TRENDS IN BIOSCIENCES JOURNAL 6-5 OCTOBER 2013 EDITION

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Trends
in
Biosciences
A Bimonthly International Journal
Volume 6 Number 5 October, 2013
Online version available at
www.trendsinbiosciencesjournal.com
Dheerpura Society for Advancement of Science
and Rural Development

Print : ISSN 0974-8
Online : ISSN 0976-2485
NAAS Rating : 2.7
Trends
in
Biosciences
A Bimonthly International Journal
Volume 6 Number 5 October, 2013
Online version available at
www.trendsinbiosciencesjournal.com
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Trends in Biosciences
A Bimonthly International Scientific Journal
www.trendsinbiosciencesjournal.com
International Advisory Board
Dr. A. Coomans, Ex-Professor, State University of Ghent, Belgium
Dr. Randy Gaugler, Director, Centre for Vector Biology, Rutgers University, USA
Dr. S.B. Sharma, Director, Plant Security, South Perth, Australia
Dr. Zahoor Ahmad, Professor, Jubail Industrial College, Saudi Arabia
Advisory Board
Dr. G.N. Qazi, Vice Chancellor, Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi
Dr. A.S. Ninawe, Advisor, Deptt. of Biotechnology, New Delhi
Dr. I. Ahmad, Ex-Director, Department of Science & Technology, New Delhi
Dr. N. Nadarajan, Director, Indian Institute of Pulses Research (IIPR), Kanpur
Dr. Masood Ali, Ex-Director, Indian Institute of Pulses Research (IIPR), Kanpur
Dr. H.S. Gaur, Vice-Chancellor, Sardar Vallabbhai Patel Agricultural University, Meerut
Editorial Board
Editor in Chief : Dr. S.S. Ali, Emeritus Scientist, Indian Institute of Pulses Research (IIPR), Kanpur
Dr. Erdogan Esref HAKKI, Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, Selcuk University Konya Turkey
Dr. S. K. Agarwal, Principal Lentil Breeder, ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria
Dr. B.B. Singh, Assistant Director General Oilseed & Pulses, ICAR, New Delhi
Dr. Absar Ahmad, Senior Scientist, National Chemical Laboratory, Pune
Dr. N.P. Singh, Coordinator, AICRP Chickpea, IIPR, Kanpur
Dr. Raman Kapoor, Head, Dept. of Biotechnology, Indian Sugarcane Research Institute, Lucknow
Dr. S.K. Jain, Coordinator, AICRP Nematode, IARI, New Delhi
Dr. Sanjeev Gupta, Coordinator, MULLaRP, IIPR, Kanpur
Dr. Naimuddin, Sr. Scientist (Plant Pathology), IIPR, Kanpur
Dr. Rashid Pervez, Sr. Scientist, Indian Institute of Spices Research, Khozicod, Kerala
Dr. Badre Alam, Associate Prof. Gorakhpur University, U.P.
Dr. Veena B Kushwaha , Associate Professor ,Department of Zoology ,DDU Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur
Dr. Savita Gangwar, Department of Plant Science, Faculty of Applied Science, M.J.P. Rohilkhand University, Bareilly
Dr. Vijay Pratap Singh , Assistant Professor, Govt. R.P.S. Post Graduate College, Korea
Dr. Durgesh Kumar Tripathi, Department of Botany ,Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi
Dr. Shamsa Arif (English Editor), Barkatullah University, Bhopal, M.P.
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LIST OF LIFE MEMBERS OF JOURNAL
Dr Atul Kumar Misra, Department of Zoology, DAV College, Kanpur
Dr Shabbir Ashraf, Department of Plant Protection Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh
Dr Badre Alam Ansari, Department of Zoology, D.D.U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur
Dr Farog Tayyab, Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, Faculty of Health Science, SHAITS, Allahabad
Dr Adesh Kumar, Department of Plant Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering, NDUAT, Faizabad
Dr Chandresh Kumar Chandrakar, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Raipur, Chhattisgarh
Dr R. Sellammal, Centre for Plant Breeding and Genetics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
Dr Jagdish Kishore, Plant Pathology, CSA University of Agriculture Technology, Kanpur
Ms Syeda Huma, Dr. Rafiq Zakaria, Center for Higher Learning & Research
Mr Chandan Singh Ahirwar, Department of Vegetable Science, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar
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Dr Kishor K. Shende, Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Center, Barkatullah University, Bhopal
Mr Ashish Kumar Chandrakar, Department of Agronomy, JNKVV, Jabalpur
Dr P N Verma, Genetics and Plant Breeding, CSA University of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur
Dr Chinmayi Joshi, Mahyco Research Center, Maharashtra
Mr Gourish Karanjalker, College of Horticulture, PG Centre (UHS Bagalkot), GKVK Campus, Bengaluru
Dr Anita Mishra, Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Center, Barkatullah University, Bhopal
Mr Murali, S, Agril. Entomology, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore
Dr Hema Swaminathan, Department of Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
Dr Sellammal Raja, Centre for Plant Breeding and Genetics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
Mr Samir Singh, Department of Plant Pathology, Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology, Faizabad
Dr Krishna Murari, Department of Dairy Engineering, Sanjay Gandhi Institute of Dairy Technology, Bihar Agriculture University, Patna
Dr T. Sravan, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, BHU, Varanasi
Dr Ranvir Kumar, Department of Agricultural Economics, B.P.S. Agricultural College, Bihar
Dr K. K. Chaturvedi, Centre for Agricultural Bioinformatics, Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute, New Delhi
Dr Raman A. Gami, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, C.P. College of Agriculture, S.D. Agricultural University, Gujarat
Dr Savita Gangwar, Department of Plant Science, M.J.P., Rohilkhand University, Bareilly
Dr Rajkumar Mishra, Department of Genetics & Plant Breeding, Allahabad School of Agriculture, SHIATS, Allahabad
Dr C. Prabha, Department of Biochemistry, Kempe Gowda Institute of Medical Sciences
Dr Pisal Rahhul Ramdas, Department of Agronomy, Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari, Gujarat
Dr Sunil Suresh Patil, Genetics and Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, Nashik
Ms Kiran Tigga, Genetics and Plant Breeding, RMD College of Agriculture & Research Station, Ambikapur Chhattisgarh
Mrs Smita Bala Rangare, Dept. of Horticulture, College of Agriculture, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidhyalaya, Raipur
Mr P Ashok Reddy, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Allahabad School of Agriculture, SHIATS, Allahabad
Dr Anjum N. Rizvi, Zoological Survey of India, Dehradun, Uttarakhand
Mr Venkata R Prakash Reddy, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, S.V. Agricultural College Acharya N G Ranga Agricultural
University, Tirupati
Dr Deepika Baranwal, Department of Food and Nutrition, College of Homescience, Mpuat, Udaipur, Rajasthan
Dr Sankaran K, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli (NIT-T)
Ms Shakti Chaudhary, Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Ethelind School of Home Science, SHIATS, Allahabad
Dr Mithu Mahmud, Stamford University, Bangladesh
Ms Latika Yadav, Dept. of Foods & Nutrition, College of Home Science, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture & Technology
(MPUAT), Udaipur
Dr Debosri Bhowmick, Department of Veterinary Surgery & Radiology, College of Veterinary Science & A.H., N.D.V.S.U., Jabalpur
Dr Srinivasulu Ch., Department of Zoology, SR&BGNR Govt. Degree College, Khammam, Andhra Pradesh.

Dr Sonal Shrivastava, Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Science & A.H., N.D.V.S.U., Jabalpur
Mr Bhupendra Kumar Singh, Department of Genetics & Plant Breeding, NDUA&T, Faizabad
Ms Zareena Shaikh, Maulana Azad College, Aurangabad
Mr Manoj Yadav, Department of Mycology and Plant Pathology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences (IAS), B.H.U., Varanasi
Dr Komma Renuka Devi, Department of Plant Physiology, ANGRAU, Hyderabad
Dr Amit Alexander Charan, Department of Molecular & Cellular Engineering, Jacob School of Biotechnology & Bioengineering,
SHIATS, Allahabad
Mrs Bela Turkey Kaushal, Department of Applied Animal Sciences, School of Biosciences & Biotechnology, Dr. Babasaheb
Bhimrao Ambedkar, University, Lucknow
Mr Amit Kumar Mukherjee, Department of Food Technology, Haldia Institute of Technology, West Bengal.
Dr T.G. Nagaraja, Department of Botany, The New College, Kolhapur, Maharashtra
Dr, Hasansab Nadaf , RARS Bijapur, UAS Dharwad, Karnataka
Mr Ajay Tiwari, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, IGKV Raipur
Dr Prashant Ankur Jain, Department of Computational Biology& Bioinformatics, JSBB, SHIATS, Allahabad
Ms Laitonjam Ishwori, Department of Biotechnology, S.Kula Womens College, Nambol, Manipur
Mr Savanta V. Raut, Department of Microbiology, Bhavan's College, Mumbai
Mr Swami Rakesh Mohanlal, Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, B.A. College of Agriculture, Anand Agricultural University,
Anand, Gujarat.
Mr Vijay Sharma, Department of Genetics & Plant Breeding, Narendra Deva University of Agriculture & Technology, Faizabad
Ms Ankita Gautam, Warner School of Food and Dairy Technology, SHIATS (Deemed University), Allahabad
Mr Dinker Singh, Department of Animal Husbandry & Dairying, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, B.H.U., Varanasi
Mr Swapanil Yadav, Department of Biotechnology, Gandhi Faiz E Aam College, Shahjahanpur, U.P.
Mr Vinay Kumar Singh, Department of Dairy Microbiology, SHIATS, Allahabad
Mr Pandya Mihirkumar Maheshbhai, Department of Plant Breeding & Genetics, Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari ,Gujarat
Ms Asmat Jahan, Department of Biotechnology, Gandhi Faiz E Aam College, Shahjahanpur, U.P.
Mr Mohsin Rahman, Department of Biotechnology, Gandhi Faiz E Aam College, Shahjahanpur, U.P.
Mr Vivek Kumar, Department of Biotechnology, Gandhi Faiz E Aam College, Shahjahanpur, U.P.
Ms Anchal Sharma, Department of Biotechnology, Gandhi Faiz E Aam College, Shahjahanpur, U.P.
Ms Farha Syed, P.G. Department of Zoology, Gandhi Faiz E Aam College, Shahjahanpur, U.P.
Dr Ashish Kumar Gupta, Subash Degree College, Kanpur, U.P.
Mr Chaudhari Dhavalkumar Raghjibhai, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, N. M. College of Agriculture, Navsari
Agricultural University, Navsari , Gujarat
Dr Sabina Kahnam, Dayanand Girls P.G. College, Kanpur
Dr Mehvash Ayeshah Hashmi, Dayanand Girls P.G. College, Kanpur
Dr Ashish Kumar Dwivedi, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur
Mr Sujeet Kumar, Department of Crop Improvement, Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur
Ms Shrasti Gupta, B.I.F.C. (D.B.T.), Dayanand Girls P.G. College, Kanpur
Dr Mohammad Shahid, Department of Plant Pathology, C.S. Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur
Dr Mohd. Saeed, Department of Bioscience, Integral University, Lucknow
Mr Chirag Mansukhbhai Bhaliya, Department of Plant Pathology, Junagadh Agriculture University, Junagadh, Gujarat
Ms Nisha Khatri, Department of Botany, University of Delhi, Delhi
Dr Anamika Pandey, Selcuk University, Turkey
Dr Mohd. Kamran Khan, Selcuk University, Turkey
Dr Anjali Srivastava, Department of Zoology, Dayanand Girls P.G. College, Kanpur
Dr Sunita Arya, Department of Zoology, Dayanand Girls P.G. College, Kanpur
Dr Amita Srivastava, Department of Zoology, Dayanand Girls P.G. College, Kanpur
Dr Rachana Singh, Department of Zoology, Dayanand Girls P.G. College, Kanpur
Dr Seema Pandey, Department of Zoology, Dayanand Girls P.G. College, Kanpur

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The Dheerpura Society for Advancement of Science and Rural Development was founded on 28 July, 2006 with the following
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2. To make people environmental conscious
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Trends in Biosciences
Volume 6 Number 5 October, 2013
CONTENTS
MINI REVIEW
1. Emerging Consequence of Nanotechnology in Agriculture: An Outline 503
V. K. Mishra, D. K. Dwivedi and U.S. Mishra
2. Sustainable Sweet Potato Production through Biotechnological Tools 507
Manju Rai and Pallavi Mittal
3. Insect- A Commercial Commodity 509
Rajesh Chowdary, Veereshkumar
4. The Benefits of Consuming Goat’s Milk 513
Deepika Baranwal
5. Cues and Signals Used in Communication during Food Exploitation in Stingless Bees 516
S. Murali
RESEARCH PAPERS
6. Characterization of Drought Tolerance Traits in Rice (Oryza sativa L.) by Physio-biochemical Approaches 520
under Drought Stress Environment
Pradeep Kumar, Shambhoo Prasad,Amitesh Kumar Srivastava, Adesh Kumar and R.P. Singh
7. Evaluation of Indole Acetic Acid Production Capacity and Salt Tolerance in Pseudomonas Bacteria 523
Associated with Mungbean
Adesh Kumar, Kundan Kumar, Shambhoo Prasad, Parmanand Kumar and Reeta Maurya
8. Induced Viable Mutation Studies in M2 Generations of Rathu Heenati and PTB33 526
R. Sellammal and M. Maheswaran
9. Effect of Allwin Top and Allwin Wonder on Growth, Yield and Quality of Cardamom 529
(Elettaria cardamomum Maton)
P. Jansirani, N. Kumar and Sundaresan
10. Ethnobiological Importance of Flacourtia jangomas (Lour.) Raeusch. 532
Neeharika Dubey and V.N. Pandey
11. Effect of Different Combinations of Systemic and Non-Systemic Fungicides against Fusarium oxysporum 535
F. Sp. ciceri in vitro
P. M. Yadav and V. P. Anadani
12. Antagonistic Effect of Fungal Bioagents Against Fusarium oxysporum F.Sp. ciceri in vitro 538
P. M. Yadav and V. P. Anadani
13. Response of Ulcerative Disease Causing Bacterial Pathogens of Fish Channa straitus for Different Antibiotics 540
Anita Mishra, Ragini Gothalwal and Kishor Shende
14. Effect of Water Management, Weed and Integrated Nutrient Management on Yield of Potato 544
(Solanum tuberosum)
Chandresh Kumar Chandrakar, G.K. Shrivastava, Ashish Kumar Chandrakar and Chetan Dewangan
15. Effect of Different Non-systemic Insecticide against Fusarium oxysporum F. Sp. ciceri in vitro 547
P. M Yadav and V. P. Anadani
16. Optimization of Coagulating Conditions for Preparation of Good Quality Tofu with Minimum Biochemical 549
Loss through Tofu Whey
M.K. Tripathi and Punit Chandra

17. Genetic Divergence for Yeild and Quality Components in Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) 555
Kiran Tigga and Krishna Tandekar
18. Evaluation and Economics of Different Weed Management Practices in Rabi Maize (Zea mays L.) 558
Birendra Kumar, Ranvir Kumar, Suman Kalyani and M. Haque
19. Evaluation of Pigeonpea Genotypes for Their Resistance against Pod borer, Maruca vitrata Geyer 562
under Natural Conditions
Randhawa H.S. and Ashok Kumar
20. Effect of Nitrogen Levels and Varieties on the Incidence of Leaf Folder and Stem Borer of Basmati 564
Rice in Punjab
Randhawa H.S. and Aulakh S.S.
21. Value Added Whey Based Geriatric Health Drink 566
B.K. Singh, S.C. Paul, B.K. Bharti and Rajni Kant
22. Development of Conventional Food Products by Incorporation of Carrot Flour in Wheat Flour 571
Gupta Bhavna and Dubey Ritu Prakash
23. Susceptibility to Alternaria blight (Alternaria porri) in Garlic 574
Deepshikha Manu, Ashish Kumar Chandrakar and Chandresh Kumar Chandrakar
24. Correlation and Path Coefficient Analysis in Faba Bean (Vicia faba L.) under Irrigated Condition 576
Indresh Kumar Verma, P.N. Verma, C B Yadav
25. Response of Wider Spaced Drip Irrigated Rabi Castor to Intra-Row Spacing under Varying N Levels 579
R.R. Pisal, M.K. Arvadia, N.G. Savani and V.H. Surve
26. Genetic Divergence in Upland Rice Germplasm (Oryza sativa L.) 583
T. Sravan, N.R. Rangare, B.G. Suresh, G. Eswara Reddy and P. Ashok Reddy
27. Genetical Studies for Yield and Contributing Traits in Indian Mustard (Brassica juncea L. Czern. & Coss.) 586
Gaurav Kumar and Alok Kumar
28. Management of Spent Mushroom Substrate (SMS) Through Enrichment of Biogas Plant Slurry 589
K. Sonia1, Leela Wati, Rajni Kant, Sanjeet K. Chourasia and Upendra Singh
29. To Studies the Effect of Temperature, Ph, Type of Coagulation and Their Concentration for the 592
Preparation of Cham-Cham from “Buffalo Milk Chhana”
Upendra Singh, Rajni Kant and Saurabh Prakash
30. An Improved Way to Optimize Nitrogen Fertilizer Requirements of Sugarcane under Drip Fertigation 597
S. Hemalatha and S. Chellamuthu
31. Genetic Variability and Character Association in Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) 603
Smita B. Rangare and N.R. Rangare
32. Morphological and Morphometrical Characterization of Meloidogyne graminicola (Golden & Brichfied) 608
form Rice Host Plant in the Four Districts of Punjab.
Harpreet Kaur and Rajni Attri
33. Effect of Dimethoate on the Activities of Acid and Alkaline Phosphatases in the Gill and Liver of Zebrafish, 612
Danio rerio
Shabnam Ansari and Badre Alam Ansari
34. Maturation and Spawning of the Threadfin Bream Nemipterus japonicus (Bloch) along Mangalore Coast 617
Rajesh, D.P., S. Benakappa, H.N. Anjanayappa, S.R. Somashekara, A.S. Kumar Naik, Jitendra Kumar
35. Population Dynamics of Coccinella septumpunctata L. (Coleoptera: Coccinellideae) in Cotton Ecosystem in 622
Relation to Environmental Factors
Yogesh Patel
36. Evaluation of Wheat Genotypes for Heat Stress under Late Sown Conditions of Allahabad Region 625
Rajkumar Mishra and Shilesh Marker
37. Genetic Studies for Yield and Contributing Traits in Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan Millasp. L.) 628
Alok Kumar and Gaurav Kumar
38. Genetics of Seed Yield and Its Components in Cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.] 631
Patel Hiral, Patel, J.B., Sharma, S.C. and Acharya, S.

39. Effects of Different Culture Media on Colony Growth of Keratinophilic and Non-keratinophilic Fungi 637
Suman Lata Gupta, Gazala Rizvi, Manish Singh Paijwar
40. Screening of Phytochemical Constituents and Free Radical Scavenging Activity of Selected Green 641
Leafy Vegetables
Blessymole K. Alex, Eapen P. Koshy, Vivek Kujur, Anuranjan Ravi Toppo, Alok Kumar Chaudhary
41. Screening Varieties of Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus (l.) Monech) against Important Insect Pests 645
under Agroclimatic Condition of Allahabad (UP)
A.D. Gonde, Ashwani Kumar A.H. Raut, R.K. Wargantiwar and D.P. Phuke
42. Acute Toxicity of Mercuric Chloride to Channa punctatus (Bloch) 648
Vipin F. Lal, Sasya Thakur and Kiran Singh
43. Comparision of Screening Methods for Detection of Extended Spectrum - Lactamases 651
Ankita Gautam, Anil Chaturvedi and Sangeeta Shukla
44. Effect of Total Free Amino Acid Content on Pod Damage by Pod Borers in Field Bean 655
S. Murali and Tavaragondi Vinayka
45. Cow Milk Sandesh Fortified with Coconut Milk 657
Manish Kumar, B.K. Singh & J. Badshah
46. Study of Heritability, Genetic Advance and Variability for Yield Contributing Characters in Pigeonpea 660
(Cajanus cajan L. Millspaugh)
N.R. Rangare, G.eswara Reddy and S. Ramesh Kumar
47. Ethno-medicinal Forest Genetic Resources of District Sonbhadra, Uttar Pradesh 663
R.K. Anand, Neelam Khare & S.V. Dwivedi
48. Assessment of Potato (Solanum tuberosum L) Hybrids-Varieties for Table Purpose Among Yield and 669
Quality Traits
A.K. Patel, N.H.Patel, R.A. Gami, C.R. Patel and R.M. Chauhan
49. Effect of Total Protein Content on Pod Damage by Pod Borers in Field Bean 674
S. Murali and Tavaragondi Vinayaka
50. Assessment of Potato (Solanum tuberosum L) Hybrids-Varieties for Processing Purpose Among Yield 676
and Quality Traits
C.J. Patel, N.H. Patel, R.A. Gami, A.K. Patel and R.M. Chauhan
51. Qualitative Determination of Phosphate Solubilization, Salt Stress Response and Antibiotic Sensitivity in 682
Pseudomonas Rhizospheric Bacterial Isolates of Wheat
Adesh Kumar, Shaba Khan, Umesh Kumar Shukla, Arun Kumar and Shambhoo Prasad
52. Comparision of Growth Parameters and Yield Potential of the Three Strains of Agaricus bisporus 685
M.K. Yadav and Ram Chandra
53. Interrelationship Studies Among Grain Yield and Its Component Characters in Wheat (Tricticum aestivum L.) 688
Alankar Verma, Ravikant Singh, Akhilesh Kumar
54. M2 Generation Evaluation under Field Conditions for Quantitative Characters 693
R. Sellammal and M. Maheswaran
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Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 503-506, 2013
MINI REVIEW
Emerging Consequence of Nanotechnology in Agriculture: An Outline
V.K. MISHRA 1* , D.K. DWIVEDI 2 AND U.S. MISHRA 1
1
Mahatma Gandhi Chitrakoot Gramodaya Vishwavidyalaya Chitrakoot, Satna (M.P.) - 485780.
2
Department of Plant Molecular Biology, Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology,
Kumarganj, Faizabad. 224229.
email: vinay.mishra111@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
DNA has been used not only to build nanostructures but also as
an essential component of nano-machines. Many vitamins and
their precursors, such as carotenoids, are insoluble in water.
However, when formulated as nanoparticles, these substances
can easily be mixed with cold water, and their bioavailability in
the human body also increases. With the help of nanotechnology
developed Nano Vaccines, Nano-apoptosis and other role in
Animal Breeding, Post-Harvest Management, Food
Biotechnology, fertilizer, pesticide and water purification
system. Application area of biochips and micro fluidic chips is
very broad, ranging from high throughput screening, cell
analysis and drug discovery to portable devices for minimalinvasive
therapy, precision surgery as well as drug delivery in
a human kind as well as plant.
Key words
Nano-machine, Nanobar Codes, Bioengineering,
Micro chip.
Nanotechnology for Crop Biotechnology:
Chemists have successfully crafted three-dimensional
molecular structures, a breakthrough that unites
biotechnology and nanotechnology. They made DNA crystals
by producing synthetic DNA sequences that can selfassemble
into a series of three-dimensional triangle-like
patterns. The DNA crystals have “sticky-ends” or small
cohesive sequences that can attach to another molecule in an
organized fashion. When multiple helices are attached through
single-stranded sticky ends, there would be a lattice-like
structure that extends in six different directions, forming a
three-dimensional crystal as illustrated in Figure 1. This
technique could be applied in improving important crops by
organizing and linking carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and
nucleic acids to these crystals (Seeman et al., 2009).
Nanoparticles can serve as ‘magic bullets’, containing
herbicides, chemicals, or genes, which target particular plant
parts to release their content. Nanocapsules can enable
effective penetration of herbicides through cuticles and
tissues, allowing slow and constant release of the active
substances. Chemists at the Iowa State University have
utilized a 3 nm mesoporous silica nanoparticle (MSN) in
delivering DNA and chemicals into isolated plant cells. MSNs
are chemically coated and serve as containers for the genes
delivered into the plants. The coating triggers the plant to
take the particles through the cell walls, where the genes are
inserted and activated in a precise and controlled manner,
without any toxic side or after effects. This technique has
been applied to introduce DNA successfully to tobacco and
corn plants.
Nanoparticles and Recycling Agricultural Waste:
Nanotechnology is also applied to prevent waste in
agriculture, particularly in the cotton industry. When cotton
is processed into fabric or garment, some of the cellulose or
the fibers are discarded as waste or used for low-value
products such as cotton balls, yarns and cotton batting. With
the use of newly-developed solvents and a technique called
electro spinning, scientists produce 100 nm diameter fibers
that can be used as a fertilizer or pesticide absorbent. These
high-performance absorbents allow targeted application at
desired time and location. Rice husk, a rice-milling byproduct
can be used as a source of renewable energy. When rice husk
is burned into thermal energy or biofuel, a large amount of
high-quality nanosilica is produced which can be further
utilized in making other materials such as glass and concrete.
Since there is a continuous source of rice husk, mass
production of nanosilica through nanotechnology can alleviate
the growing rice husk disposal concern.
Nanotech Delivery Systems for Pests, Nutrients, and
Plant Hormones:
Nanosensors and nano-based smart delivery systems
could help in the efficient use of agricultural natural resources
like water, nutrients and chemicals through precision farming.
Through the use of nanomaterials and global positioning
systems with satellite imaging of fields, farm managers could
remotely detect crop pests or evidence of stress such as
drought. Once pest or drought is detected, there would be
automatic adjustment of pesticide applications or irrigation
levels. Nanosensors dispersed in the field can also detect the
presence of plant viruses and the level of soil nutrients. Nanoencapsulated
slow release fertilizers have also become a trend
to save fertilizer consumption and to minimize environmental
pollution.

504 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Nano-barcodes and nano processing could also be used
to monitor the quality of agricultural produce. Scientists at
Cornell University used the concept of grocery barcodes for
cheap, efficient, rapid and easy decoding and detection of
diseases. They produced microscopic probes or nanobarcodes
that could tag multiple pathogens in a farm which
can easily be detected using any fluorescent-based equipment.
This on-going project generally aims to develop a portable
on-site detector which can be used by non-trained individuals.
The project, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of
Agriculture is expected to be completed towards the end of
2011(Li, et al., 2005).
Through nanotechnology, scientists are able to study
plant’s regulation of hormones such as auxin, which is
responsible for root growth and seedling establishment.
Scientists at Purdue University developed a nanosensor that
reacts with auxin. This interaction generates an electrical signal
which can be a basis for measuring auxin concentration at a
particular point. The nanosensor oscillates, taking auxin
concentration readings at various points of the root. A system
of formulas then verifies if auxin is absorbed or released by
the surrounding cells. This is a breakthrough in auxin research
because it helps scientists understand how plant roots adapt
to their environment, especially to marginal soils (McLamore
et al., 2010).
Applications of Nanobiotechnology:
Crop Improvement:
Nanotechnology has also shown its ability in modifying
the genetic constitution of the crop plants thereby helping in
further improvement of crop plants. Mutations –both natural
and induced– have long since played an important role in
crop improvement. Instead of using certain chemical
compounds like EMS, MMS and physical mutagen like X-ray,
gamma ray etc. for conventional induced mutation studies,
nanotechnology has showed a new dimension in mutation
research. In Thailand, Chiang Mai University’s Nuclear
Physics Laboratory has come up with a new white-grained
rice variety from a traditional purple coloured rice variety called
‘Khao Kam’ through the usage of nanotechnology. The
research involves drilling a nano-sized hole through the wall
and membrane of a rice cell in order to insert a nitrogen atom.
The hole is drilled using a particle beam (a stream of fastmoving
particles, not unlike a lightening bolt) and the nitrogen
atom is shot through the hole to stimulate rearrangement of
the rice’s DNA. This newly derived organism through the
change at the atomic level is designated as ‘Atomically
Modified Organisms (AMOs).
Photocatalysis:
Photocatalysis one such application using nanoparticles
(Blake, M. 1997). Photocatalysis is a reaction in which chemical
compounds react in the presence of light and itself not being
completely consumed in the reaction. In the presence of UV
light the valance electrons in the nanoparticles are excited to
form electron-hole pairs. These negative electrons and positive
holes are strong oxidizers. When harmful substances
(pesticides) stick to the positive holes, they are disintegrated
into harmless compounds. The excited electrons are also
injected in bacteria in contact of nanoparticles and hence act
as a disinfectant (could find applications in fruit packaging
and Food Engineering).
Photocatalysis degradation process has gained
popularity in the area of wastewater treatment process
Herrmann, 1999 and Peral, et al., 1997, explained the use of
photocatalysis for purification, decontamination and
deodorization of air. Mills, et al, 1997 also explained
semiconductor sensitized photosynthetic and photocatalytic
processes for the removal of organics, destruction of cancer
cells, bacteria and viruses.
Table 1.
Present areas of Agriculture activities in the field of Nanotechnology
S.No. Sector/ Area Present area of activities in the field of Nanotechnology
1 Agriculture Detecting contamination in raw agriculture products. Development of nano tubes devices to diagnoses diseases in agriculture
crops. Photocatalysis applications using nano particles. To detect carcinogenic pathogens and bio sensors for improved and
contamination free agriculture product and use of nano partials capped with bio compatible Chitosan
2 Biotechnology Bioactive nanoparticles. Bulk nanocrystalline lightweight metallic materials employing mechanical alloying followed by HI Ping
and extrusion. CNTs, BNNTs, SiC Nanomaterials. Computational nanotechnology. Deposition of Nanocomposite. Effect of silver
nanoparticles on biological system. Formation of nano particles in surfactant aggregates. Formation of super structural phases and
self-assembled nanostructures by heteroepitaxial growth. Nanotechnology for biosensors in Health care and Environmental
applications. Nanotube, Environmental remediation, Nano chemistry, Nano biology, Optical limiting. Polymer based nano
composites with ‘Metal oxides’, ‘MMTCLAY’, Acetylene black and carbon Nano tubes. Polymer layered silicate nano
composites. Thin Films by Sputtering & Plasma Polymerization. Water soluble carbon nanotube, drug delivery, reverse osmosis,
global warming
3. Fertilizers Developing nano scale particles for use of less fertilizer. Development of nano based fertilizers and nano engineering. Nano sized
membrane made from organic wastes for conserving of water in crop production.
4. Food
Technology
Development of new polymers Nanocomposite. Nano tech food synthesizer. R&D in anit-counter-feit developing nano technology
based anti-counter-feit technology. Sensors and signalling micro biological and biochemical changes. To detect carcinogenic
pathogens and bio sensors for improved and contamination free food products. Uses of nano particles in food packaging for
enhance preservation time (shelf life), food safety and supply-chain tracking.
5. Pesticides Nanotubes, Environmental remediation, Nano chemistry, Nano biology and Optical limiting

MISHRA et al., Emerging Consequence of Nanotechnology in Agriculture: An Outline 505
Metal oxides like TiO2 (Bhatkhande, et al., 2001), ZnO
(Li, et al.,2003), SnO2 (Cao, et al., 2002) etc. as well as sulphides
like Zn, S (Torres, et al.,1999) have been used for
photocatalysis. These nanoparticles have efficient disinfectant
rate due to another important property of nanoparticles in
general, which is increased surface to volume ratio. The
principle of photocatalysis could be used in the decomposition
of toxic pesticides, which take a long time to degrade under
normal conditions (Malato, et al., 2002).
Plant Disease Diagnostics:
Among the different diseases, the viral diseases are the
most difficult to control, as one has to stop the spread of the
disease by the vectors. But, once it starts showing its
symptoms, pesticide application would not be of much use.
Therefore, detection of exact stage such as stage of viral DNA
replication or the production of initial viral protein is the key
to the success of control of diseases particularly viral diseases.
Nano-based viral diagnostics, including multiplexed
diagnostic kit development, have taken momentum in order to
detect the exact strain of virus and stage of application of
some therapeutic to stop the disease. Detection and utilization
of biomarkers that accurately indicate disease stages is also a
new area of research. Measuring differential protein
production in both healthy and diseased states leads to the
identification of the development of several proteins during
the infection cycle. These nano-based diagnostic kits not only
increase the speed of detection but also increase the power of
the detection.
Post-Harvest Management and Food Biotechnology:
Nano Bar Codes and Identity Preservation:
This bar code is essentially a sticker having a number of
black and white bars with certain digits written at the bottom.
The bar code is nothing but an electronic data depicting
several parameters such as date of production, place of
packaging, prices etc. and reading this code requires an
electronic data reader. With the advent of nano technology,
nano based bar codes are also available which can do the
same function as that of conventional bar codes, thereby
helping in tracking and controlling the quality of food product
and give all relevant details in minute.
Each day a huge amount of shipments of livestock and
other agricultural products are moved all over the world and it
is becoming increasingly difficult to keep a track on critical
control points of the production, shipment and storage
processes. An identity preservation (IP) system can be
installed that creates increased value by providing consumers
with information about the practices and activities used to
produce an agricultural product and it is possible to provide
stakeholders and consumers with access to information,
records and supplier protocols regarding the farm of origin,
environmental practices used in production, food safety and
security, and information regarding animal welfare issues.
Nano-based identity preservation has the potential to
revolutionize the entire agri-based industry as it can
continuously track and record the history of a particular
agricultural product. The future of the meat industry may well
depend on an ability to track all stages in the life of the
product, including the birth of the animal, its medical history,
and its movements between the ranch, the slaughterhouse
and the meat-packing plant, right through to the consumer’s
table.
Monitoring Quality of Agricultural Products:
Nanotechnology also has applications in the Agri-food
sector. Many vitamins and their precursors, such as
carotenoids, are insoluble in water. However, when formulated
as nanoparticles, these substances can easily be mixed with
cold water, and their bioavailability in the human body also
increases. Many lemonades and fruit juices contain these
specially formulated additives, which often also provide an
attractive colour. The world market potential of such micronized
compounds is estimated at $1 billion. In the future bio and gas
sensors could gain importance. These sensors could be
integrated into packaging materials to monitor the freshness
of the food. Bioselective surfaces are the new innovation of
nano science technology with a principle that surfaces are
the environment and location on which most chemical and
biological interactions occur. A bioselective surface has either
an enhanced or reduced ability to bind or hold specific
organisms or molecules.
Enzymatic nano bioengineering:
Nanotechnology also has applications in the Agri-food
sector, many vitamins and their precursors, such as
carotenoids are insoluble in water. However, when formulated
as nanoparticles, these substances can easily be mixed with
cold water, and their bioavailability in the human body also
increases. Many lemonades and fruit juices contain these
specially formulated additives, which often also provide an
attractive colour. The world market potential of such micronized
compounds is estimated at $1 billion. In the future bio and gas
sensors could gain importance. These sensors could be
integrated into packaging materials to monitor the freshness
of the food. Spoiling of the food could be indicated by a
colour change of the sensor. Several concepts have already
been developed for such applications based e.g. on silicon or
polymer thin film sensors. A huge amount of agricultural
products and foods are wasted starting from the harvest at
the field, their transportation, storage and further processing.
This important rate-limiting factor can possibly be addressed
by enhancing the capacity of the country in relation to highthroughput
experimental technologies, and making necessary
institutional adjustments for faculty hiring and orientation. In
this sector to be exposed to Applied Mathematics, Electronics,

506 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Drafting, Art, Embedded Systems, Hardware/Software
Development, Genetics, Artificial Intelligence, Number Theory,
Game Theory, Welding, Computer Graphics & Animation,
Chaos Theory and Cosmology.
Nanotechnology is a part of any nation’s future. Research
in nanotechnology has extremely high potential to benefit
society through applications in agriculture and food systems.
As in the case of almost every nonconventional technology,
e.g., genetic engineering, some fear that nanotechnology can
give people too much control. We believe that this control
can be wisely used, and that the huge contributions that
nanotechnology can make are very strong arguments in favor
of using this revolutionary science to its fullest potential.
Food and agriculture technology should take advantage of
the powerful tools of nanotechnology, for the benefit of
humankind.
LITERATURE CITED
Bhatkhande, D.S., Pangarkar, V.G. and Beenackers, A.A.C.M., 2001.
Photocatalytic degradation for environmental applications - A
Review, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 77:102-116
Blake, M., 1997. Bibliography of Work on Photo catalytic Removal of
Hazardous Compounds from Water and Air. NREL/TP-430-22197,
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden.
Cao, Y.A., Zhang X.T., Yang, W.S., Du, H., Bai, Y.B., Li, T.J. and Yao,
J.N., 2002. Bi-component TiO 2
/SnO 2
particulate film for photo
catalysis. Chem. Mater., 12:3445.
Herrmann, J.M., 1999. Heterogeneous photo catalysis: fundamentals
and applications to the removal of various types of aqueous
pollutants. Catalysis Today, 53:115–129
Li, D. and Haneda, H., 2003. Morphologies of zinc oxide particles and
their effects on photo catalysis. Chemosphere, 51(2):129-137.
Li, X., Yang X., Qi, J. and Seeman, N.C., 1996. Antiparallel DNA
double crossover molecules as components for nano construction.
J. Am. Chem. Soc., 118: 6131-6140.
Malato, A.J., Blanco, A.V. and Richter, C., 2002. Photocatalysis with
solar energy at a pilot-plant scale: an overview. Applied Catalysis
B: Environmental, 37: 1-15.
Mills, A,L., Punte and Stephan, M., 1997. An overview of semiconductor
photo catalysis. J. Photochem. Photobiol. A., 108:1-35.
Peral, J.X., Domenech and Ollis, D.F., 1997. Heterogeneous photo
catalysis for purification, decontamination and deodorization of
Air. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 70: 117-140.
Seeman NC, 2004. DNA in a material world. Nature, 421: 427-431.
Torres-Martínez, L.C., Nguyen, L., Kho, R., Bae, W., Bozhilov, K.,
Klimov, V. and Mehra, R.K., 1999. Bio molecularly capped
uniformly sized nanocrystalline materials: glutathione-capped ZnS
nanocrystals. Nanotechnology, 10: 340-354
www. ISAAA.com 2010
Recieved on 10-07-2013 Accepted on 12-08-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 507-508, 2013
MINI REVIEW
Sustainable Sweet Potato Production through Biotechnological Tools
MANJU RAI *1 AND PALLAVI MITTAL 2
Raizo Biotec Labs, Ludhiana, Punjab, 141 001.
I.T.S Para Medical College, Muradnagar, Gaziabad
email: raizobiotec @ raizo.com
ABSTRACT
Sweetpotato ( Ipomoea batatas Lam.) is cultivated throughout
the tropics and warm temperate regions of the world for its
starchy, long, tapered, ovoid or round shaped roots of varied
skin colors like white, orange or purple, frequently used after
boiling, baking or frying and provide nutrition in the form of
many essential vitamins and minerals. Sweet potato is a major
crop that feeds millions of people in the developing world. The
tubers are also processed into starch, flour or puree to make
secondary food products, the green vines are used as fodder for
cattle. There are several ongoing projects in Africa, South-
East Asia and Latin America where crop biotechnology is being
used to enhance locally grown crops. The expectation is that
genetically improved crops e.g. those able to resist local pests,
will allow even a small scale farmer to grow more crops using
fewer inputs and in an environmentally sustainable manner. It
is especially popular among farmers with limited resources
and produces more biomass and nutrients per hectare than any
other food crop in the world. New biotechnological approaches
may enable scientists to rapidly develop superior, disease and
pest resistant cultivars.
Key words
Sweet potato, Biotechnological tools
Sweet potato is considered the seventh most important
crop in the world and is ranked fourth in developing countries
(FAO, 1997). It is cultivated in more than hundred countries
(Horton, 1987) as a valuable source of human food , animal
feed and industrial raw material (Jarret and Florkowski, 1990).
Nearly 26000 accessions of Ipomoea species are maintained
at various genebanks in the world and 8,000 accessions are
sweetpotato cultivars or breeding lines (Nishiyama, et al.,
1975; Hu et al., 2003). However, pests, diseases and
environmental factors prevent the crop from reaching its
maximum agricultural potential. Viral diseases have been
attributed as the main cause of low yield productivity
(Wambugu, 1991) and the major cause of cultivar decline
(Carey, et al., 1999; Gibson et al. , 1998 ). In sweet potato
several studies indicated that sweet potato chlorotic stunt
virus (spcsv) and sweet potato feathery mottle virus (spfmv)
drastically reduce sweet potato yields; losses may often reach
65% to 90 % (Caryeija, et al., 1998). Also, high male sterility,
incompatibility and the hexaploid nature of the species have
resulted in very little improvement of this plant by classical
breeding methods.
Development of new methods and transfer technology
for producing pathogen free clonal seed can overcome this
constraint and help to unlock the significant yield potential of
this crop. Production of pathogen free material is the first step
in controlling the viral diseases in vegetatively propagated
crops. It allows a significant increase in field yield of fresh
storage root. Zhang, 1995 showed an average yield increase
of around 40 % in plots using virus free roots. Plant tissue
culture is uniquely suited for obtaining and maintaining mass
propagation of specific pathogen-free plants. The provision
of a steady supply of indexed planting material through in
vitro culture appears economically and technologically
feasible.
Sweet potato is considered to be a crop with high genetic
variability and as quoted earlier, thousands of varieties of
sweet potato exist in germplasm collections. As it is
vegetatively propagated , it is a very laborious and extended
task to maintain and manage its germplasm in gene banks.
Tissue culture assists the storage of disease free collections
and facilitates easier maintenance and distribution of
germplasm. Though sweet potato is relatively easier to
micropropagate, but is recalcitrant to regenerate. An efficient
method to regenerate sweet potato through tissue culture is
essential to produce transgenic plants. Several works have
been reported where plants of sweet potato have been
generated using diverse approaches , but most techniques
result in low shoot frequency over a long period of time in
culture conditions. Scientists at Tuskegee University (USA)
with funding assistance from USDA and NASA have embarked
upon an ambitious program of gene manipulation in sweet
potato. The NASA has chosen sweet potato as one of the
eight crops to be grown for long term space mission. Sweet
potato is also subject to biotechnological research in many
developing countries.
In India, methods have been developed to maintain
sweet potato in tissue culture. Scientists at the International
Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in Nigeria have
developed methods to produce virus free sweet potato plants
through meristem culture. Attempts are also being made to
construct genetically engineered sweet potato for resistance
to sweet potato weevil.

508 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Somatic embryogenesis has also been achieved in sweet
potato tissue culture (Sim and Cardosa, 2005; Liu et al., 1997).
So far no evidence have been reported that somatic
embryogenesis induced through an intermediary callus phase
, leads to genetic variability in the regenerated plants. Studies
are now in progress to evaluate whether the regeneration
process induces genetic variability. Ramanatha and Hermann,
1994 demonstrated the utility of axillary bud as artificial seed
of sweet potato for germplasm conservation. There have also
been reports on successful regeneration of sweet potato
plants from protoplasts. Plant regeneration was found to be
genotype specific (Sihachakr and Ducreux, 1987; Perera and
Akins, 1991; Belarmeno et al., 1994)
Transgenic sweet potato plants expressing marker genes
have been developed by using soil bacterium Agrobacterium
tumifaciens as a vector for transformation (Newell et al., 1995;
Dhir et al., 1992) to confer resistance to viruses like spfmv
and to enhance drought stress tolerance.
Because of the enormous genetic diversity of sweet
potato and the accompanying diversity in phenotypic and
morphological traits the crop has great potential for further
development to accommodate specific uses. For further
improvement of sweetpotato, other Ipomoea species may play
an important role in providing new genes, such as those for
flesh colour and protein content of the storage roots (Li, 1982).
A better knowledge of genetic diversity and relationships
between sweetpotato and its wild relatives will aid in the
development of breeding programs and efficiently utilize wild
Ipomoea germplasm.
LITERATURE CITED
Belarmino, M.M., Abe, T., Sasahara, T. 1994 . Plant regeneration from
stem and petiole protoplasts of sweet potato ( Ipomea batatas )
and its wild relative I. lacunose. Plant Cell Tissue and Organ Culture.
37 : 145-150
Carey, E.E., Gibson, R.W., Fuentes, S., Machmud, M., Mwanga, R.O.M.,
Turyamureeba, G., Zang, L., Ma, D., Abo, E.I., Abbas, F., Ei-Bedewy,
R., Salazar, L. (1999). The causes and control of virus diseases of
sweet potato in developing countries : is sweet potato virus disease
the main problem ? pp 241 – 248. In : impact on changing world.
program report 1997–98. The International Potato Center, Lima,
Peru. 458 p.
Dhir, S.K., Oglesby, J., Bhagsari, A.S. 1998. Plant regeneration via
somatic embryogenesis and transient gene expression in sweet potato
protoplasts . Plant Cell Reports, 17 : 665 – 669
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation) 1997 . FAO Quarterly Bulletin
of Statistics vol. 49. Rome. Italy.
Gibson, R .W., Mpembe, I., Alicai, T., Carey, E.E., Mwanga, R.O.M.
Seal, S.K., Vetten ,H.F. 1998. Symptoms, aetiology and serological
analysis of sweet potato virus disease in Uganda. Plant Patho., 47
: 95 – 102.
Horton, D.E. 1987. Potatoes : Production, Marketing and Programs
for Developing Countries. Colorado West Press, Boulder.
Hu, J., Nakatani, M., Lalusin, A.G., Kuranouchi, T., Fujimura, T. 2003.
Genetic analysis of sweetpotato and wild relatives using inter –
simple sequence repeats (ISSRs). Breed. Sci. 53: 297-304
Jarret, R.L. and Florkowski, W.J. 1990. In vitro active vs. field gene
bank maintenance of sweet potato germplasm : major costs and
considerations. Hort. Science , 25 (2) : 141
Li, L. 1982. Breeding for increased protein content in sweetpotato
(Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam) based on AFLP markers. Mol. Breed.
11: 169-185
Liu, Q. C., Zhai H., Wang Y., Lu D.H., Zhang D.P. 1997. An Efficient
System Of Embryogenic Suspension Cultures and Plant Regeneration
in Sweetpotato. In : CIP Program Report. 1997-98 : 265-270
Newell, C.A., Lowe, J.M., Merryweather, A., Rooke, L.B., Hamilton,
W.D.O. 1995. Transformation of Sweetpotato Ipomoea batatas
L. with Agrobacterium tumifaciens and regeneration of plants
expressing cowpea trypsin inhibitor and snowdrop lectin. Plant
Science, 107 (2) : 215-227
Nishiyama, I., Niyazaki, T., Sakamototo, S. 1975. Evolutionary
autopolyploidy in sweetpotato and its progenitors. Euphytica, 24:
197 – 208.
Perera, C.S. and Atkins, O.P. 1991. Regeneration from Sweetpotato
Protoplasts and Assessment of Growth Conditions for Flow-sorting
of Fusion Mixtures. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 116 (5): 917-922.
Ramanatha Rao, V., Hermann, M. 1994. Conservation and Utilization
of Sweetpotato Genetic Diversity in Asia. In : Proceedings of 2nd
Asian Network for Sweetpotato Genetic Resources. 3-5 Nov.1999
, Bogor,Indonesia. Pp. 18-19
Sihachakr, D. and Ducreux, G. 1987. Plant Regeneration from Protoplast
Culture of Sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas Lam.). Plant Cell Reports,
6: 326-328
Sim, S.L. and Cardosa, M.J. 2005. Genotype Specific Somatic
Embryogenesis in Sweetpotato. In Proc.IInd IS on Biotech of Trop.
And Subtrop. Species. Acta Hort. 692.ISHS
Wambugu, F.M. 1991. In vitro and Epidemeological Studies of
Sweetpotato ( Ipomoea batatas( L.) Lam)Virus Diseases in Kenya.
Ph.D Thesis , University of Bath pp. 271
Zhang, Liming 1995. Progress of research and application of virus-free
sweetpotato seed in Shandong. Proceedings of the 1 st . Chinese-
Japanese symposium on sweetpotato and potato. Beijing Agricultural
University Press, Beijing, China.
Recieved on 17-07-2013 Accepted on 11-08-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 509-512, 2013
MINI REVIEW
Insect- A Commercial Commodity
RAJESH CHOWDARY 1 , VEERESHKUMAR 2
1
Department of Agricultural Entomology, Raichur
2
Department of Agricultural Entomology, UAS, GKVK, Bangaluru 65
2
email:veeresh4279@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Number of species of insects that perform valued services
like pollination, Live insects and human therapy, as human
food, management of swine manure /yard manure, living insects
on parade, and pest control. The concept of beneficial is
subjective and only arises in light of desired outcomes from a
human perspective. In farming and agriculture, where the goal
is to raise selected crops, insects that hinder the production
process are classified as pests, while insects that assist
production are considered beneficial. In horticulture and
gardening; pest control, habitat integration, and ‘natural
vitality’ aesthetics are the desired outcome with beneficial
insects.
Key words
Insects, food, pollination, Therapy, management
Insects are the most successful life leaders among
animals on the earth and constitute almost three-fourths of
the total population of living organisms. Out of 5.57 to 9.8
million estimated animals in the world, 4 to 8 million species
are known to be insects and approximately, 0.1 million species
of insects occur in India. However, a precise check listing of
the insect fauna in different parts of the world has not yet
been done so far. There are 200 million insects for every human,
40 million insects for every acre of land (Venkatesha, 2008). In
the recent past, due to modern trends of development, people
have been enjoying insect resources in diverse fields by
utilization and industrialization on insect resources including
traditional cultured and newly developed industrialized
species. But due to lack of proper documentation, less
expertise and advance enterprises in these fields, their values
is not given due recognition. Insects have colonized most
parts of the globe and as such, have confronted
microorganisms and predators during their existence. To
survive in this wide variety of environmental conditions and
to combat enemies, insects have evolved powerful defence
systems. These rely mainly on the synthesis of peptides and
organic small molecules with predefined biological activities
(Dimarcq, and Hunneyball, 2003). The study found that native
insects are food for wildlife that supports a US$50 billion
recreation industry, generate more than US$4.5 billion in pest
control and pollinate crops worth US$3 billion (Losey, and
Vaughan, 2006).
Crop pollination:
It is estimated that about one third of all plants or plant
products eaten by humans are directly or indirectly dependent
on bee pollination. Most of the crops are pollinated by several
insects, most commonly honey bees and bumble bees are
used for assisted pollination. Commercial apiaries lease their
hives to the grower who need their crop pollination. In the
United States alone, $15 billion worth of crops (fruits,
vegetables and flowers) are pollinated by domesticated honey
bees each year and commercial apiaries were lease their bee
hives to growers who need their crops pollinated. Among
different crops, almonds completely depends on honey bees
for the pollination fallowed by apple, citrus, cotton soyabeans,
onion, sunflower, broccoli etc.
Another pollinator is bumble bee, efficiently pollinate
and ensure the fruit sets especially in glass house condition.
It is mainly used in Mediterranean regions where the
temperature is very low at this condition honey bees are not
active so most of the industries depends on bred, read and
supply of bumble bees to the grower at different prices (Morse,
2008a).
Among honey bees, Apis dorsata proved to be the most
dominant one (37.23%), followed by Apis cerana indica
(28.74%) and Apis florea (18.32%). The other pollinators
together constituted 15.71% which included Diptera and
Lepidoptera. Among the dipterans, Syrphids have shown their
presence. Many of the butterflies were found foraging on the
niger. Among the butterflies, the members of family Danaidae,
Nymphalidae, Pieridae, Satyridae and Amatidae were recorded
on niger as pollinators (Suresh, 2008). As many as 12 species
of pollinators were recorded during the present study, out of
which 9 species belonged to Hymenoptera, 1 to Lepidoptera
and 2 to Diptera. Among the total number of 304 pollinators
visitation recorded to cucumber field Apis florae was the most
predominant species constituting 42% followed by Apis
cerana (24%), Apis dorsata (14%) and others (20%) (Patel,
2007).
Some field crops, and other specialty crops. The monetary
value of honey bees as commercial pollinators in the United
States is estimated at about $15 billion annually. Some studies
report the estimated value of honey bee pollination at as much

510 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
as $20 billion annually. About one-third of the estimated value
of commercial honey bee pollination is in alfalfa production,
mostly for alfalfa hay. Another nearly 10% of the value of
honey bee pollination is for apples, followed by 6%-7% of the
value each for almonds, citrus, cotton, and soybeans. Overall,
pollinator-dependent crops are reported to make up an
estimated 23% of total U.S. agricultural production in 2006, up
from an estimated 14% in the 1960s (Morse, 2008b).
Live insects and human therapy:
Live insects to treat human ailments would make most
efficient, but the results can sometimes outperform drugs and
surgery. Maggots of the green bottle fly, Phaenicia sericata,
are used to cleanse wounds of necrotic tissue, while healthy
underlying tissues not attacked and these are commercially
marketed in different parts of the World (Steenvoorde and
Oskam, 2006).
In 1995, a handful of doctors in 4 countries were using
MDT. Today, any physician in the U.S. can prescribe maggot
therapy. Over 4,000 therapists are using maggot therapy in 20
countries. Use maggot of Phaenicia sericata to cleanse the
wounds of necrotic tissue. Maggots are used to treat burns,
cellulitis, ulcers, Especially used where diabetes is a
complicating factor. They clean the wounds by dissolving
dead and infected tissue (“debridement”), they disinfect the
wound (kill bacteria) and also speed the rate of healing.
The Bio Therapeutics, Education & Research
Foundation was established in 2003 for the purpose of
supporting patient care, education, and research in maggot
therapy and the other forms of symbiotic medicine (diagnosing
and/or treating diseases with live animals, such as maggot
therapy, leech therapy, honey bee therapy, pet therapy &
sniffer dogs, ichthiotherapy, bacteriotherapy etc.
(Steenvoorde and Oskam, 2006 ).
Insects used in Indian traditional medicine:
The therapeutic application of honeybee products has
been used in traditional medicine to treat various diseases
like diarrhoea, tuberculosis, impotency, asthma, exophthalmic
goiter, and mouth galls. The practice of using honeybee
products for medicinal purposes is coined as Apitherapy. One
of the major peptides in the bee venom, called melittin, is used
to treat inflammation in sufferers of rheumatoid arthritis and
multiple sclerosis. Melittin blocks the expression of
inflammation genes, thus reducing swelling and pain. The
therapeutic application of honeybee venom (bee venom
therapy) has been used as a traditional medicine to treat a
variety of conditions, such as arthritis and majority of insects
in India are marketed (Lokeshwari and Shantibala, 2010).
Entomophagy:
Insects are rich source of proteins, fat, vitamins and
minerals. How can farmers successfully battle with the insect
devourers of his crop. One of the best way is to collect insect
devourers and use as food. The scientific merit of
entomophagy has by now been well-established by numerous
papers documenting the undisputed nutritional value of many
edible insects (Paoletti and Dreon , 2005).
Their nutrient profiles are often very favourable from
the point of view of dietary reference values (DRVs) and daily
requirements for normal human growth and health. In general,
insects tend to be a rich source of essential proteins and fatty
acids, as well as dietary minerals and vitamins, and thus, today,
as in the past, play important roles in traditional diets (Bukkens,
2005; Ramos- Elorduy, 2005; DeFoliart, 1989).
People need to be given reasons why insects should be
eaten other than the fact that they play a crucial role in diets
of many people (Morris, 2004).
One often thinks of insects as human food in a novelty
context, like being dared to eat fried mealworms, crickets, or
chocolate covered ants at the county fair. But insects have
been a serious source of human nutrition for a very long time.
About 500 species in some 260 genera and 70 families of insects
Table 1. Insects used in Indian traditional medicine
Insect species Disease cure Mode of
preparation
and use
Holochlora indica
(Orthoptera:
Tettigoniidae)
Diacrisia obliqua
(Lepidoptera:
Arctidae)
Stomphosistis
thraustica
(Lepidoptera:
Gracillaridae)
Hieroglyphus
banian
(Orthoptera:
Acrididae)
Batocera titana
(Coleoptera:
Cerambycidae)
Periplanata
americana
(Dictyoptera:
Blattidae)
Apis indica, A.
florae, A.
mellifera
(Hymenoptera:
Apidae)
Helicoverpa
armigera
(Lepidoptera:
Noctuidae)
Zonabris
pustulata
(Coleoptera:
Meloidae)
Ulcer
Dog bite
Fever, to
increase flow
of milk in
lactating
woman
Liver disorder
Wound
Asthama and
tuberculosis
Snakebite and
cough
Fever,
nervous
breakdown
Problems in
urinoginital
system
Consumed as
tonic
Freshly laid
eggs are eaten
as well as
apllied on
affected part
Dried full
grown larvae
consumed with
herbs
Roasted adult
and nymph
Larvae are
eaten alive
Extraction of
roasted insects
Powder of
roasted insect
mixed with
honey and
apllied
Dried powder
consumed as
tonic
Fresh extracts
from larvae
Practicing
state
Manipur
Chhatisgarh
Chhatisgarh
Nagaland
Nagaland
Arunachal
Pradesh
Arunachal
Pradesh
Chhatisgarh
Chhatisgarh

CHOWDARY AND VEERESHKUMAR, Insect- A Commercial Commodity 511
are used for human food somewhere in the world, especially
in central and southern Africa, Asia, Australia, and Latin
America. Even in the West, insect foods need not be a novelty.
Where they are consumed, insects provide 5-10% of the annual
animal protein of indigenous peoples.
Currently, more than 100 species of insects are sold as
human food at local markets in rural Mexico, where they
constitute a regular part of the local diets. Worldwide, nearly
1 700 insect species (Table 2) are reported to be used as human
food. Four insect orders predominate, in rank sequence:
Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Orthoptera and Lepidoptera,
accounting for 80 percent of the species eaten (Ramos-Elorduy
2005).
Table 2.
Number of edible insect species reported in the
world
Order Common name Number of species
Thysanura Silver fish 1
Anoplura Lice 3
Ephemeroptera Mayflies 19
Odonata Dragonflies 29
Orthoptera Grasshoppers, crickets,
267
cockroaches
Isoptera Termites 61
Hemiptera True bugs 102
Homoptera Cicadas, leafhoppers,
78
mealybugs
Neuroptera Dobson flies 5
Lepidoptera
Butterflies, moths
253
(Silkworms)
Trichoptera Caddis flies 10
Diptera Flies, mosquitoes 34
Coleoptera Beetles 468
Hymenoptera Ants, bees, wasps 351
Total 1681
Geographically, Ramos-Elorduy (2005) identified the
Americas and Africa as recording the highest number of insect
species eaten as food. However, when the Pacific countries
are combined with Asian countries, the region registers more
than 500 insect species consumed for food. It is likely that the
total number of species eaten in Asia is considerably higher
than this number, as research on the subject appears to have
been less rigorous in Asia and the Pacific compared with work
conducted and published in Africa and the Americas (Table
3).
Table 3.
Continent
Number of edible insects per continent and number
of consumer countries
Number of
species recorded
Per cent of
total
Number of
consuming
countries
Asia 349 20 29
Australia 152 9 14
Africa 524 30 36
America 679 39 23
Europe 41 2 11
Total 1745 100 113
Table 4.
Protein content of common insects on a dry weight
basis
Common name
Protein percentage
Leafhoppers 56.22
Yellow mealworm beetle larvae 47.76
House fly larvae 54.17
House fly pupae 61.54
June beetle larvae 56.22
Honey bee larvae 42.62
Honey bee pupae 55.56
Water boatmen & backswimmers 41.68
Water boatmen adults 49.30
Stink bugs 63.80
Leafcutting ants 53.80
Paper wasp pupae 44.10
Red legged locusts 58.30
Corn earworms 75.30
White agave worms 41.98
Red agave worms 30.28-51.00
Treehoppers 44.84-59.57
Insects represent rich sources of protein for the
improvement of human diet, especially for individuals suffering
from poor nutrition because of a protein deficit (Table 4). Gram
for gram, insects often contain more protein and minerals than
meat. In fact, nutritionists represent the leading group of
researchers in food insects, motivated by a desire to remedy
the problems associated with protein-deficient diets (De-
Foliart, 2008).
Common edible insects in India belongs to the
Coleoptera, Ortoptera, Odonata, Hemiptera, and Isoptera
(Table 5). Edible insects were sold using spoons, milk tins and
local mudus or just placed in heaps with prices depending on
the unit measure, the insect species in question and market in
consideration. some cases edible insects were prepared in the
form of snacks and displayed for sale alongside other meat
products like poultry eggs, pork and even fruits of native
pear, as in Dacryodes edulis (Agbidye, et al., 2009).
Table 5. Common edible insects in India
Scientific name
Cybister confuses
Shp.
Hydrophilus
olivaceus Fab.
Anoplophora
glabripennis Mot.
Acisoma
panorpoides Ram.
Gryllotalpa
africana Palis.
Belostoma indica
(Lep. & Serv.)
Laccotrephes
maculatus Fabr.
Oxya hyla hyla
Serville
Common
name
Order Edible form
Diving beetle Coleoptera Roasted fried
and curry
Water
Coleoptera Forms of larva
scavenger
and adult
Asian long Odonata Roasted and
horned beetle
fried forms
Dragonflies Odonata Roasted or fried
body
Mole cricket Orthoptera Eaten with
medicinal herbs
Giant water Hemiptera With edible
bug
herbs and spices
Nepa Hemiptera Fried body
Grasshopper Orthoptera Steamed and
edible with
herbs
Odentotermies sp. Termite Isoptera Consumed live

512 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Management of swine manure /yard manure:
Manure is the principal food of many insects in nature,
especially the larva of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illuscens).
Insect utilization contributes to natural recycling of nutrients
and the insects produced are food for many larger animals.
Insects convert residual manure proteins and other nutrients
into their biomass, which is a high quality animal protein
feedstuff. Considerable research has been conducted to
understand and exploit this activity for manure management.
Black Soldier fly larvae reduced 55 kg of fresh manure
dry matter to 24 kg of digested manure dry matter within 14
days (a 56% reduction). No objectionable odor could be
detected from the end product of black soldier fly digested
manure. Black Soldier fly larvae reduced the concentrations
of nutrients of fresh manure, generally, from 40 to 55%. (This
reduction does not take into account the 56% reduction in
manure mass.) These data suggest black soldier fly could be
used to produce a valuable soil amendment, possibly
somewhat similar to compost (Newton et al., 2006).
There is an urgent need to assess insect biodiversity as
a whole and the role of ethno-entomophagy in particular in
conserving this valuable natural resource and local traditional
knowledge for marketing. It is suggested that there is a good
scope to exploit this socio-cultural attribute in finding ways
to tackle the increased pest incidences as a consequence of
global climate change in the forest ecosystems elsewhere in
the world. Mass collection of insect pests may not be for food
but rather for production of food supplements or feed for
livestock and also help in maintaining healthy environment.
LITERATURE CITED
Agbidye, F.S. Ofuya, T.I. and Akindele, S.O. 2009. Some edible insects
consumesd by the people of Benue State. Nigeria, 8: 946-950.
Bukkens, S.G.F. 2005. Insects in the human diet: nutritional aspects.
In: M.G. Paoletti, ed.
Ecological implications of mini livestock, pp. 545-577.
DeFoliart, G. 1989. The human use of insects as food and as animal
feed. Bulletin of the
Entomological Society of America, (Spring): 22-35.
Defoliart, G.R. 2005. Overview of role of edible insects in preserving
biodiversity. In: (Paoletti MG ed) Ecological implications of
minilivestock. Potential of insects, rodents, frogs and snails. Science
Publishers, Inc., Enfield, pp. 123–140.
Dimarcq and Hunneyball. 2003. Use of insects by Australian Aborigines.
Cultural Entomology digest. pp. 44-49.
Lokeshwari, R. K. And Shantibala, T. 2010. A Review on the Fascinating
World of Insect Resources: Reason for Thoughts. Psyche, 10: 1041-
1052.
Losey, J. and Vaughan, M. 2006. The economic value of ecological
services provided by insects. Bioscience, 56(4): 311-323.
Morris, B. 2004. Insects and human life. Oxford, Berg.
Morse. 2008a. Importance of pollinators in changing landscapes for
world crops. In: Proc. Royal Society Biol. Sci., USA, 274 (1608):85-
87.
Morse. 2008b. Value of honey bees as pollinators of US crops. Pollinator,
22(1): 342-354.
Newton, G. L. Booram, C. V. Barker, R. W. and Hale, O. M. 2006.
Dried Hermetia illucens larvae meal as a supplement for swine. J.
Anim. Sci., 44: 395-399.
Patel, M. C. 2007. Impact of honeybee pollination on qualitative and
quantitative parameters of cucumber (cucumis sativa ). M. Sc
(Agri) Thesis, UAS, Dharwad.
Paoletti, M.G. and Dufour, D.L. 2002. Minilivestock. Encyclopaedia
of Pest Management, 1(1):487-492.
Ramos-Elorduy, J. 2005. Insects: a hopeful food source. In M.G. Paoletti,
ed. Ecological implications of mini livestock. Science Pub., Enfield
NH, USA, pp. 263-291.
Steenvoorde, P. and Oskam, J. 2006. The current status of maggot
therapy in wound healing. J. Wound Care., 14 (5): 212-13.
Suresh, 2008. Impact of honey bee pollination on seed production of
niger. M. Sc(Agri) Thesis, UAS, Dharwad.
Venkatesha, M. G. 2008. Is entomology curriculum affecting insect
biodiversity in India, Curr. Sci., 93 (8):1047–1048.
Recieved on 13-07-2013 Accepted on 29-07-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 513-515, 2013
MINI REVIEW
The Benefits of Consuming Goat’s Milk
DEEPIKA BARANWAL
Department of Food and Nutrition,College of Homescience,Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture
and Technology,Udaipur, Rajasthan
email : deepika.baranwal@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
In recent years, cow’s milk and its derived products have
suffered poor public perception. People believe it to be high in
fat and energy, with consequent negative health effects. In
addition, heightened awareness of intolerant and allergic
symptoms arising from cow’s milk consumption has led those
affected to look for alternatives. Milk has been part of our
staple diet since the agricultural revolution, so eliminating its
consumption has nutritional consequences. Milk supplies an
economical source of nutrients and confers numerous health
benefits: it plays a critical role in nutrition and health.
Avoidance of cow’s milk may not be the only option for those
who experience side effects to it. Goat’s milk, with its unique
composition, could be a valuable alternative. A number of recent
scientific studies have examined differences between cow’s and
goat’s milk. Disparities in their fat, protein and sugar
composition may explain why an increasing number of goat’s
milk consumers report significant health benefits including
improved digestion and asthma and reduced catarrh and
eczema.
Key words
Benefits, goat milk, fat, protein, nutrient
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES RELATED TO COW’S MILK
CONSUMPTION
Milk is a naturally valuable source of vitamins and
minerals such as vitamin A, vitamin B6, vitamin B12, thiamin,
riboflavin, niacin, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, zinc and
potassium (FSA, 2002). Some milk, like goat’s milk, naturally
contains these nutrients. Other milks such as soya, rice and
oat milks do not and so are often fortified with vitamins and
minerals. There is continued debate as to whether purified
nutrients that are added to food confer the same health benefits
as whole foods. There is increasing evidence to suggest that
consuming whole foods has additive and synergistic health
benefits (Lui, 2003). In addition to the essential nutrients it
contains, other health benefits of consuming milk are widely
recognized.
As such, the Food Standards Agency recommends that
milk and other dairy products should be consumed daily as
part of a healthy balanced diet (FSA, 2011).
The purported health benefits of milk consumption
• A rich supply of nutrients, vitamins and minerals
• Optimal bone health
• Improved blood cholesterol
• Protection against cardiovascular disease
• Reduced colon cancer risk
• Reduced blood pressure
• Body weight regulation
• Protection of tooth enamel
• Reduced risk of type 2 diabetes
The association between milk consumption and bone
health has long been established. Milk consumption promotes
bone health due to the calcium it contains; one 200ml glass of
goat’s milk provides 29% of the UK dietary reference value of
calcium for an adult. Optimal calcium intake is critical in
achieving optimal bone mass. Not achieving optimal bone
mass is a risk factor for osteoporosis (NOS, 2011). The
association between milk consumption and bone health was
demonstrated in a study in New Zealand (Goulding, et al.,
2004). The fracture risk in children was 34.8% in those that
avoided milk compared to 13% who consumed it. A recent UK
National Health and Examination survey suggested it was not
possible for adolescents to achieve calcium requirements
whilst meeting other nutrient demands when consuming a
dairy free diet (Gao, et al., 2006).
The fats or fatty acids within milk are often a cause for
concern. However, not all fats are the same, so whilst some
have negative health implications, consumption of others can
have positive health benefits. One fatty acid present within
milk is conjugated linoleic acid (CLA). CLA has been shown
to have beneficial health effects; it may protect against cancer,
improve blood cholesterol and protect against coronary heart
disease (Huth, et al., 2006).
Dairy consumption itself has been associated with
reduced colon cancer risk and a reduction in inflammatory
markers that are important risk factors for cardiovascular
disease (Zemel and Sun, 2006 and Slattery, et al.,1997).
Research has shown that low fat dairy products reduce high
blood pressure.

514 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Despite public opinion that consumption of dairy
products contributes to weight gain, research has shown that
dairy products, and in particular calcium, play a role in body
weight regulation. In the CARDIA (Coronary Artery Risk
Development In young Adults) study, low dairy consumption
was associated with increased obesity (19). In a study
comparing weight loss following different diets, greater weight
loss was observed in those following a high dairy diet
compared to a low dairy diet; in particular abdominal fat was
lost (Zemel, et al., 2004).
GOAT’S MILK
Whilst goat’s milk consumption currently accounts for
a small but growing percentage of the UK dairy market, it is
the milk of choice in most of the world (Park, 1994).
Nutritionally, it is comparable to cow’s milk as it contains similar
levels of calcium, potassium, phosphorus and many other
nutrients which confer health benefits. Compared to soya milk
and other dairy alternatives, goat’s milk contains much more
naturally occurring calcium, potassium, phosphorus and
vitamin A (FSA, 2002). It also, compared to cow’s milk, contains
higher levels of six out of the ten essential amino acids. Goat’s
milk contains less riboflavin, vitamin B12, folate and
pantothenate than cow’s milk but those consuming a
nutritionally balanced diet would not be expected to be
deficient in these nutrients. Goat’s milk exceeds cow’s milk in
its content of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty
acids and medium chain triglycerides, all of which are known
to be beneficial for human health, in particular, prevention of
cardiovascular conditions. Due the significant nutritional
advantages of goat’s milk, it is widely used to feed more
starving and malnourished people in the developing world
than cow’s milk (Haenlein, 2004 ).
In a study conducted in Madagascar, researchers fed
thirty hospitalized and undernourished children either goat’s
or cow’s milk in additional to their recovery diet. Children
randomized to receive the goat’s milk demonstrated
significantly increased body weight gain and improved fat
absorption compared to those fed cow’s milk (Razafindrakoto,
et al., 1993). Animal studies have provided significant evidence
to suggest that, in comparison to cow’s milk, goat’s milk
improves calcium and phosphorous metabolism, zinc status
and bioavailability of iron in those with anaemia (Campos, et
al., 2007, Alferez et al., 2007). There is mounting evidence
from consumer observations that suggests those who cannot
tolerate cow’s milk can tolerate goat’s milk. An important four
year survey of milk drinkers revealed that 66.8% of those
consuming goat’s milk did so for medical reasons; in particular
to overcome intolerance to cow’s milk (Diaz, et al., 2009). 71.3%
of those who consumed goat’s milk stated that they received
significant health benefits from the product. These benefits
included; improved digestion (in particular irritable bowel type
symptoms), reduced catarrh, improved asthma and reduced
eczema. The suitability of goat’s milk as a replacement for
cow’s milk for those who experience intolerant type symptoms
has not yet been tested in a comprehensive scientific study.
Further studies to examine the hypoallergenic and therapeutic
significance of goat’s milk are clearly warranted.
How is goat’s milk different to cow’s milk?
A number of recent scientific studies have examined
differences between cow’s and goat’s milk (Tomotake, et al.,
2006, Alferez, et al., 2001, Alonso, 1992). Differences in their
fat, protein and sugar compositions have been observed and
these differences may explain why people report goat’s milk is
easier to digest and less likely to cause intolerant type
symptoms.
The fats within goat’s milk are smaller in size than in
cow’s milk and this can make goat’s milk easier to digest. In
addition, goat’s milk consumption by animals has been shown
to result in lower cholesterol. The unique composition of the
type of fats found in goat’s milk have been studied, and certain
trans fats, the consumption of which are known to be a risk
factor for heart disease, were found in significantly lower
proportions in goat compared to cow’s milk. Cow’s milk is
one of the most common causes of food allergic reactions in
children. The majority of children out-grow their allergy by
the time they reach four years of age but some retain the
allergy for life. Cow’s milk allergy can occur in adults,
presenting as immediate allergic reactions or eczema. Cow’s
milk contains more than 20 proteins that can cause allergic
reactions. The major proteins that people are allergic to are
called lactoglobulins and caesins. Goat’s milk contains a similar
amount of lactoglobulins as cow’s milk but less of particular
casein known as alpha-s1-casein28. Goat’s milk, like human
milk, has a lower ratio of casein because the amounts of soluble
proteins are higher than those found in cow and sheep milk
(El-Agamy, et al., 2007). This unique property allows the milk
to form a soft, as oppose to hard, curd during digestion. Those
who are experiencing intolerance to casein may therefore find
they have reduced symptoms when consuming goat’s milk.
Finally, the non-digestible sugars or oligosaccharides
within milk can act as a prebiotic. Prebiotics help maintain the
health of the gastrointestinal tract by encouraging the growth
of beneficial gut bacteria and preventing the growth of
detrimental bacteria. The oligosaccharides found in goat’s
milk have been shown to reduce intestinal inflammation and
aid recovery from colitis in animals (Lara-Villoslada, et al.,
2006).
Lactose intolerance is a particular barrier to the
consumption of dairy and can lead to avoidance. Evidence
now suggests however, that complete dairy avoidance may
not be necessary; lactose intolerant people can tolerate one
to two servings of milk when served in divided doses with
meals (McBean et al., 1998, Pribila et al., 2000). By consuming
this level of goat’s milk, the recommended daily intake of

BARANWAL, The Benefits of Consuming Goat’s Milk 515
calcium could be achieved.
This report highlights a number of notable areas
surrounding goat’s milk and its role in nutrition, although
further research is clearly warranted to provide more solid
conclusions. Despite negative public perception of milk and
milk products, its consumption has significant health benefits.
Goat’s milk and its products play significant roles in human
nutrition. Due to its highly nutritious composition, goat’s milk
and dairy products such as yoghurts, cheeses and powders
are chosen to feed more starving and malnourished people in
the developing world than respective cow products.
Many milk alternatives such as soya, oat and rice-based
milks are fortified with essential vitamins and minerals. The
ongoing debate about whether these additives offer the same
health benefits highlights the need for additional research in
this area.
Goats differ from cows in terms of their anatomy,
physiology and product biochemistry. These differences
support the contention that goat’s milk offers many unique
qualities for human nutrition. However the authors recommend
a comprehensive scientific study to fully examine the
hypoallergenic and therapeutic significance of goat’s milk.
LITERATURE CITED
Alferez, M.J., Barrionuevo, M., Aliaga, I.L., Sanz-Sampelayo, M.R.,
Lisbona, F., Robles, J.C., Campos, M.S. 2001. Digestive utilisation
of goat and cow’s milk fat in malabsorption syndrome. J Dairy Res;
68:451-461.
Alférez, M.J.M., López-Aliaga, I., Nestares, T., Díaz-Castro, J.,
Barrionuevo, M., Ros, P.B. and Campos, M.S. 2006 Dietary goat
milk improves iron bioavailability in rats with induced ferropenic
anaemia in comparison with cow milk. International Dairy Journal.
16(7):813- 821.
Alonso, L., Fontecha, J., Lozada, L., Fraga, M.J., Juárez, M. 1999.
Fatty acid composition of caprine milk: major, branched-chain,
and trans fatty acids. J Dairy Sci; 82:878-84.
Campos, M.S., Barrionuevo, M., Alférez, M.J.M., Nestares, T., Díaz-
Castro, J., Ros, P.B., Ortega, E. and López-Aliaga, I. 2007.
Consumption of caprine milk improves metabolism of calcium and
phosphorus in rats with nutritional ferropenic anaemia.
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Díaz-Castro, J., Alférez, M.J.M., López-Aliaga, I., Nestares, T. and
Campos, M.S. 2009. Effect of calcium-supplemented goat or cow
milk on zinc status in rats with nutritional ferropenic anaemia.
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Saanen goat’s milk in fatty acid composition, lipid digestibility and
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Zemel, M.B., Sun, X. 2008. Dietary calcium and dairy products modulate
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Recieved on 02-08-2013 Accepted on 15-08-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 516-519, 2013
MINI REVIEW
Cues and Signals Used in Communication during Food Exploitation in Stingless
Bees
S. MURALI
Department of Entomology, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065, Karnataka, India
email: dr.mmrl@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT
Social insects have developed various kinds of communication
mechanisms, which allow them to effectively allocate workers
to the different tasks, need to be carried out. Communication
facilitates the allocation of tasks within the group and underlies
a wide range of highly flexible and adaptive collective behavior,
including cooperative hunting, nest building, migration,
coordinated defense and group foraging. This is especially true
for species living in large colonies. Workers of stingless bees
inform their nestmates about the presence of food, its location,
using different modes of communication, viz., thorax vibrations
and jostling exhibited within the nest; footprint secretions and
pheromone marks deposited in the field. In addition, the ability
of workers of social bees to learn food odors plays an important
role for a quick location of food sources in the field. The
learning of food odors within the nest plays an important role
in the foraging behavior of a scent trail laying stingless bee
sheds new light on the complex interactions between olfactory
signals and cues in this specialized communication mechanism.
Although recruits can be precisely guided to feeding sites by
means of trail pheromones, they still rely on previously learned
food odors for short-range orientation. Chemicals derived from
food sources or released by foragers are of the utmost
importance for the localization and exploitation of food, as
well as for the recruitment of stingless bees. Orientation towards
food odors by foraging animals is surely an ancestral
characteristic that can be found throughout the entire animal
kingdom. Beyond this, in eusocial insects the odor of a food
source, which is passed on from one worker of a colony to
others, and which then biases the food-searching behavior of
these individuals in the field, functions as social communication.
Key words
Cues, signals, communication, tasks, stingless bees.
Social insects have developed various kinds of
communication mechanisms, which allow them to effectively
allocate workers to the different tasks, need to be carried out.
Communication facilitates the allocation of tasks within the
group and underlies a wide range of highly flexible and
adaptive collective behavior, including cooperative hunting,
nest building, migration, coordinated defense and group
foraging. This is especially true for species living in large
colonies, such as stingless bees, the nests of which can
contain from a few dozen to 100,000 or more workers (Michener,
2000). The exchange of information about the availability or
location of food sources or both, between the individuals of a
colony is essential for effective food collection, which is
needed to guarantee a sufficient supply of nourishment for all
of its members (Wilson, 1971). Workers of stingless bees
inform their nestmates about the presence of food, its location,
using different modes of communication, viz., thorax vibrations
and jostling exhibited within the nest; footprint secretions
and pheromone marks deposited in the field (Lindauer and
Kerr,1960; Jarau, 2009).
Communication:
Chemical compounds play a key role in the
communication systems of many living organisms. In short,
chemical signals that act within species, to induce either a
specific behavior (releaser pheromones) or a developmental
process (primer pheromones), are known collectively as
pheromones, whereas semiochemicals that act between
species are known as allelochemicals. There are three main
types of allelochemicals, which can either (1) benefit the
receiver at the cost of the sender (kairomones), (2) benefit the
sender at the cost of the receiver (allomones) or (3) benefit
both sender and receiver alike (synomones).
The role of semiochemicals in the foraging ecology of
stingless bees and divide the main volatile compounds into
the following four categories:
(1) Food odors,
(2) Food source marking volatiles,
(3) Trail pheromones, and
(4) The chemicals used by robber bees and casual thieves
during nest plundering.
Food odors:
Food odors, such as flower volatiles or compounds
emanating from carcasses, are used by many animals to detect
and orient toward food sources. In social insects, foraging
information can also be transferred to the colony by food
scent trapped on the body of a returning worker. The
importance of food odors for the recruitment of workers remains
largely unstudied in stingless bees, but it has been
investigated in great detail in honey bees. However, the
existing data collected for some species of stingless bees
indicate that food odors play an important role both for the
flower constancy of individual bees and for the recruitment of
fellow workers within the nest (Lindauer and Kerr, 1960).

MURALI, Cues and Signals Used in Communication during Food Exploitation in Stingless Bees 517
Trail Pheromones:
In Scaptotrigona postica, a species that precisely
guides recruits to the feeder by means of pheromone spots
deposited along the route between the food source and the
nest, the great majority of recruits always arrived at the feeder
visited by the foragers. The black dots denote individual
recruits, and the percentages give their distribution (Lindauer
and Kerr, 1960).
Aguilar, et al., 2005 reported that trained bees of T.
corvina (colony size more than 4000 bees) recruited on average
3.12 ± 2.52 recruits on each visit to the feeder. The recruitment
intensity of T. corvina was significantly higher than for P. tica
(0.11 ± 0.17; colony size 250 bees) and was significantly lower
in T. angustula (0.07 ± 0.04; colony size 1000 bees) (Kruskal
Wallis test: KW = 26.14, P < 0.0001 and multiple comparisons
test. Recruits of T. corvina arrived in groups of up to 34 bees,
whereas recruits of P. tica mostly arrived alone. T. angustula
recruited only incidentally and mostly one forager at a time.
Aguilar, et al., 2005 explained that, in T. corvina, almost
all recruits arrived at the experimental feeder at 50 m when the
control feeder was placed at 5 m from the nest (110 of 114
recruits in 2 trials, binomial test with H0 equal probability: P <
0.001) and all recruits arrived at the experimental feeder in
experiments with the control feeder at 40 m from the nest in
the same direction (73 recruits in 2 trials, binomial test: P <
0.001). This shows that the trained bee communicates the
distance of the food source to the recruits and that distance
communication is very efficient. The efficiency was not
different with the control feeder at 5 or 40 m (Mann Whitney
test: Z = –1.00, P = 0.67). In P. tica, recruits arrived more often
at the control feeder at 5 m from the nest than at the
experimental feeder (16 of 19 recruits at the control feeder in 4
trials, binomial test: P = 0.002). However, with the control
feeder at 40 m from the nest, similar numbers of recruits arrived
at both feeders (9 of 19 recruits at the experimental feeder in 5
trials, binomial test: P = 0.5). When they used a control feeder
at 40 m from the nest with the same sugar solution but a
different odor, significantly more recruits arrived at the
experimental feeder (14 of 15 recruits in 8 trials, binomial test P
< 0.001). A comparison of the three treatments reveals that
with the control feeder at 5 m, significantly fewer recruits reach
the experimental feeder than with a control feeder of different
odor at 40 m (Kruskal Wallis test: ÷2 = 10.04, P = 0.007 with
multiple comparison test).
In all three species significantly more recruits arrived at
the experimental feeder than at the control feeder placed in
the opposite direction (binomial test on pooled data: P < 0.001
for T. corvina (5 trials) and P < 0.004 for P. tica (8 trials), P =
0.006 for T. angustula (7 trials)). No recruits arrived at the
control feeder in any of the trials with T. corvina (157 recruits
in total), whereas 3 of 18 P. tica recruits, and 2 of 14 T. angustula
recruits arrived at the control feeder. When we positioned the
control feeder at a 90° angle with the experimental feeder,
significantly more recruits arrived at the experimental feeder
than at the control feeder in T. corvina and P. tica (binomial
test on pooled data: both P < 0.001, 2 and 8 trials respectively).
Experimental trials of this kind with T. angustula were
unsuccessful.
Recruits guided by means of pilot flights:
Aguilar, et al., 2005 recorded the exact arrival times of
the trained bees and the recruits in the distance and direction
experiments with P. tica and T. corvina, and additional trials
with P. tica (In total: T. corvina: 11 trials, P. tica: 36 trials). The
vast majority of the recruits arrived at the same time, i.e.
between 4 seconds before and 4 seconds after the arrival of
the trained bee ( P. tica: 78.1 per cent of 114 recruits; T. corvina:
87.5 per cent of 489 recruits). Significantly more recruits than
expected arrive with the pilot bee (G-test for homogeneity, H0
= equal numbers before, with, and after pilot bee: T. corvina, G
= 501.9, P < 0.001; P. tica, G = 98.3, P < 0.001). Arrival patterns
are similar in both species (G-test for independence, 3
categories before, with, after arrival of pilot bee: G = 1.92, P >
0.1).
The recruits hovered over the feeder table and did not
land till the trained bee had landed. A few minutes before
landing, the trained bee started making short flights from the
feeder into the direction of the cloud of recruits that could be
seen at some distance from the feeder table. During this period
the trained bee also landed on the soil and vegetation between
the recruits and the feeder. She rubbed her mandibles and
dragged her abdomen over these substrates, and in doing so
she probably left scent-marks. Some recruits from the cloud
then landed on these spots and started to perform a similar
“scent marking” behavior.
Chemical marking at the feeding site:
Schmidt, et al., 2003 explained that in all the choice
experiments the bees strongly preferred the used M-feeder. In
most of the control tests, when the bees had to choose between
two identical clean feeders, more bees landed on one of them.
When the distance d between the feeders was 20 cm, 58.9 ±
7.7 per cent of the returning bees choose the A-feeder. When
d was 170 cm a mean percentage of 59.3 ± 4.2 per cent landed
at the A-feeder. In all cases the percentage of bees choosing
the used M-feeder significantly exceeded the percentage of
bees choosing the A-feeder in control tests (P d” 0.05). This
is taken as evidence that the bees do mark their feeding site
chemically and thereby attract nestmates searching for food.
When the distance between the M-feeder and the U-
feeder was d = 20 cm the percentage of bees at the M-feeder
was 75.8 ± 9.6 per cent, with 0.75 ML-1 sugar water. The
percentage was71.1 ± 8.9 per cent, when they used 1.5 ML-1
sugar water, and 86.1 ± 10.2 per cent with 3 ML-1 sugar water.
These values significantly exceed the percentages of the
control group (P d” 0.05). When the distance between M-

518 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
feeder and U-feeder was d = 170 cm, 77.1 ± 12.7 per cent of the
returning bees chose the M-feeder containing 1.5 ML-1 sugar
water. 82.3 ± 11.4 per cent of the bees chose it when 3 ML-1
sugar water was offered (Schmidt et al., 2003).
Precision of food source localization (Scaptotrigona aff.
depilis):
Direction:
Schmidt, et al., 2003 reported that during these
experiments foragers were feeding at the experimental feeder
50 m from the nest and recruiting their nestmates. Control
feeders with sugar water of the same concentration were
offered 1.7 m, 8.5 m, or 17 m laterally to the experimental feeder
at the same distance. The angles (á) between the direction
from the nest to the experimental feeder and from the nest to
the control feeder were 2°, 10°, and 20°, respectively. Recruits
nearly exclusively arrived at the experimental feeder (see inset
which gives the range of median percentages of bees arriving
at the experimental feeder). The median percentage (1.quartil/
3.quartil) of recruits landing at the control feeders is given
above each of the three feeding tables. It was significantly
smaller than that at the experimental feeder (P d” 0.01) in all
cases.
Distance:
Here the experimental feeder was 50 m from the nest.
Control feeders were offered at different distances but in the
same direction from the nest. The median percentage (1.quartil/
3.quartil) of recruits is shown above each control feeding table.
In all cases significantly more bees landed at the experimental
feeder than at the control feeder (P d” 0.01). Inset: range of
median percentages of bees landing at the experimental feeder.
The dashed line represents the gap beyond the scent path.
The distances between the experimental feeder and the control
feeder were 17 m and 1.7 m, respectively. Note that not a single
bee came to the control feeder 1.7 m beyond the experimental
feeder and only one bee to the control feeder 17 m beyond it
(Schmidt, et al., 2003).
Each claw retractor tendon, which runs from a leg’s femur
through its tibia and tarsus and connects to the base of the
pretarsus, has specialized glandular epithelia within the femur
and tibia. The glands’ products are secreted into the tendons,
which form hollow tubes and serve as the excretory canals
leading to the legs’ tips, where they are secreted as footprints.
Scent Marking Behavior and the Spatial Distribution of
Pheromone Marks:
This behavior was first described in detail by Lindauer
and Kerr, 1958, 1960, who trained foragers of Scaptotrigona
postica to feed at sugar solution feeders at a distance of 50 m
from the nest. The trained bees returned several times to the
feeders to collect food and flew directly back to the nest
without showing any special behavior. After a couple of visits,
however, the bees appeared excited, briefly left the feeding
table in a hectic flight, alighted on it again, flew up and landed
on nearby blades of grass or sticks, and finally left in the
direction of the nest. On their return flight they again landed
on leaves or sticks at intervals of 1- 2 m. About 8 m before
reaching the nest they usually turned around and flew back
to the food. Occasionally, a forager also entered the nest,
presumably to alert and recruit nestmates. The hectic behavior
displayed by the foragers is clearly connected with the
deposition of scent marks that are subsequently used by the
recruits to find the food: When the nest and feeder were placed
Fig 1.
Cephalic glands of Trigona recursa. Left a–c Forager
depositing a scent marks on a leaf; note opened
mandibles during approach (a) and extended proboscis
rubbed on the leaf (c). Right d–f Glands; head of
forager opened frontally (d) to show the position of
labial glands (lg) and mandibular glands (mg). A piece
of the dissected labial gland (e) with alveoli (al) and
secretion collecting ducts (du). Mandibular gland (f)
with gland cells (gc) and reservoir (re) at the base of a
mandible (md). Br brain, ce compound eye, cl clypeus
(Jarau et al., 2004b).

MURALI, Cues and Signals Used in Communication during Food Exploitation in Stingless Bees 519
on the opposite sides of a small lake, denying the bees any
solid substrate for the deposition of pheromones, no newly
recruited bees found the food resource (Lindauer and Kerr,
1960). Recruitment took place, however, when the foragers
were provided with a substrate in the form of a rope decorated
with twigs and leaves tightened over the water surface, where
they could land and deposit pheromone marks on their way
back to the nest.
Chemical Structures of Trail Pheromone Compounds:
Chemicals derived from food sources or released by
foragers are of the utmost importance for the localization and
exploitation of food, as well as for the recruitment of stingless
bees. Orientation towards food odors by foraging animals is
surely an ancestral characteristic that can be found
throughout the entire animal kingdom. Beyond this, in eusocial
insects the odor of a food source, which is passed on from
one worker of a colony to others, and which then biases the
food-searching behavior of these individuals in the field,
functions as social communication.
Fig. 2.
The trail pheromone compound of Trigona spinipes,
octyl octanoate, is deposited on the substrate by
recruiting foragers. Chemical analyses by means of gas
chromatography (GC-FID, signals shown) and gas
chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS,
not shown) revealed that octyl octanoate is produced in
the bees’ labial glands and constitutes about 74 per cent
of the total amount of their secretion’s volatile
components (After Schorkopf et al., 2007).
LITERATURE CITED
Aguilar, I., Fonseca, A. and Biesmeijer, J. C., 2005. Recruitment and
communication of food source location in three species of stingless
bees (Hymenoptera, Apidae, Meliponini), Apidologie, 36: 313-
324.
Jarau, S., 2009, Chemical communication during food exploitation in
stingless bees. In: Food exploitation by social insects. Ecological,
behavioral, and theoretical approaches (eds. Jarau S, Hrncir M).
CRC, Boca Raton, pp. 223-249.
Lindauer, M. and Kerr, W. E., 1960, Communication between the
workers of stingless bees. Bee World, 41: 29-41.
Michener, C. D., 2000. The Bees of the World. Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press.
REICHLE, C., JARAU, S., AGUILAR, I. AND AYASSE, M., 2010,
Recruits of the stingless bee Scaptotrigona pectoralis learn food
odors from the nest atmosphere. Naturwissenschaften, 97: 519-
524.
Schmidt, V. M., Zucchi, R. and Barth, F. G., 2003, A stingless bee marks
the feeding site in addition to the scent path (Scaptotrigona aff.
depilis). Apidologie, 34: 237-248.
Schorkopf, D. L. P., Jarau, S., Francke, W., Twele, R., Zucchi, R.,
Hrncir, M. and Schmidt, V. M., Ayasse, M., Barth, F. G., 2007,
Spitting out information: Trigona bees deposit saliva to signal
resource locations. Proc. R. Soc. B., 274: 895-98.
Wilson, E. O., 1971. The Insect Societies. Cambridge, MA: Belknap
Press of Harvard University Press.
Recieved on 30-07-2013 Accepted on 28-08-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 520-522, 2013
Characterization of Drought Tolerance Traits in Rice (Oryza sativa L.) by Physiobiochemical
Approaches under Drought Stress Environment
PRADEEP KUMAR, SHAMBHOO PRASAD,AMITESH KUMAR SRIVASTAVA, ADESH KUMAR AND
R.P. SINGH
Department of plant Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering, Narendra Deva University of
Agriculture and Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad-224229, India
email: shambhoonduat@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
A pot culture experiment was conducted with two rice varieties
N22 and Sarjoo52 to characterise drought tolerance traits in
rice. Rice varieties were exposed for 15 days severe drought
stress by receding the water at reproductive stage. RWC,
chlorophyll content, proline content and catalase activity were
recorded at the end of drought stress. Proline content and
catalase activity abruptly increase in N 22. It also showed less
percent reduction in RWC, chlorophyll and grain yield
comparatively to Sarjoo52. Less reduction in RWC, Chlorophyll
and high content of proline and catalase activity during drought
stress can be taken as screening criteria for drought stress
tolerance in rice.
Key words
Drought, Proline, Catalase, Rice and Yield
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Relative water content (RWC) was more or less same in
normal condition but it significantly reduced under drought
stress condition (Fig.1). Sarjoo52showed 28.57% reduction
while N22 11.11%. Drought stress reduced cellular water
content high in susceptible varieties whereas tolerant ones
accumulate compitableosmolytes in cells and create osmotic
pressure for absorption of water from less negative water
potential to more negative potential (Wang et al, 2010).
Relative water conent is considered as a measure of plant
water status that reflecting the metabolic activity of plant
tissues. It is usually uses as one of the most meaningful idexes
for dehydration tolerance in wide variety of plant.
Rice is the one of the importat cereal crop of India. It is
grown over 45.35 m.ha with production of 95.32 m.tones. Uttar
Pradesh is the largest rice growing state after west Bengal in
the country. Rice crop faces a number of environmental
constraints but drought stress is major one. It affects growth
and development of plants through alterations of metabolism
and gene expression (Hussain, 2006). It is estimated that 70%
grain yield loses due to severe drought stress (Bray, et al.,
2000). Recent prediction of climate change suggest a further
increase in water deficit in the coming years leading to increase
its intensity and frequency of drought (Bates et al., 2008).
Therefore, identification of traits that attributes drought
tolerance in rice through breeding programme is a major
concern of this paper.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Pot culture experiment was conducted with two rice
varieties N22 and Sarjoo52 with 10 replication for each at
experimental site of Department of Plant Molecular Biology
and Genetic Engineering, NDUA&T, Kumarganj, Faizabad.
Drought stress was given at reproductive stage by receding
the water. RWC, Total chlorophyll content was estimated by
chlorophyll meter (SPAD). Proline content in leaf tissue was
extracted by the methods of Bates, et al., 1973. Catalase
activity was analysed. Grain yield per plant counted from five
randomly selected plant and average out to one.
Fig. 1. Effect of drought stress on relative water content (%)
on rice.
Sarjoo52 showed high chlorophyll content under control
condition but it also showed high percent reduction (53.70)
under stress condition in comparison to N22 (Fig. 2). Drought
stress severely reduced the activity of chlorophyll synthetic
proteins and enzymes. PSII function impaired under stress
condition.Such information well established by Wang, et al.,
2010.

KUMAR et al., Characterization of Drought Tolerance Traits in Rice (Oryza sativa L.) 521
Fig. 2.
Effect of drought stress on chlorophyll (SPAD) content
in rice.
Drought stress significantly increased the proline
content irrespective of rice varieties (fig.4). The high proline
content was recorded in N22 (20 %) than Sarjoo52 (7 %) at the
termination of drought. Water stress induces the synthesis of
proline in the plant. It acts as aosmolytes and create osmotic
pressure in the plant cells for absorption of water.
Accumulation of proline depends on the intensity and
duration of drought stress and it acts as drought stress
indicator (Cha-Um, et al., 2010).
Fig. 4.
Effect of drought stress on catalase activity
(unit* g -1 fw.) in rice
The Sarjoo52 showed high grain yield (21.5 g) under
normal condition but it also showed high reduction (47.4%)
under stress condition (fig.5). Grain yield is governed by
multigenic factors. The drought tolerance rice variety adapted
various metabolic mechanisms under stress condition and
showed persistency in yield stability over susceptible ones.
Fig. 3.
Effect of drought stress on Prolinecontent (µg g -1 fw.) in
rice.
Catalase activity in rice varieties drastically changed
under drought stress condition(fig.). N22 and Sarjoo52 showed
93% and 33%increases enzyme activity respectively in stress
condition. Expression of antioxidant defense genes would, in
turn, be triggered to defend the cell against oxidative damage.
Catalase, which is involved in the degradation of H2O2 into
water and oxygen, is the major H 2
O 2
scavenging enzyme in
all-aerobic organisms (Yang and Poovaiah 2002). Catalase is
critical for maintaining the redox balance during oxidative
stress. Catalase functions as a cellular sink for H2O2
(Willekens, et al., 1997).
Fig. 5.
Effect of drought stress on grain yield plant -1 (g) in rice.
Drought stress significantly reduced the RWC, total
Chlorophyll and yield in rice varieties. Tolerant rice variety
N22 had high water potential due accumulation of proline
and other osmolytes, high catalase activity under drought
stress condition. Consequently it showed less reduction in
chlorophyll and yield in comparison to Sarjoo52.

