proceedings of Student Mobility and ICT: Can E-LEARNING

Proceedings of 

Student Mobility and ICT: 

Can E-LEARNING overcome barriers of 

Life-Long learning? 

Maastricht University 

19-20 November 2008 

Edited by 

Bart Rienties 

Bas Giesbers 

Wim Gijselaers

Maastricht University 

Tongersestraat 53 

6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands. 

Published in the Netherlands by FEBA ERD Press 

© Maastricht University 2008 

All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval 

system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, 

photocopying, recording, or otherwise without either the prior written permission of the 

Publisher. 

This publication reflects the views only of the authors. The Commission, Maastricht 

University and / or other associate sponsors cannot be held responsible for any use which 

may be made of the information contained therein. 

Rienties, B., Giesbers, B., & Gijselaers, W.H. (2008). Student Mobility and ICT: Can elearning 

overcome barriers of life-long learning? Maastricht: FEBA ERD Press. 

First published in 2008. 

ISBN 978-90-813727-1-8 

Main and associate Sponsors 

Conference proceedings of Student Mobility and ICT: Can E-LEARNING overcome barriers of Life-Long learning?” 2

Contributions listed per session 

Wednesday 19th of November 2008 

Description of Practices of Knowledge Gaps and Preparatory Knowledge, Dealing with 

Mathematics 7 

Bert ten Boske 

Instructional Support for Learning with Computer Simulations about the “Ecosystem 

Water” 8 

Marc Eckhardt, Ute Harms, Detlef Urhahne, Olaf Conrad 

Remediating Summer Classes and Diagnostic Entry Assessment in Mathematics to Ease 

the Transition from High School to University 9 

Dirk T. Tempelaar, Bart Rienties 

Online Communities During Work Placements in Medicine: How to foster critical thinking 

on the basic sciences? 18 

Bas A. de Leng, Diana H.J.M. Dolmans, Arno M.M. Muijtjens, Cees P.M. van der Vleuten 

Delivering a Masters: from Paper to Virtual and from Individual to Collaborative 19 

Joseph A. McLuckie, Michael Naulty, Dharmadeo Luchoomun 

Unified in Learning – Separated by Space, Case Study on a Global Learning Program 25 

Martin Rehm 

The Acceptance of eLearning Methods of Extra Occupational and Full-time Students 34 

Christian Kaufmann, Harald Wahl, Alexander Mense, Thomas Sommer 

MA in ePedagogy Design / Visual Knowledge Learning 40 

Jaap Jansen 

Competence Based Teaching and Evaluation Methods/Strategines Online: Analysis of 

Intercultural Communication course 41 

Natalija Mažeikien, Egl Virgailait-Mekauskait, Stefanija Ališauskien 

Explaining student learning preferences in a blended learning environment for learning 

statistics on the basis of student characteristics 51 

Dirk T. Tempelaar, Bart Rienties 

Selecting Educational Content in m-Learning 61 

Santiago Pérez de la Cámara, Jesús Cáceres Tello, Juan José Sánchez Peña 

Applying a Fact-oriented Knowledge Reference Model to Supply-Chain Management 65 

Peter Bollen 

The Influence of Portfolio Media on Student Perceptions and Learning Outcomes 73 

Maarten van Wesel, Anouk Prop 

An E-Portfolio for Post-Graduate Competency-Based Assessment 81 

Jeroen Donkers, Marjan Govaerts, Erik Driessen, Bas Verhoeven 


Eportfolios for Assessment, Teaching & Learning 84 

Joe McLuckie 

Indicators of Needs for Preparatory Courses: Context of Lithuanian Education System 85 

Diana Šaparnien, Egl Virgailait-Mekauskait, Gintaras Šaparnis, Beatri Poškuvien 

Facing the Mathematics Problem, Two Cases Considered 95 

Leendert van Gastel, Natasa Brouwer-Zupancic, Lilia Ekimova 

Online Coaching: Summer Course Basic Financial Management at the NHTV 104 

Sylvia Hermans 

Thursday 20th of November 2008 

Students’ Mobility, Acculturation and Gaps in Learning Skills: A pan-European survey 107 

Dharmadeo Luchoomun 

Effective Design of Transitional Preparatory Courses 108 

Natasa Brouwer, Wolter Kaper, Bart Rienties 

Pedagogical Approaches Used For Preparatory Teaching 109 

Magdalena Jasiska, Karolina Podgórska 

Enhancing Teaching Through Technology challenges and possibilities 116 

David Durkee, Stephen Brant 

E-learning - Non-discovered Territory, (a course on studying by the Internet) 125 

Leszek Rudak 

A Multi-factor Authentication Model for E-learners and Virtual Learning Systems: 

Federated Approach 128 

Godfried Williams 

Video-Interactive Learning Objects Vignette, Moving Beyond the Learning Object 134 

Tova Wiegand-Green, Patricia Ley, A. Andaz Ahmad 

Social Presence, Web-videoconferencing and Learning in Virtual Teams 139 

Bas Giesbers, Bart Rienties, Wim Gijselaers, Mien Segers, Dirk T. Tempelaar 

Literature Scan on Online Remedial Teaching and Learning: A European Perspective 

(Development of effective online remedial education) 149 

Lotte Brants, Katrien Struyven, Filip Dochy, Goele Nickmans 

Establishing a European Framework of Transitional Preparatory Courses 157 

Bart Rienties, Lotte Brants, Natasa Brouwer, Magdalena Jasiska, Egle Virgailaite-Meckauskaite 

Modelling Mobile Agent Mobility in Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) using Fitness 

function 159 

Divina Melomey, Godfried Williams, Chris Imafidon, Roy Perryman 


Teaching Part-time Students Using Computer Supported Collaborative Learning 166 

Harald Wahl, Christian Kaufmann, Alexander Mense, Robert K. Pucher 

Digitizing Courses for Flexible Educational Scenarios 171 

Gaby Lutgens, Henk van Berkel 

From Virtual Mobility to Virtual Erasmus - The European Portal of International Courses 

and Services 176 

Christina Brey, George Ubachs 

Towards a Dutch Remedial Education Portal? 183 

Janina van Hees 

Curriculum Internationalisation – a key to the ‘HOW? 184 

Sandra Reeb-Gruber 

Be Prepared! Online Acculturation and Remediation of International Students 186 

Ria Jacobi, Henk Frencken, Piet Kommers, Peter Dekker 

Hybrid Learning as a Facilitator to Bridge Cultural Differences 189 

Christine Cope Pence, Catharina Wulf 

Virtual Learning Communities and Continuous Classrooms 198 

Pete Nevin, Annette Odell, 


Wednesday 19 th of November 2008 


Description of Practices of Knowledge Gaps and Preparatory Knowledge; 

Dealing with Mathematics 

Link-up Module on Mathematics for VWO-6 students 

Bert ten Boske, Universiteit van Amsterdam, The Netherlands 

B.A.A.tenBoske@uva.nl 

Abstract: The link-up course was a cooperative venture between the Dalton1 secondary 

school and the Faculty of Economics and Business, as part of the SURF2 Project 

“Webspijkeren 23”. During the project, the course was offered twice in two years, the last 

time from November 2007 – April 2008 for 29 students of the VWO4-6 class. After this 

period, the students prepared for their final school exams. 

The course was meant to be a contribution to smoothly link up the move from the 

secondary school to an academic education, with a special focus on mathematics. For this 

course a special Electronic Learning Environment (ELE) was prepared (at the UvA, the 

Blackboard ELE is used), and the faculty’s ICT department made accounts available for 

the Dalton pupils and their teachers. Via Blackboard, the software program Maple TA 

was used for the module. A take-off meeting was organized at the faculty. During this 

meeting, students worked in the interactive classroom and familiarized themselves with 

the ELE Blackboard system and the working of the Maple TA assignments program. 

The content of the course was related to the basic topics of mathematics that are required 

to pass the school exam. These topics are also expected to be mastered by the students as 

preliminary knowledge when starting the universities programmes. Objectives were to 

develop mathematic skills and logic without using a calculator. During every school 

week, the students made assignments and they received feedback from the lecturers of the 

faculty, via the Blackboard tools, in concerted action with the schoolteachers of Dalton 

school, face-to-face, during classes and seminars. Students who choose to study 

Economics at the UvA will get a partly exemption for the first-year course Mathematics 

1. At their own school, they will get one point extra for the worst result obtained during 

their mathematics school tests (not the final exam), on condition that they have managed 

to pass 80% of the assignments in the link-up module. The outcome of the module will be 

discussed and described later, when the results of the final school exams are available. 

A first evaluation led to the following preliminary conclusions: 

• There should be more discussion between VWO secondary schools and the 

universities on content and skills. 

• In that case, deficiencies can be dealt with in an early stage. At this moment, a 

political discussion on this topic is going on within the Ministry of Education 

and Science. 

• It remains necessary to continue these projects at least for the next years. 

• All involved felt that the module was too short. 

Therefore, it is recommended to have this module during the entire 6th study-year, 

parallel with the school programme. The course is meant to be a format for all schools 

working with the Dalton system in the Netherlands. The model will be added to the 

models of remedial teaching scenario’s 

1 DALTON International http://www.daltoninternational.org/ (accessed July 2008) 

2 SURFfoundation http://www.surffoundation.nl/ (accessed July 2008) 

3 Web-spijkeren 2 http://www.web-spijkeren2.nl/ (accessed July 2008) 

4 VWO stands for preparatory academic education and is the highest level of the Dutch 

secondary school system developed by Wieland et al. (2007) during the Project 

Webspijkeren 1 5 and published in “Tijdschrift voor Hoger Onderwijs6”. 


Instructional Support for Learning with Computer Simulations 

about the “Ecosystem Water” 

Marc Eckhardt, Ute Harms , IPN – Leibniz-Institut für die Pädagogik der Naturwissenschaften an der 

Universität Kiel, Germany, Detlef Urhahne, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Germany, Olaf 

Conrad, University of Hamburg, Germany, 

eckhardt@ipn.uni-kiel.de, urhahne@lrz.uni-muenchen.de, conrad@geowiss.uni-hamburg.de 

harms@ipn.uni-kiel.de 

Abstract: Computer simulations reconstruct processes or dynamics in a particular 

system. They offer learners access to experiments that are often difficult to carry out in 

the classroom. However, for successful knowledge acquisition with computer simulations 

instructional support is needed, as learning with computer simulations does not typically 

result in the desired learning outcomes. The main objective of our project “SimInstrukt” 

(funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) is to answer the question which kinds 

of instructional support may improve knowledge acquisition, particularly learning 

principles in biology, when working with computer simulations. Therefore a computer 

program on the topic “ecosystem water” containing a computer simulation was designed 

and particular instructional measures concerning data interpretation and self-regulation 

were developed and tested with students (N=61) in a pre-/post-test and a 3x2-factoriel 

design. The students had no academic previous knowledge regarding the topic mentioned 

above. The study was carried out once in classrooms with 8th graders. Students had to 

work on four different tasks according to the Inquiry Cycle with the aid of the computer 

simulation within a processing time of 90 minutes. The computer program recorded 

logfiles while students worked with the software. For supporting data interpretation two 

measures were used as there are 1) the explanatory statement for the simulation result 

was given by the computer program and 2) the students were asked to describe and 

interpret their results themselves. For supporting self-regulation prompts and a reflective 

assessment integrated in the computer program were used as instructional measures. 

After students had worked with the computer program they were asked to reflect their 

own inquiry. The effectiveness of these instructional measures on students´ learning 

outcome (factual, procedural, conceptual and intuitive knowledge), the ability to work in 

a learning environment that offers a high degree for self-control and the ability to 

interpret experimental data is investigated in a second study (work in progress). The data 

of this study are raised in an experimental setting using a 3x2-factorial and follow up 

design with pre- and post-tests. Results of the two studies will be shown and discussed. 

Pre- and post-tests used in the first study revealed a general knowledge increase on the 

topic “ecosystem water”; especially factual and intuitive knowledge increased 

significantly. However, analysis of variance yielded no significant differences on 

instructional measures and learning outcomes. Concerning data interpretation, highest 

amounts in the post-tests were achieved when students interpreted their own simulation 

outcome. Moreover, mean values of the post-test indicate that reflective assessment 

appears to be hindering for acquiring knowledge. The small amount of time, especially 

for students describing and interpreting their simulation outcome as well as reflecting 

additionally their learning process appears to be a reason for these results. Logfiles 

indicate that no student used the possibility to reflect the own learning process properly. 

When students were asked to justify their simulation outcome this appears to be 

improving factual and conceptual knowledge. 


Remediating Summer Classes and Diagnostic Entry Assessment 

in Mathematics to Ease the Transition from High School to 

University 

Dirk T. Tempelaar, Bart Rienties, Maastricht University, The Netherlands 

D.Tempelaar@ke.unimaas.nl, Bart.Rienties@erd.unimaas.nl 

Abstract: This contribution describes a program to ease the transition from high school 

to college, and to improve the success rates in the first year of bachelor studies. The 

program, implemented in two university studies with a strongly diverse inflow of mostly 

international students, consists of the administration of a math entry test and the 

organisation of voluntary bridging education in the format of a summer school. 

Investigation of the effectiveness of the program requires an extensive research design, to 

offset potential selection effect caused by voluntary participation. The contribution will 

focus both on the description of the remediation program, and the investigation into its 

effectiveness. 

Introduction 

Remedial teaching has a long tradition in terms of helping underprepared students bridging the 

gap between high school and college. Of more recent date are remedial courses aiming at a different group 

of prospective students: students entering bachelor programs with a strong international focus. Those 

programs recruit students from a large variety of countries and as a consequence, educated in a large 

diversity of high school systems. International bachelor programs based in Europe provide excellent 

examples of university education build upon highly diverse trajectories of high school systems. Bridging 

different high school programs requires far more substantial remedial programs than the remediating 

underprepared students. But it is not only the size that is different: the combined impact of the need to offer 

bridging courses before the regular program starts, and the audience of those bridging courses to be highly 

international, has severe consequences on the mode of delivery of these bridging courses. On site face to 

face education would exclude many prospective students, so that for a summer course to be accessible for 

all, the delivery mode has to be based on distance learning. 

In this contribution, we describe an example of such a bridging course aimed at international 

students. The bridging course aims to decrease heterogeneity in mathematics mastery of prospective 

students of the bachelor programs of the international schools for business and economics of the Maastricht 

University. Next to the description of the design of the bridging course, we will focus on our attempts to 

provide an assessment of the effectiveness of the bridging course that accounts for potential impacts of 

selection effects. 

The Maastricht case: Internationalisation 

In reviews of remedial programs existing in the United States and Europe (see Brants et al., 2008; 

Rienties et al., 2006), differences in focus are apparent. In the US, remediation aims at bridging the gap of 

underprepared high school students. In Europe, with large differences among and even within national 

secondary educational programs, remedial programs are primarily aim to offset large heterogeneity in 

mastery of knowledge and skills as the consequence of these curriculum differences. The Maastricht case is 

in that sense a typical European case. Located in a border region, at a short distance to one of Germany’s 

major industrial areas, the Ruhr area, providing English language programs from the midst nineties, the 

Maastricht Business and Economics schools developed themselves into schools attracting large amounts of 

German students. 

Dutch and German secondary school systems exhibit major differences, both with regard to school 

subjects, and with regard to examination. In German language school systems, the subject mathematics is 

typically offered at two different levels: basic level or ‘Grundkurs’, and advanced level or ‘Leistungskurs’. 

In German school systems, education and examination in the last phase of the program is focussing on four 

subjects (‘Abitur’), with two subjects educated at advanced level, Leistungskurs, and two subjects educated 


at basic level, Grundkurs. As a consequence, three different situations exist for students in German 

language school systems with regard to their math education: Mathematics at advanced level, and making 

part of the Abitur (labelled as ‘Leistungskurs’); mathematics at the basic level, and making part of the 

Abitur (labelled as ‘GrundkInExam’); and mathematics at the basic level, but not making part of the Abitur 

(labelled as ‘GrundkNotExam’). Especially this last group of students receives a restricted amount of math 

education in the final phase of secondary education. 

Since all UM programs are English language and internationally oriented, both the Business and 

the Economics School attract a relatively large share of students educated in international high schools. 

Also in the International Baccalaureate (IB) high school system, the subject mathematics is offered at two 

different levels: HL, the advanced levels preparing for science (labelled as ‘IBMathHL’), and SL, the basic 

level preparing for social sciences (labelled as ‘IBMathSL’) (a third level, StudiesSL, preparing for 

university studies that do not require mastery of mathematics, will be left outside consideration, since SL is 

the minimal prerequisite for getting access into the studies of economics and business). In the regular Dutch 

secondary school system, mathematics is offered at two levels, A and B, once again distinguishing the basic 

from the advanced level, with a further differentiation in sublevels 1 and 2. And again, the level A1 

preparing for arts and humanities does not give access to business and economics programs, so that only 

three relevant levels of prior schooling of increasing level remain: A2, B1, and B12 (labelled as 

‘VWOA12’, ‘VWOB1’, ‘VWOB12’). The large majority of freshmen fall into one of these categories. All 

remaining students, being non-Dutch, non-German, and not having gone through an IB program, have been 

asked to qualify their prior schooling into one of the following types; math-major or math-minor (labelled 

as ‘MathMajor’ and ‘MathMinor’). Figure 1 provides a decomposition of the 796 freshmen of academic 

year 07/08 that answered the questionnaire informing about prior mathematical schooling. 

250 

200 

150 

100 

50 

0 

VWOA12 

VWOB1 

VWOB12 

Leistungskurs 

GrundkInExam 

# students 

GrundkNotExam 

Conference proceedings of Student Mobility and ICT: Can E-LEARNING overcome barriers of Life-Long learning?” 10 

IBMathHL 

IBMathSL 

MathMajor 

MathMinor 

Figure 1. Decomposition of 07/08 freshmen with regard to prior math schooling. 

Maastricht summer courses 

To even out large differences in success rates in first year courses, especially courses in 

mathematics and statistics, caused by this huge diversity in prior schooling, the schools started offering 

optional bridging courses in the format of summer schools in the summer of 2004. To opt for optional 

summer course as the most appropriate format for bridging the gap between high school and university has 

several grounds. 

• The huge size of the largest differences in prior math mastery requires a bridging course of 

considerable size: up to a workload of approximately 100 hours for students with the most basic 

forms of prior math schooling. This size is incomparable with that of most of the existing national 

bridging courses, which are quite often scheduled in three days of intensive teaching.

• For a bridging course of this size and the strong heterogeneity of students, adaptivity is crucial. 

Each student should be able to enter the course at the appropriate level. 

• To achieve adaptivity, (repeated) diagnostic testing is crucial, and the ability to adapt learning 

materials to the individual outcomes of the diagnostic tests. 

• The size of the bridging course, and the large variation in work load for students depending on 

their prior mastery, prevents offering such a bridging course ‘in the gate’ (that is: intra-curricular, 

during the first few weeks of the regular program), but forces it to offer ‘before the gate’ (that is: 

extra-curricular, during the summer the precedes the start of the regular program). 

• Since participants of the bridging courses are (in large majority) international students, the 

bridging course cannot offered at site, but should be offered according the model of distance elearning. 

• Since the period of in which the summer course is offered is also occupied by holidays, jobs, and 

practical work, the format of the summer course should be very flexible: the summer course 

should be available over a relative long period (June, July, August), with a maximum of freedom 

for students to schedule their individual learning around other activities in that summer. 

Based on all these grounds, it was decided to organize a bridging course around an existing 

adaptive, electronic tutorial: ALEKS. The tool makes use of server based computing, and can be 

characterised as supporting individual, distance learning; se next section for an elaboration. 

The adaptive tutorial system ALEKS 

The ALEKS system (see also Doignon & Falmagne, 1999; Falmange et al., 2004; Tempelaar et 

al., 2006) combines adaptive, diagnostic testing with an electronic learning & practice tutorial in several 

domains relevant for higher education. In addition, it provides lecturers an instructor module where 

students' progress can be monitored, educational standards can be adapted to a particular college, or course 

and other administrative tasks can be carried out. ALEKS is a commercial software product. 

The ALEKS assessment module starts with an entry assessment in order to evaluate precisely a 

student's knowledge state for the given domain (e.g. College Algebra). Following this assessment, ALEKS 

delivers a graphic report analyzing the student's knowledge within all curricular areas for the relevant 

course, based on specified standards. The report also recommends concepts on which the student can begin 

working; by clicking on any of these concepts or items the student gains immediate access to the learning 

module. 

Some key features of the assessment module are (see Figure 2 for a sample): 

• All problems require that the student produce authentic input. 

• All problems are algorithmically generated. 

• Assessment questions are generated from a carefully-designed repertoire of items 

ensuring comprehensive coverage of the domain. 

• The assessment is adaptive: the choice of each new question is based on the aggregate of 

responses to all previous questions. As a result, the student's knowledge state can be 

found by asking only a small subset of the possible questions (typically 15-25). 

• Assessment results are always framed relative to specified educational standards. The 

system allows instructors to customize the standards used by their courses with a syllabus 

editor (part of the instructor module). Both the assessment and learning modules are 

automatically adapted to the chosen standards. 


Figure 2. Sample of an ALEKS assessment item. 

The learning report, of which Figure 3 shows part of, provides a detailed, graphic representation of 

the student's knowledge state by means of pie-charts divided into slices, each of which corresponds to an 

area of the syllabus. In the ALEKS system, the student's progress is shown by the proportion of the slice 

that is filled in by solid colour: if the slice is entirely filled in, the student has mastered that area, if it is 

two-thirds filled in, the student has mastered two thirds of the material, and so forth. Also, as the mouse is 

held over a given slice, a list is displayed of items within that area that the student is currently "ready to 

learn," as determined by the assessment. Clicking on any of these items gives access to the learning mode 

(beginning with the item chosen). 

At the conclusion of the assessment ALEKS determines the concepts that the student is currently 

ready to learn, based on that student's current knowledge state. These new concepts are listed in the report, 

and the learning mode is initiated by clicking on any highlighted phrase representing a concept in the list. 

The focus of the learning mode is a sequence of problems to be solved by the student, representing a series 

of concepts to be mastered. The facilities offered by the learning mode are as follows: 

• Practice (that is, the problems themselves); 

• Explanations of concepts and procedures; 

• Dictionary of technical terms; 

• Calculator (adapted to the topic studied, e.g. in statistical items, a special "statistics calculator" is 

provided). 

For example, a student working on a particular problem may "ask for" an explanation of that 

problem (by clicking on the button marked "Explain"). The explanation typically provides a short solution 

of the problem, with commentary. After reading the explanation(s), the student may return to "Practice" (by 

clicking on the button marked "Practice"), where she or he will be presented with another problem 

exemplifying the item or concept just illustrated. If the student is successful in solving the problem, the 

system will offer (usually) two or three more instances of the same item to make sure the student has 

mastered it. In the text of problems and explanations, certain technical terms such as "addition", "factor" 

and "square root" are highlighted. Clicking on any highlighted word or phrase will open the dictionary to a 

definition of the corresponding concept. The dictionary can also be used independently of the current 

problem to look up any term the student may be curious about. A graphing calculator is available for 


computing and displaying geometrical figures in analytical geometry and calculus. Other, related features 

of the learning mode are Feedback, Progress monitoring, and Practice. Whenever the student attempts to 

solve a problem in the learning mode, the system responds to the input by saying whether or not the answer 

is correct and, if it is incorrect, what the student's error might have been. More generally, ALEKS follows 

the student's progress during each learning sequence, and will at times offer advice. For example, if a 

student has read the explanation of a problem a couple of times and yet continues to provide incorrect 

responses, ALEKS may suggest -- depending on the circumstances -- that the student looks up the 

definition of a certain word in the dictionary. ALEKS may also propose that the student temporarily 

abandon the problem at hand and work instead on a related but easier problem. The capacities of the 

ALEKS system to monitor and guide student learning is flexible and multi-faceted. When a student has 

demonstrated mastery of a particular item by repeatedly solving problems based on it, ALEKS will 

encourage the student to proceed to a new item. 

Figure 3. Partial sample of an ALEKS learning report. 

The instructor module enables lecturers to monitor student progress and achievement; to view and 

change the standards applied in the generation of assessment reports; and to carry out other administrative 

tasks. In detail, the lecturer can: 

• View and print reports for individual students; 

• View and print a list of students, with a summary of information for each student including 

assessment results, progress in the learning mode, and total time spent in the system; 

• View and print synthetic reports for entire courses, giving an overview of the class's strengths and 

weaknesses; 

• View the standards used by default for a course, with the option of editing standards pertaining to 

that course only; 

• Edit student registration data or retrieve forgotten passwords. 


Design of summer course and effect research 

The design of the math bridging courses for the schools of Business and Economics can be 

summarized as follows: 

• In the period March-May prospective students are informed about the summer course, and are 

stimulated to participate in a diagnostic test. 

• About 50% of all prospective students do take that diagnostic test. Those students get feedback on 

their test attempt, together with the question if they have any interest to participate in the summer 

course. A substantial part of those students, for the summer course 2007 about 250, express their 

interest. 

• More detailed information about the summer course is sent to those students, including the 

preconditions for participation: the willingness and opportunity to work for at least 80 hours in the 

summer course, and the availability of internet access. In 2007, about 200 students indicate to be 

prepared to invest such a substantial amount of time in doing a bridging course. They receive a 

license code for the ALEKS College Algebra module, the most advanced module in a series of 

math ALEKS tutorials. Of those 200 distributed licenses, 191 have been used in summer 2007, the 

start ranging from early June till midst of August. Of those 191 students, 181 enter one of the two 

bachelor studies Business or Economics; the remaining students take the bridging course as an 

preparation for a MA study. 

• The ALEKS College Algebra module contains 200 items. An absolute norm was set to achieve a 

pass in the summer course: at least 55% of all items should be successfully completed. Not that 

passing the summer course brought the students any credit: they received only a (unofficial) 

diploma. 91 out of all 191 participants achieved such a diploma. On average, these passing 

students spent 59.45 hours in the electronic tutorial (only connect time could be measured, not 

additional study outside ALEKS). 

• Immediately after the last students finish their summer course, the regular bachelor study starts 

early September for all 800 students in the business and economics programs. In the first halfsemester 

period of eight weeks, students take two integrated courses, each covering 50% of 

available study load. The first course is an introduction into organisational theory and marketing, 

whereas the second one, labelled Quantitative Methods I (QM1), introduces students into 

mathematics and statistics. That QM1 provides a natural standard for assessing the effectiveness of 

the summer course: if bridging has been successful, students should be able to pass the QM1 

course. There is no overlap in the content of QM1 and the summer course: the main mathematical 

topic in the QM1 course is e.g. differential calculus, which is not part of the summer course. 

• During the eight weeks of QM1, some additional activities took place to facilitate the assessment 

of the summer course effectiveness. In the very first week, all students participate in a diagnostics 

entry test for math mastery. In several weeks, students fill questionnaires that collect data on their 

backgrounds. One piece of that data is the e.g. information on prior math schooling, as elaborated 

before. In the very last week of the course, students write a final exam. 

Since participation in the summer course is optional, self selection bias is the main threat in 

investigating the effectiveness of the summer course. The following remarks with regard to potential 

selection effects hold: 

• In agreement with recent discussions on the search for causal effects in observational studies (see 

the AERA ‘think tank white paper’: Schneider, Carnoy, Kilpatrick, Schmidt & Shavelson, 2007) 

we included quasi-experimental features in the study, the main one being the distinction between 

the several prior math educational trajectories. 

• Additional student background data is used as to discover any group differences between students 

opting for the summer course, and student not doing so, that might direct at the presence a 

selection effects. E.g., are there any differences between the two groups in terms of achievement 

motivation? 

Differences between participant and non-participants, and between successful and non-successful 

participants, appear to be large in the statistical sense: nearly all differences are strongly statistically 


significant. For that reason, the focus will more on the reporting of several effects, than on the formal 

testing of the significance of these effects. 

Measurement of effect of bridging courses 

Figure 4 provides the effects of participation in the summer course on four different main outcome 

variables. The effects are substantial and statistically very significant: student who successfully participate 

the summer course, perform much better than students who do not participate. Observed significance levels 

(p-values) are extremely small, but also effect sizes are substantial, up to 0.58 for scores in the diagnostic 

entry test. The four outcome variables used in this study are (all expressed as a proportion): 

• AlgRekenv: the partial score for basic calculus skills in the diagnostic entry test; 

• MathProp: the math score in the QM1 final exam; 

• StatsProp: the statistics score in the QM1 final exam; 

• QMPass: the passing rate for the course QM1. 

1 

0.9 

0.8 

0.7 

0.6 

0.5 

0.4 

0.3 

0.2 

0.1 

0 

Status zomercursus en prestaties 

AlgRekenv MathProp StatsProp QMpass 


no SC 

SC Fail 

SC Pass 

Figure 4. Effects of participation in summer course on calculus mastery, math and statistics score 

in QM1 final exam, and QM1 passing rate. 

The three groups distinguished in Figure 4 are the successful participants of the summer course 

(‘SC Pass’), the non-successful participants of the summer course (‘SC Fail’), and the non-participating 

students (‘no SC’). Data in Figure 4 is on aggregated level, and does not distinguish different levels of prior 

education. Therefore, group differences visible in Figure 4 provide an underestimation of the impact of the 

summer course, since students with basic prior math schooling are overrepresented in the summer course. 

Figure 5 provides effects of summer course participation for each of the several relevant prior education 

groups, focusing on the main outcome variable: passing rate in the QM1 final exam.

1 

0.9 

0.8 

0.7 

0.6 

0.5 

0.4 

0.3 

0.2 

0.1 

0 

MathMinor 

GrundkursNotExam 

VWO A1,2 

QM1 Pass 

GrundkursInExam 

Leistungskurs 


no SC 

SC Fail 

SC Pass 

Figure 5. Effects of participation in summer course and prior math education on passing rates for 

the course QM1. 

The two Figures summarize some important findings with regard to the summer course: 

• Looking at the three groups on the left hand side of Figure 5: being non-successful in the summer 

course is a very strong predictor of academic success in QM1. Not less than 75% of ‘MathMinor’ 

students and 70% of ‘VWO A1,2’ students who decided to participate the summer course but 

failed the remediation, also failed the regular course introducing math and statistics. Therefore, 

the summer course appears to provide a strong early signal: already before the regular program 

starts, an important category of students at risk is known by their summer course performances. 

• The opposite is true for students with a strong mathematical background participating in the 

summer course. Failing the summer course has no predictive power for these students. In fact, for 

students with the strongest preparation, that is the students in the ‘Leistungskurs’ group, being 

successful or not in the summer course has no impact at all on QM1 passing rates: all students 

pass, irrespective of their remedial activities. That does not surprise: the kind of failing in the 

summer course of these students is the discovery that the remedial program has not that much to 

offer, so that shortly after enrolling it, these students decide not to spend their holidays in 

practicing mathematics. 

Evaluation 

Next to an assessment in terms of effectiveness, the summer course was evaluated by its participants 

through a regular course evaluation. Evaluations are without exception positive. In specific: 

• Students indicate that they regard the didactical format of individual (non-collaborative) e-learning 

using the adaptive tutorial system ALEKS as the most appropriate format. Since many students in 

this summer course also participated in a second summer course that used the collaborative elearning 

format and was appreciated quite well too, this is a remarkable outcome: apparently 

students distinguish between academic subjects in their appreciation of the appropriateness of 

alternative didactical formats. 

• Some students indicate that on the basis of their summer course experiences, they decided to 

unenroll their bachelor study. “The summer course worked good, told me that International 

Business is not the right thing for me!” was the most explicit feedback in this direction. So the 

signalling function, already addressed in the last section, also works for the students, and might in 

this way prevent students to start with less appropriate bachelor programs. 

• The evaluations do not allow for distinguishing different subgroups, except for one item on the 

didactical format. Non-Dutch students appreciate the strong steering present in the adaptive 

tutorial tool much better than Dutch students. Again, this does not surprise: Dutch secondary 

education has transformed into a strongly student directed learning mode during the last decade.

Apparently, ‘new learning’ works addictive: different didactical formats are not that well 

appreciated anymore. 

References 

Brants, L., Struyven, K., Dochy, F., & Nickmans, G. (2008). Literature scan on online remedial teaching 

and learning: A European perspective. Development of effective online remedial education. In: 

Proceedings S-ICT Conference. Maastricht University, Maastricht. 

Doignon, J. P., & Falmagne J. C. (1999). Knowledge Spaces. Berlin: Springer. 

Falmange, J., Cosyn, E., Doignon, J., & Thiéry, N. (2004). The Assessment of Knowledge, in Theory and 

in Practice. http://www.aleks.com/about_aleks/Science_Behind_ALEKS.pdf. 

Rienties, B., Tempelaar, D., Waterval, D., Rehm, M., & Gijselaers, W. H. (2006). Remedial online teaching 

on a summer course. Industry and Higher Education, 20(5), 327-336. 

Schneider, M., Carnoy, B., Kilpatrick, J., Schmidt, W. H., & Shavelson, R. J. (2007). Estimating Causal 

Effects: Using Experimental and Observational Designs. Washington, DC: AERA. 

Tempelaar, Dirk T., Rienties, Bart, Rehm, Martin, Dijkstra, Joost, Arts, Mark & Blok, Geke (2006). An 

online summercourse for prospective international students to remediate deficiencies in math prior 

knowledge: The case of ALEKS. In: Proceedings WebALT2006 (pp. 23-36). Technical University 

of Eindhoven: Oy WebALT Inc. 

http://webalt.math.helsinki.fi/content/results/docs/proceedings2006/ 

Acknowledgments 

The authors would like to thank the EU Lifelong Learning programme funding the S.T.E.P. project and 

CvB Web-spijkeren grant, which enabled this research project. This publication reflects the views only of 

the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the 

information contained therein. 


Online Communities During Work Placements in Medicine: How 

to foster critical thinking on the basic sciences? 

Bas A. de Leng, Diana H.J.M. Dolmans, Arno M.M. Muijtjens, Cees P.M. van der Vleuten, Maastricht 

University,.The Netherlands 

Rijn Jöbsis, Department of Pediatrics, University Hospital Maastricht, The Netherlands 

b.deleng@educ.unimaas.nl, d.dolmans@educ.unimaas.nl, a.muijtjens@educ.unimaas.nl, 

c.vandervleuten@educ.unimaas.nl, rjo@paed.azm.nl 

Abstract: To promote critical thinking about basic science topics during work 

placements in medical education we interconnected students dispersed over different 

locations with a Computer Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) System. The CSCL 

system was provided with a structured dialogue interface combining the deliberate 

sequencing of activities and the tagging of messages with labels in line with Garrison’s 

‘Practical Inquiry model of Cognitive Presence’. To determine the effectiveness of this 

procedural facilitation embedded in the CSCL system the online discussions in two case 

studies were explored. We evaluated the quantity of the interactions by looking at 

quantitative data of the discussion ‘threads’ and we evaluated the quality of the 

discussion by content analysis of the individual messages. The instrument for content 

analysis was also based on Garrison’s ‘Practical Inquiry model of Cognitive Presence’. 

On the basis of the quantitative and qualitative data we conclude that the CSCL-system 

was successful in establishing a dialogue among a group of students and an expert during 

work placements at different locations. The ‘Practical Inquiry model’ was useful in 

facilitating a sustained on-topic discourse involving critical thinking. Although the 

amount of critical thinking was moderate, the results suggest ways to increase integration 

and resolution activities in the online discussions. 


Delivering a Masters: from Paper to Virtual and from Individual 

to Collaborative 

Joseph A. McLuckie; Michael Naulty; Dharmadeo Luchoomun * , School of Education, Social Work & 

Community Education (SESWCE), University of Dundee, UK 

Corresponding author * : d.luchoomun@dundee.ac.uk 

Abstract: This paper explores the move from delivering a course from a paper-based 

format to a blended learning one and highlights the role of the virtual environment in this 

transition. It has been achieved by the development of a Postgraduate Framework. This 

transition also involves the move from an individually driven course to one where the 

norm is delivering to a cohort of students, with one start date and one submission date for 

each cohort. The use of collaborative and peer assessed learning is addressed as a means 

of satisfying a delivery model which emulates socially constructivist principles of 

learning. Articulation across a number of Masters programmes is considered, where 

there is some commonality across such masters. 

Introduction 

Learning and teaching is central to the existence of most universities and this existence depends 

largely on demands of the job market. Due to deregulation of the finance sector and the volatile nature of 

the economic order both at national and international levels, employers have become more exigent in terms 

of quality and specificity of skills from employees. In this context, universities are aiming to develop and 

research innovative forms of teaching and learning for a wide variety of students (University of Dundee, 

2007). The School of Education, Social Work & Community Education (SESWCE) of the University of 

Dundee (UoD), for example, is using action research to improve learning and teaching. 

In this paper, we present how the policy context at the SESWCE evolves, adapts and connects to 

the modern world demands and is responsive to the needs of students, employers and the profession. This 

change is achieved through a blended approach to learning that is supported by a parallel development of 

the university’s virtual environment. This paper addresses, in particular, the postgraduate framework that 

was suggested by the position paper for strategic vision 2006-2007 (SESWCE, 2005) and that also forms 

part of the UoD strategic framework (University of Dundee, 2007). The aim of the postgraduate framework 

is to move the school towards developing evidence based practice and educational development that fits 

with the demands of the job market. Using action research to improve learning and teaching practice across 

the school, the framework is underpinned by the social constructivist model for learning. This model 

embeds innovative approaches to learning and teaching. The implementation of the postgraduate 

framework has resulted in the re-alignment of delivery of masters degree courses and their evaluation, 

standardisation and certification (SESWCE, 2008). Among the various changes ensuing the postgraduate 

framework, two major features that are discussed in this paper are the development of the virtual 

environment in the context of transition of delivery of master courses and the social constructivist approach 

to learning where a blended learning format is in operation. 

Virtual environment and shift to blended learning 

Traditional university courses can be characterised as lecture-based teaching where the modules 

are delivered in a paper-based format. In order to undertake the transition from paper-based course delivery 

to a mixed-mode of teaching and blended learning, the virtual environment is used at University of Dundee. 

It is called VLE-MyDundee and the main webpage is presented as Figure 1. Each student has access to a 

personalised webpage by logging in to VLE-MyDundee from the university’s website. This main and 

personalised webpage displays the different components of each student’s field of study on ‘My Modules’ 

webpage. The other pages, for example ‘My Campus’, ‘My Files’, ‘My Webmail’ and ‘Student Services’ 

provide a holistic and conducive online environment for students’ collaborative tasks and learning, their 

participation in non-pedagogic activities linked to the university and eventually promoting the wellbeing of 

each and every student. 


Figure 1 displays the main webpage from VLE-MyDundee 

Source: University of Dundee, www.dundee.ac.uk 

Master’s programmes delivery, blended learning and students’ wellbeing have been meticulously 

designed in the postgraduate framework. Each programme comprises 6 modules and there is some 

commonality of modules across different programmes. For example, a Masters in Education (MEd), may 

have commonality with a Masters in Social Work (MSc) in that Child Care & Protection is an issue 

relevant to both courses. The postgraduate framework has been developed and adjusted such that a common 

module, say in ‘Child Care’ has implications for future inter-professional collaborations. Each module 

unfolds across an average time line of 22 weeks. As the university promotes collaborative tasks and 

blended learning, the module is characterised as one having a start date, a project-submission date and a 

summative assessment date for different cohort of students. A representative time line and the various 

constituting activities that underpin blended learning are displayed as Figure 2. 


1 or 2 days of face to face 

contact 

Module materials 

are loaded on 

VLE-MyDundee 

Discussion Forums 

on Week 3 

& 

Week 6 

Module starts 

9 weeks 

Formative Peer 

Assessment Tasks 

4 

weeks 

1 or 2 days of face to face 

contact 

Module materials 

are loaded on 

VLE-MyDundee 

Discussion Forums 

on Week 13 

& 

Week 16 Summative Assessment 

Module ends 

9 weeks 

Figure 2 displays a representative time line of 22 weeks on the average for a module 

Source: Master of Education – Report (SESWCE, 2008) 

The chronology of the activities as well as the activities is supported by VLE-MyDundee. Unless 

exceptional instances, the face-to-face contact between tutor and students has undergone significant 

reduction. Apart form loading the module materials on VLE-MyDundee, the ‘Discussion Forums’ 

scheduled for Weeks 3, 6, 13 and 16 represent major collaborative tasks between tutors and students and 

among students themselves. Another important collaborative task is the ‘Formative Peer Assessed Task’ 

where students undergo peer assessment. The ‘Summative Assessment’ is the end-of-module activity. 

The social constructivist approach and Blended Learning 

Learning innovation include rethinking how to prepare students for the workplace. 

Blended Learning programmes have been developing in parallel with VLE-MyDundee. As already 

highlighted in previous section, the postgraduate framework together with VLE-MyDundee supports the 

development of blended learning programmes at SESWCE. Blended learning programmes are also 

supported by recent communication technologies. The postgraduate framework addressed both tutors and 

students by first interrogating the kind of tutor that the school requires and the quality of graduate students 

that the school projects to inject into the job market. Following a thorough investigation on different 

models of applied social science and relevant pedagogies, a holistic approach is taken to address teaching 

and learning. 

This approach is presented in Figure 3 and it aims at transforming both the philosophy and the 

technicality of course delivery. In this context, the following list of pre-requisite features are in operation at 

SESWCE: situated learning; empowerment, agency wellbeing and resilience; examination of world views; 

cross-cultural perspectives; non-intrusive forms of intervention; clear ethics and values; and critical 

competency (SESWCE, 2007). Course developers and researchers at SESWCE have found that these 

features would impact on participation, sustainability, wellbeing and empowerment of students as well as 

tutors. 

Ongoing brainstorming among the different stakeholders and interrogation of discussion reports 

and evaluation papers has lead to the following guidelines on postgraduate courses at the SESWCE: 

• Flexibility through modularity; 

• Calibration against Scottish Credit & Qualifications Framework (SCQF) level descriptors; 

• Integration and articulation across associated programmes; 

• Response to demand at a local, national and international level; 

• Recognition of prior learning and experience; 

• Multiple entry and exist points; and 


• Named Awards to reflect specialism’s and professional standards, (SESWCE, 2008). 

These guidelines eventually underpin the design and structuring of the programme for the 

postgraduate framework. The module structure and time line that are displayed in Figure 2 support blended 

learning. However, key permeating processes that promote and sustain blended learning are represented in 

the curriculum map displayed in Figure 3. It emphasises the ‘Core Module’, ‘Optional Module’ and the 

‘Workplace Based Project or Dissertation’. 

BLENDED LEARNING: Key Permeating Processes 

Practice-Based enquiries; Reflection; Critical Thinking; Peer Learning; 

Peer Formative Assessment; Relating Theory to Practice; Collaboration; 

Inter-Agency Working; and Leading Teaching and Learning. 

Core Module 1: 

Reflection upon 

practice 

Optional Module 1 


Enquiry into 

collaborative 

practice 


or 



Reflection upon 

practice 



Enquiry into 

collaborative 

practice 

Workplace Based Project or Dissertation 

Figure 3 displays the curriculum map and the constituents of blended learning 

Source: Master of Education – Report (SESWCE, 2008) 

Key permeating processes within the curriculum map representing blended learning are Practicebased 

enquiries; Reflection; Critical thinking; Peer learning; Peer formative assessment; Relating theory to 

practice; Collaboration; Inter-Agency working; and Leading teaching and learning. The pedagogy 

underlying blended learning approach that we have adopted at SESWCE is based on the premises of social 

constructivist learning. It comprises the different types of collaborative learning tasks supported by VLE- 


MyDundee and the different forms of networking methodologies using a range of communication 

technologies. This implies a shift from paper-based and one-way lecture to a more student-centred 

approach that is characterised collaborative learning, peer assessment and leadership and ownership of 

learning. In this context, learning is seen as an active social process in which students actively construct 

knowledge (Papastergiou, 2007, Vygotsky, 1978) and use the following processes to progress. 

Practice-based enquiries: Student face real life situation where, for example, BEd student 

undertake classroom activities in schools where they are projecting to work after studies. Another example 

is MSc Nursing students have to organise teaching for trainee nursing assistants. Research across different 

universities have revealed the importance of practice-based enquiries in promoting effective learning 

(Mulholland, Scammell, Turnock et al., 2005). 

Reflection and Critical thinking: Helping students relate educational theory to practice promote in 

depth reflection and develop critical thinking. As described earlier, VLE-MyDundee has been designed, 

especially for this purpose because student become independent learners as suggested by Harrison, Lawson 

and Wortley (2005). 

Peer learning and Peer formative assessment: When student are engaged socially with their peers 

in learning and assessment activities as promoted by VLE-MyDundee, there is enhanced achievement, 

progress, trust and socialisation (Topping, 2008). 

Inter-Agency working: The postgraduate framework together with VLE-MyDundee has initiated 

delivery of a common module to a cohort of students from different fields of study. As stated earlier the 

module ‘Child Care’ is dispensed to MEd and MSc-Social Work students (SESWCE, 2008). 

Leading teaching and learning: For student to lead their own learning and the module they are 

taught, it is important that they possess organisational skills in order to participate in collaborative learning 

tasks. We argue that if each student leads by setting example and undertake the four processes discussed 

above, collaborative learning tasks will effectively promote progress and attainment. 

Conclusion 

Acknowledging the challenging nature of blended learning as highlighted by Stubbs, Martin and 

Endlar (2006), the SESWCE has operationalised the postgraduate framework that is supported by a parallel 

development of the university’s virtual learning environment (VLE-MyDundee). The aim is to support 

masters’ programmes delivery and sustain students’ learning, progress and attainment. The postgraduate 

framework is underpinned by the social constructivist approach to learning where collaborative learning 

tasks, practice-based enquiries and leadership are promoted. Challenging circumstances are addressed 

through online additional support and telephone tutorials to help the entire cohort of students from a 

module to participate fully in their collaborative tasks. VLE-MyDundee is the online avenue where students 

are encouraged and guided to make optimum use of by interacting, sharing e-portfolios, maintaining online 

discussions and undertaking peer learning as well as peer assessment. Although this paper addresses the 

implications of the postgraduate framework on students collaborative learning tasks, professional 

development of tutors form an integral part of the entire process of leading teaching and learning through 

VLE-MyDundee. 

References 

Harrison, J. K., Lawson, T. & Wortley, A. (2005) Mentoring the beginning teacher: developing 

professional autonomy through critical reflection on practice. Reflective Practice, 6, 419 - 441 

Papastergiou, M. (2007) Use of a Course Management System Based on Claroline to Support a Social 

Constructivist Inspired Course: A Greek case study. Educational Media International, 44, 43 - 59 

Mulholland, J., Scammell, J., Turnock, C. & Gregg, B. 2005 Making Practice-based learning work [online] 

Accessed 12 October 2008 http://www.practicebasedlearning.org/report/docs/S5-FINAL.pdf 

SESWCE:(2005) Position paper: Strategic vision 2006-2007. Dundee, School of Education, Social Work 

and Community Education (SESWCE), University of Dundee. 


SESWCE:(2007) Discussion paper: Courses project research. Dundee, School of Education, Social Work 

and Community Education (SESWCE), University of Dundee. 

SESWCE:(2008) Master of Education (Report). Dundee, School of Education, Social Work and 

Community Education (SESWCE), University of Dundee. 

Stubbs, M., Martin, I. & Endlar, L. (2006) The structuration of blended learning: putting holistic design 

principles into practice. British Journal of Educational Technology, 37, 163-175 

Topping, K. J. (2008) Peer assessment: Theory into Practice(in press). 

University of Dundee 2007 Strategic framework to 2012 University of Dundee [online] Accessed 

http://www.dundee.ac.uk/principalsoffice/strategicframeworkto2012.pdf 

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978) Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes, London 

Harvard University Press. 


Unified in Learning – Separated by Space 

Case Study on a Global Learning Program 

Martin Rehm, Maastricht Graduate School of Governance, Maastricht University, The Netherlands 

martin.rehm@governance.unimaas.nl 

Abstract: The active growth of available online learning programs has created a wide 

range of new possibilities for global organizations to effectively train their staff. 

Previously, global training was related to substantial costs that had to be endured in order 

to update the knowledge and skills of the workforce. In this context, international 

organizations appear to be increasingly interested in setting up (virtual) communities of 

learning, which aid them in the process of workplace practice and training. Based on a 

global learning program of a large international organization, for over 400 of its staff, 

from nearly 100 offices world-wide, this article highlights how such a community of 

learning has been developed and implemented by facilitating the collaborative exchange 

of knowledge and experiences. Moreover, evidence is provided that the chosen structure 

and design have produced an interesting and stimulating community. Finally, preliminary 

results on possible learning effects indicate a positive outcome. 

Introduction 

As the availability of new online learning programs and tools is constantly increasing, global 

organizations can choose from a wide range of new options to effectively train their workforce. Previously, 

global learning programs were very often associated with substantial costs that had to be endured in order 

to update the knowledge and skills of a workforce. Employees had to leave their workstations, creating 

numerous direct and indirect costs to an organization. Moreover, with people having to physically travel to 

training venues for short amounts of time, there has only been a limited scope to really benefit from a truly 

international exchange of experiences and insights. Nowadays, organizations can readily create online 

communities of practice (Wenger, 1998) to teach and train their staff. Consequently, there has been a 

notable increase in the occurrence of workplace practice and training (Schlager, Fusco & Schank, 2002), 

which has been partly fueled by the growing need to effectively provide new skills and knowledge for 

organizations to not loose their competitive edge (Bassi, Cheney & Lewis, 1998). Hence, international 

organizations appear to be increasingly interested in setting up communities of learning, which are related 

to their potentially already existing communities of practice. Moreover, it has been widely accepted that the 

creation of such communities can be greatly supported by developing and implementing a context of 

“situated learning” (Amin & Roberts 2006; Bernard, de Rubalcava & St-Pierre, 2000; Billet, 1996; 

Gannon-Leary & Fontainha 2007; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Savery & Duffy 1995; Woods & Ebersole 2003). 

Based on a global learning program of a large international organization (IO), this paper will highlight how 

such a community of learning has been developed and implemented by facilitating the collaborative 

exchange of knowledge and experiences from employees from all over the world. The learning program in 

question has been implemented in 2 consecutive years (2006 and 2007). During this timeframe, more than 

400 of the organization’s staff, from nearly 100 offices world wide, have collaboratively updated their 

knowledge and skills. The program employed a blended learning approach, which started off with an elearning 

phase and concluded with a face-to-face workshop on location in Maastricht, the Netherlands. The 

focus of this article will be on the e-learning phase, providing an overview of the structure and design of the 

course, as well as the fashion with which the content was delivered. This will be complemented by a range 

of descriptive statistics providing an insight on how the course was evaluated by the participants. This 

serves the purpose of identifying both strengths and weaknesses, and adds to the work by Stacey, Smith & 

Barty, 2004, who highlighted possible advantages and disadvantages that staff might be subject to during 

online training programs. In addition, initial evidence on possible learning effects and successes is 

presented.. 


The Learning Program 

An overview 

Given the global scope of the IO and the very interdisciplinary background of its workforce, there 

are substantial benefits that can be reaped by introducing a learning program that is not only available 

online, but also employs a collaborative approach. The IO already has a wide range of training programs 

that are offered in an electronic environment via CD-ROMs and DVDs. Moreover, it also has a noticeable 

amount of training programs that take place in a classical face-to-face setting. However, introducing a 

collaborative learning environment in an online setting can be considered as a new initiative. The ultimate 

objective of the program was to secure the impact of the IO in its daily practice by enhancing the capacity 

and skills of its staff. Additionally, as the world is permanently changing and new analyzes and solutions 

are needed to address the same problems, the IO wanted to embrace these developments by training their 

middle- and top-management staff accordingly. In terms of content, the learning program specifically 

focused on updating the participants’ understanding of new assessments of the problems and introducing 

vocabulary and theories currently used to analyze them. Moreover, there was a clear emphasis on 

diagnostic instruments, evidence based policy analysis and other relevant practices that all rely on a sound 

and solid analysis. The program as such was offered over a timeframe of 6 months in 2006 and 2007. It 

built on a blended learning approach and was subdivided into two main phases, namely e-Learning and 

face-to-face. The e-Learning Phase took place entirely online, with no scheduled real-time meetings. The 

second phase consisted of residential workshop in 2006 and in 2007. Both events took place at the location 

in the Netherlands. During their stay participants followed lectures from professors and practitioners, 

completed hands-on data exercises and followed interactive sessions on specific topics were offered, all 

taking part in small scaled groups. To conclude the program, participants had to submit a worked out policy 

paper. 

The methodological framework 

The point of departure for the e-learning phase of the learning program was the ‘online remedial 

teaching model’ developed by Rienties, Tempelaar, Waterval, Rehm, & Gijselaers (2006). This model 

suggests four aspects that should be considered in setting up any type of online, collaborative learning 

program. Firstly, participants should be able to access information and actively participate in the program 

24/7. This was of great importance, as it allows the IO’s global staff to really participate irrespective of 

time and place. Secondly, virtual learning environments (VLEs) should allow for an individualized learning 

path, in order to accommodate for possible differences in participants prior knowledge levels, learning 

styles and preferences. Thirdly, and in line with concepts like ‘social constructivism’ (Vygotsky, 1978) and 

‘situated cognition’ (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989; Hung & Der-Thanq, 2001), online learning courses 

should stimulate the interaction between participants via the intensive use of communication tools, such as 

discussion forums, in order to bridge the geographical distance between them. This will not only aid the 

dialogue between participants themselves, but also enhance the communication with the academic staff. 

Finally, students should always receive rapid feedback. As already identified by Vrasidas & Zembylas 

(2003), this will not only enhance the interaction between staff and students in general, but also increase the 

overall performance of the students. However, the initial setup of the model was based on the 

characteristics of regular students in higher education. Given the professional backgrounds of the 

participants of this program and their regular work obligations, some modifications had to be made, in 

order to adjust for this target group. 

In this context, it has proven to be very beneficial to incorporate concepts and experiences that 

were developed and made on the topic of ‘Communities of Practice’ (CoP) and ‘Communities of Learning’ 

(CoL) (Amin & Roberts, 2006; Gannon-Leary & Fontainha, 2007; Huang, 2002; Hung & Der-Thanq, 2001; 

Smith, 2001; Wenger, 1998; Woods & Ebersole, 2003). Originally developed by Lave & Wenger (1991), 

numerous researches have now identified crucial aspects of Communities of Practice (CoP) that are critical 

for a successful and effective development and implementation. Summarizing these efforts, Amin & 

Roberts (2006) have developed a comprehensive overview of the aspects. First, CoPs should allow for an 

open dialogue that is not necessarily constrained by the borders of the organization. Alternatively, they 

should specifically introduce the possibility to engage into discussion with ‘outsiders’, who will confront 

participants with an alternative point of view and challenge them to re-think, or re-phrase their current 


views. As the IOs staff has to collaborate with partners from outside the organization on a daily basis, who 

often have a different vocabulary and a different method to analyze problems and situations, this was also 

of great importance. By subjecting participants to these differing views, while at the same time teaching 

them the underlying principles, this can make a valuable contribution to the overall learning outcomes. 

Second, participants will differ in their levels of participation and that participation will change over the 

course of the program. This is an inherent characteristic of professional participants, as they will remain a 

vibrant part of their working environments during the program. Consequently, it of crucial importance to 

design a structure that allows for periods of absence, which neither have consequences on the overall group, 

nor on the performance of the individual. Third, any CoP should cater for both public, as well as private 

community spaces. The inclusion of public spaces will facilitate the overall exchange of knowledge and the 

creation of a shared repertoire of communal resources and tools. The private spaces, which also stimulate 

such processes, also allow for more relational communication between participants, but also between 

educators and participants. This creates a type of ‘commonality’ (Hung & Der-Thanq, 2001), which can 

help participants to identify with the purpose of the collaboration in the CoP (Gannon-Leary & Fontainha, 

2007), and help to establish and strengthen personal ties and relations. Fourth, and very closely linked to 

the aforementioned, Amin & Roberts (2006) point out the importance of including spaces for informal 

discussions, where participants can create an ‘electronic personality’ (Woods & Ebersole, 2003) and 

engage into ‘online socialization’ (Smith, 2001). This process can substantially contribute to the success of 

a CoP, as it creates a sense of belonging and trust between the affected actors (Gannon-Leary & Fontainha, 

2007), who should feel comfortable to actively contribute to the CoP. Fifth, participants should be 

challenged by real-life and current problems. It is the task of the designers to effectively combine familiar 

aspects of the daily routines with the challenges of new concepts, theories and mechanisms. This issue is 

again highly correlated with the notion of ‘situated learning’ (Hung & Der-Thanq, 2001, Lave & Wenger, 

1991). Moreover, Huang (2002) suggests this to be of special importance for adult learners, who want to 

apply the new gained knowledge in their regular working environments, while at the same time linking it 

up with their often vast amount of practical experience. Finally, CoPs should be based on a clear and predefined 

timeline. Again, this is especially true for adult learners, as they have ongoing work obligations. For 

them to effectively plan their already scarce time and consequently to get the most out of the learning 

program, they need to know the specific timing of activities as much in advance as possible. If this notion is 

not properly implemented this can actually create an effective barrier to an active participation in the CoP 

(Gannon-Leary & Fontainha, 2007). 

Structure and purpose of the e-learning phase 

The e-Learning phase took place entirely online, with no scheduled real-time meetings. The 

duration of the e-learning phase was 8 weeks in 2006 and 14 weeks in 2007. This substantial increase in 

length was caused by two main reasons. Firstly, in contrast to 2006, the 2007 programme began with an 

introductory stage, where participants could get accustomed to the structure, content and online learning 

environment. This is very much in line with the findings of researchers such as Kelly, et al. (2007), who 

have also indentified a certain degree of lacking experience in using ICT among adult learners. 

Additionally, Gannon-Leary & Fontainha (2007) stipulate that many professionals are “strategic users of 

ICTs”, being well capable of using standard text- and data-processing packages, but encountering 

noticeable difficulties in working with more advanced, mainly online tools. Consequently, it was decided to 

begin with an introductory stage, where participants could simply get accustomed to the phases structure, 

content and online learning environment. The second reason was based on the inclusion of a 4 week 

vacation period to accommodate for annual leaves and vacations. Given the interdisciplinary background of 

the participants, the purpose of the e-learning phase was really to introduce and possibly refresh the more 

basic and standard knowledge of the learning program’s central topics. In a way, it created a “level playing 

field” for the second phase, where the participants really got challenged to put all aspects into perspective 

and implement them in real-life scenarios. 

Pre e-learning phase 

Before the actual start of the program, participants received all necessary materials they needed for 

the e-learning phase. This included a structured timeline, a detailed explanation of the program’s 

objectives, a comprehensive overview of required activities, as well as all necessary content materials. The 

content materials included recorded lectures, context notes, manuals, instructions and readings, and were 

distributed via various channels, such as DVDs, CD-ROMs, websites and a dedicated VLE, which was 


powered by Blackboard © . Additionally, participants were required to complete two online questionnaires. 

