Review of Literature

Chapter 2
Review of Literature
2.1 Berberis lycium Royle (Berberidaceae)
2.1.1 Ethnobotanical uses
The roots of B. lycium known as “Darhald” which are used for diaphoretic, as astringent,
as well as bleeding piles (Nadkarni, 1980). In Pakistan folk medicine, the roots powdered
the plant are recommended for the treatment of rheumatism and muscular pain and it is to
be taken with milk probably to protect the gastric mucosa from damage, (Ikram et al.,
1966). The roots of Berberis species are used for the treatment of a number of ailments
which includes rheumatism, eye and ear diseases, malarial fever, diabetics, jaundice,
stomach disorder, fever, skin disease, and also used as a tonic (Watt, 1889; Kirtikar and
Basu, 1933 a; Chopra et al., 1958 a; Ambastha, 1988). Several other Berberis species
were found to be used in the treatment of various inflammatory conditions, including
rheumatism, fever and Pyrexia (Yesilada and Küpeli, 2002).
2.1.2 Chemical constituents
The active constituents are alkaloids. The major alkaloids of B. lycium are berberine and
umbellatine (Ali and Khan, 1978), chelidonic acid and oxyacanthine (Karnick, 1994).
Heterocyclic constituents, named berberisterol, berberifuranol and berberilycine, have
been isolated from the roots of Berberis lycium (Ali and Sharma, 1996). Berberine (I),
berbericine and berbericinine hydriodide were also reported in the roots of B. lycium
(Ikram et al., 1966). Palmatinechloroform a tertiary dihydroprotoberberine alkaloid
(Miana, 1973) and compounds such as the alkaloids sindamine (III), punjabine, gilgitine,
chenabine (IV) and jhelumine are also reported (Leet et al., 1982, 1983). Besides these,
Ali and Khan (1978), reported berbamine (V) but in the present study the main
constituent was berberine and palmatine (II) (Fig. 6), while berbamine was not detected in
Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC), High Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) and
Capillary Electrophoreses (CE).
O
O
O
O
CH 3 O
N
+
CH 3 O
N
+
OCH 3
I Berberine
OCH 3
II Palmatine
64

Chapter 2
Review of Literature
OMe
MeO
OMe MeO
MeN
OMe
O
O
O
CHO
NMe
MeN
MeO
O
CHO
NMe
OH
OH
III Sindamine
IV Chenabine
O
O
O
N
O
N
O
V Berbamine
O
H
Figure 1 Alkaloids of Berberis lycium
2.1.3 Biological testing
Berberis lycium shows antimicrobial activities (Harsh and Nag, 1988; Sing et al.,
2007).The wound-healing activity has recently investigated in rats, the reports shows an
increase in epithelialization and wound contraction(Asif et al., 2007). A significant
reduction in both blood glucose levels and glycosylated haemoglobin has reported
while treated the Alloxane- induced diabetic Rates with Berberis lycium roots extract
and berberine (Gulfaraz et al., 2008).
Among the reported chemical constituents of B. lycium, berberine shows different
pharmacological activities According to literature berberine is a benzylisoquinoline
alkaloid mainly distributed in the genus Berberis and some other medicinal plants.
Berberine is to be considered the major active principle of B. lycium. There are different
pharmacologic activities of berberine which include metabolic inhibition of certain
organisms, inhibit the bacterial enterotoxin formation, inhibit the intestinal fluid
accumulation and ion secretion as well, inhibit the smooth muscle contraction, control
65

Chapter 2
Review of Literature
and minimizes the inflammation, inhibit the aggregation of platelet, elevate platelet count
in certain types of hrombocytopenia, stimulate the secretion of bile and bilirubin, and also
inhibit the of ventricular tachyarrhythmias (Birdsall et al., 1997; Akhter et al., 1979).
Diarrhea caused by Vibrio cholera and Escherichia coli has been the focus of numerous
berberine studies, and results indicate several mechanisms which may explain its ability
to inhibit bacterial diarrhea. An animal study found berberine reduced the intestinal
secretion of water and electrolytes induced by cholera toxin (Swabb et al., 1981). Other
studies have shown berberine directly inhibits some V. cholera and E. coli enterotoxins
(Sack and Froelich, 1982). It significantly reduces smooth muscle contraction and
intestinal motility (Akhter et al., 1979) and delays intestinal transit time in humans (Yuan
et al., 1994).
Berberine sulfate has also been found to be directly bacteriocidal to V. cholera (Amin et
al., 1969). In a report about it affect on E. coli, berberine sulfate was used in vitro
research which shows the bacterial inhibition of adherence to epithelial or mucosal
surfaces, the first step in the infective process. The over all effect may be due to the
berberine’s inhibitory activity on fimbrial structure formation on the surface of the treated
bacteria (Sun et al., 1988). Growth of some organism like Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia
lamblia, Trichomonas vaginalis and Leishmania donovani were positively inhibited by
berberine extracts and its salts (Kaneda et al., 1991; (Ghosh et al., 1985). It has also be
studied that the crude extracts of berberine are more effective than the salts of berberine
(Kaneda et al., 1990). In tropical climates Giardia lamblia infestation (giardiasis) is a
common occurrence, particularly in pediatric populations (Nair, 1970). In India, it has
been concluded after various clinical trials that berberine administration positively
improved gastrointestinal symptoms and reduction is occur in Giardia-positive stools. In
comparison to metronidazole (Flagyl), another popular giardiasis medication, Berberine
was nearly as effective at half the dose (Choudhry et al., 1979).
The in vitro and in vivo studies of berberine’s effects on Entamoeba histolytica indicated
berberine sulfate was rapidly amoebicidal and caused encystation, degeneration, and
eventual lyses of the trophozoite forms (Subbaiah and Amin, 1967). Berberine sulfate
rapidly inhibited the growth of Trichomonas vaginalis via formation of large autophagic
vacuoles that eventually result in lysis of the trophozoite forms (Kaneda et al., 1991).
Studies have shown berberine markedly decreased parasitic load and rapidly improved
hematologic parameters in infected animals. In vitro results indicated berberine inhibited
multiplication, respiration, and macromolecular biosynthesis of amastigote forms of the
66

Chapter 2
Review of Literature
parasite, interfered with the nuclear DNA of the promastigote form, and inhibited
organism maturation (Ghosh et al., 1985).
Aqueous berberine and sulfacetamide were both studied in a clinical trial against
Chlamydia trachomatis infection which was conducted on 51 subjects in an outpatient
eye clinic. It was concluded that while sulfacetamide eye drops gave some better clinical
results, while conjunctival scrapings of the patient under investigation were remained
positive for the infective agent and relapses occurred. While in case of, the conjunctival
scrapings of patients that intake the berberine chloride eye drops were found negative for
C. trachomatis and the relapses were also negative up to one year after treatment. It was
further studied that the berberine chloride had no direct anti-chlamydial properties, but it
is possible that it treated the infection by stimulating some protective mechanism in the
host (Babbar et al., 1982). In another clinical study it was found that berberine chloride is
better than sulfacetamide in both the clinical course of trachoma and in achieving drop
inserum antibody titers against C. trachomatis (Khosla et al., 1992).
Berberine administration were studied in both clinical trials and animal research, it was
found that it prevented ischemiainduced ventricular tachyarrhythmia, stimulated cardiac
contractility, and lowered both blood pressure and peripheral vascular resistance (Chun et
al., 1978; Marin-Neto et al., 1988). The mechanism for berberine’s antiarrhythmic effect
is unclear, but an animal study indicated it may be due to suppression of delayed afterdepolarization
in the ventricular muscle (Wang et al., 1994). An animal study suggested,
in addition to affecting several other parameters of cardiac performance, berberine may
have a vasodilatory / hypotensive effect attributable to its potentiation of acetylcholine
(Chun et al., 1978). In vitro studies utilizing human cell lines demonstrated that berberine
inhibited activator protein 1 (AP-1), a key transcription factor in inflammation and
carcinogenesis (Fukuda et al., 1999). Another study, utilizing human peripheral
lymphocytes, showed berberine to exert a significant inhibitory effect on lymphocyte
transformation, concluding that its anti-inflammatory action may be due to inhibition of
DNA synthesis in activated lymphocytes (Ckless et al., 1995). A third study concluded
that during platelet activation in response to tissue injury, berberine had a direct affect on
several aspects of the inflammatory process. It exhibited dose-dependent inhibition of
arachidonic acid release from cell membrane phospholipids, inhibition of thromboxane
A2 from platelets (Huang et al., 1991) and inhibition of thrombus formation (Wu and Liu,
1995).
67

