. Average Fuel consumption values at 50 kph speed and Values used for Cebu 

Default considered for 50kph TEEMP analyzed for Cebu 

Petrol 

(km/liter) Diesel (km/liter) 

Petrol 

(km/liter) Diesel (km/liter) 

Car 14 17 8 9 

2-wheeler 70 32 

Taxi 14 17 7 8 

3-wheeler 40 19 

Bus 


BRT 5 3 

The table above gives the average fuel consumption values at 50kph speed and TEEMP analyzed values 

for fuel efficiency for Cebu speed. 

4.3 BRT Components 

The ridership and speed are sensitive to the BRTS design and hence borrowing insights from ITDP’s BRT 

design guide and its working experience on Asian BRT systems, in TEEMP BRT model, a concept of ridership 

depreciation is proposed to observe the impacts of various components on emissions. The BRT Standard 

proposed by ITDP and others follows a new scoring system to establish a broad, global understanding of what 

defines world-class BRT systems. The BRT Standard outlines best practices and case studies, and introduces a 

universal standard to recognize leaders and compare BRT systems. 25 

The Cebu BRT is assumed to consist of the following elements based on the “Study and Concept Plan for a 

Demonstration Bus Rapid Transit Corridor” or the Pre-Feasibility Report (ITP, 2010) and Cebu BRT Feasibility 

Report (ITP, 2012). 

For High and Low Scenarios, the score equals 75 out of 100 and hence a ridership bonus factor of 1.15 is 

proposed. The Cebu BRT Feasibility Report (ITP, 2012) suggests that a Bus Priority corridor instead of a 

full BRT system would be developed between Ayala Center-Talamban for 6 km. Thus in order to capture 

this impact, in the “Feasible” scenario, the revised BRT scoring was adopted and as seen from the table a 

ridership bonus factor of 1.13 is proposed. 

25 http://www.itdp.org/index.php?/microsites/brt-standard/ 

46

Service Planning 


Table 13. BRT Scorecard 

Component 

BRT 

System 

Feasible 

Scenario 

Off-vehicle fare collection and fare verification 7 4 

Multiple routes use same BRT infrastructure 0 0 

Peak period frequency 4 4 

Off-peak frequency 3 3 

Limited and local stop services 2 2 

System control center 2 1 

Routes in top 10 demand corridors 2 2 

Operates late nights and weekends 0 0 

Part of (planned) multi-corridor BRT network 2 2 

Infrastructure 

Bus lanes in central verge of the road 7 4 

Physically-separated right-of-way 4 4 

Intersection treatments 5 4 

Physically-separated passing lanes at station stops 3 2 

Stations set back from intersections 3 3 

Stations are in center and shared by both directions of service 3 3 

Emissions standards 0 2 

Pavement quality 2 2 

Station Design and Station-Bus Interface 

Platform-level boarding 6 6 

Safe, wide, attractive weather-protected stations 3 3 

3+ doors on articulated buses or 2+ very wide doors on 

standard buses 

3 3 

Multiple docking bays and sub-stops 0 0 

Sliding doors at BRT stations 1 1 

Quality of Service and Passenger information Systems 

Branding of vehicles and system 3 3 

Passenger information at stops and on vehicles 2 1 

Integration and Access 

Universal access 3 1 

Integration with other public transport 3 3 

Improved safe and attractive pedestrian access system and 

corridor environment 

2 2 

Secure bicycle parking at station stops 0 0 

Bike lanes on corridor or on parallel streets 0 0 

Bicycles permitted on vehicles 0 0 

Bicycle sharing systems at BRT stations 0 0 

Point Deduction 

47

Component 

Minimum average commercial speed below 13kph/8mph 

Peak passengers per hour per direction (pphpd) below 1,000 

Lack of enforcement of right-of-way 

Significant gap between bus floor and station platform 

Bus stop/station encroaches on sidewalk or busway 

Overcrowding 

Poorly maintained buses and stations 

Distances between stations too long or too short 

a. Land Use Factor 


BRT 

System 

Feasible 

Scenario 

TOTAL SCORE 0 0 

ASSESSMENT 75 65 

Ridership Bonus Factor 1.15 1.13 

Significant investment in the transport system has a profound influence on adjacent land use patterns. As the 

accessibility to high quality public transit increases, land value and potential for growth also subsequently 

increase. Such urban development patterns can influence travel behavior (i.e., locations of origin and 

destination, trip length, mode choice, number of trips) for the long term and impact on the energy consumed 

and emissions resulting from transportation. Such impacts of the built environment on transport can be 

understood by analyzing the impact of a set of “5Ds” as popularized by the works of Cervero, Kockelman and 

Ewing. 

• Density is considered as activity level per unit area. The activity can be population and employment. 

• Diversity is measured as availability and intensity of different types of land use. 

• Design refers to the type of local street design in the neighborhood. More than aesthetics, design 

refers to the “functionalism” of the built environment (Sivam, 2009). 

• Destination accessibility is the measure of the access to trip attractions. 

• Distance to transit is a measure of public transport accessibility. 

In order to capture the impact of BRT on land use developments and a subsequent impact on emissions, a 

land use factor has been proposed. This multiplier tries to capture the subsequent impact on land use 

patterns by the BRT improved accessibility. Such impact induces more transit patronage, use of sustainable 

modes such as biking and walking due to improved connectivity and land use modifications. Land use Factor 

is defined as vehicle-mile reductions per passenger mile. Based on the current literature review, a land use 

factor of 1.9 has been proposed. As discussed earlier, this factor multiplier 26 considers long term impact of 

BRT on adjacent land use and the added benefits of high density, land use transformation, diversity and 

increase in NMT trips due to improved accessibility in areas surrounding the BRT system. 