The first questionnaire focused on the participants’ expectations, learning preferences and goals. The 

second questionnaire estimated the participants’ prior knowledge on the specified content areas. In line 

with the ‘Online Remedial Teaching Model’ (Rienties et al., 2006), everyone who completed the test 

received their scores, herewith providing participants with a ‘mirror’ of their current knowledge as well as 

potentially highlighting areas that would require special attention during the e-learning phase. In 2007, this 

process was further refined by using the results to suggest so-called ‘Fundamental Readings’ that would aid 

participants in their learning process. These readings used an intuitive approach to introduce the main 

concepts and theories. 

Main elements and activities 

Given the methodological considerations, the e-learning phase required a VLE that was able not only 

to host all required ‘static’ content materials and supporting documents, but also provide the opportunity for 

participants to engage into active discussions, sharing ideas and experiences. As a result, a Blackboard © 

powered VLE was chosen, which encompasses a wide range of characteristics that help to foster the crucial 

aspects of a successful working CoP. More specifically, it allows participants to complete online quizzes, 

providing automatic feedback on the results (also see Rienties, et al, 2006). Furthermore, Blackboard 

incorporates interactive communication tools, such as asynchronous discussion forums that can 

substantially contribute to an open dialogue irrespective of time and place. This also allows for a more 

personal and informal exchange between participants (Amin & Roberts, 2006). The structure of the elearning 

phase differed slightly between the two years, as in 2006 certain content items were further 

subdivided, whereas in 2007 some of them were combined under a broader heading. Nonetheless, the 

overall workload remained equal at an estimated 5 hours per week. In general, both years oriented 

themselves along the 5 focal areas of the entire program. Each area constituted a content module that 

comprised lecture(s), readings, quizzes and task based discussions. Additionally, during the entire period of 

the e-learning phase, a so-called ‘Help Desk Team’ was at the participants’ disposal. This team constituted 

the first contact point between with the university and the program. It dealt with all technical, 

organizational, as well as didactical issues. This created a high degree of ‘immediacy’, which has been 

widely accepted as an important success factor for a well-functioning CoP (Woods & Ebersole, 2003, 

Rienties et al., 2006, Vrasidas & Zembylas, 2003). 

Self-Study & Quizzes: The literature for the different content modules was subdivided into 

Fundamental and Applied Readings. The Fundamental Readings were voluntary and represented a kind of 

safety net in case participants required a general introduction into a certain topic. The Applied Readings 

focused on empirical, very practical research that was relevant for the work of the IO’s staff. For each 

module, the readings were complement by a lecture and a ‘Context Note’. The lecture featured academic 

experts and experienced practitioners, who provided an introductory overview of the modules content. The 

‘Context Note’ was a recorded video message that introduces a modules content, how the individual items 

were related to each other and how they would contribute to the overall goal of the program. Additionally, 

voluntary, formative assessments, in the form of online quizzes for each of the content modules, were 

offered. This allowed participants to check whether they had mastered the basic content of the modules. 

Participants automatically received their scores upon completion of a quiz. Moreover, it was also possible 

to attain bonus points by successfully completing quizzes, which were then added to the score of the final 

exam of the e-Learning Phase. 

Online Discussion Groups and Tasks: This part constituted the backbone of the entire e-learning 

phase and was subdivided into a general public space and many private spaces. The public discussion 

forum facilitated a general exchange of knowledge across all participants. The involvement herein was 

voluntary. The private forums were part of separate “Learning Communities”, each consisting of about 15 

randomly assigned participants. These communities also contained asynchronous discussion forums, where 

participants could openly discuss the content of the modules. In both scenarios, there were two different 

types of forums available. One forum specifically focused on group building processes, where people 

introduced themselves and conducted informal chit-chat. By means of this forum it was possible to foster 

the creation of trust and a common identity (Hung & Der-Thanq, 2001, Woods & Ebersole, 2003). The 

other type of forums was really content driven. Each forum was based on a practical, real-life task, which 

was taken from the actual working environments of the participants. The challenge for participants always 


was to apply the newly gained knowledge to the supposedly familiar surroundings. This setup also 

constituted a type of ‘neo-apprenticeship style learning’ (Gannon-Leary & Fontainha, 2007), which 

stimulated the interaction between colleagues with different backgrounds. In this framework experts are not 

necessarily defined on the basis of explicit knowledge, but more along the lines of tenure and tacit 

knowledge. By providing a forum for such a process, ‘spillover-effects’ (Hung & Der-Thanq, 2001) could 

be created where more senior staff shared their knowledge with more junior colleagues, while at the same 

time the latter group introduced new thoughts and ideas to the organization. To facilitate the discussions a 

team of academic staff was assigned to each Learning Community. They guided through the discussion and 

answered content related questions. Moreover, they also acted as a kind of ‘sparring partner’, challenging 

participants to re-think their current practices, and implementing the newly gained knowledge to their 

current environments (Amin & Roberts, 2006). Finally, to accommodate the busy time schedules of the 

participants and so as to ensure that everyone had the opportunity to actively participate in all discussions, 

all forums remained accessible throughout the entire e-Learning Phase. 

Final Assessment: The e-learning phase was evaluated in equal parts on the basis of the 

participants’ contributions in the discussion forums, as well as a final exam. In 2006 this took the form of 

an extensive online multiple choice test. Taking into account the limitations of such a summative 

assessment, the format was adapted in 2007, changing the format to essay questions. 

Results 

Participants 

In 2006, 245 of the IO’s staff, from 95 different countries, participated in the e-Learning Phase of 

the program. The gender distribution was slightly in favor of females (54.3%) and the average age of the 

participants was 46.5 years. In terms of educational backgrounds, the vast majority of the participants held 

a Master’s degree (54.7%), followed by PhDs (25.7%), alternative degrees, such as apprenticeship 

diplomas (16.7%) and Bachelors (2.8%).In 2007, the e-learning phase was followed by 174 participants, 

from 81 countries. In terms of the other main characteristics, the participants were largely similar to their 

2006 colleagues, with a female participation of 52.9% and an average age of 44.4 years. When looking at 

the educational backgrounds, the majority of the participants again hold a Master’s degree (68.2%), 

compared to PhD’s (17.3%), Bachelor’s (9.2%) and other degrees (5.3%). According to the initial 

questionnaire the IO’s staff, both in 2006 and 2007, participated to remediate potential gaps in their 

knowledge and skills which were covered in the provided by the learning program. Moreover, they 

indicated a strong preference to work collaboratively. In terms of the format, there was a wide-spread 

appreciation that the e-Learning phase could be followed online and irrespective of time and place. Finally, 

although participants clearly indicated that they liked to work with a computer, there was a clear notion that 

they would have preferred to learn with a hard-copy book, as opposed to the available electronic media. 

This provides evidence for the suggestion of Gannon-Leary & Fontainha (2007), who claim that 

professionals are very selective in their use of ICTs. 

End Evaluation 

At the end of the e-Learning Phase, an end evaluation was conducted in order to assess whether 

the participants’ expectations and goals were matched, as well as to measure the overall success of the 

phase. Overall, the e-Learning Phase was very positively evaluated (see Table 1). More specifically, on a 

scale1 (very bad) – 10 (very good), the overall quality received a 6.64 in 2006 and a 7.07 in 2007. 

Similarly, the supporting staff was awarded with a 6.27 in 2006 and a 7.11 in 2007. When looking more 

closely at the evaluations, one can see that, based on a Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly 

agree), participants perceived it to be a valuable learning experience (2006: 5.82 & 2007: 6.16) and 

considered the structure to be good (2006: 5.23 & 2007: 5.44). The goals of the e-Learning Phase (2006: 

5.56 & 2007: 5.67), as well as the expectations were well explained (2006: 5.28 & 2007: 5.36). Completing 

a pre-knowledge test prior to the course was also very much appreciated by the participants, as it effectively 

showed them possible gaps in prior knowledge on the topics of the course (2006: 5.49 & 2007: 5.55) In 

terms of the newly gained knowledge (2006: 5.00 & 2007: 5.60) and skills (2006: 4.77 & 2007: 5.34), 

participants indicated that they were satisfied with both outcomes. Furthermore, as already underlined by 

the initial questionnaire, they really valued the collaborative nature of the phase (2006: 4.28 & 2007: 4.66). 


The tasks, which had been at the centre of the discussion forums, also received good scores (2006: 5.02 & 

2007: 5.76), as they stimulated participants to study the applicable materials. However, there remains some 

room for improvement to formulate these tasks in a fashion which stimulates a more active collaboration 

and exchange of experiences (2006: 4.21 & 2007: 4.67). The facilitators of the discussions were evaluated 

quite positively (2006: 4.16 & 2007: 4.95), but participants clearly indicated that they would have liked 

them to take a more active role in the discussions (2006: 4.19 & 2007: 4.59). Another perceived drawback 

of the phase was the estimated workload, as participants had to spend more time than expected (2006: 8.01 

hrs & 2007: 8.20 hrs) and the readings were perceived to be too extensive (2006: 5.44 & 2007: 4.61). 

Table 1: Average Scores (AV) of the Participants’ End Evaluation 

2006 (n=154) 2007 (n=101) 

Question AV Stdev AV Stdev 

Phase 1 of this Learning Program was a 

valuable learning experience. 5.82 1.16 6.16 1.36 

The structure of Phase 1 was good. 5.23 1.28 5.44 1.37 

The content of Phase 1 was appropriate 4.75 1.44 5.31 1.38 

Phase 1 was well organized. 4.59 1.48 5.18 1.54 

The quality of the e-learning materials was good. 5.35 1.19 5.36 1.48 

The e-learning materials motivated me to keep up with the subject matter. 4.88 1.34 5.53 1.55 

It was fun that I could attend Phase I via the internet. 4.56 1.72 4.91 1.69 

The allocated time was sufficient to study the subject matter. 2.41 1.31 3.58 1.88 

The goals of Phase 1 were clear to me. 5.56 1.11 5.67 0.90 

It was clear to me what was expected of me during Phase 1. 5.28 1.24 5.36 1.23 

The assignments/tasks stimulated me to collaborate with the other group 

members (in the Learning Community). 4.21 1.53 4.67 1.55 

The assignments/tasks stimulated me to study. 5.02 1.40 5.76 1.26 

I am satisfied with what I learned in terms of knowledge. 5.00 1.38 5.60 1.30 

I am satisfied with what I learned in terms of insights. 5.18 1.38 5.42 1.51 

I have improved my evidence based analysis skills. 4.77 1.37 5.34 1.16 

I am more able to cooperate with other organizations. 5.03 1.33 5.11 1.57 

I think I have learned more during Phase 1 through collaboration with 

others than I would have learned, if I had to work alone. 4.28 1.65 4.66 1.92 

I participated actively in the online group discussions (within the Learning 

Community). 4.25 1.86 5.16 1.51 

The facilitators were enthusiastic in coaching 

our Learning Community. 4.16 1.57 4.95 1.93 

I expected the tutors to take a more active role in 

the learning process. 4.19 1.52 4.59 2.22 

The facilitators encouraged participation of all group members in the 

online group discussions. 5.42 1.35 5.07 1.85 

The Pre-Assessment was a good test to show me what I did know and what 

I did not know. 5.49 1.29 5.55 1.69 

The online assessments during Phase 1 gave me 

a good picture of what I still had to study. 5.10 1.46 5.64 1.33 

The lectures helped me to study the materials. 5.18 1.35 5.52 1.27 

The level of the applied readings was appropriate. 4.85 1.45 5.55 1.19 

The applied readings were too difficult. 4.13 1.42 4.07 1.69 

The amount of required literature was too much. 5.44 1.48 4.61 1.88 


Please provide an overall grade for the quality of 

Phase 1 (scale 1-10) 6.64 1.62 7.07 1.58 

Please provide an overall grade for the functioning of the Learning 

Program Phase 1 Team (scale 1-10) 6.27 1.79 7.11 1.97 

On average, how many hours per week did you work on Phase 1 of this 

Learning Program? 8.01 5.21 8.20 6.69 

Overview of performance indicators 

Overall, in 2006 75.80% and in 2007 83.90% of all participants successfully completed the e- 

Learning phase, which are both very acceptable passing rates. The grades were determined on a scale from 

1 – 10, requiring at least 5.5 to pass the phase. When looking at the average scores for the pre-knowledge 

test (see Figure 1), it is noteworthy to mention that the prior knowledge (PK) of the participants is below 

the passing threshold. However, this should hardly come as a surprise as the IO already identified the need 

to update its staff knowledge and skills on the topics of the program. Moreover, participants received 

comparatively low scores for the quizzes (QZ). A possible reason for this outcome is very likely based on 

the voluntary nature of the quizzes. When looking at the frequencies with which the quizzes have been 

accessed and completed, it is apparent that the majority of the participants tried the first one and then, 

depending on the result and their general ‘ICT-mindedness’, decided to simply drop this activity. In 

contrast, considerable more attention has been paid to the discussion forums. Consequently, the average 

participation grades (PG), in both 2006 and 2007, are significantly higher. It seems reasonable to assume 

that this is highly correlated with the fact that participants were graded on this activity. Moreover, given the 

practical orientation of the discussions and the possibility to exchange experiences with colleagues, it might 

also be that this activity was perceived to be more interesting and useful for the overall learning process. 

This notion is supported by the findings of the end evaluation (see Table 1), as well as the summary 

statistics of the discussion forum activities. In 2006, an average of 288 contributions was posted per 

Learning Community, compared to 221 messages in 2007. Contrasting this to the results of Rienties, et al. 

(2006) and taking into account the background and the severe time constraints of the participants, this 

constitutes a very acceptable intensity of usage. Interestingly, the informal discussion forums always had 

(slightly) higher amounts of contributions than the content driven forums. As for the public discussion 

forums, the contributions were substantially lower, predominantly covering informal communication, such 

as personal introductions. Another remarkable observation is related to the scores for the final exams (FE), 

as well as the final grades (FG) for the e-Learning Phase. As can bee seen from Figure 1, there is a 

noticeable difference between the average scores for the two items when comparing 2006 and 2007. What 

the underlying causes for these differences are remains to be investigated. However, as a first 

approximation it seems likely that they are related to the nature of the final exam, which has been more 

practical and solely based on open questions in 2007. Next to the well-established benefits of such a 

summative assessment, this setup is also more in line with what the participants are accustomed to in their 

every day work and consequently may find it comparatively easy to deal with such an exercise. When 

looking at the contributing factors to a successful final exam, there is an interesting difference between the 

2006 and 2007 cohorts. Using simple correlation statistics, it becomes apparent that the relation between 

the participation grade and the final exam has been highly significant, but only amounted to 0.273 in 2006, 

compared to 0.554 in 2007. 

In order to conduct a first estimation of the actual learning effect, it was chosen to compare the 

scores of the pre-knowledge test and the final grade. As the focus of this phase was to introduce and 

possibly refresh more basic and standard knowledge of the central topics, this can an initial approximation. 

To measure the possible effects a paired-sample t-test was employed, which yielded quite mixed results. 

For 2006, no significant difference between the two scores can be determined. In contrast, when conducting 

the test for 2007, a strong increase in the average scores, which is highly significant at a 0.01 level, was 

found. Admittedly, this is a very rudimentary estimation of the cognitive learning effects. However, it 

already provides a cautious indication that the small adjustments that have been made between the two 

cohorts had noticeable effects on the learning outcomes, even at this very basic level. More sophisticated 

research is necessary to draw sounder conclusions from the available data. 


10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

0 

PK PG QZ FE FG 

Figure 1: Performance Indicators for Phase 1 in 2006 & 2007 (Averages: 1 – 10) 

Discussion & Conclusion 

The focus of this article was to provide an overview of an e-learning phase, which was provided 

for adult learners of an international IO. In terms of a methodological framework it has been argued that the 

most promising setup should be based on the notion of Communities of Learning (CoL) that build up on 

possibly already existing Communities of Practice (CoP). Departing from this finding, and building up on 

an ‘Online Remedial Teaching Model’, six aspects have been promoted that have a high potential of 

stimulating an effective and successful implementation of a CoP. First, they should stimulate an open 

dialogue between all participating parties. Second, adult learners are likely to exhibit fluctuating levels of 

participation, due to their busy work schedules. An effective CoP should cater for this. Third, participants 

should be subject to both, public and private spaces, as this will foster fruitful communication flows. 

Fourth, participants require spaces for informal discussions, in order to create a sense of belonging and 

trust, necessary to actively share information and contribute to the CoP. Fifth, based on the notion of 

‘situated learning’, adult learners will highly benefit from real-life and current problems to which they can 

relate to. Finally, so as to assist participants in fitting the activities of the CoP into their regular working 

schedules, clear and pre-defined timeline should be provided before the actual start of the activities. 

The participants end evaluations of the e-learning phase, indicate that the implementation of this 

framework has been successfully accomplished. Especially the predominant role of asynchronous online 

discussions and the collaborative work on real-life tasks received considerable appreciation. In contrast, 

two broad topics have been identified to necessitate some critical adjustments. Firstly, the factual workload 

and the estimated time to complete all required activities have, according to the participants, been 

underestimated, which created difficulties in preparing the activities and always finding the time to actively 

contribute to the discussions. One possible solution to this problem can be to better inform the employer 

about the dimension of the program, possibly allowing for a more flexible time planning. The other broad 

topic is related to the facilitation of the discussion forums. Although online facilitators are awarded 

acceptable scores, they are criticized for being too passive to effectively stimulate the discussions and 

assisting the participants. One possible solution to counteract this perception is to better prepare facilitators 

via additional preparatory trainings, introducing didactical tools and mechanisms that have proven to be 

effective in fostering online discussions. 

In terms of the cognitive outcomes and factual learning effects of the program, the results remain 

mixed at best. For 2006, the preliminary results only suggest an insignificant effect on the learning 

outcomes, whereas in 2007, the results are more supportive. However, in order to better estimate the actual 

effects, more research is required on a number of activities and variables. More specifically, this article 

suggests to investigate the extent with which the different component parts of the e-learning phase have 

contributed to the final result. Additionally, given its central role in the CoP, a thorough analysis of the 


2006 

2007

discussion forums promises to yield very interesting and useful insights. As suggested by the model of 

Garrison, Anderson, & Archer (1999), such an analysis should incorporate three dimensions, namely 

‘cognitive presence’ (What is learned?), ‘social presence’ (How does a network influence this process?) 

and ‘teaching presence’ (How does the facilitator influence this process?). Such an analysis would greatly 

assist in creating a learning experience for adult learners that will be both interesting to follow and effective 

in its educational value. 

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The Acceptance of eLearning Methods of Extra Occupational 

and Full-time Students 

Christian Kaufmann, Harald Wahl, Alexander Mense, Thomas Sommer, University of Applied Sciences 

Technikum Wien, Vienna, Austria 

Kaufmann@technikum-wien.at, wahl@technikum-wien.at, mense@technikum-wien.at, 

sommert@technikum-wien.at 

Abstract: Meanwhile digital technologies affect our whole life, so it is not surprising that 

it also changes the practice to teach and learn. The central notion of eLearning is the 

temporal flexibility, thereby learning will no longer be limited to the time we spend at 

schools, colleges, and universities. 

Due to the internet and web technologies, tertiary educational institutions are exploring 

the potential use of eLearning technologies and methods to provide the increasing 

demands of flexible teaching needed in distance education. 

The University of Applied Sciences Technikum Wien also offers different eLearning 

methods to support teaching and learning processes in different course programs which 

are divided into full-time and part-time. 

In the near future, at the Technikum Wien the variety of eLearning possibilities will be 

increased. One way to decide which methods should be offered increasingly is a check of 

the acceptance of eLearning methods with particular attention to the different level of 

acceptance between extra occupational students and full-time students. 

For this purpose, a student survey was conducted, the results are presented in this paper. 

Introduction 

In Austria, as well as in probably most other countries, the pressure on tertiary educational 

institutes has increased because of the demanding educational needs. On the one side this need is based on 

the students who, of course want to raise their education and on the other side it is based on the business 

environment which needs more and higher educated employees. This is not new but in recent years 

strengthened the demand for flexible learning more and more. 

According to Central Bureau of Statistics in the academic year 2003/04 66.5% of the new students 

of the scientific universities in Austria declared they where not working beside their study (adjusted from 

those who did not specify). In the year 2004/05 61.6% did not work and in the next year there where only 

60.2% of the new students not working. (Statistics Austria., 2005), (Statistics Austria. 2006, 1) , (Statistics 

Austria. 2006, 2) 

Because of the additional occupational stress, the students claim for more flexible and customized 

learning attractions. Online education is increasingly common in tertiary education and is the answer to 

growing needs of the student population. (Smith and Rupp, 2004) 

Another reason is that someone who already lives in vocational stands can study alongside the 

work if the teaching and learning time is that flexible that it can be adapted to the working hours. Thereby 

lifelong learning is possible and people as well as the company benefit. 

eLearning at the University of Applied Sciences Technikum Wien 

Those reasons where recognized by the University of Applied Sciences Technikum Wien and in 

the mid-90s it started its web based eLearning supply for students. Since then, this support was constantly 

improved and expanded. 

Today there is a central web based Learning Management System called Campus Information 

System (CIS). In this system each student can find his course manuals as electronic documents, his class 

schedule, description of courses, contact information of the lecturers, a community area for each course, 

information about available books at the library, his grade for each course and even much more. 


Additionally to the CIS each course program has its own different eLearning methods and tools 

adjusted to its special needs which primarily depend on whether they are bachelor or master courses and if 

they are fulltime or part-time studies. 

In the near future, the Technikum Wien will provide online courses, so the existing eLearning 

support will be extended. Therefore, a survey was conducted to answer following questions: 

• How much do students use tools and methods provided from their course program? 

• Do extra occupational students have a higher acceptance of eLearning methods than full-time 

students? 

• Which eLearning tools and methods, that are not provided by the university do students use? 

Basic parameters of the survey 

The survey was conducted online, each active or graduate Austrian student who didn’t graduate 

longer than 5 years ago was admitted. The students of the Technikum Wien were invited to participate by 

email. Moreover, students from other universities were invited to participate through personal contacts with 

other educational institutes. 

Finally, a total of 374 students participated in the survey. Unfortunately, only 15 students where 

from other universities so we decided to remove those records from the analysis. So the total number of 

evaluated participants is 359 with 160 fulltime and 199 part-time students. 

Besides the age, the survey asked for gender, field of study, university, the branch of the company 

if they work, the number of employees, average weekly working hours and if they study part-time beside a 

job or full-time. 

In advance, the eLearning tools used in the Technikum Wien were evaluated and divided into the 

following categories: 

• Computer Based Training 

• Web Based Training 

• Authoring system (Wiki) 

• Simulation 

• Teleteaching 

• Learning Management System 

• Blended Learning 

• Communities 

The students were asked how often they use tools of those categories, which they are using in 

addition to their studies and if they are employed which are used in their companies. 

In addition, the students had to attribute the different categories, which they best describe. 

Available attributes were: 

• Flexible time learning 

• Time expensive 

• Performance-oriented work 

• Technically complicated 

• Timesaving 

• Don’t advance learning progress 

• Easy to use 

• Congenial learning 

• Unknown method 


Analysis of the survey 

General use of the different eLearning methods 

The evaluation of the general use of the different eLearning methods (see Table 1) resulted in 

important values in the category Blended Learning where 41.21% of all part-time Students and 20.00% of 

the full-time students indicated to use Blended Learning what corresponds to a difference of 21.21%. 

Another major difference of 11.79% was found in the category Computer Based Training where 

17.59% of all part-time students and 29.38% of the full-time students declare to use it at least several times 

per month. 

From these values the conclusion can be traced back to the teaching methods used in full-time and 

part-time studies. Computer Based Training could presuppose the use of teaching materials which is not 

freely accessible for the students so they have to be locally in the classroom. Whereas due to lower 

attendance in the classroom and a higher Distance learning part Blended Learning is more used in part-time 

classes. 

Table 1: Use of elearning methods 

elearning category Student typ amount percent distance 

Authoring system 


part-time 

full-time 

37 

38 

18.6 

23.8 

5.2 

Blended Learning 


part-time 

full-time 

82 

32 

41.2 

20.0 

21.2 

Communities 

Communities 

part-time 

full-time 

125 

90 

62.8 

56.3 

6.5 

Computer Based Training 


part-time 

full-time 

35 

47 

17.6 

29.4 

11.8 

Learning Management System part-time 140 70.4 

Learning Management System full-time 121 75.6 

Simulation part-time 75 37.7 

Simulation full-time 53 33.1 

Teleteaching part-time 7 3.5 

Teleteaching full-time 4 2.5 

Web Based Training part-time 64 32.2 

Web Based Training full-time 52 32.5 

A further analysis of the use of the categories subdivided into the use categories “daily use”, 

“several times a week” and “several times a month” didn’t show any interesting values. 

Analysis of sympathy values 

As described in “Basic parameters of the survey“, the students where asked to attribute the 

categories. As a result of this assessment it is possible to anticipate the student’s sympathy for each 

category. 

The data base of this analysis contains all votes pro and contra for the categories, “unknown 

method” votes where omited. A percent value was calculated for each category and student type 

combination measured on the votes in the particular group (see Table 2). 

Considering the values abnormalities in the category “Authoring system” and “Blended Learning” 

can be recognized. Both categories are favored by part-time students with a distance over 5% (Authoring 


5.2 

4.6 

1.0 

0.3

system 5.9% and Blended Learning 10.7%). Especially authoring systems are interesting because with 

23.75% more full-time students pro rata use this category than part-time students do (18.59%) 

It also singled out the category values of “Simulation” and “Teleteaching”, because they are 

relatively low compared to the other values. Obviously these methods are less attractive than the other. 

Table 2: Overview of sympathy values 

elearning category Student typ Pro Contra Total % Pro % 

Contra 


part-time 

full-time 

129 

112 

42 

49 

171 

161 

75.4 

69.6 

24.6 

30.4 


part-time 

full-time 

191 

83 

29 

26 

220 

109 

86.8 

76.1 

13.2 

23.9 

Communities 

part-time 

full-time 

331 

233 

56 

44 

387 

277 

85.5 

84.1 

14.5 

15.9 

Computer Based part-time 282 48 330 85.5 14.5 

Training 

Learning 

full-time 250 43 293 85.3 14.7 

Management part-time 371 28 399 93.0 7.0 

System full-time 318 30 348 91.4 8.6 

Simulation 

part-time 

full-time 

161 

156 

84 

67 

245 

223 

65.7 

70.0 

34.3 

30.0 

Teleteaching 

part-time 

full-time 

62 

45 

39 

29 

101 

74 

61.4 

60.8 

38.6 

39.2 

Web Based Training 

part-time 

full-time 

300 

248 

48 

29 

348 

277 

86.2 

89.5 

13.8 

10.5 

Mean 

Pro 

Mean 

Contra 

72.5 27.5 

81.5 18.5 

84.8 15.2 

85.4 14.6 

92.2 7.8 

67.8 32.2 

61.1 38.9 

87.9 12.1 

Overview of the low awareness level of each category 

The analysis of the low awareness level (see Table 3) shows, that there is not much difference in 

the awareness level of part-time and full-time students. Outliers are “Web Bases Training” and again 

“Blended Learning” which are well known by part-time students but not by full-time students. 

Also interesting is the value of “Simulation” in relation with the lower sympathy result in the 

Analysis of sympathy values. Apparently most students know that learning method but still they don’t like 

it that much than other methods. 


Table 3: Comparison of the categories measured by the low awareness level 

elearning category Student typ amount percent 


part-time 

full-time 

122 

97 

61.3 

60.6 


part-time 

full-time 

103 

115 

51.8 

71.9 

Communities 

part-time 

full-time 

43 

41 

21.6 

25.6 


part-time 

full-time 

65 

54 

32.7 

33.8 

Learning Management System 

part-time 

full-time 

55 

36 

27.6 

22.5 

Simulation 

part-time 

full-time 

78 

62 

39.2 

38.8 

Teleteaching 

part-time 

full-time 

142 

124 

71.4 

77.5 


part-time 

full-time 

58 

67 

29.1 

41.9 

Analysis of the private use of eLearning methods 

The comparison of the surveys result on the question about the private use of eLearning methods (see Table 

4) show, that just “Communities” are relatively widely used but there is no major difference between parttime 

and fill-time students while the other categories are not so heavily prevalent. 

Another interesting category is the “Authoring system”. 17.6% of the part-time students and just 11.3% of 

the full-time students use tools in this category. 

The analysis has raised another interesting aspect. It has shown that apart from category “Authoring 

system” and “Blended Learning” pro rate more full-time students use the different eLearning methods than 

part-time. 

Table 4: Private use of eLearning methods 

elearning category Student typ amount percent distance 



Communities 


Learning Management System 

Simulation 

Teleteaching 


part-time 35 17.6 

full-time 18 11.3 
















6.3 

0.5 

3.8 

5.8 

3.5 

5.3 

1.1 

3.2

Conclusion 

The survey shows that there are differences between full-time and part-time students even if they 

are partially low. 

Apparently part-time students are more specialized in a few methods foremost Authoring Systems, 

Blended Learning and Communities while full-time students use a variety of methods. It is estimated that 

this is based on the time the students can spend on learning. 

Part-time students, who have to economize their time beside their job, rely on known sequences 

and methods because this saves time, while full-time students in general have more time to try out new 

methods. 

In any case, both groups rely on Communities, probably because of the high interaction with other 

students which is not supported by the other tools and methods that much. 

Further studies should clarify the following questions: 

• What makes the different methods more or less attractive? 

• Is interaction with other students for full-time and part-time students equally important? 

• If it is important equally how can web based cooperative learning be implemented in the available 

methods? 

References 

Mandl, H. & Winkler, K. (2002). E-Learning in der betrieblichen Weiterbildungam Beispiel 

Wissensmanagement., Arbeitsprozessintegriertes Lernen (S. 95-110). Münster: Waxmann Verlag. 

R.K. Pucher, A. Mense, H. Wahl and F. Schmöllebeck. (2003). Intrinsic Motivation of Students in Project 

Based Learning. The Transactions of the SA Institute of Electrical Engineers, Vol 94 No 3, pp 6-9 

September. 

RK Pucher, H Wahl, A Mense. How to Motivate Students in Project Based Learning, Proceedings of the 

Africon 2002 (IEEE Group 8), George, RSA, Oktober 1-4 2002. 

Smith, T., & Rupp, F. (2004). Innovation in Open & Distance Learning: Kogan Page London. 

Statistics Austria. (2005). Higher Education Statistics 2003/04 [WWW page]. URL 

http://www.statistik.at/dynamic/wcmsprod/idcplg?IdcService=GET_NATIVE_FILE&dID=36664 

&dDocName=007098 

Statistics Austria. (2006, 1). Higher Education Statistics 2004/05 [WWW page]. URL 



Statistics Austria. (2006, 2). Higher Education Statistics 2005/06 [WWW page]. URL 



H Wahl, A Mense, A Nimmervoll, RK Pucher, H Gollner and F Schmöllebeck. (2008). An Innovative 

Combination of non Traditional Teaching Methods for Learning in Small Groups. Proceedings of 

the International Conference PBL2008 ABP, Colima, Mexico, January 30 - February 1. 


MA in ePedagogy Design / Visual Knowledge Learning 

Jaap Jansen, Inholland University, The Netherlands 

jaap.jansen@inholland.nl 

Abstract: The Master in ePedagogy Design has been developed by the University of Art 

& Design Helsinki as the coordinating institution together with INHolland University and 

University of Hamburg. The goal was to design a two-year (120 ECTS) Master program 

covering an interdisciplinary curriculum with specific emphasis on cross-curricular 

communication and collaboration based on media convergence and media literacy to 

interpret various forms of visual representation in all scientific disciplines and networked 

communities. This included investigation of process-oriented, cognitive and metacognitive 

ways of creating, stimulating and visualising new methods of content creation, 

researching and implementing newtechnologies and didactical models. 

The cooperation includes the usage of different virtual learning environments from the 

participating Universities. From all over the world students now participate in the 

program. Two times a academic year the master program offers a International Seminar. 

This EU CD project seeked to establish a strong network of corporate universities and 

related organisations, institutions and enterprises to foster knowledge building, transfer 

and efficiency. 


Competence Based Teaching and Evaluation 

Methods/Strategines Online: Analysis of Intercultural 

Communication course 

Natalija Mažeikien, Vytautas Magnus University, Kaunas, Lithuania, Egl Virgailait-Mekauskait, 

Stefanija Ališauskien, Šiauliai University, Šiauliai, Lithuania 

n.mazeikiene@adm.vdu.lt, e.virgailaite@cr.su.lt, s.alisauskiene@cr.su.lt 

Abstract: In the article the possibilities of the measuring and assessment of the 

intercultural competence online and the problem of it are discussed. Article analyses 

possible variations of competence based assessment strategines, techniques and 

educational tools. The importance of the competence based teaching and learning online 

in educational context is underlined. The structure, the assessment strategies and methods 

of the intercultural competence are analyzed (questionnaires, the competence files 

(portfolio), inventories, the reflective journals, interview, scenarios, the analyses of the 

critical incidents, simulation games etc.) that are orientated into the social, metacognitive 

competences, communication skills of the students, interactive communication, 

reflection, research, professional skill, creativity development and the evaluation at the 

same time. 

The aim of the article - to reveal opportunities of online learning and assessment in 

intercultural competence development using competence based approach. The aim will 

be achieved through the following tasks: 1) to describe competence development in 

online learning; 2) to reveal the role of new assessment in competence-based approach; 

3) to disclose the possibilities to support development of intercultural competence in 

online learning by applying new assessment strategies, forms and tools. 

Competence development in online learning 

Online learning, the use of electronic media, and information technologies provides new 

opportunities for flexible course delivery: the emphasis on asychronicity in online learning increase scope 

for flexibility in study process, meets a growing demand for part time study, continuous professional 

development and lifelong learning. While providing the opportunities of flexible online learning, challenges 

arise to support competence development of future professionals, to enable students to take part in specific 

future professional situation applying knowledge, skills and attitudes. Competences are grounded in 

knowledge, are constituted through values, are dispositioned through skills, are consolidated through 

experience, and are realized on basis of will (Ehlers, 2007; Erpenbeck and Heyse, 1999). Competence 

development in online learning could be full filled by employing a social constructivist approach, 

combining collaborative learning (McConnell, 2001), activity-based learning (Macdonald and Twining, 

2002), resource-based learning (Macdonald et al., 2001) and problem-based learning (Ronteltap and 

Eurelings, 2002). Competence development could be stimulated through practical, self-organized, situative, 

emotional, social and communicative learning. 

Despite of intentions of higher education to create competence-based curriculum, still current 

experiences show, that most of the online environments correspond to distributive e-learning model rather 

then collaborative (Ehlers, 2007). Transition from distributive e-learning model to collaborative e-learning 

reflects shift from knowledge-based curriculum to competence-based curriculum. Distributive e-leaning 

model focuses on knowledge and qualification acquisition, orients towards reproduction, problem solving, 

understanding, stresses authority of teacher, who plays knowledge transfer and demonstration role. 

Collaborative e-learning model aims to develop competences, by constructing knowledge through social 

practical experiences, using technologies of collaboration, interaction and communication, defining 

teacher’s role as coach and player instead of authoritative tutor. While assessment in distributive model 

stresses knowledge and reproduction, which are demonstrated in tests and multiply choice assignments, 

assessment in collaborative e-learning model is oriented to performance and skill application, collection of 

evidences and demonstration of competences. 


Fostering the liberal paradigm’s ideals and principles that correspond to the competence based 

approach can be fulfilled by applying a new non-traditional assessment, that enables development of 

competences and encourages self organized study of a student. New forms of assessment, striving 

reflective, collaborative, experiential, practical approaches, seeks to evaluate knowledge, skills of the 

students, their attitudes and metacognitive strategies. 

The aims, forms and methods of competence based assessment 

Many authors notice the changes that take place in the sphere of the evaluation philosophy. 

(Segers, 2003; Marshall, 1999). Traditional evaluation, which aims to perform the assessment of learning is 

based on the main evaluation of the development of main skills, taking to consideration the aims of the 

programme. In majority of cases, such evaluation takes place at the end. In that case, the evaluation is 

becoming a responsibility of the teacher and depends on one evaluator only. The tests that are created by 

teachers influence the mechanical, superficial studying. Competence based assessment includes the 

involvement of the student into the activity and the evaluation itself takes place in the activity. 

The aims of the competence based assessment are: to evaluate learning effectiveness, 

achievements of students, to promote communication of learning process participants (students, teachers), 

to develop reflection and learning skills. 

Differently from the traditional assessment a new assessment is student-centered. Students gain 

opportunity to evaluate themselves and the others, provide feedback and reflect their learning. Race (1993) 

offers an educational model that becomes a driver of the new evaluation process. This model consists of: 1) 

a wish to study (motivation); 2) studying in the activity (practice, learning from the mistakes, the learning 

from the experience) 3) studying with a feedback (to develop positive feeling, views while studying); 4) 

understanding (the perception of the experience, the understanding of the feedback). 

Taking to consideration the constructivist view into learning in the educational process the most 

important thing is the link between prior knowledge and newly received skills (Birenbaum, 2003; Limon, 

2001). One of the competence based assessment’s goal is to collect the proves and evidences of their skills, 

knowledge, ability to perform or behave according to the situation. 

While performing the student-centered education, besides tutor assessment, new forms and 

strategies of the evaluation are used - self-assessment, peer-assessment, group assessment and portfolio. 

These forms of assessment enables students to reflect their activity, improve the communication skills, 

open the way for the productive dialogue between the teacher and the student. The quality of the new 

evaluation in higher education is connected to the goals to help students to improve, to use the transferable 

skills including and organizational (time, task, management, skill and problem solving) skills, 

metacognitive and reflective skills. 

Self-assessment can be valuable because of the proves that the student collect while filling in the 

reflective journals, personal development plans, diaries, that reflect the individual knowledge of the 

student, that meets the requirements of the course aims and the competences that need to be achieved. Selfassessment 

involves the student to evaluate the process of studies, achievements and the learning results. 

(Bound and Falchikov, 1989) Using this assessment strategy, the students should actively take part in the 

learning process. 

Self-assessment using portfolio method was offered by Keith (1996). He suggested the tasks with 

the help of which the students should reflect the process of learning. There were used different simulation, 

imitative tasks, that encourages the cooperation of the students, critical thinking, communicative skills and 

teamwork. Such tasks help the students to be in charge of their studying process. The students are 

encouraged to assess one another, reflect the process of their studies. That is why the essays, reports, 

presentations, discussions etc are thought as the deeper means of educational experience. Self-assessment 

acquires a great importance in the evaluation of competence based approach, because it reflects 

metacongnitive component’s development importance. 


Peer-assessment, according to Falchikov (1995), is a process during which the individuals 

evaluate one another and the members of their group. Somervell (1993) state that the peer-assessment is not 

only a ranking procedure, but also it is a part of the educational process, during which the transferable skills 

are taught and improved. Peer –assessment can be the part of self-assessment, where the students learn 

about the works of other co-students more than the teacher. The peer-assessment is a practice, which 

strengthens the feeling of responsibility, requires the correct judgment from the students, while evaluating 

the others, make them be objective and know the true evaluation criteria. 

Self-assessment and peer-assessment involves students into the identification and negotiation of 

the standards and criteria of their work and assessment; creates environment for students to make 

discussions and evaluate one another; allow to discuss the assessment’s objectiveness. According to Brown 

and Dove (1991) the self and peer assessment that was successfully involved in studies can: 1) help the 

students to feel that they are the masters of their educational process; 2) to motivate them to be interested 

more in the educational process; 3) to think about the assessment as the common activity, that does not 

depend on one person;4) to develop cooperation skills and the change of ideas; 5) to show the way into 

deeper and more effective studying; 6) to encourage the students to be independent in the educational 

society, where the students feel the influence and try to be involved in it; 7) students feel that their 

experience is evaluated and the decisions are valued and respected 8) to develop the transferred and 

personal qualities; 9) to take part is educational community. Self-assessment and peer-assessment add the 

novelty to the course. The new evaluation is different from the formal and the student are responsibly 

involved in it. 

One more evaluation form is portfolio assessment. Stiggins (1994) describes the portfolio as the 

entity of documents, proves, that describe the achievements of the student and his improvement. The 

evidence of portfolio are not only the artifacts, the works of the students, but also the logical statement that 

is connected to the aims that were achieved by the student, that correspond with the assessment standards 

and the expected results. According to Stiggins, portfolio is not only the assessment form but also the way 

to discuss the achievements of the students, their growth, and development. The filling of the portfolios 

connected to the personal knowledge, experience and skills, which become the target of the education. 

Zubizaretta (2004) states that the main point of filling in the portfolio is to improve the process of the 

education, creating the possibility for reflection of the learning process and developing of the skills that 

increase due to the critical reflection. 

Competence-based assessment strategies and forms for intercultural 

competence development online 

Introduction of new assessment strategies and forms mentioned above is essential for 

implementing competence based approach. The use of proper assessment forms and tools can be 

considered as successful strategy for online development of intercultural competence. Evaluation of 

assessment strategies would allow to draw conclusions on opportunities to implement competence based 

approach in intercultural learning. Investigating the use of competence based assessment forms the research 

was made in the framework of Socrates/Minerva programme Project „M.A.S.T.E.R. - Mobility, 

Assessment, Selection, Technology and E-learning Research“ (Nr. 229580-CP-1-2006-1-NL-MINERVA- 

MPP), which is a joint project from Maastricht University, University of Dundee, Siauliai University and 

Fachhochschule Lübeck. The results described here are taken from quantitative research made in Siauliai 

University (Lithuania) with 174 Master students participated in M.A.S.T.E.R. project online course 

“Intercultural Communication”. After the course had been completed, the survey on remedial courses 

assessment strategies and tools in the M.A.S.T.E.R. project was made. Respondents (students) were asked 

to evaluate different forms of assessment used in the course (tutor-assessment, self-assessment, portfolio) 

according to quality requirements of assessment (validity, reliability, transparency). 

Baumer (2002) explains the notion of intercultural competence in two way: 1) as the precondition 

for the successful daily communication of people and as 2) the precondition for the successful 

communication of people from different cultures(people that speak different language, that live in the 

different cultural context etc). There also exsist a different scientific opinion that states that the intercultural 

competence – is the ability to effectively integrate in the different culture group (INCA, 2004). 


In definitions of ‘intercultural competence’ in the professional domain, four dimensions tend to be 

distinguished: knowledge, skills, attitudes and traits (Sercu, 2004). Chen and Starosta (1996) provide a 

model of the effective interculturalist, which focuses on affective (intercultural sensitivity), cognitive 

(intercultural awareness) and behavioural (intercultural adroitness) components. Affectively speaking, the 

effective interculturalist is said to have a positive self-concept, to be open-minded, non-judgmental and 

relaxed in social interaction. Cognitively speaking, the effective interculturalist possesses cultural selfawareness 

and cultural awareness, which help to reduce the ambiguity and uncertainty that are inherent in 

intercultural interaction. Behaviourally speaking, the effective interculturalist possesses good message 

skills, technical skill, the skill of appropriate self-disclosure and interaction management, behavioural 

flexibility, as well as social skills, in both the verbal and non-verbal domains. The personality traits that are 

conducive to intercultural competence are: empathy, respect, interest in cultures, flexibility, tolerance, 

open-mindedness, initiative, sociability and positive self-image (Kealey & Ruben, 1983). 

The intercultural dimensions are detailed described in Byram (1997) model that is often referred to 

by other scholars. According to Byram (1997) the intercultural competence consists of the 4 dimensions 

such as: knowledge, skills of interpretation, skills of discovery and interaction, and cultural awareness. 

Some of the authors the skills of interpretation, skills of discovery and interaction connect into one 

intercultural competence dimension, and call it the cultural skills. Some of the authors point out 5 

components of the intercultural competence and add to the Byram model the foreign language skills 

(Fantini, 2000). Sercu (2004) add to the Byram intercultural competence structure and equalises it with the 

competence theories. Competence consists of the specific subject knowledge, cognitive strategies, 

metacongnitive and emotional characteristics (according to Birenbaum, 1996) (Picture Nr. 1). 

Attitudes Knowledg 

e 

Skills of 

interpretation, 

discovery and 

interaction 

Intercultural 

competence 

Cultural 

awareness 

Metacognitive skills 

Picture Nr. 1. The model of the intercultural competence according to Byram (1997) and Sercu 

(2004). 

Developing intercultural competence in MASTER project course “Intercultural communication” 

different forms of assessment were used: beside teacher assessment, respondents pointed out self-, group-, 

peer-, portfolio assessment forms frequently used in the course (see figure 1). 


The knowledge 

of the foreign 

language

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

Figure 1. Frequence of use of assessment strategies and 

tools in Intercultural Communication course (N=174) 

10,3 

8,6 

81 

Selfassessment 

59,2 

72,4 

21,3 

19,5 19 

Groupassessment 

10,3 10,3 


8,6 

Peerassessment 

79,3 

Tutorassessment 

11,5 

21,8 

66,7 

Portfolio 

Never 

Once 

More then once 

Online remedial course of “Intercultural Communication” consisted of 15 topics and assignments 

for students, each topic had discussion forums and all these activities had evaluation system, which helped 

in assessing students through the whole study process. Master students had learning task to fill in 

competence portfolio at the beginning of the course and at the end of the course, which was evaluated by 

qualitative assessment rubrics. 

Frequency of use of assessment tools in “Intercultural Communication” course was evaluated (See 

figure 2). Reflective logs, discussion forums, portfolio filling and assignments were used more often 

comparing with essays, presentations, tests, questionnaires.

Figure 2. Frequency of use assessment tools in Intercultural 

communication course (N=174) 

essays 

presentation 

blogs 

discussion forum 

questionnaire 

reflective logs 

quizzes 

assignments 

tests 

portfolio 

5 

18 

19 

19 

35 

36 

56 

68 

45 

43 

113 

144 


152 

61 

103 

133 

70 

133 

109 

112 

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 

Learning journals, diaries, reflective logs, e-portfolios are some of the most important educational 

tools, which depend on the collection of the additional evidence. The students think over and collect the 

documentation of their intercultural experience, culture difference, the peculiarities of the foreign and their 

own culture. If such documentation is filled in the other intercultural context (for example- if the student 

takes part in the exchange programme) and lives abroad, that allows to remember and evaluate the 

experience (thoughts, feelings etc) after he/she is back home. This can be a basis for the discussion with 

peer students. Diaries are the certain direction for writing, not only the form of evaluation, but also the tool 

of the organization of the studies. 

46 

56 

25 

35 

36 

8 

22 

10 

6 

2 

Never 

1-3 times 

Portfolio allows documenting and fixating the intercultural experience of the student during the 

stay in other country, self-assessment in different environment and presenting the evidences of the 

intercultural competence mastering. Filling in the electronic and paper portfolio helps to form the 

understanding of the students of how they live and learn, how their communicational and organizational 

skills improve. The most important goal of the filling in the portfolio is to improve the learning process of 

students, creating a possibility for reflection of the learning process; develop the skills that grow due to the 

critical reflection. 

While evaluating new forms and strategies of assessment (self-assessment, peer-assessment, tutorassessment, 

group-assessment, portfolio) in competence development, the standards of the evaluation 

quality were taken into consideration in our research. The use of assessment forms and tools should meet 

requirements of validity, reliability, objectiveness (adds to the teacher’s assessment), difficulty and 

transparency (Race, 2001). 

Participants of M.A.S.T.E.R. project “Intercultural Communication” course” were asked to 

evaluate main quality characteristics of assessment forms and tools used. Survey questionnaire consisted of 

31 statements on validity, reliability and transparency of tutor-, self-, portfolio assessment forms. Level of 

agreement with statements were measured by responses: 1 – “Not really“, 2 – „A little“, 3 – „Yes“, 4 – 

„Absolutely yes“. Validity describes whether the evaluation process measures what was planned to 

measure, taking to consideration the aims and the educational results (For instance, statements “Assignmets 

and tasks, which I had to carry out for assessment matched objectives of this course - skills and 

competences I have to develop and demonstrate“, „A wide range of skills could be demonstrated in this 

course, I could demonstrate adequately what I know, what I am able to carry out in practice and what I feel 

4 and more times

and think“). Reliability deals with correctness, logic, the clear statement and the objectiveness of 

assessment. In our research reliability was defined as fairness, objectivity of assessment and accurateness. 

Objectiveness of self- and peer- assessment is growing when the final evaluation is not taken by one 

evaluator only (for instance, statements: “Teacher looks carefully at exactly what is being measured by 

each form of assessment“, „ Assessment made by teacher was fair and objective“, „Teacher facilitated 

discussion of the fairness and objectivity of the assessment“, „Before assessment it was allowed learners to 

identify standards or criteria to apply to their assignments, make judgments about the extent to which they 

have met these standards and criteria“). Transparency implies if the evaluator and the evaluated clearly 

understand and state the goals of the evaluation; the students know what they are expected to do during the 

educational process, what competences and achievements must be proved during the demonstration (for 

instance, statements: „Criteria for selecting and assessing the portfolio content was clear“ ,“Assessment 

tasks of the course were clear defined and they seem purposeful for me“, „You had the opportunity to 

discuss with each other (and with tutors) matters arising from your assessment of your own work or each 

other's work“). Learning to learn criteria allows to evaluate quality of assessment forms and tools 

developing competences (for instance, statements: „Portfolio filling was effective to learning process, I 

could record, observe and follow my progress made in the course and could set goals for further learning“, 

„The outcomes of the self-assessment are a basis for action, it will stimulate me to seek for further 

improvement of my competence“). This criterion of quality was applied to portfolio and self-assessment 

forms. 

Evaluating validity, reliability, transparency and learning to learn in all forms of assessment used 

in the course respondents emphasized that validity, reliability and transparency were higher in turor- and 

self-assessment, than in portfolio (See Figure 3, 4, 5). Learning to learn indicator of quality of assessment 

is relatively high in comparison of other indicators (reliability, transparency) in all forms of assessment. 

Figure 3. Validity, reliability, transparency and learning to learn 

in different forms of assessment 

Learning to 

learn 

Transparency 

Reliability 

Validity 

2,8 

3,1 

2,7 

2,8 

2,8 

3,1 

3,2 


2,1 

2,5 

2,9 

2,9 

0 1 2 3 4 

portfolio 

self-assessment 

tutor-assessment

Learning to learn 

Transparency 

4 

3 

2 

1 

Figure 4. Validity, reliability, transparency and learning to 

learn in all forms of assessment 

Reliability 

Validity 


2,5 

2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5 2,6 2,7 2,8 2,9 3 3,1 

Figure 5. Evaluation of quality indicators (transparency, 

reliability and validity) of different forms of assessment in 

Intercultural Communication course 

3 

Tutor-assessment Self-assessment Portfolio 

Self-assessment and portfolio are successful to promote learning to learn. If even this forms are 

not considered by students as having high reliability (accurateness, objectivity), they are seen as promoting 

further improvement of students competences, allowing to observe and identify their progress. New forms 

of assessment (self-assessment and portfolio) have potential to stimulate metacognitive and reflective 

dimension in competence development process. Tutor-assessment matches the idea of traditional 

knowledge-based approach, which revealed itself in the research as reliable, valid and transparent form of 

assessment. 

Conclusions 

The current challenge for online learning in higher education is to support competence 

development, which could be done by minimizing the importance of distributed learning approach (which 

implies knowledge transfer) and trying to implement collaboration learning approach (which implies 

competence development) in study process. Competence-based education, seeks to increase not only 

2,9 

2,8 

2,5 

3 

3

knowledge but also the skills of the students, their attitudes and metacognitive strategies, also helps to 

insure the educational activities. 

Using variety of learning, teaching and assessment methods (information sources, scenarios, 

portfolio, diaries, assignments, etc.) it is possible to develop several or most of components of competence 

(in this case - intercultural competence). In the process of intercultural competence assessment there could 

be used the triangulation of traditional and new methods and techniques, in order to develop all the 

components of the intercultural competence (knowledge, skills, attitudes, personal qualities, cultural 

awareness, metacognitive strategies). New assessment forms take into consideration interests of all 

participants of educational process (student, teacher, organization), allowing to evaluate oneself and the 

others, ensure the feedback and the constant development of competence. 

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using electronic resources, British Journal of Education Technology, 32(4), 419-434. 

Marshall, G. (1999). Exploring Assessment. Education and Information Technologies, 4(3), 311-327. 

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Paper 80, 1993. 


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environment for problem based learning, Distant Education, 23(1),11-22. 

Segers, M., Dochy, F. J. R. C., & Cascallar, E. (2003). Optimising new modes of assessment : in search of 

qualities and standards. Dordrecht ; Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. 

Sercu, L. (2006). The foreign language and intercultural competence teacher: the acquisition of a new 

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collaborative assessment, Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 18. 

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Zubizarreta, J. (2004). The Learning Portfolio. Bolton, MA: Anker Publishing. 


Explaining student learning preferences in a blended learning 

environment for learning statistics on the basis of student 

characteristics 

Dirk T. Tempelaar, Bart Rienties, Maastricht University, The Netherlands 

D.Tempelaar@ke.unimaas.nl, Bart.Rienties@erd.unimaas.nl 

Abstract: In the teaching of introductory statistics to first year students economics and 

business, the Maastricht University uses a blended learning environment that allows 

students to design a individualized environment by attuning available learning tools to 

personal preferences. The blended learning environment consists of tutorials based on the 

problem-based learning principle, lectures, independent learning and an electronic 

learning environment based upon knowledge space theory: ALEKS. Usage of only the 

first component is required; the usage of other components can be set according to 

individual preferences. In this study, we will focus on the intensity of the use of the 

electronic learning environment ALEKS and investigate the relationship between this and 

student background characteristics, such as learning style preferences and motivational 

variables. Data of about 2000 students taking this course is used. 

Introduction 

In this empirical study, we investigate in a large group of first year university students following 

an economics or business program, the revealed preferences for using the e-learning component in a 

blended learning environment for learning introductory statistics. This blended learning environment 

consists of tutorials based on the problem-based learning principle, lectures, independent learning and an 

electronic learning environment based upon knowledge space theory: ALEKS (Tempelaar et al., 2006). 

Except for the tutorial sessions, for which attendance is required, students can set the intensity for each of 

the components of the blended learning environment according their personal preferences. Some of these 

preferences become revealed, e.g. by measuring connect-time in the e-learning mode. This study aims to 

explain patterns in revealed preferences by individual differences in a range of determinants of learning 

processes: preferred learning approaches, metacognitive abilities, and achievement motivations. 

The Inventory of Learning Styles (ILS) instrument, developed by Vermunt (see Vermunt and 

Vermetten, 2004), has been used to assess preferred learning approaches. Students’ metacognitive abilities 

are operationalised by the recently developed self-report instrument Awareness of Independent Learning 

Inventory (Elshout-Mohr et al., 2005; Tempelaar, 2006), that presumes metacognition to be a three 

dimensional construct, comprising knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Expectancy-value models form the 

basis of an instrument measuring achievement motivations (Schau et al, 1995; Tempelaar et al, 2007). 

Schau’s version of the modern expectancy-value model distinguishes two expectancy factors dealing with 

students’ beliefs about their own ability and perceived task difficulty, a construct expressing subjective 

task-value, an affective task-related attitude, and the constructs interest and effort. Achievement 

motivations are measured ex ante and ex post, in order to be able to observe developments during the 

learning episode. Measurements for students’ preferences for e-learning are generated as log-data by the 

ALEKS electronic tutorial system. 

The adaptive tutorial system ALEKS 

The ALEKS system combines adaptive, diagnostic testing with an electronic learning & practice 

tutorial in several domains relevant for higher education. In addition, it provides lecturers an instructor 

module where students' progress can be monitored, educational standards can be adapted to a particular 

college, or course and other administrative tasks can be carried out. ALEKS is a commercial software 

product. 

The ALEKS assessment module starts with an entry assessment in order to evaluate precisely a 

student's knowledge state for the given domain (e.g. Business Statistics). Following this assessment, 

ALEKS delivers a graphic report analyzing the student's knowledge within all curricular areas for the 


elevant course, based on specified standards. The report also recommends concepts on which the student 

can begin working; by clicking on any of these concepts or items the student gains immediate access to the 

learning module. 

Some key features of the assessment module are (see Figure 1 for a sample): 

• All problems require that the student produce authentic input. 

• All problems are algorithmically generated. 

• Assessment questions are generated from a carefully-designed repertoire of items ensuring 

comprehensive coverage of the domain. 

• The assessment is adaptive: the choice of each new question is based on the aggregate of 

responses to all previous questions. As a result, the student's knowledge state can be found by 

asking only a small subset of the possible questions (typically 15-25). 

• Assessment results are always framed relative to specified educational standards. The system 

allows instructors to customize the standards used by their courses with a syllabus editor (part 

of the instructor module). Both the assessment and learning modules are automatically 

adapted to the chosen standards. 

Figure 1. Sample of an ALEKS assessment item. 

The learning report, of which Figure 2 shows part of, provides a detailed, graphic representation of 

the student's knowledge state by means of pie-charts divided into slices, each of which corresponds to an 

area of the syllabus. In the ALEKS system, the student's progress is shown by the proportion of the slice 

that is filled in by solid colour: if the slice is entirely filled in, the student has mastered that area, if it is 

two-thirds filled in, the student has mastered two thirds of the material, and so forth. Also, as the mouse is 

held over a given slice, a list is displayed of items within that area that the student is currently "ready to 

learn," as determined by the assessment. Clicking on any of these items gives access to the learning mode 

(beginning with the item chosen). 

At the conclusion of the assessment ALEKS determines the concepts that the student is currently 

ready to learn, based on that student's current knowledge state. These new concepts are listed in the report, 

and the learning mode is initiated by clicking on any highlighted phrase representing a concept in the list. 

The focus of the learning mode is a sequence of problems to be solved by the student, representing a series 

of concepts to be mastered. The facilities offered by the learning mode are as follows: 


• Practice (that is, the problems themselves); 

• Explanations of concepts and procedures; 

• Dictionary of technical terms; 

• Calculator (adapted to the topic studied, e.g. in statistical items, a special "statistics 

calculator" is provided). 

For example, a student working on a particular problem may "ask for" an explanation of that 

problem (by clicking on the button marked "Explain"). The explanation typically provides a short solution 

of the problem, with commentary. After reading the explanation(s), the student may return to "Practice" (by 

clicking on the button marked "Practice"), where she or he will be presented with another problem 

exemplifying the item or concept just illustrated. If the student is successful in solving the problem, the 

system will offer (usually) two or three more instances of the same item to make sure the student has 

mastered it. In the text of problems and explanations, certain technical terms such as "addition", "factor" 

and "square root" are highlighted. Clicking on any highlighted word or phrase will open the dictionary to a 

definition of the corresponding concept. The dictionary can also be used independently of the current 

problem to look up any term the student may be curious about. A graphing calculator is available for 

computing and displaying geometrical figures in analytical geometry and calculus. Other, related features 

of the learning mode are Feedback, Progress monitoring, and Practice. Whenever the student attempts to 

solve a problem in the learning mode, the system responds to the input by saying whether or not the answer 

is correct and, if it is incorrect, what the student's error might have been. More generally, ALEKS follows 

the student's progress during each learning sequence, and will at times offer advice. For example, if a 

student has read the explanation of a problem a couple of times and yet continues to provide incorrect 

responses, ALEKS may suggest -- depending on the circumstances -- that the student looks up the 

definition of a certain word in the dictionary. ALEKS may also propose that the student temporarily 

abandon the problem at hand and work instead on a related but easier problem. The capacities of the 

ALEKS system to monitor and guide student learning is flexible and multi-faceted. When a student has 

demonstrated mastery of a particular item by repeatedly solving problems based on it, ALEKS will 

encourage the student to proceed to a new item. 