Chapter 2
Review of Literature
Berberine has demonstrated a number of other beneficial effects, including
immunostimulation because berberine increased blood flow to the spleen, activated of
macrophage, rising of platelet numbers in cases of primary and secondary
thrombocytopenia, and the excretion of conjugated bilirubin are increased in experimental
hyperbilirubinemia (Birdsall et al., 1997). The anticancer properties of berberine against
cancer cells established from cervical, esophageal, oral, colonic, prostate cancers,
leukemia melanoma and glioblastoma are known by different studies (Iizika et al., 2000;
Jantova et al., 2003, 2006; Kuo et al., 1995; Letasiova et al., 2006; Li et al., 2000; Lin et
al., 2006a, 2006b, 2007; Mantena et al., 2006a, 2006b; Piyanuch et al., 2007., Sanders et
al., 1998; Serafim et al., 2007; Zhang et al., 1990; Katiyar et al., 2008). Berberine was
studied in different assays it is concluded that it inhibits tumor cell growth via inducing
cell cycle arrest and/or apoptosis, and the expression pattern of genes which is responsible
for the regulation of cell cycle progression and apoptosis was correlated to the inhibition
of cellular proliferation. The activity of berberine against tumor cells may vary depending
on the duration of treatment , amount of dose and type of cancer cells, (Iizika et al., 2000;
Jantova et al., 2003, 2006; Kuo et al., 1995; Letasiova et al., 2006; Li et al., 2000a; Lin et
al., 2006a, 2006b, 2007; Mantena et al., 2006a, 2006b; Piyanuch et al., 2007; Sanders et
al., 1998; Serafim et al., 2007; Zhang et al., 1990). It has been studied the effect of
berberine on non-small cell lung cancer cells and concluded that the growth inhibition of
the cells were mediated by p53 (Zhang et al., 1990). But still it is under investigation that
how berberine initiates the cascade that eventually leads to cell cycle arrest and/or
apoptosis and it suggested in some studies that berberine may interfere with DNA
replication as a topoisomerase I inhibitor (Gatto et al., 1996; Kobayashi et al., 1995),
while in some others experiment it showed that berberine may cause directly DNA
damage (Krey and Hahn, 1969; Davidson et al., 1977; Li et al., 2000b; Ihmels et al.,
2005; Letasiova et al., 2006). A very recent study addressed the molecular mechanisms
of Berbeine-induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in osteosarcoma cells. The authors
concluded that Berberine inhibited osteosarcoma cell proliferation through its
genotoxicity causing p53-dependent G1 arrest and apoptosis, whereas G2 arrest was p53-
independent (Liu et al., 2009). In the present investigation studying extracts of B. lycium
and its main constituent, Berberine, we discovered another growth inhibitory mechanism
that did not involve genotoxicity, but the inactivation of Cdc25A and the acetylation of a-
tubulin reminiscent to the anti-neoplastic mechanism of taxol.The doses usage of
berberine in clinical situations is not considered toxic and cytotoxic or mutagenic. High
68

Chapter 2
Review of Literature
dosages of berberine can result some side-effects which may include dyspnea, lowered
blood pressure, gastrointestinal discomfort, flu-like symptoms, and cardiac damage. In
pregnancy care should be taken while using berberine, because berberine can cause
uterine contractions and miscarriage. Berberine may be avoided in jaundiced neonates
because of its bilirubin displacement properties. The berberine can be use in most clinical
situations for various therapeutic purposes is 200 mg orally two to four times daily.
2.2 Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Muell. Arg. (Euphorbiaceae)
2.2.1 Ethnobotanical uses.
Kamala, a red powder consisting of glandular hairs from the capsules of the plant, It has
been used as a drug and dye and has long been used as an anthelminticum and cathartic in
traditional medicine (Satyavati et al., 1987; Srivastava et al., 1967; Gupta et al., 1984 and
an orange dye for silk (Lounasmaa et al., 1975). Fruit is purgative for animal (Zabihullah
et al., 2006) .the red powder (Local name; Kamela) coating the fruit is commonly
administered in curd for the elimination of intestinal worms and also for skin irritation,
ringworm, and freckles (Usmanghani et al., 1997).
2.2.2 Chemical constituents
Its many chemical constituent of Mallotus philippensis include β-sitosterol, stigmasterol,
bergenin, and alpha–amyrin. (Bandopandhyay et al., 1972; Zaidi et al., 2009). Flavonoids
such as Kamalachalcones A and B have been isolated by Toshiyuk et al (1998) from
kamala. A new flavanone, 4’-hydroxy isorottlerin (I), and two new chalcone derivatives,
kamalachalcones C (II) and D (III) and 5,7-dihydroxy-8-methyl-6-prenylflavanone (VI)
(Furusawa et al., 2005), were isolated from the red powder of glandular hairs kamala.
Phloroglucinol derivatives, Mallotophilippens A (IV) and B(V); Mallotophilippens C, D
and E (Daikonya et al., 2002, 2004), Friedelin (Tanaka et al., 1988), 3-hydroxy-D:Afriedoolean-3-en-2-one
(Kikuchi and Toyoda, 1967), 2 α-hydroxy-D:A-friedooleanan-3-
one and 3 α-hydroxy-D:A-friedoolean-an-2-one (Talapatra et al., 1978), lupane-type
triterpenoids, lupeol and betulin (Tanaka et al., 1988). 3'-prenylrubranine (VII) (Zaidi et
al., 2009), red compound (VIII) (Lounasmaa et al., 1975), isorottlerin (IX) and rottlerin
(X) (Furusawa et al., 2005). (Fig.7)
2.2.3 Biological testings
Biological studies such as cytotoxic (Arisawa et al., 1986, 1990; Fujita et al., 1980), antitumor
(Arisawa et al., 1990), and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) reverse
transcriptase inhibitory activities have been described (Nakane et al., 1991) Anthelmintic,
69

Chapter 2
Review of Literature
antibacterial and antiallergic activities of Mallotus philippensis has been justified,
especially, its ethnomedical use against intestinal worms.( Jabbar et al., 2006; Kumar et
al., 2006; Daikonya et al., 2002). In recent report Zaidi et al (2009) has describe the
bactericidal potential of the chemical compounds isolated from Mallotus philippensiss
and concluded that rottlerin was inhibit Helicobacter pylori most potently. Rottlerin (5,7-
dihydroxy-2,2-dimethyl-6-(2,4,6-trihydroxy-3-methyl-5-acetylbenzyl)-8-cinnamoyl-1 ,2-
chromine), also called mallotoxin, is one of the major constituents of Mallotus
philippensis exhibiting various pharmacological activities including mitochondrial
uncoupler effects. (Zaidi et al., 2009).
Rottlerin was considered as a specific inhibitor of the novel protein kinase C (PKC)
isoform, PKC d, and was shown to have anticarcinogenic properties (Soltoff,, 2007). PKC
d translocation and activation are induced by different apoptotic stimuli in different
cellular systems (Brodie et al., 2003). It has been studied that activation of specific
pathways in the plasma membrane in mitochondria and nucleus and translocation by PKC
d that eventually converge to the activation of caspase-3 and subsequent apoptosis (Brodie
et al., 2003). However, there are a large number of studies that have concluded that
rottlerin might not act directly on PKC d, but can activate some cellular changes that is
very similar those produced by the direct inhibition of PKC d (Soltoff, 2001;Tapia et al.,
2006). In one latest experiment, In which colon carcinoma cells and glioma cells are
sensitized by rottlerin to TRAIL-mediated apoptosis by uncoupling of the mitochondria
and inhibition of Cdc2, respectively (Tillman et al., 2003; Kim et al., 2005), However the
mechanisms was not clear that how rottlerin-induced apoptosis and rottlerin sensitizes
cancer cells to TRAIL-mediated apoptosis . It has also found that the apoptosis induced
by rottlerin is mediated through DR5 up regulation (Lim et al., 2009). Rottlerin also
sensitized different type of cancer cells, but has no effect on normal cells. In case of
TRAIL-mediated apoptosis, it has been suggested that the combined treatment with
rottlerin and TRAIL may offer a safe and effective cancer therapy and it has also found in
the same experiment that CHOP-mediated DR5 up regulation, which is independent of
PKC d activity, also take a significant rule in rottlerin-induced apoptosis. Tanaka et al,
(2008) has isolated known friedelane-type triterpenoids compounds from the stem bark
of M. phillipensis and described the anti-tumor promoting activity of 3-hydroxy-D:Afriedoolean-3-en-2-one
( IC 50 = 292 mol ratio/ 32 pmol/TPA); 3α-hydroxy-D:Afriedoolean
-2-one (IC 50 = 288); positive control, curcumin (IC 50 = 343); Epstein-
70