522 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Authors are very much grateful to DBT, CSTUP and
UPCAR for providing financial assistants.
LITERATURE CITED
Bates, L.S., Waldren, R.P. and Teare, I.D. 1973. Rapid determination
of free proline for water stress studies, Plant Soil, 39: 205-207
Bray, E.A., Bailey, S.J. and Weretilnyk, E. 2000. Response to abiotic
stresses.In biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Plants, (eds.
Buchanan BB, Gruissem W, Jones, R.L.) Amer Soc Plant Physiol,
Roekville, MD, pp. 1158-1208.
Cha-um, S., Nhung, N.T.H. and Kirdmance, C. 2010. Effect of mannitol
and salt induced iso osmotic stress on proline accumulation,
photosynthetic abilities and growth characters of rice cultivars
(Oryza sativa L. spp. Indica) Pak. J. Bot, 42: 927-941.
Husain, S.S. 2006. Molecular breeding for abiotic tolerance: Drought
perspective (Review). Proc. Pak. Acad. Sci., 43(3): 189-210.
Wang, H.,Zhang, L., Ma, J., Li, X., Li, Y., Zhang,R.and Wang, R.,
2010. Effects of water stress onreactive oxygen species generation
and protection system in rice during grain-filling stage, Agri. Sci.
China, 9: 633-641.
Willekens, H., S. Chamnongpol, M. Davey, M. Schraudner, C.
Langebartels, M.V. Montagu, D. Inze and W.V. Camp.1997. Catalase
is a sink for H2O2 and is indispensable for stress defence in C3
plants. EMBO J., 16(16): 4806-4816.
Yang, T. and B.W. Poovaiah. 2002. Hydrogen peroxide homeostasis:
Activation of plant catalase by calcium/calmodulin. Proceedings of
National academy of Science of US (PNAS), 99: 4097-4102.
Recieved on 15-07-2013 Accepted on 05-08-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 523-525, 2013
Evaluation of Indole Acetic Acid Production Capacity and Salt Tolerance in
Pseudomonas Bacteria Associated with Mungbean
ADESH KUMAR, KUNDAN KUMAR, SHAMBHOO PRASAD, PARMANAND KUMAR AND REETA
MAURYA
Department of plant molecular biology and genetic engineering., Narendra Deva University of Agriculture
and Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad, 224229 (UP)
email: adesh.kumar88@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) are considered
to promote plant growth directly or indirectly. The various
species of Pseudomonas especially Pseudomonas putida and
Pseudomonas fluorescens are the most important types of plant
growth promoting rhizobacteria. Production of IAA is one of
the main reasons to promote the growth of the plants. In this
piece of research work, thirteen PGPR strains of Pseudomonas
bacteria isolated from rhizosphere of Mung bean grown in
different location of eastern Uttar Pradesh. IAA production was
shown by almost all Pseudomonas isolates. The indole acetic
acid (IAA) was produced by Pseudomonas isolates in the range
of 91.81-262.17 µg/ml in the nutrient broth medium. All the
Pseudomonas isolates were screened for salt tolerance. Most of
the Pseudomonas isolates shown tolerance up to 8% NaCl
concentration. Only Ps-7, Ps-10 and Ps-13 isolates were not
able to grow even at 7% NaCl concentration.
Key words
PGPR, Pseudomonas. Mungbean, IAA , salt tolerance
Salinity is one of the major constraints which hamper
crop production in India. The use of plant growth promoting
rhizobacteria (PGPR) may prove useful for developing
strategies to facilitate mungbean growth in saline area. Plant
growth excretion is one of the chief plant growth promotion
mechanisms. In last few decades a large array of bacteria
including species of Pseudomonas, Azospirillum,
Azotobacter, Klebsiella, Enterobacter, Alcaligens,
Arthrobacteria, Burkholderia, Bacillus , Enterobacter and
Serratia have reported to promote plant growth (Khakipour,
et.al, 2008). PGPR can exhibit a variety of characteristics
responsible for influencing plant growth. The common traits
include production of plant growth regulators (PGPR) (auxins,
gibberellins, ethylene etc.), siderophore, HCN and antibiotics
(Arshad and Frankenberger, 1992). Indole acetic acid (IAA) is
one of the most physiologically active auxins. Pseudomonas
secreted IAA into culture media andsignificantly increased
the dry weight of leaves and roots of several plant species
following root treatment (Ahmad, et.al, 2005, Ahmad, et.al,
2008, Joseph, et. Al, 2009, Zhao, et al., 2011). In the view of
above facts the indole acetic acid producing Pseudomonas
isolates have been isolated from mungbean rhizosphere
screened for their ability to produce indole acetic acid.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Isolation of Pseudomonas isolates from mungbean
rhizosphere:
The soil samples were taken from various locations of
Uttar Pradesh for isolation of Pseudomonas strains. The soil
samples were isolated by plating serial dilution of these soil
samples on the Kings B medium. One gram soil of each eight
samples was placed in 10 ml sterile water. Serial dilution were
made up to 10 -4 from all eight soil samples and 10 -3 and 10 -4
dilution were taken for spread plating on Kings ‘B’ medium
with pH 7.0. The plates incubated at 30 0 C for 24 hours were
isolated and purified on the respective medium and identified
as Pseudomonas spp. by cultural, morphological and
biochemical tests as described in Bergeys manual of
determinative bacteriology (Holt, et al., 1994).
Quantitative determination of Pseudomonas isolates for
indole acetic acid:
All the test isolates were screened for IAA production
by the modified method as described by Loper and Scrowth,
1986. The Pseudomonas cultures were grown for 48 hours on
the nutrient media at 28 0 C on rotary shaker. The Fully grown
cultures were centrifuged at 10000 g for 15 min. The 2 ml of
supernatant was mixed with 2-3 drops of O-phosphoric acid
and 4 ml of salkouski reagent solution (1 ml of FeCl 3
0.5M
mixed in 50ml of 35% HClO 4)
. The samples were incubated for
25 minutes at room temperature. The development of pink
color was observed and optical density was taken at 530 nm
with help of spectrophotometer. The concentration of IAA
produced by cultures was measured with the help of standard
graph of IAA obtained in the range of 20-200 microgram per
ml.
Salt tolerance:
Pure cultures of all Pseudomonas isolates were streaked
on nutrient agar medium amended with 3% to 10% NaCl
concentration. Control plates without NaCl amendment were
also included for all isolates. All plates were incubated at 30
0
C for overnight and observed for presence and absence of
growth (Table 2).

524 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Isolation and Biochemical characterization:
On the basis of cultural, morphological and biochemical
characteristics, a total of 13 bacterial strains were isolated and
identified as Pseudomonas spp. as described in Bergeys
manual of determinative bacteriology (Holt, et al., 1994). The
Pseudomonas spp. strains from rhizosphere of different crops
were isolated and extensively studied by Ahmad, et al., 2005;
Ahmad, et al., 2008; 1997; Joseph, et al., 2007, Shahab, et al.,
2009, Zhao, et al., 2011)
Quantitative determination of Pseudomonas isolates for
indole acetic acid:
A total of 13 Pseudomonas isolates were selected and
tested for quantitative IAA production .The production of
IAA was recorded in all isolates of Pseudomonas in the range
of 91.81-262.17 µg/ml. Among Pseudomonas isolates Ps-4
produced highest amount (262.17µg/ml) of IAA in the broth
culture medium (Table 1) (Fig1). Ahmad et al., 2005 reported
that Pseudomonas spp. produced 53.20 µg/ml IAA in culture
medium supplemented with Tryptophan at the rate of 5 mg/
ml. The amount exuded IAA by Pseudomonas fluorescens
strains varied from zero to 31.6 mg/l while P putida produced
zero to 24.08 mg/l reported by Khakipour, et al., 2008. The
findings of present investigation are outstanding in reference
to earlier reports.
Table 1. Production of Indole acetic acid (IAA) by
Pseudomonas isolates from mungbean
rhizosphere.
S.N. Isolates IAA Production µg/ml
1. Ps-1 130.746
2. Ps-2 159.810
3. Ps-3 106.603
4. Ps-4 254.120
5. Ps-5 141.900
6. Ps-6 162.176
7. Ps-7 152.473
8. Ps-8 109.116
9. Ps-9 170.720
10. Ps-10 142.103
11. Ps-11 140.960
12. Ps-12 91.810
13. Ps-13 141.656
Salt tolerance:
SE(treatment mean)
CD at 5%
CV
2.475383
7.197479
2.927079
Stress tolerance of PSB strains isolated from saline soil
has been reported earlier. Certain PSB strains tested for their
phosphorus solubilizing ability in the presence of varying
NaCl concentration. In the present study, all the isolates could
sustain at 6% NaCl concentration and Ps-7 Ps-10 and Ps-13
Fig.1. Production of Indole acetic acid (IAA) by
Pseudomonas isolates from mungbean rhizosphere.
isolates found susceptible even at 7% NaCl.(Table 2).
Rangarajan et al. (2002) screened the bacterial strains for salt
tolerance and found 36 strains out of 256 were able to grow at
6% NaCl. Our research findings are well match with earlier
reports.
Table 2.
Determination of salt tolerance of Pseudomonas
isolates from mungbean rhizosphere.
SN Isolate 3%
NaCl
4%
NaCl
5%
NaCl
6%
NaCl
7%
NaCl
8%
NaCl
1 Ps-1 +++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++
2 Ps -2 +++ +++ +++ +++ ++ ++
3 Ps- 3 +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ ++
4 Ps-4 +++ +++ +++ +++ ++ ++
5 Ps-5 ++++ +++ +++ +++ ++ +
6 Ps-6 +++ +++ +++ +++ ++ ++
7 Ps-7 +++ ++ ++ ++ _ _
8 Ps-8 +++ +++ +++ +++ ++ ++
9 Ps-9 +++ +++ +++ +++ ++ ++
10 Ps-10 +++ ++ ++ + _ _
11 Ps-11 +++ +++ +++ +++ ++ ++
12 Ps-12 +++ +++ +++ +++ ++ ++
13 Ps-13 ++ ++ + + _ _
- = No growth, + = Poor growth , ++ = Medium growth , +++
= High growth , ++++ = Very high growth
LITERATURE CITED
Ahmad, F., Ahmad, I. and. Khan, M.S. 2005. Indole Acetic Acid
Production by Indigenous Isolates of Azotobacter and Fluorescent
Pseudomonas in the Presence and Absence of Tryptophan. Turk. J
Biol.,29: 29-34.
Ahmad, F., Ahmad, I. and Khan, M.S. 2008. .Screening of
free living rhizospheric bacteria for their multiple plant
growth promoting activities. Microbiological Resarch.,163:173-
181.
Arshad, M. and Frankenberger, W.T. 1992.Microbial production of
plant growth regulators. In: Soil Microbial Ecol. Ed. Meeting FB Jr.,
Marcel Dekker Inc., New York pp. 307-347.

KUMAR et al., Evaluation of Indole Acetic Acid Production Capacity and Salt Tolerance in Pseudomonas Bacteria 525
Holt, J.G., Krieg, N.R. and Sneath, P.A.P. 1994. Bergeys Manual of
Determinative Bacteriology. 9th Ed, Williams and Wilkins Pub,
Baltimore.
Joseph, B., Patra, R.R. and Lewrence, R. 2007 Characterization of
plant growth promoting rhizobacteria associated with cheakpea
(Cicer arietinum-L) International Journal of plant protection, 1(2)
: 141-151.
Khakipour, N., Khavazi, K., Mojallali, H., Pazira, E. and Asadirahmani,
H. 2008. Production of Auxin Hormone by Fluorescent
Pseudomonads. American-Eurasian J. Agric. & Environ. Sci. 4
(6): 687-692.
Loper, J.E. and Schroth, M.N. 1986. Influence of bacterial source of
indole-3- acetic acid of root elongation of sugar beet. Phytopathol
.76: 386-389.
Shahab, S., Ahmed, N. and Khan, N.S. 2009 Indole acetic acid production
and enhanced plant growth promotion by indigenous PSB. African
Journal of Agricultural Research .4 (11) 1312-1316.
Zhao, H., Yan, H., Zhou, S., Xue, Y., Zhang, C., Lihouozhang, Dong,
X., Cui, Q., Zhang, Y., Zhang, B. and Zang, Z. 2011. The growth
promoting of mung bean (phaseolus radiatus) by Enterobacter
asburiae HPP16 in acidic soils. African Journal of Biotechnology.
10 (63): 13802-13814.
Recieved on 04-08-2013 Accepted on 22-08-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 526-528, 2013
Induced Viable Mutation Studies in M 2
Generations of Rathu Heenati and PTB33
R. SELLAMMAL AND M. MAHESWARAN
Department of Plant breeding and Genetics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 3, India
email: agrisellam@gmail.com, mahestnau@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Rice is one of the most important food crops in the world, which
has been exposed extensively to mutagenic treatments for
induction of variability. It has contributed greatly in creating
broad genetic variability and a large number of varieties has
been released directly or through cross breeding. The field
experiment was conducted during Rabi 2010-2011 to study the
viable mutation exhibiting variability in their morphology such
as chlorophyll deficiency, plant height, and awn development
characters mutants were identified and isolated from two
genotypes of rice from M 2
generation, after treatment with
gamma rays at six different doses. Aberrant possessing altered
plant height, duration, grain type, plant type and presence of
awns in grains were noticed. The frequency of viable mutants
was independent to genotype and mutagen. In general the
frequency of viable mutants was found to be maximum in PTB33
(1.8 per cent) where as in Rathu Heenati 1.50 per cent.
Key words
Gamma rays, m 2
generations, rice, viable mutations
The potential of induced mutation in plant breeding has
been well documented by the release of a number of mutant
cultivars in the field and other crops. Mutation breeding is a
proven supplement and an effective substitute to conventional
breeding so as to confer specific improvement in a variety
without significantly affecting its acceptable phenotype.
Adoption of new techniques, as a dependable method of crop
improvement, depends very much on the identification of more
effective and efficient mutagens as well as on the improved
methodology adopted to increase the spectrum of useful
mutations in the oligogenic and polygenic traits. Mutagenic
effectiveness is a measure of the frequency of mutations
induced by unit dose of a mutagen, while mutagenic efficiency
gives an idea of the proportion of mutations in relation to
other associated undesirable biological effects, i.e., gross
chromosomal aberrations, lethality and sterility induced by
the mutagen (Khan and Tyagi, 2009). Response to seed
treatment to mutagens provides valuable information for
mutation breeding as it facilitates the planning of experiments
designed to get higher mutation frequency. This information
should be available with the mutation breeder in the beginning
of the experimentation. The basic information regarding
mutagenic sensitivity, frequency, effectiveness, efficiency,
treatment methods to handle the treated population is essential
for success in mutation breeding programme. Therefore, the
present investigation was carried out to study the effect of
gamma rays on the induction of viable mutation in photoperiod
sensitive rice as genetic system.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Gamma ray irradiation:
Seeds of Rathu Heenati and PTB33 obtained from the
Department of Rice, Centre for Plant Breeding and Genetics
(CPBG), Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU),
Coimbatore were irradiated with different doses of gamma rays
from Cobalt-60 ( 60 Co) using the Gamma Chamber Model GC
1200 installed at CPBG, TNAU, Coimbatore. The experiment
was conducted during Rabi 2010-2011. The different doses of
gamma rays used for treating the seeds of Rathu Heenati and
PTB33 are as follows: 100Gy, 150Gy, 200Gy, 250Gy, 300Gy and
350Gy. A set of 100 well filled and uniform seeds with 12 per
cent moisture content of both the varieties were selected for
irradiating them with each of the above mentioned doses. The
irradiated seeds were sown on the same day in raised bed
nursery established at the Paddy Breeding Station, Department
of Rice, CPBG, TNAU. The LD 50
values for both the genotypes
were determined based on the Probit analysis (Fienny, 1971,
1978). Evaluation of M 1
Generation was done (Rabi 2009-2010).
A total of 328 M 2
families, 167 from Rathu Heenati and 161
from PTB33 were constituted on individual panicle basis
selected based on spikelet sterility and were sown in raised
bed nursery. Chlorophyll mutants were observed in the nursery
when the seedlings are with 2-3 leaves just to assess the
effect of mutagen on the biological materials. M 2
generation
was raised as M 1
plant to progeny rows. The viable and
morphological mutants were labeled and harvested separately.
The viable mutantion frequency was estimated as per cent of
mutants to total M 2
families raised and plants raised. The
viable mutations were described and classified based on the
nature of deviations they showed from the normal type. The
effectiveness and efficiency of the mutagens in inducing
mutations were estimated by adopting the formula suggested
by Konzak, et al., 1965. The estimates were expressed as
percentage.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In present investigation, it was observed that the induced
viable mutation spectrum was varied in these two varieties.
Mutation frequencies and spectrum were estimated in M 2
populations on the basis of chlorophyll distributions
abnormalities and other viable mutations. The proper choice
of a mutagenic treatment and a suitable method for selecting
mutants are of primary importance in mutation breeding. The
former determines the mutation rate per cell at the time of

SELLAMMAL AND MAHESWARAN et al., Induced Viable Mutation Studies in M2 Generations of Rathu Heenati and PTB33 527
Table 1. Spectrum of viable mutants in M 2
generations of Rathu Heenati and PTB 33
RATHU HEENATI PTB 33
Mutant 100Gy 150Gy 200Gy 250Gy 300Gy 350Gy 100Gy 150Gy 200Gy 250Gy 300Gy 350Gy
1. Chlorophyll mutants 0 0.698 0.22 0.6 0.74 1.22 0 0.14 0 1.476 0.233 1.57
2. Plant type
Semi Dwarf (120-135 1.5 1.0 - 0.38 0.41 0.95 - - 0.33 0.217 1.67 1.97
cm)
Tall(>160 cm) - - 0.23 - 0.208 - - - 0.17 0.435 - -
3. Grain type
Fine grain -- - - - - - - - - - - 0.13
Awned grain - - 0.23 - - 0.238 - - - - - -
4. Duration
Early (90-110days) - - - 0.128 - - 0.38 0.28 - - - 0.13
Late (120-160 days) - - - - - - - - - 0.217 0.128 -
5. Sterility
Completely sterile (> 70%) - - 0.116 - 0.21 - - - - 0.217 - -
Partially sterile (20-70%) 1.5 3.4 2.67 - 3.96 3.09 1.54 2.5 2.00 2.826 1.28 1.84
Total 3.0 4.4 3.26 0.513 4.79 4.28 1.92 2.78 2.50 3.91 3.08 4.79
Total number of plants 200 500 860 780 480 420 260 360 600 460 780 760
studied
treatment, and the latter influences the proportion of target
mutants in M 2
or later generations. Visible effect of the mutation
in the nearest vicinity is the occurrence of chlorophyll mutants.
The percentage of albinos was found to the maximum of 1.22
and 1.57% among the M 2
seedlings derived from 350Gy gamma
ray irradiation of Rathu Heenati and PTB33 respectively (
Table 1). The frequency of chlorophyll mutants was high in
PTB33 as compared to Rathu Heenati. Such varietal differences
were also reported earlier by Geetha and Vaidyanathan, 2000,
Das and Kundagrami, 2000 and Paul and Singh, 2002. Thus,
the frequency of chlorophyll mutations serves not only as a
measure for evaluating effectiveness and efficiency of
mutagens, but also as indicators to predict the size of vital
factor mutations. The viable mutants are categorized into
different groups based on plant height, duration, grain type,
sterility percentage and presence of awns in grains. The
frequencies and different types of viable mutations were
recorded during different growth stages involving 6,460 plants
from both the varieties. All the doses of the mutagens yielded
mutants at varying frequencies. The frequency of viable
mutants was found to be maximum to the tune of 1.50 per cent
at 100Gy in Rathu Heenati where as in PTB33 the maximum of
1.84 per cent was observed at 350Gy. The frequencies and
spectrum of different viable mutations observed across the
M 2
generation of Rathu Heenati and PTB33 are presented in
Table 1. The effectiveness and efficiency of mutagens based
on viable mutations were estimated and presented in Table 2.
Effectiveness of mutagens in inducing viable mutations was
found to be dose dependent. In case of Rathu Heenati, the
effectiveness ranged from 0.06 (250Gy) to 1.50 (100Gy). For
PTB33, effectiveness ranged from 0.19 (150Gy) to 0.60 (300Gy).
Thus the useful or economic mutation was only observed in
lower doses compared to higher doses. The estimation of
efficiency based on sterility percentage was found to be higher
in both Rathu Heenati and PTB33. It is, therefore, concluded
that the chlorophyll mutations do not have any economic
value due to their lethal nature, such a study could be useful
in identifying the threshold dose of a mutagen that would
increase the genetic variability and number of economically
useful mutants in for future breeding programmes.
Table 2.
Mutagen
dose
Mutagenic effectiveness and efficiency based on
viable mutations in M 2
generation for Rathu
Heenati and PTB33
Height
Reduction
%
(I)
Seed
Fertility
Reduction
% (S)
LITERATURE CITED
Mutation
Frequency
(M)
Effectiveness
M x 100
-------------
Gy
M x 100
----------
I
Efficiency
M x 100
-----------
S
Rathu Heenati
100Gy 93.48 85.01 3.00 3.00 3.21 3.53
150Gy 91.55 74.54 4.40 2.93 4.81 5.90
200Gy 97.21 27.64 3.26 1.63 3.35 11.8
250Gy 96.73 55.03 0.513 0.21 0.53 0.93
300Gy 93.70 95.16 4.79 1.57 5.11 5.03
350Gy 93.44 62.09 4.28 1.22 4.58 6.89
PTB 33
100Gy 98.68 32.83 1.92 1.92 1.95 5.85
150Gy 98.01 62.33 0.28 0.19 0.29 0.45
200Gy 97.50 54.75 2.50 1.25 2.56 4.57
250Gy 96.32 87.08 3.91 1.56 4.06 4.49
300Gy 92.10 24.74 3.08 1.03 3.34 12.4
350Gy 90.84 44.46 4.79 1.37 5.27 10.8
Das, P. K. and Kundagrami, S. 2000. Frequency and spectra of chlorophyll
mutations in grasspea induced by gamma rays. Indian J. Genet.
Plant Breed, 60(2): 239–241.
Finney, D.J. 1978. Statistical method in biological assay. Charles Griffin
& Co.

528 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Finney, D.J. 1971. Probit analysis. Cambridge University Press.
Geetha, K and Vaidyanathan, P.2000. Studies on induction of
chlorophyll mutation in soybean through physical and chemical
mutagens. Agrl.Sci. Digest, 20(1): 33–35
Khan, M.H and Tyagi, S.D. 2010. Studies on effectiveness and
efficiency of gamma rays, EMS and their combination in soybean
[Glycine max (L.) Merrill.]. J. Plt. Breed. Crop Sci., 2(3): 055-
058.
Konzak, C.F., Nilan, R.A., Wagner, J. and Foster, R.J. 1965. Efficient
chemical mutagenesis. The use of induced mutations in plant
breeding. (Rep. FAO/IAEA Tech. Meeting, Rome, 1964), Pergamon
Press, pp. 49-70.
Liang, Q.U. 2009. Preface. In: Induced plant mutations in genomics
era. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United States, pp.1.
Lokko, Y. 2011. Plant Mutation Reports. International Atomic Energy
Agency. Vienna. Vol. 3. No. 2.
Paul, A and Singh, D.P. 2002. Induced chlorophyll mutations in lentil
(Lens culnaris Medik). Indian Journal Genet, 63(3): 263–264.
Recieved on 20-07-2013 Accepted on 10-08-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 529-531, 2013
Effect of Allwin Top and Allwin Wonder on Growth, Yield and Quality of Cardamom
(Elettaria cardamomum Maton)
P.JANSIRANI, N.KUMAR AND SUNDARESAN 1
Dept. of Vegetable crops, Horticultural College and Research Institute,Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
Coimbatore-3
1
Sree Ramcides Chemicals Pvt. Ltd, Chennai
email: arthikhorts@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Effect of Allwin Top and Allwin Wonder along with different
levels of recommended dose of fertilizers (75:75:150 kg/ha) on
growth, yield and quality of Njallini Green Gold Cardamom
variety was studied at GRT farm, Sembirankulam, Dindugal
district of Lower Pulney hills during the year 2010-2011. The
initial observations were made before imposing the treatments.
The plants were observed at constant intervals to study the
effect of different treatments. The results showed that the
application of Allwin Top as foliar spray 2g/litre + Allwin Wonder
as soil application @2.5 kg/ha + 75 % RDF + FYM resulted in
the high dry capsule yield of 944 kg/ha and the control recorded
a yield of 306 kg/ha of dry capsules of cardamom.
Key words
Cardamom, growth, yield, quality
Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton) being a
perennial crop, continuous intensive cultivation in such
nutrient poor soils has lead to depletion of nutrients in the
soil resulting in poor growth and reduced yields. Cardamom
responds well to manures and fertilizers and shows a steady
increase in the absorption and utilization of nutrients
throughout the crop cycle. Hence a regular fertilizer schedule
has to be followed to realize higher yields. Among the various
yield parameters, number of panicles per clump and yield of
fresh capsule per plant increases with increase in fertilizer
levels (Korikanthimath et al., 1998). Increasing input of
fertilizers has significantly contributed to the increase of crop
yields (Murayama, 1982; Lui, 1999). Application of fertilizer
nutrients at the rate of 125: 125: 200 kg/ ha two splits (just
before and after summer monsoon) increased the yield
significantly under Pampadumpara rainfall climatology
(Murugan et al., 2007). Dinesh Kumar, et al., (2009) reported
that application of 100% inorganic RDF (75:75:150 kg NPK /
ha) yielded 188.81 kg/ha followed by 75% inorganic RDF +
25% FYM (144.14 kg/ha). Thimmarayappa, et al., (2000)
reported that plants of cardamom variety, Mudigree 1 with
100% RDF registered the greatest number of bearing suckers
per clump (9.96) and panicles per clump (23.15), and green
(707 kg/ha) and dry capsule (184 kg/ha) yield.
Nutrient leaching is a major problem in high altitude
areas and there is a wastage of fertilizers by being not utilized
by drop. Application of fertilizers which are slowly soluble
and readily available to the plant at critical stages is necessary
and the traditional form of fertilizers will not help in solving
the issue.
Because of complex chemical structure, the melamine
based compounds are very slowly soluble and was tested as
slow release N fertilizer by the Tennessee Valley Authority
(TVA) in the USA, some decades ago. The chemical
compositions of the products from Melamine based
compounds are listed in the Table 1. With the background,
the objectives of the study were framed to standardize the
quantity and evaluate the efficacy of Allwin Top and Allwin
Wonder on growth, yield and quality of cardamom.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experiment was conducted at GRT farm,
Sembirankulam, Dindugal district of Lower Pulney hills during
the year 2010-2011 to study the effect of Allwin top and Allwin
wonder on growth yield and quality of cardamom. The
experiment was laid out in randomized block design comprising
eight treatments replicated thrice. The variety chosen for the
study was Njallini Green Gold and a fertilizer dose of N: P 2
O 5
:K 2
O
@ 75:75:150 kg/ha was treated as recommended dose of fertilizers
for cardamom. In addition, FYM @ 5 kg/plant/year was applied
in uniform dose to all the plants along with treatments. The
treatment combinations of the study are listed below:
1. Allwin Top as foliar spray @ 1g/litre + 100 % RDF +
FYM (5 kg/plant)
2. Allwin Top as foliar spray @ 2g/litre + 100% RDF +
FYM (5 kg/plant)
3. Allwin Top as foliar spray @ 2g/litre + 75 % RDF + FYM
(5 kg/plant)
4. Allwin Wonder as soil application @2.5 kg/ha +100 %
RDF +FYM (5 kg/plant)
5. Allwin Wonder as soil application @2.5 kg/ha +75 %
RDF +FYM (5 kg/plant)
6. Allwin Top as foliar spray 2g/litre + Allwin Wonder as
soil application @2.5 kg/ha + 100 %
RDF + FYM (5 kg/plant)
7. Allwin Top as foliar spray 2g/litre + Allwin Wonder as
soil application @2.5 kg/ha + 75 %
RDF + FYM. (5 kg/plant)
8. Control (No RDF and FYM)

530 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
The treatments were imposed at monthly intervals from
August 2010 to December 2010 and observations were made
on the growth, morphology, yield and quality parameters of
cardamom.
Table 1. Composition of Allwin Top and Allwin Wonder
S.no Component Allwin
Top
Allwin
Wonder
a) Heterocyclic Nitrogen, Minimum 27 % 18%
b) Water Soluble Phosphate, Minimum 11.2 7.6%
(as P 2O 5)
%
c) Water soluble Potash, Minimum (as 7.36 9%
K 2 O)
%
d) Humic acid 2% 45%
e) Moisture Percent by weight 1.5% 1.5%
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results of the biometric observation on cardamom
revealed that application of Allwin Top influenced the growth
and yield attributes viz., panicle length, number of panicles,
number of capsules, number of capsules per panicle, fresh
weight per plant, dry cardamom yield recovery percent and
essential oil content of the crop
The panicle length and number of panicles were
recorded as the highest values of 67.60 cm and 55.20 cm
respectively in the treatment T 7
which is on par with the
treatments T 6
and T 2
, while the lowest values of same traits
were recorded in the treatment T 8
which received no fertilizer.
Number of capsules per clump (998.20), number of
capsules per panicle (36.2) and fresh weight of capsules per
plant were also recorded as the highest values in the treatment
T 7
followed by T 6
. Both were on par with each other and the
lowest values were recorded in the control plot T 8
.
While considering the dry cardamom yield, the treatment,
T 7
recorded the highest value of 944.15 g per clump and it was
found to be significantly higher than all other treatments. As
of all the other parameters, control plot recorded the lowest
value.
The effect of Allwin Top and Allwin Wonder on the
growth, recovery per cent and essential oil content were also
found to be influenced by the quantity and method o
application of these chemicals.
The capsule recovery per cent of 20.4 was recorded in
T 7
which is on par with T 6
with a value of 19.9 followed by all
the other treatments. The lowest recovery per cent was
observed in control plot.
The highest essential oil content of 6.3 per cent was
recorded in the treatments of T 6
and T 7
which was on par with
all the other treatments. There is no significant difference exists
among the treatments for the essential oil content. The
application of Allwin Top as foliar spray and Allwin Wonder
as soil application along with recommended dose of fertilizers
resulted in better performance of crop as there was a
continuous availability of nutrients to the plants. The
compounds had slow nutrient release properties and there
was availability of nutrients as and when required at critical
stages of crop growth. This would have resulted in better
nutrient uptake and use efficiency, partitioning of synthesized
synthates resulting in overall increase in the yield and quality
of cardamom in treatments T 6
and T 7
.
Table. 1.
Treatments
Table. 2.
Table 3.
Effect of Allwin Top and Allwin Wonder on growth
and yield of cardamom var. Njallini green gold
Panicle length
(cm)
No. of
panicles/
clump
No. of capsules /
clump
No. of
capsules/
panicle
Initial Final Initial Final Initial final Initial Final
T 1 40.26 47.37 41.00 42.33 1049.96 1098.60 25.61 26.0
T 2 39.01 61.47 42.26 51.3 1305.80 1602.00 30.90 31.2
T 3 43.18 50.80 43.00 50.2 1206.32 1357.67 28.05 27.0
T 4 42.73 50.27 42.23 47.33 1159.80 1152.60 27.46 24.4
T 5 42.42 49.90 41.20 44.67 1103.20 1206.00 26.78 27.0
T 6 45.00 62.33 45.96 54.08 1498.20 1932.03 32.60 35.7
T 7 41.00 67.60 46.12 55.20 1581.32 1998.20 34.29 36.2
T 8 39.96 42.67 40.80 41.2 840.20 800.20 20.59 19.4
SED 3.26 3.79 3.02 3.49 85.00 98.06 1.64 1.83
C.D 7.01 8.12 6.48 7.50 182.32 210.33 3.52 3.94
Effect of Allwin Top and Allwin Wonder on yield
of cardamom var. Njallini green gold
Treatments
Fresh weight of
Dry cardamom
capsules /plant (Kg)
yield/ha (Kg)
Initial Final Initial Final
T 1 882.0 933.8 418.9 443.56
T 2 1096.9 1361.7 521.0 646.81
T 3 1013.3 1154.0 481.3 548.16
T 4 974.2 979.7 462.8 465.36
T 5 926.7 1025.1 440.2 486.92
T 6 1258.5 1700.2 597.8 850.09
T 7 1328.3 1798.4 630.9 944.15
T 8 905.8 780.2 335.2 306.08
SeD 77.99 85.34 38.49 42.16
C.D 167.27 183.05 82.57 90.43
Effect of different treatments of Allwin Top and
Allwin Wonder on cardamom quality
Treatments
Recovery (%) Essential oil (%)
Initial final Initial Final
T 1 18.15 19.10 5.8 6.1
T 2 18.24 19.20 5.8 6.1
T 3 18.43 19.40 5.8 6.1
T 4 18.24 19.20 5.9 6.2
T 5 18.15 19.10 5.6 5.9
T 6 18.91 19.90 6.0 6.3
T 7 19.38 20.40 6.0 6.3
T 8 17.42 18.60 5.8 5.9
SeD 1.27 1.34 0.40 0.42
C.D 2.73 2.87 0.86 0.90

JANSIRANI et al., Effect of Allwin Top and Allwin Wonder on Growth, Yield and Quality of Cardamom 531
The results of the study on effect of Allwin Top and
Allwin Wonder on cardamom var. Njallini green gold revealed
the advantage of application of Allwin Top @ 2 g/litre as foliar
spray and Allwin wonder as soil application with 75 % of
recommended dose of fertilizer along with FYM (5 kg/clump)
for cardamom which is recommended for better yield and
quality.
LITERATURE CITED
Dinesh Kumar, M., Devaraju, K. M., Madaiah, D and Shivakumar, K.V.,
2009. Effect of integrated nutrient management on yield and
nutrient content by cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum L. Maton.)
Karnataka J. Agric. Sci., 22 (5):1016-1019.
Korikanthimath, V.S. 1989. Annual Report. National Research Center
for Spices (NRCS), Calicut. pp.33-34.
Lui, X. 1999. Perspective of food security in China. Major technical
changes. In : World food security and crop production technologies
tomorrow.(eds.) Horic, T., Geng, S., Imamura, T and Suiraiwa, T.,
Kyoto University, Kyoto. pp. 41-47.
Murayama, N.1982. Conquest of Law of diminishing returns.Yokendo,
Tokyo pp 139-186.
Murugan,M., Backiyarani, S., Josephrajkumar.A., Hiremath, M.B., and
Shetty, P.K. 2007. Yield of small cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum
M) variety PV1 as influenced by levels of nutrients and neem cake
under rain fed condition in southern Western Ghats, India. Caspian
J. Env. Sci., 5(1): 19-25.
Thimmarayappa, M., Shivashankar, K. T., Shanthaveerabhadraiah, S.
M. 2000. Effect of organic manure and inorganic fertilizers on
growth, yield attributes and yield of cardamom (Elettaria
cardamomum Maton). Journal of Spices and Aromatic Crops. 9
(1) : 57-59.
Recieved on 08-07-2013 Accepted on 30-07-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 532-534, 2013
Ethnobiological Importance of Flacourtia jangomas (Lour.) Raeusch.
NEEHARIKA DUBEY AND V.N.PANDEY
Experimental Botany and Nutraceutical Laboratory,Department of Botany, DDU Gorakhpur
University,Gorakhpur-273009 (UP)
email: neeharika.dubey5@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Flacourtia jangomas (Lour.)Raeusch is very important fruit crop
of Gorakhpur region and indigenous to North-Eastern terai
region U.P. Flacourtia jangomas is known to ethnic group of the
region and serve the purpose of food and medicine with
ornamentation of gardens and villages of the region. The leaves
and young shoots which taste like rhubarb are astringent and
stomachic. The leaf decoction is taken to halt diarrhoea.
Powdered dried leaves are employed to relieve bronchitis and
cough. Fruits are stewed as dessert, made into juice, syrup,
jam, marmalade and pickles and also used in chutneys. The
fruits are eaten to overcome biliousness, nausea and diarrhea.
When slightly under ripe, it is used to make jellies. The ripe
fruits contains significant amount of beta-carotene followed
by lutein, zeaxanthin, retinol and phylloquinone (vit.K) which
are important in the regulation of haemoglobin and fibrinogen
in human body. It also contain alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolic
compounds, tannins which proves its high antioxidant potential.
Flacourtia jangomas is having restricted distribution and is
underutilized. So special emphasis should be given for its
sustainable utilization, extensive cultivation and conservation
for their nutraceutical and biofuctional usage through proper
agro techniques in different regions of the country through
polyvalent biofunctional bioprospection for health, economy,
environment and food security of the country.
Flacourtia jangomas(Lour.)Raeusch commonly known
as Coffee plum, belongs to family Flacourtiaceae is very
important fruit crop of Gorakhpur region and indigenous to
North-Eastern Terai region of U.P.,Assam, Bihar, Maharashtra,
Bengal and Orissa and some parts of South India. They are
tropical rain forest trees. The crop has not gained popularity
among the farmers due to lack of awareness of its cultivation,
nutritional value and standard methods to make processed
products. This is a multipurpose useful plant having both the
nutritional and medicinal properties so its cultivation should
be encouraged. The leaves and young shoots, which taste
like rhubarb, are astringent and stomachic. The fruits are eaten
to overcome biliousness nausea and diarrhoea. Powered dried
leaves are employed to relieve bronchitis and coughs. The
leaves and bark are applied on bleeding gums and aching
teeth. Pulverized roots are poultice on sores and skin eruptions
and held in the mouth to soothe toothache. The biomolecules
present in it are â-carotene, anthocyanin, alkaloids, flavonoids,
tannins, saponins and phenolic compoundswhich proves its
good antioxidant and free radical scavenging activity.(Shown
in Fig. 1.)
Key words
Ethnobiological, nutraceutical, pharmaceutical,
bioprospection, coffee plum.
Recent studies showed that plant resources play a
significant role in nutrition, pharmaceuticals, food security
and income generation. The plant based resources form a
large share on whichrural communities depend for food and
medicines. Food contains different types of nutrients. Edible
wild plants are exploited as sources of food in many developing
nations because they provide an adequate level of nutrition
to the inhabitants. Human health and environmental
conservation is solely depended on plants. It is possible to
conserve all animals, plants as well as human health and
environment by conservation of nature. Now a day’s need
has been arisen to find such plants, which possess both,
nutritional and medicinal properties, such plants are known
as nutraceutical plants. The use of nutraceuticals as an attempt
to accomplish desirable, therapeutic outcomes with reduced
side-effects as compared with other therapeutic agent has
met with great monetary success.
Fig. 1. Fruits, leaves and spines of Flacourtia jangomas
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Pigment extraction for â-carotene analysis:
This was carried out according to the method of the
Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 1980). In
to a conical flask containing 50ml of 95% ethanol,10g of the
macerated sample was placed and maintained at a temperature
of 70-80oC in a water bath for 20minutes with periodic shaking.
The supernatant was decanted, allowed to cool and its volume
was measured by means of a measuring cylinder and recorded

DUBEY AND PANDEY, Ethnobiological Importance of Flacourtia jangomas (Lour.)Raeusch. 533
as initial volume. The ethanol concentration of the mixture
was brought to 85% by adding 15ml of distilled water and it
was further cooled in a container of ice water for about
5minutes. The mixture was transferred in to a separating funnel
and 25ml of petroleum ether (pet-ether) was addedand the
cooled ethanol was poured over it. The funnel was swirled
gently to obtain a homogenous mixture and it was later allowed
to stand until two separate layers were obtained. The bottom
layer was run off into a beaker while the top layer was collected
in to a 250ml conical flask. The bottom layer was transferred in
to the funnel and re-extracted with 10ml pet-ether for 5-6 times
until the extract became fairly yellow. The entire pet-ether was
collected in to 250ml conical flask and transferred in to
separating funnel for reextraction with 50ml of 80% ethanol.
The final extract was measured and poured in to sample bottles
for further analysis.
Measurement of absorbance:
The absorbance of the extracts was measured using a
spectrophotometer (model 22UV/VIS) at a wavelength of
436nm. A cuvette containing pet-ether (blank) was used to
calibrate the spectrophotometer to zero point. Samples of each
extract were placed in cuvettes and readings were taken when
the figure in the display window became steady. The operation
was repeated 5-6 times for each sample and average readings
were recorded. The concentration of â-carotene was calculated
using Bear-Lamberts Law, which states that the absorbance
(A) is proportional to the concentration(C) of the pigment, as
represented by the equation:
A “L (if concentration(C) is constant).
A=ECL; C=A/EL
Where: C= concentration of carotene, A= absorbance,
E=extinction coefficient, L= thickness of cuvettes (path length)
=1cm, E of â-carotene =1.25x104ìg/l.
Determination of total phenols by spectrophotometric
method:
The fat free sample was boiled with 50 ml of ether for the
extraction of the phenolic component for 15 min.5 ml of the
extract was pipette into a 50 ml flask, then 10 ml of distilled
water was added .2 ml of ammonium hydroxide solution and 5
ml of concentrated amyl alcohol were also added. The samples
were made up to mark and left to react for 30 min for colour
development.This was measured at 505 nm.
Alkaloid determination:
3 gram of the sample was weighted into a 250ml beaker
and 200 ml of 10% acetic acid in ethanol was added and covered
and allowed to stand for 4h. This was filtered and the extract
was concentrated on a water bath to one quarter of the original
volume.Concentrated ammonium hydroxide was added drop
wise to extract until the precipitation was complete. The whole
solution was allowed to settle and the precipitated was
collected and washed with dilute ammonium hydroxide and
then filtered. The residue is the alkaloid, which was dried and
weighed (Harborne, 1973).
Tannin determination:
500 mg of the sample was weighted into a 50 ml plastic
bottle.50 ml of distilled water was added and shaken for 1 h in
a mechanical shaker. This was filtered into 50 ml volumetric
flask and made up to the mark. Then 5 ml of the filtered was
pipetted out into test tube and mixed with 2ml of 0.1 M FeCl 3
,
in 0.1N HCL and 0.008 M potassium ferrocyanide. The
absorbance was measured at 120 nm within 10 min (Van-Burden
and Robinson, 1981).
Flavonoid determination:
10g of the plant sample was extracted repeatedly with
100ml of 80% aqueous methanol at room temperature .The
whole solution was filtered through whatman filter paper No
42 (125mm). The filtrate was later transferred into a crucible
and evaporated into dryness over a water bath and weighted
to a constant weight (Bohm and Kocipai-Abyazan, 1974).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In Flacourtia jangomas the part mostly used for human
consumption is its fruits. The edible juicy fruits have been
found to contain good amount of carbohydrates: 11.78%,
moisture 78.28%; protein: 6.16%; fat: 0.8%; sugar: 9.85%; ash:
2%. The ripe fruits of Flacourtia jangomas are having high
fiber content(9.6%) together with good protein content
(6.16%). The fruits have good amount of â-carotene(2100µg/
g), total phenols(3.4µgTA), alkaloids(254.00µg/g),
flavonoids(250.00µg/g), tannins(8.00 µg/g). Flacourtia
jangomas ripe fruits have sufficient amount of vitamins and
minerals in it. It is a good source of vitamin C. Thus, this
analysis will surely help in future prospect of Flacourtia
jangomas fruits as a strong source of antioxidant.
Observations are shown in the tables 1 and 2.
Table 1.
Nutrient composition of ripe fruits of Flacourtia
jangomas (Lour.) Raeusch
Nutrient
Weight (g/100g)
(Ripe)
Protein 6.16
Carbohydrate 11.78
Fat 0.8
Ash 2
Crude fiber 9.6
Sugar 9.85

534 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Table 2.
Amount of Some secondary metabolites of
Flacourtia jangomas (Lour.) Raeusch
S.No. Secondary
metabolites
Amount (Ripe)
(µg/g)
1. Alkaloids 254.00
2. Tannins 8.00
3. Total phenol 3.4µg TA
4. Flavonoids 250.00
Thus ethno biologically, ripe fruits of Flacourtia
jangomas are important source of antioxidant and nutrient
supplement in the form of carbohydrates, protein, sugar,
vitamins and minerals needed for good health of human beings.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors are grateful to Head Department of Botany
DDU Gorakhpur University Gorakhpur for providing the
laboratory facilities.
LITERATURE CITED
A. O. A. C. 1980. Official Methods of Analysis, Association of official
Analytical Chemists (ed.). H. William, p. 132. Association of
official Analytical Chemists,Washington, DC.
Boham, B.A. and Kocipai-Abyazan, R. 1974. Flavonoids and condensed
tanins from leaves of Hawaiian Vacciniumvaticulatum and V.
calycinium.Pacific science 48: 458-463.
zeaxanthin and lutein, in human retina. In: Packer, L. (Ed.), Methods
in Enzymology. Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 360–366.
Harborne J.B. 1973. Phytochemical methods, Chapman and Hill, Ltd
London.
Van-Burden, T.P. and Robinson, W.C. 1981. Formation of complexes
between protein and tannic acid. J. Agri. Food Chem, 1 : 77.
Recieved on 06-09-2013 Accepted on 15-09-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 535-537, 2013
Effect of Different Combinations of Systemic and Non-Systemic Fungicides against
Fusarium oxysporum F. Sp. ciceri in vitro
P. M. YADAV 1 AND V. P. ANADANI 2
1
Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, J.A.U., Junagadh, Pulse Research Station,
J.A.U., Junagadh.
1
email: yadavpm346@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Among the fungal diseases of chickpea, fusarial wilt caused by
Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceri(Padwick) synd & Hans, is wide
spread and also caused serious threat to chickpea cultivation
in Saurashtra region of Gujarat state. Different concentrations
of systemic and non-systemic fungicides combinations were
tested to find out their effect to inhibit the growth of test fungus
in vitro, carbendazim 50 wp + thiram 75 wp and carbendazim 50
wp + mancozeb 75 wp combination were proved to be cent per
cent control of growth of test fungus. These result showed
carbendazim is good for controlling growth of test fungus in
any combination.
Key words
Chickpea, fungicides, wilt.
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) popularly known as
bengal gram in India, is cultivated mainly on marginal lands
under rainfed condition in rabi season (Shiyani et al.,2001). It
is fourth largest grain legume crop in the world with a total
production of 9.2 m t from an area of 11.2 million hactare and
productivity of 820 kg/ha (FAO STAT, 2005).One reason for
the failure of production of this crop is the attack of various
pathogens.
About 172 pathogens including several fungal
pathogens are reported to be associated with this crop (Nene
et al., 1996). The major pathogens are Ascochyta blight,
Fusarium wilt, collar rot, wet root rot, dry root rot, black root
rot, foot rot, Sclerotinia stem rot, powdery mildew, rust and
stunt. Among the diseases, Fusarium wilt caused by Fusarium
oxysporum f.sp. ciceriis a serious threat to chickpea cultivation
on Saurashtra region of Gujarat state. Chickpea wilt (Fusarium
oxysporum f. sp. ciceri) caused a loss of grains by 10 per cent
annually in India (Nene et al., 1996).Considering the economic
damage done by the pathogen, present study was carried out
to evaluate different combinations of systemic and nonsystemic
fungicides against Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceri
for effective management of chickpea wilt.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
An experiment was conducted at Deptt. of Plant
Pathology, College of Agriculture, J.A.U., Junagadh during
2009. Poisoned food technique was employed for evaluating
the efficacy of different combinations of fungicides. Each
combination was tested at 500, 1000, 1500 and 2000 ppm. as
given in Table 1. Before pouring in to the Petri plates, quantity
of individual fungicides was mixed aseptically in the molten
PDA in required quantities separately and shaken well for
uniform dispersal of fungicides. Then medium was poured in
the Petri plates. On solidification of medium, the plates were
inoculated in the centre by placing aseptically 4 mm diameter
culture disc cut from the periphery of 10 days old pure culture
of Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceri grown on PDA. The plates
were incubated at 28+2 °C temperature for 10 days. Each
treatment was replicated four times and the plate without
fungicides served as control. The observation on the growth
i.e. colony diameter were recorded and the per cent inhibition
of growth was worked out using the equation given by Bliss
(1934),
Where,
I =
I=Per cent inhibition.
C-T
C
X100
C=Colony diameter in control (mm).
T=Colony diameter in respective treatment (mm).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The relative efficacy of six different systemic and nonsystemic
fungicides combinations were tested at their 500,
1000, 1500 and 2000 ppm concentrations to inhibit growth of
Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceri was evaluated, using
poisoned food technique. The observations regarding per
cent inhibition of linear growth are presented in Table 1 and
depicted in Plate 1, Fig.1.
Data presented (Table 1) revealed that the systemic
fungicide carbendazim proved to be the most effective in
inhibiting growth of the test fungus even at lowest
concentration (500 ppm) and lowest active ingredient in case
of Saff (12 wp) with highest toxicity index in all the
combinations containing carbendazim. Carbendazim 50 wp +
thiram 75 wp and carbendazim 50 wp + mancozeb 75 wp
combination gave cent per cent inhibition of growth of test

536 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Table 1.
Effect of different combinations of systemic and non-systemic fungicidesagainst Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceri in
vitro
Sr.
Fungicides Concentration (ppm) /per cent inhibition* Mean Toxicity Index*
No.
500 1000 1500 2000
1 Carbendazim 50 wp + Mancozeb 75 wp, 1:2 (Manual) 100 100 100 100 100 400
2 Iprodine 25 wp + Carbendazim 25 wp, 1:2 (Manual) 94.55 100 100 100 98.68 394
3 Cymoxanil 8 wp + Mancozeb 64 wp, 1:2 (Manual) 18.48 24.35 35.91 56.21 33.73 134
4 Carbendazim 12 wp + Mancozeb 63 wp (Saff), 1:2
94.27 100 100 100 98.56 394
(Manual)
5 Carbendazim 50 wp + Thiram 75 wp, 1:2 (Manual) 100 100 100 100 100 400
6 Carbendazim 50 wp + Chlorothalonil 75 wp, 1:2
94.02 94.47 95.56 97.11 95.01 380
(Manual)
7 Control 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00
S.Em.
CD. at 5%
*Mean of four replications
#Maximum toxicity index = 400.0
Between fungicide
Within fungicide (con.)
0.541 1.083
1.527 3.05
maximum toxicity indices of 400. There was also recorded the
pink pigmentation around the disc of inoculum in growth
inhibited plates except carbendazim + thiram. The maximum
pigmentation was noted in carbendazim + chlorothalonil
combination.
Result revealed the systemic fungicides carbendazim to
be the most effective in inhibiting growth of the test fungus
even at lowest concentration (500 ppm) and lowest active
ingredient.These result are in line with finding of Sugha et al.
(1995), who found carbendazim (50 WP and 25 SD) and thiram
either alone or in combination as highly effective in inhibiting
mycelial growth of Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceri in vitro.
1. Carbendazim 50 wp + Mancozeb 75 wp A=500, 2. Iprodine 25
wp + Carbendazim 25 wp B=1000, 3. Cymoxanil 8 wp + Mancozeb
64 wp C=1500, 4. Carbendazim 12 wp + Mancozeb 63 wp (Saff)
D=2000, 5. Carbendazim 50 wp + Thiram 75 wp, 6. Carbendazim
50 wp + Chlorothalonil 75 wp, 7. Control
Fig 1.
Growth inhibition of Fusarium oxysporum f.sp.cicerion
PDA supplemented with systemic and non-systemic
fungicides combination.
fungus which is followed by carbendazim 12 wp + mancozeb
63 wp (Saff) (98.50%) and Iprodine 25 wp + carbendazim 25 wp
(98.05%). The minimum inhibition of growth (33.73%) was
recorded in cymoxanil 18 wp + mancozeb 64 wp (Curzate)
combination. The growth inhibition per cent positively
correlated with increase in concentration for all the chemicals
tested. However, on the basis of toxicity indices carbendazim
50 wp + thiram 75 wp and carbendazim 50 wp + mancozeb 75
wp combination found to be significantly effective with
1. Carbendazim 50 wp + Mancozeb 75 wp, 2. Iprodine 25 wp +
Carbendazim 25 wp, 3. Cymoxanil 8 wp + Mancozeb 64 wp, 4.
Carbendazim 12 wp + Mancozeb 63 wp (Saff), 5. Carbendazim 50
wp + Thiram 75 wp, 6. Carbendazim 50 wp + Chlorothalonil 75
wp, 7. Control
Fig.1
Toxicity index of different fungicides combinations
against Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceri in vitro

YADAV AND ANADANI, Effect of Different Combinations of Systemic and Non-Systemic Fungicides 537
Poddar et al, (2004) also found carbendazim as most effective
fungicides against Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceri.
LITERATURE CITED
Anonymous. (2005). FAO STAT-2005.
Bliss, C. A. (1934). The methods of probit. Science. 79 : 39.
Nene, Y.L., Sheila, V.K. and Sharma, S.B. (1996).A world list of chickpea
and pigeonpea. (Semiformal publication). ICRISAT, Patancheru,
A.P., India.
Poddar, R.K., Singh, D.V. and Dubey, S.C. (2004). Management of
chickpea wilt through combination of fungicides and bio-agents.
Indian Phytopath. 57(1): 39-43.
Shiyani, R. L., Joshi, P. K. and Bantilan, M. C. S. (2001). Impact of
Chickpea Research in Gujarat. ICRISAT, Patncheru 50: 23-24.
Sugha, S.K., Kapoor, S.K. and Singh, B.M. (1995). Management of
chickpea wilt with fungicides. IndianPhytopath.48(1):27-31.
Recieved on 09-06-2013 Accepted on 24-07-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 538-539, 2013
Antagonistic Effect of Fungal Bioagents Against Fusarium oxysporum F.Sp. ciceri
in vitro
P. M. YADAV 1 AND V. P. ANADANI 2
1
Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, J.A.U., Junagadh,
2
Pulse Research Station, J.A.U., Junagadh.
1
email: yadavpm346@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) commonly known as gram or
Bengal gram, is an important pulse crop and infected by several
fungal, bacterial and viral diseases. Among the fungal diseases,
fusarial wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceri(Padwick)
synd & Hans, is wide spread and a serious threat to chickpea
cultivation in Saurashtra region of Gujarat state. Biological
control is an important and integral part of integrated plant
disease management system, especially against soil borne plant
pathogens. All the Trichoderma spp. exhibited high efficacy
against Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceri Trichoderma harzianum-
II isolate showed maximum growth inhibition (84.76%) and
severe antagonism to test fungus, followed by Trichoderma
harzianum-I(82.51%).
Key words
Chickpea, Bioagent, Wilt.
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is cultivated mainly on
marginal lands under rainfed condition in rabi season (Shiyani
et al.,2001). It is fourth largest grain legume crop in the world
with a total production of 9.2 m t from an area of 11.2 million
hactare and productivity of 820 kg/ha (Annon., 2005).One
reason for the failure of production of this crop is the attack of
various pathogens. About 172 pathogens including several
fungal pathogens are reported to be associated with this crop
(Nene, et al., 1996). The major pathogens are Ascochyta blight,
wilt, collar rot, wet root rot, dry root rot, black root rot, foot
rot, Sclerotinia stem rot, powdery mildew, rust and stunt.
Among the diseases, Fusarium wilt caused by Fusarium
oxysporum f.sp. ciceri is a serious threat to chickpea
cultivation on Saurashtra region of Gujarat state. Chickpea
wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceri) caused a loss of grains
by 10 per cent annually in India (Nene, et al., 1996).
Considering the economic damage done by the pathogen,
present study was carried out to evaluate different fungal
bio-agents against Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceri for
effective management of chickpea wilt.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
An experiment was conducted at Deptt. of Plant
Pathology, College of Agriculture, J.A.U., Junagadh during
2009 to determine the antagonistic action of Trichoderma
harzianum-I, Trichoderma harzianum-II, T. hamatum, T.
koningii and T. viride against F. oxysporum f.sp. ciceri in
vitro. The 20 ml of PDA was poured aseptically in each of the
Petri plates and allowed to solidify. Mycelial disc of 4 mm
diameter from each antagonist and test fungus were placed
on PDA medium in the same Petri plate approximately 4 cm
away from each other. All the inoculated plates were incubated
at 26 + 2° C temperature and observed after five days of growth
of antagonist and test fungus. Index of antagonism was
determined as,
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The result presented in Table 1, Fig. 1 and Plate 1
revealed that all the bioagents were significantly superior in
inhibiting the growth of test fungus as compared to the control.
T. harzianum -II showed maximum inhibition (84.76%)
followed by Trichoderma harzianum -I (82.51%), T. viride
(79.51%), T. koningii (76.76%) and T. hamatum (76.00%). As
per the index of antagonism, T. harzianum -II showed the
severe antagonism which is followed by Trichoderma
harzianum-I. Moderate antagonism was observed in T. viride,
T. koningii and T. hamatum.
Table 1.
Per cent growth reduction of Fusarium
oxysporum f.sp. ciceri in vitro and antagonism
index by biocontrol agents
Sr. No Biocontrol agents
(Trichoderma spp.)
* Growth reduction
(%)
Antagonism
index **
1 Trichoderma harzianum-I 82.51 ++++
2 T. harzianum-II 84.76 ++++
3 T. hamatum 76.00 +++
4 T. koningii 76.76 +++
5 T. viride 79.51 +++
6 Check (Control) 00.00 -
S. Em. ±
C. D. at 5 %
0.28
0.80
* Average of four replications, ** Antagonism index, ++++ = Severe
antagonism, +++ = Moderate antagonism, ++ = Weak antagonism,
– = No antagonism.
During the present investigation, the antagonistic effect
of fungal bioagent against test fungus was observed.
Trichoderma harzianum-II isolate showed maximum growth

YADAV AND ANADANI, Antagonistic Effect of Fungal Bioagents Against Fusarium Oxysporum F.Sp. Ciceri in vitro 539
1. Trichoderma harzianum -I, 2. T. harzianum -II, 3 T. hamatum,
4. T. koningii, 5. T. viride, 6 Check (Control)
Fig. 1.
Growth inhibition of Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceri
on PDA by Trichoderma species.
1. Trichoderma harzianum -I, 2. T. harzianum -II, 3 T. hamatum,
4. T. koningii, 5. T. viride, 6 Check (Control)
Fig. 1.
Effect of different fungal bioagents (Trichoderma spp.)
against Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceri in vitro.
inhibition (84.76%) and severe antagonism to test fungus,
followed by Trichoderma harzianum-I (82.51%) and
Trichoderma viride (79.51%). These results are in line with
the finding of Sonawane and Pawar (2001), who reported
antagonism between Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceri and
Trichoderma viride, T. harzianum, T. hamatum and
Aspergillus awamori. T. harzianum was very effective in
controlling vegetative growth of the pathogen followed by T.
hamatum.
LITERATURE CITED
Anonymous. 2005. FAO STAT-2005
Nene, Y.L., Sheila, V.K. and Sharma, S.B. 1996. A world list of chickpea
and pigeonpea. (Semiformal publication). ICRISAT, Patancheru,
A.P., India.
Shiyani, R. L., Joshi, P. K. and Bantilan, M. C. S. 2001. Impact of
Chickpea Research in Gujarat. ICRISAT, Patncheru 50:23-24.
Sonawane, S.S. and Pawar, N.B. 2001. Studies on biological management
of chickpea wilt. J. Maha. Agric. Univ., 26(2): 215-216.
Recieved on 09-06-2013 Accepted on 19-07-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 540-543, 2013
Response of Ulcerative Disease Causing Bacterial Pathogens of Fish Channa straitus
for Different Antibiotics
ANITA MISHRA 1 , RAGINI GOTHALWAL, KISHOR SHENDE
1
Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Center, Barkatullah University, Bhopal- 462026
email: anitamishra555@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
The current study was aimed to find out the seasonal variation
of bacterial population of skin and gills of freshwater fish
Channa straitus and antibiotic resistance of potential pathogens
of its. Bacterial load of skin were higher than gills and mainly
during summer season for total bacterial count, coliform and
pathogenic bacteria. 15 potential pathogenic bacteria were
isolated as, Aeromonas sp, Bacillus sp. Escherichia coli, Shigella
sp, Serratia sp, Salmonella sp. Micrococcus sp, Streptococcus,
Enterococcus, Pseudomonas putida, P. aeroginosa, P. fluroscence,
Staphylococcus aureus, Flavobacterium sp., which were tested
for susceptibility against total twelve antibiotics, 10 individually
and 4 in combination of twos. All species were resistance to
amoxicillin and ampicillin. Chloramphenicol, tetracycline,
streptomycin and cloxacillin were weakly effective.
Ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin, azithromycin and cefixime were
observed to be moderately effective. Combination antibiotics
erythromycin with amoxicillin and amoxicillin with clavulanate
were found to be most effective due to synergistic effect.
Staphylococcus auerus, Streptococcus sp., Serratia sp., Shigella
sp., Pseudomonas sp. were observed to be highly resistant.
Increased antibiotics contamination of freshwater has
enhanced the adaptability in pathogenic bacteria creating health
risk to human being.
Key words
Ulcerative Disease, Bacterial Fish Pathogen, Channa
straitus
Fish is main food of the population around costal area,
bank of the river, lakes and is a cheap source of protein but
contaminated with pathogenic bacterial flora may be a great
health concern for human (Din et al. 2004), besides the
infections to live fish resulting into fish mortality, influencing
fishing business. Bacteria inhabit the water phase, sediments,
plant and an aquatic animal in aquatic environment therefore
it is important to study the bacterial flora of fish and water to
maintain and manage the environment of water reservoir.
Chances of infection to fish increases under stress condition
(Trakroo and Agarwal, 2011), resulting to economic losses in
fish production. Routine use of antibiotic can control the fish
pathogens in farms but the excessive use has resulted into
the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, which spread
among the bacterial population through transferable genetic
vectors (Akinbowale, et al., 2007). These resistant bacteria
may be transferred to human through fish food, creating a risk
to human health (Kesarcodi-Watson et al., 2008).
Snakehead (Channa striatus) is widespread and popular
fish in southest asia, which has its quality, unique flavor, and
nutritive, recuperative and medicinal properties (Ng and Lim,
1990). Since 1972, the outbreaks of ulcerative fish diseases
have been reported in several countries of Asia-Pacific region
(Robert, 1993). In India first ulcerative disease has been
reported from north-eastern regions and spread to cause the
heavy toll of millions of fry fingerlings and adult fishes (Das
and Das, 1993). Gutshel (1946) first recognized the potential
of sulfonamide in combating furunculosis and then several
other workers have also used antibiotics to cure ulcerative
diseases (Jhingran, 1990; Roberts, et al., 1994).
Cloramophenicol (Loideiros, et al. 1987) and Oxytetracyclin
(Herman, 1969) have been considered as the most effective
antibiotics for aquatic microbial therapy. The present paper
report the variation in bacterial flora of skin and gills of fish
Channa straitus and antibiotic susceptibility of potential
bacterial pathogenic isolates causing ulcerative disease in
fish Channa striatus.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Fishes were examined at the selected water bodies once
in a month for a total period of 24 months i.e., from March 2010
to February 2012. Only Fishes with overt external lesions were
brought to the laboratory and bacteria were isolated from the
skin and gills of the fish (Austin, 2011). Bacterial samples
were collected by taking swabs with the help of swab sticks
from the lesions and were diluted serially (10 1 ,10 2 ,10 3 ). The
inocula were poured on different selective agars media for
growth, viz. NAM, MacConkey and Blood Agar Media.
Bacterial load was measured in terms of CFU ml -1 . Identification
of bacteria were done by various morphological and
biochemical test.
The paper disc method is a commonly used technique
for determining susceptibility of micro-organisms to antibiotics
agents Plumb, et al. 1995. Small paper disc (Hi-media, Bombay)
impregnated with known amount of antibiotics was placed
upon the surface of inoculated plates. After incubation, the
plates were observed for zones of inhibition surrounding the
discs. A zone of inhibition (a clear area) around the disc
indicated that the organisms were inhibited by the drug. The
zone of inhibition was measured and compared to that of
standard inhibition zone for specific therapeutic agents.

MISHRA et al., Response of Ulcerative Disease Causing Bacterial Pathogens of Fish Channa straitus for Different Antibiotics 541
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Bacterial load of fish Channa straitus were measured as
CFU ml -1 and shown in Table-1. Study was carried during pick
time of 3 seasons of the year 2010-12. CFU values were
observed to be high during summer season followed by
monsoon and winter. The TVC CFU ml -1 were higher in the
range between 22.67 x10 3 - 65.67 x10 3 and 20.67 x10 3 - 49.33 x10 3
during the year 2011-12 as compared to 2011-12, for skin and
gills, respectively, indicating the increased bacterial load of
freshwater. High value of bacterial population during summer
may be due to lowered water level, causing increased bacterial
load per ml of water. The skin was harbored with maximum
number of bacteria as compared to gills, which were also
reported by Ampofo and Clerk, (2010). According to Ahne, et
al., 1982 bacterial flora varies with the different types of tissue,
surrounding environment and surface area in contact with
water. Approximately equal bacterial load of gram negative
coliform and heamolytic bacteria were observed. The identified
potential pathogenic bacteria were further analyzed for
antibiotic susceptibility through disk diffusion test (Fig. 1
and Table 2).
Table 1.
Bacterial load of gills and skin of fish Channa
straitus.
Year Season Skin
CFU x10 3
Gills
CFU x10 3
TVC TC HB TVC TC HB
2010-11 Summer 45.67
±4.51
28.33
±5.13
22.67
±3.06
35.33
±3.51
26.67 17.33
±6.03 ±2.52
Monsoon 34.67
±5.07
30.33
±4.51
30.33
±4.51
24.00
±4.00
29.33 29.33
±5.55 ±5.55
Winter 20.67
±3.06
15.33
±2.52
10.33
±2.52
18.33
±2.52
15.67 10.33
±3.06 ±1.52
2011-12 Summer 65.67
±4.51
37.33
±2.52
36.00
±4.00
49.33
±5.13
38.33 42.00
±4.04 ±3.00
Monsoon 29.67 23.00 15.00 27.67 17.00 13.33
±15.69
Winter 22.67
±3.06
±3.61
20.67
±3.06
±3.61
15.67
±5.03
±2.52
20.67
±3.06
±2.65
17.67
±2.52
±2.52
17.67
±2.52
*TVC: Total Viable Count; TC: Total Coliform; HB: Heamolytic
Bacteria
10 antibiotics as amoxicillin, ampicillin, chloramphenicol,
ciprofloxacin, tetracycline, streptomycin, azithromycin,
cefixime, norfloxacin, cloxacillin, singly and four drugs in
combination of two as, erythromycin with amoxicillin and
amoxicillin with clavulanic acids tested against 15 bacterial
species were isolated from the ulcerative lesions of Channa
straitus, viz. Aeromonas hydrophila, Bacillus sp., Escherichia
coli, Shigella sp., Serratia marcescens, Serratia
proteomaculas, Salmonella sp., Micrococcus sp.,
Streptococcus sp., Enterococcus sp., Pseudomonas sp., P.
aeroginosa, P. fluorescence, Staphylococcus aureus and
Flavobacterium sp. (Table 2).
All the 15 isolates were 100% resistance amoxicillin and
ampicillin. The resistance against ampicillin and amoxicillin is
A) B)
Fig. 1.
C) D)
A) Channa straitus B) C. Straitus skin lesion (enlarged
view) C) & D), Disk diffusion plate of Serratia &
Pseudomonas sp. A) Erythromycin + amoxicillin, B).
Ciprofloxacin, C) Cefixime, D) amoxicillin + clavulanic
acid
not surprising, due to â-lactamase enzyme that degrade â-
lactam ring and reduced binding affinity with PBP (1a, 2a)
(Penicillin Binding Protein), which have been reported in water
borne fish pathogens (Chaitrali, et al., 2012; Noor, et al. 2013).
Cloxacillin was intermediately effective against 4 species and
ineffective against rest of the pathogens. Islam, et al., 2008
reported cloxacillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus.
Chloramphenicol, tetracycline, streptomycin and cloxacillin
were observed to be weakly effective against all 15 species.
Ciprofloxacin, azithromycin and cefixime were observed
to be moderately effective against maximum number of species,
Aeromonas hydrophila, Bacillus sp., E. coli, Flavobacterium
sp., which were susceptible to tetracycline, ciprofloxacin,
streptomycin and cefixime. Among the DNA gyrase inhibiting
microlide used, ciprofloxacin was more effective than the
norfloxacin. Increased MIC of norfloxacin against gram
negative water bacteria of ponds in Chennai were reported by
Sreedharan et al., (2012) and ciprofloxacin resistant lake
sediment bacteria were studied by Pote et al., (2009).
Combination therapy consists of using two
antibiotics in combination showing synergistic effect. The two
combinations, erythromycin with amoxicillin and amoxicillin
with clavulanate were observed to be most effective against
all the bacterial isolates. The combination antibiotics has dual
effect against pathogens as erythromycin inhibit translation
process, amoxicillin cell membrane synthesis and clavulanate
inhibit â-lactamase enzyme (Gaudreau, 2007). Similar type of
synergistic effects of combinations were observed with
different combination by Agrawal et al., (2007) for cefixime
and cloxacillin against common clinical bacterial pathogens
and Syed and Ravaoarinoro (2012) for the combination of
cloxacillin and clavulanate against gram negative bacteria of
hospital effluent. Staphylococcus sp., Streptococcus sp.,
Serratia sp., Shigella sp. and Pseudomonas sp. were observed
to be more resistant to antibiotics. This pattern of resistance
in certain bacteria may be due to even distribution of bacteria

542 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Table 2. Antibiotic sensitivity pattern in 15 bacterial isolates
S r. N o
A n tib io tic
C o n c. /d is k (µ g )
A e ro m o n a s h yd r o p h il la
B a cill u s s p.
E . co l i
S h i g ell s a p .
S er r a tiap ro teo m a cu l a n s
S er ra t ia m a rc es cen s
S a lm o n e lla s p.
M i cr o co cc u s l u teu s
S tr ep t o co cc sp u s
E n t er o co c cu s p s
P s e u d o m o na s p u t id a
P . a er o g i n o sa .
P . f lu r o s cen c e
S ta p h y lo co c cu s a u ri u s
F la vo b a c ter iu s p m .
Frequency and percent frequency
resistance and sensitive bacterial
isolates
R e sis ta n t
(- & + )
In ter m ed ia te (+ + )
S u s ce p tib l e (+ + +)
1 Amoxicillin 25 - + - - - - - - - - - - - - +
2 Ampicillin 25 - + - - - - - - - - - - - - +
3
Chlorampheni
col
15
(100%)
15
(100%)
30 + + +++ ++ + + + + + + + + - + - + 12 (80%)
0 (0%) 0 (0%)
0 (0%) 0 (0%)
2
(13.33%)
1 (6.67%)
2
4 Ciprofloxacin 5 + + + +++ +++ ++ + + ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ +++
9 (60%) 4 (26.67%)
(13.33%)
7 4
4
5 Tetracycline 30 + + + +++ +++ ++ + + + + ++ + ++ + ++ - +++
(46.66%) (26.67%) (26.670%)
10
6 Streptomycin 10 ++ +++ +++ + + + ++ + + + + + + + ++
3 (20%) 2 (13.33%)
(66.67%)
11 4
7 Norfloxacin 10 + + ++ ++ + + + + + + - ++ + + - +
0 (0%)
(73.33%) (26.67%)
8 Azithromycin 15 + ++ ++ + ++ ++ ++ + + + + + + + ++ 9 (60%) 6 (40%) 0 (0%)
5 8
9 Cefixime 5 + + +++ +++ ++ + + ++ ++ ++ + ++ ++ + - ++
2 (13.33%)
(33.33%) (53.33%)
11 4
10 Cloxacillin 25 + + ++ ++ + + + + + + + + + + + ++
0 (0%)
(73.33%) (26.67%)
11
12
Erythromycin
+
Amoxicillin
Amoxicillin +
Clavulanic
acid
15/2
5
25/1
5
+ + + +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ ++ +++ 0 (0%) 1 (6.67%)
14
(93.33%)
+ + + +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 15 (100%)
*Average zone of inhibition (including disk diameter 6 mm), - = no inhibition (resistant), + = inhibitory zone between 5-15 mm, ++ = inhibitory
zone between 16-25 mm, +++ = inhibitory zone between 26 – 35.
in common environment and exchange of plasmid with
antibiotic resistant genes (Jones, 1986; Rajkumarbharathi et
al., 2012).
Many reports have indicated development of resistance
system in bacteria such as antibiotic degrading enzyme, efflux
system, modified target and permeability (Roberts, 2011).
Increasing antibiotic resistance is major problem not only for
fish culture but also for human health. To combat with these
problems alternative strategies can be applied such as
bacteriophage treatment, fish vaccination and application of
probiotics.
LITERATURE CITED
Agrawal, A., Jain, N., Jain, A. 2007. Synergistic effect of cefixime and
cloxacillin combination against common bacterial pathogens causing
community acquired pneumonia. Indian J. Pharmacol., 39(5): 251-
252.
Ahne, W., Poop, W. and Hoffmann, R. (1982). Pseudomonas
fluoresence as a pathogenof Tench (Tinca tinca). Bulletin of the
European Association of Fish Pathologists, 4:56-57.
Akinbowale, O. L., Peng, H., Grant, P., Barton, M. D., 2007. Antibiotic
and heavy metal resistance in motile aeromonads and pseudomonads
from rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farms in Australia.
International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents, 30(2):177-182.
doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2007.03.012.
Ampofo, J. A. and Clerk, G. C. (2010). Diversity of Bacteria
Contaminants in Tissues of Fish Cultured in Organic Waste-
Fertilized Ponds: Health Implications. The Open Fish Science
Journal. 3:142-146
Austin, B. 2011. Taxonomy of bacterial fish pathogens. Austin
Veterinary Research 2011 (42):20.
Chaitrali, A. Dongare, Rameja, Salamat, B., Ghosh, J. S. 2012. Study of
Amoxicillin and Cloxacillin Resistance in Micrococcus sciuri Strain
JS 3 Isolated from a Nosocomial Infection. American Journal of
Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 2: 190-194.
Das and Das, 1993. A review of the fish disease epizootic, Syndrome in
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Gaudreau, C., Girouard Y., Ringuette L., Tsimiklis C. 2007. Comparison
of disk diffusion and agar dilution methods for Erythromycin and
Ciprofloxacin susceptibility testing of campylobacter jejuni subsp.
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Herman, R. L. 1969. Oxytetracyclin in fish culture: a review. Bureau of
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Islam, M. A., Alam, M. M., Choudhury, M. E., Kobayashi, N., Ahmed,
M. U. 2008. Determination of Minimum Inhibitory Concentration
(Mic) of Cloxacillin for Selected Isolates of Methicillin-Resistant
Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) With Their Antibiogram. Bangl.
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Jones, J. G. 1986. Antibiotic resistance in aquatic bacteria, J. Antimicrobe
chemotier, 18:149-154
Kesarcodi-Wateson, A., Kaspar, H., Lategan, M. J., Gibson, L. 2008.
Probiotic in aquaculture: The need, principle and mehcanisms of
action and screening processes. Science Direct Aquaculture. 274:1-
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Natural history, biology and economic importance. In Essays in
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the 40 th anniversary of the Department of Zoology, National
University of Singapore, Singapore, pp. 127–152.
Noor, R., Acharjee, M., Ahmed, T., Das, K. K., Paul, L., Munshi, S. K.,
Urmi, N. J., Rahman, F., Alam, Md. Z. 2013. Microbiological Study
of Major Sea Fish Available In Local Markets Of Dhaka City,
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Susceptibility of six bacterial pathogens of channel Catfish to six
antibiotics. J. Aqua. Ani. Health., 7:211-217.
Rajkumarbharathi, M., Sukumaran, N., Murugesan, A. G. 2011. Antibiotic
Sensitivity of Bacterial Flora Isolated from Gill and Gut of Snakehead
Fish “Channa striatus”. Journal for Bloomers of Research, 3(2):1-
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Microbiol, 2(40):1-8. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2011.00040
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Recieved on 10-07-2013 Accepted on 25-07-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 544-546, 2013
Effect of Water Management, Weed and Integrated Nutrient Management on Yield
of Potato (Solanum tuberosum)
CHANDRESH KUMAR CHANDRAKAR, G.K. SHRIVASTAVA, ASHISH KUMAR CHANDRAKAR AND
CHETAN DEWANGAN
Deptt of Agronomy, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur (C.G.)
email: chandreshchandrakar@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted at IGKV, Raipur (C.G) during
rabi 2010-11 and 2011-12. The soil of experimental site was clay
loam in texture, neutral in soil reaction. The climate of the
region is sub humid with an average annual rainfall of 1200-
1400 mm. Results revealed that drip irrigation 100 % or 125 %
of OPE proved comparable and gave higher growth parameters,
yield attributes (number of stolons plant -1 , number of tubers
plant -1 , fresh weight, dry weight of tubers, tuberization
efficiency) and total tuber yield of potato crop as compared to
furrow irrigation. The herbicide Metribuzin (500 g a.i. ha -1 PE)
proved better among other weed management practices recorded
the maximum growth parameters, yield attributes (number of
stolons plant -1 , number of tubers plant -1 , fresh weight, dry weight
of tubers, tuberization efficiency) and total tuber yield of potato
crop. Application of 75% N inorganic fertilizer + 25 % N organic
(Poultry manure) + PSB + Azotobactor produced significantly
highest growth parameters, yield attributes (number of stolons
plant -1 , number of tubers plant -1 , fresh weight & dry weight of
tubers, tuberization efficiency) and total tuber yield.
Key words
Drip irrigation, Weed management, Integrated
nutrient management, Potato
Potato (Solanum tuberosum) production is the most
limiting factor in Indian agricultural scenario. Due to water
scarcity, the available water resources should be very
effectively utilized through water saving irrigation
technologies. Hence, further expansion of irrigation may
depend upon the adoption of new systems such as pressurized
irrigation methods with the limited water resources. Amongst
those pressurized irrigation methods, drip irrigation has proved
its superiority over other methods of irrigation due to the
direct application of water and nutrients in the vicinity of root
zone. There are several constraints in potato production, of
which weeds often pose a serious problem. Weeds not only
compete with crop plants for nutrients, soil moisture, space
and sunlight but also serve as an alternative hosts for several
insect pest and diseases. Hand weeding and hoeing are
common practices followed in India. However, timely weed
control may not be possible manually due to non-availability
of labours and high rate of wages during peak period of farm
operations. Hence, chemical weed control appears to hold a
great promise in dealing with effective, timely and economic
weed suppression. The overall strategy for increasing potato
yields and sustaining them at a high level must include an
integrated approach to the management of soil nutrients, along
with other complementary measures.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A field experiment was conducted at IGKV, Raipur (C.G)
during rabi, 2010-11 and 2011-12. The soil of experimental site
was clay loam in texture, neutral in soil reaction, low in
available N, low in available P and high in available K status.
The climate of the region is sub humid with an average annual
rainfall of 1200-1400 mm. The crop received 63.7 mm rainfall
during crop period. The experiment was laid out in split–split
plot design with three replications. The treatments consisted
of three irrigation schedule i.e. drip irrigation (125 % of OPE),
drip irrigation (100 % of OPE) and control (furrow irrigation)
as a main plot and four weed management i.e. weedy check,
hand weeding (at 25 and 45 DAP) metribuzin (500 g a.i. ha -1
PE) and chlorimuron + quizalofop (6 + 50 g a.i ha -1 ) at 20 DAP
as sub plot and four integrated nutrient management i.e. 100
% RDF, 100 % RDF + Micro nutrient (Zinc sulphate 25 kg ha -
1
), 75 % N inorganic fertilizer + 25 % N poultry manure + PSB
+ Azatobactor and 50 % N inorganic fertilizer + 50 % N poultry
manure + PSB + Azatobactor as sub sub plot. Kufri Chipsona
2 variety was used for experiment.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Growth and development:
The result revealed that, drip irrigation (125 % of Open
pan evaporation) produced significantly higher plant height,
number of leaves plant -1 , fresh weight of shoot plant -1 and
Crop growth rate (CGR) as compared to furrow irrigation,
however it was statistically at par with drip irrigation (100 %
of Open pan evaporation) during both the years and on mean
basis. The main reason of significantly higher growth of potato
in drip irrigation is proper supply of water whatever requirement
of crop daily. Among weed management practices, Metribuzin
(500 g a.i. ha -1 PE) registered significantly higher growth
parameters, (plant height, number of leaves plant -1 , fresh
weight of shoots plant -1 and Crop growth rate (CGR)) as
compared to weedy check and rest of the treatments during
both the year and on mean basis. The main reason behind this
was due to significant impact of Metribuzin (500g a.i ha -1 P.E)

CHANDRAKAR et al., Effect of Water Management, Weed and Integrated Nutrient Management 545
Table 1.
Effect of irrigation schedule, weed and integrated nutrient management on plant height, number of leaves, fresh
weight of shoots plant -1 at 60 days after planting and CGR at 40-60 DAP of potato crop
Treatment Plant height (cm) Number of leaves plant -1 Fresh weight of shoots plant -1 (g) Crop growth rate (g day -1 )
2010-11 2011-12 Mean 2010-11 2011-12 Mean 2010-11 2011-12 Mean 2010-11 2011-12 Mean
Irrigation schedule
I 1 – 100% OPE
(Open Pan Evaporation)
I 2 – 125% OPE
I 3 – Control (Furrow irrigation)
SEm
CD (P = 0.05)
Weed management
W 0 – Weedy check
W 1 – Hand weeding at 25 and
45 DAP
W 2 – Metribuzin (500g a.i ha -1 . PE)
W 3 – Chlorimuron (CMS)
+ Quizalofop (6+50g a.i ha -1 )
at 20DAP
SEm
CD (P = 0.05)
Integrated nutrient management
F 1 – 100% RDF
F 2 - 100% RDF + Micro nutrient
(Zinc sulphate 25 kg ha -1 )
F 3 – 75% N Inorganic fertilizer
+ 25% N Poultry manure
+ PSB + Azotobactor
F 4 – 50% N Inorganic fertilizer
+ 50% N Poultry manure
+ PSB + Azotobactor
SEm
CD (P = 0.05)
21.40
21.83
18.65
0.15
0.61
19.68
19.70
22.72
20.41
0.29
0.86
19.68
19.70
22.72
20.41
0.25
0.70
23.58
23.98
20.84
0.11
0.44
21.76
21.79
25.45
22.19
0.27
0.82
20.54
22.77
24.93
22.96
0.24
0.70
22.49
22.90
19.75
0.10
0.39
20.72
20.75
24.09
21.30
0.26
0.78
19.53
21.63
23.79
21.91
0.21
0.61
57.34
58.17
44.69
0.25
0.99
46.98
57.99
59.27
49.36
0.41
1.22
49.79
51.66
59.68
52.48
0.30
0.85
61.12
61.47
47.30
0.26
1.01
49.59
60.92
62.89
53.12
0.47
1.40
52.76
54.93
63.24
55.59
0.35
0.99
59.23
59.82
46.00
0.21
0.82
48.28
59.46
61.08
51.24
0.39
1.18
51.27
53.30
61.46
54.03
0.29
0.83
170.98
176.27
131.12
2.84
11.11
148.23
161.30
170.97
157.33
1.15
3.44
151.21
154.11
170.61
161.89
0.96
2.70
181.60
190.68
138.22
2.46
9.62
158.91
173.77
181.80
166.19
1.13
3.38
160.77
164.00
173.00
167.00
1.26
3.55
176.29
183.48
134.67
2.65
10.34
153.57
167.54
176.38
161.76
1.10
3.27
156.26
159.50
176.46
167.04
1.04
2.94
12.50
13.46
9.33
0.25
0.99
9.63
13.01
13.97
10.33
0.11
0.35
10.42
11.28
13.42
11.83
0.19
0.54
10.94
11.94
8.22
0.27
1.04
8.33
11.58
12.51
9.04
0.12
0.35
9.08
9.94
11.97
10.49
0.19
0.55
11.72
12.70
8.77
0.26
1.01
8.98
12.30
13.24
9.69
0.11
0.34
9.75
10.61
12.69
11.16
0.19
0.54
Table 2.
Effect of irrigation schedule, weed and integrated nutrient management on number of stolons, number of tubers and
tuber yield of potato crop
Treatment Number of stolons plant -1 Number of tubers plant -1 Tuber yield (t ha -1 )
2010-11 2011-12 Mean 2010-11 2011-12 Mean 2010-11 2011-12 Mean
Irrigation schedule
I 1 – 100% OPE
(Open Pan Evaporation)
I 2 – 125% OPE
I 3 – Control (Furrow irrigation)
SEm
CD (P = 0.05)
Weed management
W 0 – Weedy check
W 1 – Hand weeding at 25 and
45 DAP
W 2 – Metribuzin (500g a.i ha -1 . PE)
W 3 – Chlorimuron (CMS)
+ Quizalofop (6+50g a.i ha -1 )
at 20DAP
SEm
CD (P = 0.05)
Integrated nutrient management
F 1 – 100% RDF
F 2 - 100% RDF + Micro nutrient
(Zinc sulphate 25 kg ha -1 )
F 3 – 75% N Inorganic fertilizer
+ 25% N Poultry manure
+ PSB + Azotobactor
F 4 – 50% N Inorganic fertilizer
+ 50% N Poultry manure
+ PSB + Azotobactor
SEm
CD (P = 0.05)
26.47
26.98
24.37
0.13
0.53
24.44
26.35
26.86
26.11
0.13
0.39
24.82
25.51
27.70
25.73
0.16
0.45
29.38
29.72
26.39
0.36
1.41
26.19
28.88
30.83
28.10
0.24
0.74
27.17
28.11
30.52
28.19
0.24
0.69
27.91
28.35
25.37
0.17
0.66
25.30
27.59
28.85
27.10
0.16
0.49
25.97
26.81
29.11
26.95
0.17
0.49
12.43
13.00
9.15
0.23
0.90
10.14
12.30
12.95
10.71
0.12
0.37
10.50
10.87
13.55
11.18
0.18
0.52
15.63
16.13
11.56
0.18
0.72
12.90
15.04
16.28
13.54
0.14
0.43
13.49
13.82
16.54
13.91
0.17
0.49
14.03
14.57
10.35
0.20
0.78
11.52
13.67
14.62
12.13
0.13
0.39
12.00
12.35
15.05
12.55
0.17
0.48
30.16
31.02
20.74
0.23
0.91
24.81
28.57
29.51
26.33
0.19
0.57
24.85
26.61
30.45
27.31
0.273
0.769
31.24
32.01
21.68
0.24
0.93
25.68
29.48
30.60
27.47
0.20
0.59
25.82
27.63
31.58
28.23
0.26
0.75
30.59
31.49
21.21
0.23
0.92
25.25
28.96
29.99
26.87
0.20
0.59
25.30
27.08
30.96
27.73
0.26
0.73

546 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
which also resulted the maximum weed control efficiency. With
the application of this treatment maximum weeds was
controlled timely, leading to utilization of maximum resources
by potato plants. Among integrated nutrient management,
application of 75% N inorganic fertilizer + 25 % N organic
(Poultry manure) + PSB + Azotobactor produced significantly
higher values of growth attributes i.e. plant height, number of
leaves plant -1 , fresh weight of shoots plant -1 and Crop growth
rate (CGR)) than other nutrient management practices during
both the years and mean basis. This may be due to an increased
availability of nutrients to the plant in the presence of
biofertilizers and organic manure (poultry manure).
Corroboratory results have also been obtained by Ahmed, et
al. 2011, Kumar, et al., 2007 and Sarkar, et al., 2011 (Table 1).
Yield attributes and yield:
Irrigation schedule positively influenced the yield
attributes and yield. The number of stolons plant -1 , number of
tubers plant -1 and tuber yield were significantly higher under
drip irrigation (125 % of open pan evaporation) than control
(furrow irrigation) but was at par with drip irrigation (100 % of
open pan evaporation) during both the years and on mean
basis. The higher yield attributing characters and yield was
noticed in the above treatment which might be due to
availability of water in sufficient quantity. Among weed
management practices, the number of stolons plant -1 , number
of tubers plant -1 and tuber yield were significantly higher under
Metribuzin (500 g a.i. ha -1 PE) than weedy check and rest of
the treatments. Significantly higher yield attributing
characters i.e. number of stolons, tubers and tuber yield was
found under treatment 75% N inorganic fertilizer + 25 % N
organic (Poultry manure) + PSB + Azotobactor than other
nutrient management practices during both the years and on
mean basis. These findings are in agreement with those
reported earlier by Arora, et al., 2009, Bakeer, et al., 2009 and
Baishya, et al., 2010 (Table 2).
LITERATURE CITED
Ahmed, I. M., Shaheenuzzamn, M., Nadira, U. A., Ahmed, M. H. and
Hossain, A. 2011. Performance of herbicide hammer 24 Ec in
potato field. Journal of Experimetnal Bioscience, 2(1): 11 – 14.
Arora, A., Tomar, S.S. and Gole, M.K. 2009. Yield and quality of potato
as influenced by weed management practices and their residual study
in soil. Agriculture Science Digest, 29 (2) 1-3.
Bakeer, G.A.A., El-Ebabi, F.G., El-Saidi, M.T. and Abdelghany A. R. E.
2009. Effect of pulse drip irrigation on yield and water use efficiency
of potato crop under organic agriculture in sandy soils. Journal of
Agriculture Engineering, 26(2): 736- 765.
Baishya, L.K., Kumar, M. and Ghose, D.C. 2010. Effect of different
proportion of organic and inorganic nutrients on productivity and
profitability of potato (Solanum tuberosum) varieties in Meghalaya
hills. Indian Journal of Agronomy, 55(3): 230-234.
Kumar, S., Ram, A. and Mandal, G. 2007. Effect of differential irrigation
regimes on potato (Solanum tuberosum) yield and post-harvest
attributes. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 77(6) : 366-
368.
Sarkar, A., Sarkar, S. and Zaman, A. 2011. Growth and yield of potato
as influenced by combination of organic manures and inorganic
fertilizers. Potato Journal 38 (1): 78-80.
Recieved on 14-07-2013 Accepted on 01-08-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 547-548, 2013
Effect of Different Non-systemic Insecticide against Fusarium oxysporum
F. Sp. ciceri in vitro
P. M YADAV 1 AND V. P. ANADANI 2
1
Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, JAU, Junagadh , 2 Research Scientist, Pulse
Research Station, JAU, Junagadh
1
email: yadavpm346@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Among the fungal diseases, Fusarial wilt caused by Fusarium
oxysporum f.sp. ciceri (Padwick) synd & Hans (1940), is wide
spread and also caused serious threat to chickpea (Cicer
arietinum L.) cultivation in Saurashtra region of Gujarat
state.Different concentrations of non-systemic insecticides were
tested to find out their effect to inhibit the growth of test fungus
in vitro.Among differentnon-systemic insecticide tried, cent per
cent growth inhibition of Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceri was
recorded under all the concentrations of profenofos. This was
followed by chlorpyriphos (77.81%) and endosulfan (71.84%).
Key words
Chickpea, non-systemic insecticides, wilt.
Reason for the failure of production of Chickpea (Cicer
arietinum L.) is the attack of various pathogens. About 172
pathogens including several fungal pathogens are reported
to be associated with this crop (Nene, et al., 1996). The major
pathogens are Ascochyta blight, Fusarium wilt, collar rot, wet
root rot, dry root rot, black root rot, foot rot, Sclerotinia stem
rot, powdery mildew, rust and stunt. Among the diseases,
Fusarium wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceri is
a serious threat to chickpea cultivation on Saurashtra region
of Gujarat state. Chickpea wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp.
ciceri) caused a loss of grains by 10% annually in India (Nene,
et al., 1996).Considering the economic damage done by the
pathogen, present study was carried out to evaluate
differentnon-systemic insecticide for fungicidal property
against Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceri to manage chickpea
wilt.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
An experiment was conducted at Deptt. of Plant
Pathology, College of Agriculture, J.A.U., Junagadh during
2009 to evaluating the efficacy of different insecticides by
poisoned food technique. Each insecticide was tested at 250,
500, 1500 and 2000 ppm. asgiven in Table 1. Before pouring in
to the Petri plates, quantity of individual non-insecticides was
mixed aseptically in the molten PDA in required quantities
separately before pouring and shaken well for uniform
dispersal of insecticide. Then medium was poured in the
petriplates. On solidification of medium, the plates were
inoculated in the centre by placing aseptically 4 mm diameter
culture disc cut from the periphery of 10 days old pure culture
of Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceri grown on PDA. The plates
were incubated at 28+2 0 C temperature for 10 days. Each
treatment was replicated four times and the plate without
insecticide served as control. The observation on the growth
i.e. colony diameter were recorded and the per cent inhibition
of growth was worked out using the equation given by Bliss
(1934),
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The relative efficacy of seven different non-systemic
insecticides were tested at their 250, 500, 1500 and 2000 ppm
concentrations to inhibit growth of Fusarium oxysporumf.sp.
ciceri was evaluated, using poisoned food technique. The
observations regarding per cent inhibition of linear growth
are presented in Table 1, Fig. 1. Data presented (Table 1)
Fig 1. Toxicity index of non-systemic insecticides against
Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceri in vitro.
1. Chlor pyriphos, 2. Cypermethrin, 3. Endosulfan, 4. Endoxacarb
5. Novaluron, 6. Profenofos, 7. Spinosad, 8. Control

548 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Table 1.
Effect of different of non-systemic insecticides
against Fusarium oxysporum f.sp.ciceri in vitro.
Sr.
No.
Insecticides Concentration (ppm) /per cent
inhibition*
Mean Toxicity
Index*
250 500 1500 2000
1 Chlorpyriphos 62.03 72.50 76.71 100 77.81 311
20%EC
2 Cypermethrin 34.77 51.55 73.61 100 64.98 259
25%EC
3 Endosulfan 62.81 68.50 71.67 84.41 71.84 287
35%EC
4 Indoxacarb 6.20 36.55 37.16 49.30 32.30 129
14.5%SC
5 Novaluron 35.02 51.28 53.94 67.91 52.03 208
10%EC
6 Profenofos 50 100 100 100 100 100 400
%EC
7 Spinosad 45% 40.97 57.39 78.25 85.94 65.63 262
SC
8 Control 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00
Between fungicide Within fungicide (con.)
S.Em.+ 0.436 0.871
CD. at 5% 1.22 2.45
revealed that all the non-systemic insecticides were capable
of inhibiting the growth of test fungus at different
concentration as compared to the control. Among these,
profenofos proved to be the most effective in inhibiting the
(100%) growth of the test fungus even at lowest concentration
(250 ppm) withhighest toxicity index of 400. It was followed
by chlorpyriphos (77.81%), endosulfan (71.84 %), spinosad
(65.83 %), cypermethrin (64.98 %), novaluron (52.03 %) and
indoxacarb (32.30 %) with toxicity index of 311, 287, 262, 259,
208 and 129 respectively.
Result revealed that the all non-systemic insecticides
are able to inhibit the growth of the test fungus. Cent per cent
growth inhibition of Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceri was
obtained under all the concentrations of profenofos with
maximum toxicity index i.e. 400. This was followed by
chlorpyriphos (77.81 %) and endosulfan (71.84%) with mean
Fig.1.
Growth inhibition of Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceri
on PDA supplemented with non-systemic insecticides.
1. Chlorpyriphos (A = 250), 2. Cypermethrin (B = 500), 3.
Endosulfan (C = 1500), 4. Profenofos (D = 2000), 5. Endoxacarb,
6.Novaluron, 7. Spinosad, 8. Control
toxicity index 311 and 287 respectively. While minimum growth
inhibition of fungus was observed in indoxacarb (32.30 %)
with 129 mean toxicity index.
LITERATURE CITED
Bliss, C. I. 1934. The method of probits.Science, 79: 38.
Nene, Y.L., Sheila, V.K. and Sharma, S.B. 1996. A world list of chickpea
and pigeonpea.(Semiformal publication). ICRISAT, Patancheru,
A.P., India.
Padwick, G.W. 1940. The genus Fusarium III.A critical study of fungus
causing wilt of gram and related species with special relation to
variability of key characteristics.Indian J. Agric. Sci., 10: 241-
284.
Synder W.C. and Hansen, H.N. 1940. The species concepts of
Fusarium.American Botany 27: 64-67.
Recieved on 15-07-2013 Accepted on 11-08-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 549-554, 2013
Optimization of Coagulating Conditions for Preparation of Good Quality Tofu with
Minimum Biochemical Loss through Tofu Whey
M.K.TRIPATHI AND PUNIT CHANDRA
Agro Produce Processing Division, CIAE, (ICAR), Nabi Bagh, Baresia Road, Bhopal
email: tripathimanoj007@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Tofu or soybean curd is mainly made by coagulating soymilk.
Tofu whey, a by-product of tofu manufacturing, is currently
discarded by the food industry. The Tofu whey refuse is highly
perishable and needs a quick treatment for effective utilization.
Tofu whey which composition is related to optimum coagulating
condition. The different coagulating conditions had great
influence on tofu yield, texture, biochemical properties and
whey composition. Different coagulants (calcium sulphate,
calcium chloride and magnesium chloride and magnesium
chloride) were used to optimize the coagulating parameters
and optimal concentration of coagulation (OCC) at different
temperatures for soymilk coagulation and tofu preparation.
Each soymilk batch prepared with coagulants (20 mM to 90
mM) at 60 0 ,70 0 ,80 0 ,90 0 C. Coagulated batches were pressed to
make tofu and measured whey volume, pH, transmittance tofu
yield and coagulant efficiency. Whey transmittance and
conductance correlated with coagulant concentration. Tofu yield,
conductivity, pH and TDS data were also found to depend on
coagulating conditions. Conductivity and transmittance could
be used to optimize tofu coagulation. The OCC value was found
to differ with coagulating conditions.
Key word
Soybean, Tofu, Coagulants, OCC, Tofu whey, Texture
Tofu is a very versatile and nutritious food that is made
from soybean curds. While Tofu is gaining an increasing
popularity in western countries, it remains the most important
and popular food product in east and south-astern Asian
countries (Oboh, 2006). It is produced traditionally by
coagulating fresh hot soymilk with either salt (CaCl2 or CaSO4)
or an acid (glucuno-d-lactone) (Oboh, 2006)). The coagulant
produces a soy protein gel, which traps water, soy lipids and
other constituents in the matrix forming curds. The quality of
the beans, the amount of stirring, nature and concentration of
used coagulants can have a high impact on the quality of the
final product (Wang and Chang, 1995). Yield and quality of
tofu have been reported to be influenced by soybean varieties,
soybean quality, processing conditions and coagulants
(Oboh, 2006, Cai, et al., 1998). The coagulation of soymilk
relies on the complex interrelationship between type of
soybean, soymilk cooking temperature, soymilk volume, solid
content, pH, coagulant type, amount and coagulation time
(Cai and Chang,1998). To improve the texture and increase the
yield of Tofu, researchers has been engaged to find better
coagulation methods, concentration of coagulants and
optimum temperature of coagulation. Studies have shown that
the amount of soy protein used to make the soymilk is critical
for Tofu yield and quality because tofu is a soy protein gel.
Different coagulants produce Tofu with different textural and
flavour properties. CS creates a bridge by which the soy
proteins in the milk can aggregate. It may also interact with
proteins to enhance the cross-linking of polymers (Beddows
and Wong, 1987, Mullin, et al., 2001). The combined heat- and
calcium-induced mechanisms work to produce the Tofu. The
resulting tofu product is affected by such things as pH,
concentration of coagulate, and the rate at which the product
is stirred (Beddows and Wong 1987). The Chinese have used
the calcium salt mined from mountain quarries for 2000 years
(Kohyama, et al., 1992). The salt is the pure form of gypsum.
The Japanese traditionally used sea salt in form of magnesium
chloride to coagulate soymilk. Recently, CS and/or gluconod-lactone
(GDL) have been mostly used as coagulant for the
production of tofu in Japan (Kohyama, et al., 1995).The
objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of four
different coagulants, coagulation temperatures and coagulant
concentration on yield, antioxidant and textural properties of
tofu.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Soybeans:
The soybean genotypes used were MAUS71, PK416,
PS1347, JS335 (Bhopal), JS335 (Pune), JS9560, JS9305, NRC-
12, NRC-37 and VL soya 47. The soybean samples were cleaned
and stored in plastic containers in the dark at 4°C until they
were processed for soymilk.
Preparation of soymilk:
One hundred grams of soybeans were first rinsed and
soaked in 500 ml of deionized water for 4 h at room temperature.
Hydrated soybeans were drained, rinsed and ground in a
Waring blender for 2 min on high speed with hot water (1:6
soybean and water ratio). The slurry was boiled for 15 min at
90-94°C and filtered to remove the coarse material (okara) from
the soymilk slurry. The volume of the final soymilk was set to
500ml using deionized water. In each experiment, the soymilk
was freshly prepared daily.