Figure 2. Partial sample of an ALEKS learning report. 


The instructor module enables lecturers to monitor student progress and achievement; to view and 

change the standards applied in the generation of assessment reports; and to carry out other administrative 

tasks. In detail, the lecturer can: 

• View and print reports for individual students; 

• View and print a list of students, with a summary of information for each student including 

assessment results, progress in the learning mode, and total time spent in the system; 

• View and print synthetic reports for entire courses, giving an overview of the class's strengths 

and weaknesses; 

• View the standards used by default for a course, with the option of editing standards 

pertaining to that course only; 

• Edit student registration data or retrieve forgotten passwords. 

Method 

Measures 

Metacognitive abilities: the Awareness of Independent Learning Inventory or AILI (Elshout-Mohr 

et al., 2005; Tempelaar, 2006). The AILI is based on Flavells’ three component model of metacognition, 

which decomposes metacognition into the components knowledge, skills, and attitudes (Flavell, 1979). 

Incorporation of the attitudes component makes the AILI unique; the MAI instrument is e.g. limited to the 

components knowledge and skills. Each component is further divided into three subcomponents. For 

metacognitive knowledge, these subcomponents are based on the types of knowledge identified by Flavell 

(1979): about persons, about strategies, and about study tasks. For metacognitive skills, subcomponents 

correspond to the three consecutive stages of a learning episode: the preparatory, the executive, and the 

concluding stage (Van Hout-Wolters, 2000). For metacognitive attitudes, subcomponents are again based 

on Flavell (1979): sensitivity to internal feedback, to external feedback, and curiosity. In the construction of 

AILI a so-called facet procedure has been followed. This design implies that, in addition to referring to a 

specific metacognitive component and subcomponent, every item refers to one of five content domains 

defined as the second facet: Learning goal, Emotional interest, Collaborative learning, Deep understanding, 

and Orderliness/Systematic approach (Elshout-Mohr et al., 2005). 

Subject achievement motivations based on Eccles’ expectancy-value theory (Eccles, 2005; Eccles 

et al., 1983; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000, 2002; Wigfield, Tonk, & Eccles, 2004). Achievement motivations 

for business subjects are measured with an instrument derived from the Survey of Attitudes Toward 

Statistics (SATS) developed by Schau and co-authors (Dauphinee et al., 1997; Hilton et al., 2004; Schau et 

al., 1995). The instrument is based on expectancy-value theory as the interpretative framework to 

understand formation of motivations. Expectancy-value models take their name from the key role of two 

components in the motivation to perform an achievement task: students’ expectancies for success, and the 

task value, that is the value they attribute to succeeding the task. The SATS instrument measures four 

aspects of post-secondary students’ subject attitudes: two expectancy factors that deal with students’ beliefs 

about their own ability and perceived task difficulty: Cognitive Competence and Difficulty, and two 

subjective task-value constructs that encompass students’ feelings toward and attitudes about the value of 

the subject: Affect and Value. Validation research has shown that a four-factor structure provides a good 

description of responses to the SATS-instrument in two very large samples of undergraduate students 

(Dauphinee et al., 1997; Hilton et al., 2004) for the subject statistics. Subsequently, the adequacy of the 

SATS-instrument for measuring achievement motivations for business subjects has been demonstrated in 

Tempelaar et al. (2007). 

Learning approaches are based on the model developed by Vermunt (Vermunt & Vermetten, 

2004) and the instrument ILS-HO based on that model. Vermunt distinguishes four domains or components 

of learning: cognitive processing strategies, metacognitive regulation strategies, learning conceptions or 

Mental models of learning, and learning orientations. Based on characteristic patterns in preferences or 

habits of individual students with regard to these four domains, four different learning styles can be 

distinguished, to know the meaning-directed, reproduction-directed, application-directed and undirected 

learning styles. The ILS aims at measuring the following components of student learning: cognitive 


processing strategies, metacognitive regulation strategies, learning orientations, and conceptions (or mental 

models) of learning. Each component is composed of five different scales, as described in the Table 1. 

Table 1: Components and scales of the Inventory of Learning Styles. 

Processing strategies Regulation strategies Learning orientations Learning conceptions, or 

Mental models of learning 

Relating and Self-regulation of Personally interested Construction of knowledge 

structuring 

learning processes 

Critical processing Self-regulation of 

learning content 

Certificate directed Intake of knowledge 

Memorising and External regulation of Self test directed Use of knowledge 

rehearsing 

learning processes 

Analysing External regulation of 

learning results 

Vocation directed Stimulating education 

Concrete processing Lack of regulation Ambivalent Co-operation 

The two processing strategies ‘relating and structuring’ and ‘critical processing’ together compose 

the ‘deep learning’ strategy, whereas ‘memorizing and rehearsing’, together with ‘analysing’, compose the 

‘stepwise learning’ strategy. 

Course performance. Multiple performance indicators are available: subtopic scores (statistics and 

mathematics), and scores for different assessment instruments applied in the performance portfolio: final 

written exam and quizzes. GPA is the overall measure of student performance in the first year program. 

Data 

Participants in this study were 1972 first year university students in two programs International 

Economics and International Business Studies. In the first term of their first academic semester, these 

students took two required, parallel courses: an integrated course organizational theory & marketing, two 

subjects from the behavioural sciences domain, and an integrated course mathematics & statistics. The 

methods course is supported by ‘practicals’. Those for statistics are based on the e-learning environment 

ALEKS, and allow for the measurement of user intensity through connect hours. Doing practicals is no 

requirement, and is especially beneficial for students who lack prior knowledge, and/or experience methods 

courses as difficult. Therefore, data on practicals are not representative for the whole course. 

During the start of the course, students filled self-report questionnaires on preferred learning 

approaches, metacognitive abilities, and ex ante achievement motivations. In the last week of the term, they 

filled a second questionnaire measuring ex post achievement motivations in the four subjects of the two 

integrated courses: organizational theory, marketing, mathematics, and statistics. 

Participants are from three consecutive cohorts. Therefore, performance measures as quizzes and 

final exams are scored with equivalent, but not identical instruments. 

Statistical analysis 

Due to both large sample sizes and collinearity amongst most determinants of the learning 

process, direct relationships between students’ preferences for e-learning and determinants or outcomes of 

the learning process are not very informative. These relationships are nearly always statistically significant, 

but cannot easily distinguish between direct and indirect effects. For that reason, our main analytical tool 

will be to compare correlations between e-learning preferences and student background factors with 

correlations between learning outcomes and the same student background factors. The latter correlations 

serve as benchmarks in the assessment of the role of e-learning preferences on the learning process. 

Results Metacognitive abilities reflect students’ self-perceptions of their abilities to independently 

organize their studies. It will cause no surprise that the levels of these abilities correlate moderately strong 

with learning performances, especially learning performances that are strongly effort based, such as quiz 

scores. Learning effort in the ALEKS tutorial is above average related with two of the metacognitive 

abilities: the skills and the attitudes components. See Figure 3. 


0.200 

0.180 

0.160 

0.140 

0.120 

0.100 

0.080 

0.060 

0.040 

0.020 

0.000 

AleksHours 

AleksMastery 

GPA 

MathQuiz 

StatsQuiz 

MathExam 

StatsExam 

K: Metacognitive knowledge 

R: Metacognitive skills 

O: Metacognitive attitudes 

Figure 3. Correlations of metacognitive abilities and outcome measures. 

Students with a strong preference for e-learning do also distinguish in terms of learning 

approaches. They do so even quite strongly, as is expressed in Figure 4. The highly structured way in which 

ALEKS guides students through the statistical discipline, and the systematic way of offering practice 

material and providing feedback, appears to be highly attractive for students preferring a stepwise learning 

approach. Learning time in ALEKS correlates strongly (at least in a relative sense) with the preference for 

stepwise learning, whilst the correlation with deep learning is about zero. Correlations between stepwise 

learning and course performances are on a very different level; e.g., scores in the final statistics exam and 

stepwise learning are negative, signalling that stepwise learning is certainly not the optimal learning 

approach in studying disciplines as statistics. 

Connected with learning approaches are preferences in regulating the learning process. Stepwise 

learners are frequently dependent on external regulation, whereas deep learners are more often able to 

regulate the learning process themselves. Figure 5 indeed indicates that external regulation correlates with 

e-learning time, more strongly than any course performance. Remarkably, also self-regulation correlates 

strongest with intensity of e-learning, much stronger than any course performance. In fact, most course 

performances correlate negatively with the self-regulation score, indicating that students with a strong 

preference for self-regulation in general underperform students with a less strong preference for selfregulation. 


0.250 

0.200 

0.150 

0.100 

0.050 

0.000 

-0.050 

-0.100 

AleksHours 

AleksMastery 

GPA 

MathQuiz 

StatsQuiz 

MathExam 

StatsExam 

DEEP (ILS) 

STEP (ILS) 

Figure 4. Correlations of deep versus stepwise learning and outcome measures. 

0.200 

0.150 

0.100 

0.050 

0.000 

-0.050 

-0.100 

-0.150 

AleksHours 

AleksMastery 

GPA 

MathQuiz 

StatsQuiz 

MathExam 

StatsExam 

SELF (ILS) 

EXTERNAL (ILS) 

Figure 5. Correlations of self versus external regulation and outcome measures. 

A similar pattern can be discovered in terms of learning conceptions. Viewing the correlations 

between learning conceptions and course performances as depicted in Figure 6, it is clear that not all 

conceptions are that beneficial for achieving good learning results. In fact, the conception of learning as cooperation, 

where others have an important responsibility in the learning of the student, appears to be 

detrimental in most performance measures. In contrast to the use-conception, that in general contributes to 

higher performances. Intensity in e-learning deviates from this pattern: all learning conceptions correlate 

positively, with the strongest roles for the learning conceptions construction of knowledge and intake of 

knowledge. 


0.200 

0.150 

0.100 

0.050 

0.000 

-0.050 

-0.100 

AleksHours 

AleksMastery 

GPA 

MathQuiz 


StatsQuiz 

MathExam 

StatsExam 

CONS (ILS) 

INTA (ILS) 

USE (ILS) 

STIM (ILS) 

COOP (ILS) 

Figure 6. Correlations of learning conceptions and outcome measures. 

Ex ante achievement motivations are inversely related to students’ prior knowledge. For that 

reason, it is not surprising that both affect, and perceived lack of difficulty, correlate positively with most 

course performance measures: see Figure 7. Ex post achievement motivations correlate strongly with all 

course performances, including e-learning preference: see Figure 8. It tells the simple story that the better 

motivated students are also the better achieving students. Figure 9, depicting the relationships with the 

change in achievement motivations, is much more informative. 

0.250 

0.200 

0.150 

0.100 

0.050 

0.000 

-0.050 

-0.100 

-0.150 

-0.200 

-0.250 

StatsExam 

MathExam 

StatsQuiz 

MathQuiz 

GPA 

AleksMastery 

AleksHours 

Affect (ex ante) 

Difficulty (lack of, ex ante) 

Figure 7. Correlations of ex ante achievement motivations and outcome measures.

0.400 

0.350 

0.300 

0.250 

0.200 

0.150 

0.100 

0.050 

0.000 

AleksHours 

AleksMastery 

GPA 

MathQuiz 

StatsQuiz 

MathExam 

StatsExam 

Interest (ex post) 

Effort (ex post) 

Figure 8. Correlations of ex post achievement motivations and outcome measures. 

0.000 

-0.050 

-0.100 

-0.150 

-0.200 

-0.250 

-0.300 

AleksHours 

AleksMastery 

GPA 

MathQuiz 


StatsQuiz 

MathExam 

StatsExam 

InterestChange 

EffortChange 

Figure 9. Correlations of change in achievement motivations and outcome measures. 

Changes in achievement motivations are generally negative: during the course, students’ 

motivations tend to drop, not to rise. To some extent, this is caused by the way these motivations are 

measured: ex ante motivations were measured in isolation, whereas ex post motivations were measured 

relative to ex post motivations for two main subjects: organizational theory and marketing. However, other 

research suggests that a drop in ex post achievement motivation relative to ex ante motivation is quite 

common. All correlations are negative, indicating that the better achieving students give up more of their 

achievement motivations than the lower achieving students. Looking at the size of these negative 

correlations, it is clear that the intensity of working in the e-learning environment is related only rather 

weakly to the drop in motivational level. 

Conclusion 

Students investigated in this empirical study learn statistics in a blended learning environment that 

allows them to adapt the use of different learning resources according personal preferences. It appears that 

not only prior knowledge, but also differences in learning approaches, self-perceived metacognitive 

abilities and achievement motivations account for part of the variation observed in the intensity of using elearning. 

Apparently, different components of blended learning are able to serve different types of learners.

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Information Age Publishing. 







Selecting Educational Content in m-Learning 

Santiago Pérez de la Cámara, Jesús Cáceres Tello, Juan José Sánchez Peña, University of Alcalá de 

Henares. Madrid. Spain 

santiago.perez , jesus.caceres, juanjo.sanchez@uah.es 

Abstract. The new paradigms of learning on mobile devices raise new questions in 

business, technologically and educationally levels. These devices allow to overcome the 

spatial and temporary barriers associated with other types of learning: the learner is able 

to study where and when he/she wants. But there are challenges that must be solved, like 

the delivering process of learning objects adapted for the user’s de-vices. This paper 

exposes a possible solution using educational and W3C’s standards to select the most 

appropriate learning object for a user taking into account the devices that he/she is using. 

Keywords. m-learning, standards, mobile learning objects, context profile, mobile device. 

The m-learning’s challenges 

In the e-learning area, the use of mobile devices has allowed the appearance of a new paradigm of 

learning called "any-time-anywhere" and usually identified as m-learning or mobile-learning. 

The m-learning, though using the same pedagogic principles that any other method of e-learning, 

raises an important number of challenges that should be solved in the near future to be able to consolidate 

its expansion: 

• Of contents: Adapting the educational materials to the final device used by the user. 

• Technological: Adapting the educational materials to the “physical way” for which they 

spread. 

• Social and cultural: It is possible to mention in this point the problems originated by the 

existing rates in the mobile company, the price of the mobile devices, how these devices are 

used, or the training for the use of this technology of all the involved actors. 

• Of business: It is necessary to ask for what business models will be arising around the mlearning, 

which will be the role of the organizations in the generation, diffusion and sale of 

contents, or how the relationship between all the implied agents will be articulated. 

There are too many questions to answer: how will browsers, user interfaces and standards be 

affected?, how will it change the paradigm of learning?, where will it be the best place and when will it be 

the best moment to learn?, and so on. 

Nowadays the authors are involved in a research project focused on the selection of educational 

content appropriated for the student in base of his needs and preferences, and the device that he is using in a 

particular moment. 

Learning Objects (LO) vs. mobile Learning Objects (mLO) 

The mobile learning objects have important differences in relation to the traditional learning 

objects of the e-learning. These differences are divided in two aspects: 

• Of format: referenced to the physical way in which the information comes to the user. It is 

necessary to know the characteristics of hardware and software of every mobile device in 

order to determine if the edicational content can be reproduced in that device. 

• Of presentation: referenced to how the information should be showed in order to increase the 

satisfaction of the learning experience for the user. For instance, nobody would like to read a 

300 pages document on the screen of a mobile telephone. 

Taking into account the great variety of existing devices, in an ideal world the contents for mlearning 

should be developed device-independent. To achieve this, content and presentation should be 

separated. 


Factors to the selection of personalised contents 

The work initiated by the authors contemplates 3 big necessary factors to realize a selection of 

content adapted to the user and his devices: 

• User’s characteristics: preferences and needs. 

• Context: what is the way used by the user to learn, where is the user at this moment, etc. 

• Learning objects: Characteristics not just of the content, but also of the presentation. 

The following figure shows the elements involved: the LMS, which contains the mobile learning 

objects; the devices with the information of their characteristics (context profile); and the user with his 

preferences and needs (user profile). 

Figure 1 Accessing to the LMS from different devices 

Standards integration 

The LMS must contemplate the use of different educational standards to achieve different goals: 

the user model, the educational resources model, the design of the learning course, etc. The objective of this 

project is to integrate some of these standards to offer a satisfactory learning experience to the student, 

providing mLOs adapted to the device that he is using. 

The next figure shows the different standards that could be involved in a LMS: 


Figure 2 How could we integrate the different standards? 

The big question is: How could we make that these standards work together to improve the 

learning experience of the student? 

The standards present big problems of integration due to two reasons: the application domain and 

the vocabulary used by each one are totally different. 

The current work of the authors is focused on 2 processes: 

• Definition of the ontologies that these standards imply; on the user (LIP and AccLIP), the 

device (CC/PP) and the learning object (LOM and AccMD). 

• Definition of a common ontology that integrates the previous ones in the same terms, and with 

independence of the used standard. This will allow to establish relations between all the 

entities implied to guarantee that a learning object is adapted for the user and his devices. 

Conclusions and future work 

The satisfaction that the user experiences in m-learning environments will be a key for the 

development of this new educational paradigm in the future. For this reason, many efforts are neccesary to 

guarantee an ideal presentation of contents for students with independence of the devices that they are 

using. The W3C 1 organization by means of the Mobile Web Initiative 2 has some work groups involved in 

m-learning, producing a series of recommendations and best practices 3 to develop contents for mobile 

devices. 

The authors expect to obtain results for this work in process along 2008, evaluating the 

applications with the students of Computer Engineering of the University of Alcala de Henares 

References 

Fernández del Viso A, Rebate C, Pérez S (2007) The mirror metaphor: an inclusive content personalisation 

approach. TUMASA workshop at User Modelling Conference 2007, Corfu, Greece, pp. 17-21. 

Flétscher LA, Morales AI (n.d.) Retrieved 26 February, 2007. M-Learning services development model, a 

proposal from the perspective of a service focused on pedagogy. Fundation North Catholic 

University. Colombia. vol 22. 

1 W3C Consortium: http://www.w3c.org 

2 Mobile Web Initiative: http://www.w3.org/Mobile/ 

3 Mobile Web Best Practices 1.0: http://www.w3.org/TR/mobile-bp/ 


Holzinger A, Nischelwitzer A, Meisenberger M (2002) Lifelong-Learning Support by M-learning: Example 

Scenarios. Joanneum University of Applied Sciences. eLearn Magazine. 

Low L (2007) M-learning standards report: Background, discussion and recommendations for usable and 

accessible m-learning. Australian Goverment. Department of Education, Science and Training. 8 

January 2007 

Open Mobile Alliance. (n.d.) Retrieved 10 April, 2008, from 

http://www.openmobilealliance.org/tech/affiliates/wap/wapindex.html 

Pacheco A, Robles J (2008) M-Learning: educación y capacitación móvil. (M-learning: education and 

mobile training). ExpoVision 2008. MEXICO DR. 

Parsons D, Hokyoung R (2007) A Design Requirements Framework for Mobile Learning Environments. 

JOURNAL OF COMPUTERS, VOL. 2, NO. 4, JUNE 2007. Massey University, Southampton 

Solent University. 


Applying a Fact-oriented Knowledge Reference Model to Supply- 

Chain Management 

Peter Bollen, Maastricht University, The Netherlands 

p.bollen@os.unimaas.nl 

Abstract. In this paper we will show how fact-orientation can be used as a knowledge 

structuring approach for verbalizable knowledge domains, e.g. knowledge that is 

contained in articles, text books and instruction manuals further to be referred to as 

‘subject matter’. This article will illustrate the application of the fact-oriented approach as 

a subject matter structuring tool for a small part of the sub-domains of supply-chain 

management within the university subject of business administration. 

Introduction 

For centuries, printed books have been the main source for conveying knowledge or ‘subject 

matter’ from ‘knowledge sender’ to ‘knowledge receiver’. In the 80’s of the last century, the by then 60 

year old concept of hypertext, became a ‘real’ and ‘feasible’ way of structuring knowledge, using state-ofthe-art 

software, e.g Apple’s Hypercard (Goodman, 1988). The rebirth of this concept, in the mid-eighties, 

basically was one of the cradles of the world-wide web, as we now know it. It took some more time, 

however, before there was a knowledge infra-structure on the web: Wikipedia. In Wikipedia and similar 

internet encyclopedias, concepts are defined in terms of other concepts that are ‘hot-linked’ to their 

defining encyclopedia page. How does this different way, in which knowledge is structured help us in the 

education of students ? Obviously, it will allow us to define individual learning routes through a set of 

defining concepts. On the other hand, such a notion, is deeply in contrast with the way in which (PBL) 

courses are structured still: instruction centered around a printed text book in which the structure of the 

‘subject-matter’ is fixed ! 

In this paper we will analyze a number of current representations of subject-matter in university 

text books. We will illustrate this with examples in the field of Supply Chain Management (SCM). 

A subject matter has its own intrinsic structure (Nijssen & Bijlsma, 2006). Educational programs 

on a subject matter therefore, need to enable students to access such a structure or ‘conceptual schema’. 

Unfortunately, in many available descriptions of a subject matter, e.g. text books, lecture notes, manuals, 

wiki’s, the intrinsic structure is (at best) hidden among non-structural descriptions of such a subject matter. 

In this paper we will discuss a fact-oriented ‘subject-matter’ structuring approach (Halpin & Morgan, 2008; 

Lemmens, Nijssen, & Nijssen, 2007; Nijssen & Bijlsma, 2005, 2006). We will apply this approach on 

three different text book representations of ‘subject-matter’ for the field of supply chain management: 

(Grant, Lambert, Stock, & Ellram, 2006; Krajewski, Ritzman, & Malhotra, 2007). We will assess these 

specific representations using a fact-oriented knowledge reference model. Earlier work that discussed the 

application of a predecessor to this KRM on the field of logistics can be found in (Bollen, 2006; Bollen & 

Nijssen, 1995). 

Deriving the Intrinsic Structure of a Subject Domain 

In most, if not all cases, a verbalizable knowledge source is a document that often is incomplete, 

informal, ambiguous, possibly redundant and possibly inconsistent. As a result of applying the fact-oriented 

knowledge extracting procedure (KEP) (Nijssen & Bijlsma, 2005) (Bollen, 2002), we will yield a document 

that only contains structured knowledge or a knowledge grammar which structures verbalizable knowledge 

into the following elements (knowledge reference model (KRM)): 

1. Knowledge domain sentences 

2. Definitions and naming conventions for concepts used in domain sentences 

3. Knowledge domain fact types including sentence group templates 

4. Population state (transition) constraints for the knowledge domain 

5. Derivation rules that specify how specific domain sentences can be derived from other 

domain sentences. 


6. Rules that specify what fact instances can be inserted, updated or deleted. 

7. Event rules that specify when a fact is derived from other facts or when a fact must be inserted 

, updated or deleted. 

A KRM of a complete text book would contain hundreds, possibly thousands of concept 

definitions, naming conventions, fact types, population constraints, derivation rules and event rules. The 

knowledge extracting procedure (KEP) specifies how we can transform an informal, mostly incomplete, 

mostly undetermined, possibly redundant and possibly inconsistent description of domain knowledge into 

the following classes: informal comment, non-verbalizable knowledge and verbalizable knowledge to be 

classified into types 1 through 7 of the KRM. 

Application of the KEP on the field of Supply Chain management 

In this section we will show the KRMs, which are a result of the application of the fact-oriented 

KEP on the content of textbooks on the operations management and marketing subjects of business 

administration. Because of space limitations in this article we haven chosen to select a very small subset of 

concepts contained in these subjects. The choices of text books that cover the subject of supply chain 

management as such is pure for illustrative purposes, in terms of the KRM and does not imply any 

implication, in terms of ‘good’ or ‘bad’, text books, but merely shows the difference in the presentation of 

similar ‘subject matter’ in terms of the elements in the KRM. 

The supply chain management subject of the Economic Order Quantity 

In this section we will analyze the subject of Economic Order Quantity (EOQ), that has been part 

of the core body of knowledge for SCM : the economic order quantity (EOQ). We have selected a widelyused 

text book on the field of operations and process management: Ritzman, Krajewski and Malhotra: 

Operations Management: Processes and Value Chains, 8 th edition, Pearson/Prentice-Hall, 2007 (Krajewski 

et al., 2007). From now on we will refer to this text book as text book A. We will now provide a selfcontained 

sample of the KRM for this text book. 

Table 1: List of definitions for subject: Economic Order Quantity EOQ in text book A 

(Krajewski et al., 2007) 

Concept Definition 

Item An individual product that has an identifying item code and is held in inventory 

somewhere along the value chain (p.5244 ) 

Synonym: Stock Keeping Unit, individual item (p.524) 

Lot A lot is a quantity of [Item]s that are processed together.(p.350) 

Lot Sizing5 The process of determining how frequently to order and in what quantity (p.465) 

Ordering Cost The cost of preparing a purchase order for a supplier or a production order for the 

shop. (p. 464) Synonym: Set Up cost (p.464) 

Inventory Holding The sum of the cost of capital and the variable costs of keeping [Item]s on hand, 

Cost 

such as storage and handling, taxes, insurance and shrinking (p.463) 

Cycle Inventory 

Cost 

The portion of [Inventory Holding Cost] that varies directly with [Lot] size (p.465) 

Economic Order [lot size] that minimizes total annual [Cycle Inventory Cost] and [Ordering Cost] 

Quantity 

for a given [item] (p.470) 

Unit Holding Costs The costs for holding one unit of a given [Item] in inventory for a year (p.472) 

The second text book we will analyze on the content regarding the EOQ is a text book on supply 

chain management: Grant, Lambert, Stock and Ellram: Fundamentals of Logistics Management, European 

edition, McGraw-Hill, 2006 (Grant et al., 2006). From now on we will refer to this text book as text book 

B. 

4 The referenced pages in the list of definitions refer to (Krajewski et al., 2007). 

5 We can consider a ‘lot size’ as the result of a ‘lot sizing’ process 


Table 2: List of definitions for subject: Economic Order Quantity EOQ in text book B (Grant et 

al., 2006) 

Concept Definition 

Order-processing 

costs 

include such costs as order transmittal order entry, processing the order, and related 

internal and external costs such as notifying carriers and customers of shipping 

information and product availability. (p.20 6 ) 

Lot quantity costs purchasing- or production-related costs that include: setup costs, capacity costs, 

Inventory 

Carrying cost 

materials handling, price differentials and order costs. (p.20) 

Those costs associated with the amount of inventory stored, they consist of capital 

costs, inventory service costs, storage space costs and inventory risk costs (p. 21, 

p.142-143). 

Synonym: carrying cost (p.136) 

Ordering Cost Typically include the cost of transmitting the order, the cost of receiving the 

product, the cost of placing it in storage and the cost of processing the invoice for 

payment. In restocking its own field warehouses, a company’s ordering costs 

typically include; the cost of transmitting and processing the inventory transfer, the 

cost of handling the product if it is in stock, or the cost of setting up production to 

produce it, and the handling cost if the product is not in stock, the cost of receiving 

at the field location, the cost of documentation. Remember that only direct out-of- 

Economic Order 7 

Quantity 

pocket expenses should be included in ordering costs. (p.136) 

A concept which determines the optimal order quantity on the basis of [ordering 

cost] and [carrying cost] (p. 136) 

Finally, we will give the list of EOQ-related concept definitions for text book : Jonsson, Logistics 

and Supply Chain Management, McGraw-Hill (Jonsson, 2008). From now on we will refer to this text book 

as text book C. 

6 The referenced pages in the list of definitions refer to (Grant et al., 2006). 

7 In text book B, we can consider the ‘economic order quantity’ as a process concept that has an ‘optimal order 

quantity’ as an outcome. 


Table 3: List of definitions for subject: Economic Order Quantity EOQ in text book C (Jonsson, 

2008) 

Incremental can be expressed as the product of the [value of items] in stock and the [inventory 

inventory carrying carrying interest rate] (p.428 

cost 

8 ) 

Inventory carrying the sum of incremental capital cost, incremental storage cost and incremental 

interest rate uncertainty costdivided by the average stock value (p.430) 

Synonyms: inventory carrying charge, inventory carrying factor (p.428) 

Incremental costs those costs which arise or decrease as the result of the decision to increase or 

decrease stock volumes (p.428) 

Common costs those [inventory carrying costs] that do not change when stock volumes vary (p. 

428). 

Ordering cost all the [incremental costs] which are associated with executing an order process 

for the acquisition of [items] from external suppliers, or from the company’s own 

manufacture. The ordering cost is the sum of the re-tooling and dismantling (setup) 

costs, costs for capacity losses, material handling costs and order processing 

costs at a specific order occasion (p.280-281). 

Synonym: set-up costs (p.281) 

Economic order term for the process of determining a suitable lot size is thus a question of 

quantity 

optimizing the sum of incremental inventory carrying cost and ordering costs 

(p.280) 

Value of item refers to the accumulated costs which have been added to the item during its 

value refinement, i.e. the cost price of the item (p. 429). 

Lot sizing establishing appropriate order quantities (p. 279) 

An interesting observation from these three list of definitions for the EOQ subject area, is the 

extent in which relatively remote concepts are defined. The extensive definition of cost types (e.g. 

incremental, common costs) in text book C, for example, illustrates that the author, deems it very important 

for SCM students to have a precise knowledge of these concepts and how they contribute to the definition 

of the ordering- and carrying costs. If we compare the treatment of this concept with the text books A and 

B we can see that in A, it is left implicit how these ordering costs must be determined precisely. In text 

book B, however, we find some kind of in-between approach in which, the authors do not introduce the 

‘advanced’ cost concepts from C, but where they try to define the notion of commonality versus 

incrementality in the definition itself (notably, the definition of ordering cost). 

The list of concept definitions in the KRM, must be compiled in such a way that explicit reference 

is made to other entries in this concept list of definitions (by means of putting a definiendum between 

brackets). By doing this, given a complete list of concept definitions, every concept must be fully 

semantically defined by reading the list of concept definitions, in order of comprehension. 

We will now analyze the text books for the existence of ‘ground facts’ in some or other tangible 

form that illustrate the ‘appearance’ of instances of these concepts, for each of the three text books. 

In text book A a complete example of the EOQ concepts is provided on pages 472-474, and in a 

number of ‘solved problems’ 3, 4 and 5 on pages 491-493 in which explicit attention is given to the name 

classes, respectively the dimensions that are relevant to denote ground facts of the concepts, e.g. D = 

annual demand in units per year, D= (18 units/week)*(52 weeks/year) = 936 units/year. 

In text book B one example is given on pages 137, but no explicit attention is given to the name 

classes, respectively dimensions. 

Finally, in text book C on page 282, an example is provided and the dimensions are implicitly 

given on pages 281 and 434. 

8 The referenced pages in the list of definitions refer to text book C. 


One, of the most important assumptions, in applying the EOQ models in a practical setting is the 

notion that these models and their constituting variables are defined on an ‘item’ or ‘SKU’ level. From 

practical teaching experience whereby text books A and B, have been used, I can recall, a work-out of a 

case study, in which the students applied the concept of EOQ on an ‘aggregated’ level (using text book B). 

They considered the aggregate demand (ranging over all SKU’s) in their analysis and provided one EOQ 

for all items combined. Such a mis-application of the EOQ concept, I never encountered in the course 

where text book A has been used. 

Inspecting the list of concept definitions for the text books mentioned, can explain the aforementioned 

phenomena. The concept of ‘item’ or ‘SKU’ in the context of the EOQ can not be found in the 

list of concept defintions for text book B. In text book C, the notion of the application of EOQ to 

‘individual’ items, is conveyed through the description of the example on page 282. This basically means 

that it is not possible to ‘verbalize’ ground facts between instances of concepts, if no ‘concept’ of 

‘individual item’ or ‘SKU’ has been defined. 

Let’s for now, take the presentation of the EOQ subject matter in text book A as a starting point 

for verbalizing ground facts (or knowledge domain sentences) and deriving the knowledge domain fact 

types and domain sentence groups. We will verbalize the (relevant parts of) the ‘bird-feeder’ example on 

pages 472-474 in (Krajewski et al., 2007) as follows: 

• The item having item name ‘bird feeder’ has a weekly sales volume of ‘18’ units per week.’ 

• The item having item name ‘bird-feeder’ has a value of ‘60’ dollars per unit.’ 

• The item having item name ‘bird-feeder’ has a cost of ordering of ‘45’ dollars per order.’ 

• The item having item name ‘bird-feeder’ has an annual holding cost percentage of the value 

of 25. 

• The organization having organization name ‘Museum’ has an operating time of ‘52’ weeks 

per year.’ 

• The item having item name ‘bird feeder’ has a yearly sales volume of ‘936’ units per year.’ 

• The item having item name ‘bird-feeder’ has an annual holding cost amount of 15 

dollars/unit.’ 

• The economic order quantity for the item having item name ‘bird-feeder’ is ‘74.94’ units.’ 

The verbalizations in the above are all so-called declarative sentences. The sentences can be 

grouped and transformed into a knowledge structure diagram (KSD) in figure 1. 

Money Amount 

(dollars) 

holding cost percentage 

is the ordering cost per order for /has an ordering cost per order 

uc2 

Ft6 

Item 

(item name) 

is the annual holding cost for /has an annual holding cost 

uc3 

Ft7 

is thev alue for /has a value of 

uc1 

* 

/has an annual 

Ft1 

uc8 

has a weekly sales 

uc6 

has a yearly sales 

uc7 


Ft5 

uc4 

uc5 

Ft2 

Ft3 

Ft4 

Quantity 

(units) 

has economic order /is the economic order quantity for 

Weeks 

(number) 

The organization Museum has an opetrating time of...per year 

Figure 1. Knowledge structure diagram plus population state constraints and derivation rules of 

EOQ in text book A. 

Ft8 

* 

* 

*

We have now specified the elements 1, 2 and 3 from our KRM. After we have created a 

knowledge structure diagram, we can add additional business rules, that constrain the existence of certain 

sentence combinations. The first set of these business rules, will be called population state (transition) 

constraints. The first group of these population constraints are uniqueness constraints. Taking the KSD in 

figure 1 as a starting point, we can generate additional sentences and pose the question whether the 

combination of these sentences is allowed to exist. For example, are following sentences allowed to exist in 

combination ? 



We assume, that these sentences are not allowed to exist in combination, because at any point in time 

there can only exist one weekly sales volume for a given item. This means that we need to add uniqueness 

constraint uc5 on the first role of fact type Ft2. A second check on the absence/presence of uniqueness 

constraints, can be done by asking whether following sentences allowed to exist in combination ? 


• The item having item name ‘dog belt’ has a weekly sales volume of ‘18’ units per week.’ 

The above sentences, are allowed to exist together, because it is possible that two different items have 

the same weekly sales volume. This leads to the absence of a uniqueness constraint defined on the second role of 

fact type Ft2. 

In contrast with the KRM in figure 1, that could be traced back to the presentation of the subject-matter 

in (Grant et al., 2006) we will now do the same exercise, based upon the presentation of the EOQ subject matter 

in (Jonsson, 2008). In this text book, the example they used is on pages 132-137: 

• The ordering cost per order are the money amount of 40 dollars.’ 

• The annual demand or usage of product is 4800 units.’ 

• The annual carrying cost are 25 percent of the product value’ 

• The average cost or value of one unit in inventory is the money amount of 100 dollars per 

unit’ 

• The economic order quantity is ‘124’ units .’ 

In figure 2, we have given the Knowledge Structure Diagram (KSD) for this 

representation/verbalization of the subject matter in text book (Grant et al., 2006). 

Money Amount 

(dollars) 

uc1 

uc2 

Ft1 

ithe ordering cost per order is.. 

Ft2 

The annual demand is 

the annual carry ing cost per unit are.. uc5 

* 

uc3 Ft5 

Ft3 

the economic order quantity is 


uc4 

the av erage cost or v alue of one unit in inv entory is ... 

Ft4 

Quantity 

(units) 

Figure 2. Knowledge structure diagram plus population state constraints and derivation rules of 

EOQ in text book B.

Inspecting the KSD in figure 2 reveals that there’s no single relationship between the variables and 

a specific item. In case the population of these unary fact types is 2 or higher, it will be impossible to derive 

an EOQ, because talking about the variables involved and the resulting EOQ that has to be computed, 

implies that the relationship between these variables and some sort of item/product type is specified. 

The fifth element in the KRM is the set of derivation rules in application domain. Derivation rules 

derive instances of a fact type from instances of one ore more (possibly) different fact types. In figure 1 we 

that fact types Ft2, Ft3, Ft4 and Ft6, have an asterix (*) beside them, which denotes that they are derived 

fact types. The derivations can be traced back in the text books A, B and C as formulas. 

EOQ = (2*D*S/H) [A, p. 473] EOQ = (2*P*D/C*V) [B, p.137] EOQ = (2*D*O/C*V) [C, p. 281] 

An example of a derivation rule for the EOQ according to the KRM of text book A (see KSM in 

figure 1) is the following: 

Ft4.Quantity (Ft4.item):= SQRT((2* Ft3.quantity(Ft3.item)* Ft1.moneyamount (Ft1.item))/Ft6.moneyamount 

(Ft6.item)) 

Inspecting the above representation of the derivation rule clearly shows that the independent ‘variable’ 

in the derivation rule is of type ‘item’. This concept is lacking in the example of text book B. 

Using the Knowledge Reference Model to Compare Subject Matters 

When the relative amount of informal comment and non-verbalizable knowledge in such a 

knowledge field is large we can consider the knowledge field to be of the ‘phenomenological’ type. This 

normally points at knowledge fields that are beginning to develop and in which no clearly agreed upon 

relevant concepts and their definitions exist. When the relative amount of informal comment and nonverbalizable 

knowledge of the subject matter, on the other hand, is small, the knowledge domain can be 

considered relatively structured, this means that basic domain concepts are agreed upon and their 

definitions are known. Furthermore, semantic relationships between those concepts exist and are known to 

the extent that they can be verbalized. In the latter types of knowledge domains, it is possible that more 

complex rules, laws, derivation rules and event rules can be defined. The former analysis naturally applies, 

in those situations in which a text book is well-written from an educational point of view. In some cases the 

actual quality of writing can be insufficient, which can lead to a ‘phenomenological’ text book for a very 

well-structured knowledge domain or a text book in which the order of comprehension for the introduction 

and definition of concepts is practically random. Some noteworthy differences on the presentation of the 

same subject in three different text books, have been illustrated. The fact-oriented KRM provides more 

ways to capture knowledge than the traditional ‘graphical’ tools for organizing and representing 

knowledge, like for example conceptual graphs (Sowa, 1984) and concept maps (Novak & Canas, 2007). 

Application of Fact-Orientation in Instructional Design 

In the past 15 years, a large number of students on a polytechnical level in the field of computer 

science, business administration and law have been trained using educational material expressed in a 

knowledge reference model format based upon standard text books on the subject matter (Nijssen & 

Bijlsma, 2006). The time investment needed for the students in such an ‘accelerated’ learning program 

turned out to be substantially lower than in a ‘conventional’ educational setting (Nijssen & Bollen, 1995). 

Concluding Remarks 

The fact-oriented approach has its roots in the conceptual modeling school for information systems 

development and database schema design. In this paper we have extended the ‘playing field’ of this 

approach as a knowledge structuring approach, illustrated by two samples of subjects within the academic 

field of business administration. Moreover, we have given a (linear) model that can be used for determining 


and predicting the size and complexity of a subject matter. The size and complexity of the implicit structure 

of a subject can range from structures that can be fully modeled by a small number of definitions, via 

models of implicit structures that contain a large number of definitions and fact types, to ‘complex’ 

knowledge reference models in which a large variety of population state (transition) constraints exist 

eventually having derivation rules, and event rules. 

The application of the fact-oriented knowledge reference model that is proposed in this article will 

lead to a more productive and effective design of educational systems, by improving the internal structure 

of the ‘subject matter’. 

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The Influence of Portfolio Media on Student Perceptions and 

Learning Outcomes 

Maarten van Wesel, Anouk Prop, Maastricht University, The Netherlands 

M.vanWesel@UB.unimaas.nl, A.Prop@Educ.unimaas.nl 

Abstract: The electronic portfolio offers many advantages to its paper-based counterpart, 

including - but not limited to - hyperlinked navigation, adding multimedia and the ease of 

sharing the portfolio. Previous research showed that the quality of a portfolio does not 

depend on the medium used. This paper studies the effect of the portfolio medium on 

perceived support for self-reflection and on the students’ learning outcomes. We made 

use of the fact that during this study about half of the first year medical students used an 

electronic portfolio (n=157) and the other half a paper-based portfolio (n=190). 

Introduction 

Portfolio-based learning finds increasing implementation in a variety of educational and 

professional learning contexts. It is utilized to stimulate and monitor students’ professional development 

and to stimulate their ability to become lifelong learners. Simultaneously, we observe a move from the 

paper-based portfolio to the electronic counterpart. In medical education a portfolio is progressively being 

used to stimulate reflection among students (Prop, Shacklady, Dornan, & Driessen, 2007). In medicine, 

reflection is defined as “including consideration of the larger context, the meaning, and the implications of 

an experience or action” (Branch & Paranjape, 2002, p. 1187). Portfolios are most often typified as a 

collection of students’ work and achievements during their academic career (Challis, 1999; Chen, Yu, & 

Chang, 2007). 

Portfolio literature mentions many advantages of an electronic portfolio (e-Portfolio) over its 

paper-based counterpart, such as hyperlink functionality, use of multimedia and the ease of sharing the 

portfolio (amongst others van Tartwijk et al., 2003; Woodward & Bablohy, 2004). While much research on 

e-portfolios has been conducted, the focus of these studies is mostly on e-portfolio specific features. When 

replacing a well established paper-based portfolio with an electronic version, we must take care not to lose 

the original portfolio goals. We ought to compare e- and paper-based portfolios on their shared potential 

merits, such as support for self-reflection and effect on learning outcomes, preferably in a similar 

ecological setting. 

Driessen et al. (2007) conclude that creating an e-portfolio enhance student motivation, an eportfolio 

is more user-friendly for portfolio mentors, and delivers the same content quality compared to the 

paper-based variant. They also found that students spent significantly more time preparing an e-portfolio 

than a paper-based one. However, their questions about perceptions of students focus on the overall 

experience of the students, and their measurement of the quality of evidence and content was based on a 

content analysis, whilst the students’ perception of the support for reflection and the effect on learning 

outcomes are also relevant. The student perception of a learning environment to a large extend effects the 

way students manage to work in the environment, and thus the perception influences the students learning 

(Diercks-O'Brien, 2000; Gijbels, van de Watering, & Dochy, 2005; Gijbels, van de Watering, Dochy, & 

van den Bossche, 2006; Segers & Dochy, 2001). 

Critical self-reflection is seen as an essential precondition for the professional development of 

medical students (Branch & Paranjape, 2002; Driessen, van Tartwijk, Vermunt, & van der Vleuten, 2003) 

and for other professions (Deloney, Carey, & Gail, 1998; Korthagen, 2001). Reflection is a metacognitive 

skill which plays a key role in the metacognitive process of self-regulation (Ertmer & Newby, 1996), it 

helps students “become aware of their mental structures, subject them to a critical analyses, and if 

necessary, restructure them” (Korthagen, 2001, p. 51). Metacognitive regulation compiles a set of activities 

that help to control the learning (Schraw, 2001). Good learners, typically, have a higher level of 

metacognitive knowledge and regulatory skills then poor learners. Metacognitive knowledge offers the 

insights needed to change the learning process to fit the changing task demands (Ertmer & Newby, 1996). 

Promoting these metacognitive skills via experience-based reflective learning enhances students growth 


competence (an ability for continuing development (Korthagen, 2001)). Working on a portfolio stimulates 

these self-reflecting skills by collecting material and writing reflections (Driessen, 2008). By utilizing 

reflective thinking skills, students are also able to evaluate results of their learning efforts and effectiveness 

of learning strategies in certain situations (Ertmer & Newby, 1996). 

Cognition, rather then being confined to an individual, most often is distributed among people, 

between an individual and artifacts or a combination thereof (Hutchins, 1995; Salomon, 1993). By 

distributing task between an individual and an artifact, some of the cognitive burden of the task is lifted 

(Norman, 1993). A portfolio, whether electronic or paper-based, is such a cognitive burden lifting artifact; 

it aids the student in his/her reflective process. Collecting evidence and reviewing the earlier collected 

evidence brings back memories of critical events. Writing reflections and reading back these reflections and 

further stimulates reflection. 

Whilst both the e-portfolio and the paper-based portfolio support the metacognitive skill of 

reflection, certain aspects of both might lead to a different level of support. Artifacts, both physical and 

virtual (e.g. computer software), contain affordances, properties of an artifact “that make it easier to do 

some activities, harder to do others. Each has constraints, preconditions, and side effects that impose 

requirements and changes on the things with which it interacts, be they other technology [artifacts], people, 

or human society at large.” (Norman, 1993, p. 243). Understandably, paper-based and e-portfolios contain 

some overlapping, but, more importantly for this research, some different affordances. A paper-based 

portfolio, for instance, only affords a linear structure, whilst an e-portfolio affords a more network like 

structure (via hyperlinks). An e-portfolio affords integration of multimedia, a paper-based portfolio does 

not. It are these differences, obvious and unobvious, that could lead to a difference in the level of support 

for reflection, and thus to differences in learning outcomes. 

In this paper the results of two studies are reported: 

1) the perception of students on the support for self-reflection of their portfolio, and 

2) the effect on learning outcomes of the two different portfolio media. 

Method With the introduction of the new Maastricht medical curriculum at the former Faculty of 

Medicine, now part of the Faculty of Health, Medicine, and Life Sciences, the portfolio was introduced. 

Since a medical doctor, as a life long learner, should reflect on his/her actions and learning, the portfolio 

was introduced to develop the necessary self-reflective skills among students (Driessen et al., 2003). The 

Maastricht portfolio process is described in detail elsewhere (Driessen et al., 2005; Driessen et al., 2003). 

Whilst most students worked with a paper-based portfolio, from the first portfolio introduction 

onward, small scale experiments with various e-portfolio tools have been carried out. In 2006 a large scale 

pilot with almost half (n=157) of the total (N=347) student population was undertaken. The present study 

describes results of this academic year. While the students working with the e-portfolio were provided with 

a user manual for the Blackboard Content System (the portfolio system used), both they and the students 

working with the paper-based portfolio were provided with an identical, general portfolio manual, 

containing the conceptual steps needed to create a portfolio. 

Mentor 

A total of 27 portfolio mentors guide students during their first year, all of them were approached 

to mentor students using an electronic portfolio, 12 responded positively. While this method of selection is 

not bias free, e.g. the more enthusiastic or open-minded mentor could opt for the electronic portfolio 

offering some positive stimulus to the students, forcing mentors to adopt an electronic portfolio against 

their will might have resulted in a larger, negative bias. The 12 mentors guide a total of 16 student groups, 

averaging almost 10 students per group, representing about half the first year student population. 

Mentor and their mentor group met three times during the academic year 2006. A kickoff meeting in the 

beginning of the year, to get to know each other, and two worksessions. The students were required to hand 

in their portfolio three times. After the first two times the mentor and student met individually and 


discussed the portfolio. The last hand in moment was for grading the portfolio. A schedule of the portfolio 

related activities is given in table 1. 

Block Assessment 

The first year medical curriculum in Maastricht consists of six distinct blocks (Emergencies, 

Traumata, Dyspnea, Shock, Abdomen and Unconsciousness), given in sequence. Each block is followed by 

an assessment consisting of a knowledge test divided in two parts (in the 06/07 year block 5 and 6 this parts 

were administered on a different day), a schedule of the knowledge test is given in table 1. The assessment 

for block 1 to 5 consists of both the two part knowledge test (80 % of the end grade) and a graded 

assignment (for instance a presentation or a short paper) (20 % of the end grade). For final grading a scale 

from 1 (very poor) to 10 (excellent) is used, 5.5 being the passing grade. We analyzed the end grade as both 

the knowledge test and the assignment form part of the block’s learning outcomes. 

Table 1: Schedule 

Date Portfolio activity Knowledge test 

Sep-06 Introduction to the mentor 

20-Oct-06 1.1 

Nov-06 First mentor group meeting; subject: self-study & practicing 

self-analysis 

1-Dec-06 1.2 

15-Jan-07 Handing in first version of the portfolio 

26-Jan-07 1.3 

16-Mar-07 1.4 

End of Mar- Second mentor group meeting; subject: time management 

07 

13-Apr-07 1.5 part 1 

8-May-07 1.5 part 2 

14-May-07 Handing in second version of the portfolio 

6-Jun-07 1.6 part 1 

12-Jun-07 Handing in final version of the portfolio 

29-Jun-07 1.6 part 2 

Questionnaire 

As the research aims to compare the paper-based portfolio and the electronic portfolio as a tool for 

developing self-reflection skills, the questionnaire focuses on this aspect. The questionnaire does not 

contain portfolio-medium specific questions. Since these questions were to be added to the regular block 

evaluation questionnaire (containing 30 standard questions), to circumvent questionnaire fatigue we limited 

the portfolio questionnaire to nine, quasi content validated, questions (Q31 – Q39, see table 2). Due to the 

limited number of questions, a response set problem can occur. A portfolio usefulness grade (Q39) was 

asked to check if their overall view agreed with their individual answers. 

For privacy reasons, block evaluations are carried out in accordance with guidelines to guarantee 

anonymity. The questionnaire containing portfolio questions was handed out to 25 percent of the total first 

year student population at the end of the academic year. 


Table 2: Extra questions about portfolios. 

Question 

number 

The creation of a portfolio: 

Q31 Helped me get a better impression of the strong and weak points of my functioning 

Q32 Helped me get a sense of my professional development 

Q33 Gave me insight in how I should approach my study 

Q34 The subjects I describe in my portfolio are relevant to me 

Q35 The subjects I discuss with my mentor are relevant to me 

Q36 The curriculum offers enough opportunity to work on my learning goals 

Q37 Give an estimation of the number of hours you spent on the portfolio in the last year 

(excluding the mentor meetings) 

Q38 I worked with a paper/electronic portfolio 

Q39 Give a grade for the usefulness of putting together and discussing a portfolio for you as a 

student 

a 

Translated from Dutch 

Question a 

Q31 to Q36 are statements prompting the students to express their respective opinions on a five 

point Likert Scale. Q37 asks for an integer number representing the total numbers of hours spent on the 

portfolio, excluding mentor consultations (which approximately took 2 hours during the whole portfolio 

process). Q38 prompts the students to report if they used a paper-based or electronic portfolio. And the 

final question, Q39, asks for a school-like grading (ranging form 1 to 10, with 1 representing ‘Very poor’ 

and 10 representing ‘Excellent’). 

The Cronbach’s alpha of the six Likert scale items (Q31 – Q36) was 0.877, indicating good 

reliability. The ordinal data from Q31 through Q36, answered on a five point Likert Scale, were analyzed 

using the non-parametric Mann-Whitney U-Test. Items Q37 and Q39 were analyzed using an Independent 

Sample T-test. 

Results 

Perceived support for self-reflection 

From Figure 1 - showing the histogram for Q39 - it seems clear that some students are very 

negative about their portfolio, especially the electronic one (scoring a 1 on five occasions). The results, 

however, do not differ significantly (independent sample t-test: F = 5.024, T = 0.349, p-value = 0.728), 

scoring a 5.46 (StDev = 1.771) for the paper variant, and a slightly lower 5.28 (StDev = 2.491) for its 

electronic counterpart. Both types do not receive a sufficient mark (5.50) on the Dutch grading scale. 


Count 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 

Grade 

Figure 1. Portfolio usefulness grade 

Electronic 

Paper 

As shown in table 3, for both the paper-based and the electronic portfolio the majority of students 

had a negative perception about getting a better impression of their strong and weak points (48.5 % and 

44.4 % respectively). However for the paper-based portfolio the mode lays with Disagree, while for the 

electronic portfolio the mode lays with Agree. This difference is not significant (p-value = 0.826). 

Table 3: Answer percentages to Questions 31 to 36 per portfolio media 

Paper-based Electronic 

SD a D b N c A d SA e . SD D N A SA . 

Q31 17.1 31.4 22.9 28.6 0.0 0.0 19.4 25.0 25.0 27.8 2.8 0.0 

Q32 14.3 28.6 34.3 20.0 2.0 0.0 16.7 22.2 33.3 25.0 2.8 0.0 

Q33 11.4 28.6 31.4 25.7 2.9 0.0 22.2 25.0 22.2 27.8 2.8 0.0 

Q34 8.6 17.1 17.1 37.1 20.0 0.0 11.1 19.4 8.3 44.4 13.9 2.8 

Q35 8.6 11.4 22.9 37.1 20.0 0.0 5.6 5.6 27.8 44.4 13.9 2.8 

Q36 2.9 5.7 20.0 57.1 14.3 0.0 8.6 5.6 30.6 38.9 13.9 2.8 

a Strongly disagree 

b Disagree 

c Neutral 

d Agree 

e Strongly Agree 

Also the majority of the students had a negative perception about the sense of professional 

development and insight in how to approach the study with both the paper-based and electronic portfolio 

(42.9 % vs. 38.9 % and 40 % vs. 47.2 % respectively). The mode for the questions about the sense of 

professional development with both types of portfolio is found at neutral, without any significant difference 

(p-value = 0.757). For the item about insight in how to approach the study the mode for the paper-based 

portfolio is found at neutral, whilst for the electronic portfolio this is Agree. This difference is also not 

significant (p-value = 0.573). 

A majority of the students perceived the subjects described in their portfolio and discussed with 

their mentor as relevant to themselves (57.1 % for both items by students using the paper-based portfolio 

and 58.3 % for both items by students using an electronic version). The mode for both items and both 

portfolio types lies with Agree, with no significant difference (p-values are 0.740 and 0.882 respectively). 


On the questions if education offered enough opportunity to work on the learning goals the 

majority of students using the paper-based as well as students using the electronic portfolio were both 

positive (71.5 % and 52.8 % respectively). With Agree as mode for both portfolio types. No significant 

difference can be found (p-value = 0.240). 

Table 4: Mean number of hours spent 

Mean StDev 

Paper-based portfolio 15.81 12.029 

Electronic portfolio 23.38 15.723 

The students working with an electronic portfolio reported spending more time on their portfolio 

(see table 4). An independent sample T-test determines this different to be significant on a 5 % level (F = 

1.409, T = -2.166, p-value = 0.034). An analyses of Effect Size shows a medium effect size (Cohen’s d = 

0.533). 

Effect on learning outcomes 

Whilst the outcomes of the block assessment before the introduction of the portfolio do differ 

between the students assigned to the paper-based and electronic portfolio in favor of the students assigned 

to the electronic portfolio (see Table 5), these differences are not significant at the 0.05 level (independent 

sample t-test: F = 1.012, T = -1.366, p-value = 0.173 and F = 0.000, T = -1.808, p-value = 0.071). 

Table 5: Results of the block assessment. 

Block assessment Paper-based portfolio Electronic portfolio Cohen's d 

1 Mean 6.73 6.86 

n 184 156 

StDev 0.910 0.884 

2 Mean 6.50 6.70 

n 189 157 

StDev 0.961 1.093 

3 Mean 6.51 6.75 0.264 

n 185 155 

StDev 0.983 0.825 

4 Mean 6.44 6.66 0.234 

n 185 155 

StDev 0.953 0.924 

5 Mean 6.59 6.89 0.273 

n 184 155 

StDev 1.158 1.033 

6 Mean 7.03 7.29 0.243 

n 181 153 

StDev 1.186 0.940 

The outcomes of the 3 rd , 4 th , 5 th and 6 th block assessment, which occurred after the portfolio was 

introduced, also differ in favor of the electronic portfolio using students, these differences are significant at 

the 0.05 level (independent sample t-test: F = 2.053, T = -2.456, p-value = 0.015, F = 0.101, T = -2.148, pvalue 

= 0.032, F = 0.623, T = -2.521, p-value = 0.012 and F = 2.907, T = -2.208, p-value = 0.028 

respectively). 

Furthermore, the average grades of the students working with an electronic portfolio (n=153), 

based on the six block assessments, is significantly higher than those of the students working with a paper- 


ased portfolio (n=177). Scoring a 6.89 (StDev = 0.680) compared to a 6.68 (StDev = 0.777) for students 

working with a paper-based portfolio (independent sample t-test: F = 0.589, T = -2.592, p-value = 0.010). 

Effect sizes for individual block assessment, after portfolio introduction, are all slightly above 0.2, 

indicating a small effect. Also the effect size over six block assessments indicates a small effect size 

(0.287). 

Discussion & Conclusion 

Perceptions about the support for self-reflection of students using an electronic portfolio do not 

differ significantly from that of users of the paper-based portfolio. Also they perceived no difference in the 

usefulness of compiling a portfolio. They report, however, more time spent. We assume that students 

overestimate time spent on a task, as this was found for individuals in specific studies in different fields 

(IJsselsteijn, Bierhoff, & Slangen-de Kort, 2001; Oshagbemi, 1995). There is, however, no indication that 

one of the groups has an extra incentive that would lead to a more extreme deviation from the true amount 

of time spent than the other group. Possible explanations why more time is spent on the electronic portfolio 

may include the reported tendency to write a more compact portfolio (Driessen et al., 2007; van Tartwijk et 

al., 2003) (which takes more time) or because they enjoy working on an electronic portfolio (Driessen et 

al., 2007; van Tartwijk et al., 2003; Woodward & Bablohy, 2004). 

Whilst the effect on the learning outcomes with this specific e-portfolio tool, this specific setting, 

and these specific students were positive, this research is very context depended. After all affordances 

differ per tool used, requirements for the portfolio differ, technical possibilities and impossibilities differ, 

support structure differ and the students them self differ. Different student groups may differ in cultural 

background, experience, intentions and a social setting, this will affect the affordances involved in creating 

the portfolio, simply because affordances “refer to attributes of both the object and the actor” (Gaver, 

1991, p. 79). 

The positive effect on the learning outcomes suggests a deeper level of reflection among the 

students using an e-portfolio. This might have led to better metacognitive regulation which in turn led to 

improvements in the learners’ performance resulting in higher grades. However, only the direct testing of 

both the reflective abilities and the metacognitive skills of students before and after introducing two 

different portfolio media, could lead to an indisputable claim of metacognitive advantages of one portfolio 

variant over the other. 

