The History of Agricultural Extension in Malawi

The History of Agricultural
Extension in Malawi
Jochen Knorr
Maria Gerster-Bentaya
Volker Hoffmann
MARGRAF PUBLISHERS
50

Jochen Knorr, Maria Gerster-Bentaya, Volker Hoffmann
The History of Agricultural Extension in Malawi
Herausgegeben von
Hermann Boland, Volker Hoffmann und Uwe Jens Nagel
Bibliographic information published by „Die Deutsche Bibliothek“
Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;
detailed bibliographic data is available in the Internet at
http://dnb.ddb.de.
Satz und Layout
Maria Gerster-Bentaya, Volker Hoffmann, Andrea Mayer
Grafiken
Jochen Knorr, Maria Gerster-Bentaya
Druck und Bindung
f.u.t. müllerbader gmbh, Filderstadt
© Margraf Publishers GmbH, Scientific books, 2007
Kanalstraße 21; D-97990 Weikersheim
www.margraf-verlag.de; info@margraf-verlag.de
ISBN 978-3-8236-1513-2
ISSN 0947-0352
MARGRAF PUBLISHERS

Preface
This publication is the result of efforts made by various persons at different times:
The idea was born during a collaboration between Willi Ehret and Maria Gerster-Bentaya
who worked together between 1998 and 2000 on a qualification programme on extension
methods for college teachers and training officers of the Department of Agricultural Extension
Services (DAES). They realised the need for acknowledging the experiences of
the past extension approaches to understand current attitudes and ongoing procedures.
They proposed a topic for a master thesis on the history of extension in Malawi and motivated
Jochen Knorr to accept.
After an extensive literature review, Jochen stayed in Malawi to specifically interview
contemporary witnesses of the various extension approaches that have been propagated
and applied since the British started with their agricultural promotion programme in
Nyasaland. Jochen finished his master thesis in autumn 2001. Basically the field study
was a joint research of Mr. Kaliwo and Jochen Knorr. Jochen’s master thesis is the core of
the publication.
Shortly before and parallel to Jochen’s research stay in Malawi, the Department of Agricultural
Extension worked on the reform of the current extension system and drafted the
discussion paper “Agricultural Extension in the New Millennium – Towards Pluralistic
and Demand-driven Services in Malawi”. In the frame of the decentralisation process, extension
should be devolved to the districts and involve all stakeholders. The central level
should only play a supporting role.
Meanwhile the reform of the Malawi Governmental Extension Service has entered its
seventh year. Additional activities to put the new approach into practice have taken place.
Specifically to set up the District Extension Service Systems is still a huge challenge for
all the people involved: new roles have to be accepted, old habits have to be unlearned,
new attitudes and skills have to be acquired.
The aspiration to publish the experiences with information about past extension approaches
became again more vital in 2006, and we decided to add the current discussion
and state of the art of extension worldwide, and to include also aveailable material about
the actual state of implementation and some experiences with the “new approach” in Malawi.
Therefore, the period covered here is from around 1900 until 2007.
The interest to publish this book was further stimulated by global changes of the very last
years, indicating a turning point for rural development worldwide, with quickly increasing
demand for land use product and accordingly rising prices. This “new drive” for agriculture,
improves the frame conditions also for Malawi and sheds new light on the chances
of the extension reform to succeed, at least as time goes by.
Maria Gerster-Bentaya, Volker Hoffmann, Hohenheim, December 2007
III

