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CARING CITIES 

VOLUNTEERISM IN URBAN DEVELOPMENT 

AND THE ROLE OF THE UNITED NATIONS 

VOLUNTEER PROGRAMME

UN Volunteers Policy Paper 

‘Caring Cities’ 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Page 2 

Introduction 4 

PART I 

URBAN DEVELOPMENT AND VOLUNTEERISM 6 

1. The Challenges of Urbanization 6 

1.1. Urban Poverty 7 

1.2. Urban Opportunities 9 

2. Meanings and Typology of Volunteerism 10 

2.1. Meanings and Definitions 11 

2.2. A Typology of Volunteering 13 

3. The Importance of Volunteerism in Urban Development 16 

3.1. Economic Benefits 16 

3.2. Grassroots Work/Organizations 17 

3.3. Social Cohesion and Capital 18 

3.4. Cultural Heritage and Local Pride 23 

3.5. Benefits to the Volunteer 24 

PART II 

THE UNITED NATIONS VOLUNTEERS PROGRAMME 26 

1. Introduction to UNV 26 

2. The international response to the urban problematique 

of developing countries and UNV’s role 28 

3. UNV’s niche in urban work 30 

3.1. Promotion and support to volunteerism 30 

3.2. The Mobilization of UN Volunteers 31 

4. Thematic view and illustrations 40 

4.1. The political & institutional domain 40 

4.2. The social domain 48 

4.3. The economic domain 54 

4.4. The physical domain 59 

4.5. The cultural domain 61 

4.6. An integrated approach 63 

Conclusion 64 

References 66 

Colophon 68

UN Volunteers Policy Paper ‘Caring Cities’ 

Volunteering in Urban Development and the role of the United Nations Volunteer Programme 

INTRODUCTION 

Page 4 

Page 5 

We are living in an era dominated by the private market ethos; 

this trend tends to overshadow the value of voluntary actions. 

However, volunteerism continues to play a crucial role even in a 

market-oriented society. Equally, volunteerism plays a vital role 

in human settlements, which constitute a microcosm of society. 

This publication analyses the importance of volunteer work in 

the development of cities and towns, and presents the urban 

agenda of the United Nations Volunteers Programme (UNV). 

UNV promotes and supports volunteerism through different 

means and also fields teams of UN Volunteers in developing 

and transitional countries. UNV has devoted particular attention 

to urban areas and this has evolved over a period of 30 years, 

from scattered activities to systemic programming, culminating 

in making urban development one of the priorities for its 

Strategy 2000. Rather than overlapping with other development 

agencies, UNV has been able to offer a distinct value-added 

and to complement efforts. 

The publication is divided into two main parts: volunteerism and 

UNV. The first part focuses on the importance of volunteerism 

in urban development. It starts with an introduction to urban 

problems, followed by a detailed analysis of volunteerism in this 

context. The second part begins with an introduction to UNV, 

followed by the general features of its urban operations. 

Subsequently it provides a detailed view of the UNV response 

to urban problems, with illustrations. The publication concludes 

with thoughts on the achievements of UNV, and on the 

consolidation of its urban agenda. 

UNV’s Strategy 2000 came into being shortly after the 

‘Istanbul Meeting’ in 1996 (the United Nations’ Summit 

Conference on Human Settlements ‘Habitat II’). Coincidentally, 

Year 2001 is the first year after the conclusion of UNV’s 

Strategy 2000 and the year of ‘Istanbul + 5’ (the Special 

Session of the United Nations General Assembly for an Overall 

Review and Appraisal of the Implementation of the Habitat 

Agenda). This means that UNV’s Strategy 2000 was 

implemented during the period between ‘Istanbul’ and ‘Istanbul 

+ 5’, and produced the urban agenda which is presented in 

this publication. 

‘Istanbul + 5’ will review global achievements in the field of 

human settlements since the ‘Istanbul’ meeting and will also 

discuss future actions. Therefore, this publication has come in 

time because it takes stock of what UNV has achieved 

throughout this period, and also discusses the future. 

The present publication is also well-timed because 2001 has 

been chosen by the United Nations as the International Year of 

the Volunteers with UNV being the institutional focal point. This 

publication is part of UNV efforts to provide information about 

volunteerism in general and about its programme in particular.