Chapter 2
Review of Literature
Barrvirus early antigen (EBV-EA) activation induced by 12-O-tetradecanoyl phorbol 13-
acetate (TPA) used in the experiment.
Me O
HO
Me
OH
Me
O
Me
OH
O
OH
HO
Me
O
O
H
O
OH
Me
Me
Me
H
OH
Me
OH O
I 4'-Hydroxyisorottlerin
OH O
II Kamalachalcones C
Me
Me
O
O
HO
OH
O
Me
O
HO
Me
O
O
Me
Me
O
O
HO
CO
O
Pr i
OH HO
Me
O
Me
Me
Me
HO
Me
O HO
Me
OH
III Kamalachalcone D
Me
OH
Me
OH
OH
IV Mallotophilippen A
HO
CO
O
Me
OH HO
Me
O
Me
Me
Me
HO
O
Me
OH
OH
V Mallotophilippen B
OH
VI 5,7-dihydroxy-8 methyl-6-prenylflavanone
O
71

Chapter 2
Review of Literature
O
O
OH
HO
OH
O
O
HO
O
OH
O
O
VII 3 -prenylrubranine
OH
O
VIII Red compound
OH O
IX Isorottlerin
Figure 2 Compounds of Mallotus philippensis
2.3 Adhatoda vasica Nees (Acanthaceae)
2.3.1 Ethnobotanical uses
Adhatoda vasica is widely used in the Ayurvedic and Unani system of medicine for
treating bronchitis, asthma, fever and jaundice on account of the antispasmodic properties
of roots and leaves. A. vasica has also been used for the treatment of bronchial
obstruction which is created by allergen (Sharma et al., 1999; Amin and Mehta, 1959). It
has been used for asthma and tuberculosis (Dorsch and Wagner, 1991; Paliwa et al.,
2000; Barry et al., 1955; Grang et el., 1996; Gupta et al., 1954).
2.3.2 Chemical constituents
The chemical examination of Adhatoda vasica revealed to contain different types of
alkaloids, glycosides, different phenolic compounds and sterols components (Lateef et al.,
2003). The major chemically active components identified are two alkaloids: vasicinone
and vasicine (Das et al., 2005). Some minor alkaloids viz. Vasicol, adhatodinine and
vasicinol also present. The leaves contain an alkaloid vasicine and an essential oil.
2.3.3 Biological testing
Adhatoda vasica possesses hepatoprotective activity (Bhattacharyya et al., 2005). It
possesses antioxidant, chemopreventive agent and antibacterial (Karthikeyan et al.,2009).
It has the tendency to restore the hematological changes produced by irradiation in Swiss
albino mice (Kumar et al., 2005). The activities of Glutathione S-transferase are enhanced
in the liver of mice. A. vasica reduced glutathione (GSH) levels in liver, and also reduced
lipid peroxidation(LPO). It also reduced the acid and alkaline phosphatases in testis of
72

Chapter 2
Review of Literature
normal and irradiated mice (Singh et al., 2000). Leaves of Adhatoda vasica possess
anticestodal efficacy (Yadav and Tangpu, 2008). Due to alkaloids such as vasicine and
vasicinone it possesses the biological activities such as expectorant and mild bronchial
antispasmodic. (Lahiri and Pradhan, 1964; Gupta et al., 1971).
2.4 Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. (Mimosaceae)
2.4.1 Ethnobotanical uses
The wood of Albizia lebbeck is very similar to walnut and therefore very good for canoes,
furniture, house building, and picture frames, etc. the wood of A. lebbeck is also used for
cane crushers, oil. In the Ayurveda both the leaves and the bark of A. lebbeck have been
in clinical use for centuries. Spongy and ulcerative gums have been strengthening with
the powder of the bark of the roots. The leaves Juice are very useful in ophthalmia. The
leaves decoction are useful for night-blindness and therefore given internally. Bark is
astringent and is employed in diarrhea, dysentery, and hemorrhoids. Powdered bark is
useful for ulcers, and especially for snake wounds flowers possess the power of causing
retention of the seminal fluid. Seeds are astringent and are employed in diarrhea,
dysentery and hemorrhoids. The seeds are also used for ophthalmic diseases. The oil from
the seeds is considered useful in leprosy. The seeds are crushed and made into a paste,
which is applied to reduce enlarged cervical glands. Bronchial asthma is being treated
with the decoction of stem bark. Bark of A. lebbeck used as antifertility drugs (Shah et al.,
2009).
2.4.2 Chemical constituents
The leaves of Albizia lebbeck are good source of saponins (Pal et al., 1995).
2.4.3 Biological testing
The leaves of A. lebbeck, which contain different type of saponins, and possessed
nootropic activity (Chintawar et al., 2002), anticonvulsant activity (Kasture et al., 2000).
Antiasthmatic and antianaphylactic activity of A. lebbeck have been reported (Tripathi
and Das, 1977). Tripathi et al (1979) have conclude that A. lebbeck is not like disodium
chromoglycate, it exerts antianaphylactic activity in guinea pigs. A. lebbeck also enhance
the concentration of plasma cortisol level in patients of bronchial asthma (Tripathi et al.,
1978). Albizia lebbeck showed antioxidant activities in alloxan-induced diabetic rats
(Resmi et al., 2006).
73

Chapter 2
Review of Literature
2.5 Bauhinia variegata Linn. (Caesalpinaceae)
2.5.1 Ethnobotanical uses
Bauhinia variegata generally cultivated as an ornamental plant. The leaves are given to
cattle as fodder, flowers are used as pot herb and also made into pickles; wood is useful in
buildings and for making agricultural goods. The plant yields gum; the bark is useful for
tanning and dyeing. The plant is reputed to have medicinal properties also. The root is
tonic and carminative, the flowers laxative and the bark is astringent; various parts of the
plant are reputed to have healing properties also. In the traditional medicines of South
East Asia the same is used for skin diseases, as an astringent, bronchitis, tonic, leprosy,
anti inflammatory and for ulcers (Kirtikar and Basu, 1993). The roots decoction is useful
in dyspepsia and also used as an antidote to snake poison (Thammanna et al., 1990).
2.5.2 Chemical constituents
Several flavonoids have been isolated during the phytochemical studies on the stems,
bark, flowers and seeds (Gupta et al., 1979, 1980, 1984; Rahman and Begum, 1966;
Wahab et al., 1987;Yadava and Reddy, 2001). The non-woody aerial parts of B. variegata
were studied and isolated six flavonoids, and a triterpene caffeate, ( Rao et al., 2008).
Phenanthraquinone, named bauhinione has been isolated from Bauhinia variegate (Zhao
et al., 2005).
2.5.3 Biological testing
The non-woody aerial parts of B. variegate yield anti-inflammatory agents. It shows
insuline secretion activity from INS-1 cells. The ethanolic extract of B. variegate at the
rate of 250 mg/kg positively suppressed liver tumor (Rajkapoor et al., 2006). It has been
determined the anthelmintic activity of the leaves. (Sing et al., 2005).
2.6. Bombax ceiba Linn. (Bombacaceae)
2.6.1 Ethnobotanical uses
The cotton inside the fruits was used a substitute of cotton. Various parts of plant are used
in small pox, bleeding gums, toothache, carries, sores in mouth, pain in leg, fever,
enlarged spleen, atrophy, emaciation, rheumatism, spermatorrhoea, cholera, pneumonia,
pleurisy, intestinal neuralgia, leprosy and skin diseases (Ansari, 2004). The flower was a
common ingredient in Chinese herb tea. The gum has aphrodisiac, astringent, demulcent,
haemoptysis of pulmonary tuberculosis and influenza, malaena and menorrhagia and
74