550 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Preparation of Tofu using chemical coagulants:
One hundred ml of freshly prepared soymilk (20°C) was
transferred to a plastic container and maintained in a 96°C
water bath for 15 min. The hot soymilk was removed from the
water bath and transferred to a beaker. The following
coagulants were used: magnesium chloride, calcium chloride,
calcium sulfate and magnesium sulfate at concentrations of
20,30,40,50 60, 70, 80 and 90 mM. The coagulant was added to
soymilk at 90°C, 80°C, 70°C and 60°C for each concentration
of coagulant and the mixture was stirred five times. The
solution was allowed to coagulate undisturbed for 5 minutes
at the room temperature. The curd was then transferred into a
laboratory-designed tofu box (steel mould) lined with
Miracloth for molding and tofu whey removal. The cloth was
folded over the top of the curd and pressing was achieved
with a weight (the weight covered the entire top surface of the
folded cloth of curd while pressing), for 1 hours. The tofu was
then unwrapped from the Miracloth and the weight of the
fresh tofu brick recorded. Textural analysis was conducted
promptly.
Determination of Tofu yield and moisture:
Tofu yield was determined by weighing the tofu brick
immediately after removing from the tofu-box and was
expressed as weight in grams of fresh tofu produced per 100
grams of soymilk. An approximate 3 g portion was used for
dry matter determination. The total solid content of tofu sample
was determined by drying the sample to constant weight at
85°C in an air oven.
Physical characteristics determination of tofu whey:
1. Soluble solids / brix %; Total solid contents of tofu
whey was measured by using the lab hand refractometer
(Model ATAGO N1, brix 0-32%, made in Japan). With
samples equilibrated at 20°C prior to taking measurement,
1 ml of each sample was poured on refractometer prism
and readings taken. Values were expressed as brix %.
2. pH measurement; ph measurements of tofu whey were
conducted by using a hand held pH/mV/Temperature
meter (Model pH 323, Ser.-Nr. 63260002, WTW 82362
Weilheim, Germany) attached to a stainless steel pH/
Temperature probe. Prior to taking measurements, the
instrument was calibrated with distilled water pH 7.
3. Conductometric analysis; Conductometric analysis of
tofu whey was performed by conductivity meter
(H12300, microprocessor conductivity meter, Hanna
instrument Inc., Woonsocket, Romania, USA.)
Proximate analysis:
Chemical composition of the soybean, soymilk and Tofu
was done. The crude moisture, protein and fat content were
determined by vacuum oven method, Kjeldahl method using
a protein conversion factor of 6.25 and Soxhlet extraction
method, respectively (AOAC, 1995). The ash contents were
determined using the method of AOAC 1990. Results were
expressed on dry-matter basis.
Determination of antioxidant activity (2, 2- diphenyl-1-
picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) inhibition):
DPPH is a stable free radical in a methanolic solution. In
its oxidized form, the DPPH radical has an absorbance maximum
centered at about 520 nm.Take 0.5 gm dried sample and add 4
ml methanol for extraction for over night in the test tube. After
extraction filter it using what man no. 1 filter paper and maintain
5 ml using methanol.Take 0.2 ml extracted sample in the test
tube and add 3.8 ml DPPH reagent and shake well. The samples
allow incubating at room temperature for 30 min. The
absorbance of the DPPH solution was measured at 517 nm
against blank and control (methanol + DPPH reagent).
Determination of textural properties of Tofu:
The textural properties of Tofu were determined using
the Texture Profile Analysis (TPA) curve. Texture Profile
Analysis uses mechanical parameters of texture, which imitate
the action of jaws, and the texture analyser is programmed to
compress a bite-size piece twice in a reciprocating motion.
Texture analysis was carried out using a laboratory-developed
system consisting of a moving probe and a digital balance
connected to a computer equipped with software recording
the actual force produced by compressing the tofu sample.
Samples for texture measurement were 2x2 cm dia. cylinders of
tofu, cut from the main block with a cork borer, then trimmed
to length by cutting with fine wires set in a frame 2 cm apart. A
two-cycle compression test was used, in which the probe
touched the sample and compressed it to 75% of the brick
height (15 mm) at a cross-head speed 18 mm/min, returned
and repeated the test using the same parameters. Parameters
recorded from each test curve were fracturability, hardness,
cohesiveness, gumminess, springiness, chewiness and
resilience. These values represent standard calculations of
curve attributes of Texture Profile Analysis described by
Bourne, 1978. All the peaks were recorded as forces.Each tofu
sample was analyzed in duplicate.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Soymilk is essentially a water extract of soybeans and
there are many variations on the basic soymilk processing
steps. Tofu was made by coagulating soy milk, and then
pressing the resulting curds into blocks. Four tested chemical
coagulants with 10 soybean genotypes were used to coagulate
the soymilk and the results showed that the concentration of
soymilk and type of coagulant had a great influence on the
properties of the Tofu gel. The results also confirmed that the
use of a suitable concentration of the quick-acting coagulants
is more critical than that of the slow-acting coagulants in tofu

TRIPATHI AND CHANDRA, Optimization of Coagulating Conditions for Preparation of Good Quality Tofu 551
making. It was found that different coagulants produce tofu
with different textural and flavour properties. Calcium Sulphate
creates a bridge by which the soy proteins in the milk can
aggregate.
Proximate composition of Soybean:
Figure 1 shows the proximate biochemical composition
of different soybean varieties. The moisture contents of
different soybean varieties were between 3.9 % to 10.0%. On
a dry weight basis, the protein content of different varieties
ranged from 31- to 36%. There was no clear relationship
between tofu yield and soybean protein content; however,
the firmness of tofu prepared from these varieties decreased
as the protein content of the soybean decreased. These results
are in general agreement with other findings, wherein it has
been reported that soybean varieties high in protein content
produced tofu with high yield and firmer texture (Shen, et al.,
1991).
Fig. 1.
Proximate composition of soybean genotypes used in
preparation for tofu
Soymilk preparation using soybean genotypes:
Soymilk was prepared with hot grinding method using
bean to water ratio of 1:8 and 1:6 for grinding. The soymilk
prepared with 1:6 beans to water ratio was found to more
suitable for tofu preparation and minimum loss through tofu
whey. Under identical conditions of extraction, yield of soymilk
from various varieties was different (Table1). Genotypes
‘JS335’ and ‘PK416’ gave maximum and minimum yield of
soymilk, respectively. The total solids and protein content of
soymilk prepared from different varieties differed significantly.
Genotypes PS 1347yielded soymilk with highest total solids
whereas protein content was maximum in soymilk prepared
from genotype JS9305 followed by PS1347 and JS9305. The
fat contents of various soymilk samples were statistically
different. Soymilk prepared from genotype NRC 37 exhibited
maximum fat content and variety VLsoya contains minimum
fat content. Results obtained in this investigation
demonstrated that soybeans containing greater amounts of
protein, in general, yielded soymilk with higher protein
content. Min, et al. 2005 reported the correlation coefficients
between soybean protein and Nearly 27-39 percent of fat
present in whole soybean is lost along the residue (okara),
which is a by product of soymilk industry. The values in the
present study are similar to those obtained by Wang, et al.,
1983, Lim, et al., 1990 and Shen, et al., 1991.
Tofu preparation by using chemical coagulants:
Tofu was prepared by using 10 soybean genotypes with
salt coagulants (magnesium chloride, calcium chloride, calcium
sulfate and magnesium sulfate) at concentrations of 20,30,40,50
60, 70, 80 and 90 mM.Table 2 shows the optimal coagulating
conditions for highest average yield of different soybean
varieties. The highest tofu yield of different soybean varieties
are between 232.6 to307 (g/100gm). The result indicates that
magnesium chloride is effective with most of the varieties.
Higher temperature above 80 0 C is most suitable for coagulation
in most of the processing conditions. Antioxidant properties
of tofu prepared with different coagulants with soybean
varieties were between 25 to 45 %. Highest antioxidant activity
Table.1.
Yield, physicochemical properties and organoleptic characteristics of soymilk prepared from different soybean
varieties*
Attributes
Genotypes
PK 416 PS 1347 JS 335 JS 335 MAUS 71 VL Soya 47 JS-9305 JS-9560 NRC-12 NRC-37
(Bhopal) (Pune)
Yield of milk, (ml / 100g) 625 641 640 645 630 635 631 638 640 640
Total solids, % 10.95 11.23 11.12 11.20 10.75 10.30 11.38 11.40 10.82 10.95
Protein, %` 3.18 3.19 3.08 3.11 3.12 3.02 3.32 3.11 3.17 3.19
Fat , % 1.89 1.72 1.78 1.89 1.71 1.65 1.78 1.92 1.90 1.94
pH 6.23 6.29 6.21 6.22 6.27 6.34 6.37 6.29 6.23 6.31
TDS (g/l)) 2.07 2.05 2.09 2.05 2.08 2.09 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.09
Flavour 7.17 7.13 7.17 7.1 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.8 7.11 7.12
Overall acceptability 7.3 6.9 7.07 6.7 6.5 6.7 6.3 6.3 6.8 6.9
*Results are the means of triplicates

552 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Table. 2.
Optimum coagulating conditions for tofu yield in
soybean varieties*
Genotypes Coagulating conditions Moist Yield
(g/100g
soybean )
PK 416 MgCl2 ( 80 mM 90 0 C)
MgCl2 ( 50 mM 60 0 C)
MgCl2 ( 60 mM 70 0 C)
PS 1347 MgCl2 ( 40 mM 60 0 C)
MgCl2 ( 90 mM 70 0 C)
MgCl2 ( 30 mM 60 0 C)
JS 335
(Bhopal)
JS 335
(Pune)
is found in tofu prepared with varieties JS335 (Pune).The tofu
was processed from the same soybean and the same batch of
soymilk with all salt coagulants. A significant (P < 0.05) increase
and decrease of protein and fat, respectively, was observed
when soybean was processed into soymilk. Similar trend of
significant increase and decrease in the content of protein
and fat, respectively, was observed when the soymilk was
coagulated into tofu irrespective of the source of coagulant.
It could be assumed that the coagulants allow the release of
fats during processing, probably suggesting that the
processing method considerably decreases the fat-binding
capacity of protein.
Tofu whey analysis:
MgCl2 ( 80 mM 90 0 C)
MgCl2 ( 90 mM 70 0 C)
MgSO4 ( 30 mM 90 0 C)
Ca SO4 ( 40 mM 90 0 C)
Ca SO4 ( 40 mM 90 0 C)
Ca SO4 ( 60 mM 60 0 C)
MAUS 71 MgSO4 ( 40 mM 90 0 C)
MgSO4 ( 40 mM 90 0 C)
MgSO4 ( 70 mM 90 0 C)
VL Soya 47 CaCl2 ( 90 mM 60 0 C)
Ca SO4 ( 30 mM 80 0 C)
CaCl2 ( 90 mM 60 0 C)
JS-9305 Mg SO4 ( 50 mM 70 0 C)
Mg SO4 ( 60 mM 70 0 C)
MgCl2 (30 mM 90 0 C)
JS-9560 Ca SO4 ( 90 mM 70 0 C)
Ca SO4 ( 40 mM 70 0 C)
Ca SO4 ( 50 mM 70 0 C)
NRC-12 MgCl2 ( 60 mM 70 0 C)
MgCl2 ( 50 mM 70 0 C)
MgCl2 ( 90 mM 70 0 C)
NRC-37 MgCl2 ( 70 mM 90 0 C)
Mg SO4 ( 80 mM 90 0 C)
Ca SO4 ( 80 mM 80 0 C)
*Results are the means of triplicates
285.67
263.67
248.44
246.20
223.32
203.60
297.67
279.81
262.17
308.67
288.41
279.88
283.18
264.93
245.67
262.20
237.94
208.83
299.61
273.46
258.33
252.31
246.15
231.33
234.86
226.71
216.20
263.88
246.38
227.23
Antioxidant
activity (%
inhibition)
26.45
23.59
25.90
33.66
29.34
32.67
24.5
23.66
20.50
45.45
39.25
42.30
25.20
27.80
26.30
36.33
32.00
31.80
31.26
32.90
29.60
33.00
33.25
30.78
34.50
33.75
34.33
39.25
37.90
41.75
The tofu whey is the byproduct Tofu and it composition
is important for optimization of coagulating condition for
higher yield, greater quality and least soya components loss
through whey. The value of per cent transmittance of Tofu
whey is directly indication of loss of soy compounds through
tofu whey. pH, per cent transmittance, conductivity, total solid
content and total dissolve solid ( TDS ) were determined for
optimization of coagulating condition ( Table 3 and Fig.2).The
Table.3.
Physico-chemical analysis of Tofu whey prepared
by using different coagulants*
Genotyes Optimal
Coagulating
conditions
PK 416 MgCl2 (80
mM 90 0 C)
PS 1347 MgCl2 (40
mM 60 0 C)
JS 335 MgCl2 ( 80
(Bhopal) mM 90 0 C)
JS 335 Ca SO4 (40
(Pune) mM 90 0 C)
MAUS 71 MgSO4 (40
mM 90 0 C)
VL Soya Ca SO4 (40
47 mM 80 0 C)
JS 9305 MgCl2 (90
mM 90 0 C)
JS 9560 Ca SO4 (30
mM 60 0 C)
NRC 12 MgCl2 (60
mM 70 0 C)
NRC 37 MgCl2 (70
mM 90 0 C)
pH
Solid
contents
(%)
*Results are the means of triplicates
Conduct
ivity
(mS)
TDS
(g/l)
Transmi
ttance
(%)
5.58 3.0 4.88 2.42 93
5.38 3.2 7.38 3.48 92
5.63 4.8 7.46 2.45 97.5
5.87 3.2 4.77 2.72 97
4.9 3.0 4.76 2.39 97
5.87 4.0 5.6 3.3 94
5.49 5.0 21.87 6.93 76
6.15 4.8 4.11 2.76 66
5.60 5 7.56 3.87 95
5.64 3.1 10.54 5.26 92
whey volumes from each soymilk batch coagulated at different
coagulants at concentrations (20mM to 90 mM) were compared.
Whey from the batches with low concentration of CaSO 4
.2H 2
O
was cloudy and/or contained small fragile curd fragments
which, when undisturbed, would settle to the bottom of the
beaker. At an optimum coagulation condition amount of whey
being pressed out of the tofu was lowest and the Tofu yield
was highest.
The pH of the whey was found to affect with increases
in coagulant concentrations with soybean genotypes. The
change was slower after most of the protein bodies had
coagulated. The pH of tofu whey was not dependent on the
Fig. 2. Effect of coagulants on physic-chemical parameters of
discharge tofu whey

TRIPATHI AND CHANDRA, Optimization of Coagulating Conditions for Preparation of Good Quality Tofu 553
temperature at which the coagulant was added. The
transparency of the whey was measured at 400 nm with
increasing concentration of coagulants. Per cent transmittance
of the whey was not similar for all the coagulating conditions
(concentration and temperature). Optimum clarity of whey
transmittance, with cultivars of soybeans, depended on
coagulant concentrations and the percent solids of soymilk.
Tofu prepared using the coagulants gave clear whey,
indicating that the level of coagulants added was sufficient
for complete coagulation of soy proteins. The solids in whey
are most probably soluble sugars and low molecular weight
protein (Lee and Rha. 1978). The variation in the whey volume
was most likely due to a change in water holding capacity of
tofu, which may be affected by coagulants (Lim, et al., 1990).
The coagulation and pressing process removes some
carbohydrates, which results in an increase in protein content.
Antioxidant properties of Tofu:
Antioxidant property, especially radical scavenging
activity is important in foods and in biological systems due to
its deleterious role on free radicals. Excessive formation of
free radicals accelerates the oxidation of lipids in foods and
decreases food quality and consumer acceptance (Min, et al.,
2005). The increase in antioxidant activity may be due to the
polyphenolic compounds present in acid coagulants which
may contribute to increase in antioxidant activity of tofu. The
antioxidant activity of tofu prepared with different varieties
was found to different (Table 3). Soybean is a polyphenolic
rich legume consumed worldwide ,and tofu is a widely
consumed soybean product (Wu, et al., 2004). Researchers
have postulated that the health benefit of tofu may be due to
a specific group of phenolic compounds found uniquely within
soybean known as isoflavonoids. It may be due to its
estrogenic effect or antioxidant activity (Lee, et al.,2004).
Isoflavones are phytochemicals that exist in two basic
categories, the aglycones and the glucosidic conjugates. The
main glucosidic isoflavones are daidzin and genistin and the
main aglycones are daidzein, and genistein. However, it is the
aglycone (glucoside-free) form of isoflavonoids that is
metabolically active, which also possesses higher antioxidant
activity. Each gram of Tofu contains 0.532 mg of isoflavones.
In another study, the total isoflavone content in raw Tofu and
cooked Tofu was found to be 0.297 and 0.258 mg/g, respectively.
Variation in isoflavone contents in tofu products was
governed by the original content in soybeans and extent of
loss in whey during recovery of soy curd.
Texture properties of Tofu:
For all used chemical coagulants, except for organic
acids, significant correlations were found between tofu
hardness and volume of separated whey and between the
fracturability and gumminess of tofu (Table 4). On the basis of
results coagulants can be classified into two groups – slowacting
coagulants such as CaSO4 and GDL, and quick-acting
Table. 4.
Texture analysis of Tofu prepared from different
coagulants*
Genotypes
Optimal Coagulating Hard-
Sprin-
Cohes-
Chewi
condition with highest ness giness iveness -ness
yeild
(g)
( g)
PK 416 MgCl2 ( 80 mM 90 0 C) 970 0.75 0.31 180
PS 1347 MgCl2 ( 40 mM 60 0 C) 319 0.79 0.26 58
JS 335 MgCl2 ( 80 mM 90 0 C) 855 0.68 0.33 196
(Bhopal)
JS 335 Ca SO4 ( 40 mM 90 0 C) 272 0.83 0.39 72
(Pune)
MAUS MgSO4 ( 40 mM 90 0 C) 690 0.80 0.36 112
71
VL Soya Ca SO4 ( 40 mM 80 0 C) 208 0.59 0.31 76
47
JS-9305 MgCl2 ( 90 mM 90 0 C) 720 0.73 0.28 213
JS-9560 Ca SO4 ( 30 mM 60 0 C) 158 0.62 0.26 78
NRC-12 MgCl2 ( 60 mM 70 0 C) 335 0.75 0.31 211
NRC-37 MgCl2 ( 70 mM 90 0 C) 670 0.67 0.30 210
*Results are the means of triplicates
coagulants such as MgCl 2
and CaCl 2
. MgCl 2
-tofu had on an
average the highest hardness compared to other used
coagulants. MgSO 4
was also shown to be very effective in
producing hard tofu; however this was valid only when the
coagulant was added at high temperature. The results also
confirmed the well-known fact that the use of a suitable
concentration of the quick-acting coagulants is more critical
than that of the slow-acting coagulants in tofu making.
Increasing coagulation temperature and coagulant
concentration increased tofu hardness but decreased tofu
yield.
Tofu is one of the most popular soy-products and is
prepared by coagulating soymilk. The quality of Tofu depends
on several parameters such as coagulation method, processing
condition, texture, the content of two storage protein
components glycinin and â-conglycinin and their ratio. All
coagulants (salts and acids) used in investigation were able
to coagulate the soymilk at selected concentrations (20 mM
to 90mM). In used coagulants the highest tofu yield (308.36g/
100g seed) was found in genotypes JS335 procured from Pune
with CaSO4 ( 40 mM 90 0 C, moisture content 75%, antioxidant
45%) followed by yield (299.6g/100g seed) in variety JS335
procured from CIAE, Bhopal with MgCl 2
(80 mm 90 0 C, moisture
content 72.27%, antioxidant 24.5 %). The most suitable
temperature for tofu preparation was found to 80 0 C and 90 0 C.
Depending on the type and concentration of coagulant used,
as well as stirring during coagulation and pressure applied to
the curd, tofu ranges in hardness from soft to firm with a
moisture content of 70 to 90% and protein content of 5 to
16%. The pH of tofu whey was found to independent on the
temperature. Tofu prepared with MgCl 2
(salt coagulant) and
citric acid (acid coagulants) had highest hardness compared
to other used coagulants. Use of a suitable concentration of
the quick-acting coagulants is more critical than that of the
slow-acting coagulants in Tofu making.

554 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
LITERATURE CITED
AOAC.1990. Official methods of analysis, 15th edn. Association of
Official Analytical Chemists. Arlington
AOAC 1995. Official methods of analysis, 16th edn. Association of
Official Analytical Chemists, Washington, DC
Beddows, C.G., Wong, J. 1987. Optimization of yield and properties of
silken tofu from soybean. III. Coagulant concentration,mixing and
filtration pressure. Int J Food Sci Technol 22:29–34
Bourne, M. C. 1978. Texture profile analysis. Food Technology 32,
62–72.
Cai, T.D., Chang, K.C. 1998. Characteristic of production-scale tofu as
affected by soymilk coagulation method: propeller blade size, mixing
time and coagulant concentrations. Food Res Int 31:289–295
Kohyama, K., Yoshida, M. and Nishinarit, K. 1992. Rheological Study
on Gelation of Soybean 11s Protein by Glucono-&l actone. J Agric
Food Chem 40:740–744
Lee, C. H., and Rha, C.K. 1978. Microstructure of soybean protein
aggregates and its elation to the physical and textural properties of
the curd. Journal of Food Science 43: 79–84.
Lim, B. T., de Man, J. M., de Man, L., and Buzzell, R. I. 1990. Yield and
quality of tofu as affected by soybean and soymilk characteristics.
Calcium sulphate coagulant. Journal of Food Science, 55: 1088–
1092.
Min, S. M., Yu, Y., and Martin S.S. 2005. Effect of soybean varieties
and growing locations on the physical and chemical properties of
soymilk and tofu. Journal of Food Science 70: C8-C12.
Mullin, J., Fregeau-Reidb, J.A. Butlerb, M.V., Poysaa, V., Woodrowa,
L., Jessopa, D.B. and Raymondb, D. 2001. An interlaboratory test
of a procedure to assess soybean quality for soymilk and tofu
production. Food Res Int, 34:669–677
Oboh G. 2006 Coagulants modulate the hypocholesterolemic effect of
tofu (coagulated soymilk). Afr. J Biotechnol, 5(3):290–294.
Shen, C. F., DeMan, L., Buzell, R. I., and DeMan, J. M. 1991. Yield and
quality of tofu as affected by soybean and soymilk characteristics:
Glucono-ä-lactone coagulant. Journal of Food Science, 56: 109–
112.
Wang, C.R., Chang, S.K. 1995 Physicochemical properties and tofu
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3034
Recieved on 05-08-2013 Accepted on 25-08-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 555-557, 2013
Genetic Divergence for Yeild and Quality Components in Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata
(L.) Walp.)
KIRAN TIGGA AND KRISHNA TANDEKAR
Departement of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur, 492006 India
email: k3980t@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The existence of genetic divergence among the 22 cowpea
genotypes was examined by employing Mahalanobis’s D 2
statistics. The genotypes were grouped into four nonoverlapping
clusters showed genetic diversity rather
geographical diversity. The maximum intra-cluster distance
(3.377) was obtained for cluster I followed by (2.795) cluster III
and (2.014) cluster II. The lowest intra cluster D 2 value was
shown by cluster IV (0.000) which had only one genotype
belonging to the cluster. The highest inter cluster D 2 values
were observed between cluster I and cluster IV (8.045) followed
by cluster III and IV (7.925), cluster II and cluster IV (7.086) and
cluster II and cluster III (4.864). The lowest inter cluster was
found between cluster I and cluster III (3.548) followed by cluster
I and cluster II (4.151). Thus, intercrossing of genotypes from
different clusters showing superior mean performance may
help in obtaining higher yields. Genotypes belonging to cluster
I may produce better heterosis and segregants with the genotypes
of cluster III and IV.
Key words
Cowpea, Genetic divergence, D 2 statistics, clustering
pattern.
Cowpea is a multipurpose crop grown as green
vegetable, grain legume mainly for dry beans and as forage,
green manure and quick growing cover crop under a wide
range of climatic conditions. It is also a good companion crop
with several food, fodder and fibre crops. Mahalanobis’s D 2
statistic as a tool for estimating genetic divergence in crop
plants can be used to choose the parents without making
crosses before the initiation of hybridization programme.
Therefore, the present investigation was undertaken to study
the nature and magnitude of genetic divergence in twenty
two vegetable cowpea genotypes. Cowpea genotypes
evaluated in a randomized block design (RBD) with three
replications during kharif 2008. Genetic diversity is one of the
key factors in tailoring the effective breeding programme in
any crop plant. The information on genetic divergence of
available genotypes will be helpful in planning hybridization
programme for evolving superior varieties; hence the studies
on genetic divergence of cowpea genotypes were undertaken.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experimental material for the present investigation
comprised of 22 genotypes of cowpea including indigenous
as well as exotic origin and elite breeding lines. The material
for the study was received from Durgapura Rajsthan, Vamban
and Madurai Tamilnadu, S.K. Nagar Gujrat, Hissar Haryana,
Bangalore Karnataka, IARI, New Delhi, Trombay, Mumbai and
Dept. of Plant Breeding and Genetics, College of Agriculture,
Raipur. These genotypes were grown during kharif 2008 in a
randomized block design with three replication at research
farm of Department of plant breeding and genetics IGKV,
Raipur. Fertilizer dose of 20 N: 50 P 2
O5: 20 K 2
0 kg/ha was
applied. Observations were recorded on competitive and
randomly chosen five plants from each genotype and from
each replication. Phenological observations like flowering and
maturity recorded on plot basis. Average of the data from the
sampled plants in respect of different quantitative characters
was used for various statistical analyses.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The existence of genetic divergence among the 22
cowpea genotypes was examined by employing
Mahalanobis’s D 2 statistics. The clustering pattern of 22
genotypes on the basis of D 2 analysis has been presented in
Table 1. Clustering of genotypes clearly indicate their genetic
diversity and no geographical diversity were shown. The
entries were grouped into IV distinct clusters. The highest
number of genotypes appeared in cluster I, which possessed
10 genotypes. The second highest number of entries was
found in cluster III which comprised of 8 genotypes. Cluster
II comprised of three genotypes Genotype Subhra a standard
variety of cowpea independently belong to cluster IV.
The data on means for 17 characters presented in Table
2. revealed marked difference between the 4 clusters in respect
of cluster means for different characters. Cluster III showed
highest mean performance for days to 50 per cent flowering
Table 1.
Cluster
Number
Clustering pattern of cowpea genotypes on the
basis of Mahalanobis D 2 statistics.
Number of
Genotypes
included
I 10
Name of genotypes
CPD-103, VCP-04-001, ACM-05-2,
CPD-91, GC-502, KBC-1-M, CPD-
83, GC-601, RC-101 (C), GC-3 (C).
II 3 VCP-04-003, ACM-05-7, HC-08-02
III 8
IV 1 Subhra
DCP-2, DCP-6, VBN-1 (LC), TCM-
138-1, TCM-148-1, V-130, V-240,
Khalleshwari (LC)

556 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Table 2.
Mean performance of different clusters for seed yield and its component traits along with quality characters.
Clusters DF DM PPP PH BR PP PL SP CP SV SD HC HI SC SI
I 46.33 58.57 136.30 123.15 3.56 9.49 14.88 12.58 6.16 0.11 1.03 0.13 0.94 0.10 0.99 10.62 3.79
II 47.89 60.67 88.56 89.20 3.36 12.01 11.93 11.51 6.22 0.06 1.06 0.07 1.15 0.05 0.89 7.21 3.22
III 72.54 100.62 141.00 143.56 3.92 11.57 12.27 11.43 6.05 0.11 1.05 0.11 1.00 0.11 1.8 9.75 4.12
IV 48.67 60.67 117.67 90.73 4.13 22.10 13.10 13.93 7.47 0.04 1.44 0.08 1.45 0.10 2.56 6.83 5.35
DF = Days to 50% flowering. DM = Days to maturity. PPP = Plant population per plot. PH = Plant height.
BR = Number of branches per plant. PP = Pods per plant. PL = Pod length. SP = Seeds per pod.
CP = Clusters per plant. SV = Seed volume. SD = Seed density HC = Hydration capacity.
HI = Hydration index. SC = Swelling capacity. SI = Swelling index 100 SW = 100-seed weight.
SYP = Seed yield per plant.
100
SW
SYP
followed by days to maturity, plant population and plant
height. Cluster IV showed highest mean performance for
number of branches per plant, pods per plant, and clusters
per plant and seed density. Cluster I showed highest cluster
mean for seed yield per plant followed 100 seed weight and
hydration capacity.
Cluster IV showed the highest cluster mean for seed
yield per plant followed by cluster III and cluster I, whereas
lowest cluster mean value showed by cluster II. Similar results
were reported by Kumari, et al., 2004 for cluster IV had high
mean value for number of cluster per plant, pod per plant,
seed yield per plant. Pandey, 2007 reported that the cluster I
had minimum days to maturity whereas III had maximum days
to maturity.
The per cent contribution of 17 characters towards total
genetic divergence presented in Table 3 showed that days to
50 per cent flowering (53.68%) exhibited highest per cent
contribution towards total genetic divergence, followed by
hydration index (15.58%), 100-seed weight (13.42%), swelling
capacity (11.69%), seed volume (2.60%), swelling index
(1.73%), seed density (0.87%) and seed yield per plant (0.43%).
Similar to this results Thiagarajan and Natrajan, 1989 and
Kumawat and Raje, 2005 reported maximum contributing days
to 50% flowering towards genetic divergence.
The intra and inter cluster distances for all the traits
represented by D 2 values have been presented in Table 4 and
depicted in Fig. 1. The maximum intra-cluster distance (3.377)
was obtained for cluster I followed by (2.795) cluster III and
(2.014) cluster II. The lowest intra cluster D 2 value was shown
by cluster IV (0.000) which had only one genotype. The highest
inter cluster D 2 values were observed between cluster I and
cluster IV (8.045) followed by cluster III and IV (7.925), cluster
II and cluster IV (7.086) and cluster II and cluster III (4.864).
The lowest inter cluster was found between cluster I and
cluster III (3.548) followed by cluster I and cluster II (4.151).
The hybrids between genotypes of different clusters
will express high heterosis and throw more useful segregants.
The most suitable clusters would be cluster I and cluster IV as
highest inter cluster distance is observed between these two
clusters. Similar results found by Kumawat and Raje, 2005a
Table 3. Contribution of each character to divergence.
Characters
Number
of times
appearing
first in
ranking
Per cent
contribution
DF DM PP PH BR PP PL SP CP SV SD HC HI SC SI
100
SW
SYP TOTAL
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
124 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 2 0 36 27 4 31 1 231
53.68 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.60 0.87 0 15.58 11.69 1.73 13.42 0.43 100
DF = Days to 50% flowering DM = Days to maturity PPP = Plant population per plot.
PH = Plant height. BR = Number of branches per plant. PP = Pods per plant.
PL = Pod length. SP = Seeds per pod. CP = Clusters per plant.
SV = Seed volume. SD = Seed density. HC = Hydration capacity.
HI = Hydration index. SC = Swelling capacity. SI = Swelling index.
100 SW = 100-seed weight. SYP = Seed yield per plant.

TIGGA AND TANDEKAR, Genetic Divergence for Yeild and Quality Components in Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) 557
Cluster
II
(2.014)
(7.086)
Cluster
I
(3.377)
(4.151) (3.548)
(4.868)
Cluster
IV
(0.000)
(8.045)
Cluster
III
(2.795)
(7.925)
Fig. 1. Diagrammatic presentation of intra and inter cluster
distances in cowpea
Table 4.
Intra (Bold and diagonal) and Inter cluster distance
values in cowpea.
Cluster
number
I II III IV
I 3.377
II 4.151 2.014
III 3.548 4.864 2.795
IV 8.045 7.086 7.925 0.000
that intra cluster distance ranged for Cluster IV (0.000) to
Cluster I (3.377).
Hence it can be concluded that the diverse parent
belonging to different cluster should be involved in the
hybridization programme based on their merits of characters.
Beside this more number of germplasm should be incorporated
in hybridization programme.
LITERATURE CITED
Kumari, V., Arora, R.N., Dahiya, O.S., Joshi, U.N. and Singh, J.V. 2004.
Genetic divergence for seed yield, seed vigor and seed quality traits
in cowpea. J. Arid Legumes, 1(1): 58-60.
Kumawat, K.C. and Raje, R.S. 2005a. Genetic divergence in cowpea
(Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.). J. Arid legumes, 2(1): 25-27.
Pandey, I.D. 2007. Genetic divergence in grain cowpea (Vigna
unguiculata (L.) Walp.). Legume Res., 30(2):92-97.
Thiagarajan, K. and Natarajan, C. 1989. Genetic divergence in cowpea.
Tropical Grain Legume Bulletin. pp. 2-3.
Recieved on 14-07-2013 Accepted on 30-07-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 558-561, 2013
Evaluation and Economics of Different Weed Management Practices in Rabi Maize
(Zea mays L.)
BIRENDRA KUMAR, RANVIR KUMAR*, SUMAN KALYANI* AND M. HAQUE
Bihar Agricultural College, Sabour, Bhagalpur (Bihar) 813 210
* Bhola Paswan Shastri Agricultural College, Purnea (Bihar)-854 302
email: ranvir.bausabour@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted to evaluate the
effectiveness and economic feasibility as influenced by tillage
system and weed management practices in rabi maize (Zea
mays L.). Weed management had positive influence on growth,
yield attributes and yield component of the crops. Significantly
lower weed density was recorded in zero tillage (ZT) as compared
to conventional tillage (CT). Manual weeding at 15 and 30 days
after sowing (DAS), ZT-Glyphosate Pre Plant followed by
Atrazine+ Halosulfuran (1.0 kg + 90 g a.i./ha) as POE, proved
equally effective in increasing most of the growth parameters,
yield attributes, yield and have economic advantage. The effect
due to different weed management practices on grain yield of
maize was found to be statistically significant. The maximum
mean grain yield of (89.2 q/ha) was recorded from the plots
where two hand weeding at 15 and 30 DAS was performed and
was statistically at par with the mean grain yield obtained
under different weed management practices i.e ZT-Glyphosate
Pre Plant followed by Atrazine+ Halosulfuran (1.0 kg + 90 g
a.i./ha) as POE (89.0 q/ha), CT- Acetochlor @ (3.0 lit a.i/ha) as
Pre (85.7 q/ha), ZT-Glyphosate Pre plant and these grain yield
obtained were significantly superior to the grain yield obtained
under rest of the weed management practices. Yield advantage
due to different weed management practices over weedy check
were mainly attributed for better yield attributing parameters
and cooperatively less weed population, weed biomass along
with higher weed control efficiency.
The highest net return Rs, 55767/ha was noted in treatment
ZT-Glyphosate Pre Plant followed by Atrazine+ Halosulfuran
(1.0 kg + 90 g a.i./ha) as POE and maximum benefit: cost ratio
of 1.98 was recorded under the treatment ZT-Glyphosate Pre
plant followed by Maize+ Lathyrus as intercrop and lower
value of net return Rs, 37980/ha with benefit: cost ratio of
(1.35) were recorded under weedy check.
Key words
Conventional tillage, Rabi Maize, Weed density, Yield,
Zero tillage
Tillage is a critical practice in crop production as it
provides favourable condition for crop growth and
development. It is reported that the normal tillage may not be
required for getting optimum crop yield (Carter, et al., 2002).
Thus conservation tillage practices are gaining importance in
recent year and challenging the need of tillage operation in
maize. Rabi season maize suffers from severe weed competition
and depending upon the intensity, nature, stages and duration
of weed infestation causes yield losses varying from 28-100%
(Patel, et al., 2006). Manual weeding is often difficult due to
inadequate supply of labour in time, higher cost and non
workable condition of the field. In such situation, use of
herbicides is an obvious choice. Adoption of zero tillage
cultivation helps in timeliness of sowing each crop in rotation,
and hence leads to increase in productivity. Zero tillage has
certain advantage like improved soil conditions due to
decomposition of crop residue in situ, increase in infiltration
rate, less soil compaction and reduced cost of seed bed
preparation(Singh, et al., 2001). Tillage affects the soil weed
seed bank and efficacy of herbicides. A wide spaced crop
suffers from heavy weed infestation due to slow initial growth
particularly under Rabi season. Weed infestation is one of
the major constraints for low yield of maize as weeds compete
with crop plants for essentials inputs. Weed depletes 30-40%
of applied nutrients from the soil. The losses caused by weeds
exceed the losses from any other category of agricultural pests
was noticed by Sharma and Behera, 2009. Under such a
situation, the concept of zero tillage offers ample scope for
combating weeds without any threat to eco-system.
To realize the maximum benefit of applied costly inputs
and high yields, control of weeds is inevitable. Growing
intercrops in widely spaced maize crop not only reduce
intensity of weeds but also gives additional yield was noticed
by Hussain Nazim, et al., 2003. Hence, keeping the above fact
in mind, the present investigation was carried out to assess
the possibility of increasing crop production per unit area by
introducing effective tillage and weed control method in rabi
season maize.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A field experiment was carried out during rabi season of
2011-12 and 2012-13 at Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour
campus (25 O 04’ N Latitude, 87 O 04’ E Longitude and 37.19
meter Altitude), in a randomized block design with three
replications. In conventional tilled treatment three ploughing
by cultivator followed by planking was done. Under zero tilled
condition, crop was sown directly and glyphosate @ 1.0 lit
a.i/ha was sprayed one week before sowing of the crop to kill
the existing weeds flora. The treatments comprised 10 weed
management practices i.e., weed control treatments were : Unweeded
check, CT- HW at 15 and 30 DAS,CT- Maize + Lathyrus
as intercrop, CT- Atrazine@1.5kg a.i/ha as Pre-em., CT-

KUMAR et al., Evaluation and Economics of Different Weed Management Practices in Rabi Maize (Zea mays L.) 559
Acetochlor @ (3.0 lit a.i/ha) as Pre-em, CT-2,4-D @ 400 ml a.i/
ha as POE, CT- Topramezone+Atrazine @( 40 ml + 500 g a.i/
ha) as POE, ZT-Glyphosate Pre plant followed by Atrazine
+Halosulfuran(1.0 kg+90 g a.i/ha) as POE, ZT-Glyphosate
Pre plant followed by Topramezone+Atrazine @( 40 ml + 500 g
a.i/ha) as POE, ZT-Glyphosate Pre plant followed by Maize+
Lathyrus as intercrop. Maize ‘DHM-117’ was sown in the
month of November during the 2011-12 and 2012-13 for detailed
investigation. In maize, one - third N was applied basal along
with P and K and the remaining nitrogen were applied in two
splits only in rows of maize each at knee high and pre-taselling
stage. Pre-emergence and Post-emergence herbicides were
applied at next day and 30 days after sowing respectively
using water volume of 700 liters/ha. The data on weed
population, weed dry weight and weed control efficiency were
recorded at different stages of crop. The experimental soil
was sandy-loam in texture with pH 7.1.The organic carbon,
electrical conductivity and available nitrogen, phosphorus
and potash were 0.57%, 0.106ds/m, 270.6, 15.34 and 289.13 kg/
ha, respectively. The rainfall received during the crop season
of respective years was 12.0 mm. Cost of cultivation and gross
return were calculated on the basis of prevailing market prices
of different inputs and produces, respectively.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Weed growth, Density and weed dry weight:
Dominant weed species present in the experimental site
were Cynodon dactylon L, Cyperus rotundus L., Amaranthus
viridis L., Anagalis arvensis L., Argemone maxicana L.,
Chenopodium album L., Melilotus indica L., Oxalis
corniculzta L., Convolvulus arvensis L. Rumex retroflex L.
and Parthenium hysterophorus L.
Weed density was significantly affected due to different
tillage systems. There was reduction in total weed density in
ZT when compared with CT. Higher weed density in CT may
be due to better tilth and exposure of weed seeds to the upper
soil layers (Singh, et al., 2001) .Density of all grasses was
maximum in CT system. All the herbicides reduced weed
density and weed dry weight over weedy check. Minimum
population of all major weed species were significantly reduce
due to two hand weddings at 15 and 30 DAS ZT-Glyphosate
Pre plant followed by Atrazine +Halosulfuran(1.0 kg+90 g a.i/
ha) as POE and ZT-Glyphosate Pre plant followed by
Topramezone+Atrazine @( 40 ml + 500 g a.i/ha) as POE.
Growth and yield attributes of maize:
Different weed management practices significantly
influenced the growth and yield attributes of maize crop
(Table1). Two hand weeding at 15 and 30 days after sowing
being statistically at par with the weed control treatment, ZT-
Glyphosate Pre Plant followed by Atrazine+ Halosulfuran (1.0
kg + 90 g a.i./ha) as POE and ZT-Glyphosate Pre plant as POE
recorded significantly higher values of growth, yield attributes
and yield to the rest of the weed control treatments. This
might be probably due to the creation of modified micro-climate
in turns of physical environment for mechanical manipulation
of soil and lower crop –weed competition under two hand
weeding might have led to better yield components and thus
resulted in higher yield (Mundra, et al., 2003).during hand
weeding and being persistence and broad spectrum control
of weeds keep the population of weed under check by arresting
or inhibiting the germination of weed seeds and arresting the
growth and development of weeds which provide weed-free
environment to the crop resulted into better manifestation of
growth and yield attributes and ultimately enhanced the crop
yield. The results are in conformity with those reported by
Singh, et al., 2005. Yield advantage due to different weed
Table 1.
Effect of weed management on growth, yield attributes of maize.
Treatment
Plant height
(cm)
Cob length
(cm)
Cob diameter
(cm)
No. of
grain row
per cob
No. of grain per
row
weight of
one
cob(gm)
100 grains
weight (g)
W 1 Un-weeded check. 140.8 12.6 4.4 13 36 211 31
W 2 CT-HW at 15 & 30 DAS. 158.2 17.7 5.5 15 43 217 37
W 3 CT-Maize+ lathyrus as intercrop. 146.1 13.9 4.6 13 39 213 34
W 4 CT-Atrazine@1.5kg a.i/ha as Pre-em. 148.9 14.8 4.6 14 40 214 35
W 5 CT-Acetochlor @ 3.0 lit a.i /ha as Pre-em . 151.3 16.7 4.9 14 42 215 36
W 6 CT-2,4-D @ 400 ml a.i/ha as POE . 149.8 15.2 4.7 14 40 214 35
W 7 CT- Topramezone+Atrazine @ (40 ml +
15.5 4.7 14 40
150.4
500 g a.i/ha) as POE.
214 35
W 8 ZT-Glyphosate Pre plant followed by
17.5 5.4 15 42
Atrazine +Halosulfuron(1.0 kg+90 g a.i/ha) as 156.9
216 36
POE .
W 9 ZT-Glyphosate Pre plant followed by
16.6 4.9 14 41
Topramezone+Atra zine @ (40 ml + 500 g 151.6
215 35
a.i/ha) POE.
W 10 ZT-Glyphosate Pre plant followed by
14.8 4.7 14 39
149.3
Maize+ lathyrus as intercrop.
213 35
SEm± 0.85 0.23 0.18 0.62 0.79 0.22 0.94
CD (P=0.05) 1.9 0.48 0.37 1.3 1.68 0.46 1.95

560 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
management practices over weedy check were mainly
attributed for better yield attributing parameters and
cooperatively less weed population weed biomass along with
higher weed control efficiency. Interaction effect of tillage
and weed control method on grain yield was found significant.
Total productivity:
Different weed management practices significantly
influenced the maize-equivalent yield. Hand weeding at 15
and 30 DAS being statistically at par with ZT-Glyphosate Pre
Plant followed by Atrazine+ Halosulfuran (1.0 kg + 90 g a.i./
ha) as POE and ZT-Glyphosate Pre plant as POE recorded
significantly higher grain yield to the rest of the weed control
treatments.
Intercropping systems significantly reduced the weed
population and weed dry weight than sole cropping (Table 2).
Intercropping with Maize + Lathyrus was the more effective
in suppressing weeds and recorded the less weed population
and weed dry weight. The reduction in weed population and
weed dry biomass in intercropping systems may be attributed
to shading effect and competition stress created by the canopy
of more number of crop plants in a unit area having suppressive
effect on associated weeds, thus preventing the weeds to
attain full growth. Intercropping system of Maize + Lathyrus
exhibited land equivalent ratio greater than sole cropping,
indicating greater biological efficiency of intercropping system
and thereby resulting in higher productivity per unit of space.
Planting of maize and lathyrus recorded the higher land
equivalent ratio .All the weed control treatments significantly
reduced the density and dry weight of weeds compared with
weedy check. Hand weeding at 15 and 30 DAS proved most
effective in reducing the population of weeds and weed dry
matter production. The performance of hand weeding, ZT-
Glyphosate Pre Plant followed by Atrazine+ Halosulfuran (1.0
kg + 90 g a.i./ha) as POE, CT- Acetochlor @ (3.0 lit a.i/ha) as
Pre-em and ZT-Glyphosate Pre plant followed by
Topramezone+Atrazine @( 40 ml + 500 g a.i/ha) as POE was
statistically alike and in turns were significantly superior to
the remaining weed control treatments (Table 2).
Significant reduction of weed density and weed dry
biomass under hand weeding and mixed herbicides Atrazine+
Halosulfuran, Topramezone+Atrazine might be due to the fact
that these weed control treatments gave almost season-long
control of weeds obviously due to their persistence in soil for
a sufficiently long time and broad spectrum control of weeds.
The results are in conformity with those reported by Ram, et
al., 2003. All the weed control methods resulted significant
increase in grain and biological yield over weedy check.
Economics:
Higher gross return, net return and B:C ratio was
recorded in zero –tillage as compared to conventional tillage
(Table 3).Treatment ZT-Glyphosate Pre Plant followed by
Atrazine+ Halosulfuran (1.0 kg + 90 g a.i./ha) as POE had the
highest net return(Rs.55767/ha) and ZT-Glyphosate Pre plant
followed by Maize+ Lathyrus as intercrop B:C ratio (1.98) as
compared to rest of the weed control methods.
It may be concluded that Zero tillage and two hand
weeding at 15 and 30 days after sowing appeared to be the
best in reducing weed growth and producing maximum grain
yield in maize.
Table 2.
Effect of weed management on weed density, weed biomass and weed control efficiency.
Treatment
Weed
population
(No/m 2 ) at
20DAS
Weed
Population
(No/m 2 ) at 40
DAS
Dry Wt. of
Weed
(gm/m 2 ) at
20 DAS
Dry Wt. of
Weed
(gm/m 2 ) at
40 DAS
Weed
control
Efficiency at
20 DAS
Weed
control
Efficiency
at 40 DAS
W 1 Un-weeded check. 210 286 54 107 - -
W 2 CT-HW at 15 & 30 DAS. 19 25 8 11 85.1 89.7
W 3 CT-Maize+ lathyrus as intercrop. 86 106 30 62 44.0 42.0
W 4 CT-Atrazine@1.5kg a.i/ha as Pre-em. 53 181 28 75 48.1 30.0
W 5 CT-Acetochlor @ 3.0 lit a.i /ha as Pre-em. 12 35 4 13 92.5 87.8
W 6 CT-2,4-D @ 400 ml a.i/ha as POE. 106 83 30 22 44.4 79.4
W 7 CT- Topramezone+Atrazine @ (40 ml + 500 g 110 123 22 31 59.2 71.0
a.i/ha) as POE.
W 8 ZT-Glyphosate Pre plant followed by Atrazine 15 31 9 21 83.3 80.3
+Halosulfuron(1.0 kg+90 g a.i/ha) as POE.
W 9 ZT-Glyphosate Pre plant followed by
14 41 6 17 88.8 84.1
Topramezone+Atra zine @ (40 ml + 500 g a.i/ha)
POE.
W 10 ZT-Glyphosate Pre plant followed by Maize+ 39 95 13 30 76.0 72.0
lathyrus as intercrop.
SEm± 6.1 6.3 2.2 4.3 - -
CD (P=0.05) 12.4 13.5 4.7 9.1 - -

Table 3.
KUMAR et al., Evaluation and Economics of Different Weed Management Practices in Rabi Maize (Zea mays L.) 561
Effect of weed management on yield of maize, Maize equivalent yield, Cost of cultivation, Gross return, net return,
benefit: cost ratio.
Treatment
Mean Grain
&Maize
equivalent
Yield( q/ha)
General Cost of
cultivation +Cost due to
herbicides
( /ha)
Gross return
( /ha)
Net return
( /ha)
Benefit : cost
ratio
W 1 Un-weeded check. 66.0 28020 66000 37980 1.35
W 2 CT-HW at 15 & 30 DAS. 89.2 28020+8640= 36,660 89200 52540 1.43
W 3 CT-Maize+ lathyrus as intercrop.
77300 47648
77.3(81.1) 28020+1632=29652
(81100) (51448)
1.60(1.73)
W 4 CT-Atrazine@1.5kg a.i/ha as Pre-em. 81.6 28020+1392=29412 81600 52188 1.77
W 5 CT-Acetochlor @ 3.0 lit a.i /ha as Pre-em 85.7 28020+1932=29952 85700 55748 1.86
W 6 CT-2,4-D @ 400 ml a.i/ha as POE 83.9 28020+572=28592 83900 55308 1.93
W 7 CT- Topramezone+Atrazine @ ( 40 ml + 500 g a.i/ha)
as POE
83.7 28020+4724=32744 83700 50956 1.55
W 8 ZT-Glyphosate Pre plant followed by Atrazine
+Halosulfuron(1.0 kg+90 g a.i/ha) as POE
89.0 24020+9213=33233 89000 55767 1.67
W 9 ZT-Glyphosate Pre plant followed by
Topramezone+Atra zine @( 40 ml + 500 g a.i/ha) POE
84.5 24020+4724=28744 84500 55756 1.93
W 10 ZT-Glyphosate Pre plant followed by Maize+ lathyrus
76600 50948
76.6(80.6) 24020+1632=25652
as intercrop
(80600) (54948)
1.98(2.14)
SEm± 0.42 1031 4710 1617 0.13
CD (P=0.05) 0.85 2167 9896 3398 0.29
LITERATURE CITED
Carter,M.R., Sanderson,J.A., Ivany,J.A and White,R.P.2002. Influence
of rotation and tillage on forage maize productivity, weed species
and soil quality of a fine sandy loam in the cool humid climate of
Atlantic Canada. Soil tillage and Research, 67(1):85-98.
Hussain, Nazim. Imran Haider Shamsi. Khan, Sherin. Habib, Akbar and
Wajid Ali Shah, 2003. Effect of legume intercrops and nitrogen
levels on the yield performance of maize. Asian Journal of Plant
Science, 2(2): 242–46.
Mundra, S.L.,Vyas, A.K and Maliwal, P.L.2003.Effect of weed and
nutrient management on weed growth and productivity of maize
(Zea mays L.). Indian Journal of weed science, 35 (1and2):57-61.
Patel,V.J.,Upadhyay,P.N.,Patel,J.B and Meisuriya,M.I.2006. Effect of
herbicide mixture on weeds in Kharif maize(Zea mays L.) under
middle Gujarat conditions. Indian Journal of Weed science,
38(1 and 2): 54-57.
Ram, B., Choudhary, A.S. Jat, A.S. and Jat, M.L. 2003. Effect of
integrated weed management and intercropping systems on growth
and yield of pearlmillet (Pennisetum glaucum). Indian Journal of
Agronomy, 48(4): 254–56.
Singh,Ravigopal,Singh,V.P.,Singh,Govindra and Yadav,S.K.2001.Weed
management in zero till wheat in rice –wheat cropping system.
Indian Jn. of weed science, 33 (3and4):95-99.
Sharma, A.R. and Behera, U.K. 2009. Recycling of legume residues for
nitrogen economy and higher productivity in maize-wheat cropping
system. Nutrition Cycling Agroecosystem 83: 197–10.
Singh Mahender, Singh Pushpendra and Nepalia, V. 2005. Integrated
weed management studies in maize based intercropping system.
Indian Jn. of Weed Science, 37(3 and 4): 205–08.
Recieved on 18-07-2013 Accepted on 11-08-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 562-563, 2013
Evaluation of Pigeonpea Genotypes for Their Resistance against Pod borer, Maruca
vitrata Geyer under Natural Conditions
RANDHAWA H S AND ASHOK KUMAR
PAU, Regional Research Station, Gurdaspur 143 521
ABSTRACT
Fifteen genotypes plus two check varieties of pigeonpea were
screened under field conditions against pod borer, Maruca
vitrata (Geyer). On the basis of larval polytatic, genotype AL
1743 was found promising with mean of 14.33 larvae/ 100 flower
buds as compared with 28.00 larvae on AL 1811.
Key words
Pigeonpea, pod borer, entry
Pigeonpea Cajanus cajan is an important pulse crop
and forms a major constituent of our daily vegetarian diet.
During 2009-10, it was grown on about 5.90 thousand hectares
in Punjab with a total production of 5.7 thousand tones
(Anonymous, 2010). Among different insect-pests, pod borers
are most destructive that attack the flower buds as well as
pods and cause sever losses, often threatening the cultivation
of this crop (Goyal, et al., 1991). The pod damage by pod
borers was as high as 10-35% in Haryana (Chauhan, 1992), 17-
30% in Andhra Pradesh (Rao, et al., 1992) and 11.00 to 29.00%
in Punjab (Kooner, et al., 2008). The degree of infestation
principally depends upon the type of cultivar (Srivastava and
Srivastava, 1971). As it is expensive and difficult to spray on
this tallness of crop, an alternative is to adopt pest resistant/
tolerant varieties. The crop resistance also provides a highly
eco-friendly approach in the management of insect-pests of
this crop. Thus, keeping this view in mind, the studies were
conducted to identify resistant sources so as to evolve
cultivars less susceptible to insect pests.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
To identify resistant/tolerant sources against M. vitrata,
pigeonpea were evaluated under natural field conditions at
Punjab Agricultural University, Regional Research Station,
Gurdaspur. During kharif, 2010, fifteen genotypes were sown
on 1 st July, 2010 in 8 rows of 4.0 m. at 50 cm spacing and
replicated thrice in Randomized Block Design. The local check
genotypes AL 201 and PAU 881 were also sown for
comparison of performance. The recommended PAU practices
were followed for raising the crop. Evaluation of different
genotypes was undertaken by recording larval population
from 100 randomly selected flower buds from central rows of
each plot. The data was statistically analyzed after square
root transformations.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The data presented in Table 1, revealed that the larval
population of, M. vitrata on 15 genotypes varied from 14.33
to 28.00 larvae/ 100 flower buds. The genotypes differed
significantly with respect to larval population. The minimum
larval population (14.33 larvae/100 flower buds) was counted
from the genotype AL 1743 and it was closely followed by the
genotype AL 1744 but the maximum larval population (28.00
larvae/100 flower buds) was counted from genotype AL 1811.
Therefore, it was concluded that the genotype AL 1743
showing low degree of susceptibility as against as AL 1811.
These findings would go a long way in exploiting the genetic
diversity of pigeonpea in the management of pod borer.
Akhauriet, el al., 2001 has also stated that varying
degrees of infestation and pod damage by pod borers. Kooner,
et al., 2008 also reported AL1495, AL1488 and AL 1493 as
promising genotypes against pod borers.
Table 1.
*square mt values
Larval population of pod borer, Maruca vitrata on
different genotypes of pigeonpea.
S. No Genotypes Larval population/100 flower buds
1 AL 1757 22.33 (4.81)*
2 AL 1760 18.33 (4.38)
3 AL 1811 28.00( 5.37)
4 AL 1816 20.33 (4.61)
5 AL 1817 25.33 (5.12)
6 AL 1756 22.33(4.83)
7 AL 1758 23.33(4.92)
8 PAU 881 19.33 (4.48)
9 AL 1721 20.33(4.61)
10 AL 1702 16.67 (4.19)
11 AL 1692 18.67( 4.43)
12 AL 1593 20.67 ( 4.65)
13 AL 1578 23.67 (4.96)
14 AL 201 17.67(4.29)
15 AL 1778 15.67(4.08)
16 AL 1744 15.33( 4.04)
17 AL 1743 14.33 ( 3.91)
CD 0.05 0.56

RANDHAWA AND KUMAR, Evaluation of Pigeonpea Genotypes for Their Resistance against Pod borer, Maruca vitrata 563
LITERATURE CITED
Akhauriet, R.K., Sinha, M.M. and Yadav, R.P. 2001. Evaluation of
some early pigeonpea genotypes for their susceptibility against
pod bores under field conditions o North Bihar. J. ent. Res. 25(4):
315-328.
Anonymous. 2010. Package of practices for Kharif crops of Punjab
Agricultural University, Ludhiana. pp: 79.
Chauhan, R. 1992. Present status of Heliothis armigera in pulses and
strategies for its management in Haryana,pp 49-54. In: (ed. Sachan
J.N.) Helicoverpa Management: Current status and Future strategies,
Proc. First Nat. workshop, Directorate of Pulses Research, Kanpur,
India.
Goyal, S.N., Patel, B.S. and Patel, C.B. 1991. Testing of some pigeonpea
cultivars for pest reaction in Bharuch, Gujarat, India. Int. Pigeonpea
Newsl., 14:29-30
Kooner, B.S., Cheema, H.K. and Singh, P. 2008. Reaction of some
pigeonpea genotypes to pod borer complex in Punjab. J. insect
Sci., 21(4): 389-393
Rao, N.V., Rao, K.T. and Rao, A.S. 1992. Present Status of Helicoverpa
armigera in pulses and strategies for its management in Andhra
Pradesh, In: (ed Sachan J. N.), Helicoverpa Management Current
status and Future Strategies. Proc. First Nat. Workshop, Directorate
of Pulses Research, Kanpur, India. pp. 68-74.
Srivastava, A.S. and Srivastava, J.L. 1971. Incidence of Agromyza obtusa
in different varieties of arhar. Beitraza zue Entomologie. 21(1/2):
243-244.
Recieved on 16-07-2013 Accepted on 30-07-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 564-565, 2013
Effect of Nitrogen Levels and Varieties on the Incidence of Leaf Folder and Stem
Borer of Basmati Rice in Punjab
RANDHAWA H S AND AULAKH S S
PAU, Regional Research Station, Gurdaspur
email: harpals_randhawa@pau.edu
ABSTRACT
Since study has been restricted to two insects highlights thereof
effect of different varieties and nitrogen levels on the incidence
was studied at PAU, Gurdaspur. The highest incidence insectpests
of rice leaf folder, Cnaphalocrocis medinalis and stem
borer Sripophaga incertulas was recorded from the basmati
variety Punjab Bas-2. The incidence of leaf folder and stem
borer was increased with an increase in nitrogen level.
Key words
Leaf folder, Stem borer, variety and nitrogen
In Punjab rice is cultivated over an area of 28.18 lac
hectares with an annual production of 105.42 lac tones
(Anonymous, 2013). The introduction of semi dwarf high
yielding varieties and associated technology have caused
tremendous changes in the insect-pest complex of rice. The
insect-pests were recorded to attack rice for first time in 1964
(Anonymous, 1965). The stem borer, Sripophaga incertulas
(Walker) is the most serious pest of rice in Punjab which covers
nearly two generations in a crop cycle and is the major problem
of basmati rice growers. Caterpillar bores into stem and feed
inside, as a result central shoot withers and produce a dead
heart/white ears whereas, leaf folder Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis (Guenee) caterpillar rolls the leaves, feeds on green
matter and white streaks are formed that reduces the
photosynthetic activities of plants. The overall losses due to
these insect-pests damage have been estimated at 25 per cent
(Dhaliwal, et. al., 1984, Anonymous, 2011). Information on the
comparative susceptibility of basmati rice varieties to these
insects particularly under varying levels of nitrogen is quite
meager. Therefore, the under present investigation was
undertaken.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The influence of different levels of nitrogen (0, 20, 40
and 60 kg N/ha) and basmati varieties (Punjab Basmati-2, Pb
Mehak, and Pusa 1121) was studies on the incidence of
Cnaphalocrocis medinalis Guenee and rice stem borer,
Sripophaga incertulas Walker was studied. The experiment
was laid out in split plot design with varieties (main plot) and
nitrogen levels (sub plot) at PAU, Regional Research Station,
Gurdaspur. The treatments were replicated thrice. Thirty days
old seedlings of various varieties were transplanted in 15 sq.
m. plots at spacing of 20×15 cm with 2 seedlings/hill. The
nitrogen was applied in two equal split doses, first at 3 and
second at 6 weeks after transplanting. The plots were carefully
portioned with a one meter buffers in order to check lateral
movement of nitrogen.
The rice leaf folder and stem borer were predominant
insect-pests at Gurdaspur. The leaf folder damage was
recorded from 10 randomly selected hills from central rows of
each plot at 30 days after transplanting (DAT). For this total
number of leaves and damaged leaves per hill were recorded
and converted intro per cent damage. The leaf was considered
to be damaged if at least 1/3 rd of its area was showing
symptoms. Similarly, observations on damage recoded and
converted into per cent white ears at flowering stage. The
data were subjected to statistical analysis analyzed using split
plot design.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Rice leaf folder:
The data (Table 1) showed that the leaf folder incidence
did not differ significantly with different varieties. But the
variety Punjab Basmati-2 (5.56 % damaged leaves) had
significantly higher leaf folder incidence as compared with
Pusa 1121 (5.25). Similar observations were also stated by
Dhaliwal et al (1984).
The leaf folder incidence increased with the increase in
nitrogen level (Table 1). The infestation was significantly more
(10.29 % damaged leaves) in case of higher dose of N (60 kg/
ha) than its lower doses. Similar studies were also made by
different workers, Subbaiah and Upadhay, et al, 1981, Dhaliwal,
et al, 1984, Thakur & Mishra, 1989 and Sarao & Mahal, 2008.
The interaction between varieties and nitrogen levels was
non significant.
Stem borer:
The incidence (white ears) of stem borer significantly
varied from 12.07 to 14.58 per cent with different basmati
varieties. The maximum white ears infestation was recorded
from the variety Punjab Bas-2 and it was closely followed by
the variety Punjab Mehak-1 and Pusa 1121.
In this case also there was consistent increase in the
white ears infestation with increase in nitrogen levels. The
differences in white ears infestation differed significantly
(Table 1). The white ears were significantly more in 40 and 60
kg N/ha than other doses. The findings are in substantiation

RANDHAWA AND AULAKH, Effect of Nitrogen Levels and Varieties on the Incidence of Leaf Folder and Stem Borer 565
Table 1.
Effect of nitrogen levels and different varieties on the incidence leaf folder and stem borer in basmati rice
Nitrogen
(Kg/ha)
Leaf folder
Incidence (%)
Mean
White ear
infestation (%)
Mean
Punjab
Bas-2
Pusa
1121
Punjab
Mehak-1
Punjab
Bas-2
Pusa
1121
Punjab
Mehak-1
N0 2.0 2.21 2.11 2.10 10.97 9.61 10.17 10.22
N20 3.64 3.66 2.65 3.32 13.38 11.83 12.60 12.61
N40 6.32 6.36 5.97 6.18 15.77 13.07 14.50 14.45
N60 10.27 10.09 10.26 10.29 18.19 13.75 15.65 15.86
Mean 5.56 5.55 5.25 NS 14.58 12.07 13.22 NS
CD 0.05 Varieties: NS and Nitrogen: 0. 65 Varieties: 1.11 and Nitrogen: 2.02
with earlier results (Gill, et al., 1992 and Sarao and Mahal,
2008).
Recent surveys conducted by the Dept. of Economics
and Sociology, PAU, Ludhiana, in the state have revealed
that nearly about 50% of the farmers may use more than the
recommended dose of nitrogen in paddy crop. This tendency
of farmers may further aggravate the pest problems particularly
those rice leaf folder and stem borer.
LITERATURE CITED
Anonymous. 1965 Annual report of Professor of Zoology-Entomology,
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana for the year 1964-65.
Anonymous, 2013 Package of practices for Kharif crops of Punjab
Agricultural University, Ludhiana. pp: 01-14
Dhaliwal, G.S., Shahi, H.N., Malhi, S.S., Singh, J. and Boparai, B.S.
1984. Susceptibility of promising basmati rice varieties to rice leaf
folder and whitebacked plant hopper under different levels of
nitrogen. Indian J. Ecol., 11(2): 287- 290.
Gill, P.S., Sidhu, G.S. and Dhaliwal, G.S. 1992. Yield response and stem
borer increase in rice cultivars under varying transplanting dates
and nitrogen levels. Indian J. Ecol. 43(3): 338-39.
Sarao, P.S. and Mahal, M.S. 2008. Incidence of insect pests at different
levels of nitrogen application in rice. J. Insect Sci., 21(2): 127-
132.
Thakur, R.B. and Mishra, S.S. 1989. Effect of different levels of nitrogen
and some granular insecticides on stem borer and leaf folder incidence
in rice. J. ent. Res. 13(2);121-124.
Upadhay, V.R., Shah, A.H. and Desai, N.S. 1981. Influence level of
nitrogen rice varieties on the incidence of rice leaf folder
(Cnaphalocrocis medinalis Guenee). Gujarat agric Res. J 6(2):
115-17.
Recieved on 16-07-2013 Accepted on 30-07-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 566-570, 2013
Value Added Whey Based Geriatric Health Drink
B.K. SINGH 1 , S.C. PAUL 2 , B.K. BHARTI 3 AND RAJNI KANT 4
1
Dairy Technology Department, SGIDT, Patna, 2 Dairy Technology, WBAUFS, Mohanpur campus,
West Bengal, 3 Dairy chemistry Department, SGIDT, Patna., 4 Department of Food Science & Technology,
Warner School of Food & Dairy Technology, Sam Higginbottom Institute of Agriculture,
Technology and Sciences, (Deemed University) Allahabad, U.P.
email: bipinsgidt@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
A study was undertaken to prepare geriatric health drink from
whey utilizing different types of sugars, isabgol, carrot juice
and different stabilizers like CMC and sodium alginate. The
calorie content, protein and total carbohydrate levelswere fixed
at 70 KCal, 3% and 12% respectively per 100ml while the
mineral profiles viz. Ca, P,K, Fe and Zn were adjusted to 67mg,
135mg, 335 mg, 4mg and 3mg respectively per 100ml. One
multivitamin capsule was proposed to be added per 600ml to
make the prepared health drink biochemically, physiologically
and nutritionally adequate for the elderly people. As elderly
people have reduced activity of protein hydrolyzing enzyme,
there is a need to provide nutritionally adequate and prehydrolyzed
protein. So, the whey protein in this formulation
was hydrolyzed enzymatically to improve its digestibility. The
nutritional potential of whey protein was reported to be high
as it had shown as excellent protein efficiency ratio (3.6), high
biological value (104) and easy digestibility.Maltodextrin being
a complex sugar though suitable for elderly people could not
be used more than 2:5 proportion to sucrose, from palatable
point of view, mainly because of the low sweetness of
maltodextrin (20DE) compared to sucrose. The variation in
viscosity and the sensory scores for all the sensory
characteristics in colour and appearance, flavour, body and
texture (mouth feel) and overall acceptability are highly
significant (pd”0.01) among the types of stabilizers. One bottle
of such health drink consisting of 300ml would provide 210
Kcalmay be given to the elderly in the morning and evening.
Key words
Geriatric health drink, nutritionally balanced drink,
Whey protein concentrate, pre- hydrolyzed protein,
dietary fibre,Maltodextrin, sugars, Isabgol and carrot
juice.
Ageing leads to various physiological and metabolic
changes e.g. reduced calories need, lean muscle replacement
by fat, changes in enzyme activity and secretion of gastric
component, decreased activity of salivary amylases and
proteolytic enzyme etc. The biochemical and physic-chemical
changes that occur during ageing indicate the need of a
nutritionally balancedhealth drink for the management of
elderly (RDA). Whey being the source of several nutrients
and neutraceuticals may be used as a base material for several
beverages as well as for geriatric health drinks. Whey proteins
comprise approximately 20% of the total fraction consisting
of á-lactalbumin, â- lactoglobulin, bovine serum albumin,
immunoglobulin, lactoferrin, protease-peptone, growth factors
and harmones (0.08g/100g milk) (Fox and McSweeney, 1998).
As elderly people have reduced activity of hydrolyzing enzyme,
there is a need to provide nutritionally adequate and prehydrolyzed
proteins and lactose. So, the whey protein in this
formulation is proposed to hydrolyze enzymatically and about
80% of lactose of whey is also proposed to hydrolyze by the
enzyme â-galactosidase to improve their digestibility.Green
yellow vegetable containing 0.6 mg â-carotene/100 g edible
part was reported to reduce the risk of cancer, heart disease,
premature aging, stress and fatigue primarily due to integrated
action of oxygen radical scavengers such as â-carotene and
ascorbic acid plus calcium and dietary fibre (Hirayana, 1995).
Among the vegetables, carrot (Daucus carota) was reported
to be a rich source of â-carotene and appreciable amounts of
B-vitamins, anthocyanin, pigments and minerals (Gopalan, et
al., 1985). The level of mineral profiles in this formulation is
proposed in accordance to the published literature. In this
formulation vitamin A, vitamin C, thiamin, riboflavin and
nicotinic acid areproposed to derive from whey, WPC and
carrot juice. Therefore, attempts were made to prepare geriatric
health drink from whey utilizing different types of sugars,
isabgol and carrot juice.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Preparation of health drink:
The whey was prepared from skim milk by coagulating
with 2% citric acid and filtering off the chhana. Whey protein
concentrate (WPC) procured from Dynamix Dairy Industries
Ltd., Pune was added to the whey to make 3.0% total protein
level (on dry matter basis). The protein of whey was
hydrolyzed with trypsin enzyme at pH 7.6, incubation
temperature 26 ± 1 0 C and at the enzyme to substrate ratio of
1:400 (w/w) for 2 hrs. Whey was then heated to 80-85 0 C for 10
minutes in a water bath for inactivation of residual trypsin.
After this, 80% of lactose of whey was hydrolyzed by the
enzyme â-galactosidase in 2 hrs. at pH 6.7 and temperature of
35-37 0 C.
A combination of maltodextrin and sucrose (at 2:5 ratios)
as well as isabgol (0.25%) was added to lactose and protein
hydrolyzed whey. The mixture was then filtered through muslin
cloth at 35-40 0 C. In the whey filtrate, carrot juice (7ml/100ml),

SINGH et al., Value Added Whey Based Geriatric Health Drink 567
mineral salts of Ca, Fe, Zn, K and P and one multivitamin
tablet was added and sterilized at 15 psi for 10 minute.
Analysis of the geriatric health drink:
This ready to serve drink was then cooled and stored
for subsequent analysis. Total solid of the geriatric health
drink was estimated as per BIS, 1981. Fat content was estimated
by Rose- Gottleib method as per BIS (1981), however, protein
content by Micro-Kjeldahl method (AOAC 1990). Glucose,
galactose and lactose content were estimated by the method
suggested by Nickerson, et al., 1976 and sucrose was
estimated as per method used by Perry and Dian (1950). Ash
content was estimated by the method described in the manual
of Dairy chemistry, ICAR, 1982 Sub-committee on Dairy
Education. Mineral contents viz. P, Fe, Ca and Zn were
estimated by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (Perkin
Elmer) Analyst- 100, whereas Sodium and Potassium contents
were estimated by the method suggested by Collins and
Polkinhore (1962). Further different ratios of maltodextrin and
sucrose were added to the drink and these drinks were
evaluated for different sensory characteristics by nine point
hedonic scale (BIS,1981).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Composition and nutritional potential of geriatric health
drink:
In the formulation of whey based geriatric health drink,
it is not only essential to balance the energy, protein, minerals
and vitamins for elderly people, but also to make it palatable,
sparkling and thirst quenching. Emphasis was therefore, given
on fortification of WPC, sucrose and maltodextrin, mineral
salts and vitamins with a view to standardize their level and
profiles to make the drink palatable and nutritionally rich. The
mineral salts like Ca(OH) 2
, FeSO 4
and KCL were added for
meeting the requirements of minerals while carrot juice was
added as a source of â-carotene. As per Recommended Dietary
Allowances (RDA), the average calorific requirements of
elderly people ranges from 1700 KCal to 2100 KCal per day
which has to be derived from protein, fat and carbohydrate.
While formulating whey based geriatric health drink, the
energy contributing Ingredients viz. protein, carbohydrate
consisting of whey lactose, sucrose and maltodextrin, stabilizer
and carrot juice were fixed at 3.08, 5.08, 0.25 and 7.0 ml
respectively per 100 ml, which would attribute 70Kcal energy
value. One bottle of such health drink consisting of 300ml
would provide 210 KCal.
The nutritional potential of whey protein was reported
to be high as it had shown as excellent protein efficiency ratio
(3.6), high biological value (104) and easy digestibility (Puranik
and Rao, 1996), Metabolism of fat is a complex phenomenon
and takes longer time, hence, undesirable in any health drink
especially for elderly people. In the proposed formulation, fat
was not considered as a source of nutrient, but, little fat may
come from the added whey and WPC. The proposed
formulation shows about 12% sugars of which almost 5% is
derived from whey base and remaining 7% is to be added
externally. Maltodextrin being a complex carbohydrate, easily
digestible and economic one was considered as a source of
carbohydrate in this investigation. Maltodextrin, a low sweet
carbohydrate derivative (20DE) cannot make the drink
palatable, so, a combination of maltodextrin and sucrose (2:5)
comprising of 7% sugar in addition to 80% hydrolyzed
lactose,was therefore, proposed to be used in this study to
make the whey based geriatric health drink palatable. Kaur et
al., (2000) found that 12% total carbohydrate in whey based
carrot juice was most acceptable.
In the present formula about 60mg per 100ml calcium,
which corresponds to 70 KCal is obtained from whey, WPC
and carrot juice. The Ca requirement per equivalent KCal
appears to be about 67 mg which is slightly higher than the
available Ca content in the proposed health drink. No
fortification of Ca salt is therefore proposed assuming that
the little deficient Ca will be derived from other food items
consumed by the elderly people. As whey and WPC are devoid
of Iron and Zinc total fortification of Iron and Zn as ferrous
sulphate and zinc acetate at 4mg and 3mg per 100ml is thus
proposed in this formulation. The phosphorus and potassium
content appears to be 50mg and 191mg per 100ml respectively,
in this formula, hence, the urge for their fortification to estimate
135mg and 335mg per equivalent calorie as per RDA for elderly
people. In this formula 286mg sodium comes from whey, WPC
and carrot juice. It is proposed to maintain equal ratio of Na
and K to prevent the hypertension in elderly people. In the
proposed formula potassium level is adjusted to 335mg per
100ml with remainder 49mg of sodium fortified externally to
maintains sodium and potassium ratio at 1:1 level. The
proposed level of these mineral profiles in this formulation is
in accordance to the published literature, In this formulation
of vitamin A, vitamin C, thiamin, riboflavin and nicotinic acid
were derived from whey, WPC and carrot juice approximating
about 0.088 IU, 0.084mg, 0.04mg, 0.079 mg and 0.12 mg
respectively per 100ml i.e. 70KCal which seems to be much
lower than the daily requirements of the elderly people. It was
therefore, proposed to add one multivitamintablet
comprising vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin C, vitamin E,
Thiamine, Riboflavin acid of 5,000IU, 400 IU, 75mg, 15mg, 5mg
and 45mg per 600ml assuming that entire vitamin profile at
recommended level will be derived from the whey based
formulated geriatric health drink. The available literatures also
suggest the feeding of one multivitamin capsule per day
(Swaminathan, 1974).
Sensory Evaluation:
Different sensory characteristics of Geriatrics health
drinks were evaluated for type and levels of maltodextrin and
sugar, stabilizer, isabagol and carrot juice by nine point hedonic
scale (BIS,1981).

568 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Evaluation of type and level of sugar:
Sensory scores pertaining to the different characteristics
given by seven trained judges were shown in Table 1. The
variations between the lowest and highest values were 1.35,
2.45, 2.31 and 2.0 respectively. The highest variation in the
sensory scores (2.45) was, however,observed for the flavour.
These variations might be due to varying concentrations of
maltodextrin and sucrose. The sensory scores for overall
acceptability increased with the decrease in sucrose level,
which continued up to 5%.
Table 1.
Proportions
of sugar
(maltodextrin
: sucrose)
Effect of different proportions of Maltodextrin and
sucrose on the sensory characteristics
Colour and
appearance
Sensory characteristics
Flavour Body & Overall
texture acceptability
(mouth feel)
0:7 6.48±0.59 6.95±0.49 6.88±0.46 6.67±0.47
2:5 7.83±0.58 8.31±0.50 8.17±0.60 8.21±0.57
3.5:3.5 6.74±0.45 7.07±0.44 6.93±0.35 7.45±0.38
5:2 6.81±0.48 6.45±0.37 6.43±0.44 6.57±0.39
7:0 6.55±0.67 5.88±0.47 5.86±0.31 6.21±0.40
The variations in the sensory scores were highly
significant (Pd”0.01) amongst different proportions studies
(Table 2) which might be attributed to the varying degree of
sweetness of the drink. Overall acceptability also showed a
significant variation among trials, which may be due to
experimental errors.
Table 2. Anova for the effect of different proportion of
maltodextrin and sucrose on the sensory
characteristics
Source d.f. MSS
Colour&
appearance
Flavour Body
texture
(mouth
feel)
Amongst
Judges
Amongst
level
(different
proportions)
Amongst
trials
*Significant at pd”0.05
** Significant at pd”0.01
Overall
acceptability
6 0.39 0.29 0.20 0.18
4 6.33** 17.33** 400.64** 13.58**
2 0.15 0.27 0.07 0.82*
Error 92 - - - -
Total 104 - - - -
From the results, it may therefore, be concluded that 2:5
proportions of maltodextrin and sucrose showed highest
scores for colour and appearance, flavour, body and texture
(mouth feel ) and overall acceptability. Maltodextrin being a
complex sugar though suitable for elderly people could not
be used more than 2:5 proportions to sucrose, from palatable
point of view, mainly because of the low sweetness of
maltodextrin (20DE) compared to sucrose. Gargani, et al. (1987)
developed a fruit flavoured beverage admixing deproteinized
whey, fruit juice, citric acid and sugar. They are reported that
though a range of 10-25% sugar level could be used in such
beverage but about 13.0% sugar level showed better result.
Kaur, et al. (2000) suggested 12.0% total carbohydrates in
their whey based carrot juices. The sugar level (12.0%)
employed in this study was therefore, in accordance with the
published literature.
Standardization and evaluation of type and level of
stabilizers:
Stabilizers like CMC, Sodium alginate and Isabgol at
three different concentrations like 0.05,0.1, and 0.15% level
were attempted to evaluate the type and level sufficient enough
to give adequate viscosity so as to control the sedimentation
of the whey proteins on sterilization and storage and also to
give proper body and mouth feel in the prepared whey based
geriatric health drink. Viscosity measurement was carried out
by using Ostwald Viscosimeter and sensory evaluation by
panel of trained juices. The viscosity of the prepared based
geriatric health drink with three stabilizers viz. CMC, Sodium-
Alginate and Isabgol at three different concentration such as
0.05,0.10 and 0.15% were presents in Table-3. Irrespective to
the types of stabilizers the viscosity of the geriatric health
drink were found to increase with the increase in the values of
viscosity at 0.15% level which may be attributed to the
increased water holding/binding capacity of the stabilizers.
Table 3.
Stabilizers
Effect of different stabilizers like CMC, sodium
alginate and Isabgol at different concentration on
the viscosity of whey based geriatric health drink
Viscosity (Cp)
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.50
Isabgol 1.40±0.02 1.44±0.01 1.59±0.01 1.61±0.01 1.63±0.01 1.88±0.02
CMC 1.48±0.01 1.75±0.01 2.03±0.04 - - -
Sodium
Alginate
1.50±0.01 1.58±0.01 1.81±0.02 - - -
Sensory scores given by seven trained judges are shown
in Table 5. The variation between lowest and highest values
were 0.94,2.50,2.66 and 2.01 respectively, for the said sensory
characteristics. Comparatively lower sensory scores for colour
and appearance in case of Isabgol may be attributes to the
presence of fibre content. Statistical analysis was based on
the mean values for each sensory characteristic given by
seven judges.
The variation in viscosity and sensory scores for all the
sensory characteristics in colour and appearance, flavour,
body and texture (mouth feel) and overall acceptability are
highly significant (pd”0.01) among the types of stabilizers
(Table 4 and Table 6) which may be due to differential water
binding/gel forming capacity of the three stabilizers studied

SINGH et al., Value Added Whey Based Geriatric Health Drink 569
Table 4.
Anova for the effect of three different stabilizers
like CMC, sodium alginate and Isabgol at three
different concentration viz. 0.05, 0.10 and 0.15%
on the viscosity of whey based geriatric health
drink
Source d. f. M.S.S. F-value
Among level 2 0.322** 57.859**
Among stabilizer 2 0.177** 31.936**
Trials 2 1.26X10¯³ 0.226
Error 20 - -
Total 26 - -
** Significant at pd”0.01
in this investigation. Further, significant variation amongst
the levels may be due to increase in functional characteristics
with the increase in their level. Compares to CMC and Sodium
Alginate, Isabgol showed only marginal variation, hence could
be used even in its highest level i.e.0.15%.
Optimization of the level of Isabgol:
The results pertaining to viscosity and sensory scores
viz. colour and appearance, flavour, body and texture (mouth
feel) and overall acceptability were shown in Table 3, and
Table 5 respectively. From the table it is evident that the value
of viscosity at 0.5% level is marginally higher than that at
0.2% level. The results further show that there is only marginal
difference in 0.25% and 0.50% levels with regards to the said
characteristics. However, on subsequent processing to
manufacture of the whey based geriatric health drink where
observed a significant difference respective to the processing
parameters like pasteurization and sterilization. 0.50% level of
Isabgol though showed satisfactory results on pasteurization,
but found unsatisfactory on sterilization as it produces a thick
gel. 0.25% level, however, showed quite satisfactory results
as far as viscosity is concerned.The variation amongst various
level of Isabgol is highly significant (pd”0.01) which may be
due to increase in the degree of water binding capacity with
the increase in the level of Isabgol.
From the results, it may thus be concluded that
irrespective to the types of stabilizer, the viscosity increases
with the increase in their concentration in geriatric health which
may be attributed to the increased degree of water binding or
gel forming ability. Similar finding were reported by Saha, 1988,
which conforms the finding of this investigation. Furthermore,
Isabgol is a low cost stabilizer, which may be considered as
stabilizer in the geriatric health drinkas exhibited in comparable
results with the conventional stabilizers like CMC and Sodium
Alginate. Since Isabgol, other than its functional properties
like water binding or gel forming ability, has got some
anticonstipation property, there is an urge for its higher
concentration in the drink. Optimization study, however,
depicts that Isabgol cannot be used beyond 0.5% level. This
level of stabilizer is again limited to pasteurization only. On
sterilization it produces a high viscosity which is not desired
for any drink. Therefore, 0.25% of Isabgol is considered for
the preparation of sterilized whey based geriatric health drink
in this investigation. Saha 1988 prepared whey based sports
drinks using stabilizers as CMC, Sodium Alginate and salt
stabilizer and reported that salt stabilizer (Sodium Citrate:
Disodium Hydrogen Orthophosphate) at 1:1 and at 0.1% level
was found suitable for the drink. In this investigation also the
same proportion and salt stabilizers is maintained.
It may thus be concluded that whey based geriatric health
drinkwas prepared by adding sugar, carrot juice and different
stabilizers like CMC, Sodium alginate and isabgol in whey,
having the calorie content, protein and total carbohydrate
level at 70 KCal, 3% and 12% respectively per 100ml, while the
mineral profiles viz. Ca, P,K, Fe and Zn were adjusted to 67mg,
135mg,335mg, 4mg and 3 mg respectively per
100ml.Maltodextrin and sucrose are added at the ratio of 2:5 in
the prepared whey based geriatric health drinks. Isabgol is
used as stabilizer @ 0.25% to get the good body & texture
(mouth feel). It also acts as ananti constipation food
componentamong old aged people. In the prepared whey
based geriatric health drink, both protein and lactose are
hydrolyzed by using the enzyme to make the drink easily
digestible. One multivitamin capsule was proposed to be
added per 600ml to make the prepared health drink
biochemically, physiologically and nutritionally adequate for
the elderly people. One bottle each consisting of 300ml may
be given to the elderly in the morning and evening.
Table 5. Effect of three different stabilizers like CMC, alginate and Isabgol at different concentrations such as 0.05, 0.10,
0.15, 0.20, 0.25 and 0.50% on the sensory characteristics of whey based geriatric health drink
Stabilizer
Sensory characters CMC Sodium Alginate Isabgol
……………………….Percentage concentration………………………
………………………..Average ± S.D…………………………………
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.50
Colour and appearance 6.57±0.49 6.87±0.26 6.23±0.24 7.23±0.21 7.17±0.24 6.43±0.33 6.23±0.21 6.40±0.14 6.23±0.56 6.40±0.29 7.23±0.20 7.13±0.09
Flavour 6.17±0.24 6.67±0.46 7.17±0.62 5.83±0.47 6.17±0.24 6.83±0.46 7.33±0.24 7.83±0.62 8.33±0.47 8.23±0.20 8.66±0.23 8.66±0.23
Body and texture 6.33±0.34 7.17±0.29 7.33±0.24 6.17±0.47 6.67±0.24 7.17±0.62 7.50±0.41 8.33±0.47 8.83±0.23 8.66±0.23 8.83±0.23 8.83±0.23
Overall acceptability 6.16±0.12 7.33±0.24 6.6±0.24 6.33±0.12 7.00±0.41 6.17±0.24 6.33±0.24 7.17±0.47 8.17±0.39 8.33±0.23 8.66±0.23 8.66±0.23

570 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Table 6.
Source
Type of
stabilizer
Level of
stabilizer
Anova for the effect of three different stabilizers
viz. CMC, sodium alginate and Isabgol at three
different concentrations 0.05, 0.10 and 0.15% on
the sensory characteristics of prepared whey based
geriatric health drink
*Significant at pd”0.05
** Significant at pd”0.01
LITERATURE CITED
M.S.S.
d.f. Colour and Flavour Body Overall
appearance
and
texture
acceptability
2 1.105* 5.898** 6.184** 1.231**
2 0.235 2.259** 2.861** 2.009**
Trials 2 0.054 0.899** 0.750** 0.149
Total 26 - - - -
AOAC 1990. Official Methods of Analysis of the Association of Official
Agricultural Chemists.Association of Analytical chemists.
Washington, D.C.
BIS 1981. 18 Hand Book of Food Analysis (Part XI) of Dairy Product.
Indian Standard Institution.ManakBhawan, New Delhi 110011.
Collins, G.C. and Polkinhorne, H. 1962. Investigation of anionic
interference in determination of small quantities of potassium and
sodium with new flame photometer-Analyst 77. Chemical Abstr.,
48:4118d.
Gargani, R.L., Rathi, S.D. and Ingle, U.M. (1987).Preparation of fruit
falvoured beverage from whey. J. Food Sci. and Technol., 24(2):93-
94.
Gopalan, C., Ramasastri, B.V. and Balasubramaniam, S.C. 1985. Nutritive
Value of Indian Foods, NIN, ICMR, Hyderabad, India.
Hirayana, J. 1995. Green-yellow vegetables for human health with
special reference to cancer prevention. J. Japanese Soc. Hort. Sci.
Technology, 38 (4): 343-347.
ICAR 1982. Manual in Dairy Chemistry.ICAR Sub-committee on dairy
Education, Published by NDRI, Karnal.
Kaur, P., Grewal, K.S. and Bakshi, A.K. 2000. Technology of w h e y
based carrot juice beverage and Beverage Food World, 5: 619.
Nickerson, T.A., Vujicic, I.F. and Lin, A.Y. 1976. Colorimetric estimation
of lactose and its hydrolytic products. J. Dairy Sci., 59(3): 386-
390
Puranik, D.B. and Rao, R.H.G. 1996. Potentiality of whey protein as a
nutritional ingredient. Indian Dairyman, 48(11): 17-21.
Perry, N.A. and Dian, F.J. 1950. A picric acid method for the simultaneous
determination of lactose and sucrose in dairy products. J. Dairy
Sci., 33:176.
Saha, S.K., 1988. Development of whey based sports drink. Thesis
submitted to W.B.U.A.F.S., Kolkata for partial fulfillment of M.
Sc. Degree.
Swaminathan, M. 1974. Advanced textbook on food and nutrition,
The Bangalore Printing and Publishing Co.Ltd.No.88, Bangalore
560018.
Recieved on 05-08-2013 Accepted on 14-08-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 571-573, 2013
Development of Conventional Food Products by Incorporation of Carrot Flour in
Wheat Flour
GUPTA BHAVNA AND DUBEY RITU PRAKASH
Department of Foods and Nutrition, Ethelind School of Home Science, Sam Higginbottom Institute of
Agriculture, Technology and Sciences, Allahabad (U.P.)
email: 0bbhavnagupta@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Wheat belongs to the genus- Triticum and there are 30,020
species. The kernel of wheat is usually 1/8 – ¼ inches long.
Wheat is consumed mostly in the form of flour obtained by
milling the grain. Wheat flour is an excellent source of complex
carbohydrates. In addition, wheat flour contains B-vitamins,
calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, zinc,
minimal amounts of sodium and other trace elements. Carrot
is the richest source of beta-carotene among all the root
vegetables; therefore it holds an important position among
vegetables. Its common Hindi name is Gajar. Carrot can also
promote colon health as it is rich in fiber. Vitamin A deficiency
remains widespread in many countries in South Asia and
contributes to a significant proportion of preventable blindness.
Vitamin A.
The objectives of present research were to evaluate the sensory
attributes of prepared products and to assess the nutritional
quality of the prepared products. Carrot flour were incorporated
in wheat flour recipes viz., Balu Shahi and Cookies with one
control (T 0
) and four treatments for each products T 1,
T 2,
T 3
and
T 4
at different percentage incorporation levels with Carrot
flour for all two products using their standard ingredients and
method of preparation. Sensory evaluation of the prepared
products was done by 9 point hedonic scale. The nutritive value
of prepared food products was calculated by using the food
composition table.
Result showed that based on the expert panel evaluation of two
products, showd that the highest overall acceptability was found
in T 1
(10%) in case of balu shahi and T 2
(20%) I cookies. All the
experimental prepared products were fond to be acceptable.
Significant Difference (Pd”0.05) in flavour and taste, body and
texture and colour and appearance between various treatment
combinations was found. The prepared products were found to
be low in calories and carbohydrate but high in fibre, calcium,
iron, phosphorus, sodium potassium and carotene content. It
was concluded from the results that the products formulated
by incorporation of Carrot flour in wheat flour at different
level can improve the nutritional quality of products as well as
variety in the diet.
Key words
Carrot, Wheat Flour.
Wheat grains are ovoid in shape, rounded on both the
ends. Along one side of the grain there is a crease, a folding of
the aleorone and all the covering layers. Wheat proteins are
rich in glutamic acid and low in Tryptophan. Glutamic acid
and aspartic acid are present in amide form as glutamine and
aspargine. Carrot (Daucus carota) is a root vegetable, usually
orange or red- white blend in color with crisp texture when
fresh. Carrot gets its characteristic and bright orange color
from â- carotene, which is metabolized into vitamin A in human
when bile salts are present in the intestines. Carrots are also
rich in dietary fiber, and antioxidants. Carrot can also promote
colon health as it is rich in fiber. India is a second largest
vegetable producer in the world after china. Vegetable are
grown in an area of about 6.09 million hectares in India. At
present the total vegetable production in India has gone up
from 63.8 to 113.00 million tones about a period of a decade
recording increase of 33 percent (Singh 2008)
MATERIALS AND METHODS:
The present study was conducted in the Nutrition
Research Laboratory of Foods and Nutrition Department,
Ethelind School of Home Science, Sam Higginbottom Institute
of Agriculture Technology and Sciences, (Deemed-to-be-
University), Allahabad.
Procurement of Raw Materials:
The required materials i.e. fresh lotus stem and other
row materials were collected from local market of Allahabad
city.
Method and Preparation of Flour:
Flow chart for the preparation of Carrot Flour
Fresh Carrot Washing TrimmingSlicing (Blanching
for 3 minute in water containing 2% salt and 0.1% citric acid)
Sun drying Draining Spreading in trays Mechanical
drying up to 5-10% moisture content (60±2 0 C for 8 hours)
Grinding Carrot Flour

572 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Detail of control and treatments:
Table of treatments and replication of Carrot Balu Shahi
and Cookies.
Products
Treatments
Whole Wheat
Flour
1. Control (T 0
): Control T 0
was prepared without incorporating
Carrot Flour.2. Treatment T 1
: In This treatment 10 percent Carrot
Flour was incorporated in 90 percent Whole Wheat Flour. 3.
Treatment T 2
: In This treatment 20 percent Carrot Flour was
incorporated in 80 percent Whole Wheat Flour. 4. Treatment T 3
: In
This treatment 30 percent Carrot Flour was incorporated in 70 percent
Whole Wheat Flour. 5. Treatment T 4
: In This treatment 40 percent
Carrot Flour was incorporated in 60 percent Whole Wheat Flour.
Organoleptic Evaluation of the Prepared Products:
Freshly Prepared Products Carrot flour Balu Shahi and
Carrot flour Cookies were served to taste panel members
consisting of 5 experienced persens. The 9 point hedonic scale
Performa as suggested by American et al., 1965.
Calculation of Nutritive Value of Prepared Products:
The nutrient compositions as available in Gopalan’s 2007
publication were used for calculating nutritive value of the
products. Protein, Fat, Carbohydrate, Energy, fiber, iron,
calcium, Phosphorus, Sodium Potassium and Carotene of the
control and enriched products were thus assessed by
Calculation.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 Replications
Control 90% 80% 70% 60% 5
Carrot Flour - 10% 20% 30% 40% 5
The entire experiment was undertaken to prepare
enriched products i.e. healthy and nutritious products –
Carrot flour Balu Shahi and Carrot flour Cookies using
different Flours combinations. Results related to formulation
and standardization of healthy and nutritious products i.e
sensory evaluation and nutritional composition have been
presented and discussed in this chapter.
Organoleptic Evaluation of the Prepared Products:
Table 1.
Sensory
characteristics/
treatment
Average sensory scores of different parameters
in control and treated sample of Carrot Balu Shahi.
Table shows significant result, it is desirable to compare
all possible combinations of two treatments at a time for which
CD test has been applied. Difference between two treatments
mean have been compared against the CD value.
Carrot Balu Shahi with and without incorporation of
the Carrot Powder combinations showed that the overall
acceptability was highest in T 1
(10%) level of incorporation
followed by T 2
(20 percent) and there was significant difference
between the two. T 3
(20%) was found to be more acceptable
than T 0
(control) and T 4
(10%).
Table 2.
Scores on 9 point hedonic scale
Colour and
Apprearence
Body and
Texture
Taste and
Flavour
Overall
Acceptability
Mean±S.E Mean±S.E Mean±S.E Mean±S.E
T 0 (Control) 6.28 ± 0.133 6.52 ± 6.64 ± 6.48 ± 0.076
0.237 0.153
T 1 (10%) 8.56 ± 0.088 8.64 ± 8.52 ± 8.59 ± 0.129
0.087 0.091
T 2 (20%) 8.04 ± 0.249 8.36 ± 8.12 ± 8.20 ± 0.209
0.173 0.155
T 3 (30%) 7.2 ± 0.282 7.48 ± 7.68 ± 7.49 ± 0.179
0.208 0.262
T 4 (40%) 5.96 ± 0.173 6.08 ± 6.28 ± 6.05 ± 0.125
0.175 0.243
F Value 47.129 S 38.92 S 29.416 S 98.83 S
CD Value 0.483 0.135 0.527 0.154
Average sensory scores of different parameters
in control and treated sample of Carrot Cookies.
Sensory
Scores on 9 point hedonic scale
characteristics/
treatment
Colour and
Apprearence
Body and
Texture
Taste and
Flavour
Overall
Acceptability
Mean±S.E Mean±S.E Mean±S.E Mean±S.E
T 0 (Control) 6.56 ± 0.191 6.56 ± 6.8 ± 6.63 ± 0.193
0.191 0.178
T 1 (10%) 7.68 ± 0.155 7.56 ± 7.48 ± 7.56 ± 0.173
0.143 0.145
T 2 (20%) 8.6 ± 0.126 8.48 ± 8.6 ± 8.58 ± 0.133
0.133 0.160
T 3 (30%) 7.64 ± 0.182 7.52 ± 7.76 ± 7.60 ± 0.182
0.107 0.143
T 4 (40%) 6.92 ± 0.216 6.76 ± 6.18 ± 6.83 ± 0.163
0.131 0.113
F Value 41.33 S 34.81 S 38.10 S 147 S
CD Value 0.366 0.386 0.36 0.803
Table shows significant result, it is desirable to compare
all possible combinations of two treatments at a time for which
CD test has been applied. Difference between two treatments
mean have been compared against the CD value.
In Carrot Cookies, the sensory score of T2 (20 percent)
was best regarding the overall acceptability followed by T3
(30 percent), the treatment T 1
(10 percent) was found to be
more acceptable than T4 (40 percent) and T0 (control).