PART I – URBAN DEVELOPMENT 

AND VOLUNTEERISM 

Page 6 

Page 7 

1. The Challenges of Urbanization 

Urbanization is an overwhelming phenomenon throughout the 

whole world, and there is ample and widespread evidence 

about its occurrence and effects. There is no need, therefore, 

for this publication to re-confirm this state of affairs in great 

detail (for more information on the subject see, for instance, 

UNCHS 1996). However, this section presents some basic 

facts about urbanization, with special attention to poverty. The 

focus on the urban poor is justified by the fact that this group 

bears the brunt of urban problems. 

The urban population of the world has been drastically expanding, 

both in absolute and in relative terms and this growth is 

mainly concentrated in developing countries. According to data 

compiled by UNDP (1999), in 1970 the ratio of city dwellers in 

developing as opposed to industrialized countries was one to 

one. Today this ratio is nearly two to one. It will be three to one 

by the year 2015, and will approach four to one by 2025. 

Since 1970, 1.23 billion urban residents have been added 

to the world population, of which 84% have been in lessdeveloped 

regions. In the words of a recent report of the World 

Bank (1999: 1): 

‘At the threshold of the 21st century, cities and towns are 

forming the front line in the development campaign. Within a 

generation, the majority of the developing world’s population 

will live in urban areas. The number of residents in developing 

countries will increase by 2.5 billion – the current urban 

population of the entire world. The scale of this urbanization, 

with its implications for meeting the needs of individuals at 

relatively low levels of national income, is unprecedented.’ 

The process of urbanization has been accompanied by a 

plethora of problems of varying nature (and type) e.g. social, 

economic, environmental, etc. It is outside the scope of this 

publication to elaborate on evidence about such problems 

(there is already an enormous literature on such issues). However, 

it is worth noting the alarming magnitude of urban poverty 

– because being poor in a city or town entails facing its multiple 

problems on a day-to-day basis. According to UNDP (1999), 

approximately half of the poor in the world live in urban areas, 

and this figure continues to go up, both in absolute and relative 

terms. 

1.1. Urban Poverty 

The absolute numbers of urban poor may suffice to demonstrate 

the existence and magnitude of the problem, hence the 

importance of combating it. This can be reinforced by comparisons 

with rural poverty. There is an argument among 

development academics and practitioners that poverty in rural 

areas is more prominent – and therefore deserves more 

resources – than poverty in urban areas. Although it is beyond 

the scope of this publication to provide ultimate evidence about 

the significance of urban versus rural poverty, it is important 

here to show that such relative significance has often been 

underestimated. The following points illustrate the relative 

importance of urban poverty: 

– Higher living costs. As noted by UNCHS (1996), in most 

developing countries urban residents face higher living 

costs, because many items that have to be bought in urban 

areas are free or cheaper in rural areas as they grow or are 

produced locally – e.g. fuel, food, fresh water, traditional 

building materials, and housing itself. 

– New/extra needs. In addition to the higher costs of basic 

needs, urban living also entails new or additional needs, a 

fact which requires extra expenditure. For example, long 

distance daily commuting is an ordinary feature of urban 

living, which means that public transport (and associated 

costs) becomes an indispensable need. Also, urban living 

generally involve more complex and costly recreational 

habits (cinemas, shows, night life), which are important in 

a milieu that lacks the appropriate space, time and cultural 

bonds often necessary for rural types of recreation (encountered 

in nature, in extensive village celebrations, etc.). 

There is also a much higher pressure for consumption in 

general (of non-basic goods) in urban areas, due to a much 

more aggressive marketing milieu, and to the constant 

day-to-day exposure of the poor to people who ostentatiously 

show their expensive goods. (It is often argued that access 

to a wider range of goods and services constitutes an 

advantage of urban settlements over rural areas. While this 

may be true for those who can actually purchase such 

goods and services, the reality for the masses of urban 

poor is different – they often sacrifice basic needs in order 

to be able to purchase non-basic goods and services).



PART I – 

URBAN DEVELOPMENT AND VOLUNTEERISM 

The Challenges of Urbanization 

PART I – 


The Challenges of Urbanization 

Page 8 

– Greater vulnerability to changes in income: Urban dwellers 

often have a greater dependence on cash incomes, which 

means greater vulnerability to price rises and falls in income. 

This problem is minimized in rural areas due to subsistence 

production and foraging (see UNCHS, 1996). 