26 http://www.aptastandards.com/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=6-DL0k6lBgE%3D&tabid=249&mid=1277&language=en-US 

, and http://www.nelsonnygaard.com/Documents/Reports/Quantifying-Greenhouse-Gas-Emissions-from-Transit.pdf 

48

. Construction Emissions 


BRT construction emissions account for the emissions generated during material production and construction 

of infrastructure such as additional lanes, stations etc. The construction emissions are quantified based on 

energy required to produce – cement, steel and bitumen. The TEEMP road model provides a detailed 

literature review on the construction emissions. For the Cebu study, the quantity of bitumen, cement and 

steel have been assumed from the ADB (2010) “Methodology for Estimating Carbon Footprint of Road 

Projects: Case Study: India” for a typical National Highway. 27 

4.4. Analysis 

The BRT emissions model captures the impact of BRT on CO2 emissions by quantifying the construction, 

operation and traffic impacts of projected BRT users. It is assumed that in case the BRT would not have been 

constructed, the users would have been forced to use the existing modes and thus the emissions saved 

results from quantifying the business as usual case of the proposed BRT riders. The boundary of 

quantification is fixed across the BRT riders only. 

Emissions saved from BRT = Emissions from BRT riders using alternate modes without BRT – Operation 

emissions of BRT – construction emissions from BRT. 

The primary savings are derived from the mode shift impacts and increase in speed and occupancy factors. 

The impact on the movement of other modes of transport (i.e. speed increase, or vehicles which people used 

earlier to make the trip are still being used perhaps by another family member) after the BRT has been 

constructed) is neglected because of induced component. Inclusion of this aspect would require not only 

data-intensive traffic modelling but also city-wide additional surveys and the accuracy would still depend on 

several network factors and information on link/future projects/investments. Currently, such kind of benefits 

are not reflected in the vehicle operating cost and travel time savings which are calculated during feasibility 

stage which have greater economic value when compared to CO2 savings. It may not be justifiable to conduct 

city-wide surveys just for the quantification of the CO2 benefits. 28 Instead, a land use factor has been 

proposed as discussed earlier. The analysis consists of computations for construction and operation 

emissions from BRT system and savings due to mode shift. 

It is recommended to adopt the average trip lengths of BRT trips as the basis for quantification. For example, 

in case the average trip length of different modes (without availability of BRT) works out to be 6 km, the 

average trip length of BRT user should be 6 km and vice versa. This assumption neglects the trip to and from 

the BRT stations in order to simplify the analysis and data needed for the analysis. 

27 http://www.adb.org/documents/reports/estimating-carbon-footprints-road-projects/default.asp 

28 Schipper, el al. (2010) found that in Mexico MetroBus project, if CO2 is valued even at USD$85/tonne, the CO 2 co-benefits add 

almost USD $4m to the total, and the CO 2 is worth about 20% of the total project benefits. Available: 

http://metrostudies.berkeley.edu/.../shipper-considclimatechange-latinamer.pdf 

49


Motorization trend is captured with suitable changes in the mode shares to favor private transport in the 

intermediate and horizon year (middle and final years of assessment) when quantifying the business as usual 

case. As discussed earlier, impact of speed on emission factors is captured using insights from various studies 

such as TRL, COPERT, CORINAR, ADB Green Transport Study and DIESEL project. 

The upstream effect of emissions due to fuel production can be captured by using a default value of 14% 29 

but has been neglected in the present analysis. Fuel economy improvements due to any future fuel economy 

standards are not considered as the roadmap for establishing fuel economy standards is not clear. Further 

information on how fuel efficiency of buses could be improved is provided in Annex A. 

4.5. TEEMP Results 

Table 14. TEEMP Results considering Low and High Scenario and with and without Land Use Impact 

Results 

Low 

Scenario 

Without Land Use Impact With Land Use Impact 

High 

Scenario 

Feasible 

Scenario 

Low 

Scenario 

High 

Scenario 

Feasible 

Scenario 

Ridership/year 

(millions) 

2015 93 134 123 93 134 123 

2024 136 195 180 136 195 180 

2034 207 297 274 207 297 274 

Emissions Savings 

PM reduction 

(tons) 167 239 232 347 497 470 

NOx reduction 

(tons) 1,160 1,665 1,779 4,518 6,483 6,214 

CO2 reduction 

(tons) 895,706 1,292,996 1,188,802 2,053,350 2,954,211 2,717,950 

PM reduction 

(tons/km) 10 15 14 22 31 29 

NOx reduction 

(tons/km) 73 104 111 282 405 388 

CO2 reduction 

(tons/km) 55,982 80,812 74,300 128,334 184,638 169,872 

PM reduction 

(tons/km/yr) 0.52 0.75 0.72 1 2 1 

NOx reduction 

(tons/km/yr) 4 5 6 14 20 19 

CO2 reduction 

(tons/km/yr) 2,799 4,041 3,715 6,417 9,232 8,494 

Co-benefits 

VKT Saved 6,319 9,067 8,346 12,397 17,789 16,375 

29 Literature review of various studies, including those from the International Energy Agency and the Clean 

Development Mechanism, suggests a mid value of 14% as reasonable (from ADB, 2010) 