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Lambert Schuwirth for allowing me to analyze the student grades, Guus Smeets for providing the grades, 

Renee Stalmeijer and Diana Riksen for allowing the add questions to the evaluation and for returning the 

data and Antoinette Vesseur, Erik Driessen, Gaby Lutgens & Jeroen ten Haaf for proofreading this paper 

(or parts thereof) and supplying helpful suggestions. 


An E-Portfolio for Post-Graduate Competency-Based 

Assessment 

Jeroen Donkers, Marjan Govaerts, Erik Driessen, Bas Verhoeven, Maastricht University, The Netherlands. 

jeroen.donkers@educ.unimaas.nl, marjan.govaerts@educ.unimaas.nl, e.driessen@educ.unimaas.nl, 

b.verhoeven@ah.unimaas.nl 

Abstract: (E-)Portfolios are often seen as powerful tools to support lifelong learning and 

competence development. In professional education, portfolios especially aim at 

improving quality of workplace-based learning and assessment. Implementation of 

portfolios in educational and/or workplace settings, however, has met with mixed 

success. The paper discusses the use of a new ICT-tool intending at overcoming 

important barriers to effective use of portfolios in the workplace, guiding and supporting 

authentic learning and assessment. 

Introduction 

Recent developments in professional education have shown a movement towards competencybased 

education. Competency-based education and assessment are becoming the norm, in (under)graduate, 

postgraduate as well as in continuous professional development programmes (Evers et al., 1998; Carraccio 

et al., 2004). Workplace-based learning is at the very heart of competence-based education and professional 

development (Dall’Alba & Sandberg, 1996). Although active participation in professional practice provides 

very powerful learning experiences, improvement of performance is acquired only through ongoing 

evaluation of performance and feedback (Ericsson, 2004). Therefore, competence-based education also 

calls for authentic, workplace-based assessment which focuses on formative assessment next to summative 

assessment functions. Research evidence, however, consistently shows considerable weaknesses in 

workplace-based learning and assessment: learning processes prove to be relatively uncontrollable and 

unstructured; useful and timely feedback is scarce, and decision making in competence assessment is often 

nontransparent, based on inadequate evaluation and documentation of performance. 

Portfolios are increasingly seen as powerful tools to support both learning and assessment at the 

workplace and overcome some of the limitations of workplace-based learning (Royal College of General 

Practitioners, 1993; Elander et al., 2007). Despite variations in content and format, portfolios basically 

report on work done, feedback received, progress made, and plans for improving competence. 

Documentation of performance evaluations enables defensible decision-making. Additionally, portfolios 

may stimulate reflection, because collecting evidence for inclusion in a portfolio requires looking back and 

analyzing what one has accomplished. Portfolios may be digital or paper-based and content may be 

prescribed or left to the trainee’s discretion. Since their introduction in education in the early 1990s, 

portfolios have been subject of educational research. Evidence to date suggests that their introduction has 

met with mixed success (Driessen et al., 2007). Several studies report advantages of digital or web-based 

portfolios over paper-based tools, technological support and adaptation of digital technologies being critical 

factors in implementation (e.g. Woodward & Nanlohy, 2004). Overall, however, the use of portfolios is 

often perceived to be time-consuming and of limited value. As a consequence, successful implementation 

of portfolios, especially in workplace settings, poses considerable challenges to educationalists. 

E-portfolio in post-graduate medical education 

For reasons of quality improvement and physician accountability, lifelong learning and 

performance assessment have become key issues in medical practice. As a consequence, postgraduate 

medical training in the Netherlands faces radical changes, the most salient of which are implementation of 

competence-based curricula, systematic and structural in-training assessment and use of portfolios for both 

guidance of learning (formative) and certification (summative) (Scheele, et al., 2008). Meanwhile, time 

constraints, competing responsibilities and complexity of tasks in the clinical workplace, as well as limited 

training of clinical teachers are major hindrances to educational innovation. Therefore, it is to be expected 

that the proposed educational innovations will only succeed if substantial support and guidance is provided. 


Together with Manchester University 1 we developed a web-based in-training assessment support 

system, called the Manchester-Maastricht ToetsServiceSysteem (MMTSS), which constitutes the main 

framework of trainees’ portfolios. MMTSS aims to provide both trainees and their supervisors with easy 

access to and deep insight into the trainees’ competence development. The system supports workplacebased 

learning through registration of workplace experiences, online collection of performance ratings, 

facilitation of reflective practice and documentation of personal development plans. In this respect, the 

system provides all functionality that encompasses an e-portfolio. MMTSS explicitly aims at increasing the 

usefulness of portfolios through providing meaningful and detailed feedback on competence development: 

it automatically converts performance ratings into detailed feedback reports. To this end, new rating forms 

have been developed and attuned to the competency model as defined by the medical specialties. This 

allows the computation of detailed competency scores per individual resident. Next to numerical and 

graphical feedback, the system provides clear overviews of all narrative feedback provided during 

performance evaluations. Finally, as MMTSS will collect (longitudinal) performance data from large 

cohorts of trainees across years, individual competence development can be compared to data from relevant 

reference groups (e.g. all trainees in the same specialism in the same year). Thus, identification of strengths 

and weaknesses is facilitated, by combining of qualitative and quantitative assessment data. Feedback 

reports can then serve multiple purposes: facilitation of reflective practice and self-directed learning by 

trainees; monitoring and guidance of competence development by supervisors; and substantiation of 

summative decision making. 

Discussion 

During the past year, parts of MMTSS have been field-tested in three hospitals, in postgraduate 

training programmes of Pediatrics and Gynecology-Obstetrics. The first user feedbacks on the forms and 

the automatically generated feedback reports are positive. A more substantial evaluation of the forms used 

and reports generated is currently being conducted. Subsequently, a beta-test of the MMTSS system will 

be started with the same group of users, while the operational implementation is foreseen for the start of 

2009. 

We expect that the applicability of MMTSS’s competency-based approach is not restricted to 

training in postgraduate medical education. The approach seems equally well suited for continuous use in 

lifelong development, assessment and accreditation of medical specialists. Implementation of MMTSS – 

and similar systems in professional education – raises several issues for debate and research. For instance, 

how to optimize implementation processes, given the large number of hospitals, workplaces and users? 

What training is needed? Will the system result in more and meaningful feedback? Does the system result 

in active and meaningful use of information and evidence in the portfolio? How to deal with legal issues 

concerning e-portfolios (e.g. ownership of portfolios)? What are requirements with respect to technology? 

A detailed evaluation of MMTSS is due after its implementation to determine whether MMTSS indeed 

overcomes the e-portfolio barrier and truly enables lifelong learning. 

Endnotes 

(1) See the webpage of the Medical Education Research Group of the Manchester Medical School at Manchester 

University: http://www.medicine.manchester.ac.uk/medicaleducation/research/technology/eportfoliosupport/ 

References 

Caraccio, C., Englander, R., Wolfsthal, S., Martin, C. & Ferentz, K. (2004). Educationg the Pediatrician of 

the 21 st Century: Defining and Implementing a Competency-Based System. Pediatrics, 113, 252– 

258. 

Dall’Alba, G. & Sandberg, J. (1996). Educating for competence in professional practice. Instructional 

Science, 24, 411-437. 

Driessen, E., Tartwijk, J. van , Vleuten C. van der, & Wass, V. (2007). Portfolios in medical education: 

why do they meet with mixed success? A systematic review. Medical Education, 41, 1224–1233. 

Elander, J., Towell, T. & Fox, P. (2007). Competence-based training and assessment by portfolio: the 

health psychology model. Psychology Learning and Teaching, 6(2), 72–79. 

Ericsson, K. A. (2004). Deliberate practice and the acquisition and maintenance of expert performance in 

medicine and related domains. Academic Medicine, 79, 570–581. 


Evers, F. T., Rush, J. C. & Berdrow, I. (1998). The Bases of Competence: Skills for Lifelong Learning and 

Employability. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 

Royal College of General Practitioners (1993). Portfolio-based learning in general practice: Report of a 

working group on higher professional education. Occasional paper 63. 

Scheele, F., Teunissen, P., Luijk, S. van, Heineman, E., Fluit, L., Mulder, H., Meininger, A., Wijnen- 

Meijer, M., Glas, G., Sluiter, H., & Hummel, T. (2008). Introducing competency-based 

postgraduate medical education in the Netherlands. Medical Teacher, 30(3), 248–53. 

Woodward, H.& Nanlohy, P. (2004). Digital portfolios: fact or fashion? Assessment & Evaluation in 

Higher Education, 29(2), 227-238. 


Eportfolios for Assessment, Teaching & Learning 

Joe McLuckie, Dundee Univerrsity, Scotland, UK 

j.a.mcluckie@dundee.ac.uk 

Abstract: This paper explores a number of initiatives where there is a move towards 

collaborative use of personal development plans integrated with eportfolios as 

mechanisms for delivering such plans. It considers whether such a move towards more 

‘product orientated’ assessment might enhance the student learning experiences. 

Outcome based assessment and the use of eportfolios also implies that a course may be 

delivered in a blended learning format and some thought as to whether this change of 

culture in the higher education sector has an impact on the tutors delivery and the 

students learning is also examined. 


Indicators of Needs for Preparatory Courses: Context of 

Lithuanian Education System 

Diana Šaparnien, Egl Virgailait-Mekauskait, Gintaras Šaparnis, Beatri Poškuvien 

Šiauliai University, Lithuania 

diana.s@smf.su.lt, e.virgailaite@cr.su.lt, saparnis@cr.su.lt, beatrice@splius.lt 

Abstract: As today’s society becomes more and more dependent on new technology, 

increasing attention is given to changes and developing of new educational systems. Not 

accidentally analysis of educational changes is increasingly widely addressed in research 

around the world as well as in Lithuania. However, despite some significant research 

contributions in the area, so far little attention has been given to analysis on off-line and 

on-line preparatory courses, as a most urgent problem in education. 

The paper deals with the analysis of scientific literature on indicators for a need for 

preparatory courses, analysis of statistical data on dropout rates in Lithuanian 

universities, study of various documents on admission requirements to Lithuanian 

undergraduate consecutive studies in the context of teaching subjects, description and 

analysis of research on the most popular study subjects and analysis of a tutoring 

phenomenon. 

Introduction 

The aim of higher education is to help a person obtain higher education and necessary 

qualification and thus prepare for active professional, societal and cultural activities. Preparation for these 

activities in the chosen study field depends on many factors: a student’s attitude towards learning, study 

aims, learning strategies, how a study subject answers expectations, study environment, etc. Liberalization 

of study conditions has resulted in an increasing number of students at European higher education 

institutions with each year; meanwhile the number of students who cancel their studies has become one of 

the most urgent problems undesirable both in terms of a person and the state. 

A need to provide preparatory/remedial courses has pervaded higher education. McCabe (1996) 

emphasizes the importance of remedial/developmental education for helping students strengthen their basic 

academic skills, which are fundamental skills necessary for employment “– the ability to read, write, 

analyze, interpret and communicate information are essential skills.” Drucker (1994) indicates that the 

labor market is being transformed and job opportunities will be most plentiful for “knowledge workers.” 

Hence, help for students to develop their basic academic skills is the first important step expanding their 

opportunities for success in the information age. 

In the 21st century, time of globalization and advancement of information technology, lifelong 

learning and knowledge of changes in science and technology have become characteristic features of our 

society, in other words we live in the period of changes and the milieu, where the main competence is an 

ability to change continuously (Gudauskas, 1996; Drucker, 2004). 

As the industrial age is being changed by the information age, knowledge and information have 

become strategic resources of states. Thus in a comparatively short period of time information 

communication technology (ICT) has raised a need for new competences posing other qualification 

requirements for many professionals and have become one of the main constituent parts of a contemporary 

society (Otas, 2001). 

The aim of this paper is to discuss the indicators of a need for preparatory courses in the higher 

education system, as well as in Lithuanian higher education system. Scientific literature review enables us 

to analyze the following indicators of a need for preparatory courses: 1) lack of academic performance; 2) 

lack of professional motivation; 3) lack of career counseling; 4) differences in learning cultures if they 

leave secondary school; 5) differences in national cultures if they go abroad; 6) differences in a social status 

if there is a change in family support and etc. 


In order to clarify a need for preparatory courses analysis of admission requirements to 

undergraduate consecutive university level study programs (Šaunas, 2007) as well as a phenomenon of 

tutorials in education might be useful. Nowadays tutorials are functioning in many countries. In some 

countries they have become a huge industry. There are many agencies providing tutorial services in South 

Eastern Asian countries. Tutorials are less popular in North America and Western Europe but still exist 

(Žvirdauskas, 2004). Various aspects of tutorials and their popularity in Lithuania have been analyzed in 

the works by Targamadz, Zabulionis, Zybartas, Želvys (2003), Žvirdauskas (2004), Kvedarien, 

Vaiaitien (2004), Bdien, Zabulionis (2006), etc. 

Research method. Analysis of the scientific literature on the indicators for a need for preparatory 

courses. Analysis of statistical data on dropout rates after first year of studies in Lithuanian universities. 

Study of various documents on admission requirements to Lithuanian undergraduate consecutive studies in 

the context of teaching subjects, description and analysis of research on the most popular study subjects and 

analysis of a tutoring phenomenon. 

Theoretical approach used 

Many higher schools are not succeeding in preparing large numbers of young people for lasting 

success in further education and careers. Students, whose academic skills on entry to university require 

considerable remediation, can remedy basic academic skills, potentially limit their potential to graduate. 

Generally three indicators of a successful participation in higher education are emphasized: 

• Attainment of academic and vocational skills 

• Completion of a diploma 

• Transition and retention in higher education and the workforce. 

According to McMillan at al. (1997), the structure of remedial/developmental programs as well as 

the philosophical basis on which they are built, are influenced by at least three schools of learning theory 

(Boylan, 1986): 1) behaviorist theory of learning, 2) developmental theory of learning, 3) humanistic theory 

of learning. 

Scientific literature review enables us to analyze the following indicators of a need for preparatory 

courses: 1) lack of academic performance; 2) lack of professional motivation (Deci and Ryan (1987) point 

out that the feelings of competence and self-determination are two fundamental components of intrinsic 

motivation, other researchers claim that if school administrators, teachers and parents are supportive of 

students’ autonomy, they feel competent in school activities and self-determinant in school-related affairs. 

Autonomy and competence perceived by students further develop into self-determined school motivation); 

3) lack of career counseling (Some research indicates that career intervention should be occur through a 

holistic philosophy (Lee, Johnston, 2001). Betz (2006) holds that successful career intervention is such that 

is based on the sources of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997): mastery experience, vicarious experience, social 

persuasion and physiological state; 4) differences in learning cultures if they leave secondary school; 5) 

differences in national cultures if they go abroad; 6) differences in a social status if there is a change in 

family support. All the above mentioned indicators lead to the reduction of drop-out rates in higher 

education. The rate of drop-out of a higher institution is a complicated problem related to such 

environmental factors as characteristics of the school, family and community as well as personal attributes 

of drop-out students, their low motivation (Csikszentmihalyi, Nakamura, 1989; Deci, Ryan’s, 1987; 

Lepper, Hodell, 1989), poor academic performance (Astone, McLanahan, 1991; Ensminger, Slusarcick, 

1992; Fetler, 1989; Jordan et al., 1996; Kaplan et al., 1997; Marsh, 1991; Morris, Ehren, Lenz, 1991; 

Roderick, 1994; Simner, Barnes, 1991). A high drop-out rate is a major educational problem for drop-out 

students and society. Technological advancement has placed a demand for a highly educated work force 

and decreased demand for unskilled labor. Several theoretical models have been developed to explain the 

influences that affect students’ decision to complete their studies in higher education. In Tinto’s model 

retention is influenced by a student's pre-entry attributes, goals and commitments, and academic and social 

integration (Tinto, 1975). Bean (1985) has developed a model conceptualizing a student’s persistence as 


dependent on his/her background, academic variables, environmental variables such as employment and 

finances and social integration. 

If we take into consideration the effect of an institutional environment or organizational 

characteristics then we will see that a student’s feeling of alienation may be greater in large universities 

than in smaller educational institutions. Tomlinson-Clarke and Clarke (1996) have found that men 

experience more alienation and express greater uncertainty than women in their decision to continue their 

studies. It was identified that students who lived on campus had a greater sense of community and higher 

retention rates (Lounsbury, DeNeui, 1995; Thompson, Smairatedu, Rafter, 1993). Berger, Braxton (1998) 

state that institutional communication, fairness in policy and decision making as well as participation 

positively relate to social integration and have a significant indirect effect on retention rates. 

Low academic achievement is one of the most important predictors of drop-out, whether measured 

in grades, test scores, course failure (Alexander, Entwisle, Kabbani, 2001; Barrington, Hendricks, 1989; 

Battin-Pearson et al., 2000; Gleason, Dynarski, 2002, etc.). Low academic achievement is most often 

related to inability to manage one‘s time appropriately, study habits and learning strategies, lack of 

academic motivation. Cancelation of studies because of low academic achievement is generally 

predetermined by socio-economic factors: lack of financial resources, extra work during studies, parenting, 

etc. 

Students’ academic performance at universities was improved by identifying high risk courses 

where students frequently failed at the university (Kluepfel, Parelius, & Roberts, 1994). Each department 

developed gateway courses to prepare students for these courses. Statistical information on drop-outs from 

various European and Lithuanian universities shows that highest drop-out rates are evident in science study 

programs: mathematics, physics, technical sciences, chemistry, followed by humanities sciences. 

Fundamental and applied studies by Lithuanian (Pukevi, 2008; Gudzinskien, 2007; 

Barkauskait, Motiejnien, 2004; Juceviien, Lapinskien, 2001, etc.) and foreign researchers (Pintrich, 

Schunk, 1996, etc.) have shown that academic motivation is one of the main factors predetermining success 

in studies; it helps to develop commitment to the study subject, study program, strive to seek for as high 

study results as possible. Motivation predetermines study results, it conditions setting and internalizing 

study goals and means. Recent studies have pointed out that motivation is not a static state but a dynamic 

process. In most cases it is conditioned by a person’s state of mind, feelings; it initiates the learning process 

and also guarantees its continuity (Pintrich, Schunk, 1996). Thus in the process of learning motivation may 

undergo changes. It has been noted that motivation is affected by various factors which condition its 

intensity or variation. 

If drop-out is characterized by a lack of academic success and low motivation for school work, it 

is not surprising to find out that drop-out students also have low self-esteem and an external locus of 

control. Low self-esteem and self-confidence (Rosenthal, 1998; Gudzinskien, 2007). The latter dimensions 

are more characteristic for students in their first years of studies, meanwhile students in their further years 

of studies are more self-confident, have better planning skills, their attitude towards studies is more shaped, 

they have a need to gain deeper knowledge of their future profession. 

Significant drop-out factors were expressed by Bennett (2003) (see Figure 1). It appeared that 

financial hardships exerted a powerful influence on the stay/quit decision and significantly moderated the 

impacts on a decision to cancel studies: 1) academic performance, 2) student's level of commitment to 

his/her program. Individual self-esteem played a crucial role in encouraging or discouraging withdrawal 

when a person got low grades or experienced substantial financial problems. The determinants of academic 

performance, student motivation, satisfaction and commitment were studied. 


• Interest in the 

subject 

• Job prospects 

• Teaching 

quality 

• Facilities 

Stress 

Motivation 

Satisfaction 

Social integration 

• Relations with 

students 


staff 


parents 

Academic 

performance 

Self-esteem 

Commitment 

Extent of personal 

investment 

• Time and effort 

• Disruptive effects 

of withdrawal 

• Financial 

Figure 1. Model of drop out predictors in higher school. 

(modified by R. Bennett (2003). Determinants of Undergraduate Student Drop Out Rates in a University 

Business Studies Department. Journal of Further and Higher Education, Vol. 27, No. 2) 

Several studies have been conducted on special student populations with high drop-out rates. For 

example, senior working adults who attend universities may be returning to prepare for a second career or 

to update their knowledge and skills for the changing work environment. These students are older than the 

traditional 18-24 year old higher school students who are preparing to enter the labour market. Older adults 

most often are part-time students and a majority of them have jobs while attending a higher school. 

Researchers have found out that persistence rates were lower for older adults at universities who worked 

more hours and studied part-time (Naretto, 1995). They also have noted that a supportive social 

environment relates positively to the retention of older adults (Ashar. Skenes, 1993; Naretto, 1995). 

Other studies have focused on a situation when many enrolled young people find out that they are 

under-prepared. Placement test results show that they must complete preparatory courses prior to creditbearing 

university-level classes. Secondary schools are ineffective in keeping students engaged in schools 

and fully preparing them for post-secondary and employment options. Many point to the curriculum, which 

lacks both rigor and relevance in many secondary schools. Students need not only rigorous material to stay 

engaged but also understanding of why the material is relevant to the real world. Therefore the importance 

of a tutoring phenomenon is evident, especially in Lithuanian context (Bdien, Zabulionis, 2006). 

Description and analysis of the research on the most popular study subjects, tutorials on which were taken 

by school children or those seeking for admission to higher university institutions allow identify those 

study subjects, on which off-line and on-line preparatory courses might be offered: Mathematics, Foreign 

language, Lithuanian language, History, Biology, Chemistry and Physics. 

Indicators of need for preparatory teaching in Lithuania 

• Effectiveness of study 

habits 

• Adequacy of study skills on 

entry 

• Timing of enrolment 

• Quality of advice on degree 

choice 

• Financial hardships 

• Supportive family 

Stay/quit 

decision 

Personal 

problems 

• Health 

• Family 

• Others 

Drop out rates analysis in higher education 

The issue how to reduce drop-out rates in higher education has been of increasing concern. 

Therefore numerous researchers mentioned above as well as Lithuanian ones have studied drop-out 

predictors in higher schools and universities (Gaigalien, 2006; Gudžinskien, 2007; Padaigien, Purvinis, 

menien, Vasiliauskait, 2007; Liukineviien, Vaiaitien, 2006, etc.). 

A big part of Lithuanian researchers have identified that a study program chosen without a proper 

consideration is one of the reasons for canceling studies. Students are given an opportunity to apply to 16 


study programs. A wide choice of study programs in Lithuanian higher education system affects students‘ 

attitudes towards study organization process, i.e. if an applicant fails to enroll into a first priority program 

he/she forms a negative attitude towards study organization process what later results in his/her canceling 

studies. It is obvious that professional information and counseling system has to be developed. A study 

carried out by Stanišauskien (2005) has showed that nowadays students lack a deeper approach towards 

their career. 

According to Gaigalien (2006), the main reason for canceling studies in Lithuania (N=1153) is a 

blindly chosen study program, as a consequence leading to low academic motivation and canceling studies. 

Liukineviien and Vaiaitien (2006) have discussed the possibilities of a wider use of statistical 

and other information collected from studies departments of different institutions of higher education 

analyzing the issue of student adaptation in institutions of higher education. ”Students who canceled their 

studies because of an inability to meet academic requirements identified the following reasons: inability to 

study difficult subjects, inability to organize self-study, problems reconciling study and work or study and 

family affairs”. 

Drop Out Statistic by Faculties 

Indicator - Poor Academic Achievement 

Faculty of Technology 

Faculty of Social Sciences 

Faculty of Humanities 

Faculty of Mathematics and Informatics 

Faculty of Arts 

Faculty of Education 

Faculty of Natural Sciences 

Faculty of Social Welfare and Disability Studies 

2007 

2006 

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 

Frequencies 

Figure 2. Drop out by poor academic achievement in Siauliai University by Faculties (2006-2007 

academic years). 

The statistical data on dropouts in Siauliai University, collected by this paper authors, confirmed, 

that biggest drop out rates from higher education institution is leaded by poor academic achievement. 

Biggest drop out rates is seen in Faculty of Technology (see Figure 2). Obviously, that students’ 

preparation for study such as technological-engineering study programs is insufficient and imperative for 

preparatory courses. 

2.2. Analysis of admission regulations to higher education 

There are two types of higher education studies in Lithuanian higher education system: nonuniversity 

and university studies. Non-university study curricula are implemented only by colleges, higher 

university study curricula are implemented by universities. General requirements and regulations on 

admission to colleges and universities are set forth by the Ministry of Education and Science (On admission 

to … … , 2006; On admission to … , 2007); they are supplemented by the requirements specified for the 

admission to a particular study program by a particular higher education institution on a further approval by 

the Ministry of Education and Science. 

Currently general admission to Lithuanian state university level undergraduate and consecutive 

study programs is administered: a school leaver can indicate in his application study programs (up to 16) 

offered by any university by priority. 

Thus applying for admission to the chosen study program school leavers have to pass maturity 

examinations, both national and school level, with good grades. It is so because admission criterion is a 


competition rating determined by the results of maturity examinations, i.e. universities do not organise any 

entrance examinations to the majority of study programs (except arts and sports study programs), a 

competition rating to a particular program is set on the basis of the grades in competitive school subjects, 

the list of which is made up by higher education institutions and the Ministry of Education and Science 

(Šaunas, 2007). 

In order to clarify a need for of-line and on-line preparatory courses analysis of admission 

requirements to undergraduate consecutive university level study programs might be useful (Šaunas, 

2007). Information on competitive school subjects by study areas and study fields is provided in Table 1. 

Table 1: List of competitive subjects by study areas and study fields. 

Study field 

For study area 

Competitive subjects 

For study field 

HUMANITIES 

Mathematics, Religious education, 

History, Lithuanian language, Foreign language Second foreign language or native 

language, Geography 

ARTS Lithuanian language, Foreign language Music studies, Mathematics 

SOCIAL SCIENCES History, Lithuanian language, Mathematics, Foreign language, Biology, Physical 

PHYSICAL 

SCIENCES 

BIOMEDICAL 

SCIENCES 

TECHNOLOGICAL 

SCIENCES 

education, Information technology, Geography, 

Lithuanian language, Mathematics, Foreign 

language 

Biology, Lithuanian language, Mathematics, 

Foreign language 

Lithuanian language, Mathematics, Foreign 

language 

Physics, Chemistry, Geography, 

Information technology 

Chemistry, Physics 

Physics, Chemistry, Information 

technology, Geography 

Source: Šaunas, R. (Patvirtinta). (2007). Student primimo pagrindines ir vientissias universitetines 

studijas 2009 metais slygos. Prieiga per internet: 

. 

Data analysis by study areas (Table 1) shows that applying to university level study programs of 

the Humanities competitive subjects are: History, Lithuanian language, Foreign language; of the Arts: 

Lithuanian language, Foreign language; of Social sciences: History, Lithuanian language, Mathematics, 

Foreign language; of Physical sciences: Lithuanian language, Mathematics, Foreign language; of 

Biomedical sciences: Biology, Lithuanian language, Mathematics; of Technological sciences: Lithuanian 

language, Mathematics, Foreign language. 

Data analysis by a particular study field (Table 1) shows that applicants to university study 

programs have to choose other competitive subjects as well: Physics, Chemistry, Geography and 

Information Technology. 

Summing up data in Table 1 a list of mostly needed of-line and on-line preparatory courses by 

study areas and study fields is as follows (Table 2). 

Table 2. Rating of of-line and on-line preparatory subject courses by study areas and study fields 

(on the basis of admission requirements to Lithuanian university level studies). 

Rating of competitive subjects by study areas and fields 

1. Lithuanian language 6. Chemistry 

2. Foreign language 7. Physics 

3. Mathematics 8. Geography 

4. History 9. Information technology 

5. Biology 10. Other foreign language 


It may be presumed that the competitive school subjects listed in Table 2 is equally important for 

school leavers as well as for those studying at universities. In the first case those seeking for admission to 

the chosen study program have to study hard and succeed in studying these subjects at school or take 

private classes. In the second case students enrolled on a particular program have to study subjects in 

greater depth. Thus of-line and on-line preparatory courses on the subjects listed in Table 2 may be 

organized. 

2.3. Analysis of of-line and on-line preparatory subject courses 

It was made analysis of information about preparatory and remedial courses in different 

Lithuanian higher schools (were revised 10 Lithuanian universities). Data analysis on institutions websites 

and data get from the representatives organizing course shows that there are no so many different 

possibilities for a secondary school students and prospective students for high schools to choose a lot of 

different subjects to study before joining higher schools. Summing up data and rating it in the table 3 shows 

the list of subjects proposed for off- or on-line courses in Lithuanian universities. This list is close to the 

rating for preparatory subjects’ courses by study areas and study fields on basis of admission requirements 

to Lithuanian universities. 

Table 3: Preparatory and remedial on-line/ off-line courses in Lithuania rating by Subjects 

Subject 

Online/Offline 

Courses/Short description 

1. Mathematics 

To broaden knowledge, master good fundamentals, introduce more 

2. Physics 

interesting applications of mathematics, provide information on international 

Yes/ Yes 

competitions. 

To deepen and expand knowledge in Natural sciences and to train world 

Yes/ Yes outlook; to develop creativity and skills of independent work 

3. IT, Computer Sciences Organizing small and e-business, Office management, E-publishing, press, 

Yes/ Yes Communication technologies in English, Programming, specialized courses. 

4. Languages (mother- 

Preparatory Lithuanian language courses for secondary school students and 

tongue) 

prospective students for high schools. 

No/ Yes 

5. Other subjects Architecture and design, Business administration, Young Businessmen eschool 

2.4. Statistics on the subjects given by private teachers/tutors 

Tutorials (private instruction) are not a new phenomenon in education. They have been in practice 

all times and are equally popular in developed and developing countries (Žvirdauskas, 2004; Kvedarien, 

Vaiaitien, 2004; Bdien, Zabulionis, 2006). 

Nowadays tutorials are practiced in many countries. In some countries they have become a huge 

industry. There are many agencies providing tutorial services in South Eastern Asian countries. Tutorials 

are less popular in North America and Western Europe but still exist (Žvirdauskas, 2004). 

Various aspects of tutorials and their popularity in Lithuania have been analyzed in the works by 

Targamadz, Zabulionis, Zybartas and Želvys (2003), Žvirdauskas (2004), Kvedarien and Vaiaitien 

(2004), Bdien and Zabulionis (2006), etc. This study analyses and provides generalization on those 

aspects of tutorials which allow identify the teaching subjects, tutorials on which were taken by secondary 

school leavers or those seeking for admission to higher education institutions. 

The study by Žvirdauskas (2004) has identified that a demand for tutorials on the following 

subjects dominates: Mathematics (28,9%), Lithuanian language (21,5%), English language (17,2%), 

History (8,1%), Biology (7,7%), Physics (7%) and Chemistry (5%). Bdien and Zabulionis (2006) have 

identified the following list of subjects, tutorials on which are most necessary: Mathematics (44,5% proc.), 

Lithuanian language (32,2%), Foreign language (42,3 %), History (37,2 %). Kvedarien and Vaiaitien 

(2004) have identified (N=574) that the most popular tutorials were given on the following subjects: 

Mathematics (24,7 %), Lithuanian language (21,8%), Foreign language (29,4% ) and History (11,5%). 


Summing up the results of carried out studies the following list of the subjects, tutorials on which 

were taken by secondary school leavers or those applying to universities, has been made up. The results are 

given in Table 4. 

Table 4: Rating of subjects, tutorials on which were most often taken by secondary school leavers 

or those applying to universities (respondents’ opinion). 

Subject 

1. Mathematics 5. Biology 

2. Foreign language 6. Chemistry 

3. Lithuanian language 7. Physics 

4. History 

Summing up data in Table 4 we see that tutorials were most often taken on the following subjects: 

Mathematics, Foreign language, Lithuanian language and History. Thus of-line and on-line preparatory 

courses might be organized on the same subjects. Less popular tutorials were on Biology, Chemistry and 

Physics. 

Conclusions 

Many higher schools are not succeeding in preparing large numbers of young people for lasting 

success in further education and careers, most of them need preparatory courses, so we analyzed the 

indicators of a need for preparatory courses, which were emphasized in scientific literature: 1) lack of 

academic performance; 2) lack of professional motivation; 3) lack of career counseling; 4) differences in 

learning cultures if they leave secondary school; 5) differences in national cultures if they go abroad; 

6) differences in a social status if there is a change in family support. All these indicators lead to the 

reduction of drop-out rates in higher education. 

Drop-out of higher education institutions is determined by various predictors. The main predictors, 

which have been highlighted by majority of scientists, are: academic performance, low motivation, 

effectiveness of study habits and strategies, adequacy of study skills on entry, etc. In fact, low grades and 

inability to study difficult subjects are one of the revealed factors; therefore, preparatory learning might be 

useful and needful. Statistical information on higher school drop-outs shows that highest drop-out rates are 

in science study programs: mathematics, physics, technical sciences, chemistry, followed by humanities 

sciences. 

Study of various documents on admission requirements to Lithuanian undergraduate consecutive 

studies in the context of teaching subjects, description and analysis of research on the most popular study 

subjects, tutorials on which were taken by school children or those seeking for admission to higher 

university institutions allow identify these study subjects, on which of-line and on-line preparatory courses 

might be offered: Mathematics, Foreign language, Lithuanian language, History, Biology, Chemistry and 

Physics. 

References 

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Facing the Mathematics Problem, Two Cases Considered 

Leendert van Gastel, Natasa Brouwer-Zupancic, Lilia Ekimova, 

University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands 

L.J.vanGastel@uva.nl, N.Brouwer-Zupancic@uva.nl, lekimova@science.uva.nl 

Abstract: The Dutch Parliament organized an inquiry in the effects of recent educational 

innovations. The main conclusion was that the Dutch government seriously neglected the 

main task of ensuring proper education. Moreover, innovations were implemented 

without large support in the field, and that they were not evaluated. Often there was lack 

of evidence whether innovations did improve education. One of the main problems 

mentioned is a lack of mathematical literacy. Especially attention is drawn to the 

problems in mathematics in the transition from secondary to higher education. Higher 

education expects a certain level of algebraic skills that incoming students are not all able 

to comply with. Against this background of a mathematics problem reinforced by generic 

educational innovations, many trajectories were developed to refresh or remediate 

algebraic skills in the first year in higher education. ICT is often used for formative and 

summative assessment of algebraic skills. In this paper we focus on the use of a webbased 

test and assignment system powered by a mathematical engine, in casu Maple TA. 

We will study two cases of the use of this system at the University of Amsterdam, in 

particular at the Economics faculty and the Science faculty. 

Educational Innovations, National Concerns 

In 2007/2008 the Dutch Parliament organized an investigation into educational innovations. See 

Dijsselbloem e.a. (2008). The main conclusion was that the Dutch government seriously neglected the main 

task of ensuring proper education. The reason to organize the investigation was a serious concern in society 

about the results of education. Such a parliamentary investigation is an important political instrument, for 

which the parliament may opt independently. Members of parliament form the committee, hearings are held 

with responsible politicians and experts. 

In the investigation four educational innovations were addressed, here we discuss three of them in 

more detail: (1) the so-called profiling of the curriculum, the “basisvorming” (the non-differentiated first 

three year of secondary education), and a pedagogic approach, called new learning. 

Up to 1999, each secondary school student from age 15 to 18 had freedom to choose subjects, 

within certain boundaries. To ameliorate the transition to higher education, four profiles were developed 

with coherent packages of subjects that should prepare for higher education. These profiles are Culture & 

Society, Culture & Economy, Nature & Health and Nature & Technology. Representatives from higher 

education participated in the development of the profiles and the new subject contents. 

The “basisvorming” is literally the “basis formation”, and refers to the first three years of 

secondary education. In the old situation, children had to choose at the age of 12 the school type, which in 

fact led to an early selection. To fully understand the concept, it is good to know that for decades the socialdemocratic 

party in the Netherlands promoted the idea of a “mid school” (“middenschool”) to stimulate 

equality and to postpone the moment of selection. This idea was stuck in the political arena. However, an 

advice of the Scientific Council in which preservation of the existing formal school structure was made 

possible by replacing final terms (eindtermen) by primary goals (kerndoelen), and a distinction of two 

levels were proposed, led to a political consensus. 

The idea of New Learning was developed in the same time as the New Economy, to which we 

now look back as the height of the Internet Bubble. The characteristics are 

• An activating learning environment with attention paid to independent learning; 

• Meaningful and authentic contexts; 

• Cooperation between learners; 


• Different role for the teacher (less knowledge transfer, more coaching). 

The introduction of this innovation was different from the other innovations. It was not by law, it 

was a pro-active role that government took in stimulating new learning at the same time as the introduction 

of the profiles. are the formatting requirements for the papers that will be published in the S-ICT 2008 

proceedings. Your paper must conform to these guidelines so that we can have a uniform appearing 

proceedings. Time between submission of the final camera ready copy and submitting them to the publisher 

is short, so submitting your paper following these guidelines is necessary for insuring your paper's inclusion 

in the proceedings. 

What were the findings of the parliamentary investigation? 

The investigation committee was quite critical in their report (Dijsselbloem, e.a., 2008, pp. 114- 

115). The effects of the “basisvorming” were limited. There is no evidence that the moment of choosing is 

at a later age. About the New Learning the committee finds a lack of scientific evidence of the approach. 

Therefore, this semi-official innovation was quite risky. Base conditions like support of teachers and 

coaching of students, were not met. Differences in content and learning style were not sufficiently taken 

into account. 

The effects of the profiling system were disturbing. The main goal was the improvement of the transition to 

higher education. But the number of laureates diminished because switching between the school levels 

became more difficult. Fewer students opted for scientific and technical disciplines, and this effect is 

especially noteworthy among female students . 

In the analysis of these effects, the committee notes that the main reasons for changing secondary 

education, i.e. more equality in society and lowering drop-out rates in higher education, were lying outside 

of secondary education itself. Although it may be legitimate, there is a clear danger that the innovation will 

not reach its goals because of a lack of support within secondary education. Moreover, the responsibilities 

of government and the schools became confused. Government interfered with pedagogy, and quality 

insurance was to much left over to the schools. 

What is the impact on mathematics education, especially algebraic skills? 

All three educational innovations had a negative impact on the typical level of algebraic skills for 

the students arriving at higher education. The introduction of the “basis formation” led to a situation where 

in these three years a less pronounced learning result was achieved. Especially for the better students 

preparing for higher education, the mathematical fundament became weaker. The just installed committee 

for a new mathematics curriculum, criticized the basis formation in this way. See Siersma e.a. (2007). 

The new learning concept had a strong influence on the teaching practice. Typically, mathematics 

lessons consisted of say 30% explanation, and 70% doing exercises with the teacher assisting. Now, with 

the new learning, contact hours diminished and students would do more self-study supported by some staff 

member. So for mathematics, typically exercises would go into the self-study hours, without a mathematics 

teacher to support. 

Regarding the choice for one of the profiles, only a small number of students chose the profile 

Nature & Technology. Higher education in science and technology felt threatened and started to allow also 

students with profile Nature & Health. So one of the possible merits, a thorough preparation for technology 

disciplines, evaporated at the very beginning. Moreover, the students and schools complained about an 

overburdened program. Indeed, motivated by the idea of writing for the right selection of students, the 

developers had broadened scope and depth of the curriculum in all disciplines. Time constraints had 

prevented to find a balance between the disciplines that formed a profile. 

The complaints reached the political platform soon. In 2006, an amendment was proposed by the 

minister that yielded less hours available for many disciplines, among which mathematics. Now many 

scientists and teachers complained about these proposed measures. But most impact had a student 

movement called “Lieve Maria” (Dear Maria), referring to the opening of a letter of a made-up student to 

the minister of Education, Maria van der Hoeven. In this letter (Van Rest, Hauwert, e.a., 2006), students 


mention the problems that they encounter with algebraic skills when arriving at the university. As a result, 

algebraic skills were on the political agenda. For mathematics the reduction of hours was somewhat 

diminished. Moreover, a resonance group with members from higher education was installed to follow 

closely the plans of the new curriculum committee for mathematics, especially with regard to algebraic 

skills. 

The resonance group pointed at three aspects (Van de Craats, e.a. 2007). Mathematics education 

has become fragmented. A continuous line of development of mathematical ability is missing. Moreover, 

since two decades, following the ideas of Hans Freudenthal, mathematics education was reformed by 

introducing contexts for all topics. These contexts helped to motivate students and to connect mathematics 

to its surroundings. However, the resonance group pointed out that in higher education the context to do 

mathematics was the discipline itself, like economics, and not a situation constructed per exercise. 

Moreover, now abstract mathematics was missing to a large extent. 

Another mathematics education innovation of the nineties the resonance group pointed at, 

concerned the use graphical calculator. In the spirit of bringing more ICT to the classroom, the graphical 

calculator replaced the standard calculator and brought quite some functionality as graphing and tabulating 

functions, finding zeroes, etc. In practice, the students used this tool to a much higher extent than expected. 

Both the strong focus on contexts and the use of the graphical calculator have a negative impact on the 

level of algebraic skills. 

In summary, we see that Dutch mathematics education faced five educational innovations, three 

generic innovations, two especially for mathematics educations. All these innovations had specific goals 

that were often met in most cases, but in the meantime there is a negative overall effect on algebraic skills. 

It is hard to discern which effect is due to which innovation, as the effects were all in the same time frame. 

After the inquiry, the Dutch Ministry of Education is gearing towards evidence based 

improvements of education. There is convergence about the place of algebraic skills for the two nature 

profiles, but the debate is still raging about the mathematics for the culture profiles. See 

Two Cases: Sciences and Economics, University of Amsterdam 

Since the moment that the students from the profiling system entered higher education, higher 

education introduced diagnostic tests to pinpoint the problem, and designed remedial trajectories for 

algebraic skills (see Van Gastel, e.a. 2007). In this paper, we give attention to two trajectories that use 

Maple Tests & Assignments, a web application with the mathematics software Maple at the background. It 

can check answers, give feedback, and moreover, it can generate series of exercises from a given template 

(see also Heck & Van Gastel, 2006). Maple TA is currently used at many higher educational institutes. The 

courses involved here are Calculus 1 from the Faculty of Exact Sciences and Mathematics 1 of Faculty of 

Economics and Business, both from the University of Amsterdam. 

For the Sciences, the results for Calculus 1 dropped seriously since 2003 (see Figure 1). 

100% 

90% 

80% 

70% 

60% 

50% 

40% 

30% 

20% 

10% 

0% 

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 

Figure 1. Results for Calculus 1, Science Faculty. 


no success 

more trials 

first trial

The organization responded by providing more opportunities for re-examinations, as we can see in 

Figure 2. 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

0 

number of trials 

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 

Figure 2. Number of exam trials for Calculus 1 

Since 2005, a remedial course for algebraic skills is part of Calculus I. It takes place in the first 5 

weeks. The students are given 2 practice tests and 1 final test consisting of 20 questions. A demonstration 

video about how to work with Maple TA is also at the students’ disposal. The number of the students from 

the exact sciences is approximately 150. The practice tests took place in the 3 rd and the 4 th week 

respectively, and the final test was in week 5. The question bank was prepared in previous years, on basis 

of the syllabus. Maple TA is used later on in a next course Calculus II. 

For Economics, a similar decline was noticed since 2003 in the results of Mathematics I (see 

Figure 3.) 

100% 

90% 

80% 

70% 

60% 

50% 

40% 

30% 

20% 

10% 

0% 

2003 2004 2005 

Figure 3. Results of Mathematics I, Faculty of Economics 

no success 

more trials 

first trial 

A remedial course was organized within the first part of the course Mathematics I. In a period of 

ten weeks the students were given 2 tests per week, checking on their basic algebraic skills. Each test 

consisted of 10 questions. In order to pass, students were required to have 8/10 answers correct. They could 

try as many times as they wanted, but within a week they had to complete the given 2 tests. There were 

regular hours for questions about the material and about the use of Maple TA. There was a demonstration 

video, which helped the students learn how to work with Maple TA. The question bank was used from 

previous year. On successfully passing the tests, students were given bonus points. On completion of all the 

20 tests, 1 point was added to the overall grade of the students. The level of the difficulty in tests increased 


gradually from the first to the last test. Maple TA is used later in the following courses Mathematics II and 

Mathematics H as well. 

Methodology 

The methodological approach is a stakeholder analysis. Stakeholders are students, teaching staff 

and management involved in the courses Calculus 1 from the Faculty of Exact Sciences and Mathematics 1 

of Faculty of Economics and Business. The students’ opinions and responses were collected from surveys, 

semester response groups (student panels that meet with teachers), and by means of in-depth interviews 

with four students. The evaluation for the two courses at the different faculties were not the same ab initio. 

But by carefully considering the different design choices for the courses, and the clarification made in the 

interviews with the both student response groups, many questions of the included surveys was found to be 

highly comparable. 

The teacher opinions were collected by means of interviews. The participants were three teachers 

and a student assistant, in particular the coordinator of the Bachelor of Physics program, the coordinator of 

the course Calculus 1, the coordinator of Mathematics 1 and one student assistant were interviewed. 

Results of student surveys 

In general, the majority of students from both surveys hold the opinion that the design of the tests 

is good. (66% - Survey B Calculus 1 Basic Mathematics Skills 2007; 44% - Survey Economics/BA 

Mathematics 1 2007/2008). Only 4% / 9% resp., answer negatively. (See Figure 4.) 

70% 

60% 

50% 

40% 

30% 

20% 

10% 

0% 

Question: 

The design of the remedial course is good. (3) 

/The design of the skill tests was good. (1)/ 

2% 3% 

9% 

4% 

15% 

21% 

66% 

44% 


13% 

1 2 3 4 5 

z 

Figure 4. The design 

23% 

Survey B Calculus 1 Basic Skills 

Survey Economics/BA Mathematics 1 

About half of the students (48%) from the second survey seem to be satisfied with reliability of the 

tests for determining their level (see Figure 5). The answers from the first survey are less pronounced. 30 % 

of the students do not share the opinion that the skill test is useful. However, students who did the tests 

more often (like the Economics students), would agree that the test is useful for diagnosis of their 

knowledge and skills. 

Table 1

60% 

50% 

40% 

30% 

20% 

10% 

Question: 

The Maple TA skill test gave me a good idea of my level of my mathematical skills. (18) 

/The skill tests gave me information about the level of my knowledge (8)/ 

9% 

5% 

26% 25% 

14% 

19% 

34% 

48% 

0% 

1 2 3 4 5 

Scale: 

1- strongly disagree, 2- disagree, 3- neutral, 4 - agree, 5- strongly agree 


6% 

13% 

Figure 5. Information about skill level 



When asked about the clarity of the skill tests, a quite similar pattern is found in both surveys (see 

Figure 6). About a quarter of the students did not find the Maple TA skill tests clear. 

50% 

45% 

40% 

35% 

30% 

25% 

20% 

15% 

10% 

Question: 

The questions in the Maple TA skill tests were clear. (19) 

/It was clear what was expected from me to do on the skill tests (Maple T.A.)(14)/ 

22% 

18% 

21% 

22% 

45% 

42% 

13% 

12% 

5% 

0% 

3% 

1% 

1 2 3 4 5 

Scale: 


Figure 6. Clarity of the skill tests 

Table 6 



On the question how stimulating the tests to keep the students busy studying are, a small minority 

(17%) of the Economics/BA students share this opinion (see Figure 7). The rest of the results are scattered 

equally. About 24% of the participants of both surveys state that they either agree or disagree with the 

statement 

Table 7

45% 

40% 

35% 

30% 

25% 

20% 

15% 

10% 

5% 

0% 

Question: 

The practice test stimulated me to keep up with studying the material if needed. (20) 

/The skill tests stimulated me to study on my own (7)/ 

9% 

7% 

42% 

24% 24% 

21% 

21% 

25% 

1 

Scale: 

2 3 4 5 



8% 

17% 

Figure 7. Stimulate self-study 



The technical aspect, whether the Maple T.A. is user-friendly program, triggers negative responses 

from most science students (see Figure 8). About 1/3 of them do not consider the program easy to work 

with. In comparison, the Economy/BA students are very satisfied with the program. 44% of them state that, 

whereas only 10% of them seem to strongly disagree. 

50% 

45% 

40% 

35% 

30% 

25% 

20% 

15% 

10% 

5% 

Question: 

The Maple TA program for the answers of the tests was easy to work with. (21) 

/The Maple TA was easy to work with (13)/ 

22% 

10% 

29% 29% 

19% 

16% 

16% 

44% 

0% 

1 2 3 4 5 

Scale: 


4% 

11% 

Figure 8. Easy to work with 

Table 8 



From the science students’ additional feedback, it can be also concluded that the students mainly 

complain about the difference in the level of the practice tests and the final test. They claim that the 

assignments on the “real” test are more difficult than the ones from the skill tests. Furthermore, many of 

them mention that their answers were not always recognized by the program as correct, whereas when done 

with paper and pencil, they would be true. 

Opinion of Teachers 

Teachers from the Faculty of Economics are in general satisfied with the design of the course. 

They reduced the questions and split them into two different tests of 10 questions per week. In comparison 

to last year, students had to answer 30 questions. This year they plan to keep the new design for the 

remedial course. 

Teaching staff of the Sciences are also satisfied with the design choice for the remedial course. 

According to one of the teachers, students are the ones who were more involved. They were working 

manually and they did not actually use the Maple TA tests during the practice classes. At that moment two 

Table 9

of the teachers, who were teaching the exercise classes, did not even know that there was a special set-up 

for the basic skills testing with Maple TA. For the second semester, when teaching Calculus 2, one these 

teachers became more involved and actually worked with Maple TA and participated in making new 

questions. 

From the interviews with the teachers, the general impression is that the level of difficulty of the 

tests was average. Only one teacher out of six considered them too easy. His concern was that the students 

were already supposed to have the basic algebraic skills and knowledge, but the results from the tests 

showed that not all the students had. Thus, the idea to rebuild the needed skills and bring the students to the 

same level was really useful. 

From the teachers who were directly involved into the technical part of using Maple TA, it can be 

concluded that if there is a sufficient question bank, the preparation of tests is 

easy and less time-consuming. Teachers try to optimize their time for preparing the learning materials. 

Thus, for larger groups of students it is very convenient to use the testing program. Two of the teachers, 

who were not involved in making questions, made the final test on their own, and they did not experience 

any problems using Maple TA, even though they never tried it before. They consider it “pretty 

straightforward”. For the notation, one of the teachers mentioned that she had to look it up, in order to get 

familiar with the syntax of the program, but this she did not consider it as a serious problem. 

Finally, for a follow-up of the remedial course, contradictory opinions were recorded. According 

to one of the teachers, there should be no need to spend extra time on basic skills that students should 

already have from high school. On the other hand, the rest of the teachers think that it is important the basic 

skills to be mastered and if some students still need support, they could do that through self-practice. A 

digital environment such as Maple TA has this possibility and could be used. 

Summary 

In the Netherlands five educational innovations took place in more or less the same time frame. 

These innovations all have a negative impact on algebraic skills, as was marked by higher education, 

although it is not possible to discern the effects separately. The complaints from society and education lead 

to considerable political attention. The way the innovations were implemented was severely questioned. 

In the meantime, the higher educational institutions saw the algebraic ability of the freshmen drop 

over the years. In many higher educational institutes Maple TA is being used. Two cases, the first 

mathematics course at the faculty of Sciences and at the Faculty of Economics at the University of 

Amsterdam are analysed. With regard to the didactical aspect, the students found the design choice for the 

remedial course satisfactory. The results from both the surveys and the interviews indicate that they 

considered the level of tests as average and that the content of the tests fit well with their previous 

knowledge. Some of the students of Sciences claimed that the level of difficulty of the preparatory tests 

lower in comparison to the final test. Therefore, their recommendation was to make tests with the same 

level of difficulty. In general, they think that Maple TA helps them to diagnose their mathematical level of 

knowledge. The students from the Faculty of the Economy share the experience that the practicing with the 

test can be stimulating. 

From technical point of view, the students from the Faculty of Sciences were in general satisfied 

with the use of Maple TA. Some of them complained about the syntax problems they experienced; 

however, they admitted that this could be due to the fact that they did not practice enough. In comparison, 

the survey of the students from Faculty of Economics were quite happy with the testing system: both for 

practice and for assessment. They found Maple TA for self-preparation more useful than the written 

materials (the study book). Since, Maple TA is used in other courses, Calculus 2, e.g., the students from the 

Sciences start to feel more comfortable with using the testing system and acknowledge its usefulness. Thus, 

to answer the question whether Maple TA is easy to use, the more the students practice, the easier they find 

the system to work with. 


References 

Dijsselbloem, J., e.a. (2008), Tijd voor Onderwijs, Eindrapport parlementair onderzoek onderwijsvernieuwingen, 

KST113842, ’s-Gravenhage: Sdu Uitgevers. 

Heck, A.J.P., & Van Gastel, L.J. (2006). Mathematics on the threshold. International Journal of 

Mathematical Education in Science & Technology 37, 925-945. 

Siersma, D. e.a. (2007), Rijk aan Betekenis, Visie op vernieuwd wiskundeonderwijs. Commissie Toekomst 

Wiskundeonderwijs. http://www.fi.uu.nl/ctwo/publicaties/ 

Siersma, D. e.a. (2008), Aanpassingsvoorstel examenprogramma’s wiskunde cTWO, Letter to Minister of 

Education, Commissie Toekomst Wiskundeonderwijs. http://www.fi.uu.nl/ctwo/publicaties/ 

Van de Craats, J. e.a. (2007), Standpunt van de Resonansgroep wiskunde ten aanzien van de 

wiskundevoorstellen havo en vwo voor 2007 en later, Resonansgroep wiskunde. 

http://www.resonansgroepwiskunde.nl 

Van Gastel, L.J., Cuypers, H., Jonker, V., Van de Vrie, E., & Van der Zanden, P. (Eds.). (2007). 

Eindrapport Nationale Kennisbank Basisvaardigheden Wiskunde. Amsterdam: Consortium 

NKBW (www.nkbw.nl) 

Van Rest, F., Hauwert, G. (2006). Lieve Maria, public letter to Minister of Education, 

http://www.lievemaria.nl. 


The authors would like to thank Bert ten Boske, Maurice Oudejans and Michiel van de Leur of the Faculty 

of Economics and Business, University of Amsterdam, for their support. 


Online Coaching: Summer Course Basic Financial Management 

at the NHTV 

Sylvia Hermans, NHTV Breda, The Netherlands 

hermans.s@nhtv.nl 

Abstract: There is hardly any need to explain why the NHTV started an online basic 

course on financial management. Not only the increasing differentiation in new enrolled 

students and the country wide discussion about the ‘arithmetic issue’, but also NHTV 

research, with regard to the prospective students’ level of knowledge, showed that actions 

to increase that level were worthwhile. We choose for the approach of the University of 

Maastricht. Decisive reasons for this were the underlying educational concept, 

(completely online, tutorial guidance throughout the process), the good results and the 

enthusiastic cooperation of the project manager of Maastricht. 

Major aspects 

In order to create a successful project, much attention was paid, in advance, to the 

following aspects: 

Commitment 

• Managerial approval of all NHTV academies and the Executive Board 

• Cooperation of service department managers of, for instance, ITC, marketing, 

finance and student registration departments 

Course set-up 

• Students should be able to work independently; the teacher’s role should mainly 

be one of coaching. 

• It was decided to offer an online course befóre the official start of the academic 

year as the point of departure was that this knowledge should have been 

acquired before the start of the first year. 

• The course should be offered completely online through the NHTV’s electronic 

learning environment (n@tschool); this was to be facilitated by the ICT 

department. 

• The main focus was on brushing up or raising the level of existing knowledge, 

not on offering new knowledge. 

Human resources 

• Only lecturers who are flexible, and positively tuned in towards e-learning and 

competency-based / demand driven tuition, were recruited. 

• This went for employees of service departments too. 

Diagnosed obstacles / Established difficulties /difficulties to overcome Perseverance of 

project managers and staff, enthusiastic lecturers and direct communication lines with the 

ITC department are a must. Being familiar with the various supportive services and 

processes within the organization is also of major importance. As students can only 

participate when they are enrolled with the NHTV and have paid for the course, service 

departments need to have been approached beforehand in order to deliver preparatory 

services. It also appeared that only a few employees within the organization knew the 

complete ins and outs of the electronic learning environment whereas most course 

designers’ familiarity with n@tschool was rather basic. This meant that virtually all 

activities, like offering online learning material, installing visual material, designing 

interactive course material, developing tests with changing variables and optimizing 

forum and chat possibilities to the fullest, had to be explored. 


Findings 

So far, seventy-four students have enrolled; one try-out course with eight students took 

place. Three of them succeeded in attaining the desired result (a sufficient mark for the 

online course). Six out of those 8 students sent in performance appraisals. They assessed 

the quality of the course and the team with an average of more than 8.3. The course 

consisted of three parts with an increasing degree in difficulty. It appeared that most 

students drop out during the last part. Improvements have been made and the course is 

running now for the second time. The third course starts in August. 

In November 2008 more research data will be available, which we are very willing to 

share with all attendees at the conference. 


Thursday 20 th of November 


Students’ Mobility, Acculturation and Gaps in Learning Skills: 

A pan-European survey 

Dharmadeo Luchoomun, University of Dundee, Scotland, UK 

d.luchoomun@dundee.ac.uk 

Abstract: With the advent of European Union (EU) and establishment of the Bologna 

Process, standardization and uniformization of teaching and learning have been placed at 

the forefront of recent debates on higher education. Three issues that have been raised 

are: student mobility and cultural adaptability; e-learning; and remedial and support 

programmes. This paper draws on initial phases of the MASTER project funded by the 

EU Socrates Minerva programme. An online survey questionnaire was administered to 

students from three universities across Europe. It aimed to explore students’ views about 

mobility and e-learning; and identify gaps in IT and learning skills at start of their 

postgraduate studies. Key findings have revealed clear existence of students’ mobility 

within the participating universities (average = 22%) and signnificant variation in skills 

among student. Exploration on students’ mobility has indicated further implications in 

terms of acculturation and learning in foreign language. IT- related results have shown 

varying gaps in students’ skills and relevant training requirements range from 

‘manipulation of Microsoft office’ to ‘database search’. Likewise, those learning skills 

acquired by students from their first degree represent a wide variety that has been 

categorised from ‘essential’ to ‘not desirable’. 

Findings from this particular section of the survey indicate the necessity for additional 

support in specific areas in form of remedial programmes. Therefore, in order to meet the 

targets set by Bologna Process, European universities have to adjust to cultural 

differences by overcoming barriers to students’ learning and support them in order to 

address gaps in IT skills and those associated with their subject areas. 

[MASTER – Mobility, Assessment, Selection, Technology and E-Learning Research] 


Effective Design of Transitional Preparatory Courses 

Natasa Brouwer, Wolter Kaper, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Bart Rienties ,, Maastricht 

University, The Netherlands 

natasa.brouwer@uva.nl, W.H.Kaper@uva.nl, Bart.Rienties@ERD.unimaas.nl 

In the case of science education and also economics and business education the gaps in required 

prior knowledge of students often concern mathematics skills. This problem is recognized in various 

countries. The recommendations how to deal with the mathematics pre-knowledge problem range from 

curriculum reforms to remedial help. 9,10,11 

The target of our work was to evaluate remedial teaching scenarios for transitional preparatory 

mathematics courses and to define the influence of boundary conditions on the success of these scenarios. 