Chapter 2
Review of Literature
acute dysentery with beneficial results. Flowers are used for haemorrhoids. Root has
stimulant, tonic and aphrodisiac properties. Plants are used for making light packing
boxes and in fisherman floats. In Punjab it is used for making water conduits, troughs and
bridges, the timber is also utilized in match industry. Buds are used as vegetables.
2.6.2 Chemical constituents
Preliminary tests show the presence of glycosides and tannins from root, stem and leaf. In
the stem some alkaloids and in root proteins are identified (Mehra, 1968). The stem bark
contains lupeol and b-sitostrol (Mukherjee, 1971). The root bark has 3 naphthalene
derivatives related to gossypol (toxic principle of cotton seed) and called as
'semigossypol' (Seshadri, 1973). Flowers contain b-sitosterol, traces of essential oil,
kaempherol and Quercetin (Gopal, 1972). On hydrolysis gum yield arabinose, galactose,
galacturonic acid and rhamnose.
2.6.3 Biological testing
Aqueous extract has moderate oxytoxic activity on gravid and non-gravid isolated rat
uteri and guinea pig and rabbit uterine strips. It has musculotrapic action in guinea pig
ileum and cardiac stimulant action on frog's heart (Misra, 1968). It has a negligible bloodpressure
elevating action in anaesthetized dog (Misra, 1966).
2.7 Calotropis procera Linn. (Asclepiadaceae)
2.7.1 Ethnobotanical uses
Calotropis procera is a medicinal plant. The latex is irritant to the skin and mucous
membrane and said to cause blindness. It is also used as a purgative and said to be
specific for Guinea worms. The seed floss is used for stuffing mattresses, pillows etc. It is
sometimes used to adulterate Indian Kapok but it is inferior to it in resilience and water
repellent properties. In Indian traditional system of medicine the different parts of the C.
procerat have been used for the treatment of various diseases such as ulcers, leprosy,
piles, tumors, and certain disease of abdomen, liver and spleen (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935).
C. procera (root) are useful carminative drug in the treatment of dyspepsia (Kumar and
Arya, 2006). Various tribes of central India use C. procera (root bark and leaves) as a
useful drug for jaundice, a curative agent and as antidote for snake poisoning (Samvatsar,
2000; Nandkarni,1976).
75

Chapter 2
Review of Literature
2.7.2 Chemical constituents
The latexes of C. procera are a rich source of many biologically active constituents that
include some glucosides, different tannins and proteins (Wititsuwannakul et al., 2002;
Dubey and Jagannadham, 2003). Alkaloids, cardiac glycosides, tannins, flavonoids,
sterols and triterpenes has been reported (Mossa et al., 1991). Singh and Rastogi reported
Calactin, Calotropin and Uscharidin were formed by substitution of glycosides at C-1 of
4, 6 deoxy sugar (Singh and Rastogi, 1970), Calotropin isolated from leaves and stalkes
(Perry and Metzger, 1980), toxic flavonoids have also been reported (Salunke et al.,
2005).
2.7.3 Biological testing
According to the study of Choedon et al, the aqueous extract of C. procera (latex) has
inhibit cellular infiltration and concluded that it afford protection against development of
neoplastic changes while using the transgenic mouse model of hepatocellular carcinoma
(Choedon et al., 2006). The roots of C. procera have been extracted with chloroform and
studied the protective activity against carbon tetrachloride induced liver damage which
shows a significance protective result. (Basu et al., 1992). Methanol extract possess
antioxidant activity in Trema orientalis (Uddin et al 2008) and Senna tora (Uddin et al
2008a). C. procera latex is also reported to possess very interesting unrelated activities
such as the ability to combat diarrhea or retard insect larval development and (Kumar et
al., 2001, 1994; Morsy et al., 2001). Chloroform extract of roots has been reported to
possess anti-inflammatory activity (Kumar and Basu, 1994; Basu and Chaudhuri, 1991).
Aqueous extract of the flowers has been found to exhibit analgesic, antipyretic and antiinflammatory
activity (Mascolo et al., 1988).The alcoholic extract from different parts
has been found to possess antimicrobial and spermicidal activity (Kishore et al., 1997;
Qureshi et al., 1991). Alcoholic roots extract possesses a very strong antiimplantation
activity Ž100%.which may be due to its estrogenic activity (Jagadish et al., 2002).
Laticifer proteins (LP) recovered from the latex of the medicinal plant. Calotropis
procera, is a target for DNA topoisomerase I triggering apoptosis in cancer cell lines.
(Oliveira et al., 2007). Calotropis procera flowers possess hepatoprotective activity
(Ramachandra et al., 2007).
2.8 Carissa opaca Stapf ex Haines (Apocynaceae)
76

Chapter 2
Review of Literature
2.8.1 Ethnobotanical uses
Fresh leaves of Carissa opaca and roots of Sageretia brandrethiana are boiled in water
and used in case of Jaundice and Hepatitis, the decoction is taken orally, approximately
one cup twice a day for two to three weeks (Abbasi et al., 2009). Fruit is edible.
2.8.2 Chemical constituent
Carissone, palmatic acid, benzyl salicylate, benzyl benzoate, farnesene (Rai et al., 2005)
2.9 Cassia fistula Linn. (Caesalpinaceae)
2.9.1 Ethnobotanical uses
Cassia fistula is an ornamental tree, the bark is used as tanning material and wood ash is
used as mordant in dyeing. The pulp of pods is used in Bengal to flavour tobacco. The
durable wood is used for various purposes. The different parts of the plant are also
reported to have medicinal properties. It is also useful in the treatment of different skin
diseases, rheumatism, inflammatory diseases, anorexia and jaundice (Anonymous,1992;
Kirtikar and Basu 1991).
2.9.2 Chemical constituents
A flavone glycoside 5,3',4'-tri-hydroxy-6-methoxy-7-O-alpha-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 -->
2)-O-beta-D-galactopyranoside with antimicrobial activity was reported by (Yadava and
Verma, 2003). Compounds, 5-(2-hydroxyphenoxymethyl) furfural, (2'S)-7-hydroxy-5-
hydroxymethyl-2(2'-hydroxypropyl)chromone,benzyl-2-hydroxy-3,6-dimethoxybenzoate,
and benzyl 2beta-O-D-glucopyranosyl-3,6-dimethoxybenzoate, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural,
(2'S)-7-hydroxy-2-(2'-hydroxypropyl)-5-methylchromone, and two oxyanthraquinones,
chrysophanol and chrysophanein, were isolated from the seeds of Cassia fistula. (Kuo et
al., 2002)
2.9.3 Biological Testing
Luximon-Ramma et al (2002) has reported that antioxidant activities correlated to the
total Phenolic compounds. The hepatoprotective activity (Bhakta et al., 1999; Bhakta et
al., 2001) and the hypoglycemic activity (Esposito Avella et al., 1991) have been
reported.
2.10 Colebrookea oppositifolia Smith (Labiateae)
77

Chapter 2
Review of Literature
2.10.1 Ethnobotanical uses
In traditional medicine, the epilepsy diseases is treated with the roots of C. oppositifolia
and the leaves of the same plants are used for the healing of wounds and bruises (Chopra
et al., 1956)
2.10.2 Chemical constituents
Several flavone and flavone glycosides have isolated from the bark, stems, leaves, and
flowers of C. oppositifolia. (Ahmed et al., 1974; Patwardhan et al., 1981; Yang et al.,
1996).
2.11 Debregeasia salicifolia (D.Don) (Urticaceae)
2.11.1 Ethnobotanical uses
A strong fiber used to make ropes, is obtained from the bark.
2.11.2 Chemical constituent
Akber et al. (2001) reported quercetin, hisperidine, 3b-19alpha-dihydroxy-30-norurs-12-
ene,b-sitosterol, stigmasterol, oleanolic acid and lupeol in extracts of Debregeasia
salicifolia
2.11.3 Biological Testing
Ahmed et al. (2006) has identified that leaves extracts has IC 50 values more than 100
µg/ml of DPPH radical scavenging activity while comparing with Ascorbic acid IC 50 =
1.75
2.12 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. (Papilionaceae)
2.12.1 Ethnobotanical uses
Plants of the genus Dalbergia are medicinally important and have been used for the
treatment of gonorrhoea, arthritis, and rheumatic pains (Anonymous. 1950; Nadkarni,
1982; Singh and Chaturvedi, 1966). It has been reported in folk medicine and is used
mainly as aphrodisiac, abortifacient, expectorant, anthelmintic and antipyretic. It is also
used in conditions like emesis, ulcers, leucoderma, dysentery, stomach troubles and skin
diseases. (Kirtikar and Basu, 1933 b; Nadkarni. 1954; Chopra et al., 1956 b). In Arabic
countries the aqueous leaves extract of D. sissoo has been used for the treatment of
78

