A TASER International representative displays a prototype for the ...

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EMERGING TECHNOLOGY 85 Table 3.6 Selected dual-purpose launchers Shotguns Single-shot grenade launchers Multiple grenade launchers • Metal Storm MAUL (semi-automatic) • Mossberg 500 • Remington 870 • Ceská Zbrojovka 805 G1 • Colt M203 (40 mm) • Heckler & Koch AG36, AG-C/GLM, HK69A1 • Springfield Armory M79 (40 mm) • Metal Storm 3GL • Milkor M32, MGL-140, MGL-105 • Rippel Effect MSGL40 The second approach is taken by manufacturers who develop purpose-built, less-lethal launchers (see Table 3.5) that can be combined with firearms in under-barrel configurations. The best representative of this category is FN Herstal’s FN 303 in .68 calibre. Since its initial development in 1994, US police and military units have procured the FN 303; in 2004, the weapon was involved in a controversial incident in Boston (see below). The FN 303’s innovation came from the fact that it was developed using paintball marker technology; it can be used to ‘mark’ aggressive individuals in a crowd, and single them out prior to arrest. The semi-automatic weapon uses compressed air to fire a range of less-lethal ammunition, such as paint capsules filled with oleoresin capsicum, which fracture on impact. Manufacturer specifications state that the kinetic impact at 15 metres is 29 joules (15J/cm²)—enough to stop any suspect (Jacobs, n.d.). The FN 303 can be integrated as a separate module under a rifle, a characteristic that is marketed as giving the police officer or soldier the ability to use a less-lethal system as well as a conventional firearm. There is no consensus on requirements among manufacturers or police agencies on this issue. France’s LACROIX, for instance, has chosen not to develop modular launchers. 22 ‘Rheostatic’ implies variable electrical resistance, and electric-shock weapons are direct descendants of this concept. In the past ten years, TASER International, Inc., has had a significant presence in the less-lethal market, with an increased diversification of products that cater to the military, law enforcement agencies, and the civilian selfdefence niche. Other companies have capitalized on this success, such as Stinger Systems with its S-200 AT, an alternative two-dart projectile stun device. The technology used in the TASER Models M26 and X26 is therefore not new; 23 in the United States, it has arguably influenced police use-of-force doctrine like no other weapon in the lesslethal category (see below). TASERs are actively marketed as ideal alternatives to impact projectiles and hand-held CS sprays. Yet electricshock weapons follow development paths surprisingly similar to their kinetic energy siblings: range extension, and the possibility of combination with firearms. The X-Rail System can be used to clip a TASER X26 to assault rifles, mimicking the modularity of 40 mm grenade launchers. More significantly, the new eXtended Range Electro- Muscular Projectile (XREP) can be fired from any 12-gauge shotgun to a range of 30 metres. The projectile thus combines the kinetic energy of blunt impact with an electric shock that causes the target’s muscles to contract involuntarily. The recently marketed X3 model replicates the spread of multiple-projectile kinetic ammunition. Finally, the TASER Shockwave Remote Area Denial system fulfils the needs of area denial by juxtaposing multiple units to extend area coverage and allow multiple salvos (TASER International, n.d.b). Directed-energy weapons are another offshoot of the US military’s research into rheostatic capability. Such research has produced weapon prototypes, including high-power microwave weapons designed to destroy the
86 SMALL ARMS SURVEY 2011 circuits of electronic equipment. The best-documented example is the Active Denial System, which uses millimetre waves to heat up water and fat molecules in the subcutaneous layers of the skin. Raytheon Corp. has been marketing the product to military and law enforcement agencies since 2007 under the name Silent Guardian. While military directed-energy weapon prototypes are generally too bulky for individual law enforcement use, the US National Institute of Justice and Raytheon Corp. are reportedly developing smaller versions (Davison, 2009, p. 170). In mid- 2010, the Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department equipped the Pitchess Detention Center with a 2.3-metre, tripodmounted version of the Active Denial System, dubbed the Assault Intervention Device, for a six-month trial (Hadhazy, 2011; Shachtman, 2010). Today’s most appropriate, off-the-shelf options for law enforcement applications are light-emitting diode (LED)- based systems dubbed ‘illuminators’ or ‘dazzlers’, such as the LED Incapacitator. Developed by Intelligent Optical Systems, Inc., in collaboration with the US Department of Homeland Security and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, LED Incapacitators are marketed as: diversionary devices [that] utilize high powered, multicolored light emitting diode (LED) clusters and complex optical concentrators to produce a temporary high level of visual impairment and potential disorientation of the targeted subject(s), while optical intensities remain at eye-safe levels (Intelligent Optical Systems, n.d.). Directed-energy weapons are an offshoot of the US military’s research into ‘rheostatic’ capability. Laser-based weapons, such as the Dissuader Laser Illuminator, have been in use for a number of years. This weapon is described in a US Department of Justice report as a handheld laser ‘flashlight’ that produces a powerful variable-width beam of red light ‘that forces adversaries to signal their intent to retreat, surrender, or continue aggressive behavior’ (USDOJ, 2004, p. 35). Modern laser ‘dazzlers’ use green lasers because the human eye is more sensitive to their wavelength (Davison, 2009, p. 151). The US military’s deployment of dazzlers in Iraq and Afghanistan is likely to inspire law enforcement units to adopt them in the near future. MATCHING WEAPONRY WITH DOCTRINE Police and military overlap In the United States, the militarization of police firearms described above also applies to less-lethal weaponry. The cross-fertilization of police and military procurement is even clearer in this category because it highlights the fact that agencies with supposedly very different operational cultures are nevertheless using the same arsenal. The US law enforcement community’s strong shift towards militarization is characterized by the development, procurement, and use of weapons that tend to blur law enforcement use of force and military doctrine. In contrast, European doctrine emphasizes the specificity of law enforcement approaches to the use of force. In October 1999, NATO approved a new Non-Lethal Doctrine to facilitate their future peacekeeping and peaceenforcement deployments (NATO, 1999). Interestingly, transfers of non-lethal technology from the military to state and local police forces in the United States also began to be institutionalized in the late 1990s (USDOJ and USDOD, 1997, p. 8). In fact, the development of less-lethal weaponry involved both military and law enforcement input, usually in the form of joint research and funding from the National Institute of Justice—the research, development, and evaluation arm of the US Department of Justice—and the Department of Defense’s Joint Non-Lethal Weapons Program (Davison, 2010). Thus many less-lethal weapons programmes were initiated with both military and domestic law enforcement applications in mind.
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