This research is part of the ongoing work on mathematics transition problems in the Netherlands. Many 

joint projects 12 have been started and a special interest group on mathematics pre-knowledge problems 

SIGMA (Special Interest Group on Mathematics Activities) joins the higher education forces in 

development of new approaches to e-learning in this field and promotes the dialogue between the 

secondary and higher education. 13 

For the analysis of teaching scenarios in our research we have used the model of remedial teaching 

scenarios developed by Wieland et al. (2007) in which attention is paid on the use of ICT. 14 As a research 

method we have applied the principles of action research. 15 The success of remedial teaching scenarios 

was measured with the success of the intervention within its context. We have defined an intervention as a 

set of remedial teaching activities related to an existing course as its context. Furthermore, the impact of the 

preparatory teaching activities was estimated in a larger educational context such as the educational 

programme. 

We are convinced that the pre-knowledge problems cannot be seen just as a problem of each 

particular student. For example the lack of mathematics pre-knowledge of students in science or economics 

has a very large impact on the overall success rate and can to some extent even influence the quality level 

of an educational programme. The preparatory activities help students to cope with the level of the regular 

programme and improve their study progress. From this point of view the quality of the preparatory 

activities can be seen as a competitive advantage of a higher education institution. As a consequence, this 

indicates the need for new investments in these activities. Nevertheless preparatory courses can usually not 

be funded in the same way as the regular curriculum courses. Due to different boundary conditions a 

specific approach is needed in designing transitional preparatory teaching activities. 

We expect that knowledge gained by this research will be an important contribution to the 

development of the framework for preparatory teaching in different disciplines. 

9 London Mathematical Society, Tackling the Mathematics Problem, 1995, http://www.lms.ac.uk/policy 

(accessed July 2008). 

10 Engineering Council, Measuring the Mathematics Problem, 2000, 

http://www.engc.org.uk/documents/Measuring_the_Maths_Problems.pdf (accessed July 2008). 

11 Mathematics for the European Engineer – A Curriculum for the Twenty-first Century; Mustoe, L., 

Lawson, D., Eds.; 2002, SEFI HQ: Brussels, http://learn.lboro.ac.uk/mwg/core/latest/sefimarch2002.pdf 

(accessed July 2008) 

12 Web-spijkeren (Brush up Your Maths). http://www.web-spijkeren.nl (accessed July 2008); MathMatch. 

http://www.mathmatch.nl (accessed July 2008). 

13 SIGMA, special interest group of SURF, www.surffoundation.nl/SIGMA (accessed July 2008) 

14 Wieland, A., Brouwer, N., Kaper, W., Heck, A., Tempelaar, D., Rienties, B., et al. (2007). Factoren die 

een rol spelen bij de ontwikkeling van remediërend onderwijs. Tijdschrift voor Hoger Onderwijs, 1, 2-15. 

15 Argyris, C., Putnam, R. and Mc Lain Smith, D. "Action Science: Concepts, Methods and Skills for 

Research and Intervention", Jossey-Bass, 1985, chapter 2, section "empirical testing in action science". 


Pedagogical Approaches Used For Preparatory Teaching 

Magdalena Jasiska, Karolina Podgórska 

Maria Curie Skodowska University – University Centre for Distance Learning, Poland 

magdalena.jasinska@puw.pl , karolina.podgorska@puw.pl 

Abstract: Although an increasing number of good practices on effective teaching and 

learning in computer-based learning are published, still little is known how to effective 

teach online. However, teaching and learning theories provide some insights how a 

teacher can design effective online course. Also for preparatory teaching there are 

different possibilities depending on discipline and subject for using given techniques of 

instruction. Furthermore, these courses may be offered in face-2-face form or aided with 

ICT, what will also influence the teachers’ choice of teaching approach. The pedagogical 

scenario used for a given course has a strong influence on learning processes of learners 

and groups. 

In this presentation we would like to present different features influencing the teaching 

and learning approach. Starting from meta-level of learning theories we go down to 

teaching styles and finally different learning activities and tasks. The form of the course, 

discipline and choice of different activities and tasks will determine the choice of 

pedagogical approach. 

Learning theories 

Athough there are different classifications of learning theories we will focus on these which may 

be employed in web-assisted preparatory teaching. Starting from cognitive approach, trough instructional 

approach, we will then preset constructivist philosophy and finally social constructivist. 

The cognitive approach 

In cognitive learning, the individual learns by listening, watching, touching, reading, or 

experiencing and then processing and remembering the information. Cognitive learning might seem to be 

passive learning, because there is no motor movement. However, the learner is quite active, in a cognitive 

way, in processing and remembering newly incoming information. Cognitive learning enables us to create 

and transmit a complex culture that includes symbols, values, beliefs and norms. 

To sum up: 

• learning results when information is stored in memory in organized, meaningful manner; 

• developing scheme and making connections to prior knowledge; 

• teacher organizes information and helps learners to memorize them; 

• activities: explanations, demonstrations, examples, advance organizers, graphic diagrams, 

practice, feedback 

• learner is motivated when event, object or experience conflicts with what already knows. 

The instructivist approach 

The instructivist approach is a traditional, teacher- and content-focused approach. This approach 

tends to see learners as recipients absorbing and reproducing what the teacher tells them. Associated with 

this approach is “behaviourism”, “positivism”, and famous psychologists like Skinner. The learners depend 

upon their teacher, who selects the knowledge sources, decides the pace and judges the student’s 

performance. Basically, the instructional approach sees “knowledge” as fairly static and objective, existing 

independently of human activity. The role of the teacher is to act as a “channel”, for “objective, correct” 

knowledge. If electronic media are used, it may be modern multi-media, but the communication is basically 

one way, from the teacher/producer to the receiving student. However, in a complex world, the 

instructional approach might not always be the most efficient way to learn (Bjørke & Holt, 2005). 


To sum up: 

• learning by example / demonstration and learning by being told by the teacher; 

• traditional teacher and content-focused approach, learners as passive receptors; 

• the learners depend on their teacher, who selects the sources, decides pace and judges the 

students’ performance; knowledge is static and objective; 

• from the learner`s perspective: „she taught me… ”; 

• from the teacher’s perspective: cover the syllabus and be in control; 

• this approach does not lead to deeper understanding. 

The constructivist approach 

The constructivist approach is associated with psychologists like Piaget. He argues that people 

have to be active learners and construct knowledge themselves. Knowledge is seen as more subjective, 

dynamic and expanding rather than objective and static. The main tasks here are processing and 

understanding of information, and making sense of the surrounding world. The learner has a clear 

responsibility for his/her own learning. Constructivism calls for participation at all levels and moves 

responsibility and empowerment down the hierarchy, thereby flattening it. 

If a constructivist approach is chosen, the course design will look different, with less-predefined 

texts, more freedom for the learner to select different sources of information, and authentic problems or 

cases to solve. Typical features for constructivist teaching are that teachers encourage and accept student 

autonomy and initiative. Students are asked to elaborate on their understanding of concepts before teachers 

give “the correct” understanding, if at all. Self-directed learning skills are part of the curriculum. Problembased 

learning and resource-based learning are important in this setting. When choosing electronic media 

here, the Internet is an obvious choice. Furthermore, searchable databases, online libraries and other online 

resources are important (Bjørke & Holt, 2005). 

To sum up: 

• learning by constructing meaning; 

• people have to be active learners and construct knowledge themselves; 

• knowledge is more subjective and dynamic; 

• problem-based learning; 

• main task: processing and understanding of information; 

• the learner has a clear responsibility for his own learning; 

• from the learner`s perspective: „I made sense of… ”; 

• the teacher changes from „Sage on the Stage” to „Guide on the Side”. 

The social constructivist approach 

Social constructivism is associated with psychologists like Vygotsky, and takes the constructivist 

approach a step further, implying that the student must join a knowledge-generating community; a 

community of practice, and in collaboration with others solve real (authentic) problems as part of their 

study. Many teachers think this approach is the most appropriate for e-learning, because it gives an answer 

to the challenges of the “information age” and it exploits the technology better than the other options. The 

time and pacing will be seen as less relevant than in the case of instructional studies. The tasks will be 

processing and assessing knowledge and generating and co-constructing new knowledge. 

The learners as a community are an important learning resource in itself. Students may in 

collaboration drive lessons; suggest shifts in instructional strategies and, to some extent, change content. 

Students are asked to engage in dialogue with the teacher as well as with one another, and to engage in 

experiences that might engender contradictions to their initial hypothesis. The idea of “communities of 

practice” where peers help peers learn is crucial in social constructivist learning (Bjørke & Holt, 2005). 

To sum up: 

• learning by joining a knowledge-generation community; 

• the student collaborates with others to solve real problems as part of their study; 


• the teacher is a learner together with his students; 

• important goals: generic skills of collaboration, problem solving, creating new knowledge; 

• the tasks: processing, assessing, generating, constructing knowledge; 

• problem-based learning. 

Teaching Styles 

Teachers develop a teaching style based on their beliefs about what constitutes good teaching, 

personal preferences, their abilities, and the norms of their particular discipline. Some believe classes 

should be teacher-centered, where the teacher is expert and authority in presenting information. Others take 

a learner-centered approach, viewing their role as more of a facilitator of student learning. Although 

individuals have a dominant, preferred teaching style, they will often mix in some elements of other styles. 

Five teaching styles which may influence pedagogical scenario in remedial courses we present below. 

Direct Instruction 

The traditional teacher-centered instruction technique is called direct instruction. The teacher 

provides the students with much of the information they need, often through lectures, explanations, 

examples, and problem-solving. Most direct instruction techniques only allow for minimal student-teacher 

interaction, and need to be supplemented by review, practice, and group discussions. 

The main strength of direct instruction is that it is efficient, especially in quickly providing 

information to the students. It is also an effective way to allow students to achieve mastery when learning 

fundamental facts, rules, formulas, or sequences. 

However, direct instruction is not an effective way to teach higher-level thinking, analysis or 

evaluation. It cannot be used to teach material over a long period of time, or present additional details to 

students who have already mastered the basic concepts. When direct instruction repeats material that has 

already been covered, it becomes redundant and boring for the students, so the content needs to be repeated 

in novel ways to keep the students interested. 

Indirect Instruction 

The indirect approach to teaching presents students with instructional stimuli in the form of 

materials, objects, and events, and requires students to go beyond the basic information that they are given 

to make their own conclusions and generalizations. Indirect instruction allows teachers to engage their 

students in activities which require the students to learn independently. 

Students take an active role in their learning by developing ideas, testing their own conclusions, 

and discussing their results. This allows students to independently discover patterns and relationships in 

their learning and knowledge. Students go beyond the basic problems presented to them, allowing them to 

develop advanced levels of thinking and analysis. Indirect instruction is most effective at teaching a process 

or method of learning, and allows for a dynamic teaching and learning environment. 

Self-Directed Instruction 

Students need to be encouraged to actively participate in their own learning process through selfdirected 

instruction. Without taking a role in their own learning, students become too dependent on their 

teachers and fall behind in independent thought, reasoning, critical-thinking, and problem-solving abilities. 

Self-directed instruction teaches students to take learning into their own hands, apply their 

knowledge to real-world problems, monitor their own achievement, and go beyond the material that is 

presented to them. Predicting, questioning, summarizing, and clarifying are four important activities that 

shift the responsibility of the learning to the students. 

Cooperative Learning 

Cooperative learning is a technique that encourages collaboration, competition, and independence. 

Teachers encourage independence among the students in terms of achieving their learning goals, and 

interdependence through interaction. 


One strength of cooperative learning is its social nature. Students are encouraged to interact and 

share with one another, which helps reduce the students' desire to talk or gossip with one another about 

unrelated topics. With interaction constantly occurring, a cooperative learning classroom tends to be 

somewhat noisy, but classroom management is easier. 

Cooperative learning helps students develop conceptual reasoning and problem-solving skills. It 

also helps creates a warmer relationship among students and a positive attitude towards the subject matter. 

Discussion 

Discussion involves free, interactive dialogue between teachers and students. It is more than just a 

question-answer period, and requires the teacher to give control of the classroom to the students. The 

students guide the discussion, meaning that it may not always progress in the direction the teacher 

anticipated. 

A successful discussion requires that all student responses and ideas be accepted and considered, 

even those that are immature or have not been thought out. Teachers and students need to be open-minded 

and willing to consider perspectives different from their own. 

Supporting the learning process 

From a theoretical point of view, speaking of educational support to the learning process refers to 

the interactions that take place within an educational context and give rise to learning. Distinctions within 

this concept are introduced, emphasizing different points of view on the supporting activity and consequent 

differences in the didactical planning. 

Modelling 

The term Modelling refers to the kind of support that guides the students to acquire expert 

behaviour in problem solving. In this case, attention is focused on the analysis of expert’s results, on what 

knowledge they use, on what cognitive and meta-cognitive processes they carry out during a problem 

solving activity. Modelling includes the analysis of meaningful cases, and implements an approach to 

educational support which is problem-oriented and guided by the teacher (Busetti, Dettori, Forcheri & 

Ierardi, 2005). 

Coaching 

The term Coaching refers to the teacher’s activity supporting students’ efforts to solve some tasks. 

In this case, the emphasis is on students’ work. Here, the teacher follows and regulates students’ activity, 

by analysing it and providing feedback and suggestions. This kind of support, hence, develops during the 

activity and entails a high degree of interaction between students and teacher. It is not necessarily limited to 

class activity, though, since distance communication tools, such as e-mail, platforms or videoconferences 

can be used to allow coaching in ICT-based environments (Busetti, Dettori, Forcheri & Ierardi, 2005). 

Scaffolding 

The term Scaffolding refers to any incentive or help, adapted to the student’s ability level, 

intentionally given in order to help a student to perform some task (Jonassen, Mayes, McAleese, 1993). In 

this case, the focus is mainly on knowledge to be acquired and tasks to be tackled, taking into consideration 

the systemic factors that may affect performance. 

It can include also some activities which are typical of modelling and coaching, provided they are 

implemented so as to progressively decrease while the learners acquire the ability to work on their own. 

From the point of view of application, scaffolding can be subdivided into categories taking into 

account the requirements of the educational situation at hand (Winnips, McLoughlin, 2001; Reiser, 2004). 

Preparing pedagogical scenario for preparatory teaching 

There are different opinions on the effect of technology in education. One of the earliest 

arguments questioning technology’s role in learning comes from Clark (1983, 1994). He argues that media 

(technology) is nothing but a vehicle that delivers instruction, and that technology would not affect student 


learning. He pointed at the method of instruction as the most important consideration for this aim. Other 

researchers, such as Russell (1999), Jonassen, Campbell, and Davidson (1994), and Ehrmann (1999), 

agreed with Clark that focusing purely on the technology would be wrong and that learning should be the 

center of interest. 

The inherent problems of online instruction, including the pressure of limited resources (such as 

time, money, hardware, and software) and the pedagogical problems of purely online or traditional 

instruction, have led to a new idea: mix the benefits of online courses with the benefits of face-to-face 

courses. Many instructors supplement their courses with simulations, online exercises, and immediate 

online feedback, creating richer learning environments through multimedia and hypermedia. The 

systematic and strategic integration of these tools into courses to meet pedagogical goals introduce a new 

way of approaching instruction (Delialioglu & Yildirim, 2007). 

Based on analysis of learning theories, teaching and supporting styles, the critical elements which 

can be implemented in pedagogical scenario for preparatory teaching were selected: 

• learning theories employed, 

• goal orientation, 

• task orientation, 

• source of motivation, 

• teacher’s role, 

• metacognitive support, 

Depending on discipline and form (online, traditional or blended) pedagogical scenario for 

preparatory teaching may include different features. 

Table 1: Main elements of pedagogical scenario 

Learning Theory 

Instructivism 

Knowledge flows from teacher to the student 

Sharply Focused 

Instruction with focus on a expected behavior 

Goal Orientation 

Constructivism 

Knowledge is a construct in the mind of the 

learner 

General 

Simulation with more than one solution to a 

problem 

Task Orientation 

Academic 

Authentic 

Traditional academic exercises have to be done Exercises in authentic settings have to be done 

Source of Motivation 

Extrinsic 

Intrinsic 

Motivation from outside the learner/learning Motivation from inside the learner/learning 

environment 

environment 

Teacher Role 

Didactic 

Facilitative 

Teacher is the source of knowledge Teacher is the facilitator of instruction, guiding 

students 

Metacognitive Support 

Unsupported 

Integrated 

No support for monitoring progress and Supporting learners by helping them monitor 

adjusting to individual learner's needs 

and 

regulate their own learning process. 


Depending on the mixture of all the features presented above and taking into account the discipline 

and form of the course there are numerous possibilities of pedagogical scenarios for preparatory teaching. 

What is more, even the same subject may be presented using two or more different pedagogical scenarios. 

In the case of preparatory teaching it is important to have in mind what is the main aim to be achieved at 

the end of the course. 

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Enhancing Teaching Through Technology 

challenges and possibilities 

David Durkee, Stephen Brant, University of East London, UK 

durkee@uel.ac.uk, brant@uel.ac.uk 

Abstract: The authors’ conducted a live learning lab at the UEL Learning and Teaching 

conference in London on June 26, 2008 with the same name. The following provides a 

write-up of the methods, technologies, lessons learned and recommendations, in a 

hopefully accessible piece. The goal is to produce something that is useful to academics 

in the classroom, as well as administrators who would like to incorporate more 

technology as a means to enhance their students learning and knowledge acquisition 

through distance learning applications. The lab proved successful both in the remote 

presentation as well as the visual analogy. The results appear useful for those wishing to 

deliver content remotely and especially as in this case, those who have a need to present 

from a remote location. The latter would be especially valuable for researchers in the 

field that would like to share results, either with fellow researchers or even to conduct 

lectures and presentations from the field. 

Background 

The application of technology in the classroom can significantly enhance learning and teaching 

outcomes. However, use in the classroom is circumscribed by the inherent benefits, limits, and even risks 

of each technology. Technology can thus be both enabler and limiter at the same time. Furthermore, while 

many educators understand the aforementioned in theory, their practical experience proves lacking. Thus, 

discussions of technology and education tend to focus on possibilities and to some further extent expected 

benefits. However, real risks and limits exist as to the degree technology can enhance teaching. 

On the 26th of June 2008 for the UEL Learning and Teaching Conference, the authors conducted a 

live learning lab. The presentation aimed to enable participants to experientially explore the challenges and 

possibilities of enhancing teaching through technology. Using a vRoom powered by Elluminate and Skype, 

the content on interpreting Jisc/TurnItIn results was delivered from Geneva. Therein, the audience enjoyed 

a visual analogy due to the media chosen for the presentation. As Professor Andy Pausch said in his last 

lecture, it was a headfake. Operating at two levels the goal was to enable participants to better understand 

what needs to be done to incorporate the use of technology into teaching, while they were there to see a 

presentation about TurnItIn/Jisc. 

From the initial audience feedback, the presentation appears to have been a success. However, in 

journaling the results and sequence of events, the authors have also found places that can be improved, as 

well as ways to overcome some of the traditional limits. The insights are of particular relevance to those 

interested in knowledge acquisition in e-learning and distance education. 

The Live Learning Lab 

Instead of making a generic presentation on the use of a technology and the limits that one could 

encounter, the authors’ created an environment where the audience could participate and actually 

experience many of the limits. Officially the presentation was about the use of TurnItIn/Jisc (a system for 

checking the similarity of academic work). Of course one could have made such a presentation using a 

powerpoint, or on the screen by taking the audience through the schools virtual learning environment 

(VLE), and demonstrating how jisc works. In fact, such a presentation was originally suggested. 

The idea for the live learning lab emerged when it occurred that in fact one of the authors would 

have to be in Geneva during the conference and would not be able to attend in person. In discussing the 

possibilities for the presentation, it occurred that one of the possibilities would be to do a remote 

presentation. Through internet technologies for sending live audio and video Mr. Durkee could participate 

in person. The realities of the timing, and the lack of tested technologies at the University for making the 

presentation, added a dimension where the audience would experience the feed in real-time. 


The live learning lab was more than simply demonstrating technologies, or making a remote 

presentation. By bringing the audience into the collaborative setting, the audience got to experience the 

physical and psychological realities. For example, the room was very quiet until the moment of questions. 

Therein, the participants could feel how such an attentive silence bares an certain psychological stress that 

seldom comes to be discussed when considering technologies for distance applications. In this way, they 

had a direct means for experiencing a visual analogy as to the possibilities and limits of ICT for knowledge 

acquisition in distance learning environments. 

The presentation environment 

The presentation environment may be viewed as 3 co-existing complex variables. Each of which 

can be further deconstructed: 

• Applications running 

o choice 

o desktop real estate 

§ resolution 

§ focus 

o on the screen projected in front of the audience 

o on the presenters computer 

• the host room where people will listen to the presentation 

• the room at the remote site for the presenter 

o background 

o camera mount 

Choice of applications 

The authors selected readily available technologies for the presentation to insure that the 

environment would be one to which most of the participants would have access. While other 

configurations were available, and may have been both more stable and better performing, by using the 

ones people could get, the authors already incorporated an element of ‘this is what you get, now use it.’ 

The element proves quite pervasive in distance learning environments. 

For the classroom, machines have been setup with a standard image rolled out by the Information 

Technology department. Moreover, there may be restrictions on installing further applications. Therefore, 

having applications such as the VRoom which are Web based Java, anyone with an internet connection and 

a browser has a good chance of running them. As was found, likewise, there can be a performance hit for 

running such applications. 

The students even have less choice, as Universities choose the technologies for their virtual 

learning enviroments (VLEs) like WebCT or Blackboard, and then the students need to find a way to make 

their own computer systems compatible. Since purchasing may be dictated more by lifecycle plans and 

existing sales agreements rather than technological necessity or appropriateness, students can find 

compatibility to be a struggle when there computer don’t have the level of prescribed resources. Other 

times, students have chosen to be on a different operating system (OS) such as Apple’s OSX or Linux, and 

have problems, although in theory a VLE should be platform independent being browser based. 

Applications running 

Skype, Eluminate, MS Word, and Explorer 

• Skype chosen because of its compatibility with the UEL network, and excellent performance in 

getting around firewalls. 

• Elluminate chosen because of its ability to share applications and desktops as well as provide a 

whiteboard while maintaining platform independence due to being Java based 

• MS Word was chosen over power point, as pages can be scrolled, and there is no need to consider 

slide transitions. 


Notes from the Choice of Applications 

In making decisions about the applications to use, some important points to reflect upon while 

making selections emerged. The most salient would be: 

• Choose what you know, and know how to use. Choosing an application that has an unfamiliar 

interface, even if it promises more features, or to do a better presentation will probably detract 

from the final presentation. 

• Know the limits of the transport medium and the presenter 

• Configuration – By changing roles, the presentation may be smoother. In other words, by 

choosing the site where the audience was to be as the server, and having the presenter connect as a 

remote client, the presenter saw the screen scraping and not the audience. Thus, changes appeared 

jerky for the presenter and the not the audience. 

• Consider the amount of time it takes to get everything running. Some applications take longer to 

start, and get connected. There should be ample time for both the presenter and the facilitator on 

the audience side to get the applications open and running before the presentation begins. 

Choosing the simplest applications for login and starting can significantly improve the chances for 

success. 

Configuration session 

After selecting the technologies, and making the initial tests, both the host and presenter met for a 

session a few weeks prior to the presentation to configure Skype, Eluminate and the audio/video input 

devices. The session was conducted on machines plugged into the same subnet in the same room.(1) Tests 

were conducted as to quality of the video feed resolution and sound for Eluminate. Based on the tests, it 

was decided to use Skype for the presenter’s audio/video. 

The university uses a deprecated version of Skype which cannot supernode, and it was not initially 

possible for the two Skype clients to see one another. While the two users, who were sitting next to one 

another, and whose computers were plugged into the same switch could not find one another in the 

contacts, they could make Skype calls to other people from their contact lists that were outside of the 

University. After making the external calls, then it became possible for the two Skype clients to add the 

new user, and make a connection. 

Boot time to go live 

Even with a fully configured system tested and in place, one should still plan that on the day of the 

presentation to establish connections and open all of the applications takes a certain amount of time. Note 

that actually, at the minimum there is at least three times more work to be done than a normal presentation. 

Each application must be opened on each side, and then the connection tested. All applications which will 

be used during the presentation should be opened on both computers. This includes a copy of the 

application which used for physically making the presentation such as Microsoft powerpoint or word. One 

may ask, why should a copy of Microsoft word be opened locally on the presenter’s computer, if it will be 

shared from the host computer via the Eluminate vRoom? While the point may seem counterintuitive, the 

step provides a failsafe. 

As will be shown, having the presentation open locally for the presenter may have saved the 

delivery by providing the audience a relatively seamless production when in fact connectivity with one of 

the applications had been lost temporarily. The presenter could continue to read from the local copy and 

explain the points, although it was entirely impossible to control the application remotely. 

The Setup 

Part of going live is getting set up. There are some physical details such as configuring the angle 

of the camera, and checking the background that are best done without the stress of an impending live feed. 

For the presenter the key details are quiet space with low background noise, and a neutral 

background. The camera should be mounted in such a way as to make the presenter appear to be looking 

into the camera even when they are looking at screen and reading. 


For the audience site, the camera should be in such a position as to give a good pan of the room. 

Then there should be a method for easily getting information such as questions to the presenter. This may 

be a microphone, although other solutions such as a wireless keyboard, and chat dialogue may also be 

useful. 

The Audience Site 

In preparing for the presentation there are a number of considerations to be made about the 

physical configuration of the audience site. Most everything revolves around the screen. People need to be 

close enough and the projection large enough that they can see everything comfortably. Some other issues 

regard placement of the camera, and how the audience will actually interact with the presenter. Note as that 

the presenter will be speaking to an audience which they may or may not hear or see at times, thus having 

an interlocutor onsite can greatly smooth the presentation for errors from technology and calibration. 

A choice must be made as to whether the presenter will be at all times on the screen, or if other 

applications will be allowed to cover them over. Some people prefer to be able to see who is speaking at all 

times. Since the desktop area at the host sight will probably be projected for the audience, one must 

consider what will be on the desktop. If more than one application will be used, it may be arranged that all 

of the applications are on the screen at one time. For some, the video feed would be one of the applications 

that they would want to have present throughout the presentation. 

However, having the presenter on the screen the whole time raises an important question of where, 

and likewise how big. Generally, one of the big struggles for the audience site will finding a balance for 

what should be on the screen and where? 

Resolution 

The video feed has another element which relates to what the audience sees. There are two places 

where resolution can be set. One is on the camera, and the other is on the screen. Both affect the size of 

how the speaker finally appears on the screen. If the resolution is lower on the screen, the speaker will 

appear larger, however, it also means that there will be less room for showing other applications. However, 

if the screen resolution is higher, the speaker will be smaller, or will be forced to use a higher broadcast 

resolution on their side. Using a higher broadcast resolution will mean that the speaker needs more 

bandwidth, and has a greater chance of becoming choppy due to other network traffic. Note that in the case 

of using Skype or Illuminate since the applications have to work with a server to traverse the firewall, 

traffic problems can be elsewhere in the internet and still affect the quality of the video feed. 

Likewise, it is also important to remember that on the remote side, the presenter may also have 

limits imposed by desktop realestate. In the presentation, the remote laptop had a resolution of 1024x768, 

which meant that one could not see the full application when controlling Word or the like from Eluminate. 

Application Focus 

Depending on how remote control is given to the presenter, the changing of applications may lead 

to issues of focus. The altering of window focus while application sharing caused the video window to be 

hidden on multiple occasions - on top of regaining focus on the video window, the host was duty bound to 

move the presenter around the screen several times for appropriate screen real-estate. 

Interruptions by the host 

Inter-presentation communication or more specifically interjections by the host should be agreed 

upon before the presentation. Two points to consider, first the person making the presentation may have 

trouble continuing, as it can be much more difficult to recover remotely when interrupted. Equally, the 

presenter may not be aware of audience reactions that the host can see. Beyond these two points, a third 

rather technical issue also appears at the perimeter. Basically, some types of connections may not be fullduplex, 

meaning that simultaneous transmissions from the host and presenter can cancel one another; at 

which point neither person gets the message. The latter point is probably the one that becomes most 

pertinent when the system is under strenuous load such as the case of running Eluminate with Skype via a 

Wifi connection. 


Since the presenter may not appreciate verbal interruptions, using the chat function, and typing in 

questions or queues could be quite helpful. To allow the audience to also participate, either audience 

members could connect with their laptops, or the host could provide a wireless keyboard and mouse. 

Overall, the issue of interruptions and cooperation between the host and presenter is one to explore in more 

detail. To what degree would more feedback have helped or hindered? Assuming that the nature was 

making the presenter more aware of the audience state, it probably would have helped. As while the host 

found the audience to be actually riveted (or appearing to be) keeping exceptionally quiet and attentive - 

there came a moment where they may have been a bit lost when the presenter began describing the various 

levels of TurnItIn feedback without a visual aid. Here the host could perceive that the presenter was 

hampered, slightly, by the lack of in-line audience feedback. 

The Presenter Side 

Along these lines, in Geneva the presenter set up all of the equipment and tested it in the room the 

evening prior to the presentation. The site seemed perfect, and in retrospect probably too perfect. An 

excellent place to clip the camera was found whereby the presenter would be looking directly into the 

camera while making the presentation. To achieve the mount perspective, the camera was placed on the 

top of a broomstick standing directly against a projection screen in the center. The projection screen 

seemed to be a good solution, as during these tests, the larger screen and aspect negated problems 

associated with desktop realestate. Likewise, the room also provided a neutral background and level of 

lighting appropriate for filming. 

Backup facilities 

One major point that affected delivery was that the facilities planned for the presentation were 

locked in the morning. Upon arrival, the controls for the projector had been locked, and the tech staff 

could not be found. Likewise the broom had disappeared, and the room was unbearably hot. In light of the 

circumstances, a backup site that had been established the previous day was brought into service. The 

presenter dragged-in a table and chairs from a commons area, and setup a very rough field site in a 

seemingly quiet side corridor. The camera was mounted upside down and the screen angle adjusted to use 

the ceiling as a neutral background. 

Physically at the backup site, conditions were also far from ideal. A bright ceiling light had come 

on automatically and presented a major challenge. Adjusting the position of the table, allowed the 

presenter to mask the light without significant impact to the auto-contrast of the camera, and thus could 

prepare for the presentation. Likewise, being in the corridor, anyone could walk by at anytime. During the 

setup, there was actually a person pushing a very heavy cart about to stock rooms in the building with 

bottles of water. The amount of noise created by the cart rumbling through the corridors threatened to 

obliviate the speaker’s voice during the presentation. Fortunately, the cart disappeared at about 15 minutes 

before the presentation just as the first Skype connection was established. 

Just 30 minutes before the presentation, it appeared that the room was once again available. Here 

an error of judgment was made by the presenter. Hibernating the system with everything open, the 

presenter took a walk with all of the equipment to the planned room. However, upon arrival, the facility 

was still not appropriate. Therefore with the clock ticking, the presenter made a quick return to the backup 

site, and then had to wait for connections to be restored from the state of hibernation. Some applications 

respond well after returning from hibernation, others with network connections required new connections to 

be made. After coming out of hibernation, the browser needed to be closed as both WebCT, and 

Elluminate were not responding. 

When starting Elluminate the second time, it took longer than anticipated to log on, even though 

the client was already installed on the remote machine. As the audience had already begun to arrive, the 

delay created an unforeseen visual analogy to help underscore the point that one of the major limits to the 

technology is in the realities of deployment. 

Some of the delay with Elluminate seems to result from it being Java based and competing with 

UEL Plus (WebCT also based in Java) for resources while loading. There may also be an issue with the 


video/audio compression and competition with Skype. Future presentations would probably benefit from a 

dedicated client that allows remotely controlling the application and another for Audio/Video. A minor 

hazard enters with said configuration in that when the desktop a loop may be created whereby the person 

presenting see their own video feed. Such a loop portends a serious performance hit for the presentation, as 

was found in the initial testing. To decrease the load, ideally one might use native resources in the 

operating system such as the remote help function in Windows, or use only applications running a more 

native language such as C++. However, there is also the problem that these applications may not be as 

good at traversing firewalls, or even allowed by administrators. 

Audience 

The combined nature of the presentation - showcasing the "technology" whilst also dealing with a 

useful L+T message attracted a diverse audience. At the end of the presentation the time for comments was 

cut short. Unfortunately, time ran out - due to the initial technical set up - getting the video stream going - 

and due to the short "30 minute" nature of the session, since the audience needed to move to the next backto-back 

session fairly rapidly. 

Overall, the audience was very quiet and attentive during the presentation. However, the brief 

moment for questions generated a fair amount of dialogue after one of the participants raised a point. This 

may have been a response to the intense "attentive" silence that had preceded this opportunity to speak. 

Maybe as a sign that they felt the speaker was still with them, the participating audience failed to appreciate 

that due to the garbled audio, the speaker was unable to hear any of the dialogue, and so in a way was 

locked out. 

There were no appreciable additional comments, there or after, regarding the nature of the delivery 

or its content per se. Therefore, the medium appears to have been acceptable to the audience - although 

with that friendly audience, would there have been a problem? - Only if the connection had failed too many 

times or the technology "not-worked" (i.e. complete failure). 

Audio / Video Peformance discussion 

London 

The quality of the streamed video from Switzerland was very good - hardly a single break in feed. 

(This may have been a direct result of decreasing the picture size from 320 to 160) The audio quality was 

good as well - just an occasional low-level buzz/hum that didn't detract from the clarity of your speech. 

The small intermittent detraction probably was caused by local interference. 

Geneva 

After reconnecting with Skype, while video was being sent from Geneva, no streaming video was 

being received. The visual of the audience did not change throughout the presentation. This resulted even 

early in the presentation with asking as to how many people were attending, since only one appeared in the 

picture box. The lack of a visual felt a bit disconcerting, as it seemed there were only two people in the 

room on the other side. However, since the presentation had already started, and it was live, it seemed 

more appropriate to make the presentation as smoothly as possible. 

Sound reception in Geneva also became a problem, as when it was time for the question and 

answer session, the first question came in as a garbled growl. It would probably be better in the future to 

have the person speak directly into a microphone plugged into the computer, or even pass around a wireless 

keyboard which people can use to type in their questions. Typing the question would also have a number 

of added benefits. First, people could be typing their questions of being providing a session transcript that 

could be later edited and provided to attendees, or published. 

Technical 

Some technical aspects need further investigation , for example why in London the radio mic 

wouldn't work, but the headset mic was fine. (?) The difficulties with the radio mic may be related to the 

technology. Was it Bluetooth? Or via its own receiver on USB? On the latter, there may have been a 

problem with the USB bus, simply too much traffic, or another conflict. It also may be related to the 


atteries and/or signal strength. If the batteries were a bit weak, it could have caused problems with the 

signal, and then compressing that would have caused more aberrations. 

Both desktops could also have been recorded and might be recorded for future sessions. However, 

for the initial run, there were some concerns in terms of the performance hit this might have on the quality 

of the presentation. 

Elluminate vRoom 

Elluminate takes a lot of screen space that cannot be invaded by other apps. The vRoom was an 

option that probably should not be readily mixed with Skype. Using the built-in video/audio streaming 

may have improved the screen placement problem; although, initial tests found the clarity to be lacking, as 

well as the controls awkward. More testing will be required to establish under what circumstances the 

vRoom facilities for audio and video would perform sufficiently. Moreover, the amount of desktop 

realestate required by the application means that both for the host and the presenter, moving around in 

applications can be cumbersome on resolutions less than 1400x1050. The trade-off is that the higher 

resolutions reduce the size of the presenter on the screen. 

Skype 

An alternative would have been to install a Skype extra for application sharing. Extras like 

Unyte(2), Grogok(3) and RemoteX(4) are among some of the options to be tested for future sessions. 

However, since the University of East London (UEL) allows only a special version of Skype that will not 

supernode. To use the full version would require seeking special permission from the IT department. 

Likewise, it was unclear to what extent, even with permission, going "supernode" on the day may have 

caused further complications. As one of the limits for such a presentation is the combination of IT policies 

in place in both locations, there was a real chance that even had the full version been allowed at UEL, it 

may not have been allowed at the University of Geneva. Thus, initial application selection focused on 

those technologies that had the least likelihood of being blocked due to an administrative IT policy. 

Lessons learned and Recommendations 

The live learning lab proved full of lessons both for the audience as well as for the host and 

presenter. Many were found by reviewing journaling from both before and after the presentation. Lessons 

learned ranged from those in the selection of the technologies to those associated with the delivery and the 

audience interaction. The following highlights some of the key lesson learned by the host and presenter. 

One major challenge for presenting remotely becomes how to notice the few furrowed brows, 

which normally one would notice and then ask questions to check for their understanding. In fact, this may 

be a way to provide auditory queues, as the host may be able to interject a polite and fun, “Hi, I‘ve noticed 

a few furrowed brows in the audience, let’s see what they are pondering.” In this sense, the host also 

becomes the instinct of presenter and the pair work in tandem. One should note that since the video feed 

had frozen from London, there was actually no way for the presenter to see the room during the 

presentation and other queues from the host proved necessary. 

The presentation highlights a second major issue specific to the remote presentation. Not being 

present in the room, one is engaging more directly with the imagination, much in the way old-time radio 

shows captivated audiences. However, the lack of physical presence also means that the level of visual 

stimuli to which the audience are accustomed should also be met. Since a speaker in the room normally 

provides a certain amount through their non-verbal communication such as facial expressions and 

gesticulation, more needs to be done with visual aids in the remote presentation to enhance the audiences 

understanding, and re-enforce the points of the presentation. Here the host and presenter need to work in 

tandem to insure the audience stays focused. 

One of the major lessons learned is the amount of time involved. As previously stated, getting the 

applications opened takes three times as long. However, the actual presentation is even more time 

intensive. The fact of the matter is that this is not a format for those looking for novelty. It is a format that 

requires much more preparation even from those that are very experienced with IT to pull it off in a 

seemingly seemless and credible manner. Since the normal travails of opening the computer and 


applications for a typical presentation become exponentially more time intensive when one needs to also 

establish connections, any applications to be used in the presentation should be open and running well 

before the presentation (this will save time for the audience as the presenters can simply switch, rather than 

having awkward pauses or interruptions, while applications wait to be opened). 

Plan more time for before the session for getting setup, and plan more time after the session for the 

questions and answers. People will want to talk after the extreme silence, and they should have a chance. 

However, since there may be technical problems with hearing them ask their questions, either have the 

questions typed, or plant questions for them to discuss. If the questions are already formulated, and time 

given, at regular intervals, they will have the relative release they need to, and the silence will not be as 

intensive. 

Probably, one of the most important lessons learned was that since the clock is ticking once the 

decision has been made to use a site and applications are open, don’t change. Valuable time was lost going 

back to the first site. While the planned site would have been ideal, having the slight delay in the start of 

the presentation actually diminished the amount of time available for questions and discussion, which 

would have been far more valuable. Thus, a fair site and being ready is worth far more than the risk of 

getting what appears to be the ideal. 

Likewise, one cannot be too prepared. Whether lecture, class, or presentation, the event will 

happen with or literally without the presenter. The audience typically will have a fixed amount of time and 

other engagements. Thus, the most important step to take initially is to get connected. Even if the 

connections have been tested the night before; everything that can go wrong, probably will go wrong. The 

backup site probably saved the presentation, even though it was just a side corridor. However, it provided 

all of the essential elements. It was quiet, had a neutral background, although some work had to be done 

with the lighting. Using a headset microphone decreased extra passing noise. A very important element in 

making the second site viable was the Wifi connectivity provided by the University of Geneva. Had the 

Wifi not been in place, the physical constraint of finding adequate facilities could have proved prohibitive. 

An exchange of emails starting the previous evening also proved valuable, as it allowed both sides 

to know the status, and that the event was really happening. Moreover, sending the presentation via email 

meant that even in the likelihood that the presenter disappeared, the presentation could continue. 

Failover technologies for making the connection also proved valuable. For the presentation, text 

on the mobile phone proved a valuable means for transmitting passwords. The medium is an especially 

important issue to consider, as one does not want to be sending a password that unbeknownst to them may 

appear on the screen or speakers at the host site. The issue became more critical in this case as audience 

members had begun to arrive early, and configuration continued into what normally would have been the 

start of the presentation. 

Conclusion 

The live learning lab run by the authors at the UEL learning and teaching conference highlighted 

some key challenges for remote content delivery. The issues range from those related to the applications 

and desktop environment, through the connection, to the very physical layout of the room and color of the 

paint. Moreover, the lab through the visual analogy successfully engaged educators in a way that provided 

them the chance to really feel some of the limits that are seldom discussed; such as the presenter being 

moved around the desktop to make room for other applications. While a bit humorous, they could see that 

the results could directly impact the quality of the presentation and learner outcomes. For the authors a 

number of important insights regarding e-learning and questions for further research about distance 

learning emerged. The key areas for future research will be in the environment, and finding how to bring in 

the audience interaction in a way to enhance and better support the learning environment enabled by ICT. 


Endnotes 

(1) Both machines were plugged into the same 10/100 switch on different ports. 

(2) https://extras.skype.com/907/view 



References 

Durkee, D. & Brant, S. (2008). ‘Enhancing teaching through technology: challenges and possibilities.’ Live 

Learning Lab. UEL Learning and Teaching Conference 2008 


E-learning - Non-discovered Territory 

(a course on studying by the Internet) 

Leszek Rudak, Centre for Open and Mmultimedia Education, University of Warsaw, Poland 

l.rudak@uw.edu.pl 

Abstract: There is a group of people (in Poland more than 25% of all of people that 

declare the wish of the extending of their own qualifications) who do not want to learn 

on-line. To change their attitudes towards on-line learning it is necessary to conduct a 

course on e-learning for them. However it should be blended learning course with the 

first part perform face to face. Actually the course should consist of three parts. We 

propose, that the first face-to-face part should deal with all skills necessary for e-student 

(technical and sociological as well as communication ones). The second part, face-to-face 

again, should be dedicated to simulation of the e-course but performed in a computer 

room with an instructor. The third part is a practice: a short on-line course that needs of 

all typical activities from e-student to complete it. 

A social survey 

All-Poland social survey of educational needs of adults carried out by the University of Warsaw 

(spring 2008) on request of Ministry of Education financed by European Social Fund has shown very 

strong polarization of the society with regard to long life learning using the Internet (Badania potrzeb w 

zakresie ksztacenia na odleg, 2008). On the one hand people who have never taken part in such classes 

definitely reject this form of education and, what is more, they manifest that there are no conditions which 

could change their attitude to e-learning. On the other hand, people who have already had (even slight) 

experience in e-learning want to exploit such a form of studying farther. Such people, in general, are almost 

enthusiastic to this form of learning. They perceive it as a real chance to raise their education level with no 

harm to their current job or family duties (it concerns single mothers in particular). They point out an 

economic benefit as well. 

Taking both attitudes towards e-lesrning into consideration, it is possible to draw a conclusion that 

teaching how to learn by the Internet should be the first step in disseminating e-learning. Such a course 

must be directed to people who have a need for widening their knowledge but they do not want to do it with 

the help of online courses. Their reluctance is (most often) based on the lack of knowledge about e-learning 

and their disbelief in the effectiveness of the teaching process. Thus, although it can sound paradoxical, it is 

necessary to carry a traditional (stationary) course on studying by the Internet for them. Actually, the course 

should contain online elements but only in the later phase. The beginning must be stationary. 

How to learn on-line 

Any course on studying by the Internet, which could make a positive change in attitudes towards 

online learning, should be complete, in the sense that it should contain both technical and social skills as 

well as elements of psychology. Training on using computers and the Internet, enabling then efficient 

functioning on the e-education platform and the completion of homework, is a necessary element of such a 

course. The teaching of social communication by means of computer technology with the use of the 

Internet (in the synchronous as well as asynchronous mode) is also a very important part of the course 

(Clarke, 2004). Especially important is teaching of the usage of suitable forms of the expression of 

emotions and the self-control the tendency to enlarging of the aggression in the statement, which is present 

in the Internet (Wallace, 1999). Elements of psychology explaining phenomena which can arise in the 

process of learning without a direct contact to participants of the course and the teacher (e.g. feeling the 

loneliness and the isolation) must be found in the program of the course as well. Inspiring the creativity and 

building up motivation are the completion of the curriculum. 

The postulate of the creation of the course of the learning by the Internet was notified in the 

literature, see e.g. (Windeatt, 2002) and such courses where conducted e.g. How to Learn Online (2003), 

Online Course: How to Learn Online (2002), however the most are courses on-line – requiring from the 


student skills of the teaching himself in this mode. From our experiences it results that such solution can be 

effective only in the case of young persons which already have experience in the use of the Internet (from 

mentioned above survey it follows that most willingly in Internet courses would enter the young woman 

from the small city – below 20000 inhabitants, having at least 5 the years experience in the usage of the 

Internet). However, on-line course will give nothing to older persons or having pure experience on the job 

with the computer connected to the network. Such persons prefer traditional schools, so one ought therefore 

to use these preferences for the preparation them to e-learning. 

Draft syllabus 

The preparation to the learning by the Internet cannot be led exclusively on line, nor should be left 

to students themselves. The course must be begun face-to-face, and later after some lectures, exercises and 

workshops one ought to transfer it to the Internet. Contents that should be presented in such course are 

described in the literature eg. (Clarke, 2004), (What Makes a Successful Online Student?, 2007). Especially 

important is here however the form of carry on classes. 

The course should start from the traditional first part which consists of: 

• lectures concerning of the specificity of the learning through the Internet (differences between 

the traditional, and remote learning, the role of e-teachers, the communication on e-classes – 

in this the expression of emotions, organization and planning of participants own work on an 

e-course). 

• workshops targeting the exercise of the work with the text, the learning of the retrieval and the 

filtration of the information in the Internet and the acquisition skills of the auto-evaluation of 

the level of mastering of the content. 

• classes in the computer room making possible to teach how to use the software necessary in elearning 

(Internet browser, e-learning platform, word processor, etc.), how to communicate in 

the net and how to operate with electronic didactic materials. 

The second part also should be provided face then face. Its aim is causing of the change of the 

reluctant attitude regarding e-learning. One can make this by means of the simulation the work on e-the 

course in the computer studio under the care of the instructor. In this part participants should perform all 

activities which are necessary to finish an on-line course with a success. Students should open and study 

materials, discuss on forums, work out and send files to e-teacher. The role of instructors is of course the 

help in the realization of these exercises, but also minding the preservation of rules of the correct and 

cultural communication between participants. 

Participants should have the possibility of the acquirement of the practice in the learning through 

the network, after finishing two first parts. Best solution seems to be the third part of the course in the online 

mode. There should be specially prepared mini e-course. It should force participants to repeat similar 

activities as in the second part, but in natural conditions: on the own equipment, far from instructors and in 

the defined time (so that every participant should plan the time of his own activity himself). 

One cannot expect that the graduate of such training will be an enthusiast of the on-line learning, 

however, he will be well prepared to the enlargement of his own qualifications by means of on-line courses. 

Conclusions 

The information society demands, so that people constantly gain new skills, recognized new 

divisions of the knowledge. The process of the continuous teaching in the mode of traditional courses is 

very difficult to become realized. It demands large financial and time outlays and ties with utterances and 

the difficulty of the all family life. Therefore the instruction by means of the computer attached to the 

network should become the main mode of gaining of new competences. However, among older persons, 

but still active professionally one can observe the reluctance to the utilization of the computer as the 

learning medium. It seems that, an only way, overcoming of their reluctance to the learning on e-courses is 

to show how the educational process driven by the Internet looks like and the preparation people to elearning. 

This is just the aim of the course which was presented above. 


References 

Badania potrzeb w zakresie ksztacenia na odleg. (2008). Raport z fazy I projektu Opracowanie 

metodologii programów i materiaów dydaktycznych do ksztacenia na odleg, Warszawa: 

Univeristy of Warsaw for Ministry of Education Poland, sponsored by European Social Funds (in 

polish). 

Clarke, A. (2004). e-learning Skills. Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan. 

How to Learn Online. (2003). The New Curiosity Shop: http://www.newcurioshop.com/proddetail.php? 

prod=NCS9996 

Online Course: How to Learn Online. (2002). Violet Collection: http://www.violetcollection.com/ 

HowToLearnOnline.htm 

Wallace, P. (1999). The Psychology of the Internet. New York: Cambridge University Press. 

What Makes a Successful Online Student? (2007). Illinois Online Network: http://www.ion.uillinois.edu/ 

resources/tutorials/pedagogy/StudentProfile.asp 

Windeatt, S. (2002, 07 15). How will e-learning affect my students? E-learning FAQ for University 

Teachers: http://www.windeatt.f2s.com/ijet/students.htm 


Acknowledgments are going to Izabella Bednarczyk for the fruitful discussions which helped to formulate 

the final idea of described course. 


A Multi-factor Authentication Model for E-learners and Virtual 

Learning Systems. 

Federated Approach 

Godfried Williams 

University of East London, School of Computing and Technology, UK 

G.Williams@uel.ac.uk 

Abstract: There has been continuous awareness raised regarding the role of security and 

trust for both developers and users employing and deploying E-learning technology and 

virtual learning systems. Although end users and stakeholders of these systems consider 

and perceive security as a bottleneck, its importance in ensuring data integrity and 

availability can not be underestimated, given the nature of the infrastructure that drive 

these services. 

The internet, mobile networks and educational resource for teaching and learning form 

the pivot of virtual learning systems. This work explores a Multi-factor authentication 

information security and assurance model for authenticating E-learners and (VL) virtual 

learning systems. The elements of the model include but not limited to identity federation 

and anti-spoofing. 

It examines authentication issues that arise during e-learning. The issues discussed 

include integrity, availability of learning resources as well as confidentiality. The 

research outcomes from this work suggest authentication issues have not been adequately 

addressed nor given due prominence in implementation and post implementation of 

electronic systems that drive remote and distance learning activities. 

Introduction 

The introduction of VLEs poses new challenges in contemporary information age. Although these 

challenges cut across different aspects of human computer interaction and cybernetics, there has been an 

oversight or underestimation of the importance of information security and assurance and impact on 

learners and these systems. 

Challenges 

The main challenges of multi-factor authentication are as follows; User friendliness or usability, 

Access to Data and concurrency issues, Performance due to excessive security and migration and mobility. 

The deployment strategy of VLEs should therefore be driven by the requirements of individual systems. 

This paper is organised as follows; section 1 introduction and definitions of E-learning and VLEs, section 2 

outlines common tools of VLEs, section 3 a discussion of security requirements and goals in VLEs, section 

4 a presentation of multi-factor authentication model and section 5 discussions. 

Definitions of VLEs 

A Virtual Learning System or VLE is a computer program or computer platform designed to drive 

computer based learning or e-learning system. E-learning systems are also called (LMS) Learning 

Management Systems, (LSS) Learning Support Systems, (CMS) Course Management Systems. VLE uses 

standard client-server architecture in a distributed environment. Below is a conceptual client-server model. 

VL can be described as a form of electronic learning beyond physical boundaries of the learning 

environment Williams& Jahankhani (2006). 

Common Tools 

Common VLE tools for developing and driving VLEs include but not limited to blackboard, 

firstclass, EFRONT, WEBCT (Part of blackboard, Dokeos, Cyber Extension. Facilities available to these 

tools are “SETUP, BROWSE, UPLOAD, APPEND, UPDATE, MODIFY and DELETE”. The 

communication in VLE is both Asynchronous and Synchronous. 


Security Requirements and Goals for E-learners and VLEs 

The security requirements and goals of VLE order of importance are availability, integrity and 

confidentiality (access control), thus who has the rights to access particularly resources. These security 

requirements can be met, by implementing an effective authentication, approval and answerability systems. 

Authentication verifies the identity of an E-learners as well as a VLE. Approval grants access rights and 

execution rights to VLE and tools. Answerability is when VLE tools respond to requests made by Elearners. 

Integrity 

Integrity applies to the non tampered aspects of data and systems. The need for e-learners and 

VLEs to mutually authenticate each other is of paramount importance and a required security goal. Figure 

1 highlights digital certificates as a viable means that e-learners could use as a way of confirming the 

authenticity of service providers. Figure 2 is a demonstration of application of digital certificate using FCS 

anti-spoofing software. 

VLEs systems could also be compromised by e-learners. Unauthorised users could gain access to 

facilities with the permission of the user. This problem if not addressed is likely to lead to the corruption of 

data, affecting data availability. 

Confidentiality 

Ensuring strict access and control procedures to persons with authorisation is important. Personal 

data could be tampered with and left in a corrupt state if appropriate security is not put in place. Most 

discussions on the protection of personal data seem to be centred on the banking and medical sectors. It is 

important, to raise awareness among users regarding the risks associated with poorly secured data banks 

and storage. Intruders are not particular about how and where they obtain personal data. The approach used 

by intruders in obtaining personal data is to look for RAS (Risk Access Spots) and vulnerability 

Williams(2004). 

The next section is an overview and assessment of methods used in authentication, which are 

considered to of critical importance to the security of virtual learning systems. 

Availability 

E-learning as a concept for developing knowledge in the information age needs to be sustainable 

and maintainable. Security attack such as masquerading and brute force could be used to frustrate e-learners 

from gaining access to resources that support learning. For example availability could be affected when 

data gets corrupted. This suggests that integrity of data and availability as goals of security are strongly 

related. 

Why Multi-factor Authentication? 

This section outlines essential elements underpinning a multi-factor authentication system and 

suggests a single point authentication system that uses a federated approach. The idea of Multi-factor 

Authentication is usually proposed to address a problem which is multi- faceted. Given that in a VLE there 

are varied security requirements that need to be met, it is essential to strike a balance between system 

security and end user accessibility as well as usability requirements. The authentication method presented 

in this paper uses a federated approach where a single point of entry is adopted within the VLE hub or 

infrastructure. The notion is to grant access once and for all. Figure 1 represents authentication methods for 

formulating a single point identity federation system. 


Authentication methods & 

Stake holders 

E-learners Service 

Provider/VLE 

Digital Certificates 

User Identification and names 

Passwords 

Profiling 

Biometrics 

Token allocation 

CHAP (Challenge Handshake 

Authentication Protocol) 

 

Kerberos 

Identity Federation Systems 

Anti-Spoofing Software 

Figure 1. Multi-Factor Authentication for Modelling E-learners & VLE 

Password for VLEs 

Passwords systems form the commonest form of authentication for verifying users of any 

information system. They are usually accompanied by user identification systems. The effectiveness of any 

password system is how it is jointly managed with end users. AN effective system will provide continuous 

alert to users at specific intervals with a given period. Given the rampant use of passwords they can easily 

be breached in a security system. 

It is therefore valid to suggest that a password system as a single point of authentication is 

inadequate. It also limits access privileges to the user in terms data and processes. 

Profiling E-learners 

Profiling has been used in several applications and disciplines ranging from computer user 

interface design and customisation in the retail industry under the disguise of user modelling (Webb et al, 

2001). 

Profiling can be applied to personalisation of individuals. This can be used for authenticating 

learners in a VLE. It can be helpful when establishing evidence and trace of information usage. 

Why Biometrics? 

The quantifications and measurement of physical attributes of persons that use computer based 

systems is described as biometrics Williams(2004). Physical attributes are extracted from Fingerprints; 

Facial geometry; Iris pattern; Retina; Hand geometry; Finger geometry; Vein structure of back of hand; Ear 

form; Voice; DNA; Odour or Gait etc. The discussion in this book has been based on the most common 

features that are usually tested Williams (2004). 

The characteristics of a person are captured and stored by software in the form of a template and 

secured in a repository. The repository can secure using an electronic chip. The information stored is 

retrieved and matched and stored as biometric feature; A matching score is derived based on the criteria 

specified for identification and verification whiles an audit trail is used to verify the consistency of the 

system. 


The implications of using this technology in a VLE and among E-learners are daunting; these 

include cost and versatility of the technology. Versatility relates to the ability to adapt and adopt the 

technology among different individuals who want to effect a transaction in a VLE. 

This can be a bottleneck among E-learners carrying out transactions in an E-learning environment 

across different regions globally. The dissemination of information available on distributed platforms has 

risk implications that can be costly. There are also aspects of the technology that is not yet advanced to deal 

with issues regarding versatility Williams (2004). The direction of this research is that, there is the need for 

a multi-factor authentication system with a single point of entry. Further information could be obtained 

from Williams G, Jahankhani Hossein (2006). 

Anti-Spoofing Techniques 

Anti-spoofing is a technique used to detect the difference between fake and genuine data. Usually 

applied in a network environment where the identity of a network host or service provider can be spoofed 

or stolen with the sole aim of deceiving the user of that data or information. In this paper First Cyber 

Security (FCS) Software was employed to demonstrate the authenticity of a University website running 

intranet services. It is a form of isolated credential verification, in the sense that the software checks 

specific features or credentials of the website to assess its authenticity. The application of federated 

approach to modelling multi factor authentication will be a more effective security model in a VLE. 

Federated Identity 

Identity Federation refers to a single sign on or point of entry. Federation helps in systems where 

there is a need for value added transactions. In a federated system, learners are required to submit their 

credentials to an identity provider or what is described in this paper as an agent for verification. The role of 

the agent is to vouch for the user, in this case the learner. This is carried out by presenting the learner’s 

credentials to other service providers of VLEs. Although the general notion of a federated approach is to 

verify the user at a single point of entry or sign on, there is no indication of mutual authentication. This is 

quite typical in other online environments such as banking sector where systems are incapable of 

authenticating themselves in telephone and internet banking transactions due to the absence of effective 

anti-spoofing strategies. This work asserts the need to employ a mutual authentication strategy as a means 

of verifying the credentials of both learner and service provider. 

Existing federated solutions focuses on the end user without much attention to the service 

provider. The end user is freed from the management of the authentication process and credentials. In this 

model credentials are extracted from the multi-factor authentication model highlighted in figure 1. Figure 

2 presents an abstraction of a federated approach for modelling multi-factor authentication in a VLE. 


Learner 

Agent 

and 

Identity 

Provider 

VLE 

Figure 2. Exchange of assertions and credentials 

Impact of federation on Online Systems 

There is high value of experience with respect to user friendliness, performance and productivity. 

It is also effective in B2B transactions, in this case interaction among Institutions. The existence of trust 

models incorporated within federated systems builds confidence among users and service providers alike. 

Components necessary for establishing trust in a federated system include; Non- corrupted entities, Secured 

Communication channels, Secured delegation and accountability and Verified agents and internal entities. 

Discussions 

In this work an alternative security model for creating a cohesive and holistic security has been 

presented using a Multi-factor authentication and federation. 

This work has asserted the need for a single sign on or point of entry, as it optimises added value 

transactions as well as ensuring friendliness in a VLE. The importance attributed to user credentials cannot 

be underestimated. This work extends the idea of federation by not limiting its importance to end users but 

also extending its importance to service providers. This paper has put forward a case for the need for 

service providers to equally submit credentials for verification for mutual authentication. 