Chapter 2
Review of Literature
gonorrhea (El-Dagwy, 1996).The hard wood D. sissoo which is very heavy and durable,
widely used for the manufacturing of boats furniture, wheels and carts, etc.
2.12.2 Chemical constituents
Phytochemical examination of genus Dalbergia has provided a large number of
compounds, which include flavonoids, furans, benzophenones, styrenes, and terpenoids
(Chawla and Chibber, 1981; Khan and Javed, 1997). Chemical constituent of D. Sissoo
have also been studied before (Ahluwalia et al., 1965; Ahluwalia et al., 1963; Banerji et
al., 1965, 1966; Banerji et al., 1963; Dhingra et al., 1974; Farag et al., 2001; Mukerjee et
al., 1971; Ramakrishna et al., 2001;Sharma et al., 1979a, 1979b, 1980a, 1980b). Two
new isoflavones glycosides along with other five known isoflavone glycosides have been
isolated from the leaves and stem bark by D. sissoo Salwa et al (2001). It has been
isolated several type of chemicals constituent from the green branches and aerial parts of
D. sissoo Roxb, such as biochanin-A, tectorigenin, isoflavones irisolidone, prunetin,
muningin, genestein, the flavone nor-artocarpotin, sissotrin and prunetin-4- O -
galactoside stigmasterol, ß-sitosterol and ß-amyrin (Kinjo et al., 1987; Ishikura et al.,
1989; Rao et al., 1989; Ramesh and Yuvarajan, 1995; Mathias et al., 1998). Sarg et al
(1999) and Labreque, (1983) reported the composition of the fatty acids in the fixed oil
which are myristic 5.56%, palmitic 21.70%, stearic 24.33%, arachidic 19.37%, linoleic
10.81% and oleic 9.4% (Labreque, 1983; The Wealth of India, 1988)
2.12.3 Biological testing
Hajare et al (2000) reported marked antipyretic and moderate analgesic activities by
Dalbergia sissoo leaves. Ethanolic extract of D. sissoo leaves possesses antiinflammatory
activity (Hajare, 2001).The oil also showed strong repellent action (Ansari
et al., 2000). A dose-dependent inhibitory effect have been shown by the alcohol extract
of the green aerial parts on the motility of isolated rabbit duodenum, pronounced
bronchodilation and also shows a significant antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic,
and estrogen-like activities. The plant extract was studied with out any side effects in rats.
(Sarg et al.,1999).
2.13 Dodonaea viscosa Linn. (Sapindaceae)
2.13.1 Ethnobotanical uses
Leaves D. viscosa are useful for wounds healing, burns and swellings. It is also used as
febrifuge and is useful in rheumatism. The fruit is used as a fish poison. The decoction
should be used as mouthwash only and should not be swallowed (Qureshi et al., 2008). It
79

Chapter 2
Review of Literature
is useful remedy for the treatment of diarrhea, skin infections and rheumatism. The roots
of D. viscose are used for the treatment of inflammation and spasmodic in traditional
medicine. D. viscosa is used for malaria, wounds and burns (Al-Dubai and Al-khulaidi,
1996). It is also used as an antipuritic in skin rashes and for the treatment of sore throat,
dermatitis and hemorrhoids (Chhabra et al., 1991; Hedberg et al., 1983). In India, the
infusion of leaves were used to treat rheumatism, gout, hemorrhoids, fractures and snake
bites (Kirtikar and Basu, 1995; Nadkarni and Nadkarni, 1982) .The quick growth and
gregarious habit of this shrub makes it an excellent hedge plant. The branches are used as
fire-wood and as a support for the flat mud roofs in village houses. The wood can be used
for making walking sticks and tool-handles.
2.13.2 Chemical constituents
Aliarin, dodonic acid, viscosol (Sachdev and Kulshreshtha, 1986), stigmosterol,
isorhamnetin (Rao, 1962; Ramachandra et al., 1975), penduletin, quercetin, doviscogenin
(Khan et al., 1988), dodonosides A and B (Wagner et al., 1987) have been isolated from
D. viscose. Flavonoids, terpenes, coumarins and steroids are also reported by Abdel-
Mogib et al (2001) and Ahmad et al (1987).
2.13.3 Biological testing
Literature survey reveals that D. viscosa has an antimicrobial effect (Rojas et al., 1992;
Getie et al., 2004), this plant collected in different countries demonstrates variable
biological activity. The methanol extract of the entire plant collected in Saudi Arabia
possesses no activity against Escherichia coli, Proteus vulgaris, Staphylococcus aureus
and Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Candida albicans (Getie et al., 2003). On the other
hand, a similar extract of the leaves of the Mexican species showed weak activity against
E. coli, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, Bacillus subtilis and C. albicans (Rojas et al., 1982).The
50% methanol of the flowers and leaves of the Nigerian species demonstrated
antibacterial activity against B. subtilis, E. coli, Proteus species, P. aeruginosa and S.
aureus (Ogunlana and Ramstad, 1975). An antipyretic and an antimicrobial agent has
been reported (Rojas et al., 1992, 1995, 1996; Getie et al., 2003; Ahmad et al., 1994)
The leaves were reported to possess local anesthetic, smooth muscle relaxant (Rojas et al,
1996), antifungal (Al-Yahya et al., 1983; Naovi et al., 1991) anti-inflammatory
(Mahadevan et al., 1998; Getie et al., 2003) and anti-ulcerogenic activity (Veerapur et al.,
2004). Sukkawala and Desai (1962) have reported that 95% ethanol extract of D. viscose
leaves has shown anti-scariasis, anthelmintic, cardiac depressant, hypotensive, uterine
80

Chapter 2
Review of Literature
relaxation and asoconstrictor activity in different experimental models. However the
pharmacopoeial standards of D. viscosa leaves have not been reported.
Khalil et al., (2006) reported that alcoholic extract of D. viscose possess anti-inflamatory
activity without toxic effect. Ramzi et al (2008) reported that the diterpenoid and
flavonoids derivatives (Sachdev and Kulshreshtha, 1984; Abdel-Mogib et al., 2001; Getie
et al., 2002) are mainly responsible for the remarkable antioxidant and antimicrobial
effect of this plant.
2.14 Ficus palmata Forssk. (Moraceae)
2.14.1 Ethnobotanical uses
The fruit is demulcent, emollient, laxative and poultice (Parmar and Kaushal, 1982;
Chopra et al., 1986). It is used as a part of the diet in the treatment of constipation and
diseases of the lungs and bladder (Chopra et al., 1986). The sap is used in the treatment of
warts. Fruit in raw is sweet and succulent (Hedrick, 1972). A very tasty fruit (Parmar. and
Kaushal, 1982), it is often dried for later use. The fruit is about 2.5cm in diameter and
annual yields from wild trees are about 25kg (Parmar. and Kaushal, 1982). The unripe
fruits and young growth are cooked and eaten as a vegetable. They are boiled, the water is
removed by squeezing and they are then fried. Used as a nice green vegetable (Parmar
and Kaushal, 1982). The pliable wood is of little value but has been used for making
hoops, garlands, ornaments.
2.14.2 Chemical constituents
The fruit contains about 6% sugars, 1.7% protein, 0.9% ash and 0.2% pectin (Parmar and
Kaushal, 1982 ). Low in vitamin C, about 3.3mg per 100g (Parmar. and Kaushal, 1982).
2.15 Ficus racemosa L. (Moraceae)
2.15.1 Ethnobotanical uses
The mature fruits are astringent, stomachic and carminative. Traditionally the fruit extract
is used in diabetes, leucoderma and menorrhagia. It is also used locally to relive
inflammation of skin wounds, lymphadenitis. They are eaten by locals people. The wood
is often employed in making cart frames, ploughs, box, fittings, match boxes and cheap
furniture. A decoction of the bark is used as a wash for wounds. The tree is planted for
shade in gardens.
81

