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MINI REVIEW 

1. Enhanced Milk Production in Indigenous and Cross-Bred Cattle 1 

Mercy Devasahayam, Samuel D Mecarty and Ashok Rathore 

2. Access Web-based Electronic Resources in Agricultural Research 5 

Pravin Kumar Singh and H. N. Prasad 

RESEARCH PAPERS 

3. Isolation and Characterization of Chitinase Producing Gut Microflora of Insectivorous Bats 8 

A. Irulan, P. T. Nathan, Y. S. Priya, G. Marimuthu and V. Elangovan 

4. Arthropod Diversity in Brinjal Ecosystem and its Relation with Weather Factors in Western Uttar Pradesh 12 

G.N. Tiwari, C.S. Prasad and Lok Nath 

5. Distribution of Calcium in the Intestinal Tract of Snow Trout, Schizothorax curvifrons Heckel (Cyprinidae, 19 

Cypriniformes, Teleost) 

Imtiyaz Hussain Mir, Ashok Channa and Sumaira Nabi 

6. Callus Induction in Sugarcane Genotypes 21 

Mohammad Shahid, Anuradha Singh and P.K. Shukla 

7. Antimicrobial Activity of Essential Oils against Multidrug Resistant Enterobacterial Pathogens 23 

Priti Vyas and Shridhar Patil 

8. Efficacy of Botanical Extracts on Biological Activities of Pulse Beetle Callosobruchus maculatus (Fab.) 25 

on Green Gram 

Pradyumn Singh and S.S. Jakhmola 

9. Evaluation of Sunflower Genotypes for Slow Rusting Mechanism 31 

G.K. Sudarshan, V.B. Nargund and B. Manjunath 

10. Comparative Field Efficacy of Dust Formulation and Liquid Formulation of Steinernema seemae Based 35 

Biopesticide and other IPM Options against Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) Infesting Chickpea 

S.S. Ali and Mohammad Asif 

11. Enzymatic Effect of basic Chromium Sulphate (A Tannery Chemical) in an Air Breathing Fish 38 

Channa punctatus (Bloch.) 

Deepak Kumar Dubey and Ashok Kumar 

12. Economically Optimal Fertilizer Requirements for Wheat and Paddy Crops in Different Regions of Uttar Pradesh 41 

Anil Kumar, B.S. Sachan and Keshav Prasad 

13. GeneticVariability, Heretability and Genetic Advance in Dry Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) 44 

M.I. Makhdoomi and S.A. Dar 

Trends in Biosciences 

Volume 4 No. 1 June, 2011 

CONTENTS

14. Three Novel Additions to Alternaria Ness. from India 47 

D.P. Singh and T.P. Mall 

15. Hindrance in Rearing of Bumble Bee, Bombus hoemorrhoidalis (Smith) 51 

Kiran Rana, B.S. Rana, H K Sharma and Sapna Katna 

16. Rearing Performance of Different Eco-races of Eri Silkworm (Philosamia ricini Donovan) during Spring 53 

Season of Uttar Pradesh 

Rajesh Kumar and Vadamalai Elangovan 

17. Population of Aphid (Schizaphis graminum R.) on Different Genotypes of Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) 56 

H.S. Randhawa and I. Bhagat 

18. Two Hitherto Undescribed Species of Alternaria Ness. from India 58 

D.P. Singh and T.P. Mall 

19. A Study of Photoperiodic Regulation on Body Weight, Growth and Development of Testis in Rain Quail 61 

Atul Kumar Misra 

20. Studies on Genetic Diversity of Certain Inbred Genotypes of Maize (Zea mays L.) at Varanasi 63 

Astha Gupta and A. K. Singh 

21. Studies on Treatment of Distillery Effluent and Effect of Different Composts on Seed Germination 66 

Alka Sagar, Swapanil Yadav and M.K. Sharma 

22. Assessment of Allelopathic Aggression of Parthenium hysterophorus L. on Seed Germination and Seedling 68 

Growth of Some Important Cereals 

H.P. Pandey, A.K. Raza and S.K. Chauhan 

23. Integrated Disease Management of Stem Rot of Vanilla 71 

B. Gangadhara Naik, Muhammad Saifulla, P.S. Prasad and B. Manjunath 

24. Influence of Various Natural Indigenous Plant Products against Trogoderma granarium Everts on Wheat 75 

Rajni Dubey, S.P. Srivastava, B.S. Azad, S.K. Singh, Alok Pandey and Rajnish Kumar 

25. Studies on the Effects of Separate and Simultaneous Application of Gamma Rays and NMU on Khesari 77 

(Lathyrus sativus) var. P 24: Germination, Growth, Fertility and Yield 

Girraj Singh Meena and Pratibha Dwivedi 

26. Evaluation of Botanicals as Maggoticides for the Control of Indian Uzi Fly, Exorista bombycis (Louis) 79 

K.A. Murugesh and R.S. Bhaskar 

27. Two New Species of Genus Oscheius from Pulses Ecosystem in Uttar Pradesh, India 82 

Azra Shaheen, S.S. Ali and Mohammad Asif 

28. Synthesis of Slow Release Water Soluble Micronutrient Brick 86 

T.G. Nagaraja and Sagar D. Chavan 

29. Comparison of Two Milking Management System between Cross Bred Sahiwal Holstein and Local 88 

Miscellaneous Cattle in U.P. 

Mercy Devasahayam, Samuel D Mecarty and Ashok Rathore 

30. Heterosis for Various Quatitative Traits in Rice (Oryza sativa L.) 91 

P.G. Varpe, R.D. Vashi, P.P. Patil, S.R. Patil and V.A. Lodam

31. Study of Nematocidal Activities of the Culture Filtrate of the Nematophagous Fungus, Paecilomyces lilacinus 95 

Isolates 

Avinash Pandey, Sobita Simon and N. Basharat 

32. Oscheius nadarajani Sp.N. (Nematoda: Rhabditida) from Lentil (Lens culinaris) Rhizosphere in Unnao 98 

District of Uttar Pradesh 

S.S. Ali, Mohammad Asif and Azra Shaheen 

33. Tissue Concentration of Tomato Plants as Influenced by Cyanobacteria (BGA) as Biofertilizer 101 

J. Mohan, N. Mohan, Narendra B. Shakya and Shyam Narayan 

34. Efficacy, Penetration and In Vivo Production of Entomopathogenic Nematodes against Legume Pod Borer, 103 

Maruca vitrata Fabricius (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) 

Rashid Pervez and S.S. Ali 

35. An Emerging Scenario of Higher Employment and Income Potential of Horticultural Crops in Central 106 

Region of Uttar Pradesh 

Anil Kumar and B.S. Sachan 

36. Response of Wheat Crop to Nitrogen and Azotobactor Inoculation in Alluvial Soils of U.P. 109 

Khalil Khan and Bijendra Singh 

37. In Vitro Evaluation of Anti Fungal Properties of Zanthoxylum rhetsa (Roxb) DC 112 

T.G. Nagaraja 

38. Screening of Rice Genotypes for Resistance against Sheath Rot of Rice (Sarocladium oryzae Sawada) 114 

Narayanaprasad, G.B. Shivakumar, P.S. Prasad, G.K. Sudarshan and Sundaresha 

39. Seasonal Abundance of Fennel Aphid, Hyadaphis coriandri Dass and Associated Bioagents in Fennel Crop 116 

S.A. Patel, I.S. Patel, J.K. Patel and P.S. Patel 

40. Algal Infestation with Physico-Chemical Quality of River Ganga at Jajmau, Kanpur 118 

Archana Singh, Vijay Tewari and Jitendra Mohan 

41. Combining Ability Analysis for Grain Yield and Quality Traits in Bread Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) 120 

S.V. Burungale, R.M. Chauhan, R.A. Gami, D.M. Thakor and P.T. Patel 

42. Steinernema sayeedae Sp. N. a Heat Tolerant EPN from Banana Rhizosphere of Koshambhi District, U.P. India 123 

S.S. Ali and Azra Shaheen 

SHORT COMMUNICATIONS 

43. Nematicidal Potentials of Spices against Eggs and Second-Stage Juveniles of Meloidogyne incognita 126 

B.R. Aminu-Taiwo, A.A. Idowu and O.S. Osunlola 

44. Cercospora oudhensis Sp. Nov. on Threatened Plant Indopiptadenia oudhensis from Shrawasti, U.P., India 128 

T.P. Mall 

45. Phosphorous Mobilizing Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizae from Indian Soil 130 

P. Parameswaran, S. Samundeeswari and William Johnson 

46. New Species of Cladosporium from North Western Tarai Forests of Uttar Pradesh, India 132 

D.P. Singh and T.P. Mall

47. Status and Problems to Development of Sericulture in Uttar Pradesh 134 

Rajesh Kumar and Amit Srivastava 

48. Studies on Biology of Fennel Aphid, Hyadaphis coriandri Dass in Fennel Crop 136 

S.A. Patel, I.S. Patel, J.K. Patel and P.S. Patel 

49. Loss of Biodiversity and Fauna of Nallamalais of Andhra Pradesh 138 

Mohammed Osman Ahmed and S.A. Mastan 

50. First Report on Susceptibility of Khapra Beetle (Trogoderma granarium) against Steinernema masoodi 140 

(Ali, et al., 2005) and its In Vivo Production 

S.S. Ali, M. Asif, S.P. Sirvastava and P. Shankar 

51. Common Names of Nematodes Used in Nematological Studies 142 

M. Sarwat Sultan and Suresh K. Sharma 

52. Estimation of Synergistic Effect of Insecticides with Plant Extracts against Anopheles stephensi Liston. 146 

Anita Sirohi and Pankaj Tandon 

53. Effect of Aeration on Survival of Entomopathogenic Nematodes, Steinernema abbasi and Heterorhabditis indica 148 

B.S. Sunanda, A.U. Siddiqui and Sanjay Sharma 

Author Index (Vol. 3, No. 1&2, 2010) 150 

Subject Index (Vol. 3, No. 1&2, 2010) 153 

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Trends in Biosciences 4 (1): 1-4, 2011 


Enhanced Milk Production in Indigenous and Cross-Bred Cattle 

MERCY DEVASAHAYAM*^, SAMUEL D MECARTY# AND ASHOK RATHORE# 

*Department of Biological Sciences, School of Basic Sciences, 

#Sunderasan School of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Sam Higginbottom Institute of Agriculture, 

Technology and Sciences, Naini 211 007, Allahabad, U.P. 

e-mail: mercy@shiats.edu.in 

ABSTRACT 

Cross breeding has been used to increase milk productivity by 

crossing indigenous pure breeds (Bos indicus) and exotic high 

yielding cattle with genetic grades obtained affecting milk 

production. Cattle population indigenous to tropical regions 

such as Sahiwal when crossbred to exotic breeds Holstein 

Friesian (Bos taurus) with proper maintenance under local 

conditions has improved milk yield even after the crossbred 

cows cross the age of 11 years. The 5/8 Friesian and 3/8 Sahiwal 

cross bred cattle showed a steady lactation yield and lowered 

yield when calving. The lactation yield of miscellaneous 

indigenous local cattle is comparable to pure Sahiwal cattle 

even though the age of the indigenous miscellaneous cattle 

was of an higher age at 9 years. It is concluded that local 

miscellaneous cattle by cross breeding with indigenous pure 

bred cattle/exotic pure breeds and proper milking management 

systems should result in a higher lactation yield comparable to 

pure breed indigenous cattle benefiting the local rural economy. 

Key words 

Sahiwal, holstein friesian, milking management, cross 

bred cattle, genetic grades. 

Milk is the main livestock product with India using 

various development programs producing the largest amount 

of milk in the world. Animal husbandry plays an important 

role in the rural economy with a gross value of ` 358 billion 

(US$ 8.1 billion), 25 per cent of the total agricultural output of 

` 1.4 trillion (US$ 31.8 billion) in 1989 (http://jind.gov.in/ 

animal.htm). Increased and sustainable milk production has 

generally been constrained by several factors including poor 

management, inadequate feed resources - quality and quantity, 

lower genotypes, reproductive wastage and inadequate animal 

health care. Genetic improvement remains a tool in livestock 

research and development to achieve an optimal balance 

between genotype and the climate for increased productivity. 

However improvement in management systems with proper 

feeding would increase the milk yield. 

Milking management systems 

In a loose housed system cattle showed better 

physiological, biochemical and general health status than 

those kept in closed barn (Sharma and Singh, 2002; 

Thirumurugan and Saseendran, 2006). This was observed for 

Prof. Dr. (Miss) Mercy 

Devasahayam, Department of 

Biological Sciences, working on 

Transgenic Technology. She is 

Prof and Head, Department of 

Molecular and Cellular 

Engineering, Jacob school of 

Biotechnology and Bioengineering, 

Sam Higginsbottom 

Institute of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences, 

Allahabad, U.P. She also worked as Senior Scientist, at 

Center for Bio Separation Technology, Vellore Institute of 

Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, She has done postdoctorate 

at Paris and also at Dept., of Biochemistry, 

Cambridge, U.K. and at All India Institute of Medical 

Sciences, New Delhi, D.Phil. in Biochemistry, from Exeter 

College, University of Oxford, UK and Dept. of 

Biochemistry, Oxford U.K. during 1993-1997. Prof. 

Devasahayam recieved University medal in 1990: Best 

candidate in B.Sc. (Hons.) Biochemistry, Delhi University, 

she was awarded Felix Scholarship in 1993 to study the 

degree of D.Phil. in Biochemistry-University of Oxford 

and Overseas Research Students award for 1993-95 

London, UK, authored 50 research, invited papers, she is 

convener of National symposim, 2010, at SHIATS, 

Allahabad. 

both cross bred 5/8 Holstein Friesian (65%) and 3/8 Sahiwal 

animals (35%) and miscellaneous indigenous cattle kept in a 

two milking management system (Devasahayam, et al., 2011). 

Compared to a two milking management system a mixed 

management system reduces lactation yield from 40% to 60% 

(Marnet and Komara, 2008) while a once daily milking system 

resulted in approximately 38% decrease in milk yield 

(Stelwagen and Knight, 1997). 

Crossbreeding of Milch Cattle breeds in India 

Eighteen per cent of India’s total cattle population are 

well defined native Bos indicus cattle breeds-Sahiwal, Red

2 Trends in Biosciences 4 (1), 2011 

Sindhi, Tharpakar etc., with the remaining 82% cattle of a 

miscellaneous local stock (ICAR 2002). Miscellaneous local 

stock are characterized by poor growth rate, lower maturity 

with at first calving at 60 months and low milk production of 

500kg/300 days (ICAR 2002). However these miscellaneous 

local stock has a tremendous potential to raise the income of 

rural and marginal farmers to alleviate rural poverty in India. 

The indigenous zebu cattle (Bos indicus) are used in cross 

breeding programs since they adapt to hot and humid climates 

(Koger, 1980, Turner, 1980). Sahiwal is one of the best dairy 

breeds in India and Pakistan and is tick-resistant, heat-tolerant 

with high resistance to parasites. Sahiwal average 2270 kg of 

milk during lactation while suckling a calf and much higher 

milk yields have been recorded. Due to their heat tolerance 

and high milk production ability they have been exported to 

other Asian countries, Africa and the Caribbean. 

Cross breeding has been used in India to improve 

production performance of native Bos indicus cattle breeds 

with Holstein Friesien and Jersey the main exotic breeds of 

choice (Lakshmi, et al., 2009). Crossbreeding in India started 

in 1875 of local cows with Ayreshire bulls from the UK 

(Doiphode, 2008). Cross breeding between Sahiwal and 

European dairy breeds - Friesian, Jersey, Brown Swiss or Red 

Poll, out yield the purebreds with a better reproductive record 

and lower mortality (Katpatal, 1977; Meyn and Wilkins, 1974). 

The optimum proportion of European blood in cross bred 

cattle varies according to management between one half and 

three-quarters (Kimenye, 1979; Trail and Gregory, 1981). There 

are however reports indicating lactation failure in cross bred 

Sahiwal Friesian cattle but this is due to an increase in residual 

milk due to incomplete milking resulting in impaired mammary 

development (Murugaiyah, et al., 2001). 

Genetic grades obtained from cross breeding affect milk 

production traits (Bhadauria and Katpatal, 2003). The cross 

bred cattle while having a higher milk production capacity 

than the indigenous Bos cattle have a lower milk producing 

capacity than the exotic Sahiwal cattle (Kothekhar, 2004). Cattle 

population indigenous to tropical regions such as Sahiwal 

when crossbred to exotic breeds Holstein Friesian with proper 

maintenance and under prevailing local conditions has 

improved milk yield even after the crossbred cows cross the 

age of 11 years (Devasahayam and Mecarty, 2011).Cattle with 

Holstein inheritance of 5/8 and above have a higher milk yield 

with improvement in the trait improving other milk production 

traits due to a correlated response to selection (Raheja, 1994; 

Jadhav and Khan, 1995; Banerjee and Banerjee, 2003). Cross 

breeding of Bos indicus cattle breeds with exotic breeds such 

as Holstein Friesian increases milk yield to 4000kg milk/lactation 

(Lakshmi, et al., 2009). 

Lactation yield of The 5/8 Friesian 3/8 Sahiwal Cross 

Bred Animals 

It has been observed 5/8 Friesian 3/8 Bos Sahiwal 

genotype cattle have a high 300 day lactation milk yield of 

2893.6 kg with a peak yield of 14.81 kg and milk yield per day 

of lactation of 9.50 kg (Lakshmi, et al., 2009 Table 1). Milk 

yield per lactation day for 5/8 Friesian 3/8 Sahiwal crossbred 

cattle demonstrates the high milk yield of cross bred animals 

compared to Bos indicus cattle and with increased resilience 

(Lakshmi, et al., 2009). It has been observed 5/8 Friesian 3/8 

Bos Sahiwal cattle have a high 300 day lactation milk yield of 

2893.6 kg while pure breed Sahiwal cattle have an average 

milk yield of 1474 kg (Lakshmi, et al., 2009; Muhuyi, et al., 

1999). The average milk yield of the 5/8 Friesian cross bred 

cows per lactation day was lower (Devasahayam and Mecarty, 

2011) than that observed of previously reported 5/8 Friesian 

and 3/8 Sahiwal cross bred cattle at 9.5 kg/lactation day 

(Lakshmi, et al., 2009). The lower milk yield and peak yield per 

lactation day is expected since the effect of the age of the cow 

on milk yield is curvilinear with milk yield increasing for cows 

from 2-5 years however, not differing for cows 6 years or older 

(Lubritz, et al., 1989). The mean lactation yield per month of 

3/8 Sahiwal 5/8 Friesian cross bred cows was found to be 

168.80 kg ± 84.5 kg (M ± SD) (Devasahayam and Mecarty, 

2011). For 5/8 Friesian and 3/8 Sahiwal cross bred animals 

highest yield of milk was obtained in the winter and spring 

months (Devasahayam and Mecarty, 2011). Sahiwal cows 

have a lactation period of 290-305 days with a mean lactation 

yield of 1574 ± 575.8 kg (Muhuyi, et al., 1999). The mean 

lactation yield of 3/8 Sahiwal 5/8 Friesian cows was found at 

1850.8 kg ± 624.5 kg. The 5/8 Friesian and 3/8 Sahiwal cross 

bred animals showed a steady lactation record and when 

lowered was due to calving (Devasahayam and Mecarty, 2011). 

However a previous study on 5/8 Friesian and 3/8 Sahiwal 

cross bred cattle reports a total lactation milk yield of 2864.3 

kg (Lakshmi, et al., 2009). While in present study on the same 

Table 1. 

Comparison of lactation yield of cross bred and indigenous miscellaneous cattle (Milk yield per day of lactation, peak 

yield per day of lactation and lactation record of 3/8 Holstein Friesian and 5/8 Sahiwal cattle and indigenous 

miscellaneous cattle obtained using a 2 milking management system as described (Devasahaym, et al., 2011) is shown) 

Cattle breeds Milk yield (Kg) Peak Yield (Kg) Lactation period (kg) Reference 

Miscellaneous cattle - - 500 Dolphie et al 2008 

3/8 Holstein Friesian and 5/8 Sahiwal cattle 9.5 14.8 2893 Lakshmi et al., 2009 

Miscellaneous cattle (age 9years) 3.2 5.4 1007 Devasahayam et al., 2011 

3/8 Holstein Friesian and 5/8 Sahiwal cattle 

(average age 8years) 

5.6 9.24 1850 Devasahayam and Mecarty, 2011

DEVASAHAYAM et al., Enhanced Milk Production in Indigenous and Cross-Bred Cattle 3 

genotype cows indicate a lower mean lactation yield of 1850.8 

kg ± 624 kg. This lower yield could be an effect of the age of 

the cow during the experiement since most of the cows were 

11 years of age (Table 1) (Devasahayam and Mecarty, 2011). 

Comparative milk yield data from 5/8 Friesian and 3/8 Sahiwal 

cross bred cattle and local miscellaneous cattle shows that 

the local miscellaneous Bos indicus cattle have a comparable 

milk yield to pure breed Sahiwal cattle. (Devasahayam, et al., 

2011). 

Lactation yield of miscellaneous indigenous local cattle 

Local miscellaneous Bos indicus cattle have a 

comparable milk yield to pure breed Sahiwal cattle 

(Devasahayam, et al., 2011). However the 5/8 Friesian and 3/ 

8 Sahiwal cross bred cattle out produced the local 

miscellaneous cattle by approximately 50% (Devasahayam, et 

al., 2011). Miscellaneous local cattle have an average milk 

yield per lactation day of 3.2 ± 0.96 kg (Devasahayam, et al., 

2011). This was found higher inspite of the higher age of the 

cows at 9 years than that recorded for an all India average of 

2.77kg/day (Paul and Chandel, 2010). The mean peak yield per 

lactation day of miscellaneous indigenous local cattle was 

5.44 kg ± 0.54 kg (Devasahayam, et al., 2011). The cross bred 

5/8 Holstein Friesian and 3/8 Sahiwal cross bred animals have 

a 104% increase in peak yield per lactation day compared to 

miscellaneous indigenous local cattle (Devasahayam, et al., 

2011). Mean lactation yield of miscellaneous indigenous local 

cattle was1007.03 ± 381.998 kg (M ± SD) and a CV of 37.9% 

(Table 1) (Devasahayam, et al., 2011) while the documented 

miscellaneous indigenous local cattle have a low lactation 

yield at 500 kg in 300 lactation days (ICAR, 2002). The lactation 

records for the local miscellaneous cattle show a steady 

lactation record and lowered lactation record per year-due to 

calving indicating the benefit of a twice milking management 

system. The lactation yield of miscellaneous indigenous local 

cattle is comparable to pure Sahiwal cattle even though the 

age of the indigenous miscellaneous cattle at recording was 

of a higher age at 9 years. The relative lower yield of 

miscellaneous indigenous local cattle compared to the pure 

bred Sahiwal could be due to an effect of the age of the cow 

during the experiment since most of all the cows were 9 years 

of age (Devasahayam, et al., 2011). 

The cross bred cattle while having a higher milk 

production capacity than the indigenous Bos indicus cattle 

have a lower milk producing capacity than the exotic Holstein 

Friesian cattle (Kothekhar, 2004). Pure bred cattle and 

miscellaneous cattle population indigenous to tropical regions 

such as Sahiwal when crossbred with exotic breeds Holstein 

Friesian with proper maintenance and under prevailing local 

conditions has improved milk yield even after the cattle cross 

the age of 9 years (Devasahayam, et al., 2011). Thus the local 

miscellaneous cattle successively upgraded by cross breeding 

with indigenous pure bred cattle/exotic pure breeds with 

appropriate management should demonstrate a higher 

lactation yield comparable to pure breed indigenous cattle 

benefiting the local rural economy (Devasahayam, et al., 2011). 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 

The authors wish to acknowledge with gratitude the 

support of Prof R B Lal, Honorable Vice Chancellor of the Sam 

Higginbottom Institute of Agriculture, Technology and 

Sciences, Deemed-to-be-university, during the entire period 

of this study. The article demonstrates our gratitude to the 

institute founder an American evangelist Dr Sam 

Higginbottom for an efficient live stock unit at the Sam 

Higginbottom Institute of Agriculture, Technology and 

Sciences, Allahabad, UP. 

LITERATURE CITED 

Banerjee, S., Banerjee, S. 2003. Genetic studies on gestation period and 

its influence on some economic traits in Holstein Friesian × Sahiwal 

cattle. Indian Veterinary Journal, 80: 348-351. 

Bhadauria, S. S., Katpatal, B. G. 2003. Effect of genetic and nongenetic 

factors on 300 days milk yield of first lactation in Friesian 

× Sahiwal crosses. Indian Veterinary Journal, 80: 1251-1254. 

Devasahayam, M., Mecarty, S. D., and Rahore, A. 2011. Comparison 

of a Two Milking Management System Between Cross bred Sahiwal 

Holstein and Local Miscellaneous Cattle in UP. Trends in Biosciences 

4:88-90. 

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Recieved on 12.3.2011 Accepted on 17.5.2011



Access Web-based Electronic Resources in Agricultural Research 

PRAVIN KUMAR SINGH* AND H. N. PRASAD** 

*Dept. of Lib. & Information Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 

**e-mail: pkslib68@rediffmail.com, hnprasad_bhu@rediffmail.com 

ABSTRACT 

Developments in telecommunications, computers and internet 

are revolutionizing agricultural research. New information 

technology has the potential to improve the quality of 

agricultural research, the efficiency of its management and 

the relevance and timeliness of research results. Scientists, 

students and managers can now access more information than 

ever before. At the same time, they can disseminate information 

to users more easily through internet. The Internet is now 

widely accepted as an important source of information. This 

article covers some useful Web-based electronic resources 

available in the agriculture including those providing general 

information, databases and electronic resources and their 

websites. 

Key words 

Agriculture, electronic resources, web-based 

resources, internet, information technology 

The nature of information resources is changing rapidly 

as a result of new information technologies and the advent of 

internet. Electronic publishing has been revolutionizing the 

format of the recorded knowledge. Electronic information 

services are attracting reader’s attention in today’s networked 

environment. E-journals and e-databases bring new challenges 

before the library and information professionals to give full 

text access to scholarly publications both in print and electronic 

version to its end users. 

E-resources is a very broad term that includes a variety 

of different publishing models, including CD-ROMs database, 

online database, e-Journals, e-books, internet, OPACs, digital 

collections of data and other electronic forms of record. 

Electronic resources include remotely accessible files that are 

openly available on the internet and those for which the library 

must pay a licensing fee and negotiate access with the provider. 

Most of the new offer web-based interfaces and full-text of 

their journals. Some of the major players in agriculture 

electronic full-text journal publishing include: 

Elsevier Science Publishers (Science Direct): http:// 

www.sciencedirect.com/ Academic Press (Ideal Library): http:/ 

/www.idealibrary.com/ Springer Verlag (Link Electronic Service) 

: http://link.springer.de/ Wiley Interscience: http:// 

www.wiley.com/ Web of Science : http:// 

apps.isiknowledge.com SCOPUS : http://www.scopus.com/ 

home.url PROQUEST : http://proquest.umi.com/ CAB 

International : http://www.cabi.org Ovid : http:// 

ovidsp.ovid.com/ Thomson Reuters : http:// 

thomsonreuters.com/ SciELO : http://www.scielo.org/php/ 

index.php?lang=en LivRe ! : http://portalnuclear.cnen.gov.br/ 

livre/Inicial.asp African Journals OnLine (AJOL) : http:// 

www.ajol.info/ CSIRO : http://www.csiro.au/ Oxford : 

www.oxfordjournals.org/ PubMed : http:// 

www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ INGENTA Gateway Portal : 

http://www.publishingtechnology.com/ EBSCO : http:// 

www.ebscoind.com/ J- Gate : http://j-gate.informindia.co.in/ 

Annual Reviews : http://www.annualreviews.org/ AGORA : 

http://www.aginternetwork.org/en/ HighWire : http:// 

highwire.stanford.edu/ Food and Agriculture Organization : 

http://www.fao.org/ Directory of Open Access Journals : 

www.doaj.org AGNIC : http://www.agnic.org/ CGIAR : http:// 

www.cgiar.org/ INASP : http://www.inasp.info/ 

Besides free electronic journal, so many other journals 

is available in electronic format as on free and payment basis 

in agriculture. Agriculture databases, CAB, AGRICOLA, 

AGRIS, and other agriculture electronic resources appearance 

on the web. High wire we press is the largest archive of free 

full text on the science. 

Agriculture Databases on the Web are as follows: 

AGRICOLA database of bibliographic records contains 

citations for books, audiovisual materials, and journal articles. 

AGRIS covering statistics, nutrition, plants, pests, and 

early warning systems are available through WAICENT. 

AANRO, Australian Agriculture and Natural Resources 

Online, an integrated knowledge discovery tool for agriculture 

and natural resources, funded by Australian Commonwealth 

and State Governments. 

Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Abstract (ASFA) Covers 

the world’s literature on the science, technology, management, 

and conservation of marine, brackish water, and freshwater. 

CAB Direct combines CAB ABSTRACTS and CAB 

HEALTH into one database accessible via the web for a 

subscription fee. CAB ABSTRACTS covers agriculture, 

including forestry, human and animal nutrition, veterinary 

science; CAB HEALTH covers public health, including 

tropical diseases. Database guides are provided on the web. 

Current Research Information System (CRIS) is the U.S. 

Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) documentation and 

reporting system for ongoing and recently completed research


projects in agriculture, food and nutrition, and forestry. 

Food Science and Technology Abstract (FSATA) is 

covers all areas of food science, food technology and human 

nutrition, including basic food science, biotechnology, 

toxicology, packaging and engineering. 

Forest Science Database forms the most comprehensive 

guide to the international forestry literature. 

Biological Abstracts (BIOSIS) Biological Abstracts is a 

database includes abstracts from peer-reviewed academic 

journal articles. PubMed the National Library of Medicine’s 

search service that provides access to over 10 million citations 

in MEDLINE, PreMEDLINE, and other related databases, with 

links to participating online journals. 

Useful Electronic Resources and Websites in Agriculture 

Research are 

AGLINET (http://www.fao.org/library/library-home/ 

aglinet/en/): is a voluntary network of agricultural libraries 

around the world with strong regional/country coverage and 

other comprehensive or very specialized subject resource 

collections. Centers provide partner libraries with access to 

the literature originating in the country or region or for a given 

specialization. 

AgNIC (http://www.agnic.org/): is a guide to quality 

agricultural information on the internet. It is a site providing 

access to research and teaching in agriculture, food, renewable 

natural resources, forestry, physical and social sciences. 

AGRIS (http://www.fao.org/agris/): is the international 

information system for the agricultural sciences and 

technology. 

AGRALIN/Agricultural Literature Information System 

in the Netherlands (http://www.bib.wau.nl/) : is a gateway to 

scientific information in the fields of food, agro technology, 

plant and animal production systems, nature and the 

environment, based at the Agricultural University of 

Wageningen. 

AGRICOLA http://www.nal.usda.gov/ag98/): is a 

bibliographic database covering agriculture and related 

sciences/activities. It includes some 3 million references to 

journal articles, books, reports, conference proceedings, 

patents, audiovisuals, etc. 

AGORA Access to Global Online Research in Agriculture 

(http://www.aginternetwork.org/en/) : The AGORA program, 

set up by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN 

(FAO) together with major publishers, enables developing 

countries to gain access to an outstanding digital library 

collection in the fields of food, agriculture, environmental 

science and related social sciences. AGORA provides a 

collection of 1900 journals. 

AgREN Agricultural Research and Extension Network 

(http://www.odi.org.uk/work/projects/agren/links): 

AQUASTAT(http://www.fao.org/AG/AGL/aglw/ 

aquastat/main/index.stm): is FAO’s global information system, 

whose objective is to provide users with comprehensive 

information on the state of agricultural, water management 

across the world, with emphasis on developing countries and 

countries in transition. 

AROW Agricultural Research Organizations on the Web 

(http://www.isnar.cgiar.org/arow/): This site comprises more 

than 2,500 links to agricultural research organizations all over 

the world, and this number is growing. 

Agricultural Science and Technology Indicators (ASTI) 

(http://www.asti.cgiar.org/): This site provides national, 

regional and global statistics on investments in agricultural 

R&D as well as more descriptive profiles on the structure of 

national agricultural research steadily. 

CAB Abstract (http://www.cabdirect.org): The most 

comprehensive database of its kind, CAB Abstracts gives 

researchers instant access to over 6.3 million records* from 

1973 onwards, with over 300,000 abstracts added each year*. 

CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural 

Research (http://www.cgiar.org): The CGIAR is a global 

partnership that unites organizations engaged in research for 

sustainable development with the funders of this work. 

Consortium for e-Resources in Agriculture (http :// 

www.icar.org.in): is a e-Consortium of Agricultural Libraries 

under the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi 

for NARS. 

Current Contents - Agriculture, Biology and 

Environmental Science (http://www.ovid.com/site/catalog/ 

DataBase/930.jsp): is a rapid alerting service database from 

the Institute for Scientific Information, now part of Thomson 

Reuters. Current Contents/Agriculture, Biology & 

Environmental Sciences provides recently published editions 

of over 1,040 leading journals. 

Directory of Development Organizations (http:// 

www.devdir.org/) : lists over 20 000 contacts to organizations, 

and aims to facilitate international cooperation and knowledge 

sharing in development work among NGOs, research 

institutions, and governments and private sector 

organizations. 

Directory of Open Access Journals (http:// 

www.doaj.org): This service covers free, full text, quality 

controlled scientific and scholarly journals. 

EIARD-InfoSys The European Information System on 

Agricultural Research for Development (http://www.eiardinfosys.org/) 

: aims to increase the transparency of, and access 

to, European web resources on agriculture, environment, 

fisheries, forestry, socio-economics, rural transformation and 

other development topics. 

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization (http://www.fao. 

org/): is a specialized agency of the United Nations. FAO is a

KUMAR & PRASAD, Access Web-based Electronic Resources in Agricultural Research 7 

source of knowledge and information, and helps developing 

countries and countries in transition modernize and improve 

agriculture, forestry and fisheries practices, ensuring good 

nutrition and food security for all. 

Forest Conservation Portal (http://www.forests.org/): 

provides comprehensive sources of information on forest 

conservation. 

HINARI Health Inter Network Access to Research 

Initiative (http://extranet.who.int/hinari/en/journals.php): The 

Health InterNetwork Access to Research Initiative (HINARI) 

is a new initiative, led by the World Health Organization (WHO), 

to provide free or nearly free access to the major journals in 

biomedical and related social sciences, to public institutions 

in developing countries. 

IAMSLIC International Association of Aquatic and 

Marine Science Libraries and Information Centers (http:// 

www.iamslic.org/) is an association of individuals and 

organizations interested in library and information science. 

ICAR Indian Council of Agriculture Research (http:// 

www.icar.org.in): The Indian Council of Agricultural Research 

(ICAR). With over 97 ICAR institutes and 45 agricultural 

universities spread across the country. 

INDEV (http://www.indev.nic.in/): is India’s first 

development gateway and is a portal site with links to over 

2500 leading development organizations in India. 

InfoAgrar (http://www.infoagrar.ch/): is the agricultural 

information and documentation service focus is on 

information related to agriculture in Africa, Latin and Central 

America, Asia, and Eastern Europe. It is a unique service for 

those seeking practical information and support in agricultural 

development cooperation as well as issues related to 

information management. 

SIDALC Agricultural Information and Documentation 

Service of the Americas (http://orton.catie.ac.cr/) : is an 

international agricultural, livestock, forestry and environmental 

information service in which institutions in 22 countries of 

the Americas share information and services on line. 

TEEAL (http://www.teeal.org/) : is a digital collection of 

research journals for agriculture and related sciences. 

WAICENT Information Finder (http://www.fao.org/ 

waicent/search/default.asp?lang=en) : allows users to search 

in two ways: Free Text Search of the entire FAO website for 

web pages and documents; and Directory Search of important 

sites and information within FAO. 

There is unlimited web site in agriculture for accessing 

the agriculture resources. Few important web site given bellows 

for accessing electron information resources on the web: 

http://www.cgiar.org, http://www://www.fao.org, http:// 

www.nal.usda.gov, http://www.agnic.org/, http:// 

www.dainet.de/, http://www.icrisat.org/, http:// 

www.cimmyt.org/, http://www.agricultureinformation.com/, 

http://www.agriculturallink.com/, http://www.kisan.net/, http:/ 

/www.krishiworld.com/, http://www.indiaagronet.com/, http:/ 

/www.agrisurf.com/, http://www.web-agri., http:// 

www.agriwatch.com/, http://www.isapindia.org/, http:// 

www.indiaagristat.com, http://www.agriculture.gov.au, http:/ 

/www.icar.org.in, http://agrifor.ac.uk/search/, http:// 

agmarknet.nic.in/, http://www.agview.com/, http:// 

www.aginternetwork.org/en/, http://web.aces.uiuc.edu/ 


Ghosh, T. B. 2003. Free Online Electronic Information Resources on 

Applied Science and Technology. Paper presented in proceedings 

48th All India Library Conference (ILA), NIMHANS, Bangalore, 

India, pp. 36-45. 

Singh, Pravin Kumar, Agrawal, Anil and Shukla, Ashok Kumar 2010. 

Web-based Resources in Biotechnology, Trends in Biosciences, 3(1): 

Press. 

http://www.allwords.com/word-electronic+resource.html 

http://www.agnic.org 

http://www.aginternetwork.org/en/ 

http://www.cgiar.org/ 

http://www.cera.jccc.in/about/AboutCeRA.pdf 

http://www.doag.org 

http://www.elibrary.icrisat.org/ 

http://www.fao.org 

http://www.google.com 

http://www.icar.org 

http://www.wikipedia.org/ 


8Trends in Biosciences 4 (1): 8-11, 2011 

Trends in Biosciences 4 (1), 2011 

Isolation and Characterization of Chitinase Producing Gut Microflora of 

Insectivorous Bats 

A. IRULAN 1 , P. T. NATHAN 2 , Y. S. PRIYA 1 , G. MARIMUTHU 3 AND V. ELANGOVAN 1* 

1 

Department of Applied Animal Sciences, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Raebareli Road, 

Lucknow 226 025, Uttar Pradesh 

2 

Department of Zoology, Directorate of Distance Education, Alagappa University, Karaikudi 630 003, 

Tamil Nadu 

3 

Deparment of Animal Behaviour and Physiology, School of Biological Sciences, Madurai Kamaraj University, 

Madurai 625 021, Tamil Nadu 

e-mail: elango70@yahoo.com 

ABSTRACT 

In this study, we isolated and characterized the gut microflora 

of insectivorous bats such as Rhinopoma hardwickii, Megaderma 

lyra and Hipposiderous fulvus. Chitinase producing bacteria were 

isolated using nutrient agar, Macconkey agar and blood agar 

which contain chitin. A total of 23 bacterial colonies of bacteria 

were isolated from the gut samples of R. hardwickii, M. lyra and 

H. fulvus. Among the 23 isolates, seven isolates have been 

identified as chitinase positive. These seven isolates showed 

positive results for characterized biochemical tests, Chitin 

Overlay Assay and PCR based chitinase gene (Chi A) methods. 

Five isolates identified as Gram negative belong to the family 

Enterobacteriaceae. The bacterial isolates which have symbiotic 

relationships with R. hardwickii, M. lyra and H. fulvus found to 

be Bacillus sp., Citrobacter sp. and Enterobacter sp. These bacteria 

help in digestion of chitin component in the diets of R. hardwickii, 

M. lyra and H. fulvus. 

Key words 

Bacillus sp., chitin, Citrobacter sp., Enterobacter sp., 

Hipposiderous fulvus, Megaderma lyra 

Insectivorous bats feed mainly on a diverse variety of 

insects such as crickets, beetles, moths, millipedes, 

grasshoppers etc. Chitin is a homopolymer of –1, 4-Nacetylglucosamine 

and it makes an insoluble linear –1, 4 

polymer of N-acetyloglucosamine (GlcNAc), considered as 

one of the most common polysaccharides occurring in nature. 

Chitin is the main structural component of the outer skeleton 

of insects. The gastrointestinal tract of vertebrates becomes 

colonized with bacteria shortly after birth or hatching. This 

includes transient microorganisms and the autochitinous 

bacteria which develop into relatively stable populations that 

are characteristic of the species (Stevens and Hume,1998). 

Hence, it is expected that enzymes produced by symbiotic 

bacteria inhabit in the digestive tract of insectivorous bats 

may play a crucial role, if not exclusively, in partial digestion 

of chitin (Whitaker, et al., 2004). The occurrence of chitinase 

was reported in vertebrate intestines, including an 

insectivorous bat. Presence of chitinase producing bacterial 

isolates has also been reported from the gut of a number of 

temperate insectivorous bats (Whitaker, et al., 2004). 

Rhinopoma hardwickii is a high flier and feeds upon 

moths, neuropteran insects and beetles (Wroughton, 1913). 

Megaderma lyra is a robust species and feeds upon large 

insects (Hill and Smith, 1984). Hipposiderous fulvus mainly 

feeds upon beetles, moths and cockroaches (Vaughan,1977). 

While considering the foraging behaviour of these three 

insectivorous bats (M. lyra, R. hardwickii and H. fulvus), 

there are possibilities for the presence of microorganisms that 

may help in the digestion of chitin. The objective of this study 

was to investigate the occurrence of chitinase producing 

bacteria in these three insectivorous bats. 

MATERIALS AND METHODS 

Three individuals of each species viz., M. lyra, R. 

hardwickii and H. fulvus were captured from their cave roosts 

situated in the southern slope of the Pannian Hill complex 

located about 10 km from Madurai Kamaraj University, Tamil 

Nadu, India, and brought to the laboratory. Bats were 

maintained in small wire mesh cage (30 cm 2 ) until they were 

anesthetized with chloroform. Then, the whole gut was 

dissected out aseptically using sterile techniques. Microbial 

swabs were collected using sterilized cotton swabs by gently 

rubbing on the inner wall of the stomach and small intestine. 

Blood agar plates were prepared by supplementing with 5% 

sheep blood. The swabs were subsequently streaked on petriplates 

with selective bacteriological media for the identification 

of specific bacterial colonies. Finally, the swabs were inoculated 

into the test tubes containing nutrient broth for further study. 

Plates were examined for bacterial growth after 24–48 hours 

and the nutrient broth was sub-cultured into blood agar plates 

and MacConkey agar plates. All plates were examined after 

24–48 hours incubation at 37ºC. Chitinase positive isolates 

were identified from the bacterial colony by standard 

biochemical tests (Sneath, et al., 1984). 

Cell pellet was prepared in 1.5 ml tube at 5000 rpm for 5 

minutes and suspended in 570 µl of Tris-EDTA buffer (pH 

8.0). The cell pellet was added with 30 µl of 20% Sodium

IRULAN et al., Isolation and Characterization of Chitinase Producing Gut Microflora of Insectivorous Bats 9 

Dodecyl Sulfate (SDS) and mixed with inversions until 

complete lyses seen. Further, 100 µl of 5M NaCl was added 

and mixed with 200 µl of Tris-Saturated phenol and 200 µl of 

24:1 chloroform isoamyl alcohol was added, mixed well and 

centrifuged at 10000 rpm for 5–10 minutes. The upper aqueous 

layer was transferred to a new 1.5 ml tube, 0.65 volume of cold 

isopropanol was added and mixed with inversions to 

precipitate. DNA pellet was obtained at 5000 rpm for 5 min and 

rinsed once with 80% ethanol and centrifuged at 10000 rpm 

for 5 min. After discarding the ethanol the pellet was dried at 

room temperature, and the DNA pellet was dissolved in water 

(milliQ) or TE buffer. 

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed to 

identify the presence of Chitinase A gene, a gene which codes 

for the enzyme chitinase in a variety of bacterial species. PCR 

was performed to detect Chi A genes in a variety of bacterial 

species by aligning Chi A sequences from several known 

chitinase-producing bacteria (Serratia marcescens, 

Alteromonas sp., Bacillus circulans and Aeromonas caviae) 

and designed a PCR probe from a highly conserved region 

(Ramaiah, et al., 2000). We synthesized PCR primers according 

to an earlier study (Ramaiah, et al., 2000). These primers were 

used to amplify a 225 bp fragment of the Chi A gene and 

shown to give compromising results with more than 53 

reference strains. 

The primers were used to collect chitinase producing 

bacterial isolates from bats. Sequences of the primers used in 

the study are given below: 

Forward: 5' -GAT ATC GAC TGG GAG TTC CC- 3' 

Reverse: 5' -CAT AGA AGT CGT AGG TCA TC- 3' 

For the amplification of Chi A gene, the PCR was 

programmed for 30 cycles, as initial temperature 58ºC, annealing 

temperature 50ºC and extension temperature 72ºC. PCR 

products were visualized by agarose gel electrophoresis. DNA 

size standards were obtained. 

A selected number of bacterial isolates were screened 

for chitinase activity using a chitin overlay assay (Roffey and 

Pemberton, 1990). Agar plates made with a peptone-based 

medium were overlaid with peptone-based agar plus chitin (1 

g/l). Bacterial isolates were inoculated onto assay plates and 

incubated at 37ºC for 48 hour. Presence of chitinase was 

determined by flooding plates with Congo-red dye and 

incubating for 15 minutes at room temperature, followed by a 

solution of 1% NaCl for 5 minutes. The plates were examined 

for a clear zone around the colonies, which indicates the 

hydrolysis of chitin. Isolates which were identified as chitinase 

positive by the chitin overlay assay tested for chitin utilization 

as their sole source of carbon to confirm production of 

chitinase. To find out the utilization of chitin, minimal salt 

media plus chitin from crab shell (1 g/l) were inoculated with 

individual isolates which were identified as chitinase positive, 

incubated at 37ºC for 48 h, and observed for growth of bacteria. 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

A total of 24 bacterial isolates were obtained from three 

species of bats. Of 24 bacterial isolates, seven isolates were 

identified as chitinase positive. The results obtained from 

biochemical tests have been expressed in Table 1. Among the 

seven isolates, five isolates were identified as Gram negative 

bacteria, belong to the family Enterobacteriaceae. These seven 

intestinal strains were rod shaped and able to produce acids 

from carbohydrates. Thus, these isolates were confirmed that 

they belong to the family Enterobacteriaceae. The isolates 3, 

4 and 6 (Table 1) were identified as a gram negative, rod shaped 

cells, showed positive for lactose fermentation, Voges- 

Proskauer reaction, citrate utilization and catalase activity, and 

negative for H 2 

S production, Indole production, methyl red 

test and gelatin liquefaction test, thus identified as 

Enterobacter sp. The isolates 2 and 7 were motile and noncapsulated, 

show positive results for methyl red test, citrate 

utilization, and negative results for gelatin liquefaction and 

thus confirmed that they belonged to the genus Citrobacter 

sp. The isolates 1 and 5 were Gram positive, rod shaped and 

spore forming, showed positive results for motility, hemolysis 

(Fig. 2), peptonization in litmus milk reaction, Voges-Proskauer 

reaction, rapid gelatin liquefaction, starch hydrolysis and 

growth in 6.5 % NaCl medium and various sugar fermentation 

tests, thus isolates 1 and 5 were identified as Bacillus sp. 

The PCR analysis showed the amplification of Chi A 

gene of seven isolates with reference to Serratia marcescens 

(Fig. 1). In addition, the chitin overlay assay showed clear 

zones around the colonies indicate the utilization of chitin as 

sole source of carbon. 

Bacterial enzymes ferment carbohydrates into shortchain 

fatty acids, converts dietary and endogenous 

nitrogenous compounds into ammonia and microbial protein 

and synthesize B vitamins (Stevens and Hume,1998). 

Insectivorous bats feed on a diverse variety of insects and 

while feeding, food passes through the entire digestive tract 

rapidly within 30–60 minutes (Buchler, 1975). Since, all the 

insectivorous bats feed on a variety of insects throughout 

the year and the main structural component of all insects are 

made of a polysaccharide chitin, and therefore the 

insectivorous bats should harbour symbiotic microorganisms 

which could aid in further metabolism and utilization of chitin 

as a nutrient. Chitinase was first reported in vertebrate 

intestines, including an insectivorous bat, R. ferrumequinum 

(Jeuniaux, 1961). and further assayed from the intestine of 9- 

banded armadillo (D. novemcinctus) (Smith, et al., 1998)., but 

neither of these studies investigated the possibilities of 

microbial involvement in chitinase production. Previously, nine 

species of chitinase producing bacteria from six genera has 

been identified inside the digestive tracts of the hibernating 

insectivorous bats of the Neotropics (Whitaker, et al., 2004). 

Similarly, our results also showed evidence for the presence 

of chitinase producing bacteria inside the digestive tracts of

1 0 Trends in Biosciences 4 (1), 2011 

Table 1. 

Biochemical characteristics of bacterial isolates from the gut of Hipposiderous fulvus, Megaderma lyra and 

Rhinopoma hardwickii. 

Biochemical Characteristics Isolate 1 Isolate 2 Isolate 3 Isolate 4 Isolate 5 Isolate 6 Isolate 7 

Gram stain (+)ve (-)ve (-)ve (-)ve (+)ve (-)ve (-)ve 

Morphology Rod Rod Rod Rod Rod Rod Rod 

Motility Motile Motile Motile Motile Motile Motile Motile 

Litmus milk reaction peptonization Acid Acid Acid peptonization acid Acid 

Triple Sugar Iron test glucose Lactose/sucrose Lactose/sucrose Lactose/sucrose glucose Lactose/sucrose Lactose/sucrose 

Indole production - - - - - - - 

Methyl red test - + - - - - + 

Voges-Proskauer + - + + + + - 

Citrate utilization - + + + - + + 

Catalase test + + + + + 

H 2S Production from TSI - + - - - - + 

Acid/Gas from fermentation: 

Lactose - - A/G A/G - A/G - 

Glucose A/- A/G A/G A/G A/- A/G A/G 

Sucrose A/- - - - A/- - - 

Gelatin liquefaction + rapid - - - + rapid - - 

Starch hydrolysis + - - + - 

Identified as Bacillus sp Citrobacter sp Enterobacter sp Enterobacter sp Bacillus sp Enterobacter sp Citrobacter sp 

Fig. 1. 

Agarose gel electrophoresis showing the PCR-based 

identification of Chi A gene in bacterial isolates, which 

were obtained from the gut of insectivorous bats. Lane 

1–23 were bacterial isolates; M-DNA size marker; 

R-reference strain (Serratia marcescens) and C-control 

two experimental bats. Chitinase activity was produced by 

most of the bacteria that normally inhabit the intestines of 

many temperate insectivorous bats. In the hibernating bats, 

the total chitinase activity may be lower because there is a 

limited amount of chitin retained in the gut. However, it has 

been suggested that this may allow for slow release of nutrients 

that could serve as a potential source of energy throughout 

the winter. Chitin is an excellent source of carbon, energy and 

nitrogen with an estimated free energy value of 21.2 kJ/g. The 

breakdown particles of chitin remain in the digestive tract of 

bats and bacterial chitinase is active throughout the year 

(Whitaker, et al., 2004). However, the amount of chitinase 

activity was found varying depending upon the time of year 

the sample was collected. Samples collected in summer showed 

higher activity than those collected during winter. In the 

tropics, it has been presumed that bacterial chitinase may act 

to help separate the parts by reacting with the softer 

connective tissues. The management of chitinous waste is 

pressing need today and therefore, the mycolytic enzymes 

such as chitinases, proteases and glucanases produced by a 

variety of microorganisms can help in solving these problems 

(Gohel, et al., 2006). Chitinase also plays an enzymatic cleavage 

Fig. 2. 

Plate of blood agar shows and -hemolysis by different 

species of bacterial isolates 

occurs randomly at internal locations over the entire length of 

the chitin microfibril, leading to the impairment of the insect 

mid gut (Kramer and Koga, 1986). Searching for such 

economically important and environmental friendly bacterial 

isolates is considered to be crucial to discover novel biocontrol 

agents. 


This work was partially supported by the Council of 

Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi through a 

research grant to VE (No. 37(1281)/07/EMR-II). 


Buchler, E. R. 1975. Food transit time in Myotis lucifugus (Chiroptera: 

Vespertilionidae), J. Mammal, 56:252. 

Gohel, V., Singh, A., Vimal, M., Ashwini ,P. and Chhatpar, H. 

S.2006.Bioprospecting and antifungal potential of chitinolytic 

microorganisms, Afr. J. Biotechnol., 5: 54. 

Hill, J. E.and Smith, J. D. 1984. In: Bats, a natural history. University 

of Texas Press, Austin.

IRULAN et al., Isolation and Characterization of Chitinase Producing Gut Microflora of Insectivorous Bats 1 1 

Jeuniaux, C. 1966. Chitinase. Methods Enzymol, 8: 650. 

Jeuniaux, C. 1961. Chitinase: an addition to the list of hydrolases in the 

digestive tract of vertebrates, Nature 192: 135. 

Kramer, K. J. andand Koga, D. 1986. Insect chitin: physical state, 

synthesis, degradation and metabolic regulation, Insect Biochem., 

16: 851. 

Ramaiah, N.R.T., Hill, J., Chun, J., Ravel, M. H., Matte, W. L., Straube, 

R. R. and Colwell, 2000.Use of ChiA probe for detection of chitinase 

genes in bacteria from the Chesapeake Bay, FEMS Microbiol. Ecol., 

34: 63. 

Roffey, P. E. and Pemberton, J. M. 1990. Cloning and expression of an 

Aeromonas hydrophila chitinase gene in Escherichia coli. Curr. 

Microbiol., 21: 329. 

Smith, S. A. L., Robbins, W. and Steiert, J. G.1998. Isolation and 

characterization of a chitinase from the nine-banded armadillo, 

Dasypus novemcinctus J. Mammal, 79: 486. 

Sneath, P. H. A., Nair, N. S., Sharpe, E. M. and Holt, J. G. 1984. In: 

Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology, The Williams and 

Wilkins Co, Baltimore. 

Stevens, C. E.and Hume, I. D. 1998. Contributions of microbes in 

vertebrate gastrointestinal tract to production and conservation of 

nutrients, Physiol. Rev., 78: 393. 

Vaughan, T. A.1977. Foraging behaviour of the giant leaf nosed bat 

(Hipposideros commusoni), East Afr. Wildl. J., 15: 237. 

Whitaker, J.O., Dannelly, H.K. and Prentice, D.A. 2004. Chitinase in 

insectivorous bats, J. Mammal, 85: 15. 

Wroughton, R.C. 1913.Mammal survey of India, Bombay Nat Hist 

Soc., 22: 282. 


1Trends 2 in Biosciences 4 (1): 12-18, 2011 


Arthropod Diversity in Brinjal Ecosystem and its Relation with Weather Factors in 

Western Uttar Pradesh 

G.N. TIWARI, C.S. PRASAD* AND LOK NATH 

Department of Entomology, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Uni. of Agric. and Tech., Meerut (U.P.) 

e-mail: csprasad23@gmail.co, tiwarig1980@gmail.com 

ABSTRACT 

Twenty two arthropods species were recorded in brinjal 

ecosystem in western Uttar Pradesh. On the basis of their nature 

of damage/activity, they have grouped in to sap suckers 

leafhopper, Amrasca bigutulla bigutulla (Jassidae: Hemiptera), 

cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii (Aphididae: Hemiptera), whitefly, 

Bemisia tabaci (Aleyrodidae: Hemiptera), pentatomid bug 

Aspongopus janus (Pentatomidae: Hemiptera), green bug, Nezara 

viridula (Pentatomidae: Hemiptera), cow bug, Phenococcus 

insolitus. Defoliators hadda beetle, Epilachna 

vigintioctopunctata (Coccinellidae: Coleoptera), Ak grasshopper, 

Poikelocerus pictus; surface grasshopper Chrotogonus sp. 

(Acrididae: Orthoptera), leaf roller, Eublema olivacea 

(Noctuidae: Lepidoptera), leaf webber, Psara bipunctalis 

(Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera), tobacco caterpillar, Spodoptera litura 

(Noctuidae: Lepidoptera). Borers; shoot and fruit borer, 

Leucinodes orbonalis (Pyralidae: Lepidoptera), stem borer, 

Euzophera particella (Phycitidae: Lepidoptera). Incidental pest; 

gundhi bug, Leptocorisa acuta (Coreidae: Hemiptera). Natural 

enemies; coccinellid beetle, Coccinella septempunctata and 

Cheilomenus sexmaculata (Coccinellidae: Coleoptera), braconid 

wasp, Bracon spp. (Braconidae: Hymenoptera) and predatory 

spider, Oxiopes sp. (Salticidae: Arnae). Other arthropods; honey 

bee, Apis spp. (Apidae: Hymenoptera), black ant, Camponotus 

sp. (Formicidae: Hymenoptera) are also appeared in the brinjal 

ecosystem. Abiotic factor i.e., temperature, R.H., sunshine hours, 

rainfall were played important role in the population fluctuation 

of these arthropods during 2005-06 and 2006-07. 

Key words 

Arthropod, diversity, brinjal, weather factors. 

Brinjal (Solanum melongena L.) is a quick growing annual 

vegetable crop. Being high in economic values, now-a-day’s 

cultivation of brinjal is becoming menace to the farmers because 

of attack of different insect pests at various stages of its 

growth, which act as limiting factors in its successful 

cultivation. It harbours more than 140 species of insect pests 

(Prempong and Bauhim, 1977; Sohi, 1996). However, Butani 

and Verma, 1976 and Nayar, et al., 1976 listed 36 and 53 insects, 

respectively on this crop. 

The insect pests, viz., Amrasca biguttula biguttula 

(Ishida), Bemisia tabaci (Genn.), Aphis gossypii (Glov.), 

Epilachna spp., Euzophera particella Rag. and Leucinodes 

orbonalis Guenee have been considered as important pests 

of the crop (Butani and Jotwani, 1984; Bhadauria, et al., 1999). 

Among the insect pests infesting brinjal crop, brinjal shoot 

and fruit borer, L. orbonalis (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) are most 

destructive and is considered to be major limiting factor in 

quantitative as well as qualitative harvest of brinjal fruits. A 

total of 142 species of insects and 4 species of mites have 

been reported infesting brinjal in the different countries of 

the world (Sohi, 1996). 


The present experiment was conducted at CRC of the 

S.V.P. Uni. of Agric. & Tech., Meerut, U.P. Meerut Thirty day’s 

old seedling of Pusa Uttam variety was planted in ten separate 

plots each measuring 5 X 4 m. The spacing between rows and 

between plants was 75 and 60 cm, respectively. The 

observations on populations of different arthropods are 

recorded on weekly intervals on randomly selected 10 plants 

of brinjal while jassid, aphid and whiteflies present on 3 leaves, 

one each from lower, middle and upper part of 10 randomly 

selected plants. The stem borer (E. particella) infested plants 

were recorded once at last picking and before uprooting of 

the brinjal crop. 

Multiple correlation between arthropods associated with 

brinjal and meteorological variables i.e., temperature (max. and 

min.), R.H., rainfall and sunshine hours were worked out using 

simple correlation analysis. Simple correlation coefficient 

analyses were done using following formula (Gomez and 

Gomez, 1984): 

r 

 

 

 

 

2 

X 

XY – 

– 

 

X 

Y 

2 

 

X 

Y 

N 

 

 

N 

2 

Y – 

r = Correlation coefficient between X and Y, X = population 

of aphid and predatory coccinellid beetle in number, 

Y = Meteorological parameters and N = Number of 

observations 


A total of twenty two arthropods species were recorded 

in present investigation in this area but fifty three by Nayar, 

et al., 1976 and thirty six by Butani and Verma, 1976. One 

hundred forty (Prempong and Bauhim, 1977) arthropods were 

reported with brinjal crop at its various stages. The differences 

between findings of present and earlier workers may be due 

N 

2

TIWARI et al., Arthropod Diversity in Brinjal Ecosystem and its Relation with Weather Factors in Western Uttar Pradesh 1 3 

to difference in ecological settings, area covered and period 

involved. 

Sucking pest: 

The maximum population of A. biguttula biguttula 

recorded was 6.43 hoppers in 36 th SW and 5.23 hoppers/3 

leaves in 35 th SW during 2005-06 and 2006-07. Temperature 

showed significant positive correlation with pest population 

during both the years. Regupathy, et al., 2003 reported hopper 

population showed positive correlation with maximum 

temperature, while a negative association with rainfall. 

Muthukumar and Kalyansundram, 2003 reported the maximum 

temperature showed positive while, minimum temperature and 

rainfall showed negative correlation with A. biguttula 

biguttula. 

The population of aphid, Aphis gossypii Glov. increased 

gradually and reached its maximum of 356.0 aphids/3 leaves in 

42 nd SW during 2005-06 and 407.18 aphids/3 leaves in 45 th SW 

during 2006-07 were recorded. Sunshine hours showed 

significant positive correlation of coefficient and RH showed 

significant negative correlation of coefficient during first year, 

while during second year all the weather parameters showed 

non-significant negative correlation with aphid population. 

Similar associations of this insect pest with abiotic factors 

were also reported by Prasad and Logiswaran, 1997 and Ghosh, 

et al., 2004. 

The maximum population of Bemisia tabaci Gennad was 

7.3 whiteflies/3 leaves recorded in 36 th SW in first year and 

5.85 whiteflies/3 leaves in 35 th SW during second year. The 

temperature showed positive correlation during both the years 

while sunshine hours also during second year. Prasad and 

Logiswaran, 1997 supported the present findings as maximum 

temperature, RH and wind velocity had significant positive 

correlation on population buildup of white fly. Muthukumar 

and Kalyansundram, 2003 reported the positive correlation 

with RH and minimum temperature showed negative correlation 

with B. tabaci. 

The maximum population 3.3 lace bug (Urentius centis 

Dist.) plant was recorded in 40 th SW during 2005-06 and 3.65 

bugs/plant in 41 st SW during 2006-07. Nayar, et al., 1976, Nair, 

1995 and Panwar, 1995 had also observed the incidence and 

similar feeding patterns of this pest. Maximum temperature 

and sunshine hours with bug population showed significant 

positive correlation during previous year. However, during 

second year only maximum temperature showed positive 

correlation. 

The population of Pentatomid bug, Aspongopus janus 

Fabricius showed no definite trend during both the years of 

experimentation. However, the maximum population of 0.86 

bug/plant in 39 th SW during 2005-06 and 0.78 bug/ plant in 40 

SW during 2006-07 was recorded. Temperature, RH and rainfall 

showed significant positive correlation of coefficient with pest 

population during previous year while, during second year 

temperature and sunshine hours showed significant positive 

correlation, respectively with pest population. 

Population of Green stink bug, Nezara viridula Linnaeus 

did not show definite trend, however, the maximum population 

Table 1. 

Population of Amrasca biguttula biguttula, Aphis gossypii, Bemisia tabaci, Aspogonus janus, Nezara viridula and 

Urentius centis/ 3 leaves on brinjal during 2005-06 and 2006-07. 

S.W A. biguttula biguttula A. gossypii B. tabaci A. janus N. viridula U. centis 

2005-06 2006-07 2005-06 2006-07 2005-06 2006-07 2005-06 2006-07 2005-06 2006-07 2005-06 2006-07 

30 1.00 00 00 00 0.25 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 

31 2.32 1.75 00 00 1.00 0.65 00 00 0.17 0.10 00 00 

32 3.02 3.15 00 00 2.17 1.49 00 00 0.20 0.31 0.11 00 

33 3.98 3.97 00 0.50 4.03 3.26 00 00 0.21 0.27 0.26 00 

34 4.13 4.32 00 1.31 4.11 3.48 0.11 0.24 0.26 0.32 0.79 0.18 

35 4.00 5.23 0.38 2.67 4.26 5.85 0.33 0.36 0.21 0.33 0.81 0.43 

36 6.43 5.18 0.50 3.42 7.31 4.73 0.61 0.56 0.34 0.41 0.67 0.72 

37 4.88 4.87 1.66 6.71 5.85 5.24 0.59 0.71 0.59 0.65 0.72 0.80 

38 4.96 4.63 6.34 25.73 5.43 5.05 0.63 0.49 0.73 0.81 0.89 0.93 

39 5.01 4.15 42.73 56.46 5.91 4.79 0.86 0.59 1.18 0.90 1.62 1.25 

40 4.39 4.03 95.08 98.21 6.11 4.94 0.63 0.78 0.93 1.00 3.35 2.73 

41 5.43 4.78 207.00 136.75 6.03 4.43 0.49 0.42 0.73 1.20 3.00 3.65 

42 4.26 3.91 356.00 203.39 5.49 4.17 0.38 0.30 0.34 0.60 2.71 2.03 

43 5.31 4.23 267.86 268.63 5.07 3.84 0.27 0.21 0.21 0.39 2.03 1.67 

44 4.74 2.40 241.50 383.43 4.77 2.47 0.19 0.17 0.18 0.21 1.83 1.26 

45 3.06 2.07 280.10 407.18 2.05 1.83 0.10 0.05 0.09 0.13 1.42 1.07 

46 2.98 1.21 196.30 301.31 1.16 1.06 00 00 00 00 0.93 0.65 

47 1.01 0.89 156.30 216.67 0.82 0.37 00 00 00 00 0.21 0.16 

48 0.75 0.68 105.78 121.36 0.41 0.19 00 00 00 00 00 00 

49 0.13 0.21 88.43 71.61 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 

50 00 00 32.79 45.07 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 

51 00 00 4.11 5.71 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 

52 00 00 0.31 0.16 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00


of 1.2 bugs/plant in 39 th SW was recorded during 2005-06 and 

1.2 bugs/plant in 41 st SW during 2006-07. Temperatures showed 

significant positive correlation of coefficient during both the 

years with bug population. While, sunshine hours with bug 

population showed significant positive correlation of 

coefficient during first year. Very low population of two 

potential bugs viz., A. janus and Nezara viridula were 

recorded in present studies were also reported by Prasad, 

2004. 

Cow bug, Phenococcus insolitus (G.): Both nymphs and adults 

of were recorded sucking sap together from leaves and tender 

shoot of the plant. No definite trend in population build up 

could be recorded on both the years, however, maximum 

population 2.54 bugs/plant in 43 rd SW during 2005-06 and 2.3 

bugs/plant in 45 th SW was recorded during 2006-07. During 

previous year sunshine hour showed significant positive 

correlation of coefficient with bug population cow bug, P. 

insolitus recorded feeding on tender shoots and leaves, has 

been reported as sap sucker on this crop. Earlier Nair, 1995 

also recorded this pest as a sap sucker of brinjal crop. 

Defoliators: 

Several defoliators were recorded feeding on brinjal 

leaves. The details of defoliator’s were occurrence have been 

given blow. 

Hadda beetle, Epilachna vigintioctopunctata Fab.: 

The population showed an increasing trend and reached 

at a peak of 3.52 grub/plant in 38 th SW during 2005-06 and 3.2 

grub/plant in 39 th SW in next year. All the abiotic factors 

showed significant positive relationship with grub during both 

the years. Prasad and Logiswaran, 1997 supported the present 

findings. 

The maximum population of adult 2.8 beetles/ plant in 

39 th SW and 2.6 beetles/ plant in 38 th SW was recorded during 

both the years. Significant positive correlation recorded with 

population and temperature and RH during 2005-06, while 

sunshine hours also, respectively. Prasad and Logiswaran, 

1997 supported the present findings. 

Two species of grasshoppers were recorded during 

entire crop period. The species-wise description has been 

given below. 

Maximum population of surface grasshopper, 

Chrotogonus sp. 2.97 grasshoppers/plant were recorded in 

39 th SW during 2005-06 and 2.8 grasshoppers/plant in 40 th SW 

during 2006-07. Significant positive correlation was recorded 

with temperatures during 2005-06 and maximum temperature, 

minimum temperature, average temperature and sunshine 

hours, respectively during second year. 

The build up of population Ak grasshopper, 

Poekilocerus pictus (Fab.) did not follow any definite trend, 

the maximum population of 2.1 grasshoppers/plant in 39 th SW 

during 2005-06 and 2.25 grasshoppers/plant in 40 th SW during 

2006-07. Significant positive correlation was recorded with 

Table 2. 

Population of Phenococcus insolitus, Epilachna viginctioctopunctata (grub) and (adult), Chrotogonus spp., 

Poekilocerus pictus and Spodoptera litura /plant on brinjal during 2005-06 and 2006-07. 

S.W P. insolitus 

E. vigintioctopunctata 

Chrotogonus spp. P. pictus S. litura 

(Grub) 

(Adult) 

2005-06 2006-07 2005-06 2006-07 2005-06 2006-07 2005-06 2006-07 2005-06 2006-07 2005-06 2006-07 

30 00 00 1.00 0.50 0.75 1.00 0.80 0.65 00 00 00 00 

31 00 00 2.25 2.75 1.86 2.20 1.08 1.10 0.25 0.30 00 00 

32 00 00 3.26 3.11 1.99 2.11 1.91 1.60 0.62 0.71 00 00 

33 00 00 3.18 2.65 2.62 1.96 1.73 1.20 1.87 1.38 0.11 00 

34 00 00 3.27 3.09 2.81 1.82 1.80 1.80 1.63 1.53 0.21 0.19 

35 00 00 3.31 1.86 2.36 2.31 1.88 1.92 1.56 1.78 00 0.11 

36 00 00 3.40 2.33 2.30 2.46 2.01 1.99 1.71 1.83 00 00 

37 00 00 3.22 2.85 2.65 2.11 2.65 2.07 2.00 2.07 0.18 00 

38 00 00 3.52 3.10 2.16 2.63 2.83 2.41 2.06 2.12 0.24 0.18 

39 0.28 0.20 2.31 3.40 2.84 2.51 2.97 2.63 2.15 2.18 0.26 0.21 

40 0.63 0.73 2.40 2.16 2.09 2.32 2.88 2.86 1.92 2.25 0.09 0.12 

41 0.97 0.89 2.18 2.00 1.82 2.00 2.40 2.36 1.86 1.72 0.26 0.43 

42 1.89 1.50 1.83 1.92 1.63 1.80 1.90 1.93 1.61 1.76 0.41 0.21 

43 2.54 1.89 1.62 1.76 1.59 1.43 1.91 2.01 1.40 1.53 0.21 00 

44 2.15 2.16 1.43 1.31 1.62 1.05 1.47 1.78 0.97 1.37 00 00 

45 2.06 2.30 1.28 1.06 1.43 1.11 1.81 1.61 0.60 0.91 00 0.30 

46 2.00 2.00 1.43 0.89 1.09 0.95 1.03 1.16 0.43 0.83 0.20 0.10 

47 1.82 1.97 0.86 0.58 0.87 0.73 0.86 0.93 0.36 0.42 0.15 00 

48 1.02 0.91 0.63 0.42 0.36 0.52 0.65 0.82 0.16 0.26 0.10 0.20 

49 0.36 0.42 0.37 0.23 0.21 0.31 0.50 0.61 0.10 0.18 0.20 0.10 

50 0.19 0.20 0.21 00 0.10 0.20 0.25 0.28 00 0.10 0.10 0.11 

51 00 00 0.10 00 00 00 0.20 0.16 00 00 00 00 

52 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00


temperature, RH and rainfall during 2005-06 and temperatures 

and sunshine hours during second year. 

Two species of grasshopper (P. pictus and Chrotogonus 

sp.) recorded on this crop had also been included in the list of 

insect pest of the brinjal by Nayar, et al., 1976 and Nair, 1995. 

The maximum population of tobacco caterpillar, 

Spodoptera litura F. (0.4 larva/plant) was noticed in 42 nd SW 

during first year and 0.4 larva/plant in 41 st SW during 2006-07. 

All the studied weather parameters with pest population did 

not show significant positive/negative correlation during both 

the years. Tobacco caterpillar S. litura noticed feeding on 

leaves of brinjal here had also being reported by Nair, 1995. 

The appearance of leaf roller, Eublemma olivacea Walk. 

was first time in 34 th SW during 2005-06 and 33 rd in 2006-07. 

Number of the rolled leaf fluctuated between 0.15-0.7 larva/ 

plant during first year and 0.1-0.6 larva/plant during second 

year, respectively. The maximum population of this pest was 

observed of 0.7 rolled leaf/plant in 40 th SW and 0.65 rolled 

leaf/plant in 39 th SW during both the years, respectively. Nair, 

1995 and Reghupaty, et al., 2003 had also notices the larvae of 

E. olivacea cause damage to brinjal crop. Temperature and 

sunshine hours showed significant positive correlation with 

pest population during 2006-07. No published record on 

correlation with abiotic factors and pest population. 

The caterpillars of pest were noticed first time in 34 th SW 

in both the years. The maximum population of brinjal leaf 

webber, Herpetogramma bipunctalis (Fab.)= Psara 

bipunctalis (Fab.) this pest was observed 0.6 caterpillar/plant 

in 40 th SW during 2005-06 and 0.75/plant in 38 th SW during 

2006-07. Temperature during both the years and rainfall 

showed significant positive coefficient of correlation with pest 

population during previous year. Nair, 1995 and Reghupaty, 

et al., 2003 had also notices the larvae of E. olivacea cause 

damage to brinjal crop. Contrary to this Nair, 1995 reported 

feeding after webbing the grown up leaves together. 

Borers: 

The incidence of shoot and fruit borer, L. orbonalis 

Guen. was noticed for the first time in 35 th SW during both the 

years. The maximum population of L. orbonalis was (4.0 larvae/ 

plant in 44 th SW) during 2006-07 and (4.67 larvae/plant in 45 th 

SW) during 2006-07. Temperature exhibited significantly 

positive impact in population build up of larvae. This shows 

that changes in climatic factors have directly influenced on 

population fluctuation of this pest. Prasad and Logiswaran, 

1997 revealed a significant positive correlation with maximum 

temperature, relative humidity and negative correlation with 

minimum temperature. 

The infestation of stem borer, Euzophera perticella Rag. 

was recorded once before uprooting of the crop showed that 

48.8 per cent plant damage during 2005-06 and 55.8% plant 

damage during 2006-07. All the weather parameters did not 

show significant positive/negative coefficient of correlation 

with pest population during both the years. Panwar, 1995; 

Reghupati, et al., 2003 and Prasad, 2004 had also observed 

Table 3. 

Population of Eublema olivacea, Psara bipunctalis, Leucinodes orbonalis, Euzophera particella, Coccinella 

septempunctata and Cheilomenes sexmaculata /plant on brinjal during 2005-06 and 2006-07. 

S.W. E. olivacea P. bipunctalis L. orbonalis E. particella/10 plants C. septempunctata C. sexmaculata 

2005-06 2006-07 2005-06 2006-07 2005-06 2006-07 2005-06 2006-07 2005-06 2006-07 2005-06 2006-07 

31 00 00 00 00 0.00 0.00 00 00 00 00 00 00 

32 00 00 00 00 0.00 0.00 00 00 00 00 0.15 0.10 

33 00 0.10 00 0.0 0.00 0.00 00 00 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.20 

34 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.20 0.00 0.00 00 00 0.15 0.25 0.25 0.10 

35 0.20 0.20 0.45 0.45 0.33 0.33 00 00 0.30 0.20 0.25 0.40 

36 0.40 0.10 0.55 0.50 1.00 1.00 00 00 0.55 0.45 0.45 0.52 

37 00 0.35 0.60 0.55 1.33 1.33 00 00 0.85 0.95 0.67 0.75 

38 0.30 0.30 0.35 0.75 1.33 1.67 00 00 1.15 1.20 1.05 1.25 

39 0.50 0.65 0.50 0.30 2.67 3.00 00 00 1.50 1.75 1.25 1.45 

40 0.70 0.55 0.65 0.20 3.00 4.00 00 00 2.05 2.20 1.65 1.80 

41 0.60 00 0.20 0.25 3.00 3.67 00 00 2.45 2.55 1.77 1.50 

42 0.35 0.20 0.15 0.10 3.67 4.00 00 00 2.75 2.90 1.95 2.10 

43 0.40 0.20 0.10 0.05 3.67 4.00 00 00 2.85 3.05 2.25 2.25 

44 0.10 0.10 00 00 4.00 4.00 00 00 2.95 2.98 2.67 3.25 

45 00 00 00 00 3.67 4.67 00 00 3.05 2.99 3.05 3.20 

46 00 00 00 00 3.33 3.33 00 00 3.20 3.75 4.25 3.35 

47 00 00 00 00 2.67 3.00 00 00 3.75 3.56 3.75 3.77 

48 00 00 00 00 2.33 2.67 00 00 2.80 2.95 3.07 2.95 

49 00 00 00 00 1.33 1.33 00 00 2.50 2.35 2.45 2.05 

50 00 00 00 00 1.00 0.67 00 00 2.06 1.85 1.25 1.10 

51 00 00 00 00 0.33 0.33 00 00 1.57 1.06 0.65 0.47 

52 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 0.75 0.35 0.10 0.15 

01 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 0.10 00 00 

02 00 00 00 00 00 00 28.83 25.76 00 00 00 00


similar damage caused by larvae resulting stunting of growth 

and withering of plants. 

Natural enemies: 

The appearance of both predatory coccinellid beetle was 

noticed first time in 33 rd SW during both the years. The 

maximum population of Coccinella septempunctata (3.7 

beetles/plant in 47 th and 3.4 beetles/plan 46 th SW} was recorded 

during 2005-06 and 2006-07. Minimum temperature and average 

RH showed negative correlation of coefficient during first 

year whereas sunshine hour showed positive correlation with 

coccinellid population. The maximum population of 

Cheilomenus sexmaculata 4.2 beetles/plant in 45 th SW during 

2005-06, while 4.2 beetles/plant in 46 th SW during 2006-07. 

Minimum temperature and average RH showed negative 

coefficient of correlation with C. sexmaculata while sunshine 

hour showed significant positive coefficient of correlation 

during first year. These findings are closely conformity with 

the findings of Grewal, 1998 and Ghosh, et al., 2007. 

Braconid wasps were noticed for the first time in 32 nd 

SW in both the years. This wasp parasitized the larvae and 

pupae of Lepidopterous insects in brinjal ecosystem during 

both the years. 

The maximum population of this wasp 1.8 wasps/plant 

in 39 th SW during 2005-06 and 1.95 wasps/plant in 40 th SW 

during 2006-07. Temperatures showed significant positive 

coefficient of correlation during both the year while, sunshine 

hour only during second year. 

Predatory spider, Oxiopus sp. was noticed first time 

during 32 nd SW in 2005-06 and 33 rd SW during 2006-07 in the 

experimental field. The spider population reached maximum of 

1.7 spiders/plant in 39 th SW during 2005-06 and 1.75 spiders/ 

plant in 41 st SW during 2006-07. Spider population had found 

significant positive coefficient of correlation with temperature 

during both the years recorded between pest populations, 

respectively. These findings supported by Ghosh, et al., 2006. 

Other arthropods: Workers of honey bee Apis sp. were noticed 

collecting nectar and pollen from flowers of brinjal from 34 th to 

51 st SW during 2005-06 and from 35 th to 52 nd SW during 2006- 

07. The population fluctuation of this insect was 0.1-0.7 bee/ 

plant in 43 rd during 2005-06 and 0.15-0.8 bees/ plant recorded 

in 46 th SW during 2006-07, respectively. During first year 

observation sunshine hours with honey bee population 

showed significant positive coefficient of correlation. The 

present investigation supported by earlier worker Prasad, 2004. 

The black ants, Camponotus sp. was first time noticed 

in 33 rd SW in both the years. These ants fed on honeydew 

secreted by aphids till 47 th SW during both the years. The 

population of this Hymenopteran ants increased gradually 

and reached to its maximum of 2.55 ants/plant in 41 st SW during 

2005-06, and 2.25 ants/ plant in 39 th SW during 2006-07 

temperature showed significant positive coefficient of 

correlation with Camponotus population during both the 

years. Nair, 1995 reported only its presence on brinjal, while 

Reghupati, et al., 2003 reported it’s causing nibbling and 

tunneling in the outer tissue of main stem and shoots of brinjal 

crop. The present finding could not confirm the findings of 

Reghupati, et al., 2003. 

Incidental insect: Gundhi bug, Leptocorisa acuta Thumb. 

Table 4. 

Population of Apis spp., Camponotus spp., Leptocorisa acuta, Braconid wasps and Oxyopus spp./plant on brinjal 

during 2005-06 and 2006-07. 

S.W Braconid wasps Oxyopus spp. Apis spp. Camponotus spp. L. acuta 

2005-06 2006-07 2005-06 2006-07 2005-06 2006-07 2005-06 2006-07 2005-06 2006-07 

32 0.75 0.50 0.15 0.0 00 00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.20 

33 0.95 0.95 0.25 0.15 00 00 0.25 0.20 0.50 0.20 

34 1.05 1.10 0.85 0.50 0.10 00 0.45 0.40 0.90 0.45 

35 1.25 1.20 1.00 0.60 0.15 0.15 0.90 0.95 1.25 0.90 

36 1.40 1.35 1.05 0.70 0.35 0.40 1.25 1.15 1.75 1.10 

37 1.50 1.55 1.15 0.95 0.30 0.15 1.45 1.50 1.98 1.50 

38 1.60 1.75 1.30 1.15 0.20 0.35 1.65 1.95 2.20 1.70 

39 1.80 1.90 1.65 1.20 0.65 0.46 1.75 2.25 1.75 1.60 

40 1.50 1.95 1.50 1.55 0.55 0.50 1.95 2.15 1.40 0.80 

41 1.35 1.60 1.55 1.40 0.35 0.42 2.55 1.95 0.95 1.10 

42 1.30 1.20 1.33 1.75 0.40 0.36 2.00 1.25 0.80 0.95 

43 1.30 1.15 1.42 1.35 0.70 0.25 1.75 0.80 0.75 0.80 

44 1.20 1.35 1.10 1.26 0.52 0.35 1.00 0.20 0.60 0.60 

45 1.00 0.70 0.93 0.85 0.45 0.50 0.65 0.10 0.35 0.30 

46 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.51 0.40 0.75 0.40 00 0.20 0.10 

47 0.30 0.30 0.25 0.15 0.32 0.20 0.25 00 00 00 

48 0.20 0.15 0.25 0.10 0.30 0.35 0.10 0.45 00 00 

49 0.10 00 0.20 0.10 0.25 0.45 00 0.20 00 00 

50 00 00 0.10 00 0.05 0.10 00 00 00 00 

51 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 

52 00 00 0.10 00 00 00 00 00 00 00


Table 5(a). Correlation (r) of arthropods population in brinjal with prevailing weather parameters during 2005-06. 