BHAVNA AND PRAKASH, Development of Conventional Food Products by Incorporation of Carrot Flour in Wheat Flour 573
Calculation of Nutritive Value of Prepared Products:
Table 3. Nutrient Composition (per 100g.) in control and treated sample of Carrot Balu Shahi.
Nutrients
Treatments
Protein
(g)
Fat
(g)
Fiber
(g)
Carbohydrate
(g)
Energy
(Kcal)
Calcium
(mg)
Phosphorus
(mg)
Iron
m(g)
Carotene
(µg)
Sodium
(mg)
Potassium
(mg)
T 0 6.5 12.29 0.17 72.35 427.64 17.05 71.47 1.64 85.29 5.47 76.47
T 1 6.32 12.32 1.45 72.82 426.94 16.64 84.76 1.65 189.70 7.01 75.17
T 2 6.14 12.36 2.72 72.95 426.23 16.23 98.23 1.68 294.11 8.56 73.88
T 3 5.97 12.4 4.00 73.07 425.17 15.82 111.35 1.70 398.52 10.11 72.58
T 4 5.79 12.43 5.28 73.2 424.82 15.41 124.64 1.72 502.94 11.65 71.29
Table 3. shows the nutrient content of the prepared product Carrot Balu Shahi with or without incorporation of Carrot Flour
(Carrot Flour and Whole Wheat Flour).
The Nutrient Estimation showed that T 4
(40%) has the
maximum Fat, Fibre, Carbohydrate, Phosphorus, Carotene and
Sodium content and T 0
(Control) has the minimum Fat, Fibre,
Carbohydrate, Phosphorus, Carotene and Sodium content in
Carrot Balu Shahi.
The Protein, Energy and Potassium estimation for Carrot
Balu Shahi, shows that T 0
(control) has the maximum Protein,
Energy and Potassium content for each product respectively.
nutritional properties of the products were made there after.
Regarding the sensory scores of the prepared products with
different flours were highly acceptable in terms of taste and
flavour, body and texture, colour and appearance and overall
acceptability when compared with control. Nutrients
Composition of prepared products showed that low
carbohydrate contents as compared to control. The amount
of the energy, protein, fat, fiber, calcium, iron, sodium,
Table 4. Nutrient Composition (per 100g.) in control and treated sample of Carrot Cookies.
Nutrients
Protein
(g)
Fat
(g)
Fiber
(g)
Carbohydrate
(g)
Energy
(Kcal)
Calcium
(mg)
Phosphorus
(mg)
Iron
m (g)
Carotene
(µg)
Sodium
(mg)
Potassium
(mg)
Treatments
T 0 8.06 21.00 0.17 188.63 458.74 17.07 145.74 1.23 34.27 3.64 50.98
T 1 7.94 21.03 0.96 188.71 458.23 16.80 140.92 1.25 103.88 4.67 50.11
T 2 7.82 21.05 1.81 188.79 457.80 16.52 163.58 1.26 149.01 5.70 49.25
T 3 7.71 21.08 2.67 188.87 457.05 16.25 181.19 1.28 243.09 6.74 48.39
T 4 7.59 21.10 3.52 188.96 456.86 15.90 172.33 1.29 312.70 7.77 47.52
Table 4. shows the nutrient content of the prepared product Carrot Cookies with or without incorporation of Carrot Flour
(Carrot Flour and Whole Wheat Flour).
The Nutrient Estimation showed that T 4
(40%) has the
maximum Fat, Fibre, Carbohydrate, Phosphorus, Carotene and
Sodium content and T 0
(Control) has the minimum Fat, Fibre,
Carbohydrate, Phosphorus, Carotene and Sodium content in
Carrot Cookies.
The Protein, Energy and Potassium estimation for
Carrot Cookies shows that T 0
(control) has the maximum
Protein, Energy and Potassium content for each product
respectively.
From the findings of the study undertaken, it was
concluded that Carrot, Flours can be successfully
incorporated with Wheat Flour to enhance the sensory and
potassium and carotene content were increase as the
incorporation level increased.
LITERATURE CITIED
Amerine, M.A., Pangborn, R.M. and Rossler, E.B. 1965. Principles of
Sensory Evaluation of Food. New York, Academic Press, pp 104-
110.
Gopalan C., Balasubramaniam C.S. and Sastri Rama V.B. 2007. Nutritive
Value of Indian Food. IV Edition Printed By ICAR 48-61.
Singh, P., Kulshreshtha, K. 2008. Nutritional quality of food supplements
based on carrot powder and girls. Journal of food science and
technology, 45 (1): 99-101.
Recieved on 01-08-2013 Accepted on 15-08-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 574-575, 2013
Susceptibility to Alternaria blight (Alternaria porri) in Garlic
DEEPSHIKHA MANU, ASHISH KUMAR CHANDRAKAR ANDCHANDRESH KUMARCHANDRAKAR
Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Indore,
JawaharLal Nehru KrishiVishwavidyalaya, Jabalpur, 482 004 (Madhya Pradesh), India
*email:deepshikhamanu@gmail.com, chandrakar22@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The present study was carried on Alternaria blight (A. porri) of
garlic on the plant age susceptibility. The data on incidence of
purple blotch at different crop stages showed that maximum
incidence was recorded at bulb formation stage in the genotype
G 41 (76.75%) while minimum (1.51%) at leaf extension stage
in the genotype HG-17. Apparent infection rate (r/unit/day)
was between leaf extension to scale leaf initiation stage 0.024
and 0.033 between scale leaf initiations to bulb formation stage.
Key words
Alternaria blight, Garlic, Susceptibility
The Garlic (Allium sativum L.) is believed to be originated
from central Asia. In Madhya Pradesh Malwa Plateau zone
has been declared as an Agricultural Export Zone for potato,
onion and garlic crops. The crop suffers from many diseases
but Alternaria blight caused by Alternaria porri (Ellis) Cif. is
a disease of economic importance. The disease appears in the
form of black spots on the leaves in the early stage. Small
sunken lesions with purple centre enlarge and girdle the seed
stalk. Under favourable environment, the affected stalks
breakdown and die within 3 to 4 weeks. Bisht and Agrawal,
1993 stated that individual garlic leaves became more
susceptible to purple blotch as they become aged and
emerging leaves were more susceptible than those closer to
bulb maturity.With this background in view the present
investigation were under taken tostudy on susceptible age in
garlic crop for Alternaria blight caused byAlternariaporri.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Per cent disease incidence (PDI):
The per cent disease incidence was computed according
to the formula given by Mc Kinney (1923) as:
of all numerical ratings
Disease Incidence (%) = 100
No. of plants observed maximum disease category / rating
Susceptible age of plant:
To see the susceptible stage of the crop for infection of
purple blotch observations on 6 genotyes of garlic, namely, J
4, HG 17, G 41, G 50, G 282 and G 323 were recorded on randomly
selected 100 plants andreplicated thrice to calculate disease
incidence by the formula mentioned earlier. Further apparent
infection rate (r/unit/day) of disease development was also
computed by the formula given by Vander Plank, 1963 as:
2.303 x
2
x1
r = log10 -log10
t2 - t1 1- x2 1- x1
Where,
r = apparent infection rate of disease development (r/
unit/day), t 1
= date of first observation, t 2
= date of second
observation, x 1
= PDI at time t 1,
x 2
= PDI at time t 2
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The progress of development of the disease was
studied at leaf extension, scale leaf initiation stage and the
bulb formation stages, on 6 garlic genotypes, by recording
the final disease incidence and computing the apparent
infection rate. The data presented in Table 1 showed that
maximum per cent disease incidence was recorded at bulb
formation stage and minimum at the leaf extension stage. At
leaf extension stage maximum disease incidence was observed
in the genotype G 41 (17.10%), followed by J 4 (16.46%),
whereas the minimum incidence was observed in the genotype
HG 17 (1.52%) On the scale leaf initiation stage the maximum
disease incidence was observed in the genotype G 41 (41.85%)
whereas the minimum (2.20%) in the genotype HG-17.
Table 1.
SN
Genotype
Influence of crop age on incidence of purple blotch
on garlic and apparent infection rate of disease
development.
Disease incidence (%) at Apparent (r/unit/day )
infection rate between
Leaf
extensio
n stage
Scale
leaf
initiati
on
stage
Bulb
formati
on stage
Leaf
extension
to scale
leaf
initiation
(r 1)
Scale leaf
initiation
to bulb
formation
(r 2)
1 J-4 16.46 32.16 65.80 0.035 0.056
2 HG-17 1.52 2.20 4.55 0.015 0.029
3 G-41 17.10 41.85* 76.75* 0.049* 0.061*
4 Sel-10 15.12 36.42 66.58 0.046 0.050
5 G-282 10.20 14.85 23.50 0.019 0.021
6 G-323 12.75 22.85 49.22 0.028 0.047
Total 73.13 150.33 286.98 0.193 0.3
Average 9.14 18.79 35.87 0.024 0.033
*Average of observations on 100 plants replicated thrice.

MANU et al., Susceptibility to Alternaria blight (Alternariaporri) in Garlic 575
At the bulb formation stage the maximum disease
incidence was observed in the genotype G 41 (76.75%)
followed by Sel-10 (66.58%). The per cent disease incidence
varied between 1.52 to 17.10% at leaf extension stage, 2.20 to
41.85% at scale leaf initiation and 4.55 to 76.75% on the bulb
formation stage. Thus the disease development started at leaf
extension stage and progressed till bulb formation.
The average apparent infection rate of disease
development (r/unit/day) was 0.024 between leaf extension to
scale leaf initiation stage and 0.033 between scale leaf initiation
and bulb formation stage. The maximum rate of disease
development was observed between leaf extension and scale
initiation stage in G 41 (0.049) followed by (0.046) in Sel-10, J 4
(0.035), G 323 (0.028), G 282 (0.019) and the minimum in HG 1
(0.015). Between Scale leaf initiation and bulb formation stage
the maximum rate (0.061) of disease development was observed
in G 41 followed by 0.056 in J 4, Sel-10 (0.050), G-323 (0.047),
HG 1 (0.029) and the minimum at G-282 (0.021).Most susceptible
stage for infection of A.porri on garlic has been observed to
be the bulb formation stage, as plants approach maturity, their
susceptibility increases. Miller, 1983, Bisht and Agrawal, 1993,
Chawda and Rajasab, 1994 and Cartweight, et al. 1993 reported
similar findings.
LITERATURE CITED
Bisht, I.S. and R.C. Agrawal 1993. (a) Susceptibility to purple blotch
leaf spot (Alternariaporri) in garlic (Allium sativum). Ann. of Applied
Biology, 31 (8): 122-123.
Cartweight, B., M.E. Miller, and J.V. Edelson 1993. Enhancement of
purple blotch disease of onion by thrips injury.Proc. Int. Conf.
Thysanoptera., pp. 203-208.
Chawda, H.T. and A.H. Rajasab 1994. Aerobiology of Alternariaporri
and its relation to purple blotch disease in onion.Indian J. Mycol.
Pl. Pathol., 24(1): 41-45.
Mckinney, H.H. 1923. Influence of soil temperature and moisture on
infection of wheat seedlings by Helminthosporiumsativum. J. Agric.
Res. 26: 195-217.
Miller, M.E. 1983. Relationship between onion leaf age and susceptiblity
to Alternariaporri. Plant Disease 63(3): 284-286.
Vander Plank J.E. 1975. Principles of Plant Infection, Academic Press,
New York, London, pp. 216.
Recieved on 22-07-2013 Accepted on 12-08-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 576-578, 2013
Correlation and Path Coefficient Analysis in Faba Bean (Vicia faba L.) under
Irrigated Condition
INDRESH KUMAR VERMA 1 , P N VERMA 2* , C B YADAV 3
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, ND University of Agriculture and Technology, Kumarganj,
Faizabad-224229 (UP) India
email: prem.verma124@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The present experiment was conducted at Student’s
Instructional Farm (SIF) of N.D. University of Agriculture &
Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad in normal soil under
irrigated condition in a Augmented Block Design during Rabi
2010-11. The experimental material constituted of
96germplasm lines and three check genotypes viz., PRT 7, PRT
12 and Vikrant. Analysis of variance shows existence of very
high degree of variability for all the characters studied in the
germplasm. Seed yield per plant showed highly significant
and positive correlation with number of branches per plant,
number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, biological
yield per plant and harvest index. Further, path analysis
revealed biological yield per plant and harvest index as
important components having high order of direct effect on
seed yield and number of pods per plant, number of branches
per plant, number of seeds per pod, plant height, 100-seed weight
and protein content exerted substantial positive indirect effect
on seed yield via biological yield per plant.
Key words
Faba bean, Correlation, Path analysis, Variability
Faba beans (Viciafaba), also known as the Broad Bean,
Field Bean, Bell Bean or Tic Bean. Faba bean is fourth important
pulse crop after dry beans, dry peas and chickpea grown in
Rabi season in India. This crop is important in dry land farming
system where it offers farmers an alternative to cereal grains.
This crop also fixes atmospheric nitrogen to improve soil
fertility. However, there is much scope to evolve high
productive varieties to suit different agro-climatic conditions
of the country.
Genetic variability is the key to any crop improvement
programme. This provides opportunity for breeder to combine
desired genes into novel genotypes for enhancing the yield
and stability of economically important crop plants.
Germplasm serves as the most valuable natural reservoir for
providing useful characters for developing high yielding input
responsive genotypes, resistant to various biotic and abiotic
stresses. The manifestation of grain yield in faba bean is
dependent on important yield components and
therefore, identification of new important yield components
among several plant traits is important for devising a
successful breeding strategy for development of high yielding
varieties.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experiment was conducted at the Student’s
Instructional Farm of N.D. University of Agriculture and
Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad (U.P.), India, which is
geographically situated between 26.47 0 N latitude, 82.12 0 E
longitudeand at an altitude of 113 meters above the mean sea
level in the Gangetic plains of eastern U.P. The climate of
district Faizabad is semi-arid with hot summer and cold winter.
The experimental materials for the present investigation
consisted of 96 germplasm lines of faba bean and three check
genotypes, namely, PRT 7, PRT 12 and Vikrant were planted
in Augmented Block Design. The checks were distributed
systematically in each block. Each entry and checks were
grown in double row of 4 m length; spaced 30 cm apart and
distance between plant to plant within rows was maintained
at 10 cm by thinning. The characters studied were days to 50
% flowering, days to maturity, plant height (cm), number of
branches per plant, number of pods per plant, number of seeds
per pod, 100-seed weight (g), biological yield per plant (g),
seed yield per plant (g), harvest index (%) and protein content
(%).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The mean squares due to replication were highly
significant for number of pods per plant, biological yield per
plant and seed yield per plant and significant for, days to 50%
flowering.The mean squares due to genotypes were highly
significant for all the characters except, number of seeds per
pod (Table 1).
In the present study simple correlation coefficient
were computed among the 11 characters (Table 2). Seed yield
per plant showed highly significant and positive correlation
with number of branches per plant (0.570), number of pods
per plant (0.623), number of seeds per pod (0.515), biological
yield per plant (0.841) and harvest index (0.361). Thus these
characters emerged as most important factors influencing seed
yield in faba bean. The available literature had also identified
the above characters as important associates of grain yield in
faba bean (Vandana and Dubey, 1993; Huang, 1983; and Abo-
Elwafa and Bakheit, 1999).Biological yield per plant exhibited

VERMA et al., Correlation and Path Coefficient Analysis in Faba Bean (Vicia faba L.) under Irrigated Condition 577
Table 1.
S.
N.
Characters
Analysis of variance for eleven characters in Faba
bean under irrigation condition
Source of variation
Replications Genotypes Error
7 (d f) 2 (d f) 14 (d f)
1
Days to 50%
flowering
10.80* 37.16** 3.50
2 Days to maturity 8.99 98.16** 5.40
3
Number of
branches per plant
0.12 6.92** 0.19
4 Plant height (cm) 20.50 170.90** 11.60
5
Number of pods
120.52**
59.39**
per plant
5.09
6
Number of seeds
per pod
0.006 0.007 0.003
7
Biological yield
plant -1 (g)
99.88** 220.55** 15.46
8 Harvest index (%) 0.33 21.09** 0.47
9
100-seed weight
(g)
1.11 44.00** 0.46
10 Protein content (%) 0.003 0.75** 0.007
11
Seed yield plant -1
(g)
8.47** 65.69** 1.08
*Significant at 5 % probability level,** Significant at 1 %probability
level
highly significant and positive correlation with number of
branches per plant (0.465), plant height (0.393), number of
pods per plant (0.468), and number of seeds per pod (0.412).
Number of pods per plant showed highly significant
and positive correlation with plant height (0.299), biological
yield per plant (0.486) and harvest index (0.279). 1000 seed
weight is positively correlated (0.309) with days to 50%
flowering. More or less similar observations were reported by
Alan and Geren, 2007; Habetineket al. (1982).The number of
seeds per pods and protein content showed significant and
positive correlation with harvest index. These findings are in
close agreement with Pekesen 2007 and Reddy, et al. 2002.
Path analysis has emerged as a powerful and widely
used technique for understanding the direct and indirect
contribution of different characters to economic yield in crop
plant so that relative importance of various yield contributing
characters can be assessed.The results of path coefficient
analysis using simple correlation coefficient among 11
characters are given in Table 3. The high positive direct
contribution towards seed yield per plant was exhibited by
Table 2.
Estimates of simple correlation coefficients between different characters in faba bean under irrigated condition
Sr.
No.
Characters
Days to 50
%
Flowering
Days to
Maturity
Number
of
branches
/ plant
Plant
Height
(cm)
*Significant at 5% probability level, ** Significant at 1% probability level
Number
of pods/
plant
Number
of seeds/
pod
Biological
Yield/
plant (g)
Harvest
Index
(%)
100-
Seed
Weight
(g)
Protein
Content
(%)
Seed
Yield/
Plant (g)
1. Days to 50% flowering 1.0000 -0.141 -0.106 0.172 0.069 -0.163 -0.087 -0.014 0.309** -0.143 -0.101
2. Days to maturity 1.0000 0.022 0.150 0.041 0.046 -0.020 -0.026 -0.102 -0.118 -0.027
3. Number of branches / plant 1.0000 -0.079 0.192 0.318** 0.465** 0.187 0.171 0.159 0.570**
4. Plant height(cm) 1.0000 0.299** 0.179 0.393** -0.192 0.161 -0.047 0.255*
5. Number of pods / plant 1.0000 0.201* 0.486** 0.279** -0.081 0.203* 0.623**
6. Number of Seeds / pod 1.0000 0.412** 0.233* 0.112 0.051 0.515**
7. Biological yield / plant (g) 1.0000 -0.191 0.195 0.113 0.841**
8. Harvest Index (%) 1.0000 0.087 0.199* 0.361**
9. 100-Seed Weight (g) 1.0000 0.049 0.222*
10. Protein Content (%) 1.0000 0.232*
11. Seed yield plant -1 (g) 1.0000
Table 3.
Direct and indirect effect of different characters on seed yield per plant in faba bean under irrigated condition
Sr.
No.
Characters
Days to
maturity
Number
of
branches/
Plant
Residual factor = 0.0933,Bold figures indicate direct effects
Plant
height
(cm)
Number
of pods/
plant
Number
of seeds/
pod
Biological
yield/plant
(g)
Harvest
index
(%)
100-Seed
weight (g)
Protein
content
(%)
Days to
50%
flowering
Correlation
with
seed
yield
1. Days to50% flowering -0.0100 -0.0004 -0.0047 -0.0008 0.0022 -0.0003 -0.0784 -0.0069 -0.0001 -0.0019 -0.1015
2. Days to maturity 0.0014 0.0028 0.0010 -0.0007 0.0013 0.0001 -0.0183 -0.0133 0.0000 -0.0016 -0.0273
3. Number of branches/ Plant 0.0011 0.0001 0.0445 0.0004 0.0061 0.0007 0.4193 0.0960 -0.0001 0.0021 0.5701
4. Plant height (cm) -0.0017 0.0004 -0.0035 -0.0046 0.0096 0.0004 0.3540 -0.0983 -0.0001 -0.0006 0.2555
5. Number of pods/ plant -0.0007 0.0001 0.0085 -0.0014 0.0320 0.0004 0.4382 0.1432 0.0000 0.0027 0.6231
6. Number of seeds/ pod 0.0016 0.0001 0.0142 -0.0008 0.0064 0.0021 0.3712 0.1195 -0.0001 0.0007 0.5150
7. Biological yield/plant (g) 0.0009 -0.0001 0.0207 -0.0018 0.0156 0.0009 0.9008 -0.0977 -0.0001 0.0015 0.8407
8. Harvest index (%) 0.0001 -0.0001 0.0083 0.0009 0.0090 0.0005 -0.1720 0.5117 0.0000 0.0026 0.3611
9. 100- seed weight (g) -0.0031 -0.0003 0.0076 -0.0007 -0.0026 0.0002 0.1760 0.0447 -0.0005 0.0007 0.2220
10. Protein content (%) 0.0014 -0.0003 0.0071 0.0002 0.0065 0.0001 0.1020 0.1018 0.0000 0.0133 0.2322

578 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
biological yield per plant (0.9008) followed by harvest index
(0.5117). The days to 50% flowering (-0.0100), plant height (-
0.0046) and 100- seed weight (-0.0005) was the trait having
substantial negative direct effect on seed yield per plant.In
the present study the direct contribution of such characters
viz., days to maturity, number of branches per plant, number
of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod and protein content
were to low in positive direction to be considered important.
These characters have also identified as major direct
contributors of yield by Pekesen 2007; Bora, et al. 1998 and
Salem, 1982.
The number of pods per plant, number of branches per
plant, number of seeds per pod, plant height, 100-seed weight
and protein content exerted substantial positive indirect effect
on seed yield via biological yield per plant. The above
discussion suggest that the number of branches per plant,
number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod and
biological yield per plant were most contributor to seed yield.
Some of the earlier reports have also identified these characters
as important indirect contributor towards the expression of
seed yield in faba bean (Habetinek, et al. 1982; Salem, 1982;
Reddy, et al., 2002; Abo-Elwafa and Bakheit, 1999).The
characters mentioned above should be given due
consideration at the time of selection for high yielding varieties
in fababean.
LITERATURE CITED
Abo-Elwafa, A.A. and Bakheit, B.R.,1999.Performance, correlation
and path coefficient analysis in faba bean.Assiut J. Agri. Sci., 30(4):
77-92.
Alan,O. and Geren ,H., 2007. Evaluation of heritability and correlation
for seed yield and yield components in faba bean (Viciafaba L.).
J. Agron., 6(3), 484-487.
Bora, G.C., Gupta, S.N., Tomer, Y.S. and Singh, S., 1998. Genetic
variability, Correlation and Path coefficient analysis in faba bean
(Viciafaba L.). Indian j. agri. Sci.,68 (4): 212-214.
Habetinek, J.: Ruzickova, M. and Soucek, J. 1982. Variability and
correlation in some quantitative characters in a collection of broad
bean varieties [Faba vulgarisMoench].Sbornikvysoke,
skollyZemadelske V praze, A., 36:79-92.
Huang, W.T.: Li, FQ: Jiang: X.Y. and Li, H.Y. 1983. Correlation and
path coefficient analyses of characters in Viciafaba; Hereditas,
China.5 (3): 21-23.
Peksen, E. 2007. Relationships among characters and determination
of selection criteria for seed yield in faba bean (Viciafaba L.)
Ondokuz, Mays Universitesiziraat, Fakultesi Dergisi. 22 (1): 73-
78.
Reddy,S.R.R.; Gupta, S.N. and Verma, P.K. 2002. Genetic variability,
association and path analysis inViciafaba L. under high fertility
conditions.Forage Research.28 (3): 169-173.
Salem, S.A. 1982. Variation and correlations among agronomic characters
in a collection of beans (Viciafaba L.). J. Agri. Sci., U.K., 99 (3):
541- 545.
Vandana and Dubey, D.K. (1993).Path analysis in faba bean.FABIS
Newsletter.32: 23- 24.
Recieved on 24-07-2013 Accepted on 15-08-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 579-582, 2013
Response of Wider Spaced Drip Irrigated Rabi Castor to Intra-Row Spacing under
Varying N Levels
R.R. PISAL, M.K. ARVADIA, N.G. SAVANI AND V.H. SURVE
Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari- 396 450, Gujarat
email: rrpagri@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
An experiment was conducted for two consecutive rabi seasons
of 2011-12 and 2012-13 on clayey soil of the Soil and Water
Management Research Farm, Navsari agricultural University,
Navsari to study the response of wider spaced drip irrigated
rabi castor to intra-row spacing under varying N levels. In all,
ten treatment combinations comprising of all the possible
combinations of three intra-row spacings (60, 90 and 120 cm)
and three N levels (80, 120 and 160 kg N ha -1 ) having common
inter-row spacing of 2.4 m, along with on pair row control (0.6
m X 0.6 m X 1.2 m paired row + RDF) outside the experimental
plot. Intra-row spacing of 120 cm produced significantly higher
number of branches, leaves, spikes and seed yield per plant.
While, intra-row spacing of 60 cm remained superior with
respect of plant height, seed, stalk, oil yield ha -1 and nutrient
uptake. Among N levels, application of 160 kg N ha -1 recorded
significantly higher plant height, number of branches, leaves,
spikes, seed yield per plant and also resulted in higher seed,
stalk and oil yield.
Key words
Castor, intra-row spacing, nitrogen, yield, nutrient
uptake and oil yield.
To augment the crop yield per unit area, suitable crop
geometry and N fertilization are the most important factors.
Hybrid castor varieties have profound effect on yield potential
of crop. However, full potential exploitation of a variety largely
depends on management practices. Proper spacing provides
sufficient interception of sunlight and satisfactory absorption
of nutrients and water from the soil, consequently results in
higher crop yield. Suitable plant stand can be obtained by
planting the crop at proper inter and intra row spacing. The
growing of castor at wider row spacing reduces the plant
population results in yield reduction on acrage basis but castor
is capable to compensate the yield gap by increasing growth
and yield of individual plant. Nitrogen is one of the most
important major nutrient element and seems to be more
effective. Castor being highly responsive crop to applied
nitrogen and its judicious management is a key in successful
crop production. The information on this aspect particularly
rabi castor grown under South Gujarat condition is lacking
due to limited efforts have been made in this regards to
generate the scientific information regarding spacing and
nitrogen requirement of rabi castor under irrigated condition
of South Gujarat agro-climatic zone.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A field experiment was conducted during rabi seasons
of 2011-12 and 2012-13 at the Soil and Water Management
Research Farm, Navsari agricultural University, Navsari. The
soil of experimental plot was clayey in texture and slightly
alkaline in reaction. The soil was low in available N, while
medium in available P and high in available K. The experiment
was laid out in factorial randomized block design ten treatment
comprising of all the possible combinations of three intra-row
spacings (S 1
: 60 cm, S 2
: 90 cm and S 3
: 120 cm) and three N
levels (N 1
: 80 kg N ha -1 , N 2
: 120 kg N ha -1 and 160 kg N ha -1 )
along with on pair row control (0.6 m X 0.6 m X 1.2 m paired
row + RDF) outside the experimental plot and replicated thrice.
The crop was fertilized with basal dose of 40 kg ha -1 P and
10% of N level, while remained 90% N was given in equal nine
splits of 10 days interval starts from 20 DAS (days after sowing)
through fertigation. The crop was taken with agronomic
package of practices and observations were made periodically.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Effect of intra-row spacing:
Intra-row spacing of 60 cm had significant influence on
plant population at harvest stage during both the years and
in pooled data as well. Plant height of castor was found to be
affected during year 2011-12 and in pooled analysis.
Significantly higher plant height was observed with intra-row
spacing of 60 cm, but was statistically remained at par with
that of 90 cm spacing. Likewise, 90 cm remained at par with
120 cm. this may happened due to the intra-plant competition
for sunlight which makes the plants more competitive and
resulted in increase in plant height. However, wider intra-row
spacing of 120 cm significantly improved plant growth
characters like, number of branches plant -1 at harvest and
number of leaves plant -1 at 120 DAS over 90 and 60 cm spacing
in all the cases except remained at par to 90 cm during year
2011-12.
Wider intra-row spacing treatment also influenced
favorably on various yield attributing characters. Intra-row
spacing of 120 cm recorded significantly highest number of
spikes (22.48 plant -1 ) and seed yield (834.2 g plant -1 ) while
failed to exert their significant effect on test weight of castor
seeds. The increase in growth and yield per plant is may be

580 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Table 1.
Yield attributes and yield of castor as influenced by intra-row spacing and N levels.
Treatments Spikes plant -1 Capsules on main spike Test weight Seed yield (kg ha -1 ) Stalk yield (kg ha -1 )
2011- 2012- Pooled 2011- 2012- Pooled 2011- 2012- Pooled 2011- 2012- Pooled 2011- 2012- Pooled
12 13
12 13
12 13
12 13
12 13
Intra-row s pacing (cm)
S 1: 60 19.73 19.22 19.48 60.81 65.58 63.20 29.73 29.80 29.77 3142 3048 3095 4770 4704 4737
S 2: 90 21.51 20.85 21.18 61.13 66.75 63.94 30.22 30.29 30.25 3014 2938 2976 4440 4251 4345
S 3: 120 22.71 22.25 22.48 62.27 67.50 64.88 30.50 30.46 30.48 2836 2841 2838 4088 3985 4037
S.Em+ 0.53 0.36 0.33 1.09 1.59 0.94 0.23 0.23 0.17 29.28 53.9 31.3 173.3 183.2 132.8
C.D. @ 5% 1.55 1.06 0.93 NS NS NS NS NS NS 85.46 157.2 89.1 505.7 534.7 377.8
N levels ( kg ha -1 )
N 1 : 80 20.25 19.98 20.12 61.03 65.00 63.01 29.63 30.10 29.73 2930 2828 2879 3994 3855 3924
N 2: 120 21.53 20.82 21.17 64.08 67.13 65.60 30.25 30.38 30.26 3005 2963 2984 4480 4330 4405
N 3 : 160 22.18 21.52 21.85 59.11 67.70 63.40 30.57 30.90 30.51 3057 3036 3047 4824 4755 4790
S.Em+ 0.53 0.36 0.33 1.09 1.59 0.94 0.23 0.23 0.17 29.28 53.9 31.3 173.3 183.2 132.8
C.D. @ 5% 1.55 1.06 0.93 3.18 NS NS 0.68 NS 0.48 85.46 157.2 89.1 505.7 534.7 377.8
Interaction NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS
Control vs. Rest
Wider spacing 21.32 20.77 21.04 61.40 66.41 64.01 30.15 30.18 30.17 2997 2942 2970 4433 4313 4373
(Normal)
Paired row 9.20 9.50 9.35 51.23 54.23 52.73 29.23 29.85 29.54 2713 2698 2705 4100 3947 4023
(Control)
S.Em+ 0.29 0.20 0.25 0.60 0.87 0.75 0.13 0.12 0.13 16.0 29.5 23.7 94.9 100.3 97.7
C.D. (0.05) 0.84 0.58 0.71 1.73 2.53 2.12 0.37 NS NS 46.5 85.6 67.3 NS NS NS
C.V. % 9.12 6.43 7.92 6.25 8.44 7.52 2.67 2.62 2.64 3.4 6.4 5.1 13.6 14.8 14.2
due to increased food production as a result of increased
growth parameters like number branches plant -1 , number of
leaves plant -1 and increased nutrition with reduced competition
for resource consumption. Singh, 2003, Porwal, et al., 2006
and Rana, et al., 2006 also observed the significant
improvement in yield attributing characters. However, reverse
order of (60 > 90 > and 120 cm) intra-row spacing was observed
in case of yield parameters i.e. seed and stalk yield on unit
area basis. Among intra row spacing S 1
i.e., 60 cm recorded
significantly higher values of 3142 kg ha -1 during 2011-12,
3048 kg ha -1 during 2012-13 and 3095 kg ha -1 in pooled analysis
as compare to 90 and 120 cm spacing. The mean seed yield
advantage under 60 cm intra-row spacing was 9.05 and 3.99
per cent over 120 and 90 cm, respectively (Table 2). This may
happened due to higher plant population in unit area, which
compensate the growth and yield attributes produced by
individual plants under wider intra-row spacing treatments.
A perusal of data indicated that different intra-row
spacing differed varyingly in case of nutrient uptake by castor
(Table 2). There were significant differences was observed in
nutrient analysis during year 2011-12 and in pooled data. The
closer intra-row spacing of 60 cm produced significantly higher
total nutrient uptake over wider spacing of 120 cm and was
closely followed by 90 cm. This may happened due to the
nutrient content not affected considerably by spacing
treatment and closer spacing have higher crop biomass
production on unit area which represented in to their uptake.
These findings are in close associated with that of Singh, et
al., 2002 in niger crop and Kaushik and Shektawat, 2005 in
sorghum crop. Oil content in seeds was not influenced
significantly with various intra-row spacing treatments.
However, the oil yield was variated considerably and produced
significantly higher values in closer intra-row spacing of 60
cm over 120, but closely followed by 90 cm.
Effect of N levels:
Non significant influence of levels of N on initial and
final plant population indicates the uniformity of plants per
unit area in all the treatments. Similarly, plant height also not
influenced significantly due to N levels at harvest due N levels,
but remained in order of N 3
, N 2
and N 1
. This may be due the
split application of N unable to influence the plant height at
initial stages of plant growth and after flower initiation the
rate of increase in plant height was decreased. Among N levels
N 3
i.e., 160 kg N ha -1 recorded significantly more number of
branches and leaves plant -1 as compare to 80 kg N ha -1 but
remained at par with 120 kg N ha -1 , while 120 kg N ha -1 was
remained superior over 80 kg N ha -1 treatment (Table 1). This
might be due to better response of castor crop to higher doses
of N. Nitrogen can favourably influence the cell multiplication
and enlargement with thinner cell walls, promotes vegetative
growth and encourage formation of good quality foliage by
producing more carbohydrates. These results are akin to those
reported by Paida and Parmar, 1980, Patel, et al. (2005) and
Anon., (2013).
Number of spikes plant -1 and test weight was affected
significantly with N levels. Number of spikes plant -1 was
recorded remarkably higher with application of 160 kg N ha -1
to the tune of 8.59 and 3.21 per cent higher number of spikes
per plant over 80 and 120 kg N ha -1 . On mean data basis,
significantly higher test weight was recorded with 160 kg N
ha -1 to the tune of 2.62 per cent over treatment receiving 80 kg

PISAL et al., Response of Wider Spaced Drip Irrigated Rabi Castor to Intra-Row Spacing under Varying N Levels 581
Table 2.
Nutrient uptake, oil content and oil yield as influenced by intra-row spacing and N levels.
Treatments N uptake (kg ha -1 ) P uptake (kg ha -1 ) K uptake (kg ha -1 ) Oil content (%) Oil yield (kg ha -1 )
2011- 2012- Pooled 2011- 2012- Pooled 2011- 2012- Pooled 2011- 2012- Pooled 2011- 2012- Pooled
12 13
12 13
12 13
12 13
12 13
Intra-row spacing (cm)
S 1: 60 98.05 97.68 97.87 20.73 19.74 20.23 76.12 75.82 75.97 50.52 50.35 50.43 1588 1533 1560
S 2: 90 94.79 94.06 94.43 19.86 18.97 19.41 71.96 71.52 71.74 50.78 50.36 50.57 1531 1479 1505
S 3: 120 89.98 90.72 90.35 18.71 18.16 18.43 67.75 67.86 67.80 50.54 50.14 50.34 1433 1424 1428
S.Em+ 1.49 2.18 1.36 0.28 0.45 0.28 1.38 2.33 1.46 0.35 0.63 0.37 19.05 27.48 17.44
C.D. @ 5% 4.36 NS 3.86 0.81 NS 0.81 4.03 NS 4.15 NS NS NS 55.60 80.22 49.58
N levels ( kg ha -1 )
N 1 : 80 87.10 85.21 86.16 18.17 17.13 17.65 65.63 64.04 64.83 50.74 50.48 50.61 1486 1427 1457
N 2: 120 94.53 93.98 94.26 19.84 19.20 19.52 71.74 71.92 71.83 50.64 50.28 50.46 1521 1488 1505
N 3 : 160 101.19 103.26 102.23 21.28 20.53 20.90 78.46 79.25 78.85 50.46 50.09 50.27 1543 1520 1532
S.Em+ 1.49 2.18 1.36 0.28 0.45 0.28 1.38 2.33 1.46 0.35 0.63 0.37 19.05 27.48 17.44
C.D. @ 5% 4.36 6.35 3.86 0.81 1.31 0.81 4.03 6.80 4.15 NS NS NS NS NS NS
Interaction NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS
Control vs. Rest
Wider spacing 94.28 94.15 94.21 19.77 18.95 19.36 71.94 71.74 71.84 50.61 50.28 50.45 1517 1478 1498
(Normal)
Paired row 76.39 77.11 76.75 17.28 16.90 17.09 63.90 63.05 63.47 50.72 50.16 50.44 1376 1351 1364
(Control)
S.Em+ 0.82 1.19 1.06 0.15 0.25 0.21 0.76 1.28 1.08 0.19 0.35 0.28 10.43 15.05 12.95
C.D. (0.05) 2.36 3.46 3.01 0.43 0.71 0.60 2.18 NS 3.07 NS NS NS 30.27 43.68 36.72
C.V. % 5.60 8.16 7.27 4.90 8.28 7.96 6.72 11.38 9.63 2.39 4.36 3.51 4.39 6.50 5.52
N ha -1 but closely followed by 120 kg N ha -1 (Table 1). Such
positive and significant effect of N on yield attributing
characters were also reported by Patel, et al., 2005 and Rana,
et al., 2006. The seed yield per plant was not influenced
significantly due to N levels but found in higher side with N 3
,
N 2
and at lower side with N 1
. Among N levels N 3
i.e., 60 cm
recorded significantly higher seed and stalk yield of castor
during all the cases as compare to N 1
i.e. 80 kg N ha -1 and was
remained on same bar with N 2
i.e. 120 kg N ha -1 . Higher N
levels increased the stalk yield significantly. Nitrogen played
an important role in plant metabolism by virtue of being an
essential constituent of diverse type of metabolically active
components, like amino acids, proteins, nucleic acids,
enzymes, co-enzymes and alkaloids which are important for
higher growth and yield. The plant characters like number of
branches, number of spikes plant -1 and test weight contribute
directly in the yield of crop. The result collaborative the early
findings of Patel, 2006, Tank, et al., 2007 and Hadvani, et al.,
2010.
A perusal of data also indicated that N levels significantly
influenced the nutrient uptake by castor (Table 3). Significant
increase in N, P and K uptake due to increased N levels from
80 to 160 kg N ha -1 . Nitrogen fertilization increases the cation
exchange capacity of plant roots and thus, makes them more
efficient in absorbing nutrient ions. The increase in N uptake
due to increase in levels of N could be attributed to the
favourable effects of N application on growth and yield
attributes which results in higher seed and stalk yield and
consequently higher N uptake. The results are in accordance
with the findings of Mathukia and Modhwadia, 1995 and Patel,
2006.
Interaction effect and control vs rest analysis:
Interaction effect between intra-row spacing and N levels
was found to be non-significant in all the parameters under
sudy. While, control vs rest analysis showed significant
variation in plant growth, yield and yield attributes, nutrient
uptake, soil nutrient and oil content. Control vs rest analysis
produced significantly higher plant population to the tune of
about 344 per cent. As the higher plants per unit area there
were increased the inter plant competition for resource
utilization, which resulted into significantly increase in plant
height (162.92) and decrease in number branches, number of
leaves plant -1 (Table 1). Similarly, yield attributing parameters
like, number of spikes plant -1 , test weight and seed yield plant -
1
significantly decreased in control plot (Table 1). Similarly,
significantly higher N, P and K uptake was also recorded in
wider over pair row planed castor (Table 2). Besides higher
plant population on unit area unable castor to compensate
the yield levels to that of wider spaced one. The pair row
control vs rest analysis showed the significant increase in
castor seed yield. While, non significant but positive response
in case of stalk yield by wider spaced castor over pair row
control. Oil content in seeds was not influenced significantly
with methods of planting. However, oil yield was considerably
higher in wider spaced castor due to increase in seed yield.
LITERATURE CITED
Anonymous 2013. Study of levels and schedules on N fertigation in
castor rabi. Annual progress report of Natural Resource
Management, 9 th AGRESCO meeting, Soil and Water Management
Research Unit, NAU., Navsari, pp. 165-171.

582 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Kaushik, M.K. and Shektawat, M.S. 2005. Effect of row spacing, nitrogen
and weed control on growth, yield and nutrient uptake of sorghum.
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Mathukia, R. K. and Modhwadia, M. M. 1995. Influence of different
levels of nitrogen and phosphorus on yield and nutrient uptake by
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Paida, V.J. and Parmar, M.T. 1980. A note on effect of different levels
of nitrogen and phosphorus on yield and yield attributes of castor
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Patel. A.S. 2006. Response of nitrogen and sulphur on uptake and
quality of castor (Ricinus communis L.) under irrigated condition.
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Patel, K.S., Patel, G.N., Patel, M.K., Pathak, H.C. and Patel, J.K.
2005. Nitrogen requirement of rabi castor, Ricinus communis L.
under different crop sequences. Journal of Oilseeds Research, 22
(1): 209-210.
Porwal, M.K., Agarwal, S.K. and Khakhar, A.K. 2006. Effect of planting
methods and intercrops on productivity and economics of castor
(Ricinus communis L.) based intercropping systems. Indian Journal
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Rana, D.S., Giri, G and Panchuri, D.K. (2006). Evaluation of castor
genotypes for productivity, economics, litter fall and changes in
soil properties under different levels of intra-row spacing and N.
Indian Journal of Agronomy, 51 (4): 318-322.
Singh, M. 2003. Studies on effect of spacing in castor (Ricinus communis
L). Annals of Aried Zone, 42 (1): 89-91.
Singh, B., Rajput, A.L. and Ramdher Singh 2002. Effect of
nitrogen and row spacing on growth, yield and economics of niger
(Guizitia abyssinica). Indian Journal of Agronomy, 47 (4): 542-
543.
Tank. D.A., Delvadia, D.R., Gediya. K.M., Shukla, Y.M. and Patel,
M.V., 2007. Effect of different spacing and N levels on seed yield
and quality of hybrid castor (Ricinus communis L.). Research on
Crops, 8 (2): 335-338.
Recieved on 21-08-2013 Accepted on 30-08-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 583-585, 2013
Genetic Divergence in Upland Rice Germplasm (Oryza sativa L.)
T.SRAVAN, N.R. RANGARE, B.G. SURESH, G.ESWARA REDDY AND P. ASHOK REDDY
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Allahabad School of Agriculture
Sam Higginbottom Institute of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences, Deemed-to-be-University,
Allahabad-211007, Uttar Pradesh, India
email: sravan.agrico37@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
In the present study, thirty six upland rice genotypes consisting
of IRRI germplasm lines were raised at Field experimentation
centre, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Sam
Higginbottom Institute of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences
during Kharif 2011 to identify diverse genotypes. They were
evaluated for thirteen yield and yield attributing characters
using D 2 analysis, to study the diversity pattern among the
genotypes. Based on the analysis, the genotypes were grouped
into 7 clusters. Maximum number of 9 and 7 genotypes was
grouped under cluster IV and V respectively, while minimum
number of genotypes (2) was grouped under cluster III.
Maximum inter cluster D 2 value was observed between cluster
III and VII (89.57) followed by cluster III and V (85.01). The
greater the distance between the two clusters indicates wider
the genetic diversity between genotypes. The intra cluster
distance was maximum in cluster III (45.08) followed by cluster
V (34.83) indicates hybridization involving genotypes within
the same clusters may result in good cross combinations. Among
the thirteen traits studied, maximum contribution was made
by harvest index (34.60) biological yield per plant (31.75) and
days to 50 percent flowering (10.00). Hence, harvest index,
biological yield per plant and days to 50 percent flowering
together contribute 76.35% towards total divergence. Therefore,
these characters may be given importance during hybridization
programme.
Key words
Genetic divergence, upland rice, germplasm
The population growth in most of the Asian countries,
except China, continues to be around 2% per year. Hence it is
very pertinent to critically consider whether the rice production
can be further increased to keep pace with population growth.
A logical way to start any breeding programme for crop
improvement is to survey the variation present in the
germplasm. Diversity analysis is a useful tool in quantifying
the degree of divergence between biological population at
genotypic level and to assess relative contribution of different
components to the total divergence both at intra and inter
cluster levels (Murty and Arunachalam, 1966; Ram and Panwar,
1970). It also permits to select the genetically diverged parents
which can produce new recombinants with desirable traits
when they are crossed together. Joshi and Dhawan, 1966
reported that genetic diversity was very much important factor
for any hybridization program aiming at genetic improvement
of yield especially in self pollinated crops. Therefore, this
study was undertaken to identify suitable upland rice parents
having diverse characters through genetic divergence
analysis.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Thirty six upland rice genotypes consisting of IRRI
germplasm lines were raised at Field experimentation centre,
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Sam Higginbottom
Institute of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences during
Kharif, 2011 to identify diverse genotypes. The experiment
was laid out in randomized block design with three replications.
The genotypes were raised in plot of 5 rows with each row of
5 metre length. Row to row and plant to plant spacing was
maintained at 20 x 15 cm. The recommended agronomic
practices were followed. They were evaluated for thirteen yield
and yield attributing characters viz., days to 50 per cent
flowering, plant height, flag leaf length, flag leaf width, panicles
per plant, panicle length, spikelets per panicle, filled grains
per panicle, spikelet fertility percentage, biological yield per
plant, harvest index, test weight and grain yield per plant. Ten
random plants / replication/ genotype were tagged for
recording observations. The genetic distance between the
genotypes was worked out using Mahalanobis D 2 analysis
(1936) and grouping of varieties into clusters was done
following the Tochers method as detailed by Rao, 1952.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Analysis of variance showed significant differences for
all the thirteen characters studied among the genotypes.
Based on D 2 values, 36 genotypes were grouped into 7 clusters
(Table 1). Among the different clusters cluster IV consisted
maximum number of genotypes (9 genotypes) followed by
cluster V (7 genotypes), cluster I (6 genotypes), cluster II (5
genotypes), cluster VII (4 genotypes), cluster VI (3 genotypes)
and cluster III (2 genotypes). The pattern of group
constellation proved the existence of significant amount of
variability. The overall composition of the clustering pattern
showed that genotypes collected from the same geographic
origin were distributed in different clusters. Similar findings
of non- correspondence of geographic origin with genetic
diversity were also reported by Shanmugasundaram, et al.,
2000 and Nayak, et al., 2004.
The intra and inter cluster distance are presented in

584 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Table 1.
Distribution of 36 rice genotypes into different
clusters.
Cluster
No. of
Genotypes included
No.
genotypes
I. UPL RI-5, IR 81423-B-B-111-3, B11598C- 6
TB-2-1-B-7, IR 81421-B-B-25-4, IR 83142-4-
4 , CT 15672-12-1-5-2-4-M
II. CB0015-24, KMP 34, IR 83141-11, IR
5
83140-56, IR 88614-B-1
III. IR 67017-124-2-4, VANDANA 2
IV. B11577E-MR-B-12-1-1, CT 15696-3-4-3-1- 9
2-M, CT 15673-8-1-4-1-6-M, YN 3129-492-
18-3-7-1, IR 83106-B-B-1, CT 15679-17-1-1-
2-3-M, IR 82912-B-B-16, IR 43, CT 15765-
13-3-6-2-1-M
V. IR 88628-B-B-15, IR 81429-B-31, YN 3155- 7
421-18-6-10-4-4, CT 15671-15-4-5-1-1-M,
CT 15691-4-3-3-1-1-M, CT 15675-7-1-7-1-2-
M, CT 15716-6-1-2-2-2-M
VI. BP1976B-2-3-7-TB-1-1, IR 83138-13-4,
3
CB08-709-2
VII. IR 81413-B-B-75-3, IR 81413-B-B-75-4, IR
81063-B-94-4-3-1, IR 74371-54-1-1
4
(Table 2). Inter cluster distance was higher than intra cluster
distance indicating wider genetic diversity among the
genotypes. The maximum inter cluster distance was observed
between cluster III and VII (89.57) followed by between cluster
III and cluster V (85.01 ) and between cluster III and VI (79.73
) indicating wider genetic diversity among the genotypes
between the groups (Subudhi, et al., 2009). The hybrids
developed from the selected members of these clusters would
produce highly variable population in the segregating
generations. The minimum inter cluster distance was found
between cluster I and cluster IV ( 32.53 ) followed by between
cluster I and cluster II (34.75). These genotypes in these
clusters are genetically very close and hence, hybridization
among the varieties will not give fruitful result.
The maximum intra cluster distance was observed in
cluster III (45.08) followed by cluster V (34.83) and cluster VI
(28). Hence, selection within these clusters may be exercised
based on the highest areas for the desirable traits, which would
be made use of in improvement through intervarietal
hybridization (Joshi, et al., 2008).
The results of cluster means (Table 3) revealed that
cluster VI with three genotypes exhibited highest mean value
for grain yield per plant (16.97), panicles per plant (6.84), filled
grains per panicle (97.18), spikelet fertility (93.27), biological
yield per plant (34.79) and harvest index (47.45), cluster III
showed lowest mean value for the character days to 50%
flowering (72.66) followed by cluster VI (79.3) and cluster II
(82.73) indicating earliness. Cluster IV showed highest mean
value for the character plant height (96.6) while lowest mean
value recorded in cluster II (60.56). Cluster VII showed highest
mean value for the character panicle length (22.29).
None of the clusters contained genotypes with all the
desirable traits which could be directly selected and utilized.
All the minimum and maximum cluster mean values were
distributed in relatively distant clusters. However the cluster
VI recorded desirable mean value for maximum number of
productive traits viz., panicles per plant, filled grains per
panicle, spikelet fertility, biological yield per plant, harvest
Table 2.
Intra (diagonal) and inter-cluster average distances (D 2 ) in rice
Cluster 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 661.384
(25.71)
1208.223
(34.75)
2564.012
(50.63)
1058.783
(32.53)
2349.591
(48.47)
2352.901
(48.50)
2728.685
(52.23)
2 625.068
(25.00)
2192.258
(46.82)
1366.81
(36.97)
4244.101
(65.14)
4312.644
(65.67)
4445.108
(66.67)
3 2032.861
(45.08)
3959.549
(62.92)
7227.825
(85.01)
6356.964
(79.73)
8022.826
(89.57)
4 362.701
(19.04)
1912.102
(43.72)
2899.638
(53.84)
3141.797
(56.05)
5 1213.16
(34.83)
1809.781
(42.54)
1984.118
(44.54)
6 784.132
(28.00)
2109.287
(45.92)
7 689.264
(26.25)
Table 3.
Cluster Days to 50%
Flowering
Cluster mean of different yield characters in 36 rice genotypes
Plant
Height
cm
Flag Leaf
Length
Flag
Leaf
Width
Panicles/
Plant
Panicle
Length
cm
Spikelets/
Panicle
Filled
Grains/
Panicle
Spikelet
Fertility
(%)
Biological
Yield/
Plant
harvest
Index
(%)
Test
Weight
gm
I. 85.611 84.483 28.542 1.261 5.119 20.748 79.444 72.109 90.871 23.543 40.990 23.434 9.969
II. 82.733 60.561 22.141 1.313 4.845 18.147 73.926 61.328 83.217 20.205 35.305 22.296 7.821
III. 72.667 93.540 29.362 1.152 4.875 20.453 62.502 54.430 87.845 23.540 43.987 22.955 10.253
IV. 95.333 71.492 25.490 1.241 4.611 19.240 80.024 67.584 84.535 22.735 27.093 22.439 6.753
V. 94.333 95.541 28.004 1.310 4.824 21.089 102.133 88.293 86.786 27.927 36.069 23.800 10.510
VI. 79.333 96.687 32.483 1.094 6.848 21.622 104.176 97.180 93.270 34.759 47.459 24.981 16.977
VII. 83.083 84.806 29.469 1.191 4.601 22.297 105.771 92.673 87.641 20.761 46.655 22.572 9.918
Grain
Yield/
plant

SRAVAN et al., Genetic Divergence in Upland Rice Germplasm (Oryza sativa L.) 585
Table 4.
S.No.
Percentage of contribution of each character
towards total divergence
Source
No. of appeared
times ranked 1st
Percent of
contribution of
character (%)
1. Days to 50% Flowering 63 10.00
2. Plant Height cm 21 3.33
3. Flag Leaf Length 4 0.63
4. Flag Leaf Width 7 1.11
5. Panicles/ Plant 0 0.00
6. Panicle Length cm 0 0.00
7. Spikelets/ Panicle 1 0.16
8. Filled Grains/ Panicle 6 0.95
9. Spikelet Fertility (%) 17 2.70
10. Biological Yield/ Plant 200 31.75
11. harvest Index (%) 218 34.60
12. Test Weight gm 43 6.83
13. Grain Yield per plant 50 7.94
index and grain yield per plant. Based on the per se
performance of the best genotypes within the clusters, they
may be directly selected or may be used as potential parents
in hybridization programme.
The contribution of each trait to total divergence is
presented in (Table 4). Among the traits studied harvest index
contributed maximum divergence (34.60) followed by biological
yield per plant (31.75) and days to 50 percent flowering (10.00).
Similar results are reported by Mohanty, et al., 2010 and Yadav,
et al., 2011. The minimum percentage of contribution was
observed in spikelets per panicle (0.16) followed by flag leaf
length (0.63), filled grains per panicle (0.95), flag leaf width
(1.11), spikelet fertility (2.7), plant height (3.33), test weight
(6.83) and grain yield per plant (7.94). The traits viz., harvest
index, biological yield per plant and days to 50 percent
flowering contributed 76.35 per cent towards total divergence.
Hence these characters should be given importance during
hybridization and selection in the segregating population.
LITERATURE CITED
Joshi, A.B. and Dhawan, N.L., 1966. Genetic improvement of yield
with special reference to self- fertilizing crops. Indian J. of Genet.
Pl. Breed, 26A: 101-113.
Joshi, M.A, Pritpal Singh, N.K.Sarao, R.C.Sharma and T.S.Bharaj, 2008.
Genetic diversity among the rice varieties cultivated in Punjab.
Oryza, 45(4):277-279.
Mahalanobis, P.C.1936. On the generalized distance in statistics. Proc.
Natl. Inst. Sci. India, 2: 49-55.
Mohanty, N., Reddy, M.S., Reddy, M.D. and Sudhakar, P. 2010. Genetic
divergence studies in rice genotypes. Oryza, 47 (4): 269-271.
Murthy, B.R. and Arunachalam, V. 1966. The nature of genetic
divergence in relation to breeding system in crop plants. Indian J.
of Genet. Pl. Breed, 26(A): 12-26.
Nayak, A.R., D. Chaudhery and J.N.Reddy,2004, Genetic divergence in
scented rice. Oryza, 41(3&4):79-82.
Ram, J. and Panwar, D.V.S. 1970. Interspecific divergence in rice (Oryza
sativa L.). Indian J. of Genet. Pl. Breed, 30:1-2.
Rao, C.R.1952. Advanced statistical methods in biometrics research,
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Shanmugasundaram, P., J.Souframanien and S. Sadasivam, 2000. Genetic
divergence among rice varieties released from paddy breeding station,
Coimbatore, India. Oryza, 37(3):225-228.
Subudhi, H.N., J. Meher, L.K.Bose and Sanjukta Das, 2009. Genetic
diversity studies of promising varieties of eastern India based on
quality characters. Oryza, 46(4): 271-274.
Yadav, R.D.S., Kushwaha, G.D., Chaudhary, R.K. and Pankaj Kumar
2011. Genetic diversity of yield, its components and seed traits in
rice under sodic soil. Plant Archives 11 (1): 137-139.
Recieved on 05-08-2013 Accepted on 14-08-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 586-588, 2013
Genetical Studies for Yield and Contributing Traits in Indian Mustard (Brassica
juncea L. Czern. & Coss.)
GAURAV KUMAR* AND ALOK KUMAR
Department of Genetics & Plant Breeding, CSA University of Agriculture and Technology
Kanpur 208 002, U.P., India
e mail: g.kumar3246@yahoo.com
*Present Address: Crop Improvement Division, Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kalyanpur,
Kanpur-208024, U.P., India
ABSTRACT
Four genetical population of mustard (P 1
, P 2
, F 1
& F 2
) developed
by crossing of six cultivars/strains (viz. Kanti, Maya, Ashirvad,
Pusa Jagganath, RLM 198 and Durgamani) were used for the
estimation of gene effects for 11 quantitative characters. The
results indicated that both additive and non additive gene action
contributed in the inheritance of yield and yield contributing
characters. Duplicate type of epistasis was more prevalent. The
simple or pedigree selection followed by biparental mating is
suggested for needful.
Key words
Mustard, genetical studies, diallel analysis, gene action
Indian mustard (Brassica juncea L.) is one of the most
important oilseed crop grown for vegetable oil. It has rank
second after groundnut in oilseed crops. Extracted oil of
mustard is used for cooking media as well as industrial
purposes. The seeds are used as spices in the preparation of
pickles, curries, sauces and salad. Mustard tender leaves are
also used for culinary purposes. The meal cake used as cattle
feed and seeds also having medicinal properties
To develop a promising variety, the studies of pattern of
inheritance of yield and some quantitative characters is an
important consideration. In present investigation an attempt
has been made to study the estimates of gene effects involved
in the inheritance of important yield contributing characters
in this crop.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Five diverse genotypes of mustard viz. Kanti, Maya,
Ashirvad, Pusa Jagganath and Durgamani were crossed in
diallel mating design excluding reciprocals during rabi 2004-
05. The seed obtained from all the 10 crosses were sown to
raise the F 1
population during rabi season. The F 1s
were selfed
to get the pure seed for raising F 2
population in next season
and fresh crosses were also attempted to get the F 1
generation
for final experiment. Resultant 10 F 1s
, 10 F 2s,
along with 5 parents
were evaluated in a complete randomized block design with
three replications at Oilseed Research Farm of C.S.A.
University of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur during crop
season (rabi) 2006-07. Each entry comprised single row for
F 1
s, parents and double row for F 2
s of 4 m length with a inter
and intra row distance of 30 x 10 cm, respectively. All the
recommended agronomical practices were adopted to raise
the crop.
The observation were recorded on eleven characters
viz., Days to flower, plant height (cm), number of primary
branches per plant, number of secondary branches per plant,
length of main raceme (cm), number of siliquae on main raceme,
seed yield per plant (g) specific leaf weight (mg) harvest index,
1000 seed weight (g) and oil content. The data collected were
subjected to generation mean analysis as per method
suggested by Hayman, 1958 and Mather, 1949.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The non significant values of t 2 (Table 1) for all the traits
except length of main raceme and oil content in F 1
generation
and harvest index in F 2
generation indicated the validity of
diallel hypothesis and uniformity of Wr/Vr. The estimated
values of all the six components of variation viz., D, H 1,
H2, F,
h 2
and E are presented in Table 2.
The estimated value of additive (D) component was
highly significant for all the characters in both generations.
The non additive genetic components (H 1
and H 2)
were highly
significant for all the characters in F 1
and F 2
generations. The
values of dominant component were lower than additive
component for all the characters in both generations except
number of primary branches (F 1
generation only) number of
Table 1.
‘t 2 ’ value for uniformity test of Wr, Vr for eleven
characters in Indian mustard
S.No. Characters Value of ‘t 2 ’
F 1 F 2
1. Days to flower 6.93 1.71
2. Plant height 0.85 0.65
3. Number of primary branches 0.02 1.83
4. Number of secondary branches 0.01 0.15
5. Length of main raceme 12.15* 3.55
6. Siliquae on main raceme 6.88 6.58
7. Seed yield per plant 0.11 0.04
8. Specific leaf weight 2.15 2.21
9. Harvest index 2.19 38.32**
10. 1000-seed weight 0.006 0.79
11. Oil content 8.92* 5.83
* Significant at 5 per cent level; ** Significant at 1 per cent level.

KUMAR & KUMAR, Genetical Studies for Yield and Contributing Traits in Indian Mustard (Brassica juncea L. czern.&coss.) 587
Table 2.
Estimates of variance components and related parameters for eleven characters in F 1
and F 2
generation of Indian
mustard
Characters
G e n e r a tio n s
Variance components
Related Statistics
^ ^ ^ ^
D H 1 H 2 F ^ h 2 E
^ ^
(H 1 /D)
^ 0.5 H
^
2 /4H
^
^ ^
(4DH1) 0.5 + F1
1
^ ^
(4DH 1 ) 0.5 - F
Days to F 1 86.74** 27.93** 19.59** -3.77 7.47* 0.26 0.57 0.18 0.93 0.38 -0.84
Flower SE+ 2.92 7.42 6.63 7.14 4.46 1.11
F 2 86.84** 32.45** 24.75** -13.26* 2.51 0.15 0.61 0.19 0.77 0.10 0.09
SE+ 2.65 6.74 6.02 6.48 4.05 1.00
Plant height F 1 104.82** 94.12** 73.95** -56.91** 13.81 0.58 0.95 0.20 0.55 0.18 -0.17
SE+ 9.27 23.54 21.03 22.65 14.15 3.50
F 2 104.82** 63.91** 54.27** -31.62* -0.02 0.58 0.78 0.21 0.67 0.0003 -0.13
SE+ 6.09 15.47 13.82 14.88 9.30 2.30
F 1 1.12** 1.42** 1.04** 1.16** 0.37* 0.03 1.13 0.18 2.70 0.35 -0.98
Number of SE+ 0.10 0.26 0.24 0.25 0.16 0.04
Primary F 2 1.11** 0.80** 0.53** 0.99** -0.02 0.04 0.85 0.17 3.95 0.03 -0.95
Branches SE+ 0.06 0.15 0.13 0.14 0.09 0.02
F 1 3.72** 8.87** 7.09** 4.07** 10.92** 0.16 1.54 0.20 3.64 1.54 -0.72
Number of SE+ 0.85 2.15 1.92 2.07 1.29 0.32
secondary F 2 3.62** 4.05** 3.36** 2.39 3.28** 0.27 1.06 0.21 1.90 0.97 -0.65
Branches SE+ 0.60 1.51 1.35 1.46 0.91 0.23
F 1 18.27** 15.90** 13.75** 3.12 11.25** 0.03 0.93 0.22 1.20 0.81 -0.07
Length of SE+ 1.02 2.60 2.32 2.50 1.56 0.39
main raceme F 2 18.21** 12.03** 10.25** 4.71** 2.93** 0.10 0.81 0.21 1.37 0.28 0.27
SE+ 0.65 1.64 1.47 1.58 0.99 0.24
F 1 19.40** 18.88** 18.07** -4.05 5.64** 0.97 0.99 0.24 0.80 0.31 0.65
Number of SE+ 1.83 4.66 4.16 -4.48 2.80 0.69
siliquae on F 2 19.74** 14.84** 13.31** -2.86 0.26 0.62 0.87 0.22 0.46 0.01 0.79
main raceme SE+ 2.07 5.25 4.69 5.06 3.16 0.78
Seed yield F1 7.28** 15.60** 13.14** -1.86 28.47** 0.14 1.46 0.21 0.83 2.16 -0.76
per plant SE+ 2.06 5.22 4.67 5.03 3.14 0.78
F 2 7.17** 7.73** 6.43** -0.23 10.14** 0.25 1.04 0.21 0.96 1.58 -0.91
SE+ 0.63 1.60 1.43 1.54 0.36 0.24
Specific leaf F 1 2.66** 2.43** 2.14** 0.76 0.82* 0.00 0.96 0.22 1.35 0.38 -0.88
Weight SE+ 0.27 0.68 0.60 0.65 0.41 0.10
F2 2.66** 2.36** 2.05** 0.79 0.67 0.00 0.94 0.22 1.06 0.32 -0.87
^ ^
h 2/ H 2
r
D = Additive genetic variance; H 1 = Dominance variance; H 2 = H 1 [1-(u-v) 2 ] where u and v are the proportions of positive and negative genes, respectively in the
^
^
parents; E = expected environmental component of variance; F = mean of Fr over the array, where Fr is the covariance of additive and dominance effects in a
^
single array; h 2 = dominance effects; (H^ ^
1 /D) 0.5 ^
= Average degree of dominance; H 2 /4H^
1 = The proportion of genes with positive and negative effects in the
^ ^
parents; (4DH1) 0.5 ^ ^
+ F/(4DH1) 0.5 ^
– F = Proportion of dominant and recessive genes in the parents; h 2 ^
+ H2 = Number of groups of genes which control the
characters and exhibited dominance; and r = correlation coefficient.
* Significant at 5 per cent level; ** Significant at 1 per cent level.
secondary branches per plant, seed yield per plant and oil
content in both generations. These results indicating major
role of additive and dominant gene effect in the inheritance of
these traits have similarity with findings of Jain et. al., 1988,
Thakur, et. al., 1989, Kumar and Sangwan, 1994, Khulbe,
et. al., 1998 and Kant and Gulati, 2001.
The significant positive values of H 2
for all the traits in
both the generations along with lower estimates of H2 than
their corresponding H 1
values for all the characters suggested
that positive and negative alleles governing the characters
were in unequal proportion in the parents.
The estimated values of expected environmental
variance (E) was observed positive and non significant for all
the characters in both generations except harvest index in F 1
generation reflecting minor role of environment in the
expression of these traits. The non significant and positive
value of F component for the characters specific leaf weight
in both generations, length of main raceme (F 1
generation)
and number of secondary branches and 1000 seed weight in
F 2
; while it was significant and positive for number of
secondary branches in F 1
and length of main raceme in F 2
reveled the high frequency of dominant genes for inheritance
of these characters.
The negative and non significant value of F components
for characters number of siliquae on main raceme, seed yield
per plant and oil content in both generations and days to
flower, 1000 seed weight in F 1
generation whereas it was
significant negative for plant height harvest index in both
generations, days flower in F 2
generation reflected high
frequency of recessive genes in the expression of these traits.
The significant and positive value of h 2 was observed
for characters number of secondary branches per plant, length

588 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
of main raceme, seed yield per plant and 1000 seed weight in
both generations and for days to flower, number of primary
branches per plant specific leaf weight, harvest index and
number of siliquae on main raceme in F 1
generation only
indicated that dominant genes significantly contributed to
over all dominance in positive direction.
The estimates of average degree of dominance (H 1
/D) 0.5
were fond less than unity for characters days to flower, plant
height, length of main raceme, number of siliqua on main
raceme, harvest index and 1000 seed weight in both generations
indicated partial dominance. The complete dominance was
observed for the characters number of secondary branches,
seed yield per plant, specific leaf weight and oil content in
both generations, number of primary branches and number of
siliqua on main raceme in F 1
generation as the estimates of
average degree of dominance were more than unity or almost
equal to unity. Similar findings reported by Gupta et. al. 1985
and Badwal and Labana 1987.
The proportion of H 2
/4 H 1 was less than 0.25 for all the
characters in both generations indicated asymmetrical
distribution of positive and negative alleles among the parents.
The ratio of (4 DH 1
) 0.5 + F/(4DH 1
) 0.5 –F determines the
extent of genetic advance than can be made in particular
direction . It give an indication that dominant alleles were
more frequent than recessive alleles for all the traits in both
generations as the ratio of more than unity except days to
flower, plant height, number of siliqua on main raceme, seed
yield per plant, harvest index and oil content in both
generations. The ratio was less than unity reflecting that in
these traits recessive alleles were more frequent than dominant
alleles in parents.
The computed ratio of h 2 /H 2
being less than unity for
most of the characters in both generations except seed yield
per plant in both generations, number of secondary branches
and 1000 seed weight in F 1
generation (where it was more than
unity) suggested the preponderance of recessive genes.
The correlation coefficient (r) between the parental order
of dominance (wr+vr) and parental measurements (yr) was
positive for days to flower, length of main raceme and number
of siliqua on main raceme and negative for plant height, number
of primary branches, number of secondary branches, seed
yield per plant, specific leaf weight, harvest index, 1000 seed
weight and oil content. Whereas in F 1
generation the value of
correlation coefficient (r) was negative for all the characters
except number of siliqua on main raceme. Thus the positive
values revealed that the recessive alleles contributed in
positive direction for the concerned traits while negative
values showed that dominant contributed positively towards
the expression of concerned traits.
LITERATURE CITED
Badwal, S.S. and Labana, K.S. 1987. Diallel analysis for some metric
traits in Indian mustard. Crop Improv., 14: 191-194.
Gupta, S.K.; Thakral, S.K.; Yadava, T.P. and Kumar, Parkash 1985.
Combining ability and genetic architecture of oil content in Indian
mustard. Haryana Agri. Univ. J. Res., 15: 467-470.
Hayman, B.I. 1958. The theory and analysis of diallel crosses– II.
Genetics, 43: 63-85.
Jain, A.K.; Tiwari, A.S.; Kushwaha, V.S. and Hirve, C.D. 1988. Genetics
of quantitative traits in Indian mustard. Indian J. Genet., 48: 117-
119.
Kant, Lakshmi and Gulati, S.C. 2001. Genetic analysis for yield and its
components and oil content in Indian mustard. Indian J. Genet.,
61 (1): 37-40.
Khulbe, R.K.; Pant, D.P. and Rawat, R.S. 1998. Combining ability
analysis for yield and its components in Indian mustard. J. Oilseeds
Res., 15 (2): 219-226.
Kumar, Surender and Sangwan, R.S. 1994. Genetic variability, heritability
and genetic advance in Brassica species under dry land condition.
Agric. Sci. Dig., 14: 172-176.
Mather, K. 1949. Biometrical Genetics. Methuen and Co. Ltd., London.
pp. 162
Thakur, H.L.; Zerger, M.A. and Rana, N.D. 1989. Combining ability
for economic traits in Indian mustard. J. Oilseeds Res., 6: 40-41.
Recieved on 07-06-2013 Accepted on 15-07-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 589-591, 2013
Management of Spent Mushroom Substrate (SMS) Through Enrichment of Biogas
Plant Slurry
K. SONIA 1 , LEELA WATI 2 , RAJNI KANT 3 , SANJEET K.CHOURASIA 4 AND UPENDRA SINGH 5
1
Department Dairy Microbiology, S.G. Institute of Dairy Technology,(B.A.U.) P.O- BVC, Patna, Bihar.
e-mail- soniasinharau@yahoo.co.in
2
Department of Microbiology, Basic Sciences & Humanities, CCSHAU, Hisar, Haryana.
3
Department of Food Science & Technology, Warner School of Food & Dairy Technology,
Sam Higginbottom Institute of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences, (Deemed University) Allahabad, U.P.
4
Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Basic Sciences & Humanities, RAU, Pusa, Bihar
5
Department of Dairy Technology, S.G. Institute of Dairy Technology, (B.A.U.) P.O- BVC, Patna, Bihar
e-mail: soniasinharau@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
Mixing of spent oyster mushroom substrate in to biogas plant
slurry is seems to be one of the most judicious way for the
utilization of Spent Mushroom Substrate (SMS). The present
paper deals with such a study carried out to evaluate the
agronomic efficiency of enriched slurry produced by mixing
with SMS and Trichoderma inoculated enriched slurry on
mustard crop grown in sandy soil.Plant height, dry weight/
plant and grain yield of total plants were studied to evaluate
the various treatment. Application of Trichoderma viride
inoculated enriched slurry showed significant enhancement
in vegetative growth and yield of mustard in pot house and
field condition.
Key words
SMS; Slurry; Biogas; Trichoderma viride; Compost;
Mustard crop.
Mushrooms belong to the class Basidiomycetes and
their cultivation is gaining popularity as an employment/
income generating enterprise for rural masses, farm women
and unemployed youth. Different species of mushroom grow
on spectrum of plant wastes and byproducts, which are
chemically lignocellulosic comprising of varied level of lignin,
cellulose and hemicellulose. World production of mushrooms
is about 6.5 million tones/year and increasing @ 7.6% per
annum (Rinker, 2002). Among various species of mushrooms,
cultivation of oyster musroom is picking up very fast due to
its simpler cultivation technology, ability to grow at wide range
of temperatures and utilize a variety of lignocellulosic
substrates (Gogoi and Adhikary, 2002). Associated with
mushroom cultivation is the generation of spent mushroom
substrate (SMS) at the rate of 1-2 tons for every ton of
mushroom harvested (Vijay, 2005). In recent years mushroom
growers are facing pressure of environmental legislation giving
rise to the need for more suitable solution for disposing SMS.
Various disposal methods of SMS include direct application
to soil, as a bioremediation agent, feed for animals and fish
and for suppression of plant disease (Ahlawat and Rai, 2002;
Ahlawat, et al., 2005). Direct application of spent oyster
mushroom substrate in field has met with little success due to
high C: N ratio (Sangwan, et al., 2002,.Leelawati, et al.,2011).
Its application as bioremediating agent also has limited
applications. Species of Pleurotus degrade preferentially lignin
from lignocelulosic biomass but cellulose in left largely
unutilized.
Effluent of biogas plant (slurry) is a good source of
plant nutrients like N, P and K. The other beneficial attributes
of biogas plant slurry bring about favorable changes in the
physical, chemical and biological characters of soil such as
improving water holding capacity, cation exchange capacity
and resistant to soil erosion and also provide energy for
activity of soil microflora which in turn contributes to increase
in the plant productivity. However, it causes problem in
handling and application due to high amount of moisture.
Application of slurry directly to the field may cause loss of
essential plant nutrients. Therefore, there is a need to develop
a method of quick drying and enrichement of slurry using
some low cost substrate for conservation of nutrients.
Incorporation of SMS into slurry which is rich in
lignocellulolytic microorganisms will hasten the process of
its composting and reduce the time required for drying of
slurry, stabilize the nutrient loss from the field and improve
the manorial value of compost. Therefore, biogas plant slurry
enriched with spent oyster mushroom substrate could be a
source of organic manure with easy handling and subsequent
disposal to field. Further inoculation of fungal culture
Trichoderma viride into enriched slurry will hasten the process
of composting with improvement of manorial value of compost.
Their application into the mustard crop under field and pot
house condition will improved the vegetative growth and grain
yield.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Studies were carried out in cemented compost pits (64 x
64 x 76cm). Department of Microbiology, CCSHAU, Hisar,
Biogas Plant Slurry was mixed with SMS in 1:2 ratio of slurry
to SMS on wet weight basis, filled in compost pits and covered

590 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
with polythene sheets. It was turned at monthly interval.
Cellulolytic fungal culture of Trichoderma viride (10 6 ml -1 ) of
was added to slurry after one month of composting and the
content of pits was allowed to undergo fungal action. Pot
house experiment was conducted at Department of
Microbiology, CCSHAU, Hisar in the month of October, 2006.
Enriched slurry were applied @ 10 ton/ha. Each treatment was
replicated thrice, parameter studied were, plant height, dry
weight/plant and grain yield of total plants. Pots without any
added fertilizer constitute control. The data has been analyzed
statistically.
Field experiment was conducted at the CCSHAU Farm,
Oil Seed Section, Department of Plant Breeding in the month
of October, 2006. Soil was sandy loam with pH of 6-7. Plot size
of 12 sqm was dividing into 12 rows. Fertilizer and slurry from
different treatments was broadcasted at recommended dose
into soil and mixed with spade in the 0-5 cm soil layer. The
seed were sown the same day then two irrigations were given
at monthly interval and yield was taken at harvest.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Various composition of Slurry mixed with SMS and
Trichoderma viride are shown in Table 1. Total solid percentage
(T S %), and Nitrogen percentage increased as a result of
decomposition with and without Trichoderma viride while
Total volatile solid (TVS %), Total organic carbon percentage
(TOC %) decreased. Due to decomposition C: N ratio also
decreased. This trends was faster after inoculation with
Trichoderma viride as shown in Table that the process of
composting just completed in 60 days as compare to
without Trichoderma viride which taken 75 days to for
composting
Table 1.
Chemical properties of slurry enriched with SMS
along with Trichoderma viride
Parameter Slurry + SMS (1:2) Slurry + SMS (1:2) &
Trichoderma viride
0 day 30 day 60 day 75 day 0 day 30 day 60 day
TS (%) 16.3 28.4 33.5 34.5 28.4 34.0 36.0
TVS (% of TS) 84.5 80.0 70.0 66.0 80.0 65.0 60.0
TOC (%) 49.2 45.5 40.6 39.2 46.4 37.7 34.8
Nitrogen (%) 1.16 1.30 1.55 1.57 1.30 1.58 1.70
Phosphorus 0.84 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.86 0.88 0.90
(%)
Potassium (%) 0.82 0.83 0.84 0.88 0.83 0.88 0.89
C:N ratio 42.4 37.9 26.2 24.3 37.9 24.9 20.4
Changes in various components were also analyzed as
compare to control slurry.
It was shown that loss of nitrogen was more in control
but there was slow loss of nitrogen in enriched slurry with or
without Trichoderma viride Phosphorus and potash content
of compost remained stable throughout composting process
as shown in the Table 2.
Table 2.
Component
(% dry wt
basis)
Changes in various components of slurry enriched
with SMS along with Trichoderma viride.
The above process could be explained that inoculation
of Trichoderma viride, cellulolytic fungi to the compost
hastened the process of decomposition. Since this is a
lignocellulolytic fungi which secrete many enzymes which
reduced the time of composting, which simultaneously
reduced the rate of loss of nutrients therefore the above
combination had more amount of plant nutrients than control
slurry. It is reported similar observation with Trichoderma
viride during composting of crop residues, straw and banana
leaves within 8-10 weeks with reduction in bulkiness of
compost by 5-10%.
The compost prepared under optimum conditions along
with 50% RDF applied to mustard crop under pot house gave
better results as compared to control slurry alone or along
with 50% RDF, however highest vegetative growth and grain
yield was observed with 100% RDF as shown in Table 3. (Singh
et al. 2003) applied pressmud cake with 40-60 kg fertilizer N/ha
to rice and reported almost equivalent yield to plant produced
in recommended fertilizer treatment. (Leela Wati 2005)
observed similar results with slurry enriched with rock
phosphate on mustard crop under pot house conditions.
Table 3.
Control Slurry+
SMS(1:2)
Slurry + SMS
(1:2) and T.viride
Days after Days after Days after
N P K N P K N P K
0 1.60 0.60 0.93 1.16 0.84 0.82 - - -
30 1.58 0.58 0.91 1.30 0.86 0.83 1.30 0.86 0.83
60 1.56 0.56 0.89 1.15 0.87 0.84 1.58 0.88 0.86
75 1.55 0.55 0.88 1.58 0.88 0.86 1.70 0.90 0.88
CD (0.05%) NS NS NS NS NS NS 0.20 0.15 0.20
RDF: 80k N/ha,
Effect of application of enriched slurry on growth
of mustard under pot house condition
Treatments Plant height Dry wt./plant Grain yield
(cm)
(g)
Control soil 50 0.25 0.06
Control slurry (100%) 57 1.12 0.11
Enriched slurry (SMS) 65 1.82 0.31
T.viride inoculated enriched 87 2.10 0.41
slurry
Slurry + 50% RDF 92 3.93 0.75
Enriched slurry (SMS) + 95 4.20 0.85
50% RDF
T.viride inoculated enriched 99 4.45 1.20
slurry+50DF
100% RDF 102 5.06 1.46
CD (0.05%) 8.72 0.17 0.03
30kg P/ha
Similar results were observed with the field experiment
i.e. maximum yield was obtained with 100% RDF and a
comparable yield was obtained with enriched slurry along
with 50% RDF shown in Table 4.

SONIA, et al., Management of Spent Mushroom Substrate (SMS) Through Enrichment of Biogas Plant Slurry 591
Table 4.
Effect of application of enriched slurry on yield of
mustard (RH 30) in field condition
Treatment
Yield (kg/ha)
Control 830
Control slurry 1018
Enriched slurry 1294
Enriched slurry + Trichoderma viride 1375
Slurry + 50% RDF 1455
Enriched slurry + 50% RDF 1575
Enriched slurry + Trichoderma viride + 50% RDF 1598
100% RDF 1620
CD (0.05%) 52.3
RDF: 80k N/ha,
30kg P/ha
Application of chemical fertilizer to the field although
gives maximum production of crops but repeated application
may have harmful effect on soils natural micro flora and fauna,
in addition this fertilizer may cause other serious problems
like eutrophication that leads to unnecessarily pollution load.
The results of present investigation showed that organic
manure gave better results when mixed with 50% RDF. Our
aim should be to minimize chemical fertilizers rather than totally
replacing it. So maximum yield in the long term experiments in
India can be obtained from the treatment receiving both
chemical fertilizers generally recommended for the different
crops in a given region and the compost i.e. by integrated
nutrient management (Singh et al., 2004)
Application of Trichoderma viride inoculated enriched
slurry along with 50% RDF resulted in improvement of grain
yield under pothouse as well as field condition as comparable
to recommended dose of fertilizer due to less loss of nutrient
and stabilizing Phosphorus and Potassium contains of soil.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Financial assistance from CSIR (Council for Scientific
and Industrial Research) is duly acknowledged.
LITERATURE CITED
Ahlawat, O.P. and Rai, R.D. 2002. Recycling of spent mushroom
substrate. In: Recent advances in the cultivation technology of
edible mushroom. R.N. Verma and Vijay (eds.) National Research
Centre for Mushroom, Solan, India, pp. 262-282.
Ahlawat, O.P.; Rani, I. And Sagar, M.P. 2005. Spent mushroom substrate
properties and recycling for beneficial purpose. In: Frontiers in
mushroom biotechnology. RD Rai, R. Upadhya and S.R. Sharma
(eds.) National Research Centre for Mushroom, Solan, India, pp.
314-334.
Gogoi, G. and Adhikary, R.K. 2002. Suitability of certain newer plant
waste for production of oyster mushroom. Mushroom Res., 11: 25-
27.
Leelawati 2005. Enrichment of biogas plant slurry using phosphate
solubilizing bacteria. In: Management of organic wastes for crop
production. Department of Microbiology, CCSHAU, Hisar.
Rinker, L.D. 2002. Handling and using of spent mushroom substrate
around the world. The 4 th ICMBP, Department of Plant Agriculture,
University of Guelph, 4890, Victoria Avenue, Vineland Station, On
LOR, 2EO Canada, pp. 1-27
Sangwan, P.S., Swami, S., Singh, J.P., Kuhad, M.S. and Dhaiya, S.S.
2002. Effect of spent mushroom compost and inorganic fertilizers
on yield and nutrient uptake by wheat. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 50:
186-189.
Singh, S., Mishra, M.M., Goyal, S., Kapoor, K.K., Singh, Y., Singh, B.,
Ladha, J.K., Khind, C.S., Gupta, R.K., Meelu, O.P. and Pasuquin, E.
2004. Long term effect of organic inputs on yield and fertility in
rice wheat rotation. Soil Sci. Soc. American J., 68: 845-853.
Vijay, B. 2005. Formulation for compost for white button mushroom.
In: Frontierin mushroom Biotechnology, (Eds. R.D. Rai, R.C.
Upadhyay and S.R. Sharma), National Research Centre for
Mushroom, Solan, pp. 80-87.
Recieved on 20-07-2013 Accepted on 31-07-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 592-596, 2013
To Studies the Effect of Temperature, Ph, Type of Coagulation and Their
Concentration for the Preparation of Cham-Cham from “Buffalo Milk Chhana”
1
UPENDRA SINGH, 2 RAJNI KANT AND 3 SAURABH PRAKASH
1
Department of Dairy Technology, S.G. Institute of Dairy Technology, Bihar Agricultural University,
Patna 800 014 (India)
2
Department of Food Science & Technology, Warner School of Food and Dairy Technology,
SHIATS- Allahabad.
3
Division of Dairy Technology, NDRI- Karnal.
email: rajnikant.sgidt@gmail.com
ABSTRCT
A Preliminary study was made for preparation of cham-cham
of good quality from buffalo milk chhana. A good quality chhana
was obtained from buffalo milk having 5.0% fat and 8.5% msnf
at p H using citric acid of 1% strength of coagulating agent at
70 0 C. The product so produced was found to be soft, succulent
and spongy having a maximum sensory score 7.98±0.10 on nine
point hedonic scale. The maximum average sensory scores of
8.2 for both body and texture and overall acceptability of sweet
at 5.2 Ph. Amongst the three coagulants used i.e. citric acid,
lactic acid and sour whey, citric acid produced good quality of
chhana both at 1.0% and 2.0% strength compared to other
coagulants for the preparation of good quality cham- cham.
Key words
Buffalo milk, chhana, cham-cham, p H , temperature,
coagulants.
Cham-cham manufactured from cow milk chhana has
smooth body and spongy texture due to combined chemical
and physical changes taking place in casein micelle during
acid coagulation of milk and subsequent heating at relatively
higher temperature. The inherent physico-chemical
differences of buffalo milk from that of cow milk cause
perceptible difference in the quality attributes of chhana and
products made there from. Buffalo milk chhana is slightly hard
in body, coarse and granular in texture and has less water
binding capacity.
The cham-cham made from buffalo milk chhana,
however, lacks sponginess and smoothness as compared to
that made from cow milk chhana, may be due to compositional
and structural differences. Presence of higher proportion of
long chain structured fatty acid makes the buffalo milk fat
distinctly harder. Its casein micelles differ with respect to
micelle size, voluminosity, compositional heterogeneity and
mineral make-up. All these ultimately lead to differences in the
quality of the end product.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
This section deals with the materials and methodologies
that are used in the preparation, characterization, analytical
aspects and evaluation of chhana and chhana based sweets
“Cham- Cham” prepared from buffalo milk of different fat
and SNF composition;
Fat content: Fat contents in buffalo milk were determined by
gravitational method (IS: SP: Part XI- 19819) for milk. Extraction
of fat in chhana was determined by gravitational method IS:
12767 (1989).
Protein content: Protein content of chhana was determined
by semi micro Kjeldahl method described by Manfee and over
man (1940).
P H content: The p H meter PHAM-LABINDIA Model (Lal Tex
Engg. Pvt. Ltd. India) was used for present investigation.
Hardness and Springiness: Hardness and Springiness was
determined by Instron- 4465, Instron Corporation,
Mossachusetts - 020212 USA.
Sensory evaluation and sensory comments were carried
out by a panel of trained judges on 9- point Hedonic scale.
PREPARATION OF CHAMCHAM
Cham-cham was prepared from chhana essentially using
the method given by Bandopadhyay et al. (2006) with some
modifications. Chhana was kneaded to homogeneous and
smooth dough, which was then, shaped into cylindrical balls
of size about 8-10 gm weights. Balls were rolled on palms for 1
min. Care was taken to avoid cracks on the surface. On the
other hand 50, 60 and 70% concentrated sugar solution was
prepared by mixing sugar and calculated amount of water and
heated up to boiling point. The impurities were removed by
addition of a little amount of raw milk and filtered by muslin
cloth. At the boiling temperature chhana balls were poured
into different sugar syrup (50, 60 and 70%) for cooking for
different cooking time (5, 10 and 15 min). During cooking a
small amount of water was continuously added to maintain its
concentration. During cooking the balls first settle at the
bottom of the pan after a few minutes they start floating on
the surface of the cooking syrup. After that it was kept for
complete cooking for a period of 5, 10 and 15 min. Then the
balls were transferred in a soaking sugar solution of 33.0%
concentration. The product acquired the desired sugar
concentration when the equilibrium was reached between the

SINGH et al., To Studies the Effect of Temperature, Ph, Type of Coagulation and Their Concentration 593
sugar syrup concentration inside and outside of the balls.
This stage was obtained in 1-2 h at room temperature. After
complete soaking, cham-cham was stored at or below 10 0 C.
Recommended technology for the production of chamcham
from buffalo milk are as followed standardization of milk
to 5.0 percent fat and its heating to temperature 90 o C, addition
of 0.05 percent sodium alginate with slow and continuous
agitation at temperature around 80 0 C followed by filtering and
cooling to 70 0 C, coagulation with 2.0 per cent citric acid
(pasteurized sour whey optional), draining, pressing for 15
min, grinding of chhana to a smooth paste, addition of
arrowroot @ 6 per cent by weight of chhana, mixing of
semolina (2.0% by weight of chhana) and baking powder @
0.60 per cent of the weight of ground chhana, kneading to
smooth paste, forming into cylindrical balls of 8.0 gram each
and cooking in 60 percent sugar syrup for 10 min followed by
soaking in 33.0 percent sugar syrup and packaging.
Developed method for the production of cham-cham from
buffalo milk
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The present study was concerned with technology for
the production of cham-cham from buffalo milk to produced
good quality buffalo milk chhana, which is to be used for
preparation of cham-cham sweets. The results were presented
in the tabular from under the different heading. The results so
obtained were interpreted and presented below:
Effect of temperature of coagulation:
Table1. reveals that samples of cham-cham prepared from
chhana coagulated at 85 0 C, were hard and less spongy. The
fibrous network produced at 85 o C was also too strong. samples
of cham-cham prepared from chhana coagulated at 80 0 C were
hard, slightly, spongy and lack succulent whereas cham-cham
prepared from chhana made at 75 0 C was slightly soft and
spongy. However samples of cham-cham prepared from
chhana coagulated at 70 0 C was soft, spongy and succulent.
Chhana samples made at lower temperature of coagulation
(i.e. at 85 o C) of resulted in lowest flavour scores, body and
texture and overall acceptability scores were 7.81+0.09, 6.45+
0.08 and 6.5+ 0.11 respectively. Whereas chhana samples made
at lower temperature of coagulation (i.e. at 70 o C) of resulted in
higher flavour scores, body & texture and overall acceptability
scores were 8.5 + 0.08, 8.27 + 0.07 and 7.98+ 0.10 respectively.
Chhana samples made at temperature 80 0 C and 70 0 C of
coagulation resulted in intermediate between two about the
flavour scores, body and texture and overall acceptability
scores were 8.12: 8.10; 6.59: 7.64; and 6.75: 7.5 respectively.
Table1.
Quality
attributes
Flavour
(Max 9.0)
Body &
Texture
(Max 9.0)
Overall
acceptability
(Max 9.0)
Sensory
comments
Effect of temperature of coagulation of buffalo milk
on the sensory quality of cham-cham made from
chhana
Temperature of coagulation
85 0 C 80 0 C 75 0 C 70 0 C
7.00-8.5
(7.81+0.09)
6.0-7.0
(6.45+0.08)
6.0-7.0
(6.5+0.11)
Hard, lacks
sponginess
7.5-8.5
(8.12+0.07)
6.0-7.5
(6.59+0.08)
6.5-7.0
(6.75+0.08)
Hard, slightly
springy, lacks
succulence
7.5-8.5
(8.10+0.08)
7.0-8.0
(7.64+0.07)
7.0-8.0
(7.5+0.08)
Slightly soft
and spongy
8.0-9.0
(8.5+0.08)
8.0-9.0
(8.27+0.07)
7.5-8.5
(7.98+0.10)
Soft,
succulent
and spongy
The ANOVA for the effect of temperature of coagulation
on the sensory scones (Table 2.) would indicate that lowering
of coagulation temperature brought about significant changes
in flavour, body and texture, and also the overall acceptability
of the product at 1.0 per cent level of significance. However,
the variation between replicates, Judges and interaction
between treatment and judges were not significant.

594 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Table2.
* Significant at 1.0 percent level
Since, chhana made at coagulation temperature of 70 0 C
resulted in a soft, succulent and spongy sweet, leading to
maximum sensory ratings, this temperature (70 o C) of
coagulation was chosen for further study for modification in
chhana making technique so that a good quality cham-cham
could be produced.
Table 3.
ANOVA for the effect of temperature of
coagulation of buffalo milk on the sensory
characteristics of cham-cham
Mean sum of squares
Sources of
Body & Overall
variation
Difference Flavour
Texture acceptability
Between replicates 3 0.22 0.26 0.48
Between
3 4.80* 12.44* 4.73*
temperature (T)
Between Judges (J) 6 0.35 0.32 0.23
Between T × J 18 0.20 0.18 0.12
Error 81 0.21 0.17 0.33
Total 111
Effect of pH of coagulation of buffalo milk on the
sensory quality of cham-cham
Quality attributes
Flavour (Max 9.0)
Body & Texture (Max
9.0)
Overall acceptability
(Max 9.0)
Sensory comments
pH of coagulation
5.5 5.2 5.1
8.0-8.5 8.0-8.5 8.0-8.5
(8.0+0.04) (8.2+0.06) (8.2+0.04)
7.0-7.5 7.5-8.5 7.0-8.0
(7.09+0.04) (8.2+0.07) (7.3+0.06)
7.0-8.0 7.5-8.5 7.0-8.5
(7.3+0.08) (8.2+0.03) (8.0+0.01)
Soft, weak
fibers
Soft, spongy,
succulent,
uniform pore
size
Soft, fibers
slightly strong
and chewy
The sensory comments for cham-cham prepared form
chhana obtained at pH 5.2 were favorable as soft, spongy and
succulent (Table 3.). The sweet carried more uniform sized
pore as compared to the samples prepared from chhana at pH
5.5; which was reported to be having weak fibers. The balls
also get flattened during cooking and lacked in sponginess.
At pH 5.1, the samples of cham-cham developed strong fibers
and chewy texture. The maximum average sensory scores of
8.2, for both body and texture and overall acceptability of
sweet, were recorded at pH 5.2 as compared with average
scores of 7.09 and 7.30 for body and texture, and 7.3 and 8.0
for overall acceptability at pH values of 5.5 and 5.1,
respectively.
Table 4.
ANOVA for the effect of temperature of
coagulation of buffalo milk on the sensory
characteristics of cham-cham
Mean sum of squares
Sources of
variation
Body & Overall
Difference Flavour
Texture acceptability
Between replicates 4 0.032 0.004 0.222
Between
2 0.064 5.685 + 5.22 ++
temperature (T)
Between Judges (J) 6 0.093 0.013 0.166
Between T × J 12 0.039 0.017 0.204
Error 80 0.067 0.023 0.10
Total 104
++
Significant at 1.0 percent level
The ANOVA for sensory scores of cham-cham obtained
from buffalo milk coagulated at different pH (Table 4.) indicated
that low pH did not show significant effect on flavour.
However, the body and texture became harder significantly
(pe”0.01). The variation between replicates, judges and
interaction between treatment and judges were not significant.
Table 5.
Quality
attributes
Flavour (Max
9.0)
Body & Texture
(Max 9.0)
Overall
Acceptability
(Max 90.)
Sensory
comments
Effect of coagulant on the sensory quality of chamcham
Citric acid
7.00-8.50
(7.70+0.08)
7.00-8.00
(7.66+0.06)
7.50-8.50
(7.95+0.07)
Soft &
spongy,
smooth
surface with
uniform pore
size
Types of coagulants
Sour whey
Calcium
lactate
7.50-8.50 6.5-7.5
(8.00+0.06) (7.02+0.05)
7.00-8.00
(7.86+0.05)
8.00-8.50
(8.21+0.06)
soft,
smooth
spongy
uniform
size
quite
and
with
pore
6.00-7.00
(6.49+0.08)
6.00-7.00
(6.50+0.06)
Soft but
fragile, lack
chewiness and
sponginess
The sensory quality of sweet prepared from the above
samples is presented in Table 5. Cham-cham samples prepared
from calcium lactate chhana were soft and fragile which broke
into pieces when pressed between palate and tongue. These
samples also lacked chewiness and not much increase in
voluminosity was observed during the cooking of cham-cham
balls in syrup. The samples of sweet prepared from chhana
obtained from citric acid and sour whey were soft with uniform
pore size, spongy and had optimum chewiness. Increase in
voluminosity of chhana balls during cooking was also found
to be satisfactory.