Chapter 2
Review of Literature
2.16.2 Chemical constituents
Ficus racemosa is a chemically rich plant and possess glycosides, beta-sitosterol, lupeol,
dumurin, tiglic acid ester, taraxasterol and a new compound racemosic acid (Ghani, 1998;
Li et al., 2004). Jahan et al., (2008) has reported an antioxidant compound 3-O-(E)-
caffeoyl quinate through bio assay guided isolation. A tetra cyclic triterpene, Gluanol
acetate was isolated from bark acetone extract of F. racemosa and identified as new
mosquito larvicidal compound. A new anti-inflammatory glucoside, Racemosic acid
along with Bergenin isolated from Ficus racemosa. Racemosic acid possesses antioxidant
activity (Li et al., 2004).
2.16.3 Biological testing
The F. racemosa fruits are hypoglycaemic and antioxidant activities (Jahan et al, (2008).
The leaves and stem bark also contain hypoglycaemic activity (Baslas & Agha, 1985).
The aqueous bark extract possesses wormicidal activity and useful anthelmintic
(Chandrashekhar et al., 2008). The leaves of F. racemosa also contain antifilarial activity,
antidiuretic, antihepatotoxic, anti-pyretic, anti-inflammatory, Antifungal, analgesic,
antipyretic and hepatoprotective activities (Deranjyagala et al., 1988; Forestieri et al.,
1996; Mandal et al., 1998, 1999, 2000; Mishra et al., 2005; Rao et al., 2003, 2002). The
ethanolic extract of the bark is hypoglycemic and antiprotozoal activity. Decoction of the
bark is used as wash for wounds, in asthma, piles and menorrhagia (Yusuf et al., 1994;
Ghani, 1998). The bark and leaf of F. racemosa were also reported to have significant
antidiuretic activity, wound healing activity, antitussive activity, antinociceptive activity,
anti-pyretic activity, hypoglycemic activity, anti-bacterial activity, hepatoprotective
activity and anti-diarrhoeal activity (Mukherjee et al., 1998; Mandal et al., 1999, 2000;
Rao et al., 2002; Bhaskara et al., 2003; Ratnasooriya et al., 2003, Ferdous et al., 2008).
Khan and Sultana (2005) have reported in renal carcinogenesis induced with ferric
nitrilotriaceatate (Fe-NTA) treated rats and evaluate the chemomodulatory effect by F.
racemosa. KBrO3-mediated nephrotoxicity in rats is significantly suppresses by Ficus
racemosa extract and therefore considered a potent chemo preventive agent (Khan and
Sultana, 2005).
82

Chapter 2
Review of Literature
2.17 Lantana camara Linn. (Verbenaceae)
2.17.1 Ethnobotanical uses
A tea prepared from the leaves and flowers is useful against influenza and stomachache.
The leaves of L. camara are useful for different diseases like swelling or inflammation,
ulcers, catarrhal affection, itches, cuts, bilious fever, rheumatism, eczema eruptions, and
also useful for the treatment of snake-bite. The oil isolated from the leaves is useful
antiseptic for wound healing. The roots and flower are useful for toothache and chest
complaints of children respectively. Diaphoretic, Vulnerary, and carminative properties
are also present in L. camara. Several other activities are present in L. camara such as
treatment of high blood pressure, fistulae, asthma, pustules, tumours and cancers, atoxy of
abdominal viscera, malaria, in tetanus, leprosy, scabies, and bronchitis (Kirtikar and
Basu, 1918; Ghisalberti, 2000; Pullaiah, 2006; Mahathir, 2002; Johns et al., 1983; Begum
et al., 2000; Barua, 1969). The roots of L. camara are useful for the treatment of
gonorrhea. The plant is also useful for Alzheimcr's disease as well. It is a tonic to the
nervous system and used to treat insomnia and epilepsy. It relaxes the muscles, quickens
the senses and strengthens the memory (Siddiqui et al., 1995; Begum et al., 2003).
2.17.2 Chemical constituents
Lantanin by P. G. J. Louw (1943), lantadene B (Barton et al., 54), lantanolic acid (Barua
et al., 1969). Various steroids, terpenoids, and flavonoids have isolated by different
groups from the different parts of the plant (Pullaiah, 2006; Johns et al., 1983; Begum et
al., 2000). lantanoic acid and camaranoic acid, lantic acid (Begum et al., 2008), camarinic
acid (Siddiqui et al., 1995), camangeloyl acid, camarinin (Begum et al., 2003, 2006),
oleanonic acid, and ursonic acid (Siddiqui et al., 2000) lantanolic acid (Begum et al.,
2008, lantanilic acid (Barua et al., 1976, 1985), α-amyrin , β-sitosterol and lantadene B
(Ahmed et al., 1972), Iantoic acid (Roy and Barua, 1985), lantadene D (Sharma et al.,
1990), lantadenes.( Sastry and Mahadevan, 1963; Sharma et al., 2000), lantanolic acid,
oleanolic acid, 22/.-O-angeloyl-oleanolic acid, 22 β-O-senecioyl-oleanolic acid, 22β
hydroxyl-oleanonic acid , 19α-hydroxy ursolic acid and a new triterpenoid 3βisovaleroyl-l9α-hydroxy-ursolic
acid (lantaiursolic acid) (Pan et al., 1993), camarinic
acid, camaric acid, camarilic acid and camaracinic acid (Siddiqui et al., 1995; Begum et
al., 1995), 25-hydroxy-3-oxolean-12-en-28-oic acid, hederagenin and 19-hydroxyursolic
acid (Singh, et al., 1996), novel trans lactone containing euphane triterpenes A, B and C
(O'Neill et al., 1998), phcnylpropanoid glycosides verbascoside, isoverbascoside,
83

Chapter 2
Review of Literature
isonuomioside A, calceolarioside E and derhamnosylverbascoside (Taoubi et al., 1997),
martynoside and verbascoside (Syah et al., 1998), theveside (Ford and Bcndall, 1980),
2.17.3 Biological testing
Wound-healing property and antihyperglycaemic activities have been reported in the
aqueous extract of the leaves and the shoot of L. camara exhibit antibacterial properties.
A steroid Lancamarone, isolated from the leaves of L. camara, possesses
cardiotonicproperty. The lantamine alkaloid isolated from the bark of stems and roots,
possesses effective antispasmodic and antipyretic properties as such as those of quinine
(Kirtikar and Basu, 1918; Ghisalberti, 2000; Pullaiah, 2006; Mahathir, 2002).
2.18 Melia azedarach Linn. (Meliaceae)
2.18.1 Ethnobotanical uses
Persian Lilac” is a fast growing tree of the plains and foot-hills, cultivated along roadsides
and in villages. The fruit is eaten by goats and sheep, and the stony endocarps are
used as beads. The exuded gum obtained from its trunk is considered useful in spleen
enlargement, its wood extract is prescribed internally in asthma (Dhiman, 2003),
decoction of bark is used in paroxysmal fever to relieve thirst, nausea, vomiting and
general debility, loss of appetite and skin diseases (Sharma et al., 2001).
Leaves are applied in the form of poultice to relieve nerves headach and to cure the
eruption on the scalp. Leaf juice is anthelmintic, diuretic and emmenagouge, expectorant,
vermifuge and their decoction is astringent, stomachic (Warrier et al., 1995; Dhiman,
2003; Sharma et al., 2001), employed in hysteria, they are used internally and externally
in leprosy, scrofula and other skin diseases (Nadkarni, 1954).
Flowers are astringent, anodyne, refrigerent, emmenagouge, diuretic, resolvent,
deobstruent and alexipharmic (Warrier et al., 1995; Sharma et al., 2001). They are
applied as a poultice to relieve nervous headache (Dhiman, 2003 ). They are stomachic
(Zhou et al., 2005), vermicide and valuable in eruptive skin diseases (Nadkarni, 1954)
and for killing lice. Fruits are anthelmintic, emmolient and purgative (Rani et al., 1999).
Fruits are considered tonic. Sushruta prescribed mahanimb fruits internally in indigestion,
colic and intestinal catarrh. Seeds: seeds are bitter, expectorent, anthelmintic and
aphrodiasic, and are useful in helminthiasis, typhoid fever, pain in the pelvic region,
uropathy, vitiated conditions of vata and scrofula (Warrier et al., 1995). They are
prescribed in rheumatism; oil obtained from seeds is applied locally in skin diseases
84