50

Results 

Low 

Scenario 


Without Land Use Impact With Land Use Impact 

High 

Scenario 

Feasible 

Scenario 

Low 

Scenario 

High 

Scenario 

Feasible 

Scenario 

(millions) 

Time travel 

savings 

('000s hours) 270,554 388,244 357,378 270,554 388,244 357,378 

No. of fatalities 

reduced 727 1043 960 1427 2048 1,885 

No. of injuries 

reduced 10,907 15,652 14,407 21,408 30,721 28,279 

Fuel Savings 

('000 USD) 444,666 638,094 587,365 988,959 1,419,154 1,306,330 

Emissions 

reduction 

('000 USD) 25,178 35,977 34,184 62,781 89,938 83,855 

By including the land use multiplier, the impact increases. Currently the literature on land use multipliers is 

still being investigated and thus the land use impact values are suggested to indicate that the savings derived 

without land use impact is very conservative in nature. The benefits from the Cebu BRT would be higher than 

what was quantified without considering land use impact. For subsequent discussion, the results from 

without land use impact have been considered. 

4.6. Observations 

a) The CO2 savings from the project is in the range of 2,799 to 4,041 tons/km/yr, which is an average of 

3,400 tons/km/yr. With land use impact the CO2 could be an average of 7,800 tons/km/yr. The 

savings from this project is comparable to other BRT projects in Asia as shown in the figure below. 

The feasibility report (ITP, 2012) data indicates a saving of 3,700 to 8,500 tons/km/yr. 

51

12000 

10000 

8000 

6000 

4000 

2000 

0 

Lima, Peru 


Figure 29. CO2 Savings from BRT Projects 

b) The PM savings derived from this project is conservative as emission standards improvement has 

been considered. The total savings from the project is in the range of 167 to 239 tons. The Gold 

standard BRT in Asia i.e. Guangzhou BRT 30 saves around 40 tons of PM over 10 years for a length of 

22.5 km i.e. 0.2 tons/year/km. The Cebu project saves around 0.5 to 0.75 tons/km/year. The Rio de 

Janeiro BRT saves around 0.1 to 0.3 tons /year/km 31 . The Jakarta BRT corridor one saves around 0.8 

tons/year/km 32 . The higher savings in Cebu when compared with Guangzhou and Rio de Janeiro is 

due to high shift from jeepneys and high number of pre-euro vehicles which still exist on the road in 

Cebu. The PM savings are conservative because the analysis assumed that tighter vehicle emission 

standards would be enforced during the BRT’s operation resulting in a much cleaner fleet in Cebu. 

c) The total NOx savings derived from this project is the range of 1,160 to 1,780 tons or 4 to 5.5 

tons/km/year. In comparison Guangzhou BRT saves around 20 tons/km/year. The high savings in 

30 http://www.itdp.org/documents/20110810-ITDP-GZBRTImpacts.pdf 

31 http://164.67.121.27/files/UP/Posters%202012/26%20Lupita%20Ibarra.pdf 

32 http://esci-ksp.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/Energy-and-Environmental-Impacts-of-BRT-in-APEC- 

Economies.pdf 

Cali, Colombia 

Mexico City, Mexico 

Lanzhou, China 

Medellin, Colombia 

Managua, Nicaragua 

Johannesburg 

EDOMEX, Mexico 

CO2 Savings from BRT Projects 

Bogota Colombia 

Zhengzhou, China 

TransOeste, Rio De Janeiro 

Jakarta 

Chongqing, China 

Quito, Ecuador 

Cebu 

Guangzhou BRT 

Guatemala City 

TransCarioca, Rio De Janeiro 

Guatemala 

Lima, Peru 

Cali, Colombia 

Mexico City, Mexico 

Lanzhou, China 

Medellin, Colombia 

Managua, Nicaragua 

Johannesburg 

EDOMEX, Mexico 

Bogota Colombia 

Zhengzhou, China 

TransOeste, Rio De Janeiro 

Jakarta 

Chongqing, China 

Quito, Ecuador 

Cebu 

Guangzhou BRT 

Guatemala City 

TransCarioca, Rio De 

Janeiro 

Guatemala 

52


Guangzhou is due to inclusion of increase in mixed traffic speed parameter and high efficient buses 

being introduced as BRT buses (Euro IV). Rio de Janeiro BRT saves around 1 to 3 tons/year/km and 

Jakarta BRTS corridor saves around 5.5 tons/km/year which is comparable to Cebu BRTS. 

d) One of the limitations of the study is the use of general emission factors based on literature survey 

and expert judgment, as the Philippines does not have local emission factors for different vehicle 

types and equivalent emission standards. The government and other stakeholders should support 

development of local emission factors for deriving better insights. However, the estimates from this 

project are comparable with other CDM and other BRTS projects. 

In summary, the key messages from the analysis are: 

a) In terms of vehicle kilometer travel reductions, the project over its lifecycle removes 20,000 to 

30,000 new cars from road. 

b) In terms of PM reductions, the project over its lifecycle removes 600 to 1000 two stroke new 

tricycles. 

c) In terms of NOx reductions, the project over its lifecycle removes 250 to 350 new pre- euro buses. 

d) The project costs 60 to 90$ for 1 ton of reduction of CO2. 

e) The project over the lifetime saves more CO2 emissions and fuel then one to two years of fuel 

consumption and CO2 emissions from transport sector in Cebu. 

f) In terms of accident fatalities, the project over its lifecycle saves around 727 lives (Low Scenario 

without land use impact) which is almost as high as the Philippines’ annual traffic fatality. 