– Socio-cultural bonds: Support networks based in family, 

kinship and/or ethnic-cultural background are generally 

stronger in rural areas, and prove to be fundamental in many 

episodes of crisis and emergencies. Socio-cultural bonds 

and derived support networks tend to be weaker in urban 

areas, due to the pressures of urban living, associated 

psycho social stresses, and ethnic-cultural mixtures. For 

instance, the widespread phenomenon of street children is 

a clear and sad evidence of this problem. 

– Greater health risks: The urban poor face the ‘worst of both 

worlds’: while they still suffer problems common to rural 

areas (such as infectious diseases and malnutrition), they 

also suffer problems which are particular to urban areas 

(chronic and psycho social diseases) (Harpham, 1987). 

The above reasoning does not deny the significance of rural 

poverty (and therefore of the need to combat it). The point is 

that, independently of (or in addition to) combating rural poverty, 

it is essential to combat urban poverty. There is a widespread 

belief among many development thinkers and practitioners that 

urban poverty will ‘naturally’ disappear solely by combating 

rural poverty. They believe that the urban poor are basically 

rural migrants running away from poverty in their regions of 

origin. Therefore, the argument goes, if rural poverty is removed, 

no more poor people would migrate to cities and towns, and 

the poor who are already living in such urban settlements 

would migrate back to the (now economically better) rural 

areas. 

Page 9 

as homelessness, crime, pollution, unemployment, overcrowding 

(squatters), and psycho social conditions associated with 

urbanization. 

1.2. Urban Opportunities 

Whether one likes it or not, urbanization is a global phenomenon. 

The majority of urban dwellers in all corners of the planet just 

do not want to move to rural areas. They prefer to work in 

typically urban occupations (e.g. services) rather than in farming, 

or they may prefer urban socio-cultural habits to rural ones. 

The fact that there is widespread poverty in urban areas does 

not automatically means that urbanization is evil – the same 

way that the widespread existence of poverty in rural areas 

should not lead to similar conclusions regarding rural settings. 

Cities and towns are also loci of many opportunities. No matter 

how challenging, it is more opportune and at the same time 

more realistic to fight urban poverty within cities and towns 

themselves, and to allow the poor to benefit from the 

opportunities offered by such settlements, than to think about 

an idyllic urban exodus. 

Solutions to the problems of urban areas in general and of the 

urban poor in particular are often complex, and require a wide 

set of interrelated activities. At any rate, volunteerism plays a 

significant role as part of such solutions. 

Removal of poverty and the creation of opportunities in rural 

areas might perhaps attract a number of urban dwellers. Yet, 

there is no evidence whatsoever that it would constitute a 

comprehensive solution to urban poverty. The example of many 

Western European countries reinforces this point. Rural poverty 

in absolute terms (i.e. acute deficiency or deprivation of basic 

needs) in this region of the world is rare. Yet, many dwellers of 

Western European cities still face harsh living conditions, such




PART I – 


PART I – 


Meanings and Typology of Volunteerism 

Page 10 

2. Meanings and Typology of Volunteerism 

Before the paper focusing on the importance of volunteerism in 

urban development, this section will provide information about 

meanings and definitions as well as about a typology of 

volunteerism, as a background to comprehend the subsequent 

text. 

2.1. Meanings and Definitions 

Volunteering means different things to different people. A recent 

study (Cnaan et al, 1998) found widespread differences 

between countries in public perceptions of what constitutes a 

voluntary activity. In some countries giving blood was seen as 

volunteering, in others being involved in a political party or 

trade union was counted. For some people the defining 

characteristic of volunteering was the absence of financial 

reward; for others lack of coercion was the main identifier. 

Volunteering takes on different forms and meanings in different 

settings. It is strongly influenced by the history, politics, religion 

and culture of a region. What may be seen as volunteering in 

one country may be dismissed as low paid or labour intensive 

work (or even forced labour) in another. However, despite the 

wide variety of understandings it is possible to identify some 

core characteristics of what constitutes a voluntary activity. In 

fact it is essential that we attempt to define volunteering. It is 

necessary because without some shared understanding of the 

common elements of volunteering the term would be meaningless 

and would nullify the attempts by governments to promote 

it. Although it is clearly not possible to come up with a hard 

and fast definition of volunteering that will take into account the 

variety of contexts in which it operates, we can construct a 

broad conceptual framework which will allow for significant 

differences in interpretation within clearly delineated boundaries. 