Chapter 2
Review of Literature
(Dhiman, 2003). They are taken with adjuvants like rice water and clarified butter;
ramyak Ghrita of sushurta was a specific remedy for gout. Sharangadhara prescribed
seeds for urinary disorders. Ashroghna vati, a classical compound of 16th centuary, was
prescribed for piles (Khare).
Roots are bitter, astringent, mildly thermogenic, anodyne, depurative, vulnerary,
antiseptic, constipating, expectorant, febrifuge, antiperiodic, urinary astringent,
anthelmintic, emmenagogue and bitter tonic in low doses. They are useful in headache,
sciatica, lumbago, leprosy, leucoderma, skin diseases, wounds, ulcers, piles, worm
infestation, cough, asthma, ammenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, diabetes, abnormal urethral
discharge, chronic and intermittent fevers, vomiting, post labour pain in uterus (Warrier et
al., 1995; Sharma et al., 2001).
2.18.2 Chemical constituents
Besides the chemical constituent of stem, fruits and bark, the leaves has been shown to
contain nimbinene, meliacin, quercetrin, quercetin-3-0-b-rutinoside, kaempferol- 3-0-b
rutinoside, rutin and kaempferol-3-L-rhamno-Dglucoside (Sharma et al., 2001). Hot
methanolic extract of Melia azedarach leaves contain dipentadecyl ketone, glycerol 1, 3-
bis-undec-9- enoate 2-dodec-9-enoate and glycerol tris-tridec-9-enoate.( Suhag et al.,
2003). Ethyl acetate extract of leaves of M. azedarach led to the isolation of the limonoid
1-cinnamoyl-3,11- dihydroxymeliacarpin (Alche et al., 2003).
2.18.3 Biological testing
Melia azedarach possesses haematological activity (Benencia et al., 1992),
Immunomodulatory activity (Benencia et al., 1997), Insecticidal activity (Rani et al.,
1999; Mahla et al., Pandey and Verma, 2002; Gajmer et al., 2003), Antiviral activity
(Wachsman et al., 1998; Alche et al., 2002, 2000), Antifungal activity (Carpinella et al.,
1999), Antibacterial activity (Carpinella et al., 1999; Khan et al., 2001), Cytotoxic
activity (Itokawa and. Qiao, 1995; Nam and Lee; 2004; Zhou et al., 2004; Petrera and
Coto., 2003) , Antimalarial activity: (Ofulla et al., 1995), Anthelmintic activity: (Pervez
et al., 1994). Antilithic activity: (Christina et al., 2006). Antifertility activity Choudhary
et al., 1990; Keshri et al., 2003; Roop, 2005; Keshri et al., 2005; Sharanabasappa and
Saraswati, 2004), Analgesic activity (Vohra and Dandia., 1992), Antifeedant activity (El-
Lakwah et al., 1995).
85

Chapter 2
Review of Literature
2.19 Phyllanthus emblica L. (Euphorbiaceae)
2.19.1 Ethnobotanical uses
The mature fruits are very sour and contain 1%-1.8% Vitamin C. They are eaten raw or
sweetened or preserved. The seeds, roots, and leaves are used as medicine. The dried
leaves are sometimes used as fillings in pillows. Different parts of P. emblica has been
used in traditional way of treatment for various purposes and diseases such as bleeding
piles, vomiting, gout, asthma, heart and bladder diseases, sore throat, hiccough, diarrhea,
(Kirtikar et al., 1935). Due to its special taste Emblica fruit is well accepted by the
people. It has both superoxide dismutase and vitamin C in large amount (Verma and
Gupta, 2004). The fruit is very popular and therefore used in various traditional medicinal
systems, such Ayurvedic medicine, Chinese herbal medicine, and Tibetan medicine
(Zhang et al., 2000).
2.19.2 Chemical constituents
Many new sesquiterpenoids has been isolated from the roots of P. emblica, (Zhang et al.,
2000, 2001a), the fruit juice contain many polyphenols and organic acid gallates (Zhang
et al., 2001b, 2001c), the leaves and branches contain flavonoids and ellagitannins i.e
naringenin, eriodictyol, kaempferol, dihydrokaempferol, quercetin, naringenin 7-Oglucoside
(prunin), naringenin 7-O-(60-O-galloyl)-glucoside, naringenin 7-O-(60-Otrans-p-coumaroyl)-glucoside,
kaempferol 3-O-rhamnoside, quercetin 3-O-rhamnoside,
myricetin 3-O-rhamnoside, 2-(2-methylbutyryl)-phloroglucinol 1-O-b-D-glucopyranoside
(multifidol glucoside) v,epigallocatechin 3-O-gallate, 1,2,3,6-tetra-O-, 1,2,4,6-tetra-O-
,15) and 1,2,3,4,5-penta-O-galloyl-b -Dglucose, and decarboxyellagic acid (Zhang et al.,
2001c, 2002), phyllaemblic acid and its glycosides phyllaemblicins A—C
sesquiterpenoids from the roots, organic acid gallates, L-malic acid 2-O-gallate , and
mucic acid 2-O-gallate together with hydrolysable tannins, 1-O-galloyl-b–Dglucose,
corilagin, and chebulagic acid, Elaeocarpusin and putranjivain A were the other two main
ellagitannins obtained from the fruit juice. Moreover, seven other tannins and flavonoids,
geraniin, phyllanemblinins C and E , prodelphinidin B1, prodelphinidin B2, -
epigallocatechin 3-O-gallate , and (S)-eriodictyol 7-[6-O-(E)-p-coumaroyl]-b-D-glucoside
(were the main phenolic compounds isolated from the branches and leaves of the plant
2.19.3 Biological testing
The fruit of Emblica have hypolipidemic activity (Thakur et al., 1988; Jacob et al., 1988;
Mathur et al., 1996; Anila and Vijayalakshmi, 2000), contain hypoglycemic activities
86

Chapter 2
Review of Literature
(Anila and Vijayalakshmi, 2000; Abesundara et al., 2004), it is also one of the important
constituent of many prescription available for hepatoprotective (Antarkar et al., 1980; De
et al., 1993; Panda and Kar, 2003). Emblica is useful antimicrobial agent (Dutta et al.,
1998; Godbole and Pendse, 1960; Rani and Khullar, 2004), anticancer (Jeena et al., 2001;
Zhang et al., 2004), and anti-inflammatory agent (Asmawi et al., 1993; Lampronti et al.,
2004; Perianayagam et al., 2004). The clastogenic effects induced with metal are highly
improved with Emblica. (Biswas et al., 1999; Dhir et al., 1990).
2.20 Pinus roxburghii Sargent (Pinaceae)
2.20.1 Ethnobotanical uses
The resin extracted from chir pine and other pines have been in use traditionally for
various purposes across the world. The resin used to repair broken ceramic pottery by
Hopi Indians, of American southwest, (Lanner, 1981). The resin of Pinus roxburghii,
known locally as Ahule sallo, used to relieve the symptoms of a cough in Nepal. About
two grams of resin and an equal amount of common salt are boiled in 250 -300 ml of
water and drunk warm before bedtime for 2-4 days. In addition, the resin from Pinus
wallichiana is used as a plaster for bone fractures. The resin is also mixed with an equal
amount of butter and is warmed to make a paste. This ointment is applied to the affected
parts regularly before bedtime to soften scar tissue (Bhattarai, 1992). In Uttaranchal, the
resin of chir pine was applied to boils, heel cracks and on either side of the eye to reduce
swelling (Singh et al., 1990). As the cones of chir pine is used for decoration, which can
be a flourishing business for indigenous communities. Besides United States, Europe is
becoming a strong market for decorative cones. For cones and most botanical products,
entrepreneurs have noted that the German market is about ten times that of the United
States' market (Coppen and Hone, 1995). There are opportunities in developing countries
with extensive conifer forests (e.g. Mexico and Central America or Eastern Europe) to
help meet the demand for decorative cones.
2.21 Punica granatum Linn. (Punicaceae)
2.21.1 Ethnobotanical uses
Pomegranate is grown for its edible fruit and as an ornamental plant. It exhibits many
varieties distinguished by the size of flower and fruit and taste of the fruit. Cultivated in
87