Acknowledgements
Many people contributed to the development of this publication, specifically during the
stays of Jochen Knorr and Maria Gerster-Bentaya in Malawi, and the editors and authors
are most grateful to them:
First, we thank Dr. Willi Ehret who believes that there is a need for learning from history.
He was the adviser of the Agricultural Extension Support Project (AES) who accompanied
the Department’s process towards “Pluralistic and Demand Driven Services in Malawi”.
We thank him for his helpfulness and support, for providing all the project facilities
to Jochen Knorr and who impresses by sustainably incorporating the principles of participatory
assistance into the different projects of his many years work in Malawi. He also
helped us to keep up with the recent developments in Malawi concerning agriculture and
it’s knowledge system since the time of Jochen Knorr’s field research.
To Dan Kamputa we extend our sincere thanks. When starting the research he was the responsible
Director of the Department of Agricultural Extension Services at the Ministry
of Agriculture. He made the research possible and assisted and supported in numerous
ways. Also, we are most grateful for the help of all AES Project staff.
During their time at Bunda College many people helped to adjust to living and working in
Malawi and by sharing their knowledge with Jochen and Maria. We especially wish to
express our gratitude to Professor Masangano and Mr. Mphepo.
Jochen is most grateful for the help and assistance of Mr. Kaliwo who accompanied him
during the field study as “interpreter”. He not only translated, but also helped him to get a
deeper insight in many issues affecting farmers and extension in Malawi.
We would like to convey our utmost gratitude to all people of the visited EPAs, RDPs and
ADDs, who contributed much with their time, experiences and knowledge about extension.
In all the EPAs we received a warm welcome and were supported as much as possible.
Furthermore we wish to express our gratitude to the staff of various NGOs and farmer
organisations; they helped us much by giving insight into their work.
We wish to extend our gratitude to all farmers who took their time to answer the questions
and to give us insight into their problems and their way of life. It was a privilege to visit
the villages and to spend time with people who have such a different background. We do
hope that the farmers´ time was not spent in vain, but that this work contributes to improve
their situation.
Last but not least, Jochen Knorr wants to thank his wife Christiane, who encouraged him
through the duration of his research. She was so patient, especially in sharing his sorrows
during the write-up of the MSc Thesis in Germany.
We also want to thank all personnel from the Department of Agricultural Extension and
Communication Science at the University of Hohenheim, Germany, especially Patrick
Groetz and Simone Kriesemer for advice regarding the content of this study.
Jochen Knorr, Maria-Gerster Bentaya, Volker Hoffmann
IV

Table of Contents
Preface ............................................................................................................................... III
Aknowledgements.............................................................................................................. IV
Table of Contents ................................................................................................................ V
List of Boxes, Figures, Tables ........................................................................................ VIII
Abbreviations and Acronyms............................................................................................. IX
1 Introduction........................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Problem Statement .................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Objectives................................................................................................................ 1
2 Overall Methodology and the Field Study in Malawi......................... 3
2.1 Methodology ........................................................................................................... 3
2.2 Empirical Methods Used......................................................................................... 5
2.2.1 Unstructured Interviews.......................................................................................... 5
2.2.2 Semi-structured Interviews ..................................................................................... 5
2.3 Steps of the Empirical Field Study in Malawi........................................................ 6
2.3.1 Selection of Research Areas ................................................................................... 6
2.3.2 Conducting the Field Study..................................................................................... 8
3 Agricultural Extension................................................................................. 10
3.1 The Emergence of Agricultural Extension in Europe and in the USA................. 10
3.2 Definitions of Agricultural Extension................................................................... 12
3.3 Some basic Concepts for Extension...................................................................... 15
3.4 Elements of an Extension Approach..................................................................... 19
3.5 Experiences with Extension in Sub-Saharan Africa ............................................. 20
4 Malawi................................................................................................................. 24
4.1 Geography and Climate ........................................................................................ 24
4.2 Socio-economic Situation ..................................................................................... 24
4.3 Agriculture ............................................................................................................ 26
5 Historical Developments ............................................................................ 28
5.1 A Short History of Malawi.................................................................................... 28
5.1.1 Pre-colonial Time.................................................................................................. 28
5.1.2 The Colonial Time ................................................................................................ 29
5.1.3 Transition and Independence ................................................................................ 30
V