SINGH et al., To Studies the Effect of Temperature, Ph, Type of Coagulation and Their Concentration 595
Table 6.
ANOVA for the effect of type of coagulants on the
sensory quality of cham-cham
Mean sum of squares
Sources of
Difference
variation
Body & Overall
Flavour
Texture acceptability
Between replicates 3 0.31 0.04 0.12
Between
2 7.10 ++ 12.33 ++ 9.37 ++
treatments(T)
Between Judges (J) 6 0.11 0.33 0.03
Between TXJ 12 0.27 0.18 0.09
Error 60 0.15 0.19 0.27
Total 83
The samples of sweet prepared from sour whey and
citric acid score maximum ratings for body and texture (8.35
and 8.15, respectively) but these scores for the sweet prepared
from calcium lactate chhana were the lowest. Cham-cham also
scored least in overall acceptability, when it was made using
calcium lactate as coagulant.
The ANOVA for sensory scores (Table 6.) indicated
that the type of coagulants exerted significant influence on
flavour, body and texture, and overall acceptability of chamcham.
Calcium lactate failed to produce a good quality chamcham.
Yet another coagulant with calcium lactate was required
in relatively high quantity to achieve complete coagulation,
which would increase the cost of chhana production. From
the economic view point, use of old sour whey for coagulation
of milk is recommended as it does not cost much to the
producers. This is the single reason why sweetmeat traders
prefer sour whey for coagulation of milk. Availability of good
quality sour whey will be a prerequisite for good quality chhana
production in dairy plants.
Table 7.
Quality
attributes
Flavour
(Max 9.0)
Body &
Texture
(Max 9.0)
Overall
acceptability
(Max 9.0)
Sensory
comments
Effect of fat level in buffalo milk on sensory
attributes of cham-cham
Fat percent of milk
3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
6.5-7.5 7.0-8.0 7.5-8.5 7.5-8.5
(6.98±0.23) (7.45±0.23) (8.03±0.23) (8.20±0.24)
6.0-7.0 6.5-8.0 7.5-8.5 6.5-8.5
(6.45±0.08) (7.45±0.43) (8.11±0.07) (7.66±0.12)
6.0-7.5 6.5-8.0 7.5-8.5 6.5-8.5
(6.77±0.08) (7.61±0.08) (8.20±0.06) (7.73±0.10)
Hard, very
chewy,
uniform
pores
Slightly
soft, fibers
strong, less
chewy,
uniform
pores
Soft,
spongy,
succulent,
uniform
pores
Soft
succulent
surface
cracks and
flattening
The buffalo milk samples were standardized to 3.0, 4.0,
5.0 and 6.0 percent fat by the addition of buffalo skim milk and
coagulated at 70 0 C using 2.0 percent citric acid solution (70 0 C).
Table 7. Shows the effect of fat percentage of milk on the
quality of chhana and whey. It may be noticed that at 3.0
percent fat level, although the moisture content in chhana
was the highest (60%), the chhana was least soft.
Cham-cham made from 5.0 and 6.0 percent fat milk scores
maximum (7.50-8.50) for flavour (Table 7.) as compared to one
made from 3.0 (score 6.5-7.5) and 4.0 percent (score 7.0-8.0)
fat milk, respectively.
The body and texture score for cham-cham samples
prepared from 5.0 per cent fat milk was maximum followed by
6.0, 4.0 and 3.0 per cent fat milk. Cham-cham samples prepared
from 5.0 per cent fat milk were quite soft, spongy and succulent
with uniform pore size and smooth surface. The balls also
maintained their cylindrical shape during cooking. Cham-cham
samples obtained from 6.0 per cent fat milk, though soft
and succulent, had uneven pores with minor crack on the
surface. These samples showed tendency to flatten during
cooking. The overall acceptability of cham-cham samples
obtained from 5.0 percent milk was also maximum (7.5-8.5)
followed by 6.0, 4.0 and 3.0 percent fat milk for which the
overall acceptability scores were 6.5 to 8.5, 6.5 to 8.0 and 6.0
to 7.0, respectively.
Hence, the optimum fat level of 5.0 percent in buffalo
milk which gave good quality chhana suitable for cham-cham
preparation.
Average of six replication:
Result obtained under the present study supported the
view of Rao, 1971; Ramamurti, 1976; Dubey and Bhargava,
1980; Shukla and Bhargava, 1981 and Prajapati et.al, 2005.
Table 8.
Source of
variation
ANOVA for the effect of fat level in milk on sensory
characteristics of cham-cham
Significant at 1.0 percent level.
Mean sum of squares
Difference
Body & Overall
Flavour
Texture acceptability
3 0.001 0.04 0.006
Between
replicates
Between
treatments(T)
Between judges 6 0.19 0.05 0.59
(J)
Between TXJ 18 0.12 0.10 0.30
Error 81 0.20 0.15 0.22
Total 111
3 5.43 ++ 5.57 ++ 2.67 ++
The variations between replicates, judges, and
interactions between judges and treatment were insignificant.
It was concluded that cham-cham sample prepared from
buffalo milk with 5.0 per cent fat, got maximum sensory scores
and also retain the cylindrical shape of cham-cham during
cooking. High fat buffalo milk was not found suitable for
cham-cham making because the balls tends to flatten during
cooking and cost of production also become higher. It is,
therefore, recommended that for cham-cham making buffalo
milk should first be standardized to 5.0 per cent fat. All the

596 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
subsequent studies were, therefore, conducted on buffalo
milk standardized to 5.0 percent fat.
LITERATURE CITED
Aneja, R.P.; Mathur, B. N.; Chandan, R.C. and Banerjee, A.K., 2002.
Technology of Indian Milk Products. In: Dairy India publication,
Delhi, India.
Bandopadhyay, M.; Mukherjee, R.S.; Chakraborty, R. and Raychaudhari,
U., 2006. A survey on formulations and process techniques of some
special Indian traditional sweets and herbal sweets. Indian Dairyman,
58: 23-35.
Souvenir 41 st Dairy Industry Conference and IIDE 2013; 66
Patil, G.R. and Pal, D. 2005. Traditional Dairy products of India–Scope
and Challenges. Souvenir, XXXIV Dairy Industry Conference, 23-
25 th Nov. 2005, Bangalore, pp. 44-48.
Rao, M.S.; Rao, M.R.; Ranganathan, M. and Rao, B.V. (1989) Studies
on preparation of chhana from buffalo milk and its suitability for
rasogolla manufacture. Indian J. Dairy Sci., 42: 810- 816.
Recieved on 30-04-2013 Accepted on 15.05.2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 597-602, 2013
An Improved Way to Optimize Nitrogen Fertilizer Requirements of Sugarcane under
Drip Fertigation
S. HEMALATHA* AND S. CHELLAMUTHU
Department of Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry Tamil Nadu Agricultural University Coimbatore -3
email: hemaswaminathan1@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Application of N through urea under the fertigation schedule
starting from 15 th day to 180 th day in fortnightly interval will
reduce volatilization and leaching losses which in turn
increased the N use efficiency. Moreover plant will receive the
nutrition according to its need. Further, cane yield, juice quality
enhanced with the fertigation treatment which received N @
195.5 kg ha -1 .
Keywords
Nitrogen, fertigation, leaching
Nitrogen (N) is ubiquitous in the environment. It is also
one of the most important nutrients and is central to the
production of all crop plants.
Sugarcane is the most important crop for the sugar
industry. Substantial amounts of N fertilizer are necessary for
commercial sugarcane production because of the large biomass
produced by sugarcane crops. Since this fertilizer needs
substantial input cost and its environment implications, there
are pressing needs to optimize the supply of N to the crop
requirements. The understanding of nitrogen dynamics in the
soil plant system will, therefore contribute for the establishment
and improvement of management practices, urea being the
high analysis fertilizer for nitrogen considered as the topic of
great interest.
Urea is the widely used nitrogenous fertilizer.
Factors which contribute to the poor recovery of N by plants
are rapid dissolution and release of more mineral N than what
is used by the plant or conserved by the soil in available
forms.
In India and China, recommended applications of N in
sugarcane is as high as 300 kg ha -1 . As the goals of crop
production involve in maximizing crop yields to achieving
economic optima, then to balancing environmental and
production goals, N fertilizer recommendations also leading
to lower N applications. In this context, fertigation can be a
more efficient way of applying N, so that N application rates
can be reduced by minimizing the losses. It is commonly
accepted that the efficiency of fertilizer use can be improved
when it is applied by fertigation to most crops, including
sugarcane (Ng Kee Kwong and Deville, 1994). Also, sugarcane
yield response curves tend to be flat at N application rates
above the optimum (Keating, et al., 1997). Excess application
of N can also decrease the sugar content of cane. While there
are recommendations for N application rates in conventional
management systems, there is little information on what the
optimum N rate should be for fertigated sugarcane. Based on
experience in other crops and few studies on sugarcane, the
N rate is likely to be in the order of 20 – 30 per cent lower than
in conventional management system (Thorburn et al., 1998).
Continuing to apply the same N rates used in conventional
management systems to fertigated sugarcane crops would
probably result in lower N- use efficiency and increased losses
of N to the environment. Hence, the outcome could be contrary
to the desired benefits from adopting fertigation. However,
there is little information are available on the extent of the
possible reduction in N application rate for fertigated
sugarcane.
Fertigation scheduling is the amount of fertilizer to be
applied at any point of time so that before the next fertigation
the plant has been able to assimilate sufficient quantity of the
already applied nutrient. Butler, et al., 2002 have adopted a
growth curve nutrition approach for fertigation scheduling in
sugarcane. Numerical simulations of water flow and ureaammonium-
nitrate reactions and transport in the vadose zone,
while accounting for root water and nutrient uptake, can help
in understanding of the dynamic processes in the vadose
zone. Specifically, it would be possible to account for the
carry-over of nutrients from previous periods to the current
fertigation period.
Keeping these facts in mind, the present investigation
was taken to optimize the suitable fertigation scheduling for
sugarcane with Urea as N source. Simulated optimal scheduling
of N application with the source of urea fertilizer for sugarcane
crop for sandy clay loam soil using Hydrus 2-D software
developed by Ravikumar, et al., 2011 was simultaneously
verified by conducting the field experiment.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A Field experiment was carried out at Irrigation
Cafeteria of Water Technology centre, TNAU, Coimbatore.
The field is situated in the Western Zone of Tamil Nadu at 11°
North latitude and 77° East longitude and at an altitude of
426.7 meters above MSL. Field experiment was laid out in
Randomized Block design with five treatments, replicated four
times.

598 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Treatment details
Fortnightly
interval
T 1- 161
-1
kg N ha
T2- 195.5
kg N ha -1 T 3- 230 T 4- 264.5
kg N ha -1 kg N ha -1 T 5- 299
kg N ha -1
1 2 2 2 2 2
2 6 7 9 10 11
3 6 7 9 10 11
4 9 11 13 14 17
5 9 11 13 14 17
6 10 12 14 17 19
7 28 34 40 46 52
8 28 34 40 46 52
9 28 34 40 46 52
10 28 34 40 46 52
11 7 9.5 10 11.5 13
Total 161 195.5 230 264.5 299
Variety Co 86032
Design
RBD
Date of planting 28.03.2011
Area 1080 m 2
Date of harvest 25.02.2012
Fertilizer application
Nitrogen as urea, phosphorus (62.5 kg ha -1 ) as single
super phosphate and potassium as muriate of potash (112.5kg
ha -1 ) were applied. The variation in the nitrogen dose was
shown in all treatments but for the dosage of phosphorus,
potassium and micronutrients were maintained same the all
the treatments. The entire quantity of phosphorus @ 62.5 kg
ha -1 was applied as a basal dose, while potassium was applied
through fertigation in thirteen splits at fortnightly interval.
The micronutrient mixture of 50 kg ha -1 was applied through
fertigation as per the recommendation. Except phosphorus all
the fertilizers were applied through fertigation using the
automated fertigation unit.
Soil and Plant Sample Collection
The soil and plant samples were collected at various
stages of crop growth viz., 60, 120, 180, 240, 300 days after
planting and at harvest were used for the chemical analysis.
The soil samples collected were air dried, broken with wooden
mallet and sieved through 2 mm sieve (0.2 mm sieve for organic
carbon), labelled and stored in cloth bags. The soil samples
collected were analyzed for various physico - chemical
properties. The plant samples were air dried initially and then
dried in hot air oven at 60°C for 72 hours. The samples were
powdered in a Wiley mill, labelled and stored in butter paper
covers for analysis. The plant samples were analyzed for their
N content. Using the dry matter and nutrient contents, the N
uptake values were computed.
The plant samples were washed well in 0.1 N redistilled
hydrochloric acid followed by double distilled water to remove
external contamination. The plant samples were separated into
leaf, sheath and stem and dried at 60 o C till constant weight.
The samples were then powdered using willey mill stainless
steel grinder and used for chemical analysis.
Canes harvested from the net plot were weighed after
removing the tops and trashes and expressed in t ha -1 .
Yield attributes of sugarcane
Total number of millable canes : After removing the top of
the cane, the length was measured and the mean value of ten
millable canes were expressed in cm. Total number of millable
canes (NMC) at harvest were recorded from the net plots and
expressed in thousands ha -1 .
Individual cane weight : The millable portions of the ten
representative canes were weighed separately and the mean
value expressed in kg of the individual cane.
Sugar cane yield : Canes harvested from the net plot were
weighed after removing the tops and trashes and expressed
in t ha -1 .
Juice quality characters : During harvest five canes were
cut randomly and juice was extracted. Juice samples were
analyzed for brix, pol, purity per cent and reducing sugar
content as per the procedures given below.
Juice per cent of cane : Juice per cent of cane was calculated
as given below:
Juice per cent of cane =
Weight of Juice
Weight of cane
x 100
Brix value : From the juice samples the brix value (the total
solids) was estimated by brix hydrometer (Chen and Picon,
1972).
Pol per cent : From the juice samples, the pol per cent (sucrose
per cent) was estimated by using polariscope (Chen and Picon,
1972)
Commercial cane sugar (CCS) : The CCS was calculated
from the ‘brix’ and ‘pol’ per cent using the following formula
and expressed in percentage.
CCS (per cent) = (1.05 x S) – (0.3 x B)
Where, S = Sucrose per cent; B = Brix per cent and 1.05 and 0.3
are constants
Purity per cent =
Sucrose per cent
Brix per cent
x 100
Reducing sugar : Reducing sugar in juice samples was
estimated by colorimetric method and expressed in percentage
(Chiranjivi Rao and Asokan, 1974).
Sugar yield : From the values of commercial cane sugar per
cent and the yield of millable cane the sugar yield in tones ha -1

HEMALATHA AND CHELLAMUTHU, An Improved Way to Optimize Nitrogen Fertilizer Requirements of Sugarcane 599
Table 1. Effect of N levels on the available N content of the soil at different crop growth stages
Treatments
Available N content (Kg ha -1 )
160 DAS 120 DAS 160 DAS 240 DAS 300 DAS Harvest
Mean
T 1 (N@ 161 kg ha -1) 235.0 218.5 199.3 170.5 146.5 131.3 183.5
T 2(N@ 195.5kg ha -1) 243.3 229.8 212.3 172.8 150.5 132.0 190.1
T 3(N@ 230 kg ha -1) 254.3 240.5 221.5 176.8 153.0 136.8 197.1
T 4(N@ 264.5 kg ha -1) 258.0 243.0 239.0 184.5 160.3 141.3 204.3
T 5 (N@ 299 kg ha -1) 267.5 260.3 251.8 210.2 175.0 144.5 218.2
Mean 251.6 238.4 224.8 182.9 157.1 137.2
SEd 8.407 10.016 8.479 12.643 8.770 4.45
CD (5%) 18.317 21.826 18.476 27.549 19.11 9.71
POOLED ANALYSIS
S T S x T
SEd 4.17 3.80 9.32
CD (5%) 8.29 7.57 NS
DAS= Days after sowing
was worked out by the formula
-1
Sugar yield t ha =
-1
CCS per cent x Cane yield t ha
100
Statistical analysis : The method outlined by Panse and
Sukhatme (1985) was employed for the statistical analysis of
the data for drawing conclusions on the influence of various
treatments. Simple correlations and multiple regression
equations were worked out between nutrient fractions, yield
and nutrient uptake data to ascertain the degree of relationship
exists among different variables.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Effect of N levels on soil available nitrogen status
The available N status ranged from 251.6 kg ha -1 at the
initial stage to 137.2 kg ha -1 at the harvest stage. The available
N content of the soil found to decrease with the advance of
crop growth stage and this may be due to intensive N uptake
by sugarcane crop. Similar results were reported by Sellamuthu
(2002). The available N content of the soil was significantly
higher in the treatments which received higher doses of N.
This might be ascribed due to the increased dose of N through
fertilizer. The present investigation indicated a decline in the
available N with corresponding decrease in the levels of
applied N as could be expected. This is in line with the findings
of Muller and Beer (1986).
Influence of N levels on Nitrogen content of sugarcane
Application of higher N dose resulted in the higher N
content in crop. The N content in all the parts of sugarcane
viz., cane, green top and trash recorded the highest N content
in the treatment which received N @ 299 kg ha -1 with the mean
values of 0.48,0.92 and 0.86 per cent. Application of increasing
doses of fertilizer N resulted in higher availability of macro
and micronutrients to the crops, which in turn resulted in
higher content in sugarcane.
The concentration of N in the plant parts found to
decrease with the advancement of the crop growth. This might
be due to the increased dry matter per cent to total biomas
with the advancement of crop growth and dilution effect of N
in plant. This was in line with the findings of Samuels (1959).
At the end of the internode elongation, sugar accumulation
Table 2.
Effect of N levels on N content in cane at different crop growth stages
Treatments
N content (%)
160 DAS 120 DAS 160 DAS 240 DAS 300 DAS Harvest
Mean
T 1 (N@ 161 kg ha -1) 0.28 0.30 0.36 0.33 0.32 0.30 0.31
T 2(N@ 195.5kg ha -1) 0.30 0.32 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35 0.35
T 3(N@ 230 kg ha -1) 0.34 0.33 0.42 0.40 0.40 0.38 0.38
T 4(N@ 264.5 kg ha -1) 0.36 0.38 0.48 0.45 0.43 0.42 0.42
T 5(N@ 299 kg ha -1) 0.40 0.40 0.54 0.52 0.51 0.50 0.48
Mean 0.33 0.35 0.44 0.42 0.41 0.39
SEd 0.015 0.021 0.020 0.018 0.018 0.019
CD (5%) 0.032 0.045 0.044 0.038 0.039 0.041
POOLED ANALYSIS
S T S x T
SEd 0.008 0.009 0.020
CD (5%) 0.018 0.017 0.040
DAYS = Days after sowing

600 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Table 3. Effect of N levels on N content in green tops at different crop growth stages
Treatments
N content (%)
160 DAS 120 DAS 160 DAS 240 DAS 300 DAS Harvest
Mean
T 1 (N@ 161 kg ha -1) 0.55 0.58 0.62 0.58 0.55 0.50 0.56
T 2(N@ 195.5kg ha -1) 0.60 0.62 0.70 0.65 0.63 0.60 0.63
T 3(N@ 230 kg ha -1) 0.72 0.73 0.81 0.77 0.75 0.73 0.75
T 4(N@ 264.5 kg ha -1) 0.75 0.77 0.80 0.83 0.82 0.80 0.79
T 5(N@ 299 kg ha -1) 0.80 0.90 0.98 0.96 0.94 0.92 0.92
Mean 0.68 0.72 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.71
SEd 0.049 0.048 0.033 0.028 0.030 0.028
CD (5%) 0.107 0.105 0.073 0.060 0.65 0.060
POOLED ANALYSIS
S T S x T
SEd 0.016 0.015 0.038
CD (5%) 0.033 0.030 NS
DAYS = Days after sowing
takes place in the cane up to the end of the maturity phase of
sugarcane might be the another reason for decline in N content.
Similar result was reported by Rama Mohan Rao et al. (1976).
Influence of N levels on nitrogen uptake of sugarcane :
The N uptake in the crop varied from 179.92 kg ha -1 for
the treatment which received N @ 161 kg ha -1 to 318.55 kg ha -1
for the treatment which received N @ 299 kg ha -1 .
Enhancement in the uptake of N was highly significant due to
application of N fertilizer. Higher uptake values obtained with
these higher N levels may be attributed to the increased yield
of cane coupled with enhancement in the absorption of N
from the soil at the grand growth and harvest stages.
On perusal of the uptake values at different stages viz.,
grand growth and harvest indicated that more than 80 per
cent of N has been absorbed within seven months and
thereafter the absorption was only marginal. This is obvious
since the application of N is completed in the 5 th month itself
Table 4. Effect of N levels on N content in trash at different crop growth stages
Treatments
DAYS = Days after sowing
and there may not be enough supply beyond seven months.
Further N demand may be high in the vegetative stage rather
than maturity. Higher uptake values obtained in the treatment
with high N application might be due to the increased
availability of N in soil and consequently its uptake by the
crop. This was in line with the findings of Sellamuthu (2002).
Predicted vs observed uptake
The predicted N uptake values from HYDRUS – 2 D
software by Ravikumar et al. (2011) was compared with the
observed N uptake values in the present investigation (Fig.1)
The results revealed that the N uptake in different treatments
followed similar trend as that of the N uptake predicted for 400
kg urea/ha. This result has proved that the desired rate of N
application can be achieved by proportionate adoption of
model based split dose of N. Application of N @ 195.5 kg ha -
1
closely followed the predicted N uptake for 184 kg ha -1 .
Increasing doses of N application progressively increased
the N uptake.
N content (%)
160 DAS 120 DAS 160 DAS 240 DAS 300 DAS Harvest
T 1 (N@ 161 kg ha -1) 0.35 0.40 0.44 0.38 0.35 0.30 0.37
T 2(N@ 195.5kg ha -1) 0.40 0.50 0.52 0.48 0.43 0.40 0.46
T 3(N@ 230 kg ha -1) 0.52 0.60 0.69 0.65 0.62 0.58 0.61
T 4 (N@ 264.5 kg ha -1) 0.55 0.65 0.82 0.79 0.78 0.70 0.72
T 5(N@ 299 kg ha -1) 0.62 0.75 0.96 0.92 0.90 0.89 0.84
Mean 0.49 0.58 0.68 0.64 0.62 0.58
SEd 0.016 0.015 0.043 0.047 0.042 0.021
CD (5%) 0.036 0.032 0.094 0.103 0.091 0.046
POOLED ANALYSIS
S T S x T
SEd 0.014 0.013 0.032
CD (5%) 0.028 0.025 0.063
Mean

HEMALATHA AND CHELLAMUTHU, An Improved Way to Optimize Nitrogen Fertilizer Requirements of Sugarcane 601
Table 5. Effect of N levels on yield parameters of sugarcane
Fig. 1.
Nitrogen uptake as influenced by different treatments
as compared to the predicted N uptake for 184 kg
N/ha
Even though, the available nutrient content in soil,
content and uptake of nutrients were higher in the treatment
which received N @ 299 kg ha ­1 . The yield and quality
parameters were declined at this level and the parameters are
higher in the treatment which received N @ 195.5 kg ha -1 .
Application of N @ 195.5 kg/ha closely followed the N uptake
of 184 kg/ha predicted from the model HYDRUS- 2D.
Effect of N levels on Yield and quality of sugarcane
The yield of sugarcane is predominantly a function
of the fertility level of the soil. The different N level had a
significant effect on the yield of sugarcane. Another reason
for the increased yield in sugarcane may be due to the drip
fertigation (Singandhupe, et al., 2008). They also reported
that the yield recorded in furrow irrigation with 250 kg ha -1
was equal to the yield obtained with 125 kg ha -1 . Among the
doses of N, application of 195.5 kg ha -1 recorded the highest
cane yield of 143.82 t ha -1 which is 17, 13.6, 10, 12 per cent
higher than the treatment received N @ 299, 264.5, 230, 161 kg
ha -1 , respectively. It is evident from the present investigation
that N application up to 200 kg ha -1 increased the yield linearly,
but beyond that level, the yield of sugarcane reduced
significantly. This was in line with the findings of Singh and
Mohan (1994). Wiedenfeld and Enciso, 2008 reported linear
response on cane yield with the application of N through drip
up to
180 kg ha -1 . This finding corroborates with present
investigation result which shows linear response upto 195.5
kg ha -1 .
The application of N fertilizer showed positive response
upto 195.5 kg ha -1 and beyond this level there exists negative
response. Application of N @ 195.5 kg ha -1 recorded the
highest single cane weight and number of millable cane.
Treatments
Table 6. Effect of N levels on Juice quality
LITERATURE CITED
Butler, D.W.F., J.H. Meyer and A.N. Schumann. 2002. Assessing nitrogen
fertigation strategies for drip irrigated sugarcane in Southern Africa.
Proc. South Africa sugar tech. Assoc., 76: 162-172.
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Number of
Millable Canes
(In thousands)
Yield Parameters
Single Cane
Weight
(Kg)
Cane yield
(t ha -1 )
T 1 (N@ 161 kg ha -1) 74.25 1.43 126.3
T 2(N@ 195.5kg ha -1) 83.00 1.63 143.8
T 3(N@ 230 kg ha -1) 75.03 1.38 129.5
T 4(N@ 264.5 kg ha -1) 75.50 1.18 124.3
T 5(N@ 299 kg ha -1) 74.95 1.30 119.1
Mean 76.55 1.38 128.6
SEd± 2.641 0.116 3.841
CD (5%) 5.819 0.255 8.461
Treatments
Sucrose
(%)
Brix
(%)
Juice quality
Reducing
sugar (%)
Purity
(%)
CCS
(%)
T 1 (N@ 161 kg ha -1) 18.57 20.84 0.67 88.69 12.92
T 2(N@ 195.5kg ha -1) 20.22 21.79 0.80 92.22 14.26
T 3(N@ 230 kg ha -1) 19.27 20.87 0.68 89.13 13.57
T 4(N@ 264.5 kg ha -1) 18.53 20.66 0.66 88.59 12.87
T 5(N@ 299 kg ha -1) 18.20 19.94 0.65 87.53 12.86
Mean 18.96 20.82 0.69 89.23 13.30
SEd± 0.620 0.49 0.038 0.323 0.4
CD (5%) 1.366 1.07 0.084 2.913 0.87
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Singh P.N., and S.C.Mohan.1994. Water use and yield response of
sugarcane under different irrigation scheduling and nitrogen levels
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Thorburn, P.J., C.A. Sweeney and K.L. Bristow. 1998. Production and
environmental benefits of trickle irrigation for sugarcane: A review.
Proc. Aust. Soc. Sugarcane Technol., 20: 118-125.
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665-667.
Recieved on 30-07-2013 Accepted on 16-08-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 603-607, 2013
Genetic Variability and Character Association in Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.)
SMITA B. RANGARE AND N. R. RANGARE
Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur (C.G.)
email : nrrangare@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
Forty four genotypes were evaluated for thirteen characters.
Characters such as marketable yield (kg plot -1 ), total tuber
yield (kg plot -1 ) and number of tubers per plant had higher
genotypic and phenotypic coefficient of variation, whereas the
moderate magnitude of PCV and GCV was observed for per
cent emergence, fresh weight of shoots plant -1 and plant height.
High heritability estimates for the characters fresh weight of
shoots plant -1 , harvest index, dry weight of tubers plant -1 , per
cent emergence, total number of leaves plant -1 , fresh weight of
tubers plant -1 , total tuber yield plot -1 , plant height and dry weight
of shoots plant -1 . High genetic advance as percentage of mean
was obtained for characters namely dry weight tubers plant -1
and total tuber yield plot -1 . High heritability coupled with high
genetic advance was recorded for the traits viz. dry weight of
tubers (g plant -1 ) and total tuber yield plot -1 . Result reveal that
the genotypic coefficient of variation, high heritability and
genetic advance may be exploited in further breeding
programme. The tuber yield showed significant positive
correlation with marketable tuber yield both at the genotypic
and phenotypic levels, whereas, the tuber yield was recorded
having positive and significant correlation both at phenotypic
and genotypic levels with per cent plant emergence, number of
tubers plant -1 and fresh weight of tubers plant -1 . Association of
component characters revealed positive and highly significant
correlation of marketable tuber yield with per cent plant
emergence, fresh weight of tubers plant -1 and number of
compound leaves plant -1 at phenotypic and genotypic levels.
Dry matter content of tubers plant -1 exhibited positive and
highly significant correlations both at phenotypic and genotypic
levels with fresh weight of tubers plant -1 and harvest index.
Similarly number of tubers plant -1 exhibited significant and
positive correlation with the number of shoots plant -1 at
genotypic levels. Fresh weight of tubers plant -1 showed positive
and highly significant correlation for number of compound
leaves plant -1 and number of shoots plant -1 (0.592) at genotypic
levels. Hence, the characters namely tuber yield plant -1 , number
of tubers plant -1 , fresh weight of tubers plant -1 , number of shoots
plant -1 and number of compound leaves plant -1 recorded to be
key traits and may be may be given prime importance while
making selections for improvement of potato for Chhattisgarh
Plains.
Key words
Potato, Solanum tuberosum, Genetic variability,
heritability, genetic advance, correlation
Potato is an important crop of the world and grown in
about 1862 million ha area with a production of 323 million
tonnes annually. The global average yield of potato is 17.35 t/
ha (Anon., 2005). India ranks third in production, contributing
approximately 8% of the world after China and Russian
Federation and fourth in area, about 7% of the world area after
China, Russia and Ukraine (Anon., 2004). In India, it is cultivated
in 1.40 million hectare with a production of about 25.00 million
tonnes with an average productivity of 17.85 t/ha (Anon., 2005).
In Chhattisgarh, it is cultivated in an area of 18,730.7 hectares
area and produces 52630 tonnes with an average productivity
of 10.69 t/ha which shares 1.24 % of total production of India
(NHB, 2010-11). Genetic parameters of variation and characters
association provides information about expected response of
various characters and helps in developing suitable breeding
procedure for their improvement on nature and magnitude of
variability in the existing plant material and the association
among the various characters are pre-requisite for yield and
correlation among different characters utilized in selection of
better plant types and path coefficient analysis permits further
portioning of correlation coefficient into components of direct
and indirect effects facilitating important traits to be identified.
These parameters, however, vary with the type of material
used and the environmental conditions to which the genotypes
are subjected. In India, such studies in potato have been made
either under sub-tropical plains or temperate hill conditions
with different sets of genotypes (Gopal, 1999). In potato,
tuber yield is a complex polygenic traits determined by
interactions among genetically as well as environmental
factors. The genetic variability along with heritability gives
reliable information of the genetic advance expected from
population during selection for a character. Development of
high yielding cultivar is a continuous process and there is an
urgent need to select best hybrid or culture suitable for growing
in Chhattisgarh State. Considering the past increase in potato
area and lack of suitable variety for this State, generation of
basic information about the extent of variability, existing
diversity with the available materials, association of important
yield and its attributes are pre-requisite to breed suitable
cultivar for the State.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present study was undertaken at Horticulture
Research Farm, Department of Horticulture, Indira Gandhi
Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Raipur (C.G.) during 2007-08. A set of
forty four genotypes of potato were grown in randomized
block design with three replication of plot size 1.2 m x 3.0 m
and 60 x 20 cm spacing. All the recommended package of
practices was followed for the raising of good crop. The crop

604 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
was dehulmed at 75 days after planting and observations were
recorded on five randomly selected competitive plants for
fifteen yield and morphological characters in each genotypes
and each replication and there means were calculated. The
statistical analysis was carried out as per the method given
by Panse and Sukhatme (1969). Coefficient of correlation was
calculated for all possible combinations of all the characters
at genotypic and phenotypic levels by Miller et al. (1958).
Path coefficient analysis was laid out to show the cause and
effect relationship between yield and its components and their
partition into direct and indirect effects. This relationship
was evolved by Wright (1921) which was later used by Dewey
and Lu (1959) and the residual effects were calculated as per
procedure given by Singh and Choudhary (1985).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Mean sum of square due to genotypes were significant
for all the characters suggesting presence of considerable
genetic variation in respect of various characters. The analysis
of variance indicated the existence of sufficient amount of
variability among genotypes for all the characters studied
which is indicating the genotypes were widely variable. In
the present study, the phenotypic variance was in general
higher than the genotypic variance for all the characters. Thus
it suggests the substantial influence of environment besides
the genetic variation for expression of these traits.
The genotypic and phenotypic coefficient of variation
were higher for marketable yield (kg plot -1 ) followed by total
tuber yield (kg plot -1 ) and number of tubers per plant whereas,
the moderate magnitude of PCV and GCV (15-20 per cent) was
observed for per cent emergence followed by fresh weight of
shoots plant -1 and plant height. The PCV and GCV observed
with low magnitude for fresh weight of tuber per plant. These
findings are in accordance with the findings of Chaudhary
and Sharma, 1984 for tuber yield, number of tuber plant -1 and
average tuber weight; Garg and Bhutani, 1991 for total tuber
yield and average tuber weight of tuber plant -1 ; Dixit, et al.,
1991 for stems plant -1 ; Sharma, 1999 for dry weight of shoots
plant -1 ; Bhagowati, 2002 for leaves number plant -1 ; Kumar, et
al., 2005 for average tuber weight for tuber number, plant height
and average tuber yield by Joseph, 2005; for tuber weight and
number of haulms hill -1 by Shashikamal, 2006.
The heritability estimates high for the characters fresh
weight of shoots plant -1 followed by harvest index, dry weight
of tubers plant -1 , per cent emergence, total number of leaves
plant -1 , fresh weight of tubers plant -1 , total tuber yield plot -1 ,
plant height and dry weight of shoots plant -1 . Similar results
were also reported earlier for the characters total tuber yield
plant -1 and average tuber weight Choudhary and Sharma, 1984
stem plant -1 Dixit, et al., 1994 dry weight of tuber Sharma,
1999, average tuber weight, number of tubers and plant vigour
Luthra, 2001, tuber yield, number of tuber Luthra, et al., 2005
and for per cent emergence, total tuber yield, harvest index
and dry matter percentage Roy and Singh, 2006.
In the present investigation high genetic advance as
percentage of mean was obtained for characters namely dry
weight tubers plant -1 and total tuber yield plot -1 . The high
value of genetic advance for these traits showed that these
characters are governed by additive genes and selection will
be rewarding for the further improvement of such traits. The
moderate genetic advance observed in characters namely
harvest index, fresh weight of shoots plant -1 , number of
branches plant -1 , per cent emergence, dry weight of shoots
plant -1 , number of tubers plant -1 , total number of leaves plant -
1
, plant height and fresh weight of tuber plant -1 . These findings
of moderate genetic advance suggest that both the additive
and non-additive variance are operating in these traits
However, the low genetic advance as per cent of mean was
observed for the character, number of leaves plant -1 , number
of shoots plant -1 and marketable tuber yield . In agreement to
the above results, similar findings were also supported by
Chaudhary and Sharma, 1984 for tuber yield; whereas; Sharma
(1999) for fresh weight of tuber plant -1 , Luthra, 2001 for tuber
yield; Luthra, et al., 2005 for tuber yields; Ikbal and Khan,
2003 reported high genetic advance for plant height and
number of shoots plant -1 ; Roy and Singh, 2006 for tuber yields
and dry matter of percentage and Kumar, et al., 2005 for tuber
yield .
High heritability coupled with high genetic advance was
recorded for the traits viz., dry weight of tubers (g plant -1 ) and
total tuber yield plot -1 . Hence, these characters were
predominantly governed by additive gene action and can be
improved through simple selection.
Phenotypic and genotypic correlation:
To estimate the association between two variables,
correlation coefficient at phenotypic and genotypic levels,
was worked out in all possible combination and presented in
Table 1. The Character marketable tuber yield plot -1 had
significant and positive correlation on total tuber yield both
at genotypic (0.979) and phenotypic (0.926) levels. Similarly,
the total tuber yield exhibited the positive and significant
association both at phenotypic and genotypic levels with per
cent emergence (0.663 and 0.757), number of tubers plant -1
(0.930 and 0.365), fresh weight of tubers plant -1 (0.512 and
0.607, respectively) and number of leaves plant -1 . However, in
case of number of compound leaves plant -1 , it had positive
and significant correlation with tuber yield plant -1 at genotypic
(0.784) level. Similarly tuber yield exhibited positive and
significant association at genotypic level with unmarketable
tuber yield plant -1 (0.313) and number of shoots plant -1 (0.303).
While the tuber yield plant -1 exhibited significant but negative
correlation with the character number of branches plant -1 (-
0.440). These findings are in agreement with the findings of
Singh and Singh, 1987 a, Maris, 1988, Sandhu and Kang,
1998, Luthra, 2001 and Unniyal and Mishra, 2003, for plant

RANGARE AND RANGARE , Genetic Variability and Character Association in Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) 605
Table 1.
Analysis of variance for tuber yield and its
components
Characters
Mean of sum of square
D.F.=2 D.F.=43 D.F.=86
Per cent Emergence (%) 222.2** 719.9** 26.9
Plant height per plant (cm) 63.0* 125.3** 13.5
No. of shoots per plant 3.9* 3.4* 1.1
Total No. of leaves plant -1 13.4 351.2** 18.5
No. of branches plant -1 39.0 ** 34.1 5.5
Fresh weight of shoots plant -1 (g) 12.5 1964.5** 22.3
Dry weight of shoots plant -1 (g) 8 47.1** 5.6
Fresh weight of tubers plant -1 (g) 0.007 0.011** 0.008
Dry weight of tubers plant -1 (g) 42.9 1241.2** 30.5
Harvest index (%) 118 11915.9 214
No. of tubers plant -1 1 14.13** 3.7
Marketable Yield plot (kg) 11.9** 10.1** 1.4
Total Yield plot -1 (kg) 10.8** 11.9** 1.2
* and** indicate significance at 5 % and 1% levels, respectively.
height; Mishra and Gautam, 1989, Lemaga and Ceasor, 1990,
Dixit, et al., 1994 and Patel, et al., 2002 a for number of shoots
plant -1 ; Singh and Singh, 1987a, Sharma, 1990, Hussein and
Rashid, 1992 and Kumar and Kang, 2000 for number of leaves
shoots -1 , Maris, 1988, Lemaga and Ceasor, 1990, Dhal and
Acharya, 1992 and Luthra, 2001 for number of tubers plant -1 .
A significant and positive association of tuber yield with fresh
weight of tuber plant -1 by Sharma, 1999, Luthra, 2001, Ramanjit,
et al., 2001, Ozkaynak, et al., 2003, Joseph, et al. and Luthra,
et al., both, 2005. Marketable tuber yield exhibited positive
and significant correlation both at genotypic and phenotypic
level with per cent emergence (0.609 and 0.757) , fresh weight
of tubers plant -1 (0.525 and 0.640) and number of compound
leaves plant -1 (0.346 and 0.891). Whereas, marketable tuber
yield kg plot -1 had positive and significant correlation with
dry weight of shoots plant -1 (0.322) only at genotypic level.
Marketable tuber yield showed significant but negative
correlation with number of branches plant -1 (- 0.465) at
genotypic level.
Unmarketable tuber yield showed significant and
positive association with per cent emergence at phenotypic
(0.325) and genotypic (0.358) levels. Per cent emergence was
positively associated at phenotypic and genotypic levels with
fresh weight of shoots plant -1 (0.533 and 0.576, respectively),
dry weight of shoots plant -1 (0.430 and 0.543, respectively),
fresh weight of tubers plant -1 (0.311 and 0.375, respectively)
and number of compound leaves plant -1 (0.375 and 0.828)
whereas, it was significantly but negatively associated with
number of branches plant -1 at phenotypic (-0.483) and
genotypic (-0.609) levels. Dry matter of tubers plant -1 showed
positive and significant association both at phenotypic and
genotypic levels with fresh weight of tubers plant -1 (0.461
and 0.524, respectively) and harvest index (0.479 and 0.509,
respectively) whereas, highly significant and positive
correlation was found with, number of compound leaves plant -
1
(0.368) at genotypic level. However, it was significantly but
negatively associated with dry weight of shoots plant -1 (-
0.351) at genotypic levels. Number of tubers plant -1 associated
significantly and positively with the number of shoots plant -
1
at genotypic level (0.330). Above findings in correlation are
in agreements with the findings of Singh, et al., 1989 with
number of shoots plant -1 and Desai and Jaimini, 1998 with
number of shoots plant -1 . Association of the harvest index is
observed highly significant but negative for fresh weight of
shoots plant -1 at genotypic (-0.409) and phenotypic (0.430)
levels. However, it had negative but significant correlation
with dry weight of shoots plant -1 at phenotypic level (-0.443).
Fresh weight of tubers plant -1 had positive and highly
significant correlation for the characters number of compound
leaves plant -1 (0.628) and number of shoots plant -1 (0.592) at
genotypic level whereas, it was positively correlated with each
other both at phenotypic (0.320) and genotypic (0.308) levels,
respectively. Dry weight of shoots plant -1 exhibited positive
and significant correlation with fresh weight of shoots plant -
1
at genotypic level (0.671) and phenotypic level (0.806). It
was negatively but significantly associated with number of
Table 2. Genetic variability for tuber yield and its components.
Parameters
Characters
Mean
Min
Range
Max
σ 2 p σ 2 g σ 2 e
P.C.V.
(%)
G.C.V.
(%)
h 2 b (%)
Genetic
Advance
K==2.06
Genetic
advance as
percent of
mean
Per cent Emergence (%) 82.69 31.83 100 257.87 231.05 26.9 19.42 18.38 89.6 26.64 32.21
Plant height per plant (cm) 42.38 31.07 56.04 50.75 37.25 13.5 16.81 14.41 73.4 10.78 25.44
No. of shoots per plant 4.77 2.93 7.72 1.86 0.75 1.11 28.61 18.16 40.3 1.13 23.69
Total No. of leaves plant -1 67.86 43 87.71 129.35 110.85 18.5 16.76 15.52 85.7 20.09 29.61
No. of branches plant -1 14.93 8.69 23.87 15.02 9.54 5.48 25.96 20.68 63.5 5.07 33.96
Fresh weight of shoots plant -1 (g) 147.9 94.11 189.42 669.23 647.23 22.09 17.49 17.2 96.7 51.54 34.84
Dry weight of shoots plant -1 (g) 20.61 12.12 28.08 19.4 13.85 5.56 21.37 18.06 71.4 6.48 31.44
Fresh weight of tubers plant -1 (g) 0.44 0.31 0.57 0.004 0.003 0.0007 14.52 13.12 81.6 0.11 25
Dry weight of tubers plant -1 (g) 79.89 39.15 130.15 434.11 403.72 30.4 26.08 25.15 93 39.9 49.94
Harvest index (%) 317.1 193.57 487.35 4114.1 3900.2 214 20.23 19.7 94.8 125.57 39.51
No. of tubers plant -1 9 4.5 14.6 7.16 3.5 3.7 29.72 20.74 48.7 2.7 29.8
Marketable Yield plot (kg) 6.33 2.35 9.8 4.32 2.89 1.44 32.83 26.83 66.8 2.86 0.45
Total Yield plot -1 (kg) 7.23 2.46 11.84 4.78 3.61 1.2 30.25 26.29 75.6 3.4 47.03

606 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Table 3. Phenotypic correlation coefficient for tuber yield and its traits in potato.
Characters
No. of
shoots
per
plant
Total
No. of
leaves
plant -1
No. of
branche
s plant -1
No. of
Compou
nd
leaves
plant -1
Fresh
weight
of shoots
plant -1
(g)
* &** indicate significant at 5 % and 1% levels respectively.
Dry
weight
of shoots
plant -1
(g)
Fresh
weight
of tubers
plant -1
(g)
Harvest
index
(%)
No. of
tubers
plant -1
Dry
weight of
Per
tubers
-1 (g)
plant
cent
Emergen
ce (%)
UnMar
ketable
Yield
plot
(kg)
Marketa
ble Yield
plot (kg)
Total
tuber
yield per
plot
Plant height per
plant (cm)
-0.002 0.087 0.250 0.015 0.035 0.160 -0.190 -0.105 -0.025 -0.080 0.015 -0.144 -0.043 -0.010
No. of shoots per
plant
0.075 -0.042 -0.065 -0.030 0.000 0.308* 0.058 0.201 0.135 0.092 0.068 0.277 0.270
Total No. of leaves
-1
plant
0.439** 0.173 -0.176 -0.264 0.279 0.030 0.163 0.158 -0.109 0.185 0.009 0.056
No. of branches
-1
plant
-0.100 -0.346** -0.289 -0.146 0.018 0.104 -0.045 -0.483** -0.037 -0.266 -0.276
No. of Compound
-1
leaves plant
0.253 0.092 0.320* 0.079 -0.090 0.190 0.375** -0.018 0.346** 0.253
Fresh weight of
shoots plant -1 (g)
0.671** 0.070 -0.409** -0.086 -0.173 0.533** 0.082 0.234 0.212
Dry weight of
shoots plant -1 (g)
-0.012 -0.443** -0.144 -0.261 0.430** 0.071 0.238 0.231
Fresh weight of
tubers plant -1 (g)
0.192 0.155 0.461** 0.311* 0.206 0.525** 0.512**
Harvest index (%) -0.041 0.479** -0.098 0.035 -0.047 -0.013
No. of tubers plant -1 0.012 0.124 0.183 0.126 0.930**
Dry weight of
tubers plant -1 (g) -0.089 0.021 0.094 0.109
Per cent Emergence
(%)
0.325* 0.609** 0.663**
UnMarketable
Yield plot (kg)
0.157 0.290
Marketable Yield
plot (kg)
0.926**
Table 4.
Characters
Genotypic correlation coefficient for tuber yield and its traits in potato.
No. of
shoots
per
plant
Total
No. of
leaves
plant -1
No. of
branche
s plant -1
No. of
Compou
nd
leaves
plant -1
Fresh
weight
of shoots
plant -1
(g)
Dry
weight
of shoots
plant -1
(g)
Fresh
weight
of tubers
plant -1
(g)
Harvest
index
(%)
No. of
tubers
plant -1
Dry
weight
of tubers
plant -1
(g)
Per cent
Emergen
ce (%)
UnMar
ketable
Yield
plot
(kg)
Marketa
ble Yield
plot (kg)
Total
tuber
yield
per plot
Plant height
plant -1 (cm)
-0.085 0.079 0.375** 0.087 0.029 0.218 -0.221 -0.121 -0.020 -0.060 0.011 -0.157 -0.043 0.008
No. of shoots
1
plant-
0.139 -0.055 -0.218 -0.064 0.058 0.592** 0.057 0.330* 0.180 0.130 0.146 0.281 0.303*
Total No. of
-1
leaves plant
0.506** 0.270 0.197 -0.299 0.338* 0.026 0.263 0.171 -0.097 0.215 0.033 0.089
No. of branches
-1
plant
-0.564** -0.448** -0.481* -0.225 0.020 0.249 -0.090 -0.609** -0.059 -0.465** -0.440
No. of
Compound
0.671** 0.247 0.628** 0.256 -0.169 0.368** 0.828** -0.081 0.891** 0.784**
leaves plant -1
Fresh weight of
shoots plant -1 (g)
0.806** 0.106 -0.430** -0.122 -0.179 0.576** 0.080 0.294 0.257
Dry weight of
shoots plant -1 (g)
-0.015 -0.518** -0.163 -0.351** 0.543** 0.093 0.322* 0.256
Fresh weight of
tubers plant -1 (g)
0.251 0.148 0.524** 0.375** 0.229 0.640** 0.607**
Harvest index
(%)
-0.113 0.509** -0.105 0.029 -0.045 -0.005
No. of tubers
-1
plant
-0.007 0.163 0.280 0.248 0.365**
Dry weight of
-1(g) tubers plant
-0.096 0.018 0.057 0.089
Per cent
Emergence (%)
0.358** 0.757** 0.757**
UnMarketable
Yield plot (kg)
0.166 0.313*
Marketable
Yield plot (kg)
0.979**
* &** indicate significant at 5 % and 1% levels respectively.

RANGARE AND RANGARE , Genetic Variability and Character Association in Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) 607
branches plant -1 at genotypic levels (-0.481). Fresh weight of
shoots plant -1 was recorded with significant and positive
correlation with the character number of compound leaves
plant -1 at genotypic levels (0.671). It also exhibited significant
but negative association with the character number of
branches plant -1 at genotypic (-0.346) and phenotypic levels
(-0.448). Number of compound leaves plant -1 was negatively
but significantly associated with number of branches plant -1
at genotypic levels (-0.564). In case of number of branches, it
was observed that it is significantly and positively correlated
with number of leaves at phenotypic levels (0.439) and
genotypic levels (0.506) and plant height at genotypic level
0.374 only. In this investigation, total tuber yield plot -1 exhibited
positive and significant correlation with marketable
tuber yield, per cent emergence, number of tubers plant -1 , fresh
weight of tubers plant -1 , number of compound leaves plant -1 ,
number of shoots plant -1 and number of leaves plant -1 . Thus,
direct selection of plant types for high marketable tuber yield,
high per cent emergence, more number of tubers, high
fresh weight of tubers, more number of compound leaves and
more shoots plant -1 will helpful in improving total yield of
potato.
LITERATURE CITED
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Anonymous. 2005. Directorate of Horticulture, Govt. of Chhattisgarh,
Raipur, Chhattisgarh
Bhagowati, R.R., Saikia, M. and Sut, D. 2002. Variability, heritability,
genetic advance and character association in True Potato Seed
(TPS) population. J. Argil. Sci. Society of North- East India. 15
(1): 119-122.
Chaudhary, S. K. and Sharma, S. K. 1984. Genetic variability for yield
and its components in potato breeding material. Indian J. Agric.
Sci. 54(10):941-2.
Deway, D.R. and Lu, K.H. 1959. A correlation and path coefficient
analysis of components of crested wheat grass and seed production.
Agron. J. 5:515-518.
Dixit, D.; Mittal, R.K.; Choubey, C.N. and Singh, P. 1994. Variability,
correlations and selection indices in potato (Solanum tuberosum
L.). Haryana J. Hort. Sci. 23(2):168-172.
Garg, L. P. and Bhutani, R.D. 1991.Variability and heritability studies in
some important traits in potato (Solanum tuberosum L.). Haryana
J. Hort. Sci. 20:239-243.
Iqbal, M.Z. and Khan, S.A. 2003. Genetic variability, partial regression,
co-heritability studies and their implication in selection of high
yielding potato genotypes. Pakistan J. Scientific and Industrial
Res. 46 (2):126-128.
Kumar, V., Gopal, J. and Bhardwaj, V. 2005. Evaluation of exotic potato
(Solanum tuberosum L. spp. Tuberosum) germplasm in North –
Western Hills of India. Indian J. Plant Genetic Resources. Vol. 18,
No. 1: 94-95.
Lemaga, B. and Caesar, K. 1990. Relationship between number of main
stems and yield components potato (Solanum tuberosum L. cv.
Erntestolz) as influenced by different day-length. Potato Res. 33:257-
267.
Luthra, S. K. 2001. Heritability, genetic advance and character
association in potato. J. Indian, Potato Assoc. 28(1): 1-3.
Luthra, S. K., Gopal, J. and P. C. 2005. Genetic divergence and its
relationship with heterosis in potato. Potato J. 32 (1-2):37-42.
Mishra, D. P. and Gautam, N. C. 1989. Correlation and path coefficient
analysis in potato (Solanum tuberosum L.). Prog. Hort. 21 (3-4):
198-202.
Maris, B.1998. Correlations within and between characters between
and within generations as measures for the early generation selection
in potato breeding. Euphytica.37:205-224.
Panse, V.G. and Sukhatme, P. 1978. Statistical methods for agricultural
workers, 3 rd revised edition, ICAR, New Delhi, pp. 70-99.
Patel, P.B., Patel, N.H. and Patel, R.N. 2002. Correlation and path
analysis of some economic characters in potato. J. Indian Potato
Assoc. 2002 publ. 2003:29 (3/4): 163-164.
Roy, A. K. and Singh, P. K. 2006. Genetic variability, heritability and
genetic advance for yield in potato (Solanum tuberosum L.).
International J. Plant Sci., 1 (2) : 282 – 285.
Sharma, D. 1999. Evaluation of early and mid maturing cultures/hybrid
of potato under Chhattisgarh. M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis. Indira Gandhi
Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur (Chhattisgarh) p.-173.
Sharma, B.D.1990. Selection criteria for early potatoes (Solanum
tuberosum L.). J. Indian Potato Assoc. 17:219-221
Shashikamal, 2006. Variability, character correlations and genetic
divergence studies in potato (Solanum tuberosum L.). Ph.D. (Ag.)
Thesis. G.B.P.U.A. & T., Pantnagar. Anonymous. 2004. FAO STAT
Database, 2004.
. Singh, R.K. and Chaudhary, B. D.1985. Biometrical methods in
quantitative genetics analysis, Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiyana. 40-
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Recieved on 18-07-2013 Accepted on 15-08-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 608-611, 2013
Morphological and Morphometrical Characterization of Meloidogyne graminicola
(Golden & Brichfied) form Rice Host Plant in the Four Districts of Punjab.
HARPREET KAUR* AND RAJNI ATTRI
Department of Zoology and Environmental Sciences, Punjabi University, Patiala 147002, Punjab
*email: harpreet_bimbra@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Population of the root knot nematode (RKN), Meloidogyne
graminicola were collected from the host plant rice from four
districts of Punjab such as Gurdaspur (GSP), Ludhiana (LDH),
Patiala (PTA) and Hoshiarpur (HSP ). Morphological and
morphometrical characterization indicated that the females
with longer neck tend to have bigger median bulb, valve and
was located in the middle from the neck region. In juveniles,
the size and location of median bulb, tail length and anal body
length exhibited direct correlation with the body length. In
second stage juveniles four lateral lines with incisures are
present. Among the various taxonomic characters, the perineal
pattern, body length, neck-L, LVS, length, tail-L, ABW (anal
body width), and ratio C’, H-MB (head to median bulb), head
and stylet morphology of mature females were the most reliable
characters for precise identification of this species. Analysis of
interpopulation morphometric characters of female of M.
graminicola such as body width, LMB (length of median bulb),
WMB (width of median bulb), and ratio ‘a’ were moderately
variable whereas body length and neck length were least
variable, stylet length showed high variability. In perineal
pattern ATT and IPD were moderately variable. LVS was least
and AVS was highly varible. In second stage juveniles (J2) body
length and ratio ‘C’ were highly variable and stylet length, H-
MB, tail length, ratio C were moderately variable and rest two
other characters MB-EP and ABW showed least variability.
Key words
Morphological, morphometrical, M. graminicola,
juveniles, female, perineal pattern
Crop plants are of great importance for a country and
when these plants suffer from diseases they cause serious
losses and adversely affect the agricultural economy of a
country (Hafeez, 1986). The RKNs reduce the yield of the
world’s 40 major cash crops by an average of 12.3% (Sasser,
1998). In total more than 80 Meloidogyne species have been
identified so far (Karssen, 2002) and only four species viz. M.
incognita (Kofoid and White) Chitwood, M. javanica (Treub)
Chitwood, M. arenaria (Neal) Chitwood and M. hapla
Chitwood are widely distributed throughout the agricultural
regions of the world. In India, much scientific information has
been generated on various aspects of RKNs. (Dasgupta and
Gaur,1986) but so far, there is hardly any information pertaining
to morphological and morphometric features of Indian
populations of RKNs. Therefore, the present investigation
was aimed to study the intraspecific morphological diversity
of M. graminicola populations in a locality of Punjab in order
to assese the taxonomic characterization of this species.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Soil (250gm) along with feeder roots were put in
polythene bags and tied with rubber band to check
evaporation. Supporting data regarding name of the host,
locality, date of collection etc. was tagged to the bag. The
samples were then brought to the laboratory for further
processing. Nematodes were killed and fixed in one operation
(Seinhorst, 1966) with SN solution . The cavity block
containing nematodes was kept in dessicator for 12 hour and
then in an oven at 37ºC to evaporate the ethanol. Thus the
nematodes left in pure glycerine were picked and mounted.
For female: galled portions of roots were selected and fixed in
acid fuchsin (Eisenback and Triantophyllu, 1981). The adult
females of Meloidogyne spp. were removed from the root
tissue by teasing apart with the help of fine forceps and were
collected in a cavity block having warm lactophenol. A drop
of lactophenol was then placed on a glass slide and one female
specimen was placed in it. The posterior end of the female
having vulva and anus was cut off with a sharp blade. The
inner tissue was carefully removed with a nylon bristle and
the perineal pattern was transferred in a drop of glycerol on a
clean glass slide and cover slip was applied and sealed with
DPX. Ten specimens from a population were identified and
examined. The measurements of length and width of median
bulb (LMB, WMB), width of neck, L- neck, distance from
head to median bulb (H-MB) for the mature females. Length
of vulval slit (LVS), distance from anus to vulval slit (AVS),
anus to tail terminus area (ATT) and interphasmidal distance
(IPD) for perineal pattern. Length (L), width (W), ratio c, c’,
distance from head to median bulb (H-MB), anal body width
(ABW) and tail length for second stage juvenile (J2) were
made under 40x microscope with caliberated occulomicrometer.
The arithmetic mean, standard error of mean (SEM), standard
deviation (SD) and coefficient of variance (CV) for each
measurement were computed. Based upon CV values, the
characters were rated as least variable, moderately variable
and highly variable, using scale 20% for
female, 12% for second stage juveniles (J2)
respectively. The data thus obtained was compared with the
earlier descriptions of this species (Chitwood, 1949,
Whitehead, 1968; Jepson, 1987).

KAUR AND ATTRI, Morphological and Morphometrical Characterization of Meloidogyne graminicola (Golden & Brichfied) 609
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results on morphological and morphometric data of
the mature females, perineal pattern and second stage juvenile,
in four districts of Punjab populations.
Meloidogyne graminicola (Golden & Brichfield, 1965)
Chitwood
Description: Based on 10 females
Female: L= 594-693µm, W= 364- 510µm, a= 1.2- 1.63µm, Stylet
length= 9-14.2µm, Neck-length, 156- 168µm, LMB= 15-18.5µm,
WMB= 14- 18.5µm
Perineal pattern: LVS= 17- 21.5µm, AVS= 12.3- 19µm, ATT= 14-
19.3µm, IPD= 14.2- 19.4µm
Second stage juveniles (J2): L= 358- 489µm, Stylet= 15- 22µm,
H-MB= 54.5- 68.5µm, MB-EP= 15.3- 19µm, Tail-length= 69.1-
82µm, ABW= 16- 24µm, C= 5.1- 6.7µm, C’= 3.0- 5.5µm
Host plant: Rice
Locality: All four district i.e. Gurdaspur (GSP), Patiala (PTA),
Hoshiarpur (HSP), Ludhiana (LDH).
Morphological characters of 4 populations of M.
graminicola in Punjab:
Mature female:
Body shape and size: Large sized female 594- 693µm in
length, round to pear shaped and elongate body, slightly
terminal protuberance present and 364- 510µm wide. Neck
protrudes slightly 156-168 µm in size. Stylet 9-14.2 µm in length
with stylet cone slightly curved dorsally. Stylet shaft
cylindrical to slightly wider and stylet knobs set off,
transversally elongate. Esophagous has a large muscular bulb
having conspicuous valve plates. Length of median bulb 15-
18.5 µm, width 14- 18.5µm is located in the middle of neck
region.
Perineal pattern:
Rounded to oval, 99- 105 µm in length, and 99- 99.9µm
wide. Typically high with dorsal arch. Anus anteriorly located
12.2- 19 µm, distance from vulval slit (AVS) and tail terminus
14- 19.3µm from the anus (ATT). Lateral field absent and not
clearly defined. Striae smooth and continuous. Interphasmidal
distance 14.2- 19.4µm.
Second stage juveniles (J2):
Length 358- 489 µm, labial region not offset, labial disc
not elevated. Lateral lips usually present. Stylet 15- 22µm long.
Basal knobs ovoid, offset to sloping posteriorly. Hemizonid
anterior or adjacent to excretory pore. Tail: 69.1- 82 µm long,
tail tip finely rounded. Anal body width 16-24 µm wide. Four
lateral lines present with incisures. The distance from head to
median bulb 54.5- 68.5µm (H-MB) and median bulb to excretory
pore 15.3- 19 µm (MB-EP). Small phasmids present near cloacal
aperture.
Morphometric characters of 4 populations of M.
graminicola in Punjab:
Mature female:
The range for mean values of body length and width in
4 populations were 602- 684 µm and 394.5- 457.5 µm
respectively. The maximum mean values for body length in
HSP population (684µm) and width in PTA population (457.5).
These characters were rated as least and moderately variable
with maximum variability in LUD and PTA population which
was upto 5.7% for body length and 16.2% for body width
respectively. Neck length of female in the present populations
was least variable (CV 1.2-2.3%). LDH population had the
smallest neck 158.6 µm. The maximum mean value for neck
length 166.5 µm was observed in GSP population.
Stylet length showed large difference among the 4
populations in their mean values 6.2- 13.1 µm therefore rated
as highly variable characters (CV 0.77-21.8%). The range of
mean values for size of the median bulb was 16.6- 17.7µm
(LMB) and 16.1- 17.5 µm (WMB) with maximum in HSP
population (LMB17.7µm; WMB17.5µm), minimum in PTA and
GSP population (16.6µm-16.1µm). The coefficient of variability
of these 2 characters in 4 populations were moderately variable.
The ratio of ‘a’ was also moderately variable (CV 1.3- 14.9%).
Minimum mean value in PTA population 1.42µm and maximum
in HSP population 1.61µm (Table 1).
Perineal pattern:
The length of vulval silt (LVS), distance from anus to tail
terminus (ATT) and interphasmidal distance (IPD) were
minimum in LDH population (17.6, 15.1 and 14.6 µm) and AVS
(12.7µm) minimum in GSP population. PTA population has
maximum mean values for LVS (20.7µm), AVS (18.8µm), ATT
(18.6 µm ) and IPD (18.7µm). The distance from anus to tail
terminus (ATT) not similar in 4-population with mean values
ranging from 15.1- 18.6µm. The coefficient of variability for
the 4 characters of perineal pattern varied marginally from
population to population. LVS (1.0%- 5.1%) was least variable
and 2 characters ATT ( 3.7%- 12.1%) and IPD ( 3.8%- 13.2%)
were moderately variable and AVS ( 0.11% -22.4%) was rated
as highly variable (Table 2).
Second stage juveniles (J2):
The average body length of second stage juveniles was
397.5- 479µm with maximum body length recorded in PTA
population (479µm). Unlike in females, length and ratio ‘C’
were highly variable in second stage juveniles. The stylet
length 16.1- 21.2 µm in 4 populations showed least variablility
(C.V 0.39 -10.3%). The distance from head to median bulb (H-
MB 0.51-9.7%) and median bulb to excretory pore (MB-EP

610 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Table 1.
Morphometric characters of mature females of 4 populations of M. graminicola [Mean±SD±SE; (range);C.V%],n=5
CHARACTERS GSP PTA HSP LDH C.R
L(µm) 602±11.3±5.6
643±9.8±4.9
684±12.7±6.3
646.5±37.4±18 LV
(594- 610)1.8
(636-650)1.5
(675-693)1.8
(620- 673)5.7
W(µm) 394.5±43.1±21
457.5±74.2±37
424.5±6.3±3.1
434±33.9±16.9 MV
(364-425)10.9
(405-510)16.2
(420-429)1.4
(410-458)7.8
STYLET-L(µm) 6.2±6.7±3.3
13.1±1.2±0.6
13±1.5±.7
10.6±2.3±1.16 HV
(11-14.2)10.9
(12.3-14)9.1
(12-14.2).77
(9-12.3)21.8
NECK-L(µm) 166.5±2.1±1.0
163.5±2.1±1.0
164.2±2.4±1.2
158.6±3.6±1.8 LV
(165-168)1.2
(162-165)1.2
(162.5-166)1.5
(156-161.2)2.3
LMB(µm) 17±1.4±0.7
16.6±2.6±1.3
17.7±1.06±.53
16.7±1.0±.53 MV
(16-18)8.3
(15-18.3)15.7
(17-18.5)5.9
(16-17.5)6.3
WMB(µm) 16.1±2.9±1.4
16.5±2.3±1.1
17.5±.75±.37
16.7±1.0±.53 MV
(14-18.2)18.4
(15-18.3)14
(17-18.5)4.2
(16-17.5)6.3
A 1.53±.14±.07
(1.43-1.63)9.2
1.42±.2±.1
(1.2-1.5)14.9
1.61±.02±.01
(1.60-1.63)1.3
1.48±.35±.17
(1.41-1.51)2.3
MV
CR- character ranking; LV-least variable, (20%)
Table 2.
Morphometric characters of perineal pattern in 4 populations of M. graminicola [mean±SD±SE; (range); C.V%],n=5
CHARACTERS GSP PTA HSP LDH CR
LVS(µm) 19.9±.2±.1
(19.8-20.1)1.0
AVS(µm) 12.7±.63±.31
(12.2-13.3)4.9
ATT(µm) 16.9±.63±.31
(16.4-17.4)3.7
IPD(µm) 16.1±.91±.45
(15.5-16.8) 5.6
20.7±1.0±53
(20-21.5)5.1
18.8±.02±.01
(18.7-19).11
18.6±.91±.4
(18-19.3)4.9
18.7±.98±.4
(18-19.4) 5.2
20.4±.84±.42
(19.8-21)4.1
15.7±3.5±1.7
(13.2-18.2)22.4
17.5±2.1±1.0
(16-19)12.1
17.6±2.3±1.1
(16-19.3)13.2
CR- character ranking; LV-least variable, (20%)
17.6±.84±.4 LV
(17-18.2)4.8
13.6±.84±.413-14.2)6.2 HV
15.1±1.6±.8
(14-16.3)10.7
14.6±.56±.28
(14.2-15) 3.8
MV
MV
1.8-6.6%) were rated as least variable in PTA population with
mean values for H-MB (68.2µm) and MB-EP (18.7µm)
respectively.
In general, the tail-length was smaller in LDH population
(70.3µm) than the other 3 populations with longest (77.5µm)
in HSP population. The anal body width (ABW) was smallest
in LDH population (16.2µm) and greatest in PTA population
(23.6µm). Among the tail characters, tail- length and ratio C
were rated as moderately variable, ABW as least variable and
ratio C’ was rated as highly variable (Table 3).
Table 3.
Morphometric characters of second stage juveniles (j2) in 4 populations M. graminicola [Mean
±SD±SE;(range);C.V%],n=5
CHARACTERS GSP PTA HSP LDH CR
L(µm) 397.5±55.8±27
479±14.1±7
475±9.8±4.9
426.5±13.4±6.7 HV
(358-437)14
(469-489) 2.9
(468-482) 2
(417-436) 3.1
STYLET- L(µm) 17.9±.07±0.03
21.2±1.23±0.63
18.5±.7±0.35
16.1±1.6±0.81 MV
(17.9-18) 0.39
(20.2-22) 6
(18-19) 3.8
(15-11) 10.3
H-MB(µm) 61.7±6±3
68.2±.3±0.17
61.6±.56±0.28
56.2±2.4±1.2 MV
(57.5-66) 9.7
(68-68.5) 0.51
(61.2-62) 0.91
(54.5-58) 4.3
MB-EP(µm) 16±1.0±0.8
18.7±.35±0.17
17±.35±0.17
16.6±.84±0.42 LV
(15.3-16.8) 6.6
(18.5-19) 1.8
(16.8-17.3) 2
(16-17.2) 5.1
TAIL-L(µm) 70.5±2±1.0
76±8.4±4.2
77.5±2.1±1
70.3±.42±0.21 MV
(69.1-72) 2.9
(70-82) 11.1
(76-79) 2.7
(70-70.6) .60
ABW(µm) 16.8±.5±0.28
23.6±.56±0.28
17.8±.63±0.31
16.2±.3±0.17 LV
(16.4-17.2) 3.3
(23.2-24) 2.3
(17.4-18.3)3.5
(16-16.5) 2.1
C 5.62±.62±0.31
6.3±.52±0.26
5.84±.43±0.21
6±.21±0.1
MV
(5.1-6) 11
(5.9-6.7) 8.2
(5.5-6.1) 7.5
(5.9-6.2) 3.5
C’ 4.2±.2±0.1
(4-4.3) 6.3
3.2±.22±0.14
(3.0-3.4) 8.7
4.84±.98±0.49
(4.1-5.5)20.3
4.2±.02±0.01
(4.2-4.3) 0.4
HV
CR- character ranking; LV- least variable (12%)

KAUR AND ATTRI, Morphological and Morphometrical Characterization of Meloidogyne graminicola (Golden & Brichfied) 611
Table 4.
Comparison of the gross range of morphometric
data recorded for 4 populations of M. graminicola
with the given byPokharel et al.(2007)
Characters
LITERATURE CITED
As per
Pokharel
Gross range in 4-
Populations.
FEMALES
L(µm) 594-693 (644)
W(µm) 364-510 (428)
STYLET-L(µm) 9-14.2 (11)
LMB(µm) 15-18.5 (17)
WMB(µm) 14-18.5 (17)
NECK-L(µm) 162-168 (16.4)
A 1.27-1.63 (2)
PERINEAL PATTERN
LVS(µm) 17-21.5 (20)
AVS(µm) 12.2-19 (16)
ATT(µm) 14-19.3 (17)
IPD(µm) 14.2-19.4 (17)
SECOND STAGE JUVENILES(J2)
L(µm) 425-477 358-489 (445)
(450.9)
C 5.1-6.7 (5.1)
STYLET-L(µm) 9.6-15.9
15-22 (19)
(11.37)
H-MB(µm) 54.5-68.5 (62)
MB-EP(µm) 15.3-19 (17)
ABW(µm) 16-24 (19)
TAIL-L(µm) 69-82 (74)
C’ 3-5.5 (4)
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Treub, M. 1885. Onderzoekingen over Searchziek Suikerriet gedaan in
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Batavia:1-39.
Whitehead, A.G. 1968. Taxonomy of Meloidogyne (Nematoda :
Heteroderidae) with description of four new species. Trans. Zoo.
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Recieved on 29-05-2013 Accepted on 17-07-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 612-616, 2013
Effect of Dimethoate on the Activities of Acid and Alkaline Phosphatases in the Gill
and Liver of Zebrafish, Danio rerio
SHABNAM ANSARI AND BADRE ALAM ANSARI
Zebrafish Laboratory, Department of Zoology, D.D.U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur - 273 009 (U.P.),
India
email: ba.ansari@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT
Dimethoate, an organophosphate insecticide used against a
broad range of insects in agriculture to increase the crop
production. The present study was aimed to investigate the
changes in the activities of acid phosphatase (ACP) and alkaline
phosphatase (ALP) in gill and liver of zebrafish after exposure
to 20%, 40%, 60% and 80% of the 96-h LC 50
values of
Dimethoate. It was found that the activities of ACP and ALP in
treated fishes were significantly reduced (P

ANSARI AND ANSARI, Effect of Dimethoate on the Activities of Acid and Alkaline Phosphatases 613
for developmental toxicology research and also recommended
by International Organization for Standardization and the
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD, 1992). Therefore, the present study was undertaken
to investigate the toxic effects of dimethoate on the activities
of phosphatases (ACP and ALP) in the gill and liver of
zebrafish, Danio rerio.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
For the present experiment zebrafish were procured from
our stock aquarium. The water of the stock aquarium was
aerated continuously through stone diffusers connected to a
mechanical air compressor. Water temperature ranged between
25 ± 2 o C and the pH was maintained between 6.6 and 8.5. Fish
were fed twice daily alternately with raw chopped goat liver
and brine shrimps. The diet was supplemented with
Drosophila flies once daily.
For the study, fifty matured adult fishes were exposed
to each concentration of Dimethoate for 21 days viz., 20%,
40%, 60% and 80% of the 96-h LC 50
as per the value calculated
in earlier experiment (Ansari and Ansari, 2011). In these aquaria
water was replaced daily with fresh treatment of pesticides so
as to maintain the constant concentration of the toxicant. The
experiment was accompanied by their respective controls.
After the expiry of the exposure periods (7, 14 and 21
days), required number of exposed fishes were taken out from
experimental and control groups. Activities of ACP and ALP
in the gill and liver of zebrafish were estimated according to
the method originally proposed by Andersch and Szcypinski,
1947 later modified by Bergmeyer, 1967 using p-
nitrophenylphosphate as substrate. The activities of
phosphatases have been expressed as micro mole (µM)
substrate hydrolyzed/30 minutes/mg protein. Analysis of
variance (ANOVA) was employed to test the significance of
the data using StatPlus ® version 2009 computer software
purchased from Analystsoft Vancouver, Canada.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In the present investigation we observed significant
(P

614 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Fig. 3. Effect of Dimethoate on ALP in the gill of zebrafish
or decrease enzyme production, obstruction of normal
excretory route, increased cell membrane permeability or impair
circulation (Kaneko, 1989). Lysosomal enzymes, both ACP
and ALP participate in degradation of proteins, carbohydrates
and lipids (Xue and Renault, 2000). These enzymes are released
by the lysosomes for the hydrolysis of foreign material; hence
it has a role in certain detoxification functions. Das, et al.,
2004 have been reported the changes in phosphatase activity
in fishes due to exposure to industrial effluents.
During present investigation we observed significant
(P

ANSARI AND ANSARI, Effect of Dimethoate on the Activities of Acid and Alkaline Phosphatases 615
caution and in a sustainable way and a more detailed
laboratory studies should be carried out to minimize the
hazards to aquatic biota and human beings.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors are thankful to Prof. V.B. Upadhyay, Head of
the Department of Zoology, D.D.U. Gorakhpur University,
Gorakhpur for providing the laboratory facilities during this
research work.
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616 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
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Recieved on 26-06-2013 Accepted on 15-07-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 617-621, 2013
Maturation and Spawning of the Threadfin Bream Nemipterus japonicus (Bloch)
along Mangalore Coast
RAJESH, D.P., S. BENAKAPPA, H.N.ANJANAYAPPA, S.R. SOMASHEKARA, A.S. KUMAR NAIK,
JITENDRA KUMAR
Dept. of Fisheries Resources and Management, Karnataka Veterinary, Animal and Fisheries Sciences
University, College of Fisheries, Mangalore 575002
email: jitenderanduat@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Maturation studies carried out on Nemipterus japonicus samples
collected from commercial landings from March-2009 to
February-2010 showed the male: female ratio was 1:0.90 and
revealed by ova-diameter polygon, spawning occurrence from
September to May with a peak in between September to
November. This also supported by higher values of GIS and
relative condition factor during these months fecundity varied
from 10,472 to 65,225 eggs. The minimum size at sexual
maturity was at 165 mm and 175 mm (TL) male and female
respectively. The logarithm relationships between fecundity,
total length, body weight and ovary weight have also been
calculated.
Key words
Nemipterus japonicus, Maturation, Spawning,
Mangalore coast
The Japanese threadfin bream, Nemipterus japonicus
(Bloch) (Family: Nemipteridae, Order: Perciformes), is a
demersal fish abundant in coastal water, found on mud or
sandy bottom in 40 to 80m depth and widely distributed in the
tropical and sub-tropical seas. The principal region supporting
Nemipterid fishery are the Mediterranean region, Red sea,
east and west coast of India, Sri Lanka, Andaman, west coast
of Malaysia, peninsular Singapore, Indonesia, south China
sea and southern Japan.
Diversification of fishing activities has been given
priority in recent years in order to augment the marine fish
production in India. The shrimp oriented export industry along
with a high concentration of effort has adversely affected the
exploitation pattern of inshore fishery resources necessitating
further increase in marine fish catch, only through the
extension of fishing activities to deeper waters and also by
exploiting the non-conventional demersal resources.
The reproductive biology of N. japonicus has been
studied from different regions of India Chuen-Chi et al. (2008),
Joshi (2005), Manojkumar (2004), Raje (2002), Lau and Sadovy
(2001), Rajkumar, et al., 2003 and Kuthalingam, 1965. Though
N. japonicus is dominant among Nemipterids in commercial
catches of Mangalore, except the reports of Kuthalingam, 1965
and Zacharia, 1998, detailed investigation on the reproductive
biology of this species is not available off Mangalore. The
present study deals with the reproductive biology of N.
japonicus along Mangalore water.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present study was based on the observation of a
total of 565 individuals of N. japonicus in size range from 8.5
to 25.2 cm total length (TL) comprising 296 male and 269 female
collected from the Mangalore fish landing centre from March,
2009 to February, 2010. After measuring total length (from the
tip of the snout to the tip of the caudal fin) and weight (nearest
of 0.01gm) of each species, the belly was cut open to note the
sex, color and general appearance of the gonads. The gonad
were then carefully removed and preserved in 5% formalin for
further analyses.
In the laboratory, the total length (mm), weight (g), sex
and maturity stage of individual fish were noted. The ovaries
of matured females were preserved in 5% formalin for further
studies. Six stages of maturity (immature, maturing, early
mature, late mature, gravid and spent) were recognized on the
macroscopic appearance of the ovary and microscopic
characteristics of ova. Eggs were measured by an occular
micrometer. Frequency polygons were drawn for all the stages
of maturity to find out the frequency of spawning. Gonado
Somatic Index (GSI) was calculated by using the formula,
gonad weight x 100/ fish weight. Size at first maturity was
determined by cumulative percentage frequency method and
the relative condition factor (K n
) values at various size groups.
Fecundity was estimated by using ovaries of stages IV and V.
Sex-ratio was calculated for different months and different
size groups of fish.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Maturation (Oocytes Development)
Ovaries belonging to seven stages of maturity were
selected and the ova diameter frequency polygons of these
ovaries were drawn (Table 1 and Fig. 1).

618 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Table 1.
Ova diameter at various stages of maturity in
(o.m.d.) of Nemipterus japonicus
Stages of
Range of ova
Condition of ova
maturity
diameter
Position Of Mode
I Immature 1 – 5 1 – 2
II Immaturing 3 – 10 5 – 6
III Maturing-I 3 – 21 7 - 8 & 13 – 14
IV Maturing-II 7 – 26 11 – 12 & 19 – 20
V Mature 9 – 35 15 – 16 & 21 – 22
VI Ripe 9 – 50 17 – 18 & 27 – 28
VII Spent 9 - 35 15 – 16 & 21 – 22
In stage I, the size of ova ranged from 0.016 mm to 0.08
mm, majority of them varying in size from 0.016 mm to 0.076
mm. There is only one batch of immature ova with a mode at 0.
16 mm. While in stage II, the ova diameter had increased and
the size of ova ranged from 0.048 mm to 0.16 mm with the mode
shifted to 0.08. A batch of maturing eggs withdrawn from
general egg stock and a clear mode of maturing eggs were
seen at 0.08 mm. the largest ova measured 0.16 mm in stage II.
In stage III, there were two groups of eggs. The maturing
groups were well demarcated from the immature stock of the
20
10
0
20
10
0
Stage VII
Stage VI
P E R C E N T A G E F R E Q U EN C Y
20
10
0
20
10
0
30
20
10
0
50
40
30
20
10
0
80
40
0
Stage V
Stage IV
Stage III
Stage II
Stage I
1 O.M.D. = 0.016 mm
O.M.D = Occular micro division, Ova diameter (1 Occ. Micro. Div. = 0.016mm)
Fig. 1. Ova diameter frequency polygon in Nemipterus japonicus

RAJESH et al., Maturation and Spawning of the Threadfin Bream Nemipterus japonicus (Bloch) along Mangalore Coast 619
eggs by modes 0.12 mm and 0.22 mm while the largest ova
measured about 0.34 mm. These two modes at 0.12 mm and
0.22 mm formed due to advancement of mode at stage II while
the other one could be seen clearly separated from the general
egg stock. In stage IV, the mode formed at 0.12 mm of stage III
progressed to 0.18 mm and the mode formed at 0.22 mm had
progressed to 0.312 mm and the largest ova measured at 0.42
mm. In stage V, the mode formed at 0.34 mm was because of
the advancement of the mode at 0.312 mm of the previous
stage while the mode formed at 0.25 mm was the result of the
mode formed at 0.22 mm of the stage IV. The largest size of the
ova was 0.56 mm. In stage VI, the mode of the previous stage
0.344 mm further moved to 0.44 mm to form the mode. Again
the mode 0.25mm progressed to 0.28 mm the maximum size of
the ova was 0.80 mm. In stage VII, the mode from the previous
stage has again reduced to 0.344 mm and 0.248 respectively
but decreased percentage in comparison.
Frequency of spawning
The distinct separation of the batch of mature ova from
immature group in stage III, the ovaries of N. japonicus and
the position of the mode at stage VII near to that in stage V
shows that the fish is a fractional spawner, releasing its ripe
eggs in batches during the spawning season. After the first
group of eggs is spawned the remaining eggs are expected to
develop for the next spawning. The process of maturation
also suggests that once the fish reaches stage VI it releases
the ripe ova, it may revert to stage V and again undergo
ripening and reach stage VI. This is possible because the
modal size of opaque ova in stage V and VI are more or less
same.
Spawning season
The results of the gonadal maturity of male during
September and October showed the presence of all the maturity
stages with stages IV and V being most predominant. In the
month November and December all the maturity stages were
present but the stage III and IV were being most predominant.
In January II stage was most predominant. February showed
all the stages but with the percentage of stage III increased
compare to previous months. In March stages I to V was
recorded with stage III and IV being dominant. In April and
May all the stages were observed with dominance of stage I
and II whereas in the month of May stages I to IV were present
with stage I and II being dominant (Table 2).
The result of the gonadal maturity of female during
March, 2009 showed the presence of all the stages except
stages VII with dominance of stage II followed by stage I,
similar trend was noticed in April with the absence of VI and
VII. In May stage I, II and III were noticed with dominance of
stage II whereas in September stages IV to VI were
encountered with dominance of stage V. In October and
November all the stages were present with dominance of stage
Table 2.
V. In December except stage VII all stages were encountered
with dominance stage V. During January and February all
stages were present with dominance of stage II (Table 3).
Table 3.
Month wise percentage occurrence of gonads in
different stages of maturity in N. japonicus
Month wise percentage occurrence of gonads in
different stages of maturity in N. japonicus
Acharya and Dwivedi, 1984 observed that the main
spawning period of N. japonicus from August to Novembre
off Bombay coast. Murty, 1984 studied that the spawning
period of N. japonicus at Kakinada extended from August to
April. The spawning in this species extend from June to March
in Madras (Vivekanandan and James, 1986).
Length at first maturity
Males
Months
Number
Maturity Stages
of fish
I II III IV V
Mar.’2009 32 15.62 21.88 34.38 28.12 -
Apr. 32 28.13 34.37 18.75 12.5 6.25
May 19 42.1 31.6 15.78 10.52 -
Sep. 37 - 8.11 24.32 37.84 29.73
Oct. 34 5.88 5.88 26.47 47.06 14.71
Nov. 36 8.33 13.9 30.55 36.11 11.11
Dec. 34 20.58 14.7 26.47 32.35 5.9
Jan.’2010 45 28.9 33.33 13.33 20 4.44
Feb. 27 22.24 18.51 44.44 14.81 -
Males
Months
Number
Maturity Stages
of fish
I II III IV V
Mar.’2009 32 15.62 21.88 34.38 28.12 -
Apr. 32 28.13 34.37 18.75 12.5 6.25
May 19 42.1 31.6 15.78 10.52 -
Sep. 37 - 8.11 24.32 37.84 29.73
Oct. 34 5.88 5.88 26.47 47.06 14.71
Nov. 36 8.33 13.9 30.55 36.11 11.11
Dec. 34 20.58 14.7 26.47 32.35 5.9
Jan.’2010 45 28.9 33.33 13.33 20 4.44
Feb. 27 22.24 18.51 44.44 14.81 -
In order to determine the size at first maturity, cumulative
percentage frequencies of fishes (Stages III and IV in case of
male and Stages III, IV and V in case of female) were plotted
against size groups. The size at 50% cumulative percentage
was considered to indicate the overall reproductive maturity
of the population as a whole. From the Fig. 2 it is clear that the
male mature at 165 mm and female at 175 mm T.L respectively.
This was considered to be length at first maturity.
Krishnamoorthi (1971) and Vivekanandan and James (1986)
reported the length at first maturity in females of N. japonicus
from Vishakapatnam and Madras coast as 165 and 145
respectively.

620 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Fig 2.
Sex-ratio
Size at first maturity of Nemipterus japonicus using
cumulative frequency method
For the study of sex ratio, total of 565 specimens (male,
296 and female, 269) were examined ranging in total length
from 80 - 260 mm. Data on the sampled number of male and
female in different months are given in the Table 5. Chi-square
test was applied in order to ascertain any significant difference
in sex – ratio in the monthly sample. The Chi-square values at
5% probability level showed that there was significant
difference in the months of April, May, September, 2009 and
January, 2010. The pooled sex-ratio (M: F) was found to be 1:
0.90. According to Murthy (1984), the annual sex ratio showed
predominance of male in 1977 and 1979, whereas in 1978 the
ratio was 1:1. The sex-ratio for N. japonicus from Veraval coast
was 1: 1.01 where the female outnumbered the male in the
commercial catches (Manojkumar, 2004)
Table 5. Sex - ratio of N. japonicus
Total Males Females Sex Chisquare
Month number Number Percentage
Number Percent-
ratio
of fish of fish
of fish age M:F value
Mar.’09 56 32 57.14 24 42.85 1:075 1.14
Apr. 49 32 65.30 17 34.69 1:0.53 4.58*
May 52 19 36.53 33 63.46 1:1.73 3.76*
Sep. 50 37 74.00 13 26.00 1:0.35 11.52*
Oct. 73 34 46.57 39 53.42 1:1.14 0.30
Nov. 78 36 46.15 42 53.84 1:1.16 0.46
Dec. 68 34 48.57 36 51.42 1:1.05 0.05
Jan.’10 73 45 61.64 28 38.35 1:0.62 3.95*
Feb. 64 27 42.18 37 57.81 1:1.37 1.56
Pooled 563 296 52.38 267 47.61 1:0.90 1.29
* Significant at 5 %
The data were analyzed by Chi-square test to find the
equality in the number of male and female in various size groups.
Chi-square values at 5% probability level showed that there
is no significant difference in the sex - ratio of male and female,
except the size group 100 – 120 mm.
Gonado-Somatic Index (GSI)
Female showed higher values of Gonado-Somatic Index
(GSI) than male in all the months throughout the study period
(Fig 3). The G.S.I values ranged between 0.32 and 0.93 in case
of male. The lowest G.S.I, value was recorded in April while
the highest was in October. The G.S.I. values gradually
decreased from November, 2009 to February, 2010. In case of
female, the G.S.I. values fluctuated between 2.32 and 4.48. The
lowest G.S.I. value was in January, while the highest was
recorded in the month of October. The G.S.I. values gradually
decreased from November onwards up to February, again
increased in March April. Zacharia and Nataraj, 2003 estimated
that the GSI values during different months for N. mesoprion
and reported that it increased from August and attained a
peak in October – November and decreased in February
indicating September – December as the main spawning period.
Fig. 3. Monthly variation in Gonado-Somatic Index of
Nemipterus japonicus
The seasonal variation and fluctuations in relative
condition factor could be attributed to the reproductive cycle
and feeding intensity. Female showed higher values of
Gonado-Somatic Index (GSI) than male in all the months
throughout the study period. Based on the percentage
occurrence of mature fishes in various size groups, it was
found that male attained maturity at smaller size than female.
The size at first maturity calculated by cumulative percentage
method was found to be 165 mm T.L. for male and 175 mm T.L.
for female. Present study revealed that the fecundity of
Nemipterus japonicus varied from 10,472 to 65,225 eggs with
an average 33752 eggs depending upon the size of the fish.
The sex-ratio for male and female was found to be 1:0.90 which
was not significant at 5% level.
LITERATURE CITED
Acharya, P., and Dwivedi, S.N. 1984. Condition factor and lengthweight
relationship of Nemipterus japonicus (Bloch) off Bombay
coast. J. Indian Fish. Assoc., 10-11: 33-74.
Chuen-Chi W.U., Jinn-Shing W., Kwang-Ming L., and Wei-Cheng S.U.,
2008. Reproductive biology of the notchedfin threadfin bream,
Nemipterus peronii (Nemipteridae), in waters of southwestern
Taiwan. Zoological Studies., 47(1): 103-113.
Joshi, K.K 2005. Biology and population dynamics of
Nemipterus mesoprion (Bleeker) off Cochin. Indian J. Fish. 52
(3): 315-322.

RAJESH et al., Maturation and Spawning of the Threadfin Bream Nemipterus japonicus (Bloch) along Mangalore Coast 621
Kuthalingam, M.D.K., 1965. Notes on some aspects of the fishery and
biology of Nemipterus japonicus (Bloch) with special reference to
feeding behaviour. Indian J. Fish., 12(2A): 500-506.
Lau, P.P. and Sadovy, Y., 2001. Gonad structure and sexual pattern in
two threadfin breams and possible function of the dorsal accessory
duct. J. Fish Biol., 58 (5): 1438-1453.
Manojkumar, P.P., 2004. Some aspects of biology of Nemipterus
japonicus (Bloch) from Veraval in Gujarat. Indian J. Fish., 51 (2):
185-191.
Murty, V.S., 1984. Observations on the fisheries of threadfin breams
(Nemipteridae) and on the biology of Nemipterus japonicus (Bloch)
from Kakinada. Indian J. Fish., 31 (1): 1-18.
Raje, S.G., 2002. Observation on the biology of Nemipterus japonicus
(Bloch) from Veraval. Indian J. Fish, 49(4): 433-440.
Rajkumar, U., RAO, K.N. and KINGSLY, H.J., 2003. Fishery, biology
and population dynamics of Nemipterus japonicus (Bloch) off
Visakhapatnam. Indian J. Fish., 50 (3): 319-324.
Vivekanandan, E. and James, D.B., 1986. Population dynamics of
Nemipterus japonicus (Bloch) in the trawling grounds off Madras.
Indian J. Fish, 33 (2): 145-154.
Zacharia, P.U. and Nataraj, G.D., 2003. Fishery and Biology of threadfin
bream, Nemipterus mesoprion from Mangalore – Malpe. Indian J.
Fish., 50 (1): 1-10.
Zacharia, P.U., 1998. Dynamics of the threadfin breams, Nemipterus
japonicus exploited off Karnataka. Indian J. Fish., 45 (3): 265 –
270.
Recieved on 25-06-2013 Accepted on 18-07-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 622-624, 2013
Population Dynamics of Coccinella septumpunctata L. (Coleoptera: Coccinellideae)
in Cotton Ecosystem in Relation to Environmental Factors
YOGESH PATEL
Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Jawaharlal Nehru Agricultural University, Ganjbasoda
Distt. Vidisha M.P 464221. India
email:yogeshpatelt2@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT
The population dynamics of the lady bird beetle (LBB),
Coccinella septumpunctata L. (Coleoptera-Coccinellideae) in
relation to climatic factor was studied in two consecutive
cropping seasons, 2005-06 and 2006-07. The study revealed that,
the cotton LBB was first recorded in the 27 th SMW i.e. first
week of July during both the years of study and remained
active till 50 th SMW (IInd week of December). The peak
population was observed (9.76 / 5 plant) during 37 th SMW i.e.
3rd week of September. The correlation studies between
Population of LBB and weather factors revealed that the its
population had a significant positive correlation with maximum
temperature (0.542) & minimum temperature (0.560). The
multiple coefficient value between the LBB population and
group of variable clearly indicated that 79.50% change in LBB
population were affected by weather factors. The data also
revealed that 20.50% variation in population was caused by
inexplicable reasons or due to error beyond the control of
experiment or due to factors not included in the investigation.
Path coefficient analysis of LBB population and abiotic factors
revealed that the minimum temperature had positive and high
direct effect (1.6592) followed by morning relative humidity
(0.1972), rainfall (0.1535), and sunshine hours (0.1519) and
evening relative humidity (0.016) respectively.
Key words
Population dynamics, Coccinella septumpunctata,
Environmental factors, Cotton
The lady bird beetle, Coccinella septumpunctata L.
(Coleoptera:Coccinellideae) is the most potential and effective
predator of cotton pest (Mathur 1983, Nirmala Devi, et al.,1996,
Debraj and Singh 1989, Soni,et al..2004, Gour and Pareek, 2005).
The grub and adult stages of C. septumpunctata feed
voraciously on cotton pest i.e. Aphids, Jassid and White fly
and bring down their population to a great extent (Brar, et. al..
2008). But the feeding efficacy of a predator is greatly
influenced by the population density of prey (Murdoch and
Marks, 1973). The period and intensity of activity of this
predator mainly depends on the prey density, plant protection
practices and environmental factors. Of these the climatic
factors such as temperature, relative humidity, sunshine hours,
wind velocity and rainfall influence the predator population
greatly. Keeping in view these facts the present study was
undertaken to study the population of LBB in relation to
meteorological factors in the state so that timely and effective
management strategies for cotton pest control could be
developed.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The population dynamics of Lady Bird Beetle (LBB) in
relation to metrological factor was assessed at the J.N. Krishi
Vishwa Vidhyalaya, Cotton Research Station, Khandwa, MP
during 2005-06 & 2006-07. The cotton genotype JK 4 was
sown on 29 th June and 25 th June during 2005 and 2006
respectively, at a spacing of 60X60 cm. Normal agronomic
practices recommended for the region were followed for raising
the crop. No plant protection measure was taken throughout
the crop season. The Regular observations on the population
dynamics of C. septumpunctata was made at weekly interval
on randomly selected 25 plants from the first appearance of
LBB and continued throughout the season up to the crop
maturity. The observation unit was five leaves par plant, two
each from lower, middle and one from upper canopy of the
plant. At the same time, observations on meteorological data
Viz. minimum and maximum temperature (TMX and TMN),
morning (RHM) and evening per cent relative
humidity(RHE), total rainfall per week(RF), total rainy days
per week, wind velocity (WV) (kmph) and sunshine hours per
days (SSH)were recorded daily. Standard meteorological week
(SMW) average of all the data collected for the pest, predator
and weather parameter were calculated before statistical
analysis. The data thus collected were computed and
subjected to suitable statistical analysis (Panse and Sukhatme,
1985). The influence of different meteorological parameters
on population and infestation of pests were studied by
graphical superimposition technique. All the possible
Correlations, multiple regression and path analysis among
the abiotic and biotic factors were worked out.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The perusal of the data on the population fluctuation
of LBB revealed that it was a potential predator of cotton pest
infesting cotton in both the year of study (Fig.1). These
findings are in accordance with the finding of Patel et.al,2008.
Activity of C. septumpunctata :
The present finding revealed that the C. septumpunctata
population was first observed during the 27 th SMW i.e. first

PATEL et al., Population Dynamics of Coccinella septumpunctata L. (Coleoptera: Coccinellideae) in Cotton Ecosystem 623
Table 1.
Correlation (r) and simple regression (Y) of lady
bird beetle,Coccinella septumpunctata population
with environmental factors (2005-07 and Pooled)
S. Character 2005-06 2006-07 Pooled
No.
1 T MX
(C)
r= 0.381 r= 0.439 r= 0.542*
Y=-26.609+0.971X
2 T MN r= 0.487 r= 0.611* r= 0.560*
(C)
Y=-1.582+0.318X Y=-1.613+0.31X
3 RHM
(%) r= -0.013 r= 0.140 r= 0.072
4 RHE
(%) r= -0.036 r= -0.006 r= 0.014
5 SSH
(hpd) r= 0.492 r= -0.060 r= 0.333
6 WV
(kmph) r= -0.031 r= -0.121 r= -0.068
7 RF
(mm) r= 0.036 r= 0.034 r= -0.333
8 RD
(dpw) r= -0.010 r= 0.208 r= -0.345
*& ** Showed significant at 5% & 1% level of significance respectively.
week of July and remained active till 50th SMW (IInd week of
December).The peak population (9.76 / 5 plant)was observed
during 37 th SMW i.e. 3rd week of September. The weather
condition prevailed during this week viz. maximum
temperature, minimum temperature, morning relative humidity,
evening relative humidity, sunshine hours, wind velocity,
rainfall and rainy day were 34.07°C, 26.31°C, 83.54 %, 60.56%,
6.39 hours per day, 6.00 kmph, 53.50 mm and 3 days respectively.
Simple correlation and regression:
The perusal of data (Table:2) on simple correlation
studies between Population of LBB and weather factors
revealed that its population had a significant positive
correlation with maximum temperature (0.542) & minimum
temperature (0.560). After 37 st SMW there was a decrease in
Ladybird beetle population. It was estimated that every unit
increase of maximum temperature & minimum temperature
increase in population of Ladybird beetle population is
0.971and 0.31 respectively.
LBB / 10 plants & Weather factors
Fig. 1.
Multiple regressions:
The multiple regression computed with eleven
parameters i.e. maximum temperature (X 1
), minimum
temperature (X 2
), morning relative humidity (X 3
), evening
relative humidity (X 4
), sunshine hours (X 5
), wind velocity (X 6
),
rainfall (X 7
) and rainy day (X 8
) as independent variables and
LBB population as dependent variables was as follows (figure
: 2).
Y= 0.814 -0.870X 1
+1.063X 2
+0.241X 3
-0.032X 4
+0.209X 5
-
1.340X 6
+0.007X 7
-0.554X 8
(R 2 =0.795)
LBB counts / plant
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Fig. 2.
27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
SMW
LBB T MAX(°C) T MIN(°C) RHM(%)
RHE(%) WV(kmph) SSH(hpd)
Influence of different weather factors on the population
of lady bird beetle (Pooled)
Y= 0.814 -0.870X1 +1.063X2 +0.241X3 -0.032X4 +0.209X5 -1.340X6 +
0.007X7-0.554X8 (R 2 =0.795)
Obseved
Estimated
27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
SMW
Multiple regression of environmental factors on lady
bird beetle population (2005-06)
Table 2.
Path coefficient of abiotic factor on LBB, Coccinella spp. population on cotton ecosystem
T MX
(C)
T MN
(C
RHM
(%)
RHE
(%)
SSH
(hpd)
WV
(kmph)
RF
(mm)
RD
(dpw)
Correlation
Coefficient
T MX 0.4154 1.0441 0.0003 0.0001 0.1191 0.5318 0.0071 0.0052 0.2034
T MN 0.2614 1.6592 0.0025 0.0006 0.0514 0.9066 0.0854 0.1609 0.4652**
RHM 0.0007 0.0208 0.1972 0.0008 0.0177 0.1308 0.0414 0.0692 0.2985
RHE 0.0171 0.5979 0.0932 0.0016 0.0189 0.5724 0.0705 0.1396 0.0152
SSH 0.3259 0.5619 0.023 0.0002 0.1519 0.2278 0.0535 0.0642 0.1937
WV 0.1902 1.2952 0.0222 0.0008 0.0298 1.1615 0.0775 0.1368 0.1075
RF 0.0193 0.9229 0.0532 0.0007 0.0529 0.5865 0.1535 0.2189 0.2913
RD 0.0085 1.0433 0.0534 0.0009 0.0381 0.6211 0.1313 0.2559 0.3053
Residual=0.3645, *& ** Showed significant at 5% & 1% level of significance respectively, The bold figures denote the direct effect of different
factors on population of insect

624 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
The multiple coefficient value between the LBB
population and group of variable clearly indicated that 79.50%
change in LBB population were affected by maximum
temperature, minimum temperature, morning relative humidity,
evening relative humidity, sunshine hours, wind velocity,
rainfall and rainy days respectively. The data also revealed
that 20.50% variation was caused by inexplicable reason or
due to error beyond the control of experiment or due to factors
not included in the investigation.
Path Analysis:
Although correlations are very useful in determining
components of population of LBB but they do not provide
complete understanding of relative importance of direct
association of the component character/ factors towards the
low pest population. In such situation whereas more variable
are included in correlations studies, the indirect association
becomes complex. The path coefficient analysis has been
useful in finding out the direct and indirect causes of
association of specific force acting to produce a given
correlation coefficient. The observations revealed that
minimum temperature had positive and high direct effect
(1.6592) followed by morning relative humidity (0.1972), rainfall
(0.1535), sunshine hours (0.1519) and evening relative humidity
(0.016) respectively. Path coefficient effect revealed that the
positive indirect effect of high magnitude of minimum
temperature was obtained via rainfall (0.0854), sunshine hours
(0.0514) and evening relative humidity (0.0006) respectively.
The positive indirect effect of morning relative humidity was
recorded via wind velocity (0.1308), rainfall (0.0414), sunshine
hours (0.0177), evening relative humidity (0.0008) and maximum
Fig. 3.
Path diagram showing influence of various factors on
the population of Lady bird beetle (Pooled)
temperature (0.0007). Positive indirect effect of rainfall was
obtained via minimum temperature (0.9229), morning relative
humidity (0.0532), maximum temperature (0.0193) and evening
relative humidity (0.0007).Positive indirect effect of sunshine
hours was obtained via minimum temperature (0.5619), rainy
days (0.0642) and morning relative humidity (0.0230).The data
also revealed that the positive indirect effect of evening relative
humidity was obtained via minimum temperature (0.5979),
morning relative humidity (0.0932) and rainfall (0.0705).
Thus, it can be inferred that under the influence of
various conducive environmental factors succulent growth
of the host plants take places which attract the pray of predator
to colonize. A gradual increase of pray density is followed by
the arrival of associated predators that play an important role
in suppression of pest population. By summarizing the effect
of abiotic and biotic parameter it can be inferred that both
these factors play an important role in the sustainable
management of cotton pest population in the cotton
ecosystem.
LITERATURE CITED
Bakhetia, D.R.C and Sekhon, B.S. 1989. Insect pest and their
management in rapeseed and mustard. Journal Oilseed Research
99: 269-299
Barar,A.S., Kular,J.S. and Barar, K.S. 2008. Effect of Lipaphis erysimi
K. number of the feeding potential of coccinella septampcatata l.
Journal Biological control 22 (1):199-201
Debraj,Y and Singh, T.K.1989. Predatory efficiency of the larvae of
Coccinella septempunctata L. of bean aphid, Aphis craccivora K.
Journal of Aphidology 3: 154-156
Gour,I.S. and Pareek, B.L.2005. Relative abundance of some Coccinellids
in mustard ecosystem and their correlation with aphid population
in semi-arid region of Rajasthan. Journal of Insect Science, 18:94-
9 7
Matur,K.C. 1983. Aphids of agricultural importance and their natural
enemies at Jallundar (Panjab) , pp 229-233. In Beuro, B.K. (ed.)
The Aphids Zoological Society of Orissa, Utkal University,
Bhubaneshwar, Orrisa, Indias
Murdoch, W.W. and Marks, J.R.1973. Predation by Coccinellid beetle
experiment on switching . Ecology, 54: 160-167
Nirmala devi, Desh Raj and Verma, S.C.1996. Biology and feeding
potential of Coccinella septempunctata L on cabbage aphid
Brevicoryne brassicae L. Journal of Entomological Research,
20:23-25
Patel, Yogesh, Sharma H.B. and Das S.B. 2008. Insect pest complex of
cotton in Nimar valley of adyaPradesh. In Abstracts of National
conference on “pest management strategies for food security” held
at Indira Gandhi Krishi Viswa Vidhyalaya, Raipur (C.G.) India. Pp:
1 5
Panse, V.G. and Sukhatme, P.V. 1985. Statistical methods for Agricultural
Research. ICAR, New Delhi.
Soni, R.,Deol,G.S. and Brar, K.S. 2004. Feeding potential of coccinellids
on mustard aphid , Lipaphis erysimi K. Insect Environment, 10:15-
16.
Recieved on 24-06-2013 Accepted on 19-07-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 625-627, 2013
Evaluation of Wheat Genotypes for Heat Stress under Late Sown Conditions
of Allahabad Region
RAJKUMAR MISHRA* AND SHILESH MARKER
Department of Genetics & Plant Breeding, Allahabad School of Agriculture
Sam Higgionbottom Institute of Agriculture, Technology & Sciences
(Formerly Allahabad Agricultural Institute) Deemed-to-be-University, Allahabad 211007 (U.P.) India
email: raju0234@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Phenotypic and genotypic coefficient of variation (PCV and
GCV), heritability (h 2 ) and genetic advance (GA) for 17
characters were estimated in 19 genotypes of bread wheat
(Triticum aestivum L.) under late sown conditions of Allahabad.
The significant mean sum of squares for most of the
characters indicated the presence of substantial amount of
variability. On the basis of mean performance highest
grain yield/plant was exhibited by genotype AAIW12 followed
by K 910-30 and NW 5013. Highest chlorophyll content was
depicted by genotype K 9423 and highest relative injury
was observed in genotype K-910-30. High estimates of
GCV, PCV, heritability and genetic advance were observed
for relative injury, chlorophyll content, grains/spike, tillers/
plants, plant height and spike length indicated scope for
improvement through simple selection for these characters.
However, there was little variability and scope for selection
in the materials for days to maturity, days to 50%
flowering and days to heading.
Key words
wheat, variability, heat stress, relative injury,
survival.
Wheat is a winter season crop grown in the tropics
and subtropics despite the relatively high temperature that
occur during the growth cycle. Heat stress is an important
constraint to wheat productivity affecting different growth
stages specially anthesis and grain filling. It has already
been established that heat stress can be a significant
factor in reducing the yield and quality of wheat (Stone
and Nicolas, 1995). Terminal heat stress is a major reason
of yield decline in wheat due to delayed planting and it
is a major challenge to wheat productivity in India (Joshi
et al., 2007). Late planted wheat suffers yield losses and
thus escape the stress. Terminal heat stress is a common
abiotic factor for reducing the yield in certain areas of
West Asia and North Africa (Ferris et al., 1998). Heat
tolerance thus should be essential characteristic of wheat
cultivars to be developed. High chlorophyll content and
relative injury is a trait that has been used to indicate heat
tolerance in hot environment (Acevedo et al., 1991, Kohli
et al., 1991). Estimates of GCV, PCV, heritability and genetic
advance under late sown conditions will play an important
role in exploiting future research projections of wheat
improvement. The development of superior wheat cultivar
involves the intelligent use of available genetic variability
within the germplasms under late sown conditions in
wheat. Any wrong choice of germplasm to initiate the
selection process results in wastage of resources. For the
improvement of wheat crop, the knowledge of genetic
variability for characters of economic importance, their
heritability and genetic advance is of most importance in
planning future breeding programme. Therefore, the present
investigation was undertaken using assessment of genetic
variability under heat stress conditions in late sown bread
wheat germplasms.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experimental material comprised of 19 wheat
genotypes, which were evaluated in Randomized Block
Design with three replications during rabi 2010 at Field
Experimentation Centre of the Department of Genetics and
Plant Breeding, Sam Higgionbottom Institute of Agriculture,
Technology and Sciences, Allahabad (U.P.). The crop was
sown on 25 th December 2010. Each plot consisted of 6
rows of 6 meter length. Spacing was maintained at 25 X 5
cm. The normal recommended agronomic practices were
followed to raise the healthy crop. Fertilizers were applied
at the rate of 120:60:60 kg of NPK/ha. The full dose of
phosphorus and potassium and half dose of nitrogen was
applied as basal dose at the time of sowing. The rest of
the nitrogen was top dressed in two split doses at tillering
and grain filling stage. Ten plants from middle row of each
genotype in each replications were randomly taken for
recording observations on grain yield/plant, plant height,
flag leaf length, flag leaf width, spike length, tillers/plants,
grains / spike, biological yield, harvest index, test weight,
chlorophyll content and relative injury except for grain
yield / plot, days to 50% flowering, grain filling period and
days to maturity, which were recorded on plot basis. The
mean values of different traits were subjected to analysis
of variance (Fisher, 1936), coefficient of variation (Burton,
1952), haritability (Burton and Devane, 1953) and genetic
advance (Johanson et al., 1955).