Multi-factor authentication using a federated approach addresses main concerns such as User 

friendliness, usability, Access to Data and concurrency issues, Performance, migration and mobility among 

E-learners. This is due to the fact that deployment security strategy of VLEs using the proposed model is 

driven by requirements of the system in question. 

The main security requirements applicable to most VLEs are availability, integrity of data, and 

confidentiality. 

Denial of Service (DOS) attacks can cause unavailability of data. This can affect the continuity of 

data services to learners. It has also been argued that masquerading and brute force could hamper e-learners 

from accessing learning resources. The integrity of data can also be corrupted. This suggests that integrity 

of data and availability as goals of security are interwoven. 

Restricted data access and control procedures to persons with authorisation are necessary in 

managing and maintaining important data services. Personalisation as an important feature of VLE needs 

to be managed effectively. It has been observed from this work that VLEs do not place high importance on 

personal data, compared to banking and medical sectors, as result the need to improve awareness. Training 

of end users and service providers with respect to risks can be helpful in enhancing the functionality of such 

systems work. 

Future Work 

Future work will focus on empirical analysis of a bigger sample size to determine new 

authentication requirements The next section is an overview and assessment of methods used in 

authentication, which are considered to of critical importance to the security of virtual learning systems. 


References 

Hinton, H., & Vanderwauver, M. (2005). Identity federation within the Telecommunication Industry: Case 

Study. In P. Sachar, N. Pohlmann & H. Reimer (Eds.), Securing Electronic Business Processes 

(pp. 30-38): Vieweg. 

Webb Machine learning for User Modelling. User Modelling and User Adapted Interaction 

Williams, G. B. (2004). Synchronising E-Security: Kluwer. 

Williams, G. B., & Jahankhani, H. (2006). Authenticating E-learners and Virtual learning Systems In H. T. 

Nguyen & D. S. Preston (Eds.), Virtuality and Education A reader (pp. 171-181 ): Rodopi. 


Thanks to First Cyber Security (FCS) Limited for using Software for anti-spoofing testing. 


Video-Interactive Learning Objects Vignette; Moving Beyond the 

Learning Object 

Tova Wiegand-Green, Patricia Ley, A. Andaz Ahmad, Ivy Tech Community College, Fort Wayne, USA 

tgreen@ivytech.edu, pley@ivytech.edu, aahmad@ivytech.edu 

Abstract: This paper discusses the experiences of Ivy Tech Community College 

Northeast and their use of Video Interactive Learning Objects (VILOs) in two 

courses. It is not intended to be an empirical analysis as this community college does not 

have resources to analyze this topic as such. It examines the scope and place of Learning 

Objects (LO) in the learning process and expands the exploration into the use of VILOs 

as an ideal form of LO. 

Introduction & Literature Review 

Learners of today come to higher education from all parts of society, crossing ethnic, age, 

geographic, language, and economic boundaries. They come to the desk with varied education, technology 

based skills, and life experiences. But yet they all arrive with an eagerness to continue the process of lifelong 

learning, needed in today’s world more than any time in history. Barriers to learning are many and can 

vary from student to student, creating a dynamic that is sometimes difficult for an educational institution 

and its faculty to manage. Technology can be a universal means to reach these students and assist their lifelong 

learning efforts. It can bridge the gap they may have between their current level of skill and education 

and that which they seek to attain. 

Using a technology based education can literally make education attainable anytime, anywhere. 

Learners may access educational tools at the level they require and proceed as their needs and goals evolve. 

As learners prepare to enter a college program that requires specific knowledge or skills, technology based 

educational tools, accessible on demand, may be used to bridge the gap and prepare the learner for 

successful entry. This approach would be most successful if the prescribed technology based tools were 

identified by the college program and then recommended or required of students as they enter a program. 

Learners would then have access to the prescribed tools needed, and could customize the depth and 

duration needed. And because the tools are identified by the program in advance, the student would not 

focus on the “wrong” content or skills. There are many types of technology based learning tools available, 

and most efficient technology based tool for this use may be a Learning Object (LO). 

Definitions for LO have long been debated but McGreal (2004) provides a few characteristic 

descriptions that are agreeable to most LO experts. LO “enable and facilitate the use of educational content 

online,” are interoperable, reusable, adaptable to a diverse learning environment, may be used to form 

lessons, modules or courses, and often consist of a “unit of knowledge” (McGreal, 2004). Online databases 

such as MERLOT have cataloged learning objects from all subject areas at many levels of education. 

Colleges and universities as well as industry have contributed to this creative commons area in order to 

contribute to the education of all, for the greater good. A quality LO is often peer-reviewed and databases 

such as MERLOT offer this review service to members. LO are available online, often free and accessible 

across many boundaries of today’s world. They are exceptionally versatile, and may be both streamed 

online and distributed via CDs, DVDs, iPods and/or mp4 players at a very reasonable cost to the institution. 

The LO may consist of media based or video based presentation of content. Ideally, they are 

interactive, allowing for review and reinforcement of key content points. Types of LO may be summarized 

as instructional objects containing explanatory content, individual activities structured around a reading or 

activity, companion activities linked to database, collaborative activities requiring learner-learner 

interaction, technical activities that explore pertinent technology applications such as blogs or wiki entry, 

narrative objects that provide a context for learners and assignments that require submission of a work 

product (Weller, 2004). The wide variety of LO formats are likely able to accommodate nearly any subject 

area or learning objective, and at the same time appeal to a multitude of learning style preferences. The 

traditional model of education where a lecturer delivers content, or the “Sage on the Stage” does not 

universally appeal to learners accustomed to interaction with technology on a daily basis. 


This is mainly due to the fact that the traditional mode of instruction (one-to-many lecturing), 

which has also been imitated by conventional education technology, cannot fully accommodate the 

different learning styles, strategies, and preferences of diverse learners (Manouselis and Sampson, 2002). 

Educators in the information technology era will have to take the role of guides by facilitating learning 

rather than delivering their knowledge (Fung & Yeung, 2000). 

The lecture “content” becomes transformed to an engaging learning tool that places the learner in 

control. Weller (2004) suggests that “the author of a learning object becomes not ‘how can I explain this 

subject to students?’, but rather ‘what activity can I create for students to engage with this subject?’ It is the 

contention of the author of this paper that a video-interactive format is well-suited to meet this challenge. 

Video Interactive Learning Objects (VILO) are a developed learning object (LO) application that 

includes the traditional LO features in a video format that maximizes interactivity in order to actively 

engage learners. Learners are able to view presentations or demonstrations, hear the accompanying audio 

and cognitively engage in a virtual learning environment. Visual and auditory learning styles benefit from 

this format. Learners may even practice hands on skills while using VILOs, engaging kinesthetic learners 

and reinforcing skills needed during competency evaluation. Students with disabilities, learning or 

otherwise, may benefit from utilizing VILOs due to the variety of sensory appeals and the engaging nature 

of the object. The VILO begins with an orientation and objective introduction, proceeds to a presentation of 

information or demonstration and then has an evaluation designed to provide feedback to the learner. This 

model of pedagogy is outlined in Boyle & Cook (2001) as they describe the learning context present in the 

LO. The learner may repeatedly view or work through a LO until confident in their understanding or ability 

to perform a skill, thus self-remediating as needed. 

Content areas well-suited for video media delivery include assembly, laboratory procedures, 

problem solving, case study, visual and auditory recognition, story or historical details and language (Atif, 

2003). Learners see and hear content presentation that reinforces concepts and application related to the 

objective. Critical thinking and problem solving techniques may be presented in a VILO that pauses 

periodically and asks the learner for input regarding how to proceed or what the next step or choice might 

be. Explanations may then be provided to develop decision making skills in the learner and reinforce the 

learning objectives. The VILO becomes a useful tool to facilitate the learning process rather than simply a 

presentation of content. The VILO instructional delivery becomes a participatory process vs. simple 

acquisition of knowledge and leads to the product of learning being created by the learner himself (Collis & 

Strijker, 2004). 

The VILO Model at Ivy Tech Community College – Northeast 

Two courses were selected for VILOs development and utilizations at the Northeast campus. The 

first was Medical Laboratory Techniques, MEAS 219. This course is generally taken in the second year of 

a two year program and is one of the first courses in which students are asked to apply specific knowledge 

from a college-level pre-requisite courses. Students are also expected to learn invasive procedures and 

medical testing that requires a time limitation due to the nature of the medical device or media. Knowledge 

application, proper technique and personal confidence are key objectives of the course. The second course 

that used VILOs was HLHS 107, the Certified Nursing Assistant course. This course requires only basic 

academic skills and a HS Diploma or General Education Diploma as pre-requisite. The course lasts four 

weeks and teaches basic nursing assistant skills as required by the Indiana State Board of Health. Students 

have a final skills competency assessment as well as a final written examination. VILOs were used in class, 

lab, off site at nursing clinical facilities and by students outside of class to present specific required content 

and technique. 

Initial VILOs development and use in MEAS 219, Medical Laboratory Techniques at Ivy Tech 

Community College-Northeast has generated a large number of benefits in addition to the obvious benefit 

to students. Analysis is ongoing, but the initial observations are pertinent for discussion at this early stage. 

Students in two concurrent cohorts were introduced to VILOs as they were first used in the classroom and 

then offered to students on a CD or DVD for use outside of class time. The VILOs were also available on a 

streaming server and local televised Cable Access channel. The VILOs were well received by students and 


they were given the opportunity to re-view them during lab practice time. In this particular program, 

students and their instructor are permitted to request an individualized remediation plan for lab-based or 

competency assessment courses. This allows for private tutoring, lab instruction and guided practice. There 

were no requests for this remediation benefit since the VILOs were developed. Students were asked to 

evaluate their use of the VILOs at the end of the semester and several points are worth noting. Table 1 

shows the frequency that a single VILO was viewed by students outside of class and demonstrates the 

students perception of the usefulness of the VILO as they rated ‘essential’ or ‘very helpful’ 92 % of the 

time. Students indicated great appreciation for the VILOs and offered suggestions as to future topics in 

other classes. 

Table 1. How many times do you view a VILOs? 

Frequency Students Percentage 

Viewed 

Polled 

4+ 30 25% 

3-4 36 31% 

2-3 41 34% 

1-2 12 10% 

Never 1 .1% 

Totals 120 100% 

One other component of the VILO success in this course dealt with student confidence in 

performing invasive procedures. The course requires competency in performing such skills as 

venipunctures (blood draws) and throat swabs. As expected, performing these skills on a classmate created 

nervousness. Having confidence in performing these skills is nearly equal in importance as the skill itself 

when the student transfers the skill to the externship site and eventual employment. Students were asked to 

determine their level of confidence in performing the skills after using a VILO and compare to observing 

an instructor demonstration in front of the class. Students reported to be more confident 97% of the time 

when performing their first attempt at mostly invasive procedures as shown in Table 2. 

Table 2. How would you rate the usefulness of VILOs in mastering your Lab Skills? 

Usefulness of Students Percentage 

VILOs 

Polled 

Essential 61 51% 

Very Helpful 49 41% 

Helpful 9 8% 

Not Helpful 1 .1% 

Totals 120 100% 

TABLE 3. Additional Benefits Noted as Anecdotal: 

Consumable laboratory materials cost reduced by 40%, due to fewer practices needed 

Seat-time was reduced in the course from 5 hours to 3.5 hours making the room available for other courses 

Several new laboratory procedures involving devices not in textbooks yet were demonstrated 

While absences were not excused, VILOs were used to effectively update student 

Students are able to self remediate with no formal remediation plans initiated 

The learners in a Certified Nursing Assistant course at Ivy Tech Community College gained 

tremendously by the use of VILOs that were developed to accompany their traditional face-to-face course 

presentations and laboratory activities. Nursing and patient care procedures were video recorded and 

presented with theory and explanation in the narration. Students viewed the VILOs together as a group and 

then performed the skills in the laboratory setting. Instructors report that students are consistently modeling 

their technique from the VILOs. Previously when skills were demonstrated by the instructors, it was 

noticed that each instructor may have a slightly different technique and this created problems for the 


students from one class session to the next. This consistency problem has been eliminated with each student 

learning the exact same and correct technique. Interactive quizzes were built into the VILOs to reinforce 

key points and specific technique or equipment features. Certification exam style questions are also 

modeled so that students become familiar with the certification test and have the opportunity to review 

content on a regular basis. VILOs are made available via streaming video server that students may access 

from any online station. Program retention in HLHS 107 from enrollment to certification increased from 

91.63% in the pre-VILO cohorts to 99.38% in the VILO-used cohorts. Competency based skill assessment 

required no remediation plans, incomplete grades, or time extensions and clinical instructors anecdotally 

report excellent performance of skills weeks after the initial content delivery and VILOs use. 

Table 4. HLHS 107 Cohort Enrollment, Certification and Retention Data 

Cohort Date Number enrolled Number Certified on first 

attempt 

Percentage 

Retention 

7 May 2007 20 19 95% 

4 Jun 2007 22 20 91% 

12 Jun 2007 22 22 100% 

25 Jun 2007 17 15 88% 

16 Jul 2007 14 11 79% 

23 Jul 2007 18 17 94% 

20Aug 2007 15 14 93% 

20 Aug 2007 12 9 75% 

17 Sep 2007 20 19 95% 

15 Oct 2007 18 17 94% 

22 Oct 2007 19 19 100% 

12 Nov 2007 15 13 87% 

14 Jan 2008 15 13 87% 

14 Jan 2008 12 11 92% 

Totals before VILO use 239 219 91.63% 

First VILO’s Launched in HLHS 107 

11 Feb 2008 20 20 100% 

3 Mar 2008 10 10 100% 

3 Mar 2008 5 5 100% 

10 Mar 2008 13 13 100% 

17 Mar 2008 16 16 100% 

14 Apr 2008 17 17 100% 

19 May 2008 16 16 100% 

2 Jun 2008 14 14 100% 

16 Jun 2008 16 16 100% 

15 Jul 2008 19 18 95% 

21 Jul 2008 15 15 100% 

Totals after VILO launch 161 160 99.38% 

Conclusion 

VILOs creation and use has met success at Ivy Tech Community College in the two courses 

initially selected for implementation. The scope and application of their use is clearly appropriate and near 

best practice in terms of meeting the specific needs of the course content involved. Ivy Tech students are 

typically those returning to the education process after several years and have considerable barriers to 

successful completion of a program. Barriers include previous poor performance in the educational setting 

and incomplete comprehension of the learning process. Essentially, many of the students do not understand 

how they learn, how to study, what to study, or how to remediate. The VILOs presentation and its 

interactive, simple to use format is a tool available to students 24/7 in multiple formats. Ivy Tech endeavors 


to meet every student where they are in their educational and learning stage. The VILOs have become a 

valuable tool in the process. 

Success of the project is also owed to the instructors involved in the creation of the VILOs. They 

asked that important question … “How can I engage the student in the learning process?” The instructors 

championed the VILOs and involved current students in making the VILOs. Students at all levels stepped 

up their skill performance during the videotaping sessions and became a part of the creative process. And as 

the project moves forward, students will continue to play an important role in the creation of more VILOs. 

They are helping the instructors learn – how they learn. Other areas of study have now joined the VILOs 

project including manufacturing, culinary arts, therapeutic massage and general education anatomy & 

physiology. A library database is growing and can be open accessed at www.ivyvilos.com. The VILOs 

team is seeking to build partnerships with other community colleges and higher education entities to work 

on creation, delivery and analysis of student outcome. 

References 

Atif, Y., Benlamri, R., Berri, ., (2003). Learning Objects Based Framework for Self-Adaptive Learning. 

Education and Information Technologies, 8(4), 345-368. 

Boyle, T., Cook, J., (2001). Towards a pedagogically sound basis for elearning object portability and reuse, 

Meeting at the Crossroads. 2001, 101-109. 

Collis, B., Strijker, A., (2004). Technology and human issues in reusing learning objects, Journal of 

Interactive Media in Education 2004,4, Special Issue on the Educational Semantic Web. 

Fung, A. C. W., Yeung, J. C. F., (2000). An object model for a web-based adaptive educational system. In 

Proceedings of the IFIP International Conference on Educational Use of Technologies 

(ICEUT’2000), China. 

Manouselis, N., Sampson, D., (2002). Dynamic knowledge route selection for personalized learning 

environments using multiple criteria. In Proceedings of the IASTED International Conference on 

Allied Informatics, February, 351-605. 

McGreal, R., (2004). Learning Objects: A practical definition, International Journal of Instructional 

Technology and Distance Learning, 1(9), 21-30. 

Weller, M., (2004). Learning objects and the e-learning cost dilemma, Open Learning, 19(3), 293-302. 

Acknowledgements 

The authors would like to acknowledge William Brown and Charlene Mantock for their contributions to 

this work. 


Social Presence, Web-videoconferencing and Learning in Virtual 

Teams 

Bas Giesbers, Bart Rienties, Wim Gijselaers, Mien Segers, Dirk Tempelaar, Maastricht University, The 

Netherlands, 

Corresponding author: S.Giesbers@erd.unimaas.nl. 

Abstract: The possibilities of Information and Communication Technology to facilitate 

collaboration in education have increased considerably in recent years. Using webvideoconferencing, 

whereby learners in an online classroom can simultaneously 

collaborate using audiovisual communication tools, enlarges the learners’ ability to social 

and emotional expression, thereby improving communication which may increase 

learning satisfaction. 

The present study compares two cohorts of students that did the same course where both 

could communicate via a discussion board and one cohort that had the opportunity to also 

attend web-conferences. Contrary to our expectations, we found learning satisfaction not 

to increase with the introduction of web-videoconferencing. This finding leads to a 

number of questions for future research 

Social presence 

The evidence that the interaction resulting from collaboration can enrich the learning process 

(Jonassen & Kwon, 2001; Lindblom-Ylänne, Pihlajamäki & Kotkas, 2003; Van den Bossche, Gijselaers, 

Segers & Kirschner, 2006) combined with the growing possibilities of Information and Communication 

Technology (ICT) to facilitate collaboration in online learning (Bromme, Hesse & Spada, 2005; Resta & 

Laferrière, 2007; Schellens & Valcke, 2005) currently leads to an increase in attention for virtual 

collaborative learning. 

A recent development in collaborative tools is the ability to work and learn together in 

synchronous tools like web-videoconferences whereby learners meet online at the same predetermined time 

(synchronous) in an online classroom. While web-videoconference is not a new phenomenon, tools like 

Skype, MSN Web Messenger and Acrobat® Connect allow learners to communicate and efficiently using 

free or low cost technology by a simple desktop computer. This contrasts with tools that only allow for 

communication between parties that do not need to be present at the same time (asynchronous), for 

example in discussion groups. Differences in look and feel are demonstrated in Figures 1 and 2 where 

figure 1 shows a discussion board supporting asynchronous communication and Figure 2 shows a webvideoconference 

tool that allows for synchronous communication. 


Figure 1. An example of asynchronous communication using a discussion board 

Figure 2. an example of synchronous communication using web-videoconference 

Both examples are part of a collaborative environment called Surfgroepen (Surfgroups in English, 

see www.surfgroepen.nl) offered by SURFnet, a subsidiary of the SURF organisation (www.surf.nl), that 

allows Dutch universities and research institutes to collaborate (in)ternationally by using innovative ICT 


facilities. As Figure 2 shows, web-videoconference enriches of the learning environment by including 

audiovisual information such as face expressions, the collaborative use of a whiteboard and chat. 

A large body of literature in CSCL has highlighted that synchronous communication is superior to 

asynchronous communication in establishing discourse due to the lack of body communication, delayed 

feedback and barriers of meaning in asynchronous tools like discussion forums (Beers, Boshuijzen, 

Kirschner, & Gijselaers, 2007; Derks, Bos, & Grumbkow, 2007; Haythornthwaite, 2000; Mehrabi et al., 

2000; Rummel & Spada, 2005; Tu, 2002). For example, Tu (2002) found that discussion forums have the 

lowest level of conveying feelings and emotion. Haythornthwaite (2000) found that people who have 

frequent and strong ties to others are using more synchronous communication tools, or use asynchronous 

tools as if they were synchronous. 

Beers et al. (2007) argue that in order for online teams to effectively share and construct 

knowledge, they need to be able to understand each other, which in asynchronous communication is more 

difficult. Often, a lack of context, body language or writing style leads to an interpretation of written text 

(e.g. a post on a discussion board) not intended by the writer (Bromme et al., 2005). Due to 

miscommunication, a learners’ connectivity and sense of belonging (relatedness) might be reduced as well 

as the perceived competences, which in turn might reduce social interaction. 

Garrison, Anderson & Archer (2000) present a model in which the interaction of social presence, 

teaching presence and cognitive presence is crucial for meaningful learning to occur. In this model, 

Garrison et al (2000) define cognitive presence as the ability of participants “to construct meaning through 

sustained communication” (p. 89). Social presence is defined as “the ability of participants [… ] to project 

their personal characteristics into the community, thereby presenting themselves to the other participants as 

‘real people’” (p. 89). Teaching presence is reflected by the educational design but also by the role of 

facilitator performed by a teacher or another participant. Teaching presence is aimed “to support and 

enhance social and cognitive presence for the purpose of realizing educational outcomes” (p. 90). 

Social presence is found to determine learners’ experience and perception of social interaction 

(Yang, Tsai, Kim, Cho & Laffey, 2006). By enabling learners to simultaneously be seen and heard and to 

use a shared workspace while being physically separated through web-videoconference, social presence is 

increased as said functionality enlarges the ability a learner has to express him/herself socially and 

emotionally in a group. 

Several researchers argue that establishing clear instruction and design in an online course from 

the start is an essential pre-requisite for effective collaborative learning in virtual teams (Anderson, Rourke, 

Garrison, & Archer, 2001; Arts, Gijselaers, & Segers, 2006; Beers, Boshuijzen, Kirschner, & Gijselaers, 

2005; Kirschner, Strijbos, Kreijns, & Beers, 2004). This can be established by the support of teaching 

presence which, in online settings, can also be achieved by web-videoconferences. Because the facilitator is 

present during synchronous communication and both course design and course material can be presented in 

a more direct way, teaching presence is enlarged. 

Based upon the increase in possibilities when using web-videoconferences, we expect it to have a 

positive effect on course design, goals and tasks. In addition, as it should be easier to establish 

communication and express emotion using web-videoconference in comparison to discussion forums 

(Derks et al., 2007; Jonassen & Kwon, 2001; Rourke, Anderson, Garrison, & Archer, 1999; Tu & McIsaac, 

2002), we expect its use to improve collaboration. As it is also easier for the teacher to provide timely 

feedback and instruction (De Laat, Lally, Lipponen, & Simons, 2007; Vonderwell, 2003), we expect 

students’ rating of teacher instruction to be higher. Finally, we expect an increase in social presence and 

teaching presence to have a positive impact on cognitive presence which leads to an increase in learners’ 

satisfaction. As the course materials and assessments were the same in both phases, we expect no change in 

perceived usefulness. 


Method 

Setting 

The present study took place in an online summer course for prospective bachelor students of an 

International Business degree programme in the Netherlands. Its aim was to bridge the gap in economics 

prior knowledge for students starting a bachelor (Rienties, Tempelaar, Waterval, Rehm, & Gijselaers, 

2006). The online course was given over a period of six weeks in which students were assumed to work for 

10-15 hours per week. The participants never met face-to-face before or during the course and had to learn 

using the virtual learning environment “on-the-fly”. The course used principles of Problem-based learning 

(PBL), which focuses student learning on complex situations and on a variety of realistic information 

(Dochy, Segers, Van den Bossche, & Gijbels, 2003; Van den Bossche et al., 2006). A key issue in PBL is 

that students actively construct knowledge together in collaborative groups (Hmelo-Silver, 2004). In order 

to assess the influence of web-videoconference on social presence and learning in virtual teams, two 

separate cohorts were used. 

In order to assess whether increasing social presence by adding web-videoconferencing will lead 

to increased perceived course’s usefulness by students we compared two cohorts of students. Both cohorts 

followed the same course, where cohort 1 used an asynchronous environment offering communication via a 

discussion board while cohort 2 was offered additional web-videoconferences. As students could 

voluntarily choose to follow the online course based upon the results of an entry test, differences among the 

cohorts with respect to the type of motivation (intrinsic/extrinsic/amotivation) might hamper our 

comparison, in particular when students differ in intrinsic motivation (Rienties, Tempelaar, Van den 

Bosche, Gijselaers, & Segers, 2008). Therefore, a measurement of motivation was included. 

In both cohorts, students had to collaborate together to solve six tasks. An E-book was available 

and students could use additional sources. The group, together with the tutor, could decide upon the pace 

with a maximum runtime of six weeks. At the end of each week, the tutor suggested how to proceed with 

the next task, thereby focusing on process rather than on content. The results of three interim-tests and a 

final summative test combined with graded participation in the discussion forums were used to make a 

pass-fail decision. A non-recognised certificate and a drink at a graduation ceremony were the only external 

rewards. 

In cohort 1, students participated in groups within a collaborative learning environment using 

discussion forums and announcement boards. No obligatory meetings were scheduled. In cohort 2, 

students could attend four web-videoconferences in addition. A novelty of the web-videoconference system 

was the simultaneous use of video/audio communication, chat and an integrated whiteboard. At the start of 

the course, considerable time was spent on getting acquainted with each other during the first 

videoconference. In addition, the course design, goals and the first task were discussed within the group in 

order to familiarise the students with PBL. Afterwards, the students discussed the tasks in the discussion 

forums. At the start of each new week, a videoconference was organised in order to (post-) discuss 

assignments, after which students continued in the discussion forum. 

Participants 

In cohort 1, a total of 100 participants were randomly assigned to six groups. Data were analysed 

for those participants who actually posted at least once a reaction in the discussion forum. This resulted in a 

total of 82 participants that were selected for analysis. The six groups had an average of 13.66 members 

(SD= 2.16, range = 11-17) per group. The average age was 19 years and 50% of the learners were female. 

In cohort 2, a total of 69 participants were randomly assigned in five groups, of which 62 actually 

posted at least once a reaction in the discussion forum or attended a web-videoconference. The five groups 

had an average of 13.80 members (SD=2.59, range = 11- 18) per group. The average age was 19 years and 

39% of the learners were female. As the number of participants in both phases was unequal, we removed 

one group from cohort 1 that differed with respect to the type of motivation and underperformed with 

respect to discourse, thereby leading to 71 participants in cohort 1 and 62 participants in cohort 2. 


Instruments 

Expectations of the course before the start 

Before the participants started, their perceptions of the course were measured by an instrument 

developed at Maastricht University. The questionnaire consists of 20 questions on a Likert scale of 1 

(=totally disagree) to 7 (=totally agree). The questionnaire consists of four scales (number of questions and 

Cronbach alpha in brackets); usefulness of prior knowledge test (4, =0.549); reasons to join the course (5, 

= 0.329); group collaboration (5, =0.331) and course design (4, =0.780). The low Cronbach alpha for 

‘group collaboration’ is probably due to the fact that there was a large variety in experience among 

participants with group collaboration in prior education (Tempelaar, Rienties, & Gijselaers, 2007). In 

addition, the ‘reasons to join the course’ were quite diverse, leading to a relatively low alpha. Besides the 

four scales, participants could indicate their level of ICT-expertise, being beginning (26.3%), experienced 

(62.6%) and expert (11.1%). Less then 10% of the students had taken an online course before. The response 

rate for cohort 1 and cohort 2 was 93% and 73% respectively. 

Academic Motivation 

Previous research on virtual teams has shown that the type of academic motivation has a strong 

influence on learning processes and outcomes (Rienties et al., 2008). Individual contextual motivation for 

education was measured by the Academic Motivation Scale (AMS) (Vallerand et al., 1992) which consists 

of to 28 items based on the question stem “Why are you going to college?” There are seven subscales on 

the AMS, of which three belong to intrinsic motivation scale, three to extrinsic motivation scale and one for 

amotivation. Intrinsic motivation is subdivided into motivation to know, to accomplish and to experience 

stimulation. The extrinsic motivation subscales constitute a motivational continuum reflecting the degree of 

self-determined behaviour, ranging from identified regulation as the component most adjacent to intrinsic 

motivation, to externally regulated learning, where learning is steered through external means, such as 

rewards. The amotivation scale constitutes the very extreme of the continuum: the absence of regulation, 

either externally directed or internally. The response-rate on AMS-questionnaire for cohort 1 and cohort 2 

was 93% and 73% respectively and the Cronbach alpha for the seven items ranged from .760 to .856, which 

is in line with previous studies. 

Perceived usefulness of the course 

The perceived usefulness of the course was measured by an instrument developed specifically for 

online remedial education (Rienties et al., 2006). This measure has been used in a variety of online courses 

for prospective bachelor and master students in the Netherlands as well as for international professionals 

who worked together in virtual teams (Rehm, 2008). The questionnaire consists of 33 questions on a Likert 

scale of 1 (=totally disagree) to 5 (=totally agree) divided into seven subscales (number of questions and 

Cronbach alpha in brackets); course design (6, =0.635); course materials (3, =.635); goals and tasks (4, 

=0.636); learning satisfaction (5, =0.727); group collaboration (5, =0.742); instruction by teacher (5, 

=0.541) and assessment (4, =0.653). For cohort 2, an additional scale was added in order to measure the 

perceived usefulness of videoconferencing relative to discussion forum (5, =0.702). Finally, the 

participants’ age and the number of hours worked were measured and a textbox for open comments was 

included. The response rate for cohort 1 and cohort 2 was 83% and 77% respectively. 

Results The cohorts show no significant differences with respect to age, gender, ICT-skills and prior 

experience with online education. With respect to students’ expectations before the start of the course, no 

significant differences are found between the four respective scales using an independent sample T-test. 

No significant differences are found among participants with respect to intrinsic motivation. 

However, participants in cohort 1 have a higher level of Identified regulation (F = 0.728, t = 2.157, p-value 

= 0.033, d-value = 0.42) and External Regulation (F = 5.633, t = 2.409, p-value = 0.018, d-value = 0.45), 

indicating that cohort 1 participants are slightly more extrinsically motivated. Nonetheless, the size effects 

are small and Rienties et al. (2008) showed that extrinsically motivated students do not differ significantly 

from average students in virtual teams with respect to their contribution to discourse. Hence, we can 

assume that the cohorts are comparable. 


Effect of the redesign 

Table 1 displays the scores on each of the 37 questions on the perceived usefulness of the course. 

Cohort 1 students are in general very pleased with the online course. Most scores on the Likert scale 

questions are around 4.0, while the overall course and support by the teacher receives more than an eight on 

a scale of one to ten. Quite surprisingly, cohort 2 students seem to be less positive about the course. Eight 

questions have significant lower scores for cohort 2 than cohort 1 based upon and independent sample Ttest. 

In particular, the overall grade for the online course for cohort 2 is 0.7 points lower which is 

statistically significant at 1%. In contrast, cohort 2 shows significantly higher scores on the three questions 

concerning the role of the instructor. 

With respect to the redesign, five questions were raised to students of cohort 2 in order to measure 

the usefulness of web-conferencing and discussion forums. Students in cohort 2 are positive about both the 

use of the web-videoconference system (3.8 (0.9)) and the use of the discussion forums (3.9 (0.9)). 

However, the slightly higher value in cohort 2 of learning in videoconference sessions (3.5 (0.9)) in 

comparison to the discussion forums (3.3 (1.0)) is insignificant in a paired sample T-test. Finally, students 

in cohort 2 work less hours per week in comparison to students in cohort 1 which is significant at 10% 

confidence interval. 


Table 1 Comparison of course usefulness 

M SD M SD difference 

This Summer/Wintercourse offered me a lot 4.27 0.64 4.02 0.53 0.031* 

The contents of the Summer/Wintercourse were inspiring 4.15 0.61 3.94 0.56 0.063 † 

The format of the Summer/Wintercourse was good 4.15 0.69 4.04 0.77 

The Summer/Wintercourse was well organized 4.10 0.64 4.17 0.72 

The quality of the digital material was good 4.44 0.60 3.96 0.85 0.01** 

The digital material motivated me to keep up with the subject matter 3.63 0.81 3.54 0.90 

Learning with an E-book is not different from learning from a hard-copy book 2.78 0.89 2.85 0.99 

It was fun that I could attend this Summer/Wintercourse via the internet 4.22 0.74 4.06 0.81 

The goals of the Summer/Wintercourse were clear to me 4.00 0.72 4.17 0.63 

It was clear to me what was expected of me this Summer/Wintercourse 3.85 0.87 4.04 0.71 

The assigments/tasks stimulated me to collaborate with the other group 3.53 0.86 3.50 0.92 

The assignments/tasks stimulated me to study 3.78 0.85 3.69 0.80 

I am satisfied with what I learned in terms of knowledge, skills and insight 3.81 0.78 3.69 0.88 

I gained enough knowledge and skills in economics to start with my study in Maastricht 3.68 0.71 3.73 0.79 

I think that by attending this Summer/Wintercourse I will get better results in my future study in Maastricht 3.85 0.71 3.77 0.93 

The group in which I participated functioned well 3.86 0.86 3.56 0.90 0.079 † 

It was fun to collaborate with others in this Summer/Wintercourse 4.07 0.85 3.71 0.94 0.041* 

Collaborating with others facilitated my understanding of the subject matter 3.78 0.72 3.65 0.79 

I think I learned more in this Summer/Wintercourse through collaboration with others than I would have learned if 

I had to work individually 

3.34 0.96 3.25 1.12 

I think I was motivated to finish this Summer/Wintercourse because I could work in my own pace 3.68 0.94 3.83 0.86 

It is good that I could attend this Summer/Wintercourse independently (without interference from others) 4.37 0.61 3.92 0.87 0.02* 

The use of the webvideoconference system (Breeze) was useful . . 3.79 0.87 

I learned a lot from the discussions in the web videoconferences (Breeze) . . 3.48 0.92 

The use of the discussion forums (SURF-groepen) was useful . . 3.90 0.93 

I learned a lot from the discussions in the discussion forums . . 3.27 1.01 

There were too many webvideoconferences in this summer/winter course . . 2.67 0.86 

I was given the support that I needed 4.03 0.69 4.23 0.66 

The Online Summercourse-team was enthousiastic in coaching our group 4.22 0.72 4.54 0.58 0.014* 

The Online Summercourse team stimulated participation of all group members in the online group discussions 3.54 0.86 3.88 0.70 0.033* 

The Online Summercourse team helped us to apply what we had learned on other situations than those mentioned 

in the assignments/tasks 

3.63 0.61 3.94 0.91 0.038* 

Give an overall grade for the functioning of the Summer/Wintercourse team (1 = very bad - 10 = very good) 8.20 0.94 7.98 1.42 

The instructions for making the final test were clear 4.05 0.75 3.79 0.71 0.073 † 

The Weekly tests (intermediate tests) in this Summer/Wintercourse gave me a good picture of what I still had to 

study 

3.78 0.79 3.96 0.62 

The internet application used for the tests was easy to work with 4.15 0.83 3.88 0.94 

Give an overall grade for the quality of the Summer/Wintercourse (1 = very bad - 10 = very good) 8.46 1.02 7.73 1.33 0.01** 

I participated actively in the online group discussions 3.19 1.15 3.25 1.10 

I have made … … . Weekly (intermediate) tests 2.81 0.97 2.60 1.35 

Weekly I have spent … . hours on this course 13.43 6.76 11.12 5.54 0.069 † 

Independent sample T-test (2-sided) of Discussion forum (n=59) vs. Videoconference and Discussion forum (n=49). 

**Coefficient is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). 

*Coefficient is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). 

† Coefficient is significant at the 0.10 level (2-tailed). 

Discussion Forum 

Videoconference 

In Table 2, the effects of the redesign on perceived usefulness of the course are listed. In contrast 

to our expectations, students in cohort 2 were less satisfied with the course materials. With respect to the 

course design, cohort 2 students differ from cohort 1 students but the effect is in the opposite direction to 

what we expected. In other words, cohort 1 students are more satisfied about the course design than cohort 

2 students. No effect has been found with respect to goals and tasks and group collaboration. We do find an 

improved satisfaction of the role of the teacher in cohort 2 at a 5% significance level and a moderate size 

effect (F = 0.057, t = 2.549, p-value = 0.012, d-value = 0.50). However, we do not find any difference 

among the cohorts with respect to learning satisfaction. Overall, we have to conclude that students who 

used the web-videoconference in addition to discussion forums are not more positive about the online 

course than students who only used the discussion forums. 


t-test

Table 2. Perceived course usefulness in scales 

Discussion Forum 

t-test Cohen 

M SD M SD difference d-value 

Assessment 14.80 2.41 14.23 2.60 

Course Materials 11.29 1.66 10.65 1.80 0.058 † 0.37 

Course Design 24.69 2.59 23.76 2.48 0.064 † 

Goals and Tasks 15.15 2.51 15.40 1.82 

Group Collaboration 18.24 3.34 17.42 3.28 

Instruction 19.53 2.13 20.57 2.09 0.012* -0.50 

Learning Satisfaction 19.83 2.50 19.27 2.73 

Independent sample T-test (2-sided) of Discussion forum (n=59) vs. Videoconference and Discussion forum (n=49). 

*Coefficient is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). 

† Coefficient is significant at the 0.10 level (2-tailed). 

Videoconference 

Discussion 

Based upon the idea that increased possibilities to establish communication and to express 

emotion we expected that increasing social presence by using web-videoconferences would positively 

influence the course design, goals and tasks, group collaboration, instruction and finally learning 

satisfaction among learners. In other words, we expected that groups working together using (synchronous) 

web-videoconferences in combination with (asynchronous) discussion forums would be more positive 

about the course’s usefulness than groups who worked together solely using discussion forums. However, 

the results indicate that students using videoconference are in general not more positive about the online 

course with the exception of instruction of the teacher. 

The fact that students in cohort 2 (web-videoconferencing) are less positive about the course 

materials might be due to two reasons. First of all, the Cronbach alpha is relatively low, thereby leading to 

reliability issues. Secondly, in cohort 2 a new version of the E-book system was used, which seemed to be 

less compatible with Apple-users. In fact, six students complained about compatibility (e.g. “excercises 

cannot be made with a mac” or “that it works better with Mac computers”) in the open comment, while 

there were no remarks about compatibility in cohort 1, which might explain the lower rating for course 

materials. 

The lower evaluation of the course design for cohort 2 leads to several questions. Although 

discussion forums have obvious disadvantages with respect to speed of interaction, feedback and ability to 

express emotion, one important merit of discussion forums is that students can learn whenever they want. 

Flexibility might be important for online remedial education when prospective students are preparing 

themselves for university at home or at their holiday location (Rienties et al., 2006). In addition, several 

authors have argued that by using discussion forums participants have more time to think and are therefore 

more able to build an effective argumentation (Schellens & Valcke, 2006; Weinberger & Fischer, 2006). 

Explaining the fact that no difference was found in goals and tasks, group collaboration and 

learning satisfaction between the two cohorts is challenging. Maybe, the goals and tasks of the course are 

sufficiently clear when communicated via a course manual and communication from the instructors in the 

discussion forum, as cohort 1 students indicated that they knew what was expected from them in the course. 

Given that it is easier to establish communication and social presence using web-videoconferencing, we at 

least expected that cohort 2 students are more positive about the merits of group collaboration. Again the 

merits of synchronous communication might be offset by the flexibility of asynchronous communication. In 

addition, not every participant had a sufficient broad-band connection, which might have hampered their 

ability to contribute to the videoconference discussions and hence their perception about group 

collaboration. 


0.36

As group collaboration and the course design were not improved in the redesign, the overall 

learning satisfaction did not increase despite that the role of the instructor was perceived more positively. A 

possible explanation why the role of the instructor (e.g. to help the students to apply the content to other 

contexts, equal participation) received a higher rating is that the delay in feedback in asynchronous 

communication could be counteracted by the weekly videoconferences. In addition, a rough generalization 

of the roles of the instructor in the videoconference relative to the discussion forum seem to indicate that 

the instructor was more active in the videoconference, which in distance learning is highly appreciated by 

students (Vonderwell, 2003). 

Limitations and Future research 

The results of this study were based on a method using self-reported student perceptions in one 

particular setting. This can be viewed as a potential limitation as in other settings using web-conferencing 

might lead to superior results in comparison to using only discussion forums. In addition, the measurement 

of perceptions of participants about learning characteristics and learning processes is difficult. However, 

given the reliability figures of the seven scales, high response-rates and the fact that we controlled for 

differences in motivation and prior expectations, we deem that the results are still valid. 

Further, the short- and long-term consequences on learning outcomes have not been demonstrated. 

The longitudinal effects of our redesign needs to be assessed in future research. 

Third, neither content analysis nor Social Network Analysis was conducted on the discourse. 

These might reveal evidence about learning and knowledge construction from online discussions and 

interaction patterns among individuals within groups. Research on cohort 1 showed large differences in 

participation, type of discourse and position within the social network (Rienties et al., 2008), which we 

expect to be smaller in cohort 2 due to the increased possibilities to interact. 

Fourth, research should investigate whether groups using web-videoconferences are more 

balanced with respect to the type of discourse and participation. In addition, to what extent are students 

overwhelmed by a variety of ICT tools? To what extent does the requirement to be present during 

videoconferences hinder the flexibility of learners to decide when and where to learn? Finally, to what 

extent does the behaviour of participants (students and teachers) differ when using web-videoconferences 

or discussion forums? 

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Literature Scan on Online Remedial Teaching and Learning: 

A European Perspective 

Development of effective online remedial education 

Lotte Brants, Katrien Struyven, Filip Dochy, Goele Nickmans, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Centrum 

voor Opleidingsdidactiek, Belgium 

Lotte.Brants@ped.kuleuven.be, Katrien.Struyven@ped.kuleuven.be, Filip.Dochy@ped.kuleuven.be, 

Goele.Nickmans@ped.kuleuven.be 

Abstract: In this literature review we explore the different approaches towards remedial 

or developmental education. Although several European institutions for higher education 

have started to offer remedial programmes, remedial education in Europe remains a rare 

phenomenon. In spite of the efforts of the European Union to create a European Higher 

Education Area, both secondary and tertiary education are determined on a national level. 

The increased mobility of students and educational staff has created new challenges for 

higher education. New suppliers of education (like virtual universities and corporate 

universities) and other forms of education (like e-learning and distance education) 

appeared. We therefore examined the success factors of effective remedial education and 

the potentials of ICT in the field of education. With this knowledge, we challenge 

European institutions for higher education to develop and implement effective online 

remedial courses, in order to bridge the gap among national and international students. 

The changing European society and its consequences for higher education 

The globalization, the internationalization and the Europeanization during the last decades have 

had serious consequences for the field of (higher) education. Students and teachers can study or work easily 

at foreign institutes, new possibilities in distance education turn up, and ICT becomes a common medium 

in the field of education. In a globalized information technological environment, the production of 

knowledge and the power over knowledge is no longer controled by the state. People look for other sources 

of knowledge, beyond the education organized by the state (Verhoeven, Kelchtermans, & Michielsen, 

2005). 

This means that a great amount of new suppliers in the field of higher education crop up, like 

virtual universities, franchise universities and corporate universities. Even public institutions for higher 

education seem to be organized and structured more privately. Due to the globalization and the growth of 

information and communication technologies like the internet, higher education becomes more 

international. Institutions for higher education are using new ICTs to meet the demand of more flexible 

types of higher education. Besides new suppliers, other forms of higher education appear, like e-learning 

and distance education (Verhoeven, Kelchtermans & Michielsen, 2005). 

Although the European Union (EU) has no legal influence over higher education (i.e. no direct 

policy instruments to impose regulations in the field of higher education), the Bologna Agreement makes 

countries show a great commitment to implement European policy guidelines in their national higher 

education policies (Litjens, 2005). Globalization, internationalization and Europeanization leads in this 

context to a growing interdependence and interconnectedness of modern institutions, such as higher 

education institutions. These processes form the background which now frames the mobility of teaching, 

non-teaching and research staff and students, as well as the internationalization of research agendas of 

institutions and students’ curricula. Besides the higher level of mobility of students, employers and 

graduates in the field of (higher) education, the Bologna Process also aims at creating a European Higher 

Education Area that is capable of competing on the international stage and attracting students from abroad, 

both inside and outside Europe. These trends stress the European language issue and the challenges of 

communication in a multilingual space. European university policy-makers are stimulated to change their 

curricula from local languages to the international standard: the English language. But this process is not 

without problems. Universities are therefore confronted with a dilemma: to transform their programmes 

into international curricula based on English, or to keep the local language as the main language of 

instruction and communication. This problem has however never been studied in detail. The real challenge 

for Europe today is how to provide a multilingual environment for students and employers which 


appreciates the use of multiple languages and enhances the exchange of students, teaching and nonteaching 

staff (Kerklaan, Moreira, & Boersma, 2008). 

Remedial or developmental education in Europe 

Kozeracki paraphrases Piper (1998) and Clowes (1980) when defining developmental education. 

According to her, “developmental education incorporates human development theories, is intended to bring 

together academic and student support services to assist students in preparing to make choices appropriate 

to their current stage in development, and is viewed as being appropriate for all students” (Kozeracki, 2002, 

p. 84). Referring to Kiemig (1983) and Boylan, Bonham, & Rodriguez (2000), developmental courses are 

considered as learning improvement programmes or services, like learning assistence for individual 

students, course-related services, and comprehensive learning systems, but also freshmen seminars, critical 

thinking courses, study strategies courses, orientation courses, and freshmen composition classes 

(Kozeracki, 2002). Due to the interchangeable use of remedial and developmental education, we use these 

terms in this paper interchangeably as well. 

While remedial programmes are common in the United States, they are less common in Europe. 

Nevertheless, several European higher education institutes have started to offer remedial education 

programmes as well. One of the reasons why European universities are starting to develop remedial courses 

is the different situation in the two continents. In the United States, a common assumption is that 

remediation attracts underprepared students of low socio-economic status (Attewell, Lavin, Domina, & 

Levey, 2006; McCabe & Day, 1998). Inadequate academic preparation is no longer a barrier to college 

access (Kozeracki, 2002, p. 85). In contrast, in Europe, a large part of the transitional problems are caused 

by differences among national secondary educational programmes which are determined on a national level 

(Rienties, Tempelaar, Waterval, Rehm, & Gijselaers, 2006; Van der Wende, 2003). Therefore foreign 

students are hindered to effectively start a bachelor or master programme. Remedial or developmental 

courses can help to bridge this gap (Rienties, et al., 2006). 

Considering the large number of foreign students enrolled in European bachelor programmes, and 

to come forth to the demands of the Bologna Treaty, a reasonable response to facilitate foreign students in 

their transitional phase is to offer remedial education in a distance learning format. Research has shown that 

remedial education in virtual settings is effective (Rienties, Tempelaar, Van den Bossche, Gijselaers, & 

Segers, (n.d.); Tempelaar, Rienties, Rehm, Dijkstra, Arts, & Blok, 2006; Wieland, Brouwer, Kaper, Heck, 

Tempelaar, Rienties, et al., 2006). 

Measuring the effectiveness of remedial or developmental courses 

Recently, more empirical research has been conductued in which the effectiveness of remedial 

education is measured in a longitudinal manner. This means that demographical and socio-economic issues 

are taken into consideration as well. Results tend to indicate that the effects of remedial education might 

depend on the particular context, the type of institution as well as the type of domain knowledge or skill. 

For example, Jacob and Lefgren found a modest but positive net impact on student achievement scores for 

third-grade students participating in a summer school, for math, as well as for reading. For sixth-grade 

students, these programmes seem to have little if any effects (Jacob and Lefgren, 2004). In a study of 6800 

high school students, Attewel et al. (2006) found that the effects of remedial education depend on the type 

of institution. In two-year colleges, students who passed remedial courses were more likely to graduate than 

students with equivalent backgrounds who never took remediation. In four-year institutions, remedial 

courses reduced students’ chances of graduation, even when regulating for academic skills and background 

(Attewell et al., 2006). Bettinger and Long (2005) took a different dataset and found that mathematics 

remediation improved student outcomes, while English remediation did not improve student outcomes. 

The effectiveness of remedial or developmental courses 

Jacob and Lefgren state that remedial summer courses and retention programmes can improve the 

performances of disadvantaged students under favorable circumstances. Programmes implemented in 

contexts which incorporate features such as incentives, small class sizes, a highly structured curriculum, 

and teachers selected by the principal, might offer some hope for low-achieving students (Jacob and 

Lefgren, 2004). 


Most recent studies have focussed on the programme components, in order to improve the status 

and the effectiveness of developmental courses. Kozeracki (2002) conducted a review of success factors of 

remedial education and found that offering a high degree of structure, clear goals and objectives, social and 

emotional support, adequate staff training and professional development are important elements for 

remedial education - similar element are found by McCabe and Day (1998) and Merisotis and Phipps 

(2000). Moreover, Kozeracki (2002) destinguishes seven commonly cited elements that are associated with 

student success in developmental programmes: 

• Orientation, assessment, and placement are mandatory for new students 

• Clearly specified goals and objectives are established for courses and programmes 

• The adult learning theory is applied in the design and delivery of the courses 

• The courses are highly structured 

• The programmes is centralized or highly coordinated 

• Counseling, tutoring, and supplemental instruction components are included 

• The social and emotional development of the students is taken into consideration 

Referring to Levin and Koski (1998), the following ingredients are central for designing successful 

interventions for underprepared students in higher education (Levin & Calcagno, 2008): 

• Motivation: building on interests and goals of students and providing institutional credit 

towards degrees and certificates 

• Substance: building skills within a substantive or real-world context 

• Inquiry: developing students’ inquiry and research skills to help them investigate subjects and 

areas 

• Independence: encouraging students to do independent meandering within the course 

structure, in order to develop their own ideas, applications and understandings 

• Multiple approaches: using collaboration and teamwork, technology, tutoring and independent 

investigation as suited to student needs 

• High standards: setting high standards and expectations that all students will meet if they exert 

adequate effort and if they are given appropriate resources to support their learning 

• Problem solving: understanding learning as a way of determining what needs to be learned 

and how to develop a strategy that will succeed 

• Connectiveness: emphasizing the connections among different subjects and experiences, 

showing how they can contribute to learning 

• Supportive context: understanding that learning is a social activity that prospers from healty 

interaction, encouragement and support. 

It appears that these factors clearly align with the success elements defined by Kozeracki (2002). 

Both authors take the student and its social and emotional development into account, with respect to a 

supporting and encouraging context. Both approaches to successful developmental programmes agree with 

one another, but they can also be considered as complemental to each other. Whereas Levin and Calcagno 

promote the independence and inquiry of students in remedial or developmental courses, clearly specified 

goal and objectives, highly structured courses, and highly coordinated programmes, such as defined by 

Kozeracki (2002) are required. 

The role of ICT in remedial education 

The increasing attention for (virtual) collaborative learning is dued to the common assumption that 

Information Communication Technologies (ICTs) has growing possibilities to provide a rich learning 

experience by using a variety of learning methods. First of all, there’s the use of e-mail and the World Wide 

Web to support, supplement, and to supplant regular teaching activities. Moreover, the developments in 

ICT make it possible to provide programmes for external part-time students. In addition, online courses 

evolve to the development of virtual universities, where the institutions deliver all their couse programmes 

exclusively online. More and more open universities - with extensive experience of innovation in distance 

teaching and the development and delivery of couses to external students, with extensive research 


programmes on learning theory, pedagogy, technology and other aspects of online learning - arise (Curran, 

2001; Rienties, Tempelaar, Van den Bossche, Gijselaers, & Segers, n.d.). 

We define online remedial education as an instruction method using ICT which helps students to 

provide knowledge and skills necessary to succeed in university. This way, foreign students can study in 

their home country, which reduces their costs while at the same time offering flexibility to develop their 

knowledge and skills. ICT has the power to support independent learning as well as to learn irrespective of 

time and geographical constraints with the wide-spread implementation of internet (Bromme, Hesse, & 

Spada, 2005; Jonassen & Kwon, 2001). In addition, recent research findings indicate that ICT has some a 

powerful tool for learning in collaborative settings where students work and learn together (Bryant, Khale, 

& Schafer, 2005; Schellens & Valcke, 2005). Hereafter, we persue the advantages and disadvantages of 

online courses in greater depth. 

Advantages and possibilities of online education and learning 

According to Curran (2001), online learning is already a substantive actitvity in universities and 

other tertiary teaching institutions, with significant potential further growth. The author defines different 

potential advantages of online education and learning. The absence of temporal and spatial constraints 

means greater flexibility for teachers and students. The easy accessible, fast and low-cost means of 

communication allow students to contact their tutors easily and often receive an early response. 

Furthermore, students can access materials for directive study, browse the web, search and retrieve 

information from online databases, download simulations, interact with case materials, and conduct virtual 

experiments. Besides all these advantages, course materials can be presented in different forms, such as 

text, sound, graphics, moving images or computer simulations. Audio or video streaming can be used to 

deliver presentations by academic staff. Students can work individually or can participate with peers in 

different forms of collaborative learning. They can access web-based resources and communicate with 

specialists and experts in the wider world. The author labels the phenomenon of online learning as 

pedagogically effective, cost efficient and socially beneficient (Curran, 2001). 

According to research (El Mansour & Mupinga, 2007; Yang & Cornelius, 2004) students’ positive 

experiences with online education are: 

• Flexible instructional pace and flexible class participation 

• Elimination of barriers of time and space 

• Cost-effectiveness of online courses 

• Electronic research availability (digital libraries and online databases) 

• A well-designed online course makes it easy for students to navigate and find the adequate 

information 

Disadvantages and problems of online education and learning 

On the other hand, the new opportunities offered by ICT also create new barriers (Mac Keogh, 

2001). Research (El Mansour & Mupinga, 2007; Yang & Cornelius, 2004) claim that students’ negative 

experiences are caused by: 

• Delayed feedback from the instructor 

• Unavailable technical support from the instructor 

• Lack of self-regulation and self-motivation 

• Sense of isolation, caused by the lack of interpersonal communication and interaction among 

students or between students and the instructor, or caused by the use of monotonous 

instructional methods 

• A poorly designed course interface makes students feel lost in seeking information 

Moreover, the potential of ICT is also leading to fears of the ‘digital devide’ where ICT will 

enhance further social exclusion, creating a society of technological haves and have nots. The dominance of 

the English language on the internet also causes concern (Mac Keogh, 2001). 


The implementation of online education and learning 

At a pragmatic level, there’s evidence of a substantive degree of consensus with repect to the 

adoption of particular pedagogic strategies in online learning, based on the perception of students as 

independent learners. By providing facilities for collaborative dialogue and task completion, with greater 

emphasis on small group work and exploratory learning, in other words, by ‘empowering the learner’, 

students are supported in their learning process. Tutor-student interactions, mentoring, promoting student 

dialogue and the design and evaluation of virtual seminars are examples of aming at better quality and 

efficiency of online learning (Curran, 2001). Debande (2004) claims that four strands must be integrated 

into a comprehensive policy: infrastructure and equipment, high-quality educational multimedia sevices 

and content, training services and facilities for teachers and for lifelong learning, and dialogue and 

cooperation at all levels. Moreover, the implementation of a comprehensive online learning strategy should 

incorportate three stages: infrastructure, content and teacher training (Debande, 2004). 

Although research in remedial education in physical settings provide important factors for success 

(Kozeracki, 2002; McCabe & Day, 1998; Roueche & Roueche, 1999), based on literature and research 

concerning online education and the role of ICT in education, the following aspects are to be taken into 

consideration (Rienties, Dijkstra, Rehm, Tempelaar, & Blok, 2005a; Rienties, Rehm, & Dijkstra, 2005b; 

Rienties et al., 2006): 

• 24/7 online availability and accessibility: the use of the internet makes it possible for students 

to work or study wherever and whenever they want to (i.e. ubiquitous learning) 

• Adaptiveness: every student carries his personal luggage of (prior) knowlegde and has a 

unique learning style. Therefore every course should offer an individual learning path, based 

on this prior knowledge, learning style and the preferences of the student. In other words, a 

course should adapt to the individual needs of the students 

• Interactivity: in an electronic learning environment, the communication between teachers and 

students should be actively stimulated. Therefore there needs to be an intensive use of the 

communication and interaction methods in order to enhance the involvement, the learning 

profit and the active and authentic learning of the students 

• Responsiveness of feedback: feedback seems to play an important role in the interaction of an 

online course or programme. Students seem to have an interest in quick and direct feedback 

on their performances. Furthermore, rapid feedback stimulates interaction in an online course 

• Flexible learning methods and assessment: the learning environment should not be hindered 

by the limitations of the technical, organisational and didactical organization of the electronic 

learning environment 

Brown and Bradley (2005) encourage a participatory design and implentation approach, where the 

e-learning system is a two-way street, allowing early and ongoing communications between designer and 

users (Brown & Bradley, 2005). The authors suggest some additional elements at the heart of effective elearning 

design: 

• Activity: a rich activity refers to an activity that opens up opportunities for action rather than 

an activity that directs students down a prescribed pathway. It implies an active involvement 

of the learner in making choices about what experiences they will engage in. The action must 

be considered from the perspective of the actions and challenges it affords to the student 

• Scenario: besides activity, there needs to be a reason or motivation to undertake an 

educational activity if the learning has to be memorable and considered valuable. An 

interesting context or scenario can assist the activity to have meaning 

• Delivery: good educational design relies on appropriate delivery to reach its full potential 

• Context: not only the context in which the e-learning will be used is partially predictable for 

the design of the e-learning resources, the broader context to address the learning needs is 

relevant as well. Elements of activity, scenario and feedback need to take into account the 

users’ profiles and the delivery element needs to consider the technical infrastructure. 

However, additional contextual considerations include the institutional objectives of the e- 


learning programme, the role and skills of the instructor, the longevity of the resources and 

cultural sensitivities 

• Influence: the influence of the e-learning design can be addressed from, for instance, the way 

that it will affect the learner, the ramifications that it will have for the learning (and broader) 

community into which it will be implemented, and the environmental influence of its 

development and use 

Conclusion 

In this literature review, we first examined what is meant by remedial or developmental learning 

and education. The situation concerning remedial or developmental education in the United States of 

America appeared to be very different from the European situation. Whereas remedial education in the 

United States is prevalent, remedial education in Europe is still a rare phenomenon, although several 

European higher education institutes have started to offer remedial programmes as well. This can be 

explained by the fact that both secondary and tertiary education are determined on a national level, despite 

the efforts of the European Union to create one educational unit (i.c. the Bologna Agreement). 

Globalization, internationalization, commercialization and Europeanization have stimulated and enhanced 

the mobility of students and educational staff both in Europe and the world. This movement has created 

new challenges for higher education, not only to create new possibilities for a more flexible world of 

education, but also to bridge the gap among national and international students regarding to their prior 

knowledge, background and perspectives. 

The literature scan on the effectiveness of remedial or developmental courses provided us four 

common characteristics. The first success factor includes incentives, support services, and emotional and 

social support (Jacob & Lefgren, 2004; Kozeracki, 2002; Levin & Calcagno, 2008; Merisotis & Phipps, 

2000). Then there’s the need for a highly structured curriculum, with clearly defined goals and objectives 

(Jacob & Lefgren, 2004; Kozeracki, 2002; Merisotis & Phipps, 2000). The third success factor is adequate 

straff training and professional development, defined by Jacob and Lefgren (2004) and Kozeracki (2002). 