There are five key elements to this framework. First the notion 

of reward. Some definitions argue that only purely altruistic 

behaviour should be counted as volunteering. Others contend 

that there is no such thing as pure altruism and that all 

volunteering contains an element of exchange and reciprocity. 

Thus some definitions would allow for volunteers to be 

rewarded in some way, either non-materially through the 

provision of training or accreditation, or materially through the 

reimbursement of expenses or the payment of an honorarium. 

Page 11 

The key cut-off point in drawing the distinction between 

volunteering and paid employment is that the volunteer should 

not be undertaking the activity primarily for financial gain and 

that any financial reimbursement should be less than the value 

of the work provided. 

The second element concerns the notion of free will. Most 

definitions concede that volunteering and compulsion are 

incompatible. Thus schemes which run counter to the ILO 

Conventions on forced labour would clearly not qualify as 

volunteering. But as with the notion of reward, there are grey 

areas associated with concept of free will. For example, how 

should we view school community service schemes which 

encourage, and sometimes require, students to get involved in 

voluntary work? Food for Work programmes, where there is an 

explicit exchange between community involvement and food 

assistance? Or citizen service schemes which offer people a 

community service alternative to military service? The broad 

conceptual framework accepts that it may be difficult to uphold 

the pure notion of free will in any volunteering interaction 

people’s motivation to volunteer will perhaps always include a 

mix of reasons, including peer pressure and social obligation. 

But it would also exclude any overt attempt by government to 

force people to participate. 

The third element relates to the nature of the benefit. To 

differentiate volunteering from a purely voluntary leisure activity 

requires there to be a beneficiary other than (or in addition to) 

the volunteer. But where the line should be drawn is open to 

question. Some would argue that the beneficiary has to be a 

stranger to the volunteer; others would allow neighbours to be 

included, and even friends and extended relations. Still others 

would include the notion of self-help or mutual aid where the 

dividing line between personal and third party benefit is 

especially blurred. Whilst allowing for a variety of interpretations 

the broad conceptual framework demands that there be an 

identifiable beneficiary or group of beneficiaries (which might 

include such abstract notions as the environment or society 

itself) other than (or in addition to) the volunteer’s immediate 

family or friends. This would allow for self-help and mutual aid 

to be included but would rule out caring for dependent relatives. 

Fourthly, there is the issue of organizational setting. Some 

definitions insist that volunteering must be carried out through




PART I – 



PART I – 



Page 12 

Page 13 

a formal, non-profit or voluntary organization of some sort. 

Others keep to the organizational requirement but include 

activity undertaken within the public or corporate sector. Others 

relax the organizational requirement and accept activities carried 

out informally, either on a one-to-one basis such as helping out 

a neighbour, or in isolation through such civic-minded activities 

as picking up litter. The broad framework put forward here 

allows for both formal (organized) and informal (one-to-one) 

volunteering to be included and for volunteering carried out 

both in the public and corporate sectors. 

The final element is the level of commitment. Some definitions 

allow for one-off voluntary activities to be included; others 

demand a certain level of commitment and exclude occasional 

acts. The broad conceptual framework enables us to 

encompass a range of different levels of activity from high 

commitment to sporadic involvement, although it seems fair 

to assume that most volunteering would carry with it some 

degree of sustained commitment. 

Given the differing interpretations of what constitutes a 

voluntary activity it is not surprising that there is disagreement 

over terms. Some people favour the term volunteering, others 

voluntary activity, voluntary work or voluntary action. In some 

countries distinctions are drawn between more traditional 

forms of charitable activity and more modern forms of citizen 

involvement and participation. Whilst recognizing that different 

terms often have very different meanings in different settings 

this publication will use volunteering and voluntary activity as 

interchangeable terms to describe the broad range of activities 

which fall within the broad conceptual framework outlined 

above. Similar terminological difficulties arise in relation to the 

organizations through which most volunteering takes place. 

Voluntary organizations, community groups, civil society organizations, 

third sector associations, non-governmental and nonprofit 

organizations are all terms which are used to describe 

the rich variety of organizational structures which occupy the 

space outside the state and the market. As with the terms to 

describe individual voluntary activity all have subtle, or not so 

subtle, differences of meaning. But for the purpose of this 

publication we will choose the term voluntary and community 

organizations to encompass this wide variety of organizational 

forms. 