S.No. 

Name of arthropods 

Weather parameters 

Max temp Min temp Av temp Av RH Rainfall (mm) Sunshine (hrs) 

1 Amrasca bigutulla bigutulla 0.72476 0.69126 0.71617 0.33833 0.36928 0.13007 

2 Aphis gossypii 0.04957 -0.20795 -0.11203 -0.41707 -0.27605 0.41531 

3 Bemesia tabaci 0.63650 0.62061 0.63773 0.37463 0.40202 0.08248 

4 Aspongopus janus 0.42177 0.45280 0.44979 0.40473 0.46039 0.09175 

5 Nezara viridula 0.49027 0.49950 0.50647 0.37783 0.31222 0.14898 

6 Urentius histricellus (U. centis) 0.44823 0.24502 0.32902 -0.10649 -0.06521 0.42860 

7 Coccidohstrix insolita (Phenacoccus sp.) 0.00699 -0.25114 -0.15690 -0.47949 -0.27367 0.42697 

8 Epilachna vigintioctopunctata (grub) 0.82060 0.88838 0.87864 0.51505 0.45641 -0.02491 

9 E. vigintioctopunctata (adult) 0.83653 0.85475 0.86342 0.45094 0.38252 0.06665 

10 Chrotogonus sp. 0.73359 0.71943 0.73859 0.39511 0.39295 0.17549 

11 Poekilocerus pictus 0.64847 0.64795 0.65965 0.40866 0.40525 0.07177 

12 Spodoptera litura 0.17597 0.08054 0.11773 0.06467 0.10651 0.22993 

13 Eublema olivacea 0.49774 0.35786 0.41889 0.09868 -0.01450 0.37491 

14 Herpetogramma (Psara) bipunctalis 0.43650 0.49598 0.48300 0.38764 0.55408 0.00866 

15 Leucinodes orbonalis 0.08723 -0.15009 -0.06025 -0.35616 -0.10764 0.47644 

16 Euzophera particella -0.27064 -0.25596 -0.26647 -0.24339 -0.07592 -0.03611 

17 Coccinella septempunctata -0.19011 -0.44384 -0.35285 -0.49669 -0.21765 0.46517 

18 Cheilomenes sexmaculata -0.13517 -0.38075 -0.29123 -0.55957 -0.20052 0.50010 

19 Predatory spider 0.61746 0.58134 0.60573 0.28282 0.35990 0.19922 

20 Braconid wasps 0.50906 0.39708 0.44727 0.11635 0.24116 0.35630 

21 Apis spp. 0.24206 0.03968 0.11795 -0.20568 0.02674 0.45931 

22 Camponotus spp. 0.45596 0.36662 0.40782 0.21388 0.26554 0.22274 

23 Leptocorisa acuta 0.45887 0.54463 0.52099 0.48448 0.61274 -0.00301 

*0.388 value for significant correlation 

Table 5(b). Correlation (r) of arthropods population in brinjal with prevailing weather parameters during 2006-07. 

S. No. Name of arthropods 

Weather parameters 

Max temp Min temp Av temp Av RH Rainfall (mm) Sunshine (hrs) 

1 Amrasca bigutulla bigutulla 0.83317 0.76393 0.80456 0.20333 0.18120 0.44149 

2 Aphis gossypii -0.01924 -0.17776 -0.11258 -0.12187 -0.22329 -0.19248 

3 Bemesia tabaci 0.76498 0.67002 0.71981 0.17308 0.20404 0.38635 

4 Aspongopus janus 0.65358 0.51369 0.58109 -0.07489 -0.05615 0.43251 

5 Nezara viridula 0.71176 0.53568 0.61942 -0.11980 -0.05100 0.48712 

6 Urentius histricellus (U. centis) 0.44846 0.24589 0.33648 -0.20279 -0.11730 0.21215 

7 Coccidohstrix insolita (Phenacoccus sp.) -0.04728 -0.20589 -0.14112 -0.16968 -0.20664 -0.17924 

8 Epilachna vigintioctopunctata (grub) 0.91488 0.87318 0.90491 0.22983 0.09717 0.54024 

9 E. vigintioctopunctata (adult) 0.93921 0.89777 0.92902 0.26771 0.23913 0.51614 

10 Chrotogonus sp. 0.86445 0.71497 0.78968 0.04801 0.03058 0.44060 

11 Poekilocerus pictus 0.79580 0.65841 0.72677 0.10766 0.08627 0.42071 

12 Spodoptera litura 0.24905 0.10344 0.16700 -0.25515 -0.07423 -0.01000 

13 Eublema olivacea 0.56401 0.41456 0.48453 -0.03595 0.00288 0.39341 

14 Herpetogramma (Psara) bipunctalis 0.57315 0.50835 0.54289 0.05537 0.05540 0.37120 

15 Leucinodes orbonalis 0.20387 -0.03749 0.06543 -0.29860 -0.27149 0.02586 

16 Euzophera particella -0.34605 -0.34656 -0.35174 -0.18043 -0.09441 -0.05067 

17 Coccinella septempunctata -0.05733 -0.28522 -0.19186 -0.40587 -0.33735 -0.08680 

18 Cheilomenes sexmaculata -0.03956 -0.24825 -0.16275 -0.34761 -0.30467 -0.07032 

19 Predatory spider 0.77367 0.60077 0.68361 0.03222 0.00738 0.45417 

20 Braconid wasps 0.58899 0.42610 0.50240 0.03924 0.00339 0.12954 

21 Apis spp. 0.22398 0.02367 0.10979 -0.29757 -0.27156 0.07218 

22 Camponotus spp. 0.61860 0.43664 0.52094 -0.17139 -0.04699 0.43091 

23 Leptocorisa acuta 0.67389 0.53061 0.59962 0.02605 0.00906 0.39221 

*0.388 value for significant correlation 

first time observed in the 0.5 bug/plant 33 rd SW during first 

year and 0.2 bug/plant in 32 nd SW during second year. The 

population of L. acuta in brinjal field appeared due to the 

transplanted rice field at near the brinjal field during both the 

years. The population went on increasing and reached at its 

maximum 2.2 bugs/plant in 38 th SW during 2005-06 and 1.8 

bugs/plant in 39 th SW during 2006-07. Correlation coefficient 

studies between pest population and weather parameters 

temperature, RH and rainfall showed significant positive 

coefficient of correlation during 2005-06 and during 2006-07


temperature and sunshine hours. This finding was found 

similar to the findings of Prasad, 2004. No published record 

available on correlation of coefficient with abiotic factors. 


Bhadauria, N.K.S; Bhadauria, N.S. and Jakhmola, S.S. 1999. Insect pests 

complex of brinjal, Solanum melongena L. in north west M.P. 

Advances in Plant Sciences, 12(2): 607-608. 

Butani, D.K. and Jotwani, M.B. 1984. Insects in Vegetables. New Delhi. 

Periodical Expert Book Agency, pp. 356. 

Butani, D.K. and Verma, S. 1976. Pests of vegetables and their control- 

Brinjal. Pesticides, 17(9): 6-13. 

Ghosh, S.K., Laskar, N. and Senapati, S.K. 2007. Seasonal incidence of 

predator Menochilus sexmaculatus (Ber.) on brinjal and harmful 

effects of insecticides on the predator. Indian J. Agric. Res., 41(2): 

102-106. 

Gomez, A., Kwanchai and Gomez, A. Arturo. 1984. Statistical procedures 

for agricultural research, (II ed), (An International Rice Research 

Institute Book). A Weley Interscience Publication to the Willing 

and Sons. Newyork. 

Grewal, J.S. 1988. Seasonal fluctuation in population of Epilachna 

vigintioctopunctata on brinjal (Solanum melongena) crop. Bulletin 

of Entomology, 29(1): 73-75. 

Muthukumar, M. and Kalyanasundaram. 2003. Influence of abiotic 

factors on the incidence of major insect pests in brinjal (Solanum 

melongena L.). South Indian Horticulture, 51(1/6): 214-218. 

Nair, M.R.G.K 1995. Vegetables: In: insect and mites of crops in India, 

ICAR, New Delhi, pp. 408. 

Nayar, K.K., Ananthakrishnan, T.N. and David, B.V. 1976. Lepidoptera 

In: General and Applied Entomology. Tata Mc Graw Hill Publishing 

Co. Ltd. New Delhi, pp. 509. 

Panwar, V.P.S. 1995. Pests of vegetable: In: Agricultural Insect Pests of 

Crops and Their control, Kalyani Publishers New Delhi. pp. 286. 

Patnaik, H.P., Mohapatra, L.N. and Maity, B.K. 2004. Effectiveness 

of thiomethoxam 25 WG against the insect pest of brinjal under 

field condition. Journal of Plant Protection and Environment, 

1(1&2): 39. 

Prasad, G.S. and Logiswaran, G. 1997. Influence of weather factors on 

population fluctuation of insect pests on brinjal at Madurai, Tamil 

Nadu. Indian J. of Entomology, 59(4): 385-388. 

Prasad, H. 2004. Quantification of arthropod diversity in brinjal, 

Solanum melongena L. and development of an IPM tactics for the 

Leucinodes orbonalis Guen.,Ph.D Thesis, N.D. Uni. of Agric. and 

Tech., Faizabad 

Prempong, K. and Bauhim 1977. Studies on the insect pests of eggplant 

Solanum melongena L. in China. Bulletin of Institute Fundamental 

de Affreique Neire Serria A., 39(3): 627-641. 

Regupathy, A., Chandramohan, N., Palanisamy, S. and Gunathilagaraj, 

K. 2003. Pests, symptoms and description, a guide on crop pests. 

K.R.S. Printers, Coimbatore, pp. 276. 

Sohi, A.S. 1996. Studies on brinjal little leaf virus and its vector. M.Sc. 

Thesis, Punjab Agriculture University, Ludhiana, pp. 74. 



Distribution of Calcium in the Intestinal Tract of Snow Trout, Schizothorax curvifrons 

Heckel (Cyprinidae, Cypriniformes, Teleost) 

IMTIYAZ HUSSAIN MIR*, ASHOK CHANNA AND SUMAIRA NABI 

Ichthyology and Wildlife Section, Department of Zoology, University of Kashmir, Srinagar 190 006, 

Jammu and Kashmir 

*e-mail: drihmir@gmail.com 

ABSTRACT 

The distribution and localization of calcium and its functional 

significance in the histological sections of different portions of 

the intestinal tract of a naturally feeding freshwater teleost, 

Schizothorax curvifrons has been studied histochemically. The 

mucosal columnar epithelial cells of the intestinal bulb and 

the submucosal lymph spaces, blood vessels and blood capillaries 

of the intestinal bulb and intestine were observed to be calcium 

positive, whereas the rectum of the investigated fish react 

negatively to Alizarin red S stain. 

Key words 

Calcium, intestinal tract, Schizothorax curvifrons, 

columnar epithelial cells, alizarin red S 

The intestinal tract is of utmost physiological importance 

as it is the site of temporary storage of food and most of the 

digestive, absorptive and transport processes. As is the case 

with other cyprinids, the snow trout, Schizothorax curvifrons 

lacks true stomach, the proximal end of the intestine is of 

greater diameter than the rest of the intestine and serves the 

functions of temporary storage of ingested food. This dilated 

region of the intestinal tract is the intestinal bulb (Mir and 

Channa, 2010). The absorption and histochemical 

demonstration of inorganic elements in the tissue sections of 

various animals have been worked out by Glover, et al., 1972, 

Rana, 1972, Schryver, et al., 1972 and Channa, 1979 and 1981. 

However, most of them pertain to mammals and only a few 

authors have paid some attention to the demonstration of 

inorganic elements in lower vertebrates especially fish 

(Krayukhin, 1954; Channa, 1979 and 1981). There is almost 

complete lack of published account on the histochemical 

demonstration of inorganic elements in fishes of Kashmir in 

general and Schizothorax in particular, besides a very limited 

attention has been paid towards this aspect across the globe. 

Therefore, the present investigation has been undertaken as 

an effort to localize histochemically the occurrence of calcium 

along the unaltered intestinal tract of a naturally feeding 

herbivorous, cold freshwater teleost of paradise dale, 

Schizothorax curvifrons, which appears to be the 

morphometrically and meristically most variable and valuable 

species of Schizothorax of the paradise dale, which in turn 

will provide a base line for comparison with pathological and 

stress conditions in aquaculture and natural or polluted 

environment. 


Adult living specimens of wild, normal and healthy snow 

trout, Schizothorax curvifrons were caught from their natural 

habitat and fish with a body weight of 350-400g and body 

length of 20-25cm were dissected, the body cavity was 

operated. The different portions of the intestinal tract viz., 

intestinal bulb, intestine proper and rectum were fixed in 

absolute ethanol for two hours at room temperature (Pearse, 

1972). Following fixation the tissue samples were rinsed in 

fresh absolute ethanol, cleared in xylene and finally embedded 

in paraffin wax. Blocks were prepared by routine method and 

paraffin sections of 6-8µ thick were cut from a rotary microtome, 

mounted on clean slides without adhesive and stained with 

Sodium Alizarin Sulphonate (Alizarin red S) method of Dahl, 

1952. 


On examining the prepared slides under microscope, 

utilizing different magnifications, it was observed that the 

submucosal lymph spaces, blood vessels and blood capillaries 

of the intestinal bulb and intestine (Fig. 1 and 2) and columnar 

epithelial cells of the intestinal bulb react positively to Alizarin 

red S stain, thereby confirming the presence of calcium. On 

the contrary, the entire rectal region and the submucosal 

connective tissue, muscularis and the serosa of the intestinal 

bulb and intestine were noted to be calcium negative. 

Although a few methods are known for the detection of 

calcium in the tissues (Cameron, 1930; McGee-Russel, 1958 

and Carr, et al., 1961) but Dahl’s, 1952 method has been 

employed for the histochemical localization of calcium in the 

present investigation because this method is considered to 

be reliable as it chiefly stains calcium deposits. According to 

Pearse, 1972, the method of Dahl, 1952 is more sensitive as 

compared to other methods. Even Dahl, 1952 regards the 

sensitivity of Alizarin red S method to be greater when used 

histochemically. Besides the said method can be conveniently 

applied at room temperature and is specific for calcium. In the 

present study, no adhesive was used for mounting the sections 

because it has been seen by Dahl, 1952 that both gelatin and 

egg albumin caused fixation of the stain in a variable manner. 

It is states that the actual site of absorption of the calcium 

is the intestinal villus, which is also evident from the present


vessels and lymph spaces, as is also confirmed by the present 

investigations. Similar observations have been made with 

respect to the fishes fed artificially on the diet containing 

calcium (Channa, 1981). Calcium is required for regulating a 

large number of cellular activities and exerts a regulatory 

function on blood coagulation and permeability of cell 

membranes and capillaries. The absence of calcium from the 

rectum of the investigated fish is suggestive of the fact that 

the rectal part of Schizothorax curvifrons has no role in 

absorptive activity. 


Fig. 1. Cross section of intestinal bulb X320. 

Fig. 2. 

Cross section of intestine X320. Solid arrows () 

showing the localization of calcium. Mucosa (M), 

Muscularis (MU), Serosa (S), Submucosa (SM). 

histochemical analysis, revealing the presence of calcium in 

the submucosal lymph spaces, blood vessels and blood 

capillaries of the intestinal bulb and intestine. As the said 

tissues do not normally synthesize calcium, its presence in 

these tissues can be explained on the basis that the dissolved 

minerals in water are either mixed with food or in a free state 

are taken up during the normal course of feeding which get 

absorbed and are then transported to the blood stream for the 

maintenance of various metabolic and physiological needs. 

According to Bykov, 1958, the calcium salts are absorbed 

relatively in small quantities so that this is not attended by 

any sharp increase in the content of calcium in the blood. The 

same author further states that the salts of calcium are absorbed 

best when they are consumed with food. According to him, 

the absorbed calcium leaves the intestine through blood 

Bykoy, K.M. 1958. A Textbook of Physiology. Foreign Languages 

Publishing House, Moscow. 

Cameron, G.R. 1930. The staining of calcium. Journal of Pathology 

and Bacteriology, 33: 929. 

Carr, L.B., Rambo, O.N. and Feichtmeir, T.V. 1961. A method for 

demonstrating calcium in tissue sections using chloranilic acid. 

Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry, 9: 415-419. 

Channa, A. 1979. Comparative histochemical studies of iron absorption 

in three freshwater teleosts. Folia Histochemica Cytochemica, 17: 

174-196. 

Channa, A. 1981. A comparative histochemical study of calcium 

absorption in three freshwater teleosts. Acta Histochemica 

Cytochemica, 14: 563-570. 

Dahl, L.K. 1952. A simple and sensitive histochemical method for 

calcium. Proceeding of the Society for Experimental Biology, 80: 

474-479. 

Glover, J.M., Jones, P.R., Greenman, D.A., Hughes, R.E. and Jacobs, A. 

1972. Iron absorption and distribution in normal and scorbutic 

guinea-pigs. British Journal of Experimental Pathology, 453: 295. 

Krayukhin, B.V. 1954. The absorption of calcium in the intestine of 

carp. Republic Academy of Sciences Ukraine, 2: 103-107. 

McGee-Russel, S.M. 1958. Histochemical methods for calcium. Journal 

of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry, 6: 22. 

Mir, I.H. and Channa, A. 2010. Histochemical distribution of lipase and 

acid phosphatase in the intestinal tract of the snow trout, 

Schizothorax curvifrons Heckel. Journal of Biological Sciences, 

10: 643-647. 

Pearse, A.G.E. 1972. Histochemistry, Theoretical and Applied, vol. 2, 

Churchill Livingstone, London, New York. 

Rana, S.V.S. 1972. Histochemical demonstration of bismuth and lead in 

some tissues of common ground squirrel, Funambulus pennanti 

(Wroughton). Acta Histochemica, 42: 278. 

Schryver, H.F., Hintz, H.F., Craig, P.H., Houge, D.E. and Lowe, J.E. 

1972. Site of phosphorous absorption from the intestine of the 

horse. The Journal of Nutrition, 102: 143. 

Recieved on 31.12.2010 Accepted on 2.4.2011


Callus Induction in Sugarcane Genotypes 

MOHAMMAD SHAHID * , ANURADHA SINGH AND P.K. SHUKLA 

Department of Biotechnology, BND PG College, Kanpur, U.P. 

e-mail: mo.shahid@sify.com 

ABSTRACT 

The process of callus culture is very useful in somaclonal 

variations as numerous cells are obtained from callus that 

develops on an injured site of an explant as variation is very 

less and it occurs in any cell hence it becomes necessary to 

take a number of cells together and find a variation in the 

plants. With this an effective somaclone is obtained without 

much of labour. In this study there are mainly 3 types of callus 

formed; (1) brownish (2) creamish and (3) purple callus 

Creamish callus are of very good quality. The callus developed 

was increased due to the concentration of 2, 4-D in the MS 

medium. 

Key words 

Somaclonal variations, explant, callus 

Callus cultures in plant tissue culture is beneficial for 

higher studies like transformation experiment and somaclonal 

variation experiments. Callus culture is used in the modification 

in the plant’s genome due to passage through somaclonal 

variation (Street, 1973). Callus cultures has impact on 

agriculture as evidenced by selection for disease resistance 

which is probably due to chromosomal mosaicism. Future plans 

for use of callus cultures techniques on sugarcane are predicted 

on the assumption that sugarcane can be genetically modified 

to programme an ideal system in terms of sugar storage, disease 

resistance and adaptability to physical environment (Singh, 

2004). 


The subapical meristenatic region including the 1 to 8 

internodes are excised from the stem tip, the second innermost 

roll of young leaves right above the shoot apex was taken in 

length of shoot apex of 2-3 cm parts of meristematic tissues 

are picked up with forceps from sugarcane top. Excision tools 

such as leaves forceps and petridishes are thoroughly sterilized 

because the apical and the rolled young leaf, tissues are 

wrapped deep in the leaf sheath. The outer leaf sheaths are 

stripped of appropriately the 10th nodes. The apical dome 

and the 2cm portion of the leaf sheath near the apex are 

separately cut off and immediately inoculated on to the MS 

medium. The inoculated tissues are incubated in a culture 

room in laminar flow chamber at 26-28 ° C under cool, while 

florescence light kept on an intensity of about 2000-2500 lux 

at a day and night of 16/8 hours. After 5 to 7 days in culture 

callus cells start to form the broken regions of the explants. 

After 4 to 5 weeks of growth, the callus mass can be subculture 

on to MS medium for callus proliferation or MS medium for 

plant regeneration. This 2- direction approach can be carried 

out every 4 to 5 weeks for both maintenance of callus and to 

produce plantlets continuously. (Pande, 2004); 10-14 days 

after transferring to a fresh MS medium, numerous green 

bumps can be seen on the callus surface. These are the growing 

points and leafs primordial and they gradually develop into 

shoots. Most of them exhibit a leaf and succulent appearance 

with in 3 to 4 weeks later the entire surface is covered with 

healthy green sheets. (Murashige, and Skoog, 1962) 

The concentration of hormones such as BAP and 2,4-D 

is different among different media. The callus induction in 4 th 

media with 0.50 mg/ Lt BAP and 3.00 mg/ Lt 2, 4-D is 

maximum.Now the different varieties of sugarcanes are 

induced in 4 th Media with and without BAP (Sani and 

Mustapha, 2010). 


After about 8-10 days of inoculation in culture, the 

explants become slightly rough in texture, and their surface 

may glisten in reflected light. At this stage callus became visible 

or this is a sign of the beginning of callus formation. A good 

proliferating callus could be seen after one month of culture. 

Culture for a single incubation period may last from a few 

weeks to three months, depending on the rapidity of growth 

(Abed, et. al., 2009). The calli were organised, yellowish 

nodular and globular with distinct embryonic clumps. This is 

a type 1 callus as per the report of (Gandonou, et. al., 2005) 

Browning due to secretion of phenol in the culture media is 

due to enzyme polyphenol oxidase, a common feature in 

sugarcane. There are number of antioxidants like - PVP 

(Polyvinyl pyrrolidone), ascorbic acid and cystein 

hydrochloride are known to reduce phenol formation in plants. 

Attempts were made in present experiments to reduce the 

browning by addition of antioxidants like PVP in the medium 

and in the processing of surface sterilization of explant by the 

addition of ascorbic acid.Certain phenolic substances released 

from the explants and cause browning of the medium. 

Browning was least in variety CoLk 8102 while CoS 96268, BO 

91, CoS 94257 and CoSe 92423 had almost the same intensity 

of browning. Varietal differences with respect to media 

browning may be due to the variation in secretion of phenolic 

compounds. Browning is a phenomenon which affects the 

nutrient uptake and ultimately leads to death of the explant 

the death and decreased callus growth. Meristematic portion 

near the spindle leaf were found to be good explant for 

culturing.Some growth initiation was observed in the cultured


or absence of hormones in the medium. It is well known that 

callusing besides the medium with auxin and cytokinins, 

coconut water and types of explant, is also dependent on 

genotype, age of explant and tissue.However, in our experiment 

with different genotypes of sugarcane i.e. GoLk 8102, 1130 91, 

CoS 96268, CoS 94257 and CoSe 92423 the MS 4 medium which 

contained 0.50 mg/It BAP and 3.00 mg/It 2, 4-D was found 

sufficient to induce embryogenic callus. 

Genotype BO 91 exhibited rapid callusing within 8 days 

followed by CoLk 8102, CoS 96268, CoS 94257 and CoSe 92423 

which took 12-15 days for callus initiation. Among the various 

media prepared the 4 th media the most suitable has BAP 0.50 

mg/ lt and 2,4-D 3.00 mg/ lt. Now the different varieties of 

sugarcane are cultured in this media to compare the callus 

induction rate among various genotypes. Results showed that 

BO 91 is best and fastest induced callus among all the varieties. 

Fig. 1. 

Observatoin of callus induction of sugarcane variety 

CoLk 8102 on different media with different 

concentration of 2, 4-D 

explants after 10-15 days of culturing. This growth may be 

due to rapid cell elongation primarily by the auxin 2,4-D. In 

varieties of sugarcane the growth initiation was in order of 

BO 91, CoLk 8102, CoS 96268, CoS 94257, CoSe 92423. Genotype 

CoLk 8102 and BO 91 was found to be better in callus formation 

as compared to rest of the genotypes. The newly induced 

primary calli were smooth, white and creamish in surfaces 

absorb more nutrients leading to rapid cell division and 

subsequent callus formation (Raza, et al., 2010). In this 

experimental findings with different doses of hormone, the 

level of hormone 2,4-D with concentration of 30mg/ Lt along 

with 0.5 mg/Lt of BAP was found to be better as compared to 

other treatments in the formation of callus. 

The MS media tested in the experiments, only MS 4th 

medium was found to be most suitable for callus initiation or 

induction. The highest percentage of creamish callus obtained 

in MS medium was of variety CoLk 8102. The data suggested 

that the growth of callus was highly influenced by the presence 


Abed, A.M., JIbouri, A.L. and Ibrahim, A. Shamarri, Al. 2009. Response 

of three sugarcane (saccharum officinarum L.) genotypes for callus 

formation and salinity tolerance, J. Duhok Univ., 12: 74-79. 

Gandonou, Ch. Errabii, T., Abrini, J., Idaomar, M., Chivi, F. and Skali 

Senhaji, N. 2005. Effect of genotype on callus induction and plant 

regeneration from leaf explants of sugarcane (Saccharum sp.), 

African Journal of Biotechnology, 4(11): 1250-1255. 

Murashige, T. and Skoog F. 1962. Plant Physiology, 15: 473. 

Pande, H.P. 2004. Preparatory steps in Tissue culture. Cane Management 

and Development in sugar Mill Reserved Zone, IISR Lko, pp.57- 

61. 

Raza, Ghulam Ali, Kazim, Mukhtar, Zahid Mansoor, Shahid Arshad, 

Muhammad. and Asad, Shaheen 2010. The response of sugarcane 

(Saccharum officinarum L) genotypes to callus induction, 

regeneration and different concentrations of the selective agent 

(geneticin -418), African Journal of Biotechnology 9(51): 8739- 

8747 

Sani, L. A. and Mustapha, Y. 2010. Effect of genotype and 2, 4-D 

concentration on callogenesis in sugarcane (saccharum spp. hybrids), 

Bayero Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences, 3(1): 238–240 

Singh. B.D. 2004. Biotechnology. Kalyani Publishers, pp. 234-282. 

Street, H. 1973. Plant Tissue and cell cultures. Blackwelll scientific 

Publications, 11: 1-58. 



Antimicrobial Activity of Essential Oils against Multidrug Resistant Enterobacterial 

Pathogens 

PRITI VYAS 1 AND SHRIDHAR PATIL 2 

1 

Department of Microbiology, P.M.B. Gujarati Science College, Indore 

2 

Applied Microbiology Laboratory, School of Life Science, Devi Ahilya University, Takshashila Campus, 

Khandwa Road, Indore 452 001 

e-mail: pritivyas@rediffmail.com, profspatil@yahoo.co.uk 

ABSTRACT 

The antimicrobial activity of essential oils of 14 medicinal 

plants was determined against 11 multidrug resistant (MDR) 

pathogens. Except Pseudomonas aeruginosa, all pathogens tested 

were gram-negative rods and members of enterobacteriaceae. 

The antimicrobial activity of tested essential oils were found 

to be different for different species of the same genera of 

pathogens. It was observed that most pathogenic and most 

common species like Klebsiella pneumoniae and Proteus vulgaris 

were found to be least inhibited by these oils. Rare and less 

pathogenic species were more sensitive towards the oils. Use of 

essential oils is suggested to control these multidrug resistant 

pathogens. 

Key words 

MDR pathogens, essential oils, antimicrobial activity, 

medicinal plants, gram-negative. 

Many microorganisms, which cause damage to human 

health, exhibit drug resistance due to inadequate use of 

antibiotics. Thus, there is a need for the search of new 

substances from natural sources, including plants. Essential 

oils, odorous and volatile products of plant secondary 

metabolism have a wide application in folk medicine, food 

flavoring and preservation. The antibacterial and antifungal 

properties of essential oils of Satureja montana, Rosamarinus 

officinalis (rosemary), Thymus vulgaris and Calamintha nepta 

were evaluated (Panizzi, et al., 1993). 

The inhibitory effect of essential oils of yarrow, clove, 

lemongrass, basil, guava, rosemary, sage and thyme were 

tested against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, S. aureus, 

Salmonella, Bacillus subtilis, Candida albicans, Proteus, 

Klebsiella, Escherichia coli and Enterobacter (Gislene, et 

al., 2000). A strong bactericidal activity of essential oils 

extracted from two varieties of Thymus against E. coli, S. 

aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Klebsiella pneumoniae and 

Pseudomonas aeruginosa have been demonstrated (Rasooli 

and Mirmostafa, 2003; Karaman, et al., 2001). 

The aim of the present investigation was to evaluate the 

effects of commonly available essential oils on multidrug 

resistant enterobacterial pathogens. 


The susceptibility of MDR pathogens to essential oils 

was tested by disc diffusion method on chloremphenicol and 

gentamycin supplemented Muller Hinton agar following the 

method described earlier (Gislene et al., 2000; Rasooli and 

Mirmostafa, 2003; Trivedi and Hotchandani, 2004). Twenty 

four hour grown culture (0.5 ml) was inoculated in 10 ml sterile 

molten Muller Hinton agar (seed agar) and poured on Muller 

Hinton agar plates (base agar). Sterile disc of 5 mm diameter of 

whatmann paper no.2 loaded with 5µl of test oil were placed 

on solidified medium and the plates were incubated at 37 ºC 

for 48 h (Pattnaik et al., 1996; Rasooli and Mirmostafa, 2003). 

Diameter of zone of inhibition of growth was measured in mm 

by zone reader. Each test was performed in triplicate. Essential 

oils purchased from local market and botanical nomenclature 

of source plants are presented in Table 1. 


Antimicrobial activity of essential oils on eleven gram 

negative MDR pathogens is presented in Table 1. Except 

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, all pathogens were members of 

enterobacteriacae. Development of zone of inhibition indicated 

antimicrobial activity of the oil and diameter of zone of 

inhibition indicated its antibacterial potency. Out of all the 

oils tested, a very significant inhibition was observed with 

eucalyptus oil, clove oil and pine oil. Moderate activity was 

shown by thyme oil (Thymus vulgaris), sweet basil oil (Ocimum 

gratissimum) and orange oil (Citrus aurantium). Least activity 

was observed for peppermint oil (Mentha piperita) and black 

pepper oil (Piper nigrum). The present study showed that 

sweet basil oil (Ocimum gratissimum) exhibited insignificant 

inhibitory effect on most of the MDR pathogens. Only Proteus 

myxofaciens was inhibited the most (20 mm zone diameter) by 

sweet basil oil. Salmonella typhi and E. coli were not found 

to be inhibited. The effect of extract of sweet basil oil on E. 

coli and S. typhi was tested by several workers with similar 

results (Nakamura et al.,1999; Adebolu and Salan, 2005). 

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, E. coli, Shigella flexneri and 

Proteus sp. were inhibited but with small zone diameter. 

Pseudomonas aeruginosa was found to be inhibited by 

eucalyptus oil, clove oil and lemongrass oil. Maximum zone 

diameter (18 mm) was obtained against clove oil as also 

demonstrated earlier (Gislene et al., 2000). 

Pine oil (Pinus sylvestris) was found to be active against 

most of the pathogens, but with a relatively smaller zone


Table 1. 

Antimicrobial activity of essential oils of some medicinal plants against MDR enterobacterial pathogens 

MDR pathogens 

Zone of inhibition * (mm) using essential oils # of 

Eucal. 

citri. 

Cymb. 

mart. 

Syzy. 

arom. 

Ocim. 

sanct. 

Pela. 

grav. 

Ocim. 

grati. 

Pipe. 

nigr. 

Cymp. 

citr. 

Thym. 

vulg. 

Embl. 

offi. 

Ment. 

pipe. 

Citr. 

sp. 

Pinu. 

sylv. 

Citrus 

sp. 

Escherichia coli 13.6 -- 14.4 7.0 6.2 4.0 -- -- -- -- -- -- 4.3 -- 

Kleb. pneumoniae 8.1 -- 15.0 4.3 4.0 -- -- -- 6.2 -- -- -- -- -- 

Citro. diversus 12.0 -- 14.6 4.0 4.0 4.2 -- 8.6 4.0 5.0 -- -- 7.2 4.0 

Shigella flexneri 16.5 -- 12.4 4.0 -- 5.0 -- -- 6.0 4.0 -- -- 5.2 -- 

Salmonella typhi -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 7.0 8.3 9.5 

Kleb.pneumo. 7.0 -- 12.6 -- 4.0 6.0 -- -- 9.0 -- -- -- 11.2 7.0 

Subsp. ozaenae 

Proteus vulgaris 18.2 16.0 19.5 -- -- -- -- 5.0 4.0 -- -- 7.2 4.0 5.5 

Citrobacter freundii 12.5 -- 13.0 5.0 5.2 5.1 -- -- 12.6 4.0 4.0 -- 5.0 4.0 

Proteus myxofaciens 13.6 12.0 13.0 14.5 18.2 20.0 12.0 -- -- 9.3 -- 10.0 9.0 7.0 

Klebsiella oxytoca 8.0 -- 16.5 -- 6.0 7.0 -- -- 10.0 7.2 6.3 -- 14.5 8.0 

Pseudo.aeruginosa 14.5 -- 18.0 -- -- -- -- 10.2 -- -- -- -- -- -- 

*Zone diameter = actual diameter minus disc diameter (5mm); — no or insignificant inhibition. 

#Eucal. citri.- Eucalyptus citriodora, Cymbo. mart.- Cymbopogen martini, Syzy. arom.- Syzygium aromaticum, Ocim.sanct.- Ocimum sanctum, Pela. 

grav.- Pelargonium graveolens, Ocim. grati.- Ocimum gratissimum, Pipe. nigru. Piper nigrum, Cymp. citr.- Cympopogon citrates, Thym. vulg. - 

Thymus vulgaris, Embl. offi.- Emblica officinalis, Ment. pipe.- Mentha piperita, Citr. sp.- Citronella sp., Pinu.sylv.- Pinus sylvestris, Citrus sp.- Citrus 

species. 

diameter. The activity of pine oil was demonstrated against 

fungi and gram-positive bacteria (Bagci and Digrak, 1996). Least 

activity was observed for black pepper oil (Piper nigrum). It 

was found to be active against Proteus myxofaciens only. Some 

workers had demonstrated its activity against gram-positive 

and gram-negative bacteria, of which only gram-positive (S. 

aureus and B. subtilis) were inhibited by the extracts (Greisiele 

and Nakamura, 2003; Holetz, et al., 2002). Amla oil (Emblica 

officinalis) was found to be active against some of the pathogens 

(Citrobacter, Shigella, Proteus and Klebsiella) with small zone 

diameter. It had been reported to be moderately active against 

the pathogens (Ahmad, et al., 1998). 

Essential oils of citronella (Citronella sp.), lemongrass 

(Cymbopogon citratus), peppermint (Mentha piperita), 

palmarosa (Cymbopogon martini), thyme oil (Thymus 

vulgaris) and geranium (Pelargonium graveolens) had shown 

moderate activity against most of the MDR pathogens giving 

moderate zone of inhibition. The activity of these oils was 

also demonstrated against gram positive, gram-negative 

bacteria and some fungi with almost similar results (Pattnaik 

et al., 1996; Rasooli and Mirmostafa, 2003; Azza, et al., 2010). 

MDR Salmonella typhi was found resistant towards almost 

all oils except citronella (Citronella sp.), pine (Pinus sylvestris) 

and orange (Citrus aurantium) oils. These three oils had also 

shown low activity against Salmonella. Shigella flexneri was 

found to be sensitive towards seven oils, eucalyptus oil being 

the most effective, followed by clove oil. Low activity was 

observed for tulsi oil (Ocimum sanctum) and Amla oil (Emblica 

officinalis). Palmarosa oil (Cymbopogon martini) was found 

to be effective against Proteus only. Both the species (P. 

vulgaris and P. myxofaciens) were inhibited by it. 


The financial assistance provided by UGC- CRO, Bhopal 

is thankfully acknowledged. 


Adebolu, T.and Salan, A.O. 2005. Antimicrobial activity of leaf extracts 

of Ocimum gratissimum on selected diarrhea causing bacteria in 

southwestern Nigeria. African Journal of Biotechnology, 4: 682- 

684. 

Ahmad, I., Mehmood, Z., Mohammad, F and Ahmad, S. 1998. Screening 

of some Indian medicinal plants for their antimicrobial properties. 

Journal of Ethno. Pharmacology, 62: 183-193. 

Azza, A., Abou, Z., Mona, S. and Mohamed, I. 2010. Control of some 

multiresistant bacteria infecting upper respiratory system using 

certain essential oils and plant extracts. Proceeding of fifth scientific 

environmental conference. 87-105. 

Bagci, E., and Digrak, M. 1996. Antimicrobial activity of essential oils 

from trees. Turkey Journal of Biology, 20:191-8. 

Gislene, G., Juliana, L., Paulo. C. and Giuliana, L. 2000. Antibacterial 

activity of plant extracts and phytochemicals on antibiotic resistant 

bacteria. Brazilian Journal of Microbiology, 31: 247-256. 

Greisiele, F., and Nakamura, C. 2003. Antibacterial activity of extracts 

and neolignanes from Piper regnellii. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz, 

98: 1115-1120. 

Holetz, F., Pessini, G., Sanches, N., Cortez, A. and Nakamura, C. 2002. 

Screening of some plants used in Brazilian folk medicine for 

treatment of infectious diseases. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz, 97: 

1027-1031. 

Karaman, S., Digrak, M. and Ravid, V. 2001. Antibacterial and antifungal 

activity of the essential oils of Thymus revolutus from Turkey. 

Journal of Ethanopharamacology. 72: 183-186. 

Nakamura, C., Nakamura, T. and Bando, E. 1999. Antibacterial activity 

of Ocimum gratissimum essential oil. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz., 

94: 675-678. 

Panizzi, L., Flamini, G., Lioni, P.L., and Morelly, I. 1993. Composition 

and antimicrobial properties of essential oils of four mediterranean 

lamiaceae. Journal of Ethanopharamacology, 39: 167–70. 

Pattnaik, S., Subramanyam, V.R. and Kole, C. 1996. Antibacterial and 

antifungal activity of ten essential oils in vitro. Microbios, 86 : 

237–46. 

Rasooli, I., Mirmostafa, S.A. 2003. Bacterial susceptibility to and 

chemical composition of essential oils from Thymus kotschyanus 

and Thymus persicus. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 

51: 2200–2205. 

Singh, I.P. 2003. Eucalyptus: A rich source of bioactive secondary 

metabolites. CRIPS, 4: 9-13. 

Trivedi, N.A. and Hotchandani, S.C. 2004. A study of antimicrobial 

activity of oil of eucalyptus. Indian Journal of Pharmacology, 

36: 93–95. 



Efficacy of Botanical Extracts on Biological Activities of Pulse Beetle Callosobruchus 

maculatus (Fab.) on Green Gram 

PRADYUMN SINGH AND S.S. JAKHMOLA 

Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Raisen 464 551 (M.P.) 

e-mail: dtpmasters@yahoo.co.in 

ABSTRACT 

At all the interval of post treatment, petroleum ether extract of 

Margosa seed, in general, showed maximum oviposition 

deterrent activity against C. maculatus as it recorded maximum 

reduction in oviposition, followed by Margosa seed ethanol 

extract and Margosa leaf petroleum ether extract. The 

differences in the adult emergence due to plant extracts were 

significant at each interval of post treatment. Percentage 

reduction in adult emergence continuously decreased up to 90 

days, post treatment under all botanical treatments. At one day 

after treatment, reduction in adult emergence varied from 25.50 

to 65.10%, whereas, it was 6.63 to 25.90% at 90 days after 

treatment. Petroleum ether extract of Margosa seed showed 

significantly maximum ovicidal activity (36.21%) against C. 

maculatus followed by ethanol extract of Margosa seed (27.59%). 

The developmental period (eggs to adult) ranged from 26.13 to 

28.14 days, however, it did not exhibit significant difference 

among various plant extracts. 

Key words 

Callosobruchus maculatus, bruchid, botanicals, 

Margosa, petroleum ether 

Pulse beetle, Callosobruchus maculatus (Fab.) is one 

the most destructive pest of stored pulses in India. The losses 

in seed by infestation of pulse beetle due to improper storage 

in India have been reported to be 50 per cent after only three 

months of storage (Hussain and Abdel, 1982). The 

encumbrance caused in the use of fumigants for the control 

of the pest lead to diversified effort for evolving more 

convenient and alternative method to minimize the losses. In 

recent past, the use of plant materials and vegetable oils has 

acquired an important approach for the control of pests. Very 

few significant contribution have been made so far using plant 

materials (Thawstine, 1987) on ovicidal and grain protectant 

properties. 


Experimental studies were conducted under laboratory 

conditions in the Department of Entomology, College of 

Agriculture, Gwalior (M.P.) during 2006-07. Experiments on 

extracts/solvents against pulse beetle on adult mortality, 

ovipositional deterrent, ovicidal effect, development period 

and larval-pupal deformities of the Callosobruchus maculatus 

(Fab.) and losses caused by beetle in storage were carried 

out. 

Eleven plant materials Margosa seed, Margosa leaf, 

Night jasmine leaf, Forest jasmine leaf, Thorne apple leaf, 

Chinese orborvitae leaf, Calotropis leaf, Eucalyptus leaf, 

Spurge leaf, Carrot grass leaf and Achyranthes leaf were 

collected and dried at room temperature and powdered using 

electric blender. The powdered material (100 g) was soaked in 

500 ml. of respective solvents by keeping in shaker for twelve 

hours. The extracts were filtered and condensed with the help 

of rotary vacuum evaporator to obtain solvent free residue. 

Ten per cent stock solution of each plant extract was prepared 

by again dissolving it in the respective solvent. Stock solution 

of 10% was further diluted in water to make it 0.2 per cent and 

seeds of green gram were treated with each extract of 0.2% 

concentration @ 3ml/100 g seed. 

To find out the oviposition deterrent activity and toxicity 

of the botanicals 10 g seeds treated with each extract were 

kept in plastic tube of size 5cm.X3cm. At 1,15,30,60 and 90 

days after treatments, 3 pairs of beetles were released in each 

tube for 72 hours and then adults were removed. The dead 

and alive adults were counted to work out the mortality caused 

by extract. At 7 days after release number of eggs laid in 

different treatment were counted and percentage ovipostion 

deterrency (POD) were calculated as 

(Ec Et) 

POD = 100 

, Where Et = number of eggs 

Ec 

laid on treated seeds and Ec = number of eggs laid on control 

seeds. 

The experiments were kept undisturbed till emergence 

of adult from the treated seeds. The number of adults emerged 

from control seed (Ac) and treated seeds (At) were recorded 

daily and total developmental period were computed. The 

percentage reduction of adults (PRA) emergence were 

calculated as: 

(Ac At) 

PRA = 100 

Ac 

The 250g seeds of green gram were exposed to 100 pairs 

of pulse beetles in glass jar. After 24 hours the entire adult 

were removed from the glass jar. The seeds with single egg 

were separated in to lots each having 60 seeds. The seeds 

having the eggs were treated with selected concentration of 

the plant extracts. The treated seed were then divided in three


replications each having 20 seeds. After seven days the 

hatched eggs on treated seeds and control were counted. 

The percentage ovicidal activity (POA) were calculated as: 

(Ehc Eht) 

POA = 100 

, where Ehc=egg hatched in 

Ehc 

control, Eht = egg hatched in treatment 

The experiments on ovicidal effect were kept undisturbed 

till emergence of adult from the treated seeds. The number of 

adults emerged from control seed (Ac) and treated seeds (At) 

were recorded daily and total developmental period were 

computed. The percentage reduction of adults (PRA) 

emergence were calculated. Fifteen days after treatment 20 

seeds selected randomly from the seeds kept for ovicidal 

experiment. The seeds were dissected out to see the larval 

pupal deformities, if any. The adults emerged from the seeds 

were measured for their size and deformities, if any. The 

percentage deformities were computed and the data were 

statistically analyzed after transformation. 


Adult mortality recorded during post treatment periods 

of 1, 15, 30, 60 and 90 days decreased 2 to 4 times up to 90 

days, post treatment as compared to initial mortality recorded 

at 1 day, post treatment under all plant extract treatments 

indicating declined effectiveness of various plant extracts as 

days elapsed after seed treatment. With the exceptions of 

Margosa seed ethanol extract and Margosa seed and leaf 

petroleum ether extracts, almost all the plant extracts became 

practically ineffective on 90 th days after treatment, when 

mortality reached very low level (5.56%). All the botanical 

treatments except water extract of Achyranthes leaf recorded 

significantly higher adult mortality (11.11 to 38.89%) in 

comparison to zero mortality in control at 1 days after treatment, 

while at 90 days after treatment, only Margosa seed ethanol 

extract and Margosa seed and leaf petroleum ether extracts 

proved better than control against beetle causing 11.11 to 

16.67% mortality as against 8.01% in control (Table 1). The 

Margosa seed petroleum ether and ethanol extracts and 

Margosa leaf petroleum ether extract were found to be most 

effective both in respect of giving higher initial mortality as 

well as longer persistence of toxicity. 

In the present investigation it was found that all the 

plant extracts showed significant reduction in oviposition at 

all the post treatment intervals, which indicated the higher 

protectant potential of these extracts against insect damage. 

The reduction in eggs over control due to different plant 

extracts varied (Table 2). At all the interval of post treatment, 

petroleum ether extract of Margosa seed, in general, showed 

maximum oviposition deterrent activity against C. maculatus 

as it recorded maximum reduction in oviposition. It is possible 

that these extracts might possess oviposition deterrent 

principles that could change the physiology and behavior of 

the adult C.maculatus as reflected by their egg laying 

capability. 

The differences in the adult emergence due to plant 

extracts were significant at each interval of post treatment. 

The adult emergence showed considerable increase with 

increase in the interval of post treatment. Percentage reduction 

in adult emergence continuously decreased up to 90 days, 

post treatment under all botanical treatments. At 1 day after 

treatment, reduction in adult emergence varied (Table 3). 

Margosa seed petroleum ether extract resulted in significantly 

highest reduction in adult emergence at all the intervals of 

post treatment, however, this was at par with Margosa seed 

ethanol extract and Margosa leaf petroleum ether extract at 1 

day, post treatment, Eucalyptus leaf petroleum ether extract 

at 30 days post treatment and with Margosa seed ethanol 

extract at 90 days, post treatment. The reduction in adult 

emergence could either be due to egg mortality or larval 

mortality or even reduction in hatching of the eggs. The egg 

mortality has been attributed to the toxic compounds present 

in the plant material by Su, 1977 while Singh, et al., 1978 

considered the physical properties caused changes in the 

surface tension and oxygen tension in the egg. Disruption of 

water balance of eggs and developing embryos may also result 

in lethality have been suggested by Messina and Renwick, 

1983. Mathur, et al., 1985 have attributed this to the effective 

adhesion of dust or powder particles on micropyle of eggs 

which either create obstacle in their rupturing or induce some 

unknown physiological changes resulting in the failure of 

hatching. The ovipositional deterrent activity of Margosa leaf 

powder and Margosa seed powder as well as oil against pulse 

beetle have also been reported by Pandey, et al., 1986, 

Chiranjeeveei and Sudhakar, 1996, Oparaeke, et al., 1998, Singh, 

2003. 

The variation owing to plant extracts were significant 

for the percentage egg hatching. In general, the percentage 

egg hatching was drastically reduced in most of the plant 

extracts of different solvents when compared to control. All 

the botanical treatments except spurge leaf water extract, 

Thorne apple leaf ethanol extract and Calotropis leaf petroleum 

ether extract gave significantly lower percentage of eggs 

hatched than control. These results are in agreement with the 

results of Singh, 1998, Reddy and Singh, 1998 and Rajpakse, 

et al., 2002, Seenivasan, et al., 2004, who tested the various 

botanical products and found effective against the stored 

grains pest in respect of reducing the hatchability of eggs. 

Among the botanical treatments petroleum ether extract 

of Margosa seed showed significantly maximum ovicidal 

activity (36.21%) against C. maculatus followed by ethanol 

extract of Margosa seed (27.59%). This may be due to blocking 

of oxygen supply, which inhibits further embryonic 

development (Table 4). This is supported from the observation 

of Seenivasan, et al., 2004 who reported that petroleum ether

Table 1. 

SINGH & JAKHMOLA, Efficacy of Botanical Extracts on Biological Activities of Pulse Beetle 2 7 

Effect of different plant extracts on adult mortality of Callosobruchus maculatus at different post treatment intervals 

Solvent/plant extract 

Adult mortality (%) at different post treatment intervals 

1 day 15 days 30 days 60 days 90 days 

Water 

Margosa seed 22.22 27.77* 22.22 19.76* 16.67 24.04* 16.67 19.76* 5.56 8.01* 

Margosa leaf 16.67 24.04 11.11 16.03 16.67 19.76 11.11 16.03 5.56 8.01 

Night jasmine leaf 11.11 16.03 11.11 16.03 11.11 16.03 11.11 16.03 5.56 8.01 

Forest jasmine leaf 11.11 16.03 11.11 16.03 11.11 16.03 11.11 16.03 5.56 8.01 

Thorne apple leaf 11.11 16.03 11.11 16.03 11.11 16.03 11.11 16.03 5.56 8.01 

Chinese orborvitae leaf 11.11 16.03 5.56 8.01 11.11 16.03 5.56 8.01 5.56 8.01 

Calotropis leaf 11.11 16.03 11.11 16.03 11.11 16.03 11.11 16.03 5.56 8.01 

Eucalyptus leaf 16.67 24.04 16.67 19.76 16.67 16.03 11.11 16.03 5.56 8.01 

Spurge leaf 11.11 16.03 11.11 16.03 5.56 8.01 5.56 8.01 5.56 8.01 

Carrot grass leaf 11.11 16.03 11.11 16.03 11.11 16.03 5.56 8.01 5.56 8.01 

Achyranthes leaf 5.56 8.01 11.11 16.03 5.56 8.01 5.56 8.01 5.56 8.01 

Ethanol 

Margosa seed 22.22 27.77 22.22 27.77 22.22 27.77 16.67 24.04 11.11 16.03 

Margosa leaf 16.67 19.76 11.11 16.03 11.11 16.03 11.11 16.03 5.56 8.01 







Spurge leaf 11.11 16.03 11.11 16.03 11.11 16.03 5.56 8.01 5.56 8.01 



Haxane 

Margosa seed 22.22 27.77 16.67 24.04 16.67 24.04 16.67 19.76 5.56 8.01 

Margosa leaf 16.67 24.04 11.11 16.03 11.11 16.03 11.11 16.03 5.56 8.01 







Spurge leaf 11.11 16.03 11.11 16.03 11.11 16.03 11.11 16.03 5.56 8.01 



Petroleum ether 

Margosa seed 38.89 38.49 27.78 31.51 27.78 31.51 22.22 27.77 16.67 19.76 

Margosa leaf 22.22 27.77 16.67 19.76 11.11 16.03 11.11 16.03 11.11 16.03 







Spurge leaf 11.11 16.03 11.11 16.03 11.11 16.03 5.56 8.01 5.56 8.01 



Control 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 5.56 8.01 5.56 8.01 

S. E. (m)± 3.03 3.10 3.04 2.29 1.29 

C.D. (p=0.05) 8.56 8.75 8.57 6.45 3.63 

*Angular transformed values. 

extract of Citrullus calocynthis seeds had high ovicidal activity 

(95.31%) on C. maculatus. 

The developmental period (eggs to adult) ranged from 

26.13 to 28.14 days, however, it did not exhibit significant 

difference among various plant extracts. Similar results have 

also been reported by Singal and Chouhan, 1997. But in 

contrary to this Chiranjeevi and Sudhakar, 1996 and Adedire 

and Lajide, 2000 reported that development period of pulse 

beetle prolonged and suppressed in the treated seeds over 

the untreated control, respectively. 

The highest larval-pupal deformities was recorded on 

seeds treated with petroleum ether extract of Margosa seed,


Table 2. 

Oviposition deterrent activity of different plant extracts against Callosobruchus maculatus at different post treatment 

intervals 

Solvent/plant extract No. of eggs 

laid 

% 

reduction 

No. of eggs 

laid 

% 

reduction 

No. of eggs 

laid 

% 

reduction 

No. of eggs 

laid 

% 

reduction 

No. of eggs 

laid 

% 

reduction 


Water 

Margosa seed 35.33 40.11 35.33 44.79 41.00 38.81 44.67 35.27 47.00 33.80 

Margosa leaf 37.00 37.29 39.00 39.06 47.00 29.85 48.00 30.43 53.33 24.88 







Spurge leaf 50.00 15.25 53.67 16.15 53.33 20.40 56.67 17.87 60.33 15.02 



Ethanol 

Margosa seed 30.00 49.15 30.67 52.08 36.67 45.27 42.00 39.13 47.67 32.86 

Margosa leaf 34.67 41.24 35.33 44.79 39.33 41.29 47.00 31.88 53.33 24.88 







Spurge leaf 46.67 20.90 51.00 20.31 54.67 18.41 61.00 11.59 60.67 14.55 



Haxane 

Margosa seed 35.33 40.11 38.67 39.58 43.33 35.32 50.00 27.54 53.00 25.35 

Margosa leaf 36.33 38.42 39.67 38.02 47.67 28.86 52.67 23.67 59.33 16.43 







Spurge leaf 50.67 14.12 50.33 21.35 56.00 16.42 60.67 12.08 62.00 12.68 




Margosa seed 25.67 56.50 33.00 48.44 34.67 48.26 38.00 44.93 40.67 42.72 

Margosa leaf 30.33 48.59 35.33 44.79 40.67 39.30 46.00 33.33 48.33 31.92 







Spurge leaf 47.00 20.34 51.33 19.79 52.67 21.39 58.33 15.46 61.33 13.62 



Control 59.00 - 64.00 - 67.00 - 69.00 - 71.00 - 

S. E. (m) ± 1.42 1.72 1.89 1.86 1.90 

C.D. (p=0.05) 4.01 4.86 5.34 5.24 5.35 

which was significantly higher than that recorded on the seeds 

treated with rest of the botanical treatments. Ethanol extract 

of Margosa seed proved statistically equally effective to that 

of petroleum ether extract of Margosa seed and ranked next 

best treatment, which also recorded significantly higher larvalpupal 

deformities than remaining other treatments. Water 

extract of Spurge leaf, hexane extracts of Thorne apple leaf, 

Calotropis leaf, Spurge leaf and Achyranthes leaf, though 

proved least effective among the botanical treatments in giving 

the larval-pupal deformities but were significantly superior to

Table 3. 

Solvent/plant extract 

SINGH & JAKHMOLA, Efficacy of Botanical Extracts on Biological Activities of Pulse Beetle 2 9 

Impact of plant extracts on the adult emergence of Callosobruchus maculatus at different post treatment intervals 

No. of 

adult 

emerged 

% 

reduction 

in adult 

emergence 

No. of 

adult 

emerged 

% 

reduction 

in adult 

emergence 

No. of 

adult 

emerged 

% 

reduction 

in adult 

emergence 

No. of 

adult 

emerged 

% 

reduction 

in adult 

emergence 

No. of 

adult 

emerged 

% 

reduction 

in adult 

emergence 


Water 

Margosa seed 27.00 45.64 31.67 37.91 36.67 30.82 42.67 20.00 49.33 10.84 

Margosa leaf 33.00 33.56 40.67 20.26 44.00 16.98 45.00 15.63 51.33 7.23 

Night jasmine leaf 30.00 39.60 36.67 28.10 41.00 22.64 46.67 12.50 57.33 -3.61 






Spurge leaf 35.67 28.19 40.67 20.26 53.33 -0.63 57.00 -6.87 56.00 -1.20 



Ethanol 

Margosa seed 18.00 63.76 28.67 43.79 35.33 33.33 40.67 23.75 45.00 18.67 

Margosa leaf 23.67 52.35 36.00 29.41 41.67 21.38 42.33 20.63 51.33 7.23 







Spurge leaf 32.67 34.23 36.00 29.41 44.33 16.35 52.33 1.88 54.00 2.41 



Haxane 

Margosa seed 23.33 53.02 32.00 37.25 39.00 26.42 40.33 24.38 49.33 10.84 

Margosa leaf 25.00 49.66 37.67 26.14 46.33 12.58 46.00 13.75 52.00 6.02 

Night jasmine leaf 33.67 32.21 39.33 22.88 44.67 15.72 53.67 -0.62 55.67 -0.60 




Calotropis leaf 32.00 35.57 37.67 26.14 41.00 22.64 44.33 16.88 56.67 -2.41 


Spurge leaf 32.33 34.90 36.67 28.10 43.00 18.87 45.67 14.38 59.00 -6.63 

Carrot grass leaf 32.00 35.57 37.00 27.45 42.67 19.50 47.00 11.88 56.00 -1.20 



Margosa seed 17.33 65.10 22.33 56.21 28.33 46.54 33.67 36.88 41.00 25.90 

Margosa leaf 22.67 54.36 30.00 41.18 36.00 32.08 43.67 18.13 50.00 9.64 







Spurge leaf 32.00 35.57 40.00 21.57 45.67 13.84 47.33 11.25 51.00 7.83 



Control 49.67 - 51.00 - 53.00 - 53.33 - 55.33 - 

S. E. (m) ± 1.89 2.01 2.08 1.80 1.62 

C.D. (p=0.05) 5.35 5.68 5.88 5.09 4.57 

untreated control. 

Among the water extracts, the maximum larval-pupal 

deformity of 13.33% recorded in Margosa seed extract, which 

was at par with Margosa leaf, Night jasmine, Forest jasmine 

leaf, Thorne apple leaf, Eucalyptus leaf and carrot grass leaf 

extracts. In case of other solvent extracts, Margosa seed extract 

resulted in significantly highest larval-pupal deformities i.e., 

16.67%, 13.33% and 20.00% when extracted in ethanol, hexane


and petroleum ether, respectively. However, this extract gave 

statistically similar larval-pupal deformities as recorded under 

the influence of carrot grass leaf extract in ethanol and of 

Margosa leaf, Forest jasmine leaf and Eucalyptus leaf extracts 

in hexane. 


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activities of powders and extracts of pepper fruits plant, Dennettia 

tripetala Baker to the pulse beetle, Callosobruchus maculatus F. 

(Coleoptera, Brucchidae). Ento. Nation Build: The Nigerian 

Experience Proceedings of ESN 30 th Annual Conference held at 

Kano, Nigeria, pp. 199-206. 

Chiranjeevi, C. and Sudhakar, T.R. 1996. Effect of indigenous plant 

materials on the fecundity, adult emergence and development of 

pulse beetle, Callosobruchus chinensis (L.) in blackgram. J. Res. 

ANGRAU., 24 (3/4): 57-61. 

Hussain, M.H. and Abdel-Al, V.A.I. 1982. Toxicology of some compound 

against the cow pea beetle, Callosobruchus maculates (Fab.) 

(Coleoptera : Bruchidae). Int. Pest Control, 24:12,13,16,17. 

Mathur, Y. K., Kirpa Shankar and Salik Ram. 1985. Evaluation of some 

grain protectants against Callosobruchus chinensis (Linn.) on black 

gram. Bull Grain Tech., 23(2):253-59. 

Messina, F.J. and Renwick J.A.A. 1983. Effectiveness of oils in 

protecting stored cowpea from the cowpea weevil (Coleoptera: 

Bruchidae). J. Econ. Ent., 76: 634-636. 

Oparaeke, A.M., Dike, M.C., Onu, I., Lale, N.E.S., Molta, N.B., Donli, 

P.O., Dike, M.C. and Aminu Kano, M. 1998. Evaluation of seed 

and leaf powders of neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss) and 

pirimiphos-methyl for control of Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) 

in stored cowpea. Entomology in the Nigerian economy: Research 

focus in the 21 st century. pp. 237-242. 

Pandey, N.D., Mathur, K.K., Pandey, S. and Tripathi, R.A. 1986. Effects 

of some plant extracts against pulse beetle, Callosobruchus chinensis 

Linnaeus. Indian J. Ento., 48 (1): 85-90. 

Rajapakse, Rohan, Rajapakse, H.L. de Z, Disna, Ratnasekera, de Z. 

Rajapakse, H.L. and Rajapakse, R., Ratnasekera, D. 2002. Effect 

of botanicals on oviposition, hatchability and mortality of 

Callosobruchus maculatus L. (Coleoptera: Bruchidae). Entomon., 

27 (1): 93-98. 

Reddy, A.V. and Singh, R.P. 1998. Fumigant toxicity of neem 

(Azadirachta indica A. Juss.) seed oil volatiles against pulse beetle, 

Callosobruchus maculatus Fab. (Col., Bruchidae). J. Appl. Ento., 

122(9/10): 607-611. 

Seenivasan, S.P., Jayakumar, M., Raja, N. and Ignacimuthu, S. 2004. 

Effect of bitter apple, Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad seed extracts 

against pulse beetle, Callosobruchus maculatus Fab. (Coleoptera: 

Bruchidae). Entomon., 29(1): 81-84. 

Singal, S.K. and Chauhan, R. 1997. Effect of some plant products and 

other materials on development of pulse beetle, Callosobruchus 

chinensis (L.) on stored pigeonpea, Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. J. 

Insect Sci., 10(2): 196-197. 

Singh, G. 1998. Effect of a terpenoid lactone on reproduction of pulse 

beetle, Callosobruchus maculatus (F.). J. Insect Sci., 11(1): 51-52. 

Singh, P.K. 2003. Effect of some oils against pulse beetle, Callosobruchus 

chinensis in infesting pigeon pea. Indian J. Ento., 65(1): 55-58. 

Singh, S.R., Luse, R. A., Leuschner, K. and Nengju, D. 1978. Groundnut 

oil treatment for the control of Callosobruchus chinensis (F.) 

during cowpea storage. J. Stored. Prod. Res., 14 (2):77-80 

Su, H.C.F. 1977. Insecticidal properties of black pepper to rice weevils 

and cowpea weevils. J. Econ. Ent., 70(1):18-21. 

Thawstine, S. 1987. Effect of neem on the development of cowpea 

weevil Callosobrucus maculatus (Fab) on some leguminous seeds 

Munoz. Nueva Ecija., 7: 9-11. 



Evaluation of Sunflower Genotypes for Slow Rusting Mechanism 

G.K. SUDARSHAN 1 , V.B. NARGUND 1 AND B. MANJUNATH 2 

1 

Department of Plant Pathology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Raichur, Karnataka 

2 

Department of Plant Pathology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, Karnataka 

e-mail: manjunathkrishi@gmail.com 

ABSTRACT 

The present investigation was carried out to evaluate the 

sunflower genotypes for slow rusting mechanism. Nine 

genotypes viz., DSH 1, GK 2002, Kaveri 618, KBSH 1, Morden, 

NSH 160, PAC 36 and PAC 304 were included for evaluation. 

The genotypes PAC 36, PAC 304 and GK 2002 were identified 

as slow rusters. Minimum per cent disease index and less area 

under disease progress curve (AUDPC) were exhibited by these 

genotypes. The slow rust components viz., uredia per square 

centimetre, uredial size and number of uredospores per uredia 

were less in PAC 36, PAC 304 and GK 2002. Morden, NSH 160 

and Kaveri 618 were identified as fast rusters, they showed 

maximum per cent disease index and higher AUDPC value and 

other components of slow rusting. 

Key words 

Sunflower genotypes, slow rusting, uredospores, 

disease index 

Sunflower is one of the most important sources of 

vegetable oil next to groundnut in the world. Among different 

diseases of sunflower rust caused by Puccinia helianthi Schw. 

is one of the most destructive diseases of sunflower. It is more 

common in temperate and sub-tropical regions. Yield losses 

ranging from 22 to 50 per cent due to rust have been reported 

in areas of intensive sunflower cultivation (Zimmer, et al., 1973). 

The use of slow rusting cultivars are important as they 

help to minimize the rate of spread of the disease and check 

the possible occurrence of epidemic without causing any 

adverse effect on the yield. Therefore rust development in 

nine sunflower genotypes was studied in order to know the 

slow rusting nature. 


Nine genotypes were included for the evaluation viz., 

DSH 1, GK 2002, Kaveri 618, KBSH 1, Morden, NSH 160, PAC 

36 and PAC 304. Each genotype was sown in three rows of 3.0 

meter length with three replication and a spacing of 60 cm x 20 

cm. For recording observations on the disease intensity five 

plants were randomly selected in each treatment and tagged. 

The disease intensity was recorded from these plants as per 

the scale of Mayee and Datar,1986 at an interval of seven days 

staring from 30 days after sowing (DAS). Further these 

observations were converted to per cent Diseases Index using 

the formula of Wheeler, 1969. 

The rate of development of disease (r) at different 

intervals was calculated by following the formula given by 

Vander Plank, 1963. 

2.3 x 

 

2 x1 

r 

log10 

– log10 

t 2 – t1 

1 – x2 

1 – x 

where r = apparent rate of infection or spread, x 1 

= PDI at 

time t 1 

, x 2 

= PDI at time t 2 

, t 2 

-t 1 

= time interval in days between 

the two consecutive observations. 

Using the PDI obtained at seven days for each genotype 

the area under disease progress curve (AUDPC) was also 

calculated using the formula of Wilcoxson, et al., 1975. 

A value = k 

i – 1 

1 

2 (Si + S i – 1 

(t 2 

– t 1 

) 

where A = Area under disease progress curve, S i 

= Rust 

severity at the end of week i, k = Number of successive 

evaluation of rust, t 2 

– t 1 

= Constant time interval. 

The different components of slow rusting mechanism 

like number of pustules/cm 2 , size of the pustule and number 

of uredospores per pustule were studied in the same field, 

where genotypes were evaluated for slow rusting. The fresh 

uredospores maintained on Morden seedlings were collected 

and uredospore suspension was made in distilled water, spore 

concentration was adjusted to 10 5 spores/ml and sprayed in 

experimental filed during evening hours on the leaves of 20 

days old seedlings. 

The top leaves of each seedling in each cultivar at the 

time of spray inoculum were tagged for recording observations 

on uredial density, uredium size and uredospores per uredium. 

All observation were made at weekly interval on the above 

components starting from ten days after inoculation. At each 

time, one leaf was carefully removed and brought to the 

laboratory in polythene bags. 


Of the nine genotypes tested for slow rusting by 

assessing per cent leaf area affected at different intervals 

starting form 30 days after sowing, three genotypes viz., 

Morden, Kaveri 618 and NSH 160 exhibited early on set of 

disease with highest initial disease incidence and ended up 

1


maximum terminal disease severity while PAC 36, PAC 304 

and GK 2002 showed lower initial disease though on set of 

disease was in the same week. 

Vanderplank, 1963 suggested to measure the disease 

severity several times from the beginning to the end of the 

epidemic to assess slow rusting resistance in compound 

interest disease like rust. Based on disease severity PAC 36, 

PAC 304 and GK 2002 could be termed as slow rusters. The 

intermediate types were DSH 1 and KBSH 1. The genotypes 

Morden, NSH 160 and Kaveri 618 can be termed as fast rusters. 

Headrick and Pataky, 1987 were also able to assess the partial 

resistance in sweet corn hybrids to rust by monitoring the 

rust intensity at different crop growth period. 

In the present investigation the apparent rate of infection 

used in identification of genotypes with low rate of 

development of disease, the ‘r’ values varied and at times 

they did not remain constant for given genotype and also did 

not show a particular trend in general. This observation is in 

agreement with that of Wilcoxson, et al., 1975, Nargund, 1989 

and Chandramouli, 1992 who have pointed out that ‘r’ values 

are not useful criteria as AUDPC values in studying the 

disease development. 

The genotypes Morden, NSH 160 and Kaveri 618 were 

recorded highest AUDPC values of 1691.20, 1503.67 and 

1467.17 respectively, low values were recorded in genotypes 

like PAC 36 (513.24), PAC 304 (564.10) and GK 2002 (562.42). 

Nargund, 1989 and Chandramouli, 1992 observed lower values 

of AUDPC in slow rust varieties and higher values in 

susceptible varieties of wheat and cowpea respectively. 

AUDPC values taken care of both initial rust severity, rate of 

infection and also the terminal severity. Therefore based on 

AUDPC values, PAC 36, PAC 304 and GK 2002 could be termed 

as slow rusters, the intermediate types were DSH 1, MSFH 17 

and KBSH 1. The genotypes Morden, NSH 160 and Kaveri 

Table 1. 

Per cent disease index (PDI) of sunflower rust caused by Puccinia helianthi in sunflower genotypes at an interval of 

seven days 

Sl. Genotypes 

Per cent Disease Index 

No. 

30 DAS 37 DAS 44 DAS 51 DAS 58 DAS 65 DAS 72 DAS 

1 DSH 1 2.96* 

(9.74)** 

5.92 

(14.00) 

9.63 

(18.05) 

18.51 

(24.78) 

30.37 

(33.42) 

40.73 

(39.65) 

45.18 

(42.22) 

2 GK 202 1.48 

(5.70) 

2.96 

(9.74) 

5.18 

(12.78) 

9.63 

(18.05) 

18.51 

(25.44) 

28.14 

(32.03) 

30.37 

(33.42) 

3 KBSH 1 4.44 

(12.10) 

7.40 

(15.74) 

17.03 

(24.33) 

22.96 

(28.60) 

28.14 

(32.03) 

36.29 

(37.03) 

39.25 

(38.78) 

4 Kaveri 618 5.18 

(13.14) 

12.59 

(20.72) 

22.96 

(28.66) 

39.25 

(38.78) 

46.66 

(43.08) 

55.92 

(48.40) 

59.25 

(50.34) 

5 MSFH 17 2.96 

(9.74) 

6.66 

(14.95) 

17.03 

(24.33) 

25.18 

(30.10) 

36.29 

(37.03) 

39.25 

(38.78) 

42.22 

(40.52) 

6 Morden 5.62 

(13.68) 

16.96 

(24.30) 

30.37 

(33.42) 

40.73 

(39.65) 

49.63 

(44.78) 

65.92 

(54.31) 

70.36 

(57.01) 

7 NSH 160 4.88 

(12.73) 

15.55 

(23.21) 

26.66 

(31.07) 

36.29 

(37.03) 

44.44 

(41.80) 

59.25 

(50.34) 

60.36 

(50.98) 

8 PAC 36 1.50 

(6.24) 

3.70 

(10.92) 

5.18 

(13.05) 

9.63 

(18.05) 

15.55 

(23.22) 

25.18 

(30.10) 

26.66 

(31.08) 

9 PAC 304 0.76 

(3.39) 

2.22 

(8.56) 

4.44 

(12.10) 

12.45 

(20.72) 

18.51 

(25.44) 

28.14 

(32.03) 

28.89 

(32.51) 

S.Em± 0.214 0.873) 0.875 0.536 0.911 0.953 1.315 

C.D. at 5 % 0.641 (2.616) 2.622 1.605 2.729 2.854 3.941 

* - Figures indicate Original values ** - Figures in Parenthesis indicate Arc sine transformed values. DAS – Days after sowing 

Table 2. 

Apparent rate if infection (r) per unit per day of sunflower rust caused by Puccinia helianthi at various stages of crop 

growth and computed values for Area Under Progress Curve (AUDPC) in sunflower genotypes. 

Sl. Genotypes 

Rate of spread (r) 

Average AUDPC 

No. 

30-37 DAS 37-44 DAS 44-51 DAS 51-58 DAS 58-65 DAS 65-72 DAS 

value 

1 DSH 1 0.102 0.075 0.107 0.092 0.064 0.025 0.077 904.61 

2 GK 202 0.101 0.083 0.094 0.107 0.077 0.015 0.079 562.42 

3 KBSH 1 0.078 0.134 0.053 0.039 0.053 0.018 0.062 935.66 

4 Kaveri 618 0.137 0.103 0.213 0.043 0.014 0.019 0.088 1467.17 

5 MSFH 17 0.119 0.151 0.070 0.074 0.018 0.017 0.074 1029.00 

6 Morden 0.175 0.107 0.064 0.051 0.077 0.029 0.083 1691.20 

7 NSH 160 0.182 0.096 0.063 0.048 0.021 0.006 0.069 1503.67 

8 PAC 36 0.131 0.050 0.094 0.078 0.085 0.010 0.076 513.24 

9 PAC 304 0.151 0.101 0.160 0.170 0.077 0.005 0.092 564.10 

DAS – days after sowing

SUDARSHAN et al., Evaluation of Sunflower Genotypes for Slow Rusting Mechanism 3 3 

618 can be termed as fast rusters. 

Pustule density i.e., uredia per square centimetre was 

an important parameter used for evaluating slow rusting 

varieties. Goulter, et al., 1984, Sokhi and Singh, 1984 and 

Kulkarni, et al., 1982 have shown the importance of pustule 

density in identifying the varieties for slow rusting mechanism. 

In the present investigation slow rusting genotypes viz., PAC 

36, PAC 304 and GK 2002 recorded lesser uredial density of 

4.73, 5.13 and 6.0 per cm 2 respectively at 65 DAS. The fast 

rusting genotypes viz., Morden, NSH 160 and Kaveri 618 

registered higher uredial density 19.53, 16.06 and 13.80 

respectively at 65 DAS. 

Several researchers have reported the importance of small 

pustule as on index of partial resistance in rust diseases of 

many crops (Ohm and Shaner, 1976; Shaner, et al., 1978 and 

Kuhn, et al., 1978). In the present investigations initial 

observation at 30 DAS indicated that the uredial size was less 

in GK 2002 (0.069 mm 2 ) and PAC 304 (0.099 mm 2 ) compared to 

genotypes NSH 160 (0.158 mm 2 ) and Morden (0.143 mm 2 ). At 

65 DAS, eight out of nine genotypes have produced bigger 

sized uredia of 0.1 mm 2 and above. 

Reduced number of uredospores per pustule in varieties 

has been considered as an important component of slow 

rusting (Sokhi and Singh, 1984; Liu and Zeng, 1985 and Sharma, 

et al., 1986). In the present investigation, genotypes with 

bigger sized uredia produced higher number of uredospores. 

Five out of nine genotypes produced more than five thousand 

uredospores per uredium at 65 DAS. Amount of uredospores 

production mainly depend on size of the pustule. Sharma, et 

al., 1986, reported lower number of uredospores from smaller 

size pustules and vice versa. 

Table 3. 

Uredia per cm 2 of sunflower rust caused by Puccinia helianthi at various stages of crop growth in sunflower 

genotypes 

Sl. Genotypes 

Uredia per cm 2 at different DAS 

No. 

30 37 44 51 58 65 

1 DSH 1 2.60* 

(1.73)* 

3.00 

(1.83) 

4.53 

(2.20 

6.00 

(2.66) 

6.73 

(2.66) 

7.26 

(2.73) 

2 GK 202 1.00 

(1.20) 

2.20 

(1.60) 

2.06 

(1.66) 

3.00 

(1.83) 

4.73 

(2.23) 

6.00 

(2.50) 

3 KBSH 1 2.40 

(1.66) 

6.06 

(2.50) 

8.60 

(2.96) 

9.46 

(3.13) 

11.20 

(3.36) 

11.86 

(3.50) 

4 Kaveri 618 0.93 

(1.16) 

5.60 

(2.43) 

7.20 

(2.73) 

8.60 

(2.96) 

11.73 

(3.46) 

13.80 

(3.73) 

5 MSFH 17 2.00 

(1.53) 

4.46 

(2.16) 

6.33 

(2.56) 

7.00 

(2.70) 

7.26 

(2.73) 

8.73 

(3.00) 

6 Morden 2.80 

(1.76) 

8.40 

(2.93) 

12.46 

(3.53) 

14.40 

(3.80) 

15.13 

(3.90) 

19.53 

(4.43) 

7 NSH 160 2.73 

(1.73) 

4.40 

(2.13) 

7.00 

(2.70) 

8.46 

(2.93) 

13.60 

(3.70) 

16.06 

(4.00) 

8 PAC 36 0.73 

(1.06) 

2.20 

(1.60) 

2.66 

(1.76) 

3.20 

(1.86) 

4.00 

(2.10) 

4.73 

(2.26) 

9 PAC 304 0.80 

(1.10) 

2.00 

(1.53) 

2.66 

(1.73) 

3.13 

(1.86) 

4.06 

(2.06) 

5.13 

(2.30) 

SEm± 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.04 

CD at 5% 0.11 0.14 0.15 0.08 0.10 0.11 

* - Figures indicate Original values ** - Figures in Parenthesis indicate v x +0.5 transformed values. DAS – Days after sowing 

Table 4. 

Uredium size in mm 2 of sunflower rust caused by Puccinia helianthi at various stages of crop growth in sunflower 

genotypes 

Sl. Genotypes 

Uredium size in mm 2 at different DAS 

No. 

30 37 44 51 58 65 

1 DSH 1 0.107 0.115 0.155 0.120 0.113 0.146 

2 GK 202 0.069 0.087 0.070 0.080 0.090 0.070 

3 KBSH 1 0.131 0.140 0.108 0.130 0.148 0.115 

4 Kaveri 618 0.100 0.127 0.139 0.141 0.148 0.166 

5 MSFH 17 0.137 0.104 0.166 0.154 0.177 0.187 

6 Morden 0.143 0.141 0.130 0.166 0.195 0.152 

7 NSH 160 0.158 0.135 0.151 0.123 0.136 0.160 

8 PAC 36 0.112 0.110 0.135 0.152 0.108 0.128 

9 PAC 304 0.099 0.109 0.095 0.101 0.085 0.114 

SEm± 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.002 0.002 0.003 

CD at 5% 0.010 0.012 0.014 0.006 0.007 0.008 

DAS – Days after sowing


Table 5. 

Uredospores per uredium of sunflower rust caused by Puccinia helianthi at various stages of crop growth in sunflower 

genotypes 

Sl. Genotypes 

Uredospores per uredium at different DAS 

No. 

30 37 44 51 58 65 

1 DSH 1 2223.66 1567.00 3264.33 5376.66 4654.33 6980.00 

2 GK 202 3326.00 6378.66 1962.33 1727.66 4829.66 5508.33 

3 KBSH 1 1566.66 4815.33 2375.00 5416.66 4398.66 3376.66 

4 Kaveri 618 2507.66 2383.33 5203.00 3554.33 5896.66 8050.00 

5 MSFH 17 4803.00 2041.66 1833.33 5151.33 4810.00 5744.33 

6 Morden 5299.33 4779.00 8223.66 3262.00 5689.33 9326.66 

7 NSH 160 2696.66 8189.33 4685.66 3281.00 5388.66 4790.33 

8 PAC 36 2291.00 4309.00 1790.00 2231.66 3260.00 4167.33 

9 PAC 304 1315.00 5845.33 2320.66 2260.33 4335.00` 2690.66 

SEm± 38.97 73.41 73.26 53.22 55.15 102.26 

CD at 5% 116.79 219.99 219.54 159.49 165.26 306.42 

DAS – Days after sowing 


Chandramouli, M.R. 1992. Studies on slow rusting mechanism in cowpea. 

M.Sc. (Agri) Thesis, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, 

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wheat cultivars for ability to retard development of stem rust, 

Annual Applied Biology, 80: 275-281. 

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and sons, limited, London, pp.301. 

Zimmer, D.E., Kinman, M.L. and Fick, G.N. 1973. Evaluation of 

sunflowers for resistance to rust and Verticillium wilt. Plant disease 

reporter, 57: 524. 



Comparative Field Efficacy of Dust Formulation and Liquid Formulation of 

Steinernema seemae Based Biopesticide and other IPM Options against Helicoverpa 

armigera (Hübner) Infesting Chickpea 

S.S. ALI AND MOHAMMAD ASIF 

Indian Institute of Pulses research, Kanpur 208 024 

e-mail: ss_ali@rediffmail.com 

ABSTRACT 

A field trial was conducted at new research farm of Indian 

Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur to evaluate efficacy of 

Steinernema seemae, a heat tolerant and desiccant tolerant EPN 

based dust and liquid formulation against Helicoverpa armigera 

(Hübner) attacking chickpea cv. JG 16 a wilt resistant genotype. 

There were six treatments replicated 4 times arranged in a 

randomized block design. Application of dust formulation 

containing S. seemae @ 1 X 10 9 IJs/ha was done in 20 m 2 plot 

size, using talc based material. Application of liquid formulation 

of S. seemae @1 X 10 9 IJs/ha along with mixing of adjuvants 

like surfactatant, U.V. retardant, phagostimulant, antidesiccant 

were sprayed using hand compression fitted with fluid jet nozzle 

@1 X 10 9 IJs/ha during evening hrs at the time of pod formation. 

Other treatments containing NSKE @ 5 %, NPV @ 1 % and Bt 

toxin @ 2 % along with untreated control. All treatments were 

applied in late during late ºC March when temperature rises to 

42-45 ºC. At maturity pod samples were drawn and analyzed for 

pod borer incidence. The lowest pod damage was recorded in 

the liquid formulation followed by dust formulation of EPN. 