The fourth success factor consists of using multiple approaches, such as both individual work and 

collaboration and teamwork, and alternative technologies (Levin & Calcagno, 2008; Merisotis & Phipps, 

2000). Levin and Calcagno (2008) define a fifth and very important factor. The use of concrete, real-life 

applications in the remedial course, based on students’ interests and motivation, increases the effectiveness 

of the remedial course. 

The success factors defined in the literature, namely the integration and inclusion of the use of 

realistic and challenging problems (i.e. concrete applications), with opportunities for collaborative work, 

interaction, communication and cooperation (i.e. learning communities), with the encouragement of and 

guidance for students, and the use of alternative instructional strategies and technologies create great 

possibilities and opportunities for students in (remedial) education, are clearly aligning with the potentials 

ICT offers in the field of education. The lack of temporal and spatial constraints (27/7 online availability 

and accessibility) creates a greater flexibility for students and teachers. The easy access to fast and low-cost 

means of communication, allows students to communicate and collaborate synchronously and 

asynchronously with others (like peers, teachers, experts in the field) (i.e. learning communities), to gather 

information (concrete applications) and to approach the content or information through multimedia and 

different perspectives (i.e. alternative instructional strategies and technologies) (Curran, 2001; Rienties et 

al., 2005a; Rienties et al., 2005b; Rienties et al., 2006). This means students can meander independently or 

collaboratively through the content. Therefore they experience connectiveness with others. Students’ 

experiences with online education are positive under the conditions that there’s quick and direct feedback 

and adequate (technical) support of their teachers and a highly structured and well-designed course 

interface, in order to enhance their search through the information (El Mansour & Mupinga, 2007; Yang & 

Cornelius, 2004). 

Debande (2004) defines four elements that need to be integrated in order to implement an efficient 

and successful online course. There needs to be a well-designed infrastructure and equipment as well as 

high-qualilty educational multimedia services and content. Furthermore, teachers need to be well trained 

and there needs to be dialogue and cooperation at all levels, at all times. This comprehensive policy shows 

a clear similarity with the crucial characteristics of a successful remedial course, defined by Jacob and 


Lefgren (2004); Kozeracki (2002); Levin and Calcagno (2008); McCabe & Day, 1998; Merisotis and 

Phipps (2000). 

The European challenge nowadays consists of developing efficient and successful online remedial 

courses, with respect to the defined core elements of on the one hand successful remedial courses and on 

the other hand successsful online courses. There seems to be a great resemblance between the potentials of 

ICT in the field of education and the success factors of a remedial course: concrete applications can be 

explored, individually or collaboratively, through multiple approaches (like instructional strategies and 

technologies). Moreover, ICT offers more flexible ways to provide support and guidance by teachers. 

Nevertheless, a well-structured interface and content, with clearly defined goals and perspectives is 

required. Therefore, adequate straff training is essential. 

The question that rises is why so limited initiatives have been undertaken, while these two 

inevitable evolutions in the field of education match so well together. 

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outcomes. New Directions for Community Colleges, 2005(129), 17-26. 


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Higher Education: an example from Portugal. European Journal of Education, 43(2), 241-255. 

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Rienties, B., Tempelaar, D., Van den Bossche, P., Gijselaers, W., & Segers, M. (n.d.). The role of academic 

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Praktijk. Tijdschrift voor Hoger Onderwijs, 4, 239-253. 

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Technology. 



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15. 

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Qualitative Approach. Paper presented at Association for Educational Communications and 

Technology Conference, Chicago, Illinois. 


Establishing a European Framework of Transitional Preparatory 

Courses 

Bart Rienties, Maastricht University , The Netherlands, Lotte Brants, KU Leuven , Belgium, Natasa 

Brouwer, Universiteit van Amsterdam , The Netherlands, Magdalena Jasiska, Maria Curie-Sklodowska 

Universty , Poland, Egle Virgailaite-Meckauskaite, Siauli Universitetas, Lithuania 

bart.rienties@erd.unimaas.nl, Lotte.Brants@ped.kuleuven.be, nbrouwer@science.uva.nl, 

magdal@intra.ilab.pl, e.virgailaite@cr.su.lt. 

Due to increased mobility and heterogeneity of students in Europe and corresponding transitional 

problems from one learning programme to another, an increasing number of higher educational institutes 

are responding by more elaborate selection processes (Van der Wende, 2001, 2003) as well as offering a 

variety of (electronic) preparatory programmes (Rienties, Luchoomun, Giesbers, & Virgailaite- 

Meckauskaite, 2008; Rienties, Tempelaar, Dijkstra, Rehm, & Gijselaers, 2008; Rienties, Tempelaar, 

Waterval, Rehm, & Gijselaers, 2006) in order to smoothen the transitional barriers of life-long learners. As 

a common standard to assess competences and knowledge in Higher Education in Europe is not expected in 

the near future, each institute has to determine whether a student from another Member State is accepted to 

a learning programme or not. Offering preparatory courses to smoothen the transition might seem an 

attractive option for those who lack skills or knowledge. Some form of remedial education might improve 

academic integration or even completion rates (Tempelaar et al., 2007; Wieland et al., 2007). However, due 

to a lack of quality control of preparatory courses in Europe, the effectiveness of bridging activities across 

Europe remains unclear. In this round-table, we will discuss our preliminary findings on developing a 

European Framework for Transitional Preparatory Courses (EFTPC). This framework should allow 

practitioners and policy-makers to compare the different preparatory courses across Europe. Based on the 

literature review, identification of practices and recipes for developing preparatory programmes, a first 

version of the EFTPC will be discussed with the audience. This framework should be practical, evidencebased 

and preferably sufficiently flexible to fit into most contexts within the European Member States. In 

particular, the relationship between the pedagogical approach used, the population, primary and secondary 

learning goals, learning process and learning outcomes/performances will be analysed and compared. In 

contrast to other frameworks, EFTPC is dynamic and designed in an “open-source” manner. The final aim 

of the EFTPC is a methodology to be able to compare good and bad practices of defining knowledge gaps 

and offering preparatory courses across European Member States. 

References 

Rienties, B., Luchoomun, D., Giesbers, B., & Virgailaite-Meckauskaite, E. (2008). Student-ervaringen met 

bijspijkercursussen. OnderwijsInnovatie(3), 30-32. 

Rienties, B., Tempelaar, D., Dijkstra, J., Rehm, M., & Gijselaers, W. H. (2008). Longitudinal study of 

online remedial education effects. In N. P. Barsky, M. Clements, J. Ravn & K. Smith (Eds.), 

Advances in Business Education and Training 1: The Power of Technology for Learning (pp. 43- 

59). Dordrecht: Springer. 



Tempelaar, D., Rienties, B., Van Engelen, F., Brouwer, N., Wieland, A., & Van Wesel, M. (2007). Webspijkeren 

I & II: wiskunde reparatie onderwijs. Onderwijsinnovatie, 2(17-26). 

Van der Wende, M. C. (2001). Internationalisation policies: about new trends and contrasting paradigms. 

Higher Education Policy, 14(3), 249-259. 

Van der Wende, M. C. (2003). Globalisation and Access to Higher Education. Journal of Studies in 

International Education, 7(2), 193-206. 

Wieland, A., Brouwer, N., Kaper, W., Heck, A., Tempelaar, D., Rienties, B., et al. (2007). Factoren die een 


15. 



The authors would like to thank the EU Lifelong Learning programme funding the S.T.E.P. project, which 

enabled this research project. This publication reflects the views only of the authors, and the Commission 

cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein. 


Modelling Mobile Agent Mobility in Virtual Learning Environment 

(VLE) using Fitness function 

Divina Melomey, Godfried Williams, Chris Imafidon, Roy Perryman 

University of East London, School of Computing and Technology 

Docklands Campus, United Kingdom, 

{divina,G.Williams,chris12, perryman }@uel.ac.uk 

Abstract: Virtual learning Environments are driven by distributed systems. Effective 

distributed systems communications requires intelligent mobility as a vehicle to enabling 

seamless resource sharing and access to services. The nature of VLEs requires software 

tools for managing and making learning enjoyable and less painstaking. Mobile agents 

enable different software and services to collaborate in information sharing, adapt to new 

service requirements, demonstrate cooperation in a system environment, however being 

independent and autonomous. These requirements are essential in achieving mobility in 

VLEs. This work presents a novel fitness function as a key feature of a generic software 

methodology for modeling mobile agent mobility in VLEs. 

Introduction 

Virtual Learning Environments (VLEs) are group of software used for managing and enhancing 

learning electronically (Roach & Stiles, 1998). This facilities and functionality enables tutors, instructors 

and students communicate online (Ginsburg, 1998). VLE should have the capabilities to enhance student 

learning experience based on the requirements of the programme a student is enrolled hence enriching 

students learning experience. Heaton-Shrestha, , Ediringha, Burke and Linsey (2005) also defined VLE as 

web-based software products providing sets of internet tools to enable teaching materials to be managed. 

Pablo and Wallace (2001) explained the VLE is not only dependent on the its accessibility, availability and 

the integration of the technology for the benefits of students but rather on the willingness of tutors to 

embrace and use computers for the delivery of course materials. Apart from VLE supporting teaching, 

learning and certain administrative functions, it also has the ability to facilitate communications among 

learners (Booth & Hulten 2003). The modes of communication are both asynchronous and synchronous. 

Again, VLE mode of delivery can be synchronous, asynchronous and/or both (Chen, Li & Shyu, 2003). 

These forms of communications are emails, booking appointments, negotiating assignment deadlines, 

social interactions with other students via blackboard learning. 

This paper reports on a study conducted to ascertain the requirement for developing Virtual 

Learning Environments (VLEs) and how these needs are met using fitness function for modelling the 

solution to meet the requirements and demands of such as system. The systems used for this study was 

University of East London blackboard Learning System called UEL Plus. We realized that UEL Plus has 

multiple features to support teaching and learning. UEL Plus provides an improved communication, access 

to resources and advanced assessment capabilities. Our study focused fundamentally on the UEL Plus 

which part of VLE. The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2 will describe end user 

categories and section 3 will highlight the mobile agents as a solution. Section 4 will introduce mobile 

agent fitness function and Section 5 will discusses the mobility in VLE in section 6 draws conclusions. 

User Categories 

We identified two main user groups for this study. They are front-end and back-end users. 

According to Sampson, Karagiannidis, Schenone and Cardinali (2002) formal, vocational, life long and 

occasional learners fall under the front end users category while individuals, software houses and other 

organization whose main interest are developing management learning and virtual learning software. Basic 

functions and or task on a VLEs are; 

1. Authentication and authorization 

2. Editing and saving personal settings 

3. Navigation through the site 


4. Using available communication tools 

5. Building course content 

6. Assessment 

7. File Upload 

Front end users need these basic functions to be user friendly and easily accessible. This form of 

interactions between users and the software is at the heart of e-learning development. 

Back end users uses information and input from the front end users to map up these functions of 

the front end users to the solution provided by back end users with respect to developing knowledge 

repositories and resources. 

Mobile Agents an Alternative Solution 

Our experiences in evaluating UEL Plus identified certain areas where an agent could be used in 

modeling interactions and communications during the systems development as we believe that it will 

considerably improve performance and front end user experiences of UEL Plus. The areas where we had 

feedback relating to front end user experiences were: 

§ Uploading of files 

§ Maintaining files and folders on VLE 

§ Using communication tools for creating asynchronous discussion, emails and chat 

§ Monitoring and tracking progress of students 

§ Other emerging technologies that could be added on 

Based on these feedbacks, we proposed a solution into the modelling of mobility in mobile agent 

for VLEs. Gutl et al. (2004) identified three main objectives as an innovative solution in e-learning 

systems. These objectives were; 

§ Personalized retrieval of information, 

§ Presentation and management of relevant learning material in a timely fashion; ability to 

support teaching and learning paradigms and lastly 

§ An improvement on knowledge with respect to front end users behaviour in human to 

computer interaction. 

In the following section we will show how we used the fitness function to model solutions for the 

critical areas of applications that require mobility such as VLEs. 

MOBILITY FITNESS FUNCTION 

Mobility fitness function is a function derived from an algorithm, based on the concept of survival 

of the fittest in genetics. In this section we defined elements for the mobility requirement for the mobile 

agent. The list is not exhaustive but only a representation for the fitness function. 

Let F be the function denoting key mobility requirements for a mobile agent. 

Let f1 to f15 be elements in the same set F. 

f1 = Synchronization 

f2 = Latency 

f3 = Abstraction 

f4 = Polymorphism 

f5 = Inheritance 

f6 = Persistency 

f7 = Calling 

f8 = Invocation 

f9 = Message Passing 

f10 = Naming 


f11 = Addressing 

f12 = Encoding 

f13 = Availability 

f14 = Replication 

f15 = Self Protective and Certified 

Melomey, Williams, Imafidon, & Perryman (2008) established the implementation of generic 

mobility fitness function based on the following steps: 

§ Initial population should be randomly created for mobile agent m(0) 

§ the fitness function U(m) should be computed for each individual mobile agent m in current 

population m(t) 

§ probability for selection p(m) for each individual mobile agent in m(t) should be defined, such 

that the probability p(m) is equal to U(m) 

§ m (t + 1) generated 

§ Selection of individual mobile agents using probability m(t) to produce new agents which is 

known as offspring via crossover, mutation or reproduction 

Let F(X) = (x1…..xn) 

The fitness function U (m) = (x1…..xn) 

Where U (m) = (1/e+x) 2 

n 

U (m) = m (t) + m (t+1) f(x) 

x=1 

The above expression represents a fitness function in an inverse relationship to a fitness solution. 

The fitness solution derived from the fitness function is applied in the second of the four major phases thus; 

1. Mobility requirement 

2. Mobility analysis 

3. Mobility design and 

4. Implementation of code. 

Fitness Function for VLE 

In the following subsection we will show how we used our fitness function to provide solution for 

VLE issues identified in section 2. 

Addressing 

There are certain elements that need to be present for an entity say agent to be able to travel from 

its platform of origin Hpi to a host platform Vpn. These requirements are required to perform address 

resolution prior to process migration. Three elements that need to be present are: 

Receiver identification (RID) 

Packet identification (PID) 

Transmission Frequency of physical layer (TF) 

Let R be the set requirement RID, PID, TF 

Let H be the set header fields that contains control information 

L be length of the packet 

p be payload type 

s be sequence numbers 

i be integrity check information 


R H 

Each computing platform is identified by global assigned address. A process will be able to 

migrate if it contains a header field carrying control information. The address resolution client which is the 

host platform needs to verify the integrity, authenticity and the logical address for resolving information 

sent across different platforms. 

A platform hosting each mobile agent need to ensure mobile agents on its platform has a valid 

server and address resolution is also valid. Authorisation of available address to be used should be 

authorised by servers in order to ensure validity of the address. 

Replication 

High availability of services is paramount to mobile distributed computing as it enhances 

performance. It is a technique that is used to maintain copies of data in geographically dispersed 

environment and also as a back up in the event of loss of data or a systems failure (Coulouris, Dollimore, & 

Kindberg, 2005). The fitness of a replica will be measured in real time by the function of the differences in 

elapsed time. This ensures consistency and correctness at anytime for events. This represented as: 

F (t): ft+1 – ft-1 

Where ft+1 is the current time replica server was accessed 

ft-1 last known time a replica was accessed 

Remote Method Invocation (RMI) 

A method transparently invoked from process A to process B across a network as if it were a local 

method is termed as remote method invocation (Coulouris et al.2005; Williams 2000). This holds true for 

object oriented language rather than a procedural language. Invoking a method remotely involves two 

processes: 

1. a reference to the remote object 

2. a registry to store remote references 

Let n be the number of identified elements for solution X 

xi be elements in X 

f(xi ) the fitness of xi 

The fitness of F can then be defined as 

n 

F (X) = 1 /n f (xi); n>0 

i=1 

We define the average fitness above as average fitness for the elements in the mobility requirements as 

identified. 

F(x): Hpi Vpn 

Persistency 

The Object Management Group (OMG) service stipulates a typical structure for persistency. This 

should consist of persistent ID, persistent object, persistent object manager, persistent data store and 

protocol. A persistent object or entity that need to travel from Home platform (Hp1) to visit (n) number of 

visiting platform (Vpn) require a reference ID, a dynamic state that lives the duration of the process and a 

persistent state that will be used for reconstruction of the dynamic state in case of a failure. These 

conditions qualified for an entity to be mobile in an environment. 


Naming services 

The Sun Microsystem naming services system administration guide defines naming services as a 

central repository that computers, end users, and applications communicate together across the network. In 

this work, we also define name services as integrated services that manages all name information and 

hierarchies and also as an autonomous feature for transparency and persistency of entities (Melomey et al. 

2007). Its function is to provide basic function and mapping of name to address on the network. In order to 

get the remote computer’s address, the program must request assistance from say Hp1 from the domain 

name services (DNS) database running on that platform. DNS is a naming service which provides 

identification for computers on the internet . The name server uses Hp1 as part of the request to find IP 

address of the remote computer. The name server returns this IP address to the Hp1 only if the host name is 

in its database. It uses a logical tree to resolve names as part of the service 

Synchronization 

Synchronization is important to maintain consistency of processes from Hp to Vpn at any given 

time (Coulouris et al.2005). The concept of clock synchronization deals with the understanding of ordering 

of events occurrence as produced by current processes. These events occur between message sender and 

message recipient for example from process A to process B. Clock synchronization is required to provide 

mechanism that can assign numbers sequentially based on agreement between sending and receiving 

processes. Several algorithms were developed over past decades. Lamport (1978) introduced the concept of 

an event happening before another in distributed environment. The notion is illustrated between event a 

and b; a b where a “happens before”b. Another algorithm developed by Lamport and Meilliar-Smith 

(1985) require a reliable connected network to handle fault. Christian’s algorithm measures in local time 

the time at which a message is sent (T0) and the time at which a message is received (T1). This is done by 

issuing a remote procedure call to a time server to obtain the time. The delay in the network is then 

estimated as (T1- T0)/2 (Christian, 1989). Hence the new time can be said to be the time returned by the 

server and in addition to time elapsed by the server to generate the timestamp. This is expressed by 

Time new = Timeserver + (T1- T0)/2. There is also the Berkeley algorithm which was developed by Gusella 

and Zatti (1989). Berkeley algorithm was based on the assumption that any computer on the network has 

an accurate time which can be used for synchronizing time between processes. This assumption may 

introduce delays and losses depending on the network and also due to the distributed nature in accessing the 

network and the processing capabilities on the learning system. 

Let S = Synchronization 

Hp = visiting platform 

Vp = visiting platform 

Vpn = n visiting platform 

Pn = n number of processes 

The timescale for measuring s is important where S which synchronisation is a derivative of the f(x) 

which is f /s. Measuring the short time for n processes is dependent on how fast changes occur in the 

system. The time range between which n process leaves Hp and arrives at Vpn can be expressed as: 

t+ t 

F(x) t = f(s) dt where the interval is [t, t+t] 

t 

F(x) is a complex system during its evolution; the system may change its own F 

Discussion 

In our study using UEL Plus, we analyzed feedback, identified student lecturer issues and 

evaluated mobility solutions for back-end user category. Solutions we designed using mobile agent oriented 

approach addressed synchronization, remote method invocation, addressing and naming services, 

persistency and replication of data. We examined the persistency of data and how they were mapped into 

the objects. We enabled the mobile entity to have an internal mechanism which acts as a persistency layer 

such that it will encapsulate database access from other objects. In this manner, data persist after any form 


of interruption and interaction occurs during the course. A fitness function for modelling and testing 

features appropriate for persistency of objects is critical in such as environment. 

Front end users are more interested in up to date, timely and current state of databases. This 

implies that concurrent data access and update of repositories should be synchronized. This is more crucial 

when it comes to coursework submission for group projects, where continuous and joints updates are 

required from individual team members when approaching deadlines. Synchronization then becomes an 

issue for the back end users to deal with in order to ensure consistency of data, processes and clock 

synchronization of various remote devices connected to the network infrastructure. Our work indicates that 

there is a connection between replication of data at various server locations with respect to change in time 

among primary and secondary servers. This also applies to resolution of names and addresses. 

We had the understanding that front-end users were looking for a unified point of authentication 

for ensuring coherent and an organized teaching and learning resource platform. Consistent and coordinated 

naming of objects and identification of processes underpins the need for metadata as a means of providing 

effective mobility. These needs are met based on the conditions that must be met for remote method or data 

invocation’s fitness function criteria. The fitness function measures the suitability for elements mobility in 

the VLE. 

Conclusion 

In this paper, we presented an overview of VLE and user categorization. We also presented fitness 

function for mobility as alternative solution to traditional approaches in eliciting requirements for 

implementing mobility in VLEs. This mobility fitness function was further illustrated by applying it for 

mobility element requirements specification. This was further narrowed down to individual mobility 

requirement mapped unto their fitness solution applicable to the development of VLE and it was used to 

provide a solution tailored for simulating effective mobility in UEL Plus. 

Currently, work is being done to integrate this fitness function as part of a generic methodology 

for capturing mobility in mobile agent based systems and applications. This when concluded will provide a 

standard methodology for building applications where mobile agents are seen as an alternative approach to 

information systems development. 

References 

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Learning with Eye-Tracking): Theoretical Background, System Architecture and Application 

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Teaching Part-time Students Using Computer Supported 

Collaborative Learning 

Harald Wahl, Christian Kaufmann, Alexander Mense, Robert K. Pucher, University of Applied Sciences 

Technikum Wien, Vienna, Austria 

wahl@technikum-wien.at 

Abstract: The University of Applied Sciences Technikum Wien offers 11 bachelor 

degree programs and 15 master degree programs. Students can choose between full-time 

and part-time programs. Most of the part-time students are pursuing a profession. 

Therefore, their amount of time of attendance is much less than the amount of time that 

full-time students spend in class. For part-time students special suitable teaching methods 

need to be introduced to ensure a top quality education. Especially for this part-time 

students the University of Applied Sciences Technikum Wien offers different types of E- 

Learning and Computer Supported Collaborative Learning via different online tools like 

the Campus Information System (CIS), instructor moderated newsgroups, Wikis and 

others. 

Computer Supported Collaborative Learning as well as some other combinations of non 

traditional teaching methods is used by the authors in several courses. This paper shows 

some best practices in using a variety of teaching methods. It even evaluates the 

experiences especially in courses for part-time students. 

Introduction 

The University of Applied Sciences Technikum Wien offers 11 bachelor degree programs and 15 

master degree programs. Especially at master degree level most of the studies are part-time programs. 

Students are used to be employed. They attend university classes only a few days a week in the evening and 

contact time between students and lecturers is as well limited as the time they stay learning together with 

other students. Because of this fact it was essential to rethink organization of learning and teaching. 

Therefore new technologies and mainly new teaching methods have been introduced at the Technikum 

Wien. 

The authors try to answer some questions like: 

• Do Computer Supported Collaborative Learning methods close the gap between less time of 

attendance and a high quality education? 

• Acquiring knowledge is just one important factor of education at universities and higher 

education means more than just knowledge transfer. Today’s businesses require also some 

“soft facts” like the ability for team working. Do the designed teaching methods also affect 

other skills of students? Do they influence social skills like communication or the ability to 

work in a team? 

• Can Computer Supported Collaborative Learning also help to support Self Directed Learning? 

Computer Supported Collaborative Learning and E-Learning at the 

Technikum Wien 

“Computer Supported Collaborative Learning and E-Learning” includes the phrases computer 

support, collaborative learning, and the all-embracing E-Learning. These indicate different steps of 

integrative complexity. Lecturers at the Technikum Wien can choose a wide range of possible technologies. 

The Campus Information System (CIS) 

At the Technikum Wien a centralized web platform called the Campus Information System (CIS) 

supports students and lectures in their daily work. On the one hand all relevant information about university 

life and on the other hand all important information about lectures are presented. Every lecturer and every 

student get a personalized view to focus on his or her personally needed information. So for example 


lecturers see all lectures they have to teach with all possibilities for adding teaching documents or assessing 

students. Students have access to all necessary documents; they can view their remarks, or request their 

individual time schedules. 

Figure 1 shows a personalized view for a lecturer. The area indicated by number 1 gives access to 

some organizational parts like the personal time schedule or an overview of all lectures. The areas at the 

right show information and possibilities to administrate one specific lecture. In this case the lecture with 

topic Database Design is shown. Area number 2 offers possibilities to organize the lecture regarding to the 

curriculum or to manage documents needed for the learning process. Area number 3 links to the newsgroup 

server. By default each single lecture has its specific newsgroup that can be subscribed. Experiences about 

newsgroups can be seen below. Finally, area number 4 allows assessing students. 

Figure 1. A lecturer’s personalized view at the CIS. 

Using the CIS, each single lecture can be planned independently. One can choose the complexity 

of electronic support, starting by simply providing electronic documents up to a full integration of the E- 

Learning platform Moodle – from the simplest way of Computer Supported Learning to Computer 

Supported Collaborative Learning. 

Download directories 

The easiest way to support students by electronic documents is to provide documents for 

download. For all lectures a download directory is accessible form everywhere over the internet. A 

drawback of this method is that the one and only way to structure these documents is storing them into 

subdirectories or by naming conventions. Communication – if it is communication at all – is done just in 

one direction namely from the lecturer (he or she provides the documents) to the students (they download 

the documents). 

Newsgroups and instructor moderated forums 

Every lecture is linked to a specific newsgroup at the Technikum Wien newsgroup server as well 

as to a web based forum. The lecturer chooses the usage of one of these technologies. 

In both cases it is a one-to-many communication, i.e. it is done from one single person to all others 

who have access to the newsgroup and the way around. Everyone can ask a question that can be answered 

from anyone, even from the lecturer. All statements can be viewed by everyone. There is a tiny difference 


newsgroups an instructor moderated forums where an instructor, i.e. the lecturer, has more potential to 

structure the discussion entries. He/She has even the possibility to edit posts. 

While the quality of newsgroup postings highly depends on discipline of the students the forum 

entries can more easily be structured and controlled. The lecturer’s role is to guide the students. Figure 2 

shows the newsgroup entries for a lecture Database Systems. It shows the posts of students or lecturers and 

the indented corresponding answers and re-posts. 

Figure 2. Some posts at the newsgroup of Database Systems. 

Wiki System 

The Wiki System at the Technikum Wien is a web based application with a specific rights 

management. The Wiki is structured into namespaces (i.e. the lectures are shown on the left part of page as 

can be seen in Figure 3). Students and lecturers of a lecture have access to the corresponding namespace. 

Access means that one is allowed to read the content of a namespace (compare the right part of page in 

Figure 3). Specifically access in the Wiki means that all these users are also allowed to edit the content. A 

characteristic of a Wiki is the possibility to quickly and easily edit the content. Wikis are an easy to use 

way for supporting collaborative learning. 


Figure 3. A content page of the Technikum Wien Wiki. 

Moodle 

This year the open source E-Learning platform Moodle was launched at the FH Technikum Wien. 

This platform allows lots of learning and teaching methods including all above mentioned techniques. As 

Moodle is brand new at the Technikum Wien there does not exist many experiences so far. 

Best Practices of Teaching Methods 

Using computer supported teaching methods differs completely from traditional teaching methods. 

It is absolutely necessary to work out a concrete concept of the planned lecture. Some best practices of the 

authors especially in using Wiki systems are mentioned here. 

Group puzzle in combination with a Wiki system 

A group puzzle is a self organized learning method where the learning content of a course is split 

up in parts an worked out by student in teamwork. A group puzzle is operated in two phases. Phase one is 

called the research phase and phase two is called the explanation phase. In the first phase, students form 

groups. Each so called “expert group” has to do a specific topic, which means reading articles and research 

books and the internet on that subject. The result is a compendium of the important facts for a topic which 

will be used in the following phase. The second phase is characterized by reorganizing the groups. Every 

new formed group must contain at minimum one member of every group of the first phase. Based on the 

documentation done in the expert phase a representative of each phase one group explains his research 

topic to the other members of his new group. All members explain their specific research topics. 

The crucial points of this method can be summarized as: 

• Deep understanding of research topic 

• Good documentation of essentials of research topic 

• Concrete explanation in phase two 

• Willingness of discussion 

Some of the points can be supported easily by the lecturer except for the quality of documentation 

– a fact that leads to poor learning outcome. As a consequence it is very important to get the students to 

prepare high quality documentation in the expert phase. A solution can be found by forcing the students to 

write the actual state of research into a Wiki system. At any time everybody can look at the current state of 

documentation. Lecturers can evaluate the quality of Wiki entries and can give direction quickly. 


Experiences 

The main effort for using traditional teaching methods is mainly given in the preparation of a 

course, i.e. before the lecture starts. Computer supported (collaborative) learning works best if the lecturers 

assist the students. Lecturers’ availability at any time points out to be the major effort. 

The problem of little time of attendance 

Part-time students are used to attend less time at university than full-time students do. Here 

computer supported (collaborative) learning methods should help. Collaborative in this context mostly 

means virtual team work on the students’ side. But it means team work in the field of cooperation between 

students and lecturers as well. Lecturers’ main task is to guide the students on their way. Guidance can be 

obtained by defining a concrete structure for learning. But even controlling the actual progress of the 

students and forcing them to work further on can be a form of guidance. 

What about social skills? 

What are social skills? Can social skills be measured by the way how students communicate? Can 

it be measured by the way they manage themselves and a team they are working with? Or are social skills 

also the ability to objectively evaluate others or the work of others? For sure, social skills are much more. 

But communication and evaluation can simply be implemented by computer supported methods. 

Communication is the main factor for the success of reaching a team goal. If two-way assessment is part of 

the final remark students learn to neutrally assess each others. 

Is self directed learning far apart? 

Lecturers can assist self directed learning by pre-organizing the learning process and predefining 

structures. But self directed learning is sometimes a lack of motivation for the needed effort. Highly 

motivated students mostly do not have problems to organize themselves and to learn in a self directed way. 

The others for example, can be supported by using team dynamics. The group puzzle for example has 

dependencies, if students in the first round do not fulfill their task properly students in the second round 

cannot benefit from the team work. Assistance in communication can overcome that kind of difficulties. 

Conclusion 

Computer supported learning at the Technikum Wien has a wide range of possibilities. The 

simplest way is achieved providing electronic documents but even computer supported collaborative 

learning is possible. Due to less time of attendance especially part-time students need a higher grade of 

support. Well designed courses and the right set of methods are needed. 

References 

H Wahl, A Mense, A Nimmervoll, RK Pucher, H Gollner and F Schmöllebeck. (2008). An Innovative 

Combination of non Traditional Teaching Methods for Learning in Small Groups. Proceedings of 

the International Conference PBL2008 ABP, Colima, Mexico, January 30 - February 1. 

H Wahl, RK Pucher, A Hofmann, A Mense, H Gollner and F Schmöllebeck. (2006). Handle Team Changes 

in Student Projects – the Example of the Vienna Cubes. Proceedings of the International 

Conference PBL2006 ABP, Lima, Peru, July 17-24. 

H Wahl, A Hofmann, T Kraft, P Kleinrath, RK Pucher, A Mense, A Nimmervoll. (2004). Practical 

Experience of a Self Organizing Multidisciplinary PBL Project. Proceedings of the International 

Conference PBL2004, Cancun Mexico, June 13-19. 

R.K. Pucher, A. Mense, H. Wahl and F. Schmöllebeck. (2003). Intrinsic Motivation of Students in Project 

Based Learning. The Transactions of the SA Institute of Electrical Engineers, Vol 94 No 3, pp 6-9 

September. 

RK Pucher, H Wahl, A Mense. How to Motivate Students in Project Based Learning, Proceedings of the 

Africon 2002 (IEEE Group 8), George, RSA, Oktober 1-4 2002. 


Digitizing Courses for Flexible Educational Scenarios 

Gaby Lutgens, Henk van Berkel, Maastricht University, The Netherlands 

g.lutgens@ub.unimaas.nl, h.vanberkel@educ.unimaas.nl 

Abstract: Working in an environment supporting teachers to enhance their courses with 

e-learning tools, we constantly try to offer facilities for teaching and learning and see 

what effects they have. Not always in an experimental setting, no on the contrary, often in 

a quick and dirty way to see what obstacles arise, what first glimpse impressions are and 

how a larger scale implementation could be organized. In this way we decided to offer as 

much learning material in a digital format as possible for one specific course. All learning 

resources were reduced to hyperlinks and lectures were recorded for online publication. 

By doing this, we tried to answer the question whether the effort was compensated by the 

added value of digitizing. The retrospective conclusion is that digitizing should only be 

done in situations in which the students are not able to attend regularly or if reuse of 

material is an option. 

Introduction 

In a society where lifelong learning has been adopted as a standard, discussions have changed 

from how to support learners to become expert information gatherers to how to educate learners to become 

excellent knowledge builders. This, of course, affects several aspects of the education system; choosing 

educational scenarios in which students learn how to relate every day problems to learning goals and 

activities (problem based learning (Barrows, 1997)), inquiry teaching (Collins & Stevens, 1983), learning 

how to be aware of the complexity of daily practice (cognitive flexibility (Spiro, Feltovich, Jacobson, & 

Coulson, 1992)) and how to become partner in learning (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1996). Together with the 

constantly evolving educational technology and change in the student population, regarding age and 

geographical spread, these theories are often elaborated making use of several tools for distance education 

and e-learning (Sharples, 2000). And with more and more master, part time students and students studying 

a considerable period abroad, teachers notice a substantial and growing part of their students not attending 

lectures or other face-to-face meetings or going to the university library to study. Therefore they ask for 

online solutions and universities decide to develop tools, services and well adapted educational scenarios. 

This seems in line with the trend that educational institutions shift from the place where teaching and 

learning occurs to places where education is developed and distributed from, while teaching and learning 

take place at any time and place (Savin, 2006). 

To answer the question whether the Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences at the University of 

Maastricht could enhance the attractiveness of the educational program by digitizing all study material and 

offering video registrations of the lectures, a pilot was conducted within a bachelor course. Without doubt, 

students think this is nice, but does the output compensate the efforts needed to realize this? And what 

possibilities arise from a service like this for future use in order to attract more part time master students 

and students from other parts of the continent or even further away? 

Method: what has been done? 

The pilot took place within a standard bachelor course: Psychology and Health (course 1.4a, 

2007/8). This course is attended by that amount of students (around 300) that efforts and outcomes would 

be of any significance. 

In stead of offering a standard e-reader, all (chapters of) books were scanned and together with 

links to e-journals, urls and other digital material brought together in an e-reader plus . In total 793 pages have 

been scanned, ranging from four pages to nine chapters of a book. The making of this e-reader plus took 20 

hours work (16 more then offering links to online material in combination with a list of hard copy 

material). The students could find this in the institutional used electronic learning environment (eleUM). 

Besides the e-reader plus , the standard UL-collection was also available to the students. The e-learning team 

from the University Library also supported the block coordinator in the design and use of his eleUM 

course. 


Besides digitizing all learning resources, the lectures were also recorded and offered in eleUM 

(nine, taking place within a period of eight weeks). Lecturers were informed on this and instructed to 

ensure a qualitative good recording. Before actually offering the recordings, they had to be converted and 

made available via a video-server. The recording, converting and publishing were taken care of by the 

faculty. This took eleven days of work (88 hours). Connected to the publication of the videos, discussion 

boards were made available in which the students could submit questions on the lectures. The idea was to 

offer a place for prolongued interaction on the content of the lectures. The server the videos were stored on, 

has afterwards been logged to evaluate the use of the online lectures. 

After the final test at the end of the course students were invited to fill in a questionnaire to 

express their experiences and opinion on the services (N=245, 96% response rate). The results on this 

questionnaire have been related to the test scores. In addition to the students perspective, also the lecturers 

were asked to express their experiences. 

Results 

(Altered) behaviour in relation to the learning resources 

62% of the respondents stated having used the learning resources more then compared to previous 

courses. 46% also searched for additional information, besides what was (digitally) offered. 12% answered 

not having used the e-readerplus at all. Reasons for this were not wanting to print (4%), not in favour of 

studying form a computer screen (8%) or prefered studying in the university library itself (3%). 

Other experiences and facts regarding the learning resources 

According to the reasons the respondents gave for using the digitally offered literature (or not), 

they often mentioned the time gain; the e-reader components are easy to print, you do not have to come to 

the library to search, find and study or copy the material or find digital copies by yourself. Also the money 

saving aspect was mentioned; students do not have to copy to study the material at home, it is possible to 

read from the screen. These are the main reasons that 94% of the students think it is of high value that the 

literature is offered online (sometimes next to hard copies in the library). The quality of the online material 

is also valued high. 

(Altered) behaviour in relation to the (video) lectures 

The majority of the students stated to come as often to the lectures as they would have done 

without the possibility to watch them in eleUM. The lecturers confirmed this and noted no decrease in 

students present. What might have been changed is the number of students that in total ‘attended’ the 

lectures (both actual present and the ones watching only the video lectures). This corresponds to the 

feedback that 40% of the students having watched the video lectures did this because they had not been 

able to attend. 

Figure 1 shows what (fragments of) editions have been clicked on (and on what date). It shows 

that after every lecture took place it was also visited in eleUM. Of course one can see towards the end of 

the block more fragments were (re)watched (in preparation of the final test), but also that even after this test 

(scheduled on the first of April), students kept watching the video lectures. 


Figure 1. Amount of fragment views per day. The arrow points to the date the final test took 

place. 

Not visible in this graph, but derived from the server log, is the fact that students watched the 

video lectures both day and night (mainly between 15:00 and 22:00 hours) and that they mainly watched 

while connected to the university network (94%). 

The knowledge of being able to watch the lectures again, did not affect the amount or way of 

taking notes during the lectures. Only 16% stated they made less notes then they would have done without 

the video lectures. 

Other experiences and opinions 

Most students watch the online lectures at least once during the course. 40% instead of attending, 

30% as a second chance option. This is affirmed by the server logs, indicating students mainly browsing for 

fragments of lectures, knowing what to look for, instead of watching whole lecture registrations. Striking is 

that students stating having used the online lectures for test preparation score significantly lower on the test 

(mean score 5.8 against 6.8). Assuming that watching or re-attending does not negatively affect the amount 

of knowledge on the topic, suggests that perhaps the weaker or less confident students tend to use the 

opportunity of rehearsal. The opinion of the lower scoring students differs as well: they less appreciate the 

online lectures, and do not feel the face-to-face lectures can be substituted by online lectures. 

Although the students could submit questions or start discussions on the content of the lectures in 

a lecture related discussion board, they hardly did this. 60% of the students stated not having had the need 


to submit questions on the content of the lectures at all, and if so they preferred to do this during the face to 

face meetings. Only 60 contributions were submitted to the discussion board, from which half related to 

topics like changes of rooms, not being able to find information or other not content related topics. Besides 

this lecure discussion board students could discuss task-related topics in forums connected to each of seven 

tasks. This was done to even lesser extent: 27 contributions in total, related to four of the seven tasks. The 

block coordinator participated actively in all these forums. 

Responding the question whether the online services had (positively) influenced their learning or 

level of understanding, 50% agreed on the idea that this had raised their personal outcome. And 80% of the 

respondents claim that the quality of the course has been raised by digitizing the lectures and resources. The 

quality was rated high, the added value as well. During the course one of the students reported problems 

downloading the lectures at her home computer and asked for a copy on DVD or a version to be 

downloaded on USB-device. This could not be done due to restrictions in order to prevent unauthorized use 

or sharing of the material. But inquiring after the need of students to be able to watch the lectures via 

podcasting (on their cell phones or i-pods) only 12% responded to really like this option, 30% would 

perhaps use this podcasting option if made available. 

Results of the course related evaluation 

Besides the experiment related questionnaire, students filled out the standard course evaluation in 

order to compare the opinions on quality of (several aspects of) the course with other courses (these 

students participated in) and previous versions of the same course. According to results of these standard 

evaluations, one can conclude the course has been graded higher on practically all aspects; the overall 

opinion on the course increased from 6.6 to 7.4 (on a scale of 10), while time spent on the study went up 

from 10.5 hours to 13.6 hours per week. The appreciation of the lectures increased from 5.7 to 6.8. On top 

of this the results on the final test showed a increase of scores; 8% more students passed the final test 

compared to the previous year, with a slightly higher score (6.4 compared to 6.3 last year). 

Results in short 

• Digitizing all learning material (literature and lectures) meant 13 days more work then usual; 

• Literature has been referred to more often (due to topic or course in relation to others or becasue the 

literature is easier to consult because of the digitizing?); 

• The appreciation of the digital resources is high; 

• Main reasons for this are the time gain and the ease of printing on demand; 

• Both lecturers and students state lectures are visited as much as before; 

• Most students watch the video lectures. 40% instead of attending, 30% as a rehearsal option; 

• 75% of the respondents stated to use the video lectures to prepare for the test (Note: the students who 

really did so according to the server log, scored lower on the test); 

• 50% of the respondents do not feel the online lectures and resources having influenced their level of 

understanding, 50% thinks the level reached is higher then would have been reached without; 

• 8% more students passed the final test compared to the previous year, with a slightly higher score (6.4 

compared to 6.3 last year); 

• 80% of the students feels the quality of the course has been raised by digitizing. 

Discussion & conclusion 

Although the students highly appreciate the fact that all material has been offered in an online 

format, the costs do not seem to compensate the results (in the case of a course for ‘on campus’ students). 

If, however, reuse is possible, for instance for a part time or distance education version (sometimes running 

parallel), or if the content is of such complexity ‘attending’ a lecture again and possibly prolongue 

discourse, the idea is that digitizing lectures is worthwhile. The same goes for the literature: only for 

students not able to visit the library on a regular basis or if more interactivity with the material can be 

offered (like linking to other sources, or a marking or annotation function), the expenses for digitizing (in 

cooperation with the publishers) seem to be justified. Important to be aware of is the opportunity lecture 

registrations offer for reuse; instead of inviting students to come to the university to listen a teacher orate, 

one could cut lectures in pieces and combining them with assignments, offer them online and have students 


elaborate on the fragments in several ways. You offer the students material to plan their study in a more 

flexible way, but you also make the material more flexible (based on a wider variety in teaching and 

learning modes). If this affects the content of the lecture needs to be focused on. The topic of podcasting is 

another one: can this make the learning environment even more flexible and how does it affect the content 

and organization of the course? Also the aspect of online discourse on material needs further study; what do 

students need to start online conversations on study topics? And can these really contribute to better 

understanding and higher participation of students? 

References used 

Barrows, H.S (1997). What your tutor may never tell you: a guide in problem based learning. Revised 

edition, Springfield IL. 

Collins, A. & Stevens, A.L. (1983). A cognitive theory of inquiry teaching. In C.M. Reigeluth (Ed.), 

Instructional-design theories and models: an overview of their current status. Hillsdale New 

Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum. 

Jacobson, M.J. & Spiro, R.J. (1993). Hypertext learning environments, cognitive flexibility and the transfer 

of complex knowledge: an empirical investigation. Center for the study of reading, Urbana, 

Illinois. 

Savin, M. (2006). Problem based learning online. Maidenhead, open Universities Press. 

Scardamalia, M. & Bereiter, C. (1996). Computer support for knowledge building communities. In T. 

Koschmann (Ed.), CSCL: Theory and practice of an emerging paradigm, 249-268. Mahwah, NJ: 

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 

Sharples, M. (2000). The design of personal mobile technologies for lifelong learning. Computers & 

Education, vol 34, 177-193 

Spiro, R.J., Feltovich, P.J., Jacobson, M.J., & Coulson, R.L. (1992). Cognitive flexibility, constructivism 

and hypertext: Random access instruction for advanced knowledge acquisition in ill-structured 

domains. In T. Duffy & D. Jonassen (Eds.), Constructivism and the Technology of Instruction. 

Hillsdale, NJ: 

References to be used for further implementation 

Salmon, G. (2008). Podcasting for learning in universities. Maidenhead, Open Universities Press. 

Savin, M. (2007). A practical guide to problem-based learning online. London: Routledge. 

Weller, M. (2007). Virtual learning environments: using, choosing and developing your VLE. London: 

Routledge. 


From Virtual Mobility to Virtual Erasmus 

- The European Portal of International Courses and Services 

Christina Brey, George Ubachs, European Association of Distance Teaching Universities (EADTU), 

Heerlen, The Netherlands 

christina.brey@eadtu.nl, george.ubachs@eadtu.nl 

Introduction 

In the political and societal discourse of the developments in higher education, students’ mobility 

has become increasingly important. But talking about student mobility usually means talking about physical 

mobility. You will immediately think about students in the beginning of their twenties packing up a 

suitcase and spending several months abroad. It means living and learning in a foreign country and sending 

postcards back home. But what about the growing number of students older, engaged in family and work 

life, the handicapped, less well off who cannot get a room in L’Auberge espagnole? What about the 

lifelong learner everyone is talking about? 

On the European level the current efforts to motivate and enable more students for spending time 

at a foreign university during their academic education are almost exclusively focused on physical mobility. 

This does not fit to the reality of today’s education system nor does it reflect the needs of today’s students. 

Several pilots have shown that virtual mobility serves as a supplement to the current forms of international 

student mobility considering the needs in lifelong learning. 

With this paper we would like to introduce the next major step taken in the field of Virtual 

Mobility: the conversion of Virtual Mobility to Virtual Erasmus, in terms of evolving from the pilot phase 

towards mainstream provision of Virtual Mobility for all universities. An important part of this is the 

development of the supporting infrastructure, here introduced as the European Portal of International 

Courses and Services (EPICS). 

Background 

The growing importance of international student mobility is embedded in the context of the 

changing landscape of higher education worldwide and can eventually be conceived as a result of three 

developments on a broader societal level. In a globalised world, people’s lives are less-and-less constrained 

by geographic proximity (Baumann, 2000; Stichweh, 2003). The world has become smaller and travelling 

as well as meeting people from foreign countries has become a regular routine for many of us. In the 

process of individualization, traditions and institutional regulations have eroded and in a “multiple-options 

society” (Gross, 1994) people can and have to make choices in all spheres of life, including their education, 

career and professional development (Beck, 2004). Finally, knowledge has become the major capital and 

creative force of today’s society. In a knowledge society knowledge has become a factor of production and 

labor is increasingly based on scientific skills. (Böhme, 1997; Gibbons 1995; Stehr, 1994; Weingart, 2003). 

Political initiatives on promoting international mobility of students go back as far as the late 1940s 

when the Fulbright Program was established. Since then many other national and international bodies have 

taken up activities in promoting international student mobility in higher education. Likely the most wellknown 

initiative on the European level is the Erasmus programme. Since its launch in 1987, the programme 

has been running for more than twenty years and has become a household name within European 

Academia. Until now, more than 1.7 million students have participated in the programme (1). 

Despite new ambitions to create a European Higher Education Area (European University 

Association, 2001), to endorse a fluid structure of mobility (European Commission 2006) and to make the 

Erasmus scheme an element of the new European Union’s Lifelong Learning Programme 2007-2013 with 

setting the target of doubling the current cumulative figure to three million individuals participating in 

Erasmus by 2012, the focus of the Erasmus programme (as well as other initiatives) was kept on physical 

mobility. But the statistics and more research carried out so far indicate the limits of what can be achieved 

through the current mechanism. Next to financial reason additional restricting factors such as being 


engaged in family and/or work life, health or special needs are playing a major role for many learners as 

well. However, lifelong learning must be available to all, without restrictions. 

Virtual mobility serves as an ideal supplement, a more flexible and cheaper mobility scheme, 

fitting the needs of non-mobile students and lifelong learners. As a general term, virtual mobility means 

“the use of information and communication technologies (ICT) to obtain the same benefits as one would 

have with physical mobility but without the need to travel” (eLearning Europa, cited in Bijnens et al, 2006). 

Furthermore, virtual mobility “offers access to courses and study schemes in a foreign country and allows 

for communication activities with teachers and fellow students abroad via the new information and 

communication technologies.” (EADTU Task Force on Virtual Mobility, 2004). Such a type of mobility 

does not only contribute to the original vision of the Erasmus programme on a truly European scale, but 

also add a new flexibility and breadth to the ambition of European student mobility. Furthermore, it offers 

more varied modes of study which can be shorter, time specific and place independent, as well as provide 

more personalised and more specialised opportunities for the student. One can imagine several dimensions 

of mobility in its virtual concept, including the creation of virtual learning communities, virtual projects 

and others. 

From pilot phase to mainstream 

Within the EADTU and other European networks, several initiatives and programmes on virtual 

mobility are already running resp. have been finalized. To highlight a few: In the project e-move: an 

operational analysis of virtual mobility (2006-2007) several virtual mobility courses were developed and 

implemented. In addition recommendations and procedures for wide scale applications have been published. 

With REVE (2005-2006) a manual on virtual mobility was published, giving support to teaching staff in 

implementing virtual mobility. In VM-base (2006-2008) a full-fletched ‘blended’ Erasmus action was setup 

and supported in oder to enhance the success of the Erasmus programme. The Net-Active project (2006- 

2008) initiated a European network of Master courses by intercontinental virtual mobility with Latin 

America. And finally CSVM (2006-2008) helped to bring distance students into online working via virtual 

internships and thus stimulate their employability (2). 

These activities have shown the profit of virtual mobility next to physical mobility. They help to 

overcome its obstacles and to mobilise students that are less likely or even excluded from participation in 

international studying. To make the best use of the knowledge and experiences gathered in the different 

projects and guarantee their sustainability in the course of the next two years EPICS will be developed. Its 

main features and key objectives, partnership and project set-up as well as target groups, impact and 

sustainability will be introduced in the following paragraph. 

EPICS - The European Portal of International Courses and Services 

Main features and key objectives 

The EPICS project’s main objective is to increase the number of student mobility throughout 

Europe and support the realisation of a European Higher Education Area by organising a Virtual Erasmus 

scheme. The idea is to have a centralized web portal showing all distance/e-learning courses available to 

international students. Those looking for international courses can find a selection of them on their own 

university’s website, provided from a central platform which is administered by the course providers. 

Universities will be given the possibility to offer a selection of courses made available for virtual mobility 

via a customized “window” to their students on EPICS. But only those international courses fitting and 

supplementing the offerings of that particular university will then be made accessible for their students. The 

student can take the available courses with the guaranteed recognition of credit points based on bi-lateral 

agreements amongst participating universities. As an additional option, students and universities will also 

be enabled to visit the full EPICS portal directly and view and select from all courses available. Thus 

EPICS provides a link between universities, students and courses all over Europe. Universities have the 

opportunity to share university courses and broaden the offerings to their students by international 

cooperation. 


In addition to the database, the portal will also include on-line services for offering high quality 

guided independent learning and support in organizing mainstream offering of virtual mobility in a Virtual 

Erasmus scheme. The focus in creating the portal is convergence not standardization or uniformity. It will 

be built on the fundamental principles of autonomy and diversity and embodies the value of coordinated 

reforms, compatible systems and common action. 

Next to setting up the EPICS portal several expert groups will be formed sharing their expertise 

and experience on relevant issues concerning virtual mobility. Their objective will be to institutionalize 

procedures and provide solid recommendations to common problems. These combined activities will 

support European universities in making their offerings internationally available and to solve administrative 

issues, currently preventing them from making their courses available to international students. 

Partnership and Project Set-up 

EPICS is a two-year project which has been approved under the European Commission’s Lifelong 

Learning Programme/Erasmus/Virtual Campuses. It will start in November 2008. The EPICS partnership 

consists of 11 partners from 10 European countries: 

Table 1: Partnership of the EPICS-project 

European Association of Distance Teaching Universities (EADTU) – The Netherlands 

Co-ordinator 

EuroPACE Belgium 

Swedish Agency for Networks and Cooperation in Higher Education Sweden 

(NSHU) 

Open Universiteit Nederland (OUNL) The Netherlands 

Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED) Spain 

Open University of the United Kingdom United Kingdom 

Estonian Information Technology Foundation (EITF) / Tallinn 

Estonia 

University 

Università Telematica Internazionale UNINETTUNO (IUTU) Italy 

Universidade Aberta (UAb) Portugal 

Anandolu University (AU) Turkey 

Fernstudien Schweiz (FS-CH) Switzerland 

The partnership represents a consortium of coordinators from major Virtual Mobility projects 

sharing substantial expertise and experiences in this field. EPICS will benefit from this via over 40 virtual 

mobility courses that have been made available through the related projects, various guides and research 

papers, networks of experts that have been established etc.. 

Target Groups 

The EPICS-project aims at several different target groups at the university and political/societal 

level: 

The short term target groups are all universities/institutions directly or indirectly involved in the 

partnership. These are traditional and distance teaching universities already involved or interested in virtual 

mobility. They benefit from sharing expertise and experience, the extension and sustainability of their 

virtual mobility-projects as well as the new dynamics of broadening cooperation in this field. The 

participating educational institutions will have the opportunity to experiment with including international 

courses in their mainstream offer, by using the EPICS Portal. Next to the project consortium several 

stakeholders will be involved like the European Commission, the European University Association, the 

German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD), the European Student Union and other important 

organizations invited experts. 

The long term target groups of EPICS are the European higher education institutions in general. 

The development of a mainstream provision of virtual mobility courses with a portal on European Courses 


and Services contributes to internationalization of European universities and widening participation. 

Universities benefit from increased numbers of students enrolling from other countries by improved 

accessibility and attractiveness. The universities further benefit from EPICS by supplementing their 

existing offerings with selected courses from other universities to enrich their own programmes. University 

staff will benefit from on-line support and services as part of the EPICS portal. 

On-campus as well as off-campus students benefit from easy accessible high quality European 

courses, enabling them to further individualize and specialize their learning portfolio. Further they can 

benefit from services on-line as well as inter-institutional agreements on enhancing accessibility and credit 

recognition to support their guided independent learning. 

Major activities and foreseen outcomes 

Epics will support the shift from project based virtual mobility to the mainstream provision of 

international courses. In addition universities will be supported in their efforts to organize Virtual 

Mobility as an integral part of their study offerings. For the technical support of the internationalisation 

of courses a European Portal for International Courses and Services (EPICS) will be developed. 

The three major fields of activity and the related outcomes are: 

A. Share expertise and experiences of virtual mobility-coordinators 

For European universities it will not always be easy to make their offerings available to 

international students, mainly because of administrative issues. Core topics like - barriers and 

opportunities of the development of Virtual Erasmus; - course availability as well as services on-line 

within the consortium; - aspects of accessibility and its restricting factors like student admission, fee 

structures, credit transfer, assessment modes etc will be further discussed and existing expertise will be 

shared. One of the main goals of this project is to integrate the available expertise and experience with 

VM to set the basis for a European Virtual Erasmus programme. The core-group will therefore present 

good practices of organizing virtual mobility and possibilities to overcome common obstacles like 

assessment on-line, enrolment, recognition of credits etc. address VM specific issues and present possible 

solutions. This will be partly shared material from earlier projects and partly new produced material by 

combined efforts. From this activity several contributions to the portal on generic information concerning 

virtual mobility and specific contributions in relation to online staff and student support will derive, e.g. 

introduction programmes for virtual mobility staff and students, an introduction to the portal, supporting 

multi-media tools and inter-institutional agreement forms. 

B. Combine and extend networks of VM and offerings of courses 

Experiences so far show that - like in the physical Erasmus-scheme - the dynamics to initiate 

virtual mobility usually comes from university staff operating in international networks. Therefore the 

EPICS-project aims at broadening and extending existing networks active in virtual mobility. The objective 

is to not only increase the number of networks but also the number of subjects covered with virtual 

mobility courses. 

So far already 12 networks are represented in EPICS covering several subjects like social and cultural 

sciences, marketing and sustainable development. 

These networks and their courses will be the starting input for EPICS. The networks will be 

stimulated to further broaden their partnership and increase their number of available courses for EPICS. 

Currently these networks already represent more than 50 courses and more than 80 partners. This serves as 

a basis for an immediate institutionalisation of a European virtual mobility community. This community 

already represents numerous participating universities involved in stimulating student mobility. The 

interchange of the involved networks and establishment of new networks will generate more international 

courses available to students. By including these courses in the university's mainstream study programmes 

the visibility and accessibility of international courses to students will increase and consequently their 

participation. 

C. Develop the supporting technical infrastructure EPICS 


With the EPICS portal the necessary infrastructural support will be provided for the international 

course offerings and student and staff services. The portal will start with 40 courses from 11 countries and 

is envisaged to grow above at least a hundred courses from 15 different European countries. All course 

templates will be presented in the original language as well as in English. The portal will have a build-in 

search engine for finding European courses on aspects like – subject, - BA/MA level; - admission: - 

language; - course start; - on-line/blended; - tutoring facilities; - assessment modus; - credit points (ECTS). 

In the development the focus is convergence not standardisation or uniformity. Like so many of 

the educational ambitions of the European Union it is built on the fundamental principles of autonomy and 

diversity. It embodies the value of co-ordinated reforms, compatible systems and common action. 

The portal will be available as a direct central entry point as well as local entry points at the 

various universities’ websites. EPICS will be integrated in as many universities as possible. The 

consortium and other EADTU members will therefore integrate locally a webpage on international course 

offerings at each university’s website directly linked to the EPICS database. Universities are able to show 

only a selection of all the courses available on EPICS and use the portal as a tool to complement their own 

programmes and offerings. 

IMPACT 

By combining the available knowledge and experience as well as the existing networks in virtual 

mobility, the project will have a strong basis for an immediate institutionalisation of a European virtual 

mobility community. This community already represents numerous participating universities involved in 

stimulating student mobility. The interchange of the involved networks and dynamic to establish new 

networks will generate more international courses available to students. By including these courses in the 

university's mainstream study programmes the visibility and accessibility of international courses to 

students will be increased and consequently their participation. The EPICS portal will offer the necessary 

technical infrastructure to support staff and students in organising and participating in virtual mobility 

schemes and establishes the basis for a Virtual Erasmus programme. 

Sustainability 

To sustain the impact of the EPICS project beyond its lifetime four groups are key: the students, 

the consortium, the universities and the networks of Virtual Mobility. 

EPICS is about building on former projects and working towards mainstream provision of Virtual 

Mobility. This represents a solid basis for institutionalizing the provision of virtual mobility. Isolated 

projects will be centralized with local entry points, the courses will be better accessible and hopefully more 

universities will be interested to join. Most importantly, students will be addressed, not by projects and 

experiments, but rather by mainstream provision of virtual mobility. This will lead to a growing number of 

students taking courses in a virtual mobility scheme and secure the long term sustainability of the system. 

The development of a Virtual Erasmus programme will certainly support this. 

The Task Force EPICS that was established by EADTU in the beginning of 2007 as well as the 

bilateral and multilateral networks will continue their work after finalizing the project. 

EPICS will be developed as a self facilitating portal with only minor maintenance costs in the long-term. 