53

5. HEALTH SAVINGS FROM CEBU BRT 


The Simple Integrated Model for better air quality ( (SIM-air) family of tools uses the best available information informat 

with the academic, government, non non-government, government, and private bodies, to support integrated urban air quality 

management. Each of the modules presented in Figure 30 is designed to collate the necessary information, 

estimate emissions from various sources sources, and simulate the interactions between emissions, pollution 

dispersion, impacts, and management options. These tools are distributed for free by UrbanEmissions.Info, 

along with the case studies from applications in the cities of Hyderabad, Delhi, Pune, Che Chennai, Che Kathmandu, 

Dhaka, Shanghai, Ulaanbaatar, Hanoi, Manila, Bangkok, and Lagos. All the databases and interfaces are 

designed in MS Excel to visualize the flow of information between each of the modules, to better understand 

the bottlenecks of analytical tools, and to improve the modules with information, as and when it is made 

available. Each of the modules is also linked to Google Earth and ESRI ArcGIS programs for better spatial 

mapping of the emissions, concentrations, and impacts. 

Figure 30. SIM-air Program Components 

The methodology followed for the analysis of health benefits from BRT application in the Cebu City for is 

described in detail below. 

The emission savings (for baseline defined as without BRT and for scenario defined as with BRT system system) system are 

determined using the Transport Emissions Evaluation Model for Projects (TEEMP) models – results 

summarized in the Table 14. 

The modelling domain over Metro Cebu is selected as shown in Figure 31 with a spatial resolution of 0.005 

degrees in longitude de and latitude, which translates to ~550 meters. The modelling do domain main is designated to 

cover the area between 123.75° to 124.00° in longitude and 10.20° to 10.40° in latitude latitude. . The gridded domain 

is 50 cells in longitude and 40 cells in latitude. The gridd gridded domain presented in Figure 31 is available in 

Google KML or ESRI Shapefile for further use. The BRT road sections are also highlighted along with the grids 

54


Figure 31. Study Area in Gridded Format 

The particulate pollution concentrations for the base year 2010 and the projected years (calculated using the 

TEEMP modelling system) were modelled using the Atmospheric Transport Modelling System (ATMoS) 

dispersion model - a UNIX/Linux based meso-scale three-layer forward trajectory Lagrangian Puff-transport 

model. This model was previously utilized to study pollution management in Asia and Latin American cities 

and calibrated to address the area and point sources for long term pollution modelling and health 

assessments. The ATMoS model is a modified version of the USA National Oceanic Atmospheric 

Administration, Branch Atmospheric Trajectory (BAT) model with three layers - surface layer, boundary layer 

(designated as the mixing layer height) and a top layer. The multiple layers allow the model to differentiate 

the contributions of diffused area sources like transport and domestic combustion emissions and points like 

industrial and power plant emissions. The model also includes first order chemical reactions for SO2 and NOx 

emissions to estimate the secondary contributions in the form of sulphates and nitrates, added to the total 

PM2.5 concentrations. The model has flexible temporal and spatial resolution and can run for periods ranging 

from one month to a year and from regional to urban scales. The model produces monthly average 

concentrations as output and then converted to seasonal and yearly averages for further analysis. The model 

operations are explained in detail in Annex B. 

The meteorological data for the Cebu analysis comes from the NOAA National Centre for Environmental 

Prediction (NCEP) Reanalysis data. In the model, the NCEP data for global 3D wind and temperature, surface 

wind, temperature, and pressure, surface heat flux, and precipitation fields are re-gridded to establish the 

mixing layer height for the city domain, before the dispersion modelling. 

55


The predominant wind direction in Cebu is often Westerly and with speeds higher than 6 m/sec. The total 

precipitation levels are constant over the months. The mixing heights, being a coastal city are also very 

consistent over the months, with highs over the winter months due to low wind speeds. This is crucial in the 

overall pollution calculations, which determines the seasonal trend in the concentrations. The general rule of 

thumb is that lower the mixing heights, higher the concentrations in the region. 

Using the local meteorology presented in Annex C and for the domain at ~500m grid resolution, the project 

team used the ATMoS modelling system to develop a baseline transfer matrix, which is defined as the change 

in grid level concentrations for an incremental change in emissions in each of the grids. Since, the change in 

concentrations varies with meteorological conditions and with source type, the transfer matrix presented in 

this report are relevant only for use with the vehicle emission sources and for the use over Metro Cebu 

domain presented in Figure 31. The baseline emissions analysis is for the year 2010. The same transfer matrix 

calculations are then repeated for emission savings of the BRT system. The calculations are available for both 

the PM fractions PM10 and PM2.5. 

The transfer matrices for coarse PM (for PM between 2.5 and 10 micro-meters), fine PM (for PM less than 2.5 

micron-meter), sulphates, and nitrates are presented in the attached excel sheets for further use. For the 

domain selected for Metro Cebu, this matrix is 2000 x 2000 points and currently designed and setup for use 

for studies beyond the BRT analysis. Some example images from the excel-based system are presented 

below. 

An important objective of this study was to assess the baseline health impacts of current air pollution 

trends in the city (based on the estimated emissions inventory and concentration profiles over the city) 

and compare scenarios with BRT implemented in the city in terms of health impacts (mortality and 

morbidity). 