Pod damage data exhibited that pod damage was on par in EPN 

based liquid formulation as well as in dust formulation. The 

highest yield was obtained in EPN liquid formulation followed 

by dust formulation and NSKE. Yield data obtained for dust 

and liquid formulation were on par in this location, however 

numerically liquid formulation is better than dust formulation. 

The unavoidable yield losses due to H. armigera among 

bioagents was highest in Bt toxin @2% followed by NPV @1%. 

Among the treatments the data are significant as well as the 

highest yield increase over control was 63.05 % in EPN liquid 

formulation followed by EPN dust formulation (62.45 %). The 

lowest yield was in control followed by Bt toxin. 

Key words 

Steinernema seemae, H. armigera, chickpea, epn 

based dust and liquid formulation, Bt, NPU, NSKE 

Chickpea (Cicer aritinum. L) is the second most 

important pulse crop in the world. It is a major food legume in 

many countries including Algeria, Burma, Ethiopia, Iran, India 

Mexico, Morocco, Pakistan, Spain, Syria, Tanzania, Tunisia 

and Turkey (Ali, 1995). Chickpea is an important source of 

protein in human diets in these countries and its play a 

prominent role in the farming system in these countries. 

Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) is a major pest of chickpea in 

almost all countries where chickpea is grown. This pest is not 

only damage pods, but also feed on the foliage, buds and 

flowers and this may reduce the number of pods that are carried 

by the plant. The loss varies from location to location 

depending on its incidence however it ranges from 25 to 100%. 

There is now a widespread support for the IPM concept that 

insecticide should not be used unless the threshold of H. 

armigera is exceeded. In biological control where organism 

are deployed to control the damage caused by other organism 

are getting much popularizing in IPM modules. 

Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN) use should be tailored 

to suit local conditions a use and its can provides an alternate 

spectrum in IPM modules for Helicoverpa armigera attacking 

chickpea. EPN has desirable character like heat and desiccant 

tolerance where the temperature arises upto 40 to 45 ºC during 

harvest (Ali, et al., 2010). Present study was under taken to 

know the comparative efficacy of EPN based liquid and dust 

formulation and to compare with available biological agents 

options, against pod borer of chickpea. 


A randomized block designed field trial was conducted 

at new research farm at Indian Institute of Pulses Research, 

Kanpur having sandy loam soil during rabi 2010-2011. A wilt 

resistant and short duration chickpea cv. JG 16 was sown 

deliberately late in December 2010 to get maximum infestation 

of Helicoverpa armigera in coming March in a plot size of 4 X 

5 m 2 at spacing of 25 cm row to row and 5 cm plant to plant. 

The seed of chickpea cv. JG 16 was grown under normal 

conditions with standard agronomic practices. There were 

five treatments along with untreated control. A liquid 

formulation of EPN biopesticide containing S. seemae (Ali, et. 

al., 2005b) along with adjutants consisting of Glycerin 0.05 % 

(antidesiccant), Jaggery 0.25 % (phagostimulant), Tween 20, 

0.01 % (surfactant) and Ujala 0.01% (U.V. retardant) was 

prepared and mixed with EPN in desired quantity of water 

and sprayed on chickpea crop through pneumatic hand 

compression sprayer fitted with flood jet nozzle to the point 

of slight run off. Likewise dust formulation containing S. 

seemae was slowly mixed in talc and kept in shade. The dose 

of EPN tested was 1 X 10 9 IJs/ha for liquid and dust formulation, 

dusting was done by hand through fine muslin cloths shaken 

on chickpea leaves of respective plots so that dust adhere to 

leaves of chickpea. NPV @ 1 %, BT toxin @ 2 %, NSKE 5 %


Table 1. Comparative bioefficacy of different bioagent against H. armigera attacking Chickpea cv. JG 16 

Treatments Mean (Pod damage %) Mean (kg/ha) Increase in yield over control (%) 

1 (S. seemae @ 1 X 10 9 IJS/ha (Liquid formulation) 4 1260 63.65 

2 (NPV @ 1 %) 9.25 810 43.45 

3 (BT cotton @ 2 %) 10.5 791 42.09 

4 (NSKE @ 5 %) 7.25 1195 61.67 

5 (S. seemae @ 1 X 109 IJS/ha (Dust formulation) 5.5 1220 62.45 

6 Untreated control 16.75 458 - 

CD p = 0.05 2.2954 2.8602 

Cv % 17.16 19.86 

were also sprayed during evening time on chickpea crop at 

podding stage when maximum incidence of Heliocoverpa was 

on peak during the month of March, 2011. All treatments were 

sprayed and dusted while untreated control sprayed with water 

only to keep uniformity. 

At maturity of pods of all plants from each plots were 

picked separately to determine the damage caused due to pod 

borer and yield of chickpea was worked out, After EPN spray 

and dusting the dead Helicoverpa larvae were picked and 

kept on White trap (White, 1927) the IJs were collected and 

again tested for its mortality and virulence of nematode to 

confirm the Koch’s postulates as well as soil sampling was 

done from respective plots to detect the EPN in soil and again 

its virulence was tested from respective plots (Ali et. al., 

2005a). 


Application of EPN @ 1 X 10 9 IJS/ha has recorded 

significant increase in chickpea yield over untreated control 

by the both liquid and dust formulations (Table .1). Application 

of EPN significantly induced pod borer mortality while pod 

damage decreases to the tune of 4 % to 5.5 % as compared to 

other bioagents and untreated control. Spraying of NSKE 

has 7.25 % of pod damage, while Bt , NPV have higher pod 

damage due to attack of Helicoverpa armigera and these two 

treatments are responsible for 57.31 % to 55.5 % yields loss 

in chickpea respectively, Ahmed, et. al., 2009 reported 12.4 % 

chickpea pod damage was incurred due to treatment of EPN 

and against 34.8 % in untreated control, while in present study 

4 to 5.5 % pod damage was incurred due to EPN liquid and 

dust formulation respectively over 16.25 % pod damage in 

untreated control which is highly significant. The highest 

yield increase was recorded 63.65% in EPN liquid formulation 

followed by 62.45% in EPN dust formulation. 

The main increase in yield over control was from liquid 

formulation. Minimum unavoidable loss 36.35% was recorded 

from EPN liquid formulation and 37.35 % by dust formulation 

followed by NSKE while highest yield loss were recorded in 

Bt treatment where it was 57.31 followed by NPV 55.5 % 

In view of above results it emerges out that bioagents 

used in this study are not as effective as EPN formulation 

either liquid or dust formulation which indicated that these 2 

options can be incorprator in IPM. EPN formulation worked 

well on chickpea crop when temperature ranges 42 to 45ºC 

during March may be due to evening spraying and dusting of 

EPN followed by night which is comparatively cooler and the 

humidity becomes more while plenty of dew is available under 

these condition. Both formulation worked beyond expectation 

as day temperature in March goes up to 42 to 45ºC under 

Kanpur conditions, however night temperature goes down 

upto 32 ± 10ºC and in presence of dew in the night and early 

morning EPN can survive well which helps to remain active 

Fig.1. Spraying of EPN liquid formulation through flood Jet Nozzle 

Fig.2. Dusting of EPN through muslin Cloth

ALI & ASIF, Comparative Field Efficacy of Dust Formulation and Liquid Formulation of Steinernema seemae 3 7 

for attacking H. armigera. The results clearly indicated that 

effect of EPN inhibit incidence of pod borer, increase in yield 

and minimum unavoidable yield loses incurred as compared 

to untreated control and rest of the treatments. Little advantage 

of liquid formulation over dust formulation is due to adding of 

glycerin as anti-desiccants, Ujala as UV protactant, Jaggery 

as phagostimulant and Tween 20 as surfactant they all together 

prolonged the activity of EPN IJs and their survival on leaves 

of chickpea, Nickel and Shapiro 1992 has also emphasize that 

usefulness of UV retardant in their study. Dusting is generally 

considered to be less convenient and less effective than 

sprarying on most crops (Matthews 1979) but it can be quite 

efficient on chickpea. The dust adheres to the plants probably 

because of plant exudates or broadcast of handfuls of dust 

relying on the wind to distribute it over the plant. Dusting of 

EPN is also found effective against H. armigera however it 

was on par with liquid formulation and can achieved the 

target and equally effective against pest. It is recommended 

that EPN formulation of Sterinernema seemae both liquid and 

dust formulation are being effective in the management of 

gram pod borer and open a new opportunity for utilization of 

this very important only bioagent which search its host H. 

armigera even in dry and hot summer conditions. 


The first author is grateful to Council of Scientific and 

Industrial Research, New Delhi for supporting this study by 

granting Emeritus Scheme No. 21(0724/08/EMR-II) under 

which the study has been carried out. 

LITREATURE CITED 

Ahmad R., Ali. S. S., and Rashid Pervez. 2009. Field efficacy of 

Steinernema masoodi based biopesticide aganst H. armigera 

(Hubner) infesting chickpea. Trends in Bosciences, 2(1): 23-24. 

Ali, S.S. 1995. Nematode Problems in Chickpea. Indian Institute of 

Pulses Research, Kanpur 208 024, pp. 184 

Ali, S. S., Ahmad, R., Hussain, M. A. and Pervez, R. 2005a. Pest 

management of pulses through entomopathogenic nematodes. 

Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur, Army press, Lucknow 

(India), pp. 59. 

Ali, S. S., Shaheen, A., Pervez, R. and Hussain, M.A. 2005b. Steinernema 

masoodi sp. n. and Steinernema seemae sp. n. (Rhabditida: 

Steinernematidae) from Uttar Pradesh, India. International Journal 

of Nematology, 15(1): 89–99. 

Ali, S. S. Tickle, A. N., Nema, K. K. Rashid Pervez, Azra Shaheen and 

Ahmad, R. 2010. Field efficacy of Steinernema masoodi based 

biopesticide aganst H. armigera (Hubner) infesting Early pigeonpea 

Trends in Bosciences, 3(1): 63-65. 

Matthews, G. A. 1979. Pesticide Application methods. Longmen, 

London pp. 336 

Nickle, W. R. and Shapiro, M. 1992. Use of a stilbene brightener Tinopal 

LPW, as a radiation protectant for Steinernema corpocapsae. 

Journal of Nematology, 24 (3): 371-373 

White, G. F. 1927. A method for obtaining infective nematode larvae 

from cultures. Science, 66: 302-303. 




Enzymatic Effect of Basic Chromium Sulphate (A Tannery Chemical) in an Air 

Breathing Fish Channa punctatus (Bloch.) 

DEEPAK KUMAR DUBEY* AND ASHOK KUMAR 

*Department of Biosciences, DVS CAST, D.A.V. College, Kanpur 

Department of Zoology, D.A.V. College, Kanpur 208 001 (U.P.) 

e-mail: deepak10041984@rediffmail.com 

ABSTRACT 

This study has been made to investigate the acute LC 50 

(96 h) 

of basic chromium sulphate (BCS) and its impact on serum 

glutamate-oxaloacetate transaminase (SGOT) and serum 

glutamate-pyruvate transaminase (SGPT) activities of air 

breathing fish Channa punctatus under lab. conditions. The 

estimated LC 50 

was 2025 mg/l. The mortality per cent increased 

with increased concentration of the toxicant. The fishes were 

exposed to higher concentration of BCS (1/10 th of 96 h LC 50 

) for 

11, 22, 33, 44 and 56 days and to lower concentration of BCS (1/ 

20 th of 96 h LC 50 

) for 15, 30, 45, 60, 75 and 90 days. Fishes 

exposed to both higher and lower concentrations of BCS showed 

significant increase in the activity of SGOT and SGPT during 

the whole experiment as compared to control. These findings 

indicate that SGOT and SGPT are candidate biomarkers for 

BCS induced hepatotoxicity in Channa punctatus. 

Key words 

LC 50 

, Channa punctatus, basic chromium sulphate, 

biomarkers, hepatotoxicity 

Tannery industry is one of the major industries of India 

which is responsible for heavy water pollution. There are about 

400 tanneries in the Kanpur, Unnao, Mathura and Agra 

producing 4500-5000 litres of waste water and 20,000 kg. 

finished hides every day. Basic chromium sulphate (BCS) is a 

trivalent salt of chromium used in chrome tanning processing. 

The effluent of this chemical is poured into nearby water bodies 

and field. Wong, et al., 1982 studied the toxic effect of 

chromium sulphate of tanning industry on fishes. Sharma, et 

al., 1985 and Cavalleri and Claudio, 1985 determined some 

traces of chromium in urine, serum and blood from the workers 

of Iraqi tanneries. Srivastava, et al., 2003 reported abnormalities 

in heart and enzyme value in mammals after exposure to basic 

chromium sulphate, Sesha, et al., 2007 and Kumar, et al., 2011 

studied the effect of chromium on the serum amino-transferase 

activity of fishes. The tannery effluent is discharge in nearby 

water bodies, which affect fish wealth. The objectives of 

present study were to determine acute toxicity of basic 

chromium sulphate and to measure the serum levels of the 

aminotransferase enzyme glutamate-oxaloacetate 

transaminase (GOT) and glutamate-pyruvate transaminase 

(GPT) in Channa punctatus (Bloch.) in response to basic 

chromium sulphate toxicity as potential biomarker of 

hepatotoxicity. 


Live Channa punctatus (40-50 gm) of both sexes were 

collected from the local lake. They were acclimatized for 2 

weeks prior to use in PVC 400L storage tank under natural 

photoperiod (11L/13D approx.) and water temperature (range 

12.5-22 0 C, mean 17 0 C)). The fishes were fed with commercial 

fish pellets (Tokyu brand). C. punctatus were exposed in 

different concentration of BCS for 96 h for determination of 

LC 50 

. The schedule group, mortality and survival of C. 

punctatus is given in Table 1. The LC 50 

of BCS (96 h) in C. 

punctatus was determined according to method of Miller and 

Tainter, 1944. 

After determination of LC 50 

, C. punctatus were divided 

into two group and exposed to sub-lethal concentration of 

BCS. Group I (n = 50) was exposed to 202.5 mg/lit of BCS i.e. 1/ 

10 th of LC 50 

(96 h) whereas group II (n = 80) was exposed to 

101.25 mg/lit of BCS i.e. 1/20 th of LC 50 

and killed after 11, 22, 33, 

44 and 56 days in group I and 15, 30, 45, 60, 75 and 90 days in 

group II. A separate control group was also maintained for the 

test. The solution were replenished weekly. After the 

completion of test, 8-10 individuals were killed from control 

and experimental group. The blood was obtained by heart 

puncture and then drained into a sterile eppendroff tube. After 

coagulation, the uncoagulated part of blood was sucked into 

centrifuging tubes. This was centrifuged for 10 min at 3000 

rpm and the supernatant contain serum, which was used for 

enzyme assays. Serum GOT and GPT activity was determined 

by the method of Reitman and Frankel, 1957. The statistical 

validity of results and the significance between control and 

experimental value were analysed using ‘t’ test. 


Estimated LC 50 

of basic chromium sulphate in C. 

punctatus was found 2025 mg/lit. The mortality range from 0 

per cent to 90 per cent and increased with a corresponding 

increase in the toxicant concentration and also duration of 

exposure demonstrating both time and concentration 

dependent responses. Cospious mucous secretion, loss of 

scales, erratic swimming and loss of equilibrium associated 

with convulsions were observed. Dose and mortality of fishes 

in per cent are given in Table 1. The LC 50 

of 96 hr of BCS in 

fishes is calculated.

DUBEY & KUMAR, Enzymatic Effect of basic chromium Sulphate (A Tannery Chemical) in an air Breathing Fish 3 9 

Table 1. 

Per cent of mortality in C. punctatus (Bloch.) 

under different concentration of basic chromium 

sulphate at 96 h. 

Group Dose 

(mg/lit.) 

Number 

survived 

Number 

died 

Mortality 

(per cent) 

A 2000 10 0 0 

B 2010 8 2 20 

C 2020 6 4 40 

D 2030 4 6 60 

E 2040 3 7 70 

F 2050 2 8 80 

G 2060 2 8 80 

H 2070 1 9 90 

LC50 

(96h) 

2025 

mg/lit. 

fishes as 135 mg/lit, while Sengupta, et al., 2006 determined 

the LC 50 

of BCS in H. fossilis as 250 mg/lit. which indicates 

that the BCS is less toxic in C. punctatus. 

Liver plays an important role in metabolic processes 

and detoxification of many xenobiotic, exposure to metal like 

chromium may lead this metal to accumulate in the liver and 

causes pathological alteration (Braunbeck, 1994). Moreover, 

cell injury of certain organ like liver leads to the release of 

tissues specific enzyme into blood stream (Burtis and 

Ashwood, 1996). Significant increase in transaminases (SGOT 

and SGPT) activity in fish exposed to higher and lower doses 

Table 2. 

Enzyme activities in serum of Channa punctatus after exposure to higher dose of basic chromium sulphate (1/10 th of 

96 h LC 50 

) 

Biochemical 

Exposed period in days 

parameters 0 11 ± 22 ± 33 ± 44 ± 56 ± 

SGOT (IU/L) 83.10±1.00 237.40±1.19 a +185.68 255.50±2.63 a +207.46 272.40±1.52 a +227.79 394.00±1.49 a +374.12 186.80±1.16 a +124.78 

SGPT (IU/L) 3.40±0.20 3.60±0.23 a +5.88 6.50±0.29 a +91.17 8.73±0.20 a +156.76 3.89±0.20 a +14.41 5.30±0.20 a +55.88 

Value are mean ± SE of 5 individual, P


urine, serum and red blood cells. Gettal. Med. Lab., 7(1) : 35-38. 

Firat, O. and Kargin, F. 2009. individual and combined effects of heavy 

metals on serum biochemistry of Nile Tilapia Oreochromis niloticus. 

Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. June, 2. 

Kumar, P., Palanivel, S., Mathan, R. and Sarasu, 2011. Sublethal effect 

of chromium on fresh water teleost, Cyprinus carpio. Int. J. of 

Appl. Biol. and Pharma. Tech., 2:1. 

Markovich, D. and James, K.M. 1999. Heavy metals mercury, cadmium 

and chromium inhabit the activity of the mammalian liver and 

kidney sulphate transporter-1. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 164: 

181-187. 

Miller, L.C. and Tainter, M.L. 1944. Proc. Soc. Experi. biol. Med., 57: 

261-270. 

Oner, M., Atli, G. and Canli, M. 2008. Changes in serum biochemical 

parameters of fresh water fish Oreochromis niloticus following 

prolonged metal (Ag, Cd, Cr, Cu, Zn) exposure. Envoiron. Toxicol. 

Chem., 27(2): 260-6. 

Oner, M., Atli, G. and Canli, M. 2009. Effects of metal (Ag, Cd, Cr, Cu, 

Zn) exposures on some enzymatic and non-enzymatic indicator in 

the liver of Oreochromis niloticus. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 

82(3): 317-21. 

Reitman, S. and Frankel, S.A. 1957. A colorimetric method for the 

determination of serum glumate oxaloacetate and glutamate 

pyruvate transaminase. An. J. Clin. Pathol. K., 28: 56-63. 

Richard, J., Lewis, S.R. and Rodgen, L.T. 1980. In: Registry of toxic 

effect of chemical substance. Vol. 11 U.S. 927, CMJ 565, CAS 

12336-95-7. 

Sengupta, S., Kumar, A. and Srivastava, J.P. 2006. Effect of chromium 

sulphate on haematological factor of the fish Heteropneustis fossilis. 

J. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Monit., 16(4): 363-370. 

Sesha, S.V., Prabhath, N.A., Raghavendra, M. and Yerramilli, A. 2007. 

Effect of arsenic and chromium the serum amino-transferases 

activity in Indian major carp, Labeo rohita. Int. J. Environ. Res. 

Public-Heath, 4(3): 224-227. 

Sharma, A., Kassim, J., Dawser, I.K. and Jamil, H. 1958. Chromium 

concentration in Iraqi tanneries. J. Faculty medicine. Baghdad, 

27(4): 9-20. 

Srivastava, J.P., Tandon, H.O., Kumar, A. and Srivastava, P. 2003. 

Measurement of enzymes and tannery chemical content in serum 

of R. norvegicus–exposed to two selected tannery chemicals. J. 

Biol. Res., 23(1): 29-33. 

Wong, N.H., Lau, W.N., Tong, T.Y., Lia, W.K. and Luck, K.C. 1982. 

Toxic effect of chromium sulphate on the common carp. Toxic 

letter (AMST), 10(2/3): 225-232. 



Economically Optimal Fertilizer Requirements for Wheat and Paddy Crops in 

Different Regions of Uttar Pradesh 

ANIL KUMAR 1 , B.S. SACHAN 2 AND KESHAV PRASAD 2 

1 

Seed and Farmy Divisions, 2 Deptt. of Agril. Extension, C.S.A. University of Agriculture Technology, Kanpur 

ABSTRACT 

This study examine the regional and year-wise variations in 

the crop yield responses to the levels of fertilization in four 

regions of Uttar Pradesh. The levels of N, P, K also which would 

optimise the yields of high yielding wheat and paddy crops in 

the respective regions. A number of specifications of the 

functional form of crop yield response to fertilizer are available. 

The highest fertilizer productivity in either crop was observed 

in the western region except in the year 2005-06 in the Paddy 

crop where higher productivity was observed in the central 

region, on an average, over the crop seasons, as high as 12.44 

kg of wheat output and 13.21 kg of Paddy output can be obtained, 

with the application of one additional kg. of fertilizer in the 

western region. 

Key words 

Yield, fertizer, productivity, paddy, wheat 

Wheat and Paddy crops have different response to the 

fertilizer levels and have different productivities which vary 

from one region to another. It can be noted that not much 

difference in average optimum fertilizer requirements was found 

between the differences in optimal requirements existed 

(Swonson, et al., 1973, Chaudhari and Sirohi, 1973). Largely 

between the Bundelkhand. and other regions of the state. 

This seems due to the poor soil quality in the Bundelkhand 

region yielding a poor response to the levels of fertilization. 

Further more, a wide gap in optimal requirements existed 

between the western and rest of the regions. This might have 

resulted due to a better crop response to fertilization and 

suitable climatic conditions for growing both the crops in 

western regions. All these lead to differential optimal fertilizer 

requirement to optimise the crop output in different regions. 

This study was, therefore, undertaken with two 

objectives; (i) to examine the regional and year-wise variations 

in the crop yield responses to the levels of fertilization in four 

regions of the state of Uttar Pradesh, and (ii) to suggest the 

levels of N,P,K, which would optimize the yields of highyielding 

wheat and paddy crops in the respective regions. 

These two crops dominate the cropping pattern of the 

state and occupy approximately 26 and 19 per cent respectively 

of the total cropped area. Major achievements of the green 

revolution, in general, are also in these crops only. 


The study period spans five crop years from 2000-01 to 

2007-08 for wheat and the same years except 2000-01 for paddy. 

Only wheat and paddy crops were selected for analysis 

because of availability of data and their economic importance. 

The data for the present analysis were obtained from the four 

Regional Agricultural Research and Demonstration Centres 

at Varanasi, Hardoi, Jhansi and Bareilly. At each centre, 

treatment levels of fertilizer with respect to nitrogen, 

phosphorous and potash were given in a ratio of 2:1:1 in both 

the crops over the entire period of experiments considered, 

therefore, the combination of the three nutrients was treated 

as a single variable. 

Different functional forms were tested on the yield and 

fertilizer data. These included quadratic, cubic, square root, 

logarithmic and semi logarithmic forms. To compare and select 

the best form representing the data at hand, we considered 

(i) the consistency of the sign of the coefficients with 

production theory; (ii) the significance of the coefficients, 

i.e., t-statistic; (iii) the standard errors of the estimates (SEE); 

(iv) the coefficient of multiple determination (R (v) the standard 

deviation of the regression surface (STD); and (vi) a visual 

analysis of the residual plotted against the fertilizer variable 

and the predicted values of crop yields. Based on the above 

considerations, the quadratic form, by and large, fitted the 

data better than the other forms. 

To accomplish the objectives of the study, data of the 

four regions were pooled. To capture the regional variation in 

the yield responses, three sets of dummy variables, with a 

value of one for an observation pertaining to a location and 

zero otherwise, were included in addition to the linear and 

quadratic fertilizer terms in the quadratic function. The final 

equation was specified as below: 

Y = a+b 1 

X + b 2 

X 2 + b 3 

C+b 4 

B++b 5 

W+b 6 

XG+b 7 

XB+ b 8 

XW+ 

b 9 

X 2 C+ b 10 

X 2 B+ b 11 

X 2 W 

Where Y is the yield of crops in quintals/hectare, X is 

the level of fertilizer in kg/h, C is the zero-one variable for 

location in central region, B is the zero-one van able for 

location in Bundelkhand region, W is the zero-one variable 

for location in western region. To avoid the problem of dummy 

Table 1. Year-wise observations on wheet and paddy 

Year 

Number of observations 

Wheat Paddy Exclusion 

2003-04 71 69 Bundelkhand in both the crops 

2004-05 73 - Bundelkhand in wheat crop 

2005-06 70 73 Bundelkhand in paddy and Central in 

2006-07 102 94 wheat crop. 

2007-08 97 107


trap in a case of computer programme which automatically 

gives intercept term, one dummy variable (for location in the 

eastern region) was dropped from each set. 


Data showed that the signs obtained for fertilizer 

variables are according to the expectations, i.e., a positive 

linear term and a square negative term for each set of equation. 

This implies eventually decreasing absolute yields. As 

indicated by the magnitudes of coefficients of multiple 

determinations, a large part of the variation in the yield of 

both the crops has been explained by the included explanatory 

variables. Tile fertilizer variables (in linear and quadratic 

expressions) alone are capable of explaining a large part of the 

variations in the yields of both the crops. These variables 

appeared highly significant (at 1% level), in general, in all the 

estimated equations. However, the large number of 

statistically significant coefficients of interaction of fertilizer 

levels with locations needs to be emphasized. Out of 44 such 

coefficients, 33 appeared to be statistically significant at very 

high probability levels. This indicates that the general 

conditions of production at each location, like organic matter 

and trace nutrients contents of soils, temperature, humidity, 

rainfall and other factors, play a major role in explaining the 

regional differences in response of crops to fertilizer levels. 

This fact can further be verified by examining the 

significant intercept terms obtained by including dummy 

variables for locations in each region. There were 22 such 

terms and, in 20 cases, the coefficients appeared to be 

statistically significant with high probability levels indicating 

the spatial differences in the response of wheat and paddy 

crops to the ‘fertilizer levels. So, the locational variables appear 

to have a significant effect on the yields of wheat and paddy 

crops both directly and through interaction with fertilizer 

levels. 

The marginal physical products indicate the additional 

output (in kg.) of a crop upon application of one additional 

kg. of fertilizer (half kg. of nitrogen, % kg. of phosphorus and 

potash each). The marginal productivities of fertilizer in both 

the crops are different in each region and in each crop year. 

The highest fertilizer productivity in either crop was observed 

in the western region except in the year 2005-06 in the paddy 

crop where higher productivity was observed in the central 

region. The regional and temporal variations in the fertilizer 

Table 2. 

Estimates response coefficient of wheat crop 

Variables 

Crop years 

2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 

Intercept 15.8227 17.2381 13.8967 22.0519 19.2080 

X 0.1618*** (0.0088) 0.1283*** (0.0079) 0.1946*** (0.0083) 0.2198*** (0.0067) 0.2039*** (0.0090) 

X 2 0.00030* (0.00018) 0.00023*** (0.00002) 0.00046*** (0.00007) 0.0O037* (0.00012) 0.00035*** (0.00002) 

C 2.1018 (0.4062) 3.9623*** (1.3901) - -1.3930 (1.0583) 3.0386*** (1.3042) 

B - - (1.2203) (1.1030) (2.0021) 

W 5.8228*** (1.3021) 6.0281*** (1.0892) 3.8321*** (1.1239) 3.2382*** (0.8928) 3.0632*** (1.1236) 

XC 0.0016 (0.0011) -0.0029 (0.0062) - 0.0119*** (0.0042) -0.0081 (0.0070) 

XH - - 0.0329** (0.0043) 0.0639*** (0.0028) 0.0283*** (0.0052) 

XW 0.0160*** (0.0012) 0.0122*** (0.0020) 0.0228*** (0.0040) 0.0363*** (0.005 1) 0,0129*** (0.0055) 

X 2 C 0.000021*** (0.000009) 0.000016 (0.000011) - 0.000012** (0.000006) 0.900013 (0.000008) 

X 2 B - - -0.0000012 (0.000008) 0.000010* (0.000006) 0.000051*** (0.000020) 

X 2 W 0.000053*** (0.000019) 0.000033*** (0.000012) 0.000018*** (0.000008) 0.000026*** (0.000009) 0000031*** (0.000010 

R 2 0.97 0.94 0.96 0.99 0.97 

1. Figures in parentheses indicate the standard errors of estimates of coefficients. 

2. A single asterisk indicats significance at 10% a double asterisk at 5% and a triple asterisk at 1% level. 

Table 3. 

Estimate response coefficients of paddy 

Variables 

Crop years 

2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 

Intercept 16.2012 13.8990 18.8212 16.9502 

X 0.1129*** (0.0152) 0.1138*** (0.0086) o.1692*** (0.0063) 0.1655 (0.0072) 

X 2 -0.00026*** (0.00004) -0.00029*** (0.00008) -0.0033*** (0.00010) -0.00027*** (0.00005) 

C 2.1022* (1.0809) 3.2099* (1.7322) -0.9837 (1.5092) 2.0083** (1.0125) 

B - - 2.6389* (1.0233) 1.9610*** (0.6510) 

W 4.0910*** (1.1229) 3.8290** (1.9536) 2.1639*** (0.9958) 3.6210** (1.8320) 

XC 0.0116* (0.0006) 0.0395*** (0.0122) -0.0133 (0.0092) -0.00 58 (0.0040) 

XH - - 0.0612* (0.0322) 0.0049*** (0.0011) 

XW 0.0119*** (0.0053) 0.0260*** (0.0096) o.o112** (0.0056) o.o122*** (0.0060) 

X 2 C 0.000051*** (0.000021) 0.000012 (0.000008) 0.000017* (0.000009) -0.00006 (0.00005) 

X 2 B - - 0.000063** (0.000029) -0.000011 (0.000008) 

X 2 W 0.000068*** (0.000021) 0.000026*** (0.000011) 0.000096*** (0.000038) 0.000059* (0.000025) 

R 2 0.96 0.93 0.86 0.92

Table 4. 

KUMAR et al., Economically Optimal Fertilizer Requirements for Wheat and Paddy Crops 4 3 

Marginal physical products of fertilizer nutrients in different regions over different crop years (kg. of product 

output) 

Crop years Crops/regions 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 Average 

Wheat 

Eastern 8.23 6.78 7.31 12.44 4.12 8.67 

Central 9.72 7.12 - 14.12 11.86 11.84 

Bundelkhand - - 6.99 6.08 7.00 6.70 

Western 14.12 9.45 7.81 18.72 16.33 12.44 

Paddy 

Eastern 6.32 - 5.22 11.16 13.24 9.36 

Central 9.42 - 11.31 9.39 9.27 - 9.23 

Bundelkhand - - - 5.23 9.17 7.32 

Western 9.41 - 9.12 13.25 14.12 13.21 

productivity can be explained in the light of reasons already 

explained in the case of differences in yield response to 

fertilizer levels. 

The results suggest that wheat and paddy crops have 

different response to the fertilizer levels and have different 

productivities which vary from one region to another. 

Consequently, the economically optimum fertilizer 

requirements to optimize crop outputs would be different from 

one region to another. 

The price ratios of wheat and fertilizer nutrients and that 

of paddy and fertilizer nutrients fluctuated over years, 

particularly the price of fertilizer and also of paddy output 

fluctuated largely (Table 4). A change in the price ratio of crop 

to fertilizer nutrients could be expected to require a change in 

the optimum quantities to maximize crop returns. Because of 

the different production functions at each location and in 

each year, a change in the product input price ratio may 

necessitate a different change in the use of fertilizer nutrients. 

Using the input-output prices and the appropriate response 

function at each location, optimum levels of fertilizer nutrients 

were calculated and are presented in the same table. 

The year to year variation in the optimum fertilizer levels 

in terms of nitrogen, phosphorous and potash can be noted 

from data. The fluctuations in the optimum fertilizer 

requirements from one year to another may be due to (1) the 

different product-input price ratios used to attain the optimal 

levels; (2) the differences in the general climatic conditions 

which comprise rainfall, temperature, humidity and other natural 

factors varying from year to year; (3) differences in the number 

of treatments followed in each year, crop rotations, residual 

impacts of carriers and due to other factors. 

Average optimal requirements also varied from region 

to region. For wheat crop, it varied from 86 kg. of nitrogen and 

43 kg. of phosphorous and potash each in the Bundelkhand 

region to 141 kg. of nitrogen, 71 kg. of phosphorous and potash 

each in the western region. In the case of paddy crop, the 

average optimum requirements varied from 82, 41 and 41 kg. 

of nitrogen, phosphorous and potash respectively in the 

Bundelkhand region to 127, 63 and 63 kg. of respective fertilizer 

nutrients in the western region. It was found profitable to use 

117+58 + 58 kg. and 95 + 47 + 47 kg. of N,P,K. in the eastern 

region and 129+65 +65 kg. and 102+51+51 kg. of respective 

nutrients in central region for wheat and paddy crops 

respectively to optimize the crop outputs. 

Thus, using the same product and fertilizer price ratios 

the variations in the optimal fertilizer requirements from region 

to region may largely be due to the differences in management 

practices followed at each experimental centre, the differences 

in general climatic conditions of production and due to soil 

characteristics (Hopper, 1962). It can be noted that not much 

difference in average optimum fertilizer requirements was found 

between the differences in optimal requirements existed largely 

between the Bundelkhand and other regions of the state. This 

seems due to the poor soil quality in the Bundelkhand region 

yielding a poor response to the levels of fertilization. 

Furthermore, a wide gap in optimal requirements existed 

between the western and rest of the regions. This might have 

resulted due to a better crop response to fertilization and 

suitable climatic conditions for growing both the crops in the 

Western region. 


Swanson, E.R., Taylor, E.R. and Welch, I.F. 1973. Economically 

Optimal Level of Nitrogenous Fertilizer for Corn: An Analysis 

Based on Experimental Data. 1966-1971. Illinois Agricultural 

Economics, 13(2): 16-25. 

Chaudhari, A.K. and Sirohi, A.S. 1973. Allocation of Fertilizers among 

Crops and Regions in Uttar Pradesh, Indian Journal of Agricultural 

Economics, 28(3): 46-61. 

Hopper, W.D., 1962. The Economics of Fertilizer Use-A Case Study in 

Production Economics”, Indian Journal Agricultural Economics, 

17(4): 12-22. 




GeneticVariability, Heretability and Genetic Advance in Dry Bean (Phaseolus 

vulgaris L.) 

M.I. MAKHDOOMI 2 AND S.A. DAR 1 

1 

Pulse Research Sub-Station, SKUAST-K, Srinagar 

2 

K.D. Research Station, SKUAST-K, Srinagar 

e-mail: ubaid_dar@rediffmail.com 

ABSTRACT 

The present study was carried out to elucidate the various 

parameters of genetic variability, the nature of 

interrelationships among various traits affecting yield. Thirty 

five genotypes of common bean were evaluated in field trials 

with three replications using RBD. The analysis of variability 

parameters revealed presence of substantial variability for all 

traits in all the genotypes used in the experiment. Highest 

genotypic and phenotypic variations were observed for, days to 

maturity and pod length respectively. All the characters showed 

high heritability with high genetic advance. Grain yield was 

found to be positively correlated with number of pods plant - 

1 

,pod length, number of seeds pod -1 , and 100 seed weight. Path 

coefficient analysis revealed the importance of plant height, 

pods plant -1, pod length, seeds pod -1 and 100- seed weight as the 

major yield components in this crop. 

Key words 

Variability, heritability, co-efficient of variation, 

common bean 

Dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), also called french 

bean, common bean, rajmash, kidney bean etc. is one of the 

most important legume crops in the world. In India it is 

cultivated in the hilly areas of north-western Himalayan region 

during kharif season and rabi in plains. Seed yield in dry 

bean like other crops is a complex trait conditioned by 

interaction of various growth and physiological process 

throughout the life cycle. These yield contributing traits are 

related between themselves in addition to complex chain 

relationships with yield. Quantitative characters which are of 

economic value are highly influenced by environment and 

progress of breeding in such characters are primarily 

conditioned by the magnitude and nature of variation and 

interrelationship among them Gandhi, et al., 1964. Success in 

crop breeding also depend on the isolation of genetically 

superior genotypes based on the amount of variability present 

in the materials. Therefore, information on genetic variability 

that existed in a group of populations of dry bean are essential. 

Some studies have been carried out by Rai, et al., 2001, Shete 

and Kale, 1986, Vaid, et al., 1986, Singh, et al., 1994 etc. on 

variability and interrelationships of characters on common 

bean. In this study, the components of phenotypic variation, 

heritability, genetic advance, the correlation among different 

characters at genotypic and phenotypic levels and their direct 

and indirect effects on yield were studied for their utilization 

in crop improvement programs. 


Thirty five genotypes of dry bean were evaluated in 

field trials during kharif 2008 at Pulse Research Station. The 

genotypes were grown in a randomized block design with 

three replications. The experimental plot comprised of 4 rows 

of 4m length with inter and intra row spacing of 30 and 10cms, 

respectively. The standard package of practices were adopted 

during the entire cropping seasons to raise a good crop. The 

crop was harvested when over 90% of the plants with mature 

pods of a genotype withered and turned brown. Ten 

representative plants from each replication were randomly 

selected and data were recorded for, days to 50% flowering, 

days to maturity, plant height(cm), number of pods/plant, pods 

length(cm),number of seeds/pods,100-seedwieght(gms) and 

seed yield/plant(gms). Data were subjected to analysis of 

variance by Panse and Suktame, 1984. For computation of 

phenotypic and genotypic coefficient of variation,the standard 

procedure of Burton and Devane, 1953 was used. Genetic 

advance (GA) as per cent of mean at 5% selection intensity 

was estimated according to the formula suggested by Allard, 

1960. Correlation and path coefficients analysis were estimated 

as suggested by Dewey and Lu, 1959. 


The analysis of variance indicated significant differences 

(Table 1) among the genotypes for the traits studied and 

revealed existence of high magnitude of genetic variability in 

all the genotypes, which open a way for improvement in the 

material through selection. Wide ranges were observed among 

the genotypes of common bean for the days to maturity, plant 

height, pods / plant, 100 seed weight and seed yield/plant 

indicating the presence of high variability for these characters. 

However, there was low ranges for pod length and seeds/ 

pods which suggested that genotypes did not differ much for 

these traits. 

Seed yield/plant(gms) showed highest phenotypic and 

genotypic co-efficient of variability compared to days to 

maturity which showed the lowest PCV & GCV(Table.1). Seed 

yield/plant(gms) followed by plant height, number of pods/

Table 1. 

Table 2. 

Characters 

MAKHDOOMI AND DAR, GeneticVariability, Heretability and Genetic Advance in Dry Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) 4 5 

Phenotypic and genotypic coefficient of variation, heritability, expected genetic advance for various characters and 

yield in dry bean. 

Characters Range / Mean Heritability Genetic advance coefficient of variation Differences 100 seed Seed yield 

(bs) % as % of mean PCV GCV PCV-GCV weight (g) plant -1 

Days to 50%flowering 36.70-51.27 77.94 19.88 10.01 8.98 1.03 0.1695 0.1899 

(43.61) 

Days to maturity 84.56-93.80 46.70 4.85 5.10 4.60 0.50 -0.3224* -0.2396 

(89.40) 

Plant height(cms) 28.79-109.23 67.31 30.40 37.50 35.41 2.09 -0.6899** 0.9493** 

(53.63) 

No. of pods/plant 6.89-21.69 76.18 38.19 37.20 31.73 5.47 -0.2101 0.6981** 

(12.65) 

Pod length(cm) 10.2-12.89 51.12 6.26 8.55 6.31 2.24 0.4784** 0.9106** 

(10.98) 

No. of seeds/pod 3.94-5.24 47.56 11.84 15.21 7.11 8.10 0.2393 0.9431** 

(4.70) 

100-seed weight(g) 29.62-82.89 71.32 12.28 130.1 12.33 0.68 ------- 0.2205 

(35.15) 

Seed yield/plant(gms) 9.67-31.81 

(18.11) 

87.18 46.82 59.35 51.98 7.37 -0.2132 ------- 

Direct and Indirect effects of yield contributing characters on seed yield in dry bean 

Direct 

effect Days to 50% 

flowering 

Days to 

maturity 

Indirect effect via 

Plant height Pods 

(cm) plant -1 

Pod length 

(cm) 

Seeds pods -1 

Genotypic 

correlation 

with seed yield 

plant -1 

Days to 50% flowering 0.4889 -------- 0.2780 -0.2991 0.2550 -0.1738 0.1969 0.1899 

Days to maturity -0.0870 -0.1840 ------- -0.0507 0.4022 0.0477 0.1087 -0.2396 

Plant height (cm) -0.6281 0.1066 0.0928 --------- 0.9492 -0.2851 0.7139 0.9493** 

Pods plant -1 1.2709 -0.2848 0.0926 -0.9374 ------- -0.2600 0.8168 0.6981** 

Pod length (cm) -0.4658 0.4875 0.0777 -0.6293 0.8367 ------- 0.6038 0.9106** 

Seeds Pods -1 0.7623 -0.4585 0.1233 -0.9497 1.2453 0.2204 ------- 0.9431** 

100 seed weight (g) 0.2462 -0.0947 0.0154 -0.3399 0.2492 0.0428 0.1864 0.2205 

*,** Significance at P75%) and moderate 

to high genetic advance (>25%) was observed for seed yield/ 

plant, and pods/plant indicating that these traits were governed 

by additive gene action. Moderate heritability(50-70%) and 

high genetic advance was observed for plant height, thus 

suggested that additive genetic effects also governed this 

trait. These traits will respond to selection owing to their 

genetic variability and transmissibility, indicating that they 

were least influenced by environmental variations. These 

results are in accordance with the earlier reports of Gupta, et 

al., 1998. The days to 50% flowering had a high magnitude of 

heritability but low genetic gain.High heritability with high 

genetic advance was exhibited by the studied traits of the 

genotypes reflecting that the traits could be further improved 

through individual plant selection. 

The analysis of covariance exhibited highly significant 

and positive correlated for seed yield with plant height, seeds/ 

pods,pod length and pods/plant. Among other traits, pod 

length showed highly significant and positive association 

with seeds/pod and 100 seed weight. Plant height showed a 

highly significant and positive association with pods/plant 

but negative association with 100 seed weight. Pods/plant 

showed significant and positive correlation with seeds/pod 

and positive but non-significant association with pod length. 

Similar results were reported by Clark and Francis, 1985 and 

Shete and Kale, 1988. Seed weight showed significant and 

positive association with seeds/pod but significant and 

negative correlation with days to maturity. 

The relationships between seed yield with its component


characters were further analyzed by path coefficient (Table 2). 

Days to 50% flowering had positive but nonsignificant direct 

effect on seed yield. Days to maturity and plant height had 

negative direct effect on seed yield, which is in agreement 

with the results of Babar, et al., 2002. The pod and seed 

characters had positive and significant effect on seed yield, 

indicating an increase in number of pods /plant -1 , pod length, 

number of seeds/pod -1 and seed weight may be contributed 

on seed yield directly. Similar result were reported by Raffi 

and Nath, 2004 and Kapila and Pawar, 1997. These results 

with the above information revealed that the genotypes of 

dry bean had sufficient variability for all the agromorphological 

traits studied. Number of pods plant -1 , pod 

length, number of seeds pod -1 and 100-seed weight are the 

most important yield contributing and also most important 

traits for their exploitation through selection for future yield 

improvement in dry beans. 


Allard, R.W. 1960. Principles of plant breeding. Johnwilley and sons 

Inc. London. pp. 92-94. 

Babar, M.A., Newaz, M.A and Jahan, M.A.H.S., 2002. Identification of 

selection parameters for yield improvement in French bean 

(Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Bangladesh J. Agril. Sci., 29: 85-89. 

Burton, G.W. and Devane, E.H. 1953. Estimating heritability in tall 

Fesque from clonal material. Agronomy Journal, 45:478-481. 

Chand, P. 1999. Genetic variability in rajmash (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) 

Madras Agril. J., 86: 657-676. 

Choudhary, D., Talukdar, K. 1996. Extent of genetic variability in 

Brinjal cultivars and crosses in F3 generations over environments. 

Horti. J., 9:41-48. 

Clarke, E.N. and Francis, C.A. 1985. Bean-maize intercropping: A 

comparison of bush and climbing bean growth habits. Field Crop 

Research, 10:151-166. 

Dewey, D.R. and Lu, K.H. 1959. A correlation and path co-efficient 

analysis of components of crested wheat grass seed production. 

Agron. J., 51:515-518. 

Gandhi, S.M., Sanghli, A.K., Nathawat, K.S. and Bhatnagar, M.P. 1964. 

Genotypic variability and correlation coefficients relating to grain 

yield and few other quantitative characters in Indian Wheat. Indian 

J. Genet., 24:1-8. 

Gupta, M.K., Singh, J.P. and Mishra, V.K. 1998. Heritability and genetic 

advance and correlation analysis in pea: Crop Research, 16(2):202- 

204. 

Panse, V.G. and Sukhatme, P.V. 1984. Statistical Method of Agricultural 

Workers. ICAR. New Delhi. 

Kapila, R.K. and Pawar, K.S. 1997. Genetic parameters and association 

analysis in rajmash. Indian J. Pulses Res., 10(1):38-41. 

Rai, N., Yadav, D.S., Yadav, R.K. and Patel, R.K. 2001. Variability, 

correlation and path-coefficient analysis in between seed 

morphology and seedling growth in French bean. J. Assam Sci. 

Soc., 42:40-43. 

Raffi, S.A. and Nath, U.K. 2004. Variability, heritability, genetic advance 

and relationships of yield and yield contributing characters in dry 

bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). J. Biological. Sci., 4(2):157-159. 

Sandhu, T.S., Gumber, R.K and Dhillion, B.S. 1991. Correlated response 

of grain yield and protein content in chickpea. Legume Research, 

14(1):45-49. 

Shete, B.J. and Kale, P.N. 1988. Genetic variability and correlation 

studies in French bean. J. Maharashtra Agril. Universities, 13:31- 

34. 

Singh, D.N., Nandi, A. and Tripathy, P. 1994. Genetic variability and 

character association in French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Indian 

J. Agril. Sci., 64:114-116. 

Vaid, K., Singh, R.M and Gupta, V.P. 1986. Interrelationship of yield 

and its component characters in dry beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). 

Crop Improvement, 13:164-167. 



Three Novel Additions to Alternaria Ness. from India 

D.P. SINGH AND T.P. MALL 

Postgraduate Department of Botany, Kisan P.G. College, Bahraich 271 801 

ABSTRACT 

This communications deals with the descriptions, latin diagnosis 

and illustrations of three hitherto undesribed species of fungus 

genus Alternaria Ness. viz.; A. bauhiniae sp. nov., A. bahraichensis 

sp. nov. and A. ichnocarpicola sp. nov. collected on living leaves 

of Bauhinia vahlii (Fabaceae), Sagittaria sagittifolia 

(Alismaceae) and Ichnocarpus frutiscens (Apocynaceae) 

respectively from north-westren Tarai forests of Uttar Pradesh, 

India. 

et internum. Stromata evoluta. Conidiophora in fasciculo, 

macronematosa mononematosa, geniculata, recta vel flexuosa, 

cylindrica, non-ramosa, usque 11 transverse septata, simplicia 

crassitunicata, glabra, olivaceo brunnea, 42-114 x 4-8 mm in 

diam. Cellulae conidiogenae in conidiophoris incorporatae, 

terminales vel intercalarius, sympodiales, frequenter 

monotreticae, raro polytreticae, cicatricatae, cicatrices 

conidiales incrassatae. Conidia muriformia, acropleurogenosa, 

singulares vel catenata, recta vel fere curvata, usque 7 

Key words 

Foliicolous fungi, marphotaxonomy, Alternaria, 

species novum 

A number of Alternaria species have been added by 

many workers (Ellis, 1971, 1976; Bilgrami, et al., 1979, 1981, 

1991 ; Jamaluddin, et al., 2004). However, during recent survey 

a number of collections exhibiting leaf blight have been 

encountered. Of these on critical examination three new taxa 

of species rank of genus Alternaria viz., A. bauhiniae A. 

bahraichensis and A. ichnocarpicola occurring on Bauhinia 

vahlii (Fabaceae), Sagittaria sagittifolia (Alismaceae) and 

Ichnocarpus frutiscens (Apocynaceae) respectively, are 

described and illustrated. 


During collection trips infected leaf samples were taken 

in separate polythene bags from north western Tarai forest of 

Uttar Pradesh. Suitable mounts of surface scrapping and free 

hand cut sections were prepared from infected portions of the 

leaf samples. Slides were prepared in cotton- blue lactophenol 

mixture, then slides were examined under microscope and 

camera lucida drawing were made. Morphotaxonomic 

determinations of taxa were done with the help of current 

literature and resident. Holotypes have been deposited in 

HCIO, IARI, New Delhi and Isotype retained in the 

departmental herbarium for further reference. 


Description: 

Alternaria bauhiniae sp. nov (Fig. 1) 

Maculae hypogenae circulares vel subcirculares, 

extensae per totum foliae, brunnae vel atrae, usque ad 4-10 

mm in diam. Coloniae hypophyllae, effusae, extendentes per 

totum contagionis maculae, atrae. Mycelium ex hyphis exterum 

Fig. 1. 

Alternaria bauhiniae sp. nov. 

a. Infected leaf, b. Stroma, c. Conidiophores, 

d. Conidia, e. Germinating Conidia


transverse septata vel vulgo plures longitudinialis vel obliques 

septata crassitunicata, glabra, brunnea, basim obclavata vel 

rotundata, hilo incrassato, 28-77 x 14- 20 mm in diam; crassa 

ad evolutum partum, porce constricta ad septata, beak pallide 

et unseptata vel septata. Germinis conidia cum tubis germinalis 

notata. 

Infection spots hypogenous, circular to sub-circular, 

spreading on entire leaf surface, brown to black, 4-10 mm in 

diam. Colonies hypophyllous, effuse, covering the infection 

spot, dark black. Mycelium of hyphae external and internal. 

Stromata present. Conidiophores arising in fascicles, 

macronematous, mononematous, geniculate, straight to 

flexuous, cylindrical, unbranched, upto 11 transverse septate, 

simple thick walled, smooth, olive brown, 42-114 x 4-8 mm in 

diam. Conidiogenous cells integrated, terminal to intercalary, 

sympodial, generally monotretic rarely polytretic, cicatrized, 

bearing thickened conidial scars. Conidia muriform, 

aeropleurogenous, in chains on single, straight or slightly 

curved, upto 7 transverse septate with several longitudinal 

and oblique septa thick walled, smooth, brown, base, 

obclavate to rounded, hilum thickened, 28-77 x 14 - 20 mm in 

diam; thick at broadest part, constricted at the septa, beak 

pale and unseptate or septate. Germinating conidia with germ 

tube also present. 

A persual of literature shows that morphotaxonomic 

features of two earlier described species of Alternaria viz., A. 

tenuissima (Kunze expers.) Wiltshire (1993) and A. longipes 

(Ellis & EV.) are comparable to the present collection. The 

comparative account is given below : 

Comparative account reveals that fasciculate, 

unbranched, geniculate conidiophores with thickened conidial 

scars and muriform conidia with broader obclavate to rounded 

base of the present collection are significantly different from 

A. tenuissima and A. longipes. Therefore, it is worthwhile to 

propose the present collection as a new taxon of species rank, 

to accommodate it. 

On living leaves of Bauhinia Vahlii W & A, Prod 

(Fabaceae), Katarniaghate Wildlife Sanctuary, Bahraich (U.P.) 

India, 15 th March 2008, leg.; D.P. Singh, BRH – 1,691, DPS – 

0,291 (Isotype), HCIO- 48,578 (Holotype) has been deposited. 

Alternaria bahraichensis sp. nov. (Fig. 2) 

Maculae amphigenae, parvae vel magnae, brunae vel 

atro brunnae in superfici inferiari et grisae in superfici superiori. 

Coloniae amphiphyllae, effusae, dispersae per totum 

contogionis maculae, brunnae vel atrae. Mycelium ex hyphis 

immersum, ramosum, septatum, atro-brunnae, glabrum. 

Stromata, immersum, fuscus brunnea, 

pseudoparenchymatosa. Conidiophora caespitosa, 

macronemata, mononemata, dense conferta, usque 6 transverse 

euseptata, erecta, recta vel flexuosa, geniculata, glabra, 

simplicia vel ramosa, tenuituniculata, frequenter uni aut raro 

numerosa cicatricata, sup hyalina vel brunnea, 44-104 mm longa 

et 3-7 mm lata. Cellulae conidiogenosae integratae, terminales 

vel intercalarius, polytreticis, sympodialis conidial cicatribus 

evolutum. Conidia muriformia, solitaria out catenata, 

acropleurogenosa, obclavata vel ellipsoidea vel obovoid, recta 

vel leniter flexuosa, rostrum presentia cum and apices cicatrix, 

olivacea brunnea vel atro-brunnea, crassitunicata, crass ad 

evolutum partum, colligatio ad septata, 1-6 transversae septata 

vel longitudinibus vel obliques septata, 30 - 57 x 8-16 mm in 

diam. Germinis conidia cum tubis germinalis notata. 

Infection spots amphigenous, small to large, brown to 

dark brown on the lower surface while grey on the upper 

surface. Colonies amphiphyllous, effuse, spread over the 

infection spot, brown to black. Mycelium of hyphae immersed, 

branched septate, smooth. Stromata developed, immersed, dark 

brown pseudoparenchymatous. Conidiophore caespitose, 

macronematous, mononematous, densly packed, upto 6 

transversely euseptate, straight to flexuous, erect, geniculate, 

simple to branched, smooth, thin walled generally one or rarely 

more than one scars, subhyaline to brown, 44-104 mm long 

Fig. 2. 

Alternaria bauhiniae sp. nov. 

a. Infected leaf, b. Stroma, c. Conidiophores, d. Conidia

SINGH & MALL, Three Novel additions to Alternaria Ness. from India 4 9 

and 3-7 mm wide. Conidiogenous cells integrated, terminal to 

intercalary, sympodial, polytretic, cicatrized, coidial scars 

present. Conidia, muriform, solitary or in chain, 

acropleurogenous, obclavate or ellipsoidal or obvoid, straight 

to slightly curved, beak present with scar at tip, olivaceous 

brown to dark brown, thick walled in the broadest part, 

constricted at the septa bearing 1 to 6 transverse septa with 

longitudinal and oblique septa, 30-57 x 8-16 mm in diam. 

Germinating conidia with germ tube observed. 

A survey of literature reveals that among earlier 

described species of Alternaria The morphotaxonomic 

features of A. dianthi and those of the present collection are 

given below : 

Above comparative account shows that the 

morphotaxonomic features of the present collection are 

drastically different from the A. dianthi. Therefore, proposal 

of a new taxon of separate species rank, for the present 

collection, is considered. 

On living leaves of Sagittaria sagittifolia (Alismaceae), 

Nishangara Forest Range, Bahraich (U.P.) India, May 4 th 2008, 

leg; D.P. Singh, BRH-1,701, DPS – 0,301 (Isotype), HCIO - 

48,588 (Holotype) have been deposited. 

Alternaria ichnocarpicola sp.nov. (Fig. 3) 

Maculae hypogenae, circulares vel subcirculares, 

extensae per totum, foliae, brunnae vel atrae usque ad 6-11 

mm in diam. Coloniae hypophyllae, effusae; extendentes per 

totum contigionis maculae, atra mycelium exterum et internum. 

Stromata evolutoa. Conidiophora macronematos, erecta vel 

procumbenta, fassiculata, transverse euseptata, geniculata, 

glabra, tenuitunicata, uni aut numerosa cicatricata obivaceao 

vel atro brunnea, 49-168 mm in longa et 3-6 mm lata. Cellulae 

conidiogenae integratae, terminals vel intercalari, sympodiales, 

polytreticae. Conidia muriformia, solitaria aut catenata, 

Fig. 3. 

Alternaria ichnocarpicola bauhiniae sp. nov. 

a. Infected leaf, b. Conidiophores, c. Conidia 

acropleurogenosa, obclavata vel ellipsoidea vel obovoidea, 

recta vel leniter flexuosa, rostrum presentia cum ad apice 

cicatrix, olivace brunnea vel atro- brunnea, crassitunicata, crass 

ad evolutum partum, colligatio ad septata, 4-6 transversae 

septata vel longitudinibus vel obliques septata, 32-59 x 8-18 

mm in diam. 

Table 1. 

Comparison of morphotaxonomic features of A. tenuissima, (Kunze expers.) Wiltshire, A. longipes (Ellis & EV.) with 

A. bauhiniae sp. nov. 

Alternaria spp. Conidiophore Conidia 

A. tenuissima (Kunze expers.) 

Wiltshire 

Arising singly or in group simple or branched mid pale Solitary or catenate obclavate or tapering gradually to the 

brown, 1 to several conidial scars, less geniculate, upto 45 beak. Some times minutely verruculose, slightly or not 

µm long 4.6 µm thick. 

constricted at the septa, 22-95 x 8-19 µm in diam. 

A. longipes (Ellis. & EV.) Arising singly or in group, poorly branched, cylindrical one Solitary or in chains obclavate rostrate, smooth 

to several conidial scars pale olivaceous brown up to 80 µm verruculose minutely constricted at septa, 35-110 x 11-21 

long 3-5 µm thick. 

µm in diam. 

A. bauhiniae sp. nov. Fasciculate, geniculate, unbranched monotretic rarely 

polytretic, thickened conidial scars, olive brown 42-114 x 

4-8 µm. 

Table 2. 

Comparison of marphotaxonomic features of A. dianthi and A. bahraichensis sp. nov. 

Muriform, singly or in chains, brown, base obclavate to 

rounded, thick at broadest part, constricted at the septa 28- 

77 x 14-20µm. 

Morphotaxonomic features A. dianthi A. bahraichensis sp. nov. 

Conidiophores 

Commonly in fascicles rarely singly, straight to less Stromatic, commonly in fascicles straight to flexuous, 

cylindrical, pale to mid brown or olivaceous brown, nongeniculate, 

up to 120 µm. 

subhyaline to brown, geniculate 44-104 µm long and 3-7µm 

wide. 

Conidiogenous cells Terminal, monotraetic, apical conidial scars. Terminal to intercalary, polytretic, cicatrized. 

Conidia 

Muriform, conical to obclavate, rostrate, smooth, beak 

slightly swollen at the tip, 30-120 x 10-25 µm. 

Muriform, solitary or in chain, obclavate or ellipsoidal scar at 

the tip of rostrum, constricted at septa, 30-57 x 8-16µm.


Table 3. 

Comparison of morphotaxonomic features of A. dianthi and A. ichnacarpicola sp. nov. 

Alternaria spp. Conidiophores Conidia 

A. dianthi Commonly in fascicles rearely single, straight to less Muriform, conical to obclavate, rostrate, smooth, beak slightly 

cylindrical pale to mid brown or olivaceous brown, nongeniculate, 

up to 120 µm in 

swollen at the tip, 30-120 x 10-25 µm in diam. 

diam. 

A. ichnocarpicola sp. nov. Arising in group, simple, mid to pale brown, 1-3 scars 

distinctly geniculate, 49-168 µm long and 3-6 µm in thick. 

Muriform solitary to catenate, sometimes beaked, smooth, 4-6 

transversly septate, 32-59 x 8-18 µm in diam. 

Infection spots hypogenous, circular to sub-circular, 

spreading on entire leaf surface, brown to black, 6-11 mm. in 

diam. Colonies hypophyllous, effuse, covering the infection 

spot, dark black. Mycelium of hyphae external and internal. 

Stromata present. Conidiophores macronematous, erect to 

procumbent, fasciculatous, transversely euseptate, geniculate, 

smooth, thin walled bearing one or more than one scars, 

olivaceous to dark brown, 49-168 mm long and 3-6 mm wide. 

Conidiogenous cells integrated, terminal to intercalary, 

sympodial, polytretic, cicatrized. Conidia, muriform, solitary 

or in chain, acropleurogenous, obclavate or ellipsoidal or 

obvoid, straight to slightly curved, beak present with scar at 

tip, olivaceous brown to dark brown, thick walled in the 

broadest part, constricated at the septa bearing 4 to 6 

transverse septa with longitudinal and oblique septa, 32-59 x 

8-18 mm in diam. 

A survey of literature reveals that among earlier 

described species of Alternaria the morphotaxonomic features 

of A. dianthi are comparable to those of the present collection. 

A comparative account is given below : 


morphotaxonomic features of the present collection is 

significantly different from those of the A. dianthi. Therefore, 

proposal of a new taxon of separate species rank; for the 

present collection is proposed. 

In foliis vivis Ichnocarpus frutiscens R. Br. 

(Apocynaceae), Bhinga Forest Range, Shrawasti of (U.P.) 

India, 20 th Nov. 2006, leg; D.P. Singh, BRH-1,512, DPS- 0,112 

(Isotypus), HCIO - 48,458 (Holotypus) have been deposited. 


Authors are thankful to Principal Kisan P.G. College 

Bahraich for providing facilities and to Prof. Kamal, Emeritus 

Scientist, DST for helful suggestions. 


Bilgrami, K.S. Jamaluddin and Rizwi, M.A. 1979. Fungi of India, Part- 

I. Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers. New Delhi, pp. 

467. 

Bilgrami, K.S. Jamaluddin and Rizwi, M.A. 1981. Fungi of India , Part- 

II. Today and Tomarrow’s Printers and Publishers. New Delhi, pp. 

140. 

Bilgrami, K.S., Jamaluddin and Rizwi, M.A. 1991. Fungi of India. List 

and References. Today and Tomarrow’s Printers and Publishers, 

New Delhi, pp. 778. 

Ellis, M.B. 1971. Dematiaceous Hyphomycetes. CMI, Kew, U.K. pp. 

608. 

Ellis, M.B. 1976. More Dematiaceous Hyphomycetes. CMI, Kew, U.K. 

pp. 507 

Jamaluddin, Goswami, M.G. and Ojha, B.M. 2004. Fungi of India, 1989- 

2001. Scientific Publishers (India), Jodhpur. pp. 326. 



Hindrance in Rearing of Bumble Bee, Bombus hoemorrhoidalis (Smith) 

KIRAN RANA, B.S. RANA*, H K SHARMA* AND SAPNA KATNA* 

Seed Science and Technology,*Department of Entomology and Apiculture, Dr. Y S Parmar University of 

Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan (HP) India 173 230 

e-mail: kiranapi@rediffmail.com 

ABSTRACT 

Studies on rearing of bumble bee conducted during 2008-2010 

revealed problems in successful establishment of colony under 

laboratory conditions. Twenty five queens were captured while 

foraging in the field during each year. These were maintained 

at 26 + 1 o C temperature and about 65% RH for rearing in 

wooden cages (size: 150x 80x65mm). Out of the caged bumble 

bee queens, 9.3 % queens formed wax mounds, honey cups, 

laid eggs and initiated rearing worker bees, 45.5 % formed wax 

mounds, honey cups but laid no eggs and 45.2 % survived up to 

4 months without any activity. Studies revealed presence of 

larva or pupa of some parasite in the abdomen of about 20% 

queens which were identified as conopid fly. These flies 

considered to lay eggs on adult bees while foraging in the field. 

The larva after hatching enters into the abdomen of queen and 

starts feeding on their abdominal contents. It pupates and overwinters 

inside the infested queens. That’s why, the development 

of conopid fly inside the queen affected the egg laying and 

caused death. Further observations on dissected queens (90.7 

%) revealed presence of spermathecae without any sperms in 

about 65.3 % queens which indicates that in nature some 

unmated queens overwinters. These studies revealed that 

hindrance in successful rearing or initiation of colony 

development / egg laying may be due to parasitization of queen 

bumble bees by this fly or survival of unmated queens in nature. 

Key words Bumble bee,rearing, parasitization, conopid fly 

Bumble bees are the most important pollinators of many 

temperate plant species (Heinrich,1979) because of their 

diverse body and proboscis sizes, ability to sonicate, dense 

pile, long activity periods, and adaptability to a wide variety 

of temperatures and climate types. The studies on rearing of 

bumble bees under laboratory conditions are going on for the 

last few years under All India Coordinated Research Project 

on honey bees and pollinators at Nauni, Solan. For this, 

naturally mated Bombus haemorrhoidalis Smith queens were 

collected from the field during spring season to initiate colony 

development. During the past few years a large number of 

such collected queens did not initiate colony development 

on many temperate plant species. 


During 2008-2010, in spring twenty five queens were 

captured while foraging in the field each year. These were 

maintained at 26 + 1 o C temperature and about 65 % RH for 

rearing in wooden cages (size :150x80x65mm, Fig.1). The 

queens were fed sucrose solution and fresh pollen collected 

from honey bee colonies. After death each queen was carefully 

dissected out and examined to know the cause. 


Data revealed that a total of 75 bumble bee queens were 

kept for rearing and out of these 90.7% were dissected out. 

Studies revealed the presence of larvae (Fig.1) or pupae (Fig.2) 

of some parasite in the abdomen of about 20 % dissected 

queens (Table 1). These pupae were kept in glass vials under 

room conditions for the emergence of adults in the month of 

July. The adult emergence from these pupae was observed 

during Feb-March after 7-8 months. These were identified as 

a conopid fly (conopidae, diptera) (Fig.4). Conopid flies attack 

foraging bumble bees which are handling flowers, or even on 

the wing (Howell, 1967 ; Askew, 1971). A single egg is attached 

to (Cumber, 1949) or inserted into (Howell, 1967) the host,s 

abdomen, where the larva hatches and feeds on haemolymph 

and internal organs. Within 6-10 days the larva passes through 

three stages (Pouvreau, 1974) before the fly pupates in situ 

with in the abdomen. The host bee dies and the parasite 

overwinters in its puparium; the adult fly then emerges in 

early summer (Townsend, 1935; Cumber,1949). Conopid flies 

as parasites of bumble bees are known from all major habitats 

where the hosts occur (Smith,1966). Conopid parasitism in 

natural populations of bumble bees (Bombus sp.) is very 

common in Europe, where incidence of parasitism range 

between 30% and 70% (Schmid-Hempel, et al.,1990). This 

parasitic association has been studied under several aspects 

and some results have shown that the parasitoid alters 

foraging behavior (Muller and Schmid-Hempel, 1993) and 

consequently reduces the size of colonies (Müller and Schmid- 

Hempel, 1992, MacFarlane, et al., 1995). The development of 

this parasitic fly inside the queen bumble bee affected its egg 

laying, other activities and ultimately caused death. 

Further observations on dissected queens revealed 

presence of spermathecae without any sperms (Fig.4) in about 

Table 1. 

Status of bumble bee queens maintained under 

artificial conditions at Nauni during the years 

2008-2010 

Status of queens 

No. of 

queens 

Percentage 

status of queens 

Reared brood 7 9.3 

Infested (Parasitized with conopid fly) 15 20.0 

Unmated (spermatheca without sperms) 49 65.3 

Unknown reason 4 5.3 

Total 75 -


Fig. 1. Larva of parasitic fly in queen Bumble bee Fig. 2. Pupae and adult of parasitic fly 

Fig. 3. 

Adult of parasitic fly 

Fig. 4. 

Undeveloped Spermatheca 

65.3 % queens which indicated that in nature some unmated 

queens overwinters. 

These studies revealed that parasitization of bumble bee 

queen by conopid flies or survival of unmated queens in nature 

may be important stress factors in hindrance for successful 

establishment of bumble bee colony under laboratory 

conditions and also the primary causes of population decline 

in nature as observed during last few years. 


Askew, R.R.1971. Parasitic insects. American Elsevier Publishing, Inc., 

New York, pp.316p. 

Cumber, R.A. 1949. Humble-bee parasites and commensals found within 

a thirty mile radius of London. Transactions of the Royal 

Entomological Society of London (A), 24: 119-127. 

Chr. Schousboe.1994. Occurrence of “Empty” spermathecae in spring 

queens of Bombus terrestris L. Journal of Apicultural Research, 

33(4):61. 

Heinrich, B. 1979. Bumble bee Economics, Harvard University Press, 

Cambridge, MA. 

Howell, J.F. 1967. Biology of Zodion obliquefasciatum (Macq.) 

(Diptera: Conopidae) parasite of the alkali bee, Nomia melanderi 

Ckll. (Hymenoptera, Halictidae). Technical Bulletin of the 

Washington Agriculture Experimental Station, 51:1-33. 

MacFarlane, R.P., Lipa, J.J. and Liu, H.J. 1995. Bumble bee pathogens 

and internal enemies. Bee World, 76:130-148. 

Müller, C.B. and Schmid-Hempel, P. 1992. Correlates of reproductive 

success among field colonies of Bombus lucorum: The importance 

of growth and parasites. Ecol. Entomol., 17:343-353. 

Müller, C.B. and Schmid-Hempel, P. 1993. Exploitation of cold 

temperature as defense against parasitoids in bumblebees. Nature, 

363: 65-67. 

Pouvvreau, A. 1974. Les enemies des bourdons. II . Organismes affectant 

les adultes. Apidologie, 5: 39-62. 

Schmid-Hempel, P., Muller, C., Schmid- Hempel , R. and Shykoff, J.A. 

1990. Frequency and ecological correlates of parasitization by 

conopid flies (Conopidae, Diptera) in populations of bumble bees. 

Insectes Soc., 37: 14-30. 

Smith, K.G.V. 1966. The larva of Thecophora occidensis, with 

comments upon the biology of Conopidae (Diptera). J. Zool., 149: 

263-276. 

Townsend, L.H. 1935. The mature larva and puparium of Physocephala 

sagittaria (Say) (Diptera, Conopidae). Psyche., 42: 142-148. 



Rearing Performance of Different Eco-races of Eri Silkworm (Philosamia ricini 

Donovan) during Spring Season of Uttar Pradesh 

RAJESH KUMAR AND VADAMALAI ELANGOVAN 

Department of Applied Animal Sciences, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar Central University, Vidya Vihar, 

Raebareli Road, Lucknow 226 025, Uttar Pradesh 

e-mail: elango70@yahoo.com 

ABSTRACT 

The rearing performance of different eco-races of eri silkworm, 

Philosamia ricini was studied during spring 2007 and 2008 in 

Uttar Pradesh. The rearing performance of different eco-races 

namely Borduar, Titabar, Dhanubhanga and Mendipathar was 

analyzed based on their hatching (%), larval duration (d), weight 

of full grown larvae (g), cocoon yield (by number and weight), 

single cocoon weight (g), shell weight (g), shell ratio (%), cocoon 

shape variability, pupal period (d), pupation rate (%), and leaf 

silk conversion rate (%). The Borduar eco-race of P. ricini showed 

better rearing performance compared to Titabar, Dhanubhanga 

and Mendipathar eco-races. The rearing parameters such as 

weight of full grown larvae, yield, single cocoon weight, shell 

weight, shell ratio, cocoon shape variability, pupation rate of 

different eco races of eri silkworm differed significantly. 

Key words 

Eri silkworm, eco-races, rearing performance, spring 

season 

Eri silkworm, Philosamia ricini is one of the nonmulberry 

polyphagous species which feed upon the castor 

leaves and reared traditionally for domestic consumption in 

northeast region of India. Eri silk is durable, soft and blends 

well with other varieties of silks. The blending gives good 

luster and value with other polyester fibers also (Deka, 1980). 

Various host plants of eri silkworm (P. ricini) are available in 

northern states of India, especially Uttar Pradesh and 

Uttranchal. Castor (Ricinus communis) is widely grown as 

shady / protective and inter crop with other agricultural crops 

for oil seed. Hazarika, et al., 2003 observed the effect of different 

host plants and seasons on larval duration of eri silkworms. 

Spring season is characterized by optimum temperature and 

humidity, hence a least susceptible, disease resistant race is 

required for spring season of Uttar Pradesh. Keeping the above 

things in view the present study was undertaken to find a 

suitable eco-race of eri silkworm under spring seasons of Uttar 

Pradesh. 


The study was conducted in a well constructed rearing 

house of the Department of Applied Animal Sciences, 

Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, Uttar 

Pradesh during spring (February-March) 2007 and 2008. The 

eco-races of eri silkworm, P. ricini such as Borduar, Titabar, 

Dhanubhanga and Mendipathar were selected for the 

experiment to evaluate their rearing performance. The eggs of 

various races were procured from Regional Eri Research 

Station (Central Silk Board), Mendipathar, Meghalaya. The 

eggs were incubated at room temperature and undergone for 

the black boxing. Standard tray rearing method was practiced 

as recommended by Sarkar, 1988. Experiments were conducted 

from second moulting to harvesting of cocoon. The tender 

leaves of castor, R. communis were fed four times a day until 

the worms become III instar larvae. Semi tender leaves and 

mature leaves were fed to the larvae of IV and V instars, 

respectively. For each experiment, sum of 400 larvae of each 

eco-race were maintained separately in wooden trays. A total 

of three replicates maintained for each eco-race. Ambient 

temperature and relative humidity of the experimental chamber 

were recorded regularly using thermometer and hygrometer, 

respectively. Cocoon harvesting was carried out on five or six 

days after started spinning. 

To assess the uniformity of cocoon shape and size, the 

cocoons were taken at randomly from respective eco-race. 

The length and breadth of cocoons were measured using 

vernier calipers and cocoon index was calculated by following 

Gowda and Reddy, 2006 and Nair, et al., 2009. The weight of 

larvae and cocoons was measured using electronic balance. 

The rearing performance of each eco-race was assessed by 

the following parameters namely hatching (%), larval weight 

(g), larval duration (d), yield / 400 larvae by number and weight, 

single cocoon weight (g), shell weight (g), shell ratio (%), 

cocoon shape variability, pupal period (d), pupation rate (%) 

and leaf silk conversion rate. 


There was no rainfall during the period of rearing and 

thus the relative humidity did not fluctuate drastically. The 

temperature and relative humidity ranged from 22.0 ºC to 26.0ºC 

and 61.0% to 65.0%, respectively during 2007 spring, while 

the temperature and relative humidity ranged from 23.0ºC to 

28ºC and 64.0% to 65%, respectively during 2008 spring. The 

rearing performances of various eco-races during spring 

season during 2007 and 2008 are given in Table 1 and 2, 

respectively. 

The eggs of different eco-races of eri silkworm hatched 

out about 48 h after incubation. The hatching of eri silkworm 

was ranged from 93.0% to 95.0% during 2007 spring rearing


(Table 1), while it ranged from 93.75% 95.20% during 2008 

spring rearing (Table 2). The highest hatching percentage was 

observed in Borduar eco-race of eri silkworm both during 

2007 and 2008 spring rearing (Fig. 1). 

The highest larval weight was observed in Borduar (7.40 

g) eco-race during 2007 Table 1, while it was observed in 

Titabar eco-race (7.50 g) during 2008 spring rearing (Table 2). 

The larval weight of different eco-races of eri silkworm differed 

significantly both during 2007 spring rearing. 

The highest yield of cocoon per 400 larvae was observed 

in Borduar eco-race both during 2007 (362) and 2008 (365) 

spring rearing (Table 1 and 2). The yield of cocoon of different 

eco-races of eri silkworm differed significantly both during 

2007 spring rearing. 

The highest yield of cocoon (kg) was recorded in 

Borduar eco-race (1.296 kg) followed by Mendipathar (1.261 

kg), Titabar (1.261 kg) and Dhanubhanga (1.080 kg) eco-races 

during 2007 spring rearing (Table 1). Whereas during 2008 

spring rearing the highest yield of cocoon was recorded in 

Borduar eco-race (1.288 kg) (Table 2, Fig. 5). The yield of 

cocoon among different eco-races of eri silkworm differed 

significantly during 2007 spring rearing. 

The highest single cocoon weight was observed in 

Borduar eco-race both during 2007 and 2008 spring rearing. 

The single cocoon weight of different eco-races of eri silkworm 

differed statistically. 

The highest shell ratio was observed in Borduar ecorace 

(16.42%) followed by Titabar (16.00%) (Table 1, Fig. 8) 

(Table 2). The shell ratio percentage of different eco-races of 

eri silkworm differed significantly. 

The leaf silk conversion rate was ranged from 2.90% to 

3.10% during 2007 spring rearing (Table 1), while it ranged 

from 2.99% to 3.15% during 2008 rearing (Table 2). The Borduar 

eco-race showed highest leaf silk conversion rate both during 

2007 and 2008. The leaf silk conversion rate of four different 

eco-races of eri silkworm showed significant difference 2007. 

The results of present study clearly show the suitability 

of Borduar eco-race for commercial rearing in Uttar Pradesh 

during spring season. The rearing performances such as 

hatching percentage, larval weight, cocoon yield (by number 

and by weight), single cocoon weight, shell weight, shell ratio, 

pupation rate and leaf silk conversion rate during spring 

seasons showed that the Borduar eco-race is superior than 

other eco-races. The finding of the present study is consistent 

Table 1. Rearing performance of different eco-races of eri silkworm (Philosamia ricini donovan) during spring, 2007. 

Name of ecoraces/statistical 

Hatching Larval Larval Yield / 400 larvae Cocoon Shell Shell Cocoon Pupal Pupation LSCR 

(%) duration wt. (g) By By wt. wt. (g) wt. (g) ratio shape period rate (%) 

parameters 

(day) 

number (kg) 

(%) variability (day) (%) 

Borduar 95.05 19.80 

±0.546 

7.40 

±0.045 

362 

±1.73 

1.296 

±0.050 

3.49 

±0.045 

0.57 

±0.034 

16.42 

±0.061 

268.49 

±5.90 

9.75 

±0.492 

85.52 

±0.549 

3.10 

±0.065 

Titabar 94.80 20.50 

±0.060 

7.38 

±0.034 

355 

±6.56 

1.261 

±0.046 

3.46 

±0.026 

0.54 

±0.036 

16.00 

±0.161 

268.29 

±5.50 

10.33 

±0.040 

84.15 

±0.201 

3.02 

±0.065 

Dhanubhanga 93.00 20.75 

±0.492 

6.90 

±0.043 

339 

±2.65 

1.080 

±0.067 

3.09 

±0.017 

0.48 

±0.036 

15.60 

±0.046 

255.60 

±5.45 

10.75 

±0.492 

82.00 

±1.569 

2.90 

±0.085 

Mendipathar 93.65 20.33 

±0.040 

7.32 

±0.070 

356 

±4.36 

1.261 

±0.050 

3.45 

±0.036 

0.55 

±0.045 

15.98 

±0.095 

262.16 

±5.96 

10.40 

±0.519 

83.18 

±0.623 

2.95 

±0.045 

F Value 3.53 66.06 16.11 9.67 97.52 3.05 33.02 3.44 2.93 8.38 4.79 

P Value 0.068 0.001 0.001 0.005 0.001 0.092 0.001 0.072 0.100 0.007 0.034 

CD (0.05% level) 0.769 0.072 7.177 0.005 0.00 0.092 0.00 0.395 0.989 0.361 0.134 

(Values are given as mean ± SD) 

Table 2. Rearing performance of different eco-races of eri silkworm (Philosamia ricini donovan) during spring, 2008. 

Name of ecoraces/statistical 

Hatching Larval Larval Yield/400 larvae Cocoon Shell wt. Shell Cocoon Pupal Pupation LSCR 

(%) duration wt. (g) By By wt. (g) (g) ratio shape period rate (%) 

parameters 

(day) 

number wt.(kg) 

(%) variability (day) (%) 

Borduar 95.20 19.75 

±0.474 

7.48 

±0.026 

365 

±2.65 

1.288 

±0.009 

3.52 

±0.058 

0.59 

±0.017 

16.53 

±0.454 

271.29 

±6.05 

9.75 

±0.474 

87.00 

±0.183 

3.15 

±0.036 

Titabar 95.11 20.62 

±0.030 

7.50 

±0.034 

361 

±3.61 

1.260 

±0.011 

3.51 

±0.036 

0.57 

±0.020 

16.62 

±0.560 

262.49 

±5.89 

10.20 

±0.050 

86.31 

±0.522 

3.09 

±0.026 

Dhanubhanga 93.75 20.75 

±0.474 

6.60 

±0.026 

348 

±3.61 

1.210 

±0.013 

3.48 

±0.036 

0.52 

±0.026 

15.65 

±0.561 

251.26 

±5.77 

11.20 

±0.050 

81.30 

±0.151 

2.99 

±0.045 

Mendipathar 94.75 20.62 

±0.030 

7.47 

±0.036 

362 

±2.65 

1.250 

±0.005 

3.46 

±0.017 

0.55 

±0.026 

16.00 

±0.046 

264.77 

±5.58 

10.50 

±0.052 

83.45 

±0.123 

3.03 

±0.072 

F Value 4.52 60.69 17.00 27.77 1.69 5.10 3.01 6.12 16.36 243.19 6.32 

P Value 0.039 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.246 0.246 0.095 0.018 0.001 0.001 0.017 

CD (0.05% level) 0.526 0.067 6.678 0.017 0.085 0.044 0.054 0.483 0.492 0.603 0.078 

(Values are given as mean ± SD)

KUMAR & ELANGOVAN, Rearing Performance of Different Eco-races of Eri Silkworm (Philosamia ricini Donovan) 5 5 

with earlier studies (Chowdhary, 2006; Hazarika, et al., 2003, 

Phukan, et al., 2006, Bajpai, et al., 2006a). 