626 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Table 1.
Estimates of genetic parameters for different quantitative and physiological traits
Parameters
Mean
Lowest
Range
Highest
Range MST σ 2 g σ 2 p GCV PCV % ECV h² (bs) of
Mean
GA GA as
%
Days to heading 68.02 64.50 74.00 47.3** 5.01 9.03 3.29 4.42 2.95 55.48 3.43 12.24
Days to 50% flowering 70.86 67.25 77.25 24.5 5.17 9.62 3.21 4.38 2.98 54.31 3.43 4.84
Plant height 98.21 76.55 129.35 395.2** 225.62 243.87 15.29 15.90 4.35 92.52 29.76 30.30
Flag leaf length 24.13 19.28 29.15 9.6** 6.69 9.51 10.72 6.95 6.32 70.35 4.47 18.52
Flag leaf width 1.87 1.51 2.30 2.3** 0.03 9.51 9.25 11.94 6.32 60.00 0.28 14.96
Spike length 11.09 8.58 13.28 5.2** 1.17 1.45 9.75 10.85 4.71 80.69 2.00 18.02
Grain filling period 11.92 6.95 16.05 66.3** 3.27 8.82 4.41 7.24 5.75 37.07 2.27 5.54
Tillers / plants 41.00 37.25 45.25 10.8** 4.85 4.99 18.48 18.74 3.14 97.19 4.47 37.52
Grains / spike 51.52 41.75 65.35 12.9** 55.55 57.07 14.40 14.66 2.40 97.34 15.15 29.41
Days to maturity 111.78 109.25 114.50 55.3** 1.74 57.07 1.18 1.59 1.06 55.41 2.02 1.81
Biological Yield 55.26 44.00 66.75 48.9** 32.33 61.23 10.29 14.16 9.73 52.80 8.51 15.40
Harvest index 41.32 33.20 47.41 31.7** 14.37 34.06 9.17 14.12 10.74 42.19 5.07 12.27
Test weight 36.83 32.03 40.95 32.8** 5.99 8.73 6.64 8.02 4.49 68.61 4.18 11.35
Grain yield / plant 22.59 19.42 26.01 5.6** 3.04 9.42 7.72 13.59 11.18 32.27 2.04 9.03
Grain yield / plot 1210.00 930.00 1430.00 1550.5** 0.01 0.02 8.26 11.69 7.84 50.00 0.15 12.04
Chlorophyll content 50.46 37.44 56.71 0.6** 20.05 20.08 8.27 8.88 0.38 99.85 9.22 18.27
Relative Injury 35.25 12.6 71.0 25.5** 175.16 175.30 37.55 37.56 1.07 99.92 27.25 77.30
MST-Mean Sum of Square due to Treatment. *Significant at 5% level of significance **Significant at 1% level of significance
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In the present set of investigation the genotypes
were classified into heat tolerant, moderately tolerant and
sensitive ones on the basis of mean performance of grain
yield per plant (Khatod et al., 2003 and Sikder et al.,
2001). The genotypes AAI W-12 (26.01g), K 910-30 (25.93g),
SVPW 1 (25.86g) and NW-5013 (25.84g) were performed as
heat tolerant lines, the genotypes NW 4035 (24.48g) and
K 910-14 (22.41g) were performed as moderately tolerant
lines while the genotypes SVPW 1 (19.42g), K 9423 (20.40g)
and K 0607 (20.66g) were performed sensitive lines to heat
stress. The maximum test weight was exhibited by the
genotype K 9162 (40.55g) followed by AAI W-16 (40.13g)
and K 0911 (40.12g). High test weight was the indicative of
post anthesis heat tolerance capacity (Khatod et al., 2003
and Kilic et al., 1997). Minimum grain filling period was
shown by genotype NW 5013 (37.25 day) followed by
K 0607 (38.50 day) and AAI W-16 (38.75 day). Under late
sown condition the grain filling period heat tolerant
genotypes were significantly reduced (Haque, et al., 2008).
High chlorophyll content was shown by genotype SVPW
2 (54.01) followed by K 9423 (53.74) and K 0607 (53.72).
High chlorophyll content under hest stress condition
tends to reduce heat damage (Mohammadi et al., 2009).
Lowest relative injury was exhibited by the genotype K
0607 (12.60) and AAI W-12 (14.00). Higher grain/spike was
shown by the genotype K 8962 (65.35) followed by K 910-
30 (65.35) and SVPW 1 (65.05). Highest harvest index was
shown by the genotype SVPW 2 (47.32) followed by HUW
647 (46.74) and AAI W-12 (46.61). Heat stress during grain
filling period led to a significant reduction in yield,
biomass, grain number/spike, harvest index and 1000
kernal weight and these parameters were used to determine
heat tolerance of wheat under late sowing conditions
(Balla, et al., 2009 and Sikder, et al., 1998).
The analysis of variance for 17 traits including grain
yield and its related traits in the present set of wheat
genotypes revealed significant differences for most of the
traits. These suggested that these are an inherent genetic
differences among the genotypes. Similar findings for
various traits in the wheat genotypes were also reported
by Sangam, et al., 1998, Mohammadi, et al., 2007 and Renu,
et al., 2004 under netural heat stress conditions. The
estimates of range, mean, phenotypic coefficient of variation
(PCV), genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV), haritability
(broad sence) & genetic advance are presented in Table
1. Considerable range of variation was observed for all the
traits under study indicating enough scope for bringing
about improvement in desirable direction. In general
estimates of PCV were higher than corresponding GCV.
However good correspondence was observed between
GCV and PCV for all characters. A wide range of phenotypic
coefficient of variation (PCV) was observed for traits
ranging from 1.18% for days to maturity to 37.56% for
relative injury. Higher magnitude of phenotypic coefficient
of variation was recorded for relative injury (37.56%),
tillers/plants (18.74%), plant height (15.90%), grains/spike
(14.66%), biological yield (14.16%), harvest index (14.12%)
and test weight (13.59%). Genotypic coefficient of variation
(GCV) ranged from 1.18% for grains/spike to 37.55% for
relative injury. Higher magnitude of genetic coefficient of
variation was recorded for relative injury (37.55%), tillers/
plants (18.48%), plant height (15.29%) and grains/spike
(14.40). High heritability was observed for traits viz.;
relative injury (99.92%), chlorophyll content ( 99.85%),
grains/spike (97.34%), tillers/plants (97.19%) and plant

MISHRA AND MARKER et al., Evaluation of Wheat Genotypes for Heat Stress under Late Sown Conditions 627
height (92.52%) while spike length (80.69%), flag leaf
length (70.35%) and test weight (68.61%) had moderate
value. High genetic advance as percent of mean was
observed for relative injury (77.30%), tillers/plants (37.52%),
plant height (30.30%) and grains/spike (29.41). A moderate
estimates were observed for flag leaf length (18.52%) and
spike length (18.02%). High estimates of PCV, GCV,
heritability and genetic advance for grain yield component
namely grains/spike, grain yield/plant, plant height and
1000 grain weight under heat stress condition was obtained
by Dharmendra and Singh (2005).
LITERATURE CITED
Amandeep Kaur, Sohu, V. S. and Mavi, G. S. 2007. Genotypic
variation for physiological traits associated with bread wheat.
Crop Improvement., 34:2 (117-123).
Balla, K., Bencze, S., Janda, T. and Veisz, O. 2009. Analysis of heat
stress tolerance in winter wheat. Acta Agronomica Hungarica.
57:4 (437-444).
Burton, G. W. 1952. Quantitative inheritance of grasses pro. 6 th int.
Grassland Cong., 1:227-283.
Burton, G. W. and Devane 1953. Estimating haritability in tall
fercue from replicated clonal material Agron. J. 45:457-481.
Ferris R., Ellis R. H., Wheeler P. R. and Hadley P. 1998. Effect of
high temperature stress at anthesis on grain yield and biomass
of field grown crops of wheat. Annl Bot 82: 631-639.
Haque, M. Z., Ahmad, M. J. U., Khaliq, Q. A. and Islam, M. 2008.
Heat tolerance of wheat through membrane thermostability
grain growth duration and photosynthate stem reserve
translocation under late seeded condition. J. of Tropical Agril.
Research and Devpt. 6:2 (490-495).
Herzog H. 1982 Relation of source and sink during the grain filling
period in wheat and some aspects of its regulation. Physio
Plant 56:155-166.
Imbrahim A. M. H., Quick J.S. 2001. Heritability of heat tolerance
in winter and spring wheat. Crop Sci 41: 1401-1405.
Johanson R. E., Robinson H. W. and Comstock H. F. 1955.
Estimates of genetic & environmental variability in soybean.
Agron. J. 47(314-318).
Joshi A. K., Mishra B., Chatrath R., Ferrara G. O. and Singh R. P.
2007. Wheat improvement in India: Present status, emerging
challenges and future prospects. Euphytica 157 :431-446.
Kathod, J. P., Deshmukh, S. B. and Gavande, P. P. 2006. Screening
of wheat genotypes for early and late heat tolerance. Annls. of
Plant Physiology. 20:1 (145-147)
Mohammadi Mohtasham, Karimizadeh R. A. and Naghavi M. R.
2009. Selection of bread wheat genotypes against heat and
drought dolerance Based on chlorophyll content and stem
reserves. J. Agric. Soc. Sci. 5:119-122.
Mohammadi, M., Karimizadeh, R. and Naghavi M. R. 2009. Selection
of bread wheat genotypes against heat and drought tolerance
based on chlorophyll content and stem reserves. J. of Agril. and
Social Sci. 5:4 (199-122).
Nicolas M. E., Gleadon R. M. and Dalling M. J. 1984. Effects of
drought and high temperature on grain growth in wheat. Aust
J Plant Physiol 11: 553-566.
Samaiya, R. K. 2000. Heat tolerance studies in late sown wheat
genotypes. Research on Crops., 1:3, (278-285).
Shiplier, C. and Blum, A. 1990. Heat tolerance for yield and its
component in different wheat cultivars. Euphytica., 51:3 (257-
263).
Sikder, S., Ahmad, J. and Hossain, T. 2001. Heat tolerance and
relative yield performance of wheat varieties under late seeded
condition. Indian J. of Agril. Research 35:3 (141-148).
Recieved on 17-06-2013 Accepted on 29-07-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 628-630, 2013
Genetic Studies for Yield and Contributing Traits in Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan
Millasp. L.)
ALOK KUMAR AND GAURAV KUMAR*
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, C.S.A. University of Agriculture & Technology,
Kanpur-208 002, U.P., India
Crop Improvement Division, Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur
email: g.kumar3246@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Ten F 1
’s derived from diallel crosses along with 10 F 2
’s and five
parents were evaluated in a Complete Randomized Design with
three replications. Data were recorded on 10 yield and
component traits. Analysis of genetic variance, suggested that
dominant alleles were more frequent than recessive ones for
most of the traits. Asymmetrical distribution of positive and
negative alleles among the parents was observed for all the
characters. Predominance of additive and non-additive gene
action was observed for the inheritance of most of the traits.
Key words
Pigeon pea, Cajanus cajan, genetic variance, Diallel
analysis, gene action,
Pigeonpea is one of the important pulses crop across
the country as a major source of vegetarian protein. In
pigeonpea, genetic enhancement was mainly based on
selection methods of crop improvement. Exploitation of
heterosis as F 1
hybrid might open new vistas in yield
enhancement in pigeonpea. The selection of parents, on the
basis of their combining ability is a prerequisite for development
of F 1
hybrids. The diallel mating design is frequently used by
plant breeders for determination of gene action due to its
convenience for gathering genetic information’s. In pigeonpea
less number of gene action studies has been carried out. Thus,
the present study was taken up for estimation of magnitude
of genetic components in pigeonpea.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experimental comprised 05 genetically diverse
parents of pigeonpea viz. UPAS 120, T 21, MA3, Amar and
KLC were crossed in a diallel mating design during crop
season 2002-03.The resultant seed was sown during crop
season 2003-04 and F 1’
s were selfed and fresh crosses were
also attempted for getting F 2
and F 1
populations for final
experiment. The resultant 10 F 1
’s 10 F 2’s
along with 05 parents
were evaluated in a Complete Randomized Block Design with
three replications during crop season 2004-05 at Oilseed
Research Farm of C.S.A. University of Agriculture and
Technology, Kanpur. The parents and F 1'
s were planted in a
single row and F 2’s
in double rows of 4 m length, spaced 90 x 20
cm. All the recommended standard agronomical practices were
adopted to raise the crop.
The observation were recorded on individual plant basis
on five randomly selected plants from each plot on Days to
flower, days to maturity, plant height,(cm), number for primary
branches per plant, number of secondary branches per plant,
number of pods per plant, number of seed per pod, hundred
seed weight(g), yield per plant(g) and protein content. The
mean values of data were subjected to genetic analysis
following by Hayman, 1954a, b and Jinks, 1954.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The non significant values of ‘t 2 ’ for all the traits except
plant height at F 2
generation, number of secondary branches
per plant and number of pods per plant at F 1
generation
assured fulfillment of assumption of diallel design. (Table 1).
The significant values for the above said characters might be
due to sampling errors.
Table 1.
’t 2 ' values for uniformity test of Wr, Vr for ten
characters in pigeonpea.
S.N. Characters Value of 't 2 '
F 1 F 2
1. Days to flower 0.014 1.67
2. Days to maturity 1.10 0.064
3. Plant Height 4.84 13.73*
4. Number of primary branches per plant 5.26 0.05
5. Number of secondary branches per plant 13.08* 1.06
6. Number of pods per plant 15.91* 0.80
7. Number of seeds per pod 0.004 1.42
8. Hundred seed weight 0.029 0.43
9. Yield per plant 0.79 1.27
10. Protein content 0.12 0.19
The estimates of genetic parameters, their relation from
seed yield and its component are presented in Table 2. The
estimates of additive genetic component (D) were significant
for days to flower, days to maturity, hundred seed weight and
protein content in both generations, whereas for character
plant height in F 1
generation only. The non additive genetic
component (H 1
) were significant for all the traits indicating
importance of both additive and dominance components in
the inheritance of these traits. While the magnitude of
dominance gene effect (H 1
) and (H 2
) was higher than their
respective additive (D) gene effects for all the characters except

KUMAR AND KUMAR, Genetic Studies for Yield and Contributing Traits in Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan Millasp. L.) 629
Table 2. Estimates of various components and related parameters for 10 characters in 5 parent diallel cross in pigeonpea.
Characters
G e n er - a
tio n s
Dˆ Ĥ1
Ĥ
2
Fˆ
2
ĥ
Ê
( Ĥ Dˆ Ĥ / 4Ĥ )
0.5
/ ) (
1 2 1
(4Dˆ Ĥ )
1
(4Dˆ H )
1
0.5
0.5
Fˆ
Fˆ
2
ĥ / Ĥ2
r
Days to
flowering
Days to
maturity
F 1 906.12** 202.88** 148.60** 146.88** 84.75** 2.13 0.47 0.18 1.41 0.57 -0.21
SE± 11.90 32.13 29.14 29.72 19.68 4.86
F 2 905.46** 622.27** 368.79** 823.50** 26.09* 2.80 0.83 0.15 3.43 0.07 0.33
SE± 6.95 75.07 68.09 34.72 11.49 2.84
F 1 3037.84** 783.86** 504.00** 18.43 423.76** 3.51 0.51 0.16 1.01 0.84 0.26
SE± 6.55 17.68 16.03 16.35 10.82 2.67
F 2 3037.75** 2796.03** 1843.59** 231.05** 457.36** 3.60 0.96 0.16 1.08 0.25 0.01
SE± 13.76 148.64 134.82 68.75 22.76 5.62
Plant height F 1 96.92* 260.51* 201.83* 33.62 25.33 8.52 1.64 0.19 1.24 0.13 0.46
SE± 38.25 103.29 93.69 95.54 63.25 15.61
F 2
97.96 1700.46** 1250.27* 156.77 304.54** 7.48 4.17 0.18 1.48 0.24 0.69
Number of
primary
branches per
plant
Number of
secondary
branches per
plant
Number of
pods per plant
Number of
seeds per pod
Hundred seed
weight
Yield per
plant
Protein
content
SE± 51.63 557.73 505.87 257.94 85.38 21.08
F 1 1.11 14.00** 11.36** -2.36 4.50 0.10 3.55 0.20 0.54 0.40 -0.57
SE± 1.68 4.54 4.12 4.20 2.78 0.69
F 2 1.16 27.51* 22.76* 4.22 1.11 0.05 4.87 0.21 2.19 0.05 0.13
SE± 1.01 10.90 9.89 5.04 1.67 0.41
F 1 4.73 415.11** 352.57** -0.06 328.30** 0.15 9.36 0.21 1.00 0.93 0.49
SE± 26.62 71.89 65.20 66.50 44.02 10.87
F 2 4.69 630.37** 561.57** 21.86 48.85* 0.20 11.60 0.22 1.50 0.09 0.17
SE± 11.99 129.56 117.51 59.92 19.83 4.90
F 1 2617.39 89085.47** 73245.19** 2426.68 32816.54** 17.37 5.83 0.21 1.17 0.45 0.29
SE± 6872.45 18559.85 16833.99 17167.37 11365.40 2805.66
F 2 2591.10 101680.47** 88617.93** 9400.25 262.26 43.66 6.26 0.22 1.82 0.003 -0.67
SE± 2118.09 22880.57 20752.93 10581.96 3502.82 864.71
F 1 0.01 0.07* 0.07* 0.01 0.01 0.01 2.62 0.26 1.20 0.14 -0.18
SE± 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02
F 2 0.01 0.47* 0.36* 0.02 0.01 0.01 7.58 0.20 0.98 0.03 -0.17
SE± 0.02 0.20 0.18 0.09 0.03 0.01
F 1 1.43** 4.27** 3.01** 1.75 0.26 0.01 1.73 0.18 2.10 0.09 0.07
SE± 0.40 1.09 0.99 1.01 0.67 0.16
F 2 1.42** 9.99** 6.86* 1.82 0.23 0.01 2.65 0.17 1.64 0.03 -0.09
SE± 0.29 3.18 2.89 1.47 0.49 0.12
F 1 173.17 1263.96* 1048.59* -7.92 375.96 0.40 2.70 0.21 0.98 0.36 -0.28
SE± 194.49 525.23 476.39 485.83 321.63 79.40
F 2 173.22 7206.46** 6227.67** 371.72 332.70 0.35 6.45 0.22 1.40 0.05 0.75
SE± 214.70 2319.26 2103.60 1072.63 355.06 87.65
F 1 1.17** 2.18** 1.82** 0.43 1.62** 0.03 1.37 0.21 1.31 0.89 -0.73
SE± 0.24 0.65 0.59 0.60 0.40 0.10
F 2 1.14* 20.01** 16.45** 3.63 1.20 0.07 4.20 0.21 2.23 0.07 0.01
SE± 0.47 5.05 4.58 2.34 0.77 0.19
*, Significant at 5% level of significance; ** Significant at 1% level of significance
days to flower and days to maturity, which revealed the
dominance of non- additive gene effects in the expression of
these characters. The significant and positive value of H 2
for
the characters days to flower, days to maturity and secondary
branches per plant in both generations, while for character
number of pods per plant and protein content only in F 1
generation, whereas, significant positive value of h 2 was
observed for the character plant height in F 2
generation
reflecting the role of dominance gene for governing these
traits. The estimates of F were positive for al the traits in both
generations except number of primary branches per plant,
number of secondary branches per plant and yield per plant
only in F 1
generation, indicating that dominant genes play a
significant role in control of these traits. These results have
similarities with findings of Satpute and Khare (1996), Kumar
and Srivastva (1998), Kumar et al., 2003.
The estimates of H 2
component was smaller than H 1
for
all the attributes in both generations, indicating the positive
and negative alleles at loci governing these traits were not
equal in proportion in the parents. The significant value of H 1

630 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
and H 2
revealed the importance of non additive gene action
for the inheritance of yield per plant for most of the yield
contributing traits. The estimates of average degree of
dominance (H 1
/D) 0.5 were found more than unity for all the
traits in both the generations except days to flower and days
to maturity in both generations, (where it was found less than
unity) indicating, presence of overdominance. Similar finding
were reported by Kumar and Srivastva, 1998, Jaymala and
Ratnaswamy, 2000 Hooda et al., 2003.
The estimated value of expected environmental
component of variance (E) were observed positive and non
significant for all the characters in both the generations,
indicated minor role of environmental factors for the
expression of all the traits.
The equal distribution of positive and negative alleles
in the parents, provide chance for selecting a particular
desirable trait without any loss of other desirable trait. The
estimates of (H 2
/4 H 1
) showed average performance of
negative and positive alleles in the parents, as this ratio found
less than 0.25 for all the characters in both generations, except
for character number of seed per pod in F 1
generation,
suggesting asymmetrical distribution of positive and negative
alleles among the parents. The proportion of dominance and
recessive genes [(4DH 1
) 0.5 +F (4DH 1
) 0.5 -F ] indicated that the
dominant alleles were distributed more frequently than
recessive ones as extent found more than unity for days to
flowering, days to maturity, plant height, number of secondary
branches per plant, number of pods per plant, hundred seed
weight and protein content in both the generation whereas,
less than unity for number of seed per pod in F 1
generation,
number of primary branches per plant and yield per plant in F 2
generation. The proportion of dominant and recessive genes
among the parents determines the extent of genetic advance
that can be made in a particular direction. These findings were
in accordance with Pandey, 1999 and Pandey and Singh, 2002.
The ratio (h 2
/H 2 ) is an appropriate measure of genes, the
value of this ratio was found less than unity for all the
characters in both the generations, indicating that inheritance
of these characters was governed by at least one major gene
group.
The negative value of correlation coefficient (r) between
the mean values of parents (yr) and parental order of
dominance (wr+vr) for days to flower, number of primary
branches per plant, yield per plant and number of pod per
plant and protein content in F 1
generation, while for number
of pod per plant and hundred seed weight only in F 2
generation
and for character, number of seed per pod in both the
generations suggested that dominant genes were associated
with high mean expression. Remaining characters in their
respective generation had positive correlation coefficient
indicating the presence of recessive genes.
According to the results, characters under study are
mostly governed by non-additive genetic variance. The biparental
mating followed by bulk pedigree method of selection,
suggests for the improvement of these traits.
LITERATURE CITED
Hayman, B.I. 1954a. Theory and analysis of diallel crosses. Genetics,
39: 789-809.
Hayman, B.I. 1954b. The analysis of variance of diallel tables.
Biometrics, 10: 235-244.
Hooda, J.S., Tomar, Y.S. and Singh, V.P. 2003. Analysis of gene effects
in pigeonpea Legume. Res. 26 (4): 276 - 279.
Jaymala, P. and Rathnaswamy, R. 2000. Combining ability in pigeonpea.
Mad. Agric J. 87: 418-422.
Jinks, J.L. 1954. The analysis of continuous variation in a diallel crosses
of Nicotiana rustica varieties. Genetics, 39:767-788.
Kumar, A. and Srivastava, D.P. 1998. Heterosis in relation to combining
ability in long duration pigeonpea. Indian J. Pulse Res. 11(2): 1-5.
Kumar, S., Lohithaswa, H.C. and Dharmaraj, P.S. 2003. Combining
ability analysis for grain yield, protein content and other quantitative
traits in pigeonpea. J. Maha. Agril. Univ., 28 (2): 141-144.
Pandey, N. 1999. Heterosis and combining ability in pigeonpea. Legume
Res., 22 (3): 147-151.
Pandey, N. and Singh, N.B. 2002. Hybrid vigor and combining ability in
long duration pigeonpea hybrids involving male sterile lines. Indian
J. Genet. 62 (3): 221-225.
Satpute, R.G. and Khare, D. 1996. Combining ability in diallel crosses
of pigeonpea. J.Maharhstra Agril. Univ., 21 (2): 240-241.
Genet., 64 (3): 212-216.
Recieved on 10-06-2013 Accepted on 28-07-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 631-636, 2013
Genetics of Seed Yield and Its Components in Cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.]
PATEL HIRAL, PATEL, J. B., SHARMA, S. C. AND ACHARYA, S.
Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar - 385 506, Gujarat, India
email: hiralpatel.agri@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
An investigation to study the genetics of seed related attributes
in cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.]” was undertaken at
Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University,
Sardarkrushinagar. Three crosses (GC 2 x PGCP 5, GC 2 x
PGCP 13 and GC 516 x PGCP 1) along with its parental seed,
F 2
, BC 1
and BC 2
made the complete set of six generations (P 1
,
P 2,
F 1
, F 2
, BC 1
and BC 2
) for genetic analysis. The experiment
was laid out in a Compact Family Block Design with three
replications during kharif 2011. A single replication comprised
of one row of parents and F 1
, two rows of the backcrosses
generations, BC 1
and BC 2
and four rows of the F 2
. The characters
viz., days to flowering, days to maturity, number of pods per
plant, number of seeds per pod, seed yield per plant, biological
yield per plant, harvest index and 100-seed weight were
subjected to generation mean analysis to assess the gene effects
controlling these traits. The analysis of variance revealed
significant differences among generations in most of the
characters studied in all the three crosses, except days to
flowering in crosses I and II, indicating considerable variability
in the experimental material. The scaling tests (A, B, C and D)
indicated appreciable amount of epistasis present in different
characters of three crosses under the study, indicated the failure
of a simple genetic model to explain the genetic system
controlling the studied traits in the three crosses studied.
Generation mean analysis revealed that different gene effects
were responsible for the inheritance of the same trait in
different crosses and for different traits in the same cross,
specific handling of individual cross in segregating generations
would be advantageous for improvement of these traits. In the
present investigation, non-allelic interaction played pertinent
role in determination of various characters in cowpea. Thus,
breeding methods involving high volume crossing like
biparental, recurrent and diallel selective mating design that
take care of both additive and non-additive gene action seemed
more promising for the improvement of various characters
studied.
Key words
Seed yield, Cowpea, Genetics
Pulses are economically cheaper and vital source of
protein in Indian diet. India has a distinction of growing over
a dozen of pulses and first in acreage, production and
consumption. Despite per capita availability of pulses is
dismally as low as 28 g/capita/day as against the optimum
and minimum stipulation of 104 and 60 g/capita/day,
respectively, as per WHO standards. The situation is dicey
and often lead to malnutrition. The predicament still assumes
volume, as the predominant Indians are vegetarians. Therefore,
pulses may simply be termed as health line of the country and
needs all out concerted efforts for enhancing their production.
Cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.], is an important multi
utility crop locally known as lobiya, chowla (chowli),
southern pea or black eye pea, that is adopted to warm
condition and cultivated in the tropics and sub-tropics for
dry grains, green edible pods for vegetable as well as fodder.
Cowpea fits well in a variety of cropping system and is grown
as cover crop, mixed crop, catch crop and green manure crop.
It can be capable of restoring soil fertility and therefore, remain
an integral part of subsistence and sustainable production
system. Being a legume crop, cowpea fix substantial quantities
of biological nitrogen by virtue of their symbiotic association
with Rhizobium bacteria (Schultze and Kondorosi, 1998, Serraj,
2004) ranging from potential rates of 73 - 80 kg / ha (Yamada,
1974). Cowpea is chiefly important as a source of protein and
varies from 20 - 25% that is double of the protein in most
cereals (Stanton, 1966).
Presently, cowpea is an important pulse crop in India
covering on an area of 7.7 million hectares (Yadav et al., 2010).
However, the exact productivity statistics are not available
though the broad estimates put it around five to six quintals
per hectare. The experimental yields of the improved
genotypes have been reported around 15 quintals per hectare.
In India, cowpea is grown in almost all the states but the major
cowpea growing states are Gujarat, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Orissa.
In a self-pollinating crop like cowpea, variability is often
created through hybridization between carefully chosen
parents. The scope of exploitation of hybrid vigour will depend
on the direction and magnitude of heterosis, biological
feasibilities and the type of gene action involved. The
information of such estimates is essential to plan efficient
breeding programme for the improvement of the crop. One of
the common approaches followed to understand the nature
of gene effects by growing different generations and carrying
out the generation mean analysis, using first-degree statistics
was employed in the present study.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present investigation to study the genetics of seed
related attributes in cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.]”
was undertaken at the Centre of Excellence for Research on
Pulses, Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University,
Sardarkrushinagar during kharif 2011. Three crosses (GC 2 x

632 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
PGCP 5, GC 2 x PGCP 13 and GC 516 x PGCP 1) made at the
centre during kharif 2010 were grown along with its 5 parents
(GC 2, GC 516, PGCP 5, PGCP 13 and PGCP 1) to make the F 2
,
BC 1
and BC 2
generations during summer 2011 by hand
pollination. Therefore, the material for the present
investigation consisting complete set of six generations (P 1
,
P 2,
F 1
, F 2
, BC 1
and BC 2
) of for generation mean analysis. The
experiment was laid out in a Compact Family Block Design
with three replications. The three crosses formed the family
block, whereas six generations of each cross represented
individual plots within family. A single replication comprised
of one row of parents and F 1
, two rows of the backcrosses
generations, BC 1
and BC 2
and four rows of the F 2
. Inter and
intra row spacing was kept 45 cm x 15 cm. Recommended
agronomic practices and necessary plant protection measures
were timely adopted for successful raising of the crop. The
observations recorded for the characters viz., days to
flowering, days to maturity, number of pods per plant, number
of seeds per pod, seed yield per plant, 100 seed weight,
biological yield per plant and harvest index on five randomly
selected plants for all the generations in each replications.
The data were subjected to analysis of variance for Compact
Family Block Design following Panse and Sukhatme (1967).
The crosses showing significant differences among the
entries (progenies) for the character were subjected to
generation mean analysis for the estimation of gene effects
using six parameter model as suggested by Hayman (1958)
and Jinks and Jones (1958). The scaling test as described by
Haymen and Mather (1955) was used to check the adequacy
of the additive dominance model for different characters in
each cross.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The analysis of variance for individual character was
carried out for each of the three crosses for seed yield per
plant and its component traits viz., days to flowering, days to
maturity, number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod,
biological yield per plant, harvest index and 100-seed weight
(Table 1). The mean sum of squares revealed significant
differences among the generations for most of the characters
studied in all the three crosses, except days to flowering in
crosses I and II, indicating considerable variability in the
experimental material. The crosses that showed significant
differences among their respective generations for various
characters were considered for studying gene action.
The character expression is the manifestation of gene
action and its interactions with the environment. The breeding
methodology to be adopted for the genetic improvement of
the characters primarily hinges on the type of gene action
viz., additive, dominance and epistasis with their relative
magnitude. Simple selection procedure would be more
rewarding for the character governed by the additive type of
gene effects. However, for the characters under the influence
Table 1.
Analysis of variance of generation means of three
crosses for various characters in cowpea.
Source d.f Cross
I II III
Days to flowering
Replications 2 10.05 1.82 9.20
Generations 5 7.82 4.34 76.17**
Errors 10 4.32 1.54 7.51
Days to maturity
Replications 2 8.17 5.62 1.30
Generations 5 13.97* 15.11* 61.08**
Error 10 2.83 3.02 0.93
Number of pods per plant
Replication 2 2.18 0.98 6.70
Generation 5 153.64** 94.16** 88.36**
Error 10 2.42 1.87 8.84
Number of seeds per pod
Replication 2 0.88 0.14 0.09
Generation 5 4.64** 11.48** 7.65**
Error 10 0.31 0.09 0.23
Seed yield per plant (g)
Replications 2 0.21 0.26 0.16
Generations 5 24.94** 27.02** 7.50**
Errors 10 0.10 0.38 0.14
Biological yield per plant (g)
Replications 2 14.48 2.96 19.66
Generations 5 43.41* 73.02** 491.43**
Error 10 12.49 3.96 13.96
Harvest index (%)
Replication 2 1.14 6.49 4.72
Generation 5 277.46** 358.79** 260.60**
Error 10 2.24 4.98 5.99
100 seed weight (g)
Replication 2 0.01 0.38 0.28
Generation 5 17.66** 25.99** 17.69**
Error 10 0.28 0.32 0.09
*, ** Significant at 5 per cent and 1 per cent levels of significance,
respectively
of inter-allelic interactions (complimentary or duplicate
epistasis), exploitation of heterosis or development of
composite and synthetics would precisely be more effective.
Production of hybrids as opposed to open pollinated
varieties depends largely on the level of dominance or epistasis
(dominance × dominance) or both (Cockerham, 1961). A gain
level of dominance and forms of epistasis is influenced by the
selection of the parental materials to develop open pollinated
varieties. Thus, estimation of additive, dominance and epistasis
components of genetic variances are of paramount significance
in planning and execution of any plant improvement
programme. Empirically estimation of gene action is done on
certain assumptions like absence of multiple alleles, lethal
genes and linkage, constant viability of all the genotypes and
additivity of environmental effects on genotypic value that
are rarely fulfilled.
A number of genetic models assuming basic
requirements have been suggested for the estimation of the
gene effects. Hayman (1958), Jinks and Jones (1958), Anderson
and Kempthorne (1954) and Hayman and Mather (1955) have
developed models for estimating the relative importance of

HIRAL et al., Genetics of Seed Yield and Its Components in Cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.] 633
additive and dominance gene effects. Epistasis gene effects
were assumed to be negligible. However, significant epistasis
gene effects have been reported for quantitative traits in many
crops. However, partitioning of total heritable variance in to
additive and dominant components ignoring the presence of
interallelic gene action does not give a correct picture of the
gene action involved. If the epistatic gene actions are not
separated, they tend to inflate dominance variance and lower
the additive variance culminating in reduced efficiency of the
breeding programme.
The six-generations model involving P 1
, P 2,
F 1
, F 2
, BC 1
and BC 2
generations in three crosses of cowpea was utilized
to ascertain epistasis (additive × additive, additive × dominance
and dominance × dominance) in addition to additive and
dominance gene effects for seed yield per plant and its
attributing characters. The scaling tests (A, B, C and D)
indicated blatant and conspicuous epistasis present in the
three crosses for different characters studied. This clearly
suggested the failure of a simple genetic model to explain the
genetic system controlling the traits in the three crosses studied
and need for consideration of epistasis in all traits while
planning breeding programmes in cowpea.
Days to flowering:
There were significant differences for this character in
all the three crosses. As such they were subjected to scaling
test and estimation of gene effects for respective generation.
The highly significant values of ‘m’ from the generation mean
analysis in all the three crosses showed that the six generation
differed from each other with respect to days to flowering.
The estimation of gene effects (Table 2) revealed that in cross
I, dominance × dominance component was significant, that
indicated dominance × dominance type of gene effect to be
important for this trait. In cross II, additive, additive × additive
and dominance × dominance effects were significant, whereas
in cross III, dominance and dominance × dominance were
highly significant. This indicated that in cross II, both additive
and non-additive gene effects were important in controlling
the trait, whereas in cross III, non-additive gene effects played
a major role. The opposite signs of dominance and
dominance x dominance effects indicated the presence of
duplicate epistasis in the inheritance of this trait in cross II.
The present findings are akin to the results reported by Ewa
Ubi et al. (2001), Ishiyaku et al. (2005) and Rashwan (2010) for
this trait.
Table 2.
Estimation of scaling tests and gene effects for different characters in cowpea
Crosses Scaling Test Six parameters model
A B C D m d h i (aa) j (ad) l (dd)
Days to flowering
I -6.00 2.67* -1.33 1.00 39.67** -3.00 0.67 -2.00 -4.33 5.33*
II 2.87** 0.45* 10.00** 3.34** 41.67** 1.87** -7.02 -6.67 1.21** 3.37*
III -10.70 -10.20 -12.63 4.10** 41.26** 0.26 4.88** -8.27 -0.25 29.17**
Days to maturity
I 1.33 -7.67 -14.33 -4.00 59.67** 3.33** 11.50** 8.00** 4.50** -1.67
II -7.40 -6.40 8.13** 10.97** 64.20** -0.83 -20.27 -21.93 -0.50 35.73**
III -14.07** -10.9 -3.61 10.68** 63.41** -0.07 -11.38 -21.36 -1.58 46.33**
Number of pods per plant
I 3.67** 1.00** -22.26 -13.47 9.60** 9.67** 19.33** 26.93** 1.33** -31.60
II -11.77 1.53** 2.60* 6.41** 14.43** 1.78** -14.40 -12.83 -6.65 23.07**
III 0.48 -5.67 -3.58 0.80 14.37** 8.19** -10.34 -1.61 3.08** 6.80**
Number of seeds per pod
I -2.20 -1.73 -5.67 -0.87 9.07** 1.33** 2.23** 1.73** -0.23 2.20**
II 2.55** 5.87** 2.15** -3.13 9.57** 0.93** 5.34** 6.27** -1.66 -14.68
III 0.67** 0.48 2.37** 1.08** 9.76** 2.65** -1.50 -2.15 0.58 1.97**
Seed yield per plant (g)
I -11.47 -1.23 -15.74 -1.52 3.44** -1.74 3.75** 3.03** -5.12 9.68**
II -8.64 2.09** -12.16 -2.81 4.69** -1.15 5.08** 5.62** -5.37 0.93*
III 2.76** 6.79** 0.80 -4.38 6.45** -0.85 9.97** 8.75** -2.02 -18.30
Biological yield per plant (g)
I -4.00 -14.87** -12.33 3.27** 25.67** 7.93** -3.37 -6.53 5.43** 25.40**
II 2.87** 23.4** -2.2 -14.23 18.93** -5.43 28.5** 28.47** -10.27 -54.73
III -10.33 60.53** 3.61 -23.29 26.02** -24.00 53.67** 46.59** -35.43 -96.79
Harvest index (%)
I -35.67 16.31** -46.17 -13.41 13.10** -15.18 25.06** 26.81** -25.99 -7.45
II -40.83 -17.37 -53.33 2.44** 24.83** 0.46 -4.77 -4.87 -11.73 63.08**
III 19.39** -31.26 -13.32 -0.72 24.93** 13.72** -6.49 1.44 25.32** 10.44**
100 seed weight (%)
I -0.94 -2.04 -1.19 0.89 11.00** -2.837 0.00 -1.79 0.553 4.77**
II 0.84** -3.31 -3.69 -0.61 9.89** -2.36 0.76 1.23** 2.08** 1.24*
III -1.09 -0.25 -9.30 -3.98 8.89** -3.21 10.90** 7.97** -0.42 -6.63
*, ** Significant at 5 per cent and 1 per cent levels of significance, respectively

634 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Days to maturity:
There were significant differences for this character in
all the three crosses and were subjected to scaling test and
estimation of gene effects for respective generation. Highly
significant values of ‘m’ from the generation mean analysis in
all the three crosses showed that the six generation differed
from each other with respect to days to maturity (Table 2).
The estimates of gene effects for days to maturity in cross I
indicated that additive, dominance, additive × additive and
additive × dominance were highly significant. In case of cross
II and III, dominance × dominance epistasis gene effects were
highly significant. Dominance gene effect was higher in
magnitude in cross I, suggesting that the recurrent selection
method may be utilized for improvement of this character. The
opposite signs of dominance and dominance x dominance
effects in all the three crosses suggested the presence of
duplicate epistasis in the inheritance of this trait in all the
crosses. These results are in agreement to the findings of
Tefera and Peat (1997) and Rashwan (2010).
Number of pods per plant:
There were significant differences for this character in
all the three crosses. They were subjected to scaling test and
estimation of gene effects for respective generation. Highly
significant values of ‘m’ from the generation mean analysis in
all the three crosses showed that the six generation differed
from each other with respect to number of pods per plant
(Table 2). The estimation of gene effects revealed that in cross
I, all the gene effects except dominance × dominance were
highly significant for number of pods per plant and additive ×
additive gene effect was greater in magnitude followed by
dominance. In cross II, additive and dominance × dominance
gene effects were highly significant with dominance ×
dominance gene effect having higher magnitude. In cross III,
additive, additive × dominance and dominance × dominance
gene effects were found highly significant with additive x
dominance component exhibiting higher magnitude. The
opposite signs of dominance and dominance x dominance
effects in all the three crosses indicated the presence of
duplicate epistasis in the inheritance of this trait in all the
crosses. These results are in concurrence to the findings of
Rashwan (2010) for number of pods per plant. This attribute
being an important yield attributing character in cowpea, cyclic
method of breeding (recurrent selection) could profitably be
utilized to take advantage of both additive and non-additive
type of gene actions for the improvement of this trait.
Number of seeds per pod:
There were significant differences for this character in
all the three crosses. They were subjected to scaling test and
estimation of gene effects for respective generation. Highly
significant values of ‘m’ from the generation mean analysis in
all the three crosses showed that the six generation differed
from each other with respect to this trait (Table 2). The
estimates of gene effects showed that in cross I, additive,
dominance, additive × additive and dominance × dominance
gene effects were highly significant for number of seed per
pod. In cross II, additive, dominance and additive × additive
gene effects were highly significant, whereas in cross III,
additive and dominance × dominance gene effects were highly
significant. Additive × additive gene effect was greater in
magnitude followed by dominance in cross II. The opposite
signs of dominance and dominance x dominance effects
indicated the presence of duplicate epistasis in the inheritance
of this trait in crosses II and III. The present findings are in
conformity to the results of Drabo et al. (1985), who reported
that additive, dominance and epistatic effect were most
important for inheritance of seeds per pod in cowpea. The
involvement of both additive and non-additive gene effects
in the genetic control of this trait suggested that homozygous
elite recombinants could be developed following inter-crossing
of desirable segregants.
Seed yield per plant:
There were significant differences for this character in
all the three crosses. As such they were subjected to scaling
test and estimation of gene effects for respective generation.
Highly significant values of ‘m’ from the generation mean
analysis in all the three crosses showed that the six generation
differed from each other with respect to seed yield per plant
(Table 2). The estimates of gene effects for seed yield per
plant revealed that in cross I, dominance, additive × additive
and dominance × dominance gene effects were highly
significant with dominance × dominance component higher
in magnitude, next in order was dominance effect. In cross II,
dominance × dominance gene effect was significant, while
dominance and additive × additive gene effects were highly
significant. In cross III, dominance and additive × additive
gene effects were highly significant, where the magnitude of
dominance gene effect was highest followed by additive ×
additive effect. The opposite signs of dominance and
dominance x dominance effects indicated the presence of
duplicate epistasis in the inheritance of this trait in cross III.
The involvement of additive gene effects along with
predominant non-additive gene effects suggested that
recurrent selection could profitably be utilized to take
advantage of both additive and non-additive type of gene
actions for the improvement of seed yield per plant. The
present findings are in agreement to the results obtained by
Pathmanathan et al. (1997), Tefera and Peat (1997), Rashwan
(2010) and Adeyanju et al. (2012).
Biological yield per plant:
There were significant differences for this character in
all the three crosses. As such they were subjected to scaling
test and estimation of gene effects for respective generation.
Highly significant values of ‘m’ from the generation mean

HIRAL et al., Genetics of Seed Yield and Its Components in Cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.] 635
analysis in all the three crosses showed that the six generation
differed from each other with respect to seed yield per plant
(Table 2). The estimates of gene effects revealed that in cross
I, additive, additive × dominance and dominance × dominance
gene effects were highly significant. Dominance × dominance
gene effect was greater in magnitude followed by additive. In
crosses II and III, dominance and additive × additive gene
effects were found highly significant. The opposite signs of
dominance and dominance x dominance effects in all the three
crosses indicated the presence of duplicate epistasis in the
inheritance of this trait in all the crosses. In the present study
involvement of both additive and non-additive gene action
suggested that the recurrent selection method should be
utilized for improvement of this character in cowpea.
Harvest index (%):
There were significant differences for this character in
all the three crosses. As such they were subjected to scaling
test and estimation of gene effects for respective generation.
Highly significant values of ‘m’ from the generation mean
analysis in all the three crosses showed that the six generation
differed from each other with respect to harvest index (Table
2). The estimates of gene effects summarized in Table 2 revealed
that in cross I, dominance and additive × additive gene effects
were highly significant, while in cross II, dominance ×
dominance gene effect was found highly significant and in
cross III, additive, additive × dominance and dominance ×
dominance gene effects were found highly significant. Further,
the additive × dominance effect was greater in magnitude
followed by additive effect in cross III. The opposite signs of
dominance and dominance x dominance effects in all the three
crosses indicated the presence of duplicate epistasis in the
inheritance of this trait in all the crosses. These results are in
consonance to the findings of Tefera and Peat (1997) and
Adedayo (2009) for harvest index. Involvement of both
additive and non-additive gene action in genetic control of
this trait suggested that recurrent selection method should
be utilized for its improvement in cowpea.
100 seed weight (g):
There were significant differences for this character in
all the three crosses. As such they were subjected to scaling
test and estimation of gene effects for respective generation.
Highly significant values of ‘m’ from the generation mean
analysis in all the three crosses showed that the six generation
differed from each other with respect to test weight (Table
4.2.1). The estimates on gene effect for test weight (Table 2)
revealed that dominance × dominance gene effect was highly
significant in cross I. In cross II, additive × additive, additive
× dominance effects were highly significant and dominance ×
dominance effect was significant. In cross III, dominance and
additive × additive gene effects were highly significant with
dominance effects having higher magnitude. The opposite
signs of dominance and dominance x dominance effects
indicated the presence of duplicate epistasis in the inheritance
of this trait in cross III. Francisco Claudio da Conceicao Lopes
et al. (2003) reported that additive effect was the more important
genetic parameter for determination of this character. The
involvement of additive and non-additive gene effects
suggested that homozygous elite recombinants could be
developed following inter-mating of desirable segregants.
Overall, conspicuous duplicate epistasis was evident in
all the three crosses for predominant characters as revealed
by difference in signs of (d) and (dd) in crosses. These findings
illustrated that importance of duplicate epistasis in genetic
consideration of different characters studied in cowpea. These
results are in agreement with those reported by Rashwan (2002)
and Abd-Elkader (2006). However, these results are in contrast
to the findings of Sherif and Damarany (1992) and El-Ameen
(2008), who have reported both complementary and duplicate
type of non allelic gene interaction in their studies.
From the present investigation, it can be concluded that
appreciable amount of epistasis present in different characters
of three crosses under the study. Breeding methods involving
high volume crossing like biparental, recurrent and diallel
selective mating design that take care of both additive and
non-additive gene action seemed more promising for the
improvement of various characters studied.
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Recieved on 05-06-2013 Accepted on 17-07-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 637-640, 2013
Effects of Different Culture Media on Colony Growth of Keratinophilic and Nonkeratinophilic
Fungi
SUMAN LATA GUPTA, GAZALA RIZVI, MANISH SINGH PAIJWAR
Department of Botany, Bundelkhand University, Jhansi (U.P.) 284 128 India
email: Sumi786gupta@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The growth of keratinophilic fungi was determined on five
different media after seven days of incubation on 28ÚC. Out of
all media, SDA, found the best for all Chrysosporiumcarmichaelii,
C. georgii,C. indicum, C. keratinophilum, C. merdarium, C.
pannicola, C. pannorum, C. pruinosum, C. queenslandicum and
C. tropicumfollowed by PDA for all except Chrysosporium georgii,
followed by CPA, CZA and MEA. The species of
Trichophyton,Malbranchea, Epidermatophyton, Histoplasma,
Microsporum, Sporothrix, had also the same pattern of growth
like that of Chrysosporium species. Except that of Trichophyton
mentagrophytes, which grew the best on PDA followed by CPA,
CZA and least on MEA. For the growth of non-keratinophilic
fungi Acremonium kiliense, Alternariaalternata, Fusarium solani,
Fusarium pallidoroseum grew best on PDA while Acremonium
strictum, Cladosporium oxysporum, Fusarium moniliforeme,
Trichoderma viride and a new perfect fungi grew best on CPA.
Beauveria bassiana, Choenophora cucurbitarum,
Cunninghamella echinulata, Penicillum chrysogenum and
Penicillium citrinumwere found growing best on CZA.
Key words
Fungi, Culture media, Growth competition
In natural environment, therefore, along with the other
microorganisms keratinolytic fungi are involved in recycling
the carbon, nitrogen and distribution seem to depend largely
on the amount of keratinase material available either to man or
to domestic as well as wild animals, especially where human
and animal populations exert strong selection pressure on the
environment.
The fungi belong to class Ascomycetes, which has
several orders including the order Onygenales having four
families- Arthrodermataceae, Gymnoascaceae,
Myxotrichaceae and the Onygenaceae. Presently the order
includes 40 genera and 120 species (Kendrick, 2000). The
families in the order Onygenales are delimited on the basis of
shape of ascospores and ornamentation on ascospores
surface.The order Onygenales comprise of the most number
of keratinophilic fungi (keratinolytic) and it is believed that
the gene responsible for keratin degradation first evolved
among fungi of this group only. The keratinophilic
(keratinolytic) fungi utilize the keratin part of hair, all members
of Arthrodermataceae, some members of Gymnoascaceae and
Fungi Imperfecti, where as non-keratinophilic fungi that
although are able to colonize hair but utilize the non-keratin
part of hair.
The ascomata in the order Onygenales are usually
brightly coloured, composed of loosely intertwined hyphae,
often with thick walled, branched and/or ornamented hyphal
appendages; asci are never in chains; ascospores very small,
brightly coloured, usually spherical or lenticular, often
ornamented; anamorphs usually with thallic proliferation;
often keratinophilic (Hawksworth, 1995).
Culture media significantly affected the growth,
sporulation and conidial discharge of any microorganisms (
Ibrahim, et al., 2002; Ooijkaas, et al., 2000 and Singh, 1983).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Soil sampling from Jhansi vicinity, for isolation of
keratinophilic fungi and further study has been carried out
during 2009 to 2011. The isolated axenic cultures of
keratinophilic fungi were maintained on Sabouraud’s Dextrose
Agar (SDA) media. Growth competition of these keratinophilic
fungi and non-keratinophilic fungi was studied on five
different media to explore the most suitable culture media for
the growth of keratinophilic fungi. This study was conducted
with Sabouraud’s Dextrose Agar (SDA), Potato Dextrose Agar
(PDA), Carrot Potato Agar (CPA), Czapex’s dox Agar (CZA)
and Malt Extract Agar (MEA) medium for evaluating the
growth and sporulation of most dominant species of
keratinophilic fungi recorded during this investigation.
Inoculation of keratinophilic fungi on to petri dishes
and tubes containing nutrient media was done under laminar
air flow. Before each experiment, ultra violet radiation light
was on for 20 minutes to kill the unwanted air borne microbes.
After switching off U.V. light, the inoculation was done.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Growth competition of selected fungi was studied
ondifferent culture media Sabouraud’s Dextrose Agar (SDA),
Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA), Carrot Potato Agar (CPA),
Czapek’s dox Agar (CZA) and Malt Extract Agar (MEA). The
growth of isolated keratinophilic species (22 sp.) was also
studied on the above growth media. The fungi used were
Chrysosporium, seven of Trichophyton, two each of
Malbranchea and Microsporum, one each fungi of
Histoplasmaand Sporothrixand 22 species of keratinophilic
fungi. These observations have been tabulated below (Tables
1, 2 and 3 and Fig. 1, 2 and 3):

638 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Table 1.
Growth (mm) of Chrysosporium species on five
different media after seven days
Table 3.
Growth (mm) of non-keratinophilus fungi on five
different media after seven days.
S.No.
Species
1. Chrysosporium
carmichaelii
Media
SDA PDA CPA CZA MEA
41 32 35 22 24
2 Chrysosporiumgeorgii 32 19 20 24 23
3. Chrysosporium indicum 52 48 42 38 40
4. Chrysosporium
keratinophilum
56 48 46 40 38
5. Chrysosporium merdarium 52 50 50 42 44
6. Chrysosporium pannicola 35 15 12 30 34
7. Chrysosporium pannorum 40 32 25 30 35
8. Chrysosporium pruinosum 50 42 40 36 38
9. Chrysosporium
queenslandicum
52 36 42 32 40
10. Chrysosporium tropicum 60 55 52 40 35
After seven days, the effect of different growth media
on mycelium of keratinophilic and non-keratinophilic fungi
was determined on colony diameter of keratinophilic fungi
and non-keratinophilic fungi was estimated on plate
containing five different media i.e., SDA, PDA, CPA, CZA
and MEA. Out of these media, SDA, found the best for all
Chrysosporiumcarmichaelii, C. georgii,C. indicum, C.
keratinophilum, C. merdarium, C. pannicola, C. pannorum,
C. pruinosum, C. queenslandicum and C. tropicumfollowed
by PDA for all except Chrysosporium georgii, followed by
Media
S.No. Species SDA PDA CPA CZA MEA
1. Trichophyton erinacei 50 45 52 38 40
1. Acremonium strictum 20 30 35 22 28
2. Acremonium kiliense 22 40 32 25 30
3. Alternaria alternata 30 55 50 40 38
4. Beauveria bassiana 35 35 40 50 42
5. Aspergillus oryzae 30 35 38 60 55
6. Aspergillus flavus 40 55 50 70 60
7. Aspergillus niger, 45 70 65 80 65
8. Emericella nidulans 35 55 50 76 60
9. Choenophora cucurbitarum 55 80 75 85 65
10 Cladosporium oxysporum 20 30 35 25 40
11. Cunninghamella echinulata 55 75 70 80 25
12. Fusarium moniliforme 45 70 75 50 48
13. Fusarium solani 65 75 72 60 55
14. Fusarium pallidoroseum 50 80 75 45 65
15. Penicillium chrysogenum, 50 56 62 72 55
16. Penicillium citrinum 55 50 55 80 65
17. Trichoderma viride 50 55 60 40 43
18. Verticillium alboatrum 20 40 45 25 30
19. Graphium keratinophilum 35 50 60 40 25
20. Ophiostoma indicum 30 65 55 35 30
CPA, CZA and MEA. The species of
Trichophyton,Malbranchea, Epidermatophyton,
Histoplasma, Microsporum, Sporothrix, had also the same
pattern of growth like that of Chrysosporium species. Except
that of Trichophyton mentagrophytes, which grew the best
on PDA followed by CPA, CZA and least on MEA. For the
Table 2.
Growth (mm) of Trichophyton sp., Malbranchea,
Epidermatophyton, Histoplasma, Microsporum
sp.and Sporothrix schenckiion five different media
after seven days.
S. No. Species
Media
SDA PDA CPA CZA MEA
1. Trichophyton erinacei 50 45 52 38 40
2. Trichophyton
mentagrophytes
55 70 65 45 30
3. Trichophyton rubrum 42 30 42 30 35
4. Trichophyton soudanense 46 40 38 35 30
5. Trichophyton terrestre 55 36 40 32 28
6. Trichophyton tonsurans 60 55 50 36 35
7. Trichophyton verrucosum 66 35 45 25 32
8. Malbranchea pulchella 85 70 55 50 60
9. Epidermophyton floccosum 45 35 30 32 40
10. Histoplasma capsulatum 65 55 52 40 45
11. Microsporum gypseum 45 20 30 25 50
12. Microsporum fulvum 50 55 60 40 45
13. Sporothrix schenckii 45 45 40 25 30
Fig. 1.
Growth (mm) of Chrysosporiumsp. on five different
media after seven days.

GUPTA et al., Effects of Different Culture Media on Colony Growth of Keratinophilic and Non-keratinophilic Fungi 639
Fig 2.
Growth (mm) of Trichophyton sp., Malbranchea,
Epidermatophyton, Histoplasma, Microsporum sp.and
Sporothrix schenckiion five different mediaafter seven
days.
Fig. 3.
Growth (mm) of non-keratinophilus fungi on five
different mediaafter seven days.
growth of non-keratinophilic fungi Acremonium kiliense,
Alternariaalternata, Fusarium solani, Fusarium
pallidoroseum grew best on PDA while Acremonium strictum,
Cladosporium oxysporum, Fusarium moniliforeme,
Trichoderma viride and a new perfect fungi grew best on
CPA. Beauveria bassiana, Choenophora cucurbitarum,
Cunninghamella echinulata, Penicillum chrysogenum and
Penicillium citrinum were found growing best on CZA. The
study reveals that culture media absolutely put their effect on
the growth of keratinophilic and non-keratinophilic fungi. This
is in conformity with other studies also.
Jacques, et al., 2002 studied the effect of liquid culture
media on morphology, growth, propagule production and
pathogenic activity of the Hyphomycete. Ooijkaas et al.,(2000)
studied the growth and sporulation stoichiometry and kinetics
of Coniothyrium minitans on agar media and concluded that
optimum concentration required for best growth and
sporulation by organism. Ibrahim, et al., 2002 studied the effect
of artificial culture media on germination, growth, virulence
and surface properties of the entomopathogenic hyphomycete
Metarhiziumanisopliae and suggested that culture media
influence the germination of conidia, appressorial development
and mycelial growth of M. anisopliae. Rombach et al.,1988
investigated the production of Beauveria bassiana dry
mycelium in different liquid media and subsequent conidiation
and concluded that sucrose and maltose yeast extract media
produced most conidia. Sharma and Sharma, 2011 and Singh,
1983 also concluded that culture media significantly affected
the growth, sporulation and conidial discharge of any
microorganism.
The present study will help to maintain the fungus in
the laboratory condition for preparation of inocula for different
studies concerning further study of pathogens. The study
also concluded that the culture media are essential growing
factor for controling the growth and sporulation of
keratinophilic and non-keratinophilic fungi.
LITERATURE CITED
Ibrahim, L., Butt, T.M. and Jenkinson, P. 2002. Effect of artificial
culture media on germination, growth, virulence and surface
properties of the entomopathogenic hyphomycete Metarhizium
Anisopliae. Mycological Res., 106: 705-715.
Jacques, F., Smits, N., Claire, V., Alain, V., Vega, F., Guy, M. and Paul, Q.
2002. Effect of liquid culture media on morphology, growth,
propagule production, and pathogenic activity of the Hyphomycete,
Metarhiziumflavoviride. Mycopathologia,154(3): 127-138.
Kendrick, B. 2000. The Fifth Kingdom. Mycologue Publications,
Canada.

640 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Ooijkaas, L.P., Buitelaar, R.M., Tramper, J. and Rinzema, A.
2000. Growth and sporulation stoichiometry and kinetics of
Coniothyrium minitans on agar media. Biotechnol. Bioengineer,
69(3): 292-300.
Rombach, M.C., Aguda, R.M. and Roberts, D.W. 1988. Production of
Beauveria bassiana [Deuteromycotina: Hyphomycetes] in different
liquid mediaand subsequent conidiation of dry mycelium.
Biocontrol,33(3): 315-324.
Sharma, M. and Sharma, M. 2011. Influence of culture media on mycelial
growth and sporulation of some soil dermatophytes compared to
their clinical isolates. Journal of Microbiology and Antimicrobiols,
3(8): 196-200.
Singh, K.V. 1983. Radial growth of soil inhabiting keratinophilic fungi
and related dermatophytes on various media and at different
temperatures. Geobios., 10(6): 284-286.
Hawksworth, D.L., Kirk, P.M., Sutton, B.C. and Pegler, D.N. 1995.
Ainswoth & Bisby’s Dictionary of Fungi (8 th ed.) CAB International,
UK.
Recieved on 18-05-2013 Accepted on 26-06-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 641-644, 2013
Screening of Phytochemical Constituents and Free Radical Scavenging Activity of
Selected Green Leafy Vegetables
BLESSYMOLE K ALEX 1 , EAPEN P KOSHY 2 , VIVEK KUJUR, ANURANJAN RAVI TOPPO, ALOK
KUMAR CHAUDHARY
Jacob School of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Sam Higginbottom Institute of Agriculture,
Technology and Sciences, Allahabad. 211007.
1
email: blessymole.alex@shiats.edu.in, 2
email: eapen.koshy@shiats.edu.in
ABSTRACT
In the present investigation, five green leafy vegetables viz.,
Allium cepa, Coriandrumsativum, Murrayakoenigii,
SpinaciaoleraceaandTrigonellafoenum-graecumwere screened
for determining the presence of various phytochemical
constituents (alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, steroids, saponins,
and glycosides) and evaluating the antioxidant system (total
phenolic compounds and free radical scavenging activity).Total
phenolic content, which is considered as a measure of
antioxidant potential was assessed by a modified Folin-
Ciocalteau method and free radical scavenging activity by DPPH
assay. Total phenolic content (as gallic acid equivalents) of the
green leafy vegetables ranged between 0.16-4.34mgGAE/g fresh
wt. The extracts were found to have different levels of
antioxidant activities in the plant systems tested. The free
radical scavenging activity was highest in M. koenigii (80.54%)
and least in A. cepa (18.23%). These observations enhance
potential interest in the green leafy vegetables for improving
the efficacy of different products as neutraceutical and
pharmacological products.
Key words
Green leafy vegetables, free radical scavenging
activity, phytochemical constituents, DPPH assay.
Cell damage caused by free radicals appears to be a
major contributor to aging and to degenerative diseases such
as cancer, cardiovascular disease, cataracts, immune system
decline and brain dysfunction (Sies, 1992). Formation of free
radicals can be controlled by various antioxidants. Plants are
known to be the rich sources of natural antioxidants. Since
the use of synthetic antioxidants has potential health risks
the best way to ensure an active free radical scavenging
system in our body is the proper intake of dietary
phytonutrients.
Their ability to delay lipid oxidation in foodstuffs and
biological membranes, in addition to their propensity to act as
a prophylactic agent has motivated research into food science
and biomedicine. Phenolic phytochemicals are known to
exhibit several health beneficial activities such as antioxidant,
anti-inflammatory, antihepatotoxic, antitumor and antimicrobial
(Middleton,et al., 2000). Considering their bioactivity and
presence in a wide range of vegetables, these substances are
considered natural antioxidants and the vegetable source that
it contains as functional food (McDonald,et al., 2001).
Even though plants are widely known for their
phytochemical properties,studies on theantioxidantactivity of
many tropical plants are sporadic and lacking.The present
investigation was undertaken for the preliminary screening of
phytochemical constituents and free radical
scavengingactivities of some generally available and
commonly used green leafy vegetables in order to emphasize
their use in our diet.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The work was designed to assess the phytochemical
constituents and antioxidant property of five green leafy
vegetables viz.,Allium cepa, Coriandrumsativum,
Murrayakoenigii, SpinaciaoleraceaandTrigonellafoenumgraecum.Aqueous
and ethanolic extracts of plant leaves were
used for the analysis. The aqueous extract was collected by
filtering the mixture obtained after grinding 0.5 g of the fresh
plant leaves in 25 ml distilled water. The ethanolicextract of
the samples was prepared by the procedure of Karakaya, 2004.
Phytochemical screening:
Qualitative analysis of phytochemical constituents
like alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, sterols, saponins,
glycosides andquinoneswas performed using standard
procedures as described by Trease and Evans, 1989 and
Sofowora (1993).
Determination of antioxidant activity:
The total phenolic compounds were analyzed using the
Folin-Ciocalteau method with some modification (Ghafoor and
Choi, 2009). Gallic acid of 1 mg/ml was used as the standard
and the total phenolic compounds of the samples were
expressed in milligram gallic acid equivalent (GAE) perg
(mgGAE/g).
The free radical scavenging activities of the plant
extractswere followed by their reaction with the DPPH
(1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl hydrazyl) free radical (modified protocol
of Lee,et al., 1998).The scavenging activity, expressed as the
decrease of absorbance at 517 nm was observed and the
percentage of DPPH radical-scavenging ability (SA) of the
various extracts were calculated using the following
formula:

642 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Scavenging activity (%) = ______ A 0
-A 10 x 100
Where A 0
= absorbance at zero minute; A 10
= Absorbance
at 10 minute
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A 0
Phytochemical screening using plant extract:
The phytochemical constituents of the five leafy
vegetables were analyzed and the results observed are
tabulated in Table 1 and 2. Among the five leafy vegetable
plant extracts tested, A. cepa showed highest level of flavonoid
in both aqueous and alcoholic extract but tannins were absent
in both the extracts. All other phytonutrients were present in
fairly good amounts. Screening of C. sativumextracts revealed
Table 1. Phytochemical screening using aqueous extract
Phytochemical
constituents
A.
cepa
C.
sativum
Selected leafy vegetables
M.
koenigii
S.
oleracea
T. foenumgraecum
Alkaloids + + +++ + +++
Flavonoids ++++ - +++ ++ -
Tannins - ++ - ++ -
Steroids + + ++ ++ ++
Saponins + + ++ + +
Glycosides + + + + +
Quinone + + - + +
the presence of all the phytochemical constituents analyzed
except flavonoid in both the extracts. Phytochemical screening
of M.koenigii leaves showed the presence of glycosides,
steroids, tannins, alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins and quinone.
The presence of alkaloids in M. koenigii was very prominent
in both the extracts (aqueous and ethanolic). The steroids
and saponins showed greater intensity of their presence in
ethanolic extract. The colour intensity for the presence of
flavonoids was maximum in aqueous extract than ethanolic
extract. Glycosides showed their presence only in aqueous
extraction while tannins and quinones in ethanol only. All the
Table 2. Phytochemical screening using ethanolic extract
Phytochemical
constituents
A.
cepa
C.
sativum
Selected leafy vegetables
M.
koenigii
S.
oleracea
T. foenumgraecum
Alkaloids + + ++++ + +++
Flavonoids +++++ - + ++ ++
Tannins - + - ++ +
Steroids + + +++ ++ +
Saponins + + +++ + +
Glycosides + + + + -
Quinone + + - + +
phytochemical constituents were present in detectable level
in S.oleracea. Preliminary phytochemical screening of T.
foenum-graecum suggests that it contains flavonoids,
saponins, steroids and alkaloids. But the aqueous extract of
T. foenum-graecum did not show the presence of flavonoid.
Visual observation of the reaction clearly indicated that T.
foenum-graecumwas rich in alkaloids. In 1999, Moller, et al.
suggested that aqueous extract of plant material is more
advisable for using as food additive than any other solvent
systems, since it is more safe.
Analysis of antioxidant system:
Estimation of Totalphenoliccompounds:
Thetotalphenoliccontents in extracts obtained from the
leaves of the selected green vegetables aregiven in Table 3.The
highest content (4.34 mgGAE/g)wasobservedin extractofM.
koenigiileaves followed byT. foenum-graecum leaves
(3.86mgGAE/g).S. oleraceaalso showed fairly good amount
(2.82mgGAE/g) of total phenolic content.InC. sativum andA.
cepa 1.13mgGAE/g and 0.16mgGAE/g phenolic content was
found respectively.
Table 3. Estimation of Total phenolic compounds
Selected plants
Phenolic content (mg GAE/g)
A. cepa 0.16
C. sativum 1.13
M. koenigii 4.34
S. oleracea 2.82
T. foenum-graecum 3.86
The antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds is
mainly due to redox properties, which allow them to act as
reducing agents, hydrogen donors, singlet oxygen quenchers,
heavy metal chelatorsand hydroxy radical quenchers (Rice-
Evans,et al., 1995). Kaur and Kapoor, 2002 reported the total
phenolic content of T. foenum-graecum to be 217.5 mg of
catechol/100 g of fresh vegetable.The total polyphenol
contentof some common Indian leafy vegetables was found
to bein the range of 5–69.5 mg of tannic acid/g of extract
(Shyamala,et al., 2005).Phenolic compounds present in plant
extracts are reported to have beneficial effects on other chronic
diseases such as coronary heart disease (Foresterand
Waterhouse,2009). The total polyphenol content of four green
leafy vegetables were estimated by Gupta and Prakash in 2009.
The plants were found to have varying levels of polyphenols,
ranging from 150 mg tannic acid/100 g sample for
Centellaasiatica to 387 mg of tannic acid/100 g for M.koenigii.
T.foenum-graecum and Amaranthussp. had similar amounts
of total polyphenols (158.33 mg of tannic acid/100 g).
Thetotalphenoliccontents in extracts obtained from the stems
and leaves of coriander,mintandparsley arestudied by Al-
Juhaimi and Ghafoor, 2011. The highest contents (1.24mgGAE/
100ml)were observedin extract of mint (Menthaarvensis)
leaves followed by parsley (Petroselinumcrispum) leaves

ALEX et al., Screening of Phytochemical Constituents and Free Radical Scavenging Activity of Selected Green Leafy Vegetables 643
(1.22 mgGAE/100ml) and coriander (Coriandrumsativum)
leaves(1.12mgGAE/100ml). The differences in the amount of
phenolic components of vegetables in different reports may
be due to the varietal differences of vegetables and also due
to the adoption of different protocols.
Analysis of free radical scavenging activity:
The antiradical activities of leaf extracts were assessed
using DPPH (1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) radical
scavenging assay. It is quick, reliable and reproducible method
to search in vitro general antiradical activities of pure
compounds as well as plant extracts. This method depends
on the reduction of purple DPPH to a yellow colored
diphenylpicrylhydrazine (Katalinic,et al., 2006; Ghafoor,et al.,
2010).
DPPH radical scavenging activity of the plant extracts
at varying concentrations (4–20 mg/ml) were measured and
thegraphical representation is given in Figure 1. All the leafy
vegetables studied showed appreciable free radical scavenging
activities.The highest free radical scavenging activity (80.54%)
was observed for the extract of M. koenigii leaves followed
by that of T. foenum-graecumleaves extract (72.39%). The free
radical scavenging activity of S. oleracea leaf extract was
68.18%. The extracts of C. sativum also showed significant
free radical scavenging abilities which was 41.63%. A. cepa
showed lowest free radical scavenging activity of 18.23 %.
A dose-response relationship was found in the DPPH
radical scavenging activity. The activity increased with an
increase in the concentration (from 4 to 20 mg/ ml) of each
individual leaf extract.M. koenigii had free radical scavenging
activity ranging from 27.31% to 80.54%, T. foenum-graecum
from 23.64% to 72.39%, S. oleracea from 18.42% to 68.18%
and A. cepafrom 3.12% to 18.23%.
Fig 1. Free radicle scavenging activity of varying
concentrations of leaf extracts
There was a correlation in the antioxidant activities and
total phenolics. Such correlations have also been observed in
other studies (Ghafoor and Choi,2009; Lim, etal., 2010).
Ingeneral, the total phenols and free radical scavenging
activity of M. koenigii leaves were higher than other leafy
vegetables under consideration. Shyamala,et al. (2005)
reported free radical scavenging activities of >70% for three
green leafy vegetables namely S. oleracea, C.sativum and
Alternantherasessilis at 100 ppm levels.
Many of the degenerative diseases are caused by the
accumulation of free radicals in our body. Fresh leafy
vegetables which are a rich source of antioxidants fight these
diseases by protecting against free radical damage of major
biomolecules.The Present investigation emphasize the need
of including these green leafy vegetables in our diet and
suggest the possibility of formulating neutraceuticalsbased
on these vegetables.
LITERATURE CITED
Al-Juhaimi, F. and Ghafoor, K. 2011. Total phenols and antioxidant
activities of leaf and stem extracts from coriander, mint and parsley
grown in Saudi Arabia. Pakistan Journal of Botany.43(4): 2235-
2237.
Ghafoor,K. and Choi, Y. H. 2009. Optimization of ultrasound assisted
extraction of phenolic compounds and antioxidants from grape
peel through response surface methodology. Journal of Korean
Society forApplied Biological Chemistry, 52:295-300.
Ghafoor, K., Park, J. and Choi, Y. H. 2010. Optimization of supercritical
carbon dioxide extraction of bioactive compounds from grape peel
(VitislabruscaB.)by using response surface methodology. Innovative
Food Science andEmerging Technology.11:485-490.
Gupta, S. and Prakash, J. 2009.Studies on Indian green leafy vegetables
for their antioxidant activity.Plant Foods for Human
Nutrition.64:39-45.
Karakaya, S. 2004. Radical scavenging and iron-chelating activities of
some greens used as traditional dishes in Mediterranean diet.
International Journal of Food Science and Nutrition. 5(1):54-67.
Katalinic, V., Milos, M. and Jukic, M. 2006. Screening of 70 medicinal
plant extracts for antioxidant capacity and total phenols. Food
Chemistry, 94:550-557.
Kaur, C. and Kapoor, H. C. 2002. Anti-oxidant activity and total
phenolic content of some Asian vegetables. International Journal
of Food Science and Technology.37:153-161.
Lim, H. S., Ghafoor, K., Park, S.H., Hwang, S. Y. and Park, J. 2010.
Quality and antioxidant properties of yellow layer cake containing
Korean turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) powder. Journal of Food
Nutrition Research 49:123-133.
McDonald, S., Prenzler, P. D., Antolovich, M. and Robards, A. 2001.
Phenolic content and antioxidant activity of olive extracts. Food
Chemistry, 73:73-84.
Middleton, E. J. R., Kandaswami, C. and Theoharides, T. C. 2000. The
effects of plant flavonoids on mammalian cells: implications for
inflammations, heart disease and cancer. Pharmacological Reviews
52:673-751.

644 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Moller, J. K. S., Madsen, H. L., Aaltonen, T. and Skibsted, L. H. 1999.
Dittany (Origanumdictamnus) as a source of water-extract
ableantioxidants. Food Chemistry.64:215–219.
Rice-Evans, C. A., Miller, N. J., Bolwell, P. G., Gramley, P. M. and
Pridham, J. B. 1995. The relative antioxidant activities of plant
derived polyphenolic flavonoids. Free Radical Research, 22:375–
383.
Shyamala, B. N., Gupta, S., Lakshmi, J. A., Prakash, J. 2005. Leafy
vegetable extracts-antioxidant activity and effect on storage stability
of heatedoils. Innovative Food Scienceand EmergingTechnologies,
6:239–245.
Sies, H. 1992. Antioxidant Function of Vitamins.Annals of New York
Academyof Science.669:7-20.
Sofowora, A. 1993. Medicinal plants and Traditional Medicine in Africa.
Spectrum Books, Ibadan. pp.150.
Trease, G. E. and Evans, W. C. 1989. Pharmacognosy. 13 th edn. Bailliere
Tindall, London. Pp.176-180.
Recieved on 28-08-2013 Accepted on 15-06-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 645-647, 2013
Screening Varieties of Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus (l.) Monech) against Important
Insect Pests under Agroclimatic Condition of Allahabad (UP)
A.D. GONDE 1 , ASHWANI KUMAR A.H.RAUT 2 , R. K. WARGANTIWAR AND D. P. PHUKE
Sam Hingginbottom Institute of Agriculture, Technology and sciences, Allahabad (UP)
email: ankushraut87@gmail.com, atul.dgonde111@gmail.com 2
ABSTRACT
Among the seventeen varieties of okra screened against Amrasca
biguttula biguttula , Bemisia tabaci, and Earias vitella , the
varieties VRO 3 and kashi pragati were found to be resistant
varieties to jassids infestation. In respect of whitefly infestation
the lowest infestation were found in varieties VRO 3 and VRO
4, Bhendi Vaphy, IIVR 11, VRO 3, EMS8 1 showed minimum
shoot infestation. By fruit infestation (Number Basis) EMS-8-
1 was recorded lowest infested fruits which were followed by
Punjab Padmini, VRO 3, Bhendi Vaphy, IIVR 11, IIVR 10, Kashi
Pragati, EC 35638, IC 282273 and IC 282272. These varieties
were statistically at par with each other and graded as
moderately resistant. Fruit infestation ranged between 8.18 to
22.06 percent on weight basis and the least infestation was
found in the variety VRO 3 followed by the varieties EMS 1,
IIVR 11, Punjab Padmini, IIVR 10, Bhendi Vaphy, Kashi Pragati
and EC 35638 showed significantly lowest infestation and
graded as moderately resistant.
Key words
Abelmoschus esculentus, Amarasca biguttula
biguttula, Bemisia tabaci, Earias vittella
Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus (L) Monech) commonly
known as “Bhendi” is a native of tropical or sub tropical Africa.
It has been grown in Mediterranean region as well as in the
tropical and subtropical regions. Several biotic and abiotic
factors are responsible for low yield in the crop, Insect pests
are crucial among them causing severe economical losses to
crop. More disastrous amongst them are shoot and fruit borer
(Earias vittella), Leaf hopper (Amrasca biguttula biguttula),
whitefly (Bemisia tabaci), where in only Earias vittella and
Earias insulana are capable of causing 57.10 per cent of fruit
infestation and 54.04 per cent yield losses (Chaudhary and
Dadheech,1989).
Headley, 1979 predicted that chemical control had the
major role in the pest management in crops until 1992 and
then towards non- chemical control method would increase
and as per his prediction, we consider today’s era as an era of
IPM where integration all the control measures is likely to be
done, where in an insect resistance plants offer ideal prevention
against insect damage, involved minimum cost of production
and are ecofriendly. Thus, in vegetable crops there is greatest
scope for evolving pest resistance variety. The utility of insect
resistant vegetable varieties needs no emphasis in a country
like India, where sizable area is under cultivation with different
kinds of vegetables, constantly facing the problem of heavy
insect pest infestation. In view of the importance of vegetable
in Indian diet and the hazards involved in the use of chemical
control, it has become imminent to seek for built in protection
by way of varietal resistance to insect pest whenever possible.
The use of resistant varieties is one of the most economical
and effective method of control. It was therefore, planned to
screen some of the promising varieties for their resistance to
this pest.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Field experiment was conducted on the field of
Department of Plant Protection Sam Higginbottom Institutes
of Technology and Sciences, Allahabad during kharif 2009.
There were 17 varieties with diverse morphological characters
collected from IIVR, Varanasi. The experiment consisted of 17
treatments and 3 replications in randomized block design.
In each plot five plants were randomly selected and
tagged for recording observations on jassid and whitefly
incidence. The observations were recorded from the five leaves
of each plant viz., two from the bottom, two from the middle
and one from the top of the plant and mean number of nymps
and adults per leaf were worked out.
As soon as the infestation of borer was noticed on the
plants the first observations on shoot infestation were
recorded and there after weekly observation was taken up to
the starting of reproductive phase. Number of infested fruits
and number of healthy fruits was counted from the five
randomly selected and labeled plants to work out the per cent
fruit infestation at each picking. The weight of healthy and
infested fruits from the same five plants was also recorded.
Per cent fruit infestation of each varieties was calculated from
the data obtained during the investigation and the varieties
were categorized by adopting scale developed by Gupta and
Yadav (1978) where germplasm with no damage are grouped
as immune (Table 2).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Screening against jassids, A. biguttula biguttula: The Data
on mean jassid populations are presented in Table 1. It
indicates that population of jassids were significantly different
among 17 treatments at all observations.
The jassid population was minimum in variety VRO 3
(1.66/leaf) followed by Kashi pragati (1.78/leaf) and maximum
in Pusa Sawani (4.18/ leaf) followed by KS 410 (3.82/ leaf).