Although running on the servers of EADTU, the real maintenance is lying with the participating 

universities. They will submit and update courses and it is of course in direct interest of the university to 

keep records on EPICS up to date. Next to that they are of course also legally bound to give a correct 

presentation of the courses to the students. The full database of courses will therefore always be up to date. 

Also new submissions of courses can be done continuously by on-line password protected entry for every 

university. 

The university entry point of EPICS will be fully integrated at the participating universities and therefore 

automatically be updated, when international course offerings are updated on the EPICS portal. This means 

minimum maintenance efforts for the universities. 


Furture prospects 

Physical student mobility has become more and more important over the last decades. An 

increasing number of students are spending part of their tertiary education in a foreign country or even 

doing a whole degree abroad. But student mobility is also increasingly losing its exclusivity in enhancing 

international competencies (Bracht et al., 2006). It is likely that trans-national and border-crossing mobility 

of study programmes as well as internationalization at home will increase in the future at a more rapid pace 

rather than physical mobility of students. 

“Student mobility [physical] is likely to grow in the future, but in the wake of growing 

internationalisation of higher education in various respects, it is bound to loose some of 

its glamour.” (Rivza & Teichler, 2007, p. 474). 

While this diagnosis is valid for physical mobility, virtual mobility in higher education is only at a 

very early stage. Different pilots have been tested among students, elaborated and put into practice. 

With the further development of new learning environments and new educational models, 

exploiting the full potential of ICT and making virtual higher education is likely to be one of the most 

important driving forces in the academic world in the next ten years, with virtual mobility playing a core 

role in the European learning space. The present developments are only a starting point for a wide 

deployment that will change the nature of national and international higher education. The technological 

means will further enhance and offer new ways of communicating and collaborating in a virtual space (e.g., 

Olsen, 2004; Van De Ven & Van Der Wende 2004). EPICS will be one of the key initiatives in bringing 

virtual mobility out of the pilot phase and enhancing it to mainstream level is the European Portal of 

International Courses and Services. 

Endnotes 

(1) Reliable numbers on overall student mobility are hard to give, mainly because of the different forms of mobility and 

because a lot of students being mobile are not formally enrolled. Rough estimates show that one out of 40 

European students decides to study an entire degree abroad. One out of ten European students spends a shorter 

period of time abroad, a number that has increased significantly over the last two decades. Less than one out of 30 

students in Europe is coming from outside of Europe (all data taken from Rivza & Treichler, 2007, p. 462). 

(2) For further information on these and other project please visit: 

e-move (http://www.eadtu.nl/virtualmobility/); REVE (http://reve.europace.org/partners/index.php); Venus 

(http://www.venus-project.net/ ); VM-base (http://vm-base.europace.org); Sputnic (http://sputnic.europace.org); 

Net-Active (http://www.net-active.info/); CSVM (http://www.eadtu.nl/csvm/); Moril 

(http://www.eadtu.nl/conference-2007/files/K5.pdf) 

References 

Baumann, Z. (2000). Globalization: the human consequences. Reprint. Cambridge: Polity. 

Beck, U. (Ed.). Riskante Freiheiten: Individualisierung in modernen Gesellschaften. Frankfurt am Main: 

Suhrkamp. 

Bijnens, H., Boussemaere, M., Rajagopal, K., Op de Beeck, I., & Van Petegem, W. (2006). European 

cooperation in education through virtual mobility - a best-practice manual. Heverlee: 

EUROPACE izvw. 

Bracht, O., Engel, C., Janson, K., Over, A., Schomburg, H., & Teichler, U. (2006). The professional value 

of ERASMUS mobility. Brussels: European Commission 

Böhme, G. (1997): “The structures and prospects of knowledge society”. In: Social Science Information, 

No. 36, 1997. 

EADTU task force on virtual mobility (2004). Position Paper. Retrieved March 18, 2008 from 

http://www.eadtu.nl/default.asp?hId=4&mmId=46 

eLearning Europa Portal. Retrieved April 25, 2008, from http://www.elearningeuropa.info. 

European Commission (2002). The Bologna declaration on the European space for higher education: an 

explanation. Retrieved June 4, 2008, from http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/ 

educ/bologna/bologna.pdf 


European Commission (2006). Communication from the commission to the council and the European 

parliament. Delivering on the modernization agenda for universities: Education, research and 

innovation. Retrieved May 2, 2008 from http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/ 

2010/doc/comuniv2006_en.pdf 

European Commission (2006 (2)). Decision No 1720/2006/EC of the European parliament and of the 

council of 15 November 2006 establishing an action programme in the field of lifelong learning. 

Official Journal of the European Union. Retrieved May 2, 2008, from http://eurlex.europa.eu/lex/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2006:327:%200045:0068:EN:PDF 

European University Association (2001). Towards the European higher education area. Communiqué of the 

meeting of European ministers in charge of higher education in Prague on May 19, 2001. 

Retrieved May 2, 2008, from http://www.eua.be/fileadmin/user_upload/files/ 

EUA1_documents/OFFDOC_BP_Prague_communique.1068714711751.pdf 

European University Association (2005). Lisbon Declaration. Retrieved May 2, 2008, from 

http://www.eua.be/fileadmin/user_upload/files/Lisbon_Convention/Lisbon_Declaration.pdf). 

Gibbons, M., Limoges, C., Nowotny, H., Schwartzman, S., Scott, P., and Trow, M. (1995). The New 

Production of Knowledge. The Dynamics of Science and Research in Contemporary Societies, 

London / Thousand Oaks / New Dehli: Sage (Kapitel 1). 

Gross, P. (1994). Die Multioptionsgesellschaft. Frankfurt/Main: Suhrkamp 

Olsen, S. (2007). Universities register for virtual Future. CNET News.com. 

Retrieved June 3, 2008 from http://news.cnet.com/Universities-register-for-virtual-future/ 2100-1032_3- 

6157088.html 

Rivza, B., & Teichler, U. (2007). The changing role of student mobility. Higher Education Policy, 2007 

(20), 457-475. 

Souto Otero, M., & McCoshan, A. (2007). Survey of the socio-economic background of ERASMUS 

students. Brussels: European Commission, Directorate General Education and Culture. 

Stehr, N. (1994). Arbeit, Eigentum und Wissen – Zur Theorie von Wissensgesellschaften. Frankfurt/Main: 

Suhrkamp. 

Stichweh, R. (2003). Die Weltgesellschaft: soziologische Analysen. Frankfurt am Main: Suhkamp. 

Van De Ven, M., & Van Der Wende, M. (2004). Use of ICT in higher education: A mirror of Europe. 

Meppel: Lemmer Publishers. 

Verbik, L., & Lasanowski, V. (2007). International Student Mobility: Patterns and Trends. London: The 

Observatory on borderless higher education. 

Vincent, D. (2007). International courses and services online. virtual Erasmus and a new generation of open 

educational resources for a European and global outreach: overview of recent developments. 

Presidential address at the EADTU Conference 2007, Lisbon. 

Weingart, P. (2001). Die stunde der Wahrheit? Zum Verhältnis der Wissenschaft zu Politik, Wirtschaft und 

Medien in der Wissensgesellschaft. Weilerswist: Velbrück Wissenschaft. 


Towards a Dutch Remedial Education Portal? 

Janina van Hees, SURF, The Netherlands 

E-mail: vanhees@surf.nl 

In this round-table session, we’d like to discuss opportunities for a more co-ordinated 

approach to online remedial programmes in the Netherlands. Are there possibilities to combine local 

efforts and share material? 

In the Netherlands, an increasing number of institutions offer online remedial programmes. 

Students in Economics, Health, Foreign Languages, Psychology, Social Science and Mathematics are the 

main target groups. Some initiatives are on a local (institute) level, while others are on a regional or even 

national level. 

Although the aggregation of experiences and content is extremely valuable, most portals are not 

well connected to one another. In fact, there is no one-stop-shop for prospective students who are in need of 

remedial education. Prospective students will have to go to either a particular faculty, institute, regional or 

national initiative in one particular field of science in order to assess their prior knowledge and to remediate 

any deficiencies. 

Now that the first steps of collecting experiences with remedial education have been taken, the 

time seems ripe to think about a long-term vision together. Would a common ‘national remedial education 

portal’ be a feasible vision? In such a portal, all initiatives of remedial education in the Netherlands could 

be bundled under one umbrella, either by linking the content of the other portals or by aggregating all 

content into the national portal. As such, it might contain material of a wider array of subject areas, of a 

number of different institutions, it might help to grant access to a number of educational programmes and 

accommodate the needs of several student target groups. 

Would there be added value in such a joint effort? What would be the problems we’d be facing, 

and would there be committment? This round-table organized by SURFfoundation aims to inventarise 

opinions of those involved and discuss what steps we might take towards a National Preparatory Portal. We 

invite all representatives of portals, good-practices and developers of remedial education to brainstorm 

about this vision of a National Preparatory Portal. 

Some examples of existing online remedial programmes: 

• The NHTV Breda has developed an online Summercourse for financial management students 

at a local level. 

• In a joined SURF-project of University of Amsterdam and University Maastricht, several 

online Summercourses were developed in the field of mathematics and economics 

(http://www.web-spijkeren2.nl/). 

• A large national SURF-project called NKBW (http://www.nkbw.nl/) has developed a portal 

for mathematics problems, whereby students from nine different institutes can assess their 

mathematical knowledge and skills. 

• In the new SURF-project Acculturation, a portal will be developed for acculturation of foreign 

students of nine different vocational institutes and universities. 

Some portals share the experiences of teachers how to set-up an effective remedial course (e.g. 

http://www.web-spijkeren2.nl/). Other portals act as a content provider, where a joint effort is made to 

tackle a particular domain or field within higher education. 


Curriculum Internationalisation – a key to the ‘HOW? 

Sandra Reeb-Gruber, INHolland University, The Nethelands 

sandra.reebgruber@inholland.nl 

Abstract: Internationalisation and globalisation of education are very popular themes for 

or at conferences. After some 20 years of efforts to internationalise, starting with 

mobility, the topic of internationalisation in education remains at the forefront of the 

debate. The number of publications on the topic is increasing at a very high rate, ranging 

from scientific or research publications regarding cause-and-effect in academic 

achievements and diversity in student populations and effective teaching methods in a 

multicultural context (to name a few: Gabrieli, undated; Andrews, undated; Au, 1993; 

Portes, Cuandas & Zadi, 2000) to more practical publications offering readers checklists 

and job-aids (e.g. Hollins, 1996; Brown & Jones., 2007). 

Where the modus operandi used to be that teachers and educational institutions ‘blamed’ 

culturally diverse students for their lacking, the general consensus now seems to be that 

educational institutions and teachers should take responsibility too and take this cultural 

diversity into consideration when designing and delivering programs and assessments 

(Brown & Jones, 2007). The big question of course is: 

HOW?! 

At the same time that our classrooms are becoming more and more culturally diverse, 

demanding different teaching and assessment approaches, the world is increasingly 

globalised. Students need to be prepared for the global workplace; they need to develop 

an international perspective while also dealing with local/national needs, cultures and 

values. This also asks for curriculum internationalisation. Again, everyone agrees, but the 

question is: 

HOW?! 

This round table session will focus on internationalising the curriculum in order to 

prepare students for the global workplace. We will share our approach at INHolland 

University and the model we use for developing internationalised curricula. We will try 

to take the issue of how to internationalise a programme down from its abstract level to a 

concrete and tangible level and hence show faculty the vast amount of possibilities. 

Hopefully, when faculty see that internationalising a programme needn't be a very 

complicated thing, internationalisation will move up on the list of priorities. 

At INHOLLAND we first defined what it actually means to be 'internationally and crossculturally 

competent' in terms of what a business students should know, be able to do and 

how he should behave. 

These indicators tell us precisely what we want to assess the student on. From that point 

it's almost as easy as 1-2-3 to decide what should be offered in the programme that 

prepares the student for his assessment! 

During the round table session we will present these indicators and participants will put 

the usefulness of the indicators to the test. 

References 

Andrews, F. E. (Undated). The role of educational leaders in implementing a culturally responsive 

pedagogy designed to increase the learning outcome for diverse student. From Academic 

Leadership, available online at . Accessed on 

April 15, 2008. 

Au, K.H. (1993). Literacy Instruction in Multicultural Settings. NewYork: Harcourt Brace 

Brown, S. And E/ Jones (2007). Internationalising Higher education: 

Enhacing learning, teaching and curriculum. UK: Routledge. 


Hollins, E. R. (1996). Culture in school learning: Revealing the deep meaning. Mahwah, NJ, USA: 

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc. 

Gabrieli, J. (Undated). As cited in Scientists find influence of culture on brain function. Available online at 

http://idiaedunews.net/science. Accessed on January 30, 2008. 

Portes, P.R., Cuentas, T.E., & Zady, M. Cognitive socialization across ethnocultural contexts: Literacy and 

cultural differences in intellectual performance and parent-child interaction. Journal of Genetic 

Psychology, v 161, issue 1, March. 


Be Prepared! Online Acculturation and Remediation of 

International Students 

Ria Jacobi, Henk Frencken, Leiden University, The Netherlands, Piet Kommers, Twente University, The 

Netherlands, Peter Dekker, Hogeschool van Amsterdam, The Netherlands 

rjacobi@iclon.leidenuniv.nl , frencken@iclon.leidenuniv.nl, P.A.M.Kommers@gw.utwente.nl 

p.j.dekker@hva.nl 

Abstract. In 2007 the National e-learning Action Plan (NAP) was launched in The 

Netherlands. A consortium of nine institutions and NUFFIC developed a project which 

focuses on the acculturation of international students. The NAP-project Acculturation 

develops online remedial courses, combined with the process of acculturation. The 

ambition of the project is to increase the quality of the incoming foreign students. After 

finishing (a) we hope students are better prepared to the study and educational culture in 

the Netherlands (b) and all the materials, developed in the nine pilots, are online available 

through a repository. 

Context 

In 2007 the National e-learning Action Plan (NAP) was launched in The Netherlands. NAP 

encourages e-learning innovation projects at Higher Education (HE) institutions. The goal of the NAP 

focuses on increasing the participation-percentage of student in HE in the Netherlands. A consortium of 

nine institutions and NUFFIC 16 was granted a project which focuses on the acculturation of international 

students. The project starts the first of September 2008 and will finish at the end of August 2010. 

Motivation and Rationale 

For European countries, internationalising Higher Education is vital. The number of international 

students is increasing every year with 8%. Currently, about 50.000 international students participate in the 

Dutch HE Institutions focus on attracting international students and on the concept of ‘the international 

classroom’. Research shows that, at the start of their studies, many international students lack knowledge 

about the general and study culture within Dutch HE. They are not enough aware of the fact that the new 

educational culture they have to work and live in can differ vastly from their previous experiences. 

Furthermore, they often lack specific knowledge and skills (notably in English and maths) to enable them 

to smoothly start in their new programs This causes a high drop-out rate and malfunctioning in the 

international classroom. 

As a response, HE institutions often offer cultural induction and remedial programs. 

Unfortunately, international students participate in these only after arriving in the Netherlands. Not all 

students do follow these induction programs, and remediation does not come at an appropriate time. 

Goal of the project 

The NAP-project Acculturation develops online remedial courses, combined with the process of 

acculturation. The ambition of the project is to increase the quality of the incoming foreign students. This is 

realised by supporting students through online remedial courses. Following these courses international 

students are given the change to participate in Dutch HE on a more equivalent level. Besides this these 

students are able to gain more out of the offered courses. Linked with this ambition, the aim of the project 

is as follows: 

International students strengthen their quality, by preparing themselves for their studies, online 

and in groups, before arriving in the Netherlands. They participate in specially designed programs to 

remediate specific knowledge and skills, and get acquainted with Dutch educational (academic) culture. 

Furthermore a social network is built up. 

16 Netherlands Organization for Cooperation in Higher Education 


To realise this goal a consortium of nine institutions and NUFFIC will develop nine online pilots. 

These pilots are offered to international students who will study in one of the, in the project, nine 

participating institutions. The students will follow online remedial courses (language, science or other 

subjects). And in these remedial courses the students will be acculturated, which implies that: 

• they will be acquainted with the (academic/educational) culture in the Netherlands; 

• they will start with a online social network by participating in a community. 

Project Results 

The project will achieve the following results: 

• Within the participating institutions, nine different online pilots are developed and executed. 

In these pilot courses, acculturation and remediation are combined. The pilots are described as 

‘good practices’. 

• To make this possible, existing content is shared by all participating institutes. The content 

includes remedial and acculturation materials (in the form of learning objects). 

• The content of the pilots (lesson plans, assignments, etc.) is placed in an online repository. 

We expect that the projects will improve the study results of the students and contribute to the quality 

of the international classroom. We expect that more international students will choose a study in 

Holland, because of the well developed online support they can get during their preparation period. 

Project Approach 

The project covers work packages, to support the process of realising the main goal: 

• Work package Repositories. 

After finishing the project this work package will have produced an online filled repository. 

The content is the developed pilot-materials. 

• Work package Pilot. 

After finishing the project this work package will have produced nine online pilots. Linked 

with these pilots also hand-outs and instruction reports are developed. 

• Work package Sustainability and Dissemination. 

After finishing the project this work package will have produced work-conferences, to support 

the process of the project. Also this work package is responsible for the PR and dissemination 

activities of the results. 

• Work package Impact Measuring 

After finishing the project this work package will have produced instruments to measure the 

effect of the pilots. Based on these research activities articles are written and published. 

Questions for discussion 

Some intriguing issues to be discussed during the round table session: 

1. Which strategies can be used to reconcile acculturation with remediation? And under which 

conditions can they be implemented in an online learning situation? The conceptual challenge 

here is that remediation as such is the acknowledgement that the student needs to repair or 

compensate an earlier learning deficit, while acculturation rests upon the notion that different 

cultures need mutual adaptivity in order to go well together. 

2. Which internationalization goals in Higher Education do institutions want to achieve? Are 

they economical goals or do they just mitigate the costs of the mobility and subsistence costs? 

3. How do we know if international students are well enough prepared to study abroad? From 

the perspective of the study itself as well as academic and educational culture. 

4. Are all international students obliged to prepare themselves on the academic and educational 

culture in order to increase one’s academical integration. 


References 



35(3), 257-286. 

Skyrme, G. (2007). Entering the university: the differentiated experience of two Chinese international 

students in a New Zealand university. Studies in Higher Education, 32(3), 357-372. 


Hybrid Learning as a Facilitator to Bridge Cultural Differences 

Christine Cope Pence, University of California, The Bourns College of Engineering, California, USA, 

Catharina Wulf, ESG/Paris Graduate School of Management, Paris, France 

cpence@engr.ucr.edu , catwulf@gmail.com 

Abstract: E-learning and student mobility are topics of concern to most universities. As 

learning is culturally and socially defined, delivery of academic learning is made more 

complex by the increasing mobility of the learner population. The notion of life-long 

learning may not be the same for everyone. As Europe moves towards a Pan European 

identity, it has to deal with biases, stereotypes and unresolved tensions between the 

countries and individual cultures. Educational systems are changing. Student learners are 

changing. Academic content and delivery methods are evolving. The authors present an 

analysis of a unique asynchronous discussion forum tool used in an MBA Business Ethics 

class in France as a facilitator for bridging cultural differences for future life-long 

learning. 

Introduction 

With increasing globalization, being savvy about others’ cultural background when engaging in 

business is a critical skill. Cross-cultural communication and communication styles continue to be central 

themes in research on cross border negotiations (Requejo & Graham, 2008). With Hall’s (1976) 

introduction of cultural context as an explanation for communication differences, research into 

understanding the process of intercultural communication increased the complexity of variables necessary 

to evaluate causal relationships. We now understand that verbal communication styles can be explained by 

message characteristics such as indirect/direct, elaborate/succinct, contextual/personal, and 

affective/instrumental (Luthans & Doh, 2009, p. 187). 

The importance of cultural context plays out in the way people communicate and process 

communication. According to Hall (1976), "A high-context communication or message is one in which 

most of the information is either in the physical context or internalized in the person, while very little is in 

the coded, explicit, transmitted part of the message. A low-context communication is just the opposite; i.e. 

the mass of the information is vested in the explicit code” (Hall, p. 91). When processing communication, 

culture will affect the accuracy of the sender-receptor exchange (Gudykunst, 2005). 

Globalisation and the wide adoption of information technologies make it evermore important for 

higher education to open up to multi-culturalism. In the classroom, the days of mono-culturalism are passé. 

Students are confronting their peers from all parts of the globe. It is indispensable for them to hone their 

interpersonal and cross-cultural competencies. To meet the needs of this changing and increasingly diverse 

student body, the instructor needs teaching materials which are adapted to the mixed cultural backgrounds. 

While the “one size fits all” offers of the textbook publishers are improving, they are not able to keep up 

with the speed with which the student body is changing. Additionally, institutional infrastructures are slow 

to adopt the communication tools of the modern student. 

There is little doubt that the integration of e-learning tools is beneficial for higher education. A 

substantial body of research has developed in recent years. According to Banks (2006), “E-learning is seen 

as part of globalization to build capacity in ‘borderless’ education (… ), thus improving the competitiveness 

and marketisation of higher education and impact on international cooperation and student mobility” 

(Banks, 2006, p. 72). Most providers of e-learning platforms, such as Pearson Education’s Course 

Compass, Blackboard or WebCT, use asynchronous online discussion (AOD) to create interaction among 

students as peers and students and their instructors. The AOD board is a virtual communication forum, 

which allows students to post and respond to messages at their own rhythm without temporal limits. AOD 

“enables groups that are separated in time and space to engage in the active production of shared 

knowledge by offering an opportunity to enhance collaboration and interaction” (Vonderwell, Xin, & 

Alderman, 2007). Other scholars suggest that online discussions are used more frequently in ‘traditional’ 

classroom settings to promote student critical thinking, knowledge construction and learning autonomy 


(Lim & Chai, 2004; Marra, Moore & Klimczak, 2004; Wang & Woo, 2007). Overall, research associates 

asynchronous discussions with deep and critical learning (Kanuka & Garrison, 2004; Osman & Herring, 

2007). This type of “deep learning”, which entails seeking understanding by relating new information to 

existing knowledge and experience, is an improvement on rote learning (Osman & Herring, 2007). 

Cultural difference and asynchronous online discussion 

Educational behaviour can never be completely dissociated from a learner’s cultural background. 

In asynchronous online discussion, often based on written communication in English, participants from 

high context cultures may be hesitant to express their opinions in a direct fashion. It might be easier for 

them to write their thoughts rather than to submit themselves to classroom confrontation, which might lead 

to the loss of face. Native English language speakers and students with fluent English skills are at a 

considerable advantage over their less able peers who may be unfamiliar with the direct communication 

often associated with the English language. 

The advantages of AOD include that they engage students in discussions, which promote critical 

thinking, problem solving and knowledge construction (Marra, Moore, & Klimczak, 2004; Wang & Woo, 

2007). It has also been pointed out that participants succeed in establishing meaningful interpersonal 

connections before they are asked to engage in cognitive tasks (Beuchot & Bullen, 2005). Virtual 

discussion can be seen as a bonding exercise with a positive impact on the general in-classroom 

atmosphere. Students who might not have discovered each other in-class often will begin a relationship 

virtually through the use of a discussion board forum. According to Morse (2003), characteristics of good 

discussion forums include: flexibility, equality of opportunity for participation, openness of discussion, 

potential for post participation review. Additionally, the discussion forum can be used for team-building 

skills, since it can be set up so that students belonging to the same group/team can collaborate with each 

other. 

There are drawbacks to discussion forums. Research by Tiene (2000), Wang and Woo (2007) has 

shown that there are four problematic areas: (1) Access- referring to technology frustrations; (2) Timing- 

AOD is time-consuming, as learners need more time to reflect upon their responses; (3) Mode of 

expression-written communication does not convey the nuances of the voice, which might be more 

significant than the content of the message; and (4) Visual cues- people rely a lot on gestures or body 

language when interpreting verbal messages. 

As DeVito argues (DeVito, 2007, p. 181), the absence of body kinesics and notably the lack of 

affect displays and facial expressions, might be confusing resulting in students spending excessive time and 

energy trying to decipher the meaning of a particular message. Emoticons are helpful, but on the whole, 

they reveal insufficiently the subtleties of human communication. Communication is three-dimensional 

and “meanings are in people...words don’t mean, people mean” (DeVito, 2007, p. 136). 

Asynchronous online learning in a multi-cultural MBA environment 

Drs. Wulf and Pence have collaborated since 2002, experimenting with the use of hybrid learning 

in classes of internationally diverse students. While both professors are natives of low context culture 

countries, they have extensive experience living and working around the world. Professor Wulf is German 

and was educated in the USA, Canada, and France. Professor Pence is American, born in Japan, and was 

educated in Italy and the USA. As children and now as adults, sensitivity to cultural differences has been 

an essential part of their personal skill sets. Both have had extensive experience in the business world, Dr. 

Wulf in television and Dr. Pence in international trade. The motivation to use hybrid learning techniques in 

the classroom settings has come from these years of experience in bridging cultural communication 

differences. 

In general, cultural context communication does not lend itself to spontaneous, in-class 

interactivity. We have found that critical reflection is easier to obtain through written communication. In 

this study, we used AODs for four basic reasons: (1) In-class time was insufficient to finish student debates 

concerning complex ethical issues; (2) In order to stimulate critical thinking and to encourage those 

students who were disinclined to express themselves during F2F lectures; (3) To remove the barriers which 


are commonly associated with high cultural context such as participant preference to withhold personal 

opinions during F2F situations; and (4) To enhance the student’s cross-cultural learning experience. 

AOD and our research experience 

Using one of our courses, MBA Business Ethics, which was taught in the classroom by Dr. Wulf 

in 2005 and supervised online by Dr. Pence, we examine the learning outcomes evidenced in the course’s 

online discussion forums. The MBA students in this class were typical of those we continue to have 

enrolled in our current classes in Europe and the USA. Predominantly from high context cultures, there 

were twice as many females as males enrolled. Typically, students were in their mid-twenties with some 

prior working experience. Interestingly, the countries represented in this class covered all of the major 

continents with the exception of Antarctica. Few students knew each other before entering the MBA 

program; however, most have remained in contact as evidenced by their Facebook and LinkedIn pages. 

In Paris in 2005, electronic learning management systems as well as the necessary technological 

infrastructure were readily available to our MBA students. This gave us the opportunity to develop 

extensions of the classroom through virtual activities. Classes met once a week for 11 weeks with a total of 

33 hours of in-class work per course. Online work in each class added an additional two-three hours per 

week to the required class work. The online discussion forum was imposed upon this class, initially as a 

way to engage the learner when outside of the classroom. Given that Paris is a city with many activities to 

distract from academic concentration, the use of online forums permitted the student to stay engaged at his 

own pace and in his own time frame. The only obligation made upon the student was to participate at least 

twice per week in the online forum. This accounted for 30% of the final course grade. 

Using this hybrid learning approach, the course objective was for students to discover each other’s 

distinct view point regarding business ethics, thereby educating each other about their different personal, 

cultural and moral value sets. The discussion forum consisted of four different ethical dilemmas (see 

Appendix): (1) corruption in the airline industry; (2) escalation of interpersonal conflicts in a small 

publishing company; (3) loyalty towards one’s friend in a tough-going economy; (4) whistle blowing in the 

workplace. Each mini-case contained a cliff-hanger, which required student resolution. Hooked by these 

scenarios, students interacted with apparent ease on the forum. There was no evident need for the 

instructors to guide the discussion or to interfere with their opinions and suggestions. In fact, we chose not 

to participate with our students’ discussion threads. By removing ourselves from the conversation, students 

discovered themselves via the forums without the distraction of feeling the need to respond to the power 

position of the professor. Eventually we guided in-class debates, but we left it up to the students to figure 

out, when they were online, what they wanted to say. 

From a clinical perspective, we can evaluate the evolution of cultural awareness as it leads toward 

individual and group consensus. Documenting this learning process gives us a better understanding of the 

significance of the cultural contexts in communication and therefore about the acquisition of certain 

competencies, which are useful outside of the classroom. It is important to note that only one of the student 

participants was a native English language speaker. All of the others were at differing levels of English 

language competency, though they did communicate in the written language with more facility than in 

verbal communication. The in-class and online forums were conducted exclusively in English. 

Analysis of AOD within our MBA Ethics course 

Each of the discussion forums was analyzed according to the following five criteria: (1) Starting 

position in the discussion forum (early, middle, late); (2) Explanation of point of view (no, yes); (3) 

Responsiveness to a an individual or group of individuals’ threads (no, yes); (4) Expressed opinion to the 

ethical issue (none, against, for); (5) Length of individual response threads (low 1-5 lines, medium 6-10 

lines, long 11+ lines). The resulting conclusions are illustrated in the following tables: 


Table 1. Participation analysis by Male/Female 

Criteria All Males Together All Females Together 

1 Start position Tend to start in the middle of the 

Tend to participate very early in the 

discussion 

discussion or very late 

2 Explanation Explain their point of view Explain their point of view 

3 Responsive Are mixed in their consistency to respond 

to others in the discussion thread 

4 Opinion Tend to agree with the ethical case but 

vacillate between no decision and 

disagreement 

Respond to others in the discussion 

thread 

Indecisive with respect to the ethical 

issue 

5 Thread length Wordy responses Less wordy responses than males 

Table 2. Participation analysis by communication-context cultures 

Criteria Low Communication-Context Cultures High Communication-Context Cultures 

1 Start position Tend to start early 

in the discussion 

2 Explanation Explain their 

point of view 

3 Responsive Not consistent in 

responding to 

others 

4 Opinion Mixed ethical 

responses but take 

a firm stance early 

Males Females Males Females 

Either jump in from 

the beginning or wait 

until the latter part of 

the discussion 

Explain their point of 

view 

Tend to respond to 

others in the 

discussion thread 

Divided on the ethical 

issue 

Tend to let others 

express themselves 

before beginning to 

participate 


Some start, others tend 

to wait until dialogue 

has begun 


view 

Do not consistently 

respond to others in the 


Tend to agree with the 

cases –line up on the 

side of the short-term 

business solution 


view 

Mixed consistency in 

responding to the 


Divided on the ethical 

issue 

5 Thread length Somewhat wordy Wordy responses Wordy responses Very wordy responses

Table 3. Individual forum participation analysis by communication-context cultures 

Forum Low Communication-Context Cultures High Communication-Context Cultures 

Males Females Males Females 

1 

Entered midway in Joined early or in the Entered midway to the Started very early or 

the forum 

middle of the forum end in the forum very late in the forum 

Defended positions Rarely discussed Discussed later Tended to discuss later 

Held firm opinions Maintained original Maintained opinion- Changed opinion 

from the beginning opinion 

lengthy early on during the forum 

Lengthy responses Concise responses Concise at the end Concise responses 

2 

Jumped in very Joined the discussion Entered the forum in Started toward the end 

early-stayed in early or very late the middle to end of the forum-one early 

Imposed opinions Did not discuss Tended to discuss Tended to discuss 

Maintained their Maintained their Maintained their Changed their opinion 

decision throughout original opinion decision throughout during the forum 

Concise or verbose Wordy Reasonably wordy Wordy 

3 

Continued to let Joined early and late Entered the discussion Began late with the 

others discuss first to the discussion late- one exception exception of one 

before expressing 

started the discussion student 

Provided analysis of Provided analysis of Provided little analysis Explained their 

their opinions their opinions of their opinions opinions rarely 

Discussed Discussed Discussed little Tended not to discuss 

Maintained original Maintained original Maintained original Maintained original 

point of view point of view point of view 

opinion frequently 

Somewhat concise Concise responses Concise responses Concise responses 

4 

Entered late to the Started early or nearer One began the forum, One started, rest began 

forum 

to the middle and end rest in the middle to end middle to late 

Did not discuss Prone not to discuss 

later in forum 

Discussed very little Did not discuss 

Were firm from the Changed their Maintained their Explained but 

beginning with their opinions as the opinion from the maintained their 

opinion 

discussion advanced beginning 

original opinion 

Concise responses Very wordy Reasonably concise Reasonably wordy 

Interestingly, as we evaluate the responses in more detail, we see that the females tended to be 

more conciliatory toward their peers, expressing interest in the other’s point of view. They consistently 

explained their decisions to others. They entered into the discussion more frequently early on, but a few 

still waited until the last third of the discussion to join in. They were concise in their narrative and 

opinionated concerning the ethical dilemmas, though these opinions were divided between dissention and 

agreement. 

The male students as a whole, however, took their time entering the discussion until midway 

through. They, too, tended to explain their point of view on the forum though they did not consistently 

recognize the opinions of their colleagues. They were prone to agree with the proposed solution of a 

particular ethical issue, when it was in support of the company or the individual’s success. In general, their 

explanations were lengthy. 

Conclusion 

We investigated the impact of AOD as a means to stimulate collaborative learning and thereby 

foster students’ interpersonal and cross-cultural skills. For this study, the asynchronous online discussions 

took place in a hybrid postgraduate learning environment, which mixed face-to-face (F2F) instruction and 

online learning. The discussion forum has the advantage of appearing to be anonymous, thus providing a 

“safe environment” for those participants who come from high context cultures to express themselves with 

less personal confrontation. Though the students eventually established relationships with each other 

outside of the classroom, the discussion forum was one of the first places where this contact could be 


established, nurtured, and brought to fruition without having physically to go anywhere or confront anyone 

F2F. In general, the level of participation in the forums was good, and certainly more evenly balanced than 

if class time had been required to explore the issues. It appears that this communication medium provided 

an acceptable environment for both sexes of high and low context communication to expose their opinions. 

Surprisingly, we saw little of the “yes/no” response with no justification for the opinion. Of course, 

students realized that they were being graded on their participation but with no direct feedback from the 

professor, they seemed to communicate with each other because of interest in the topic and the existence of 

the virtual platform. 

Our original basis for using the discussion forum to expose opinions, points of view, and debate 

was that the context-communication make up of the classroom precluded the possibility of meaningful 

dialogue. People from low context environments tend to voice opinions with ease. Those from high 

context environments are more reserved and deferential in their responses. They tend to refer to the 

professor’s power position and therefore respond as they believe would be expected from them or would 

choose to remain silent. In the world outside of the classroom, the student will be obliged to work with 

many different cultural-communication contexts. The importance of having the experience in a safe 

environment such as academia was significant. To be able to voice an opinion without sanction was a 

relatively novel concept for many of these students. As time is an important factor in communication 

across cultural contexts, the discussion forum setting made it possible for those more hesitant to respond 

spontaneously to express their opinion and to enter into dialogue with their peers. 

Future Research 

As business ethics comes into its own as a serious field of international research, availability of 

quality educational materials and learning platforms for global business training will increase in 

importance. With growing international student and workforce mobility, educators have a rare opportunity 

to shape the evolving global business landscape both with research and with teaching. Sophistication of 

content and content deployment methods will continue to increase as physical and virtual borders merge. 

The traditional homogeneous learning environment is fast receding into the archives of academia. Now that 

the asynchronous forum is a mainstream learning tool, the next study will address the effectiveness of the 

individual forum scenarios for exposing differences of ethical reflections based upon culture context 

communication. To design scenarios which elicit reflection, good dialogue, and life effective learning 

without being dogmatic or biased is challenging. It will require the skill sets of the content designer to 

include cross-cultural sensitivity, generational relevancy, and academic proficiency in order to create 

effective material which will motivate the multi-cultural learner who will occupy the physical and virtual 

classrooms of our networked world. 

Appendix 

Business Ethics Discussion Forum Cases 

Ethical Issue 1: Corruption in the airline industry 

TPOG Aviation Services manufactures small aircrafts in the 20-40 seat range for civil aviation. In 

the past, they counted long-established, prestigious companies such as Lufthansa, British Airways and Air 

France among their clients. Recently, TPOG developed a new model, the TPOG LA 533 aiming at 

optimizing life cycle and maintenance costs of the aircraft. However, their former clients are no longer 

interested in buying this type of aircraft. Therefore, TPOG needs to explore new markets. Now they’re 

negotiating a very important option for a contract for 15 aircrafts with Flying High Inc., a largely stateowned 

company in country X. Yet country X has a corrupt government; bribery and special compensation 

schemes are common practice. There are also three other competitors behind this contract. TPOG knows 

that one of them who has already been working in this country for a long time has been involved in this 

kind of practice. During the negotiations executives of Flying High Inc. hinted to TPOG that "special 

compensations could enhance the chances of getting the contract." On the one hand TPOG has the 

reputation to have very high ethical standards, on the other the company is in a very tight financial situation 


ecause of the huge investment in developing the TPOG LA 533. If they don’t get the contract, the survival 

of the company will be jeopardized. What should TPOG do? 

© Catharina Wulf 

Ethical Issue 2: Escalation of interpersonal conflicts in a small publishing company 

Carla Sandrini is the director of a small magazine publishing company with 20 employees in 

Rome. Because of a complicated pregnancy, Carla has been confined to bed. While absent from the office, 

Isabella di Angelo and Marina Monti, two of the editors start to “rock the boat”, complaining to the 

colleagues that they’re all underpaid and should look for all possible reasons to engage union and legal 

action. To top it off, Isabella writes her own name in the editorial, pretending to be editor-in-chief of one of 

the magazines. Carla feels betrayed. She suspects that Marina, who only wants to speak with her in the 

presence of her lawyer, is the origin of the conspiracy and managed to “contaminate” Isabella as well. 

However, Isabella, a good friend, whom Carla has “saved” years ago from taking drugs by offering her a 

stable job inside the publishing house, is reacting abusive, too. Once, when Carla tried to talk to her on the 

phone, Isabella slammed the phone down, refusing all communication with her boss and friend. Carla 

would like to get rid of both of them but is sure that Isabella will relapse and take drugs again if she fires 

her. What would you do, if you were Carla? 


Ethical Issue 3: Loyalty towards one’s friend in a tough-going economy 

Tom and Martin have been friends since their college days in Canada. Both of them graduated 

with honours’ degrees in mechanical engineering, returned back to Germany and now are directors of 

respective family companies. After long years of hard work and expensive research, Tom, along with his 

team, discovered new procedures that outweigh by far those of his friend and competitor. Tom knows that 

as soon as these new procedures would be applied to the machines his friend’s company would go 

bankrupt. What should Tom do? 


Ethical Issue 4: Whistle blowing in the workplace 

Chantal Leroux works as a clerk for Avco Environmental Services, a small toxic-waste disposal 

company. The company has a contract to dispose of medical waste from a local hospital. During the course 

of her work, Chantal comes across documents that suggest that Avco has actually been disposing of some 

of this medical waste in a local municipal landfill. Chantal is shocked. She knows this practice is illegal. 

And even though only a small portion of the medical waste that Avco handles is being disposed of this way, 

any amount at all seems a worrisome threat to public health. Chantal gathers together the appropriate 

documents and takes them to her immediate superior, Dave Lamb. Dave says, "Look, I don't think that sort 

of thing is your concern, or mine. We're in charge of record-keeping, not making decisions about where this 

stuff gets dumped. I suggest you drop it." The next day, Chantal decides to go one step further, and talk to 

Angela van Wilgenburg, the company's Operations Manager. Angela is clearly irritated. Angela says, "This 

isn't your concern. Look, these are the sorts of cost-cutting moves that let a little company like ours 

compete with our giant competitors. Besides, everyone knows that the regulations in this area are overly 

cautious. There's no real danger to anyone from the tiny amount of medical waste that 'slips' into the 

municipal dump. I consider this matter closed." Chantal considers her situation. The message from her 

superiors was loud and clear. She strongly suspects that making further noises about this issue could 

jeopardize her job. Further, she generally has faith in the company's management. They've always seemed 

like honest, trustworthy people. But she was troubled by this apparent disregard for public safety. On the 

other hand, she asks herself whether maybe Angela was right in arguing that the danger was minimal. 

Chantal looks up the phone number of an old friend who worked for the local newspaper. Questions for 

Discussion: What should Chantal do? What are the reasonable limits on loyalty to one's employer? Would 


it make a difference if Chantal had a position of greater authority? Would it make a difference if Chantal 

had scientific expertise? 

© Chris MacDonald. The events and persons in this case are entirely fictional. There is no "Avco 

Environmental." Any similarity to real persons or companies is purely accidental, though hopefully 

instructive. 

Permission is hereby given for printing & copying this case, for educational purposes, provided that the 

author's name and the URL www.businessethics.ca are included. 

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Virtual Learning Communities and Continuous Classrooms 

Pete Nevin, Annette Odell, University of East London, UK 

p.nevin@uel.acuk, a.odell@uel.ac.uk 

Abstract: The adoption of Web 2.0 technologies to facilitate delivery of some modules at 

the School of Architecture and the Visual Arts (AVA) at the University of East London 

has proved both pedagogically interesting and successful so far in all its variety. This 

paper focuses on the use of the Social Networking Site, Facebook, integrated with other 

Web 2.0 technologies, as used by one particular tutor. The paper first outlines the reasons 

for choosing Facebook as the central software in the AVA context and contrasts it with 

the most established learning technology in Higher Education, the VLE. The paper 

continues with a description of a particular project within a Third Year module where 

Facebook is being used in combination with blogging software for the project activity, 

with the project outcome posted to the media-sharing site, YouTube. Lastly, the module 

tutor describes his personal experience of using Facebook within this module and in other 

contexts. 

Reasons for adopting Facebook as the chosen technology 

The original use of Web 2.0 technologies, and Social Networking Sites in particular, originated 

from feedback in the Student Satisfaction Survey administered annually by all Schools at the University of 

East London. A point made in the 2007 survey was that communication systems could be improved and, in 

particular, the rapid dissemination of information amongst the AVA community. 

Improved communication systems seemed to necessitate the greater use of online communication 

in order to improve fluency and rapidity in both one-way and two-way communication. It was possible that 

the university Virtual Learning Environment could have been used in this regard since a VLE can: 

(a) disseminate information at short notice e.g. such as room changes via ‘Announcements’; 

(b) provide core and extended learning resources in a variety of media and formats; 

(c) facilitate communication via tools such as systems e-mail, instant messaging, ‘chat rooms’ 

and a discussion board. 

In many contexts, the VLE successfully acts as a ‘one stop shop’ for students’ online study needs. 

However, there were a number of potential drawbacks in using the VLE in some of the AVA 

learning/teaching context, which are discussed below. 

The field of Digital Arts and Visual Communication within AVA intentionally utilises learning 

experiences which are firmly based in social constructivist theory and the dialogic model which Laurillard 

(1993) recommends in all Higher Education contexts. The use of this model is partly because of the nature 

of study. As Seely Brown and Alder (2008) point out “learning to be a professional in the field” requires 

social learning, and this accretion of professional expertise is a central part of all programmes of study 

within AVA. Groups at module, year, or programme level therefore constitute various communities – both 

Communities of Practice in relation to their professional development, and Communities of Enquiry (see, 

for example, Rorke et al (2006) ) in relation to their study. Within these parameters, the learners themselves 

are a resource to each other. They provide, for example, peer guidance and feedback, shared experience and 

perspectives, and not only more traditional learning resources but also such things as alerts to relevant 

exhibitions and events in their field. The VLE does not easily allow anyone but those within the 

development and delivery team to upload information or resources. This means that students have not got a 

means to disseminate information to each other, or to contribute to the bank of learning resources. 

Many courses of study within AVA require students to produce work in various media. The ability 

to share work-in-progress or examples of completed work (either with their tutors or with other students) is 

therefore something that technology needs to facilitate. In addition, future employment necessitates a 


facility with technology as an employability skill. Part of developing professional skill is therefore achieved 

through integrated experiences of online publishing (as in the case study below). 

A VLE obviously requires intentional log-in and many academic staff cite as a problem the fact 

that not all students log on sufficiently frequently to module sites on the VLE in order to take advantage of 

e.g. recently posted resources or information updates. In part, this can be because the students are not 

sufficiently familiar with a VLE as a piece of software. The choice to experiment with Social Networking 

Software (SNS), and Facebook in particular, was partly based on the fact that many students are familiar 

with using this software and are frequently logged on to it anyway. As Sclator (2008) comments: “Students 

are using Facebook anyway”. This is supported by some recent research within the School. Of the 226 

students who completed a survey about which technologies they had previous experience of when they 

joined AVA this semester, 70 knew of the existence of VLEs, yet only 31 had previous experience of using 

one. In contrast, 202 knew of Facebook and 165 currently use it. All 37 respondents studying the BA in 

Graphic Design knew of Facebook, with 35 of these already using the site. The need for support in 

developing expertise with an unfamiliar technology is therefore considerably reduced and the technology is 

not a barrier to easy communication. 

In addition, as a Web 2.0 technology, Facebook is not only designed for sharing, collaboration and 

communication (which, as stated above, matches the pedagogical approach) but it is also web-based. Every 

HE institution must have experience of a VLE being less than easily accessible because of network 

slowdown or even unavailable because of problems with servers. Students can find this extremely 

frustrating but it is not a problem that exists with Facebook. 

Facebook seemed to offer some of the advantages of the ‘one stop shop’ virtue of a VLE in that it 

also allowed the same 

(a) dissemination of information 

(b) core and extended learning resources in a variety of media and formats; 

(c) communications systems. 

But it had, in addition, such advantages in our context as: 

§ It allows students to easily share multimedia resources with the group which they find 

relevant or interesting. 

§ Information on relevant events (such as exhibitions), can be posted by both tutors and 

students. 

§ It allows a wider and more varied group than the traditional group, including those 

traditionally ‘locked out’ of a VLE because they have no password - such as alumni, 

practitioners and potential employers. Perhaps most crucially too, External Examiners. 

§ It allows students to ‘publish’ work both for critical appraisal and as an aspect of developing 

professional practice. 

§ The number of students with previous experience of using Facebook means that the majority 

already are competent users of that technology, reducing the need for student support and 

training. 

§ Facebook readily allows you to ‘bolt in’ other Web 2.0 technologies such as wikis or blogs, as 

required via links. 

An internally-funded research project has allowed deeper investigation into the educational 

affordances and risks related to the use of Facebook. Analysis of the literature is being followed by both 

qualitative and quantitative research into the experience of three senior members of staff at AVA and their 

respective cohorts of students. Kolek and Saunders (2008), for example, note that there is a lack of 

evidence on the successes and failures of using social networking software in Higher Education on which to 

base our decisions and actions. Although there is literature that relates to the history and main uses of social 

networking sites (such as boyd and Walker (2007)), few examples currently relate to their use within course 


or module delivery for teaching/learning purposes. The aim is therefore to contribute our experience to the 

body of knowledge in the field. 

Advantages 

Findings from the literature and experience so far can be summarised as follows. 

§ Ease of use 

§ Convenience 

§ Greater ease of communication with students 

§ Greater sustained communication with students during module delivery 

§ Greater sustained communication with students throughout their programme of study – both 

during holiday periods and also when students are taking a period of time off from study 

§ Relevant skills development in relation to the future world of work and employment 

§ Creation of communities which are not purely AVA staff and students but can include other 

interested parties or stakeholders 

§ A more personalised learning environment 

§ A collaborative learning environment which suits the pedagogical approach within AVA 

Students have reacted very positively to the use of Facebook, supporting Mazer et al’s (2007) 

research conclusions that there is a positive impact on motivation and attitude from merely the selfdisclosure 

of a tutor’s limited profile. 

However, the literature’s concern with guidance on use in order to protect both students and staff 

is something that is an increasing concern within AVA. Despite the success of the use of Facebook, it is not 

something that can be significantly extended before the university’s policy on use is in place. New 

technologies can require new skills and Mason and Rennie (2008), for example, discuss the educational 

opportunities of Facebook use but also that guidance and skills development. One that they cite is that 

effective practice with social networking sites provides opportunities: 

§ to discriminate content on social networking sites, 

§ not to accept profiles at face value, 

§ to realise that in addition to one’s peers, others – marketers, university authorities, law 

enforcement personnel can and do access profiles 

§ provide opportunities for discussion about profiles – how to construct them and what it 

means to ‘present’ oneself online. 

Policies, ‘good practice guidelines’ for both staff and students, and skills development therefore all 

have a part to play in ensuring both safety and quality. 

Year 3 Four Week Project 

Students were given the following information: 

“Graphic Design 3 will be on Mondays in the GD Studio with Pete & Jon from 

10.30 starting 29th Sept 

Here is the project description for Project 1: 

You each will create a 30 second video advertisement which you make with an 

online animation programme and then post on YouTube. 

All students need to set up a Web presence for this academic year. I suggest using 

Wordpress or Indexhibit Blog or Site for your work and for tutor interaction about 

your work. You can post your work-in-progress to this site. Then I’ll set up a 

Project blog where we can all access everyone’s work through links to your blogs. 

And you’ll be able to talk things over via the Facebook site. 


The subject of the advertisement is “Notions of Beauty and Responsible Design”. 

So you’ll need to research the topic yourselves. At the end of four weeks (on 20 th 

October) all students will have created the advertisement. Since the Project is part 

of your final year mark, this has to be completed to pass. 

Here are some links to start you off. 

Dove Campaign by Ogilvy Mather 

see links: 

http://www.campaignforrealbeauty.com 

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iYhCn0jf46U “ 

The idea of the project was to provide experience of the short period for development and need to 

produce on target which is a common facet of the industry, developing their practice as professional 

designers since in a very short time they will be entering that industry. In addition, it was designed to raise 

awareness of personal responsibility within their practice. Although the industry is regulated, personal 

ethical positions need to be considered. Choosing notions of beauty obviously required them to take a 

position on how the fashion industry manipulates self-image and how the design industry technically 

produces images which are manipulated according to various notions of ‘perfection’. In completing the 

project, therefore, students had to consider and articulate their own position within the context of producing 

and publishing their own original work. An anonymised version of the project blog where work can be 

viewed is available at http://designerdesigner.wordpress.com . 

In relation to the use of Facebook within this project, students used it as a means of getting help 

and support from their peers as well as their tutor, as the following examples show. Structured loosely on 

Problem Based Learning principles, achieving the desired product within the time-limit became the 

problem which students had to solve, including choosing their desired production method and software. As 

such it again mirrored common professional scenarios. 

Account of the tutor’s personal experience of using Facebook 

“It was a colleague who asked me if I was on Facebook. I knew about it because my daughter used 

it, so I added a profile and was amazed how fantastic it was at a 360 communication, multi-level 

communication. I started trying it out - talking to people, seeing what they were interested in - and thought 

that I would follow my colleague’s example and set up a study group for my students. Basically because 

they had indicated in a Student Satisfaction Survey that communication was not as good as they would like. 

So I thought “Let’s see if this works”. After all, it’s their world and it’s a natural communication medium 

for them. 

I created ‘Graphic Design BA Hons @ UEL’ for all Graphic Design students. Last year I had one 

study group for each year but this year I have one that encompasses all years and allows them to see, for 

example, what 3rd Years are doing if they are a 1st or 2nd year student. This encompasses the students on 

three 20 credit modules.There are 136 members and more to join yet. 

I also created ‘AVA Illustration @ UEL’. All years in the same group again but within these are 

separate study groups such as Editorial Illustration (Year 2). There are about 50 in this group. 

‘UEL Graphic Design Force’ is for external use – alumni, possible future students, and other 

interested parties. 


I’ve also set up Facebook groups for specific purposes. The ‘Graphic Design Degree Shows 2008’, 

for example, was to help marking with last academic year’s degree show and to keep a structure on a 

complex piece of logistics. It’s an advantage that external examiners can access the same site. 

I don’t set up all the groups. The ‘Lambo-Biro Drawing Machine Project’ was set up by a student 

for our Year 1 short project, for example. 

I suppose this year I’m trying to do it on two main groups because otherwise it would get too 

complex - but there are always splinter groups that link in (like the Lambo-Biro group just set up). 

Facebook has been a revelation. I believe it certainly it wouldn’t be possible to achieve the same 

result in any other way. It would take so much administration and labour, but with Facebook the 

administration is minimal. Integration is a key word. I can organise all the blogs they have set up around 

the group, I can post information or resources, I can chat at any time and deal with possible problems in a 

direct and human way. 

Some people feel that an online presence is not so human as personal interaction but I don’t agree. 

It is very human and we are real in our different presences. Zizek (2006) talks about having real presences 

online: 

‘true self is much closer to what I adopt as a fictional screen-persona, while the self of my 

real-life interactions is a mask concealing the violence of my true self? Paradoxically, it is 

the very fact that I am aware that, in cyberspace, I move within a fiction, which allows me 

to express in it my true self - this is what, among other things, Lacan means when he claims 

that "truth has the structure of a fiction.’ 

Students seem very comfortable with a variety of personas and it’s true that they do reveal more of 

themselves on Facebook. You get an insight into how they play as well as how they work - and they see 

something of me and my interests, even if its only in my status - like “Pete is loving the 5-0.Come on 

Chelsea!”, which is up today. 

I think the following illustrates how human the interaction is. Students contact me using the 

Facebook e-mail or chat about their concerns and get the reassurance and support they need very quickly. 

Student A 

October 16 at 4:08pm 

hi pete , ill be in next week .. im getting a taxi paid for by the uni to take me .. im on crutches, 

waiting for an operation on my knee as ive torn the muscles in it and possibly have mini fractures 

in it...but ill be in. i heard everyones in groups now.. would that be a problem for me? 

see you tuesday ! 

A 

Pete Nevin 


No problem. There are a few people that have not been in for various reasons so lets see at the 

time and maybe you can join a group or maybe Ill start a new one. Pete. 

Student M 


Hi pete ive just found out ive got my next set of infusions on tuesday so i wont be able to make it 

in again!! Not to happy about that .. so would you be able to give me some work for me to do in 

the hospital that day or before then, any drawings or what is the brief? 

thanks and sorry again 


M 

Pete Nevin 


Hi M 

We have a project to design and make a drawing machine over the next two weeks. You could 

design and invent a fantastic machine like those that Heath Robinson designed. You should think 

about the machine like something you buy at IKEA with all the diagrams of construction. Use 

your imagination. And don’t worry. 

Pete 

This rapid communication has advantages over the traditional university systems of phones or 

meetings. The phone can be intrusive and would certainly impose on my private life at evenings and 

weekends, but Facebook allows me to choose when to communicate. Face-to-face meetings require 

appointments that are often difficult to fit in at short notice. But by regularly checking the Facebook sites, I 

can deal with things swiftly and quickly. Students appreciate the swift response and they can see that we 

care. And I feel that this is an important part of student retention. Pastoral as well as academic tutor support 

is improved. I can see people saying “Dont you find this is an imposition?” but it only requires you to 

restructure your work patterns a bit. If you didn’t want to be as available as I do, you could chose to say 

“I’m on Facebook at these times”. But we are often at our computers at work and the conversation on 

Facebook is often fairy brief. ‘Chat’ sessions may be longer, but still not time-consuming. The ‘chat’ 

function can be extremely useful and a good example of this is a student going into his final year suddenly 

had a job offer and was really unable to make up his mind and needed guidance. Using ‘chat’ I was able to 

give that guidance immediately. Certainly, it could have been done via a phone call, but in these 

conversations actually writing can help to clarify thoughts and understandings. Unlike a phone call, too, 

you can keep a record of the conversation when you need to. 

Security is a topic that always comes up when discussing Facebook and, yes, I’m sure there are 

unscrupulous people out there that misuse it. One point is that I am using something that the students 

already use and where the norms of use are already established. I have come along after, so to speak, and 

said “Lets use this because they are already there”. But I do ask everyone to make sure they do the privacy 

settings properly and I tell them such things as the attachments for ‘poke’ and others are not absolutely 

secure. 

You have to be aware of the copyright implications, too. We avoid people losing the rights to their 

work by making sure that they only post photos and not full scans of the work. I am careful about what 

goes on Facebook and that’s why the students have set up independent blogs for their main works and not 

put them on Facebook. 

X’s Wordpress Weblog entry: 

I am unsure what the issues are on music about the U.S Laws as on One True Media, they have 

this link to music where you can add these samples (like in this movie). As this is just a first edit, 

there is no writing yet. ... 

Facebook communication: 

Student Y 


Hi Pete.. I am concerned as I did not hear the conversation concerning the Laws on music on 

Youtube. I have had many troubles over Jump cuts, so have been frantically figuring out One True 

Media. I then had my own WMA sound files, but as I cannot (and will try to convert to) MP3 

format, this was unsuccessful. So then I saw they had music on a menu, and had these samplers... 

Do you know (or will I have to research this?) as to whether this would infringe the copywrite for 

Youtube? 


Any advice will be much appreciated 

Y 

P.s, could you please give any advice to my movie to help it along in any way... (the harsher the 

better). Thanks. 

[url to the work on her blog given] 

Take care... 


You will have to try and get your sound files to work, Your own sound is what you need. The 

copyright laws are the same everywhere so don’t use the work of others. If the site provides 

samples then I would imagine you can use them if its open source media. Pete 

Student X 


cheers pete...yes, not happy with the text either. Have just re done the text, so just about to see if 

those have worked better. The music worked better when there was no text, now there is, I hate the 

music!!! 

Thanks for your help. 

see you monday 

Conclusions 

This paper was designed to illuminate the educational potential of Facebook through discussion of 

the context of use and why it was selected, a particular case study, and the illustrated narrative account of 

one tutor about his experience of using Facebook. Within the project described in the case study, it is clear 

that the web as a resource and Web 2.0 technologies provided learning resources which enabled both the 

problem-based-learning design of the activity and also the successful completion of the project by all the 

students before the assignment cut-off date. It also illustrates how students became resources to each other, 

just as they will be within their professional communities of practice, through social networking. The aim 

now is to shift the focus from the tutor to the learners. Current and future research centres on the students’ 

attitudes towards the use of such technologies and their perceptions of value. 

References 

Boyd, D. and Ellison, N. (2007) “Social Networking Sites: Definition, History and Scholarship.”Journal of 

Computer-Mediated Education, 13 (1). 

Kolek, E.A. and Saunders, D. (2008) “Online Disclosure: An Empirical Examination of Undergraduate 

Facebook Profiles”NASPA Journal Vol.45 (1). 

Laurillard, D. (1993) Rethinking University Teaching: A Conversational Framework for the Effective Use 

of Learning Technologies. Routledge. 

Mason, R. and Rennie, F. (2008) E-learning and Social Networking Handbook. Routledge. 

Mazer, J.P., Murphy, R.E. and Simonds, C. (2007) “I’ll see you on Facebook: The Effects of Computer- 

Mediated Self-Disclosure on Student Motivation, Affective Learning, and Classroom Climate”, 

Communication Education, Vol.56 (1). 

Rourke, L., Anderson, T, Garrison, D.R., and Archer, W. (2001) “Assessing social presence in 

asynchronous text-based computer conferencing. Journal of Distance Education, 14 (2) 

Sclater, N. (2008) “Web 2, Personal Learning Environments, and the Future of Learning Management 

Systems”, EDUCAUSE Center for Applied Rearch Bulletin Vol 2008, Issue 13. 

Seely Brown, J. and Alder R.P. (2008) “Minds on Fire: Open Education, the Long Tail, and Learning 2.0”, 

EDUCAUSE Review, Vol. 43 (1) 

Zizek, S. (2006) How To Read Lacan. Granta Books.

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