In the present study, some of the characters like yield, 

cocoon weight, shell weight, shell ratio showed significant 

difference among the eco-races and are of great importance in 

the field of sericulture. These economic characters are not 

only controlled by genes, but are known to be influenced by 

different climatic factors such as temperature, relative 

humidity, photoperiodic cycle etc (Jaiswal and Kumar, 2005). 

The performance of eco-races mainly depends upon the 

combined action of hereditary potential of its population and 

the extent to which such potential is permitted to express in 

the environment to which they are exposed. Chakravorty, 2004 

and Siddique, et al., 2000 studied that phenotypic and 

genotypic variability in six eco-races of eri silkworm P. ricini 

for absolute silk yield and seven contributing traits, the traits 

larval weight had the maximum estimate of genetic coefficient 

of variance followed by silk ratio and cocoon weight, larval 

weight found to have high genetic variance. Dhingra, et al., 

2006 suggested that the spring season is the favorable season 

for the silkworm rearing and cocoon production in Uttar 

Pradesh. There was no rainfall during the course of spring 

rearing and thus the temperature and humidity did not 

fluctuate during rearing. Compared to other rearing season 

temperature and humidity during spring season favored the 

rearing of all different eco-races of eri silk worm. On the basis 

of various rearing parameters, it is deduced that the 

Borduar eco-race is suitable for Uttar Pradesh climatic 

conditions for commercial rearing at farmers’ level during 

spring season. 


We thank Dr. Venkatesh Kumar, R., for his useful 

comments that improved the manuscript. R. K. is a recipient of 

Rajeev Gandhi National Fellowship from the University Grants 

Commission, New Delhi. Financial support to VE from Council 

of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi through a 

research project (No. 37(1281)/07/EMR-II) is acknowledged. 


Bajpai, A. K., Verma M., Tewari A. and Behera, D. 2006a. Prospects, 

current status and potential of ericulture in northern states especially 

Uttar Pradesh and Uttranchal. National Workshop on Eri Food 

Plants. Oct.11-12, Guwahati, pp. 89. 

Chakravorty, R. and Neog, K. 2006. Food plants of eri silkworm, 

Samia ricini DONOVAN. Their rearing performance and prospects 

for exploitation. Proceeding of National workshop on Eri food 

plants, Oct. 11-12 Guwahati, pp. 1-7. 

Chowdhary, S. N. 2006. Host plants of eri silkworm (Samia ricini 

Boisduval). Their distribution economic and prospects etc 

Proceedings of National workshop on Eri food plants, Oct.11-12 

Guwahati, pp. 28-37. 

Deka, M. 1980 Eri silk industry in Meghalaya. Indian silk, 5: 23-25. 

Dhingra, R.K., Mishra, P.N., Chakorbarti, S. and Khan, M.A. 2006. 

Performance of conventional and unproved hybrid at farmers level 

in Uttar Pradesh during spring season. Proceeding of regional 

Seminar on Prospects and problems of semionllnce on an economic 

enterprise in Nort-West India Nov. 11-12 Dehradun, pp. 202-204. 

Gowda, N. K. and Reddy, M. N. 2006. Effect of different environmental 

condition on popular multivoltine X bivoltine hybrid of silkworm, 

Bombyx mori L. with reference to cocoon parameters and their 

effect on rearing performance. Indian J. Seric., 45: 134-141. 

Hazarika, U., Barah, A., Phukan, J. C. D. and Benchamin, K. V. 2003. 

Study on the effect of different food plants and seasons on the 

larval development and cocoon characters of silkworm Samia 

Cynthia ricini Boisduval. Bull Ind Acad Seric., 7: 77- 85. 

Jaiswal, K. and Kumar, R. 2005. Level of adoption of different sericulture 

technologies at farmers level in Eastern Zone of Uttar Pradesh. 

Proceedings of the 20 th Congress of the International Sericulture 

Commission. Bangalore, Volume 1: 296-301. 

Nair, S. K., Nair, J. S. and Kamble, C. K. 2009. Cocoon uniformity as a 

trait for silkworm hybrid evaluation- A critical revisit to the 

technique. Indian J. Seric., 48: 150-155. 

Phukan, J. C. D., Singh, K. C., Neog, K. and Chakravorty, R. 2006. 

Ailanthus grandes prain (Simaroubaceae-Quassia family) An alternate 

food plants of eri silkworm Samia ricini (DONOVAN). Proceedings 

of National workshop on Eri food plants.Oct.11-12, Guwahati, pp. 

102-110. 

Sarkar, D. C. 1988. Ericulture in India. Central Silk Board, Bangalore, 

India. pp. 1-49. 

Siddique, A. A., Saha, L. M. and Das, P. K. 2000. Genetic variability and 

correlation studies of some quantitative traits in eri silk worm. Int. 

J. Wild Silk Moth, 5: 234-236. 




Population of Aphid (Schizaphis graminum R.) on Different Genotypes of Wheat 

(Triticum aestivum L.) 

H.S. RANDHAWA AND I. BHAGAT 

Punjab Agricultural University, Regional Research Station, Gurdaspur 143 521 

e-mail: harpals_randhawa@yahoo.co.in 

ABSTRACT 

In order to screen out the resistance of twelve wheat (Triticum 

aestivum) genotype against the attack of wheat aphid (Schizaphis 

graminum R.), an experiment was conducted at PAU, Regional 

Research Station, Gurdaspur. It was found that genotype DBW 

17 was most resistant and PBW 550 was most susceptible one. 

Key words 

Aphid, schizaphis graminum, population, wheat, 

Triticum aestivum. 

Punjab, contributes 60 per cent of wheat to the central 

pool, from 33.41 lakh hectares with an average yield of 4370 kg 

/ha during the year 2009-10. Considering the average yield 

and burgeoning population size, the production technologies 

and attack by variety of insect-pests has to be paid special 

attention. Since past from several years, the wheat aphid 

(Schizaphis graminum R.) is a becoming a serious pest having 

a wide host range of at least 60 plant species including wheat, 

barley, sorghum and corn (Kindler, et al., 1984; Bowling, et al., 

1998). Aphids not only suck the sap of the plants but also act 

as a vector of wheat yellow dwarf viruses. The wheat aphid 

inject toxic saliva that cause localized host tissue discoloration 

(Wiese, 1987). The abundance of aphid also adversely affects 

the nitrogen and protein contents, weight of 1000 grains, 

number of grains per ear (Ciepiela, 1993) and results in decrease 

in carbon assimilation rate, transpiration and total chlorophyll 

(Ryan, et al., 1987) and reduction in plant biomass (Holmes, et 

al., 1991). The incidence of aphids has been reported to be 

significantly different on different cultivars of wheat (Ahmad 

and Nasir, 2001). 

Among various control tactic host plant resistance is 

most important one which can keep the aphid population 

infestation well below economic threshold level without and 

reduces the chances of biotype development. Varieties that 

are moderately resistant to aphid have been recognized and 

although S. avenae resistant have not been produced 

deliberately, such resistance has proved easy to locate among 

breeding lines and varieties of wheat (Lowe, 1987). The indole 

alkaloid gramine is a toxin responsible resistance because this 

compound deters the feeding of aphid (Zungia, 1988). The 

present work was conducted to study the population of the 

aphid (Schizaphis graminum R.) on different genotypes of 

wheat. 


In order to screen out 12 genotypes for resistance against 

aphid, an experiment was conducted at Punjab Agricultural 

University, Regional Research Station, Gurdaspur. Different 

recommended wheat genotypes PDW 17, PBW 550, PBW 

502, PBW 343, WH542, PDW 291, PBW 274, PDW 233, 

PBW527, PBW175, PBW373and TL2908 were taken for 

screeing. The experiment was designed in randomized block. 

Each genotype was replicated three times. The wheat 

genotypes were sown with recommended agronomic practices 

and also manured with recommended doses of fertilizers. The 

data was recorded at booting stage of crop. Five plants were 

randomly selected from each plot and aphid population was 

counted. The data was statistically analyzed. 


The data regarding the population of wheat aphid 

(Schizaphis graminum R.) per tiller with respect to different 

genotypes is presented in Table 1. It revealed that during the 

year 2009 the population on DBW 17, PBW 550, PBW 502, 

PBW 343, WH542, PDW 291, PBW 274, PDW 233, PBW 527, 

PBW 175, PBW 373 and TL 2908 was 11.53, 37.53, 15.67, 26.47, 

19.00, 23.33, 30.47, 22.73, 18.73, 16.20, 19.00 and 25.80 aphids/ 

tiller respectively, and all the genotypes did not differ 

significantly with each other. During the year 2010 similar 

results were also obtained as the population of aphid on 

genotypes PDW 17, PBW 550, PBW 502, PBW 343, WH542, 

PDW 291, PBW 274, PDW 233, PBW527, PBW175 and 

PBW373 was 11.93, 38.27, 15.53, 27.00, 25.33, 23.87, 26.33, 23.40, 

19.87, 25.07, 18.80 and 17.73, respectively and the differences 

between all the genotypes did not vary significantly. 

When the data of two years was taken into, 

considerations and it was observed that mean population 

was 11.67, 37.90, 15.60, 26.73, 22.27, 23.60, 28.40, 23.07, 19.30, 

18.80, 18.90 and 21.63 on genotypes DBW 17, PBW 550, PBW 

502, PBW 343, WH542, PDW 291, PBW 274, PDW 233, 

PBW527, PBW175 and PBW373, respectively and variations 

in all these genotypes did not differ significantly. But the 

mean highest (37.90) and least (11.90) population was recorded 

from the genotypes PBW 550 and DBW 17, respectively and 

the aphid population differences between these two 

genotypes varied significantly. Based on the number of aphid 

per tiller, it is concluded that genotypes DBW 17 was most

RANDHAWA & BHAGAT, Population of Aphid (Schizaphis graminum R.) on Different Varieties of Wheat 5 7 

Table 1. 

Reaction of different wheat genotypes against 

wheat aphid, (Schizaphis graminum R). 

Sr. Genotype 

Aphid population/Tiller 

No. 

2009 2010 Mean 

1 DBW 17 11.53 11.93 11.67 

2 PBW 550 37.53 38.27 37.90 

3 PBW 502 15.67 15.53 15.60 

4 PBW 343 26.47 27.00 26.73 

5 WH542 19.00 25.33 22.27 

6 PDW 291 23.33 23.87 23.60 

7 PBW 274 30.47 26.33 28.40 

8 PDW 233 22.73 23.40 23.07 

9 PBW527 18.73 19.87 19.30 

10 PBW175 16.20 25.07 18.80 

11 PBW373 19.00 18.80 18.90 

12 TL2908 25.80 17.73 21.63 

CD (0.05) 6.43 4.93 5.20 

resistant and PBW 550 was most susceptible among the 

genotypes tested in the study. Similar results were also 

achieved by different workers such as Aheer, et al., 1993, and 

Muhammad, et al., 2004. Zungia, 1988 stated that the indole 

alkaloid gramine present some wheat varieties which is a toxin 

responsible for resistance to wheat aphid. 


Aheer, G.M., Rashid, A, Afzal, M. and Ali, A. 1993. Varietal resistance/ 

susceptibility of wheat to aphids, Sitobion avenae F. and 

Rhopalosiphum rufiabdominalis Susaski. J. Agric. Res., 31: 307– 

11. 

Ahmad, F. and Nasir, S. 2001. Varietal resistance of wheat germplasm 

against wheat aphid (Sitobion avenae F.). Pakistan Entomol., 23: 

5–7. 

Bowling, R.W., Wlide, G.E. and Margolies, D. 1998. Relative fitness of 

greenbug (Homoptera: Aphididae) biotypes E and I on Sorghum, 

Wheat, Rye and Barley. J. Econ. Entomol., 91: 1219–23. 

Ciepiela, A.P. 1993. The harmful effect of cereal aphid on winter 

wheat crop. Ochrona– Roslin, 37: 9–10. 

Fig.1. Reaction of different wheat genotypes against wheat aphid 

Holmes, R. S., Burton, R. L., Burd, J. D. and Ownby, J. D. 1991. Effect 

of greenbug (Homoptera: Aphididae) feeding on carbohydrate levels 

in wheat. J. Econ. Entomol., 80: 897–901. 

Kindler, S. D., Spomer, S. M., Harvery, T. L., Burlon, R. L. and Staks, 

K. J. 1984. Status of biotype E greenbug (Homoptera: Aphididae) 

in Kansas, Nobrask. Oklahoma and Northern Texas during 1980– 

1981. J. Kansas Entomol. Soci., 57: 157–8. 

Lowe, H.J.B. 1987. Breeding for resistance to insect. Wheat Breeding. 

Chapman and Hall Ltd. (ed. F.G.H. Lupton) UK, pp. 423-454. 

Muhammad, A., Muhammad, R., Faheem, A., Muhammad, F. and 

Waheed, A. 2004. Population of Aphid (Schizaphis graminum R.) 

on Different Varieties/Lines of Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) Int. 

J. Agri. Biol., 6(6): 974-976. 

Ryan, J.D., Johnson, R.C., Eikenbary, R.D., and Dorschner, K.W. 1987. 

Drought/Greenbug interaction: photosynthesis of greenbug resistant 

and susceptible wheat. Crop Sci., 27: 283–288. 

Wiese, M.V., 1987. Compendium of wheat disease. The American 

Phytopathological Society, USA. pp. 2-1-91. 

Zungia 1988. Antibiosis. In: Plant resistance to insects: A Fundamental 

approach. (ed. Michael Smith ). John Wiley and Sons. New York 

pp.18. 




Two Hitherto Undescribed Species of Alternaria Ness. from India 


Postgraduate Department of Botany, Kisan P.G. College, Bahtaich 271 801 

e-mail: drtpmall@rediffmail.com 

ABSTRACT 

This paper deals with the descriptions, latin diagnosis and 

illustration of two hitherto undescribed species of fungus genus 

Alternaria Ness. viz ; A.kamalella sp. nov. and A. tejensis sp. nov. 

collected on living leaves of Mallotus philippensis 

(Euphorbiaceae) and Eupatorium cannabinum (Asteraceae) 

respectively from north western Tarai Forests of Uttar Pradesh, 

India. 

Key words Foliar fungi, Alternaria, species novel. 

During survey a number of collections exhibiting leaf 

blight have been encountered. Of these on critical microscopic 

examination and review of literatures (Bilgrami, et al., 1979, 

1981, 1991; Ellis, 1971, 1976; Jamaluddin, et al., 2004; Sarbhoy, 

et. al., 1986, 1996; Singh and Mall, 2007) revales that the two 

new taxa of species rank of genus Alternaria viz., A. kamalella 

sp. nov. and A. tejensis sp. nov. occurring on Mallotus 

philippensis (Euphorbiaceae) and Eupatorium cannabinum 

(Asteraceae) respectively has not been reported either from 

north western Tarai Forest of U.P., or India are described and 

illustrated. 


During collection trips infected leaf samples were taken 

in separate polythene bags from north western Tarai forest of 

Uttar Pradesh. Suitable mounts of surface scrapping and free 

hand cut sections were prepared from infected portions of the 

leaf samples. Slides were prepared in cotton- blue lactophenol 

mixture. Slides were examined under microscope and camera 

lucida drawing were made. Morphotaxonomic determinations 

of taxa were done with the help of current literature and resident 

expertise available. Holotypes have been deposited in HCIO, 

IARI, New Delhi and Isotype retaned in the departmental 

herbarium for further reference. 


Description: 

Alternaria kamalella sp. nov. (Fig. 1) 

Maculae amphigenae, circulares, vel irregulares, extensae 

per totam folii, brunneae, 2-8 mm in diam. Caespitulae, 

amphiphyllae, effusae, brunneae. Mycelium internum. 

Stromata nulla notata. Conidiophora fasciculae, 

macronematosa, mononematosa, recta vel flexuosa, 

cylindricata, ramosa vel nonramosa, 1-4 septata crassitunicata, 

brunnea, 15-102 mm longa et 2-4 mm lata. Cellulae conidiogenae 

in conidiophoris terminales vel intercalaris, sympodiales, 

polytereticae, conidial cicatribus. Conidia acropleurogenosa, 

solitaria vel catenate, sicca, obclavata vel ellipsoidea vel 

obovoidea, rostrum presentia, 3-7 transverse septata vel 3-6 

obliquely septata, non-ramosa, brunnea, basi obtusam, hila 

incrassata, 16-82 x 6-22 µm in diam, germinis conidium notatum. 

Infection spots amphigenous, circular to irregular, 

spreading on entire leaf surface, brown, 2-8 mm in diam. 

Colonies amphiphyllous, effuse, brown. Mycelium internal. 

Stromata absent. Conidiophores in fascicle, macronematous, 

mononematous, straight to flexous, simple, cylindrical, 

branched to unbranched, thick walled, 1-4 septata, brown, 15- 

102 mm long and 2-4 mm wide. Conidiogenous cells integrated 

terminal, sympodial, polytretic, bearing thickened conidial 

scars. Conidia acropleurogenous, solitary to catenate, dry 

obclavate to ellipsoidal to ovoid, rostrum present, 3-7 

transersely septata and 3-6 obliquely septate, unbranched, 

brown, base obtuse, hilum thickened, 16-82 mm in diam, 

germinating conidia present. 

Perusal of literature indicates that as yet no species of 

Alternaria has been described on this host. Therefore, the 

morphotaxonomic comparison is done with A. alternata (Ellis, 

1971). Which is found to be comparable. 


morphotaxonomic features of the present collection is entirely 

different from those of A. alternata, therefore, this is a new 

species. 

In foliis vivis Mallotus philippensis Muell.Arg. 

(Euphorbiaceae), Katarniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary, Bahraich, 

(U.P.) India, 13 th Jan, 2007, leg; D.P. Singh, BRH- 1,563, DPS- 

0,163 (Isotypus), HCIO- 48,505 (Holotypus) have been 

deposited. 

Alternaria tejensis sp. nov. (Fig. 2) 

Maculae amphigenae, dispersae irregulare foliae, grisae 

atrae vel atrae. Coloniae amphiphyllae, effusae, dispersae per 

totum contagionis maculae ad foliae. Mycelium ex hyphis 

immersum. Stromata 2-4 cellae, immersum, subsuperficialia, 

circulare, Conidiophora macronematos, erecta vel procumbenta 

fassiculate, transvers euseptata, geniculata, glabra, 

tenunitunicata, uni out numerosa cicatricata obivaceo vel atro 

brunnea, 49- 166 mm longa et 5-8 mm lata. Cellulae conidiogenae

SINGH & MALL, Two Hitherto Undescribed species of Alternaria Ness. from India 5 9 

Fig. 1. 

Alternaria kamalella sp. nov. 

a. Infected leaf, b. Stroma, c. Conidiophores, d. Conidia 

Fig. 2. 

Alternaria tejensis sp. nov. 

a. Infected leaf, b. Stroma, c. Conidiophores, d. Conidia 

Table 1. 

Morphotaxonomic comparison of Alternaria kamalella sp. nov. with A. alternata. 

Alternaria spp. Conidiophores Conidia 

A. alternata (Fr. keissler Arising singly, straight to flexuous, geniculate, pale to Simple often branched chains, 8 transversely and usually 

(1912)) 

mid olivaceous or golden brown, some times geniculate, several longitudinal or oblique septa, pale to mid golden 

up to 50 µm x 3-6 µm in diam. 

brown smooth or varruculose, 20-63 x 9-18 µm in diam. 

A. kamalella sp. nov Arising singly or in fascicle, flexuous, brown, 15-102 x 

2-4 µm in diam. 

Simple, solitary to catenate, unbranched, 3-7 transversely 

septate and 3-6 obliquely septate, brown, hilum thickened, 16- 

82 x 6-22 µm in diam. 

Table 2. 

Comparison of morphotaxonomic features of A. tenuissima (Kunze expers.) Wiltshire and A. tejensis sp. nov. 

Morphotaxonomic features A. tenuissima (Kunze expers.) Wiltshire A. tejensis sp. nov. 

Stromata Hyphae external and internal, non or poorly developed Hyphae external, marginal moderately developed, immersed. 

Coidiophores 

Arising singly or in group, simple or branched, mid pale Arising in group, simple, mid to pale brown, 1-3 scars, 

brown, one to several conidial scars less geniculate, up to distinctly geniculate, 166 µm long, 5-8 µm thick 

115µm long 4-6 µm thick. 

Conidia 

Solitary or catenate, obclavate or tapering gradually to the 

beak, sometimes minutely verruculose, slightly or not 

constricated at the septa, 22-95 x 8-19 µm in diam. 

Solitary to catenate, sometimes beaked, smooth, 5-13 

transversly septate, 28-118 µm long and 12-24 µm wide.


integratae, terminales vel intercalarius, sympodiales, 

polytreticae. Conidia muriformia, solitaria vel catenata, 

acropleurogena, obclavata out ellipsoidia out ovoidia, recta 

vel leniter curvata, rostrum presentia cum ad apices cicatrix, 

olivacea brunnea vel atro-brunnea, crassitunicata ad evolutum 

portum, 5-13 septata vel longitudinibus vel obliques septata, 

28-118 mm longa et 12-24 mm lata. 

Infection spots amphigenous, irregularly spreading leaf 

margins, grayish black to dark black. Colonies amphiphyllous, 

effuse, spread over the infection spots, necrotic spot along 

the margin of the leaf lamina. Mycelium of hyphae immersed, 

stromatic. Stromata 2-4 celled, immersed, spherical, 

pseudoparenchymatous, measuring upto 16 mm in diam. 

Conidiophores macronematous, erect to procumbent, 

fasciculate, transversely euseptate, geniculate, smooth, thin 

walled bearing one or more than one scars, olivaceous to dark 

brown, 49-166 mm long and 5-8 mm wide. Conidiogenous cells 

integrated, terminal to intercalary, sympodial, polytretic, 

cicatrized. Conidia muriform, solitary or in chain, 

acropleurogenous, obclavate or ellipsoidal or ovoid, straight 

to slightly curved, sometimes beak rostrate with scar at tip, 

olivaceous brown to dark brown, thick walled in the broadest 

parts rarely at the septa, bearing 5-13 transverse septa with 

longitudinal and oblique septa, 28-118 mm long and 12-24 mm 

wide. 

A survey of literature indicates that Alternaria 

tenuissima has already been reported on Crotalaria retusa 

from west Bengal. To justify the novel identity of the present 

collection, Morphotaxonomic features of A. tenuissima 

compared with those of the present collection A. tejensis sp. 

nov. 

Survey of literature indicates that there is no record of 

Alternaria species on this host. hence it is considered a new 

species. 

On living leaves of Eupatorium cannabinum Linn. 

(Asteraceae), Nishangara Forest Range, Bahraich (U.P.) India, 

May 4 th 2008, leg; D.P. Singh, BRH-1,697 DPS – 0,297 Isotype, 

HCIO - 48,584 (Holotype). 




Scientist, DST for helpful suggestions. 


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I. Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers. New Delhi, pp. 

467. 

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II. Today and Tomarrow’s Printers and Publishers. New Delhi, pp. 

140. 

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608. 


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2001. Scientific Publishers (India), Jodhpur. pp.326. 

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(1977-81) CBS Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi. pp. 274. 

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(1982-92). Associated Publ. Co. New Delhi. pp. 350. 

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in North Western Tarai Region of Uttar Pradesh. Environmental 

Conservation Journal, 8:13-16. 



A Study of Photoperiodic Regulation on Body Weight, Growth and Development of 

Testis in Rain Quail 

ATUL KUMAR MISRA 

Department of Zoology, D.A.V. P.G. College, Kanpur, U.P. 

e-mail: atulkumarmisra03@gmail.com 

ABSTRACT 

A photoperiodic experiment on Coturnix coromandelica, which 

is commonly known as rain quail was conducted to observe the 

effect of photoperiodism on the growth and development of testis. 

The birds were treated with different photoperiodic schedules 

under the observation of photoperiodic manipulations for 120 

days. It is observed that testis of birds grew faster and they 

became sexually mature early in long term of light/dark 

schedule i.e. 21hrs. L/3hrs. D and 18hrs. L/6hrs. D in comparison 

to 3hrsL/21hrs. D. The body weight of the experimental birds 

was also affected due to response of light. There was no 

significant change observed in birds of natural day length 

(N.D.L.) group. The hormonal regulations, growth and 

development of testis were regulated by different photoperiodic 

treatments. Short to long and long to short term of light is a 

controlling factors, which effects body weight, testicular activity 

and secondary sexual characteristics in birds. 

Key words 

Coturnix coromandelica, natural day length, 

photoperiodic schedule, testicular activity, hormonal 

secretions 

Day length plays an important role in the seasonal 

biology of variety of birds. The duration of light/dark schedule, 

plays very important role in the reproductive cycles in birds 

(Farner, et al., 1983). The effects of the duration and time of 

availability of food on the photoperiodic stimulation were 

observed on the body weight, growth and development of 

gonads in Emberiza melanocephela species. (Kumar, et al., 

2001). In the Japanese quail i.e. Coturnix-coturnix-japanica, 

which was treated with short term of photoperiod, it is 

observed that, the growth and development of the testis was 

retarded (Elizabeth and Adkins, 2007). 

The aim of the present study is to prove, the importance 

of photoperiods in the body weight, growth and development 

of testis in birds. There is a direct relationship between light/ 

dark schedule and hormonal secretions, which is responsible 

for the increase of the body weight, and annual reproductive 

cycles in the birds. The experimental data also tried to find 

out, the correlation of photoperiodic manipulations and 

reproductive activity (Rani, 1999). 


Coturnix coromandelica, which is commonly known as 

rain quail, were purchased from the fowler. There are sixty 

male birds. These birds were maintained in an ideal laboratory 

conditions in open aviary in the Department of Zoology, D.A.V. 

College, Kanpur for 30 days for acclimatization. 

Just after acclimatization, all the birds were divided 

equally into four experimental groups. These birds were put 

into wire net cages size 15(L) x 12(B) x 10(H) inches. Each 

group having fifteen birds. 

The experimental details are as follows : 

Groups 

Group I 

Group II 

Group III 

Group IV 

Photographic schedule of light/dark phase 

21 hrs L/3 hrs D 

18 hrs L/6 hrs D 

3 hrs L / 21 hrs D 

Natural day light (NDL) 

The birds of 1 st , 2 nd and 3 rd group were kept in the 

photoperiodic chambers. These chambers were empty 

wooden tea boxes; the open side of the wooden box was 

covered with black cloth to provide them darkness in the 

chamber. The “L” shaped electrical cone wiring pipe (90 o ) 

were fitted in the wooden boxes to provide the fresh air from 

atmosphere to the birds in the chamber. The wooden boxes 

contained experimental cages (with birds) which were 

illuminated by C.F.L. Automatic timer were used to regulate 

photoperiodic cycles in the experimental birds. The 4 th group 

of the birds was put into open condition to provide natural 

day length i.e., from sunrise to sunset. The duration of 

experiment under photoperiodic treatment was 120 days. 

During experimental period, on every 40 th day, all the birds 

from each group were operated by using proper anesthesia 

and volume of the testis was measured to observe growth 

and development of the testis. Just after measurement birds 

were stitched successfully, and use antiseptic powder, 

medicine and 100% alcohol for proper healing. The body 

weight of the experimental birds was also taken. The data 

were statistically analyzed to find out the relationship between 

photoperiods and body weight, growth and development of 

the testis. Just after the termination of experiment, all the birds 

get free from the cage, in the natural condition of environment 

in the forest area. 


Table (1) and Fig.1 represented, the mean body weight 

of experimental birds of different photoperiodic groups at


Table 1. 

Mean body weight of Rain quail (Coturnix coromandelica) 

GROUPS (Body Weight in g) 

Months 

1 st 2 nd 3 rd 4 th 

Long Day Length 

Long Day Length 

Short Day Length Natural Day Length 

(21hrsL/ 3hrsD) 



(NDL) 

10 th July, 2008 50.57 

+ 2.68 

54.96 

+ 1.61 c 

57.70 

+ 2.78 c 

59.84 

+ 2.99 c 

20 th August, 2008 61.41 

+ 2.38 

58.96 

+ 2.45 

56.13 

+ 1.76 a 

60.61 

+ 2.80 a 

30 th Sept., 2008 63.13 

+ 1.64 

61.41 

+ 2.38 

54.84 

+ 1.88 c 

61.74 

+ 2.65 

10 th Nov., 2008 64.67 

+ 2.34 

62.28 

+ 3.74 

46.34 

+ 2.80 c 

60.11 

+ 3.30 

(Mean + SE a,b,c differ from respective controls and represents P


Studies on Genetic Diversity of Certain Inbred Genotypes of Maize (Zea mays L.) at 

Varanasi 

ASTHA GUPTA AND A. K. SINGH 

Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, 

Varanasi 221 005 

e-mail: sucessfulastha33@gmail.com 

ABSTRACT 

Genetic diversity for yield and growth characters was studied 

in maize using twenty inbred lines. The twenty inbreds of maize 

were categorized into nine clusters. Based on genetic divergence 

intra cluster values ranged from 0.00 (monogenotypic cluster 

II, V, VI, VII, VIII and IX) to 218.7441 (cluster III). Among 

polygenotypic cluster low intra cluster values for cluster II, V, 

VI, VII, VIII and IX indicate narrow genetic diversity among 

constituent genotypes. The similarity in the base material from 

which they had evolved might be the cause of uniformity. The 

minimum inter cluster distance was observed between cluster 

II with cluster V (142.3249) followed by cluster V with cluster VI 

(155.50). The maximum inter cluster distance (1528.81) was 

observed between cluster IV (HUZM 88, V 994-7) and cluster VII 

(HKI 1344). 

Key words 

Zea mays, genetic diversity, genetic divergence. 

Maize is the world’s third leading cereal crop, after wheat 

and rice. Genetic diversity evaluation is frequently used by 

the breeders as an alternative to germplasm selection method 

and allows lines to be arranged into groups that when 

intercrossed will provide the most promising result for 

development of hybrids besides time and expense. Before, 

1970, genetic diversity in crop plant was generally determined 

from pedigree data (Lubberstedt, 2000) and the reference is 

related to moleculer markers morphological traits (Yee, 1999). 

How is the reference imported for D 2 statistics reported highly 

significant mean squares for days to tasseling and silking, 

plant height, number of kernel row per ear, number of kernel 

per row, 100 grain weight, grain yield and non significant mean 

squares for number of ears per plant and plant height. 


Twenty entries were evaluated in the randomized block 

design with three replications during rabi 2009-2010 obtained 

from the All India Co-coordinated Maize Improvement 

Programmae, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, 

Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, 

Varanasi. Each entry was planted in two rows of 3 meter length 

row, were spaced 70 cm, a part of plant to plant distance 

within rows was maintained at 20 cm by thinning after 10 days, 

of sowing and observation was recorded on 5 competitive 

randomly selected plant from each plot of each replication. 

The character studied were days to 50 per cent tasseling, 

days to 50 per cent silking, ear height (cm), plant height (cm), 

ear length without husk (cm), ear diameter without husk (cm), 

number of kernel per row, number of kernel row per ear, 1000 

grain weight (g), plant stand at maturity, yield per plant (g), 

yield per plot (g).The replicated data were analysed using D 2 

statistic. The germplasm were grouped on the basis of 

Toucher’s method. 


In the present investigation, the inter-cluster values were 

found greater in magnitude than intra cluster distance 

suggesting the presence of diversity among the clusters 

indicating that genotypes included in the same cluster are 

less divergent than those in different cluster. 

Maximum inter cluster distance was found between 

cluster IV with cluster VII (1528.81). Cluster IV has two 

germplasm lines (HUZM 88, V 994- -27), while cluster VII has 

only one genotype (HKI 1344). High magnitude of genetic 

divergence was observed between clusters IV with cluster 

VIII (1452.372) followed by cluster IV with cluster IX (1384.584) 

and cluster VI with cluster IX (1380.123). The minimum inter 

cluster distance was observed between cluster II with cluster 

V (142.3249) followed by cluster V with cluster VI (155.50). 

The minimum value indicates narrow genetic diversity among 

genotype. The similarity in the base material from which they 

had been evolved might be the cause of genetic uniformity. 

The high magnitude of D 2 values in above case showed that 

genotype in different clusters is genetically more divergent, 

which may provide basis for consideration in hybridization 

programme. Inter-crossing of genotypes from divergent 

groups would lead to greater opportunity for crossing-over, 

which release hidden variability by breaking linkage (Thoday 

1960). The clustering patterns as observed in this study are in 

agreement with observation made by Beyene, 2005, Alom, 

2003, Gautam, 2008, Singh, 2007 and Singh and Choudhari, 

2001. They suggested that differences in intra cluster mean 

could be helpful in isolating the promising genotypes for 

further breeding to enhance the grain yield. The inter cluster 

mean revealed the maximum contribution of characters in 

different groups.


Table 1. 

Clustering pattern of twenty maize inbreds on the basis D 2 analysis 

Cluster No. Number of inbred lines Name of inbred lines 

Cluster-I 7 HUZM 36, HUZM 147, HUZM 368, HUZM 253-1, HUZM 211-1, HKI 193-1, HUZM 47 

Cluster-II 1 HUZM 350-1 

Cluster-III 5 HUZM 253-2, HUZM 343, HUZM 329, HUZM 246, HUZM 175-2 

Cluster-IV 2 HUZM 88,V 994- -27 

Cluster-V 1 HUZM 655 

Cluster-VI 1 V 994- -14 

Cluster-VII 1 HKI 1344 

Cluster-VIII 1 HUZM 356 

Cluster-IX 1 HUZM 53 

Table 2. 

Average inter and intra cluster D square values 

Cluster No. I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX 

I 184.96 278.89 320.7681 383.7681 416.16 672.8836 817.96 612.5625 597.8025 

II 0.00 207.36 625.00 142.3249 197.1216 310.1121 275.2281 696.96 

III 218.7441 772.84 445.6321 648.2116 470.0224 287.6416 406.4256 

IV 119.2464 465.2649 875.5681 1528.81 1452.372 1384.584 

V 0.00 155.5009 658.9489 726.3025 1235.523 

VI 0.00 675.4801 689.0625 1380.123 

VII 0.00 337.8244 889.8289 

VIII 0.00 382.2025 

IX 0.00 

Table 3. 

Character 

Cluster No. 

Cluster mean for 12 characters. 

1000 grain 

weight 

(g) 

Plant stand 

at 

maturity 

Yield per 

plant 

(g) 

Yield per 

plot 

(g) 

I 264.29 22.07 53.57 1213.79 

II 205.00 19.50 61.50 1265.50 

III 266.00 22.30 70.80 1634.00 

IV 307.50 22.50 44.75 1036.50 

V 210.00 23.00 65.00 1526.00 

VI 115.00 21.50 36.50 788.00 

VII 210.00 22.00 81.00 2174.50 

VIII 185.00 15.00 64.00 1086.00 

IX 245.00 23.00 61.00 1424.00 

Intra-cluster values ranged from 0.00 (monogenotypic 

cluster II, cluster V, cluster VI, cluster VII, cluster VIII, cluster 

IX) to 218.7441 (cluster III).Among polygenotypic cluster low 

intra cluster values for cluster II, cluster V, cluster VI, cluster 

VII, cluster VIII, cluster IX indicate narrow genetic diversity 

among constituent genotypes.. Cluster III followed by cluster 

I and cluster IV exhibited more variability than remaining 

cluster. 

A reference to cluster wise mean performance for different 

characters showed that it was high for days to 50 per cent 

tasseling in cluster VIII, days to 50 per cent silking as exhibited 

in cluster VIII, ear height as exhibited in cluster V, plant height 

in cluster IX, plant stands at maturity in cluster V and cluster 

IX, ear length without husk in cluster IX, ear diameter without 

husk in cluster VII, number of kernel per row in cluster V, 

number of kernel row per ear in cluster VII. Cluster VII exhibited 

highest mean value for yield per plot and yield per plant. High 

1000-grain weight exhibited in cluster IV. The germplasm in 

different clusters showing highest mean value may be used in 

hybridization programme. The genotype HKI 1344 had 

maximum yield per plot, number of kernel row per ear, ear 

diameter without husk and yield per plant. Thus, this genotype 

holds great promise as parent to obtain promising hybrids 

and create good reconibinants for these characters. 

Yield per plant (31.58%) followed by 1000-grain weight 

(29.47%), number of kernel row per ear (18.95%), yield per plot 

(14.74%) contributed maximum towards divergence. Based on 

the mean performance for the aforesaid characters of the 

present study, cluster VII genotype (HKI-1344) for yield per 

plot, number of kernel row per ear, ear diameter without husk 

and yield per plant showed high potential for genetic 

upgradation of the genotypes. On the basis of inter cluster 

value and cluster contribution towards D 2 value, there is good 

scope of these genotypes to be utilized in breeding programme. 

Yield per plant, 1000 grain weight, number of kernel row per 

ear, yield per plot has emerged as major contribution towards 

genetic divergence. Thus, these characters are basis for 

consideration in hybridization programme. Based on genetic 

divergence maximum inter cluster distance was observed 

between cluster VII (HKI 1344) and cluster IV (HUZM 88, 

V 994- -27), therefore genotype of these clusters may be used 

in hybridization programme. Results and inferences revealed 

the presence of wide spectrum of exploitable variability in the 

material studied with respect to yield and its components 

characters, projecting thereby, immense scope for upgradation 

in maize. D 2 analysis indicated the importance of yield per 

plant, 1000 grain weight, number of kernel row per ear, yield 

per plot as major components of diversity in the material. 


I am thankful to Department of Genetics and Plant 

Breeding, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu

GUPTA & SINGH, Studies on Genetic Diversity of Certain Inbred Genotypes of Maize (Zea mays L.) at Varanasi 6 5 

University, Varanasi, India for providing me all the facilities to 

carry out the research work. 


Alom, A.K.M.M. 2003. Genetic divergence in maize. Pakistan J. of 

Biological Sci., 6(22): 1910-1911. 

Beyene, Y. 2005. A comparative study of molecular and morphological 

methods of describing genetic relationships in traditional Ethiopian 

highland maize. African Journal of Biotechnology, 4(7): 586-595. 

Gautam, A. S. 2008. Genetic divergence in maize. International Journal 

of Agricultural Sciences, 4(2): 466-468. 

Javid, M. 2002. Estimation of general and specific combining ability 

for grain yield and its component in Zea mays L. diallel cross. UAF, 

Pakistan, pp. 76. 

Lubberstedt, T. 2000. Realtionship among early European maize inbreds: 

IV. Genetic diversity revealed with AFLP markers and comparison 

with RFLP, RAPD and pedigree data. Crop Sci., 40: 783-791. 

Singh, P. K. and Chaudhari, L. B. 2001. Genetic divergence in maize 

(Zea mays L.). Journal of Research, Birsa Agricultural University. 

13(2): 193-195. 

Singh, S.B. 2007. Genetic divergence in exotic inbreds of maize (Zea 

mays L.). Progressive Agriculture. 7(1/2):1-4. 

Thoday, J.M. 1960. Effect of dispertive selection III. Coupling and 

Repulsion. Heredity, 14: 35-39. 

Yee, E.K. 1999. Diversity among selected Vigna angularis (Azuki) 

accessions based on RAPD and AFLP markers. Crop Sci., 39: 191- 

197. 

Recieved on 21.2.2011 Accepted on 17.5.2010



Studies on Treatment of Distillery Effluent and Effect of Different Composts on 

Seed Germination 

ALKA SAGAR, SWAPANIL YADAV AND M.K. SHARMA* 

Department of Biotechnology and Microbiology, G.F. College, Shahjahanpur (U.P.) 242 001 

*Microbiology Laboratory, Dabur India Limited, Ghaziabad (U.P.) 

ABSTRACT 

During sugar and alcohol production, large amounts of waste 

and wastewater are produced. These may have a considerable 

environmental impact by polluting both water bodies and soil, 

by causing an adverse climatic effect and odour. Due to the 

high concentration of organic matter, both distillery waste and 

wastewater at the same time do have a great nutrient and energy 

potential that can be utilized for fertilizing or power generating 

purposes. The water can principally be reused for irrigation 

purposes. Waste also can be used as compost in agriculture. 

Key words 

COD, BOD, biomethanation, UASB reactors, 

composts 

The disposal of waste industrial sources is becoming a 

serious problem throughout the world. All the distillery waste 

water generally contains high concentrations of organic matter 

(COD), TSS and protein, particularly the grain wastewater. 

The distillery spent wash is perceived as one of the serious 

pollution problems of the countries producing alcohol from 

the fermentation and subsequent distillation of sugarcane 

molasses. Microorganisms from two biological kingdoms, the 

Bacteria and the Archaea, carry out the biochemical process 

under strict anaerobic conditions. The Anaerobic digestion 

has become the most commonly used method for the treatment 

of medium- and high-strength effluents, due to the economy 

of the process and the low generation of surplus sludge. The 

UASB reactor is a high-capacity methane bioreactor with a 

sludge bed, or blanket of settled microorganisms through 

which the wastewater flows upwards. The simple design of 

UASB reactors ensures a uniform distribution of incoming 

wastewater around the base of the digester, sufficient cross 

section to prevent excessive biomass entrapment, and 

effective separation of gas, biomass and liquid (Lettinga, et 

al., 1988). Press mud from the sugar mills is very useful source 

of fertilizer as well as some chemicals, the major use that has 

recently been developed in India is in biocomposting where it 

is treated with the spent wash from the distillery. Its usefulness 

as fertilizer is based on nutrient content of press mud and 

spent wash. The present study was carried out to study the 

treatment of distillery effluent with particular references to 

biomethanation, a technology which effectively eliminates 

pollutes while conserving its energy as methane used as a 

fuel for various components and to comparable study of seed 

germination effect on different composts. 


The effluent sample was collected in different time from 

different sources, buffer tank; raw spent wash to study the 

physico-chemical parameters of the water body to know the 

degree of pollution. Effluent sample and water samples were 

brought in the laboratory in air tight plastic cans. Values for 

physico-chemical parameters namely pH, , suspended solid , 

conductivity, alkalinity, total hardness, chloride, calcium and 

magnesium, mixed liquor suspended solid, sludge volume 

index, DO, BOD, COD, were recorded by standard methods of 

APHA, et al., 1975. After isolation and testing of microbial 

strains such as E.coli, S. aureus, Salmonella and P. aeruginosa 

was done. The isolation of bacterial culture used for the 

treatment of distillery waste was done from digester sludge 

by centrifugation. The culture was initially built up in lab at 

distillery site. The cultures were transferred in the ratio of 1:3 

(distilled water +bacterial culture) in the composite spent wash 

medium. The isolation culture performance of spent wash was 

checked for a minimum of ten days. Since performance of the 

culture suddenly improved and produced considerable 

decrease in COD, BOD. The compost was prepared from two 

sources compost-1 (DISTILLERY) and compost-2 (DABUR). 

These two composts were checked for its germinating capacity 

in comparison with the control in which no compost was added. 

Germination was checked in three crops, wheat, gram and 

mung. In total ten seeds from each crop was taken in two 

different compost along with the control in which no compost 

was added. The germination was seen for ten days accordingly 

the observations were taken. Experiment was set in triplicates. 

6n 5n 4n 3n 2n 1n 

GerminatinIndex 

Total Seed Total Day 


The reactor operating temperature was fairly constant 

between 34-36 O C, while the pH in the feed to the reactor was 

controlled in the buffer tank at 6.8-7.0. In diagram (1) 1,2 and 3 

the COD/BOD of the effluent entering the plant and the treated 

COD/BOD values and removal efficiencies are indicated for 

the 60 days analysis respectively. The incoming COD/BOD 

varied considerably through out the observations, while the 

treated COD values were on average lower than 25000-5000mg/ 

l, providing 64%/87% removal efficiency. These comparisons

SAGAR et al., Studies on Treatment of Distillery Effluent and Effect of Different Composts on Seed Germination 6 7 

Table 1. 

Table 2. 

Raw and treated spent wash composition 

Parameter Initial Final 

Temperature 36ºC 36ºC 

COD 90,000 mg/l 25,000 mg/l 

BOD 40,000 mg/l 5000 mg/l 

VFA 200 mg/l 3000 mg/l 

Alkanity NIL 3000 mg/l 

Chloride 3000 mg/l 1500 mg/l 

Potassium 3000 mg/l 1500 mg/l 

Calcium as Ca 1,500 mg/l 800 mg/l 

Sulphate as SO 4 3,000 mg/l 2000 mg/l 

Chlorides as Cl 3,000 mg/l 2,000 mg/l 

Total Nitrogen 2200 mg/l 1200 mg/l 

Total phosphate 1200 mg/l 2600 mg/l 

Suspended solids 1500 mg/l 7,000 mg/l 

Total solids 1,00,000 mg/l 35000 mg/l 

TDS 85000 mg/l 25000 mg/l 

PO 4 1200 mg/l 26000 mg/l 

pH 4.0 7.0 

Comparative analytical data of biodegradation of 

composite spent wash 

Parameter 

Days 

0 2 4 6 8 10 

BOD 34000 28000 20100 11000 3100 1800 

COD 77600 60000 42000 31000 26000 23500 

TSS% 9.74 8.67 5.03 4.25 3.75 3.20 

TDS% 7.74 7.00 5.00 3.38 2.50 2.40 

TN 1064 908 802 600 440 350 

TS 9000 6000 6700 3100 2000 900 

VFA 10400 7080 2000 1000 700 660 

pH 6.6 6.8 6.6 6.8 6.7 6.7 

Table 3. 

Comparative studies of diffrient compost on seed 

germination 

Type 

Different types of seeds 

Wheat Gram Mung 

Control soil 0.7 0.31 0.16 

Composit 1 0.66 0.55 0.8 

Compost 2 0.81 0.75 1.16 

were not well matched with values of 70%/90% COD/BOD 

removal efficiency expected in UASB reactors on distillery 

reported by factory manual. When total nitrogen was 

calculated initially it was 2200mg/l and finally it to be 1200 so 

its 45 % reduction. Similarly when other parameters SO 4 

— 

concentration was checked initially it was calculated 3000mg/ 

l and final concentration was 2000mg/l that showed reduction 

of 25%.In the same way when Cl - was estimated initially it was 

3000mg/l and its final concentration was 2000mg/l .In the same 

way initially pH was seen to 4.0 acidic and final medium turned 

to be alkaline pH of around 7.0.The initial VFA was measured 

200mg/l and final value observation was 3000mg/l.The initial 

Alkanity was nil but the final value was 3000mg/l founded. 

VFA and alkanity ratio about 1:3 was maintained in the digester 

for the proper stabilization. 

The bacterial culture isolated from digester sludge was 

studied for its efficiency to treat the distillery effluent after 

inoculation. The results of biodegradation studies showed 

that for all the inoculum’s volume BOD and COD values and 

other parameter were found decreasing with in 36 hours which 

become constant after 10 days this implied that microbes utilize 

the organic present in the effluent and intermediate metabolite 

which were not further oxidisable was resulted, there by BOD, 

COD values were not further reduced. This isolated bacterial 

culture (digester culture) showed the incoming result for the 

reduction of BOD, COD and other parameters were compared 

to set up value of digester plant. Since performance of the 

culture suddenly improved and produced considerable 

decrease in COD, BOD. The volume of the culture was 

increased up to 4500 mg/lit. It was clear that bacterial culture 

gave better activity at lab stage performance as compared to 

digester performance throughout. Once again the performance 

of the bacterial culture was checked, the culture population 

increased and pollution load decreased to lower value. It may 

be noted from the Table 2 that a final value of BOD/COD were 

1800/23500mg/lit, obtained against a BOD/COD initial mg/lit. 

It is evident from these observations that bacterial culture 

isolated from digester sludge, that performance was fairly good 

as compared to digester regular performance. 

It was estimated the compost 2 was better than compost 

1and control. Germination patten of other crop in different 

compost was more or less some. Germination index was shown 

that highest germination was in compost 2 in mungbean crop, 

it was in followed by gram and wheat. Where as in compost- 

1 highest germination index was seen in mungbean followed 

by wheat and gram. 

From the above studies done in the experiments, it was 

concluded that all the harmful and hazardous chemicals and 

constituents that are present in the effluents needs to be 

purified before disposing them to off to landfill and different 

water bodies. It was also concluded that the important 

byproduct formed during the effluent treatment can be 

collected and used as a fuel. 


APHA, AWWA, WPCF 1989. Standard Methods for the Examination 

of Water and Wastewater. American Public Health Association, 

American Water Works Association and Water Pollution Control 

Federation, Washington, DC. Bal, A.S., Dhagat, N.N., 2001. 

Lettinga, G., de Man, A.W.A., and van der Last, A.R.M. 1988. The use 

of the EGSB and UASB anaerobic systems for low strength soluble 

and complex at temperature ranging from 8 to 30 o C. Proc. of the 

5 th International Symposium on Anaerobic Digestion. Bologna, Italy. 

ER Hall and PN Hobson, pp. 197-208. 




Assessment of Allelopathic Aggression of Parthenium hysterophorus L. on Seed 

Germination and Seedling Growth of Some Important Cereals 

H.P. PANDEY*, A.K. RAZA** AND S.K. CHAUHAN*** 

*Department of Botany, ISD College, University of Allahabad, Allahabad 

**Department of Zoology, NGB University, Jamunipur, Kotwa, Allahabad 

***Centre of Food Technology, University of Allahabad, Allahabad 

e-mail: hp.pandey.bps@gmail.com 

ABSTRACT 

Parthenium hysterophorus L. (family Asteraceae) is an exotic, 

annual, herbaceous weed, allelopathic aggressions cause 

suppression of natural vegetation and severely affect the crop 

plants posing a strong threat to biodiversity and crop production. 

This paper embodies results of the allelopathic effects of aqueous 

extract of leaves of Parthenium hysterophorus on seed germination 

and seedling growth of five cereal crops of India viz. Triticum 

aestivum L., Oryza sativa L., Hordeum vulgare L., Avena sativa L. 

and Zea mays L. It has been found that the leaf extract shows 

complete failure of seed germination at 8% in Triticum aestivum; 

at 10% in Oryza sativa; at 12% in Hordeum vulgare and Avena 

sativa. However, the seed germination of Zea mays was not 

completely inhibited but it was low at high concentrations of 

the extract. The extract had strong inhibitory effect on the root 

and shoot elongation and significant reduction in dry weight of 

seedling over control. 

Key words 

Allelopathy, cereals, parthenium hysterophorus 

Parthenium hysterophorus is an erect annual herb and 

it is a native of tropical America and was introduced into Africa, 

Asia and Oceania in cereal and grass seed shipments from 

U.S.A. during the 1950s. Now it is widely spread in grasslands, 

orchards and arable land in neutral and acid soils. In India, the 

weed is considered to be a major problem (Gupta and Sharma, 

1977; Shelke, 1984). 

Allelopathic interference is one of the important 

mechanisms for the successful establishment of invasive exotic 

weeds (Ridenour and Callaway, 2001). This paper embodies 

the experimental observations and analytical results of the 

allelopathic aggression of aqueous extract of leaves of P. 

hysterophorus on seed germination and seedling growth of 

five cereal crops of India viz. Triticum aestivum L. (Wheat), 

Oryza sativa L.(Rice), Hordeum vulgare L.(Barley), Avena 

sativa L. (Oat) and Zea mays L.(Maize). 


Fresh leaves of mature and healthy plants of P. 

hysterophorus were collected from roadside fallow farmland 

of district Allahabad of U.P. state and dried in shade for ten 

days. The shade dried leaves were stored in air tight plastic 

containers at room temperature (25ºC) prior to use for 

experiments. For the preparation of stock solution 10 grams 

of air-shade dried leaves of P. hysterophorus was thoroughly 

grounded, mixed with 100 ml of distilled water and left for 24 h 

in dark at the room temperature (average 25ºC). The mixture 

was filtered and the final volume was raised to 100 ml; this 

gave 10% aqueous extract. The extract was considered as 

stock solution and a series of solution with different dilution 

strengths (2, 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12%) were prepared. 

One hundred uniform and surface sterilized seeds (2% 

sodium hypochlorite for 15 min) of Triticum aestivum L., Oryza 

sativa L. Hordeum vulgare L., Avena sativa L. and Zea mays 

L. were kept for germination in sterilized petridishes lined 

double with blotting paper and moistened with 10 ml of 

different concentrations of aqueous extracts (2% to 12%). 

Each treatment had three replicates. One treatment for each 

test (in three replicates) was run as control with distilled water 

only. The petridishes were maintained under laboratory 

conditions (average temperature 25 ° C and diffused light during 

day) for one week. Equal volume of distilled water was added 

to dishes for maintaining moisture content of the blotting 

paper. After one week, the number of germinated seeds were 

counted and, the root and shoot length were measured. All 

root and shoot from each petridish were cut separately and 

oven dried at 70 o C for 48 h to get dry weight of root and 

shoot; total seedling biomass of seedling was calculated as 

the sum of biomass of root and shoot. 


The allelopathic aggression of different concentrations 

of aqueous extract of leaves of P. hysterophorus on seed 

germination of five cereal crops viz. T. aestivum L., O. sativa 

L., H. vulgare L., A. sativa L. and Z. mays L. were studied and 

it was observed that the leaf extracts exert strong inhibitory 

effect on seed germination exhibiting complete failure of seed 

germination at 8% in T. aestivum; at 10% in O. sativa; at 12% 

in H. vulgare and A. sativa. However, the seed germination of 

Z. mays was not completely inhibited but it was very low at 

high concentrations of the extract (Fig. 3). 

The extracts also had strong inhibitory effect on the 

seedling growth such as root and shoot elongation as well as

PANDEY et al., Assessment of Allelopathic Aggression of Parthenium hysterophorus L. on Seed Germination and Seedling 6 9 

significant reduction in dry weight of seedling over control. 

Among the cereal species there was highest reduction in the 

root and shoot length of T. aestivum. The results also showed 

the significant differences in the root length of O. sativa at 2 

- 8%; in H. vulgare and A. sativa at 2-10% from that of control. 

The root length of T. aestivum at 6% and 2% were significantly 

different from that of control. Whereas in Z. mays, the root 

length at 4 - 12% was different from that of control. 

The shoot length in T. aestivum at 6 - 2%; in O. sativa at 

2 - 8%; in H. vulgare and A. sativa at 2-10% were significantly 

different from that of control. However, in Z. mays, shoot length 

at 4 - 12% was different from that of control. 

The sum total of root and shoot dry weight of seedlings 

of T. aestivum, O. sativa, H. vulgare and A. sativa were found 

to show gradual reduction along with the increasing 

concentrations in treatments. However, the shoot and root 

dry weight of Z. mays seedlings were found to be the highest 

(Figs. 2, 3). Further, the shoot dry weight of Z. mays exhibited 

lesser degree of reduction as compared to its root dry weight 

even at higher concentrations of treatment (Fig. 3). 

The inhibitory effect of P. hysterophorus on seed 

germination and seedling growth of different plant species is 

due to presence of growth inhibitors (allelochemicals) in the 

extracts. Rajan, 1973 and Kanchan, 1975 were the first to report 

the presence of plant growth inhibitors in P. hysterophorus. 

This plant releases a number of water soluble allelochemicals 

such as phenolic acid and sesquiterpene lactones, particularly 

parthenin (Kanchan, 1975; Swaminathan, et al., 1990; Stephen 

and Sowerby, 1996). Phenolics found in leaves also have 

inhibitory effects on growth of nitrogen fixing and nitrifying 

bacteria (Kanchan and Jayachandra, 1981). 

The study demonstrated that leaf aqueous extracts of P. 

hysterophorus exhibited significant inhibitory effects on seed 

germination and seedling growth of all test species (Figs. 3, 

4). Earlier works have also reported that foliar leachates of P. 

hysterophorus reduced root and shoot elongation of Oryza 

sativa and wheat (Singh and Sangeeta, 1991), maize and 

soybeans (Bhatt, et al., 1994). This indicates the availability 

of the inhibitory chemicals in higher concentration in leaves 

than in stem and roots (Kanchan and Jayachandra, 1980). 

Since, P. hysterophorus is not being used for any 

domestic or commercial purpose in India therefore, this plant 

may become a high risk posed invasive species in near future. 

Present results exhibited that concentrated aqueous extract 

of leaves of P. hysterophorus inhibited seed germination and 

seedling growth of major cereals. 

Based on the results of the allelopathic aggression of 

aqueous extract of leaves of P. hysterophorus on seed 

germination and seedling growth of five cereal crops of India, 

it has been found that the leaf extract depicts complete failure 

of seed germination at 8% in T. aestivum; at 10% in O. sativa; 

at 12% in H. vulgare and A. sativa. However, the seed 

germination of Zea mays was not completely inhibited but it 

was quite low at high concentrations of the extract. The extract 

induced strong inhibitory effect on the root and shoot 

elongation and significant reduction in dry weight of seedling 

over control. The findings exhibit the future potential hazards 

of P. hysterophorus to cereal crops if its growth monstrosity 

remains unmanaged. 

Fig. 2. 

Effect of P. hysterophorus leaf extract on reduction of 

root biomass of seedlings 

Fig. 1. 

Effect of P. hysterophorus leaf extracts on seed 

germination 

Fig. 3. 

Effect of P. hysterophorus leaf extract on reduction of 

shoot biomass of seedlings



First author thankfully acknowledges University Grants 

Commission (UGC), New Delhi for financial support to 

successfully conduct this investigative work. 


Bhatt, B.P., Chauhan, D.S. and Todaria, N.P. 1994. Effect of weed 

leachates on germination and radicle extension of some food crops. 

Indian Journal of Plant Physiology, 37: 177-179. 

Gupta, O.P. and Sharma, J.J. 1977. El peligro del partenium en la India 

y posibles medidas de control del mismo. Boletin Fitosanitario 

FAO, 25:112-117. 

Kanchan, S.D. and Jayachandra. 1981. Effects of Parthenium 

hysterophorus on nitrogen-fixing and nitrifying bacteria. Canadian 

Journal of Botany, 59: 199-202. 

Kanchan, S.D. 1975. Growth inhibitors from Parthenium hysterophorus. 

Current Science, 44: 358-359. 

Rajan, L. 1973. Growth inhibitors from Parthenium hysterophorus L. 

Current Science, 42(20): 729-730. 

Ridenour, W.M. and Callaway, R.M. 2001. The relative importance of 

allelopathy in terference: the effects of invasive weed on native 

bunchgrass. Oecologica, 126: 444-450. 

Shelke D.K. 1984. Parthenium and its control - a review. Pesticides 18: 

51-54. 

Singh, S.P. and Sangeeta. 1991. Allelopathic potential of Parthenium 

hysterophorus L. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science, 167: 

201-206. 

Stephen, W.A. and Sowerby, M.S. 1996. Allelopathic potential of the 

weed, Parthenium hysterophorus L. in Australia. Plant Protection 

Quarterly, 11: 20-23. 

Swaminathan, C., Rai, R.S.V. and Sureshi, K.K. 1990. Allelopathic 

effects of Parthenium hysterophorus L. on germination and seedling 

growth of a few multipurpose trees and arable crops. The 

International Tree Crops Journal, 6: 143-150. 



Integrated Disease Management of Stem Rot of Vanilla 

B. GANGADHARA NAIK, MUHAMMAD SAIFULLA, P.S. PRASAD AND B. MANJUNATH 

Department of Plant Pathology, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore 560 065, Karnataka 

e-mail: saifullasaifulla@rediffmail.com 

ABSTRACT 

Stem rot disease caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vanillae is 

a serious constraint in the successful cultivation of vanilla. 

Management of the disease is possible to a limited extent, 

through bio-control agents and fungicides. Among the treatment 

combinations, Trichoderma harzianum (2g/pl) + carbendazim 

(0.1%), T. harzianum + cymoxanil and mancozeb (0.2%) and T. 

harzianum + hexaconazole (0.2%) showed 100 per cent survival 

of plants up to 120 days after treatment imposition followed by 

hexzol and T. harzianum combination with 77.77 per cent survival 

of plants was observed both in pot and field conditions. However, 

the maximum population of 209 × 10 -4 cfu g -1 of dry soil was 

recorded in control, whereas least population of 47.3 × 10 -4 cfu 

g -1 of soil was recorded in T. harzianum + carbendazim after 90 

days of planting. 

Key words 

Stem rot, biocontrol, fungicides, colony forming unit 

Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia Andrews) is a climbing 

terrestrial orchid. Warm humid tropic conditions are suitable 

for its cultivation. It is the second most expensive flavouring 

spice after saffron. The United States is the biggest consumer 

of vanilla followed by Germany, France, Canada, Australia and 

Japan. It is an example of one of the few contributions of the 

Western Hemisphere to the world of spices (Kumar, 2004). 

Among the few pathogens causing diseases in vanilla, 

Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. vanillae is the most important 

pathogen posing a serious threat for its successful cultivation. 

Field control of this disease is possible to a limited extent, 

with the help of bio-control agents and fungicides. This 

warrants for an integrated disease management module, 

comprising biocontrol agents like Trichoderma species and 

bacteria. Application of organic amendments to soil to stimulate 

native antagonists and chemical control methods help 

enormously in enhancing crop growth and disease 

management. (Joseph Thomas and Susheela Bhai, 2000). 


A pot culture study using CRD design was conducted 

to manage stem rot disease caused by F. oxysporum f.sp. 

vanillae, using neem cake @ 100 g per plant, T. harzianum (2g 

pure culture mixed with 500g of FYM), Pseudomonas 

fluorescens, Bacillus subtilis and fungicides viz., iprodione 

25% + carbendazim 25% wp, cymoxanil 18% + mancozeb 63% 

wp, difenconazole 25% EC, hexaconazole 5% EC, and Bordeaux 

mixture (1%) were tested alone and in combination with T. 

harzianum. A comparison was made with carbendazim 50% 

wp an effective fungicide which is presently used against 

Fusarium wilts and a check. The data on per cent incidence 

stem rot was statistically analyzed. 

T. harzianum, alone and in combination with fungicides 

was added to the pots containing F. oxysporum f.sp. vanillae 

infested soil 15 days in advance and soil was drenched with 

P. fluorescens and B. subtilis. Control was maintained by 

planting vanilla cutting in infested soil without any treatment. 

One cutting was planted in each pot (30cm diameter) and six 

replications were maintained. Observations on stem rot 

incidence were recorded at 30 days interval starting from 30 

days to 120 days after the treatments. 

A field study was conducted during kharif 2005 and 

summer 2006 in RCBD method in a vanilla garden which was 

highly infested with Fusarium stem rot to assess the efficacy 

of eighteen different treatments. The treatments included were 

neem cake, bioagents and fungicides alone and in 

combinations with T. harzianum viz., iprodione 25% + 

carbendazim 25% wp (0.2%), cymoxanil 18% + mancozeb 63% 

wp (0.2%), difenconazole 25% EC (0.15%), hexaconazole 5% 

EC (0.2%) and Bordeaux mixture in comparison with inoculated 

check plant (Table 1). Carbendazim was used as a chemical 

check. Initial population of the test pathogen was enumerated 

before the experiment and the untreated plants were 

maintained as check. Nine replications were maintained for 

each treatment. Initially, field survey was carried out to select 

stem rot infected plants in the garden followed by uprooting 

of infected plants and application of bioagents as described 

earlier. Later 3-4 month old disease free healthy cuttings were 

planted at the same spot from where the infected plants were 

uprooted. The plants were applied with 100 g neem cake and 

other biocontrol agents as mentioned earlier and later two 

litres of required fungicides were drenched in to the soil at the 

time of planting. Subsequently, observations were recorded 

at 30 days interval from the date of planting until 120 days of 

treatment about stem rot incidence and data were statistically 

analyzed. 


The data on per cent stem rot incidence in vanilla during 

pot culture studies are presented in Table 1 and 2. 

Efficacy of biocontrol agents, neem cake and various 

fungicides alone and in combination with T. harzianum in pot


culture and field studies revealed that, T. harzianum, P. 

fluorescens and B. subtilis, effectively reduced the disease 

incidence and enhanced better survival of vanilla plants. 

Among the treatments evaluated combination of T. harzianum 

+ neem cake (T 5 

) effectively managed the disease and 

influenced the better survival vanilla plants. It is further 

supported by the fact that, antagonistic microorganisms 

isolated from the rhizosphere of wilted plants were highly 

effective in suppressing the population of F. udum as 

evidenced by Upadhyay and Rai, 1987 and Vastrad, 1994. The 

antibiosis of P. fluorescence is mainly attributed for its 

siderophore producing ability (Weller, 1988). However, among 

the treatment combinations, T. harzianum + cabendazim (T 9 

), 

T. harzianum + cymoxanil and mancozeb (T 7 

) and T. harzianum 

+ hexaconazole (T 17 

) showed 100 per cent survival of plants 

up to 120 days after treatment imposition. The above findings 

are in confirmation with the findings of Sakthivel, et al., 1986 

Table 1. 

Effect of different management practices on stem rot incidence in Vanilla (Poly house) 

Tr. No 

Treatment 

Period (Days after treatment) 

30 DAT 60 DAT 90 DAT 120 DAT 

T 1 Trichoderma harzianum(2g/pot)* 0.00(0.33) 50.00(45.00) 83.34(65.96) 100.00(89.67) 

T 2 Pseudomonas fluorescens(10ml/pot)** 33.34(35.30) 66.67(54.76) 100.00(89.67) 100.00(89.67) 

T 3 Bacillus subtilis(10ml/pot)** 16.67(24.12) 66.67(54.76) 100.00(89.67) 100.00(89.67) 

T 4 Neem cake (100 g) 50.00(45.00) 83.34(65.76) 100.00(89.67) 100.00(89.67) 

T 5 T.harzianum+Neem cake 0.00(0.33) 16.67(24.12) 50.00(45.00) 66.67(54.76) 

T 6 Cymoxinil + Mancozeb (0.2%) 0.00(0.33) 33.34(35.30) 50.00(45.00) 66.67(54.76) 

T 7 Cymoxinil + Mancozeb (0.2%)+ T.harzianum 0.00(0.33) 0.00(0.33) 0.00(0.33) 0.00(0.33) 

T 8 Carbendazim (0.1%) 0.00(0.33) 16.67(24.12) 33.34(35.30) 50.00(45.00) 

T 9 Carbendazim (0.1%) + T.harzianum 0.00(0.33) 0.00(0.33) 0.00(0.33) 0.00(0.33) 

T 10 Bordeaux Mixture (1%) 0.00(0.33) 33.34(35.30) 66.67(54.76) 83.34(65.96) 

T 11 Bordeaux Mixture (1%) + T.harzianum 0.00(0.33) 16.67(24.12) 50.00(45.00) 50.00(45.00) 

T 12 Iprodione + Carbendazim (0.2%) 0.00(0.33) 33.34(35.30) 50.00(45.00) 66.67(54.76) 

T 13 Iprodione + Carbendazim (0.2%) + T.harzianum 0.00(0.33) 0.00(0.33) 33.34(35.30) 33.34(35.30) 

T 14 Difenconazole (0.1%) 0.00(0.33) 16.67(24.12) 50.00(45.00) 83.34(65.96) 

T 15 Difenconazole (0.1%) + T.harzianum 0.00(0.33) 0.00(0.33) 16.67(24.12) 33.34(35.30) 

T 16 Hexaconazole (0.2%) 0.00(0.33) 16.67(24.12) 50.00(45.00) 66.67(54.76) 

T 17 Hexaconazole (0.2%) + T.harzianum 0.00(0.33) 0.00(0.33) 0.00(0.33) 0.00(0.33) 

T 18 Control 66.67(54.76) 100.00(89.67) 100.00(89.67) 100.00(89.67) 

SEm ± 4.44 14.38 15.13 14.21 

CD @ 0.01 18.08 58.60 61.66 57.90 

Figures in the parenthesis indicates the arc-sine transformed values *indicates pure culture **indicates stock solution 

Table 2. 

*indicates pure culture 

Efficacy of various treatments on the population dynamics of Fusarium oxysporum 

Tr. No. Treatments Initial 

population 

F.oxysporum f.sp.vanillae population (cfu g -1 of dry soil x 10 -4 ) 

Days after treatment 

30 60 90 Mean 

T 1 Trichoderma harzianum (2g/pot)* 168.4 74.0 83.3 89.0 82.1 

T 2 Pseudomonas fluorescens(10ml/pot)** 168.4 80.0 91.3 99.0 90.1 

T 3 Bacillus subtilis(10ml/pot)** 168.4 84.0 97.0 105.3 95.4 

T 4 Neem cake (100 g) 168.4 166.3 187.0 199.3 184.2 

T 5 T.harzianum+Neem cake 168.4 65.0 71.0 75.0 70.3 

T 6 Cymoxinil + Mancozeb (0.2%) 168.4 67.0 73.0 77.0 72.3 

T 7 Cymoxinil + Mancozeb (0.2%)+ T.harzianum(2g/pot)* 168.4 46.3 44.3 49.0 46.5 

T 8 Carbendazim (0.1%) 168.4 55.3 64.7 68.6 62.9 

T 9 Carbendazim (0.1%) + T.harzianum (2g/pot)* 168.4 38.6 42.3 47.3 42.7 

T 10 Bordeaux Mixture (1%) 168.4 64.3 71.0 79.3 71.5 

T 11 Bordeaux Mixture (1%) + T.harzianum(2g/pot)* 168.4 47.0 51.3 56.7 51.7 

T 12 Iprodione + Carbendazim (0.2%) 168.4 71.6 81.7 84.3 79.3 

T 13 Iprodione + Carbendazim (0.2%) + T.harzianum (2g/pot)* 168.4 48.0 57.3 63.3 56.2 

T 14 Difenconazole (0.1%) 168.4 71.0 74.3 80.3 75.2 

T 15 Difenconazole (0.1%) + T.harzianum(2g/pot)* 168.4 45.3 54.0 61.3 53.5 

T 16 Hexaconazole (0.2%) 168.4 62.6 68.7 74.0 68.4 

T 17 Hexaconazole (0.2%) + T.harzianum(2g/pot)* 168.4 42.6 40.3 48.3 43.7 

T 18 Control 168.4 181.6 197.7 209.0 193.1 

SEm ± NS 0.69 0.73 0.68 

CD@0.01 

2.06 2.20 2.03 

**indicates stock solution

NAIK et al., Integrated Disease Management of Stem Rot of Vanilla 7 3 

and Dahiya, et al., 1988. 

During the present study, on the efficacy of biocontrol 

agents, neemcake and various fungicides alone and in 

combination with T. harzianum with reference to population 

dynamics of F.oxysporum f. sp. vanillae. All the treatments 

had an inhibitory effect on the population dynamics of the 

pathogen. The maximum population of 209 × 10 -4 cfu g -1 of dry 

soil was recorded in control (T 18 

) whereas least population of 

47.3 × 10 -4 cfu g -1 of soil was recorded in T. harzianum + 

carbendazim (T 9 

) after 90 days of planting. However, the 

population of F. oxysporum f. sp. vanillae in T. harzianum + 

P. fluorescens treatment reduced drastically during the course 

of investigation and was on par with chemical control. 

The studies on stem rot incidence in vanilla plants in F. 

Table 3. Effect of different treatments on stem rot incidence in Vanilla during field studies (Kharif 2005) 

Tr. No. 

Treatment 

Stem rot incidence (%) 


30DAT 60DAT 90 DAT 120DAT 

T 1 Trichoderma harzianum (2g/pl)* 11.12(10.25) 33.34(30.11) 77.78(69.81) 88.89(79.74) 

T 2 Pseudomonas fluorescens (10ml/pl)** 33.34(30.14) 55.56(49.96) 100.00(89.67) 100.00(89.67) 

T 3 Bacillus subtilis (10ml/pl)** 22.23(20.13) 33.34(30.11) 66.67(59.89) 100.00(89.67) 

T 4 Neem cake (100 g/ pl) 44.45(40.03) 66.67(59.89) 100.00(89.67) 100.00(89.67) 

T 5 T.harzianum + Neem cake 0.00(0.33) 22.23(20.13) 44.45(40.03) 66.67(59.89) 


T 7 Cymoxinil + Mancozeb (0.2%) + T.harzianum (2g/pl)* 0.00(0.33) 0.00(0.33) 11.12(10.25) 11.12(10.25) 

T 8 Carbendazim (0.1%) 0.00(0.33) 0.00(0.33) 22.23(20.13) 44.45(40.03) 

T 9 Carbendazim (0.1%) + T.harzianum (2g/pl)* 0.00(0.33) 0.00(0.33) 0.00(0.33) 0.00(0.33) 


T 11 Bordeaux Mixture (1%) + T.harzianum (2g/pl)* 0.00(0.33) 0.00(0.33) 22.23(20.13) 33.34(30.11) 


T 13 Iprodione + Carbendazim (0.2%) + T.harzianum (2g/pl)* 0.00(0.33) 0.00(0.33) 22.23(20.13) 44.45(40.03) 


T 15 Difenconazole (0.1%) + T.harzianum (2g/pl)* 0.00(0.33) 0.00(0.33) 22.23(20.13) 55.56(49.96) 


T 17 Hexaconazole (0.2%) + T.harzianum (2g/pl)* 0.00(0.33) 0.00(0.33) 22.23(20.13) 33.34(30.11) 

T 18 Control 55.56(49.96) 88.89(79.74) 100.00(89.67) 100.00(89.67) 

SEm ± 7.37 7.38 9.50 9.15 

CD@0.05 20.61 20.64 26.57 25.58 

Values in the parenthesis indicates the Arc-sine transformed values *indicates pure culture **indicates stock solution 

Table 4. 

Effect of different treatments on stem rot incidence in Vanilla during field studies (Summer-2006) 

Tr. No. 

Treatment 

Stem rot incidence (%) 


30 DAT 60 DAT 90 DAT 120 DAT 

T 1 Trichoderma harzianum (2g/pl)* 0.00(0.33) 44.45(40.03) 88.89 (79.74) 100.00(89.67) 

T 2 Pseudomonas fluorescens (10ml/pl)** 22.23(20.13) 55.56(49.96) 100.00(89.67) 100.00(89.67) 

T 3 Bacillus subtilis (10ml/pot)** 33.34(30.11) 66.67(59.89) 100.00(89.67) 100.00(89.67) 

T 4 Neem cake (100g/Pl) 44.45(40.03) 100.00(89.67) 100.00(89.67) 100.00(89.67) 

T 5 T.harzianum+Neem cake 0.00(0.33) 22.23(20.13) 55.56(49.96) 77.78(69.81) 


T 7 Cymoxinil + Mancozeb (0.2%)+ T.harzianum (2g/pl)* 0.00(0.33) 0.00(0.33) 11.12(10.25) 22.23(20.13) 

T 8 Carbendazim (0.1%) 0.00(0.33) 0.00(0.33) 33.34(30.11) 55.56(49.96) 

T 9 Carbendazim (0.1%) + T.harzianum (2g/pl)* 0.00(0.33) 0.00(0.33) 0.00(0.33) 11.12(10.25) 


T 11 Bordeaux Mixture (1%) + T.harzianum (2g/pl)* 0.00(0.33) 0.00(0.33) 22.23(20.13) 44.45(40.03) 


T 13 Iprodione + Carbendazim (0.2%) + T.harzianum (2g/pl)* 0.00(0.33) 11.12(10.25) 44.45(40.03) 66.67(59.89) 


T 15 Difenconazole (0.1%) + T.harzianum (2g/pl)* 0.00(0.33) 0.00(0.33) 33.34(30.11) 55.56(49.96) 


T 17 Hexaconazole (0.2%) + T.harzianum (2g/pl)* 0.00(0.33) 0.00(0.33) 11.12(10.25) 11.12(10.25) 

T 18 Control 44.45(40.03) 100.00(89.67) 100.00(89.67) 100.00(89.67) 

SEm ± 6.69 8.85 9.19 9.04 

CD@0.05 18.72 24.76 25.69 25.30 

Values in the parenthesis indicates the arc-sine transformed values *indicates pure culture **indicates stock solution


oxysporum f. sp. vanillae infested soil under field studies 

during kharif 2005 and 2006 summer revealed that combination 

of T. harzianum + carbendazim (T 9 

), T. harzianum with 

cymoxanil + mancozeb (T 7 

) ensured 100 per cent survival of 

plants upto 120 days of treatment followed by hexzol and T. 

harzianum combination (T 17 

) with 77.77% survival of plants. 

However combination of neem cake + T. harzianum (T 5 

) 

effectively reduced the disease incidence and enhanced better 

survival of plants compared to other combination treatments 

of biocontrol agents (Table 3 and 4). 

The results were in confirmation with the findings of El- 

Deeb, et al., 2003 who showed efficacy of fungicides and 

alternative compounds on root and pod rots in peanut. 

Whereas Bhat and Srivastava, 2003 showed the efficacy of 

fungicides and neem formulations against six soil-borne 

pathogens. 


Bhat, N.M. and Srivastava, L.S., 2003. Evalvation of some fungicides 

and neem formulations against six soil borne pathogens and three 

Trichoderma spp. in-vitro. Pl. Dis. Res., 18(1): 56-59. 

Dahiya, J.S., Woods, D.L. and Tiwari, J.P., 1988. Control of Rhizoctonia 

solani, causal agent of brown girdling root rot of rape seed by 

Pseudomonas fluorescens. Bot. Bull. Indian Acad. Sci., 29: 135- 

141. 

El-Deeb, A.A., Abdel-Momen, S.M. and Hanifi, A.A., 2003. Effect of 

some fungicides and alternative compounds on root and pod rots in 

peanuts. J. Mycol. Pl. Pathol, 33(1): 71-82. 

Joseph Thomas and Susheela Bhai, R., 2000. Sclerotium rot – a new 

disease of vanilla (Vanilla planifolia Andrews). J.f. spices Aromatic 

Crops, 9(2): 175-176. 

Kumar, A. S., 2004. Vanilla cultivation: A profitable agri-based enterprise. 

In: Kerala Calling. 26-30. 

Kuruvalla, K. M., Vadivel, V. Radhakrishnan, V.V. and Madhusoodanan, 

K.J., 2004. Crop improvement programmes on vanilla. pp 39-44, 

March, Spice India. 

Sakthivel, N., Sivamani, E., Annamalai, N. and Gnanamanickam, S.S., 

1986. Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria in enhancing plant 

and suppressing plant pathogens. Curr. Sci., 55: 2-25. 

Upadhyay, R.S. and Rai, B., 1987. Studies on antagonism between 

Fusarium udum Butler and root region microflora of Pigeonpea. 

Plant Soil, 101: 79-93. 

Vastrad, S.M., 1994. Studies on Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan (L) Millsp.) 

wilt (Fusarium udum Butler.) in Karnataka, M.Sc., (Agri) thesis, 

Univ. Agri. Sci., Dharwad, pp.81. 

Weller, D., 1988. Biological control of soil borne plant pathogens in 

the rhizosphere with bacteria. Ann. Rev. Phytopath., 26: 379-407. 



Influence of Various Natural Indigenous Plant Products against Trogoderma 

granarium Everts on Wheat 

RAJNI DUBEY, S.P. SRIVASTAVA, B.S. AZAD, S.K. SINGH* ALOK PANDEY AND RAJNISH KUMAR 

Department of Zoology, D.A.V. College, Kanpur 

*Division of Crop Protection, Indian Institute of Pulses Research Kalyanpur, Kanpur 

ABSTRACT 

Natural indigenous plant products viz., Melia azadarch, Linum 

usitatissimum, Cyperus rotundus, Ocimum americanum, Sussia 

occidentalis, Datura stramonium, Azadirachta indica and 

Carthamus tincotorius were tested against Trogoderma granarium 

to see its growth and development behaviour i.e., fecundity 

(22.67 to 5.13 eggs), incubation period (9.33 to 6.67) day, larval 

period (18.67 to 25.33 days), pupation (%) (19.33 to 36.67%), 

pupal duration (12.00 to 13.30 days), grain damage (4.67 to 

30.67%) and eventually grain weight loss (1.86% to 23.33%). 

All the grain protectants protected the grain from T. granarium 

significantly in comparison to untreated check. 

Key words 

Plant products, fecundity, larval period, grain damage 

Post harvest losses of food grain due to insect pests are 

of vital significance in view of nutritional and economic burden 

to subsistence farmers in developing countries. Insect pest in 

storage cause qualitative and quantitative losses (Kudachi 

and Bahkai 2010). Growing awareness of environmental 

hazards due to synthetic chemicals has attracted attention 

towards pesticides of plant origin. The plants having 

insectisidal and other activities gained attention in the last 

few decades. Earlier attempts have been made to exploit plant 

materials against stored grain pests by various workers 

(Mishra, et al., 1992, Paneru, et al., 1997 and Kudachi and 

Bahkai, 2010); however, it needs further investigation. Efforts 

are being continued and prioritized to safe measures for stored 

pest control, and to identify bio-products as alternatives and 

feasible measures against hazardous chemicals. Considering 

this, investigations were made to find out the efficacy of 

different botanicals for the management of khapra beetle, 

Trogoderma granarium during storage. 


Seeds of (Bankain) Dharek (M. azadarch), linseed (L. 

usitatissimum), Nagarmotha (C. rotundus), Kali tulsi leaves 

(O. americanum), Kasundi seed (S. occidentalis), Datura 

seed (D. stramonium), neem oil and seed (A. indica), safflower 

oil (C. tincotorius) were collected and dried in shade. The 

fully dried plant materials of each plant were powdered with 

the help of common domestic grinder and filtered with 60- 

mesh sieve. The grounded powders were kept in to labled 

airtight bottles for use in the experiments. 

Various plant products were thoroughly mixed separately 

with seed of susceptible wheat GW 1139 @ 10 and 5 ml/kg 

grain of powder and oil, respectively, in cylindrical jars by 

manual shaking. Sub samples infested with 10 pairs of 24- 

hours old T. granarium resulted pupal period of 12.76 and 

12.67 days in C. rotundus and O. americanum, respectively, 

as against 12.16 days in control. 