646 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
The population of jassids highest on Pusa sawani and KS
410 proved to be susceptible response whereas VRO-3 and
Kashi pragati showed the low population proved to be
resistant. The present finding are in conformity with those of
Jalgaonkar, 2002, Iqbal, et al., 2008) who reported that Pusa
sawani and KS-410 was a susceptible genotype.
Screening against Whitefly, B. tabaci: The data on mean
whitefly population were presented in Table 1 indicates that
population of whitefly was differed significantly among 17
treatments at all observations.
The population was minimum in variety VRO 3 (1.36/
leaf) followed by VRO 4 (1.98/ leaf) and maximum in Pusa
Table 1.
Reaction of different varieties against important
insect pests of okra during kharif 2009.
Varieties Sucking pests/ leaf Shoot
damage
Fruit damage (%) by
E. vittella
Jassid Whitefly (%) by E.
vittella
Number
basis
Weight
basis
Kashi
Pragati
1.78
(7.49)
02.20
(8.53)
30
(33.21)
14.25
(22.14)
14.92
(22.71)
Bhendi
Vaphy
2.28
(8.53
02.70
(9.46)
10
(18.44)
10.27
(18.63)
11.54
(19.82)
VRO 4 1.96
(7.92)
01.98
(7.92)
33.33
(35.24)
18.17
(25.18)
18.61
(25.55)
IIVR 11 2.18
(8.33)
02.29
(8.530
13.33
(21.39)
10.33
(18.72)
10.05
(18.44)
Parbhani
Kranti
3.32
(10.47)
03.72
(11.09)
26.66
(31.05)
17.09
(21.35)
17.39
(24.58)
EC
316053
3.05
(9.98)
03.33
(10.47)
26.66
(31.05)
18.29
(25.25)
18.65
(25.55)
IC 140934 2.78
(9.46)
03.21
(10.31)
23.33
(28.86)
17.92
(25.03)
17.12
(24.43)
EC 35638 2.70
(9.46)
02.96
(9.81)
23.33
(28.56)
15.35
(23.03)
15.68
(23.26)
IC 282273 2.94
(9.81)
03.53
(10.78)
30
(33.21)
15.72
(23.34)
16.56
(23.97)
IC 282272 2.61
(9.28)
03.05
(9.98)
26.66
(31.05)
15.93
(23.50)
18.73
(25.62)
VRO 3 1.66
(7.27)
01.36
(6.55)
13.33
(21.39)
9.07
(17.46)
8.18
(16.54)
IIVR 10 2.48
(8.91)
02.52
(9.10)
16.66
(24.04)
11.67
(19.91)
10.73
(19.09)
EMS 8-1 2.10
(8.33)
02.44
(8.91)
13.33
(21.39)
8.66
(17.05)
9.30
(17.76)
Punjab
Padmini
3.58
(10.78)
2.89
(9.63)
20
(26.56)
8.87
(17.26)
10.52
(18.91)
KS 410 3.82
(11.24)
3.88
(11.24)
33.33
(35.24)
17.89
(24.95)
22.06
(27.97)
LORM 1 3.26
(10.31)
03.84
(11.24)
33.33
(35.24)
18.90
(25.77)
21.59
(27.63)
Pusa
Sawani
4.18
(11.68)
05.16
(13.05)
26.66
(31.05)
18.38
(25.33)
19.65
(26.28)
‘F’-Test
SE±
CD 5%
Sig.
0.368
0.745
Sig.
0.376
0.761
Sig.
7.884
15.935
Sig.
2.353
4.755
Sig.
2.066
4.176
Value showed in parenthesis is Arc sign value
Sawani (5.16/ leaf) followed by KS 410 (3.88/ leaf), LORM 1
(3.84/ leaf). The population of whitefly highest on pusa sawani,
KS 410 and LORM 1 proved to be susceptible response;
whereas VRO-3 and VRO-4 showed the low population proved
to be resistant. In past, Arka Abhay was found susceptible to
whitefly whereas VRO-3 was resistant to this pest (Jalgaonkar,
2002), and Pusa sawani proved susceptible to whitefly. The
three varieties viz., MHOK 14 and paras softy and VRO 5
proved to be resistant and remaining varieties viz. Zoh 808, P
7, Parbhani kranti, LORM 1 proved to be susceptible to
whitefly (Patel, et al., 2009).
Mean per cent infestation of E.vittella on shoot: During
investigation, the shoot infestation ranged between 10 to 33.33
per cent (Table 1). Out of screened seventeen varieties,
significantly minimum infestation was registered by varieties
Bhendi Vaphy (10%), IIVR 11 (13.33%), VRO 3 (13.33%), EMS8
1 (13.33%) shoot infestation. The infestation on these varieties
were found statistically at par with each other and graded as
moderately resistant varieties while, the varieties Kashi pragati
(30%), Parbhani Kranti (26.66%), EC 316053 (26.66%), IC 140934
(23.33%), EC 35638 (23.33%) , IC 282273 (30%), IC 282272
(26.66%), IIVR 10(16.66%), Punjab Padmini (20%), Pusa
Sawani (26.66%) were found moderately susceptible. Whereas
maximum infestation was registered by varieties KS 410, VRO
4, LORM 1 with 33.33 per cent of infestation were graded as
susceptible. In the present study which is conformity with
those of (Gupta and Yadav, 1978, Singh, et al., 2005) that none
of the lines/varieties were immune, Resistant.
Mean per cent infestation of E.vittella on fruit (number basis):
The data on per cent mean infestation of fruits by fruits borer
(Table 1) revealed that the mean per cent infestation was
ranged between 8.66 to 18.90 per cent.
Significantly least infestation was observed in EMS-8 1
(8.66%) and followed by Punjab Padmini (8.87%), VRO 3
(9.07%), Bhendi Vaphy (10.27%), IIVR 11 (10.33%), IIVR 10
(11.67%), Kashi Pragati (14.25), EC 35638 (15.35%), IC 282273
(15.72%), IC 282272 (15.93%), However, these varieties were
statistically at par with each other and graded as moderately
resistant. During screening, maximum infestation of fruit borer
was noticed and graded as moderately susceptible varieties
LORM 1 (18.90%) and followed by Pusa Sawani (18.38), EC
316053 (18.29%), VRO 4 (18.17%), IC 140934 (17.92%), KS 410
(17.89%), Parbhani Kranti (17.09%), among the tested
varieties against fruit borer, none of the variety had exhibited
susceptible.
Mean per cent infestation of E.vittella on fruit (weight
basis):
During investigation, fruit infestations were ranged
between 8.18 to 22.06 percent on weight basis (Table 1). Where,
the least infestation was found in the variety VRO 3 (8.18%)
and followed by the varieties EMS-8 1 (9.30%), IIVR 11 (10.5%),
Punjab Padmini (10.52%), IIVR 10 (10.73%), Bhendi Vaphy

GONDE et al., Screening Varieties of Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus (l.) Monech) against Important Insect Pests 647
Table 2. Grading of different okra varieties based on fruit infestation (Gupta and Yadav, 1978)
Sr.
No.
Category Grade Level of
infestation
Okra varieties
(% fruit infestation)
Number basis
1 Resistant R 1-5% None None
2 Moderately
resistant
3 Moderately
susceptible
MR 6-15% EMS 8-1(8.66%), Punjab Padmini (8.87%), VRO 3
(9.07%), Bhendi Vaphy (10.27%), IIVR 11 (10.33%),
IIVR 10 (11.67%), Kashi Pragati (14.25), EC 35638
(15.35%), IC 282273 (15.72%), IC 282272 (15.93%)
MS 16-30 % LORM 1 (18.90%), Pusa Sawani (18.38), EC 316053
(18.29%), VRO 4 (18.17%), IC 140934 (17.92%), KS
410 (17.89%), Parbhani Kranti (17.09%)
4 Susceptible S 31-50% None None
Weight basis
VRO 3(8.18%) EMS 8-1(9.30%), IIVR 11(10.5%), ,
Punjab Padmini (10.52%), IIVR 10 (10.73%), Bhendi
Vaphy (11.54%), Kashi Pragati (14.92%), EC 35638
(15.68%)
KS 410 (22.06%), LORM 1 (21.59%), Pusa Sawani
(19.65%), IC 282272 (18.73%), EC316053 (18.65%),
VRO 4 (18.61%), Parbhani Kranti (17.39%), IC 140934
(17.12%), IC 282273 (16.56%).
(11.54%), Kashi Pragati (14.92%), EC 35638 (15.68%)
respectively which was significantly lowest infestation and
graded as moderately resistant.
In the screening, most of the varieties were graded in
moderately susceptible with the maximum infestation was
registered in KS 410 (22.06%) and followed by the varieties
LORM 1 (21.59%), Pusa Sawani (19.65%), IC 282272 (18.73%),
EC 316053 (18.65%), VRO 4 (18.61%), Parbhani Kranti
(17.39%), IC 140934 (17.12%), IC 282273 (16.56%) among the
tested varieties against fruit borer, none of the variety had
exhibited susceptible.
Significantly none of the seventeen varieties of okra
were found free from the infestation of E. vittella. in the present
study which is in conformity with those of (Gupta and Yadav,
1978, Bhala, et al., 1989 and Singh, et al., 2005) that the none
of the lines/varieties were immune, Resistant.
Thus, from the above results under Allahabad
conditions, the varieties viz., ­­­ VRO 3 and VRO 4 were highly
promising as far as whitefly and jassid infestation is concerned
however, In case of shoot and fruit borer none of the variety
was found resistant while VRO 3, EMS-8 1 have performed
better.
LITERATURE CITED
Bhala, S. Verma, B. R. and Thomas, T. A. 1990. Screening of okra
germplasm for field resistance to fruit borer, Earias species. Indian
J. Ent I. 51: 224-225.
Chaudhary, H.R. and Dadheech, L.N. 1989. Incidence of insects attacking
okra and the avoidable losses caused by them. Annals of Arid Zone
28 (3&4):305-307.
Gupta, R. N. and Yadav, R. C. 1978. Varietal resistance of Abelmoscus
esculentus (L.) Monech to the borer, Earias spp.Indian J. Ent .40
(4): 436-437.
Headley, I.G. 1979. Economics of pest control, have priorities changed,
Farm chem.142: 55-57
Iqbal, Jamshaid, Hasan, Mansoor, ul. and Ashfaq, M 2008. Screening of
okra genotypes against jasids, Amarasca biguttula biguttula (Ishida).
Pak. J. Agri. Sci. Vol. 45 (4).
Jalgaonkar, V.N., Patil P.D., Munj, A.Y. and Naik, K.V. 2002. Screening
of new germplaasm of okra, Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) against
sucking pests. Pestology 26 (2) :42-46.
Patel, P.S., Patel, G.M. and Shukla, N.P. 2009. Screening of various
okra varieties against important pests. Pestology, 33(2): 30-35.
Singh, B.K., Singh A.K. and Singh, H.M. 2005. Relative resistance of
okra germplasm /varieties against shoot and fruit borer Erias vittella
Fab. under field conditions. Shashpa, 12 (2): 131-133.
Recieved on 21-03-2013 Accepted on 25-04-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 648-650, 2013
Acute Toxicity of Mercuric Chloride to Channa punctatus (Bloch)
VIPIN F. LAL, SASYA THAKUR AND KIRAN SINGH
Department of Biological Sciences, Sam Higginbottom Institute of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences
Allahabad 211007.U.P.
email: vflal20@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The present study deals with the acute toxicity of mercuric
chloride on the behavior and mortality of Channa punctatus.
The LC 50
values for 24, 48, 72 and 96 h have been determined.
The results indicate that the fish exposed to different
concentrations of mercuric chloride exhibit abnormal behavior,
hyper-activity, skin irritation and a dose and dose-time
dependent mortality rate.
Key words
Channa punctatus, mercuric chloride, acute toxicity,
behavioral changes, mortality
A fair amount of the heavy metals released in industrial
effluents find their way into the aquatic habitat . Heavy metals
play an important role among numerous factors contributing
to pollution into a fish body from the environment either
through a direct uptake form water or with food. In
consequence, they become substantially accumulated in fish
tissues, their concentration increases greatly than that of water
. These heavy metals affect their behavior, growth and
reproductive capacity. Toxic effects of mercury ions for
different fish species have been studied (Gupta and
Rajbanshi,1995; Sukhovaskaya et al.,2001; Kumar and
Gupta.,2006
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was carried out at department of Zoology,
R.B.S. College, Agra, Uttar Pradesh . Test fish C. punctatus
(Bloch) (14-16 cm length and 60-70 g) were collected from the
local ponds and pools. Test fishes were acclimated to the
laboratory condition for one month in large plastic tubs
containing 50 litres of tap water (having dissolved oxygen 8
mg/L, hardness 23.25mg/L and temperature 22+2 0 C) prior to
the commencement of the experiment . During their
confinement the fish were regularly fed on every alternate
day with minced goat liver. Water was renewed every 24 hours
along with the removal of unconsumed food and fecal matters.
DETERMINATION OF LC 50
-
Acute Toxicity Assays:
Laboratory bio assays were conducted to determine the
24 hrs, 48 hrs, 72 hrs and 96 hrs LC 50
values for C. punctatus
exposed to HgCl 2
. The experimental design and calculations
for the acute toxicity were based on well known procedures
given by Finney, 1971. The test was carried out in 10 litres
water capacity aquaria filled with well aerated tap water (pH
6.5-7.0). The fish selected for the test were visibly free of any
deformities, lesions or diseases. The 96 hrs static bio-assay
was conducted to assess acute toxicity of mercuric chloride
as described in standard methods APHA et al.,1980. The food
was not provided 24h before and during the acute toxicity
test.
After determining the exploratory range of mercuric
chloride conc. the definite acute toxicity test was conducted
by placing a set of ten fishes in each of eight aquaria as having
different concentrations of mercuric chloride i.e. 1.375,1.125,
1.0,0.937,0.875,0.750, 0.625 and 0.50 mg/L. A control aquarium
was allowed to run simultaneously. Mortality rate of the fish
was recorded after 24, 48, 72 and 96h and observations were
made on their behavioral response to the toxic substance
during the exposure period. A fish was considered dead when
observed to be totally immobile with no opercula movement
seen when probed with a glass rod. The experimental setup
was constantly monitored to observe the changes in the
behavior of the fishes while the dead fishes were removed
from the aquaria. The control and each test concentration of
mercuric chloride were tested in duplicate. The control and
each test concentration of lead chloride were tested in
duplicate.
LC 50
value of mercuric chloride for C. punctatus was
determined by arthmatical method and also for the graphical
interpolation taking logarithms of mercuric chloride
concentration on x-axis and probit value of percentage
mortality on y-axis (Finney, 1971). The fiducial limits of LC
50
values were calculated by the probit computation at 95%
confidence at normal variate (Mead and Curnow, 1983; Lewis,
1984).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In the present study LC 50
values of mercuric chloride for
the C.punctatus at 24, 48, 72 and 96h were found to be same
by graphical interpolation and arithmetical method i.e.0.9542,
0.9450 ,0.7187 and 0.6413 mg/L respectively (Fig.1,2,3 and 4).
The fiducial limits calculated for LC 50
values have been shown
in table 1.The data on per centage mortality clearly revealed
that with the increase in the time period the mortality of the
test organism increases. The probable reason for such finding
may be that the toxicant has regular mode of action and due to

LAL et al., Acute Toxicity of Mercuric Chloride to Channa punctatus (Bloch) 649
Table 1.
Percentage mortality of Channa punctatus (Bloch) at different concentrations of mercuric chloride over period upto
96 hours (Number of fish in each case was ten)
Exposure time
in hours
Control 0.50
mg/L
0.625
mg/L
0.750
mg/L
0.875
mg/L
0.937 mg/L 1.0 mg/L 1.250
mg/L
1.375 mg
/L
LC 50 (with 95% confidence
limits
24 hours - 10 15 20 40 50 60 100 100 0.9542(0.8989-1.0130)
48 hours - 10 20 25 40 50 60 100 100 0.9450(0.8870-1.0067)
72 hours - 10 30 50 75 85 90 100 100 0.7187(0.6967-0.7414)
96 hours - 30 50 60 70 80 90 100 100 0.6413(0.6058-0.6788)
- = No mortality
Fig. 1.
Relation between probit of mortality of Channa
punctatus at 24h and dose of mercuric chloride
Fig. 3.
Relation between probit of mortality of Channa
punctatus at 72h and dose of mercuric chloride
Fig. 2.
Relation between probit of mortality of Channa
punctatus at 48h and dose of mercuric chloride
Fig. 4. Relation between probit of mortality of Channa
punctatus at 96h and dose of mercuric chloride

650 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
its accumulation and subsequent magnification leads to the
death of the fish. Mercuric chloride has lethal action due to its
toxic actions on the bio-chemical processes related to cellular
metabolic pathways thus, disrupting enzyme-mediated
processes or maybe disrupting the cellular structures leading
to death of animal (Agarwal,1991).
During the experimentation the test fishes in the
aquaria exposed to different graded concentrations of mercuric
chloride exhibited abnormal behavior. When compared to the
fishes in the control aquaria the fishes in the treated aquaria
showed very fast to and fro movement, their opercular activity
became fast and the process of surfacing was quite fast for
gulping fresh air. This may be due to the result of excessive
elimination of skeletal minerals (Pragatheeswaran et al.,
1987).The fishes gradually showed hyper- excitability,
spiraling, and erratic swimming with frequent jerky movements.
At a later stage as the exposure time increased convulsions
started and these movements subsequently reduced and the
fishes became sluggish. Behavioral changes of hyper-activity
and jumping observed in the treated fishes may be due to skin
irritation, respiratory rate impairment and coughing induced
by the toxicant on the fishes. Death might be due to increased
heart failure, hypertension, gastric hemorrhage, heart failure,
suffocation etc.(Tawari-Fufeyin et al.,2008).On the body
surface their was a visible increase in body depigmentation
along with profuse mucous secretion and its coagulation all
over the body. Heavy exudation of mucous over the body
and body depigmentation may be due to dysfunction of
endocrine/pituitary gland under the toxic stress causing
changes in the number and area of mucous glands and
chromatophores (Pandey et al., 1990). Later on, fish struggled
hard for aerial breathing with their restrictive swimming
movements and indicated poor response to external stimulant
which was followed by loss in equilibrium and fish moved
upward in vertical direction.Thereafter,fish became
progressively lethargic and lost their sense of equilibrium
completely. These fishes later laid down at the bottom of the
aquaria with their belly upward before their death (Agarwal,
1991; Pragatheeswaran et al.,1987; Pandey et al., 1990).
The above cited behavioral abnormalities of the fish
and subsequent death implies that the toxic effect is mediated
through the distributed nervous/cellular enzyme system
affecting the respiratory function and nervous system, which
are involved in controlling almost all the vital activities. Thus,
it is concluded from the present study that the fish are highly
sensitive to mercuric chloride toxicity and their mortality rate
is dose and dose-time dependent.
LITERATURE CITED
Agrawal, S.K., 1991. Bioassay evaluation of acute toxicity levels of
mercuric chloride to an air breathing fish Channa punctatus (Bloch)
: Mortality and behaviour study. J. Environ. Biol., 12(2): 99-106.
APHA, AWWA and WPCF, 1980. Standard methods for the examination
of water and waste water. 15 th Ed. Publ. Hlth. Assoc., New York,
USA.
Finny, D.J., 1971. Probit Analysis.University Press, Cambridge. pp.
333.
Gupta, A.K. and V.K. Rajbanshi, 1995. Mercury poisoning Architectural
changes in the gill of Rasbore deniconius (Ham) J. Environ. Biol.,
16(1): 33-36.
Kumar, A and Gupta A.K., 2006. Acute toxicity of mercury to the
fingerlings of Indian major crops (Catla, rohu and mrigal) in relation
to water hardness and temperature. J. Environ. Biol., 27(1): 89-92.
Mead, R. and R.N. Curnow, (1983. St. Method in Agriculture and
Experimental Biology. Chapman and Hall, New York., pp. 125-
144.
Pandey, A., G.K. Kunwar and J.S. Dutta Munshi, 1990. Integumentary
chromatophores and mucus glands of fish as indicator of heavy
metal pollution. J. Freshwater Biol.117:124.
Pragatheeswaran, V., P. Loganathan. R. Natarajan and V.K. Venugopalan,
1987. Cadmium induced vertebral deformities in an estuarine fish
Ambossis commersoni. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 94(4): 389-393.
Sukhovaskaya, I.V., L.P. Smimov, N.N. Nemova and V.T. Komov, 2001.
Effect of mercurium on the fractional composition of the low
molecular pesticides of musculature in the prech, Perca flaviatiles,
Voprosyikhtiol; 41(5): 699-703.
Tawari-Fufeyin, P., J. Igetei and Okoidigun, M.E., 2008. Changes in the
catfish (Claris gariepinus) exposed to acute cadmium and lead
poisoning. Biosci. Res. Comm. 20(5): 271-276.
Lewis, A.E., 1984. Biostatistics.Van Nostrand Reinhold Company
Inc.,New York. pp. 48-100.
Recieved on 21-03-2013 Accepted on 24-04-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 651-654, 2013
Comparision of Screening Methods for Detection of Extended Spectrum
- Lactamases
ANKITA GAUTAM 1 , ANIL CHATURVEDI 2 AND SANGEETA SHUKLA
Department of Dairy Microbiology, Sam Higginbottom Institute of Agriculture Technology and Sciences,
Allahabad, India- 211007
email: ankita.gautam149@gmail.com 1 , anilchaturvedi15@gmail.com 2
ABSTRACT
Extended spectrum beta lactamases are defined as beta
lactamases capable of hydrolyzing oxyiminocephalosporins and
are inhibited by beta lactamases. A total of 100 samples were
screened from which 32 (32%) showed the positive result for
E.coli, 25% for K.pneumoniae, 9.37% for Proteus vulgaris, 12.5%
for Enterobacter aerogenes, and 18.75% for Citrobacter spp. The
ESBL production was detected and the comparison were done
between the different methods, the sensitivity of double disc
method for detection of ESBL production in E.coli was 67%
with positive predictive value (PPV) 71% followed by idometric
tube test with sensitivity 55% and PPV 57%. The present study
showed the highest prevelence of E.coli among the urine
samples causing various infections due to advent ESBL
producers which posted great threat to the use of many classes
of antibiotics particularly Cephalosporins and it was referred
that the double disc synergy (DDS) method to the best and
rapid method for ESBL detection.
Key words
Escherichia coli, Extended spectrum beta lactamases,
Sensitivity, positive predictive value (PPV) and
negative predictive value (NPV)
Extendedspectrum - lactamases (ESBLs) are defined
as - lactamases capable of hydrolyzing
oxyiminocephalosporins and are inhibited by - lactamase
inhibitors (Babypadmini and Apalaraju, 2004). The production
of extended spectrum - lactamases (ESBLs) is one of the
major sources of resistance to extended-spectrum
cephalosporins in Enterobacteriaceae (Oteo, et al., 2006).
Gram-negative microorganisms producing extended-spectrum
- lactamases (ESBLs) were recognized in the early 1980s,
shortly after the introduction of the oxyimino - lactam agents.
ESBLs are enzymes most commonly derived from TEM or
SHV parents, but the prevalence of CTX-M (cefotaxime) types
has increased dramatically since 1995 in most parts of the
world. Typically, the isolation of ESBLs has occurred in the
hospital setting, but this organism has begun to disseminate
in the community (Calbo, et al., 2006).
ESBL producing bacteria may appear falsely susceptible
to certain extended spectrum cephalosporins in-vitro
susceptibility tests. The double disc synergy test is most
widely used due to its simplicity and case of interpretation.
The inhibitor potentiated disc diffusion (IPD) test is another
useful test for detection of ESBL activity by measuring zone
augmentation (Ho, et al., 2000).
Beta lactamases are the enzymes which destroy the beta
lactam ring of the beta lactam antibiotics. They mainly binds
to and prevent the action of penicillin binding proteins
(PBPs),which are responsible for binding and maintenance of
peptidoglycan layer. So the beta lactam agent become so
changed in its chemical structure that it is no longer recognized
by the enzymes responsible for making the peptidoglycan
layer of the bacterial cell wall (Mumtaz, et al., 2006). The
widespread use of antibiotics led to the emergence of multidrug
resistant organism of low virulence like E. coli causing serious
opportunistic infections. Over the last 15 years numerous
outbreak of infections with organisms producing ESBL ’ s have
been observed worldwide. The advent of ESBL producers
has posted a great threat to the use of many classes of
antibiotic particularly cephalosporins. The objective of the
present study was to determine the prevalence and antibiotic
sensitivity patterns of ESBL producing E.coli which were
isolated from various samples from the hospital patients in
Allahabad city, India.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Collection of sample: Mid-stream urine was collected
aseptically in a sterilized container. In case of inevitable delay
urine was stored in refrigerator at 4°C.
Isolation and Identification: The initial isolation of pathogenic
strains from different urine samples was done on MacConkey’s
Agar. Then it was incubated at 37°C for 48 hrs (Sharma, et al.,
2007). The isolates were identified on the basis of characters
as given in Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology (Holt,
et al., 1984).
Detection of ESBL Production:
1. Idometric Test (Tube Method): Benzylpenicilline, 6 mg/
ml in 0.1M Phosphate buffer pH 6.0, was distributed in
0.1 ml quantities in tubes. Bacterial growths from agar
plates were suspended in these solutions until they were
heavily turbid. The suspension was held at room
temperature for 30-60 min, then 20µl volumes of 1%(w/
v) soluble starch in distilled water was added, followed
by 20µl of 2%(w/v) iodine in 53%(w/v) aqueous

652 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
potassium iodide. - lactamase activity was
demonstrated by decolourization of the iodine within 5
min (Livermore and Brown, 2001).
2. Acidimetric Tests (Tube Method): In this tube method,
2 ml of 0.5% (w/v) aqueous phenol red solution will be
diluted with 16.6 ml distilled water and 1.2 gm of
benzylpenicillin was added. The pH will be adjusted to
8.5 with 1M NaOH. The resulting solution will be violet
in colour. 100µl portions will be distributed in to tubes
and will be inoculated with bacteria from culture plates
which will produce dense suspensions. A yellow colour
within 5 min indicates - lactamase activity (Livermore
and Brown, 2001).
Confirmatory tests for ESBL in E.coli:
1. Double disc test : The isolated strains were
preinoculated in nutrient broth and were incubated for
24hrs at 37°±1°C.This bacterial suspension was
swabbed on Mueller- Hinton agar medium. The antibiotic
discs of Amoxicillin +clavulanic acid (20+10µg) and
cefotaxime (30µg) were placed at a distance of 15 mm
apart and incubated. Organism showing a clear extension
of cefotaxime inhibition zone towards the disc containing
clavulanate was considered as positive for ESBL
production (Jarlier, et al., 1988).
2. Combined disc method : The isolated strains were
preinoculated in nutrient broth and were incubated for
24hrs at 37±1°C.The bacterial suspension was swabbed
on Mueller- Hinton agar media and the disc of ceftazidime
(30µg) and ceftazidime plus clavulanic acid (30+10µg)
was placed at 15mm apart on Mueller- Hinton agar and
incubated at 37°±1°C for 24 hrs .The isolates with e” 5
mm increase in zone diameter of ceftazidime +clavulanate
discs and that of ceftazidime disc alone was considered
as ESBL producers (Bal, 2000).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Prevalence of Escherichia coli from urine samples:
A total no. of 100 urine samples was collected from
different patients from various hospitals in Allahabad city.
Out of these 100 samples 32 isolates were positive in which 11
(34.37%) were found to be positive for E.coli and the remaining
8 (25%) were K.pneumoniae, 3(9.37%) Proteus vulgaris, 4
(12.5%) Enterobacter aerogenes, and 6 (18.75%) Citrobacter
spp.
In comparison to the present study Ullah, et al., 2009
reported an incidence of 33.9% of E.coli in urine sample. A
similar incidence 39.5% was also reported by Sharma, et al.,
2007 which is in agreement with the findings of present study.
Slightly higher incidence (49%) was reported by Jha and Bapat,
2005 respectively. The incidence (24.5%) reported by Irajian
and Moghandas, 2010 was found to be lower in comparison
with the present study. A higher incidence of E.coli with
71.3%, 81% and 61% were also reported by Vasquez and Hand,
2004, Bhowmick and Rashid, 2004 and Khan and Zaman, 2006
respectively. In comparison to the present observation very
higher incidence 53.4% of E.coli in urine samples were
reported by Ehimudia, 2003.
Sharma, et al., 2007 in study concluded this fact of higher
incidence of E.coli at unnatural sites in human intestine which
can cause variety of infections including UTI showing 39.5%
incidence of E.coli in urine samples. Similarly Gupta, et al.,
2001 also reported the higher percentage of E.coli as
uropathogens among the other members of
Enterobacteriaceae.
Citrobacter spp.
18.75%
Enterobacter
aerogenes
12.5%
Proteus vulgaris
9.37%
Fig. 1. Prevalence of E.coli in urine samples
Klebsiella
pneumoniae
25%
E.coli
34.37%
Comparison of screening methods for ESBL producing
E.coli strains
The two direct tests were used for the detection of ESBL
production in the isolated E.coli that is iodometric and
acidimetric (tube test). They are mainly the hydrolysis of
penicillin to a colour change mediated by iodine or a pH
indicator. Two confirmatory tests were done in which
chromogenic cephalosporins are very specific. The
sensitivities, specificities, PPV and NPV values of the four
methods were used for the comparison of screening methods
for the detection of the ESBL production in E.coli where the
sensitivity relates to the test’s ability to identify positive
results, similarly specificity relates to the ability of the test to
identify negative results. In diagnostic testing, the positive
predictive value (PPV) is the proportion of subjects with
positive test results which are correctly diagnosed. It is a
critical measure of the performance of a diagnostic method, as
it reflects the probability that a positive test reflects the
underlying condition being tested and the NPV (negative
predictive value) is defined as the proportion of subjects with
a negative test result which are correctly diagnosed. The
methods with highest sensitivity for detection of ESBL was
the DDM 67%; PPV,71%, followed by iodometric tube test

GAUTAM et al., Comparision of Screening Methods for Detection of Extended Spectrum - Lactamases 653
with sensitivity 55%;PPV,57% followed by acidimetric tube
test with sensitivity of 36%;PPV,38% and the lowest sensitivity
value for the combined disc method that is 17%;PPV,19%.
The double disk method showed the highest sensitivity
and PPV among all the methods, i.e., 67% and 71% respectively,
which is comparable to the result reported by Wiegand et al.,
2007, in which they concluded that the double disk method
showed the highest PPV value among all the test methods i.e.
98% and highest specificity (97%) that is in contrast with the
results of the present study concluding the DDM to be the
best method for the detection of ESBL.
Azevedo, 2004 also compared for three methods for the
detection of ESBL and reported that the double disk method
showed the highest result for the ESBL production of the
isolates (67%) and concluding it as the best method for the
detection of ESBL for the test isolates.
Ho, et al., 2000 reported that at an inter disc with of
25mm allows another 20 isolates to be detected giving a
sensitivity of 97.9%. They also told that double disk synergy
test is most widely used as it is simple and reliable option. In
the present study the double disc method was found to be
the best method due to its simplicity and ease of interpretation
(Ho, et al., 2000).
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Fig. 2.
Iodometric (Tube test)
Double disc method
Acidimetric (Tube test)
Combined disc method
Sensitivity (%) Specificity (%) PPV (%) NPV (%)
Comparison of screening methods for ESBL producing
E.coli strains
In conclusion, the fairly higher incidence of ESBL
producing E.coli being found in urine samples of patients is
quiet alarming, as these organisms are being resistance to
Extended Spectrum cephalosporins. It is the major threat to
the use of many classes of antibiotics particularly
cephalosporins. Hence the comparison was done between
the different methods according to the sensitivities,
specificities, PPV (positive predictive value) and NPV
(Negative predictive value) for the detection of Extended
Spectrum â Lactamases in the above study and was found
that double disc method with highest sensitivity value is the
most effective method for the detection of ESBL production,
followed by iodometric test. So more elaborated and detailed
study on this aspect is required to solve this problem and
more new technique like gene chip technology may allow
precise routine identification and other resistance determinants
in diagnostic laboratories.
LITERATURE CITED
Azevedo, P. A. D., Goncalves, S. L. A., Musskopf M. I., Ramos, G. C.
and Dias, G. A. C. 2004. Laboratory Tests in the Detection of
Extended Spectrum Beta-lactamase Production: National Committee
for Clinical Laboratory Standards (NCCLS) Screening Test, the E-
Test, the Double Disk Confirmatory Test, and Cefoxitin
Susceptibility Testing. Brazilian Journal of Infectious Diseases.
8(5):372-377.
Babypadmini, S. and Appalaraju, B. 2004. Extended spectrum â-
Lactamase in urinary isolates of Escherichia coli and Klebsiella
pneumoniae – prevalence and susceptibility pattern in a tertiary
care hospital Indian Journal of Medical Microbiology. 22(3):172-
74.
Bal, S. 2000. Beta lactamase mediated resistance in hospital acquired
UTI. Hospital Today. 5:96-101.
Bhowmick, B. K. and Rashid, H. 2004. Prevalence and Antibiotic
Susceptibility of E. coli Isolated from Urinary Tract Infection
(UTI) in Bangladesh Pakistan. Journal of Biological Sciences. 7
(5): 717-720.
Calbo, E., Romani, V., Xercavins, M., Gomez, L., Vidal, C. G., Quintana,
S., Vila, J. and Garau, J. 2006. Risk factors for community-onset
urinary tract infections due to Escherichia coli harbouring extendedspectrum
â-lactamases. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy.
57: 780–783.
Gupta, K., Sahm, D. F., Mayfield, D. and Stamm, W. E. 2001.
Antimicrobial Resistance among Uropathogens that Cause
Community-Acquired Urinary Tract Infections in Women: A
Nationwide Analysis. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 33:89-94.
Ho, P. L., Tsang, D. N. C., Que T. L., Ho, M. and Yuen K. Y. 2000.
Comparison of screening methods for detection of extendedspectrum
â-lactamases and their prevalence among Escherichia
coli and Klebsiella species in Hong Kong. APMIS. 108: 237–40.
Holt J G, Bergey D H. and Krieg N R. 1984. Facultatively Anaerobic
Gram negative rods. In: Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology,
Vol 1, Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, USA. Ch. 5, pp. 408-423.
Irajian, G. and Moghadas, A. J. 2010. Frequency of extended-spectrum
beta lactamase positive and multidrug resistance pattern in Gramnegative
urinary isolates, Semnan, Iran. Jundishapur Journal of
Microbiology. 3(3): 107-113.
Jarlier, V. Nicholas, M. H., Fournier, G. and Pillippon. 1988. Extended
Broad Spectrum Bera Lactamases confering transferable resistance
to newer Beta Lactamases Agents In Enterobacteriaceae Hospital
Prevalence And Susceptibility Pattern. Reviews of Infectious
Diseases. 10:867-878.
Jha, N. and Bapat, S. K. 2005. A study of sensitivity and resistance of
pathogenic micro organisms causing UTI in Kathmandu valley.
Kathmandu University Medical Journal. 3(2): 123-129.
Khan, A. and Zaman, M. S. 2006. Multiple drug resistance pattern in
Urinary Tract Infection patients in Aligarh. Biomedical Research.
17 (3): 179-181.

654 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Livermore, D. M. and Brown, D. F. J. 2001. Detection of â-lactamasemediated
resistance. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 48:59-
64.
Mumtaz, S., Ahmad, M., Aftab, I., Akhtar, N., Hassan, U. M. and
Hamid, A. 2006. Extended Spectrum Beta Lactamases in Enteric
Gram Negative Bacilli: Related To Age and Gender. Journal of Ayub
Medical Collaboration Abbottabad. 19(4): 107-111.
Oteo, J., Navarro, C., Cercenado, E., Delgado-Iribarren A., Wilhelmi,
I., Orden, B., Garcia, C., Miguelanez, S., Perez-Vazquez, P., Garcia-
Cobos, S., Aracil, B., Bautista, V. and Campos, J. 2006. Spread of
Escherichia coli Strains with High-Level Cefotaxime and
Ceftazidime Resistance between the Community, Long-Term Care
Facilities, and Hospital Institutions. Journal of Clinical Microbiology.
44(7): 2359–2366.
Sharma, S., Bhat, G. K. and Shenoy, S. 2007. Virulence Factors and Drug
Resistance In Escherichia Coli isolated from extraintestinal
infections. Indian Journal of Microbiology. 25: 369-73
Ullah, F., Malik, S. A. and Ahmed, J. 2009. Antibiotic susceptibility
pattern and ESBL prevalence in nosocomial Escherichia coli from
urinary tract infections in Pakistan. African Journal of
Biotechnology. 8 (16): 3921-3926.
Vasquez, Y. and Hand, L. W. 2004. Antibiotic Susceptibility Patterns of
Community Acquired Urinary Tract Infection Isolates from Female
Patients on the US (Texas) Mexico Border. The Journal of Applied
Research. 4(2):321-326.
Wiegand, I., Geiss, H. K., Mack, D., Sturenburg, E. and Seifert, H. 2007.
Detection of Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamases among
Enterobacteriaceae by Use of Semiautomated Microbiology
Systems and Manual Detection Procedures. Journal of Clinical
Microbiology. 45(4) 1167-1174.
Recieved on 15-08-2013 Accepted on 25-09-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 655-656, 2013
Effect of Total Free Amino Acid Content on Pod Damage by Pod Borers in Field
Bean
S. MURALI AND TAVARAGONDI VINAYKA
Department of Entomology, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065, Karnataka, India
email: dr.mmrl@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT
A study was undertaken to understand the changes in
biochemical constituents like total free amino acid content in
two tolerant entries (MAC 3 and LMA) and two susceptible
entries (DB and HA 3) of field bean pod borers namely H.
armigera and A. atkinsoni. The total free amino acid content
was lower in the tolerant entries than in the susceptible ones.
MAC 3 recorded the lowest (6.5, 1.8 and 2.5 %), while HA 3
recorded the highest free amino acid content (8.1, 2.4 and 3.1%)
in leaves pods and seeds, respectively. The mean total free
amino acid content was 7.2, 2.1 and 2.8 per cent in leaves, pods
and seeds, respectively.
Key words
Field bean, Amino acid, Pod borers, Entries.
Field bean (Lablab purpureus L.) belonging to the family
Fabaceae is one of the most ancient legumes among the
cultivated crops. It is supposed to have originated in India
(Rao, 1977). It is an important leguminous pod vegetable of
India and is presently grown throughout the tropical regions
in Asia, Africa, America and in few temperate countries. It is
cultivated either as pure or mixed with other crops, such as,
finger millet, groundnut, castor, corn or sorghum. It is also
grown as a green manure and cover crop. It is a field crop
mostly confined to the peninsular region of India cultivated
to a large extent in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
Karnataka contributes a major share, accounting for nearly 90
per cent in terms of both area (0.82 lakh ha) and production
(0.19 lakh tonnes) of this crop (Anon, 2004).
Biochemical constituents, both in terms of quantities
and properties, in host plants exert profound influence on the
growth, development, survival and reproduction of insects in
various ways (Beck, 1965; Schoonhoven, 1968). Biochemical
constituents such as proteins, amino acids, total soluble
sugars, phenolics, disease related enzymes etc., have been
reported to contribute to the biochemical basis of tolerance to
insect pests.
The present study is undertaken to investigate the
biochemical basis of tolerance to the two pod borers, namely
Helicoverpa armigera and Adisura atkinsoni in some selected
tolerant and susceptible local varieties of field bean.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Seed sample:
The seeds of four field bean varieties based on pod wall
damage. Tolerant (Local Mani Avare and MAC 3) and
susceptible (Hebbal Avare 3 and Dabbe Avare) to pod borers,
namely Helicoverpa armigera and Adisura atkinsoni were
obtained from AICRP (Pigeonpea), GKVK, Bangalore for the
study.
Estimation of total amino free amino acid content: Sample
extraction:
One hundred mg of powdered and oven-dried
sample was extracted in 100 ml of warm 80 per cent ethanol for
1 hour at room temperature. The extract was centrifuged at
6000 rpm for 15 minutes. The supernatant retained was
evaporated to dryness and residue was dissolved in 5ml of
water. The extract was used for estimation of total free amino
acid content.
Estimation:
For the purpose of estimation 0.1 ml of the extract was
added to 1 ml of ninhydrin reagent and the volume was made
up to 2 ml with distilled water. The mixture was heated in a
boiling water bath for 20 minutes and 5 ml of diluent solution
was added while still hot on the water bath and mixed. After 15
minutes of boiling, the absorbance was read at 570 nm against
a reagent blank in a calorimeter.
A standard graph was constructed with lysine as a
standard in the range of 10-100 µg. The total free amino acid
content was expressed as Mg lysine equivalent per gram of
oven-dried sample.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Results indicated that there were significant variations
in the total free amino acid content in all the plant parts among
the different varieties. In the tolerant group, the total free
amino acid content was lower in all the plant parts when
compared to susceptible group. Among the plant parts, the
amino acid content was highest in leaves and lowest in pods.
MAC3 recorded 6.5, 1.8 and 2.5 mg per gm and LMA recorded
6.9, 2.0 and 2.7 mg per gm amino acid content in leaves, pods
and matured seeds, respectively (Table 1).

656 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Table 1.
Total free amino acid content in field bean
varieties, tolerant/susceptible to pod borers H.
armigera and A. atkinsoni during growth under
ambient field conditions.
Total free amino acid content a (mg/g)
Varieties Leaves Pods Matured seeds
Tolerant group
MAC 3
LMA
Susceptible group
DB
HA 3
6.5
6.9
7.4
8.1
1.8
2.0
2.1
2.4
a
- Average of five replications in oven-dried sample
*- Significant
2.5
2.7
3.0
3.1
Mean 7.2* 2.1* 2.8*
SEm+ 0.0741 0.0076 0.0562
C.D. @ 5% 0.2416 0.0259 0.1833
The amino acid content in the susceptible group was
higher in all the plant parts when compared to tolerant group.
It can be noted that among different plant parts, it was highest
in leaves followed by seeds and pods. HA 3 had 8.1, 2.4 and
3.1 mg while DB recorded 7.4, 2.1 and 3.0 mg per gm of amino
acid content in leaves, pods and matured seeds, respectively
(Table 1).
The overall results revealed that the tolerant group had
significantly lower free amino acid content while the
susceptible one had the higher total free amino acid content
in all the plant parts. The mean amino acid content was 7.2, 2.1
and 2.8 mg/g in leaves, pods and matured seeds, respectively
(Table 1). Among the four varieties, HA 3 and MAC 3 showed
the highest and lowest free amino acid content, respectively.
These observations were in conformity with the findings
made by Pandey and Pandey,1978 in castor, sorghum, tomato
and maize, who observed higher concentrations of free amino
acids in susceptible entries than in resistant ones and reported
that the highly nitrogenous diet stimulated reproduction and
increased the population of insects. Similar findings were also
reported by Krishnananda, 1973 as also by Balasubramanian
and Gopalan, 1981 in cotton against jassids and leaf hoppers,
respectively.
LITERATURE CITED
Anonymous, 2004, Fully revised estimates of principle crops in
Karnataka for the year 2001-2002.
Balasubramanian, G. and Gopalan, M., 1981, Role of carbohydrates and
nitrogen in cotton varieties in relation to resistance to leaf hopper.
Indian j. agric. Sci., 51(11): 797-8.
Beck, S. D., 1965, Resistance of plants to insects. Ann. Rev. Ent., 10:
205-232.
Krishnananda, N., 1973, Studies on resistance to jassids, Amrasca
devastancs (Dist.) (Jassidae: Homoptera) in dufferent varieties of
cotton. Entomologists Newsl., 31(1): 1-2.
Pandey, V. and Pandey, N. D., 1978, Factors in resistance of maize
varieties to Sitrotroga cerealella Oliver-amino acids. Indian J.
Ent., 40: 343-345.
Schoonhoven, L. M., 1968, Chemo-sensory basis of host plant selection.
Ann. Rev. Ent., 13: 115-136.
Rao, M., 1977, Genetic studies in lablab (Lablab purpureus L. Sweet)
for green pod yield and its components. M. Sc. (Agri.) thesis, TNAU,
Coimbatore, India.
Recieved on 18-08-2013 Accepted on 21-10-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 657-659, 2013
Cow Milk Sandesh Fortified with Coconut Milk
MANISH KUMAR, B.K. SINGH & J. BADSHAH
Sanjay Gandhi Institute of Dairy Technology, Jagdeo Path, Patna-14
email: bipinsgidt@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Functional Sandesh was prepared from cow and coconut milk
mix in the ratio of 3:2 with 30% sugar & 0.1% sorbic acid. The
prepared product had good flavour, body & texture and overall
acceptability. The sandesh was kept at ambient (30±1 0 c) and
refrigeration temperature (7±1p c) for storage study. The
moisture content (%) decreases whereas titrable acidity and
free fatty acid of the mix sandeshincreases with the increase of
storage period. There was no moderate change in HMF value
whereas the changes in Tyrosine value is more rapid at ambient
temperature than that of refrigeration temperature. The
product had good acceptability up to 16 days but after that its
quality started deteriorating.
Keywords
Sandesh, cow milk, coconut milk
Sandesh is the most popular chhanabased sweet
delicacy of the eastern part of India,especially West Bengal.
An estimated 80% of chhana produced in Wes Bengal is
converted into Sandesh.The chhana from cow milk is preferred
for the preparation of dairy sweets because it produces
product of good body andtexture and required
smoothness.The chhana from cow milk is a rich source of milk
proteins,fat,sucrose and fat soluble vitamins.Now a days
efforts are being made to prepare dairy products with the
milk and non dairy ingredients. The addition of non dairy
ingredients increases the value addition to the
product.Coconut is an indispensable ingredient in many of
the traditional cuisinesof South Asian countries including
India.It has been estimated that 25% of the worldsoutput of
coconut is consumed as coconut milk (Gwee,1998).Coconut
milk is a rich source of fat , protein , minerals and carbohydrates,
so it has great dietic importance.The medium chain fats in
coconut oil are similar to nutriceutical effects.Coconut fat
helps to maintain a healthy ratio of w-6 to w-3 fatty acids ,
when consumed as part of diet.It does not contain cholesterol
and reduces fat accumulation in the body. It is rich in lauric
acidand also a source of disease fighting fatty acid derivative
monolaurinthat increases the HDL cholesterol/serum
triglycerides (Coconut Development Board,2000).Monolaurin
also appears to have antibacterial,antiviral and antifungal
properties(2009).It is not known exactly how much quantity
of food made with lauric acid is needed in order to have a
protective level of lauric acid in diet.Infants probably consume
between 0.3 to 1 gram per kilogram of body weight if they are
fed human milk or an enriched infant formula that contains
coconut oil.This amount appears to have always been
protective.Adults could probably benefit from the
consumption of 10 to 20 grams of lauric acid per day. Coconut
oil also contains medium chain fatty acid , which are not
thought to be stored in the body like other oils and also boost
metabolism and promote weight loss.Talking about the
coconut milk calorie, one cup canned coconut milk contains
445 calorie, whereas frozen milk contains 485 calorie. Raw
coconut milk contains the maximum number of calories which
are approximately 552.The preservation of milk products at
the producers level is difficult due to lack of cold chain. The
preservation of milk products by refrigeration system is
expensive and practically not feasible at village level.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
For the preparation of Functional Sandesh from the milk
of cow and fortified with coconut milk,at first the cow milk
was taken. The coconut milk was extracted from manually
deshelled coconut after removal of brown testa by paring.The
fresh coconut meat thus obtained was washed in water
followed by blanching at 80p c for 10 minutes.The blanched
coconut meat was comminuted in a domestic mixture with
four times the volume of potable water. The comminuted meat
was collected in a cheese cloth and squeezed to extracted the
milk.The cow milk and coconut milk were fortified in
3:2proportion.One litre mix milk was taken in iron karahi and
chhana was made by the method of De and Roy, 1954.The
method of Sen and Rajorhia, 1990 was adopted for the
preparation of Sandesh. Chhana was taken and divided into
two equal lot.One lot of chhana with added sugar was heated
slowly in an iron karahi with continuous stirring cum
scrapping using a light, flat wooden ladel.Theproduct slowly
assumed thick consistency and the contents started leaving
the surface of the vessel. Initial pat formation temperature
was 80p Ñ and temperature reached within 10 min. The second
lot of chhana was added at this stage in karahi. The heating
,stirring and scrapping were continued until the product
developed cooked flavour and reached final pat formation
stage.Cooking was completed in 15-20 min.The product was
allowed to cool for 10 min.and transferred to a stainless steel
tray for setting. The product now cut into desired size and
shape. This is ready to serve the sandesh and stored for
analytical analysis.The moisture content, ash content,titrable
acidity, free fatty acid of coconut milk sandesh was determined
by the method mentioned in BIS, 1981. The fat content was

658 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Table 1.
Storage Moisture (%) TA(%LA) FA(% oleic acid) HMF(micro-mol/
100gm)
Days Ambient Refrigerated
Ambient Refrigerated Ambient Refrigerated Ambient Refrigerated
Temp
Temp. Temp. (7±1°C) Temp. Temp. Temp. Temp.
(30±1°C) Temp. (30±1°C)
(30±1°C) (7±1°C) (30±1°C) (7±1°C)
(7±1°C)
Tyrosine (mg/100gm)
Ambient
Temp.
(30±1°C)
0 25.58 25.58 0.51 0.51 0.20 0.26 0.381 0.381 10.35 10.35
2 24.81 25.11 0.54 0.52 0.32 0.28 0.392 0.385 11.49 10.87
4 23.70 24.90 0.63 0.53 0.37 0.31 0.409 0.391 12.97 11.41
6 22.57 24.49 0.70 0.55 0.44 0.33 0.420 0.399 14.34 12.30
8 23.98 0.59 0.36 0.406 12.81
10 23.34 0.64 0.38 0.412 13.43
12 22.65 0.67 0.41. 0.417 13.89
14 22.57 0.70 0.44 0.421 14.32
16 22.49 0.74 0.46 0.426 14.88
Refrigerate
d
(7±1°C)
determined by Rose-Gottlieb method.The protein of the
product was estimated by Rowland’s method, 1938. The total
carbohydrates were calculated by difference. The HMF value
content in the sample was estimated by Keeney and Bassette,
1959. The tyrosine value was estimated according to the
method of Juffs(1973).Further different ratio of coconut milk
and cow milk were fortified to prepare the sandesh and these
products were evaluated for different sensory characteristics
by nine point hedonic scale(BIS,1981).The prepared sandesh
from (3:2) ratio of cow milk and coconut milk were evaluated
for different sensory characteristics by nine point hedonic
scale (BIS, 1981).The prepared sandesh(3:2) were kept at
ambient and refrigeration temperature for storage to evaluate
the chemical changes.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
In the formulation of coconut milk fortifiedsandesh, it is
not only essential to standardize the ratio ofcoconut milk and
cow milk but also to make it of good body andtexture,taste
and of long shelf life. Emphasis was thereforegiven on mixing
of cow milk with coconut milk with view to standardize there
level and profile to make the product palatable and nutritionally
rich. Coconut milk is rich source of fat,protein,minerals and
carbohydrate. The medium chain fat in coconut oil are similar
to fat in mother milk and have similar nutritional effects.
Coconut oil is a good source ofmonolaurin, utilized for the
treatment of dental carries, peptic ulcers, genital herpes,
hepatitic c as well as HIV/ AIDS (Lee, 2001, Enig, 2002).
Attempts were made to prepare the sandesh from the different
level offortified cow milk and coconut milk i.e. (25,40,50,60%)
and it was found that 3:2 blends gives the best result. The fat
contents in sandesh increased and the protein content
decreased with addition of coconut milk to cow milk. The ash
content increased from 1.45 in the control cow milk sandesh
to 1.65 in the coconut milk sandesh prepared from 3:2 blend.
There was no significant variation in carbohydrate content.
The final composition of coconut milk sandesh was found to
be (3:2) total solids 74.42%, fat 23.43%, protein 15.5%, total
carbohydrates 33.26 % and ash contain 1.63%.
As far as sensory quality concerned the product
prepared from cow milk and coconut milk in 3:2 ratio was also
of good flavour, body&texture, and almost similar to cow milk
sandesh.30% sugar was added to the product to get the
required sweetness. The amount of sugar added exerted no
significant influence on the colour and appearance of the
product with the increase in sugar level.The fat protein and
ash content in the finished product decreased. The coconut
milk sandesh (3:2) with 30% sugar and treated with 0.1% sorbic
acid was stored at (30± 1°c) for 6 days and at (7±1p c)for 16
days. The product (3:2) also showed maximum sensory ratings
at (7 ± 1°c).It was found that the moisture content reduced
around 11%in both conditions.The chemical analysis was
discontinued after 4 th and 6 th days onwards in the treated
samples under ambient storage temperature as there was
profuse surface growth which enabled proper sampling of the
product. The refrigerated samples were not affected with
surface growth, but the hardness and grittiness in body and
texture and development of off-flavours lead the treated
samples to become unacceptable after 12 th to 16 th days. Hence
the chemical analysis was carried out up to the respective
days of storage till the product kept well. The sensory
evaluation was conducted on zero day and on the last
respective day the product kept well. This was done to correlate
the chemical changes with changes in organoleptic quality
during the storage of sandesh. The chemical changes were
absorbed in moisture content (%), titrable acidity (%lactic
acid),Free fatty acid (% Oleic acid), HMF content (micromoles/
100g),Tyrosine content(mg/100g). There were also changes
taken place in sensory characteristics as flavour, colour and
appearance, body & texture and overall acceptability. The
changes in chemical constituents (Table 1) in cow and coconut
mix milk sandesh (3:2) were noted during the storage period at
ambient & refrigeration temperature. A gradual decrease in
moisture content (%) was observed throughout the storage
period. The initial moisture content of mixed sandesh 25.58%
had decreased to 22.49% after 6 days and 16 days at ambient
& refrigeration temperature respectively. The titrable Acidity
of mixed sandesh (3:2) 0.51% (% lactic acid) had increased to

KUMAR et al., Cow Milk Sandesh Fortified with Coconut Milk 659
0.70% and 0.74% (lactic acid)at ambient and refrigerated
temperature in 6 and 16 days respectively. The gradual
increase in titrable acidity, imparted mouldy flavour that
rendered the product unacceptable. The Free Fatty acid (%
oleic acid) 0.26 had increased to 0.44 and 0.46 at both
temperature in 6 and 16 days respectively. The HMF (micromoles/100gm)
0.381 had increased to 0.420 and 0.426 in 6 and
16 days at both ambient and refrigeration temperature
respectively. There was no moderate change in HMF content.
The change in Tyrosine content (mg/100 gm) was observed
to be more rapid at ambient than that of at refrigeration
temperature, suggesting that proteolysis was directly related
to the storage temperature. The net increase in Tyrosine value
was 38.55% and 43.76% at ambient and refrigeration
temperature in 6 and 16 days respectively.
The cow and coconut milk fortfiedsandesh(3:2) had good
colour, flavour, body & texture and overall acceptability. As
the storage period increased at both ambient and refrigeration
temperature, the score value for colour, flavour, taste and
overall acceptability showed a decline trends. The overall
acceptability values ranged from 7.7 to 5.1 and 7.7 to 5.4 at
both ambient and refrigeration temperature. The body and
texture of spoiled sandesh was declared to be hard, coarse,
and dry surface towards the end of storage.
It may be concluded that the sandesh prepared from
cow milk and coconut milk in the ratio of 3:2 with 30% sugar
and 0.1% sorbic acid gives best sensoryand chemical result
and was similar to the sandesh prepared from cow milk. The
coconut milk sandesh was effectively stored at (7±1°c) for 16
days without any deterioration and after 16 days the coconut
milk sandesh (3:2) started deteriorating.The moisture content
(%) decreases whereas titrable acidity and free fatty acid of
the mix sandeshincreases with the increase of storage period.
There was no moderate change in HMF value whereas the
Tyrosine value is more rapid at ambient temperature than that
of refrigeration temperature.
LITERATURE CITED
BIS 1981. IS:18 Handbook of food analysis Part XI. Dairy products.
Bureau of Indian Standards ,ManakBhavan,New Delhi.
Coconut Development Board 2002. Coconut oil .Coconut Development
Board, SRV School Road, Cochin, Kerala.
De, S. and Ray, S.C. 1954. Indian J. Dairy Sci.,7:113
Enig,M. 2002. Coconut : In support of good health in the 21 st century.
http:www.apcc.org.sg./special .htm.
Gwee,C.N. 1998. New technologies open the passage into new usage of
coconut milk products in : Food science and Technology in Industrial
Development, Volume I(edited by S.Maneepun ,P.Varangoon and
B. Phithakpol), pp.157-162.Bangkok :Institute of Food Research
and Product Development .Kasetsart University .
Http://altmedicine .com/cs/dieterytherapy/a/Coconut.htm: (2009).1-
4
Http://www.westonaprice.org/knowyourfat/coconutoil.html:(2009).1-
14.
http://www.coconutresearchcentre.org
http://www.iloveindia.com/nutrition/milk/cocnutmilk nutrition.html
Juffs, H.S. 1973 Proteolysis detection in milk interpretation of tyrosine
value data for raw milk supplies in relation to natural variation ,
bacterial counts and others factors .J.Dairy Res., 40:33
Keeney, M. and Bassette, R. 1959. Detection of intermediate compounds
in the early stages of browning reaction in milk products . J.Dairy
Sci. 42:945
Lee, l. 2001. Coconut oil-whey it is good for you .http://www.coconutinfo.com.
Sen, D.C.and Rajorhia, G.S. 1990. Production of soft grade sandesh
from cow milk .Indian J.Dairy Sci.,43(3):419-427.
Sen,D.C.and Rajorhia, G.S. 1997. Enhancement of shelf-life of sandesh
with sorbic acid. Indian J.Dairy Sci., 50(4):261-267.
Recieved on 19-08-2013 Accepted on 17-09-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 660-662, 2013
Study of Heritability, Genetic Advance and Variability for Yield Contributing
Characters in Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L. Millspaugh)
N.R.RANGARE, G.ESWARA REDDY* AND S.RAMESH KUMAR
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Allahabad School of Agriculture, Sam Higginbottom Institute
of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences, Deemed-to-be-University, Allahabad 211007, Uttar Pradesh
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh - 221005.
email: eswarmaagrico@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Genetic parameters for yield and its correspondent characters
in pigeon pea were estimated from a trial with 27 genotypes of
pigeonpea, these genotypes were obtained from ICRISAT
(Hyderabad), various parts of U.P and M.P. evaluated for thirteen
characters related to yield. Low, moderate, and high genotypic
and phenotypic coefficient of variations were observed. High
genotypic and phenotypic co-efficient of variations were
expressed by number of pods per plant, harvest index, biological
yield per plant and grain yield per plant. High heritability
coupled with high genetic advance was exhibited by days to
maturity, days to 50% flowering, days to initial flowering, plant
height, number of pods per plant, biological yield per plant,
grain yield per plant and harvest index so selection may be
effective for these characters.
Key words
Genetic advance, Heritability, pigeon pea, variability.
Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.) is an important
leguminous short lived perennial cultivated as annual crop in
semi-arid tropical and subtropical regions of the world. It is
generally cultivated as a sole crop or as a mixed crop with
short duration cereals or legumes as well as with other crops
like cotton and groundnut. Across the globe, pigeon pea is
cultivated on 4.86/million ha, with an annual production of 4.1
million tons and productivity of 844 kg/ha.
India is the leading producer of pigeonpea in the world
accounting for 4.09/million ha area, 3.27 million tons of
production and productivity of 800 kg/ha (DCA 2011). Fallen
leaves from the plant provide vital nutrient to the plant also
enriches soil through symbiotic nitrogen fixation (Varsheny
et al., 2010). India is the world largest pigeonpea producer
accounting for 90 per cent of the world production. New
varieties have to be developed to attain high yield potential.
For this, basic information on genetic variability and
inheritance of yield and its component traits are essential to
determine the most efficient breeding approaches.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A field experiment was conducted with twenty-seven
pigeonpea genotypes during kharif 2011 at the Field
Experimentation Centre, Department of Genetics and Plant
Breeding, Allahabad School of Agriculture, SHIATS,
Allahabad in randomized block design (RBD) with three
replications. Genotypes spaced with a spacing of 90 cm and
50 cm between rows and hills, respectively. Five representative
hills for each genotypes in each replications were randomly
selected to record the observations for quantitative traits viz.,
Days to initial flowering, days to flowering, plant height,
number of primary branches per plant, number of pods per
cluster, number of pods per plant, biological yield per hill,
number of grains per pod, days to maturity, harvest index,
seed index, pod length and grain yield per hill. Two characters
viz., days to 50 per cent flowering and days to maturity were
computed on plot basis. The mean over replication of each
character was subjected to statistical analysis. The
phenotypic, genotypic coefficient of variability (PCV,GCV),
heritability in broad sense and expected genetic advance
at 5 per cent selection intensity were computed by using
formulae suggested by Johnson, et al., 1955.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
PCV and GCV values were high for number of pods per
plant, harvest index, grain yield per plant, biological yield per
plant, plant height, pods per cluster and days to maturity.
Moderate value of PCV and GCV was observed for days to
initial flowering, number of primary branches per plant, days
to 50% flowering, number of grains per pod, seed index and
pod length. High phenotypic variations were composed of
high genotypic variations and less of environmental variations,
which indicated the presence of high genetic variability for
different traits and less influence of environment (Table 1).
Similar results were observed by Vange and Moses, 2009,
Kalaimagal, et al., 2008 and Gohil, 2006.
The estimates of genotypic coefficient of variation
reflect the total amount of genotypic variation present in the
nature. However, the proportion of the genotypic variation,
which is transmitted from parents to the progeny, reflected by
heritability. Burton, 1952 suggested the genetic variation along
with heritability estimates would give a better idea about the
expected efficiency of selection. Thus characters possessing
high GCV along with the high heritability were valuable in
selection programme in the present study highest heritability

RANGARE et al., Study of Heritability, Genetic Advance and Variability for Yield Contributing Characters in Pigeonpea 661
Table 1: Analysis of variance for thirteen quantitative characters in 27 genotypes of pigeon pea
Characters DIF DFF PH NPBPP PPP PPC PL DM GPP SI BYPP HI GYPP
REPLICATIONS 1.19 1.14 4.74 0.05 320.83 0.02 0.02 3.71 0.02 0.23 403.62 4.88 1.32
(df=2)
TREATMENTS
(df=26)
1230.99*
*
1323.77*
*
7753.38** 15.53*
*
44512.96*
*
4.91** 0.95** 6866.16*
*
1.42** 9.48** 36538.97*
*
181.51
**
2366.63**
ERROR (df=52) 1.06 1.50 14.18 0.30 188.22 0.056 0.022 3.60 0.03 0.58 679.37 7.69 75.12
DIF-Days to Initial Flowering, DFF-Days to 50% Flowering, PH-Plant Height, NPBPP-Number of Primary branches per Plant, PPP-Pods per
Plant, PPC-Pods per Cluster, PL-Pod Length, DM-Days to Maturity, GPP-Grains per Pod, SI-Seed index, BYPP-Biological Yield per Plant,
HI-Harvest Index, GYPP-Grain Yield per Plant ** significant at 1% level of significance.
in broad sense with high GCV was recorded for number of
pod per plants, grain yield per plant and biological yield per
plant.
High heritability (more than 60%) was observed for
characters days to maturity followed by days to initial flowering
(99.70%), days to 50% flowering (99.70%), plant height
(99.50%), number of pods per cluster (96.70%), number of
grains per pod (93.40%), pod length (93.10%), harvest index
(88.30%) and seed index (83.50%). Similar results have been
reported by Patel et al., 1998, Bhadru, 2008 and Pansuriya, et
al., 1998 for Number of pods per plant, grain yield per plant,
number of primary branches per plant, plant height, biological
yield per plant and days to 50% flowering.
Genetic advance is the improvement in the mean of
selected families over the base population (Lush, 1949 and
Johnson, et al., 1955). It is also expressed as the shift in gene
frequency towards the superior side on exercising selection
pressure. Genetic advance when expressed as percentage over
mean is called genetic gain. Johnson, et al., 1955 suggested
that heritability and genetic advance when calculated together
would prove more useful result predicting the resultant effect
of selection an phenotypic expression without, genetic
advance the estimates of heritability will not be of practiced
value and emphasized the concurrent use of genetic advance
along with heritability.
High heritability coupled with high genetic advance was
observed for days to maturity, days to 50% flowering, days to
initial flowering, plant height, number of pods per plant, pods
per cluster, biological yield per plant, number of primary
branches per plant, number of grains per pod, pod length,
grain yield per plant, harvest index and seed index has been
reported. High heritability in conjunction with high genetic
advance as per cent of mean was observed for all traits, which
indicates the preponderance of additive gene action governing
the inheritance of this character and offers the best possibility
of improvement through simple selection procedures. These
results are in accordance with the findings of Satish Kumar et
al., 2005, Vange and Moses, 2009.
Table 2.
Estimation of components of variance and genetic parameters for 13 quantitative characters in pigeon pea genotypes
S.No. Characters V g V p ECV% GCV% PCV% h 2 (bs) (%) GA GA as % of mean
1. Days to Initial Flowering 409.98 411.04 0.98 19.20 19.23 99.70 41.66 39.51
2. Days to 50% Flowering 440.76 442.26 1.02 17.50 17.53 99.70 43.17 35.99
3. Days to Maturity 2579.73 2593.92 2.02 23.82 23.84 99.80 98.45 49.03
4. Plant Height (cm) 5.08 5.39 4.36 27.19 27.26 99.50 104.34 55.85
5. No. of Primary branches
per Plant
6. Number of Pods per
Plant
7. Number of Pods per
Cluster
14774.92 14963.14 6.19 17.64 18.17 94.30 4.51 35.27
1.62 1.68 4.92 54.86 55.21 98.70 248.82 112.30
0.31 0.33 2.83 26.46 26.91 96.70 2.58 53.58
8. Pod Length (cm) 2287.52 2291.12 0.94 10.43 10.81 93.10 1.11 20.74
9. No. of Grains per Pod 0.46 0.50 4.33 16.34 16.91 93.40 1.35 32.55
10. Biological Yield per
Plant (g)
2.97 3.55 6.64 28.31 29.10 94.60 219.08 56.73
11. Harvest Index (%) 11953.20 12632.57 6.75 28.41 30.24 88.30 14.73 54.99
12. Seed index (g) 57.94 65.63 10.35 14.92 16.34 83.50 3.24 28.09
13. Grain Yield per Plant (g) 763.84 838.96 8.87 28.30 29.66 91.00 54.32 55.63

662 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
LITERATURE CITED
Bhadru, D. 2008. Genetic variability, heritability and genetic advance
in pigeonpea [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.]. Abs. Res. on Crops.,
9:(3), 661-662.
Burton, F. W. 1952. Quantitative inheritance in grasses. Proceedings of
the Sixth Intern. Cong. pp. 277-283.
Gohil, R. H. 2006. Genetic variability in pigeonpea [Cajanus cajan (L.)
Millsp.] for grain yield and its contributing traits. Abs. Crop Res.
(Hissar). 31: (3), 478-480.
Johnson, H. W., Robinson, H. F and Comstock, R. E. 1955. Estimates
of genetic and environmental variability in soybean. Agric. J.,
47:314-318.
Kalaimagal, T., Balu, P. A. and Sumathi, P. 2008. Genetic studies in
segregating populations of pigeonpea [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.)].
Abs. Crop Imp. 35: (1), 31-34.
Lush, J. L. 1949. Intra-sire correlation on regression of spring on dams
as a method of estimating heritability of characters. Proc. of
American soc. of Animal Prod., 33:292-301.
Pansuriya, A. G., Pandya, H. M. and Kathiria, K. B. 1998. Genetic
variability and correlation in early maturing genotypes of pigeonpea.
Guj. Agric. Uni. Res. J., 23: 23-27.
Patel, K. N and Patel, D. R. 1998. Studies on genetic variability in
pigeon pea. Intern. chickpea and pigeon pea newsletter 5:
28-30.
Satish kumar, D., Koteswara Rao, Y., Rama Kumar P. V. and Srinivasa
Rao, V. 2005. Genetic diversity in Red gram. The Andhra Agric.
J., 52 (1&2): 443-450.
Vange, T. and Moses, O. E. 2009. Studies on genetic characteristics of
pigeonpea germplasm at Otobi, Benue State of Nigeria. Abs. World
J. of Agric. Sci., 5 (6): 714-719.
Varshney R.K., 2010. Pigeonpea genomic initiative (PGI): an
international effort to improve crop productivity of pigeonpea
(Cajanus cajan L.), Mol breed., 26(3): 393-408.
Recieved on 19-08-2013 Accepted on 11-09-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 663-668, 2013
Ethno-medicinal Forest Genetic Resources of District Sonbhadra, Uttar Pradesh
R. K. ANAND, NEELAM KHARE 1 & S. V. DWIVEDI
Krishi Vigyan Kendra Sonbhadra, CRS Tissuhi, PO- Marihan, Distt. Mirzapur 231310 UP
(N.D. University of Agriculture & Technology, Faizabad)
1
School of Forestry & Environment, Sam Higginbottom Institute of Agriculture, Technology & Sciences,
Allahabad
email: ratananand@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT
District Sonbhadra is one of the important district of Vindhyan
regions of Central India, which is well known for its richness
of medicinal flora. Plants of immense medicinal value are
abundantly found in the forest of this region. But most these
economically important medicinal plants are in the verge of
extinction. Many of the herbal genetic resources found in the
region are generally used to cure indigenous remedies by the
native people. The objective of the study was to assess the
richness of medicinally important forest genetic resources and
traditional medical practice used by the native people. An ethnobotanical
survey was carried out in the region. The information
was gathered from native people using integrated approach of
interviews, group discussion, interaction and botanical
collection during the year 2008-12. A total of 112 plant species
were surveyed and documented during the present study. These
species belongs to 53 families. Highest number of surveyed
plants belongs to family Fabaceae (18). Among all the 112 species,
47 are trees, 32 are herb, 19 are shrub and 14 are climber. The
documented ethno- medicinal uses of plants mostly pertains to
cure asthma, lactation, menstrual problems, poisonous bite,
skin problems, stomach and tooth ache, wound infections, fever,
cough, diabetes, diarrhea, eye infection and general weakness.
During the study it is found that the area is rich in ethnic and
biodiversity and native people especially tribes possess a
valuable treasure of ethno-botanical knowledge. So, the
conservation of these biological resources as well as their
sustainable use is important in preservation of traditional
knowledge.
Key words
Ethno- botany, forest genetic resources, Sonbhadra,
traditional knowledge
India is a varietal emporium of medicinal plants. It is one
of the richest countries in the world as regards to genetic
resources of medicinal plants (Kamalahar, 2010). India with
its glorious past of traditional medical system and use pattern
of different plants is one of the eight megacentres of origin
and diversification of domesticated taxa ((Shiva, 2007), having
rich biodiversity and is one of the world’s twelve megadiversity
countries (Singh, 2010). There are about 500 tribal and
aboriginal communities in India living in close proximity to
forest from which they fulfill their daily needs and health care
(Sikarwar, 2002). Vindhyan region is one of the richest
reservoirs of medicinal plant diversity and district Sonbhadra
is one of the important districts situated in this region. The
district is well known for its richness in medicinal plant
diversity and ethno-medicinal knowledge of tribals and local
inhabitants. The region is characterized by diverse
physiography, ranging from plains, plateaus and mountains
with associated valleys. Due to these resources, the district is
very rich in forest and herbal resources. According to latest
assessment of FSI, 37.43 % of its geographical area is covered
with dry mixed deciduous type of forest, which has several
valuable medicinal plants (FSI, 2013). Local people especially
tribals and traditional herbal healers or medicine man are using
these medicinal plants for cure of several human ailments since
time immemorial. Due to various natural and anthropogenic
factors several forest genetic resources in the area is under
threat of extinction, In addition to this the traditional
knowledge of herbal healing is also at threatened stage
because, the transfer of this knowledge is limited to the a
very small group of native society and current generation is
not giving attention to gain indigenous ethno botanical
knowledge.
Hence, there is urgent need to document the available
forest genetic resources and associated ethnomedicinal
information for future application and scientific investigation.
Therefore, present study has been done to document valuable
information on forest genetic resources of the district
Sonbhadra.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The district Sonbhadra of Uttar Pradesh lies between
23.52 0 to 25.32 0 northern latitude and 82.72 0 to 83.33 0 eastern
longitudes. The area has been known as “Songhati” (golden
vally) due to the richness of its natural resources and Son
river (Singh, et al., 2002). The climate is tropical with average
maximum and minimum temperature of 45.8 0 c and 2.8 0 c
respectively. The average rainfall varies from 800–1300 mm
(Sharma and Raghubanshi, 2007). The red coloured and fine
textured sandstone (Dhandraul orthoquartzite) is the most
important rock of the area. The soils derived from these rocks
are residual ultisols and are sandy loam in texture
(Raghubanshi, 1992) which is commonly known as red laterite
soil (Murram). On the basis of Champian and Seth
classification, Forest survey of India (2013) has categorized

664 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
forest of the district under four forest types viz., northern
tropical dry mixed deciduous forest (5B/C2), dry peninsular
Sal forest (5B/C1c), dry deciduous scrub (5/DS1) and
Boswellia forest (5/E2).
The study was carried out in the area from the year 2008
to 2012, under this study a field survey was conducted in of
district Sonbhadra (Ghorawal, Robertsganj, Chopan, Duddhi
and Chatra bocks) as per the methodology adopted by Jain,
et al., 2010, Singh, et al., 2009, and 2010, Singh and Satya
Narain, 2009, Nath and Kharti, 2010. The information was
gathered from native people including tribals and local
medicine practitioners (‘Vaidhya’). First of all possible forest
genetic resources were enlisted then ethno- medicinal
information on these resources/plants was collected through
personal contacts and interactions, interviews, group
Table 1.
Ehno- medicinal uses of plant genetic resources of Vindhyan zone
discussion, field visits, botanical collection and our own
observations. During this study many remote villages were
visited to interact with the tribals. The information was verified
and cross checked by contacting several other persons of the
area. After that collected information was compared with
published literature to confirm botanical name and family etc.
Finally, 112 ethno-medicinal forest plants/trees were
documented in the form of table comprising botanical name,
local/common name, family, habit, plant part used and ethno
medicinal uses.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The present study has identified 112 ethno-medicinal
forest plants/trees available in region. Table 1 revealed that
out of 112 ethno- medicinally important plant genetic
S. Botanical Name Local Name Family Habit Plant Part Ethno-medicinal use (Diseases)
No
Used
1 Abrus precatorius Linn Ratti/Ghumchi Fabaceae Climbing Leaf, root, seed Sciatica, paralysis, Rheumatism,
shrub
leucorrhea
2 Acacia catechu Linn Khair Fabaceae
(Mimosaceae)
Tree Bark, Root Diarrhea, sore throat, Skin diseases,
Rheumatism
3 Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. Reunjh/Revan Fabaceae Tree Bark Ulcer
4 Achyranthes
Chrchita/ Amranthaceae Herb Whole plant Skin diseases, Piles
aspera Linn
Chirchiri
5 Adina cordifolia (Roxb. Hook) Haldu/Karam Rubiaceae Tree Leaf Antiseptic
6 Acorus calamusLinn Vatch/Batch Araceae Shrub Leaf Mental tension, liver diseases, hysteria,
7 Aegle marmelos Linn Bel Rutaceae Tree Leaf, fruit diabetes, diarrhoea, dysentery and piles
8 Albizia lebbeck Linn Siris Fabacae Tree Bark, leaf, Mouth ulcers, Cough Night blindness
Blood purifier
9 Aloe vera/Aloe barbaridensis Mill Ghikwar/gwarpatha Liliaceae Herb Leaf Diabetes, Vermicide, skin diseases,
blood purifier, liver and spleen diseases
10 Anagalis arvensis Linn Krshnaneel Primulaceae Herb Whole plant Itching over skin
11 Andograhis paniculata Nees. Kalmegh Acanthaceae Shrub Whole plant Liver diseases, Malaria, influenza
12 Anogeissus latifolia Roxb. Dhaura Combretaceae Tree Bark, leaves Liver diseases, wound healing, ear
discharge
13 Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. Kadam Rubiaceae Tree Leaf Stomach pain, wounds, fever
14 Argimone maxicana L. Pili Kateri Papaveraceae Herb Root Skin diseases
15 Argyreia speciosa (Sw.) Samudrasok/ Convolvulaceae Climber Root Fever, cough, chronic ulcer
bidhara
16 Asparagus racemosus Willd. Saavar/
Satavari
Liliaceae Climbing
Shrub
Root
Leucorrhoea, dysentery, to increase
lactation in women and animals
17 Azadiracta indica Juss Neem Miliaceae Tree Bark, fruit, Rheumatism, fever, cough, skin
twig, seed oil diseases, small pox, toothache and
tuberculosis,
18 Bacopa monnieri (Linn) Pennell Bramhi Scrophulariaceae Herb Whole plant Asthma, Snake bite, Mental tonic
19 Bambusa arundinesia (Retz.) Bans Poaceae Tall Herb Leaf Retention of Placenta in Animals,
Willd.
20 Bauhinia purpurea Linn Gulabi kachnar Fabaceae Tree Leaf, Bark jaundice stem bark is used to cure
wounds
21 Bauhinia varigata Linn Kachnar Fabaceae Tree Flower, Bark, Laxative, diarrhea. Leucorrhoea, mouth
ulcer
22 Blumea lacera (Lour.) Merril. Kukraundha Asteraceae Herb Leaf Skin diseases
23 Boerhavia diffusa Linn. Punernava/ Nyctanthaceae Herb root Jaundice, kidney diseases, anemia,
Rakt punernava
body inflammation
24 Bombax cieba Linn Semal/ Semar Bombacaceae Tree Latex, bark, Dysentery; leucorrhoea anemia
leaves rheumatic pain.
25 Boswellia serrata Roxb. Ex Cole. Salai Burseraceae Tree Resin, leaves Rheumatic and joint pain, hair tonic,
Br.
wound healing
26 Buchanania lanzan Spreng. Cheronji,Char/Pyar Anacardiaeae Tree Bark, leaves,
seed
Glandular swellings of neck diarrhea
stomach pain. Cardiotonic

ANAND et al., Ethno-medicinal Forest Genetic Resources of District Sonbhadra, Uttar Pradesh 665
S. Botanical Name Local Name Family Habit Plant Part Ethno-medicinal use (Diseases)
No
Used
27 Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. Dhak/Cheul Fabaceae Tree Leaf, flower, Worm infestation. Eczema,
seed
leucoderma
28 Calotropis procera (Ait.) R.Br. Madar Asclepiadaceae Shrub Latex Skin diseases, Rheumatic swelling,
dropsy
29 Carrissa opaca Stapf ex Haines Jangali karaunda Apocynaceae Shrub Root Fever, laxative
30 Cassia fistula Linn Amaltas Fabaceae Tree Flower Burns
31 Cassia tora Linn Chakvar/titi Fabaceae Herb Seed Asthama
32 Centella asiatica Linn.(Urb.) Mandukparni Apiaceae Herb Leaf Gonorrhea, brain tonic
33 Chenopodium album Linn. Bathua Chinopodiaceae shrub Whole plant Anemia, Vermicide
34 Chlorophytum
Safed Musli Lilicaeae Herb Root Tonic, leucorrhoea, blood purifier,
tuberosum(Roxb).Baker
35 Cissus quadrangularis Linn. Harjor/Hadjori Vitaceae Climber Stem Bone fracture
36 Clitoria turnatea Linn. Aprazita Fabaceae Shrub Fruit, Root Leprosy, diabetes, snake bite
37 Cleome viscosaa Linn Hurhur Cleomaceae Herb Leaf Ear inflammation, cough, malaria
38 Cocculus hirsutus Diels Jal-jamni Menispermiaceae Herb Leaf/Root Dysentery, diabetes
39 Costus speciousus (J. koeing) Keokand Costaceae Herb Rhizome (Root) Inflammation and Span, acidity,
jaundice
40 Cymbopogon martini (Roxb.) Wats Gandhbel Poaceae Herb Leaf Oil Skin diseases, Rheumatism
41 Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Amarbel Cuscutaceae Climbing
Herb
Whole plant Headache, to check hair fall, to cure
swelling
42 Cyperus scariosus R. Br. Nagar motha Cyperaceae Herb Leaf, seed, root Fever, pain killer, to remove dandruff
43 Curcuma zedoaria Roxb Van haldi Zingiberaceae Herb Root Pain killer
44 Curcuma angustifolia Roxb Tikhur Zingiberaceae Herb Root Syphilis, gonorrhea, jaundice
45 Dalbergia sissoo Linn Sesham Fabaceae Tree Leaf,
Bark
Liver disorder, jaundice gonorrhea.
Piles and diarrhea.
46 Dendrocalamus srtictus (Roxb.) Bans/Kathbans Poaceae Tall Herb Leaf Skin diseases
Nees.
47 Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb Tendu Ebinaceae Tree Root, flower Scorpion sting. Leucorrhoea, dysentery
48 Dioscorea bulbifera Linn. Ratalu/
Dioscoreaceae Herb Root Cough, diabetes, urinary trouble
Bilaikand
49 Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Kush Poaceae Herb Root Joindice
Stapf.
50 Diplocyclos palmatus (Linn.) Shivlingi Cucurbitaceae Climber Leaf, Bark Piles, gynecological disorder
Jeffrey
51 Echinops echinatus Roxb. Gokhru Asteraceae Herb Leaf Hair Lice, snake bite, leucorrhoea
52 Eclipta alba (Linn.) Hassk. Syn. E. Bhringraj Asteraceae Herb Leaf Spleen enlargement, liver disorder,
prostrate Linn.
fever, blood purifier, hair oil
53 Emilea sonchifolia (L.) DC. Hirrankhuri Asteraceae Herb Leaf Sunburn
54 Emblica officinalis Gaertn Aonla Euphorbiacea Tree Fruit, Bark Stomach trouble hair tonic, anemia, eye
diseases
55 Euphorbia lingularia Roxb. Sehur Euphorbiaceae Shrub Leaf, Latex Skin and eye diseases, to cure wound
56 Euphorbia hirta Linn. Dudhi Euphorbiaceae Herb Leaf Cough, asthama,diarrhoea
57 Ficus bengalensis Linn. Bargad Moraceae Tree Latex, Leaf To check bleeding, burns
58 Ficus religiosa Linn. Peepal Moraceae Tree Leaf bud Blood Purifier
59 Flacourtia indica Murr. Katar/Kantaila Flacourtiaceae Tree Bark Dysentery, Dog bite
60 Glorisa superba Linn. Kalihari Liliaceae Climbing
Shrub
Root Used for easy delivery, rheumatism, to
clean wound
61 Jatropha gossypifolia Linn Wild Jatropha/ Euphorbiaeae Shrub Latex Pyorrhea & Ring worm, body
Bhakrend
Leaf
inflammation
62 Gymnema sylvestre R. Br. Gurmar Asclepiadaceae Climbing Leaf
Diabetes
Shrub
63 Hardwickia binata Roxb. Parsidha/Anjan Fabaceae Tree Leaf Diarrhea, skin diseases
64 Helicteres isora Linn. Marore fali Sterculiaceae Shrub Fruit Gastric Problem, Scabies, Stomachache
65 Hemidesmus indicus (Linn.) R. Br. Anantmool Asclepiadaceae Climber leaf Chronic cough, diarrhea
66 Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall Khirna, Koraya Apocynaceae Small Tree Bark Malarial fever
67 Holoptelia integrifolia (Roxb.) Chilbil Ulmaceae Tree Leaf Body inflammation and suppuration of
Planch
boils
68 Hymnodectylon excelsum Wall. Bhurkul Rubiaceae Tree Leaf, Seed Diuretic
69 Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) W. T. Kali Dudhi Apocynaceae Shrub Stem Check bleeding in women
Aiton
70 Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb. Siddha/ Lytheraceae Tree Bark Lactation problems

666 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
S. Botanical Name Local Name Family Habit Plant Part Ethno-medicinal use (Diseases)
No
Used
71 Lannea coromanealica Linn Jhingan/Gurja Anacardiaceae Tree Bark Cut and injuries
72 Litsea glutinosa (Lour.)D.B. Maida/Meda Lauraceae Small tree bark Leucorrhoea, urinary disorders, nerve
Robinson
disorder
73 Limonia elephantum Correa Kaitha Rutaceae Tree Bark
Skin diseases (Itching), Body pain
root
74 Luffa acutangula (Linn.) Roxb. Jangali Torai Cucurbitaceae Climber Fruit
Seed
Jaundice
Constipation
75 Madhuca latifolia Roxb. Mahua Sapotaceae Tree Flower, flower, Rheumatism. Body pain. Pyorrhea.
twigs. Leaves Burns and scalds
76 Mallotus philipinensis Lam. Rohini Euphorbiaceae Tree Fruit Skin diseases and blisters in the ear
77 Melia azedarach Linn. Bakain Miliaceae Tree Leaf Cuts & boils, Lice
78 Metaygyna parviflora (Roxb.) Kaima/
Rubiaceae Tree Leaf Wounds
Korth
Gurahi
79 Momordica dioica Roxb. Ex Willd. Ban karila Cucurbitaceae Climbing Fruit, Root Fever, piles
shrub
80 Moringa olifera Lam Sahjan Moringaceae Tree Leaf Fruit Eye diseases, digestive, diuretic
81 Mucuna pruriens (Linn) DC. Kevanch/ Fabaceae Climber Leaf, Root, Pod Vermicide, dysentery,
Jangali Kaunch
82 Oxalis debilis (DC.) Lour Khatti Booti Oxalidaceae Herb Leaf Fever, Scurvy, Piles
83 Plumbago auriculata Linn, Kala Chitrak Plumbaginaceae Shrub Root Acidity
84 Phylanthus niruri Linn. Bhhi-aonla Euphorbiaceae Herb Whole plant Jaundice,
85 Piper longum Linn Pipli Piperaceae Shrub Leaf, fruit Fever, jaundice, piles, cold and cough
86 Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Jangal Jalebi Fabaceae Tree Leaf Dysentery
Benth
87 Pongamia pinnata (Linn.) Pierre Karanj Fabaceae Tree Bark
Malarial fever, toothache, Skin diseases
Flower, Seed
88 Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. Bija sal/Biya Fabaceae Tree Stem, Leaves Diabetes. Skin diseases.
89 Pueraria tuberosa Willd (DC.) Patal kubhra/ Fabaceae Shrub Root, Fruit Tonic, Pain killer, gynecological
vidhari khand
disorder,
90 Rauvolfia serpentina (Linn.)
Benth. Ex Kurz.
Surpgandha/
Dhamarbaua
Apocynaceae Shrub Root Fever, High blood pressure, snake bite,
mental disorder
91 Racinus communis Linn. Arandi Euphorbiaceae Shrub Seed Purgative, carminative
92 Sapindus trifoliates Linn Ritha Sapindaceae Tree Leaf Wounds of animal
93 Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken Kusum Sapindaceae Tree Flower Hair fall
94 Semicarpus anacardium Linn Bhela Anacardiaceae Tree Seed Rheumatism
95 Sida cordifolia Linn. Farabuti Malvaceae Shrub Root, Leaf Leucoderma, Muscular pain
96 Smilex zeylanica Linn Ram datoon Smilaceae Climber Stem Used as tooth brush in toothache
97 Shorea robusta Gaertn. Sakhu/sal Dipterocarpaceae Tree Seed, Resin Tonic, Astringent, stimulants
98 Solanum nigrum Linn Makoy Solanaceae Herb Whole plant Liver diseases, Diarrhea, Fever
99 Sphaerthus indicus Linn Gorakhmundi Astaraceae Herb Fruit, root Mouth ulcer, leucorrhoea, madness
100 Strynos nux-vomica Linn Kuchila Loganiaceae Small Tree Bark, Epilepsy, body ache
101 Syzygium cumini Linn Jamun Myrtaceae Tree Seed Diabetes, diarrhoea
102 Tephrosia purpurea (Linn) Pers. Sarpunka Fabaceae Herb Root Liver and Urinary diseases, Fever,
103 Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.)ec DC Arjun Combretaceae Tree Bark Dysentery, high blood pressure
104 Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn) Bahera Combretaceae Fruit Stomach trouble, menstrual disorder
Roxb.
105 Terminalia chebula (Gaertn) Retz. Harra Combretaceae Tree Fruit Stomach trouble,
106 Tinospora cordifolia (Lour.) Miers Gurch/Giloe Minispermiaceae Climber Whole plant Fever, Typhoid, Piles, tooth infection
107 Urginea indica Kunth Jangali Piyaz/ Van Liliaceae Herb Bulb Scorpio sting, Cracks on ankle and skin
Piyaz
108 Vetiveria zizanioides (l.) Nash. Khas/Ganra Poaceae Herb Root Acidity
109 Wihania somnifera Dunal Ashwagandha Solanaceae Shrub Root, Fruit, Tonic, rheumatism, Diabetes, gastric
Leaves trouble,
110 Woodfordia fruiticosa (Linn.) Dhawa Lytharaceae Shrub Leaf Healing of wounds
Kurz.
111 Xanthium strumarium Linn. Kuthua Asteraceae Fruit Seed Night Blindness
112 Zyzyphus numelaria (Burm.f.) wt.
and Arn
Jharberi Rhamnaceae Tree Bark,
fruit
Dysentery digestive problems

ANAND et al., Ethno-medicinal Forest Genetic Resources of District Sonbhadra, Uttar Pradesh 667
Table 2.
Family wise number of forest genetic resources
having ethno-medicinal uses
S.
No
Family
No. of
Forest
plants
S.
No
Family
No. of
Forest
plants
1 Acanthaceae 1 28 Lytharaceae 2
2 Amranthaceae 1 29 Malvaceae 1
3 Anacardiaceae 3 30 Minispermiaceae 2
4 Apiaceae 1 31 Miliaceae 2
5 Apocynaceae 4 32 Moraceae 2
6 Araceae 1 33 Moringaceae 1
7 Asclepiadaceae 3 34 Myrtaceae 1
8 Astaraceae 6 35 Nyctanthaceae 1
9 Bombacaceae 1 36 Oxalidaceae 1
10 Burseraceae 1 37 Papaveraceae 1
11 Chinopodiaceae 1 38 Piperaceae 1
12 Cleomaceae 1 39 Plumbaginaceae 1
13 Combretaceae 4 40 Poaceae 5
14 Convolvulaceae 1 41 Primulaceae 1
15 Costaceae 1 42 Rhamnaceae 1
16 Cucurbitaceae 3 43 Rubiaceae 4
17 Cuscutaceae 1 44 Rutaceae 2
18 Cyperaceae 1 45 Sapindaceae 2
19 Dioscoreaceae 1 46 Sapotaceae 1
20 Dipterocarpaceae 1 47 Scrophulariaceae 1
21 Ebinaceae 1 48 Smilaceae 1
22 Euphorbiaceae 7 49 Solanaceae 2
23 Fabacae 18 50 Sterculiaceae 1
24 Flacourtiaceae 1 51 Ulmaceae 1
25 Lauraceae 1 52 Vitaceae 1
26 Liliaceae 5 53 Zingiberaceae 2
27 Loganiaceae 1 TOTAL 112
resources, about 32 plants were herbaceous in nature, while
14 plants were climber, 19 were shrub and 47 were tree in
nature. Figure 1 explicated that 41.96 % of the documented
plants is tree, which shows that local people have more ethnomedicinal
use of trees/ tree products in comparison to herb,
shrub and climber. It may be because of permanent/perennial
nature, more abundance and easy identification of trees. Table
2 revealed that among the plant families, Fabaceae(18) have
higher number of ethno-medicinal plants followed by
Euphorbiaceae (7), Astaraceae (6), Liliaceae (5) and Poaceae
(5). The plant parts have different role in the disease treatment.
Therefore, the percentage of plants in regards to plant parts
used were calculated and presented in table 3. Table 3
explicated that the highest percentage of use of leaves were
recorded in 41.96 % of documented plants followed by root
(23.21 %), bark (16.96 %) and fruits (13.39 %). Whereas, use of
bulb in the treatment of various ailments and diseases was
recorded only in 0.89 percent of documented plants. It clearly
indicates that leaves have more medicinal property in most of
the plant in comparison to other plant part.
It is quite clear from the Table 1 that diarrhea, dysentery,
fever, cold, cough, poisonous bite, toothache, skin diseases,
sexual ailments, weakness, rheumatism, diabetes, anaemia,
jaundice and women related problems are the main human
Fig 1.
Habit wise percentage of ethno-medicinal forest genetic
resources
ailments for which locally available ethno- medicinally
important forest genetic resources are used. Similar type of
findings was also reported by Shukla, et al., 2010, Nath and
Kharti, 2010, Singh and Satya Narain, 2009, Anand, et al., 2010
and Singh, et al., 2009 &2010,
During the study it was found that the area is very rich
in plant biodiversity and native people especially tribal and
old age persons possess a valuable treasure of ethnomedicinal
knowledge. Therefore, the ethno- medicinally
important forest genetic resources of the area must be
conserved and its sustainable use should be promoted. In
addition to this, the local traditional knowledge must be
preserved by proper documentation, so that our future
generations can be benefited.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors are grateful to villagers of the study area for
giving valuable information and help during the survey. The
help and support of officer in charge and other scientists
during the study is also acknowledged.
LITERATURE CITED
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chetra ki sankat grast jari butiyan evam unka sanrachan. Vindhya
Krishi, 3 & 4 (3&1) : 86-90.
FSI. 2013. India state of forest report 2011. Forest Survey of India,
MoEF, GOI, Dehradun.
FSI.2013. Atlas forest types of India. Forest Survey of India, MoEF,
GOI, Dehradun.
Jain, D.L., Baheti, A.M., Jain, S. R. and Khandelwal, K.R. 2010. Use of
medicinal plants among tribes in satpuda region of Dhule and Jalgaon
district of Maharastra- an ethno- botanical survey. Indian Journal
of Traditional Knowledge. 9(1): 152-157.
Kamalahar, R. 2010. Medicinal plants conservation and poverty
alleviation in Lalitpur district of U.P. In: Proceedings of National
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on 22 May 2010 by Uttar Pradesh state Biodiversity Board. pp.
150-155.
Nath, V. and Khatri, P.K. 2010. Documentation of traditional knowledge
on ethno-medicinal information from traditional herbal healers in
Jabalpur and Seoni district, Madhya Pradesh. Journal of Tropical
Forestry. 26(3): 26-42
Raghubanshi, A.S. 1992. Effect of topography on selected soil properties
and nitrogen mineralization in a dry tropical forest. Soil biology
and Biochemistry, 24: 145-150.
Sharma, G.P and Raghubanshi, A.S. 2007. Effect of Lantana camara L.
cover on local depletion of tree population in the Vindhyan tropical
dry deciduous forest of India. Applied Ecology and Environmental
Research, 5 (1): 109-121.
Shiva, R. 2007. Status of natural dyes and dye yielding plants in India.
Current Sciences, 92 (7): 916-925
Shukla, A. N., Srivastava, Sharad, and A. K. S. Rawat. An ethno- botanical
study of medicinal plants of Rewa district Madhya Pradesh. Indian
Journal of Traditional Knowledge. 9(1): 191-202.
Sikarvar, R.L.S. 2002. Ethnogynaecological uses of plants new to India.
Ethnobotany, 14:112-115.
Singh, A.K., Raghubanshi, A.S. and Singh,J.S. 2002. Medical ethnobotany
of the tribals of Sonaghati of Sonebhadra district, Uttar Pradesh,
India. Journal of Ethnopharmacology,83: 31-41.
Singh, P.K., Singh, R.H., Vinod Kumar and Verma, R.K. 2009. Medicinal
plants used by tribal inhabitants of Muirpur block of district
Sonbhadra Uttar Pradesh. Flora and Fauna. 15(2) : 211-215.
Singh, Usha and Satya Narain. 2009. Ethno-botanical wealth of Mirzapur
district U.P. Indian Forester. 89(2): 185-197.
Singh, P.K. Vinod kumar, Tewari, R.K., Sharma, Alok,, Rao, C.V. and
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Recieved on 20-08-2013 Accepted on 11-09-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 669-673, 2013
Assessment of Potato (Solanum tuberosum L) Hybrids-Varieties for Table Purpose
Among Yield and Quality Traits
A.K.PATEL, N.H.PATEL, R.A. GAMI, C.R.PATEL AND R.M.CHAUHAN
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, C.P.College of Agriculture, S.D. Agriculture University,
Sardarkrushinagar-385 506 (Gujarat)
email: ramangami@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
To explicated Genetic variability of total 24 potato genotype for
table purpose potato with two different sets viz., 75 days and 95
days of harvest. A wide range of phenotypic variability was
recorded for reducing sugar, plant height, average weight of
tubers, number of tuber per plant and tuber dry matter content.
The high genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV) were
observed for reducing sugar, number of stem per plant,
marketable tuber yield and chip color. While high phenotypic
coefficient of variation (PCV) observed for marketable tuber
yield and number of stem per plant. High heritability value
was noted for reducing sugar (99.98 and 99.96) in 75 days and
95 days of harvest, respectively. The highest value of GA (%
mean) observed for reducing sugar 95.34 (C 1
) and 97.24 (C2).
The average weight of tuber, number of tuber per plant, number
of stem per plant and marketable yield exhibited significantly
positive correlation with number of tuber per plant at both
genotypic and phenotypic levels. The path coefficient analysis
revealed higher positive direct effect on total tuber yield for
marketable yield.
Key words
Potato, Table purpose, Genetic variability, Heritability,
Reducing sugar, total soluble solids.
Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.), a native of South
America, is one of the major vegetable crops of the world. In
India, it was introduced in the sixteenth or early seventeenth
century either by the Portugese or by the Britishers (Pal and
Pushkarnath, 1951). Potato belongs to the family Solanaceae
and genus Solanum, which comprises about 2000 species
and the sub-section potato contains, 19 series and 235 species
(Hawkers, 1944), out of which 200 species are tuber bearing
(Whitehead et al., 1953). However, only two tuber-bearing
species namely Solanum tuberosum and Solanum andigenum
have been exploited worldwide for commercial cultivation. In
intensive agriculture, short duration varieties have multiple
advantages. In Indo-genetic plains potato is generally
harvested at about 90-100 days after planting. It can, however,
be harvested at any time about 75 days after planting. Early
bulking varieties can be sandwiched between the crops in
different farming systems without limiting the biodiversity of
associated crops (Khurana, 2002). The state Gujarat falls under
sub-tropical agro-climatic zone and has a short cool growing
period during winter. However, available period is good enough
to satisfy the crop system requirement of potato. The crop is
traditionally grown in rabi season and is usually planted in
2 nd week of November. It is normally harvested by mid-February
to 1 st week of March with the start of rise in temperature.
Potato growers of the state often face the problem of glut and
lower market prices mainly due to bulk arrival of potatoes
from most of the states during this peak arrival period. To
evade this situation, some farmers are growing an early crop
of potato (75 days crop duration) and selling it before normal
harvesting season to fetch premium prices (Patel, et al., 2002).
Therefore, developing early bulking potato varieties is
essential if potato is to fit in multiple cropping sequences
required to increase the agricultural production in the country
(Shekhawat, et al., 1999).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experiment was conducted during Rabi 2009-2010
at Main Potato Research Station, Sardarkrushinagar
Dantiwada Agricultural University, Total 24 genotypes of
potato were obtained from Potato research station, SDAU,
Deesa and CPRI, Shimla. The experiment was conducted in
Randomized Block Design with three replications during
second week of November and grouped into two sets viz., 75
days and 90 days harvest. Each genotype was represented
by four rows plot of 2.5 m x 3 m size. The inter and intra row
distances were 50 cm and 20 cm, respectively which
accommodated 60 plants per plot. The observations were
recorded for plant height (cm), number of stem per plant,
number of tubers per plant, average weight of tubers (g), tubers
dry matter (%), total tuber yield (q/ha), marketable yield (t/ha).
Analysis of variance was calculated on the method suggested
by Panse and Sukhatme (1978) correlation Coefficient analysis
(Al- Jibouri, et al., 1958) path coefficient analysis (Dewey and
Lu., 1959). The genotypic and Phenotypic coefficient of
variation (PCV and GCV) were estimated as per Burton, 1953.
Heritability in the broad sense, suggested by Allard, 1960 and
genetic Advance (as % of mean) were computed according to
Johnson et al., 1955.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The objective of research was to isolate superior
genotypes from germplasm and which can be used for future
breeding programmes.
Variability and related parameters:
The varietal differences were highly significant observed

670 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Table 1.
Analysis of variance for different characters in potato [Solanum tuberosum L.]
Source of
variation
d.f. Plant height Average weight of tuber Chip color Dry matter Marketable yield
C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2
Replication 1 5.603 1.639 215.053** 86.726 0 0 1.989* 0.527 22.495 40.59*
Genotypes 23 80.012** 75.165** 98.11** 131.867** 1.121** 1.122** 4.64** 4.436** 38.371** 42.297**
Error 23 1.789 1.786 15.305 30.165 0.011 0.011 0.251 0.233 6.184 6.645
*P = 0.05, ** P = 0.01
C1 = 75 days to harvest,
C2 = 90 days to harvest
Contd……,
Source of
variation
d.f. Number of tuber per
plant
Total tuber yield Total soluble solid Reducing sugar Number of stem per
plant
C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2
Replication 1 1.021* 1.021** 30.528 44.429* 0.003 0.017 0.021 0.029 0.083 0.083
Genotypes 23 5.599** 5.983** 40.261** 39.779** 0.034** 0.028** 263.107** 250** 1.015** 1.036**
Error 23 0.04 0.012 6.79 5.657 0.009 0.007 0.06 0.101 0.026 0.032
for all the traits which specified presence of a considerable
amount of variability in studied material (Table 1).
Phenotypic variance:
A wide phenotypic range expressed for plant height,
average weight of tubers, number of tubers per plant, reducing
sugar and tuber dry matter content. (Table 2). The genotype
IPS/ 05-108 recorded the maximum total tuber yield both C 1
(27.51) and C2 (33.24) condition while genotype IPS/05-64
showed the maximum chip color among all the genotypes with
5.45 and 5.10 chip color under C1 and C2 condition, respectively.
The presence result accorded to Dinesh Kumar et al., 2003
and Shashi Kamal, 2011.
Table 2.
Mean, range, genotypic, phenotypic and environmental variance, GCV, PCV, H 2 (broad sense) and GA as percent of
mean for different characters in potato [Solanum tuberosum L.]
Characte
rs
Plant
height (cm
Average
weight of
tuber (g)
Chips
color
Dry matter
Marketable
Yield
(kg)
No. of
Tuber per
plant
Total
tuber yield
Total
soluble
solids
Reducing
sugar
No. of
Stem per
plant
39.93 40.92
47.85 59.45
3.33 3.04
18.76 19.20
15.51 20.55
6.63 7.19
18.31 23.44
4.01 3.79
12.13 11.50
2.58 2.60
Phenotypic Environmental
(broad sense) % of
H 2 GA as
Genotypic
GCV PCV
Mean Range
variance(σ 2 variance
g)
(σ 2 p) variance(σ 2 (%) (%)
e)
(%)
?
C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2
29.20-
57.70
31.29-
62.28
2.28-
5.45
14.66-
20.58
9.46-
24.40
4.70-
13.70
11.46-
27.51
3.75-
4.30
1.13-
43.01
2.00-
4.90
31.26-
57.90
39.23-
77.81
2.05-
5.10
15.70-
22.23
12.65-
29.90
5.50-
14.60
15.46-
33.24
3.55-
4.05
C1= 75 days to harvest, C2= 90 days to harvest
39.11 36.69 40.01 37.58 0.89 0.89 15.66 14.80 15.84 14.98 98.00 97.62 31.91 30.13
41.40 50.85 49.05 65.93 7.65 15.08 13.45 11.99 14.64 13.66 84.40 77.12 25.45 21.70
0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.006 0.006 22.35 24.51 22.46 24.63 99.00 99.00 45.82 50.23
2.19 2.10 2.32 2.22 0.13 0.12 7.90 7.23 8.12 7.45 94.59 94.75 15.82 14.54
16.09 17.83 19.19 21.15 3.09 3.32 25.87 20.54 28.24 22.37 82.88 84.29 48.80 38.85
2.78 2.98 2.80 2.99 0.02 0.006 25.15 24.04 25.24 24.06 99.29 99.80 51.62 49.47
16.74 17.06 20.13 19.88 3.39 2.83 22.35 17.62 24.51 19.02 83.14 85.78 41.97 33.62
0.013 0.01 0.017 0.01 0.005 0.003 2.80 2.70 3.26 3.11 73.73 75.22 4.96 4.83
0.96-
131.52 124.95 131.55 125.00
41.49
0.03 0.05 94.52 97.24 94.53 97.26 99.98 99.96 95.34 97.28
1.85-
5.10
0.49 0.50 0.51 0.52 0.13 0.016 27.30 27.30 27.66 27.73 97.40 96.91 55.50 55.36

PATEL et al., Assessment of Potato (Solanum tuberosum L) Hybrids-Varieties for Table Purpose Among Yield and Quality Traits 671
Table 3.
Genotypic (r g
) and phenotypic (r p
) correlation coefficient of seed yield with quantitative characters
Character
Plant height
(cm)
Average
weight of
tuber (g)
Average weight
of tuber(g)
Chips color Dry matter Marketable Yield No. of Tuber per
plant
Total soluble solids Reducing sugar
No. of Stem per
plant
Total Tuber Yield
C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2
r g 0.275 0.383** -0.241 -0.203 0.018 -0.012 0.147 0.096 -0.044 -0.082 0.059 0.242 -0.315* -0.295* 0.228 0.162 0.156 0.088
r p 0.246 0.300* -0.237 -0.199 0.024 -0.014 0.107 0.058 -0.043 -0.082 0.069 0.214 -0.313* -0.292* 0.224 0.155 0.116 0.056
r g 0.02 0.078 -0.355* -0.239 0.846** 0.705** 0.178 0.279 0.113 0.348* -0.322* -0.328* 0.192 0.396** 0.864** 0.661**
r p
0.031 0.065 -0.325* -0.238 0.749** 0.641** 0.164 0.247 0.038 0.325* -0.294* -0.288* 0.192 0.313* 0.767** 0.609**
Chips color r g -0.148 -0.092 -0.090 -0.117 -0.381** -0.378** -0.439** -0.291* 0.057 0.033 -0.194 -0.294* -0.128 -0.168
r p -0.136 -0.094 -0.090 -0.124 -0.377** -0.375** -0.357** -0.253 0.057 0.034 -0.193 -0.283 -0.125 -0.172
Dry matter r g -0.143 -0.251 0.174 0.103 -0.279 -0.274 0.075 0.101 0.222 0.280 -0.183 -0.239
Marketa-ble
Yield (kg)
No. of
Tuber per
plant
Total
soluble
solids
Reducing
sugar
No. of Stem
per plant
r p -0.163 -0.221 0.171 0.103 -0.218 -0.229 0.072 0.097 0.224 0.263 -0.197 -0.215
r g 0.570** 0.630** 0.189 0.401** -0.112 -0.161 0.416** 0.553** 0.991** 0.996**
r p 0.527** 0.577** 0.107 0.261 -0.103 -0.149 0.360* 0.492** 0.988** 0.993**
r g -0.064 -0.128 0.097 0.131 0.722** 0.791** 0.599** 0.649**
r p
-0.063 -0.115 0.097 0.131 0.710** 0.775** 0.553** 0.599**
r g 0.009 -0.134 -0.203 -0.123 0.081 0.151
r p
0.007 -0.118 -0.175 -0.114 0.091 0.237
r g -0.077 -0.090 -7.269** -6.855**
r p -0.075 -0.088 -0.141 -0.138
r g 1.234** 1.5883**
r p 0.374** 0.488**

672 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Coefficient of variation:
The genotypic coefficient of variation for various traits
varied from (2.80 to 94.52) and (2.70 to 97.24) in C1and C2
conditions, respectively. The high GCV (%) was observed for
reducing sugar (94.52 and 97.24) to followed by number of
stem per plant (27.30 and 27.30), marketable tuber yield (25.87
and 20.54) and chip color (22.35 and 24.51) in C1and C2
conditions, respectively. While the estimates of phenotypic
coefficient of variation ranged from (3.26 to 94.53) and (3.11 to
97.26) in C1and C2 conditions, respectively. The trait reducing
sugar (94.53 and 97.26), marketable tuber yield (28.24 and 22.37)
and number of stem per plant (27.66 and 27.73) in C1and C2
conditions, respectively. The lowest PCV (%) was observed
for total soluble solid (3.26 and 3.11), dry matter (8.12 and
7.45), average weight of tuber (14.64 and 13.66) and plant height
(15.84 and 14.98) in C1and C2 conditions, respectively (Table
2.) This suggested that the greater variability for these
characters among the varieties was due to genetic causes
which are less affected by environment and hence could be
improved through selection method. The result accordance
to Ahmad, et al. 2005 and Shashi Kamal, 2011.
Heritability and genetic advance:
The high heritability is prime requirement to improved
character directly through selection procedure thus heritability
representing in heritable variation for all the characters was
estimated (Table 2) to find out whether high heritability is
governed by additive gene action or not. The high heritability
value was observed for reducing sugar in C1 (99.98) and C2
(99.96) conditions. The highest value of GA (% mean)
observed for reducing sugar (95.34 and 97.24), also of higher
magnitude for number of stem per plant (55.50 and 55.36) and
number of tuber per plant (51.62 and 49.47) and chip color (
45.82 and 50.23) in C1and C2 conditions, respectively.
Correlation coefficient analysis:
The traits average weight of tuber, marketable yield,
number of tuber per plant and number of stem per plant
showed significant positive correlation with total tuber yield
at both genotypic and phenotypic levels (Table 3). The result
of present study is an agreement with that of Pandey, et al.,
2005, Arslan, 2007 and Shashi Kamal, 2011 for different
characters at only genotypic or both the levels. Chip color
showed negatively significant correlation with number of tuber
per plant.
Path Coefficient analysis:
In order to know the direct and indirect contributions of
various components towards tuber yield, nine yield
components were considered causal variable of the tuber yield.
In this cram, The genotypic correlation between marketable
tuber yield and total tuber yield was positive and highly
significant (r g
= 0.991) and (r g
= 0.996) in C1and C2 conditions,
respectively. The direct effect of marketable tuber yield on
total tuber yield was positive and high in magnitude (0.886)
and (1.015) in C1 and C2 conditions, respectively. The direct
effect of the average weight of tuber on total tuber yield was
positive and low in magnitude (0.070) in C1 condition but it
showed highly significant and positive correlation with total
tuber yield (r g
= 0.864). While in C2 condition negative and
low in magnitude (-0.023), but it showed highly significant
and positive correlation with total tuber yield (r g
= 0.661). In
C1 condition (Table 3), which is in agreement with the earlier
researches of Pandey et al. (2005) and Arslan (2007). The
negative direct effect had been drawn for chip color, total
soluble solids, reducing sugar and number of stem per plant
on total tuber yield in present study, which was also concluded
by Desai (1998), Patel, 2000, Pandey, et al., 2005 and Arslan,
2007. Reducing sugar exhibited highly significant and negative
correlation with total tuber yield, which was due to its low
negative direct effect and indirect effect via., number of tuber
per plant. Number of stem per plant exhibited highly significant
and negative correlation with total tuber yield, which was due
to its low negative direct effect and indirect effect via., plant
height, average weight of tuber, dry matter and number of
tuber per plant. (Table 4)
Table 4.
Path co-efficient analysis showing direct (bold) and indirect effects in potato [Solanum tuberosum L.]
Characters
Plant
Height
Average weight
of tuber (g)
Chips
color
Dry matter
Marketable
Yield
No. of Tuber
per plant
Total soluble
solids
Reducing
sugar
No. of Stem
per plant
Genotypic
Correlation with
Total Tuber Yield
C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1
Plant Height -0.002 0.014 0.001 0.004 0.001 -0.002 0.014 0.001 0.004 0.001 0.001 -0.001 0.001 0.003 0.001 -0.004 0.001 0.002 0.156 0.088
Average weight of tuber (g) 0.017 -0.007 0.070 -0.023 0.002 0.017 -0.007 0.070 -0.023 0.002 0.012 -0.006 0.003 -0.008 -0.021 0.007 0.013 -0.007 0.864** 0.661**
Chips color 0.008 0.010 -0.001 -0.003 -0.034 0.008 0.010 -0.001 -0.003 -0.034 0.013 0.019 0.012 0.013 -0.002 -0.002 0.007 0.015 -0.128 -0.168
Dry matter -0.001 0.000 0.016 -0.001 0.007 -0.001 0.000 0.016 -0.001 0.007 -0.008 0.001 0.010 -0.001 -0.004 0.001 -0.011 0.001 -0.183 -0.239
Marketable Yield 0.095 0.059 0.664 0.651 -0.080 0.095 0.059 0.664 0.651 -0.080 0.467 0.585 0.095 0.265 -0.091 -0.151 0.319 0.499 0.991** 0.996**
No. of Tuber per plant -0.004 -0.004 0.015 0.011 -0.034 -0.004 -0.004 0.015 0.011 -0.034 0.089 0.044 -0.006 -0.005 0.009 0.006 0.063 0.034 0.599** 0.649**
Total soluble solids -0.002 -0.008 -0.001 -0.012 0.010 -0.002 -0.008 -0.001 -0.012 0.010 0.002 0.004 -0.028 -0.038 0.001 0.004 0.005 0.004 0.081 0.152
Reducin-g sugar 0.011 0.001 0.010 0.001 -0.002 0.011 0.001 0.010 0.001 -0.002 -0.003 -0.001 0.001 0.001 -0.035 -0.004 0.003 0.001 -7.269** -6.855**
No. of Stem per plant -0.006 -0.009 -0.005 -0.019 0.005 -0.006 -0.009 -0.005 -0.019 0.005 -0.018 -0.047 0.004 0.007 0.002 0.005 -0.025 -0.060 1.234** 1.588**
P d” 0.005, ** P d” 0.001 C1 = 75 days to harvest, R SQUARE = 0.9846 RESIDUAL EFFECT = 0.1240
C2 = 90 days to harvest, R SQUARE = 0.9912 RESIDUAL EFFECT = 0.0939

PATEL et al., Assessment of Potato (Solanum tuberosum L) Hybrids-Varieties for Table Purpose Among Yield and Quality Traits 673
LITERATURE CITED
Ahmad, I., Hossain, M., Islam, G. M. R., Billah, S. K. M. and Kabir, Y.
2005. Genetic variability and correlation studies in potato (Solanum
tuberosum L.). Intll. J. Sus. Agric. Tech. 1(4):30-34.
Al. Jibouri, H.A., Miller, P.A. and Robinson, H.F. 1958. Genotypic and
environmental variances and covariance in an upland cotton cross
of interspecific origin. Agron. J., 50: 633-635.
Allard, R.W. 1960. Principles of Plant Breeding John Wiley and Sons.
Inc. New York.
Arslan, B. 2007. Relationships among yield and some yield characters
in potato (Solanum tuberosum L.). Journal of Biological Sciences.
7(6): 973-976.
Burton, G.M. 1952. Quantitative inheritance in grasses. Proc. 6 Int.
Grasses Congr., 1 : 277-283.
Desai, N.C. and Jaimini, S.N. 1998. Correlation and path analysis of
some economic characters in potato. J. Indian Potato Assoc., 25
(1-2): 25-29.
Dewey, D.R. and Lu, K.H. 1959. A Correlation and path analysis of
crested wheat grass seed production. Agron. J., 51: 515-518.
Dinesh Kumar., R.Ezekiel and S.M. Paul Khurana. 2003. Effect of
location, season and cultivar on the processing quality of potatoes.
J. Indian Potato Assoc., 30: 247-251.
Hawkers,J.G. 1994. Potato collecting expedition in Mexico and South
America-2,Systemic classification .Imp.Bur.Plant breeding and
Genetics.,Cambrige. pp.142
Johnson, H.W.;Robinson,HLF. And Comstock,R.E.(1955). Estimates
of genetic and environmental variability in soyabean. Agron.
J.,47:314-318
Khurana, S.M.P. 2002. Possible R & D linkages and strategies for
sustainable potato production ,processing in India J. Indian Potato
Assoc, 29(1-2):1-18
Pal. B.P and Pushkarnath 1951. Indian Potato Varieties, ICAR Bull,
62.
Pandey, S.K., Singh, S.V. and Manivel, P. 2005, Genetics variability and
causal relationship over seasons in potato. Crop Research Hisar
29(2):277-281
Panse,V.G and Sukhatme ,P.V. 1978. Statistical methods for Agriculture
Workers 3 rd Edn.ICAR,New Delhi
Patel,P.B. (2000). Genetic variability, correlation and stability analysis
in potato (Solanum tuberosum L.). Unpublished M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis
submitted to GAU, Sardar Krushinagar.
Patel, R.N., Shah ,D.S., Patel, N.H., Kanbi, V.H., Khurana, S.M.P. and
Pandey, S.K. 2002. Yeild performance and adaptability of different
potato varieties in Gujarat. J. Indian Potato Assoc., 29: 51-54.
Sashi Kamal. 2011. Variability and association for morphological and
biochemical traits in potato. Indian J.Genet., 71(1):74-77.
Shekhawat,G.S.,Gaur,P.C. and Pandey, S.K. 1999. Managing biodiversity
in potato and associated crops. J.Indian Potato Assoc.,26: 119-
125.
Whitehead,T., Meihtosh,T.P. and Findly,W.M. 1953. The Potato in
health and disease,3 rd Edn.,Oliver and Boiyd Ltd.,Edinburgh, pp.744.
Recieved on 07-08-2013 Accepted on 29-09-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 674-675, 2013
Effect of Total Protein Content on Pod Damage by Pod Borers in Field Bean
S. MURALI* AND TAVARAGONDI VINAYAKA
Department of Entomology, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore - 560 065, Karnataka, India
email: dr.mmrl@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT
A study was undertaken to understand the changes in
biochemical constituents like total protein content in two
tolerant entries (MAC 3 and LMA) and two susceptible groups
(DB and HA 3) of field bean against pod borers namely H.
armigera and A. atkinsoni. The total protein content was lower
in the tolerant group than in the susceptible entries. MAC 3
recorded the lowest (18.1, 21.2 and 23.7 %), while HA 3 recorded
the highest protein content (20.3, 23.1 & 26.5%) in leaves. pods
and seeds, respectively. The mean total protein content was
19.33, 22.08 and 25.05 per cent in leaves, pods and seeds,
respectively.
Key words
Field bean, Amino acid, Pod borers, Entries.
India is one of the largest producer of pulses in the
world and more than a dozen pulse crops are grown in our
country in 22.9 million hectares area with the production of
13.7 million tonnes with a productivity of 600 kg/ha (Anon,
2002). Pulses form the major source of dietary proteins,
especially in developing countries like Asia, Africa and Latin
America. In most parts of India pulses form an essential daily
diet of the people. Because of their high nutritive value in
human diet, the pulses have been considered as ‘meat of poor
people’. Thus, their multifarious uses have made them popular
worldwide.
Infestation by insects activates a complex interplay of
signal between the host plant and insect pest determining the
compatible or incompatible reaction i.e., susceptibility or
resistance of the host plant. Biochemical constituents in terms
of both quantities and properties in host plants exert profound
influence on the growth, development, survival and
reproduction of insects in various ways (Beck, 1965;
Schoonhoven, 1968). Biochemical constituents such as
proteins, amino acids, total soluble sugars, phenolics, disease
related enzymes, etc., have been reported to have contributed
to the biochemical basis of tolerance against insect pests.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Seed sample:
The seeds of four field bean varieties based on pod wall
damage tolerant (Local Mani Avare and MAC-3) and
susceptible (Hebbal Avare-3 and Dabbe Avare) to pod borers,
namely H. armigera and A. atkinsoni were obtained from
AICRP (Pigeonpea), GKVK, Bangalore for the study.
Evaluation of pod damage percentage:
One hundred fully grown green pods from each
replication were selected randomly, opened and examined for
the pod borer damage due to Heliothis armigera and Adisura
atkinsoni and the pod damage percentage was calculated.
Estimation of total protein content:
The total per cent nitrogen content in the oven-dried
powdered sample was estimated by the standard mircokjeldahl
procedure and multiplied with a factor of 6.25 to obtain
total per cent protein content.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In the tolerant group, the protein content was lower in
all the plant parts. Among the plant parts, the protein content
was highest in seeds followed by pods and leaves. The
tolerant variety MAC-3 recorded 18.1, 21.2 and 23.7 per cent
while LMA recorded 19.0, 21.6 and 24.1 per cent protein
content in leaves, pos and matured seeds, respectively
(Table 1).
In the susceptible group, the protein content was higher
in all the plant parts. Among the plants parts, the protein
content was highest in seeds followed by pods and leaves.
The susceptible variety, DB recorded 19.9, 22.3 and 25.9 per
cent while HA 3 recorded 20.3, 23.1 and 26.5 per cent protein
content in leaves, pods and matured seeds, respectively
(Table 1).
The overall results showed that the tolerant group had
lower protein content than the susceptible one s in all the
plant parts. The mean total protein content was found to be
19.33, 22.08 and 25.05 per cent in leaves, pods and matured
seeds, respectively (Table 1). Among the four varieties HA 3
and MAC 3 showed the highest and lowest protein content,
respectively.