In West and Central Africa there 

is a tradition of Tontine. This is a 

self-help group of citizens established 

to provide a rotating credit 

system for members. Each 

member makes a regular financial 

contribution and each has a turn 

in drawing from the funds. 

Women take a leading role as 

members and fund-managers. 

In Slovakia the Multiple Sclerosis 

2.2. A Typology of Volunteering 

It is possible to identify at least four different types of volunteer 

activity, delineated according to a final outcome or final purpose 

criterion: mutual aid or self-help, philanthropy or service 

to others, participation and advocacy or campaigning. Each of 

these types occurs in all parts of the world, and both in urban 

and non-urban areas. However, the form each type takes and 

the balance or mix between different types differs markedly 

from place to place. Factors influencing the nature of 

volunteering will include the economic, social and political 

make-up of the country/region/city and its stage of development. 

As a broad rule of thumb the less economically 

developed the locality the less formal its volunteering structures 

are likely to be, and the greater the emphasis on informal 

support systems and networks of mutual aid and self-help. 

In contrast, industrialized countries/regions/cities typically will 

exhibit more formal volunteering structures with a greater 

emphasis on philanthropic forms of activity. This is not to imply 

that the developed world is richer in volunteering than the 

developing world. Rather that the form volunteering takes is 

conditioned by the society in which it is based. Of course there 

are parts of the world where volunteering is stronger than 

others – in certain countries the political system works against 

the free association and participation of its citizens. But even in 

countries most hostile to its development, volunteering can be 

found. The four categories of volunteering are not mutually 

exclusive. There is clear overlap between them. So, for 

example, volunteers involved with a philanthropic or service 

delivery agency may also very well be involved in advocacy and 

campaigning. Likewise, mutual aid may benefit others apart 

from members. 

Mutual Aid or Self-Help 

Anthropologists have noted the existence of mutual 

associations (or sodalities from the Latin word sodalis meaning 

close friend) as far back as the neolithic period and the role of 

mutual aid associations in primitive cultures has been well 

documented. 

In many parts of the world today mutual aid provides the main 

system of social and economic support for a majority of the 

population. From the small informal kinship and clan groupings 

to the more formal rotating credit associations and welfare 

groups, volunteering as an expression of self-help or mutual aid




PART I – 



PART I – 



Page 14 

Page 15 

plays a primary role in the welfare of communities. In Kenya, for 

example, the tradition of Harambee plays a vital role in the 

provision of health, water and educational facilities. In Senegal 

mutual aid is organized around Mbootaay groups (meaning to 

nurture), while in Java such activity goes under the name of 

Arisan. In Mexico there is a thriving mutual aid tradition of 

Confianza and in the Gulf States the practice of Murfazaa is 

long-established. Self-help also plays an important role in 

countries of the industrialized North, particularly in the health 

and social welfare field, where numerous organizations have 

been established to provide support and assistance to those in 

need, often organized around a particular disease or illness. 

Philanthropy or Service to Others 

Perhaps more a feature of developed societies (especially in its 

organized form), philanthropic volunteering can nevertheless be 

found in all regions of the world. It is distinguished from selfhelp 

activity in that the primary recipient of the volunteering is 

not the member of the group him or herself, but an external 

third party, although most people would acknowledge that 

there is an element of self-interest in such philanthropic activity. 

Much of this type of volunteering takes place within voluntary 

or community organizations, although in certain countries there 

is a strong tradition of volunteering within the public sector and 

interest is growing in volunteering in the corporate sector. In 

some countries sophisticated networks have been established 

to recruit and place volunteers with the most appropriate 

organization. These include both national and local volunteer 

centres, which have been established with support from 

government. There is also a long-standing tradition of 

volunteers being sent from one country to another to offer 

developmental and humanitarian assistance, both North to 

South and South to South and, to a far lesser extent, South to 

North. 

Participation 

This refers to the role played by individuals in the governance 

process, from representation on government consultative 

bodies to user-involvement in local development projects. As a 

form of volunteering it is found in all countries, although it is 

most developed in advanced democracies and those countries 

with a strong tradition of citizen participation. Participation was 

recognized as an essential component of good governance at 

the Copenhagen Summit and has become the watchword of 

Slovak Union is a voluntary selfhelp 

organization which 

developed out of a grassroots 

initiative in 1990. It brings 

together citizens affected with 

multiple sclerosis and their 

families, as well as other people 

willing to provide assistance. In 

addition to providing a range of 

practical support to members, 

the Union campaigns and 

advocates on behalf of people 

with multiple sclerosis. It 

receives some state funding 

and is one of the most active 

and visible expressions of selfhelp 

in Slovakia. 