The female laid minimum numbers of eggs (22.67) on 

grain treated with A. indica., Maximum fecundity of the pest 

was observed on grains treated with Linum usitatissimum 

(51.33 eggs). Highest incubation period (9.33 days) was 

noticed in grains treated with A. indica, Minimum incubation 

period registered on grains smeared with L. usitatissimum 

(6.67 days). The data depicted in Table 1 indicated that the 

hatchability per cent of the pest was minimum (27.50) in treated 

with A. indica seed, while the maximum hatchability per cent 

(52.33%) in treated with L. usitatissimum. These findings are 

in conformity with the results of Verma, et. al. 1983. Chander 

and Ahmed, 1987 also recorded different essential oil as 

reproduction retardant against rice weevil. Present finding is 

also in agreement with the result of Helson, et al., 1996, who 

have also reported neem seed extract for the management of 

insect pest. 

The maximum larval period (25.33 days) of the pest was 

observed in A. indica treated seeds, while it was minimum 

(18.67 days) in L. usitatissimum treated seeds. Pupation was 

highest (36.67%) in A. indica, which is at par with A. indica oil 

treatment, while it was minimum (19.33%) in L. usitatissimum 

treatment. The grain treated with different plant products 

affected the pupal period of the pest. Highest pupal period 

(13.30 days) was in S. occidentalis. The minimum pupal period 

(12.00 days) was recorded in L. usitatissimum. 

The minimum emergence (7.00%) of adults was observed 

in the grain treated A. indica while the maximum emergence 

(27.33) was recorded in L. usitatissimum. The present finding 

also corroborates the result of Jood, et al., 1996 who reported 

that neem seed kernel powder (1%) and (2%) (w/w) completely 

prevented the damage caused in sorghum grain by larvae of 

Khapra beetles. The data recorded for F 1 

progeny presented 

in Table 1 further revealed that all the botanical protectants 

protected the grains from T. granarium significantly in


Table 1. 

S. 

No. 

Treatment 

Efficacy of some plant products against Trogoderma granarium everts 

Common 

name 

Parts 

used 

Dosages 

Kg/grain 

Figures in parentheses are transformed value. 

Fecundity 

(%) 

Incubation 

period 

(days) 

Hatchability 

(%) 

Larval 

period 

(days) 

Pupation 

(%) 

1. Melia 

azadarch. 

Bankain 

Dharek 

Seed 

Power 

10 gm. 38.33 8.00 46.67 

(43.11) 

21.76 29.67 

(33.02) 

2. Linum Linseed Seed 10 gm. 51.33 6.67 52.33 18.67 19.33 

usitatissimum (Alsi) and Oil 

(46.32) 

(26.06) 

3. Cyperus Nagarmotha Powder 10 gm. 38.00 8.17 39.00 22.33 34.33 

rotundus 

(88.65) 

(35.85) 

4. Ocimum Kali Tulsi Leaves 10 gm. 39.33 7.60 49.33 21.33 26.33 

americanum 

(44.60) 

(31.50) 

5. Sussia Kasundi Seed 10 gm. 31.67 8.20 31.00 22.43 36.00 

occidentalis 

(33.83) 

(36.87) 

6. Datura Datura Seed 10 gm. 44.00 7.46 50.66 21.00 25.33 

stramonium (Dhatura) 

(45.34) 

(30.20) 

7. Azadirchta Neem Oil Leaves 1.5 ml. 23.33 8.73 27.76 24.00 36.33 

indica 

Powder 

(31.76) 

(37.05) 

8. Azadirchta Neem (Seed) Leaves 1.5 ml. 22.67 9.33 27.50 25.33 36.67 

indica 

Powder 

(31.63) 

(37.29) 

9. Carthamus Safflower Oil 1.5 ml. 48.67 7.33 51.10 20.67 33.67 

tincotorius 

(45.63) 

(29.13) 

10. Control 82.00 9.64 84.33 18.10 74.66 

(59.74) 

S.E. + 

1.28 0.23 1.17 0.93 1.01 

C.D. at 5% 

2.66 0.47 2.44 1.95 2.11 

Pupal Adults’ F1 Adult Grain Weight Germination 

period emergence Progeny longevity damage loss (%) (%) 

(days) (%) 

male female (%) 

12.73 24.33 6.67 12.30 13.33 28.00 18.67 66.67 

(29.93) 

(31.95) 

12.00 27.33 9.43 13.67 16.00 30.67 23.33 60.67 

(31.50) 

(33.65) 

12.76 10.67 30.00 7.00 12.67 25.00 14.67 71.87 

(19.09) 

(30.02) 

12.67 24.67 22.67 12.33 13.67 28.67 18.33 66.33 

(29.80) 

(32.39) 

13.26 10.00 5.67 6.67 7.33 18.00 5.67 75.00 

(19.43) 

(25.10) 

12.67 26.33 31.67 13.00 14.00 29.00 22.00 66.00 

(30.85) 

(32.58) 

13.30 9.67 (10.15) 3.96 6.33 5.50 16.00 4.67 82.33 

(23.58) 

13.13 7.00 8.67 3.67 4.67 24.67 1.86 84.33 

(15.34) 

(12.52) 

12.33 27.00 20.63 13.67 14.96 29.67 22.67 61.00 

(31.34) 

(33.02) 

12.16 78.00 74.23 18.16 19.33 58.00 48.33 84.33 

(62.03) 

(49.60) 

0.275 0.869 

0.587 0.506 0.708 0.558 1.23 

0.574 1.81 

1.22 1.06 1.48 1.16 2.56 

comparison to control. In different treatments, number of 

adults’ beetles varied from 3.96 to 31.67. The minimum 

longevity of male being 3.67 days observed against A. indica, 

whereas it remained maximum (13.67 days) in L. usitatissimum. 

Mishra, et al., 1992 and Srivastava, et al., 2007, reported similar 

finding. 

Minimum damage (4.67%) of grain was recorded in A. 

indica seed along with minimum loss in weight (1.86%) of 

grain was observed therein, while the maximum loss (23.33%) 

in weight was recorded in L. usitatissimum. These findings 

are in agreement with the present finding. There was no 

adverse effect of grain protectants on the germination of wheat 

seed. However, maximum germination was observed in the 

grain treated with A. indica seed (84.33%) and it was recorded 

minimum in L. usitatissimum (60.67%). Saramma and Verma, 

1971, Bowry, et al., 1986 and Zudir and Imti, 1997 also reported 

adverse effect of neem seed kernel powder on the germination 

of paddy, but of course they recorded observation on 

germination after six moths. 


The authors are thankful to Professor L.P. Tiwari (Wheat 

Breeder), currently Director Research, C.S.A. University, 

Kanpur for providing facilities to carry out the present research. 


Bowry, S.K., Pandey, N.D. and Tripathi, R.A. 1986. Evaluation of 

certain oil seed cake powders as grain protectants against Sitophilus 

oryzae L. Indian J. Ent., 44(2): 196-200. 

Chander, H. and Ahmed, S.M. 1987. Laboratory evaluation of natural 

embelin as a grain protectant against some insect pests of wheat in 

storage. J. Stored Prod. Res., 23 (1): 41-46. 

Helson, B. Lyons B. and Groot, P.D. 1996. Development of neem seed 

extract for forest insect pest management in Canada. Neem News 

Letter, 13(3): 35-36. 

Jood, S., Kapoor, A.C. and Singh, R. 1996. Evaluation of some plant 

products against Trogoderma granarium Everts in sorghum and 

their effects on nutritional composition and organoleptic 

characteristic. J. Stored Prod. Res., 32: 345-352. 

Kudachi, D.C. and Bahkai, R.A. 2010. Evaluation of botanical powders 

for the management of Sitophilus oryzae in sorghum during storage. 

Journal of Eco-friendly Agriculture, 5(1): 43-47. 

Mishra, B.K., Mishra, P.R., and Mohapatra H.K. 1992. Studies on some 

plant product mixtures against Sitophilus oryzae L. infesting wheat 

seed. Indian J. Plant Prot., 20(2): 178-182. 

Paneru, R.B., Patourel, G.N.J and Kennedy, S.H. 1997. Toxicity of 

Acorus calamus rhizome powder from Eastern Nepal to Sitophilus 

granarium (L.) and Sitophilus oryzae (L.). Crop Protection, 16:759- 

763. 

Saramma, P.V. and Verma, A.N. 1971. Efficacy of some plant products 

and Magnesium Carbonate as protectants of wheat seed against 

attack of Trogoderma granarium Everts. Bull. Grain Tech., 82: 

127-137. 

Srivastava, S.P., Pandey, A.K. and Azad, B.S. 2007. Bio-efficacy of 

grain protectants against Khapra Beetle Trogoderma granarium 

Everts for its strategic management Life Science Bulletin, 4(1&2) 

7-12. 

Verma, S.P. Singh, B and Singh Y.P 1983. Studies on the comparative 

efficacy of certain grain Protectants against Sitotroga cerelella 

(Oliv.). Bull. Grain Tech., 23(1): 

Zudir, T. and Imti, B. 1997. Effect of neem Melia azadarach Linn. and 

Azadirachta indica (A.Juss) on the incidence of Sitophilus oryzae 

Linn on stored Paddy. Pl. Prot. Bull., 49 :1-4 



Studies on the Effects of Separate and Simultaneous Application of Gamma Rays 

and NMU on Khesari (Lathyrus sativus) Var. P 24: Germination, Growth, Fertility 

and Yield 

GIRRAJ SINGH MEENA* AND PRATIBHA DWIVEDI** 

*Department of Botany, Govt. P.G. College, Dholpur (Raj.) 

**Department of Botany, Govt. College, Bara (Raj.) 

e-mail: meena687@gmail.com 

ABSTRACT 

Application of 5kr, 10kr and 15kr of gamma rays and/or 0.02% 

of NMU ( Nitroso Methyl Urea ) on Khesari (Lathyrus sativus) 

var. P 24 was reported. Germination, seedling growth, plant 

height, pollen sterility, maturity, survival percentage and 

number of seeds per pod adversely affected in all the treatments. 

But simultaneous treatment of physical and chemical mutagens 

was more injurious than separate treatments of both mutagens. 

These mutagens differed with regard to their effect on 

germination, growth, fertility and number of seeds per pod, 

however, seed weight was promoted by both the mutagens. 

Certain morphological aberrations were induced in all the 

treatments as colour of flower, stunted growth, shortening of 

internodes etc. 

Key words 

Gamma rays, Lathyrus sativus, NMU. 

Various workers have studied the effect of different 

physical and chemical mutagens on legumes. Mutagenic 

changes in grass pea are involving chromosomal anomalies, 

chlorophyll deficiencies and different types of phenotypic 

modifications (Prasad and Das, 1980; Waghmare, et al., 2001; 

Rybinski, 2003). The present study reports effect of a physical 

mutagen (gamma rays) and a chemical mutagen (NMU). Both 

separate and simultaneous treatments of gamma rays and NMU 

have been studied on Khesari (Lathyrus sativus) var. P 24. It 

deals with the results obtained in the M 1 

generation. 


Dry and dormant seeds of Khesari var. P 24 were 

subjected to gamma irradiation at the Nuclear Research Lab 

IARI New Delhi. Three different dosage of gamma rays 5kr, 

10kr and 15kr were applied. There were 300 seeds under each 

radiation treatment. 150 seeds from each treatment and 150 

untreated fresh seeds were soaked in 0.02% solution of NMU 

for six hours. Thus there were eight treatment combinations 

including the untreated control. 

Fifty seeds from each of the above treatments were sown 

in sand culture in petriplates in the laboratory. In this 

experiment, 50 seeds soaked in distilled water for six hours 

were used as an additional control. Observations with regard 

to percentage of germination and height of the seedlings were 

recorded at regular interval of three days up to 15 th day. Average 

values are summarized in Table 1. Remaining 100 seeds of 

each treatment were sown in the field in separate rows. 

Observation with regard to survival percentage, days taken 

to flower, seed and yield etc. were recorded on all the surviving 

plants and average values are listed in Table 2. Seeds of M 1 

generation were harvested separately. 


Data revealed that the percentage of germination was 

reduced in most of the treatment except controls. However 

there is no clear correlation between dosage of mutagens 

used and the percentage of germination. But, simultaneous 

treatment with gamma rays and NMU is more effective than 

the single treatment with either mutagen. Height of the 

seedlings as on 15 th day was reduced in all the mutagenically 

treated seeds. However, simultaneous dosage of both 

mutagens were more effective and injurious than the single 

treatment. Growth of soaked control seeds was little less than 

unsoaked control. Observations with regard to the number of 

leaves on the seedlings reveal that leaf emergence was delayed 

by both separate and combined treatments of gamma rays 

and NMU. But leaf formation in the treated seedlings was 

more rapid at later stages of growth specially in treatment of 

gamma rays. Variation in chlorophyll content was observed 

on the 9 th day of sowing. Normal seedlings and seedlings of 

5kr showed similar chlorophyll content. While other seedlings 

of both separate and combined treatments of mutagens were 

showed less chlorophyll content. 15kr + NMU treated 

seedlings were observed as minimum chlorophyll content on 

the 9 th day of sowing. 

Both of the mutagens, however, did not produce any 

serious toxic effect on the growth of the plants, but some 

morphological changes were recorded in certain plants in all 

the treatments. These changes included stunted growth, 

condensed nodes due to shortening of internodes, bushy 

habit due to increased secondary branching, reduced leaves 

due to shortening of leaflets, extension of the rachis in the 

form of a tendril like structure, alteration of flower colour from 

normal indigo to pink or white and reduction of seeds per 

pod. Plant height was reduced in all the treatments except 5kr 

treated plants. Plants treated with 5kr had a promoting effect 

on height. The decrease in height in combined treatment of 

two mutagens was more pronounced than single treatment. 

Branching was increased by 5kr gamma rays such growth


Table 1. 

Characters 

Effects of gamma rays, NMU and their interaction on germination and seedling growth in Khesari (Lathyrus sativus). 

% of germination 3 

6 

9 

12 

15 

Height of Seedling (in mm) 3 

6 

9 

12 

15 

Table 2. 

Treatments 

Control 

5kr 

10kr 

15kr 

NMU 0.02% 

5kr + NMU 

10kr + NMU 

15kr + NMU 

Days after Control Gamma rays NMU Gamma rays +NMU 

sowing Unsoaked Soaked 5kr 10kr 15kr 0.02% 5kr+0.02% 10kr+0.02% 15kr+0.02% 

17 33 20 30 13 

6.6 

16 

66 70 93 93 73 

93 

90 

86 90 100 96 90 

93 

96 

93 100 100 100 90 

93 

96 

96.66 100 100 100 90 

93 

96 

46 

93 

100 

100 

100 

2 

11 

57.5 

115 

155 

27 

93 

100 

100 

100 

1.5 

12 

47.5 

102.5 

135 

2 

8 

26 

55 

85 

1.5 

11 

32.5 

60 

90 

Vegetative choracters, pollen sterility, flowering days and survival percentage in mutagen treated plants of Khesari 

Plant height 

(cm) 

17 

24 

18 

15.5 

16 

17 

14 

12 

Number of pods 

per plant 

9 – 10 

8 – 10 

7 – 9 

5 – 7 

6 – 7 

7 – 9 

6 – 7 

3 – 5 

Number of seeds 

per pod 

3 – 4 

2 – 4 

2 – 4 

2 

2 – 3 

3 – 4 

2 – 3 

1 – 2 

1.25 

11.5 

26.5 

45 

72.5 

0.75 

8.5 

34 

75 

112.5 

Pollen sterility 

(%) 

05 

08 

11 

14 

09 

10 

13 

18 

1.5 

5.5 

23.5 

47.5 

67.5 

1.5 

6.5 

21 

47.5 

65.5 

Percentage of 

plant survival 

98.75 

88.75 

87.5 

77.5 

70 

90 

72.5 

68.75 

1.25 

6 

21.5 

32.5 

50 

Flowering 

(in days) 

74.00 

76.50 

77.00 

80.00 

80.00 

77.50 

79.70 

83.56 

was not found in other treatments. In the combined treatment 

of gamma rays and NMU the number of branches was less 

than the single treatment. Minimum growth and number of 

branches were observed in 15kr + NMU treated plants. The 

number of leaves was reduced in all the treatments except 5kr 

gamma rays. This decrease being more pronounced in 

simultaneous treatments than single treatments. The sequence 

of various treatments with regard to number of leaves can be 

expressed as 5kr > normal > other gamma rays > gamma rays 

+NMU > 5kr + NMU and 10kr + NMU > 15kr gamma rays + 

NMU. 

Maturity was studied in terms of day taken to flower. 

Both the mutagens as well as their interaction brought about 

an increase in the average number of days taken to flower. 

This was so because most of the treated plants flowered later 

than the control. However, a few plants in different treatments 

flowered earlier than the control. The number of plants 

showing early flowering was maximum in 5kr and in 5kr + 

NMU treatments. 

Mutagenic treatments brought about an increase in 

pollen sterility. In case of separate as well as combined 

treatments the pollen sterility was increased with the increase 

in irradiation dose. The maximum sterility was recorded in 

15kr + NMU treated plants. Survival percentage at maturity 

among various treatments was drastically reduced. Combined 

treatment of gamma rays and NMU was more effective than 

the single treatment. The decrease in survival at maturity was 

based on lower germination percentage and the failure of some 

of the germinated seedlings to grow up to maturity. 

The number of pod was adversely affected by both 

separate and combined treatments. The effect being 

proportionate to the irradiation dose. The simultaneous 

treatment of 15kr and NMU was injurious than others. The 

number of seeds per pod was also reduced in the treatments. 

But, 5kr gamma rays being less toxic to the seed formation 

than other treatments. However, 15kr + NMU showed maximum 

toxic effect. Both the mutagens as well as their interaction 

increased the seed size. 

Seed treatment with physical and chemical mutagens 

shows adverse effects on germination, seedling growth and 

plant growth in general. Delayed maturity, varying degree of 

sterility and reduced survival percentage are the other common 

features of these treatments (Sjodin, 1962; Goud, 1972 and 

Sinha and Godward, 1972). A measure of the effects of the 

mutagens on the aforesaid attributes is generally considered 

as an index of the efficiency of various treatments in inducing 

mutations. During the present study both gamma rays and 

NMU produced adverse effects on germination, seedling 

height, pollen sterility, maturity and survival. But, single 

treatments are less toxic than simultaneous treatments. 


Goud, J.V. 1972. Mutation studies in Sorghum. Genetic Polonica, 22: 

30-40. 

Prasad, A.B., Das, A.K.1980. Morphological variants in Khesari. Indian 

J. Genet., 40: 172-175. 

Rybinski, W. 2003. Mutagenesis as a tool for improvement of traits in 

grass pea. Lathyrism News let., 3: 30–34. 

Sinha, S.S.N. and M.B.E. Godward, 1972. Radiation studies in Lens 

culinaris. Indian J. Genet., 32: 331-339. 

Sjodin, J. 1962. Some observations in x 1 

and x 2 

of Vicia faba L. after 

treatments with different mutagens. Hereditas, 48: 565-586. 

Waghmare, V.N., Waghmare, D.N., Mehra, R.B. 2001. An induced 

fascinated mutant in grass pea. Indian J. Genet., 61: 155-157. 

Received on 24.11.2010 Accepted on 15.1.2011


Evaluation of Botanicals as Maggoticides for the Control of Indian Uzi Fly, Exorista 

bombycis (Louis) 

K.A. MURUGESH 1 AND R.S. BHASKAR 2 

1 

Department of Sericulture, CPPS, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 03 

2 

Department of Sericulture, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore 65 

e-mail: murugeshka2002@yahoo.co.in 

ABSTRACT 

The maggoticidal property of different botanicals against uzi 

maggots was studied by topical application of plant leaf extracts 

at 0.2, 0.4 and 0.8 per cent concentrations. Significantly higher 

maggot mortality of 46.00, 45.00 and 43.92 per cent was 

registered due to the application of Eucalyptus citriodora, Tridax 

procumbens and Tribulus terrestris at 0.8 per cent compared to 

distilled water spray (3.85 %) and absolute control (0.00 %). 

The pupation rate was reduced in the maggots treated with E. 

citriodora (75.20 %), T. procumbens (76.30 %) and T. terrestris 

(78.00 %) and found to be statistically superior to distilled water 

spray and absolute control. Significantly lesser adult 

emergence and fecundity were observed in the lots sprayed 

with E. citriodora, T. procumbens and T. terrestris than to distilled 

water and absolute control. 

Key words 

Botanicals, exorista bombycis, maggoticides, topical 

application 

Uzi fly, Exorista bombycis (Louis) (Tachnidae : Diptera) 

is a serious endoparasitoid of silkworm, Bombyx mori L. It has 

been known to inflict considerable loss to sericulture industry 

in India (Krishnaswami, et al., 1964). Ever since its introduction 

to south Indian peninsular, the loss due to uzi infestation has 

varied greatly from 9 to 40 per cent (Jolly, 1967). This has 

drawn the attention of several research workers in the past, 

who suggested different approaches such as destruction of 

infested silkworms and maggots (Siddappaji, 1985), providing 

fly proof wire mesh and nylon net to prevent the entry of uzi 

fly into the site (Kumar, 1987), Spray of uzicide to kill the eggs 

laid on silkworms, use of uzitrap to attract and kill the adults 

(Kumar, et al., 1987) and releasing of natural enemies to destroy 

the uzi puparia (Kumar, et al., 1993). Though suggested 

preventive and management strategies are being adopted by 

sericulturalists, the uzi menace is still persisting. In this context, 

a new eco-friendly and cost effective approach has been tried 

by using plant leaf extracts. 


The investigation was conducted in GKVK, UAS, 

Bangalore. The freshly collected leaves of selected plants were 

washed with running water. Ten grams of plant material was 

crushed by using pestle and mortar and filtered through the 

muslin cloth. Then, the volume was made upto 100 ml by adding 

distilled water and was maintained as 10 per cent stock 

solution. From this stock solution, serial dilutions were 

prepared by using distilled water to obtain at 0.2, 0.4 and 0.8 

per cent concentrations. The post parasitic third instar 

maggots were collected from local cocoon market. A batch of 

50 (4 hr old) maggots per replication was treated with botanical 

extract and maintained separately, replication wise. The 

maggot mortality, pupation rate, fly emergence and the 

fecundity were recorded. The data were subjected to angular 

transformation and analysis of variance. 


The maximum maggot mortality was found in the lots 

sprayed with E. citriodora, T. procumbens and T. terrestris 

as they recorded mortality of 40.41, 39.44 and 37.97 per cent 

and found to be statistically superior over distilled water spray 

(3.85 %) and absolute control (0.00 %). Further, higher mortality 

was recorded at 0.8% of E. citriodora (46.00%), T. procumbens 

(45.00%) and T. terrestris (43.92 %) than distilled water spray 

(3.85%) and absolute control (0.00%). The maggots treated 

with the botanicals lost their weight due to loss of water from 

the body and became immobile. Later, the body colour 

changed to dull black and the maggots died finally. These 

observations are in line with Nakanishi, 1975, who observed 

that the Azadirachtin inhibited the synthesis of insect moulting 

hormone, thus leading to mortality at maggot and pupal stages 

of E. bombycis. Zebitz, 1986 reported that neem seed kernal 

extract strongly inhibited the pupal development in uzi fly, 

Blepharipa zebina Walker, parasitoid of Antheraeae mylitta. 

This study also falls in line with the present findings 

(Table 1). 

The number of pupae formed was least in the lot treated 

with E. citriodora (78.17%) and did not differ significantly 

from T. procumbens (79.60%). The treatments, P. hysterophorus 

and T. terrestris were on par with each other as they recorded 

pupation of 81.30 and 81.89%, respectively. All the botanicals 

except P. glabra (94.01%) were responded well and caused 

more reduction in pupation (2.81 to 12.24% reduction) over 

distilled water spray (89.08%) and absolute control (0.00%). 

However, at 0.8% E. citrioda recorded 75.20% pupation, which 

was found to be more effective in bring down the pupation 

rate than other botanicals. This is a new observation and no 

reports to compare this finding (Table 1).


Table 1. 

Effect of botanicals on maggot mortality and pupation rate of uzi fly, E. bombycis 

Maggot mortality (%) Pupation rate (%) 

Treatments 0.20% 0.40% 0.80% Mean 0.20% 0.40% 0.80% Mean 

T. procumbens 29.33 44.00 45.00 39.44 84.00 78.29 76.50 79.60 

(32.79) (41.55) (42.13) (38.82) (66.44) (62.24) (61.00) (63.23) 

661.82* 1042.86 1068.83 924.50 -5.70 -12.11 -14.12 -10.65 

T. terrestris 28.00 42.00 43.92 37.97 86.99 81.67 77.00 81.89 

(31.91) (40.40) (41.51) (37.94) (68.95) (64.70) (61.34) (65.00) 

627.27 990.91 1040.78 886.32 -2.35 -8.32 -13.56 -8.08 

P. hysterophorus 28.67 42.00 43.60 38.09 85.79 80.06 78.05 81.30 

(32.35) (40.40) (41.32) (38.02) (67.88) (63.49) (62.06) (64.48) 

644.68 990.91 1032.47 889.35 -3.69 -10.13 -12.38 -8.73 

B. spectrabilis 20.67 24.67 28.00 24.45 90.44 86.29 83.00 86.58 

(27.02) (29.78) (31.95) (29.58) (72.10) (68.32) (65.65) (68.69) 

436.88 540.78 627.27 534.98 1.53 -3.13 -6.83 -2.81 

M. arvensis 24.00 34.67 37.00 31.89 90.96 85.34 82.80 86.37 

(29.32) (36.06) (37.47) (34.28) (72.61) (67.55) (65.50) (68.55) 

523.38 800.52 861.04 728.31 2.11 -4.20 -7.05 -3.05 

E. citriodora 30.00 45.24 46.00 40.41 82.50 76.82 75.20 78.17 

(33.21) (42.27) (42.71) (39.40) (65.27) (61.22) (60.13) (62.21) 

679.22 1075.06 1094.81 949.70 -7.39 -13.76 -15.58 -12.24 

T. erecta 25.33 42.00 42.50 36.61 87.44 83.85 81.00 84.10 

(30.19) (40.40) (40.69) (37.09) (69.28) (66.41) (64.16) (66.62) 

557.92 990.91 1003.90 850.91 -1.84 -5.87 -9.07 -5.59 

P. glabra 21.33 27.33 31.00 26.55 95.10 93.94 93.00 94.01 

(27.50) (31.51) (33.83) (30.95) (78.00) (77.48) (76.85) (77.44) 

454.03 609.87 705.19 589.70 6.76 5.46 4.40 5.54 

Distilled water control 3.85 3.85 3.85 3.85 89.08 89.08 89.08 89.08 

(11.32) (11.32) (11.32) (11.32) (70.80) (70.80) (70.80) (70.80) 

Absolute control 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 95.91 95.91 95.91 95.91 

(0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (78.35) (78.35) (78.35) (78.35) 

Mean 21.12 30.58 32.09 27.93 88.71 85.24 83.15 85.70 

(25.56) (31.37) (32.29) (29.74) (70.97) (68.06) (66.58) (68.54) 

F-test S. Em+ CD (0.05) F-test S. Em+ CD (0.05) 

Treatments * 0.311 0.880 * 0.513 1.451 

Concentrations * 0.170 0.482 * 0.281 0.795 

Interaction * 0.539 1.524 * 0.889 2.513 

Figures in parantheses indicate angular transformed values. *Figures indicate per cent increase or decrease over distilled water control 

Effect of botanicals on adult emergence ranged from 

77.07 to 91.64%. The E. citriodora, T. procumbens and T. 

terrestris were similar in action as they recorded 77.07, 78.19 

and 78.37% of adult emergence and were on par with each 

other. All the treatments except P. glabra (91.64%) showed 

superiority over distilled water spray (90.53%) and absolute 

control (94.48%). Further, significantly lesser adult emergence 

was observed at 0.8% of E. citriodora (73.00%), 

T. procumbens (74.00%) and T. terrestris (74.80%) compared 

to distilled water spray (90.53%) and absolute control (94.48%). 

These observations are in parity with Singh and Thangavelu, 

1996, who reported that normal adult emergence ranged from 

93.75% (0.02%) to 0.00% (4.0%), when pupae of B. zebina 

were treated with Achook, a neem based formulation. Further, 

Gupta, et al., 1998 registered only 30% adult emergence of 

Heliothis armigera from the pupae, when the soil was treated 

with neem seed powder (6%). This is more or less in line with 

the present study (Table 2). 

E. citriodora (231.00) emerged as the best botanical 

among all the treatments studied and found to be on par with 

T. terrestris (241.00) and T. procumbens (242.67). On the 

contrary, B. spectrabilis and P. glabra were lower in their 

effectiveness as they recorded 302.44 and 321.11 eggs. All the 

botanicals showed significant difference over the distilled 

water (365.00) and absolute control (376.00). Further, E. 

citriodora at 0.8% concentration yielded 220.00 eggs, which 

was more effective in reducing the fecundity (Table 2). 

The experimental results revealed that E. citriodora, T. 

procumbens and T. terrestris could be employed effectively 

for the management of uzi fly as they caused more maggot 

mortality, less pupation rate, adult emergence and fecundity.

Table 2. 

MURUGESH & BHASKAR, Evaluation of Botanicals as Maggoticides for the Control of Indian Uzi fly 8 1 

Effect of botanicals on adult emergence and fecundity of uzi fly, E. bombycis 

Adult emergence (%) 

Fecundity (Nos) 

Treatments 0.20% 0.40% 0.80% Mean 0.20% 0.40% 0.80% Mean 

T. procumbens 84.42 76.15 74.00 78.19 260.00 241.33 226.67 242.67 

(66.79) (60.78) (59.34) (62.30) -28.77 -33.88 -37.90 -33.52 

-6.75 -15.88 -18.26 -13.63 

T. terrestris 83.14 77.18 74.80 78.37 259.00 240.00 224.00 241.00 

(65.81) (61.52) (59.87) (62.40) -29.04 -34.25 -38.63 -33.97 

-8.16 -14.75 -17.38 -13.43 

P. hysterophorus 86.71 80.61 77.60 81.64 270.33 252.00 234.00 252.11 

(68.73) (63.93) (61.75) (64.80) -25.94 -30.96 -35.89 -30.93 

-4.22 -10.96 -14.28 -9.82 

B. spectrabilis 91.96 87.44 85.20 88.20 319.33 301.67 286.33 302.44 

(73.81) (69.36) (67.37) (70.18) (-12.51) (-17.35) (-21.55) (-17.14) 

1.58 -3.41 -5.89 -2.57 

M. arvensis 89.41 83.07 80.00 84.16 262.67 253.00 247.00 254.22 

(71.16) (65.75) (63.43) (66.78) -28.04 -30.68 -32.33 -30.35 

-1.24 -8.24 -11.63 -7.04 

E. citriodora 83.21 75.00 73.00 77.07 245.00 228.00 220.00 231.00 

(65.81) (60.00) (58.69) (61.50) -32.88 -37.53 -39.73 -36.71 

-8.09 -17.15 -19.36 -14.87 

T. erecta 87.74 81.69 79.00 82.81 265.00 245.67 230.00 246.89 

(69.58) (64.72) (62.73) (65.68) -27.40 -32.69 -36.99 -32.36 

-3.08 -9.76 -12.74 -8.53 

P. glabra 93.27 91.33 90.33 91.64 336.67 320.00 306.67 321.11 

(75.02) (73.25) (72.93) (73.73) -7.76 -12.33 -15.98 -12.02 

3.03 0.88 -0.22 1.23 

Distilled water control 90.53 90.53 90.53 90.53 365.00 365.00 365.00 365.00 

(72.25) (72.25) (72.25) (72.25) 

Absolute control 94.48 94.48 94.48 94.48 376.00 376.00 376.00 376.00 

(75.89) (75.89) (75.89) (75.89) 

Mean 88.49 83.75 81.89 84.71 295.90 282.27 271.57 283.24 

(70.49) (66.75) (65.43) (67.55) 

F-test S. Em+ CD (0.05) F-test S. Em+ CD (0.05) 

Treatments * 0.640 1.811 * 4.501 12.727 

Concentrations * 0.351 0.992 * 2.465 6.971 

Interaction * 1.109 3.136 NS 7.795 - 

Figures in parantheses indicate angular transformed values. *Figures indicate per cent increase or decrease over distilled water control 


Gupta, G.P., Mahapatro, G.K. and Ajantachandra. 1998. Neem seed 

powder : Targeting the quiescent stages of Heliothis armigera (Hb). 

Annuals of Plant Protection Sciences, 6: 170-173. 

Jolly, M.S. 1967. A brief report on wild sericigena in India with special 

reference to tasar culture. World meet. Silk Prodn., Mourcia, pp.1-2. 

Krishnaswami, S., Jolly, M.S. and Datta, R. K. 1964. A study on the fly 

pest infestation on the larvae and cocoons of Bombyx mori L. 

Indian J. Seric., 3: 7-12. 

Kumar, P. 1987. Contribution to our knowledge on Tricholyga bombycis, 

a serious parasite of Bombyx mori L. and its control. Ph. D. Thesis, 

Mysore University, Mysore, pp.328. 

Kumar, P., Jolly, M.S., Sinha, S.S., Samson, M.V. and Ramadevi, O.K. 

1987. Physical control of uzi fly, Tricholyga bombycis Beck. and 

its impact on population. Indian J. Seric., 26: 5-7. 

Kumar, P, Manjunath, D. and Datta, R. K. 1993. Effect of 

environmental factors on life cycle of uzi fly. Natl. Semi. Uzi fly 

and its control, KSSRDI, Bangalore, pp.2. 

Nakanishi, S. 1975. Structure of the insect antifeedant Aazadirachtin. 

Recent Adv. Phytochem., 9: 283-298. 

Siddappaji, C. 1985. Bioecology and management of the Indian uzi fly, 

Exorista sorbillans (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tachinidae). A parasite 

of mulberry silkworm. Ph.D. Thesis, UAS, Bangalore, pp.163. 

Singh, R.N. and Thangavelu, K. 1996. Influence of neem compound on 

the growth and development of immature forms of uzi fly, 

Blepharipa zebina Walk. (Diptera : Tachinidae). Pestology, 10(3): 

16-20. 

Zebitz, C.P.W. 1986. Potential of neem seed kernel extract in mosquito 

control, Proc. Third Int. Neem Conf., pp.453-460. 




Two New Species of Genus Oscheius from Pulses Ecosystem in Uttar Pradesh, India 

AZRA SHAHEEN, S.S. ALI AND MOHAMMAD ASIF 

Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh 208 024 


ABSTRACT 

The paper provides the descriptions and illustrations of two 

new species of the nematode genus Oscheius (Family 

Rhabditidae). Oscheius ciceri sp.n from chickpea ecosystem in 

Uttar Pradesh is characterized by the absence of epiptygma, 8 

pairs of genital papillae leptoderan busra. longer stoma, lip 

region narrower 7.7 – 10.6 µm, well developed valve plates of 

basal bulb. Oscheius hussainii sp.n. from pigeonpea ecosystem 

in U.P. resembles with O.columbiana but differs in having 

smaller value (vs b=5.8 – 8.0 in O. columbiana) ; larger c value 

(vs c = 8.3 – 10.0 in O. columbiana) . In this species females do 

not have mating plug unlike O.columbiana. having slender 

body (vs body width = 58 – 97 µm in O. shamimi ) smaller spicule 

(vs spicule = 53 – 67 in O. shamimi ) ; shape of spicule also 

different from that of O. shamimi ; leptoderan here and in 

absence of epiptygma. 

Key words 

Oscheius ciceri, chickpea, pigeonpea, ecosystem, 

O. hussainii, O. columbiana 

using C. cephalonica larvae for further observations. 

Nematodes of different stages were killed in warm water 60 o C 

and fixed in TAF (Courtney, et al., 1955) and processed to 

glycerine. All observations and measurements were performed 

within month after collection. Observations were made from 

live and mounted specimens on Leica DMLB research 

microscope equipped with differential interference contrast 

optics. Illustrations were prepared from armed type camera 

Lucida. Measurements were made, as per De Man’s formula 

using an ocular micrometer through camera Lucida. 


DESCRIPTION: 

Oscheius ciceri sp.n. 

(Fig. 1.) 

Measurement: Table 1 and 3. 

Most of the members of family Rhabditidae, Örley, 1880 

are free living bacteriovorous and hermaphrodite species. 

Andrássy, 1976 erected genus Oscheius in the family 

Rhabditidae with type species O. insectivora new combination 

for Rhabditis insectivora. Tabassum and Shahina 2002, 

Tahseen and Nisa 2006 and Ali et al., 2007 recognized Oscheius 

as genus and described Oscheius maqbooli, O. shamimi and 

Oscheius amsacte respectively. In this paper we have followed 

the classification as proposed by Andrássy 1976 and described 

the present new species under the genus Oscheius. During 

surveys made in 2009 from Kanpur district two species of 

Oscheius were encountered and morphological evidence 

indicate that these are two new species of the genus Oscheius. 

In this study two new species of Oscheius were diagnosed 

and described. 


Soil samples were drawn from the rhizosphere of standing 

chickpea crop at the time of harvesting during the month of 

April and afterwards in July 2009 where temperature ranges 

from 40-45ºC in different villages of Kanpur districts of U.P. 

The nematodes were collected from soil by the insect baiting 

technique (Bedding and Akhurst, 1975) and maintained in the 

laboratory on last instar of Corcyra cephalonica larvae at 

room temperature 35 ± 2ºC and third stage infective juveniles 

(IJs) were obtained within week’s time after emerging from 

insect cadavers. The extracted nematodes were reared in vivo 

Fig. 1. Oscheius ciceri sp.n. Female: A. Entire body , B. 

Vulval region, C. Anterior region, H. Tail ; Male: D. 

Entire body, E and F.. Tail, G. Spicule ; Juvinile: I. 

Entire body.

SHAHEEN et al., Two New Species of Genus Oscheius from Pulses Ecosystem in Uttar Pradesh, India 8 3 

Female: Body straight tapering at extremities more towards 

posterior end. Cuticle transversely annulated; annules 1-1.5 

µm wide in different body regions. Lateral fields with 4 lateral 

lines. Lip region continuous from adjoining body, 7.76-10.67µm 

wide, lips arranged in doublets, forming three sectors (sub 

dorsal and two sub ventral) around triangular oral aperture. 

Inner labial sensilla bordering oral aperture ; outer labial 

sensilla on outer lip margins. Amphids with elliptical aperture 

at base of lateral lips. Stoma rhabditoid type, 5-6 times longer 

than diameter or 10.5-14.5% of pharyngeal length. Cheilostom 

inconspicuous not cuticularised; gymnostom also 

cuticularised, 1/3 of stegostom in length; promesostegostom 

parallel-walled, metastegostom isomorphic, with each plate 

bearing minute warts: telestegostom connected to pharyngeal 

lumen. Pharyngeal collar surrounding 40-50 % of stoma length. 

Pharynx differentiated into cylindrical corpus 92-100 µm long; 

slightly narrower 30-40 µm long, isthmus and a muscular 

valvate, ovoid basal bulb 26-31X18-24 µm in size with welldeveloped 

valves. Nerve ring encircling isthmus in anterior 

half 66-78 % of pharyngeal length. Excretory pore at the level 

of mid basal bulb, with duct distally cuticularised for 7-8 µm. 

Cardia small, conoid 8-10 µm long. Intestine with wide lumen 

having refractive lining. Rectum 27-35µm long, 1.2-1.7 times 

anal body diameter connected by valve- like structure with 

intestine. Rectal glands not discernible in most specimens. 

Anus a crescent-shaped slit. Reproductive system 

amphidelphic. Ovaries well developed often extending beyond 

vulva; oviducts dilated, connected to ovoid spermatheca 

containing sperms. Vagina thick-walled, at right angle to 

longitudinal body axis, 25-30 % vulval body diameter with 

two sets of cross-shaped muscle bands. Vulva a wide 

transverse –slit extending for 30-40 % of vulval body diameter, 

equatoriol, vulval lips slightly protruding, vulval flap absent. 

Vulva-anus distance 3.5-4.0 times tail length. Tail conical 

straight with pointed tip. Phasmids tubular, adanal in position. 

Male: Similar to female in general morphology except for 

smaller size and body more arcuate posteriorly. Testis single, 

reflexed ventrally on left side of intestine. Usually a small 

pseudocoelomocyte found in close proximity to proximal end 

of testis. Vas deferens a broad tube, filled with sperms, without 

demarcation of seminal vesicle. Tail long conical with fine tip. 

Leptoderan bursa rounded lacking terminal notch. Bursal 

cuticle transversely striated. Spicules long , robust with 

elongate capitula having strongly cuticularised ventral walls, 

velum prominent extending for 75 % of spicular length. 

Gubernaculums slender, arcuate ,narrow, trough- shaped; 25- 

30% of spicule length, Genital papillae comprising eight pairs, 

two pairs preanal both touching rim of bursa, six post-anal, 

three continuous out of those three pairs, two papillae 

touching bursal rim. Other three caudal papillae which are 

continuous, two of them touching rim of bursa. Conspicuous 

copulatory muscles arranged in six- seven paired bands. 

Diagnosis and relationships 

Oscheius ciceri sp.n. closely resembles Oscheius 

shamimi Tahseen and Nisa 2006, but differs in absence of 

epiptygma (whereas it is very prominent in O. shamimi) ; shape 

of spicule different from as that of O. shamimi ; number of 

genital papillae 8 pairs (whereas the number of genital papillae 

9 in cae of O. shamimi) ; type of bursa leptoderan here (vs 

pseudopeloderan bursa in O. shamimi) O.ciceri also resembles 

O. necromena Sudhaus and Schulte 1989, but differs in having 

longer stoma (vs stoma length =14-16 in O. necromena) valve 

plates of basal bulb well developed (vs = valve - plates not 

well - developed) ; lip region narrower 7.7 – 10.6 µm (vs 16-17 

µm in O. necromena); spicule shape different from that of O. 

necromena and number of genital papillae 8 in Oscheius ciceri 

(vs 9 genital papillae in O. necromena). 

Table 1. 

Morphometrics of Oscheius ciceri sp.n. (All measurements in microns (µm), except ratios) 

Ratios and characters Holotype 

Paratypes 

Male Juvenile Male Female 

n 1 10 10 10 

L 908.89 441.35-685.79(571.5) 753.69-972.91(820.63) 964.18-1018.50(996.19) 

Body width 38.80 19.4-32.01(25.22) 38.80-46.56(41.19) 38.80-45.59(41.71) 

Stoma length 19.49 14.22-16.49(15.76) 19.49 18.43-19.49(18.96) 

Stoma width 3.88 2.00 3.88 3.00-4.00 

Excretory pore 140.66 76.63-113.49(94.73) 127.07-137.74(131.51) 134.40-135.80(135.46) 

Width at ex. pore 36.86 18.43-28.13(22.95) 36.86-42.68(39.36) 38.80-45.59(41.71) 

Nerve ring 125.16 80.51-97.1(89.88) 116.4-135.80(126.61) 111.55-133.86(123.19) 

Pharynx 184.30 99.91-143.56(124.88) 149.38-171.69(158.36) 166.84-176.50(171.03) 

Testis reflection 40% 35-40% 

Anal body width 25.22 14.06-18.43(16.65) 26.19-30.19(28.26) 20.37-28.13(23.60) 

Tail length 160.14 54.32-69.84(61.71) 55.29-58.20(56.89) 74.69-96.03(89.56) 

Spicule length 40.74 34.92-43.65(39.05) 

a 23.40 20.45-26.(23.2) 19.40-20.87(20.14) 20.19-22.54(21.60) 

b 4.93 4.22-4-4.77(4.54) 5.04-5.66(5.35) 5.77-5.92(5.82) 

c 15.11 8.38-10.88(9.28) 13.63-16.71(15.16) 10.39-12.90(11.25) 

c’ 2.38 2.86-4.27(3.59) 2.11-2.77 (2.44) 3.66-4.30(3.81) 

n = No. of specimen, Figures in parenthesis are mean values.


Type host and Type locality 

Type host: Unknown probably, pod borer of chickpea, 

Heliocoverpa armigera 

Type locality: Specimens of this species found in soil of 

Chickpea (Cicer arietinµm) field from village, Akbarpur, 

Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh. 

Type specimens: 5 paratype males, 2 paratype females 

and 5 juveniles deposited at CABI Bioscience, UK 

10 paratype males, 10 paratype females and 10 juveniles 

deposited at Nematology Section, Indian Institute of Pulses 

Research, Kanpur 

Etymology: The new species is named on chickpea 

genus Cicer a cultivated leguminous plant in India 

Oscheius hussainii sp.n. 

(Fig. 2.) 

Measurement: Table 2 and 3. 

Adults: Cuticle finely striated, about 1 µm thick, lateral field 

pattern with four lateral lines (evenly spaced from each other) 

visible from midcorpus to near anus, six unfused lip each 

bearing single terminal sensilla. Lip region diameter 6-8 µm. 

Amphidial apertures elliptical, amphidial pouch pocket - like. 

Stoma long narrow 5-6 times longer than diameter. Cheilostom 

with distinct cheilo-rhabdions. Stegostom (pharyngeal collar) 

comprising 70 % of stoma length. Glottoid apparatus 

isomorphic. Corpus cylindrical 60.65 % pharynx length. 

Median bulb absent. Isthmus forming 20-25 % of pharynx 

length. Basal bulb spherical with welldeveloped valve, 

comprising 15-20 % of pharynx length. Excretory pore located 

just below the nerve ring, 65-79%of pharynx. Phasmids 

conspicuous. 

Female: Gonads didelphic anterior branch situated on right of 

Fig. 2. Oscheius hussainii sp.n. Female : C. Anterior region, 

E. Vulval region, G. Entire body J. Tail; Male: A. 

Entire body, B. Anterior Region and K(Photomicrograph 

at 100 x)., H, I. Tail and L (Photomicrographs at 100 

x.).; Juvinile: F. Entire body D. anterior region 

intestine, posterior branch also on right side. Dorsally reflexed 

ovaries often extending as far as vulva. Vulva in form of a 

transverse slit. Young females with symmetrical vulval lips. 

Mating plug absent in mature females. Rectum 1.08-1.5anal 

body diameters long anal lips not protruded. Tail long conical 

Table 2. 

Morphometrics of Oscheius hussainii sp.n. (All measurements in microns (µm), except ratios) 

Rahos and manorphanelner Holotype 

Paratype 


n 1 10 10 

L 855.54 500-555.81(527.96) 855.54-889.50(862.97) 902.1-9894(946.86) 

Body width 34.19 21.60-25.50(23.25) 30.50-35.15(33.26) 32.50-40.50(36.83) 

Stoma length 22.50 17.50 22.00-23.00(22.50) 22.00-23.00 

Stoma width 3.00 2.00-2.25 3.00 3.00 

Excretory pore 161.04 85.20-100.00(93.8) 155.50-167.89(161.57) 165.87-172.66(169.71) 


Nerve ring 179.45 115.85-123.58(118.67) 149.38-179.45(163.64) 170.00-179.49(176.59) 

Pharynx 223.10 137.74-158.90(147.04) 223.228.5(226.35) 219.80-225.50(222.78) 

Testis reflection 24.4% 24-30% 


Tail length 64.99 54.32-63.05(57.64) 61.15-64.99(63.13) 77.60-87.30(81.46) 


a 25.02 19.60-25.73(22.65) 25.30-28.05( 25.94) 24.40-25.50(24.95) 

b 3.83 3.14-4.03(3.59) 3.83-3.89(3.81) 3.85-4.39(4.12) 

c 14.00 7.93-10.23(9.15) 13.99-13.68(13.66) 10.28-12.75(11.51) 

c’ 3.15 3.49-3.50(3.64) 3.15-3.17(3.16) 3.33-4.80(4.06) 

n = No. of specimen, Figures in parenthesis are mean values.

Table 3. 

SHAHEEN et al., Two New Species of Genus Oscheius from Pulses Ecosystem in Uttar Pradesh, India 8 5 

Comparative morphometrics of Oscheius ciceri, O. hussainii with closely resembling other species 

Ratios and character Oscheius ciceri n.sp. Oscheius hussainii n.sp. O.shamimi O.columbiana O.necromena 

Female 

L 964.18-1018.50 902.10-989.40 760.00-1524.00 923.00-1805.00 830.00-1500.00 

b 5.77-5.92 3.85-4.39 4.20-6.30 5.20-8.00 4.20-6.30 

c 10.39-12.90 10.28-12.75 6.80-13.80 8.30-10.00 9.70-13.90 

Max.body width 38.80-45.59 32.50-40.50 58.00-97.00 49.00-106.00 54.00-90.00 

Stoma length 18.40-19.40 22.00-23.00 19.00-23.00 21.00-28.00 14.00-18.00 

Stoma width 3.00-4.00 3.00 4.60-5.70 4.50 4.50 

Anal Body width. 20.37-22.54 19.40-23.28 21.00-32.00 22.00-38.00 45.00 

Male 

L 1161.91-1233.84 855.54-889.50 938.00-1118.00 665.00-1163.00 671.00-950.00 

b 5.04-5.66 3.83-3.89 5.10-5.50 3.90-5.40 4.30-5.00 

c 13.63-16.71 13.68-13.99 25.10-31.10 13.00-16.00 11.50-17.60 

Max.body width 38.80-46.56 30.50-35.15 46.00-57.00 23.00-72.00 38.00-50.00 

Spicule length 34.90-40.70 40.74-43.80 53.00-67.00 42.00-68.00 34.00-44.00 

Gubernaculµms 19.00-20.00 13.80-17.50 22.00-28.00 16.00-24.00 12.00-23.00 

Juvenile (L) 441.35-685.79 500.50-555.81 422.00-563.00 439.00-535.00 535.00-670.00 

gradually tapering to a fine point 3-4 anal body diameters 

long. 

Male: Gonad monarchic situated to left of intestine. Bursa 

leptoderan. Nine pairs of genital papillae, three pairs 

precloacal, spaced, six pairs postcloacal or caudal, out of which 

1 single,3 forming a bunch and two form another couple. 

Spicules slender, head rounded, lamina with one internal rib. 

Gubernaculums thin following contour of spicules. 

Juveniles: Third stage juvenile ensheathed in cuticle of second 

stage juvenile. Sheath loose anteriorly, tightly attached to 

posterior region of body of third stage. Body slender, from 

anus to tail terminus. Cuticle with transverse striae. Lip region 

smooth; mouth closed. Stoma long and narrow, forming 11- 

14% of pharynx length. Pharynx and isthmus long and narrow. 

Basal bulb valvate. Nerve ring located at isthmus level. 

Excretory pore located at middle pharynx level. Tail conoid 

with pointed terminus. 

Diagnosis and Relationships 

Oscheius hussainii sp.n. resembles O.columbiana 

Stock, et al., 2005 but differs in having smaller value (vs b=5.8 

– 8.0 in O. columbiana) ; larger c value (vs c = 8.3 – 10.0 in O. 

columbiana) . In Oscheius hussainii sp.n. females do not 

have mating plug unlike O. columbiana and clumping of 

juveniles also not seen. Oscheius hussainii sp.n also resembles 

O. shamimi, Tahseen and Nisa 2006, but having slender body 

(vs body width = 58 – 97 µm in O. shamimi ) smaller spicule 

(vs spicule = 53 – 67 in O. shamimi ) ; shape of spicule also 

different from that of O. shamimi ; shape of bursa leptoderan 

here (vs = bursa pseudopeloderan in O. shamimi ) and in 

absence of epiptygma (vs epiptygma prominent in . O. shamimi) 

Type host and Type locality 

Type host: Unknown probably pod borer of pigeonpea, 

Heliocoverpa armigera (Hübner). 

Type locality: Nematodes of this species were collected from 

rhizosphare of a leguminous plant pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan) 

field from Indian institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur, Uttar 

Pradesh. 

Type specimens: 5 paratypes males, 5 paratypes females and 

10 juveniles deposited at CABI Bioscience, UK. 

10 paratypes males, 10 paratypes female and 10 juveniles 

deposited at Nematology Section, Indian Institute of Pulses 

Research, Kanpur. 

Etymology: This new species named after Dr. S. S. Hussaini 

Ex-Principal Scientist and poiner worker on EPN, Project 

Directorate of Biological Control, (ICAR) Bangalore, India. 


Andrássy, I. 1976. Evaluation as a basis for the systematization of 

nematodes. Eotvos Lorand Univ. Budapest, Hungary, pp. 288 

Bedding, R.A. and Akhurst, R.J. 1975. A simple technique for the 

determination of insect parasitic rhabditid nematodes in soil. 

Nematologica, 21:109-110. 

Courtney, W.D., Polley, D. and Miller, V.I. 1955. TAF an improved 

fixative in nematode technique. Plant Disease Reporter, 39, 570- 

571. 

Stock, S. P., Caicedo, A. M. and Calatayud, P. A. 2005. Rhabditis 

(Oscheius) columbiana sp. n. (Nematoda : Rhabditidae), a 

necromenic species associate of the subterranean burrower bug 

Cyrtomeus bergi (Hemiptera : cydnidae) from the Cauca Vally, 

Columbia. Nematology, 7(3): 363–373. 

Sudhas, W. and F. Schulte 1989. Rhabditis (Rhabditis) necromena sp.n., 

(Nematoda: Rhabditidae) from South Australian Diplopoda with 

notes on its siblings R. myriophila Poinar, 1986 and R. caulleryi 

Maupas, 1919. Nematologica, 35: 15-24 

Tabassum, K.A. and Shahina, F. 2002. Oscheius maqbooli n. sp. and 

observations on three known Rhabditid species (Nematoda: 

Rhabditida) from sugarcane fields of Balochistan, Pakistan. Pakistan 

Journal of Nematology, 20(1): 1-22. 

Tahseen, Q. and Nisa. S. 2006. Embryology and gonad development in 

Oscheius shamimi sp. n. (Nematoda: Rhabditida). Nematology, 8(2): 

211–221. 

Recieved on 12-11-2010 Accepted on 23-05-2011



Synthesis of Slow Release Water Soluble Micronutrient Brick 

T.G. NAGARAJA* AND SAGAR D. CHAVAN 

*Department of Botany, The New College, Kolhapur 416 014 (Maharashtra State) 

Department of Agro chemicals and Pest Management, Shivaji University, Kolhapur 416 004, Maharashtra 

e-mail: tgnagaraja2010@g mail.com 

ABSTRACT 

Slow release water soluble micronutrient brick was developed, 

using micronutrient mixed with polyethylene glycol 200. Two 

categories were maintained, one dissolved in water as foliar 

spray and another as solid (brick-spray). Treatment was given 

to two pot cultures of Trigonella foenum graceum (Fenugreek) 

containing one as foliar spray, another containing cubic brick 

and a control without treatment. After 30 days total chlorophyll, 

carbohydrates, lipid and proteins were determined. The total 

chlorophylls, carbohydrates, lipid and protein contents were 

enhanced in the Trigonella foenum graceum pot containing cubic 

brick as compared to foliar spray and control pot. 

Key words 

Slow release water soluble micronutrient brick, 

Trigonella foenum graceum, chlorophylls, lipid 

Controlled release fertilizers are used to meet crop needs, 

attain significantly reducing environmental pollution (Shaviv 

and Mikkeisen, 1993 and Shaviv, 2001). This technology is 

useful in pesticide industry for the controlled release of 

pesticides. Meanwhile controlled release of nitrogen fertilizer 

CRN helps to maintain maximum growth and minimizes losses 

have been developed since last two decades (Goetz, 1991, 

Hauck, 1985; Waddington 1990). CRN increases yield and 

quality of crops and more over economic return for growers. 

Polymer-coated release fertilizers look promising for 

widespread use in agriculture because, they can be designed 

to release nutrients in a more controlled manner. The polymer 

are generally durable and exhibit consistent release rates that 

are predictable when average temperature moisture conditions 

can be estimated (Hauck, 1985). This technology of polymer 

coated fertilizers was first manufactured in Japan. Polymers 

coating on soluble nitrogen sources is regulated by polymer 

chemistry, coating thickness, soil moisture and soil 

temperature. Howard and Oosterhius, 1997 showed that N- 

application rates on cotton may be reduced 40 % when CRN 

is used. Trials using CRN on winter wheat indicated a 20 % 

yield increase compared with growers standard practice. 

Research on potato, onion and garlic also showed an increase 

in yield and quality with CRN (Tindall and Detrick, 1999). 

Hence, an attempt has been made to synthesize a slow release 

water soluble nutrient brick in our laboratory. 


A mixture of chemicals such as borax, copper sulphate 5 

H 2 

O, zinc sulphate, ferrous sulphate, manganous sulphate 

and ammonium hepta molybdate were weighed accurately, 

according to recommended dose percentage given by Tandon, 

1995. The one-fourth mixture mixed with 10 ml of distilled water 

along with equal amount of EDTA. 20 ml of polyethylene 

glycol 200 was added with constant stirring in a 500 ml beaker 

at room temperature. Further the mixture was moulded in the 

form of brick, using ice-molded tray, so that a solid water 

soluble cubic brick developed with 2 X 2 X 2 cm in dimension 

and weigh 14.6 g. Pot cultures were employed in the garden 

using 10 kg of red soil in each pot, maintaining the pH 6.2-6.8. 

in one pot water soluble cubic brick, which is inserted into the 

depth of 2.5 cm in the soil, a second pot in which 14.6 g cubic 

brick was dissolved in 500 ml of distilled water and sprayed 

(foliar). A last pot without any brick or liquid spray used as 

control (only water). In all three pots Trigonella foenum 

graceum (Fennugreek) plants were raised. Watering was done 

daily in all three pots continuously for 30 days. The total lipid 

content in the leaves of Trigonella foenum graceum in all 

three pots were estimated fortnightly and after 30 days by the 

method prescribed by Jayaraman, 1981. The protein contents 

were determined by the UV absorption spectra 280 nm 

prescribed by the method of Mattoo, 1970. The carbohydrate 

content was estimated by anthrone method. The total 

chlorophyll content in the all the leaves were measured by the 

method of Arnon, 1949. 


The lipid concentration was enhanced in the leaves of 

pot containing water soluble cubic brick as compared to foliar 

spray as well as control. 16 g of lipid per gram of fresh tissue 

enhanced to 43 g in water soluble cubic brick followed by 31 

g in foliar spray at 30 days interval (Table 1). Whereas more 

concentration of lipid was synthesized at 15 days interval. 

This suggest that micronutrients may responsible for more 

synthesis of lipid as compared to control. 

The protein and carbohydrates were rapidly synthesized 

in the leaves of T. foenum graceum in the water soluble cubic 

brick pot as compared to foliar spray and control pot. B1 mg 

of carbohydrates per gram of fresh tissue enhanced to 110 mg

NAGARAJA & CHAVAN, Synthesis of Slow Release Water Soluble Micronutrient Brick 8 7 

2 

Pot No. 

Fig. 1. Concentration of biomolecules after 15 days. 

Fig. 2. Concentration of biomolecules after 30 days. 

Table 1. 

Organic constituents in Trigonella foenum graceum 

Number of days Sample numbers Amount of lipid * Amount of protein* Amount of carbohydrate* Amount of chlorophylls* 

After 15 days Control 62 170 46 13.70 

Foliar spray 89 200 55 19.04 

Cubic brick spray 96 320 76 20.74 

After 30 days Control 16 240 81 31.36 

Foliar spray 31 310 86 32.16 

Cubic brick spray 43 500 110 41.28 

*Values are mean of three readings- mg -1 g -1 fresh tissue. 

after 30 days in water soluble cubic brick pot followed by 

86 mg -1 g -1 in foliar spray. Similarly at 15 days interval 46 mg -1 

g -1 of fresh tissue of carbohydrate increased to 76 -1 g -1 of 

fresh tissue. Even protein content reveals (Table 1) the same, 

increased content of protein was observed in pot containing 

water soluble cubic brick as compared to foliar spray. Lastly 

chlorophyll content also enhanced in pot containing water 

soluble cubic brick as compared to foliar and control. This 

may suggest that micronutrients in water soluble cubic brick 

releases slowly metallic ions, as compared to foliar spray. This 

save economy, stops the wastage of micronutrient. 

Thus the slow release of micro nutrient water soluble 

cubic brick have the potential to significantly improves 

efficiency, while maintaining crop productivity or improves 

crop out put per unit of applied micronutrient. 


The authors are very much thankful to Co-ordinator, 

Department of Agrochemicals and Pest Management, Shivaji 

University, Kolhapur for providing laboratory facilities. 


Arnon, D.I. 1949. Copper enzymes in isolated chloroplast, polyphenol 

oxidase in Beta vulgaris., Plant Physiol., 1:25. 

Goertz, H.M. 1991. Commercial granular controlled release fertilizers 

for the specially Markets. Note, TVA’s NFERDC Controlled Release 

Fertilizer Workshop pp.26. 

Hauck, R.D. 1985. Slow release and bioinhibitor-amended nitrogen 

fertilizer. In: Fertilizer Technology and use, 3 rd (ed. Engelstad, O.P.), 

Soil Sci.Soc. Am. Madison, WI. pp. 293-322. 

Howard, D.D. and Oosterhuis, D.M. 1997. Programmed soil fertilizer 

release to meet Crop nitrogen and potassium requirements. In: 

proceedings of the Beltwide Cotton Conferences. Jan 6-1. New 

Orleans. National Cotton Council of America and the National 

Cotton Foundation, pp.576. 

Jayaraman, J. 1981. In Laboratory Manual in Biochemistry, Wiley 

Eastern Ltd. New Delhi, pp.79-80. 

Mattoo, R.L. 1970. Estimation of protein by UV Absorption method, 

Indian, J, Biochemical, 7: 82. 

Shaviv, A and Mikkelsen, R.I. 1993. Slow release fertilizer for a safer 

environment : Maintaining high agronomic use efficiency, a review, 

Fertil. Res., 35: 1-12. 

Shaviv, A. 2001. Advance in controlled release fertilizer Adv. Agron., 

71: 1-49. 

Tandon, H.L.S. 1995. Micronutrient in soil crop and fertilizer, New 

Delhi Fertilizer Development and Consultation. pp. 1-15. 

Tindall, T.A. and Detrick, J. 1999. Controlled released fertilizer 

application and use in Production agriculture. In: Western Canada 

Agronomy Workshop, July 7-9 Brandon, MB. pp. 93-96. 

Waddington, D.V. 1990. Turfgrass nitrogen sources. Dept of Agronomy, 

Penn State University, University park, PA 16802, pp.8. 




Comparison of Two Milking Management System between Cross Bred Sahiwal 

Holstein and Local Miscellaneous Cattle in U.P. 

MERCY DEVASAHAYAM*, SAMUEL D MECARTY# AND ASHOK RATHORE# 

*Department of Biological Sciences and #Sunderasan School of Veterinary Sciences, Sam Higginbottom 

Institute of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences, Naini, 211 007, Allahabad, U.P. 

e-mail: mercy@shiats.edu.in 

ABSTRACT 

Comparative milk yield data from 5/8 Friesian and 3/8 Sahiwal 

cross bred cattle and local miscellaneous cattle were analysed 

using 341 lactation recordings from the years 2002-2005 at the 

Sam Higginbottom Institute of Agriculture, Technology and 

Sciences livestock unit which gives a fair estimation of milk 

production under prevailing local condition in UP. The result 

shows that the local miscellaneous Bos indicus cattle have a 

comparable milk yield to pure breed Sahiwal cattle. While the 

5/8 Friesian and 3/8 Sahiwal cross bred cattle out produced the 

local miscellaneous cattle by approximately 50%. The local 

miscellaneous cattle successively upgraded by cross breeding 

with exotic pure breeds Holstein Friesian should have a higher 

lactation yield comparable to pure breed indigenous cattle 

benefiting the local rural economy. 

Key words 

Lactation yield, holstein friesian, sahiwal, milking 

management system 

Livestock is one of the fastest growing agricultural 

subsectors in developing countries with an agricultural GDP 

at 33% due to increasing demand (Delgado and McGilloway, 

2005). India possesses approximately 200 million cattle out of 

which 12 million are crossbreds. The Bos indicus Sahiwal is 

one of the best dairy breeds from the Montgomery district of 

Pakistan and from the states of Punjab and Harayana, India 

(Rachagani, et al., 2006). 

Cross breeding has been used in India to improve 

production performance of native Bos indicus cattle breeds 

with Holstein Friesien and Jersey the main exotic breeds of 

choice (Lakshmi, et al., 2009). Crossbreeding in India started 

in 1875 of local cows with Ayreshire UK bulls (Doiphode, et 

al., 2008). Cross breeding of Bos indicus cattle breeds with 

exotic breeds such as Holstein Friesian is aimed to increase 

milk production yield to 4000kg milk/lactation (Lakshmi, et al., 

2009). It has been observed 5/8 Friesian 3/8 Bos Sahiwal cattle 

have a high 300 day lactation milk yield of 2893.6kg while pure 

breed Sahiwal cattle have an average milk yield of 1474kg 

(Lakshmi, et al., 2009; Muhuyi, et al., 1999). 18% of India’s 

total cattle population are well defined native Bos indicus 

cattle breeds such as Sahiwal, Red Sindhi, Tharpakar etc., 

with the remaining 82% cattle of a miscellaneous local stock 

(ICAR 2002). 

The article evaluates milk yield and lactation records of 

5/8 Friesian 3/8 Sahiwal crossbred cattle and local 

miscellaneous cattle using 2 milking management system. 

Accurate recording of milk yield per day every month for 5/8 

Friesian 3/8 Sahiwal crossbred cattle and the local 

miscellaneous cattle for the years between 2002 to 2005 

demonstrates the high milk yield of cross bred animals 

compared to Bos indicus cattle and local miscellaneous cattle 

and with increased resilience (Lakshmi, et al., 2009). 


The various farm operations were carried out in a loose 

housing system for a two milking management system as per 

the following day to day operations at the dairy farm. Cows 

were hand-milked twice a day in the morning at 03:00-05:00 

hrs and 13:00-15:00 hours as per the schedule below. 

1 st milking of milch cows: 03:00- 03:30 hrs: Cleaning /brushing 

of milch animals; 03:30–05:00 hrs: feeding half of the daily 

concentrate before milking; 05:00–05:30 hrs: delivery of raw 

milk (in cans) to the milk pickup van of dairy plants and receiving 

previous day’s empty cans, washing and disinfection of 

milking barns; 05:30–08:00 hrs: cleaning of milk cow sheds, 

feeding of dry/green fodder to milch animals, cleaning farm 

premises, isolation of sick animals, isolation of “in - heat” 

cows for artificial insemination; 08:00–12:00: cleaning calf, 

maternity, dry stock, bullock and bull sheds, feeding half of 

the daily concentrate to calves, pregnant cows and bulls, 

exercising and grooming of bulls, treating stick animals, 

breeding cows, harvesting, chaffing and feeding of green 

fodder to all the animals, mangers in all sheds filled with green 

fodder; 12:00–13:00; lunch cum rest period for laborers, 

washing / brushing of milch cows by milkers. 

2 nd milking of milch cows: 13:00-15:00 hrs: feeding the other 

half of daily concentrate to milch animals, milking, cleaning 

calf, maternity, dry stock and bull sheds and feeding the other 

half of concentrate to calves, pregnant cows and bulls; 15:00- 

16:00 hrs: delivery of milk (in cans) to milk pick-up vans of milk 

plants and collection of mornings empty cans, washing and 

disinfection of milking barns, feeding dry and green fodder to 

calves, dry- stock and bulls; 16:00-17.00 hrs: cleaning of milch 

cow shed, feeding green / dry fodder to milch stock, cleaning 

farm premises; 17.00 hrs to next morning: night watchman on 

duty. Animal taken for grazing between 9 am and 2 pm in 

winter, and between 6 am and 10 am and again between 5 pm 

and 7pm in the summer.

DEVASAHAYAM et al., Comparison of Two Milking Management System Between Cross Bred Sahiwal Holstein 8 9 


Loose housed system was used since the cattle showed 

better physiological, biochemical and general health status 

than those kept in closed barn (Sharma and Singh, 2002; 

Thirumurugan and Saseendran, 2006). Four local 

miscellaneous animals (number 345 aged 14years; animal 

number 369 aged 12 years; animal number 387 aged 9 years 

and; animal number 386 aged 9 years) and four animals 5/8 

Friesian (65%) and 3/8 Sahiwal animals (35%) cross breed 

(Devasahayam and Mecarty, personal communication) (one 

aged 5 years animal number 562 and remaining aged 11 years 

animal numbers 874,744 and 997) kept in the loose housing 

system were hand milked twice a day in the morning at 03:00- 

05:00 and 13:00-15:00 hours in a two milking management 

system (Devasahayam and Mecarty, personal 

communication). When compared to a two milking 

management system a mixed management system reduces the 

quality of milk collected by 40% to 60% (Marnet and Komara, 

2008). Further a once daily milking system resulted in 

approximately 38% decrease in milk yield (Stelwagen and 

Knight, 1997). 

The average milk yield per lactation day of the 5/8 

Friesian cross bred cows was 5.65kg±1.3kg (M±SD) at a CV of 

23% than that observed of previously reported 5/8 Friesian 

and 3/8 Sahiwal cross bred cattle at 9.5 kg/lactation day 

(Lakshmi, et al., 2009). Miscellaneous local cattle have an 

average milk yield per lactation day of 3.2±0.96kg (M±SD) at a 

CV of 30% from 168 lactation records for 4 cattle between 

2002-2005 (Table 1). This was found higher than that recorded 

for an all India average of 2.77kg/day (Paul and Chandel, 2010) 

in spite of the higher age of the cows aged 9 years. 

The mean peak yield of 3/8 Sahiwal 5/8 Friesian cross 

bred cattle was 9.24kg±2.04kg (M±SD) with a CV of 21.6%. 

This is lower than the documented 5/8 Friesian and 3/8 Sahiwal 

cross bred cattle peak yield of 14.81kg/day (Lakshmi, et al., 

2009). This is expected since the effect of the age of the cow 

on milk yield is curvilinear with milk yield increasing for cows 

from 2-5years but not differing for cows 6 years or older (Lubritz, 

et al., 1989). The mean peak yield per lactation day varied 

from 5.05 kg/day to 6.25 kg/day for the various miscellaneous 

indigenous local cattle between the years 2002-2005 (Table 2). 

The mean peak yield per lactation day of miscellaneous 

indigenous local cattle between the years 2002-2005 was 

Table 1. 

Peak lactation yield per day (kg) from local 

miscellaneous cattle. 

Miscellaneous cattle 3/8Friesian and 5/8Sahiwal cattle 

Animal 

number 

Peak yield 

(kg/day) 

Animal 

number 

Peak yield 

(kg/day) 

345 6.25 562 12.17 

369 5.23 874 11.5 

387 5.05 744 11.48 

386 5.25 997 9.43 

Mean 5.445±0.5515 SD Mean 11.145±1.18745 SD 

5.44kg±0.54kg (M±SD) with a CV of 10%. The 5/8 Friesian and 

3/8 Sahiwal cross bred animals with a mean peak yield per 

lactation day of 11.14kg±1.18kg (M±SD) with a CV of 10.6% 

show a 104% increase in peak yield per lactation day compared 

to miscellaneous indigenous local cattle (Table 1). 

Sahiwal cows are capable of producing milk for a 

lactation period of 290-305 days (Muhuyi, et al., 1999) with a 

mean lactation yield of 1574±575.8kg (M±SD) and a CV of 

36.6% (Muhuyi, 1997). In the present study the mean lactation 

yield of miscellaneous indigenous local cattle was1007.03± 

381.998kg (M±SD) and a CV of 37.9% while the documented 

miscellaneous indigenous local cattle have a low lactation 

tield at 500kg in 300 lactation days (ICAR,2002). The lactation 

records for the local miscellaneous cattle show a steady 

lactation record and lowered lactation record per year - due to 

calving (Table 2). The mean lactation yield of 3/8 Sahiwal 5/8 

Friesian cows and miscellaneous indigenous local cattle was 

1416.5Kg±251.11kg (M±SD) with a CV of 17.7% and 

2129.9Kg±393.21kg (M±SD) with a CV of 18.4% respectively. 

Sahiwal pure breed which have average milk yield of 

2097±687kg (M±SD) /lactation (Muhuyi, 1997). The 3/8 Sahiwal 

5/8 Friesian cows and Sahiwal cows have a 50% and 48% 

increase respectively in lactation yield as compared to 

miscellaneous indigenous local cattle. The lactation yield of 

miscellaneous indigenous local cattle is comparable to pure 

Sahiwal cattle since the age of the cattle at recording was of 

an higher age at 9 years. The lower yield of miscellaneous 

indigenous local cattle could be due to an effect of the age of 

the cow during the experiment since almost all the cows were 

9 years of age. The cross bred cattle while having a higher 

milk production capacity than the indigenous Bos cattle have 

a lower milk producing capacity than the exotic Sahiwal cattle 

(Kothekhar, 2004) showing that pure bred cattle population 

indigenous to tropical regions such as Sahiwal when 

crossbred with exotic breeds Holstein Friesian with proper 

maintenance and under prevailing local conditions has 

improved milk yield even after the cattle cross the age of 9 

years. The total proportion of local miscellaneous cattle in 

India is 86.6% at 160.5 million (Paul and Chandel, 2010). These 

cattle are highly resistant to local infections and heat resistant 

and are capable of producing lactation yields comparable to 

Bos indicus pure breeds. Genetic grades obtained from cross 

breeding with Bos indicus cattle affect milk production traits 

(Bhadauria and Katpatal, 2003). Cattle with Holstein inheritance 

Table 2. 

Lactation records of local miscellaneous cattle for 

2002-2005. 

Miscellaneous 

cattle number 

2002 

(Kg) 

2003 

(Kg) 

2004 

(Kg) 

2005 

(Kg) 

345 1107 1460 515 1189 

369 1665 901 539 662 

387 1569 1305 610 735 

386 1325 1077 638 812


of 5/8 and above have a higher milk yield with improvement in 

the trait improving other milk production traits due to a 

correlated response to selection (Raheja, 1994; Jadhav and 

Khan, 1995; Banerjee and Banerjee, 2003; Mudgal, et al., 1986). 

Thus the local miscellaneous cattle successively upgraded 

by cross breeding with local/exotic pure breeds should 

demonstrate a higher lactation yield comparable to pure breed 

indigenous cattle in addition to management planning 

benefiting the local rural economy (Rathore, 2008). 


The authors wish to acknowledge with gratitude the 

support of Prof. R.B. Lal the Honorable Vice Chancellor of the 

Sam Higginbottom Institute of Agriculture, Technology and 

Sciences during the entire period of this study. The authors 

wish to acknowledge the effort of the livestock unit staff in 

the proper maintenance and care of the animals. The article 

demonstrates our gratitude to the institute founder an 

American evangelist Dr. Sam Higginbottom for an efficient 

live stock unit at the Sam Higginbottom Institute of Agriculture, 

Technology and Sciences. 


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its influence on some economic traits in Holstein Friesian × Sahiwal 

cattle. Indian Veterinary Journal, 80: 348-351. 

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factors on 300 days milk yield of first lactation in Friesian 

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18-22. 



Heterosis for Various Quatitative Traits in Rice (Oryza sativa L.) 

P.G. VARPE, R.D. VASHI, P.P. PATIL, S.R. PATIL AND V.A. LODAM 

Plant Breeding and Genetics, N. M. College of Agriculture, National Agricultutal Research Project, Navsari 

Agricultural University, Navsari 396 450 (Gujarat) 

e-mail: prashantppatil322@gmail.com 

ABSTRACT 

Heterosis in rice was studied in a set of 4 lines and 10 testers 

with their 40 hybrids. The magnitude of heterosis varied from 

cross to cross for all the characters studied. The significant 

positive heterosis over better parent for grain yield per plant 

ranged from - 28.71% to 39.18%. The cross combinations IR 28 

x IET 20152 (39.18 %), followed by IR 28 x GR 103 (38.32%) and 

IR 28 x NVSR 20 (31.37%) exhibited significant positive 

heterosis over better parent for grain yield per plant. These 

superior crosses also exhibited somewhat significant and 

positive heterosis for panicles per plant, panicle length, grains 

per panicle, 1000 grain weight, protein content, amylose content 

and L/B ratio. Hybrid vigour of superior crosses may be exploited 

commercially after verifying the stability performance across 

the environments over years. 

Key words 

Heterosis, line x tester, rice, yield components 

Heterosis is the hybridization between unrelated strains 

in self-pollinated crops that generally leads to an increased 

vigour and fertility. This aspect is of great significance in 

breeding. Most of the improved varieties hybrids utilize this 

phenomenon of hybrid vigour. In the present study, 

investigation were undertaken to asses the extent of 

exploitable heterosis in hybrid rice involving four female lines 

and ten testers. 


The experimental plant material consisted of four female 

lines viz., GR 10, IR 28, Lal kada and Safed kada and ten testers 

viz., GR 12, NVSR 20, IET 20152, IET 20528, IET 20533, IET 

20538, IET 20560, IET 20567, GR 103 and IET 19419. They were 

crossed in line x tester fashion during summer 2007 to obtained 

40 F1s. All these hybrids along with their parents were 

evaluated in randomized block design (RBD) with three 

replications during kharif-2008 at National Agricultural 

Research Project Farm, N.A.U., Navsari. Healthy and vigorous 

seedlings of each genotype were selected and transplanted 

with a spacing of 20 x 15 cm. Each plot consisted of single row 

of 10 plants. The normal agronomic and plant protection 

practices were followed. The observations on five randomly 

selected plants in each row, excluding border ones, were 

recorded for ten characters viz., days to 50 % flowering, 

panicles per plant, panicle length, plant height, grains per 

panicle, grain yield per plant, 1000 grain weight, amylose 

content, protein content and L/B ratio. Heterosis was 

calculated over the better parents and expressed as percentage 

using standard method. 


The analysis of variance for mean squares due to parents 

for all the characters were found highly significant indicating 

considerable amount of variability among the parents for 

various traits (Table 1). The mean squares due to hybrids as 

well as parents vs hybrids comparison for all the characters 

were found highly significant indicating substantial amount 

of heterosis present in a population. The measures of heterosis 

over better parent (heterobeltiosis) are better rational 

parameters for assessing its practical utility. Therefore, in 

present investigation heterosis is reported over better parent. 

Negative heterosis is considered as desirable for days to 50% 

flowering and plant height while for other characters 

significant positive heterosis was considered as desirable. 

Several workers reported substantial heterosis for various 

agronomic characters. 

The estimates of heterosis for days to 50 % flowering 

revealed that heterobeltiosis ranged from 15.07 per cent (GR 

10 x NVSR 20) to 10.97 per cent (GR 10 x IET 20567). Twenty 

one crosses showed significant heterobeltiosis for this trait, 

out of twenty one crosses sixteen crosses exhibited significant 

negative heterobeltiosis (Table 2). The results were based on 

findings of Ramalingam, et al. 1994, Bhandarker, et al. 2005, 

Pandya and Tripathi, 2006, Eradasappa, et al., 2007 and 

Venkatesan, et al., 2008. 

As regards to heterobeltiosis for panicles per plant, it 

varied from -19.27 per cent (GR 10 x IET 20538) to 24.40 per 

cent (Lal kada x NVSR 20). With respect to heterobeltiosis, 

nineteen hybrids recorded significant heterotic effects, of 

which twelve hybrids were positively significant. The present 

findings were in close association with the results reported 

by Bhandarker, et al., 2005, Pandya and Tripathi, 2006, 

Eradasappa, et al., 2007 and Parihar and Pathak, 2008. 

For panicle length, seventeen crosses showed 

significant heterobeltiosis for which twelve crosses exhibited 

significant positive heterobeltiosis while five cross 

combinations expressed significant negative heterosis over 

their respective better parents. Heterobeltiosis varied from - 

14.11 per cent (GR 10 x IET 20538) to 17.34 per cent (Lal kada 

x IET 19419). Similar results reported by Singh, et al., 2007 and 

Eradasappa, et al. 2007. 

Heterotic effects over better parental values for plant 

height varied from -20.28 per cent (IR 28 x GR 103) to 16.42 per 

cent (GR 10 x GR 103). For plant height, out of eighteen 

heterobeltiotic crosses, eleven cross exhibited significant 

negative heterosis, while seven cross combination exhibited


Table 1. 

Sr. 

No 

Table 2. 

Analysis of variance (mean sum of squares) for experimental design for different characters in rice. 

Characters Replication Parents Females Males Females vs 

males 

*Significant at 5% **Significant at 1% 

Estimation of heterosis for different characters in rice. 