The health impacts are calculated using the following the methodology 

δ E = β * δC 

* δP 

where, 

δ E = number of estimated health effects (various end points for mortality and morbidity) 

β = the dose response function (DRF) for particular health endpoint; this is defined the change in 

number cases per unit change in concentrations. This is established based on epidemiological studies 

conducted over a period of time, analyzing the trends in hospital records and air pollution monitoring. In 

case of mortality, this is set at 0.15% per 20 µg/m 3 increase in the PM10 concentrations and a death 

incidence rate of 178 per 1,000 people for the Philippines (extracted from World Health Organization). 

This is based on the studies conducted by the Health Effects Institute, Boston (USA) 

C 

δ = the change in concentrations; the concentrations modeled above a certain threshold value. 

Although, WHO claims that there is no threshold over which the health impacts are measured. In 

general, the impacts are felt at the minute fluctuations of the pollution. In this study, the threshold is set 

at 20 µg/m 3 

56


δ P = the population exposed to the incremental concentrations above; this could be on a grid by grid 

basis (used in this study) or for the city or region on a whole, depending on the level of information 

available. 

Among the criteria pollutants, PM is an established endpoint for assessing the health impacts in a city. 

Epidemiological studies in developed and developing countries have shown that elevated ambient PM 

levels lead to an increased risk of mortality and morbidity. Health effects range from minor irritation in 

eyes and upper respiratory system to chronic respiratory disease, heart disease, lung cancer, and leading 

up to pre-mature death. The dispersion modeling results for annual PM10 concentrations, overlaid on 

the gridded population (totaling to ~1.8 million in 2010) at the same grid resolution are utilized for 

calculating the health impacts. The dose-response functions for various endpoints are well documented 

in the studies across the world 33 and summarized in the table below along with health impact costs and 

willingness to pay. 

Table 15.Dose-response coefficients and health impact costs utilized in the analysis 

Health impact Health coefficient Health cost/effect (PHP) 

Effects/capita/(µg/m3) 

Premature mortality 0.0000066 1,880,000 

Adult Chronic Bronchitis 0.00004 50,000 

Child Acute Bronchitis 0.000544 20,000 

Respiratory Hospital Admission 0.000012 2,000 

Cardiac Hospital Admission 0.000005 500,000 

Emergency Room Visit 0.000235 4,000 

Asthma Attacks (million) 0.0029 1,000 

Restricted Activity Days (million) 0.03828 500 

Respiratory Symptom Days (million) 0.183 30 

For the three scenarios (LOW, HIGH and FEASIBLE) discussed in Table 14 the transfer matrices were 

applied, the health impacts were calculated as per the emissions avoided per year, and valuated the 

benefits in terms of the health costs. The health benefits from the BRT without considering land use 

impacts could potentially be US$94 million to US$137 million per year (Tables 16, 17, and 18). 

Considering land use impacts, the health benefits could potentially range from US$269 million to 

US$385 million per year as shown in Tables 19, 20 and 21. 

33 “Health Effects of Outdoor Air Pollution in Developing Countries of Asia: A Literature Review”, Special Report 15, 

2004, Health Effects Institute, Boston, USA; and “Outdoor Air Pollution and Health in the Developing Countries of 

Asia: A Comprehensive Review”, Special Report 18, 2010, Health Effects Institute, Boston, USA. 

57


Table 16. Health benefits in case without land use impact - LOW SCENARIO 

Summary Health Savings cost/unit (peso) Total savings 

Total Population 1,822,376 

(mil PHP) 

Premature mortality 506 1,880,000 952 

Adult Chronic Bronchitis 3,105 50,000 155 

Child Acute Bronchitis 22,737 20,000 455 

Respiratory Hospital Admission 931 

2,000 

2 

Cardiac Hospital Admission 388 500,000 194 

Emergency Room Visit 18,241 

4,000 

73 

Asthma Attacks 225,097 

1,000 225 

Restricted Activity Days 2,971,285 

500 1,486 

Respiratory Symptom Days 14,204,417 

30 426 

3,967 mil PHP 

Emission reductions (tons) 94 mil US$ 

Total PM10 167 

Total PM2.5 167 

Total SO2 0 

Total NOx 1160 

Table 17. Health benefits in case without land use impact - HIGH-SCENARIO 



(mil PHP) 

Premature mortality 728 1,880,000 1,368 



Respiratory Hospital Admission 1,335 

2,000 

3 



4,000 105 


1,000 323 


500 2,129 


30 611 

5,689 mil PHP 




Total SO2 0 


58


Table 18. Health benefits in case without land use impact - FEASIBLE-SCENARIO 



(mil PHP) 

Premature mortality 737 1,880,000 1,385 




2,000 

3 



4,000 106 


1,000 326 


500 2,154 


30 618 

5,757 mil PHP 




Total SO2 0 


Table 19. Health benefits in case with Land Use Impact - LOW SCENARIO 



(mil PHP) 

Premature mortality 1,447 1,880,000 2,720 


Child Acute Bronchitis 64,596 20,000 1,292 


2,000 

5 

Cardiac Hospital Admission 1,103 500,000 551 


4,000 207 


1,000 640 


500 4,221 


30 1,211 

11,287 mil PHP 




Total SO2 0 


59


Table 20. Health benefits in case with Land Use Impact- HIGH-SCENARIO 



(mil PHP) 





2,000 

8 



4,000 297 


1,000 917 


500 6,052 


30 1,736 





Total SO2 0 


Table 21. Health benefits in case with Land Use Impact - FEASIBLE-SCENARIO 



(mil PHP) 





2,000 

7 



4,000 283 


1,000 874 


500 5,768 


30 1,654 





Total SO2 0 


60


BRT + Area Traffic Control (ATC) Scenario 

In addition to the three scenarios, the Project Team also estimated the health savings resulting from the 

combined BRT + ATC scenario. 