Chapter 2
Review of Literature
Baluchistan and NWFP (Pakistan) areas is “Kandahari”, originally from Kandahar,
Afghanistan, for its large, deep red, mostly acid-sweet pomegranates.
The fruit is delicious to eat; the juice is a useful tonic in fevers. The dried seeds of
Pomegranate are used for adding taste to certain foods. Bark of the root and wood is used
as a vermifuge for tapeworms; also used for diarrhea and dysentery. A number of dyes
can be obtained from it; black writing ink is also made from it. In Ayurvedic system of
treatment the pomegranate is considered “a pharmacy unto itself and consider useful
antiparasitic agent (Naqvi et al., 1991), a “blood tonic, (Lad et al., 1986), heal aphthae,
diarrhea, and ulcers (Caceres et al., 1987). In the Unani system of medicine the
Pomegranate is useful prescription for the treatment of diabetes and therefore much
popular in the Middle East and India ( Saxena and Vikram, 2004).
2.21.2 Chemical constituents
Quercetin, luteolin, and kaempferol were analyzed from pomegranate extracts,
Hydroquinone pyridinium alkaloid isolated from the leaves of Punica granatum L
(Schmidt et al., 2005). Various chemical constituents such as flavone glycosides i.e.
apigenin and luteolin (Nawwar et al., 1994) and tannins i.e. punicafolin and punicalin, are
reported from the leaves of Pomegranate.
2.21.3 Biological Testing
The fruit extracts of Pomegranate possesses different therapeutic properties (Lansky and
Newman, 2007) and other parts of the plant i.e. bark, roots, and leaves reported to have
various medicinal properties (Naqvi et al., 1991). Pomegranate leaves can inhibit the
development of obesity and hyperlipidemia in high-fat diet induced obese mice (Lei et
al., 2007).), antibacterial activity.(Meléndez et al., 2006; Mathabe et al., 2007). Jiménez
Misas et al., (1979) has reported that Punica granatum inhibit 50% inhibition while
studying plants of different plant families. Punica granatum showed moderate
anthelmintic action against human Ascaris lumbricoides (Raj, 1975). Parts of P. granatum
other than leaves were investigated for antioxidants activities (Gil et al., 2000; Rosenblat
et al., 2006; Guo et al., 2008). Different parts of P.granatum shows in vitro anticancer
activity (Lansky et al., 2005a, 2005b; Seeram et al., 2004, 2006; Cerda et al., 2004;
Mertens-Talcott et al., 2006; Gil et al., 2000; Rosenblat et al., 2006; Guo et al., 2006;
Guo et al., 2006; Rosenblat et al., 2006; Guo et al., 2008; Chidambara Murthy et al.,
2002; Albrecht et al., 2004; Malik and Mukhtar, 2006; Malik et al., 2005). It has been
tested for Alzheimer’s diseases (Hartman et al., 2006).
88

Chapter 2
Review of Literature
2.22 Rubus ellipticus Smith (Rosaceae)
2.22.1 Ethnobotanical uses
Due to useful medicinal properties Rubus species, it has been used in folk medicine (Patel
et al., 2004). Roots and young shoots of Rubus ellipticus are used for colic pain and
(Bhakumi, 1987). The leaves of (Rubus) blackberry are useful for the treatment of various
ailments such as hypoglycemic activities, antidiarrhoeic, astringent, and also used for
inflammation in mucous membrane of the oral cavity and throat (Borkowski et al., 1994;
Ozarowski and Jaroniewski, 1989). Various diseases such as heart and the cardiovascular
system, colic pain, diabetes, treating fever, influenza, alimentary canal, diarrhea,
menstrual pain, air-passage are treated traditionally with the leaves of Raspberry leaves
(R. idaeus L.). Externally the leaves of raspberry may also be applied as choleretic agents
sudorific, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, diuretic (Ozarowski and Jaroniewski, 1989;
Czygan, 1995). Relaxant effects, particularly on uterine muscles have been reported in
Raspberry leaf extract (Burn and Withell, 1941; Robbers and Tyler, 1999; Rojas-Vera et
al., 2002). It has been noticed excellent supporting effects during pregnancy and labor in
the leaves of raspberry (Simpson et al., 2001). The inner bark of the Rubus ellipticus plant
is valued as a medicinal herb in traditional Tibetan medicine, including its use as a renal
tonic and antidiuretic. Its fruits are edible and can also be used to produce a purplish blue
dye (Plants For A Future, 2002). The juice of Rubus ellipticus Smith, which has an
attractive color and rich flavor, can be preserved as such and can also be used for squashmaking.
A very good jam can also be prepared from this fruit. This fruit has also been
successfully introduced into Florida in the United States as a fruit and ornamental plant
(Anonymous, 1948). The fruits are juicy and contain 64.00 per cent extractable juice,
which comes out with a slight pressure.
2.22.2 Chemical constituents
Ursolic acid and Acuminatic acid has been reported in the roots of R. ellipticus (Talapatra
et al., 1989). New Pentacyclic Triterpene Acid “elliptic acid” from the leaves of Rubus
ellipticus has been isolated (Dutta et al., 1997). Leaves of Rubus species contains tannins
(Marczal, 1963; Okuda et al.,1992), derivatives of kaempferol and quercetin, phenolic
acids, triterpenes, mineral salts as well as vitamin C are reported in Rubus species (Gudej
and Rychlinska, 1996; Krzaczek, 1984; Wojcik, 1989). The leaves of raspberry contain
some derivatives of ellagic acid, quercetin and kaempferol (Gudej, 2003). Methyl gallate
89

Chapter 2
Review of Literature
and Methyl brevifolincarboxylate.is also reported with another known compound from
Rubus speceis (Gudej et al., 1998). 1-Octacosanol was isolated previously from roots of
Rubus ellipticus (Bhakuni et al., 1987)
2.22.3 Biological testing
Rubus ellipticus leaves were found to have anticonvulsant activity against electrically
induced convulsions, it potentiated the hypnotic effect of pentobarbitone sodium, it also
possessed positive inotropic and chronotropic effects (Rana et al., 1990). The extract of
R. ellipticus is active against hypothermia (Bhakumi et al., 1971). The roots of R.
ellipticus possess antiprotozoal activty against Entamoeba histolitica, and hypoglycemic
activity (Abraham et al., 1986). Antifertility activity of R. ellepticus has been reported in
Ayurvedic and Unani literature (Casey, 1960). Sharma et al (1981) reported
antiimplantation activity in roots and aerial parts of R. ellipticus. Some closely related
species of Rubus such as R. fruticosus contain hypoglycaemic activity, (Newall, 1996),
R. brasiliensis possesses anxiolysis activities (Nogueira et al., 1998). It has been studied
several times the effect of total extracts of the leaves of R. idaeus on the uterus in vitro
and studied the pharmacological effect on other smooth muscles preparation.(Burn et al.,
1941; Beckett et al., 1954; Patel et al., 1995). The constituent of R. pinfaensis such as
triterpenoids and phenol spossesses antibacterial activities (Richards et al., 1994) and the
constituent of Rubus imperialis such as triterpenes possesses and antinociceptive
properties (Niero et al., 1999). Methanolic extract of the leaves of Rubus idaeus possesses
more than 80% relaxant acticity in Guianea-pig ( Rojas-Vera et al., 2002).
2.23 Viburnum cotinifolium D. Don (Caprifoliaceae)
2.23.1 Ethnobotanical uses
The fruit is sweetish and edible. Fruit is considered to be laxative and blood purifiers.
Leaves extract is applied in menorrhagia. (Saghir et al., 2001; Qureshi et al., 2007)
2.23.2 Chemical constituents
A new biflavonoid named as 1-5, 11-5, 1-7, 11-7, 1-4', II-4'-hexahydroxy [6-0-8]
biflavone along with seven known flavonoids have been isolated from leaves of
Viburnum cotinifolium (Muhaisen Hasan et al., 2001).
90