Hybrids 

Crosses DFF PP PL PH GP 

GR 10 x GR 12 -7.19* 19.41** 12.10* -3.04 0.71 

GR 10 x NVSR 20 -15.07** 0.55 17.15** -12.44* 8.98* 

GR 10 x IET 20152 -0.27 8.56 11.19* -2.78 10.75* 

GR 10 x IET 20528 -2.50 0.47 0.08 10.61 1.43 

GR 10 x IET 20533 1.39 0.43 0.28 8.98 0.76 

GR 10 x IET 20538 5.03 -19.27** -14.11* 1.16 -11.61** 

GR 10 x IET 20560 -7.19* 1.45 7.03 -13.16* 0.24 

GR 10 x IET 20567 10.97** -12.71* -4.74 16.35** -5.17 

GR 10 x GR 103 -7.33* 5.42 9.44 16.42* 1.03 

GR 10 x IET 19419 2.86 13.57* -5.76 2.76 -3.86 

IR 28 x GR 12 -7.72* 2.86 2.50 -1.11 1.72 

IR 28 x NVSR 20 -5.77 20.81** 11.41* -12.33* 0.62 

IR 28 x IET 20152 -10.54** 21.23** 12.88* -0.21 9.45* 

IR 28 x IET 20528 -10.95** 12.02* 14.69** -13.66* 0.91 

IR 28 x IET 20533 -8.40* 5.52 6.05 13.93* 0.55 

IR 28 x IET 20538 1.10 -1.35 -6.77 0.75 -8.60 

IR 28 x IET 20560 5.52 -13.47* -10.90* 3.15 -9.12* 

IR 28 x IET 20567 7.51* -1.88 -12.35* 13.54* -9.24* 

IR 28 x GR 103 -11.46** 20.05** 14.44* -20.28** 13.27** 

IR 28 x IET 19419 0.62 18.85** -3.27 1.25 -3.47 

Lal kada x GR 12 -7.10* 0.24 1.69 -13.76* 1.31 

Lal kada x NVSR 20 -1.32 24.40** 12.85* 1.84 9.43* 

Lal kada x IET 20152 -7.73* -12.72* -3.98 -14.43* -3.54 

Lal kada x IET 20528 -7.68* 14.42* 0.20 -15.19* 16.13** 

Lal kada x IET 20533 -1.69 -17.72* -13.36* 6.03 -9.37* 

Lal kada x IET 20538 0.53 -17.31* -12.34 6.77 -10.65* 

Lal kada x IET 20560 3.03 0.26 0.57 0.03 0.79 

Lal kada x IET 20567 7.13* 0.76 0.51 11.94* 0.10 

Lal kada x GR 103 -6.62* 2.07 0.20 10.95 0.81 

Lal kada x IET 19419 2.10 4.19 17.34* 9.20 7.98* 

Safed kada x GR 12 -7.23* -11.85* -11.45* -12.38* -8.86* 

Safed kada x NVSR 20 -13.20** 16.52** 12.17* -12.70* 9.67* 

Safed kada x IET 20152 -6.46* -5.26 -7.52 -13.24* -4.71 

Safed kada x IET 20528 -1.51 0.78 0.60 8.41 0.84 

Safed kada x IET 20533 -0.05 2.89 0.65 5.92 0.87 

Safed kada x IET 20538 3.24 16.15* 14.70* 3.90 9.88* 

Safed kada x IET 20560 7.78* 2.13 0.77 11.13* 1.35 

Safed kada x IET 20567 2.24 -2.38 -7.79 3.24 -7.91 

Safed kada x GR 103 -0.26 12.39* 15.45* 11.39 9.04* 

Safed kada x IET 19419 6.94* 3.36 6.36 13.22* 1.13 

S.Ed.± 3.072 0.720 1.344 6.646 6.610 

C.D. at 5 % 6.117 1.434 2.677 13.232 13.159 

C.D. at 1 % 8.113 1.901 3.550 17.549 17.452 

DFF= Days to 50% flowering, PP= Panicles per plant, PL= Panicle length (cm), PH= Plant height (cm), GP= Grains per panicle 

Parents vs 

Hybrids 

d.f. 2 13 3 9 1 39 1 

1 Days to 50% flowering 0.291 235.759** 52.633* 109.725** 1919.453** 150.816** 5013.114** 

2 Panicles per plant 0.144 14.377** 11.373** 14.781** 19.751** 15.061** 59.070** 

3 Panicle length (cm) 0.789 40.492** 72.499** 21.800** 112.696** 31.329** 153.535** 

4 Plant height (cm) 1.161 280.713** 194.881* 308.586** 287.349* 461.913** 362.637* 

5 Grains per panicle 2.241 336.414** 257.107* 210.855** 1704.367** 782.545** 1055.071** 

6 Grain yield per plant (g) 1.619 14.366** 7.350* 12.417** 52.951* 16.146** 198.139** 

7 1000 grain weight (g) 0.368 8.346** 6.683** 7.974** 16.680** 17.238** 36.866** 

8 Amylose content (%) 0.205 17.969** 16.152** 18.655** 17.238** 20.195** 83.593** 

9 Protein content (%) 0.055 4.887** 7.312** 3.801** 7.381** 2.921** 46.878** 

10 L/B ratio 0.001 1.407** 0.613** 0.797** 9.270** 0.869** 5.331**

Table 2. 

Conti… 

VARPE et al., Heterosis for various quatitative traits in rice (Oryza sativa L.) 9 3 

Crosses GYP TW AC PC L/B ratio 

GR 10 x GR 12 30.37** 13.52** 0.71 2.61 0.61 

GR 10 x NVSR 20 19.58* 7.77* 6.39* 8.66* 0.87 

GR 10 x IET 20152 22.62* 9.48* -5.43 2.32 3.67 

GR 10 x IET 20528 16.99 3.85 11.16** 20.32** 7.76** 

GR 10 x IET 20533 3.86 1.47 4.68 4.06 22.07** 

GR 10 x IET 20538 -28.71** -14.30** -9.44** -10.16** -7.23** 

GR 10 x IET 20560 3.27 0.08 9.33** 13.05** 12.95** 

GR 10 x IET 20567 -10.39 -0.04 -1.14 -0.48 -6.75* 

GR 10 x GR 103 12.18 0.49 2.56 3.73 1.09 

GR 10 x IET 19419 -10.12 -7.27 -0.20 0.21 2.45 

IR 28 x GR 12 13.79 1.58 2.67 2.31 1.58 

IR 28 x NVSR 20 31.37** 8.87* 10.25** 6.68* 5.80* 

IR 28 x IET 20152 39.18** 17.35** 8.79* 7.07* 17.43** 

IR 28 x IET 20528 1.77 1.77 6.54* 6.04* 5.41* 

IR 28 x IET 20533 5.22 4.92 1.00 -0.39 -3.07 

IR 28 x IET 20538 -9.55 0.49 -3.74 2.27 -0.48 

IR 28 x IET 20560 -22.48* -9.03* 8.38** 11.53** 13.14** 

IR 28 x IET 20567 -22.98* -9.46* -6.93* -6.68* -7.47* 

IR 28 x GR 103 38.32** 11.60** 13.42** 1.80 5.03* 

IR 28 x IET 19419 -3.32 -4.95 5.50 1.03 8.36** 

Lal kada x GR 12 12.73 2.41 0.45 2.30 -0.63 

Lal kada x NVSR 20 24.01** 7.32* 1.58 14.86** 11.59** 

Lal kada x IET 20152 -10.62 -2.18 1.30 -2.03 -2.14 

Lal kada x IET 20528 29.59** -0.30 6.12* 2.03 0.71 

Lal kada x IET 20533 -22.25* -9.96* -0.48 -1.89 1.12 

Lal kada x IET 20538 -26.04* -8.82* 0.87 4.86 1.93 

Lal kada x IET 20560 8.37 0.53 8.38** 8.24** 9.14** 

Lal kada x IET 20567 6.03 1.22 -8.40* -6.62* -6.49* 

Lal kada x GR 103 10.67 4.06 1.21 2.97 -1.97 

Lal kada x IET 19419 22.19* 9.64* 6.71* 7.03* 7.12* 

Safed kada x GR 12 -24.19* -9.41* 4.06 -3.66 3.15 

Safed kada x NVSR 20 21.66* 3.16 0.85 0.73 10.72** 

Safed kada x IET 20152 -4.04 -3.30 2.96 0.49 -2.14 

Safed kada x IET 20528 11.39 1.66 1.41 -2.68 1.88 

Safed kada x IET 20533 13.05 2.81 0.44 -2.07 3.35 

Safed kada x IET 20538 22.70* 9.88* 3.40 2.07 -1.45 

Safed kada x IET 20560 8.29 2.08 5.77* 5.73* 6.29* 

Safed kada x IET 20567 -7.90 -3.79 -3.61 -6.71* -7.14* 

Safed kada x GR 103 21.43* 9.75* -1.32 3.41 0.44 

Safed kada x IET 19419 12.27 7.33 -1.39 1.46 2.79 

S.Ed.± 2.407 0.906 0.670 0.221 0.092 

C.D. at 5 % 4.792 1.804 1.335 0.441 0.184 

C.D. at 1 % 6.356 2.392 1.770 0.585 0.244 

GYP= Grain yield per plant (g), TW= 1000 grain weight, AC= Amylose content (%), PC= Protein content (%), L/B = Kernel length/ Breadth ratio 

significant positive heterosis over their respective better 

parents. The present findings were in close association with 

results reported by Lokaprakash, et al., 1992, Banumathy, et 

al., 2003, Yadav, et al., 2004 and Eradasappa, et al., 2007. 

Grains per panicle are an important component which 

considerably contributes towards higher grain yield. For this 

trait, heterosis over better parent varied from -11.61 per cent 

(GR 10 x IET 20538) to 16.13 per cent (Lal kada x IET 20528). 

Under present study, sixteen crosses showed significant 

heterobeltiosis. Out of sixteen, ten crosses exhibited 

significant positive heterosis, while six exhibited significant 

negative heterosis. The results were in agreement with the 

findings of Annadurai and Nandaraejan, 2001, Pandya and 

Tripathi, 2006 and Parihar and Pathak, 2008. 

A good number of hybrids were found with high amount 

of heterobeltiosis for grain yield per plant. The heterobeltiosis 

range from -28.71 per cent (GR 10 x IET 20538) to 39.18 per cent 

(IR 28 x IET 20152). For grain yield per plant, eighteen crosses 

showed significant heterobeltiosis, out of eighteen crosses, 

twelve crosses showed significant positive heterotic effects 

over their respective better parent. The highest positive 

significant heterosis was recorded by cross IR 28 x IET 20152 

(39.18 per cent) followed by IR 28 x GR 103 (38.32 per cent) and 

IR 28 x NVSR 20 (31.37 per cent). Significant positive heterosis 

for grain yield has reported by Ramalingam, et al., 1994, 

Bhandarker, et al., 2005 and Venkatesan, et al., 2008. 

In case of 1000 grain weight, heterobeltiosis ranged from 

-14.30 per cent (GR 10 x IET 20538) to 17.35 per cent (IR 28 x


Table 3. 

Comparison of top eight promising crosses on the basis of per se performance, heterobeltiosis for grain yield and 

significant heterotic effects for other characters 

Hybrids Per se performance Heterobeltiosis Significant heterosis for other traits 

IR 28x NVSR 20 37.90 31.37 PP, PL, PH, GY, TW, AC, PC, L/B 

Lal kada x NVSR 20 35.78 24.01 PP, PL, GP, GY, TW, PC, L/B 

Safed kada x NVSR 20 35.10 21.66 DFF, PP, PL, PH, GP, GY, L/B 

GR 10 x NVSR 20 34.50 19.58 DFF, PL, PH, GP, GY, TW, AC, PC 

Lal kada x IET 20528 34.25 29.59 DFF, PP, PH, GP, GY, AC 

IR 28x GR 103 32.92 38.32 DFF, PP,PL, PH, GP, GY, TW, AC, L/B 

IR 28x IET 20152 32.36 39.18 DFF, PP, PL, GP, GY, TW, AC, PC, L/B 

GR 10 x GR 12 31.85 30.37 DFF, PP, PL, GY, TW 

DFF= Days to 50% flowering, PP= Panicles per plant, PL= Panicle length (cm), PH= Plant height (cm), GP= Grains per panicle, GYP= Grain yield 

per plant (g), TW= 1000 grain weight, AC= Amylose content (%),PC= Protein content (%), L/B = Kernel length/ Breadth ratio 

IET 20152). Out of sixteen heterobeltiotic crosses, six crosses 

showed significant negative heterobeltiosis while ten crosses 

showed significant positive heterobeltiosis for this trait. These 

findings were supported by Pandya and Tripathi, 2006, Singh, 

et al., 2007 and Parihar and Pathak, 2008. 

Heterotic effects over better parental value for amylose 

content varied from 9.44 per cent (GR 10 x IET 20538) to 13.42 

per cent (IR 28 x GR 103). With respect to heterobeltiosis, 

fifteen hybrids showed significant heterotic effects, of which 

twelve hybrids showed significant positive heterobeltiosis 

only three hybrids expressed significant negative 

heterobeltiosis for this trait. Positive heterosis for this trait 

was reported by Sarathe, et al., 1986 and Annadurai and 

Nandarajan, 2001. 

The estimation of heterobeltiosis for protein content 

ranged from 10.16 per cent (GR 10 x IET 20538) to 20.32 per 

cent (GR 10 x IET 20528). Among fifteen crosses which showed 

significant heterobeltiosis, eleven crosses showed significant 

positive heterobeltiosis, while only four crosses showed 

significant negative heterobeltiosis. Similar results were 

reported by Chao, 1972 and Roy, et al., 1975. 

Heterotic effects over better parental value for L/B ratio 

varied from -7.47 per cent (IR 28 x IET 20567) to 22.07 per cent 

(GR 10 x IET 20533). With respect to heterobeltiosis, nineteen 

hybrids showed significant heterotic effects, of which fourteen 

hybrids showed significant positive heterobeltiosis, only five 

hybrids expressed significant negative heterobeltiosis for L/ 

B ratio. The results are in confirmation with the findings 

reported by Venkatesan, et al., 2008. 

The top three crosses showing significant positive 

heterotic effect for grain yield per plant were IR 28 x IET 20152, 

IR 28 x GR 103 and IR 28 x NVSR 20 (Table 3). The first cross IR 

28 x IET 20152 showed significant heterobeltiosis in desirable 

direction for days to 50% flowering, panicles per plant, panicle 

length, grains per panicle, 1000 grain weight, amylose content, 

protein content and L/B ratio. The second cross IR 28 x GR 

103 showed significant heterobeltiosis in desirable direction 

for days to 50% flowering, panicles per plant, panicle length, 

plant height, grains per panicle, 1000 grain weight, amylose 

content, protein content and L/B ratio, while the third cross 

IR 28 x NVSR 20 showed significant heterobeltiosis in desirable 

direction for panicles per plant, panicle length, plant height, 

1000 grain weight, amylose content, protein content and L/B 

ratio, which indicates that the heterosis for yield per plant 

was due to heterosis for other yield component characters. 

Also these hybrids or superior crosses may be exploited 

commercially after verifying the stability performance across 

the environments over the year. From this study, it can be 

concluded that grain yield per plant was found to be the most 

heterotic traits hence, manifestation of heterosis for grain yield 

is mainly due to components traits viz., panicles per plant, 

panicle length, grains per panicle and 1000 grain weight. 


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component traits in rice. Madras Agric.J., 88(1-3): 184-186. 

Banumathy, S., Thiyagarajan, K. and Vaidyanathan, P. 2003. Study on 

magnitude of heterosis of rice hybrids for yield and its components. 

Crop Res., 25(2): 287-293. 

Bhandarkar, S., Rastogi, N.K. and Arvind, K. 2005. Study of heterosis 

in rice. Oryza, 42(3) : 218-119. 

Chao, C.N. 1972. Studies on heterosis for protein content in rice. 

Taiwan Agric. Quarterly, 8(1): 60-65. 

Eradasappa, E., Ganapathy. K.N., Satish, R.G., Shanthala, J. and 

Nadarajan, N. 2007. Heterosis studies for yield and yield components 

using CMS lines in rice (Oryza sativa L.). Crop Res., 34(1,2&3): 

152-155. 

Lokaprakash, R., Shivashankar, G., Mahadevappa, M., Gowda, B.T.S 

and Kulkarni, R.S. 1992. Heterosis in rice. Oryza, 29:293-297 

Pandya, R. and Tripathi, R.S. 2006. Heterosis breeding in hybrid rice. 

Oryza, 43(2): 87-93. 

Parihar, A. and Pathak, A.R. 2008. Heterosis for quantitative traits in 

rice. Oryza, 45(3): 181-187. 

Ramalingam, J., Vivekanandan, P., Vanniarajan, C. and Subramanian, 

M. 1994. Heterosis in early rice. Ann. Agric. Res., 15(2): 194-198. 

Roy, B. S. K., Mitra, A. K. and Mukharji, D. K. 1975. Hybrid vigour in 

five cross combinations in Rice. Science And Culture, 41(3): 118- 

119. 

Sarathe, M.L., Singh, S.P and Perraju, P. 1986. Heterosis and combinign 

ability for quality characters in rice. Indian J. Agric. Sci., 56(11): 

749-753. 

Singh, N. K., Singh, S., Singh, A. K., Sharma, C. L., Singh, P. K. and 

Singh, O. N. 2007. Study of heterosis in rice (Oryza sativa L.) using 

line x tester mating system. Oryza, 44(3): 260-263. 

Venkatesan, M., Anbuselvam, Y., Murugan, S. and Palaniraja, K. 2008. 

Heterosis for yield, its components and grain traits in rice (Oryza 

sativa L.). Oryza, 45(1): 76-78. 

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hybrid rice. Oryza, 41(1&2): 1-3. 



Study of Nematocidal Activities of the Culture Filtrate of the Nematophagous Fungus, 

Paecilomyces lilacinus Isolates 

AVINASH PANDEY, SOBITA SIMON AND BASHARAT, N. 

Sam Higginbottom Institute of Agriculture, Science and Technology, Allahabad, U.P. 

e-mail: avinash_micro@ymail.com 

ABSTRACT 

Three isolates of Paecilomyces lilacinus (PlA#1, PlA#2 and 

PlK#01) were investigated for their enzymatic activities on 

different solid media. All fungal strains P. lilacinus exhibited 

polysacchrolytic, proteolytic and lipolytic activities on various 

specific agar medium. Crude culture extracts obtained from 

liquid culture of P. lilacinus strains, incubated for 7 days, 14 

days and 21 days were tested for larvicidal effect against second 

stage juveniles of Meloidogyne incognita after incubation for 

24, 48 and 72 hrs. After incubation, culture extract of all strains 

exhibited larvicidal effect against M. incognita juveniles. P. 

lilacinus strain PIA#1 exhibited highest percentage of mortality 

and PIK#01 exhibited lowest percentage of mortality of M. 

incognita juveniles after 72 hrs. corresponding to incubation of 

14 days. Enzymatic extract of P. lilacinus stains were screened 

semi quantitatively for proteolytic activities on casein Agar 

and gelatin Agar while to assessed the chitinolytic activities, 

chitin agar was used. Highest proteolytic activity was estimated 

9 days after incubation in extract of 14 days old culture of P. 

lilacinus strains PIA#1. 2.5 cm diameter of degradation halo 

was recorded 5 days after incubation on chitin agar. 

Key words 

Paecilomyces lilacinus, larvicidal effect, Meloidogne 

incognita, enzymatic activity. 

The main goal of the current study was to determine the 

ability of selected microbes to produce compounds affecting 

root-knot nematode viability. Paecilomyces lilacinus is an 

opportunistic biocontrol agent, in controlling root-knot 

nematode which can also colonize in soil and developed in 

the rhizosphere of plants. P. lilacinus was found to begin with 

the growth of hyphae in the nematode gelatinous matrix 

followed by parasitism of females and destruction of embryos 

(Siddiqui and Mahmood, 1993). Nematophagous fungi 

activities on egg shell degradation could be associated to 

same mechanism. In previous works, enzymatic activities have 

been detected in fungi with antagonistic activity on nematodes 

eggs. Enzymes have been considered as virulence factors in 

the infection mechanisms of nematophagous fungi (Khan, et 

al., 2004). Hydrolytic enzymes such as proteases and chitinases 

produced by P. lilacinus have been implicated in the variation 

of its ovicidal effect and / or parasitic activities against 

nematodes (Dackman, et al., 1989). P. lilacinus produce various 

toxic metabolites which are responsible for nematicidal action. 

This fungus produce various antibiotics viz., lilacin 

leucinostatin and paecilotoxin (Mikami, et al., 1989). 

This study investigated the bio activities of a collection 

of isolated strains of P. lilacinus from tomato growing field of 

Allahabad and Kanpur region. Their nematicidal activity 

towards test nematode Meloidogyne incognita was 

evaluated. The enzymatic activities of isolated strains were 

also investigated on solid and liquid medium. 


In the experiment, three strains of Paecilomyces 

lilacinus (PIA#1, PIA#2 and PIK#01) were isolated from the 

tomato field infested with Meloidogyne incognita. 

Paecilomyces lilacinus (PIA#1 and PIA#2) isolated from the 

soil in Allahabad region (U.P. India) while Paecilomyces 

lilacinus (PIK#01) isolated from the tomato root showing the 

symptoms of nematode infection from tomato field in Kanpur 

region (U.P. India). Isolation of both fungal strains were carried 

out by standard microbiological techniques. The colonies 

were sub cultured on potato-dextrose agar and identified 

taxonomically on the basis of macroscopic and microscopic 

characteristics of Paecilomyces lilacinus (Samson, 1974). 

Enzymatic production of Paecilomyces lilacinus strains 

was determined on agar media supplemented with different 

substrates. Corboxymethylcellulose agar was used to 

determine polysaccharolytic activities. To determine 

proteolytic activities of Paecilomyces lilacinus gelatin agar 

and casein agar were used. Tween 80 agar was used to 

determine lipolytic activities. Plates were inoculated at 25 0 C 

in the dark place. Enzymatic activities were determined on the 

basis of degradation in colonies with an average diameter of 

5 cm, regardless of incubation time. All experiments were 

carried out in triplicates and the error was calculated by 

standard deviation. The results were interpreted taking into 

account the ratio between the degradation halo radio of 

substrate and the colony according to the following scale: 

grade 0, no degradation: grade 1, degradation only under 

colony centre; grade 2, degradation is evident only under the 

whole colony; grade 3, degradation radio 2-10 mm large than 

that of colony; grade 4, degradation radio 10 larger than that 

of colony (Kunert, et al., 1987). 

Paecilomyces lilacinus strains were cultured on potato 

dextrose agar for seven days at 25 0 C. The conidia were 

suspended in 0.02% (v/v) Tween 80 solution. Liquid cultures 

were carried out in 250 ml- Erlenmeyers flasks containing 100


ml of minimum medium (4.56 g/L K 2 

HPO 4 

, 2.77 g/l KH 2 

PO 4 

and 

0.5 g/L KCI) supplemented with 10 g/L chitin flakes. The flasks 

were inoculated with 2 ml suspension of conidia (1X10 6 

conidia/ ml) and incubated at 27 0 in the dark for 21 days 

(Gortari, et al., 2008). Two flasks per each strain were withdrawn 

every week. Fungal biomass was separated by centrifugation 

at 4 0 C and culture supernatant was collected by filtration and 

kept at -20 0 C until analyzed. 

Second stage juveniles of Meloidogyne incognita were 

collected from infested tomato plants, these juveniles were 

exposed to filtrate after 7, 14 and 21 days after incubation for 

24, 48 and 72 hrs. in 5 cm dia petriplates and observation on 

immobilization /killed were recorded. The revival test were 

conducted after transferring juveniles in fresh water. Each 

treatment had three replications. 

Enzymatic extract of Paecilomyces lilacinus strains were 

screened semi quantitatively for proteolytic activity on casein 

agar and gelatin agar while to assessed the chitinolytic 

activities, chitin agar was used. Each medium was poured in 

petri dish and 8 mm diameter holes were made after 

solidification of medium. One hundred microliters of enzymatic 

extract, corresponding to each culture period of test fungus 

were placed in each hole (in triplicates). Petri dishes were 

incubated at 25 0 C and the size of degradation halo caused by 

enzymatic activity was recorded until no size changes were 

observed. 


Taxonomic identification of Paecilomyces lilacinus 

strains was confirmed on the basis of macroscopic and 

microscopic characteristic on malt agar (Samson, 1974). All 

strains of Paecilomyces lilacinus were able to grow in all agar 

media tested. Table 1 shows the enzymatic activities tested 

for three strains displaying similar qualitative and semiquantitative 

behavior against different substrates tested. All 

Paecilomyces lilacinus strains shows positive activities 

against polysaccharide incorporate to corboxymethylcellulose 

agar. Paecilomyces lilacinus also exhibited proteolytic and 

lipolytic activities on gelatin agar, casein agar and Tween 80 

agar respectively. 

Table 1. 

Enzymatic activities of P. lilacinus (Strains PlA#1, 

PlA#2 and PlK#01) on various agar media 

Solid media 

Enzymatic 

P. lilacinus strains 

activity PlA#1 PlA#2 PlK#01 

Corboxymethylcellulose Polysaccharolytic 4 4 4 

Agar 

Gelatin Agar Proteolytic 4 3 3 

Casein Agar Proteolytic 4 4 3 

Tween 80 Agar Lipolytic 3 2 3 

All three strains of Paecilomyces lilacinus were found 

to posses larvicidal action on second stage juveniles of M. 

incognita. Table 2 indicated that extract after different 

incubation period (7, 14 and 21 days) exhibited larvicidal effect. 

The percentage of killed juveniles increased with increasing 

exposure time for each strain. Larvicidal activities in extract 

were evident in seven days, reaching their highest percentage 

of mortality at 134 days culture then, larvicidal activities 

showed lower value at 21 days culture. Paecilomyces lilacinus 

strain PlA#1 exibited highest percentage of mortality and 

Plk#01 exhibited lower percentage of mortality after 72 hrs. 

corresponding to incubation of 14 days. 

Paecilomyces lilacinus strains PlA#1, PlA#2 and Plk#01 

grown in liquid media and produced chitinolytic and 

proteolytic activities. Enzymatic activities of crude extract was 

estimated by diameter of degradation halo size in agar media. 

Highest proteolytic activity was estimated 9 days after 

incubation in extract of 14 days old culture of Paecilomyces 

lilacinus strain PlA#1 which exhibited 4 cm and 3 cm diameter 

degradation halo on casein agar and on gelatin agar 

respectively. After 9 days, no further change in size of 

degradation halo was recorded. Highest chitinolytic activity 

was detected in extract of 14 days old culture of Paecilomyces 

lilacinus strain PlA#1. 2.5 cm diameter of degradation halo 

was recorded 5 days after incubation on chitin agar. After 5 

days of incubation, size of degradation halo was remain 

unchanged. 

Production of extracellular enzymes that participated in 

the infection process are among the main characteristics for 

selecting the potentially appropriate fungus to be used as 

biocontrol agent (Barranco-Florido, et al., 2002). Kunert, et 

al., 1982 studied the polysacchrolytic activity on a series of 

antagonistic fungi and celluloytic activity was detected on 

80% of the fungi. High proteolytic activity detected for all 

three strains on gelatin and casein agar, can be related to the 

basic role of proteases, which together with other metabolites 

were responsible for larvicidal effect on M. incognita juveniles 

(Mikami, et al., 1989). However, the lipolytic activity detected 

Table 2. Effect of extract of P. lilacinus strains on M. 

incognita (J 2 

) 

Isolates Incubation period % of killed juveniles after 

before filtration *24 hrs *48 hrs *72 hrs 

PlA#1 7 23.3(28.2) 26.3(30.8) 29.0(24.7) 

14 36.0(36.9) 53.3(48.2) 68.0(56.3) 

21 20.3(26.7) 35.3(30.3) 42.7(34.8) 

CD (P=0.05) 5.63 7.20 6.32 

PlA#2 7 19.0(26.6) 25.0(29.8) 33.0(35.1) 

14 34.7(36.1) 43.7(41.2) 62.3(52.3) 

21 19.1(26.6) 36.7(37.4) 41.0(24.2) 

CD(P=0.05) 4.23 5.96 6.25 

PlK#01 7 8.7(16.9) 25.0(29.8) 28.0(31.8) 

14 27.0(31.3) 35.3(30.3) 48.7(34.8) 

21 20.3 (26.7) 31.0(33.9) 39.7(39.2) 

CD(P=0.05) 5.9 3.9 7.02 

Control Water 0.00(1.8) 0.00(1.8) 0.00(1.8) 

Figures in parentheses are n+0.5 angular transformed valued, 

*CD(P=0.05) 4.10, **CD(P=0.05) 6.31, ***CD(P=0.05) 5.88.

PANDEY et al., Study of Nematocidal Activities of the Culture Fitrate of the Nematophagous Fungus 9 7 

for all Paecilomyces lilacinus strain was low agreeing with 

the results obtained by Olivares-Bernabeu and Lopez-Llorca, 

2002. 

Enzymatic activities in crude extract produced by 

Paecilomyces lilacinus strains in liquid culture, were appeared 

in even days, obtaining the peak level at 14 days culture. 

Then, enzymatic activities showed lower level which remain 

constant. Bonants, et al., 1995 found the highest proteolytic 

activity at approximately 10 days of cultivation and 

demonstrated of participation of purified proteases of 

Paecilomyces lilacinus in the destruction of M. hapla eggs. 

Further studies related directly the production of these 

enzymes and destruction of nematode eggs and larvae. 

Larvicidal activity of the crude extract produced by fungal 

strain was maximum after 14 days and further decreased 

possibly due to degradation and depletion of substances 

which were responsible for larvicidal effect. The nematicidal 

property of culture filtrates of Paecilomyces lilacinus was 

observed by Cayrol, et al., 1989 and the mechanism of toxic 

activity was considered to be nematostatic. Khan and Khan, 

1992 observed cent per cent mortality of M. incognita in culture 

filtrate of Paecilomyces lilacinus within 12 hours of exposure. 

Paecilomyces lilacinus has been reported to produce various 

peptidal antibiotics. Acetic acid was identified in extract of 

this fungus which effect the movement of nematodes (Djian, 

et al., 1991). 

It is concluded that the larvicidal action of crude extract 

of P. lilacinus may be possibly due to the various enzymatic 

activities with other fungal metabolic products. Further studies 

in the field are required in order to confirmed the in vitro 

experimental results. 


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state cultivation. Enzymes and Microbial Technology, 30: 910- 

915. 

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Microbiology, 141: 775-784. 

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on the hatching and mortality of root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne 

incognita). Cur. Nematol. 3: 53-60. 

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lilacinus protease and chitinase on the egg shell structures and 

hatching of Meloidogyne javanica juveniles. Biological Control, 

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activity of ovicidal soil fungi. Biologica, 42: 695-705. 

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Fundamental and Applied Nematology, 16: 215-218. 


9Trends 8 in Biosciences 4 (1): 98-100, 2011 Trends in Biosciences 4 (1), 2011 

Oscheius nadarajani Sp.N. (Nematoda: Rhabditida) from Lentil (Lens culinaris) 

Rhizosphere in Unnao District of Uttar Pradesh, India 

S.S. ALI, MOHAMMAD ASIF AND AZRA SHAHEEN 

Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh 208 024 


ABSTRACT 

Oscheius nadarajani sp.n. (Nematoda: Rhabditida) is identified 

and described from rhizosphere of lentil (lens culinaris) at 

Kurmikhera village of Unnao district of Uttar Pradesh, India. 

This new species closely resembles with Oscheius columbiana 

Stock, et al., 2005 but differs in having shorter stoma (vs stoma 

= 21-28 µm in O. columbiana ); spicule shape different from 

that of O. columbiana; notch absent (bursal notch present in O. 

columbiana) ; juveniles do not form clumps. This species can 

also be compared with O. shamimi but has narrower stoma (vs 

stoma 4.6 - 5.7 µm in O. shamimi ) ; anal lips not protruded in 

Oscheius nadarajani where as anal lips very salient in case of 

O. shamimi. moreover endotokia matricida seen in this case 

whereas it is never reported in any of the species of Oscheius 

except O. amsactae (Ali, et al., 2007). 

Key words 

Oscheius nadarajani, taxonomy, morphometrics, new 

species 

From Indian subcontinent nine species of genus 

Oschieus were described namely, O. maqbooli Tabassum and 

Shahina 2002, O. shamimi Tahseen and Nisa 2006, O. amsactae 

Ali et.al., 2007, Oscheius siddiqui and O. niazii Tabassum 

and Shahina 2010 O. ciceri and O. husainii Azra et al., 2011. 

Among these only O. amsactae has been used as biopesticide 

against Helicoverpa armigera, pod borer of chickpea and 

pigeonpea and it was tested against four agriculturally 

important insect pest and its in-vivo production was done on 

thses pest viz., blister beetle, Mylabris pustulata (Thunberg) 

(Coleoptera:Meloidae), grey weevil, Myllocerus sp. 

(Coleoptera:Curculionidae), pumpkin beetle, Aulacophora 

(Raphidopalpa) foveicolls (Coleoptera: Galerucidae), 

Epilachna sp. (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) (Ali et al., 2010). O. 

amsactae was highly infective to agriculturally important pest 

in the country. It was also reported on red hairy caterpillar 

infesting mungbean and urdbean crops. This species is quick 

in multiplication and both in-vivo and in vitro production has 

been worked out and it will be a candidate of EPN biopesticide. 

An attempt was made to identify and described new species 

of entomopathogenic Oscheius which will be later on may be 

utilized for biopesticide formulation. 


During survey in Unnao district of Uttar Pradesh, soil 

samples were drawn from the rhizosphere of standing lentil 

(lens culinaris) crop at the time of harvesting during the month 

of March 2009. Soil samples were drawn from Kurmikhera 

village of Unnao district yielded a new Oscheius spcies. 

Nemalotes were collected from soil by insect baiting technique 

(Bedding and Akhurst, 1975) and cultured in laboratory in 

vivo on Corcyra cephalonica larvae at room temperature 35 

± 2ºC and third stage infective juveniles (IJ) were obtained 

within 3-4 days after emerging from insect cadavers. The 

extracted nematodes were reared in vivo using C. cephalonica 

larvae to test pathogenicity and confirmed Koch’s postulates. 

Nematodes of different stages were killed in warm water 60 o C 

and fixed in TAF (Courtney, et al., 1955) and processed to 

glycerine. Glass wool supports were used to avoid flattening 

of specimens while preparation of slides. All observations 

and measurements were performed within month after 

collection. Observations were made from live and mounted 

specimens on Leica DMLB research microscope equipped 

with differential interference contrast optics. Illustrations were 

prepared from armed type camera Lucida. Measurements were 

made using an ocular micrometer through camera Lucida. 


DESCRIPTION: 

Oscheius Nadarajani sp.n. 

(Fig. 1.) 

Measurement: Table 1 

Adults: Cutcile smooth, about 1 µm thick, with fine transverse 

striae. Lateral field pattern with three ridges (four longitudinal 

lines evenly spaced from each other), visible from midcorpus 

to near phasmids in female or in bursal region of male. Six 

unfused lips each bearing one terminal sensilla. Lip region 

diameter 7-10 µm. Amphidial apertures elliptical. Stoma long, 

narrow, 5-6 times longer than diameter. Cheilostom (pharyngeal 

collar) comprising 70% of stoma length. Glottoid apparatus 

isomorphic. Corpus cylindrical, occupying 60-65% of pharynx 

length. Median bulb absent. Isthmus forming 20-25 % of 

pharynx length. Basal bulb pyriform, with well develoved 

valve, comprising 12-13 % of pharynx length. Excretory pore 

located at basal bulb level,posterior to nerve ring .Nerve ring 

located in middle of isthmus. Phasmids conspicuous. 

Female: Gonads didelphic, anterior branch situated on right 

of intestine, posterior on left side. dorsally reflexed ovaries 

often extending, as far as vulva in form of a transverse slit. 

Epiptygma present. Mating plug absent. Rectum 1.8-2.5 anal 

body diameter long. Anal lips salient, slightly protruded. 

Phasmids adanal.

ALI et al., Oscheius nadarajani sp.N. (Nematoda: Rhabditida) from Lentil (Lens culinaris) Rhizosphere 9 9 

Fig. 1. Oscheius nadarajani. sp.n. Female: B. Entire body, C. Vulval region, D. Anterior region, I. Photomicrographs of anterior region 

at 100 X, G. Tail. Male: F. Entire body, E. Anterior region, H. Tail, I. Photomicrograph of tail at 100 X. Juvinile: A. Entire 

body 

Table 1. Measurement of Oscheius nadarajani (All measurements in microns except ratios) 

Holotype 

Paratypes 


N 10 10 10 

L 1166.91 438.44-475.3(459.6) 1191.1-1395(1280.66) 1358.2-1606.3(1507.16) 

Body width 50.44 9.07-12.61(11.10) 40.74-47.53(44.63) 77.6-79.54(78.56) 

Stoma length 18.43 5.82 19.4 18.5-19.0 

Stoma width 3.00 1.50 3.00 3.00 

Excretory pore 172.66 80.51-87.34(84.72) 165.9-175.2(171.46) 174.6-194.0(182) 


Nerve ring 155.20 69.30-77.60(73.06) 160.31-168.5(164.36) 164.9-200.79(178.41) 

Pharynx 223.10 113.49-116.40(115.10) 242.5-256.89(250.83) 256.08-267.01(260.7) 

Testis reflection 30% 30-40% 


Tail length 41.71 63.05-82.45(74.36) 32.56-35.93(34.38) 121.25-123.19(122.22) 


a 23.13 36.92-48.33(42.02) 23.5-27.78(25.84) 17.5-20.19(18.73) 

b 5.23 3.79-4.10(3.99) 4.50-5.30(4.96) 5.00-5.29(5.10) 

c 27.97 5.76-6.95(6.23) 34.20-37.90(36.14) 11.17-13.03(12.23) 

c’ 1.72 4.33-7.08(5.83) 1.31-1.85(1.15) 5.10-5.29(5.13) 

N = Number of Specimens, Figs. in parenthesis are mean values.


Male: Gonads monarchic, situated left of intestine, bursa 

leptoderan, with a short part of tail protruding beyond bursa. 

Nine pairs of bursal rays arranged as 4 precloacal and 5 pairs 

postcloacal. Spicule slender with conical shaped head. 

Manubrium with a typical shoulder. Lamina with one internal 

rib, not bifurcated.Ventral velum present. Small rostrum may 

be present. Gubernaculum boat-shaped, elongated following 

contour of spicules. 

Juvenile: Third stage juveniles ensheathed in cuticle of second 

stage juvenile. Sheath attached to body of third stage. Body 

slender tapering regularly from base of pharynx to anterior 

end and from anus to terminus. Cuticle with transverse striae. 

Lip region smooth; mouth closed. stoma long and narrow, 

more than 4 times longer than diameter. Stoma length forming 

19-20 % of pharynx length. Pharynx and isthmus both long 

and narrow. Basal bulb valvate. Nerve-ring located at isthmus 

level. Excretory pore located at ca middle pharynx level. Tail 

filiform, with pointed terminus. 

Diagnosis and Relationships : Oscheius nadarajani sp.n. 

closely resembles O. columbiana Stock, et al., 2005, but differs 

in having shorter stoma (vs stoma = 21-28 µm in O. 

columbiana); spicule shape different from that of O. 

columbiana; notch absent here (bursal notch present in O. 

columbiana) ; juveniles do not form clumps. This species can 

also be compared with O. shamimi but has narrower stoma ( 

vs stoma 4.6 - 5.7µm in O. shamimi ) ; anal lips not protruded 

in Oscheius nadarajani where as anal lips very salient in 

case of O. shamimi moreover endotokia matricida seen in 

this case whereas it is never reported in any of the species of 

Oscheius except O . amsactae (Ali, et al., 2007). 

Type host and Type locality: 

Type host: Unknown 

Type locality: Specimens of this species found from Lentil 

(Lens culnaris) from village, Kurmikhera, district Unnao, Uttar 

Pradesh, India 

Type specimens: 5 paratypes each of male, female and juviniles 

deposited at CABI Bioscience and 10 paratypes males, 10 

paratypes female and 10 paratypes deposited at Nematology 

Section, Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur, India 

Etymology: The new species is named after Dr. N. Nadarajan, 

Director of Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur, India 


Authors are express their gratitude to Dr. N. Nadarajan, 

Director, Indian Institute of Pulses Reserch, Kanpur for 

providing all the facilities used in this study. This study was 

supported by grant of Emeritus ship Scheme no. 21(0724)/08/ 

EMR-II from Council of Scientific & Industrial Research New 

Delhi India which is gratefully acknowledged. 


Ali, S. S., Shaheen, A., and Pervez, R. 2007. Oscheius amsactae sp.n. 

(Nematoda: Rhabditida,) new Entomopathogenic nematodes from 

Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, In: National Symposium on Legumes for 

Ecological Sustainability: Emerging Challenge and Opportunities, 

(Abstr.) Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur. pp.316. 

Ali, S. S., Asif, M., Duraimurugan, P., Akhtar, M. H., Rashid pervez., 

Shaheen Azra and Ahmad Imran 2010. In vivo Production and 

Infectivity of Oscheius amsactae (Ali, et al., 2007) on Four 

Agriculturally Important. Trends in Bioeciences, 3(1): 232-233 

Andrássy, I. 1976. Evaluation as a basis for the systematization of 

nematodes. Eotvos Lorand Univ. Budapest, Hungary, pp. 288 

Azra Shabeen, S.S. Ali and Mohammad Asif. 2011. Two new species of 

genus Oscheius from pulses ecosystem in Uttar Pradesh India. Trends 

in Biosciences, 4(1): 82-85. 



Nematologica, 21: 109-110. 


fixative in nematode technique. Plant Disease Reporter, 39, 570- 

571. 

Tabassum, K.A. and Shahina, F. 2002. Oscheius maqbooli n. sp. and 

observations on three known rhabditid species (Nemata: Rhabditida) 

from sugarcane fields of Balochistan, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal 

of Nematology, 20 (1): 1-22. 

Tabassum K.A. and Shahina, F. 2008. Oscheius andrassyi sp.n. 

(Nematoda: Rhabditidae) eith its key and embryonic development 

from Jhang, Pakistan, Pakistan Journal of Nematology, 26: 125- 

140. 

Tabassum, K.A. and Shahina, F. 2010. Oscheius siddiqii and O. niazii 

two new Entomopathogenic nematodes species from Pakistan, with 

observations on o. shamimi. International Journal of Nematology, 

20(1): 75-84. 

Tahseen, Q. and Nisa. S. 2006. Embryology and gonad development in 

Oscheius shamimi sp. n. (Nematoda: Rhabditida). Nematology, 8(2): 

211–221. 

Recieved on 12-10-2010 Accepted on 15-02-2011


Tissue Concentration of Tomato Plants as Influenced by Cyanobacteria (BGA) as 

Biofertilizer 

J. MOHAN, N. MOHAN, NARENDRA B. SHAKYA AND SHYAM NARAYAN 

Paryavaran Sodh Ekai, Department of Botany, D.A.V. College, Kanpur, U.P. 

ABSTRACT 

Tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum, Mill. var. Azad T 2 

) plant raised 

in soil-pot culture condition with different doses, nil (control), 

25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175 and 200 g bga (bga)/kg soil. As 

compared to control, 200g bga/kg soil showed highly significant 

(P=0.01) increase in dry matter yield of tops of 30 days, both 

tops and leaves of 90 days and fruits of 100 days old plants, and 

tissue calcium, potassium, magnesium and phosphorus content 

of both tops and leaves of 90 days growth. However, for tissue 

concentration of calcium, potassium, magnesium and 

phosphorus of tops of 30 days and fruits of 100 days showed 

highly significant (P=0.01) increase in the range of 100 to 175g 

bga/kg soil, over control. 

Key words 

Tomato, BGA, biofertilizer 

In sustaining the crop production continuous imbalanced 

use of fertilizers has caused alarm regarding possible side effect 

in relation to environmental pollution. Repeated use of chemical 

fertilizer is causing the soil to become more and more hard and 

impervious to water (Kaushik, et al., 2005). Therefore bga as 

biofertilizer is used to boost up to the yield of crop sustainable 

basis without affecting environment. The present paper deals 

with the influence of bga as biofertilizer on growth and 

composition of tomato plants. 

MATARIALS AND METHODS 

Tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum, Mill. var. Azad T 2 

) 

plant raised in soil-pot culture condition. The details of soil 

preparation with blue green algae (purchased from IFFCO, 

Phulpur, Allahabad) as biofertilizer and culture of plants were 

same as described earlier by Mohan, et al., 2007. Soil 

amendment with bga as biofertilizer were nil (control), 25, 50, 

75, 100, 125, 150, 175 and 200 g bga/kg soil. Tops at 30 days, 

both tops and leaves at 90 days, and fruits at 100 days were 

taken for estimation of dry matter yield and composition of 

plants. For estimation of dry matter yield and determination of 

calcium, potassium, magnesium and phosphorus the details 

of procedure were same as described earlier by Mishra, 2000 

and Shakya, 2007. 


Increase in dry matter yield of tomato plant was observed 

the increase in bga level up to 200 g bga/kg soil treatment in 

tops of 30 days and tops, leaves and fruits of 100 days old 

plants. As compared to control all the levels of bga supply 

increases the dry matter yield of tomato plants highly 

significantly (P=0.01) in tops of 30, tops leaves and fruit of 

100 days old plants, except in tops of 100 days where 25 g 

bga/kg soil over control showed only significant (P=0.05) 

increase in dry matter yield and in leaves of 100 days old 

plants, 25 g bga / kg soil over control showed insignificant 

increase in dry matter yield of plants. Maximum yield was 

observed of at 200 g bga/kg soil level in tops of 30, both tops 

and leaves of 90 and fruits of 100 days old plant. 

Calcium content of tomato plants increased with the 

increase in bga up to 125 g bga / kg soil level in tops of 30 

days, up to 125 g bga / kg soil in tops of 30 days, up to 150 g 

bga / kg soil in tops of 90 and fruit of 100 days, and up to 200 

g bga / kg soil in leaves of 90 days old plant. Beyond these 

level, further increase in bga supply decreased the calcium 

content of plants. As compared to control, all the level of bga 

supply tested showed a highly significant (P=0.01) decreased 

in calcium content of tops of 30 days, both tops and leaves of 

90 days and fruits of 100 days old tomato plant. Maximum 

calcium content was observed at 200 g bga / kg soil in leaves 

of 90 days, at 150 g bga / kg soil in tops of 90 and fruits of 100 

days, and at 125 g bga / kg soil in tops of 30 days old tomato 

plant. 

With the increase in bga supply level up to 100 g bga / 

kg soil fruits of 100 days up to 125 g bga / kg soil in tops of 30 

days up to 200 g bga / kg soil in both tops and leaves of 90 

days old plants. Beyond 125 g bga / kg soil in tops of 30 days 

and 100 g bga / kg soil in fruits of 100 days old plants, further 

increase in bga supply decreased the potassium content of 

plants. As compared to control, all the level of bga supply 

tested increased the potassium content of tops of 30 days, 

both tops and leaves of 90 days, and fruits of 100 days old 

plants, highly significantly (P=0.01). Maximum potassium 

content was observed at 125 g bga / kg soil in tops of 30 

days, at 100 g bga / kg soil in fruits of 100 days, and at 200 g 

bga / kg soil in both tops and leaves of 90 days old plants. 

Up to 100 g bga / kg soil in fruits of 100 days, up to 175 

g bga / kg soil in tops of 30 days, and up to 200 g bga / kg soil 

in both tops and leaves of 90 days old tomato plants, increase 

in bga supply increased the magnesium content of plants. 

Beyond 175 g bga / kg soil in tops of 30 days and beyond 100 

g bga / kg soil in fruits of 100 days, further increase in bga 

supply decreased the magnesium content of plants. As 

compared to control all, the level of bga supply tested increased 

the magnesium content highly significantly (P=0.01) in tops 

of 30 days, both tops and leaves of 90 days and fruits of 100 

days old plants, except at 25 g bga / kg soil over control where


Table 1. 

Tissue concentration of Tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum, Mill. var. Azad T 2 

) plants as influenced by Cyanobacteria 

as biofertilizer 

Plants g bga / kg soil L.S.D. at 

Days Part Nil 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 P=0.05 P=0.01 

Dry matter yield g / plant 

30 Tops 0.071 0.086 0.108 0.114 0.125 0.136 0.137 0.145 0.147 0.002 0.003 

90 Tops 10.08 10.09 10.51 11.21 11.78 12.19 12.3 12.45 12.75 0.005 0.076 

90 Leaves 5.26 5.26 5.54 5.92 6.25 6.72 6.92 7.22 7.52 0.013 0.019 

100 Fruit 1.26 1.64 1.73 1.91 2.08 2.16 2.21 2.25 2.36 0.005 0.007 

Per cent Calcium DM 

30 Tops 2.62 2.78 2.84 2.89 2.90 2.94 2.93 2.89 2.88 0.01 0.02 

90 Tops 2.01 2.11 2.23 2.35 2.35 2.73 3.11 3.02 3.00 0.01 0.02 

90 Leaves 1.24 1.42 1.55 1.74 1.77 1.79 1.89 2.33 2.36 0.02 0.03 

100 Fruits 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.65 0.67 0.68 0.71 0.68 0.66 0.01 0.02 

Per cent Potassium DM 

30 Tops 4.14 4.20 4.31 4.44 4.63 4.92 4.81 4.61 4.57 0.020 0.026 

90 Tops 0.88 0.92 1.04 1.12 1.41 1.54 1.70 1.93 1.94 0.020 0.030 

90 Leaves 1.12 1.32 1.44 1.57 1.72 1.82 1.95 2.05 2.08 0.002 0.003 

100 Fruits 0.51 0.62 0.74 0.75 0.79 0.63 0.60 0.57 0.55 0.010 0.020 

Per cent Magnesium DM 

30 Tops 0.91 0.95 0.96 0.99 1.03 1.08 1.14 1.18 1.12 0.01 0.02 

90 Tops 0.67 0.72 0.75 0.84 0.85 0.86 0.88 0.90 0.92 0.02 0.02 

90 Leaves 0.80 0.93 1.02 1.04 1.08 1.12 1.15 1.17 1.83 0.02 0.03 

100 Fruits 0.47 0.49 0.50 0.54 0.60 0.58 0.55 0.52 0.50 0.02 0.03 

Per cent Phosphorus DM 

30 Tops 0.22 0.25 0.27 0.29 0.33 0.29 0.28 0.28 0.25 0.01 0.02 

90 Tops 0.64 0.68 0.67 0.72 0.74 0.75 0.79 0.79 0.81 0.02 0.03 

90 Leaves 0.40 0.42 0.45 0.47 0.49 0.52 0.56 0.64 0.66 0.02 0.03 

100 Fruits 1.84 1.92 1.97 2.03 2.13 1.95 1.93 1.90 1.87 0.02 0.03 

increase in magnesium content fails to reach the level of 

significance. Maximum magnesium content of tomato plants 

was found at 175 g bga / kg soil in tops of 30, 200 g bga / kg 

soil in both tops and leaves of 90, and at 100 g bga / kg soil in 

fruits of 100 days old tomato plants. 

Phosphorus content of tomato plants increased with 

the increase in bga supply up to 100 g bga / kg soil level in 

tops of 30 and fruits of 100 days, up to 175 g bga / kg soil in 

leaves of 90 days, and up to 200 g bga / kg soil in tops of 90 

days old plants. Beyond these respective levels in tops of 30 

days, leaves of 90 days, and fruits of 100 days old plant, 

further increase in bga supply decreased the phosphorus 

content of plants. 

As compared to control, all the level of bga supply tested 

showed a highly significant (P=0.01) increase in phosphorus 

content in tops of 30, both tops and leaves of 90 and fruits of 

100 days old plants, except at 25 g bga / kg soil over control in 

leaves of 90 days old plants where increase in phosphorus 

content were found to be significant (P=0.05). 

Maximum phosphorus content of tomato plants was 

observed at 100 g bga / kg soil in tops of 30 and fruits of 100 

days, at 175 g bga / kg soil in leaves of 90 and at 200 g bga / 

kg soil in tops of 90 days old tomato plants. 

Economically, more important is perhaps the potential 

use of bga as a physiological tool for improving plant growth 

and increasing yield. The increase in dry matter of tomato 

plants is in conformity with the finding of Mishra, 2000, 

Mohan, et al., 2007, with several crops. 

Generally, 150 to 200g blue green algae per kg soil 

increased the tissue concentration of calcium, potassium, 

magnesium and phosphorus content of tops, leaves and fruits 

of tomato plants. This increase in tissue concentration on 

mineral nutrient elements is in the conformity with the earlier 

findings of Mohan, et al., 2007 blue green algae as biofertilizer 

per kg soil level was found to be the best level of supply for 

tissue nitrogen in tops, leaves and fruits of tomato plants. 


Ahluwalia A.S., Surekha Dhanuja and Reena 1990. Role of bga in increasing 

growth and yield of rice (Oryza sativa L. var. PRO- 106). Nat 

Symp. On Cyanobacterial Nitrogen Fixation Abstr., pp.19-25. 

Kamura, F.S.L. Albrecht, L.H.Jr.Allen and Shanmugam, K.T. 1998. Dry 

matter and nitrogen accumulation in rice inoculated with a 

nitrogenbase-derepressed mutant of Anabaena variabilis. Agronomy 

Journal, 90(4):529-535. 

Kaushik, Mukopadhay, Bera, Ranjan and Roy, Ratneshwar 2005. Modern 

Agriculture and environmental pollution. Everyman’s Science, 

XL(3): 186-192. 

Mohan, N, Mahadev, Singh, P and Agnihoti, N. 2007. Growth and 

composition of Oryza sativa L. influence by Aulosira fertilissma as 

biofertilizer Indian hydrology, 10(1):93-100. 

Mishra, A.K. 2000. Studies on utilization of bga as biofertilizer for 

qualitative and quantitative improvement of crop plants. Ph.D. 

Thesis, C.S.J.M. University, Kanpur. 

Shakya, Narendra, B. 2007. Influence of Cynobacteria as Biofertilizer 

on Growth and Mineral Composition of Tomato Plants. M.Phil. 

Dissertation C.D.L.U. Sirsa, Haryana. 



Efficacy, Penetration and In Vivo Production of Entomopathogenic Nematodes 

against Legume Pod Borer, Maruca vitrata Fabricius (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) 

RASHID PERVEZ* AND S.S. ALI 

Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur 208 024 

*Indian Institute of Spices Research, Calicut 673 012 

e-mail: rashid_pervez@rediffmail.com, ss_ali@rediffmail.com 

ABSTRACT 

The infectivity of six native entomopathogenic nematodes 

(EPN), Steinernema carpocapsae, S. masoodi, S. seemae, S. 

mushtaqi, Steinernema sp. (IIPR 04) and Oscheius amsactae tested 

against legume pod borer, Maruca vitrata. The rate of penetration 

and in vivo mass production potential of these nematodes on 

the tested insect larvae was also undertaken. Among the tested 

species of EPN, S. masoodi was found more pathogenic to M. 

vitrata as it brought about cent per cent mortality within 72 h 

post exposure, followed by S. seemae and S. carpocapsae, after 96 

h. S. mushtaqi, Steinernema sp. (IIPR 04) and O. amsactae brought 

about cent per cent mortality within 120 h. In case of mass 

production of infective juveniles of tested EPN species from 

this insect showed that, highest yield of O. amsactae, followed 

by S. carpocapsae. Whereas the lesser number juveniles of S. 

mushtaqi and Steinernema sp. (IIPR 04) produced from the body 

of the M. vitrata larva. Maximum number of S. seemae IJs 

penetrate into legume pod borer, followed by S. mushtaqi. The 

lowest rate of penetration was found in the O. amsactae and S. 

carpocapsae. 

Key words 

Entomopathogenic nematodes, infectivity, mass 

production, Maruca vitrata 

Chemo intensive pest management modules were being 

widely advocated for management of the insect pests. The 

dependence on pesticides is still in practice in spite of 

associated problems like, development of insect resistance to 

insecticides, pest resurgence and outbreak of secondary pests 

and other socio-economic problems. Therefore, there is a need 

to identify suitable alternative methods for the management 

of insect pests which should be ecofriendly and economically 

viable. Among these methods, entomopathogenic nematodes 

(EPN) are potent biological control agents against insect pests 

of crops due to their wide host range, easy to handle, short life 

cycle, economically produced at large scale and 

environmentally safe, (Gaugler and Kaya, 1990; Poinar, 1990; 

Ali et al., 2005a; 2008; Pervez et al., 2007; 2008) that can be 

used as biopesticides against insect pests and can replace the 

harmful chemicals. 

Legume pod borer, Maruca vitrata is a serious insect 

pest of tropical legumes crops like pigeonpea, cowpea, 

mungbean and soybean. Losses due to M. vitrata have been 

estimated at $30 million annually (Anonymous, 1992). Patel 

and Singh, 1977 reported 25 to 40% pod damage due to M. 

vitrata in pigeonpea Sharma, et al., 1999 estimated 71% pod 

damage in pigeonpea under greenhouse conditions. 

Present study was conducted to evaluate six native 

species of entomopathogenic nematodes, S. carpocapsae 

(Weiser, 1955) Wouts, et al., 1982, S. masoodi, (Ali, et al., 

2005b), S. seemae (Ali, et al., 2005b), S. mushtaqi (Pervez et 

al., 2009a), Steinernema sp. (IIPR 04) and Oscheius amsactae 

(Ali, et al., 2007) against legume pod borer, Maruca vitrata. 

The rate of penetration and in vivo mass production potential 

of these nematodes on the tested insect larvae was also 

undertaken. 


The infective juveniles of S. carpocapsae, S. masoodi, 

S. seemae, S. mushtaqi, Steinernema sp. (IIPR 04) and Oscheius 

amsactae were obtained from nucleus culture of the 

nematodes maintained in the Nematology laboratory of this 

institute. All of these EPNs species were cultured on fully 

grown Galleria mellonella larvae as per the procedure 

described by Woodring and Kaya, 1988. Emerged infective 

juveniles (IJs) were surface sterilised in 0.01% Hyamine 

solution, stored in distilled water in tissue culture flasks. The 

test insect, Maruca vitrata larvae were collected from 

pigeonpea fields from the Indian Institute of Pulses Research 

experimental farm and CSAUA & T fields. The larvae were 

sorted out and those of same size were taken for present 

study. 

Efficacy of EPN against M. vitrata tested in the six well 

plate, one larvae of M. vitrata was kept in each well and 100 

infective juveniles (IJs) each of tested species of EPN were 

inoculated and observation on their mortality were recorded 

after 24 h interval. Each species of EPN tested separately and 

singly. The experiment was conducted at 28 ±°C under BOD 

incubator and replicated twelve times along with control.The 

mortality percent calculated according to following formula 

Mortality (%) = D X 100 / N 

Where: D- Number of dead larva; N – Total number of larva 

The IJs penetration into M. vitrata tested in the petri 

plates. One larvae of M. vitrata was kept in petri plate and 

each EPN species at a concentration of 500 IJs in 0.5 ml water 

was sprayed over the filter paper at the bottom of the 

petriplate. The petriplate was kept at 28 0 C for 72 h and


replicated six times. After that, the enzymatic digestion of dead 

larvae was done using 3 ml pepsin in a tube and kept in a 

shaker incubator at 120 rpm for 1 h. The tubes were then 

shaken well and returned to the shaker for another 20 min 

after which 7 ml of tween 80 were added to each tube and 

shaken very well and kept at 5 0 C for 48 h or until the nematode 

count was done. Counting was done under Leica MS 5 

stereoscopic binocular microscope. The penetration rate was 

calculated according to following formula. 

PR = N 1 

×100/N 2 

Where: PR - penetration rate, N 1 

- mean nematode number 

found within host and N 2 

- original nematode number used. 


The results indicate that all tested six species of EPN 

were found pathogenic to against M. vitrata larva. Percentage 

mortality, rate of penetration and their yield of IJs from the 

tested insect was varying from species to species. Among the 

tested species of EPN, S. masoodi was found more pathogenic 

to M. vitrata as it brought about cent per cent mortality within 

72 h post exposure, followed by S. seemae and S. carpocapsae, 

after 96 h. S. mushtaqi, Steinernema sp. (IIPR 04) and O. 

amsactae brought about cent per cent mortality within 120 h. 

S. masoodi, S. seemae, S. mushtaqi and O. amsactae were 

found quick killer, they start killing to insect larvae within 24 

h, whereas, S. carpocapsae and Steinernema sp. (IIPR 04) 

within 48 h. No mortality was found in control (Fig. 1). 

In case of mass production of infective juveniles of 

tested EPN from this insect showed that, highest yield of O. 

amsactae which was 0.82 X 10 5 IJs/ cadaver, followed by S. 

carpocapsae (0.67 X 10 5 IJs/ cadaver), S. seemae (0.49 X 10 5 

IJs/cadaver) and S. masoodi (0.35 X 10 5 IJs/ cadaver). Whereas 

the lesser number juveniles of S. mushtaqi and Steinernema 

sp. (IIPR 04) (0. 21 X 10 5 and 0.12 X 10 5 IJs/cadaver, 

respectively) emerged from the body of the M. vitrata larva 

(Fig. 2). 

Data showed that, the rate of penetration of IJs of the all 

tested species of EPN into the body of the M. vitrata larvae 

(ANOVA; F= 3.93; DF = 5) was significant at the level of 0.01%. 

Among the tested species, Maximum number of S. seemae IJs 

penetrate into legume pod borer (12.0 IJs/cadaver), followed 

by S. mushtaqi (8.66 IJs/cadaver). The lowest rate of 

penetration was found in the O. amsactae and S. carpocapsae 

(5.16 IJs/cadaver) 5.83 IJs/cadaver, respectively) (Table 1). 

Although laboratory screening of EPN for infectivity 

can be an important component of developing a biological 

control programme for a particular pest (Ricci, et al., 1996). 

Our study revealed that the rate of penetration could be 

used as a real measure of host infection. Dunphy and Webster, 

1988, 1991 reported that, the difference in the toxicity of 

bacterial symbionts is also related to the difference in 

protinacious substances in their cell wall, which may have led 

at the end to the relative destruction of host hemocytes and 

finally the death of the host. The variation in efficiency of the 

different nematodes under investigations may be due to the 

difference in the bacterial symbionts (Forst, et al., 1997; 

Boemare and Givaudan, 1998; Boemare, 2002). 

Table 1. Rate of IJs penetration into M. vitrata after 72 h. 

EPN 

No. of IJs/larva 

S. carpocapsae 5.83 b 

S. masoodi 6.33 b 

S. seemae 12.00 a 

S. mushtaqi 8.66 ab 

Steinernema sp. (IIPR 04) 

8.00 b 

Oscheius amsactae 

5.16 b 

l Mean of six replications. 

l Mean within speciesis significantly (p = 0.05, Duncan’s multiple 

range test). 

Fig. 1. 

Mortality of M. vitrata through EPN; Sc-S. 

carpocapsae; Sm-S. masoodi; Ss-S. seemae; Smu-S. 

mushtaqi; Oa-Oscheius amsactae. 

Fig. 2. 

Mass production of EPN on the M. vitrata; Sc-S. 

carpocapsae; Sm-S. masoodi; Ss-S. seemae; Smu-S. 

mushtaqi; Oa-Oscheius amsactae.

PERVEZ & ALI, Efficacy, penetration and in vivo production of entomopathogenic nematodes against legume pod borer 105 

It is concluded that, S. masoodi was found more virulent 

than other species of entomopathogenic nematodes to the 

larvae of M. vitrata and are considered a potential biopesticide. 

The legume pod borer was more suitable host for multiplication 

of O. amsactae, followed by S. carpocapsae and this insect 

can be selected as the alternate host for in vivo production of 

IJs. Further studies are required to know the exact behaviour, 

pathogenicity, mode of action and multiplication of these EPN 

on cadaver. 


The authors express their gratitude to Director, Indian Institute 

of Pulses Research, Kanpur, for providing all the facilities for 

this study. First author also thankful to Department of Science 

and Technology (DST), Ministry of Science & Technology, 

Government of India, New Delhi, for providing financial 

support. 


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of three lepidopteran pest to five entomopathogenic nematodes 

and in vivo mass production of these nematodes. Archieves of 

Phytopathology and Plant Protection, 41(4): 300-304. 

Ali, S. S., Shaheen, A., Pervez, R. and Hussain, M.A. 2005b. Steinernema 



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(Nematoda: Rhabditida) a new entomopathogenic nematodes from 

Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh. In National symposium on legume for 

ecological sustainability: emerging challenges and opportunities at 

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defense mechanisms: impact on selection of virulent strains (eds. 

Simoes, Boemare, N. and Ehalers R-U). Luxembourg: European 

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and Xenorhabdus. In: Entomopathogenic Nematology (ed. Gaugler 

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Dunphy, G. B. and Webster, R. B. 1988. Lipopolysaccharides of 

Xenorhabdus nematophilus (Insecta: Lepidoptera) larvae. Journal 

of G. Microbiology, 134: 1017-1028. 

Dunphy, G.B. and Webster, R.B. 1991. Antihaemocytic surface 

components of Xenorhabdus nematophilus var. dutki and their 

modification by serum of non-immune larvae of Galleria mellonella. 

Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 58: 40-51. 

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and Photorhabdus spp: Buges that kill buge. Ann. Rev. Microbiology, 

51: 47-72. 

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entomopathogenic nematodes against mustard saw fly and in vivo 

production of these nematodes. International Journal of Nematology, 

17(1): 55-58. 

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nematodes against green bug, Nezara viridula (L.) and their in vivo 

mass production. Trends in Biosciences, 1(1,2): 49-51. 

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entomopathogenic nematodes Steinernema mushtaqi sp. n. 

(Nematoda : Rhabditidae : Steinernematidae) from chickpea 

rhizosphere. In: International Conference on Legumes (ICGL), at 

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106 Trends in Biosciences 4 (1): 106-108, 2011 Trends in Biosciences 4 (1), 2011 

An Emerging Scenario of Higher Employment and Income Potential of Horticultural 

Crops in Central Region of Uttar Pradesh 

ANIL KUMAR AND B.S. SACHAN 

Seed and Farms Division and Department of Agricultural Eco. and Statics C.S. Azad University of Agri. & 

Tech., Kanpur 

ABSTRACT 

The study has been conducted in central region of Uttar 

Pradesh. The study primarily based on the maximum area under 

the selected crops such as mango and field crops, vegetables 

and flowers. Higher Labour employment of over 310 man-days 

for jasmine over crossandra was mainly responsible for the 

relatively increased yield of around 2.5 to 3.5 tones. Among the 

fruit crops papaya needed higher employment of human labour 

of 725 man-days compared to other fruit crops not only due to 

higher yield of 124 tones but also due to continues harvest of 

fruit throughout the year. 21 may be noted that the expenses 

incurred on banana were the highest, being Rs. 64742 per 

hectare followed by jasmine with Rs. 54272 and papaya with 

Rs. 52146 respectively. The benefit cost ratio was the highest at 

2.36 for papaya due to higher yields and returns fruit crops 

revealed higher benefit cost ratios followed by vegetable and 

flower crops and lastly field crops. Next to fruit crops, brinjal 

had higher benefit cost ratio of 2.11 followed by Bhindi with 

1.03 and tomato 1.01 among the two flower crops. Jasmine 

showed a higher benefit cost ratio of 1.07 than crossandra 0.96. 

the benefit cost ratio were the lowest for field crops and highest 

being 0.36 groundnut. Lower yields and higher production costs 

due to intensive and continues cultivation were mainly 

responsible for lower benefit cost ratios. The study has also 

revealed that theories a need for introduction of comprehensive 

cost of cultivation studies for the horticultural crops so that a 

rational horticultural price policy could be implemented m 

central region of Uttar Pradesh. 

Key words 

Employment, horticultural, scenario 

The distinct agro-climatic conditions and rich biodiversity 

enables India to product a wide variety of 

horticultural crops. The horticulture sector helps in enhancing 

productivity, providing better alternatives for diversification 

and generating additional. 

Presently an area of 17 million hectares accounting for 9 

per cent of the cultivated area is under horticultural crops 

which contribute 20 to 22 per cent of gross value of agricultural 

out put. India has emerged as the leading country in the 

production of fruits surpassing Brazil and occupied second 

position in the production of vegetables. During recent years, 

a quantum jump in the productivity of fruits and vegetables 

achieved i.e., 152 per cent in banana, four fold increase in 

tomato three fold increase in chilli, etc. Sustained efforts are 

being made at various organizations to develop adequate 

marketing infra structure to provide sound base for boosting 

country’s horticultural production and trade. One such major 

organization is the National Horticulture Board (NHB). Inspite 

of the impressive performance in certain fruits and vegetables, 

their per capita consumption remained 48 grams even through 

the Indian Council of Medical Research recommended 94 

grams. 

An attempt is made here to compare the employment 

potential and profit ability of selected horticultural crops with 

a few traditional field crops and bring out possibilities of 

development of horticultural crops in the future. 


The study has been conducted in central region of Uttar 

Pradesh. The districts of central region in Uttar Pradesh ie., 

Kanpur, Farrukhabad and Unnao constituted the study area. 

The selection of Districts was primarily based on the maximum 

area under the selected crops for study, ie., mango and field 

crops vegetables and flowers. Two blocks of each district and 

two villages in each blocks for each crop were selected based 

on the maximum area under the selected crops. Sixty 

(vegetables and flowers) to eighty (fruits and field crops) 

respondent farmers were randomly selected from different size 

group of farms. 

The data were collected through personal interview with 

the help of specially designed schedules. Suitable changes in 

the operations, prices and wages were incorporated for having 

comparability of the economic aspects of different crops. 


The data on human labour employment in horticultural 

crops and field crops are presented in Table I. The highest 

number of physical units of human man-days of employment 

was observed in the flower crops i.e., jasmine and cross and 

with 1270 and 1021 man-days. continuous requirement of 

human labour for picking flowers over a period of three to 

four months contributes to higher labour use. Higher labour 

employment of over 310 man-days for jasmine over cross was 

mainly responsible for the re1atively increased yield of around 

2.5 to 3:5 tones. 

Among the fruit crops papaya needed higher 

employment of human labour of 725 man days compared to 

other. Fruit crops not only due to higher yield of 124 tones but

KUMAR AND SACHAN, An Emerging Scenario of Higher Employment and Income Potential of Horticultural Crops 107 

also due to continuous harvest of fruits throughout the year. 

banana required only half of labour used on papaya. the use 

of 344 man days of labour on banana was mainly due to 

weeding and earthing up operations. Among the vegetables, 

brinjal required higher man-days of 479 followed by bhindi 

with 336 man days and tomato with 276 man days respectively. 

Higher yield were responsible for variations in labour 

employment on field crops which ranged from 296 mandays 

on sugarcane to 115 man days on groundout was 

comparatively low with the exception of mango crop. The 

number of field operations carried on mango is generally less 

and the labour employed during the period of five years of 

establishment was distributed over 42 years of bearing time. 

Among the various field operations, harvesting 

accounted for the maximum labour employment of 536 mandays 

cross and for a minimum of 27 man days of banana. 

Constituting 59.17 per cent and 7.13 per cent respectively of 

the total labour employment. Higher yield and continuous 

harvesting distributed over a few months contributed to higher 

labour use. Weeding and other intercultural operations 

accounted for the second position in labour use accounting 

for a maximum 30.14 per cent and minimum 12.46 per cent of 

the total labour employment on banana and brinjal 

respectively. Irrigation occupied third position with the 

exception of banana and mango. Watch and ward ranked first 

in labour use in the case of mango as the crop produce has to 

be protected from theft for a period of 3 to 4 months. 

The per hectare cultivation costs of the crops are 

presented in Table 2. It may be noted that the expenses incurred 

on banana were the highest, being Rs. 64,742 per hectare 

followed by jasmine with Rs. 54,272 and papaya with Rs. 52146. 

The total costs were the lowest on groundnut Rs. 18213 

followed by mango Rs. 19232. Among the crops investments 

were higher on fruit crops with the exception of mango. 

Followed by flowers,. vegetables and lastly on field crops 

with the exception of sugarcane. The establishment costs for 

perennial fruit crops like mango 40 years and papaya 3 years 

Table 1. 

Crop 

Yields, returns and benefit cost ratios 

Yield/ha 

Gross 

returns 

(Rs./ha) 

Net returns 

(Rs./ha) 

Benefit 

cost ratio 

1 2 3 4 5 

Banana (bunches) 2142.44 11 0219 55819 1.13 

Papaya (ton) 124.19 124462 98127 2.01 

Mango (ton) 11.40 33427 18718 1.02 

Tomato (qtl.) 162.74 31928 10138 0.47 

Lady's finger (bhindi) (qtl.) 151.21 36482 15621 0.62 

Brinjal (qtl.) 146.27 65920 44112 1.18 

Crossandra (kg) 318.92 74271 17316 0.49 

Jasmine (kg) 3417.63 79167 28121 0.62 

Paddy (qtl.) 6474.28 . 19648 3168 0.18 

Sugarcane (ton) 47.21 17176 5640 0.17 

Groundnut (qtl.) 11.44 49271 4616 0.14 

24.29 19346 2348 0.19 

and flower crops like jasmine 12 years and crossandra 6 years 

were apportioned and included in the annual fixed costs. They 

were high Rs. 4276 for crossandra and Rs. 3017 for papaya 

due to shorter period of crop stand compared to Rs. 375 for 

mango and Rs. 2236 for jasmine respectively of all the 

operational costs, human labour constituted the major cost 

component. Accounting for the highest share on all crops 

with the exception of mango. The share ranged from 52.46 per 

cent on bhindi to 21.11 per cent on groundnut. The amounts 

spent on human labour were high on flowers, vegetables with 

the exception of tomato followed by fruits and then field crops. 

Costs on mannure and fertilizers formed the second most 

important component with highest amount Rs. 15129, 

accounting for 5.31 per cent of the total cost. High doses of 

manure and fertilizer application are essential for banana which 

is more responsive to fertilizer and it is also an exhaustive 

crop. 

The yields per hectare of fruit crops were comparatively 

higher than those of the vegetable, flower and field crops as 

indicated by the data in Table 3. Among the vegetable crops, 

brinjal yield was about 304 quintals compared 176 quintals Qf 

tomato and 157 ‘quintals of bhindi. The yield of jasmine 

was5361 kg which is much higher than that of crossandra 

with 3042 kg. Land productivity considerably increased with 

the cultivation of fruit crops, followed by vegetable and flower 

crops. 

Gross returns were higher for papaya (Rs. 1.84 Lakhs) 

followed by banana with Rs. 112732, jasmine with Rs. 85762 

and brinjal with Rs. 83127 of the three vegetable crops. Gross 

returns from brinjal. were considerably higher than bhindi 

(Rs. 61237) and tomato (Rs. 56272). Mainly due to high yield. 

higher gross return of jasmine could also be attributed to 

higher yield of 2718 kg over crossandra lower gross returns 

for paddy and groundnut could be attributed to the lower 

yields compared to all other crops. 

Table 1 also reveals that net returns were higher from 

the production of fruit, vegetables and flower crops compared 

to field crops. Net returns were found to be the maximum from 

papaya with Rs. 117231 compared to other fruit and all other 

crops, followed by Rs. 64271 from banana, brinjal gave the 

next highest net returns of Rs. 58462 compared to Rs. 22392 

from bhindi and 19236 from tomato even through the 

cultivation costs of brinjal were higher by ground Rs. 19232 

over other vegetable crops. In spite of higher cultivation costs 

of Rs.19122 jasmine contributed to higher net returns of Rs. 

34356 which is higher by around Rs. 21146 over crossandra. 

Higher cultivation costs and lower yields contributed to lower 

net returns from field crops compared to all horticultural crops. 

Horticulaural crops showed higher benefit cost ratios 

compared to field crops. The benefit-cost ratio was the highest 

at 2.3 for papaya due to higher yields and returns fruit crops 

revealed higher benefit cost ratios followed by vegetable and 

flower crops and lastly field crops: next to fruit crops, brinjal


had higher benefit cost ratio of 2.11 followed by Bhindi with 

1.03 and tomato1.01 among the two flower crops. Jasmine 

showed a higher benefit cost ratio of1.07 than crossandra 

0.96. The benefit cost ratios were the lowest for field crops 

and the highest being 0.36 for groundnut. Lower yields and 

higher production costs due to intensive .and continuous 

cultivation were mainly responsible for lower benefit cost 

ratios. 


Chadha, K.L. 1994. Horticulture: Delayed Recognition of Potential, 

The Hindu Survey ofIndian Agriculture, Madras, pp. 111-117. 

Ghosh, S.P. 1995. Fruits: Attractive Export Opportunities. The Hindu 

Survey of Indian Agriculture, Madras, pp. 117-119. 

Padmalatha, B. 1995. Production and Marketing of Vegetables in 

Chandragiri Mandal of Chittoor District, M.Sc. Pandey, R.M. (1994). 

Fruits: Emerging Major Export Product, The Hindu Survey of Indian 

Agriculture, Madras, pp. 119-123. 

Rani, M. Usha 1996. Economic Analysis and Marketing of Mango in 

Chittoor District of A.P., M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis, Andhra Pradesh 

Agricultural University, Hyderabad, A.P. (Unpublished). 

Shyamaladevi, P. 1996. Economics of Production and Marketing of 

Banana in Kuroool District of A.P., M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis, Andhra 

Pradesh Agricultural University, Hyderabad, A.P. 

Singh, J.P. 1994. Floriculture: Growing Export Opportunities. The Hindu 

Survey of Indian Agriculture, Madras, pp. 129-135. 

Swamp, V. 1994. Vegetables: Export Needs Thrust, The Hindu Survey 

of Indian Agriculture, Madras, pp. 125-128. 

Uppal, D.K. 1995. A Focus Area for Diversification, The Hindu Survey 

of Indian Agriculture, Madras, p. 115. 



Response of Wheat Crop to Nitrogen and Azotobactor Inoculation in Alluvial Soils of 

U.P. 

KHALIL KHAN* AND BIJENDRA SINGH 

R.B.S. College, Bichpuri Agra 283 105 

*Krishi Vigyan Kendra, C.S.A.U.A.&T., Jalaun (U.P.) 

e-mail: khankhalil64@gmail.com 

ABSTRACT 

A field experiment was conducted to study the response of wheat 

to nitrogen and Azotobactor inoculation in alluvial soils at R.B.S. 

College, Bichpuri, Agra. The results revealed that the 

application of nitrogen and its combined use with Azotobactor 

inoculation increased grain and straw yields, improved the 

quality and uptake of nutrients by wheat crop. Available nitrogen 

status in soil increased with increasing levels of nitrogen after 

crop harvest. Azotobactor inoculation tended to increase the 

grain and straw yield of wheat and available nitrogen in the 

soil. 

Key words 

Nitrogen, azolobaetor, mutrients. 

Nitrogen is most vital and often limiting plant nutrients 

which is required for successful crop production. Indian soils 

are generally poor in nitrogen. Not only this, the utilization 

efficiency of nitrogen by the crop plant is also very low being 

about 25-30% of total nitrogen applied. 

Economic feasibility of using bio-fertilizers carried based 

formulation of live and beneficial micro-organisms, has been 

proved beyond doubt. Azotobactor as well as other biofertilizers 

are becoming more and more among the farming 

community in India. The increase in productivity of wheat 

crop due to application of nitrogen combined with Azotobactor 

inoculation have already been reported by Sharma and Mishra, 

1986, Sharma, et al., 1987 and Singh, et al., 1987. However, 

keeping the above facts in view, the present investigation was 

undertaken. 


A field experiment was conducted at Department of Agric. 

Chemistry and Soil Science, R.B.S. College, Bichpuri, Agra to 

study the response of wheat crop to varying levels of nitrogen 

and Azotobactor inoculation. The treatment combination 

comprising with three levels of nitrogen viz., 60, 90 and 120 kg 

N ha -1 and two levels of Azotobactor viz., with and without 

were evaluated in randomized block design with four 

replications. 

The soil of experimental field was sandy loam in texture 

having poor in fertility. The seeds of wheat HD 2329 culture 

was sown on 10 th December, at the rate of 100 kg in lines at 20 

cm apart. The harvesting of wheat crop was done in 3 rd April. 

The wheat crop was irrigated 4 times on 1 st January, 22 nd 

January, 22 February and 4 th March to optimize the yield of 

wheat. Nitrogen was applied as per treatment through urea, 

phosphorus and potash @ 60 kg P 2 

O 5 

/ha and 40 kg K 2 

O/ha 

through single super phosphate and murate of potash, 

respectively. Half dose of nitrogen and full dose of 

phosphorus and potash were applied at the time of sowing 

and remaining half dose of nitrogen was applied at the time of 

first irrigation. Seeds were treated with Azotobactor before 

sowing of wheat crop. There was no winter rainfall was 

received during the experimental period. 


Application of increasing levels of nitrogen enhanced 

the grain and straw yields significantly. A significant increase 

in grain and straw yields were recorded at 120 kg N/ha over 60 

and 90 kg N/ha. The grain yield increased at 90 kg N/ha and 

120 kg N/ha levels over 60 kg N/ha by 6.7 and 33.4% 

respectively. The corresponding increases in straw yield were 

1.4 and 32.4%. These results are in close conformity with the 

findings of Malik, 1981. Such spectacular response to nitrogen 

application are obviously attributable to low N content of the 

soil and relatively high nitrogen requirement of the crop (Table 

1). 

Grain and straw yields of wheat were significantly higher 

in bacterisation with Azotobactor over uninoculated treatment. 

The seed inoculation with Azotobactor produced more grain 

and straw yields by 4.38 and 7.24 quintals over uninoculated 

respectively. The yield was more in the presence of 

Azotobactor which is very much in the agreement with the 

findings of Badgire and Binda, 1976 and Ram, et al., 1985. 

The maximum nitrogen content in grain and straw was 

recorded under 120 kg N/ha and minimum in 60 kg N/ha. The 

highest concentration of N may be due to higher concentration 

of N in soil solution as a result of 120 kg N level addition 

(Table 2). A significant increase in nitrogen content due to 

Azotobactor inoculation was observed in grain while a non 

significant increase in nitrogen content of the straw was 

observed over uninoculated one. Konde and Desai, 1996 also 

reported similar results. 

The concentration of phosphorus in plants increased 

with nitrogen application to the soils. This might be due to


close interrelationship between nitrogen metabolism in plant 

cell. Similar increase in P content with N application was 

reported by Sharma and Mishra, 1986 and Singh, et al., 1987. 

Azotobactor inoculation did not differ significantly the 

phosphorus content in grain, however, significant trend was 

observed in case of P content in straw of wheat (Table 2). 

The maximum K content in grain and straw was recorded 

in 120 kg N/ha. All the levels of nitrogen application differed 

significantly from one another in respect of potassium content 

in grain and straw. Potassium content in grain and straw 

increased from 0.60 to 0.80 and 2.17 to 2.53% respectively 

with various doses of nitrogen (Table 2). 