The Project Team did not quantify the emission savings from the BRT+Area Traffic Control (ATC) Scenario. It 

used data solely from the Pre-feasibility Report. No estimate of PM reductions was given in the Feasibility 

Report (ITP, 2012), thus, the analysis of health savings from BRT+ATC was based on the Pre-feasibility 

Report figure. The emission savings quantified in the Pre-feasibility Report (ITP, 2010) considering the 

BRT+ATC Scenario suggests a cumulative impact of 9,655 tons of PM reductions over the appraisal period of 

2012 to 2035 (which translates to 30 tons/year/km) and PM savings of 386 tons in year 2020. It is unclear 

whether the computation of PM reduction in the Pre-feasibility Report considered expected significant 

improvements in vehicle technology and fuel quality over the next twenty four years, which is aligned with 

current trends in the Philippines and also the ASEAN. If these were not considered, the estimated PM 

savings may be optimistic; and the resulting health savings (provided for the BRT+ATC scenario in the next 

section) may also be an optimistic estimate. 

Using the estimated PM emissions savings as stated in the Pre-feasibility Report (ITP, 2010), health savings 

from BRT+ATC scenario was estimated. Road density (80%) and ATC location density (20%) were considered 

in distributing the PM savings to the grids. The BRT+ATC scenario would result in health benefits amounting 

to US$2,181 million for the duration of the appraisal period of 2012 to 2035 and US$87 million in year 2020. 

The results are provided in the tables below (Tables 22 and 23). 

Table 22. Health benefits – BRT+ATC SCENARIO (Appraisal Period of 2012-2035) 


(mil PHP) 


Adult Chronic Bronchitis 71,549 50,000 3,577 



2,000 

43 

Cardiac Hospital Admission 8,944 500,000 4,472 


4,000 1,681 

Asthma Attacks 5,187,317 

1,000 5,187 


500 34,236 


30 9,820 


Emission reductions (tons) 2,181 mil US$ 



Total SO2 0 

Total NOx 0 

61


Table 23. Health benefits –BRT+ATC (Year 2020) 


(mil PHP) 

Premature mortality 466 1,880,000 876 



Respiratory Hospital Admission 858 

2,000 

2 



4,000 

67 


1,000 207 


500 1,369 


30 393 

3,654 mil PHP 




Total SO2 0 

Total NOx 0 

62

6. COMMUNICATING BENEFITS OF THE CEBU BRT 


Communication of the benefits from the proposed Cebu BRT project is important to ensure acceptance by 

the public and the sectors that will be directly and indirectly affected by it. From the pre-feasibility and 

throughout the feasibility studies, consultations and communications activities on the Cebu BRT project were 

conducted. 

ITP conducted focus group discussions and carried out an ethnographic study in 2009 as part of the prefeasibility 

study. Two priority issues were identified by transport users in Cebu City: safety and comfort. Air 

quality was one of the comfort-related issues cited by participants. The ethnographic study confirmed that air 

quality is poor around intersections within the central business district. According to the Pre-Feasibility Study 

(ITP, 2010), “Some passengers try to negate the pollution by covering their nose and mouth with a 

handkerchief or tissue” and “Air pollution was particularly unpleasant in the Downtown area close to 

intersections where there are often many idling engines, and many belonging to Jeepneys. It was notable 

from riding Jeepneys and from walking around the downtown area that around signalled intersections where 

traffic would wait for up to three minutes, the pollution was at times overwhelming.” 

As part of its Cebu BRT Feasibility Study (ITP, 2012), ITP implemented a Communications and Consultation 

Plan within an overall framework coordinated by the Cebu City Government BRT Communications Team. 34 

The main activities of the Plan were: 

• Consultations to raise awareness of Cebu City BRT and get feedback from potential users and key 

stakeholders on their travel needs; facilitate development of Cebu BRT brand; and get feedback on 

BRT outline design principles and potential social and environmental impact of the proposed BRT 

• Communications by implementing a communications protocol to ensure consistency of key 

messages from the Cebu BRT Feasibility Study and to define the role of different parties; releasing 

key information at appropriate times during the study during press briefings and press conferences; 

developing tools such as study website, social media, posters, flyers, promotional materials (e.g., 

fans, t-shirts, badges, bags); holding an exhibition of the Cebu BRT (branded as TransCebu) 

Since air quality is considered a key concern among Cebu City public transport users, the dissemination of the 

results of this Report on the environmental and health benefits of the proposed Cebu BRT would convey a 

clear and strong message that the key proponents of this project – Cebu City Government and Department of 

Transportation and Communication – are determined to address the issue of air pollution from the transport 

sector in Cebu City. 