5.1.4 Malawi under Banda ............................................................................................. 31
5.1.5 Political Change During the 90’s and Beyond...................................................... 32
5.2 History of Agricultural Policy .............................................................................. 33
5.2.1 Agricultural Policy in the Protectorate ................................................................. 33
5.2.2 Agricultural Policy in Post-War Nyasaland and the Central African
Federation.............................................................................................................. 34
5.2.3 Post-independence Agricultural Policy and the Four Major Integrated
Rural Development Projects ................................................................................. 37
5.2.4 Agricultural Policy in the 1980s and 1990s.......................................................... 41
5.2.5 Agricultural Policy between 2000 and 2006......................................................... 43
6 Malawi’s Past Extension Approaches................................................... 51
6.1 “Early” Colonial Extension................................................................................... 51
6.2 “Coercion and Compulsion” ................................................................................. 52
6.3 The Master Farmer Approach............................................................................... 54
6.4 Education and Persuasion ..................................................................................... 55
6.5 The New Master Farmer Scheme: Achikumbi ..................................................... 57
6.6 Farmer Clubs and the Group Approach................................................................ 58
6.7 Package Programmes ............................................................................................ 59
7 The Block Extension System (BES)....................................................... 61
7.1 Training & Visit (T&V)........................................................................................ 61
7.2 The Block Extension System in the 80’................................................................ 63
7.2.1 Salient Features of the BES .................................................................................. 63
7.2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of the BES in the 80’s ........................................ 65
7.3 New Developments in Malawi’s Extension During the 90’s ............................... 66
7.3.1 Modifications and Changes of the BES................................................................ 66
7.3.2 New Challenges .................................................................................................... 68
7.3.3 New Extension Providers...................................................................................... 69
8 Experiences with Extension, assessed in 2001................................ 71
8.1 Agricultural Extension in the Area of Karonga .................................................... 71
8.1.1 Farmers’ Experiences with Extension in Kaporo South EPA .............................. 71
8.1.2 Extension Providers in Kaporo South EPA .......................................................... 74
VI

8.2 Agricultural Extension in the Area of Salima....................................................... 75
8.2.1 Farmers’ Extension Experiences in Tembwe EPA............................................... 75
8.2.2 Extension Providers in Tembwe EPA................................................................... 77
8.3 Agricultural Extension in the Area of Mulanje..................................................... 78
8.3.1 Farmers’ Extension Experiences in Mulanje Boma EPA..................................... 78
8.3.2 Extension Providers in Mulanje Boma EPA......................................................... 80
8.4 Experiences of Current and Retired Staff ............................................................. 81
8.4.1 The Strengths and Weaknesses of Past Extension Approaches............................ 82
8.4.2 The BES in the Eyes of Frontline Extension Staff ............................................... 82
8.4.3 NGOs and the Public Extension Service .............................................................. 84
9 New Developments in Agricultural Extension................................... 86
9.1 New Trends in Extension Worldwide................................................................... 86
9.1.1 De-linking Provision and Funding of Extension .................................................. 87
9.1.2 Common Framework of Agricultural Extension: The Neuchâtel Initiative ......... 87
9.1.3 Finance Mechanisms............................................................................................. 89
9.1.4 Accountability for Empowerment......................................................................... 91
9.2 Malawi’s New Extension Policy and System ....................................................... 91
9.2.1 Driving forces for a change................................................................................... 91
9.2.2 The New Extension Policy.................................................................................... 92
9.2.3 The actual administrative set-up and responsibilities ........................................... 95
9.2.4 The District Agricultural Extension Services System .......................................... 96
9.2.5 What happens to render the new DAESS operational? ........................................ 99
10 Outlook ............................................................................................................ 100
11 Summaries ..................................................................................................... 101
11.1 Summary ............................................................................................................. 101
11.1 Zusammenfassung............................................................................................... 103
12 Bibliography ...........................................................................................................107
13 Annexes ....................................................................................................................114
13.1 List of Interviews ................................................................................................ 114
13.2 Interview Guidelines........................................................................................... 116
VII