In the 1990s in Brazil the Citizens’ 

Action Against Hunger and For 

Life campaign was launched by 

leaders of various civic groups. 

There was a massive public 

response and within three months 

over 3,000 volunteer committees 

had been set up across the 

country to look for ways of combating 

hunger and poverty. It is 

estimated that an astonishing 

38% of the Brazilian population 

participated directly in the 

campaign, either through making 

a donation or by volunteering. 

In Maharashtra in India in 1998 a 

group of concerned citizens 

came together to form an action 

campaign to save children’s lives 

in Melghat. The group called 

itself Melghat Mitra (Friends of 

Melghat) and determined to 

prevent the death of children 

caused by malnourishment in 

seven settlements during the 

monsoon period. A number of 

daily newspapers published the 

appeal, resulting in a response 

from over 3,000 people, who 

made donations of money and 

time. Two hundred volunteers 

agreed to give 10 days of their 

time to the project over a period 

of 92 days. Having achieved 

these goals Melghat Mitra is now 

tackling the long-term development 

needs of the settlements. 

development in recent years, although there is a forceful 

critique which argues that much of what has passed for 

participation has been little more than token involvement and a 

means of legitimising outsiders’ decisions. 

Advocacy or Campaigning 

The fourth type of volunteering is advocacy or campaigning, 

be it lobbying government for a change in legislation affecting 

the rights of disabled people or pushing for a worldwide ban 

on landmines. Volunteers have paved the way for the introduction 

of new welfare services in the field of HIV and AIDS, 

have raised public consciousness about abuses of human 

rights and environmental destruction, and have been active in 

the women’s movement and in democracy campaigns in many 

parts of the world. Some campaigns are very localized others 

are global in their reach. The anti-landmine campaign, for 

example, is estimated to have involved more than 300 million 

volunteers from over 100 countries. By its very nature such 

campaigning activity has the capacity to bring volunteers into 

conflict with the state. Some governments have sought to 

clamp down on these activities. Others have accepted that 

volunteering has a legitimate role to play in campaigning for 

change and acting as a check on the executive.




PART I – 


PART I – 


The Importance of Volunteerism in Urban Development 

Page 16 

Page 17 

3. The Importance of Volunteerism in Urban 

3. Development 

This section highlights five sets of impacts and benefits: (i) 

overall economic benefits, (ii) grassroots work and organizations, 

(iii) social cohesion and capital, (iv) local pride, (v) 

benefits to the volunteers. 

3.1. Economic Benefits 

Volunteering makes an important economic contribution to 

urban settlements in particular and to society as a whole. 

Activities undertaken by volunteers would otherwise have to 

be funded by the state or by private capital. Volunteering adds 

to the overall economic output and reduces the burden on 

government spending. The existing studies point to the magnitude 

of its contribution. For example, a survey of volunteering in the 

UK in 1997 suggested that half the adult population took part 

in voluntary work, contributing a notional £40 billion to the 

economy (Smith, 1998); while a recent survey in Canada 

suggested that over five million adults volunteered, adding 

some $16 billion to Gross Domestic Product. Two large crossnational 

surveys in recent years also point to the importance of 

volunteering. A survey in eight European countries in 1994 

found an average participation rate in volunteering across the 

continent of 23% (Gaskin and Smith, 1995); while the 22- 

nation study reported by the Johns Hopkins Institute in 1998 

found volunteer involvement running at an average of 28%, 

equivalent to almost 10.5 million full-time employees (Salamon 

and Anheier, 1998). 

A joint study between the Johns Hopkins University and the 

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) is developing 

a framework for measuring the economic contribution of 

voluntary and community organizations (including the value of 

volunteering) for use in satellite accounting. UNDP also aims to 

include measures of governance and participation in its 2001 

Human Development Report. CIVICUS, the world alliance for 

citizen participation, is meanwhile developing its own civil society 

index, which includes a measure of the level of involvement in 

the formulation and implementation of public policy. 

So far there is little and disaggregate data available on the 

quantitative contribution of volunteerism, specifically in urban 

The South Asian Poverty 

Alleviation Programme (SAPAP) 

Pilot programme started in 

1996 supporting the poverty 

reduction efforts of 6 countries: 

Bangladesh, India, Maldives, 

Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. 