Nitrogen uptake in grain and straw of wheat was 

consistently and significantly increased with the increasing 

levels of nitrogen. The maximum uptake of nitrogen was 

recorded in 120 kg N/ha. 

The application of nitrogen significantly increased the 

total removal of phosphorus by grain and straw of wheat. The 

maximum value of P uptake was recorded in 120 kg N/ha. The 

significant increase in P uptake with the application of nitrogen 

levels may be ascribed to an increased grain and straw 

production and improvement in P content of the crop (Table 

3). Sharma and Mishra, 1986 also reported similar results. 

Azotobactor inoculation increased the P uptake by grain and 

straw in wheat, than in uninoculated. 

The application of nitrogen at every increasing levels 

significantly increased the K uptake by grain and straw of 

wheat. The maximum K uptake was recorded in 120 kg N/ha. 

Table 1. 

Table 3. 

N, P and K content in grain and straw of wheat as influenced by nitrogen and Azotobacter application and grain and 

straw yield. 

Treatment 

% N content % P content % K content Yield (q ha -1 ) 

Grain Straw Grain Straw Grain Straw Grains Straw 

Nitrogen 

N 1 2.23 0.56 0.27 0.15 0.60 2.17 43.91 71.25 

N 2 2.50 0.61 0.33 0.19 0.69 2.29 46.88 72.26 

N 3 2.66 0.64 0.34 0.23 0.80 2.53 58.59 94.37 

SEm± 0.035 0.005 0.006 0.003 0.008 0.008 1.20 1.90 

CD at 5% 0.107 0.016 0.017 0.009 0.025 0.024 47.60 5.72 

Azotobactor 

A 0 2.37 0.59 0.30 0.17 0.69 2.31 47.60 75.68 

A 1 2.56 0.61 0.32 0.21 0.70 2.35 51.98 82.92 

SEm± 0.029 0.004 0.004 0.002 0.007 0.006 0.98 1.55 

CD at 5% 0.087 NS NS 0.007 NS 0.010 2.96 4.67 

Table 2. 

N, P, K uptake in grain and straw of wheat influenced by nitrogen and Azotobacter application. 

Treatment 

N uptake (kg ha -1 ) P uptake (kg ha -1 ) K uptake (kg ha -1 ) 

Grain Straw Grain Straw Grain Straw 

Nitrogen 

N 1 93.25 39.53 11.60 6.01 26.20 95.40 

N 2 100.80 44.48 15.24 8.93 31.92 107.32 

N 3 122.86 60.00 19.83 13.54 46.87 147.96 

SEm± 2.62 1.08 0.390 0.27 0.88 2.79 

CD at 5% 7.92 3.26 1.17 0.82 2.66 8.42 

Azotobactor 

A 0 101.63 45.22 14.45 8.43 33.39 110.82 

A 1 109.63 50.79 16.66 11.14 36.60 122.97 

SEm± 2.14 0.88 0.31 0.22 0.72 2.28 

CD at 5% NS 2.66 0.96 0.67 2.17 6.88 

Physico-chemical properties of soil before sowing and after crop harvest as influenced by different treatment. 

Treatment 

Organic (%) 

Available nitrogen Available phosphorus Available potash 

Organic carbon Organic matter (kg ha -1 ) 

(kg ha -1 ) 

(kg ha -1 ) 

(%) 

(%) 

Before sowing 0.11 0.193 201.6 8.0 160 

After sowing 

1. N 1A 0 0.19 0.32 215.6 12.0 196 

2. N 1A 1 0.21 0.36 218.4 11.2 192 

3. N 2A 0 0.23 0.39 224.0 11.2 188 

4. N 2A 1 0.24 0.41 226.8 9.6 188 

5. N 3A 0 0.26 0.45 240.8 8.0 176 

6. N 3A 1 0.28 0.49 243.6 8.0 180

KHAN & SINGH, Response of Wheat to Nitrogen and Azotobactor Inoculation in Alluvial Soils of U.P. 111 

All the levels of nitrogen application differed significantly 

from each other with respect to K uptake in grain and straw of 

wheat (Table 3). Azotobactor inoculation increased the uptake 

of K by grain and straw significantly over uninoculated. 

Available nitrogen in soil after crop harvest increased 

with increasing levels of nitrogen application. The inoculation 

with Azotobactor tended to increase the status of available 

nitrogen in soil alongwith every level of nitrogen application. 

The similar trend was also recorded with regard to organic 

carbon and organic matter content of the soil. The amount of 

available nitrogen increased from 215.6 to 218.4, 224.0 to 226.8 

and 240.8 to 243.6 kg/ha at 60, 90 and 120 kg N/ha with the 

inoculation of Azotobactor respectively after the crop harvest. 

However, the maximum value of available nitrogen was 

recorded under 120 kg N/ha alongwith inoculated with 

Azotobactor after crop harvest (Table 4). 

There was no specific changes was recorded in available 

phosphorus in soil after the crop harvest although slight 

increase was observed at lower levels of nitrogen application 

to the soil. Generally the amount of available potassium was 

found to increase after crop harvest compared with the soil 

before sowing the crop. 


Badgire, D.R. and Binda, K.J. 1976. Effect of Azotobactor seed 

inoculation on wheat (Triticum vulgare). Madras Agric. J., 63: 

603-605. 

Konde, B.K. and Desai, J.N. 1976. Influence of inoculum doses of 

Azotobacter on growth and yield of wheat. Food Farming and 

Agril., 8(3): 13-14. 

Mallik, C.V.S. 1981. Response of wheat varieties to different level of 

nitrogen. Indian J. Agron., 26(1): 93-94. 

Ram, G., Chandrakar, B.S. and Katra, R.K. 1985. Influence of 

Azotobactorization in presence of fertilizer nitrogen on the yield 

of the wheat. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 33: 424-426. 

Sharma, M.L. and Mishra, V.K. 1986. Effect of inoculation and levels 

of nitrogen on growth yield and quality of wheat. Madras Agric. J., 

73: 96-100. 

Sharma, M.L., Mamdeo, K.N. and Mishra, V.K. 1987. Response of 

wheat to nitrogen and Azotobactor inoculation. Indian J. Agron., 

32: 204-207. 

Singh, Mahatim, Gupta, G.R. and Singh, M.P. 1987. Response of wheat 

to nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Indian J. Agron., 32(1): 

52-55. 



In Vitro Evaluation of Anti Fungal Properties of Zanthoxylum rhetsa (Roxb) DC 

T.G. NAGARAJA 

Department of Botany, The New College, Kolhapur 416 012, Maharashtra 

e-mail: tgnagaraja2010@gmail.com 

ABSTRACT 

In vitro screening of anti fungal properties of root, stem and 

bark of Zanthoxylum rhetsa (Roxb) DC in ethyl acetate and 

chloroform extract were carried out. Ethyl acetate and 

chloroform extract of root and stem possess good fungicidal 

properties against Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus niger, 

Fusarium oxysporum, Cladosporum sp., Macrophoma phaseolina 

and Trichoderma viridi. While root extract of ethyl acetate and 

acetone has less fungicidal property. 

Key words 

Anti fungal, Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus niger, 

Fusarium oxysporum, Cladosporum 

Zanthoxylum rhetsa (Roxb)DC medium sized deciduous 

tree growing in western ghats of Karnataka and Maharashtra 

State used in ayurvedic preparation. The fruit is aromatic, 

astringent, stomachic and sometimes used in diarrhea. The 

bark contains burdrugaine and budrugainine, along with 

alkaloid quinazolene, rhetin, rhestine etc., The seed contains 

lupeol, essential oil, d-terpinene and shows anaesthetic 

property. Hence, the plant possess multiutility in the field of 

ayurveda, pharmaceutical science and in traditional medicine. 

Therefore, an attempt was made to study anti bacterial activity 

of root, stem and bark in ethyl acetate and chloroform extract 

against some test fungi in the laboratory. 


Freshly harvested root, stem and bark of Zanthoxylum 

rhetsa (Roxb) DC were collected periodically from Kumta 

(Karnataka State) for experimental study. The collected 

samples were brought to the laboratory, thoroughly washed 

in tap water and later by distilled water, cut in to small pieces. 

Initially these pieces were shade dried in 48 hours, later dried 

in electric oven with a temperature of 55-58 0 C for consecutive 

4 days. The dried samples were then fine powdered with home 

grinder. This 15 g of fine powder of each root, stem and bark 

were subjected for extraction. Ethyl acetate and chloroform 

used as solvent and extraction was carried out by Soxhlet’s 

apparatus. Each of these extracts were further evapourated 

by Rotary Vacuum evapourator till a gummy semi solid material 

was obtained. This semi-solid material used for anti fungal 

activity. 

While studying anti fungal activity, test fungi such as 

Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus niger, Fusarium oxysporum, 

Cladosporum sp. Macrophoma phaseolina and Trichoderma 

viridii were obtained from Department of Botany, Shivaji 

University, Kolhapur and were maintained in PDA and CDA 

media. The fungal suspension was prepared using saline water, 

and mixed with 100 ml sterilized PDA with constant shaking. 

This 20 ml of seeded medium was transferred to sterile 

petriplates, after solidification, well or cup were scooped with 

the help of cork borer 5 mm. The test solutions were poured in 

the wells with the help of sterilized pipette. Anti fungal activity 

was carried out by agar well diffusion method (Alice and 

Sivaprakasam, 1966). The cultures were kept in incubator 28 

0 

C for 48 hours and inhibition zone was recorded in millimeter 

(mm). 


Among the six fungal species tested, Cladosporum sp., 

was inactive against ethyl acetate and chloroform solvent 

solution. Ethyl acetate solvent exhibited the highest anti 

fungal potency against Aspergillus niger (18.3 mm) followed 

by Fusarium oxysporum and Alternaria alternata. Hence 

ethyl acetate extract of stem and bark of Zanthoxylum rhetsa 

(Roxb)DC may possess good anti fungal potency. A parallel 

result was recorded by Shimpi, et al., 2005, in Aristolechia 

bracteata. While highest zones of inhibitions 8.1 mm and 7.3 

mm were recorded in chloroform extract of bark and root of 

Zanthoxylum rhetsa (Roxb)DC. A similar result was 

Table 1. 

Ethyl acetate and chloroform extracts of Zanthoxylum rhetsa (Roxb) DC against some fungi. 

Test fungi 

Zone of Inhibition (mm) 

Control Root* Stem* Bark* 

Ethyl acetate Chloroform Ethyl acetate Chloroform Ethyl acetate Chloroform Ethyl Acetate Chloroform 

Alternaria alternata 8.9 7.3 10.3 6.9 11.3 8.1 8.6 7.3 

Aspergillus niger 8.9 7.3 16.1 7.3 19.1 7.1 18.3 6.8 

Fusarium oxysporum 8.9 7.3 10.8 6.8 13.2 7.2 11.1 7.1 

Cladosporum sp. 8.9 7.3 9.2 4.1 9.6 2.9 9.6 3.9 

Macrophoma phaseolina 8.9 7.3 10.1 3.2 11.1 1.2 10.1 6.2 

Trichoderma viridi 8.9 7.3 9.6 1.3 11.8 1.2 11.3 4.7 

*Values are mean of three readings

NAGARAJA, In Vitro Evaluation of Anti Fungal Properties of Zanthoxylum Rhetsa (ROXB) DC 113 

documented by Rani and Murty, 2006 in Spilanthus acmella 

and Nagaraja, et al., 2008 and 2008 in Barrringtonia 

acutangula and Acacia catechu. A negligible zone of inhibition 

was recorded against Macrophoma phaseolina and 

Trichoderma viridi. Therefore the present study may helpful 

in preparing formulation of the plant product and may be used 

as eco-friendly management of plant diseases. 


The authors are very much thankful to authorities UGC, 

WRO Pune for providing financial assistance and Principal, 

The New College, Kolhapur for providing laboratory facilities. 


Alice, D and Sivaprakan, K. 1996. Fungicidial, Bactericidial and 

Nematicidial Effect of Garlic-clove extract. Journal of Eco-Biology, 

8(2): 99-103. 

Nagaraja T.G., Sarang, S.V. and More, V.R. 2008. Anti microbil activity 

of Barringtonia acutangula Bioinfolet, 5(4): 402-403. 

Nagaraja, T.G., Sarang, S.V. and Jambhale, D.C. 2008. Eualuation of 

anti mycotic activity of acacia catechu (Mimosaceae)., Journal of 

Biopesticides, 1(2):197-198. 

Rani, S.A and Suryanarayana, U. Murty. 2006. Anti fungal potential of 

flower head extract of Spilanthus acmella Linn. African journal of 

Biomedical Research, 9: 67-69. 

Shimpi, S.R., Chaudhari, L.S., Bharambe, S.M., Kharche, A.T., Patil, 

K.P., Bendre, R.S. and Mahulikar, P.P. 2005. Evalution of anti 

microbial activity of organic extract of leaves of Aristolechia 

bracteata., Pesticide Research Journal, 17(1): 16-18. 



Screening of Rice Genotypes for Resistance against Sheath Rot of Rice (Sarocladium 

oryzae Sawada) 

NARAYANAPRASAD 1 , G.B. SHIVAKUMAR 2 , P.S. PRASAD 2 , G.K. SUDARSHAN 2 AND SUNDARESHA 3 

1 

Department of Seed Technology, University of Agricultural Sciences, VC Farm, Mandya 

2 

Department of Plant Pathology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore 

3 

Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad 

e-mail: prasadps_achar@rediffmail.com 

ABSTRACT 

Out of 3000 entries tested during kharif, 2005 only seven showed 

resistance against sheath rot recording zero score. 158, 1544, 

519, 337 and 435 entries showed severity rating of one, three, 

five, seven and nine respectively. During kharif, 2006 out of 

2420 germplasm entries, 1547 entries recorded score rating of 

zero. During kharif 2004, 2005, 2006, rice genotypes comprising 

of 146, 228, 196 entries under National Screening Nursery I, 

were field evaluated for their resistance to sheath rot. During 

kharif, 2004, 2005, 2006 of 549, 556, 547 genotypes received 

under NSN-II, and were evaluated for resistance to sheath rot. 

Key words 

Rice, sheath rot, genotypes, resistance 

The human population is increasing drastically year after 

year with a demand of rice increasing at 35 million tonnes per 

year. To meet the growing demand for rice several measures 

have to be thought of. According to an estimate, rice production 

should be increased by 350 million tonnes by 2020. The 

predominant factors contributing to yield loss are pests and 

diseases. Of the diseases, blast, sheath blight, bacterial leaf 

blight, sheath rot and rice tungro continue to cause huge crop 

losses in one or the other part of the country. 

Heliminthosporium oryzae (Breda de Hann.) was responsible 

for the great Bengal famine in 1942-43. Similarly, Pyricularia 

oryzae Cav. caused total production losses in 1956 (Chen and 

Chien, 1964). 


Three thousand rice germplasm entries and 2420 entries 

from Directorate of Rice Research, Hyderabad (IET Numbers) 

were screened under field conditions during kharif, 2005 and 

2006 respectively against sheath rot. 

The experiment was conducted at the Regional 

Agricultural Research Station. V.C. Farm, Mandya to screen 

genotypes against sheath rot at field level during kharif, 2005 

and 2006. During 2005, three thousand germplasm entries and 

during 2006, 2420 germplasm entries were evaluated. Each 

germplasm entry was planted having 12 hills in a row and for 

every 100 germplasm entries a line of susceptible check T(N) 1 

was planted. The germplasm were screened against sheath 

rot at panicle initiation stage as per the Standard Evaluation 

System (SES) method adopting the (0-9 scale/percent severity). 

0 = Nil, 1 = < 5, 3 = 5-10, 5 = 11-25, 7 = 26-50, 9 = >50 

Evaluation of National Screening Nursery (NSN) I and 

II were screened for their reaction to sheath rot during kharif, 

2004, 2005 and 2006. Each genotypes was sown in two line at 

a distance of 50 cm long and 10 cm apart between the two 

genotypes and 2 lines of local susceptible variety was sown 

after every 20 genotypes. The entire nursery was flanked 

around by 2 lines susceptible check (HR 12). One line of 25 

days old seedlings were lifted from the nursery bed and planted 

in the main field over a length of 2 m in two lines with a 

spacing of 20 x 15 cm. The genotypes were screened for sheath 

rot resistance at panicle initiation stage in the main field as 

per the SES scale. 


Out of 3000 entries tested during kharif, 2005 only seven 

entries viz., 6072, 6345, 6410, 7882, 7895, 6068 and 7649 showed 

resistance against sheath rot recording zero score (Table. 1). 

One hundred fifty eight, 1544, 519, 337 and 435 entries showed 

severity rating of one, three, five, seven and nine respectively 

(standard evaluation system scale). During kharif, 2006 out 

of 2420 germplasm entries, 1547 entries recorded score rating 

of zero, 88 entries scored disease severity of one, 129 entries 

scored three, 182 entries recorded score of five. 213 entries 

recorded score of seven and remaining 261 entries recorded a 

score of nine (Table 1). 

Table 1. 

Screening of germplasm for severity of sheath rot 

at RARS, Mandya during kharif, 2005 

Sl. Score % 

No. of germplasm 

No. (0-9 scale) severity RARS NSN-I NSN-II 

2005 2006 2004 2005 2006 2004 2005 2006 

1 0 Nil 7 1547 0 186 136 0 465 232 

2 1 50 435 261 3 1 1 2 6 29

PRASAD et al., Screening of Rice Genotypes for Resistance against Sheath rot of rice (Sarocladium oryzae Sawada) 115 

During kharif 2004, 146 genotypes of rice under National 

Screening Nursery-I, were field evaluated for their resistance 

to sheath rot along with susceptible check T(N) 1 . Out of 146 

genotypes, 73 genotypes recorded a score of one, 39 

genotypes recorded a score of three, 20 genotypes recorded 

a score of five, 11 genotypes, recorded a score of seven and 

three genotypes recorded scoring rate of nine. 

During kharif, 2005, 228 genotypes were screened 

against sheath rot. Out of 228 genotypes, 186 genotypes were 

completely free from sheath rot, 28 genotypes scored severity 

rating of three, 11 genotypes scored five, four genotypes 

recorded score of seven and only one genotypes observed 

score of nine. 

One hundred ninty six genotypes under NSN-I were 

field screened during kharif, 2006 against sheath rot, out of 

196 genotypes 136 genotypes recorded score of zero. Only 

two genotypes scored one, 26 genotypes scored three, 25 

genotypes scored five, six genotypes scored seven and only 

one genotypes recorded score of nine. 

Five hundred forty nine NSN-II genotypes were 

evaluated for resistance to sheath rot during kharif, 2004 along 

with a susceptible check T(N) 1 . Out of 549 genotypes screened 

only three genotypes scored a rating of nine, fifteen genotypes 

scored a rating of seven, 46 genotypes had a scoring of five, 

170 genotypes recorded score of three and 315 genotypes 

were free from the incidence of sheath rot. From results 

revealed that, sheath rot incidence was found moderate to 

sever farm. 

During kharif, 2005 out of 557 genotypes received under 

NSN-II, 465 genotypes were free from sheath rot and 2, 57, 23, 

3 and 6 genotypes scored rating of 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9 respectively. 

Similarly, during kharif, 2006, out of 547 genotypes 232 

genotypes were completely free from sheath rot, eighteen 

genotypes scored severity rating of one, 120 genotypes 

scored three, 93 genotypes scored rating of five, 55 genotypes 

recorded scoring of seven and 29 genotypes recorded score 

of nine. 

Many workers have screened various groups of rice 

genotypes for resistant to sheath rot both under natural as 

well as artificial condition and observed source of resistance 

(Raju and Singh 1980). 


Chen, C. C. and Chien. 1964. Some observations on the outbreak of 

rice sheath rot disease. J. Taiwan Agric. Res., 13:39-45. 

Raju, C. A. and Singh, R. A. 1978. Development of inoculation technique 

and screening germplasms against sheath rot of rice. Indian 

Phytopath., 31: 122. 



Seasonal Abundance of Fennel Aphid, Hyadaphis coriandri Dass and Associated 

Bioagents in Fennel Crop 

S.A. PATEL, I.S. PATEL, J.K. PATEL AND P.S. PATEL 

Department of Entomology, C.P. College of Agriculture, S.D. Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar 385 506 

e-mail: dr.ispatel@gmail.com 

ABSTRACT 

The fennel aphid remained active during February to April, 

with peak activity on first week of March. Maximum, minimum 

temperature and bright sun shine hours had positive effect on 

the population of aphid while relative humidity had negative 

effect on population of aphid. The population of coccinellid 

predators (Coccinella septempunctata and Menochilus 

sexmaculatus) had positive effect on the population of aphids. In 

nature, grub of C. septempunctata was severely parasitized by 

hyperparasite, Tetrastichus coccinellae. Maximum per cent 

parasitism of grubs was observed on 20 th , 23 rd , and 26 th March 

due to T. coccinellae, resulted in failure of grubs to pupate. 

Key words 

Fennel, aphid, Hyadaphis coriandri, bioagents, 

seasonal abundance 

Fennel is one of the important spice crop in north Gujarat. 

It is extensively cultivated in Mahesana, Sabarkantha, 

Banaskantha, Gandhinagar and Ahemedabad districts of 

Gujarat state. Due to large cultivation of fennel crop, pest and 

diseases become major limiting factors in reducing yield. It 

affect quality of this crop which ultimately reduce the income. 

Therefore, aphid should be managed with eco-friendly inputs. 

Information on occurrence of fennel aphid and their related 

bioagnets is pre requisite for developing sound IPM module 

(Jain and Yadav, 1988, Meena, et al., 2003). Keeping this view 

in mind, a field trial on seasonal occurrence of aphid and 

associated bioagent was conducted. 


Study on seasonal abundance of fennel aphid and 

associated bioagents was made at Agronomy Instructional 

Farm, S. D. Agricultural University, S.K.Nagar. Fennel crop 

under experiment was kept unsprayed throughout the season. 

The population of aphid was estimated by adopting zero 

to four aphid index throughout the period of study. The 

observations on aphid index were taken as soon as aphids 

were noticed on plant. Subsequent observations were recorded 

at an interval of seven days till harvesting of crop. Aphid 

index measured at weekly interval. 

Following aphid index were fixed for estimating the 

population of aphid. 

0. Plant free from aphid 

1. Aphid present, but colonies did not build up. No injury 

due to pest apparent on the plant. 

2. Small colonies of aphid were present 

3. Large colonies of aphid were present on tender parts. 

Counts of aphids in colonies were possible and tender 

plant part show damage symptom due to aphids. 

4. Entire plant was covered by aphids. Counts of aphids 

in colonies were impossible and plant show damage 

symptom due to aphids. 

The average of aphid index was worked out adopting 

following formula 

Average aphid 

Index per plant 

= 

0 N + 1 N + 2 N + 3 N + 4 N 

Total number of plant observed 

Where: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 are aphid index, N = Number of plant 

showing respective aphid index 

To record the population of bioagents viz., lady bird 

beetle, Chrysoperla, Syrphid fly, ten plants were selected 

randomly and tagged. Grub and adult stage of bioagents was 

recorded at weekly interval from whole plant. 

The weekly meteorological observations on maximum 

and minimum temperature, morning and evening relative 

humidity, wind velocity, sunshine hours and rainfall during 

the course of investigation were obtained from the 

meteorological observatory of Instructional Farm of 

Agronomy, C. P. College of Agriculture, S. D. Agricultural 

University, S.K.Nagar. Simple correlation between periodical 

mean value of aphid as well as their natural enemies with 

various weather parameters were computed separately. 

Similarly, simple correlation between aphids and coccinellid 

predators were also computed. 


The result presented in Table 1 revealed that aphid 

population was commenced in last week of January i.e. 29/1/ 

2007 (0.28 A.I./plant). Aphid population was then increased 

steadily and reached at peak level in the first week of March 

i.e. 5/3/2007 (3.20 A.I./plant). Then after, it was declined 

gradually and reached negligible level at the end of March 

(0.76 A.I./plant). Aphid population was decreased from second 

week of March to first week of April recording 2.88 to 0.0 A.I. 

per plant.

PATEL et al., Seasonal Abundance of Fennel Aphid, Hyadaphis coriandri Dass and Associated Bioagents in Fennel Crop 117 

Grub population of coccinellid predator (M. 

sexmaculatus) was started from last week of January (0.20 

grub/plant), and reached at peak level at first week of March 

(4.64 grub/plant) and then after population was suddenly 

declined. Minimum grub population was recorded in the end 

of March (0.76 grub per plant). This may be due to 

unavailability of host food in mustard plant. The population 

of Syrphid fly, Chrysoperla and spider was negligible in field 

throughout the season. In case of adult, population was started 

during second week of February (0.28 adults/plant) and 

reached peak in first week of March (8.16 adult/plant). It was 

then declined and found minimum in end of March (1.60 adults/ 

plant). 

Table 1. 

Std. 

Week 

Aphid population was positively correlated with 

Effect of abiotic and biotic factors on population of H. coriandri 

According to Jain and Yadav, 1988 temperature had 

positive correlation with aphid population on coriander 

whereas, relative humidity was negatively correlated. Meena, 

et al., 2003 found negative correlation of aphid population 

with maximum and minimum temperature. However it was 

positively correlated with relative humidity. 

The correlation study showed that population of grub 

and adult coccinellid predators were found increasing with 

increasing population of aphid and found maximum in first 

week of March. Then after the population of coccinellid 

predators declined as their host declined. 

The predatory population was highly and positively 

significant with their host and recorded highest in the first 

week of March. 

Date of 

Observation 

Mean 

A.I./plant 

Mean coccinellid 

Temperature 

( o C) 

Relative humidity 

(%) 

Grub/plant Adult/plant Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum 

1 2-1-2007 0.00 0.00 0.00 10.6 25.0 34.9 66.1 7.9 

2 8-1-2007 0.00 0.00 0.00 8.3 25.5 22.0 70.0 8.1 

3 15-1-2007 0.00 0.00 0.00 9.0 26.9 25.1 80.4 8.5 

4 22-1-2007 0.00 0.00 0.00 9.9 28.0 22.1 73.4 9.1 

5 29-1-2007 0.28 0.20 0.00 11.8 30.3 27.0 87.3 8.0 

6 5-2-2007 0.56 0.32 0.00 13.6 29.5 42.0 85.7 6.6 

7 12-2-2007 0.64 0.44 0.28 12.0 27.0 32.0 86.1 9.8 

8 19-2-2007 2.20 0.64 0.60 15.5 32.4 31.0 74.7 9.5 

9 26-2-2007 3.04 2.52 5.36 14.0 30.5 30.1 82.7 9.7 

10 5-3-2007 3.20 4.64 8.16 14.8 32.4 22.1 73.7 9.6 

11 12-3-2007 2.88 2.60 7.48 17.7 33.1 19.9 68.6 9.1 

12 15-3-2007 0.96 1.80 3.36 17.3 34.4 22.4 67.6 9.6 

13 27-3-2007 0.76 0.80 1.60 18.7 38.6 10.3 62.6 10.1 

14 3-4-2007 0.00 0.00 0.00 19.5 39.1 10.1 53.3 9.9 

15 10-4-2007 0.00 0.00 0.00 22.0 39.0 17.3 64.0 10.1 

Bright 

sunshine 

(hrs) 

Table 2. 

Correlation between fennel aphid, lady bird beetle 

(M. sexmaculatus) and weather parameters in 

fennel crop. 

Particular 

Aphid* Lady bird beetle* 

Adult Grub 

Aphid Index 1.00000 

Adult of lady bird beetle 0.84818** 1.00000 

Grub of lady bird beetle 0.82492** 0.95396** 1.00000 

Minimum temperature ( o C) 0.25228 0.38908 0.27180 

Maximum temperature ( o C) 0.08494 0.23526 0.18220 

Minimum RH (%) -0.15566 -0.41006 -0.33612 

Maximum RH (%) -0.25552 -0.41988 -0.34598 

Bright sun shine hours 0.38519 0.36695 0.37138 

*Mean based on nine observations, Value of r at 0.5 = 0.632, Value of 

r at 0.1 = 0.765. 

maximum temperature (r = 0.084), minimum temperature 

(r = 0.25) and bright sun shine hours (r = 0.38). These weather 

parameters showed beneficial effect on aphid population and 

the correlation between these factors and aphid population 

were non significant. Aphid population was negatively 

correlated with relative humidity. 

The results revealed that the grub of lady bird beetle 

showed positively correlation with maximum temperature 

(r = 0.18), minimum temperature (r = 0.27) and bright sun shine 

hours (r = 0.37) whereas, adult of lady bird beetle showed 

positive correlation with maximum temperature (r = 0.23), 

minimum temperature (r = 0.38) and bright sun shine hours 

(r = 0.36). These parameters caused non significant effect on 

population build up of lady bird beetle. The negative 

correlation was found between grub and adult with relative 

humidity. 


Jain, P.C. and Yadav, C.P.S. 1988. Pest complex of coriander and seasonal 

incidence of coriander aphid, H. coriandri (Das) in relation to 

insect predator Indian J. Appl. Ent., 2: 35-41. 

Meena, P.C., Shrma J.K. and Noor A. 2003. Evaluation of some chemical 

and botanical insecticides against coriander aphid, H. coriandri 

(Das), Annals of Biology, 19(1):95-97. 



Algal Infestation with Physico-Chemical Quality of River Ganga at Jajmau, Kanpur 

ARCHANA SINGH, VIJAY TEWARI AND JITENDRA MOHAN* 

Department of Botany, D.G.P.G. College, Kanpur 

*D.A.V. College, Kanpur 

ABSTRACT 

The physico-chemical characteristics of the Ganga water were 

found to be highly variable at Jajmau. The study of the 

occurrence and periodicity of algal samples reveal that 

distribution of algae found in Ganga water mainly belongs to 

class cyanophyceae, chlorophyceae and bacillariophyceae. The 

results showed an interesting relationship among the species 

of algae growing in the Ganga river water of the 42 of the total 

algae recorded, 13 algae belonged to class cyanophyceae and 20 

were of chlorophyceae and 9 of bacillariophyceae. 

Key words 

Algae, physico-chemical quality, Ganga 

Kanpur is situated at 26.58N latitude and 80.34E longitude 

at an elevation of 110 meters from level on the bank of river 

Ganga. The Ganga river receives domestic and industrial waste 

and the water shows high degree of pollution. Phawa and 

Mehrotra, 1966; Munawar, 1970; Pandey, 1973; Prasad and 

Saxena, 1980 were among the earliest to associate algal 

communities with varying degree of pollution. In the present 

investigation an attempt was made to correlate the distribution 

and periodicity of algae with chemical picture of river water. 


Standard methods for the examination of effluent (APHA 

1976) were followed in the analytical techniques. A regular 

monthly sampling of effluent with simultaneous collections of 

algae were conducted. Spots were selected for collecting 

samples. Sampling was done from four sites in river. The water 

samples were collected at 30 days interval from the spots fixed 

and all the samples were brought to the laboratory and stored 

at 4 0 C temperature in a refrigerator till the analysis was 

completed. The details of sampling procedure was same as 

described in Indian Standard methods of sampling and test 

for water. 

Samples of algae from each spots were made once a 

month. Filled with water obtained by towing a silknet for equal 

distance along four side of the spots on surface and at a 

depth of 6-8 inch. The collected water samples were analysed 

for different variables by the standard methods. From the 

preserved sample algal materials were mounted on slides and 

examined in detail for their systematic position and periodicity. 


Annual average values of important chemical parameters 

are furnished in Table No.1. The occurrence and periodicity 

of algal samples studied are given in Table No. 2. The 

distribution of algae found belonging to cyanophyceae, 

chlorophyceae and bacillariophyceae. In the present 

investigation the blue green algae (Cyanophyceae) dominate 

the effluent. Abundance of Oscillatoria spp. was frequently 

observed throughout the year while blooming was recorded 

from points where there was organic matter and less dissolved 

oxygen. Phormidium and Aphanocapsa were more abundant 

in polluted zones than in clear water.Microcystis, Lyngbya 

and Nostoc were recorded in many points. Waters favouring 

green algae are chemically distinct from favouring blue green 

algae (Chlorophyceae) and diatoms. Amongst the green algae 

volvocales, chlorococcales and desmids have different 

physiological and ecological preferences. Green algae in 

present study are consisting of twenty genera with dominance 

of Spirogyra over Cladophora. Spirogyra was recorded 

throughout the year. Diatoms are represented by nine genera 

of bacillariophyceae. In present study genera Navicula was 

found to be very abundant throughout the year. The 

abundance is attributed to favourable contents like less 

dissolved oxygen, oxidizable organic matter and absence of 

high water currents. 

Table 1. 

Physico-chemical characteristics of Ganga river water of Jajmau, Kanpur 

Parameters 

2009 

Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 

Temp.( ºC ) 18 23 27 30 32 31 32 31 30 24 25 13 

pH 8.37 8.45 7.84 8.45 8.03 8.03 8.18 8.45 8.36 8.72 8.24 7.31 

DO (mg/l) 7.1 7.1 7.2 7.2 5.2 5.1 5.5 9.8 7.0 8.0 3.0 4.4 

BOD (mg/l) 4.8 5.8 6.4 5.8 15.6 7.2 16 4.2 4.6 4.9 8.0 5.6 

EC (mS/cm) 0.384 0.424 0.624 0.592 0.715 0.550 0.584 0.038 0.352 0.320 0.405 0.636 

TDS (ppm) 612 602 480 578 250 395 395 247 228 208 262 415 

Alkalinity (ppm) 216 204 192 210 232 132 164 155.6 145 240 300 479 

Hardness (mg/l) 200 300 310 280 240 440 440 85 230 245 130 130 

Chloride (mg/l) 28 30 28 44 62 30 46 42 48 45 55 51

Table 2. 

SINGH et al., Algal Infestation with Physico-Chemical Quality of River Ganga at Jajmau, Kanpur 119 

Distribution pattern of algae in Ganga river water at Jajmau, Kanpur 

S.N Algae 

2009 

Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug. Sep Oct Nov Dec 

(A) Chlorophyceae 

1. Ankistrodesmus + + + + + - - - - + + + 

2. Actinastrum + + + + + - - - + + + + 

3. Cosmarium + + + + - - - - + + + + 

4. Microspora + + - - - - - - - + + + 

5. Chlorococcum + + + + + + - - - + + + 

6. Chlorella + + - - + - - - + + + + 

7. Cladophora + + - - - - - + + + + + 

8. Closteriopsis + + + - - - - + + + + + 

9. Closterium + + + + + - - - - - - + 

10. Hydrodictyon + + + + + - - - - + + + 

11. Mougeotia + + + + + + + - + + + + 

12. Oedogonium + + + - - - - - - + + + 

13. Oocystis + + + + - - - - - + + + 

14. Pediastrum + + - - - - - - - - + + 

15. Rhizoclonium + + + + - - - - - + + + 

16. Spirogyra + + + - + - + + + + + + 

17. Scenedesmus + + + - - - - - - - + + 

18. Stigeoclonium + + - - + - - + + - - + 

19. Ulothrix - - + + - - - - - - + 

20. Zygnema + - + + + - + + + + + + 

(B) Bacillariophyceae 

1. Asterionella + + + + + - - + + + + + 

2. Fragilaria + + - - - - - - - + + + 

3. Gomphonema + + - + + - - - - - - - 

4. Gyrosigma + + + - - - - - - + + + 

5. Melosira + + + + + + - - + + + + 

6. Navicula + + + - - - - + + + - + 

7. Nitzschia + + - - - - - - + + + + 

8. Pleurosigma + + - + + - - - + + + + 

9. Synedra + + + + + - - - + + + + 

(C) Cyanophyceae 

1. Anabaena + + + + + - - + + + + + 

2. Aphanocapsa + + + + + + - - + + + + 

3. Cylindrospermum + + - - - - + + + + + + 

4. Chroococcus + + + + - - - + + + + + 

5. Gloeotrichia + + + + + - - - + + + + 

6. Lyngbya + + - + + + + - - - + + 

7. Merismopedia + + - - - - - - - + + + 

8. Microcystis + + - + + - - - + + + + 

9. Nostoc + + + + + - - + - + + + 

10. Oscillatoria + + - + - - - + + + + + 

11. Phormidium - _ - - - - + + + + - - 

12. Rivularia + - - - - - + + + - - - 

13. Spirulina _ + - - - - - + + + - - 

(+) = Present as major algae, (–) = Not present as major algae. 


The Authors are thankful to Dr. (Mrs.) Meeta Jamal, 

Principal and Dr. (Mrs.) Archana Shrivastava, Head of Deptt. 

Botany, D.G.P.G. College, Kanpur and Dr. Narendra Mohan, 

Associate Professor,Paryavaran Sodh Ekai, Botany Deptt, 

D.A. V. College, Kanpur for encouragements and facilities 

provided. 


APHA 1976. Standard Methods for the examination of water, sewage 

and industrial wastes, 14 th edn. APHA, A WWA & WPCF New York. 

Phawa, D.V. and Mehrotra, S.N. 1966. Observation on influetuitions in 

the abundance of pantaloon in relation to certain hydrological 

conditions of river Ganga. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sc., 56:157-158. 

Munawar, M. 1970. Limnogical studies on fresh water ponds of 

Hyderabad, India II. The Biocemose. Hydrobiologia, 31: 105-128. 

Pandey, S.N. 1973. Studies on distribution periodicity and some 

ecological aspects of phytoplantation of Kanpur. Ibid. II B(3-4) : 

70-73. 

Prasad, B.N. and Saxena, M. 1980. Ecological study of blue green algae 

in the river Gomti. Indian J. Environ. Health, 22(2): 151-168. 



Combining Ability Analysis for Grain Yield and Quality Traits in Bread Wheat 

(Triticum aestivum L.) 

S.V. BURUNGALE, R.M. CHAUHAN, R.A. GAMI, D.M. THAKOR AND P.T. PATEL 

Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, C.P. College of Agriculture, S.D. Agriculture University, 

Sardarkrushinagar 385 506 (Gujarat) 

e-mail: ramangami@gmail.com 

ABSTRACT 

Combining ability analysis was carried out in a 8x8 diallel of 

bread wheat for grain yield and its components trait excluding 

reciprocals at Main Wheat Research Station Vijapur, S.D. 

Agricultural University Sardarkrushinagar during rabi 2008- 

09. Both additive and non-additive type of gene action played 

an important role for the inheritance of characters. The ratio 

of gca to sca genetic variance for all characters indicated that 

non-additive type of gene action was predominant in the 

expression of all traits, i.e., plant height, number of effective 

tillers, length of main spike, spikelet per spike, grains per 

spike, 1000-grain weight, grain yield per plant, protein content, 

hectoliter weight, harvest index and sedimentation value. The 

parental lines GW 496, GW 397 and VA 06-15 were good general 

combiners for grain yield and other yield components. GW 404 

was good general combiner for grain yield per plant, 1000- 

grain weight, grain protein content and sedimentation value. 

The crosses GW 273 x GW 496, GW 392 x GW 273 and VA 06-15 

x GW 322 recorded the highest sca effects and they involved 

average x good, poor x average and good x poor gca parents. The 

cross VA-06-15 x GW 404 for grain protein content and cross 

GW 392 x GW 397 for sedimentation value expressed highest 

sca effects. 

Key words 

Bread wheat, diallel analysis, combining ability, gca 

and sca 

The success of breeding procedure is determined by 

the useful gene combinations organized in the form of good 

combining lines and isolation of valuable germplasm. Some 

lines produce outstanding progenies on crossing with others, 

while others may look equally desirable but may not produce 

good progenies on crossing. The lines, which perform well in 

combination, are eventually of great importance to the plant 

breeders. Hence, investigation on general and specific 

combining ability would yield very useful information. 

Accordingly a good knowledge of gene action involved in 

the inheritance of quantitative characters of economic 

importance is required in order to frame an efficient breeding 

plan leading to rapid improvement. The present investigation 

aims at identification of superior parents, cross combinations, 

and evaluation of the type of gene action for grain yield and 

its components traits. 


The experimental material comprised eight diverse 

parental lines viz., VA 06-15 , GW 322,GW 392, GW 273, GW 

399, GW 397, GW 496 and GW 404 were selected from 

germplasm maintained at Main Wheat Research Station, 

Vijapur, S. D. Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar (North 

Gujarat), during rabi, 2007-08 to create a diallel set. The 

complete set of 36 genotypes comprising eight parental 

genotypes and 28 F 1 

’s were evaluated in randomized block 

design (RBD) with three replication during 2008-09. The 

observations viz., plant height, number of effective tillers per 

plant, grains per spike, length of main spike, spikelets per 

spike, 1000-grain weight, grain yield per plant, harvest index, 

grain protein content, hectoliter weight and sedimentation 

value were recorded from randomly selected five competitive 

individual plants. Combining ability analysis was carried out 

according to the procedure given by Griffing, 1956 as per 

Method 2 and Model I. 


The analysis of variance (Table 1.) revealed highly 

significant differences among genotypes for all the characters 

under both timely and late sown conditions. Significantly high 

amount of variance indicated presence of high genetic 

variability in the population for parents and hybrids. The 

comparison of mean squares due to parents vs hybrids was 

found to be highly significant for most of the characters except 

harvest index. 

In the present study, highly significant general 

combining ability (gca) and specific combining ability (sca) 

variances for all the characters, for sca suggested importance 

of both additive and non-additive type of gene action in the 

inheritance of characters. The ratio of gca to sca genetic 

variance for all characters indicated that non-additive type of 

gene action was predominant in the expression of all traits, 

i.e., plant height, number of effective tillers, length of main 

spike, spikelet per spike, grains per spike, 1000-grain weight, 

grain yield per plant, grain protein content, hectoliter weight, 

harvest index and sedimentation value (Table 2). These findings 

were in close agreement with those of Dhadhal and Dobariya, 

2006 and Jogendra Singh, et al., 2007. 

Estimates of GCA effects of parents (Table 2) revealed

Table 1. 

BURUNGALE et al., Combining Ability Analysis for Grain Yield and Quality Traits in Bread Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) 121 

Analysis of variance for different characters 

Source of variation d.f Grain 

yield per 

plant 

Plant 

height 

Number of 

effective 

tillers per 

plant 

Length 

of 

main 

spike 

Spikelets 

per 

Spike 

*, ** indicates significant at P = 0.05 and P = 0.01 levels, respectively. 

Grains 

per 

spike 

1000 grain 

weight 

Harvest 

Index 

Grain 

Protein 

content 

Hectoliter 

weight 

Sedimentation 

value 

Replications 2 0.55 30.55 0.28 1.04 4.69 7.96 10.15 8.80 0.01 1.14 1.22 

Genotypes 35 104.52** 74.18** 8.45** 3.27** 4.73** 96.39** 71.78** 50.74** 1.49** 4.57** 7.82** 

Parents 7 114.86** 67.06** 3.38** 4.24** 1.69 108.49** 95.21** 89.59** 0.68** 2.84* 18.32** 

Hybrids 27 100.40** 61.84** 7.39** 2.88** 4.89** 76.50** 55.25** 42.43** 1.74** 4.81** 5.13** 

Parents vs. Hybrids 1 143.42** 457.14** 72.5** 7.17** 21.31** 548.99** 354.17** 2.88 0.30* 10.36** 6.91** 

Error 70 1.99 19.09 0.82 0.37 1.59 12.45 16.53 6.59 0.05 1.25 0.61 

S.Em. ± 0.81 2.52 0.52 0.35 0.73 2.03 2.34 1.48 0.13 0.65 0.45 

Table 2. 

Source of 

variation 

Analysis of variance for combining ability for various characters in durum wheat 

d.f. 

Grain 

yield per 

plant 

1000- 

grains 

weight 

Plant 

height 

Number of 

effective 

tillers per 

plant 

Length 

of main 

spike 

* and ** indicates significant at P = 0.05 and P = 0.01 levels, respectively. 

Spikelets 

per spike 

Grains 

per 

spike 

Harvest 

Index 

Protein 

content 

Sedimentation 

value 

GCA 7 47.92** 31.62** 21.15** 0.85** 1.20** 0.85 18.50** 26.27** 0.26** 2.15** 

SCA 28 31.57** 22.00** 25.62** 3.31** 1.06** 1.76** 35.54** 14.57** 0.56** 2.72** 

Error 70 0.66 5.51 6.37 0.27 0.15 0.53 4.15 2.20 0.02 0.23 

2 GCA 1.62 0.96 -0.45 -0.25 0.01 -0.09 -1.70 1.17 -0.03 -0.06 

2 SCA 30.99 16.49 19.25 3.04 0.94 1.22 31.39 12.37 0.54 2.52 

2 GCA/ 2 SCA 0.05 0.06 -0.02 -0.08 0.01 -0.07 -0.05 0.09 -0.06 -0.02 

Table 3. 

Sr. 

No. 

Estimation of general combining ability (GCA) effects associated with each parental genotype 

Parents 

Grain 

yield per 

plant 

1000- 

grains 

weight 

Plant 

height 

Number of 

effective 

tillers per 

plant 

Length of 

main spike 

* and ** indicates significant at P = 0.05 and P = 0.01 levels, respectively. 

Spikelets 

per spike 

Grains per 

spike 

Harvest 

Index 

Protein 

content 

Sedimentation 

value 

1. VA-06-15 1.25** -0.60 -2.22** -0.09 0.09 0.06 -0.36 1.15** -0.03 -0.62** 

2. GW 322 -0.85** -2.82** 0.72 0.49** 0.36** 0.03 0.96 -0.36 0.13** 0.05 

3. GW 392 -4.12** -1.31 0.94 -0.41** 0.33** -0.11 -1.68** -3.55** 0.05 -0.35** 

4. GW 273 -0.24 0.65 1.15 0.08 0.35** 0.59** 1.70** 1.62** -0.33** 0.88** 

5. GW 399 -1.14** -0.76 0.93 -0.30 -0.31** -0.16 -1.18 -0.19 -0.12** 0.13 

6. GW 397 0.73** 2.62** -2.03** 0.06 -0.59** 0.10 -1.03 0.02 0.07 -0.18 

7. GW 496 0.98** 0.16 -0.76 0.27 -0.16 -0.07 1.91** 1.30** 0.09* -0.25 

8. GW 404 3.38** 2.05** 1.27 -0.12 -0.07 -0.44* -0.32 0.02 0.15** 0.34* 

S.E.(gi) ± 0.24 0.70 0.75 0.15 0.10 0.22 0.60 0.44 0.04 0.13 

that none of the parents consistently good general combiner 

for all the characters. The parental lines GW 496, GW 404, GW 

397 and VA 06-15 were good general combiners for grain yield 

and other yield components. The standard parent GW 496 

was good general combiners for grain yield per plant, grains 

per spike and harvest index. The parent GW 404 was good 

general combiner for grain yield per plant, 1000-grain weight, 

grain protein content and sedimentation value. 

Three best crosses selected on the basis of sca effects 

for each of the characters are presented in Table 4. A perusal 

of data revealed that none of the crosses had high ranking 

sca effects for all the characters. For grain yield per plant, it 

was observed that the crosses GW 273 x GW 496, GW 392 x 

GW 273 and VA 06-15 x GW 322 recorded the highest sca 

effects and they involved average x good, poor x average and 

good x poor gca parents (Table 4).This indicated important 

role of additive x dominance or additive x additive gene 

interaction in high ranking per se performance of these 

hybrids. The cross VA 06-15 x GW 404 for grain protein 

content and cross GW 392 x GW 397for sedimentation value 

expressed highest sca effects. The superior crosses involving 

both good general combining parents i.e., GW 322 x GW 404 

for grain protein content, GW 392 x GW 496 for hectoliter 

weight and VA 06-15 x GW 496 for harvest index. The crosses 

exhibited high sca effects irrespective of the gca effects of the 

parents indicating important role of dominance and epistatic 

gene effects. The superior sca effect of hybrids for most of 

the characters were accompanied by superior per se 

performance indicating predominant role of non-additive gene 

effects in expression of grain yield and its components.


Table 4. 

Sca effects of three best crosses along with per se performance and gca combination for each traits 

Characters Hybrids sca gca per se performance (Rank) 

Grain yield per plant GW 273 x GW 496 

GW 392 x GW 273 

VA-06-15 x GW 322 

12.95** 

10.64** 

7.60** 

A x G 

P x A 

G x P 

36.16 (1) 

32.63 (3) 

34.95 (2) 

Plant height GW 322 x GW 397 

GW 322 x GW 496 

GW 397 x GW 404 

Number of effective tillers per plant GW 392 X GW 273 

VA-06-15 x GW 392 

GW 399 x GW 397 

Length of main spike GW 273 X GW 496 

GW 399 x GW 404 

GW 399 x GW 496 

Spikelets per spike VA-06-15 x GW 273 

GW 392 x GW 404 

GW 392 x GW 273 

Grains per spike GW 392 x GW 273 

GW 399 x GW 404 

VA-06-15 x GW 322 

1000 grain weight GW 392 x GW 404 

VA-06-15 x GW 496 

VA-06-15 x GW 404 

Harvest Index VA-06-15 x GW 496 

VA-06-15 x GW 322 

GW 322 x GW 397 

Protein content VA-06-15 x GW 404 

GW 399 x GW 404 

GW 322 x GW 404 

Sedimentation value GW 392 x GW 397 

GW 392 x GW 273 

GW 322 x GW 392 

G = Good; A = Average; P = Poor. 

-5.69* 

-4.46* 

-3.92* 

3.60** 

2.91** 

2.66** 

2.03** 

1.67** 

1.29** 

2.48** 

2.16** 

1.63* 

9.51** 

9.39** 

8.08** 

7.51** 

6.75** 

6.65** 

4.96** 

4.50** 

3.78** 

1.67** 

1.02** 

0.90** 

3.66** 

2.07** 

1.81** 

A X G 

A x A 

G x A 

P X A 

A X P 

A X A 

G X A 

P X A 

P X A 

A X G 

A X P 

A X G 

P X G 

A X A 

A X A 

A X G 

A X A 

A X G 

G X G 

G X A 

A X A 

A X G 

P X G 

G X G 

P X A 

P X G 

A X P 

*, ** indicates significant at P = 0.05 and P = 0.01 levels, respectively. 

68.0 (-) 

69.44 (-) 

65.33 (2) 

12.33 (1) 

12.33 (1) 

11.50 (-) 

12.91 (1) 

11.90 (-) 

11.94 (-) 

18.99 (2) 

19.0 (1) 

17.44 (-) 

47.88 (3 

47.55 (-) 

47.77 (-) 

54.84 (1) 

52.82 (-) 

51.22 (-) 

41.61 (-) 

44.72 (1) 

42.28 (-) 

17.50 (1) 

16.70 (3) 

16.80 (2) 

61.43 (1) 

60.37 (3) 

60.50 (2) 

Thus best cross combinations could be obtained by 

crossing at least one parent with good gca effects. Wheat 

being a self-pollinated crop, the exploitation of heterosis is 

not feasible. However, the cross combinations with high sca, 

which involve at least one good general combiner, could throw 

up desirable transgressive segregants if the additive genetic 

system present in the good combiner and complementary 

epistatic effects act in the same direction to maximize the 

desirable plant attributes such crosses could be utilized for 

exploitation of hybrid vigour. The biometrical approach 

followed in the present search revealed the presence of 

additive as well as non-additive gene action for all the 

characters. However, the non-additive gene effects were 

predominant for all the characters. It is suggested that 

biparental mating and diallel selective mating systems should 

be followed for creation of more variability and breaking 

undesirable linkage (Sharma, et al., 2003 and Sharma and sain, 

2005) 


Dhadhal, B.A. and Dobariya, K.L. 2006. Combining ability analysis 

over environments for grain yield and its components in bread 

wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). National Journal of Plant 

Improvement., 8(2): 172-173. 

Griffing, B. 1956a. Concept of general and specific combining ability 

in relation to diallel cross system. Aust. J. Biol. Sci., 9: 463-493. 

Jogendra Singh, Gray, D.K. and Raye, R.S. 2007. Combining ability and 

gene action for grain yield and its components under high 

temperature environment in bread wheat (T. aestivum L.) Indian J. 

Genet., 67(2): 193-195. 

Sharma, S.N., Sain, R.S. and Sharma, R.K. 2003. Genetic analysis of 

flag area in durum wheat over environment. Wheat Information 

Service, 96: 5-10. 

Sharma, S.N.and Sain, R.S. 2005. Estimation of components of heterosis 

for harvest index in durum wheat under normal and late plantings. 

Crop Improv., 32(2): 137-142. 


Trends in Biosciences ALI & SHAHEEN, 4 (1): 123-125, Steinernema 2011 sayeedae Sp. N. a Heat Tolerant EPN from Banana Rhizosphere of Koshambhi 123 

Steinernema sayeedae Sp. N. a Heat Tolerant EPN from Banana Rhizosphere of 

Koshambhi District, U.P. India 

S.S. ALI AND AZRA SHAHEEN 

Indian Institute of Pulses Reseach (ICAR), Kanpur 208 024, U.P. 


ABSTRACT 

Steinernema sayeedae sp.n.,a heat tolerant epn collected and 

isolated from soil of banana rhizosphere of Koshambhi district, 

U.P. India is characterized by very small IJS, lessrer than 400 

µm,female body length ranges between 1970-1452 um but giant 

forms are much larger than other species in the genera. Boat 

shaped gubernaculum with a beak like extension in the 

proximal part in males. Body cylindrical shape in 3 rd stage 

juveniles, bacterial pouch 50-70 µm long only containing 

symbiotic bacteria. It is also characterized by having small 

sized body, absence of perioral disc. It is reproductiviely isolated 

from closely related species. S.sayeedae comes close to S.masoodi, 

Ali, et al., but differs in having smaller body, lesser number of 

genital papillae (vs genital papillae 17 in S.masoodi). It differs 

from S.diaprepesi, Nguyen and Duncan, in the absence of mucron 

in first generation of females, whereas it is present in both the 

generations of female. 

Key words 

Steinernema sayeedae, new species, EPN, taxonomy, 

morphometrics 

The number of newly discovered nematode species/ 

isolates with biocontrol potentials has significantly increased 

during last ten years.Accurate and prompt identification of 

these taxa needs not only specific modern tools but deep 

knowledge of taxa,taxonomic skill and experience. 

Steinernematidae currently receiving much attention as 

biocontrol agent of aerial and soil insects (Lacay, et al., 2001; 

Ali, et al., 2005). To avail their biocontrol potential is to isolate 

new strain or to detect species which can tolerate extreme 

and adverse conditions like very hot temperatures (45-48ºC), 

desication etc.; are the need of the hour during globally 

changing climate scenario, especially in Indian subcontinent 

where rabi crops are harvested in very hot temperatures (43- 

48ºC) of summer season in rainfed,dryland conditions. In 

view of this fact, an exploratory survey was undertaken during 

June, 2010 at Koshambhi district, Uttar Pradesh state, India 

where this new species thrive well in peak hot summer 

temperature in soils of banana plantations. As few EPNs like 

Steinernema masoodi, S. seeme (Ali,et al., 2005) and S.qazii 

(Ali, et al., 2009) are available to be used in high temperature 

regimes. This new species will be tested against banana grub, 

Holotricha consanguine and other soil, aerial insects pests 

and termites. 

The object of the study was to identified and described 

this new species on morphological observations and to 

compare with related heat tolerant species of the region. 


Soil samples were collected from the rhizosphere of 

banana plants during the month of June 2010 when temperature 

ranges from 43ºC to 45ºC in Koshambhi district, Uttar Pradesh 

state, India. Then nematodes were collected from the soil by 

insect baiting technique (Bedding and Akhurst, 1975) and 

maintained in labratory on Corcyra cephalonica (Ali, et al., 

2005) at room temperature 35 ± 2ºC. The 3 rd stage infective 

juveniles (IJS) were obtained within seven days after emerging 

from insect cadavers. The extracted nematodes were reared in 

vivousing Corcyra larvaeto test pathogenecity and confirmed 

Koch’s postulates. Nematodes of different stages were killed 

in warm water at 60ºC and fixed in TAF (Courtney, et al., 1955) 

and processed to glycerine. Observations were made from 

mounted specimens on Leica DMLB research microscope. 

Illustrations were prepared from armed type of camera lucida. 

Measurements were taken through an ocular micrometer. 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSON 

Description : 

Steinernema sayeedaesp.n.Fig.1. 

Measurements : Table 1. 

Females first generation: 

Cuticle finely striated, about 1-1.5 µm, lateral field with 2 

ridges, four lateral lines,middle lateral lines closer than outer 

lines, visible from pharynx to anus. Six lips, forming 3 duplex, 

each lip bearing one terminal sensilla, cuticularised pieces at 

lip region absent. Stoma appears triangular with sclerotizes 

cheilorhabdions. Excretory pore adjacent to nerve ring or 

sometimes anterior to nerve ring. Excretory pouch globular 

present at the level of basal bulb. Anterior part of pharynx 

has a swelling in the procrpus region, isthmus surrounded by 

nerve ring. Basal bulb pyriform, lumen of the basal bulb 

thickened appears like a valve. Cardia with three glands two 

subventral and one dorsal. Reproductive system amphidelphic, 

both genital branches equally developed. Vulva equatorial 

with epiptygma. Female tail conoid with a long mucron, anal 

lips protruded. 

Males first generation: 

Anterior region shows no morphological difference with 

that of female. Gonads monorchic, testis reflexed consisting 

of germinal zone leading to a seminal vesicle. Vasdifference 

with weak musculature. Spicules paired, arcuate, symmetrical


Fig. 1. 

Steinernema sayeedae n. sp. Female: A. Entire body, B. Anterior region, E. Posterior region, I. Vulval region, Male: C. Anterior 

region, D. Posterior region, G. Entire body, Juveniles : F. Lateral lines, H. Entire body

ALI & SHAHEEN, Steinernema sayeedae Sp. N. a Heat Tolerant EPN from Banana Rhizosphere of Koshambhi 125 

Table 1. 

with two ribs. Head of spicule stout almost 1/3 of total spicules 

length. Gubernaculum boat shaped with a beak like extension 

in its proxiomal part which is very different from other known 

species of the genera. Tail with seven genital papillae, one 

pair adanal, two post anal and 4 pairs precloacal. Phasmids 

adanal. Tail short,blunt with almost rounded terminus. Mucron 

at tail tip absent. 

Infective juveniles: 

Morphometrics of Steinernema sayeedae sp.n. 

(Measurements are in micron except ratio) 

Third stage 

juveniles 

(n=8) 

Juveniles acquire C shape upon fixation. Body slender, 

cylindrical in shape while other species of the genus it is 

tapering at both ends of the body. Cuticle with transverse 

striations. Lateral field marked with four incisures. Lip region 

continues with body contour. Basal bulb with stong valve 

plates. Very strange bacterial pouch present at oesophagointestinal 

junction, at least 50-70 µm long, containing symbiotic 

bacteria. Tail elongate conoid, about 3-4 anal body width long. 

Diagonosis and relationship: 

Holotype 

male 

Males(n=8) 

Females 

(n=8) 

L 372.0-425.00 927.3 956.0-1131.0 1188.0- 

1455.0 

Greatest width 22.0-27.0 60.1 60.0-62.0 60.4-85.0 

Stoma length 5.6-6.0 8.6 8.7-8.7 7.7-12.0 

Pharynx length 95.1 101.8-103.4 108.6- 

1164.0 

Stoma width 10.6 9.0-10.0 7.7-9.0 

Excretory pore 60.14 60.0-62.0 62.0-74.0 

Anterior body 

31.4 31.5-33.5 34.9-38.7 

width 

EPW 29.1 30.0-32.0 35.89 -37.0 

NR 67.9 70.5-72.5 75.0-90.0 

Anal body width 9.0-19.0 30.6 31.04-32.0.2 24.5-28.1 

Tail length 40.0-42.0 20.32 21.5-24.7 39.4-48.5 

Spicule length 45.59 47.0-58.2 

Spicule width 11.64 11.6-12.8 

Gubenaculum 

37.85 39.0-41.0 

length 

Gubernaculum 

6.79 4.85-7.0 

width 

V (%) 67.4-74.1 

a (L/W) 18.70-19.0 15.35 13.7-14.4 19.6-23.46 

b (L/ES) 3.06-4.2 9.75 11.1-12.3 8.9-12.7 

c (L/Tail) 12.62-13.4 45.5 46.6-47.0 19.6-26.1 

EW 34.9 41.7-48.5 

Steinernema sayeedae n. sp. characterized by very small 

IJS lesser than 400 µm, female body length ranges between 

1070-1452 µm, but giant forms are much longer than other 

species in the genus. Boat shaped gubernaculums with a beak 

like extension in the proximal part in males. Body cylindrical 

shape of 3 rd stage juveniles, bacterial pouch 50-70 um long 

only containing symbiotic bacteria. It is also characterized by 

having small sized body, absence of perioral disc. It is 

reproductiviely isolated from closely related species. 

S. sayeedae n. sp. comes close to S.masoodi Ali, et al., 

2005 but differs in having smaller body, lesser number of genital 

papillae (vs genital papillae 17 in S.masoodi). It differs from 

S.diaprepesi Nguyen and Duncan, 2002, in the absence of 

mucron in first generation of females, whereas it is present in 

both the generations of female. 

Type host: Unknown, probably grub of banana, 

Holotricha consanguine 

Type locality: Banana plantation of Mr. Khan, Koshmbhi, 

Koshambhi district, Uttar Pradesh, India 

Type Specimen: Holotype male, 6paratypes males, 6 

paratypes females and 6 paratypes juveniles deposited at 

Nematology Unit,Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur, 

India and 2 each paratypes females, males, juveniles deposited 

at CAB Internation Institute of Parasitology, St.Albans,U.K. 

Etymology: Steinernema sayeedaesp.n. named in the 

memory of Mrs. Sayeeda Begum late mother of Dr. S.S. Ali, 

Emiratus Scientist (CSIR), Indian Institute of Pulses Research, 

Kanpur, (ICAR) 


Authors are express their gratitude to Dr. N. Nadarajan, 

Director, Indian Institute of Pulses Reserch, Kanpur for 

providing all the facilities used in this study. This study was 

supported by grant of Emeritus ship Scheme no. 21(0724)/08/ 

EMR-II from Council of Scientific & Industrial Research New 

Delhi India which is gratefully acknowledged. 


Ali, S.S., Shaheen, A., Pervez, R. and Hussain, M.A. 2005. Steinernema 

masoodi sp. n. and Steinernema seemai sp. n. (Rhabditida: 

Sternernematidae) from Uttar Pradesh, India. International Journal 


Ali, S.S., Ahmad, R., Hussain, M. A. and Pervez, R. 2005. Pest 


Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur, pp 59. 

Ali, S.S., Azra Shaheen, Asif, M. and Akhtar, M.H. 2009. Steinernema 

qazii sp.n. (Nematoda: Rhabditidae:Steinernematidae) from Kanpur, 

India .Trendsin Biosciences, 2(1):59-54. 



Nematologica, 21:109-110. 


fixative in nematode technique. Plant Disease Reporter, 39: 570- 

571. 

Lacey, L.A., Frutos, R., Kaya, H.K. and Vails, P. 2001. Insect pathogens 

as biological control agents: do they have a future? Biological 

Control, 21: 230-248. 

Nguyen, K.B. and Duncan, L.W. 2002. Steinernema diaprepesi n.sp. 

(Rhabditida: Steinernematidae), a parasite of the citrus root weevil 

Diaprepes abbreviates (L.) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Journal 

of Nematology, 34: 159-170. 

Received on 02.02.2011 Accepted on 14.05.2011


SHORT COMMUNICATION 

Nematicidal Potentials of Spices against Eggs and Second-Stage Juveniles of 

Meloidogyne incognita 

B.R. AMINU-TAIWO 1 , A.A. IDOWU 1 AND O.S. OSUNLOLA 2 

1 

National Horticultural Research Institute, Ibadan, Nigena 

2 

Department of Crop Proctection and Environmental Biology, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigena 

e-mail: bukkyaminu@yahoo.com 

The potentials for nematicidal activity of indigenous 

plants and their products as an alternative for chemical 

nematicides have been studied by several workers (Haseeb, 

et al., 1984; Pracer, et al,. 1987; Osman and Viglierchio, 1988). 

Root and shoot extracts of some plants in the family 

Laminaceae have been tested for their toxicity, and almost all 

the test plants exhibited high nematode toxicity (Akhtar and 

Farzana 1990). A study conducted by Amer-Zareen, et al., 

2003 on nematicidal activity of ginger for the control of root 

knot nematode of tomato also gave a positive result. The 

results revealed that higher concentration of extract 

suppressed egg hatching and caused juveniles mortality. 

There is need to conduct studies with a view to 

establishing the toxicity levels of some promising spices that 

are cost effective, environmentally safe and accessible to 

farmers for effective pest control. This study was designed 

to investigate the toxicity of five selected spices on eggs and 

second-stage juveniles of M. incognita. 

Fresh spices viz., Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rose.), 

garlic (Allium sativum L), turmeric (Curcuma longa L)., 

Ethiopian pepper (Xylopia aethiopica) and Local basil 

(Occimum gratissimum were collected from National 

Horticultural Research Institute (Progeny Garden). Fresh 

materials were washed under running tap water, air dried and 

then homogenized to fine powder and stored in airtight bottles. 

Water was used to extract toxic principles in dry part 

using the method of Olabiyi, et al., 1992. Ten –gram pieces of 

each dry part were weighed and placed into bottles and 100ml 

of distilled water was added. The reagent bottles were then 

placed in a water-bath and heated at 100 o C for one hour. The 

extract was allowed to cool and filtered through Whatman No 

1 filter paper. The filtrate was taken as stock extract 

(100,000mg/kg). Serial dilutions were prepared to obtain graded 

extracts of 80,000 mg/kg, 40,000 mg/kg, 20,000 mg/kg, 10,000 

mg/kg and 5,000 mg/kg from the 100,000 mg/kg (stock) extract. 

Meliodogyne incognita: Galled roots of C. argentea 

were thoroughly washed in water in order to remove soil 

particles. The galled roots were chopped into 2-3cm pieces 

and placed into a conical flask. 0.5% Sodium hypochlorite 

solution was prepared and added into the conical flask and 

shaken for four minutes. The eggs were collected on a 500- 

mesh sieve. 

Egg-hatch studies: Aliquots of one ml of nematode egg 

suspension that contained 50 fresh M. incognita eggs was 

dispensed into each of the transparent glass blocks. One ml 

each of the water extracts of each of the spices (80,000, 40,000, 

20,000, 10,000, 5,000 mg/kg) were added into the egg 

suspension. Distilled water was added to glass blocks that 

served as control. This brought the effective concentration 

of water extracts to 40,000, 20,000, 10,000, 5,000 and 2,500 mg/ 

kg respectively. The experimental design was completely 

randomized with twenty six treatments (Table 1). 

Distilled water (Control): Each treatment was replicated four 

times. The treatments and control were incubated at ambient 

temperature. Juveniles that hatched were counted every 24 

hour for 10 days. This trial was repeated as described above 

without any modifications. The studies were conducted in 

two separate but identical trials. In the first trial, one ml aliquots 

of water extracts of each of the spices 80,000, 40,000, 20,000, 

10,000 and 5,000 mg/kg) of garlic, ginger, Ethiopian pepper, 

turmeric and local basil were dispensed into transparent glass 

blocks each containing about 50 second-stage juveniles of 

M. incognita in one ml of water and distilled water served as 

control. This again brought the effective concentration of 

water extracts to 40,000, 20,000, 10,000, 5,000 and 2,500 mg/kg 

respectively. There were twenty –six treatments as listed under 

egg hatch studies. Each treatment was replicated four times 

and arranged in a completely randomized design. A count of 

dead juveniles was made every 24 hours for 5 days. In the 

second trial, the experiment was repeated as described in the 

first trial without any modifications. All data were statistically 

analysed using the SAS (SAS, 1999) statistical package for all 

the treatments tested. The means were separated by the least 

significant difference at a probability level of 5% 

Significant differences occurred in the % egg hatch as 

influenced by the extract of different spices. At day 1 no egg 

hatch in all treatments involving the spices extract compared 

to the control where 4% egg hatch was recorded. No egg 

hatch was recorded for garlic, xylopia treatment at 

concentration 40,000 and 20,000 mg - kg throughout the period 

of study. Similarly, treatment with ginger and turmeric at 

40,000, 20,000 and 10,000 mg - kg concentration recorded no 

egg hatch throughout the period of study. Basil extracts on 

the other hand at 40,000 mg - kg recorded egg hatch from day 7

AMINU-TAIWO et. al., Nematicidal Potentials of Spices against Eggs and Second-Stage Juveniles of Meloidogyne incognita 127 

Table 1. 

Effect of extracts of Garlic bulb, Xylopia pods, 

Ginger, Turmeric Rhizomes and Basil leaves on 

mortality of Meloidogyne incognita J 2 

Treatment Concentration 

mg/kg 

J 2 

Count 

Cumulative % Mortality of J 2 

Day 1 Day2 Day3 Day4 Day5 Day6 

Garlic 40,000 50 100 

20,000 50 100 

10,000 48 100 

5,000 50 50 100 

2,500 50 58 100 

Xylopia 40,000 50 100 100 

20,000 48 97 100 

10,000 50 46.2 63.5 79 100 

5,000 48 38.5 53.8 68 78 100 

2,500 50 35 42 50 59 100 

Ginger 40,000 50 100 

20,000 50 100 

10,000 49 73 82 100 

5,000 50 45 61.5 79 84 

2,500 48 29.5 58 75 84 

Turmeric 40,000 50 100 

20,000 49 100 

10,000 50 100 

5,000 50 60 82 100 

2,500 50 49 79 100 

Basil 40,000 50 69 80 92 100 

20,000 48 44 55 80 100 

10,000 50 26 50 70 90 93 

5,000 50 24 25 42 57 93 

2,500 49 3 8.5 16 34 45 

H 2O 0 50 0 0 6 11 19 

LSD 0.05 3.07 2.32 3.39 2.76 2.01 

and at concentration of 20,000 mg - kg egg hatch at day 1. Water 

extract of turmeric at 2,500mg/kg gave the least significant 

egg hatch proportion (14%) as compared to water extracts of 

other spices used. The results obtained in the second trial 

were similar to those of the first trial. 

The results of juvenile survival studies showed that 

water extracts of garlic, ginger and turmeric at 40,000, 20,000 

and 10,000mg/kg were more effective than other extracts in 

killing second-stage juveniles of M. incognita. All the juveniles 

were killed within two days at these levels of concentration. 

The least effective extracts in killing second-stage juveniles 

of M. incognita were water extracts of basil and Ethiopia 

pepper where the juveniles were killed 5 days in both trials. 

Water extracts of all the spices used were effective in 

inhibiting egg-hatch and survival of second-stage juveniles 

of M. incognita at all the concentrations tested. Oka, et al., 

2000 observed the essential oils of Carum carvi, Foeniculum 

vulgare, mentha root at 1,000 ml/liter concentration showed 

the highest nematicidal activity. 

The present results suggest that the spices used in this 

experiment contain some nematicidal compounds that cause 

reduction in egg hatching and death of second stage juveniles 

of M. incognita. There is therefore a need to find out toxic 

compounds produced by these spices with the aim of further 

purification and compounding into natural nematicides. 


Akhtar Haseeb and Farzana Butool, 1990. Evaluation of Nematicidal 

Properties in some Members of the Family Laminaceae. Intl. 

Nematol. Network Newsl., 7(2): 24-26. 

Amer-Zareen, M. Javed Zaki and Nazir Javed, 2003. Nematicidal 

Activity of Ginger and its effect on the Efficacy of Pasteuria 

penetrans for the control of Root-knot Nematodes on Tomato. 

Asian Journal of Plant Sciences, 2(11): 858-860. 

Haseeb, A., Siddiqui, M.A. and Alam, M. M. 1984. Toxicity of latexbearing 

plants to phytonematodes. In: Environ. & Biotic Interact, 

(eds., Dattagupta, A. K. and Maleyar, R. P., Kurukshetra) Univ. 

press, Kurushetra. pp. 67-71. 

Oka, Y., S. Nacar, E. Putievsky, V. Ravid, Z. Yaniv and Y. Spiegal. 

2000. Nematicidal activity of essential oils and their components 

against root knot nematode. Phytopathology, 90(7): 710-715. 

Olabiyi, T. I., Babatola, J. O. and Oyedunmade, E. E. A., 1992. In vitro 

assessment of some plant extracts for their Nematicidal properties. 

In: Proceedings of the 1 st Regional Symposium on Biology and 

Control of Nematode Pests of Food Crops in Africa. B. Fawole, O. 

A. pp.311-322 

Osman, A. A., and Viglierchio, D. R. 1988. Efficacy of biologically 

active agents as nontraditional nematicides for Meloidogyne 

javanica. Rev. Nematol., 19: 194-200. 

Pracer, S., Tarjan, A. C. and Hodgson, L. M. 1987. Effective use of 

marine algal products in the management of plant parasitic 

nematodes. J. Nematol., 19: 93-98. 

SAS Institute. 1999. SAS User’s Guide: Statistics, version 8.0e SAS 

Institute, Cary. NC. USA. 




Cercospora oudhensis Sp. Nov. on Threatened Plant Indopiptadenia oudhensis from 

Shrawasti, U.P., India 

T.P. MALL 

Postgraduate Department of Botany, Kisan P.G. College, Bahraich 271 801, U.P. 


During a survey of microfungi from the forests of 

Shrawasti Forest Range at Indo Nepal border representing 

north central Tarai Forests of U.P., India, a novel dematiaceous 

hyphomyceotous fungi belonging to the genus Cercospora 

Fresenius on a threatened plant Indopiptadenia oudhensis 

(Brandis) Brenan, Gainthi, Haathipaula (Mimosaceae) was 

observed. On critical study and comparison with other known 

species viz., C.albizae, C.albizziae and C.albizicola (Kar and 

Mandel, 1969). Hence is described as Cercospora oudhensis 

sp.nov. 

DESCRIPTION : 

Cercospora oudhensis Mall sp.nov. 

Mycelium immersed. Stromata present, fascicles 30-45um in 

diam. Conidiophores macronematous, synnematous, 

individual threads unbranched, generally flexuous, often 

narrow cylindrical adpressed near the base, somewhat towards 

the apex, olivaceous brown to light brown, smooth, 30-70 x 5- 

8 um in diam. Conidiogenous cells integrated, terminal, often 

monoblastic and percurrent becoming polyblastic later on; 

sympodial and denticulate broad conidial denticles and no 

scars or thin scars. Conidia solitary, simple acrogenous on 

young conidiophores becoming acropleugenous later on, 

mostly cylindrical smooth or rugous, straight to curved, apex 

obtuse, base obconico-cylindrical with numerous transverse 

septa, 60-85 x 2-5 um in diam, hilum unthickened. 

Maculae hypogenae, sub circulares vel circulares, usque 

5 mm in diam, inceptio in fragmenti posterius effusae. Coloniae 

effusae, brunnae vel atrobrunnae. Mycelium immersum. 

Stromata presentia, fascicles 30-45 um in diam. Conidiophora 

macronematosa, synnematosa, non-ramosa, plerumque 

flexuosa, cylindrica, adpressae ad basim, inflatl ad apicem, 

olivaceo brunnea vel pallide brunnea, laevia, 35-70 x 5-8 um in 

diam. Cellulae conidigenae in conidiophoris integrate, 

terminales, plerumque monoblasticae et percurrentae, 

polyblasticae, posterius, sympodialae et denticulatae, latae 

denticulate, non cicatrices vel cicatrices non incerassata. 

Conidia solitaria, simplicia, acrogena ad conidiogena, 

acropleurogenosa posterius, plerumque cylindrica, laevia vel 

rugulosa, recta vel curvata, apicem obtusa, basim abconico 

cylindrica cum numerosa transverse septata, 60-85 x 2-5 um in 

diam, hila non-incrassata. 

In foliis vivis Indopiptadenia oudhensis (Brandis) 

Brenan (Mimosaceae), Shrawasti Forest Range, Shrawasti 

(U.P.) India, 26.08.2010, leg.; T.P.Mall, BRH-3,029, TPM-0,129 

(Isotypus), HCIO-50,097 (Holotype). 

Infection spots hypogenous, subcircular to circulare, 

upto 5 mm in diam in descrete patches in beginning becoming 

effuse later on. Colonies effuse, tufted mid to dark brown. 

Fig. 1. 

d 

b 

c 

2cm 

a 

20 um 

Cercospora oudhensis Mall sp.nov. 

a-I nfected leaf, b-Stroma, c-Conidiophore, d-Conidia

T.P. MALL, Cercospora oudhensis Sp. Nov. on Threatened Plant Indopiptadenia oudhensis from Shrawasti, U.P., India 129 

On living leaves of Indopiptadenia oudhensis (Brandis) 

Brenan (Mimosaceae), Shrawasti Forest Range, Shrawasti 

(U.P.) India, 26.08.2010, leg.; Mall, BRH-3,029, TPM-0,129 

(Isotypus) HCIO-50,097 (Holotype). The holotype specimen 

has been deposited in HCIO, IARI, New Delhi for allotment 

of accession number and the same is HCIO-50,097. Survey 

of Literature indicates that there is no record of 

Cercospora oudhensis species of this type on the host family. 

Therefore, it is described and illustrated as a new species to 

accommodate it. 


Author is thankful to the Principal, Kisan P.G.College, 

Bahraich for providing laboratory facilities and to UGC for 

award of Minor Research Project No. F. 8-1 (224) 2010 (MRP/ 

NRCB). 


Kar, A.K. and Mandal, M. 1969. New Cercospora spp. from West 

Bangal-1, Trans.Br.Myco.Soc., 53: 357-360. 




Phosphorous Mobilizing Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizae from Indian Soil 

P. PARAMESWARAN, S. SAMUNDEESWARI AND WILLIAM JOHNSON 

Anna Bio Research Foundation, Department of Biotechnology, Arunai Engineering College, 

Tiruvannamalai 606 603 

e-mail: ppbiotech@gmail.com 

VAM populations of cultivated lands are affected by the 

various soil, plant and environmental factors that affect them 

in natural ecosystems plus various agricultural and horticultural 

practices. Important among the latter are fertilizer amendments, 

pesticide applications and crop rotations (Hayman 1975). Light 

may affect mycorrhizal development seemingly changing the 

appearance of an infection e.g. better arbuscle formation under 

high than under low intnensities, rather more than the total 

infection. The concomitant effect on plant growth may have 

been related to carbohydrate supply from plant to fungus 

In this study, mycorrhizal fungal spores in soil and fungal 

association in the plants of Madras Christian College Campus 

located in the Tambaram, Madras (TamilNadu,India) was 

investigated. Random sampling method was employed; soil 

samples were collected from three different places from 1 x 1 ft. 

plot at two different levels i.e. 2 cm and 10 cm level, using a 

trowel, bulk samples up to 10 sub samples were replicated at 

least three times per site, because of the variability of 

mycorrhizal spores in soil. The samples were stored at 4 0 c 

until analysis.Mycorrhizal spores were obtained by wetsiewing 

and decanting (Gerdamann, 1968). Non-pigmented root 

pieces were thoroughly washed in tap water and boiled at 90 0 c 

for 2 hours in 10 KOH. The segments were washed in distilled 

water and acidified by immersing for 5 minutes in 5N HCl. 

They were stained in 0.05% trypan blue in lactophenol and 

the excess stain was removed in clear lactophanol.Root 

segments were mounted temporarily on slides containing 

acetic acid, glycerol (1:1 v/v) or clear lactophenol and edges 

of cover slips were sealed with DPX mount. 

Pigmented root segments were suspended in 10% KOH 

and heated at 90 o c for 2 to 3 hours and washed in 10% KOH. 

To decolorize the pigments, segments were immersed in an 

alkaline solution of hydrogen peroxide, acidified in 5N HC1, 

stained and mounted on slides. 

A total of 45 plant species from 27 families of angiosperms 

(One monocotyledon) and remaining dicotyledons were 

collected and analysed for mycorrhizal association.Percentage 

of infection was calculated by observing 1 cm length of 50 

root segments for vesicles, arbuscules and internal hypae. 

Roots of 44 species of dicotyledons and one species of 

monocotyledons were analysed for mycorrhizal association. 

Variation in the occurance of mycorrhizal infection in 12 plant 

species collected from three different selected areas were 

studied at 30 days interval. 

In Madras Christian college campus soil phosphorous 

level ranged from 0.02 to 8mg per 100g soil. Generally 

phosphorous level ranged between 0.02mg to 2.5mg per 100g 

soil in the three areas at 2 different levels showed good number 

of spores as well as moderate to high percent infection (10 to 

80%) and soil phosphorous level above 2.5 mg p per 100g soil 

generally suppressed the spore number as well as per cent 

infection. According to Mosse and Tinkar, 1973 many plants 

take up more phosphate and grow better in soil containing 

little available phosphate when inoculated with VA 

endophytes, Fig. 1-3. 

Out of 45 plant for mycorrhizal association analysed, 

Only 14 plant species gave negative results. Mycorrhizal 

association was observed in the roots of species of oleaceae 

(Jasminum sessiliflorum). Gerdamann, 1968 reported that 

mycorrhizal association was absent in the families of 

commelinaceae, cyperarceae, polygonaceae and oleaceae. The 

negative results reported might have been based on single 

observation. 