List of Boxes, Figures and Tables
Box 1: Malawi’s Vision 2020....................................................................................... 46
Box 2: Summary of achievements in extension services ............................................. 47
Box 3: “Master Farmers of Nyasaland”......................................................................... 55
Box 4: What is a financing mechanism? ....................................................................... 90
Figure 1: Map of Malawi with the Research Locations..................................................... 7
Figure 2: Framework Model of Organised Extension ..................................................... 16
Figure 3: Model of the Psychological Field..................................................................... 17
Figure 4: Model of Behaviour Modification.................................................................... 17
Figure 5: Stages of Systematic Problem Solving............................................................. 18
Figure 6: What an Extension Approach Should Contain................................................. 19
Figure 7: Map of Malawi ................................................................................................. 25
Figure 8: Location of the Integrated Rural Development Projects in 1974..................... 39
Figure 9 The Agricultural Development Divisions......................................................... 42
Figure 10: One Village One Product (OVOP) in Malawi, as of July 2007 ....................... 49
Figure 11: Percentage of total cotton and tobacco produced by white farmers in
colonial Malawi, 1920-1940............................................................................ 51
Figure 12 Extension as Bridge .......................................................................................... 52
Figure 13: The Transfer Model.......................................................................................... 62
Figure 14: Mixed strategies for financing and providing extension .................................. 87
Figure 15: Possibilities of Channelling Finances............................................................... 90
Figure 16: Accountability in extension.............................................................................. 91
Figure 17: The Stakeholder Panel...................................................................................... 98
Table 1: Research Timetable ............................................................................................ 4
Table 2: Targeted Input Programs .................................................................................. 46
Table 3: Active World Bank Projects in Malawi as of 2007.......................................... 48
Table 4: Strengths and Weaknesses of Past Extension Approaches............................... 82
VIII

Abbreviations and Acronyms
ADD Agricultural Development Division
ADF African Development Fund
ADMARC Agricultural Development and Marketing Corporation
AFORD Alliance for Democracy
ARET Agricultural Research and Extension Trust
ASAC Agricultural Sector Adjustment Credit
ASP Agricultural Service Project
BCAP British Central Africa Protectorate
BES Block Extension System
BMZ German Ministry for Economic Co-Operation
CFSME Conscientisation, Formation, Stimulation, Moyens, Evaluation
COSPE Co-operation for the Development of Emerging Countries
CU Concern Universal (NGO)
CSC Christian Service Committee
DAES Department of Agricultural Extension Services
DANIDA Danish International Development Agency
DAO District Agricultural Officer
DO Development Officer
ECGC Empire Cotton Growing Corporation
EDF European Development Fund
EPA Extension Planning Area
FA Field Assistant
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FBO Farmer-based Organisation
FFS Farmers’ Field School (Extension Approach)
FtF Farmer to Farmer (Extension Approach)
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GNP Gross National Product
GRAAP Groupe de Recherche et d’Appui à l’Autopromotion Paysanne
GTZ German Agency for Technical Cooperation
HIV/AIDS Human Immunodeficiency Virus / Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
IDA International Development Association
IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development
IMF International Monetary Fund
IRDP Integrated Rural Development Project
JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency
MAEPS Agricultural Extension and Planning Support Project
IX

MARE Malawi Agricultural Research and Extension Project
MASIP Malawi Agricultural Sector Investment Programme
MCP Malawi Congress Party
MGDS Malawi Growth and Development Strategy
MK Malawi Kwacha, National Currency
MoA Ministry of Agriculture
MoAFS Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security
MoAI Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation
MPRSP Malawi Strategy Reduction Strategy Paper
NAC Nyasaland African Congress
NARP National Agricultural Research Project
NASFAM National Smallholder Farmer Association of Malawi
NGO Non Governmental Organisation
NRDP National Rural Development Programme
OPM Oxford Policy Management
OVOP One Village One Product
PEM Participatory Extension Methods
PJO Project Officer
PM Programme Manager
PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal
PROSCARP Promotion of Soil Conservation and Rural Production Project (NGO)
PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper
RDP Rural Development Project
RTC Residential Training Centre
SAL Structural Adjustment Loan
SAP Structural Adjustment Programme
SMS Subject Matter Specialist
SG 2000 Sasakawa Global 2000
SWAp Sector-Wide Approach
T&V Training and Visit Extension System
TIP Targeted Input Programme
TOT Transfer of Technology
UDF United Democratic Front
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
USAID United States Agency for International Development
VLPA Village Level Participatory Approach
X