MURALI AND VINAYAKA,Effect of Total Protein Content on Pod Damage by Pod Borers in Field Bean 675
Table 1:
Total protein content in field bean varieties infested
by the pod borers H. armigera and A. atkinsoni
during growth under ambient field conditions.
Total protein content a (%)
Varieties Leaves Pods Matured seeds
Tolerant group
MAC 3
LMA
Susceptible group
DB
HA 3
18.1
19.0
21.2
21.6
23.7
24.1
19.9
20.3
22.3
23.1
25.9
26.5
Mean 19.33* 22.08* 25.05*
SEm+ 0.1202 0.1382 0.1958
C.D. @ 5% 0.3920 0.4507 0.6385
a
- Average of five replications in oven-dried sample
* - Significant
The protein content was lower in the tolerant group
over the susceptible one in all the plant parts. The lowest
protein content was observed in MAC 3 and the highest was
in HA 3. In the present study, the higher protein content
observed in the susceptible group may be favorable for growth
and development of the pod borers leading to greater pod
wall damage as compared to that of tolerant group which is in
accordance with the findings of Sahoo and Patnaik, 2003 and
Rupali et al. 2003. who also reported the low protein content
in pigeonpea and chickpea varieties in relation to lower pod
borer infestation.
LITERATURE CITED
Anonymous, 2002. Food and Agricultural Organization, Bulletin of
Statistics, 56: 106-108.
Beck, S. D., 1965. Resistance of plants to insects. Ann. Rev. Ent., 10:
205-232.
Rupali, G., Jyoti, R. and Chavan, J. K., 2003. Biochemical analysis of
chickpea cultivars in relation to pod borer infestation. Indian J.
Agric. Biochem., 16(1): 47-48.
Sahoo, B. K. and Patnaik, H. P., 2003. Effect of biochemical on the
incidence of pigeonpea pod borers. Indian J. Plant Protection.,
31(1): 105-108.
Schoonhoven, L. M., 1968. Chemo-sensory basis of host plant selection.
Ann. Rev. Ent., 13: 115-136.
Recieved on 18-08-2013 Accepted on 25-09-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 676-681, 2013
Assessment of Potato (Solanum tuberosum L) Hybrids-Varieties for Processing
Purpose Among Yield and Quality Traits
C.J. PATEL 1 , N.H. PATEL 2 , R.A. GAMI 3 , A.K. PATEL 4 AND R.M. CHAUHAN 5
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, C.P.College of Agriculture, S.D. Agriculture University,
Sardarkrushinagar-385 506 (Gujarat)
email: ramangami@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Present investigation was mean to explicated Genetic variability
of 24 diverse genotype of potato for table purpose with two
different dates (75days and 90 days after sowing) of harvest. A
wide range of phenotypic variability was recorded for reducing
sugar, plant height, average weight of tubers, chip colour,
number of tuber per plant, tuber dry matter content under both
conditions. The high GCV (%) as well as PCV (%) was observed
for reducing sugar, number of stem per plant, marketable yield,
chip color, number of tuber per plant and total tuber yield.
High heritability and Genetic advance as percentage of mean
values were recorded for reducing sugar. The marketable yield
exhibited significant and positive correlation with number of
tuber per plant, number of stem per plant and total tuber yield
at both genotypic and phenotypic levels. The path coefficient
analysis revealed higher positive direct effect on total tuber
yield for marketable yield.
Key words:
Potato, Processing, Genetic variability, Heritability,
Reducing sugar
Potato crop has wide adaptability and can be grown in a
wide range of agro-climatic conditions throughout the year.
India is the major potato producing country in the world.
Globally, India ranks 4 th in area, 3 rd in production and 10 th in
productivity. About 82 per cent potatoes are grown in plain
areas during short winter days from October to March, 10 per
cent in the hill areas during long days from April to September
and rest 8 per cent in the plateau region in the south-eastern
and peninsular India as a rainfed crop during July to October.
the present research work is planned using different
genotypes potato collected from different parts of country
with following objectives to assess the variability for
quantitative & qualitative characters related to processing in
potato
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The research was carried out during Rabi 2009-2010 at
Main Potato Research Station, Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada
Agricultural University. The 24 diverse genotypes were
obtained from Potato research station, SDAU, Deesa and CPRI,
Shimla. The experiment was conducted in Randomized Block
Design with three replications during second week of
November and grouped into two sets viz., 75 days and 90
days harvest. Each genotype was represented by four rows
plot of 2.5 m X 3 m size. The inter and intra row distances were
50 cm and 20 cm, respectively which accommodated 60 plants
per plot. The observations were recorded for plant height
(cm), number of stem per plant, number of tubers per plant,
Average weight of tubers (g), Tubers dry matter (%),Total
tuber yield (q/ha), Marketable yield (t/ha), Chip color, Reducing
sugar and Total Soluble Solids (TSS). Analysis of variance
was calculated on the method suggested by Panse and
Sukhatme, 1978. Correlation Coefficient Analysis (Al- Jibouri
et al., 1958). Path Coefficient Analysis (Dewey and Lu.,
Table 1.
Analysis of variance for different characters in potato [Solanum tuberosum L.]
Source of
variation
d.f. Plant height Average weight of tuber Chip color Dry matter Marketable yield
C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2
Replication 1 21.938 5.025 119.638 208.458 0.06 0.12 1.599 4.656 42.469 69.794
Genotypes 23 75.638** 81.463** 51.199** 46.363* 1.355** 1.234** 12.237** 10.423** 32.805** 25.593**
Error 23 0.909 1.315 9.626 18.401 0.008 0.008 0.228 0.254 2.725 2.639
Source of
variation
d.f.
Number of tuber
per plant
Total tuber yield Total soluble solid Reducing sugar Number of stem per
plant
C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2
Replication 1 0.041 0.608 41.982 45.591 0.083 0.067 0.127 0.315 0.241 0.653
Genotypes 23 2.846** 1.96 33.7** 26.676** 0.055** 0.042** 122.919** 121.044** 1.169** 1.42**
Error 23 0.189 0.041 2.695 0.457 0.008 0.007 0.019 0.02 0.018 0.008
*P = 0.005, ** P = 0.001
C1 = 75 days to harvest,
C2 = 90 days to harvest

PATEL et al., Assessment of Potato (Solanum tuberosum L) Hybrids-Varieties for Processing Purpose 677
Table 2.
Mean, range, genotypic, phenotypic and environmental variance, GCV, PCV, H 2 (broad sense) and GA as percent of mean for different characters in potato
[Solanum tuberosum L.]
Characters
Plant height
(cm
Average
weight of
tuber (g)
Mean
Range
Genotypic
variance(σ 2 g)
Phenotypic
variance
(σ 2 p)
Environmental
variance(σ 2 e)
GCV
(%)
PCV
(%)
H 2
(broad sense)
(%)
C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2
40.38 42.63 29.20-57.70 31.26-57.90 37.37 40.07 37.81 40.73 0.46 0.66 15.14 14.85 15.23 14.97 98.80 98.39 31.00 30.34
43.46 58.24 34.40-52.27 49.40-65.34 20.79 13.98 25.60 23.18 4.81 9.20 10.50 6.42 11.65 8.27 81.20 60.31 19.48 10.26
Chips color 2.77 2.51 1.23-4.38 1.05-4.08 0.67 0.61 0.68 0.62 0.004 0.004 29.70 31.13 29.80 31.23 99.38 99.36 61.00 63.94
Dry matter 20.17 21.25 14.51-25.51 15.06-26.00 6.01 5.08 6.12 5.21 0.11 0.13 12.15 10.61 12.27 10.74 98.14 97.57 24.80 21.60
Marketa-ble
Yield (kg)
No. of
Tuber per
plant
Total tuber
yield
Total
soluble
solids
Reducing
sugar
No. of Stem
per plant
14.65 18.67 8.87-22.48 13.45-24.66 15.04 11.47 16.40 12.80 1.37 1.32 26.48 18.15 27.65 19.16 91.69 89.69 52.23 35.40
6.11 6.55 4.30-8.70 4.80-8.20 1.33 0.96 1.42 0.98 0.09 0.02 18.86 14.97 19.52 15.12 93.37 97.93 37.53 30.51
18.23 22.45 12.47-25.33 17.34-28.70 15.50 13.10 16.85 13.33 1.35 0.23 21.60. 16.13 22.51 16.27 92.00 98.29 42.66 32.94
4.02 3.78 3.80-4.30 3.60-4.05 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.004 0.003 3.82 3.51 4.11 3.85 85.97 83.23 7.29 6.60
6.85 6.43 0.05-30.68 0.01-30.15 61.45 60.51 64.46 60.52 0.01 0.01 114.38 121.03 114.39 121.04 99.98 99.98 235.61 249.30
2.82 3.08 1.90-5.10 2.30-5.80 0.58 0.71 0.59 0.71 0.009 0.004 27.89 27.25 27.10 27.33 98.44 99.43 54.95 55.98
GA as
% of
?
C1= 75 days to harvest, C2= 90 days to harvest

678 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Table 3. Genotypic (r g
) and phenotypic (r p
) correlation coefficient of seed yield with quantitative characters
Character
Plant
height
(cm)
Marketabl
e Yield
Reducing
sugar
Chips
color
Marke-table Reducing Chips color Total soluble Average weight of Dry matter No. of Tuber per No. of Stem per Total Tuber Yield
Yield sugar
solids
tuber (g)
plant
plant
C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2
r g 0.305* 0.259 0.011 -0.025 0.057 0.090 -0.022 -0.028 -0.119 -0.191 0.136 0.210 0.164 0.108 0.409** 0.353* 0.325* 0.286*
r p 0.290* 0.252 0.012 -0.024 0.057 0.088 -0.019 -0.016 -0.100 -0.154 0.134 0.206 0.167 0.108 0.404** 0.348* 0.309* 0.285
r g 0.074 0.148 -0.012 -0.066 0.186 0.296* 0.163 0.118 -0.356* -0.418** 0.571** 0.493** 0.518** 0.510** 15.241** 12.632**
r p 0.071 0.141 -0.008 -0.070 0.176 0.203 0.168 0.096 -0.338* -0.382** 0.522** 0.482** 0.494** 0.478** 0.993** 0.991**
r g -0.359* -0.348* 0.008 -0.104 0.093 -0.210 -0.392** -0.401** 0.167 0.029 0.034 0.004 1.750** 3.213**
r p -0.358* -0.347* 0.006 -0.095 0.084 -0.163 -0.388** -0.396** 0.162 0.029 0.035 0.005 0.054 0.113
r g 0.141 0.613** -0.196 0.256 0.088 0.044 0.110 0.055 0.334* 0.139 0.043 -0.184
r p 0.133 0.236 -0.176 0.047 0.089 0.057 0.107 0.134 0.330* 0.356* 0.020 -0.069
Total r g 0.376** 0.017 -0.123 0.840** 0.107 -0.210 0.321* 0.139 0.115 0.122
soluble
solids
r p 0.363* 0.551** -0.117 -0.204 0.061 0.037 0.311* 0.356* 0.187 0.218
Average r g -0.416** 13.981** -0.060 -0.372** -0.060 -0.032 2.620** 1.952**
weight of
tuber (g)
r p -0.379** -0.275 -0.027 -0.021 -0.027 0.102 0.160 0.109
Dry matter r g 0.018 5.085** -0.263 0.120 -3.394** -3.153**
No. of
Tuber per
plant
No. of
Stem per
plant
r p 0.021 0.111 -0.256 -0.285 -0.333* -0.373**
r g 0.297* 0.960** 2.504** 1.729**
r p 0.287* 0.240 0.509** 0.479**
r g 1.659** 1.619**
r p 0.532** 0.523**

PATEL et al., Assessment of Potato (Solanum tuberosum L) Hybrids-Varieties for Processing Purpose 679
Table 4.
Path co-efficient analysis showing direct (bold) and indirect effects in potato [Solanum tuberosum L.]
Characters
Plant Height
Marke-table
Yield
Reducing
sugar
Chips color
Total soluble
solids
Average
weight of
tuber (g)
Dry matter
No. of Tuber per
plant
No. of Stem per
plant
Genotypic
Correlation with
Total Tuber Yield
C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2
Plant Height 0.007 0.029 0.002 0.007 0.001 0.007 0.029 0.002 0.007 0.001 -0.001 -0.005 0.001 0.006 0.001 0.003 0.003 0.010 0.325* 0.286*
Marketable Yield 0.284 0.236 0.978 0.937 0.070 0.284 0.236 0.978 0.937 0.070 0.165 0.090 -0.331 -0.358 0.511 0.451 0.484 0.448 15.241** 12.632**
Reducing sugar 0.001 0.001 -0.001 -0.006 -0.010 0.001 0.001 -0.001 -0.006 -0.010 -0.001 0.006 0.004 0.015 -0.002 -0.001 0.001 0.001 1.75 3.213**
Chips color 0.001 -0.004 0.001 0.003 -0.003 0.001 -0.004 0.001 0.003 -0.003 -0.002 -0.002 0.001 -0.003 0.001 -0.006 0.003 -0.017 0.042 -0.184
Total soluble solids 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.115 0.122
Average weight of
tuber (g)
0.001 -0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 -0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 -0.002 0.009 0.001 -0.002 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 2.620** 1.952**
Dry matter 0.001 -0.003 -0.002 0.005 -0.002 0.001 -0.003 -0.002 0.005 -0.002 -0.002 0.003 0.005 -0.012 0.001 -0.001 -0.001 0.003 -3.394** -3.153**
No. of Tuber per
plant
No. of Stem per
plant
-0.003 0.002 -0.009 0.008 -0.003 -0.003 0.002 -0.009 0.008 -0.003 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 -0.016 0.017 -0.005 0.004 2.504** 1.729**
0.020 0.026 0.024 0.035 0.002 0.020 0.026 0.024 0.035 0.002 0.002 0.008 -0.012 -0.021 0.014 0.018 0.048 0.074 1.659** 1.619**
C2 = 100 days to harvest R SQUARE = 0.9874 RESIDUAL EFFECT = 0.1122

680 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
1959).The Genotypic and Phenotypic coefficient of variation
(PCV and GCV) were estimated as per Burton (1953). Heritability
in the broad sense, suggested by Allard, 1960 and genetic
advance (% of mean) were computed according to Johnson et
al., 1955.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The purpose of study was to identify superior
genotypes from germplasm which could be incorporated in
future breeding programmes.
Variability and related parameters
The highly significant Varietal differences were observed
for all the characters showed presence of a considerable
amount of variability (Table 1).
Phenotypic variance:
A wide phenotypic range recorded for plant height [C1
(29.20 to 57.70 cm) and C2 (31.26 to57.90 cm) conditions
respectively.], average weight of tubers [C1 (4.30 to 8.70) and
C2 (4.80 to8.20) conditions respectively], chip color [C1 (1.23
to 4.38) and C2 (1.05 to 4.08) conditions respectively], number
of tubers per plant [under C1 (4.30 to 8.70) and C2 (4.80 to8.20)],
reducing sugar and tuber dry matter content [under C1 and
C2 conditions was (14.51 to 25.51) and (15.06 to26.00)
respectively] were observed in present research (Table 3) which
confirming the existence of variation in the material studied. A
wide phenotypic range for various characters have been
observed earlier by Patel et al., 2005.
Coefficient of variation:
The high GCV (%) as well as PCV (%) was observed for
reducing sugar, number of stem per plant, marketable yield,
chip color, number of tuber per plant and total tuber yield. The
high GCV (%) was observed for reducing sugar (114.38 and
121.03), chip color (29.70 and 31.13), number of stem per plant
(27.89 and 27.25) in C1and C2 conditions, respectively. While
The high PCV (%) was observed for Characters such as
reducing sugar (114.39 and 121.04), chip color (29.80 and 31.23),
marketable yield 27.65 and number of stem per plant 27.33 in
C1and C2 conditions, respectively (Table 2). The similar results
have also been recorded by Ahmad, 2005, Dineshkumar, et
al., 2007.
Heritability and genetic advance:
Heritability representing in heritable variation for all the
characters was estimated (Table 4) to find out whether high
heritability is governed by additive gene action or not. The
heritability as such has not much significance as it includes
both additive and epistatic gene effects. The high heritability
value was observed for reducing sugar (99.98). In the present
study, genetic advance was estimated for all the characters
(Table 4). The highest value of GA (% mean) observed for
reducing sugar (235.61 and 249.30), also of higher magnitude
for chip color (61.00 and 63.94) and number of stem per plant
(54.95 and 55.98) in C1and C2 conditions, respectively. The
similar results have been obtained by Pandey, et al., 2005 and
Ahmad, et al., 2005.
Correlation Coefficient analysis:
In present study, the characters marketable yield, number
of tuber per plant and number of stem per plant showed
significant positive correlation with total tuber yield at both
genotypic and phenotypic levels, while average weight of
tuber and reducing sugar showed significant positive
correlation with total tuber yield at genotypic level. At both
genotypic and phenotypic levels, this character showed
positive and significant correlation with total tuber yield (r g
=
2.504 and r p
= 0.509) and (r g
= 1.729 and r p
= 0.479) in C1 and C2
conditions respectively (Table 3), The result of present study
is an agreement with that of Pandey, et al., 2005 and Arslan,
2007 for different characters at only genotypic or both the
levels.
Path Coefficient analysis:
To know the direct and indirect contributions of various
components towards tuber yield, nine yield components were
considered causal variable of the tuber yield. In the present
investigation, the plant height, marketable yield, total soluble
solids and number of stem per plant positive direct effect on
total tuber yield (Table 4), which is in agreement with Pandey,
et al., 2005 and Arslan, 2007.
Average weight of tubers and number of tubers per plant
exhibited highly significant and positive correlation with total
tuber yield, which was due to its low negative and positive
direct effect in C1 and C2 condition respectively. Number of
stem per plant exhibited highly significant and positive
correlation with total tuber yield, which was due to its low
negative direct effect and indirect effect via., plant height,
average weight of tuber, reducing sugar, marketable yield, chip
color, total soluble solid and number of tuber per plant.
LITERATURE CITED
Ahmad, I., Hossain, M., Islam, G. M. R., Billah, S. K. M. and Kabir, Y.
2005. Genetic variability and correlation studies in potato (Solanum
tuberosum L.). Intll. J. Sus. Agric. Tech. 1(4):30-34.
Al. Jibouri, H.A., Miller, P.A. and Robinson, H.F. 1958. Genotypic and
environmental variances and covariance in an upland cotton cross
of interspecific origin. Agron. J., 50: 633-635.
Allard, R.W. 1960. Principles of Plant Breeding John Wiley and Sons.
Inc. New York.
Arslan, B. (2007). Relationships among yield and some yield characters
in potato (Solanum tuberosum L.). Journal of Biological Sciences.
7(6): 973-976.
Burton, G.M. 1952. Quantitative inheritance in grasses. Proc. 6 Int.
Grasses Congr., 1 : 277-283.

PATEL et al., Assessment of Potato (Solanum tuberosum L) Hybrids-Varieties for Processing Purpose 681
Dewey, D.R. and Lu, K.H. 1959. A Correlation and path analysis of
crested wheat grass seed production. Agron. J., 51: 515-518.
Dinesh Kumar., R.Ezekiel and S.M. Paul Khurana. 2003. Effect of
location, season and cultivar on the processing quality of potatoes.
J. Indian Potato Assoc., 30: 247-251.
Johnson,H.W.;Robinson,HLF. And Comstock,R.E.(1955).Estimates of
genetic and environmental variability in soyabean.Agron.J.,47:314-
318
Pandey,S.K.,Singh, S.V. and Manivel,P. 2005, Genetics variability and
causal relationship over seasons in potato. Crop Research Hisar
29(2):277-281
Panse,V.G and Sukhatme, P.V. 1978. Statistical methods for Agriculture
Workers 3 rd Edn.ICAR,New Delhi
Patel, R.N., Patel N.H., Singh, S.V., Pandey, S.K., Patel, J.M. and Patel,
S.B. 2005. Assessment of potato varieties/hybrids for French fries
and storage behavior in Gujarat. Potato. J.,32 (3/4): 217-218.
Recieved on 12-08-2013 Accepted on 27-09-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 682-684, 2013
Qualitative Determination of Phosphate Solubilization, Salt Stress Response and
Antibiotic Sensitivity in Pseudomonas Rhizospheric Bacterial Isolates of Wheat
ADESH KUMAR, SHABA KHAN, UMESH KUMAR SHUKLA, ARUN KUMAR AND
SHAMBHOO PRASAD
Department of plant Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering, Narendra Deva University of agriculture
and Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad, U.P., India, 224 229
email: adesh.kumar88@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Soil salinity and drought are among the environmental stresses
that most severely affect plant growth and production around
the world. In the present investigation, a total of twenty two
Pseudomonas isolates associated with wheat plants grown in
various locations of Uttar Pradesh, were isolated on the king ’s B
medium and identified as Pseudomonas spp. All the Pseudomonas
isolates were screened for salt tolerance and antibiotic
resistance at variable concentrations. Most of the Pseudomonas
isolates shown tolerance up to 4% NaCl concentration only.
The isolate Ps-abn4 and Ps-muz2 isolates shown tolerance at
7% NaCl. Almost all isolates were inhibited at 10 µg/ml of
concentration of tetracycline. The isolate Ps-lko-3 and Ps-abn-
4, were able to grow at 10 and 20 µg/ml of tetracycline
concentration respectively. Whereas the isolate Ps-brk-2,
Ps.muz-2 and Ps.jan-4 were found sensitive even at 1µg/ml
concentration of tetracycline in the medium. Our results
indicated that isolates from wheat rhizosphere have the
potential which may promote plant growth of wheat directly
and indirectly under saline condition.
Keywords
Wheat, Pseudomonas, Stresss
Among the abiotic stresses soil salinity is one of the
strongest factor affecting the plant growth and yield (Mayak,
et.al, 2004). The use of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria
(PGPR) may prove useful for developing strategies to facilitate
wheat growth in saline area. Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is
one of the major cereal crops in India. The wheat crop is mainly
cultivated under rain fed condition where precipitation is less
than 900mm annually. The plant growth promoting attributes
viz. production of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), gibberellins,
siderophore, and phosphate solubilization etc. ability of the
rhizobacteria of wheat in saline area are inexpensive, simple to
use and have no adverse effect on land (Upadhyay, et al.,
2009). The main aim of this study was to determine the salt
tolerance and antibiotic resistance in Pseudomonas isolates.
This genus is a common member of the plant growth promoting
micro flora present in the rhizosphere of plants (Kloepper, et
al., 1980). They have received tremendous attention mainly
due to their wide spread distribution in soil, ability to colonize
the rhizosphere of host plants and capacity to produce a large
number of compounds antagonistic to various serious
pathogens (Anjaiah, et al., 1998). They are particularly
sensitive indicator of soil perturbations that affect microbial
communities. It has been reported that plant growth promoting
rhizobacteria (PGPR) including phosphate-solubilizing
microorganisms (PSMs) are able to solubilizing the unavailable
forms of P in soil by acidification, chelation, and exchange
reaction in the soil environment (Ponmurugan and Gopi,
2006).It has also been reported that Pseudomonas sp.
promotes wheat roots mycorrhization and phosphorus
acquisition by wheat plants (Babana et al., 2012). In this study,
an attempt made to assess the rhizobacteria viz. Pseudomonas
spp. of rhizosphere of wheat grown under saline infested zone
for saline tolerance with major plant growth promoting traits.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Isolation of Pseudomonas isolates from wheat
rhizosphere:
Soil and root samples of wheat were collected in sterile
plastic bags from seven different salt affected district viz.
Faizabad (fzb), Barabanki (brk), Jaunpur (jnp), Kanpur (knp)
Ambedkar nagar (abn) Muzzaffar nagar (muz) and Lucknow
(lko) of Uttar Pradesh. Samples were collected at flowering
stage of plant growth. Rhizospheric soil was separated from
roots of wheat with the help of brush in a petriplates. One
gram soil of each eight samples was placed in 10 ml sterile
water. Serial dilution were made up to 10 -4 from all eight soil
samples and 10 -3 and 10 -4 dilution were taken for spread plating
on Kings ‘B’ medium with pH 7.0. The plates incubated at 30
0
C for 24 hours.
Biochemical characterization and identification of
rhizospheric strains:
The strains were identified by physiological, biochemical
methods. The physiological and biochemical identification
was performed according to Bergeys manual of Systematic
Bacteriology (Clauss and Berkeley, 1986).
Phosphate solubilization and Salt tolerance:
Pure culture of all Pseudomonas isolates were streaked
on Luria bertani agar medium amended with 2% to 7% NaCl
concentration. Control plates without NaCl amendment were
also included for all isolates. All plates were incubated at 28
0
C for 24 hrs and observed for presence and absence of growth

KUMAR et al., Qualitative Determination of Phosphate Solubilization, Salt Stress Response and Antibiotic Sensitivity 683
Table 1.
Determination of salt tolerance and phosphate solubilization in Pseudomonas isolates from wheat rhizosphere
SN Name of isolate NaCl concentration (%) Phosphate solubilization
2% 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% High Medium Poor No
1 Ps-fzb-1 +++ +++ + - -- -
2 Ps-fzb-2 ++ + + - - -
3 Ps-brk-1 ++ + + - - -
4 Ps-brk-2 + - - -- - -
5 Ps-jnp-1 - - - - - -
6 Ps-jnp-2 + + + - - -
7 Ps-jnp-3 + + - - - -
8 Ps-jnp-4 + + + - - -
9 Ps-jnp-5 + + + - - -
10 Ps-knp-1 + + + - - -
11 Ps-knp-2 + + + - - -
12 Ps-abn-1 + -+ + - - -
13 Ps-abn-2 + + - - - -
14 Ps-anb-3 + - - - - -
15 Ps-abn-4 +++ +++ ++ ++ + +
16 Ps-abn-5 - - - - -
17 Ps-muz-1 +++ ++ + - - -
18 Ps-muz-2 +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++
19 Ps-muz-3 + + - - - -
20 Ps-lko-1 ++ + + - - -
21 Ps-lko-2 ++ + + - - -
22 Ps-lko-3 + + - - -
- = No growth , + = Poor growth , ++ = Medium growth , +++ = High growth , ++++ = Very high growth
(Table 1). For phosphate solubilization the culture of each
isolate was spot inoculated on Pikovskaya’s agar medium
(Pikovskaya 1948) and incubated at 28 0 C up to 5 days.
Phosphate solubilization activity was determined by
development of clearing zone around bacterial colony
(Wahyudi et al., 2011).
Antibiotic sensitivity:
Antibiotic sensitivity behavior of test isolates was
determined by agar dilution method as described by Ahmad,
et al., 2004. The stock solution (5 mg/ml) of antibiotic, i.e.,
tetracycline was prepared and taken four different
concentrations viz; 1, 5, 10 and 20µg/ml for antibiotic sensitivity
test. The tetracycline dissolved in 70% ethanol and sterilized
with membrane filter (Axiva Scihem biotech.). The nutrient
agar medium was prepared in four 500 ml Erlenmeyer flask and
allowed to cool at 40 0 C. The diluted tetracycline
concentrations were mixed in cool molten agar medium and
poured in petriplates. The culture of Pseudomonas spot
inoculated on solidified agar plate and incubated at 30 0 C for
24 hours. After incubation, the plates were examined for the
presence or absence of growth on the spotted area. The
Pseudomonas isolates which were sensitive against
tetracycline did not grow on the plate and resistant isolates
were able to grow on the plates against tetracycline.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Isolation and Biochemical characterization of
Pseudomonas from wheat rhizosphere:
Seven soil samples were collected from rhizosphere of
wheat grown in different district of Uttar Pradesh. In this
study, a total 22 Pseudomonas isolates were have obtained
from the rhizosphere of wheat. The isolates were characterized
on the basis of physiological, biochemical, morphological
features. Isolates of Pseudomonas species from rhizosphere
of different crops were widely studied by Valverde et al., 2003,
Ahmad, et al., 2008. Rawat and Abrar, 2011,
Phosphate solubilization and Salt tolerance
Out of twenty two, only ten Pseudomonas isolates were
found able to solubilize phosphate on Pikovskaya’s medium
plates at 30 0 C (Table 1). The intensity of phosphate
solubilization was determined by clearing zone produced
around the inoculated spot. Sachdeva et.al 2009, demonstrated
that Pseudomonas were able to increase the availability of
phosphorus in soil. Stress tolerance in PSB strains isolated
from saline soil has been reported earlier (Joshi and Bhatt,
2011). Certain PSB strains tested for their phosphorus
solubilizing ability in the presence of varying NaCl
concentration and that no isolate could tolerate even 6% NaCl
concentration. In the study, most of the isolates could sustain
4% NaCl concentration in the agar medium whereas the isolate
Ps-abn4 and Ps-muz2 isolates shown tolerance at 7% NaCl.
(Table1). Rangarajan, et al., 2002 screened the Pseudomonas
bacterial strains for salt tolerance and found 36 strains out of
256 were able to grow at 6% NaCl. Our research findings are
well matched with earlier reports.
Antibiotic sensitivity:
All 22 Pseudomonas isolates were tested against the
tetracycline. Most of the isolates were inhibited at 10 µg/ml of
concentration of tetracycline. The isolate Ps-lko-3 and Psabn-4,
were able to grow at 10% and 20 µg/ml of tetracycline

684 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
Table 2.
Determination of antibiotic sensitivity
(Tetracycline) of Pseudomonas isolates from
wheat rhizosphere
S.N. Isolate Tetracycline concentration ( µg/ml)
1 5 10 20
1 Ps-fzb-1 ++ - - -
2 Ps-fzb-2 ++ - - -
3 Ps-brk-1 + + - -
4 Ps-brk-2 - - - -
5 Ps-jnp-1 +++ ++ - -
6 Ps-jnp-2 +++ + - -
7 Ps-jnp-3 + + - -
8 Ps-jnp-4 - - - -
9 Ps-jnp-5 + - - -
10 Ps-knp-1 + - - -
11 Ps-knp-2 ++ + - -
12 Ps-abn-1 ++ + - -
13 Ps-abn-2 + - - -
14 Ps-anb-3 ++ + - -
15 Ps-abn-4 +++ +++ +++ +++
16 Ps-abn-5 +++ +++ - -
17 Ps-muz-1 ++ - - -
18 Ps-muz-2 - - - -
19 Ps-muz-3 ++ - - -
20 Ps-lko-1 +++ +++ - -
21 Ps-lko-2 ++ - - -
Ps-lko-3 ++ ++ ++ -
+++=shown maximum growth ++= shown medium growth +
shown poor growth - = Shown no growth
concentration respectively (Table 2) whereas the isolate Psbrk-2,
Ps.muz-2 and Ps.jnp-4 were found sensitive even at
1µg/ml concentration of tetracycline .The intrinsic antibiotic
test showed that rhizobacterial isolates of sweet potato were
resistant against tetracycline (30 µg/ml) reported by Yasmin,
et.al 2009.
LITERATURE CITED
Ahmad, F. Ahmad, I. and Khan M.S. 2008. Screening of free living
rhizospheric bacteria for their multiple plant growth promoting
activites. Microbiological Research, 163:173-181.
Anjaiah, V. Koedam, N. Thompson, N.B, Loper, H.M, Tambong J.T.
and Cornelis P. 1998. Involvement of phenazines and anthranilite
in the antagonism of Pseudomonas aeruginosa PNA1 and Tn5
derivatives towards Fusarium spp. and Phythium spp. Mol Plant
Microb Interact,11:847-854.
Babana, A.H. Antoum, Hani. Dicko, A.H. Maiga, Kadia. and Traore D.
2012. Effect of Pseudomonas sp. on wheat roots colonization by
mycorhizal fungi and phosphate-solubilizing microorganisms, wheat
growth and P-uptake. Intercontinental J. Microbiol., 1(1):01-07.
Clauss, D and Berkeley R.C.W .1986. Genus Bacillus Cohn 1872 . In
bergeys manual of determinative bacteriology, Sneath, PHA
Balyimore, MD, Williums Wilkins, 2:1105- 1141
Joshi P. and Bhatt A.B. 2011. Diversity and function of plant growth
promoting Rhizobacteria associated with wheat Rhizosphere in
North Himalayan Region. International Journal of Environmental
Sciences. 1(6): 1135-1143.
Kloepper,J.W. Schroth, M.N. and Miller, T.D. 1980 . Effect of
rhizosphere colonization by plant growth promoting rhizobacteria
on potato development and yield. Phytopathology. 70:1078-1082.
Mayak,S. Tirosh, T. and Glick B.R. 2004. Plant growth promoting
bacteria resistance in tomato plants to salt stress. J.Plant
.Physiol.160.:485-492
Pikovaskaya R.E., 1948. Mobilization of phosphorus in soil in
connection with vital activity of some microbial species.
Microbiologiya, 17: 362-370.
Ponmurugan, P. and Gopi, C. 2006. Invitro production of plant growth
regulators and phosphatase activity by phosphate solubilizing
bacteria. Afic. J. Biotechnol, 5:340-350.
Rangarajan, S. Saleena, L.M. and Nair, S. 2002. Diversity of
Pseudomonas spp. Isolated from rice rhizosphere population grown
along a salinity gradient. Microbial Ecology. 43 : 280-289.
Rawat, S and Asrar I. 2011.Bacterial Diversity in Wheat Rhizosphere
and their Characterization. Advances in Applied Science Research,
2 (2): 351-356.
Sachdev, D. Agarwal, V. Verma, P. Shouche, Y. Dhakephalkar, P. and
Chopade, B. 2009. Assesment of microbial biota associated with
rhizosphere of wheat (Triticum aestivum) during flowering stage
and their plant growth promoting traits. The internet Journal of
Microbiology, 7(2):1-9
Saharan, B.S. and Nehra, V. 2011. Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria
: A critical Review. Life Sci. Medi. Res. Vol-2011: LSMR-21.
Upadhyay, S.K., Singh, D.P. and Saikia Ratul. 2009. Genetic diversity
of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria isolated from rhizospheric
soil of wheat under saline condition. Curr. Microbiol., 284-009-
0464-1.
Valverde.A., Igual. J.M. and carvantes. E. 2003. Polyphasic
characterization of phosphate-solublizing bacteria isolated from
rhizospheric soil of the north-eastern“ region of Portugal. Cordel
de merinas, pp. 40-52
Yasmin F , Othman R, Sijam K and Saad M S. 2009. Characterization
of beneficial properties of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria
isolated from sweet potato rhizosphere . African Journal of
Microbiology Research., 3 (11):518-519
Wahyudi, A.T. Rina, P. A, Asri, W. Anja, M. and Abdjad A.N.2011.
Characterization of Bacillus sp. strains isolated from rhizosphere
of soybean plants for their use as potential plant growth for promoting
Rhizobacteria. Journal of Microbiology and Antimicrobials 3(2):
34-40.
Recieved on 08-08-2013 Accepted on 12-09-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 685-687, 2013
Comparision of Growth Parameters and Yield Potential of the Three Strains of
Agaricus bisporus
M. K. YADAV AND RAM CHANDRA
Deptt. of Mycology and Plant Pathology,Institute of Agricultural Sciences,Banaras Hindu
University,Varanasi – 221005 (U.P.)
email: manojbhu87@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The studies of growth behaviour and yield potential of different
strains (S-79, A-15 and Delta) of A. bisporus were tested. The
spawn run periods were same 16 days in S-79 and Delta while
A-15 was completed in 17 days. Initiation of pinhead early
appeared (25 days) S-79 while A-15 and Delta were appeared in
26 days. The harvesting of 1 st , 2 nd , 3 rd and 4 th flushes were early
completed (31, 41, 53 and 64 days) from strain S-79 followed by
Delta and A-15. Comparative yield of various strains of A.
bisporus showed that the S-79 was better performance and
followed by A-15 and Delta respectively. However, there was
some variation in the weight; pileus diameter and stipe (stalk)
length of fruit bodies of various strains under evaluation.
Average no. of fruit bodies was most responsible in the yield
potential. The no. of fruit bodies in strain S-79 was maximum
followed by A-15 and Delta respectively. The strain S-79 was
giving the better performance of yield potential of all three
strains of A. bisporus.
Key word
Agaricus bisporus, yield potential, strains, growth
parameters.
Button mushroom is one of the largely growing
mushrooms and has the good demand in the market and world
trade too. By keeping this view in mind the study has been
done “To increase the yield A. bisporus by comparative
evolution mushroom strains” which are generally available
with farmers so they can easily grow. To make the farmer’s
aware about the best strains for the cultivation of mushroom
although most of the farmer’s using specially for edible
mushroom so little effort has been made “To innovate the
farmer’s about the effect of best strains on the growth, number
of sporophores and yield of Button mushroom or obtained
high output”. The outstanding researches which have
revolutionized the mushroom growing technology include
pure culture (Dugar, 1905) preparation of synthetic compost
without use of horse manure (Sinden 1937) short method of
composting (Sinden and Hauser, 1950) long method of
composting (Mantel, et al., 1972). Kushwaha, et al., 2006 that
investigated on six strains of A. bisporus (S 649, S 46, U 3,
Pant 31, Pant 52 and Pant 215) were evaluated for yield
performance in terms of the number and weight of fruiting
bodies at room temperature.
The choice of the farmers for growing of any crops variety
depends upon its yielding ability. It means the cost-benefit
(C: B) ratio should always be in favour of the farmer. Scientist
are suggesting to farmers for growing the high yielding
mushroom strains. Therefore present investigation was based
on the comparison of three strains of white button mushroom
(Agaricus bisporus) for growth behaviour and yield potential.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Collection of Mushroom Culture: Three strains S-79, A-15
and Delta of Agaricus bisporus were obtained from
G.B.P.U.A.T, Pantnagar (Uttrakhand). These cultures were subcultured
and maintained on PDA medium in a B.O.D. incubator
at 25±2º C temperature.
Mushroom Spawn: Well cleaned and healthy cereal grains
were boiled for 30 minutes and excess water was drained off
after boiling and the grains were cooled in wooden/ plastic
tray. These cooled grains were mixed with 2% calcium
carbonate and 2% calcium sulphate on dry weight basis of
grains to avoid clumping of grains. Boiled cereal grains were
tilled (300 g/ bottle) in clean 500 ml saline bottle or
polypropylene bags and plugged with non-absorbent cotton
plugs. These cereal grain filled bottles/ bags were sterilized in
autoclave at 15 lb pressure (121ÚC) for one hr. and then
allowed to cool at room temperature. These sterilized and
cooled grain filled bottles/ bags were aseptically inoculates
with mycelium bits of 7-10 days old mushroom culture. These
inoculated bottles were incubated at 26 ÚC in B.O.D. incubator
for two hours for mycelium run among grains.
Compost Preparation: Compost was prepared by long method
of Mantel 1972.
Ingredients
Quantity (in kg)
Wheat straw 600
Wheat bran (choker) 60
Urea 7.5
Murate of potash 6.0
Single super phosphate 6.0
Molasses (rab) 9.0
Gypsum 60
Insecticide powder (5%) 0.5
Wheat straw was spread on cemented floor and wetted
thoroughly by sprinkling water. This moistened straw was
mixed with other ingredients and again with water. A heap

686 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
(stack) were made of this mixture and covered with polythene
sheet. The compost was decomposed by total seven turnings
and each turning was done at 4 days interval. The heap was
made after each turning and it should not be compressed
tightly otherwise anaerobic condition may be created in the
compost heap. Gypsum was mixed during 3rd turning and
insecticide powder was mixed at the last turning for prevention
of insect pests. At each turning, water should be sprinkled to
make up the loss of moisture content due to evaporation. The
compost was ready for spawning, if it was dark brown in colour,
without any smell of ammonia and had sufficient moisture
content (68-70%) when pressed between palms.
Spawning: For spawning, completely colonized, fresh spawn
was used for well prepared compost. The amount of spawn
was maintained 2 kg/quintal compost. The spawned compost
@ 5 kg was filled in one polythene bag. The upper surface of
compost was covered with news paper sheet within the
polythene bag. These spawned bags were placed in growing
chamber where temperature ranges between 20-25ÚC.
Casing: Casing materials was prepared by method of Hayes
and Shandilya 1977. After completion of spawn run, the news
paper sheet was removed and surface of compost was covered
(3-4 cm thick layer) by casing soil. The casing soil was prepared
from 2 years old farm yard manure and loam soil (1:1 ratio).
The casing materials were wetted with water and sterilized by
formalin solution before casing. Mushroom beds were sprayed
regularly with water to keep the casing layer adequately moist.
Water Spraying: Mushroom beds were sprayed regularly with
water to keep the casing layer adequately moist. Water was
the spraying with the help of the sprayer. Water spraying was
only lightly on the surface of casing layer without disturbing
the casing layer.
Harvesting: Pinheads were generally appears within 15 days
after casing and they become ready for harvesting within
another one week. The mature unopened mushroom buttons
were harvested at most once a day. They were picked by
gently twisting of the button without casing disturbance. Small
pits were formed after harvesting and these pits were
immediately re-cased with casing soil for development of next
fruit bodies. The moisture in the casing soil was maintained
by regular spraying of water.
Observation and Measurement: The following parameter were
observed during this investigation-
fruit body (in gm), 5. Av. length of stalk (in cm), 6. Av. width of
stalk (in cm), 7. Av. diameter of mushroom cap (in cm), 8. Total
length of mushroom (in cm), 9. Av. no. of gills
The differences in data in the various experiments were
tested for their significance by employing CRD. The yield
potential of different strains of A. bisporus was recorded to
statistical analysis.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Growth parameter of different strains of A. bisporus: The
results presented in Table 1 and figure 1 revealed that the
studies of growth behaviour of different strains (S 79, A 15
and Delta) of A. bisporus were tested. Data obtained at
comparative growth behaviour is presented in the table 1 and
figure 1 showed that S 79 was better performance and followed
by A 15 and Delta respectively. The spawn run periods were
same 16 days in S 79 and Delta while A 15 was completed in 17
days. Initiation of pinhead early appeared (25 days) in S 79
while A 15 and Delta were appeared in 26 days. The harvesting
of 1 st , 2 nd , 3 rd and 4 th flushes were early completed (31, 41, 53
and 64 days) from strain S-79 followed by Delta and A-15.
Table 1.
Parameters
Spawn run period
Initiation pinhead
First harvesting
Second harvesting
Third harvesting
Fourth harvesting
SEM
SE
CD (0.05%)
Comparison of growth behaviour of the three
strains of A. bisporus
Growth behaviour of strains in days
S-79 A-15 Delta
16
25
31
41
53
64
0.71
1.43
3.17
17
26
33
44
54
65
0.40
0.80
1.77
16
26
32
43
53
65
0.81
1.41
3.13
The present study showed the confirmative results with
finding of Mehta (1991) were studies on behaviour growth of
different strains of A. bisporus. The six strains of A. bisporus
strains S 649, RAL 89 and TM 7 were gradual yielded, strains
A. Growth parameters in days
1. Spawn run period, 2. Initiation pinhead, 3. First
harvesting, 4. Second harvesting, 4. Third harvesting, 5. Fourth
harvesting
B. Yield potential
1. Total yield (in gm), 2. Total no. of fruiting bodies, 3.
Maximum weight of fruit body (in gm), 4 . Minimum weight of
Fig. 1. Growth behaviour of different strain of A. bisporus

YADAV AND CHANDRA, Comparision of Growth Parameters and Yield Potential of the three Strains of Agaricus bisporus 687
S 11 and S 310 were rapid yielder and strain NC-8 gave maximum
yield in second flush. Average weight of fruit body had positive
and significant association with yield in first flush, and
negative and significant association with yield in second
flushed.
Yield Potential of different strains of A. bisporus:
Comparative yield of various strains of A. bisporus, the results
presented in Table 2 and figure 2 revealed that the studies of
yield potential of different strains (S 79, A 15 and Delta) of A.
bisporus were tested. The result showed that the S 79 was
better performance and followed by A 15 and Delta
respectively. It is clear from table 2 and figure 2 that strains S
79 give significantly higher yield followed by A 15 and Delta.
However, there was some variation in the weight; pileus
diameter and stipe (stalk) length of fruit bodies of various
strains under evaluation (Table 2 and figure 2). Average no. of
fruit bodies was most responsible in the yield potential. The
no. of fruit bodies in strain S 79 was maximum followed by A
15 and Delta respectively. The strain S 79 was giving the better
performance of yield potential of all three strains of A. bisporus.
Table 2.
Comparison of yield potential of the three strains
of A. bisporus
Parameters S-79 A-15 Delta
Total yield (in gm)
Total no. of fruiting bodies
Maximum weight of fruit bodies (in gm)
Minimum weight of fruit bodies (in gm)
Av. length of stalk (in cm)
Av. width of stalk (in cm)
Av. diameter of mushroom cap (in cm)
Total length of mushroom (in cm)
Av. no. of gills
SE
CD (0.05%)
782.3
42
24
10
8.03
2.86
8.3
9.6
196
148.38
311.74
594
32
22
9
6.8
2.13
5.8
8.3
70
112.58
236.53
568
31
22.3
9.6
6.3
1.6
6.5
7.5
192
106.20
223.12
This investigation is confirmative with finding of
Kushwaha, et.al., 2006 had been observed yield potential on
different strains of A. bisporus. They investigated on six strains
of A. bisporus (S 649, S 46, U 3, Pant 31, Pant 52 and Pant 215)
were evaluated for yield performance in terms of the number
and weight of fruiting bodies at room temperature. The highest
number of fruiting bodies (2161/100 kg of compost) was
recorded for U 3, followed by S 649 and Pant 215. However,
the highest yield (15-82 kg/100 kg of compost) was obtained
from Pant 52, followed by Pant 215 and Pant 31. The average
weight per fruiting body was also highest for Pant 52. Pal, et
al., 2006 have also been evaluated of different strains of white
button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus L) for yield. The best
CM-1 strains of Agaricus bisporus were found the best.
Experimental findings of comparative growth parameter
and yield potential of tree strains of Agaricus bisporus and
concluded that S 79 was better performance and followed by
A 15 and Delta respectively. Therefore present investigation
will held the mushroom growers for selection of Agaricus
bisporus strain for the better growth behaviour and yield
potential.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
With immense pleasure and profound sense of gratitude,
indeed, I take this opportunity to express my heartfelt and
sincere thanks to my esteemed supervisor, Dr. Ram Chandra,
Associate Professor, Department of Mycology & Plant
Pathology, Institute of Agricultural Science, Banaras Hindu
University,Varanasi, India.
LITERATURE CITED
Duggar, B. M. 1905. Some principles in mushroom growing and spawn
making. U.S. Deptt. of Agril & Tech. Bull. 85: 1-60.
Kushwaha, K. P. S., Verma, R. C. and Singh, R. P. 2006. Yield
performance of different strains of Agaricus bisporus. International
Journal of Plant Sciences (Muzaffarnagar).1 (2), 264-265.
Mehta, K. B. 1991. Performance and stability of tissue isolates taken
from different regions of the sporophore. Indian mushroom-
Proceeding of the national symposium on mushrooms. 43-45.
Mantel E. F. K. 1972. Casing soil made out of spent compost. Indian
Jr. Mushroom 1: 15-16.
Pal, D. P., Deo, A. K., Das, B., Shukla, C. S., Mohanty, A. K. and
Tripathi, M. K. 2006. Evaluation of different strains of white
button mushroom. Journal of Soils and Crops. 16: 2, 291-294.
Sinden, J. N. 1937. Mushroom experiments. Pa. Agr. Expert. Station
Bull. 352.
Sinden, J. W. and Hauser, E. 1950. The short method of composting.
Mushroom Sciences, 1: 52-59.
Fig. 2. Yield potential of different strain of A. bisporus
Recieved on 07-08-2013 Accepted on 12-09-2013

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 688-692, 2013
Interrelationship Studies Among Grain Yield and Its Component Characters in Wheat
(Tricticum aestivum L.)
ALANKAR VERMA, RAVIKANT SINGH, AKHILESH KUMAR
Sam Higginbottom Institute of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences- Deemed to be University,
Allahabad (U.P.),
email: alankar.verma64@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Twenty four genotypes of bread wheat (T. aestivum L) evaluated
for yield and other characters were evaluated at research
experiment centre of the Department of Genetics and Plant
Breeding, Allahabad School of Agriculture, SHIATS, during
Rabi 2009-10 for thirteen quantitative characters. Significant
variation were recorded for, spike length, harvest index, effective
tillers per plant, test weight, flag leaf width and flag leaf length.
A perusual of coefficient of variation showed that PCV was
higher than GCV for all the characters studied indicating less
effect of environment on the expression of these characters.
The phenotypic and genotypic coefficient of variation (PCV
and GCV) was high for tillers per square meter followed by
harvest index, biological yield number of grains per spike and
flag leaf length. High estimates of heritability coupled with
high genetic advance were observed for number of tillers per
square meter, number of grains per spike and biological yield
indicating that additive gene effect and chance of selection for
the improvement of grain yield. Grain yield exhibited positive
and significant correlation with effective tillers per plant,
harvest index and test weight at phenotypic level and genotypic
level. Path coefficient analysis revealed that test weight had
highest positive effect followed by spike length, grains per
spike, harvest index, flag leaf width, days to 50% flowering and
tillers per square meter. Therefore, due to emphasis should be
given on these characters while, selecting and exploiting for
high grain yield.
Key words
Wheat, Genetic Parameter, Quantitative Traits,
Correlation and Path Analysis
Wheat is most important food crop of the country known
for its adaptation to wide range. In order to keep the food
grain production parallel with growing population, there is
urgent needs to be continuous effort for increasing the
productivity of wheat through breeding.
Heritability play a predictive role in breeding, expressing
the reliability of phenotype as a guide to its value. It is
understood that only the phenotypic value can be measured
directly while breeding value of individuals are derived from
appropriate analysis. It is the breeding value, which determines
how much of the phenotype would be passed on to the next
generation. There is a direct relationship between heritability
and response to selection which is referred to as genetic
progress. High genetic advance coupled with high heritability
estimates offers the most effective condition for selection.
The utility of heritability therefore, increase when it is used to
calculate genetic advance, which indicates the degree of gain
in characters obtained under a particular selection pressure.
Thus genetic advance is yet another important selection
parameter that aids breeder in selection programme.
Phenotypic and genotypic variance, heritability and genetic
advance have been used to assess the magnitude of variance
in wheat breeding.
For improvement in yield, study of yield contributing
component in respect of their genetic mechanism is very
important. Information regarding genotypic and phenotypic
correlation between quantitative inherited plant characters
and their direct and indirect effects on grain yield as a result
of varietal response prove to be a useful tool for increasing
the yield per unit area through selection. Simple correlation
analysis indicate the degree of association between traits but
it can not provide reasons of association. Therefore, Simple
correlation coefficients are not always effective in determining
the relationship among traits. Hence, there is a need for
component analysis. (Hardwick and Andrews,1980).
Using path coefficient analysis it if easy to determine
which yield component is influencing the yield substantially.
Having the information selection can then be based on that
criterion thus making possible great progress through
selection in limited time. The objective of present study were
to get scientific information on yield and yield component in
bread wheat through the determination of relationship among
various traits.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Twenty four diverse genotypes of wheat were evaluated
in randomized block design with four replication during Rabi
2009-10 at the field experimentation centre of Department of
Genetics and Plant Breeding, Allahabad school of Agriculture,
SHIATS, (UP) (25.55 0 N latitude, 81.51 0 E longitude and 98
MAMSL) under sub tropical condition. Each genotypes was
accommodated in 12 row of 5m length with line-line spacing
of 23 cm and recommended package of practices were followed
to raise a good crop. Observation recorded on five randomly
selected competitive plants in each plot for Days to 50%
flowering, Days to maturity, Effective tillers per plant, Flag
leaf length, Flag leaf width, Plant height, Spike length, Number

VERMA et al., Interrelationship Studies Among Grain Yield and Its Component Characters in Wheat (Tricticum aestivum L.) 689
of tillers per square meter, Number of grains per spike, Grain
yield per plot, Test weight, Biological yield, Harvest Index .
Average values subjected to standard statistical procedure,
namely analysis of variance, genotypic and phenotypic
coefficient of variation, heritability, genetic advance,
genotypic and phenotypic correlation coefficient and path
analysis were done as described by (Dewey and Lu, 1959 to
assess the association, direct and indirect influence of various
components on grain yield.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Analysis of variance revealed highly significant
differences among genotypes for all the character under study
except effective tillers per plant (Table 1) indicating the
presence of considerable amount of genetic variability for
these traits. This is agreement with the work of Diewedi et al,
(2002). High coefficient of variation was observed for flag leaf
length (3.55) followed by spike length (3.26), harvest index
(2.77), effective tillers per plants (2.69), flag leaf width (2.63)
and test weight (2.40), which indicates high magnitude of
variability in the experimental material. A close resemble
between the corresponding estimates of PCV and GCV
suggested that the environment had little or no role in
expression of different characters. Highest magnitude of PCV
and GCV were observed for number of tillers per square meter
(17.21,17.16), followed by flag leaf length (15.78,15.37), harvest
index (14.93,14.67), biological yield (12.96,12.91) and number
of grains per spike(12.54,12.42). Similar finding were in
agreement with these of Panwar and Singh, 2000, Bergale et
al., 2001.
Estimates of heritability varied from 83.9 percent for
effective tillers per plant to 99.5 percent for number of tillers
per square meter. High variability coupled with high estimates
of heritability were observed (Table 1) for number of tillers per
square meter, biological yield, number of grains per spike,
grain yield per plot, which indicate high advantage through
selection. High heritability estimates were also reported by
Asif, et al., 2004 and Rasal, et al., 2008. The heritability value
alone provide no indication of the amount of genetic progress
that would result in selecting the best individual, but heritability
estimates along with the genetic advance is considered more
useful.
Genetic advance expressed as percentage of mean (using
10% selection intensity) revealed variable behavior of the
traits. It is worth mentioning that the progenies involved in
these combination inherited favorable genes for these traits
indicating that the traits are more amenable to selection and
could be improved by simple method. The result of present
study corroborate high heritability associated with high
genetic advance in case of number of tillers per square meter
indicated that additive gene effects are important in
determining this characters. high heritability estimates coupled
with high genetic advance were observed (Table 1) for number
of grains per spike, biological yield, days to maturity and
harvest index indicating the chance of effective selection for
these traits for improvement of grain yield. Johnson, et al.,
1995 suggested that without genetic advance and the
estimates of heritability will not be practical value and
emphasized the concurrent use of GA along with heritability.
In general, correlation coefficient at genotypic level were
higher than those of phenotypic level (Table 2). It might be
due to depressing effect of environment on character
association as reported earlier for wheat crop (Ahmad, et al.,
1978; Parodha and Joshi, 1990. The correlation of days to 50
% flowering was positive and highly significantly associated
with days to maturity and number of tillers per square meter.
Days to maturity exhibited significant and positive association
with test weight at genotypic level but significant and negative
association with grain yield per plot at both genotypic and
phenotypic levels. The genotypic and phenotypic association
of effective tillers per plant was almost positive and highly
significant with number of grains per spike and grain yield per
plot. It is reported that the studies indicated that tillers per
plant and 1000 grain weight was main yield contributing
components. Effective tillers per plant had positive correlated
with almost all the traits except with flag leaf length. This
Table 1. Estimation of components of variance and genetic parameters for different characters in wheat
S. Characters
MSS due to Range Grand VG VP GCV PCV ECV h 2 (b s)% GA%
No.
Genotypes
mean
1 Days to 50% Flowering 98.67** 83.75-66.50 79.39 24.43 25.35 6.22 6.34 1.23 96.2 9.98
2 Days to maturity 123.23** 128.25-106.75 119.53 30.50 31.81 4.62 4.72 0.95 95.9 11.14
3 Effective tiller/plant 1.98 12.50-10.07 11.21 0.47 0.56 6.13 6.70 2.69 83.9 1.29
4 Flag leaf length 53.25** 28.86-18.26 23.58 13.14 13.84 15.37 15.78 3.55 94.9 7.27
5 Flag leaf width 5.192** 2.13-1.64 1.79 0.01 0.015 6.22 6.75 2.63 84.8 0.21
6 Plant height 120.32** 116.47-94.38 101.91 29.98 30.38 5.37 5.40 0.62 98.7 11.20
7 Spike length 5.32** 13.50-9.88 11.46 1.29 1.43 9.93 10.45 3.26 90.3 2.22
8 Number of tillers/square meter 52602.35** 936.75-460.75 667.49 13132.81 13203.93 17.16 17.21 1.26 99.5 23.54
9 Number of grains/spike 224.40** 68.25-47.00 59.60 55.82 56.92 12.42 12.54 1.74 98.1 15.24
10 Biological yield 198.84 ** 74.60-42.50 54.84 49.6 50.04 12.91 12.96 1.21 99.1 14.44
11 Harvest Index 122.37** 45.69-26.81 37.95 30.25 31.40 14.67 14.93 2.76 95.6 11.14
12 Test weight 49.86** 44.22-32.24 38.80 12.25 13.11 9.02 9.33 2.39 93.4 6.96
13 Grain yield/plot 1073.69** 5.087-3.040 4.251 266.69 273.60 12.14 12.30 1.95 97.5 10.50

690 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
finding indicating that number of effective tillers per plant
may be an effective traits to select higher yielding genotypes.
At both phenotypic and genotypic levels flag leaf length
exhibit positive and highly significantly associated with spike
length and grains per spike. It showed positive and nonsignificant
association with flag leaf width, plant height,
biological yield, grain yield per plot, harvest index and test
weight. Relationship between flag leaf width and biological
yield was positive and highly significant whereas, harvest
index and test weight showed negative but non significant
association with flag leaf width at both phenotypic and
genotypic levels.
Plant height had positive and significant association
with spike length and grain yield per plot at genotypic levels.
Positive and highly significant correlation of plant height with
spike length and grain yield suggested that decrease in plant
height would result in enhancement of grain yield. Relationship
of plant height with spike length was positive and significant
at phenotypic levels (Table 2). It had showed negative and
non-significant association with number of tillers per square
meter. Spike length exhibit highly significant and positive
correlation with grain per spike and test weight at phenotypic
and genotypic levels. These results are supported by the
Table 2.
S.
No.
findings of earlier researchers like Gasper and Zama, 1990.
Tillers per square meter showed positive correlation
almost all the traits at both phenotypic and genotypic levels
which indicated that tillers per square meter is an important
yield contributing factors and it can lead to more number of
grains. This result are agreement with the work of Mondal
and Khajuria, 2001, Saleem et al., 2006. The phenotypic and
genotypic association of grain per spike were almost positive
and significant correlation with biological yield. Harvest index,
test weight and grain yield per plot exhibited positive but
non-significant correlation with grains per spike. Relationship
of biological yield with harvest index was positive and highly
significantly at both phenotypic and genotypic levels. Harvest
index exhibit positive and highly significantly correlated with
test weight and grain yield per plot.
Over all phenotypic and genotypic association of test
weight was positive and significant with grain yield per plot.
This result indicated that genotypes had bolder grains per
spike. This results are in confirmation with the finding of
Mondal and Khajuria, 2001, and Riaz-ud-din et al., 2010.
Path coefficient analysis was carried out using
coefficient of all the traits with grain yield per plot. Maximum
Estimation of genotypic (rg) and phenotypic (rp) correlation coefficient for different quantitative characters in bread
wheat
Characters R Days
to 50%
Flower
ing
1 Days to
50%
Flowering
2 Days to
maturity
3 Effective
tiller/plant
4 Flag leaf
length
5 Flag leaf
width
Days to
maturity
Effective
tiller/
plant
Flag
leaf
length
Flag
leaf
width
Plant
height
Spike
length
Tillers
per m 2
Grains/s
pike
Biological
yield
Harvest
Index
Test
weight
Grain
Yield/
plot
rg 1.00 0.621** 0.154 -0.407* -0.018 0.242 -0.367* 0.423* 0.212 -0.018 -0.186 0.283 -0.278
rp 1.00 0.609** 0.154 -0.380* 0.001 0.237 -0.347* 0.415* 0.204 -0.018 -0.177 0.278 -0.270
rg 1.00 0.021 -0.095 0.192 0.188 -0.036 0.184 0.002 0.050 -0.293 0.341* -0.361*
rp 1.00 0.017 -0.088 0.195 0.190 -0.033 0.178 0.001 0.051 -0.288 0.328 -0.348*
rg 1.00 -0.159 0.140 0.051 0.318 0.183 0.718** 0.054 0.336 0.321 0.432*
rp 1.00 -0.146 0.123 0.039 0.286 0.172 0.702** 0.052 0.319 0.314 0.427*
rg 1.00 0.136 0.072 0.741** -0127 0.483** 0.026 0.251 0.125 0.309
rp 1.00 0.117 0.070 0.685** -0.124 0.469** 0.029 0.242 0.122 0.300
rg 1.00 0.059 0.205 -0.246 0.193 0.408* -0..545** -0.431* -0.254
rp 1.00 0.047 0.189 -0.222 0.176 0.374* -0.510** -0.403* -0.231
6 Plant height rg 1.00 0.362* -0.047 0.032 0.261 0.044 0.129 0.344*
rp 1.00 0.343 -0.049 0.032 0.260 0.044 0.118 0.337
7 Spike length rg 1.00 0.146 0.444* 0.066 -0.220 0.510** 0.301
rp 1.00 0.136 0.425* 0.070 -0.199 0.498** 0.299
8 Tillers/m 2 rg 1.00 0.086 0.022 0.115 0.034 0.074
rp 1.00 0.085 0.021 0.113 0.035 0.073
9 Grain/spike rg 1.00 0.359* 0.296 0.324 0.307
rp 1.00 0.353* 0.276 0.293 0.299
10 Biological rg 1.00 0.672** -0.077 0.146
yield rp 1.00 0.663** -0.075 0.147
11 Harvest rg 1.00 0.623** 0.580**
Index rp 1.00 0.596** 0.568**
12 Test weight rg 1.00 0.633**
rp 1.00 0.608**
13 Grain rg 1.00
Yield/plot rp 1.00
* and ** Significant at 5% and 1% level of significance respectively.

Table 3.
S.
No.
VERMA et al., Interrelationship Studies Among Grain Yield and Its Component Characters in Wheat (Tricticum aestivum L.) 691
Direct and Indirect effects at genotypic and phenotypic level for different quantitative characters on gain yield.
Characters r
1 Days to
50%
Flowering
2 Days to
maturity
3 Effective
tiller/plant
4 Flag leaf
length
5 Flag leaf
width
6 Plant
Height
7 Spike
length
8
9 Grains/
spike
10 Biological
yield
11 Harvest
Index
12
Days to
50%
Flowering
Effective
Tillers/
Plant
Flag
Leaf
Length
Flag
Leaf
Width
Plant
Height
Spike
Length
Tillers/
Meter²
Grains/
Spikes
Days to
Maturity
Biological
Yield
harvest
Index
%
Test
Weight
Grain
Yield/
Plot
rg 0.185 0.115 0.028 -0.075 -0.003 0.045 -0.068 0.078 0.039 -0.003 -0.034 -0.052 -0.278
rp 0.092 0.056 0.014 -0.035 -0.001 0.022 -0.032 0.038 0.019 -0.002 -0.016 -0.026 -0.270
rg -0.066 -0.106 -0.002 0.010 -0.020 -0.020 0.004 -0.020 -0.0002 -0.005 0.031 0.036 -0.361
rp -0.048 -0.079 -0.001 0.007 -0.0015 -0.015 0.003 -0.014 0.0001 -0.004 0.023 0.026 -0.348
rg -0.019 -0.003 -0.120 0.019 -0.017 -0.006 0.038 -0.022 -0.011 -0.007 -0.013 -0.002 0.432
rp -0.024 -0.003 -0.154 0.022 -0.019 -0.006 0.044 -0.026 -0.013 -0.008 -0.013 -0.003 0.427
rg 0.0170 0.040 0.066 -0.419 -0.057 -0.030 -0.310 0.053 0.202 -0.011 0.105 0.052 0.309
rp 0.106 0.025 0.041 -0.280 -0.033 -0.020 -0.192 0.035 0.131 -0.008 0.068 0.034 0.300
rg -0.033 0.036 0.027 0.026 0.190 0.011 0.039 -0.047 0.037 0.078 -0.104 -0.082 -0.254
rp 0.000 0.030 0.019 0.018 0.152 0.007 0.029 -0.034 0.027 0.057 -0.078 -0.061 -0.231
rg -0.187 -0.145 -0.039 -0.056 -0.045 -0.774 -0.280 0.036 -0.025 0.202 -0.034 -0.100 0.344
rp -0.147 -0.118 -0.024 -0.044 -0.029 -0.620 -0.213 0.030 -0.020 0.161 -0.027 -0.073 0.337
rg -0.234 -0.023 -0.203 0.473 0.131 0.231 0.638 -0.093 -0.248 -0.042 -0.140 -0.057 0.301
rp -0.146 -0.014 -0.120 0.288 0.079 0.144 0.420 -0.057 -0.179 -0.029 -0.084 -0.032 0.299
2 rg 0.006 0.003 0.003 -0.002 -0.004 -0.001 -0.002 0.015 0.001 -0.0003 0.002 0.001 0.074
Tillers / M
rp 0.011 0.005 0.005 -0.003 -0.006 -0.001 -0.004 0.027 0.002 -0.001 0.003 0.001 0.073
rg 0.074 0.001 0.032 -0.169 0.067 0.011 -0.155 0.030 0.349 0.125 0.002 0.067 0.307
rp 0.067 -0.0003 0.028 -0.153 0.057 0.010 -0.139 0.028 0.327 0..115 0.001 0.057 0.299
rg 0.007 -0.019 -0.020 -0.009 -0.151 0.097 0.024 0.008 -0.133 -0.370 0.249 0.029 0.146
rp 0.005 -0.013 -0.014 -0.008 -0.098 0.068 0.018 0.005 -0.093 -0.262 0.174 0.020 0.147
rg -0.016 -0.026 0.009 -0.022 -0.048 0.004 0.019 0.010 0.001 -0.059 0.088 0.055 0.580
rp -0.033 -0.054 0.016 -0.046 -0.096 0.008 -0.038 0.021 0.001 -0.125 0.188 0.112 0.568
rg -0.195 -0.234 0.014 -0.086 -0.296 0.088 -0.062 0.023 0.131 -0.053 0.429 0.688 0.633
Test weight
rp -0.154 -0.182 0.011 -0.067 -0.223 0.065 -0.043 0.020 0.097 -0.041 0.330 0.553 0.608
direct effect on grain yield per plot was contributed (Table 3)
mostly by test weight (0.688) followed by spike length (0.638),
grain per spike (0.349). On the other hand maximum negative
direct effect was exhibited by effective tillers per plant (-0.120)
followed by biological yield (-0.370) and flag leaf length (-
0.419). The rest of the traits showed moderate to low positive
or negative direct effect on grain yield per plot.
Days to 50 % flowering significant association with grain
yield. However, its direct effect was positive. Simane days to
maturity did not exhibited significant association with grain
yield. However its direct effect was negative. It had positive
indirect effect through flag leaf length followed by spike
length, grains per spike, harvest index, and test weight. Simane
et al., 1999 also reported similar findings.
Tillers per plant had negative direct effect on grain yield.
Similar positive values were obtained from indirect effect
through leaf length and spike length and rest of the characters
had negative indirect effect on grain yield. Flag leaf length
had negative direct effect on grain yield. It had negative
indirect effect through Flag leaf width, Plant height, Spike
length and Biological yield. However Days to 50% flowering,
Days to maturity, tillers per plant, tillers per square meter, grains
per spike, harvest index and 1000 grain weight had positive
indirect effect on grain yield. Flag leaf width had positive
direct effect on grain yield. Similar finding had been reported
by Simane et al., 1998. It had positive indirect effect through
Days to 50% flowering, Days to maturity, tillers per plant,
tillers per square meter, grains per spike and biological yield.
Plant height exhibited negative direct effect, similar result
were reported by Chaudhary et al ,(1986) and Khan et al.
(2005). It might be due to high percentage of dry matter
accumulation in vegetative parts of taller plants there by
affecting grain yield.
Tillers per square meter exhibited positive and direct
effect on grain yield. Shamsuddin, 1987, and Simane, 1998 and
Khan et al., 2010 also reported similar findings. This traits
also showed positive relationship with grain yield and thus
direct selection for higher number of tillers would be helpful
to increase yield. Grain per spike had direct effect on grain
yield. Similar result were reported by Okuyuma et al., 2004,
Moshin et al., 2009. As the direct effect as well as the genotypic
correlation is positive therefore, direct selection of this trait is
recommended for obtaining higher yield.
Biological yield had negative direct effect on grain yield.
Quite identical result were obtained by 1Simane et al., 1998. It
had positive indirect effect through days to 50 % flowering
followed by plant height, spike length, tillers per square meter,
harvest index and test weight. Harvest index exhibited positive
direct effect on grain yield. The positive indirect effect through
tillers per plant followed by plant height, tillers per square
meter, grains per spike, and test weight. Traits like days to 50
% flowering, days to maturity, flag leaf length, flag leaf width,

692 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
spike length and biological yield were indirect negative
contribution (Table 3).
Positive direct effect in case of test weight on grain
yield was estimated. Similar negative values were obtained
from indirect effect via. Days to 50 % flowering, flag leaf length,
flag leaf width, spike length and biological yield. Five traits
indicated positive indirect effect via. Tillers per plant, plant
height, tillers per square meter, grains per spike and harvest
index. Khan and Abdul, 2009 also reported positive direct
effect of test weight on grain yield.
Based on all the result it was interpreted that effective
tillers per plant, test weight, spike length, grain per spike, flag
leaf width were the major contributing components to grain
yield. Therefore, due to emphasis should be given to these
characters while selecting for high grain yield in order to
improve yield and productivity.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Authours are thankful to my friends Gupteshwer Verma,
Ashok Reddy and Arjun Chaudhry for their kind help.
LITERATURE CITED
Ahmad, Z., Sharma, J. C., Katiyar R. P. and R. S. Bhatia. 1978. Path
analysis of productivity in wheat. Indian Journal of Genetics and
Plant Breeding. 28:299-303.
Asif, M, Mujahid, M.Y., Kisana, M.S., Mustafa, S.Z. and Ahmad, I.
2004. Heritability, genetic variability and path analysis of traits of
spring wheat. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture; 20(1):87-91.
Bergale, S., Billore, M., Halkar, A.S., Ruwali. K. N., Prasad S.V.S. and
Mridulla, B. 2001. Genetic variability, diversity and association of
quantitative traits with grain yield in bread wheat. Madras Agriculture
Journals., 88 (7-9) : 457-461.
Chowdhry, A.R., Shah, A.H., Ali, L., Bashir, M. (1986). Path coefficient
analysis of yield and yield components in wheat. Pakistan.
Agronomy Journal of Agricultural Research., 7(2): 71-75
Dewey, D.R. and Lu, K.H. 1959. A Correlation and path coefficient
analysis of component of crested wheat grass seed production.
Agronomy Journal 51:515-518.
Dwivedi,A.N., Pawar, I.S., Sashi, Madan. 2002. Variability parameters
and character association among yield and quality attributing traits
in wheat. Harayana.Agricultural University., Journal of Research..,
32(2):77-80.
Gasper, I. and Zama. E.. 1990. Studies of the variability, inheritance
and correlation of the mainquantitative characters in some forms
of rye with short stature. Wheat, Barley and Triticale Absts., 9: 239.
Hardwick, R.C. and Andrews, D. J.. 1980. Genetics and environmental
variation in crop yield of estimating the interdependence of
components of yield. Euphytica, 20:177-188.
Johnson, H.W., Robinson, H.F. and Comstock, R.E., 1955. Genotypic
and phenotypic correlations in soybean and other implications in
selection. Agronomy Journal., 47:477-483.
Khan, A.J., Azam, F., Ali, A., Tariq, M. and Amin, M., 2005. Interrelationship
and path coefficient analysis for biometric trains in
drought tolerant wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Asian Journal of
Plant Science., 4: 540-543.
Khan, M.H. and Abdul, N.D., 2009. Correlation and path coefficient
analysis of some quantitative traits in wheat. African Crop Science
Journal., 18(1): 9 – 14
Khan, A. J., Azam, F. and Ali, A. 2010. Relationship of morphological
traits and grain yield in recombinant inbred wheat lines grown under
drought conditions. Pakistan Journal of Botany., 42(1): 259-267.
Mondal, S.K. and Khajuria, M.R. 2001. Correlation and path analysis
in bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) under rainfed condition.
Environment. and Ecology., 19(2):405-408.
Mohsin, T., Khan, N., and Naqvi, F. N. 2009. Heritability, phenotypic
correlation and path coefficient studies for some agronomic
characters in synthetic elite lines of wheat. Journal of Food,
Agriculture & Environment., 7 (3&4): 278 - 282.
Okuyama, L.A., Federizzi, L.C. and Neto. J.F.B., 2004. Correlation and
path analysis of yield and its components and plant traits in wheat.
Ciencia R. San. Mar., 34: 1701-1708.
Panwar, D. and Singh, I. 2000. Genetic variability and character
association of some yield components in winter x spring nursery of
wheat. Advances in Plant Science., 8(1): 95-99.
Rasal, P.N., Bhoite, K.D. and Godekar, D.A. 2008. Genetic variability
heritability and genetic advance in durum wheat. Journal of
Maharastra Agricultural university. 33(1):102-103.
Riaz-ud-din, subhani, G.M., Ahmad, N., Hussain, M. and Rehman, A,U.,
2010. Effect of temprature on development and grain formation
in spring wheat. Pakistan Journal of Botany., 42 (2): 899-906.
Saleem U, Khaliq I, Mahmood T, Rafique M 2006. Phenotypic and
genotypic correlation coefficients between yield and yield
components in wheat. Journal of Agricultural Research., 44(1): 1-
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Shamsuddin, A.K.M. 1987. Path analysis in bread wheat. Indian Journal
of Agricultural Sciences., 57: 47-49.
Simane, B. 1998. Growth and yield component analysis of durum wheat
as an index of selection to terminal moisture stress. Tropical
Agriculture., 75: 363-368.
Shoran, J. 1995. Estimation of variability parameters and path
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467.
Recieved on 05-06-2012 Accepted on 25-08-2012

Trends in Biosciences 6 (5): 693-696, 2013
M 2
Generation Evaluation under Field Conditions for Quantitative Characters
R. SELLAMMAL AND M. MAHESWARAN
Department of Plant breeding and Genetics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India
email: agrisellam@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Induced mutation has been used to a good extent to create
genetic variability in plant species to achieve the desired
variation. This study focused on the evaluation of mutant
population from Rathu Heenati and PTB 33 during Rabi 2010-
2011. A total of 328 M 2
families (167 from Rathu Heenati and
161 from PTB33) were evaluated for the quantitative traits in
M 2
generation. The data collected on plant height, number of
tillers/plant, productive tillers, number of grains/ panicle, single
plant yield and spikelet sterility were analyzed and significance
among genotypes was observed for all traits under different
treatments. The treated population showed significantly higher
variability than parents, indicating the induced variability for
these characters. The mean values for different traits shifted
either to positive or negative direction away from the control
due to mutagenic treatments. The mean plant height reduction,
panicle length variation, lesser number of productive tillers,
increased spikelet sterility and lower single plant yield was
observed in 300Gy and 350Gy gamma ray treated families.
Key words
BPH resistance, gamma rays, M 2
generation, rice
In the context of climate change and variability, mutation
induction is a proven way to generate diversity in existing
crop varieties, to widen the extent of adaptability and enhance
productivity (Lokko, 2011). The application of mutation
techniques i.e., gamma rays and other physical and chemical
mutagens has generated a vast amount of genetic variability
and has played a significant role in plant breeding and genetic
studies (Hajos, 2009). Apart from the normal weather
conditions, rice production is influenced by the attack of many
insect pests and pathogens. Of the insect pests attacking
rice, brown planthopper (BPH) [Nilaparvata lugens (Stäl.)] is
being considered as a most devastating insect pest of rice.
Susceptible rice cultivars often showed upto 60 per cent yield
loss (Panda and Kush, 1995). Historically, BPH was known as
a minor pest of rice and serious BPH outbreaks were reported
occasionally before 1960. However, BPH rose from the status
of a secondary pest to a major yield constraint beginning in
the 1960s in the tropical Asia. Among the several resistant
sources identified for BPH resistance in rice, two rice
accessions viz. Rathu Heenati and PTB33 remained with
durable and broad-spectrum resistance to BPH across rice
growing areas. However, these two rice accessions have not
been fully exploited to transfer the genes conferring resistance
to cultivated rice varieties due to their photoperiod
sensitiveness and tall stature. These two parameters remained
as the serious impediments in exploiting the worthiness of
Rathu Heenati and PTB33 in using them as potential donors
in evolving varieties with resistance to BPH. In this present
investigation was taken to evaluate M 2
mutants under field
conditions based on plant parameters for further advancement.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Seeds of Rathu Heenati and PTB33 obtained from the
Department of Rice, Centre for Plant Breeding and Genetics
(CPBG), Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU),
Coimbatore were irradiated with different doses of gamma rays
from Cobalt-60 ( 60 Co) using the Gamma Chamber Model GC
1200 installed at CPBG, TNAU, Coimbatore. The experiment
was conducted during Rabi 2010-2011. The different doses of
gamma rays used for treating the seeds of Rathu Heenati and
PTB33 are as follows: 100Gy, 150Gy, 200Gy, 250Gy, 300Gy and
350Gy. A set of 100 well filled and uniform seeds with 12 per
cent moisture content of both the varieties were selected for
irradiating them with each of the above mentioned doses. The
irradiated seeds were sown on the same day in raised bed
nursery established at the Paddy Breeding Station, Department
of Rice, CPBG, TNAU. The LD 50
values for both the genotypes
were determined based on the Probit analysis. Evaluation of
M 1
generation was done under field condition during Rabi
2009-2010. The M 1
plants were harvested as single panicle
basis. The seeds from M 1
generation were used to grow M 2
generation. A total of 328 M 2
families, 167 from Rathu Heenati
and 161 from PTB33 were constituted on individual panicle
basis and were sown in raised bed nursery. A total of 20
seedlings were transplanted in the field for each of the families.
The seedlings of Rathu Heenati and PTB33 (not-irradiated)
were transplanted for every 20 M 2
families to serve as controls.
Observation was taken on each family (10 pants) for important
yield attributing characters viz., plant height, productive tillers,
panicle length, number of grains per panicle, spikelet sterility
and single plant yield. The data from the various traits
observed of the above experiments was analyzed for getting
basic statistics and ANOVA using the MINITAB software
version 15 (2006). The means and variances were calculated.
Induced mutations in quantitative characters were detected
through comparison of means and variances in M 2
generation.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Rathu Heenati and PTB33 are very tall and photoperiod
sensitive making them agronomically inferior to use them

694 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
regularly in recombination breeding programmes to exploit
their durability of resistance to BPH in rice improvement. An
attempt was made to establish mutant populations of Rathu
Heenati and PTB33 in line with the mutant population of IR64
to look for short statured photoperiod insensitive mutants
with durable resistance as found in Rathu Heenati and PTB33.
Induced mutations in plants and creating new trait variations
to complement regular recombination breeding in rice (Babaei,
et al., 2010). In this present study a total of 328 M 2
families
(167 from Rathu Heenati and 161 from PTB33) were observed
for the quantitative traits in M 2
generation. The treated
population showed significantly higher variability than parents,
indicating the induced variability for these characters. Out of
167 M 2
families of Rathu Heenati, the mean values of families
under each dose showed reduction in plant height compared
to the control. The same trend was observed in all the 161
families of PTB33 (Table 1). The non-irradiated PTB33 showed
the maximum height of 151.00 cm. The height reduction was
Table 1. Effect of gamma rays on plant height in M 2
generations of Rathu Heenati and PTB33
Treatment
Number of
M 2 families
Range Mean SD Variance
Rathu Heenati
Control - 148.0-162.0 152.00 4.59 2.14
100Gy 15 133.2-152.6 142.10 7.12 2.67
150Gy 25 131.0-149.3 139.20 4.45 2.11
200Gy 43 139.0-166.2 147.80 5.16 2.27
250Gy 38 121.0-156.0 147.00 7.22 2.69
300Gy 24 132.4-160.6 142.40 7.41 2.72
350Gy 22 130.2-153.0 142.00 6.32 2.52
PTB33
Control - 145.0-156.0 151.00 2.52 1.59
100Gy 13 143.0-154.2 149.30 3.29 1.81
150Gy 18 142.0-154.0 148.30 3.84 1.96
200Gy 30 135.0-163.2 147.00 6.58 2.56
250Gy 23 135.0-162.0 145.00 8.22 2.87
300Gy 39 119.0-155.4 139.10 8.80 2.97
350Gy 38 128.4-147.4 137.20 4.90 2.21
observed to the maximum across the families derived from the
seeds irradiated with higher doses in both the accessions.
The mean plant height of 142.40, 142.00 and 152.00 cm were
observed in families of 300Gy and 350Gy and non-irradiated
Rathu Heenati respectively. The same trend was observed
with irradiated families and non-irradiated PTB33. Reduction
in mean number of productive tillers was observed with all the
families derived with gamma ray irradiation. The mean values
in number of productive tillers ranged from 6.54 (250Gy) to
8.87 (200Gy). The mean number of productive tillers with nonirradiated
Rathu Heenati was found to be 15.20. Though the
same trend was observed with PTB33 and its irradiated families,
the mean number of productive tillers was found to be higher
when compared to Rathu Heenati (Table 2). The mean number
of productive tillers across the irradiated families ranged from
Table 2.
Effect of gamma rays on number of productive
tillers per plant in M 2
generations of Rathu Heenati
and PTB33
Treatment
Number of
M 2 families
Range Mean SD Variance
Rathu Heenati
Control - 14.00-22.00 15.20 0.72 0.85
100Gy 15 7.00-9.80 8.17 0.89 0.94
150Gy 25 6.20-15.80 7.98 2.53 1.59
200Gy 43 6.00-14.20 8.87 1.67 1.29
250Gy 38 4.60-8.60 6.54 1.18 1.09
300Gy 24 4.40-9.80 6.90 1.34 1.16
350Gy 22 4.80-9.60 6.61 1.32 1.15
PTB33
Control - 15.00-24.00 21.00 3.14 1.77
100Gy 13 9.000-17.80 17.80 3.20 1.79
150Gy 18 8.000-12.20 10.27 1.30 1.14
200Gy 30 7.600-14.80 11.26 1.79 1.34
250Gy 23 9.200-15.20 11.17 1.49 1.22
300Gy 39 9.000-19.40 12.07 2.25 1.50
350Gy 38 10.20-13.40 11.83 0.94 0.97
10.27 (150Gy) to 17.80 (100Gy). The mean number of productive
tillers was found to be lesser at 300Gy (12.07) and 350Gy (11.83).
The range across the individuals of M 2
families at different
doses of Rathu Heenati varied from 24.00 to 35.40 cm. The
maximum mean value of 32.50 cm for panicle length was found
to be with 200Gy. The mean values recorded for panicle length
across the irradiated families (29.53-32.50 cm) were found to
be more than the control (29.07 cm) (Table 3). In case of
gamma irradiated families of PTB33, the mean values showed
no significant difference between the families. However, the
mean values for panicle length of irradiated families (22.38-
25.50 cm) were lesser than the mean value of non-irradiated
PTB33 (27.60 cm) did not show much variation from control.
In case of Rathu Heenati, the mean number of grains per
panicle was found to be 146.20 with families derived from
Table 3. Effect of gamma rays on panicle length in M 2
generations of Rathu Heenati and PTB33
Treatment
Number
of M 2 Range Mean SD Variance
families
Rathu Heenati
Control - 24.00-33.00 29.07 1.27 1.13
100Gy 15 30.10-33.70 31.87 1.07 1.03
150Gy 25 24.00-32.20 29.53 1.88 1.37
200Gy 43 27.00-35.30 32.50 1.60 1.26
250Gy 38 28.40-33.60 31.64 1.30 1.14
300Gy 24 27.70-31.80 29.94 1.50 1.23
350Gy 22 26.80-35.40 31.29 2.11 1.46
PTB33
Control - 22.00-28.10 27.60 1.00 1.00
100Gy 13 22.90-27.10 25.50 1.53 1.24
150Gy 18 22.00-28.20 24.70 1.55 1.25
200Gy 30 20.40-26.40 23.81 1.38 1.18
250Gy 23 15.60-27.20 22.38 2.39 1.55
300Gy 39 20.80-27.40 24.42 1.94 1.39
350Gy 38 21.40-27.00 24.78 1.31 1.14

SELLAMMAL AND MAHESWARAN, M 2
Generation Evaluation under Field Conditions for Quantitative Characters 695
Table 4.
Effect of gamma rays on number of grains per
panicle in M 2
generations of Rathu Heenati and
PTB33
Treatment
Number
of M 2 Range Mean SD Variance
families
Rathu Heenati
Control - 88.00-240.0 152.00 12.17 3.49
100Gy 15 43.00-240.0 130.90 44.92 6.70
150Gy 25 81.00-222.7 132.40 34.92 5.91
200Gy 43 28.00-245.0 132.50 38.19 6.18
250Gy 38 54.00-224.7 143.20 39.43 6.28
300Gy 24 61.00-225.0 126.50 47.58 6.90
350Gy 22 75.00-233.3 146.20 39.11 6.25
PTB33
Control - 52.00-156.0 98.50 10.02 3.17
100Gy 13 63.00-111.7 80.90 22.05 4.70
150Gy 18 65.00-133.6 87.65 21.44 4.63
200Gy 30 60.00-186.7 99.90 11.49 3.39
250Gy 23 27.00-134.0 67.14 30.49 5.52
300Gy 39 46.60-128.7 99.19 20.03 4.48
350Gy 38 46.40-146.0 98.77 20.13 4.49
350Gy irradiation of gamma rays. The number of grains per
panicle ranged from 28.00-245.00 in individuals observed
across the M 2
families of Rathu Heenati (Table 4). Across the
M 2
families of PTB33, the mean values for the number of grains
per panicle ranged from 27.00 (250Gy) to 186.70 (200Gy). In
case of spikelet sterility maximum percentage was 31.62 at
300Gy of gamma ray. Spikelet sterility percentage was found
to be higher in all the families derived from gamma ray
irradiation. In PTB33, mean spikelet sterility percentage 29.83
was observed with families derived from 250Gy of gamma rays.
The spikelet sterility was found to be of higher in the gamma
ray irradiated families than the control (Table 5). The mean
single plant yield across the M 2
families of Rathu Heenati
and PTB33 were found to be lower than the respective
controls. The highest mean value of 18.86 g was recorded in
families derived from 250Gy of gamma ray irradiation in Rathu
Heenati (Table 6). In PTB33, the maximum mean single plant
yield was found to be 20.26 g in families derived from 300Gy of
gamma ray irradiation. The comparative analysis made on the
means and variances for these traits in M 1
and M 2
generations
indicated profound influence of the gamma rays on the traits
viz. 1) number of grains per panicle, 2) spikelet sterility and 3)
single plant yield. There was a significant reduction in the
number of grains per panicle and single plant yield with the
increase in the dose of gamma rays. All the three traits showed
the same pattern with PTB33. In both Rathu Heenati and
PTB33, the number of grains per panicle was found to be
increased in M 2
generations of all the doses (Appendix I and
II). Similar observations were made by Fu, et al., 2008 and
Babai et al., 2010. The extent of variability was higher in M 2
generation. Invariably, the variability increased significantly
in both the varieties, irrespective of increase or decrease in
the mean values. Similar results were reported by
Table 5.
Effect of gamma rays on spikelet sterility
in M 2
generations of Rathu Heenati and
PTB33
Treatment
Number
of M 2 Range Mean SD Variance
families
Rathu Heenati
Control - 12.00-23.50 16.53 5.64 2.38
100Gy 15 12.00-65.45 30.89 13.37 3.66
150Gy 25 10.80-39.10 28.28 6.728 2.60
200Gy 43 9.00-59.50 27.55 13.37 3.66
250Gy 38 10.10-62.60 25.11 11.48 3.39
300Gy 24 9.10-78.50 31.62 15.96 4.00
350Gy 22 2.00-58.40 26.30 13.06 3.61
PTB33
Control - 11.00-20.00 13.20 1.40 1.18
100Gy 13 1.80-32.60 18.33 8.19 2.86
150Gy 18 6.40-44.90 22.40 11.03 3.32
200Gy 30 7.70-50.70 21.35 27.92 5.28
250Gy 23 4.01-73.78 29.83 17.90 4.23
300Gy 39 5.90-53.37 17.21 10.09 3.18
350Gy 38 5.42-53.19 19.93 11.92 3.45
Amirthadevarathinam, et al., 1990, Gupta and Sharma, 1994
and Siddiqui and Sanjeeva, 2010. The experimental findings
under reference suggested that the induced variability
measured as coefficient of variation increased in the treated
population as compared to the respective controls of these
traits in both the varieties. In general, it was found that the
relationship between increase in variability and doses was
not linear (Nallathambi and Raja, 1990). Conclusively, the mean
values for Different traits shifted either to positive or negative
direction away from the control due to mutagenic treatments.
Further advancement and advanced studies will be helpfull to
select the better genotypes with BPH resistance as well as
photoperiod insensitive.
Table 6. Effect of gamma rays on single plant yield in M 2
generations of Rathu Heenati and PTB33
Treatment
Number of
M 2 families
Range Mean SD Variance
Rathu Heenati
Control - 20.00-35.00 28.53 1.82 1.35
100Gy 15 9.00-25.60 14.97 4.70 2.17
150Gy 25 6.20-29.60 14.53 5.75 2.40
200Gy 43 8.00-29.20 16.04 4.22 2.05
250Gy 38 8.20-26.40 18.86 4.93 2.22
300Gy 24 6.80-27.40 15.84 4.91 2.22
350Gy 22 7.80-34.80 18.55 6.88 2.62
PTB33
Control - 12.50-23.00 26.40 0.65 0.81
100Gy 13 12.80-22.40 16.60 2.37 1.54
150Gy 18 13.80-26.40 19.09 3.18 1.78
200Gy 30 11.20-32.60 17.72 4.56 2.17
250Gy 23 11.40-26.20 16.54 2.66 1.63
300Gy 39 13.00-26.40 20.26 3.70 1.92
350Gy 38 3.20-33.20 15.88 5.83 2.41

696 Trends in Biosciences 6 (5), 2013
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H. 2010. Radio sensitivity studies of morpho-physiological
characteristics in some Iranian rice varieties (Oryza sativa L.) in
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Recieved on 28-06-2013 Accepted on 19-07-2013

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