Phonetic Transcription and Diacritics

48 CHAPTER 3
Think of the symbol as a pointer with its base
the top of the T-type notation. If the pointer
projects down [�], the tongue has been lowered;
if it points up [�], the tongue has been raised.
a lowered [i] ([i�]) signify the same vowel quality?
The answer is no. Therefore, in our previous
example, one has to make a decision as to
whether this vowel realization sounded more
like an [e]- or an [i]-type vowel. Based on the
transcriber’s auditory perception, the basic
vowel quality must fi rst be chosen, and then
the modifying diacritic mark should be added
to it.
Advanced/Retracted Tongue Position. There
are also diacritics signaling tongue variations
on the horizontal plane that lead to deviations
from norm productions. They indicate a
tongue position that is too far forward or too
far back for a norm production of the vowel
in question. The diacritic for vowels produced
with a tongue elevation more advanced than
usual is [ � ]. More retracted protrusions are
marked by the diacritic [ � ]. Both are placed under
the vowel symbol: [ε�] , for example.
CLINICAL COMMENTS
Changes in the position of the tongue for vowel realizations
are often perceptually diffi cult to target. Although
transcribers are aware that the vowel quality is
“off,” they may not be sure in which direction. If the
tongue has been lowered or raised, the vowel quality
will sound somehow similar to the neighboring vowel
on the vertical plane of the vowel quadrilateral. Thus,
a lowered [ε] will have a certain [�] quality, or a raised
[υ] will approach a [u]. The best reference source in
these cases is the vowel quadrilateral. However, this
is not as simple if the tongue movements pertain to
the horizontal plane—that is, to a tongue position too
advanced or retracted. One point of reference is that
front vowels that demonstrate a retracted tongue position
and back vowels that demonstrate too forward a
tongue position sound somewhat “centralized”—that
is, their distinct qualities appear reduced. Therefore,
although the vowel can still be identifi ed as the respective
front or back vowel, it approaches a [�]-type
quality.
Nasality Symbols. During the production
of most General American English speech
sounds, the velum is elevated to block the escape
of the expiratory air through the nasal
cavity. There is only one exception to this rule:
the nasals. This is what—quite correctly—the
textbooks tell us. However, in reality, the conditions
are not always so clear-cut. If a nasal
follows a vowel, for example, nasality often
seeps into the vowel segment; the preceding
vowel becomes nasalized:
[t�n] → [t�˜n]
As long as the nasality doesn’t overstep
the boundary line of natural assimilatory processes,
this nasality remains unmarked. Speakers
and listeners perceive these variations as
normal. However, if the nasality is perceived
as being excessive, or hypernasal, we need to
place the “tilde” (which you may have encountered
in Spanish language classes) over
the respective sound(s). As speech-language
specialists, we encounter hypernasality prominently
in the speech of clients with dysarthria
and cleft palates.
Denasality is also encountered in the
speech of our clients. The symbol for denasality
is the tilde with a slash through it, placed
above the nasal consonant:
ni → ˜�ni
This symbol refers to a reduction of nasal quality.
Only nasal consonants can be denasalized.
If nasal consonants are perceived as having a