In light of the above, it is recommended that communication of the environmental and health benefits from 

the Cebu BRT be included as an additional priority item in the Consultation and Communications Plan still to 

34 The Cebu City Government BRT Communications Team comprises of representatives from: Public Information 

Office, Division for the Welfare of the Urban Poor (DWUP), Squatters Prevention Encroachment and Elimination 

Division (SPEED), Cebu City Traffic Operations Management (CITOM), City Planning and Development Office 

(CPDO), Department of Engineering and Public Works (DEPW), City Disaster Office, City Administrator’s Office, and 

Cebu Investment Promotions Center (CIPC) 

63


be revised or updated as indicated in the recommendations in the Feasibility Report (2012) on 

communications (rephrased here): 

• For DOTC and Cebu City Government to take the lead in the continued consultations and 

communications during the detailed engineering design phase and the next phases 

• To revise or update the communications and consultation plan prioritizing: 

o Focused consultation with the public transport industry 

o Investors’ conference to engage the private sector 

o Communications support to project implementation activities especially where these impact 

the public 

o Sustained information and education activities with key stakeholders 

o Sustained mass media campaign management (mainstream and social media channels) 

The target audience for the message on environmental and health benefits would be the general public and 

particularly public transport users. 

An important sector to partner with in delivering this message would be medical doctors (particularly 

pulmonologists, cardiologist and oncologists who deal with respiratory and cardiovascular diseases and lung 

cancers; and industrial or occupational medicine practitioners). The Cebu City Health Office should be invited 

to lead this effort. Partners from the Philippine College of Chest Physicians (PCCP)-Central Visayas Chapter 

have expressed their willingness to serve as speakers in workshops and forums to convey the health impacts 

of air pollution and to respond to questions from the public (e.g., on facebook and other social media) 

regarding this topic. 

Important key messages to convey in mass media campaigns are the alarming air quality levels found along 

the BRT corridor and the environmental and health benefits of the Cebu BRT system. 

There are several occasions when these messages could be disseminated, including during: 

o Annual Philippine College of Chest Physicians-Central Visayas conference 

o Annual November Clean Air Month activities led by the EMB-7 and the airshed governing board 

o Annual World Spirometry Day event celebrated by PCCP-Central Visayas in Cebu City 

64

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66

ANNEX A. Bus Maintenance 


Fuel efficiency of buses deteriorates without proper maintenance. Implementing good maintenance practices 

by transit agencies could lead to improved fuel efficiency, reduced emissions and improved performance 

(fewer breakdowns). Various reports 35 have documented the impact of bus maintenance and driver training 

on fuel consumption. Some even suggest that advancing good maintenance practices to ensure peak 

performance of the bus fleet may be the most cost effective greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation action a transit 

agency can take. Literature review suggests that the impact of bus maintenance and driver training can be as 

high as 20%. 

Bus maintenance is now considered as a foundation of Clean Fleet Management strategies. A systematic 

approach to clean fleet management will ensure that improvements do not stop with one-off measures but 

will be sustained. In practice it has been observed that fleets often start with low-cost measures such as 

driver training and better maintenance, often resulting in 20% or higher fuel savings, before moving to more 

expensive measures, such as installing new technologies. 

Potential Benefits for Clean Fleet Management for Bus Fleets 

1. Reduced fuel use, CO2 and air pollutant emissions 

2. Financial savings not only in replacement of parts but also in fuel costs. The combined savings will 

lead to greater financial flexibility for expansion of the fleet, incentives to staff and promotion and 

support for other projects like BRTS, ITS, which can garner more ridership and make public transport 

attractive. 

3. Greater ridership, reducing the number of private motor vehicles on the roads and increasing the bus 

speed. 

4. Improved image of the bus industry i.e. black smoke coming out of a bus is a commonly used 

example for air pollution. Under a national program, a media campaign could be launched to change 

the perception of people from ‘dirty buses’ to ‘green buses’. 

5. Improved safety as eco-driving has been shown to also improve safer driving 

6. Potential for replication to other vehicle fleets, such as trucks, taxes and corporate fleets 

7. Capacity building among fleet managers and mechanics to give them best practices’ knowledge and 

optimize their operations. 

One of the best case studies available on Bus maintenance in Asia is the Clean Air Project Jakarta (CAP) 36 . The 

conclusions of the project are very interesting and are applicable for Cebu City. 

1. The exhaust gas emissions of participating buses were improved. The average reduction of opacity 

was 22.1%, Bosch-Value was 41.6% and fuel consumption was 10%. 

2. The efficiency was improved, since the only service required was low emissions maintenance. 

35 Current Practices of Greenhouse Gas Emissions Savings from Transit- TCRP Synthesis, The Route to Carbon and 

Energy Savings, Guidance Note – Best Operational and Maintenance Practices for City Bus Fleets to Maximize Fuel 

Economy 

36 Clean Bus Program – Project Implementation Report – Swisscontact Indonesia 

67


3. By adopting CAP’s maintenance procedure, required operation costs were decreasing. 

4. Checks on engines before and after I/M systems were implemented, proved that engine conditions 

improved once the systems were installed. 

5. Technicians’ knowledge in carrying out bus Inspection and Maintenance was improved. 

6. Only strong commitment from partners could lead to cooperation success; clear formulation of cooperation 

would assure smooth operation. Partner’s organization structure had to be clear. 

7. Pilot emission reduction actions were able to directly influence air quality. 

8. CAP’s program helped bus companies in improving their I/M systems and increasing their long-term 

profits. 

9. CAP attempted to engage in partnership and association with the Association of Transport 

Companies, ORGANDA, but without financial incentives they were uninterested. 

10. Bus manufacturers’ involvements in designing and conducting training were highly beneficial and 

highly recommended. 

11. Customer indirect involvement in the co-operation was motivating bus operators to carry out regular 

maintenance. 