Acanthospermum hispidum and Tebubuia rosea 

showed more than 70% infection, Canthium dicoccum, 

Dalicantron falcate, Evolvulus ulcinoids, Habenaria 

platyphylla, Hemidesmus indicus, Ixora parviflora, 

Memecylon umbellatum, Phyllanthus simplex, Stachytarpeta 

jamaigen showed 50-70% of infection. Atalantia monophylla, 

Epaltes sp., Glycosmis cochinehinensis, Heteropogon 

contartus, Plectronia didyma, Vicoa Indica, Ziziphus 

oenoplia showed 30-50% infection. Allophyllus serratus, 

Azadiracta indica, Crotalaria prostrate, Dodonia 

angustifolia, Dodonia visicosa, Grewia hirsute, Jasminum 

sessliflorum, Polyalthia longifolia, Pachygone ovata, 

Stachytarpeta simplex, Urginia indica showed 10-30% of 

infection. Carissa spinarum, Dipterocanthus prastratus 

showed less than 10% infection. Remaining Agyneia 

bacciformis, Euphorbia simplex, Enicostemma auxillare, 

Grewia orientalis, Jasminum angustifolium, Mimosa pudica, 

Mollugo pentaphylla, Murraya konigii, Phoenix humilis, 

Psudarthria visida, Sansivieria roxburghiana, 

Stachytarpeta indica, Sida accuta, Triumfetta pendantra 

showed no infection.

PARAMESWARAN et al., Phosphorous Mobilizing Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizae from Indian Soil 131 

Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3 

A 

B 

C 

A 

B 

C 

A 

B 

C 

D E F 

D 

D 

E 

F 

E 

F 

G 

H 

G H I 

I 

G 

H 

I 

Fig. 1. Mycorrhizal fungal spores. A. Sclerocystis pachycaulis, B. Glomus pansihalos, C. G.geosporum, D-E. G. fassiculata, 

F. G.aggregatum, G. G.citricolum, H-I. Glomus sp. 

Fig. 2. Mycorrhizal fungal spores and mycorrhizal association in the plant roots. A-D. Glomus sp., E-F. Dalichandrone falcata, 

G. Ixora Parviflora, H-I. Stachytarpeta indica 

Fig. 3. Mycorrhizal association in plant roots. A. Habenaria platyphylla, B. Allium cepa, C. Polyalthia longifolia, D.Heteropogon 

contartus, E. Urginea indica, F. Atalantia monophylla, G-H. Tebubuia rosea, I. Memecylon umbellutum. 

Variation in the occurrence of mycorrhizal infection of 

selected plant species were studied at 30 days interval for 10 

months. They had much difference in per cent infection within 

the same plant species. Difference in per cent infection within 

the same plant species could be attributed to the influence of 

edaphic and climatic factors (Mason, 1975, Hayman, 1975). 

Effect of solarization and vesicular arbuscular mychorrizal on 

weed density and yield of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) in autumn 

season showed no mycorrhizal infection. The VA mycorrhizal 

fungi infect all plant species except some plants in cruciferae, 

Chenopodiaceae and Cyperaceae (Walter, 1982). Mosse, 1975 

stated that the difference in effectiveness of infection could 

be due to physiological differences between the species. One 

possible reason for low infection might be due to the fact that 

the recovered spores might be non viable. Besides the spores, 

non spoing fungi might be present especially during moist 

season which influence due to the inability of fungal spores 

to compete with other soil micro organisms or due to unsuitable 

soil characteristics that favour infection. 


Gerdamann, J.W. 1968. VA mycorrhizae and plantgrowth Ann. Rev. 

Plant Physiol, 25: 567-86. 

Hayman, D.S. 1975. The occurrence of mycorrhiza in crops as affected 

by soil fertility. In: endomycorrhizas (eds. Sanders, F.E., Mosse, B., 

and Tinker, P.B.), Academic Press London, pp. 495-509. 

Mason, P.A. 1975. The genetics of mycorrhizal association between. 

A. muscaria and Betula verrucosa. The development and function 

of roots (eds. J. G. Jorrey and D. T. Clarkson). Academic Press, New 

York and London, pp. 567-74. 

Mosse, B. and Tinker, P.B. 1986. Mycorrhizal fungi and Ecological 

theory. Amer. J. Bot., 73: 692-695. 

Mosse, B. 1973. Advances on the study of vesicular arbuscular 

mycorrhizae. Ann. Rev. Phytopathology, 171-196. 

Walter, E. Splittoesser. 1982. Mycorrhiza and how they influence the 

growth of plants. Proceedings of the plant growth regulators society 

of America. pp.184-200. 




New Species of Cladosporium from North Western Tarai Forests of Uttar Pradesh, 

India 


Postgraduate Department of Botany, Kisan P.G. College, Bahraich 271 801 


On systematic and periodic survey of north western 

Tarai Forest of U.P. on 24 th Nov. 2006. a number of collections 

of living leaves exhibiting leaf spots and blights were 

encountered. Of these, upon critical examination and 

comparison of morphotaxonomic features with those of the 

allied forms one taxa of species rank have found to be hitherto 

undescribed. This new species is described and illustrated as 

Cladosporium ficii-caricaen sp. parasitizing in the living 

leaves of Ficus carica (Moraceae). illustrations have been 

executed with camera- lucida and latin diagnoses. 

During collection trip infected leaf samples were taken 

in separate polythene bags from Dudhawa forest range of 

north western Tarai forest of Uttar Pradesh. Suitable mounts 

of surface scrapping and free hand cut sections were prepared 

from infected portions of the leaf samples. Microscopic slides 

were prepared in cotton- blue lactophenol mixture, slides were 

examined and camera lucida drawing were made. 

Morphotaxonomic determinations of taxa were done with the 

help of current literature and resident expertise available. 

Holotypes have been deposited in HCIO, IARI, New Delhi 

and Isotype retained in the departmental herbarium for further 

reference. 

Stromata absent. Conidiophores originate in fascicle (2-4), 

macronematous, erect to procumbent, straight to flexuous, 

unbranched, nodose 1-5 septate, olivaceous brown, 57-177 

mm long and 4-8 mm wide. Conidiogenous cells terminal to 

intercalary, sympodial, scar thickned. Conidia holoblastic, 

polytretic, terminal acropleurogenous, dry, simple, solitary to 

branched catenate, ellipsoidal, fusiform, oval to globose, upto 

3 septate, apex obtuse to rounded, base rounded, hilum 

thickened, olivaceous brown, 12-35 x 7-10 mm in diam. 

The survey of literature is indicative of the fact that no 

DESCRIPTION : 

Cladosporium ficii-caricae sp. nov. (Fig. 1) 

Maculae amphigenae, circulares vel subcirculares, 2-5 

mm in diam; nigrae vel brunneae. Caespitulae amphiphyllae, 

brunneae. Mycelium internum, ramosae, septata, fusca 

olivaceo brunneae. Stromata absentia. Conidiophora ariondo 

fasciculo (2-4), macronematosa, erecta vel procumbenta, recta 

vel flexuosa, non-ramosa, nodosa , 1-5 septata, olivaceo 

brunnea, 57-177 mm longa et 4-8 mm lata. Cellulae 

conidiogenae terminals vel intercalaris, sympodiales, 

cicatricatoe. Conidia holoblastica, polytritica, terminales, 

acropleurogenosa, sicca, simplicia, solitaria vel ramocatenata, 

ellipsoidae, fusiformae, oval vel globosa usque 3 septata, 

apices obtusa vel rotundata, basim rotundata, hila incrassata, 

olivaceo- brunnea 12-35 x 7 -10 mm in diam. 

Infection spots amphigenous, circular to subcircular, 

black to brown 2-5 mm in diam. Colonies amphiphyllous, brown. 

Mycelium internal, branched septate, light olivaceous brown. 

Fig. 1. 

Cladosporium ficii-caricae sp. nov. 

a. Infected leaf, b. Conidiophores, c. Conidia

Table 1. 

SINGH & MALL, New Species of Cladosporium from North Western Tarai Forests of Uttar Pradesh, India 133 

Morphotaxonomic comparison of C. oxysporum Berk. and Curt. 1968 and C. fici-caricae sp. nov. 

Cladosporium spp. Symptom Conidiophore Conidia 

C. oxysporum Berk & Curt. 1968 Symptom hyphogenous Macronematous, mononematous, geniculate, Simple, branched catenate, curved, oval, 

upto 150 x 8-20 µm 

cylindrical, 2-3 septate, 35-70x13-25 µm. 

C. ficii-caricae sp. nov. Amphigenous circular to 

subcircular 

Conidiophores originate in fascicle (2-4), 

macronematous, unbranched, nodose, 1-5 

septate olivaceous brown 57-177 µm long 

and 4-8µm wide. 

Simple, solitary to branched catenate, 

ellipsoidal, jusiform, oval to globose, up 

to sepatate, 12-35 x 7-10 µm 

species of Cladosporium has yet been reported and described 

on Ficus carica. Therefore, morphotaxonomic comparison of 

the present collections has been done with the species of 

Cladosporium viz., C. oxysporum, (Ellis, 1971.) to justify the 

novel identity of the given taxon as new species. 

This type of fungus has not been reported on this host 

genus. Therefore, it is described and illustrated as a new taxon 

of species rank. 

The review of literatures (Bilgrami, et al., 1979, 1981, 

1991; Ellis, 1971, 1976; Jamaluddin, et al., 2004; Sarbhoy, et 

al., 1986, 1996; Singh and Mall, 2007) revales that the one new 

taxa of species rank of genus Cladosporium viz., C. ficiicaricae 

sp. nov. has not been reported either from north 

western Tarai Forests of U.P. or India. 

In foliis vivis Ficus carica Linn. (Moraceae), Dudhawa 

Forest Range, Bahraich (U.P.) India, 24 th Nov. 2006, leg; D.P. 

Singh, BRH-1,529, DPS-0,129 (Isotypus), HCIO - 48,472 

(Holotypus). 




Scientist, DST for helful suggestions. 


Bilgrami, K.S. Jamaluddin and Rizwi M.A. 1979. Fungi of India, Part-I. 

Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers. New Delhi, pp. 

467. 

Bilgrami, K.S. Jamaluddin and Rizwi M.A. 1981. Fungi of India, Part-II. 

Today and Tomarrow’s Printers and Publishers. New Delhi, pp. 

140. 

Bilgrami, K.S. Jamaluddin and Rizwi M.A. 1991. Fungi of India. List 




608. 


pp. 507 

Jamaluddin, Goswami M.G. and Ojha B.M. 2004. Fungi of India, 1989- 

2001. Scientific Publishers (India), Jodhpur, pp. 326. 

Sarbhoy, A.K. Agarwal D.K. and Varshney J.L. 1986. Fungi of India 

(1977-81) CBS Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi. pp. 274. 

Sarbhoy, A.K. Varshney J.L. and Agarwal D.K. 1996. Fungi of India 

(1982-92). Associated Publ. Co. New Delhi, pp. 350. 

Singh, D.P. and Mall T.P. 2007. Foliicolous Fungi of Medicinal Plant in 

North Western Tarai Region of Uttar Pradesh. Environmental 

Conservation Journal, 8:13-16. 




Status and Problems to Development of Sericulture in Uttar Pradesh 

RAJESH KUMAR AND AMIT SRIVASTAVA 

Department of Applied Animal Sciences, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University 

(A Central University), Vidya Vihar, Rai bareli Road, Lucknow 226 025 

e-mail: sri_amit77@rediffmail.com 

The annual consumption of raw silk in traditional areas 

of Varanasi, Mubarkpur of Azamgarh is estimated at about 

5000 M.T., which is about ¼ of Indian Silk Production. But the 

demand of raw silk of Varanasi silk market is beyond 5000 MT 

against the state production, which is below 50 MT. Besides 

mulberry sericulture work , tropical tasar silk is also produced 

in Uttar Pradesh still it could not hold the prominent place in 

the silk in national level due to obvious reasons. The state is 

facing acute problems of unemployment. Basically the 

economy of the state is gainful as more than 50% of the total 

income in the state is derived from agriculture and other sector. 

Besides this Uttar Pradesh enjoys a good potential for the 

development of sericulture industry. State government has 

created on independent Directorate of sericulture in 1988 for 

development of sericulture in rural areas. World Bank aided 

Uttar Pradesh Diversified Agriculture Support Project and other 

projects with these projects it is aim to development of 

sericulture in U.P. (Thomas, 1998 and Thomas and Pant, 2000). 

There are many diseases found in mulberry garden as such 

bacterial, viral and fungal. The pests are also found in mulberry 

garden which severely damage the mulberry garden and 

reduces the yield to significant level. The major operation of 

sericulturist is silkworm rearing which needs particular care 

and attention of the rearers. 

Rearing is mostly done by women and rural people who 

are not aware about novel technology and are adapted to 

older methods hence not get the required results. Sericulture 

activity requires skilled workers, and the need for them is high 

during the period of silkworm rearing. Generally silkworm larva 

take 22 to 25 days and be ready to spin cocoons. During this 

period they undergo several changes and are very easily prone 

to disease. 

The silkworm requires very hygienic condition and thus 

all precautions should be taken to the avoid various disease 

from outside to uptake successful cocoon crop. In many places 

the farmers loss occurs during cocoon crop due to attack the 

various diseases. Mostly disinfectant are originated by 

CSR&TI Mysore, so quality disinfectants are not available 

easily in Uttar Pradesh. Hence due to lack of proper disinfection 

during commencement of rearing farmers loss occurs due to 

outbreak of pathogenic diseases. 

Cool climatic throughout the year is a preference for 

silkworm rearing, cocoon production and high renditta. Climatic 

disturbance affected cocoon production. In the tropical climate 

especially during summer seasons silkworm rearing can not 

be done, because in summer season temperature is recorded 

about 38-44 0 C, which is not suitable for rearing. The suitable 

temperature for the silkworm rearing between 22-30 0 C and 

relative humidity about 70-90 %. 

The rearing equipment required for silkworm rearing is 

of special kind. While these are important in sericulture activity, 

it can not be used for any other purpose. Since possessing 

the equipment needs considerable initial investment. Only a 

few farmers can afford to procure it. Although banks and cooperatives 

are extending credit for this purpose, majority of 

the silkworm readers used local material and mat for the rearing 

and spinning. 

There are no facilities of transportation of chawki 

silkworm from (CRCs) chawki rearing centers to silkworm 

rearers. The young age silkworm should be distributed in 

cool hours and transported by car or other vehicles. Mostly 

farmers are transported by cycles, transport chawki silkworm 

(1 or 2 feedings after 2 nd moult) during cooler hours of the day 

i.e. early morning or late evening. Transport the silkworms 

rolled in the paraffin paper or in cleaning nets or cotton cloth. 

Immediately after transporting the chawki worms, transfer 

them to rearing trays and provide leaves. 

Although in Uttar Pradesh sericulture practiced about 

50 years ago, marketing facilities are inadequate. There is no 

regular market in the state, mostly farmers of the state are 

sending the cocoon in market organized by Directorate of 

Sericulture in Behraich and Tamkuhi cocoon market. The 

cocoons are purchased by dealers in open auction after a 

visual examination of the lots. The market costs vary from 

place to place depending on distance and problem of transport. 

After cocoon production it is necessary that cocoons 

will be sold in the market otherwise store it. Before storing, 

proper stifling is required. Stifling if not done properly then 

the pupa inside the cocoon pierce the cocoon which cannot 

be used for reeling purpose. The cocoon stifling facilities are 

not available at farmers level. They dry the cocoon in direct 

sun rays. 

There are violent fluctuations in the price of its different 

products. These fluctuations are mainly due to a lack of 

guarantee of cocoon crop, wide variations in the quality of

KUMAR & SRIVASTAVA, Status and Problems to Development of Sericulture in Uttar Pradesh 135 

cocoons produced, absence of standardization and quality 

control, poor and inadequate market facilities, and finally import 

of silk from other countries. Sericulturists are forced to sell 

their cocoons at the prevailing price. 

In this state there are average sericulturists either a small 

or a marginal farmer with limited means who requires financial 

assistance. The capital requirements for cultivating one acre 

of mulberry and silkworm rearing are definitely more than any 

other commercial or food crop. Therefore there is the need to 

assure adequate finance for the making the required 

investment in sericulture. The sericulturists apply for the loans 

to commercial banks and cooperatives but they do not 

obtained easily at the time, and amount received by them is 

far from adequate to meet their needs. Therefore, they borrow 

from other sources like relatives and moneylenders at high 

rates of interest. Another problems regarding financial 

assistance is that the financial institutions are much too 

conservative to extend loans readily to sericulturists. Hence, 

for an orderly development of sericulture, the financial 

agencies should identify the special features and needs of 

sericulturists and extent of finance required for fixed and 

working capital. 

As sericulture is not routine nature activity, it requires 

some results of improved research conducted by research 

institutes and research centre. When the growth of sericulture 

is accelerated, new sericulturist who joined the enterprise needs 

scientific information, skill and knowledge regarding all 

aspects including growing the mulberry and silkworm rearing. 

The field officers visits to the sericulturists to guide them in 

their work to cultivate superior varieties of mulberry, proper 

application of manure, fertilizers, and watering , method of 

silkworm rearing and also to check the spread of diseases 

during the silkworm rearing. Only few per cent of sericulturists 

could get access to the Departmental Extension Service. There 

are very important role of research and extension management 

to the development of sericulture in Uttar Pradesh (Sajivan, et 

al., 2007). Now the government has set up Varanasi Mega 

Cluster in Varanasi. In this mega cluster, Common Facility 

Centres (CFCs), Value Addition Centre and Marketing Centre 

are being set up by three Special Purpose Vehicles (SPVs). 

Raw Material Bank is being set up to ensure timely availability 

of the requisite quality of yarn to weavers. 

The following strategies (as per government initiatives) 

has been adopted to increase the mulberry wealth in the state: 

l 

l 

l 

l 

The (small and marginal farmers) are motivated for tree 

type plantation and to adopt the sericulture as 

subsistence activity and as a venture for supplementary 

income generation. 

A large number of weavers reside in Varanasi, Azamgarh 

and Chandauli districts of U.P. who are ultimate buyers 

and consumers of silk yarn but they are not directly 

linked with the production of silk cocoon/raw silk. A 

scheme is prepared to involve these weavers in the 

process of cocoon production and raw silk production 

during the 11th Five Year Plan and about 300 weavers 

have taken up the mulberry plantation on their own land. 

To improve the quality of cocoons and silk yarn farmers 

and rearers are trained and they are provided literature 

in simple local language. 

The seed organization of U.P. has also been 

strengthened for production of high quality and high 

yielding disease free silkworm seeds of selected races. 

There is a need to involvement of extension officers, on 

government organizations and funding agencies for the 

development of sericulture and implementation of novel 

strategies and newer research designs to minimize the crop 

losses at farmer’s level and towards developing Uttar Pradesh 

leading in production of quantitative and qualitative silk with 

higher returns. 


Ram Sajivan, Tripathi, M.N. and Chaturvedi, M.L. 2007. Role of 

research and extension management of sericulture development in 

North West India. Indian Silk, 24:25-34. 

Thomas Jacob 1998. Sericulture development in Uttar Pradesh, Indian 

Silk, 5-9. 

Thomas Jacob and Pant, R.K. 2000. Institutional Finance : A critical 

element for mulberry sericulture development in Uttar Pradesh. 

Indian Silk, 109-112. 

Lakshmanan, S., Mallikarjuna, B., Jayaram, H., Ganpathi, Rao, R., 

Subramaniam, M.R., Geetha Devi, R.G., and Datta, R.K. 1996. 

Economic issues of production of mulberry cocoon in Tamil Nadumicro 

economic study. Indian J. Seric., 35(2): 128-131. 




Studies on Biology of Fennel Aphid, Hyadaphis coriandri Dass in Fennel Crop 

S.A. PATEL, I.S. PATEL, J.K. PATEL AND P.S. PATEL 

Department of Entomology, C.P. College of Agriculture, S.D. Agricultural University 

Sardarkrushinagar 385 506 

e-mail: dr.ispatel@gmail.com 

Fennel [Foeniculum vulgare (Miller)] crop suffer from 

number of insect pests. Fennel aphid is considered major 

devastating pest. Both nymph and adult suck the cell sap 

from leaves, stem and umbels. As a result, plant becomes weak. 

It exudes honeydew, which favour the growth of sooty mould 

and inhibit photosynthetic activity of plant. Growth of affected 

plant is retarded, quality and quantity of fruits adversely 

affected. No work has been done on biology of H. coriandri 

in north Gujarat region, therefore, study on biology of the 

pest was conducted. 

Initial culture of aphid was raised on fennel plants grown 

at the insectory of Department of Entomology, C. P. College of 

Agriculture, S.D. Agricultural University, S. K. Nagar. Nymphs 

and adults were then collected from the infested plants and 

shifted on potted fennel plants covered with glass chimney. 

Aphids collected from the potted plants were further reared 

individually in petridish. The fresh fennel leaves were provided 

daily as a food. Aphids were transferred daily on new leaves 

with gently care. 

To study the nymphal duration newly laid nymphs were 

transferred individually to petridishes having fresh fennel 

leaves inside the petridish. The food was changed daily in the 

morning. The number of nymphs as well as change of nymphal 

instar was confirmed by the presence of exuviae casted off in 

petridishes and date of moulting was recorded. The size of 

each nymphal instar (length and breadth) was measured under 

compound microscope. 

Twenty five newly developed adult were reared 

individually in petridishes maintained separately for the study 

of longevity of adult. The length and width of adults were 

measured. 

To study reproductive aspects, nymphs after fourth moult 

were reared individually in separate petridishes. The pre 

reproductive period was considered from the fourth moulting 

to the starting of nymph laying. The number of days for which 

a given aphid continues to reproduce was considered as 

reproductive period. The post reproductive period was the 

period between birth of last young ones to the death of adult. 

The number of young ones produced by single aphid were 

counted daily and considered as its reproductive capacity. 

Entire life span of aphid was worked out from date of freshly 

emerged nymphs to death of adult. 

For the study of generation of aphid during crop season, 

the fennel was raised in 10 pots (1 plant each) and freshly laid 

nymph was released on the tender part of fennel plant. The 

fennel plant was covered with glass chimney and the open 

end was covered with muslin cloth in order prevent the escape 

of the nymph. 

Studies on biology of H. coriandri indicated that the 

first instar nymph was wingless, delicate, transparent, oval in 

shape and dull white to light yellow in colour. A pair of long 

setaceous antennae was also conspicuous. The compound 

eyes were small and blackish to brown. The freshly moulted 

second instar nymph was transparent to dirty yellow colour 

and had visible cornicles. The third instar nymph was more 

or less similar to preceding instar in general appearance, but 

differed in its comparative size. The compound eyes were 

little bigger and round than the second instar nymph. The 

fourth instar nymph was dark dull yellow to green in colour 

and elongated in shape. The cornicles were seen as long 

tubular structure and clearly visible by naked eyes. The 

compound eyes were enlarged and reddish black in colour. 

The colour of the adult was more or less similar to the 

fourth instar nymph. It had well developed abdomen. The 

antennae were fairly short than the body length. The cornicles 

were prominent, long, tubular, dark brown to black in colour. 

The compound eyes were bulging and reddish black in colour. 

Legs were rather stout, long and covered with hairs. The 

metathoracic legs were longer than prothoracic and 

mesothoracic pair. The abdomen was dark green mottled with 

darker patches around the base of each siphunculi. The cauda 

paler than the siphunculi and usually with six or more than six 

hairs. 

H. coriandri passed through four nymphal instars 

before attaining adult stage on fennel. The duration of first, 

second, third and fourth instar was on an average 1.83 ± 0.69, 

2.46 ± 0.50, 2.70 ± 0.74 and 1.43 ± 0.50 days, respectively. 

The entire life span (from first instar nymph to death of 

adult) of aphid was recorded on an average of 16.00 ± 3.08 

days at average temperature of 30.11 0 C and relative humidity 

81.13 per cent. 

The pre-reproductive, reproductive and postreproductive 

period occupied on an average of 1.76 ± 0.77, 

8.43 ± 1.86 and 2.1 ± 1.02 days, respectively at average

Table 1. 

*Based on 25 nymphs 

PATEL et al., Studies on Biology of Fennel Aphid, Hyadaphis coriandri Dass in Fennel Crop 137 

Measurement of biological parameters of H.coriandri Das recorded on fennel plant in laboratory. 

Stage 

Body length (mm) 

Body width (mm) 

Antennal Cornicle length 

Max Min Average Max Min Average length (mm) 

(mm) 

I st instar 0.60* 0.46 0.54 ± 0.04 0.31 0.22 0.26 ± 0.02 0.24 ± 0.02 0.04 ± 0.001 

II nd instar 0.79 0.68 0.73 ± 0.03 0.42 0.31 0.38 ± 0.02 0.32 ± 0.03 0.06 ± 0.001 

III rd instar 1.01 0.84 0.91 ± 0.05 0.50 0.43 0.46 ± 0.02 0.45 ± 0.02 0.10 ± 0.01 

IV th instar 1.25 1.03 1.14 ± 0.05 0.70 0.50 0.60 ± 0.04 0.54 ± 0.02 0.14 ± 0.01 

Adult 1.46 1.34 1.39 ± 0.03 0.78 0.67 0.73 ± 0.03 0.70 ± 0.03 0.22 ± 0.03 

Table 2. Total number and duration of generation of H. coriandri reared on fennel under laboratory condition during 2007. 

Generation 

Period of study 

Duration 

Average Temperature 

Relative Humidity 

(Days) 

( o C) 

(%) 

First Feb. 19 - 26 7.1± 0.87* 23.88 ± 1.62 53.12 ± 4.91 

second Feb. 26 - March 6 8.8 ± 1.22 22.72 ± 1.57 53.88 ± 8.14 

Third March 6 - 13 7.3 ± 0.82 24.16 ± 1.55 50.81 ± 9.40 

Fourth March 13 - 19 7.0 ± 0.66 25.76 ± 2.12 41.28 ± 9.70 

Fifth March 19 - 26 7.1 ± 0.56 25.98 ± 1.86 43.62 ± 11.88 

Sixth March 26 - April 1 6.9 ± 0.73 28.65 ± 1.13 36.5 ± 2.62 

Seventh April 1 - 7 6.7 ± 0.67 28.87 ± 2.17 31.64 ± 8.84 

Eighth April 7 - 13 6.5 ± 0.70 30.82 ± 1.22 38.28 ± 5.79 

Ninth April 13 - 19 6.1 ± 0.31 31.92 ± 1.37 46.42 ± 7.66 

Tenth April 19 - 25 6.6 ± 0.69 31.07 ± 1.36 48.57 ± 7.71 

Mean 7.01 ± 0.72 27.32 ± 3.28 44.41 ± 7.46 

*N = 10 

temperature 30.11 0 C and relative humidity 81.13 per cent. 

The reproductive capacity was observed to be 21.13 ± 

7.14 nymphs per female. The rate of reproduction was observed 

to be 5.16 ± 1.53 nymphs per day per female. 

The fennel aphid, H. coriandri completed ten 

overlapping generation on fennel crop under favourable 

environmental condition. The generation period was shortened 

when the mean room temperature and relative humidity were 

comparatively higher. 


Kumar, N. and Sagar, P. 1996. Studies on life history of aphid, H. 

coriandri (Das) on coriander, Coriandrum sativum. J. of Medi. and 

Arom. Pl. Sci., 18(2):287-289. 

Singh, G., Upadhyay, Ramkrishna, Narayan, C.S. and Padmakumari, 

K.P. 1990. Chemical investigation of the essential oil of Foeniculum 

vulgare Mill. Indian perfumer, 34(4):247-249. 




Loss of Biodiversity and Fauna of Nallamalais of Andhra Pradesh 

MOHAMMED OSMAN AHMED AND S.A. MASTAN 

Dept. of Zoology, Osmania College, Kurnool 518 001, A.P. 

P.G. Department of Biotechnology DNR College Bhivaram, West Gowdary District 534 202, A.P. 

e-mail: mdosmanknl@gmail.com 

Andhra Pradesh state has experienced frequent floods 

and cyclones in the year 2009 and 2010. On 2 nd October 2009 

Kurnool city is affected by the floods, nearly 50 villages are 

affected by the floods and loss of heavy crops and the damage 

in some areas is irreversible. The Nallamalas (Telugu; lit.”Black 

Hills”) (also called the Nallamalla Range) are a section of the 

eastern Ghats which stretch primarily over Kurnool, 

Mahabubnagar, Guntur, Prakasam and Kadapa districts of the 

state of Andhra Pradesh, India. They run in a nearly northsouth 

alignment, parallel to the Coromandel coast for close to 

430 km between the rivers, Krishna and Pennar. Its northern 

boundaries are marked by the flat Palnadu basin while in the 

south it merges with the Tirupati hills. These hills are almost 

completely covered with open jungle. Lack of water prevents 

the growth of large trees and the prevalent vegetation consists 

of Terminalia, Hardwickia and Pterocarpus. Agriculture is 

almost non existent apart from isolated patches near villages 

where subsistence farming is practiced. The Nallamala Forests 

are probably the largest stretch of undisturbed forest in south 

India apart from the a large part of the forest is a part of the 

Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam tiger reserve that has a viable tiger 

population. 

Nallamalais mainly constituted with three important 

protected areas, the Nagarjuna Sagar-Srisailam Tiger 

Reserve,Gundlabrahmeswaram wild life sanctuary and 

Rollapadu wild life santury (GIB) covering a total area of 6,664 

sq.km. In Nallamalais of Kurnool, Kadapa,Prakasam, Guntur, 

Nalagonda, Mahabubnagar districts. 

The faunal composition represents Deccan Peninsular 

zone of biogeographic classification of India.The diversity of 

geo-morphology and vegetation give rise to multitude of 

habitats and ecological niches that support rich wild life. Most 

of the Nallamala forest covered with open forest vegetation 

and forms an ideal habitat for wild animals. 

Over 50 species of mammals ,200 species of birds,54 

species of reptiles,18 amphibians, 55 fishes,89 species of 

butterflies,57 species of Moths,45 species of coleopteran,30 

species of Odonata and numerous other forms of insects are 

present. 

There are 11 species of mammals, 2 species of birds, 3 

reptiles are found to be rare . Research inventories discovered 

10 Herpatofauna, 18 Mantids, 12 Arachnids as new reports to 

forest department of Andhra Pradesh. Three new species of 

Arachnids and one new species of Praying mantis discovered 

in this tiger reserve. 

Some are very rare and important species of Arachnids 

like Emperor scorpion, Tarantula spider, whip scorpion and 

whip spider are found in this reserve. Three new species of 

Arachnids: 

Fig. 1. 

1. Whip scorpion (Phrynichus andhraensis sp. nov.), 

2. Tarantula spider (Poecilothera nallamalaiensis sp. 

nov., 3. Tommy spider (Tmarus Srisailamensis sp. 

nov.), 4. Amblipygid (Metacromantis nigrofemorata) 

Chiroptera: Fulvous Fruit bat Rousettus leschenaulti, Short- 

Nosed/ Fruit Bat Cynopterus Sphinx, Indian Flying Fox 

Pteropus giganteus, Indian pipistrelle Pipistrellus 

coromandra, Black- Bearded tomb bat Taphozous 

melanopogon Lesser mouse – Tailed Bat Rhinopoma 

hardwickii Leaf nosed bat Hipposideros lankadiva, 

Schneider’s Leaf – Nosed Bat Hipposideros speoris Lessorer 

Wooly Horseshoe Bat Rhinolophus beddomei Greater False 

Vampire Megaderma lyra. 

Insectivora: Grey House shrew Suncus murinus, Indian tree 

shrew Anatha eliioti 

Rodentia: Three striped palm squirrel Funambulus 

palamarum, Five striped palm squirrel F. Pennanti, Indian 

Giant squirrel Ratufa indica, Indian Gerbil Tetera indica, 

Indian mole rat Bendicota bengalensis, Bandicoot rat 

B.indica, Little Indian Field mouse Mus booduga, Indian 

Porcupine Hystrix indica. 

Logomorpha: Black napped hare Lepus nigricollis. 

Pholidota: Indian scaly ant eater Manis crassicaudata 

Pangolin. 

Primates: Common Langur Presbytis entellus, Bonnet 

macaque Macaca radiate, Rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta.

MOHAMMED OSMAN AHMED, Loss of Biodiversity and Fauna of Nallamalais of Andhra Pradesh 139 

Fig. 2. Chenchus Upliftment Through APFP, Forest 

Department Kurnool Circle 

Carnivora: Tiger Panthera tigris, Panther or Leopard 

Panthera pardus, Jungle cat Felis chaus, Leopard cat 

Prionailurus bengalensis, Fishing cat prionailurus 

viverrinus, Rusty – Spotted cat Prionailurus rubiginosus, 

Small Indian Civet Viverricula indica, common palm civet 

Paradoxurus hermaphroditus Toddy cat, Comman 

mongoose Herpestes edwardsii, Smooth Indian otter 

Lutragale perspicillata, Ratel or Honey badger Mellivora 

capensis, Sloth bear Melursus ursinus, Indian wild dog or 

Dhole Cuon alpinus, Striped hyena Hyaena hyaena, Indian 

fox Vulpes bengalensis Jackal Canis aureus, Wolf Canis 

lupus. 

Artiodactyla: Chital or spotted deer Axis axis, Sambar Cervus 

unicolor, Mouse deer Tragulusmeminna, Wild boar Sus 

cristatus, Chinkara Gazella gazelle, Chousingha Tectracerus 

quadricornis, Black buck Antilope cervicapra, Nilgai 

Boselaphus tragocamelus. 

Biodiversity loss is increasingly recognized as a 

significant risk factor in commercial development and threat 

to long term economic sustainability. Therefore conservation 

of the biodiversity is the need of the hour. The extension of 

additional species brings the irreversible loss of unique genetic 

codes, because humans use nature as resorts. Nature provides 

food, materials, energy, air, medicines plenty of essential 

commodities which are often fulfillment of food, fodder, fuel, 

timber and medicinal requirement but also for the enhanced 

agriculture production, ecological balance, mitigation of 

environmental pollution and natural calamities. Climate 

change-the impacts of environmental change will be felt on 

the world’s poorest countries the most. Equal rights to 

atmosphere for all human beings and equity within and 

between nations are paramount. 


IUCN. 2009. online at http://www.iucn.org 

Kristian Kopp. 2010. Invasive species threats to diversity. EAWAG 

News 69e. pp.22-24. 

MoEF. 2000. Annual report, 2000-2001 New Delhi: Ministry of 

Environment and forests, Government of India. 

Reddy, H.S., Srinivas, C. and Tulsi Rao, K. 2004. Prey selection by the 

Indian Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) in Nagarjuna sagar Srisailam 

Tiger Reserve, India, Mammalian Biology Zeitschrift For 

Saugetierkunde, 69(6): 384-391. 

www.globalissues.org/Eneissues/biodiversity 




First Report on Susceptibility of Khapra Beetle (Trogoderma granarium) against 

Steinernema masoodi (Ali, et al., 2005) and its In Vivo Production 

S.S. ALI, M. ASIF S.P. SIRVASTAVA* AND P. SHANKAR 

Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur 208 024 

*Department of Zoology, DAV, College, Kanpur 

e-mail: ss_ali@rediffmail.com, asifkazi9839517160@gmail.com 

The infectivity of entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN), 

Steinernema masoodi, tested against Kaphra beetle, is one 

of the world’s most destructive pests of grain products and 

seeds. It is considered one of the 100 worst invasive species 

in the world. Populations build up rapidly in a short time 

under hot, dry conditions, but can survive in colder climates 

in heated situations such as warehouses, food stored plants 

and grain storages. The beetle cannot fly, and is therefore 

spread mainly by commerce and trade. The problem of 

preventing the beetle’s spread is compounded by its ability 

to survive for several years with little food, and its habit of 

hiding in cracks, crevices and even behind paint scales or 

rust flakes. If left uncontrolled, the insect can make the surface 

of grain storage appear alive with crawling larvae. This species 

is a considered to be a dirty feeder, breaking or powdering 

more kernels than it consumes. They not only consume the 

grain, but may also contaminate it with body parts and setae 

which are known to cause adult and especially infant 

gastrointestinal irritation. The beetle prefers hot, dry 

conditions and can be found in areas where grain and other 

potential food is stored, such as pantries, malt houses, grain 

and fodder processing plants, and stores of used grain sacks 

or crates. In the present study steps were initiated for its 

biological control. 

Fresh culture of Steinernema masoodi (Ali, et al., 2005) 

were multiplied on the last instar larvae of wax moth, Galleria 

mellonella (L.) which were reared on artificial diet (David and 

Kurup, 1988). The basic in vivo production method outlined 

by Woodering and Kaya, 1988 was followed for multiplication, 

storage and quantification of the population of nematodes. 

The test insects were cultured on the wheat and are used for 

the study. From test insect per well were placed in six well 

plates having filter paper. The S. masoodi @ 500 IJS was 

inoculated on the test insect. Observation on insect mortality 

were observed at 24 hours time interval. Dead insect were put 

on White Trap (White, 1927) to observe the multiplication of 

EPN in test insect. Experiments were conducted at room 

temperature. Treatments were arranged in a complete 

randomized design with five replicates. In untreated control 

0.5 ml of distilled water was used to wet the filter paper before 

placing the test insect in the petridishes. 

Preliminary studies were conducted to confirm the 

infectivity of S. masoodi to the test insect, dead cadavers 

were put on white traps. The emerging nematodes were again 

infected to test insect to confirm the Koch’s postulate, which 

was found positive. 

Fig. 1. 

Fig. 2. 

It was noted that S. masoodi was highly infective to 

Khapra beetle infestation in gram 

Infected Khapra beetle with S. masoodi.

ALI et al., First Report on Susceptibility of Khapra Beetle (Trogoderma granarium) against Steinernema masoodi 141 

khapra beetle as it brought 100 % mortality within 48 hours of 

inoculation. It can be used as test insects for multiplication 

and which can bring 70% of mortality within 24 hrs. 

Multiplication was good of EPN on the body of test insect on 

an average of more than 250 IJs recovered from the dead 

cadaver of test insect. The infestation by Steinernema 

masoodi on khapra beetle was reported for the first time. 


First author is grateful to Council of Scientific and 

Industrial Research (CSIR), New Dehli for granting emeritus 

ship scheme No. 21(0724)/08/EMR-II under which the study 

has been corried out. 

LITRATURE CITED 

Ali, S. S., Shaheen, A., Pervez, R. and Hussain, M.A. 2005. Steinernema 




David, H. and Kurup, N. K. 1988. Techniques for mass production of 

Sturmiopsis inferens Tns. In: Biocontrol technology for sugarcane 

pest management (eds. H. David and S. Eswaramoorthy). Sugar 

cane Breeding Institute Publications, Coambatore, India pp. 87-92 

White, G. F., 1927. A method for obtaining infective nematode larvae 


Woodring, J.L. and Kaya, H.K. 1988. Steinernematid and heterorhabditid 

nematodes: a handbook of biology and techniques. Southern 

Cooperative Series Bulletin 331, Arkansas Agricultural Experiment 

Station, Arkansas, Fayetteville, pp.28. 




Common Names of Nematodes Used in Nematological Studies 

M. SARWAT SULTAN AND SURESH K. SHARMA 

Department of Plant Pathology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004 

e-mail: sarwatsultan@rediffmail.com 

Coining of names is generally broad based for example 

‘seats’ of their location (Columbia root-knot nematode for 

Meloidogyne chitwoodi), spectacular symptoms of the 

disease they cause (Lesion nematode, Pratylenchus), their 

host (citrus nematode, Tylenchulus semipenetrans), habitat, 

shape, habit, some distinction in the shape/ size of the body 

part (awl nematode for Dolichodorus), etc. Some common 

names have little meaning but their long-standing use has 

legetimised them e.g., stunt nematode for Tylenchorhynchus. 

Bernard, 1987 proposed common names for plant parasitic 

nematodes. 

(Where two names are listed, the first name should receive priority) 

Anguina Scopoli, 1777 

seed and leaf gall, seed-gall nematodes 

A. agrostis (Steinbuch) Filipjev bent grass gall nematode 

A. balsamophila (Thorne) Filipjev leaf gall nematode 

A. graminis (Hardy) Filipjev fescugrass gall nematode 

A. millefoli (Low) Filipjev yarrow leaf gall nematode 

A. tritici (Steinbuch) Filipjev wheat cockle, wheat gall nematode 

Aphelenchoides Fischer, 1894 

bud and leaf, foliar nematodes 

A. arachidis Bos testa nematode 

A. besseyi Christie rice white tip, strawberry bud, summer 

crimp, summer dwarf nematode 

A. fragariae (Ritzema Bos) Christie spring crimp, spring dwarf, strawberry 

bud nematode 

A. ritzemabosi (Schwartz) Steiner & Buhrer chrysanthemum nematode 

Basirolaimus Shamsi, 1979 

B. columbus (Sher) Shamsi Columbia nematode 

Belonolaimus Steiner, 1949 

sting nematodes 

B. longicaudatus Rau sting nematode 

Bursaphelenchus 

timber nematodes 

B. cocophilus (Cobb) Goodey coconut palm, red ring nematode 

B. xylophilus (Steiner & Buhrer) Nickle cactus cyst nematode 

Cactodera Krall & Krall, 1978 

cyst nematodes 

C. betulae (Hirschmann & Riggs) Krall & Krall birch cyst nematode 

C. cacti (Filipjev & Schuurmans Stekhoven) cactus cyst nematode 

Krall & Krall 

C. weissi (Steiner) Krall & Krall knotweed cyst, smartweed cyst 

nematode

SULTAN AND SHARMA, Common Names of Nematodes 143 

Criconema Hofmanner & Menzel, 1914 

ring nematodes 

Criconemella De Grisse & Loof, 1965 

ring nematodes 

Ditylenchus Filipjev, 1936 

stem and bulb nematodes 

D. angustus (Butler) Filipjev rice stem nematode 

D. destructor Thorne potato rot, tuber nematode 

D. dipsaci (Kuhn) Filipjev stem and bulb, alfalfa stem nematode 

D. myceliophagus Goodey mushroom spawn nematode 

Dolichodorus Cobb, 1914 

awl nematodes 

D. heterocephalus Cobb awl nematode 

Globodera Skarbilovich, 1959 

round-cyst nematodes 

G. pallida (Stone) Behrens white potato cyst nematode 

G. rostochiensis (Wollenweber) Behrens golden, golden potato cyst nematode 

G. tabacum (Lownsbery & Lownsbery) tobacco cyst nematode 

Behrens 

G. virginiae (Miller & Gray) Behrens horsenettle cyst nematode 

Gracilacus (Raski, 1962) Siddiqi, 1986 

pin nematodes 

Helicotylenchus Steiner, 1945 

spiral nematodes 

H. dihystera (Cobb) Sher spiral nematode 

H. multicinctus (Cobb) Golden Cobb’s spiral, banana spiral nematode 

Hemicriconemoides Chitwood 

false sheath, sheathoid nematode 

& Birchfield, 1957 

Hemicycliophora de Man, 1921 

sheath nematodes 

H. arenaria Raski sheath nematode 

Heterodera Schmidt, 1871 

cyst nematodes 

H. avenae Wollenweber cereal cyst nematode 

H. cajani Koshy pigeonpea cyst nematode 

H. carotae Jones carrot cyst nematode 

H. cruciferae Franklin cabbage cyst nematode 

H. cyperi Golden, Rau & Cobb nutgrass cyst nematode 

H. fici Kirjanova fig cyst nematode 

H. glycines Ichinohe soybean cyst nematode 

H. goettingiana Liebscher pea cyst nematode 

H. humuli Filipjev hop cyst nematode 

H. lespedezae Golden & Cobb lespedeza cyst nematode 

H. schachtii Schmidt sugarbeet cyst nematode 

H. trifolii Goffart clover cyst nematode 

H. zeae Koshy, Swarup & Sethi corn cyst nematode 

Hirschmanniella Luc & Goodey, 1964 

rice root nematodes 

H. oryzae (van Breda de Haan) Luc & Goodey rice root nematode


Hoplolaimus Daday, 1905 

lance nematodes 

H. galeatus (Cobb) Filipjev & Schuurmann lance nematode 

Stekhoven 

Hypsoperine Sledge & Golden, 1964 

H. graminis(Sledge & Golden) Whitehead grass root-knot nematode 

Longidorus Micoletzky, 1922 

needle nematode 

Macroposthnia de Man, 1880 

M. ornata (Raski) Luc, De Grisse & Loof peanut ring nematode 

M. xenoplax (Raski) Luc & Raski peach ring nematode 

Meloidodera Chitwood, Hannon & Esser, 1956 

M. charis Hopper mesquite cystoid nematode 

M. floridensis Chitwood, Hannon & Esser pin cystoid nematode 

Meloidogyne Goeldi, 1892 

root-knot nematodes 

M. arenaria (Neal) Chitwood peanut root-knot nematode 

M. camelliae Golden camellia root-knot nematode 

M. carolinensis Eisenback blueberry root-knot nematode 

M. chitwoodi Golden, O’Banon, Santo Columbia root-knot nematode 

& Finley 

M. enterolobii Yang & Eisenback pacara earpod tree root-knot nematode 

M. exigua Goeldi coffee root-knot nematode 

M. graminicola Golden & Birchfield rice root-knot nematode 

M. hapla Chitwood northern root-knot nematode 

M. incognita (Kofoid & White) Chitwood southern root-knot nematode 

M. megatyla Baldwin & Sasser pine root-knot nematode 

M. naasi Franklin barley, cereal root-knot nematode 

M. nataliae Golden, Rose & Bird Michigan root-knot nematode 

M. pini Eisenback, Yang & Hartman sand pine root-knot nematode 

M. platani Hirschmann sycamore root-knot nematode 

M. querciana Golden oak root-knot nematode 

M. thamesi Chitwood Thames’ root-knot nematode 

Merlinius Siddiqi, 1970 

stunt nematodes 

Nacobbus Thorne & Allen, 1944 

false root-knot nematodes 

N. aberrans (Thorne) Thorne & Allen false root-knot nematode 

Orrina Brezeski, 1981 

O. phyllobia (Thorne) Brezeski nightshade gall nematode 

Paratrichodorus Siddiqi, 1964 

stubby-root nematodes 

P. minor (Colbran) Siddiqi stubby-root nematode 

Paralongidorus Siddiqi, Hooper & Khan, 1963 

needle nematodes 

Paratylenchus Micoletzky, 1922 

pin nematodes

Pratylenchoides Winslow, 1958 

Pratylenchus Filipjev, 1936 

SULTAN AND SHARMA, Common Names of Nematodes 145 

false burrowing nematodes 

lesion nematodes 

P. alleni Ferris Allen’s lesion nematode 

P. brachyurus (Godfrey) Filipjev & southern lesion nematode 

Schuurmans Stekhoven 

P. coffeae (Zimmermann) Filipjev & coffee lesion nematode 

Schuurmans Stekhoven: 

P. penetrans (Cobb) Filipjev & northern lesion nematode 

Schuurmans Stekhoven 

P. scribneri Steiner Scribner’s lesion nematode 

P. thornei Sher & Allen Thorne’s lesion nematode 

P. vulnus Allen & Jensen boxwood lesion, walnut lesion nematode 

P. zeae Graham corn lesion nematode 

Punctodera Mulvey & Stone, 1976 

cyst nematode 

P. chalcoensis Stone, SosaMoss & Mulvey maize cyst nematode 

P. punctata (Thorne) Mulvey & Stone grass cyst nematode 

Radopholus Thorne, 1949 

burrowing nematodes 

R. citrophilus Huettel, Dickson & Kaplan burrowing, citrus burrowing nematode 

R. similis (Cobb) Thorne banana burrowing, burrowing nematode 

Rotylenchulus Linford & Oliveira, 1940 

reniform nematodes 

R. reniformis Linford & Oliveira reniform nematode 

R. parvus (Williams) Sher reniform nematode 

Rotylenchus Filipjev, 1936 

spiral nematodes 

R. buxophilus Golden boxwood spiral nematode 

Scutellonema Andrassy, 1958 

spiral nematode 

S. bradys (Steiner & Lehew) Andrassy yam spiral nematode 

Subanguina Paramonov, 1967 

root gall nematode 

S. radicicola (Greeff) Paramonov grass root-gall nematode 

Trichodorus Cobb, 1913 

Tylenchorhynchus Cobb, 1913 

stubby-root nematode 

stunt nematode 

T. claytoni Steiner tobacco stunt nematode 

Tylenchulus Cobb, 1913 

T. semipenetrans Cobb citrus nematode 

Xiphinema Cobb, 1913 

dagger nematodes 

X. americanum Cobb American dagger nematode 

X. chambersi Thorne Chambers’ dagger nematode 


Bernard, Ernest, C., 1987. Proposed common names for plant parasitic 

nematodes. Nematology Newsletter, 33 (3) 21-23. 




Estimation of Synergistic Effect of Insecticides with Plant Extracts against Anopheles 

stephensi Liston. 

ANITA SIROHI* AND PANKAJ TANDON** 

Deptt. of Zoology, D.A.V. College, Kanpur 

*e-mail: anitasingh100@gmail.com, **e-mail: anpankaj@gmail.com 

Anopheles stephensi is one of the most important vector 

it transmits the protozoa that cause malaria. The drawbacks 

associated in controlling it with synthetic insecticides has 

developed resistance. Pushpalatha and Muthukrishnan, 1995 

suggested that leaves extract of Vitex negundo, Nerium 

oleander and seeds of Syzygium jambolanum at very low 

concentration extended the duration of the various larval 

instars and of pupation of Culex quinquefasciatus and 

Anopheles stephensi. These extracts also showed 

considerable larval mortality and interfered with pupal-adult 

metamorphosis. The subject of synergism has been 

extensively reviewed by many authors (Parmar, et al., 1975; 

Parmar and Tomar, 1983). Hence in the present study it is 

aimed to workout joint action of insecticides and plant extracts 

against the malaria vector. The use of plant extracts with 

synthetic insecticides is also economical than insecticide 

alone. 

Larvicidal and pupicidal activities of the two insecticides 

melathion and temephos were studied on the IV th instar larvae 

and pupae of Anopheles stephensi. Larvae that hatched within 

24 hours were transferred to rearing containers and allowed 

to moult into successive instars. They were fed with yeast 

powder and dog biscuits until the IV th instar stage. 100 

numbers of one hour old IV th instar larvae and pupae were 

transferred separately into the experimental containers to study 

the larvicidal and pupicidal activities of melathion and 

temephos. 

Stock solution of insecticides were made in acetone and 

serially diluted, several concentration of both insecticides were 

made by adding 1 ml. of insecticide solution to 50 ml. of distilled 

water. IV th instars and pupae of A. stephensi were separated 

from the culture and placed as group of 100 in 250 ml. glass 

beakers containing 50 ml. tap water. Insecticides solutions 

were added to the beakers containing larvae to bring the final 

volume 100 ml. In control larvae and pupae received 1ml. of 

acetone in 100 ml. of tap water. A different concentration of 

both insecticides was employed and replicate thrice. Beakers 

with larvae were incubated at 30+1 0 C. Larvae and pupae were 

examined for mortality after 24 hours. Moribund larvae and 

pupae were considered as dead. The obtained data were 

statistically analysed to calculate the LC 50 

and 95% confidential 

limits by computer programme given in NCPC technical Bulletin 

No. 1, 1986. 

Similarly LC 50 

was calculated using the plant extracts 

Anona squamosa and Solanum xanthocarpum against A. 

stephensi. Two insecticides melathion and temephos were 

combined individually with plant extracts to study their joint 

action against A. stephensi. The extract of Anona squamosa 

and Solanum xanthocarpum were dissolved in acetone and 

were mixed with the insecticide in 1:1 ratio and the different 

concentrations of insecticide plant extract mixture were 

prepared using tap water. The toxicity of the IV th instar larvae 

and pupae was recorded to determine the synergistic / 

antogonistic action of insecticides with plant extracts and the 

assessment of toxicity was based on the mortality of the larvae 

and pupae. The median response concentration LC 50 

values 

of the insecticides with the plant extract were calculated and 

then the synergistic factor (SF) was calculated using the 

following formula adopted by Kalyanasundarm and Das, 1985. 

SF 

LC 

50 

LC 

50 

of insecticide alone 

of theinsecticide with plant extract 

Value of SF >1 indicate synergism and SF

SIROHI & TANDON, Estimation of Synergistic effect of Insecticides with Plant Extracts against Anopheles stephensi Liston 147 

Table 1. 

LC 50 

value of the insecticides and plant extracts 

against Anopheles stephensi 

Insecticides 

Life stages of Anopheles stephensi 

IV th instar larvae Pupae 

Melathion 0.000257 0.001 

Temephos 1.46 2.170 

Anona squamosa 15.447 23.03 

Solanum xanthocarpum 27.277 47.557 

Table 2. 

Synergistic effect of insecticides and plant extract 

mixture against Anopheles stephensi 

Insecticide + Plant extract Life stages of Anopheles stephensi 

IV th instar larvae Pupae 

LC 50 S.F. LC 50 S.F. 

Melathion + A. squamosa 0.00017 3.23 0.000331 2.42 

Melathion + S. xanthocarpum 0.00013 1.971 0.000497 1.61 

Temephos + A. squamosa 1.709 0.863 5.739 0.35 

Temephos + S. xanthocarpum 2.817 0.527 1.139 0.96 

0.863 for larvae and S.F. 0.35 for pupae) and temephos and S. 

xanthocarpum showed (S.F. 0.527 for larvae and S.F. 0.96 for 

pupae). Both produced antogonistic effect against IV th instar 

larvae and pupae of A. stephensi. Ageratina adenophora on 

Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus IV th instar larvae 

showed prominent results after 24 hours. LC 50 

value of A. 

adenophora was found 356.70 ppm for Aedes and 227.20 ppm 

for Culex (Raj Mohan and Ramaswamy, 2007). 

Ruta graveolens plant leaves with cypermethrin 

produced promising larvicidal results. Petroleum ether extract 

with LC 50 

of 43.5 ppm and LC 90 

of 90.6 ppm was found. The 

cotoxicity coefficient and synergistic factor for the 1:1 mixture 

were 119.4 and 9.94 respectively for the LC 50 

at 24 hours (Ali- 

Ashraf Vigayan). The results of present study are in line with 

previous author work. 

Mixture of phytochemicals and insecticides are found 

to be more effective than insecticides or phytochemicals alone 

and could be a good ecofriendly approach to reduce the 

chemical hazards, cost effective and regulate insecticide 

resistance among insects. 


Ali-Ashraf Aivazi and Vijayan. 2010. Efficacy of Ruta graveolens extract 

and its synergistic effect with cypermethrin against Anopheles 

stephensi Liston. Toxicological and Environmental Chemistry, 92: 

893-901. 

Chockalingam, S and Nalina Sundari, M.S. 1987. Impact on Biosystem. 

Loyala College, Madras. Proc. Nat. Con. Env., pp. 63-66. 

Kalyanasundaram, H., Das, P.K. 1985. Larvicidal and Synergistic 

activity of plant extracts for mosquito control. India. J. Med. Res., 

82: 19-23. 

NCPC Technical Bulletin No. 1. 1986. In: Basic computer programmes 

for the study of populations and other applications, (ed. E. Benigno), 

National Crop Protection Centre, College of Agriculture, U.P. at 

Las Banor, College, Leguna. pp.1-25. 

Parmar, B. S., Attri, B.S., Singh, R.P., Mukerjee, S.K. 1975. Karanja oil 

as a synergist for chlorinated insecticides. Pesticides, 9: 29. 

Parmar, B.S, Tomar, S.S. 1983. Review of research on insecticide 

synergists in India- retrospect and prospect. Intern. J. Trop. Agric., 

1: 7-17. 

Pushpalatha, E., Muthukrishnan, J. 1995. Larvicidal activity of a few 

plant extracts against Culex quinquefasciatus and Anopheles 

stephensi. Ind. J. Malarial., 32: 14-23. 

Raj Mohan, D., Ramaswamy, M. 2007. Evaluation of larvicidal activity 

of the leaf extract of a weed plant, Ageraliva adenophora, against 

two important species of mosquitoes Aedes aegypti and Culex 

quinquefasciatus. African journal of Biotechnology, 6: 631-638. 




Effect of Aeration on Survival of Entomopathogenic Nematodes, Steinernema abbasi 

and Heterorhabditis indica 

SUNANDA B S, A U SIDDIQUI AND SANJAY SHARMA 

Department of Nematology, Rajasthan College of Agriculture, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture & 

Technology, Udaipur, India 

e-mail.shivu07@radiffmail.com 

General concern on environment pollution and related 

hazards by extensive use of chemical pesticides and their 

gradual withdrawal from the market, has led to vigorous 

research pursuits seeking alternative means of pest and disease 

control. Among the various eco-friendly option available, 

entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) belonging to genera, 

Steinernema and Heterorhabditis have become the subject 

of intensive research because they being lethal parasites of 

insects and have been used for inundative, augmentative or 

inoculative biological control of crop pests during the past 

two decades (Gaugler and Kaya, 1990; Bedding, et al.,1993; 

Parkman and Smart, 1996.) The entomopathogenic nematodes 

have unique symbiotic association with bacteria (Steinernema 

with Xenorhabdus, and Heterorhabditis with Photorhabdus) 

and the infective juveniles (IJs) of the nematodes carry these 

bacteria in a special pouch of their gut. After infecting insects, 

the IJs release the bacteria in the insect haemolymph where 

they multiply, causing septicaemia and ultimately the death of 

the insect occurs within 24-48 hrs. The EPNs can be mass 

multiplied in vivo and in vitro production systems and can 

easily be formulated for commercial use (Dutky, et al., 1964; 

Poinar, 1979; Lindergreen, et al., 1993.) Keeping in view the 

diverse agroclimatic conditions in the country, studies on 

ecological parameters governing the efficiency of these biocontrol 

agents must be undertaken prior to their mass 

multiplication, formulations and field applications since these 

play crucial roles in the success and failure of many bio-control 

programmes. It has been observed that the infectivity and 

virulence of different geographic isolates of the same EPNs 

species varies with ambient abiotic factors, mainly, temperature 

and moisture. Therefore, prior undertaking, understanding and 

identification of these factors is imperative to optimize the 

potential of indigenously available EPNs strains for insect 

pests management. To study the effect of aeration on survival 

of S. abbasi and H. indica were undertaken. 

The experiments were conducted to assess the effect of 

aeration on the survival of S. abbasi and H.indica. The 

infective stage of S.abbasi and H.indica suspension were 

stored in 50 ml bottles at two concentrations i.e., 5000 and 

10,000 IJs per ml in BOD incubators at 25ºC. One set of bottles 

were tightly closed with lid and were not aerated. The second 

set was bubbled with air every 3 rd day, till 30 days after storing 

in conditions with low or high oxygen tension. The numbers 

of dead and live IJs were counted. Five replications were 

maintained per treatment. 

The survival data were to analyzed using analysis of 

variance (ANOVA). All comparisons were at the 0.05 per cent 

significance level. 

The results of experiment on effect of aeration on the 

survival of IJs of S. abbasi at 25ºC are presented in (table 1 

and 2). Results revealed that as the time interval progressed 

per cent survival in aerated as well as non aerated sets of IJs 

of S. abbasi at both the concentrations i.e., 5,000 IJs and 

10,000 IJs/ml showed decreasing trend. It was observed that 

highest per cent survival was observed at a interval period of 

3 days (90.90%) lowest at 30 days interval period (69.5%) 

under aerated condition. Highest per cent survival under non 

aerated condition was (78.70) at 3 days interval and lowest at 

30 days interval period (55.4%). These results were observed 

at the 5000 IJs/ml concentration. Similar trend was observed 

in the 10,000 IJs/ml concentration of S. abbasi. The highest 

per cent survival was after 3 days (89.5%) and the lowest was 

recorded at 30 days interval (63.2%) under aerated condition. 

The per cent survival in non aerated condition was highest at 

3 days interval (70.9%) and lowest percentage survival was at 

30 days interval (40.0%). Earlier Burman and Pye, 1980 

observed that S. carpocapse can survive with oxygen tension 

as low as 0.5 per cent of saturation at 20ºC. While Lindergreen, 

et al., 1996 reported that the respiratory rate of S. carpocapsae 

was temperature dependent and that the nematode died at 

low oxygen concentration. Very meager information available 

in the literature regarding effect of aeration on 

entomopathogenic nematodes. 

The results of effect of aeration on the survival of H. 

indica are presented in table 3 and 4. Results revealed that 

the per cent survival of the nematode was calculated. It was 

observed that highest per cent survival of IJs was recorded 

under aerated condition in comparison to non aerated 

condition in both the sets. Further increase in period of time 

interval in both the sets i.e. aerated and non aerated condition. 

Under aerated condition in both the concentrations highest 

percentage of IJs survived at 3 days (88.4%) and (88.5%), 

respectively and the survival percentage of IJs started 

decreasing as the period of interval increased reaching lowest 

at 30 days interval (69.0%) and (65.0) respectively.

SUNANDA et al., Effect of Aeration on Survival of Entomopathogenic Nematodes, Steinernema Abbasi 149 

Table 1. 

Effect of aeration on the survival of 

Entomopathogenic nematodes 

Interval 

S. abbasi H. indica 

(days) % survival 

in aeration 

% survival in 

non aeration 

% survival 

in aeration 

% survival in 

non aeration 

3 95.2 (3.1) 79.8 (3.7) 98.9 (3.5) 77.9 (3.0) 

6 95.1 (3.1) 71.1 (3.2) 98.0 (3.4) 73.3 (3.3) 

9 92.1 (3.2) 67.1 (3.0) 95.6 (3.4) 73.3 (3.3) 

12 90.1 (3.1) 65.2 (3.1) 92.0 (3.3) 73.0 (3.2) 

15 90.0 (3.3) 64.2 (3.3) 90.5 (3.4) 70.4 (3.2) 

18 88.4 (3.2) 63.4 (3.3) 90.2 (3.4) 70.0 (3.4) 

21 83.8 (3.3) 62.3 (3.3) 85.9 (3.4) 69.8 (3.4) 

24 83.7 (3.7) 60.6 (3.1) 85.8 (3.2) 65.6 (3.1) 

27 80.00 (3.1) 50.9 (3.1) 85.0 (3.2) 62.8 (3.3) 

30 79.45 (3.1) 48.8 (3.1) 80.8(3.2) 60.3 (3.3) 

SEm± 2.92 2.80 2.68 2.79 

CD (P=0.05) 8.37 8.05 7.70 8.02 

· Figures in parenthesis are arc sine transformed value 

· NS = Non-significant 

*Significant at 5% 

Aeration 

Non aeration 

Nematode (A) = 1.30* 0.08* 

No. of IJS (B) = 1.30* 0.08* 

Interval (C) = 2.77 (NS) 0.17* 

AXB = NS NS 

AXC = NS NS 

BXC = NS NS 

AXBXC = NS NS 

Similar trend was observed in case of non aerated 

condition but the per cent survival of IJs of H. indica was 

comparatively lower than the aerated condition. The highest 

per cent survival of IJs of H. indica under non aerated 

condition was observed at 3 days (68.5%) which decreased 

with the increase in period of time interval and was lowest at 

30 days time period interval (50.0%). Kaya, 2000 reported that 

water saturated soil was found to be detrimental to the survival 

of entomopathogenic nematodes as the oxygen in soil was 

low. The comparative results of survival of both the nematodes 

i.e. S. abbasi and H. indica are presented in table 5. It was 

observed that among the nematodes per cent survival of IJs 

was more in case of H. indica in comparison to S. abbasi. 


Bedding, R.A. and Akhurst R.J. 1975. A simple technique for the detection 

of insect parasitic rhabditid nematodes in soil. Nematologica, 21: 

109-110. 

Bedding, R.A., Akhurst, R.J. and Kaya, U.K. 1993. Nematodes and the 

Biological control of insect pests. CSIRO publications, East 

Melbourne, Australia., pp. 432. 

Burman, M. and Pye, A. F. 1980. Neoaplectana carpocapsae respiration 

of infective juveniles. Nematologica, 26: 214. 

Dutky, S. R., Thompson, J.V. and Cantwell, G.E. 1964. A technique for 

the mass propagation. The DD-136 Nematode. Journal of insect 

Pathology., 6: 417-422. 

Gaugler, R. and Kaya, H.K. 1990. Entomopathgenic Nematodes in 

Biological Control. CRC Press, Paton. Florida., pp. 252. 

Kaya, H.K. 2000. Soil Ecology, In: Entomopathogenic nematodes in 

Biological Control (eds. Gaugler, R. and Kaya, H.K.) CRC Press, 

Boca Raton, Florida, USA, pp.93-115. 

Lindergreen, J.E., Valero, K.A. and Mackey, B.E. 1993. Simple in vivo 

production and storage methods for Steinernema carpocopsae 

infective juvenile. Journal Experimental Nematology, 26: 193- 

197. 

Parkman, J.P. and Smart, G.C. 1996. Entomopathogenic nematodes, a 

case study: Introduction of Steinernema scapterisci in Florida. 

Biocontrol Science and Technology, 6: 413-419. 

Poinar, G.O. 1979. Nematodes for Biological Control of Insects. Boca 

Raton, Florida, CRC Press, pp. 227. 



Author Index 

(Vol. 3, No. 1&2, 2010) 

A 

Agrawal Anil 82 

Ahmad Iqbal 29 

Ahmad Md. Sultan 19 

Ahmad Rais 133 

Ahmad Imran 232 

Ahmad, R. 63 

Ahmad, Waseem 222 

Akhtar, M.H. 232 

Akram Mohd. 117, 166 

Ali Afsar 19 

Ali Hasmat 135 

Ali Sobia 112, 133 

Ali, S.S. 63, 71, 112, 232 

Andrabi Riyaz 112 

Anoorag 208 

Ansari, A. 29 

Asif, I. 169 

Asif, M. 232 

Azad, B.S. 190 

Aziz Ozair 29 

B 

Bano Siddiqua 66, 210 

Beig, A. 60 

Bhagat Deepti 192 

Bharathiraja, B. 97 

Bhat Kamakshi 235 

Bhattacharya, P.S. 45 

Bhattacharyya, S. 8 

Bilal Sheikh 39 

Biswas Rajib 86 

Blesson Jency 80 

Burungale, S.V. 110, 140 

C 

Chakravarty, A. 8 

Chandran, M. 97 

Chauhan Seema 5 

Chauhan, R.M. 140 

Chavan, N.P. 184 

Chhabra, A.K. 123 

D 

Dar Gh. Hassan 60 

Dar Manzoor Hussain 39 

Dar, S. A. 143, 181 

Das Ch. Tanushree 120 

Das Ritarani 120 

Das, P.K. 8 

Dash Debiprasad 152 

Datta,Sumit Sarkar 86 

Dhillon, N.K. 56 

Duraimurugan, P. 232 

G 

Gami, R.A. 110, 140 

Ganai, A. 60 

Gautam, B.R. 19 

Gawande Manohar Rao 137 

Gulfishan Mohd 149 

Gupta Anamika 222 

Gupta Astha 106 

H 

Haritha, K. 78 

Hasan Wajid 41 

Hussain Barkat 39 

Hussain, Mohd. A. 34 

I 

Ingle, R.W. 192 

Iqbal Jawaid 222 

Iqbal, M. 169 

J 

Jafri Iram Fatma 149 

Jain Rashmi 127 

Jayakumar, M. 97 

Jayamuthunagai, J. 97 

Jena Joykrushna 22

Trends in Biosciences 4 (1), 2011 151 

Jha Prithwiraj 86 

Jigyasu, H. V. 25 

K 

Karmakar, N. 8 

Kaur Harjinder 147 

Kaur Harpreet 68 

Kausar, Shamee 4 

Khan, Abrar A. 34 

Khan Ainul Haq 149 

Khan Iram 161 

Khan M. Luqman 68 

Khan Mohd. Imran 49 

Khan Mudasir Hafiz 143 

Khan, M. H. 181 

Kharbuli, M. 12 

Khulbe Deepa 130 

Khulbe Hemant 58, 130 

Koche Mina D. 192 

Krishna Gaurav 45 

Kumar Ajay 152 

Kumar Dhiraj 5 

Kumar, K. 22 

Kumar, R. Venkatesh 5 

Kumar, R. Praveen 80 

Kumari Neelam 68, 147 

Kushwaha, B. 216 

L 

Lavanya G. Roopa 127 

M 

Mahalingam, C.A. 102, 212 

Mahapatra, B.S. 152 

Mall, T.P. 228 

Manjunath, B. 206 

Masih Harison 45 

Maurya Shivani 216 

Mishra Minakshi 117, 166 

Misra Gayatri 22 

Mohankumar, S. 102 

Mohanty Pradeep Kumar 22 

Mohanty, R.C. 123 

Murmu Sarita 137 

Murugesh, K.A. 102, 212 

Muzafer 60 

N 

Nadeem 60 

Nagarathna, A. 220 

Naik B. Gangadhara 206 

Naimuddin 117, 166 

Nath Lok 156 

Nehvi, F.A. 169 

Nema, K.K. 63 

P 

Pandey Alok Kumar 190 

Pandey Arpita 176 

Pandey Sangita 176 

Parameswaran, P. 80 

Patel, B.S. 81, 91 

Patel, C.G. 110 

Patel, G.M. 37 

Patel, H.N. 140 

Patel, I.S. 37, 81, 91, 159, 194, 234, 237 

Patel, J.K. 37, 159, 194, 234, 237 

Patel, M. B. 76, 184 

Patel, S.S. 110 

Patel, G.M. 159 

Pathak Varun 135 

Pathak, P.H. 176 

Patro, H.K. 152 

Pervez Rashid 63, 71, 112, 232 

Prasad Rajendra 187 

Prasad Shambhoo 58, 130, 187 

Prasad, C.S. 156 

Prasad, N.V.V.S.D. 15 

Prasad, P.S. 206 

Priyanka Vyas 88 

Purohit, M. S. 76 

Q 

Qadri, H. 169 

Qamar Ayesha 161 

R


Rahul Kumar 86 

Rambabu, P. 45 

Ramteke, P.W. 45 

Rao K.R.S. Sambasiva 197 

Rao, P.A. 15 

Raut Ankush 174 

Raut, Savanta V. 235 

Reddy P. Sairam 45 

Reddy, M.S. 220 

Rote, N.B. 184 

Ruchika 112 

S 

Sabalpara, A. N. 76 

Sachan Mansi 117, 166 

Saifulla Muhammad 206 

Samrat Dey 12 

Sarah 12 

Sarkar Ajit 86 

Selvaraj, R. 97 

Shaheen Azra 63, 112, 232 

Shaheen 29 

Shahid Mohammad 225 

Shanmugam, R. 212 

Sharma, R.C. 230 

Sharma, S.K. 56 

Sheeba 19 

Shinde, S. V. 76, 184 

Shrivastava Vinoy K. 137 

Shukla Ashok Kumar 82 

Shukla Prabha Shankar 58, 130, 187 

Shukla, D.K. 152 

Simon Sobita 174, 208 

Singh Anuradha 225 

Singh Krishna 204 

Singh Pradhuman 230 

Singh Pravin Kumar 82 

Singh Predeep 74 

Singh Rashmi 135 

Singh, A.K. 106 

Singh, D.P. 228 

Singh, N.P. 1 

Singh, V. K. 25 

Sivarathnakumar, S. 97 

Soujanya, P.L. 15 

Sri P. Udaya 197 

Srivastava Amit 5, 204 

Srivastava Anshul 127 

Srivastava Satyendra K. 74 

Srivastava, S.C. 164 

Srivastava, S.P. 190 

Subbu Rathinam, K.M. 197 

Sudip Dey 12 

Sultan, M.S. 56 

T 

Tank, C.J. 110, 140 

Tayde, R. 208 

Tickle, A.N. 63 

Tiwari, G.N. 156 

Tripathi, P.N. 230 

Tyagi Sunil Dutt 143 

Tyagi, S.D. 181 

U 

Usmani Mohd. Kamil 49 

V 

Veena 216 

Vekaria, M.V. 194, 234, 237 

Verma Preeti 123 

Verma, V. 112 

Vyas, R.P. 225 

W 

Waldia, R.S. 123 

Y 

Yadav Indu Singh 1 

Yadav Rakesh 19 

Yadav, A.S. 230 

Z 

Zaheer, M. Rehan 2



Subject Index 

(Vol. 3, No. 1&2, 2010) 

A 

Abelmoschus esculentus 41 

Acridoidea 49 

Andalin 161 

Antimicrobial activity 97 

Antimutagenic 19 

Antioxidant activity 97 

Aphid 156, 159 

Aroma 5 

Aromatic and spice Plants 56 

Asgandh 74 

B 

Bacteria 192 

B-complex 19 

Biochemicals 34 

Biodegradation 197 

Biodiversity 71 

Bioefficacy 159 

Biofertilizers 74 

Bio-intensive 194 

Biopesticide 63 

Biotechnology 1 

Bisphenol-A 137 

Bivoltines 102 

Blue green algae 74 

Brinjal 208 

Bruchids 190 

Bt cotton 15, 19, 230 

C 

Cabbage 174 

Callosobruchus chinensis 190 

Candida spp. 120 

Capsicum annuum 149 

Carrier materials 192 

Cauliflower 130 

CDCs 25 

Channa punctatus 204 

Chiasma frequency 149 

Chickpea 71, 123 

Chilo Partellus 184 

Cirrhinus mrigala 137 

Cluster analysis 135 

Cluster distance 127 

Coccinella 156 

Cold treatment 143 

Coloured stripes 12 

Combining ability 140, 169 

Community analysis 71 

Comparative biology 184 

Composition 74 

Constraints 8 

Convulsion 216 

Corcyra cephalonica 176 

Correlation 58 

Cotton Bollworm 194 

Cotton 159, 194 

Cowpea 166 

Crotalaria juncea 152 

CTAB 133 

Curd size 130 

Curd size 58 

D 

Deodar 60 

Detection 117, 133 

Devario aequipinnatus 12 

Diallel 140 

Diamondback moth 174 

Distribution 147 

Diversity 123, 220 

DNA 112 

Domesticated silkworm 102 

DoYMV 133 

E 

Earias vittella 41 

Early pigeon pea 63 

Ecology 220 

Ectomycorrhizae 60 

Efficacy 63, 208 

Efficiency 220 

Electrophoresis 225 

EMS 143 

Entomopathogenic nematode 112 

Environmental factors 25 

Environmental pollution 197 

Enzyme activities 137 

Essential amino acids 1 

Exchange 19 

F 

Farmers’ participation 230 

Fasciolosis 25


Flucycloxuron 161 

Foliicolous fungi 228 

Freshwater mussel 22 

Fungi 192 

Furochromenethylthiourea 222 

Fusarium 206 

G 

Garlic 176 

Genetic divergence 127, 181 

Genetics 187 

Genotypes 187 

Germination 58, 130 

Germplasm 135 

Goat 66, 210 

Grain protein 140 

Grain yield 140 

Grass hopper 49 

Grasserie 212 

Green manuring 152 

Growth inhibitor 190 

Growth 120 

H 

Handicraft 8 

Heat treatment 143 

Heavy metals 29 

Hectoliter weight 140 

Helicoidal architecture 12 

Helicoverpa armigera 39, 63 

Helminth parasite 66, 204, 210 

Heritability 187 

Heterosis 110 

Horse gram 187 

Hydrocortisone 19 

I 

Infection 204 

Insecticides 174, 208 

Insecticides 37, 41 

Inter-cluster distances 181 

Intra- 181 

IPM 230 

Isozyme 225 

ISSR marker 102 

J 

Jassid 159 

Jatropha curcas 45 

K 

Karnataka 206 

Kidney 137 

L 

Labiatae 164 

Late sown 110 

Leaf characters 34 

Leaf explants 45 

Lentil 181 

Leucinodes orbonalis 208 

Liver 137 

Locust 49 

Lymnaea acuminate 25 

M 

Mahabaleshwar 228 

Marigold 39 

Medicinal 56 

Meiotic aberrations 149 

Meloidogyne incognita 68 

Metabolic engineering 1 

Microbial biomass nitrogen 152 

Mint oil volatiles 176 

Mitotic index 19 

MMS 149 

Molecular characterization 112 

Molecular diversity 106 

Morphogenetic effects 161 

Mortality 164, 212 

Multiple Shoots 45 

Multivoltines 102 

Mungbean 29, 127, 135, 136 

Musa AAA 147 

MYMIV 117, 166 

N 

Natural enemies 37 

Neem seed kernel 190 

Nematodes 56, 71, 147 

New record 228 

Nodulation 123 

Nutritional quality 1 

O 

Oleic acid methyl ester 222 

Organophosphates 197 

P 

Parabolic pattern 12 

Parthenium hysterophorus 216 

PCR 117, 133, 166 

Pesticides 197 

Petrochemical industry waste water 29 

Pharmacology 97 

Phosphatase activity 60


Photocycloaddition 222 

Physical and chemical treatments 22 

Phytoplankton 97 

Pine 60 

Plant growth 60 

Plutella xylostella 174 

Pollen 220 

Population fluctuation 156 

Primer 133 

Prospects 5 

Protein 204 

Psoralea 212 

Pulses 117, 166 

Q 

Quantitative traits 143 

Quorum sensing 97 

R 

Rajmash 166 

RAPD 123 

Relative humidity 120 

Reproduction 25 

Reproductive potential 176 

Rhizobium 29 

Rhizosphere 147 

Rice 5, 152 

S 

S. carpocapsae 112 

S. seemae 112 

Salinity 29 

SDS 225 

SDS-PAGE 225 

Seasonal Fluctuation 68 

Seed Quality 187 

Seed vigour 58, 130 

Seed Yield 58, 130 

Sheep 66, 210 

Simulated acid rain 34 

Sister chromatid 19 

Sorghum genotypes 184 

Spawning 22 

Speciation 120 

Spilarctia 164 

Spodoptera litura 161 

SSR marker 8 

SSR 106 

Stacked Bt cotton 15 

Steinernema masoodi 63, 112 

Stem rot 206 

Sucking pest 15, 194, 230 

Sunflower 68 

Survey 49, 147, 206, 212 

Survival 37 

T 

Taxonomy 56 

TEM 12 

Thrips 159 

Tissue culture 45 

Tissues and affinity 204 

TNAU seri dust 212 

Tomato 39 

Toxicology symptoms 216 

Trap crop 39 

Tremor 216 

Trophic groups 71 

U 

Urdbean 166 

V 

Vanilla 206 

Variability 166 

Viability 22 

W 

Weather parameters 15 

Weeds 117 

Wheat 110, 152 

Whitefly 159 

Women empowerment 8 

Y 

Yield loss 212 

Yield 34, 110, 169 

Z 

Zea mays 106, 169

ANNOUNCEMENT 

NATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON BIODIVERSITY FOR FOOD SECURITY- 

CHALLENGES & DEVISING STRATEGIES 

DECEMBER10-11, 2011 

Venue: Kanpur, U.P. India 

Organised by: DheerpuraSociety for Advancement of Science and Rural Development 

Request for call of papers: The participants are requested to submit abstract of paper to Organizing Secretary Dr. S.S. Ali of the 

symposium latest by October 15, 2011. The abstract containing 400 words should be typed in English on A4 size paper, keeping 

double space in MS word with Times New Roman 12 font size. It should contain title, name, of the authors, affiliation, email 

address. The paper must be submitted on the CD and two hard copies, along with registration fee to Dr. S.S. Ali, H-1312, Satyam 

Vihar Awas Vikas No. 1, Kalyanpur, Kanpur 208018. The abstract can also be submitted online on 

symposiumfoodsecurity@in.com. 

IMPORTANT DATES 

l Last date of submission of abstract: 15 Oct 2011 

l Notification of acceptance: 31Oct 2011 

l Last date of submission of full paper: 5 Nov 2011 

l Remittance of registration fee: 31 Oct 2011 

l Post conference Tour : 12 Dec 2011 

REGISTRATION FEE 

l Members of society : Rs. 1800 Non-members of 

society : Rs. 2000 

l Students/Research scholars : Rs. 1000 Farmers : Rs.800 

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Rs. 1000 

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l Registration fee may be sent through D.D. in favour of 

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Rural Development” A/C 31575856239, payable at S.B.I. 

Kalyanpur Kanpur U.P. (Branch code-01962, IFSC- 

SBIN0001962) and send to Organizing Secretary, 

Dr. S.S. Ali. 

THEMES 

1. Agricultural Science & Horticulture Science 

l 

l 

l 

Sustainable crop production using natural resourses 

Biofertilizer & organic manures in sustainable 

agriculture. 

Organic, integrated organic & green agriculture 

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l 

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Biotic & abiotic stress management for sustainable 

agriculture IPM,INM,IDM 

Production & processing technology for food 

Value addition & post harvest technology 

Hi-tech horticulture 

2. Environmental Science 

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l 

Global warming & climate change 

Water conservation 

Soil health 

Pollution 

3. Natural Human Health 

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Probiotics 

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Theoretical medicine 

4. Biology 

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Biotechnology 

5. Engineering 

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Minerals in agriculture 

Particle size & nano- technology 

FOR CORRESPONDENCE 

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H-1312 SATYAM VIHAR, AWAS VIKAS NO.1 KALYANPUR 

KANPUR, 208018 U.P. 

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HORTICULTURE / VETERINARY / PHARMACY 

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l Molecular Characterization l PCR Detection l Advance Molecular Techniques 

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TRAINING MODULES 

Basic biotechnological techniques 

Molecular biology techniques 

Advanced molecular techniques 

Microbiological techniques 

Biochemical techniques 

PCR and RT-PCR 

Plant pathological techniques 

Advanced plant pathological techniques 

Plant virological techniques 

Culturing of insects 

EPN culturing techniques 

Nematological techniques 

Preparation of media for pathogenes 

Pharmacological techniques 

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Diagnosis of pathogens 

Identification of nematodes 

Molecular characterization of microorganism/pathogens 

RAPD analysis of organism 

RFLP/AFLP analysis of organism 

Gene cloning 

DNA fingerprinting of organism 

Plant tissue culture 

Immune based detection of organism 

Genetic diversity of organism 

Plant seed health analysis 

Biocontrol agents 

Biofertilizers 

Environmental biotechnology 

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