Steps to Implement Fuel Efficiency Improvements in the fleet 37 

1. Management commitment and ownership. The technical support plan must be owned by the city 

transit agency so that its implementation is undertaken in a coordinated manner. 

a. Appoint a senior executive in charge of fleet fuel economy and some part of his/her bonus to 

meeting fuel economy goals 

b. Benchmark and set appropriate fuel economy goals by bus type for each year 

c. Communicate the fuel economy results achieved each year to both employees and the public 

and create a environment friendly brand 

d. Develop policy strategy to improve speed, replace old bus(scrap) and reduce idling and 

emissions 

2. Data collection and analysis. Technical support interventions should be determined by benchmarks, 

targets and measurement of fuel economy indicators. 

a. Automate data collection process to the extent feasible and use analysis software to support 

maintenance 

b. Set up data QA/QC procedures 

c. Analyze the data for separating the effects of driver, route and bus related effects on fuel 

economy 

d. GPS/Black Box to collect data on driver behavior and infrastructure routing 

e. Use data to refine periodic maintenance 

37 Modified from Guidance Note – Best Operational and Maintenance Practices for City Bus Fleets to Maximize Fuel 

Economy- http://www.esmap.org/esmap/sites/esmap.org/files/FINAL_EECI-BusGuideNote_BN010-11.pdf 

68


3. Maintenance directed at low fuel economy buses. Technical support interventions should be 

focused on the 10 percent of the fleet showing the lowest fuel economy, and underperforming buses 

should undergo proper O&M practices and quality assurance of repairs. 

a. Select at least 10 percent of the fleet showing the lowest fuel economy and conduct simple 

checks at depot 

b. Conduct detailed checks at central facility if bus passes simple check find out the issues 

c. Compare pre-repair and post-repair fuel economy data on these buses to estimate program 

benefits 

d. Check repair quality on a random and periodic basis 

e. Obtain mechanic sign-off on repairs for traceability 

f. Conduct independent team audit of repairs across depots 

g. Retrain mechanics and update repair procedures periodically 

4. Training directed at low-performing drivers. On-road and classroom training with a trained 

instructor is required to improve overall driving quality. 

a. Train drivers in fuel-efficient driving techniques and periodically retrain them 

b. Select at least 10 percent of drivers with the lowest fuel efficiency and conduct special 

additional training 

5. Employee communications and rewards. The operator should periodically communicate efficiency 

results and give incentives to employees to create a culture of fuel economy. 

a. Publicly display the fuel economy performance by driver and bus depot to employees 

b. Reward mechanics at the depot level and drivers individually for exceeding targets 

69


ANNEX B. Simplified Atmospheric Transport Modelling System 

(ATMoS-4.0) for the SIM-air tool 

[see separate .pdf file] 

70


ANNEX C. Summary of Meteorological Fields over Cebu City 

Data extracted from NCEP reanalysis fields available at 6 hour intervals 

Wind speed and Wind Direction by month 

270 

270 

270 

270 

315 

225 

315 

225 

315 

225 

315 

225 

January 

0 

180 

45 

0% 20% 40% 60% 

April 

0 

135 

45 

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 

180 

July 

0 

135 

45 

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 

180 

October 

0 

135 

45 

0% 10% 20% 30% 

180 

135 

90 

90 

90 

90 

2 - 4 

>4 - 6 

>6 - 8 

>8 - 10 

>10 

2 - 4 

>4 - 6 

>6 - 8 

>8 - 10 

>10 

2 - 4 

>4 - 6 

>6 - 8 

>8 - 10 

>10 

2 - 4 

>4 - 6 

>6 - 8 

>8 - 10 

>10 

270 

270 

270 

270 

315 

225 

315 

225 

315 

225 

315 

225 

February 

0 

180 

45 

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 

May 

0 

180 

135 

45 

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 

August 

0 

135 

45 

0% 4% 8% 12% 16% 20% 

180 

November 

0 

135 

45 

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 

180 

135 

90 

90 

90 

90 

2 - 4 

>4 - 6 

>6 - 8 

>8 - 10 

>10 

2 - 4 

>4 - 6 

>6 - 8 

>8 - 10 

>10 

2 - 4 

>4 - 6 

>6 - 8 

>8 - 10 

>10 

2 - 4 

>4 - 6 

>6 - 8 

>8 - 10 

>10 

270 

270 

270 

270 

315 

225 

315 

225 

315 

225 

315 

225 

March 

0 

180 

45 

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 

June 

0 

180 

135 

45 

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 

September 

0 

180 

135 

45 

0% 4% 8% 12% 16% 20% 

December 

0 

135 

45 

0% 20% 40% 60% 

180 

135 

90 

90 

90 

90 

2 - 4 

>4 - 6 

>6 - 8 

>8 - 10 

>10 

2 - 4 

>4 - 6 

>6 - 8 

>8 - 10 

>10 

2 - 4 

>4 - 6 

>6 - 8 

>8 - 10 

>10 

2 - 4 

>4 - 6 

>6 - 8 

>8 - 10 

>10 

71

Total precipitation by month 

Mixing layer height 


This data is critical for calculating emissions mixing rate over the region 

72


Example images from the MS Excel-based SIM-air analysis system for Cebu City 

Gridded population database 

Comparison of concentrations 

(baseline vs. scenario) 

Gridded concentration calculations 

Summary sheet of results 

(reductions and health benefits) 

73

Environmental and Health Benefits of the Cebu ... - Clean Air Initiative

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