Since the start of the 

programme around 80,000 

households have formed themselves 

into 3,500 community 

organizations which have helped 

launch thousands of individual 

and family income-earning 

activities and built up numerous 

community assets from irrigation 

systems to roads. 

areas. Nevertheless, there is strong evidence that volunteer 

work – for example, all the self-help activities at the community 

level – accounts for a sizeable share of the urban economy. At 

the same time, urban areas account for a sizeable share – 

often the largest part – of the economy of countries as a whole. 

3.2. Grassroots Work /Organizations 

The past few decades have witnessed the rise of an approach 

to urban development commonly called the ‘community-based’ 

approach – which is fundamentally based on the volunteer 

contributions of the members of grassroots communities. Its 

widespread recognition in development circles constitutes one 

set of evidence about the importance of volunteer work at the 

urban grassroots at least for three reasons: survival, filling in a 

structural void between the private and the public sectors, and 

building the political basis of communities. In addition, the 

current burgeoning attention to governance further underlines 

its importance. Each of these issues will be analysed in turn. 

– Survival: firstly, the ‘survival’ argument notes that in most 

circumstances, the public and the private sectors have not 

managed adequately to provide all the basic needs of the 

urban poor in developing countries (either because of 

deficiencies in the system of supply or high costs). This 

means that the urban poor just have to engage themselves 

voluntarily in the direct production of basic needs (e.g. 

housing, water, sewerage, solid waste, drainage, etc.) in 

order to survive and to live decently. Whenever such 

circumstances arise, there is a rationale for urban development 

projects to empower and strengthen grassroots 

communities to enhance their survival mechanisms. 

– Structural niche for volunteer technical work. the second 

argument is more radical than the previous one, it contends 

that mutual voluntary/self-help production is structural in (at 

least some) societies, and that there will always be a void 

between public and private production (which has to be 

filled by the community itself). Consequently, there is a need 

for urban development projects to empower and strengthen 

grassroots communities not only in emergency/survival 

situations, but always.




PART I – 



PART I – 



Page 18 

Page 19 

– Political pressure: the third argument focuses on participation, 

which is one type of volunteerism, as noted before. 

Communities also have certain needs and rights vis-à-vis 

the state. Due to the uneven balance of power in cities – 

and in societies – low-income communities tend to have 

such needs fulfilled and rights respected only if they are 

able to organize themselves and exert concerted pressure 

on the public system. 

– Governance: fourthly, the current worldwide attention on 

(urban) governance also stresses politics, but in a different 

way. That is, participation is important not necessarily for 

the community to exert ‘pressure’ on the public system, but 

to build a more definite relationship. Under such circumstances, 

communities need not only the skills to ‘fight’ for 

their interests, as above, but also to build alliances and 

work together with different stakeholders. This further 

reinforces the importance of volunteerism at the urban 

grassroots. 

Participation has long been seen as an essential element 

of good governance and effective development. Numerous 

studies have attested to the link between user involvement 

and the success of water, sanitation and environmental 

projects in many different parts of the world (See, for example, 

Kahkonen, 1999). The UNDP Poverty Report for 1998 

concluded that: ‘UNDP’s experience suggests that 

community anti-poverty programmes should be firmly based 

on ‘social mobilization’ (UNDP, 1998), ‘Poor people may 

be relatively powerless as individuals, but not when they 

mobilize themselves together in communities’. 

3.3. Social Cohesion and Capital 

Physical proximity among a number of people facilitates, or may 

actually be a fundamental pre-condition, for the construction of 

social cohesion and capital among such people. In this respect, 

cities and towns are strategic, as they constitute spatial entities 

where people congregate. 

Volunteerism is closely related to the formation of social cohesion 

and capital. It fosters trust between citizens and helps develop 

norms of solidarity and reciprocity which are essential to stable 

communities. By building trust and reciprocity between citizens 

In her study in Tanzania, 

Narayan, looked for evidence 

of social capital by measuring 

involvement in associations and 

trust in institutions amongst 

750 households. The settlement 

chosen for the study was found 

to be rich in voluntary and 

community groups, ranging from 

rotating credit associations and 

burial societies to clubs for youth 

and elders. Involvement was 

high, with over 70% of the 

population belonging to at least 

one group and an average 

membership of 1.5 groups per 

person. By matching up data 

on associational involvement 

and household income the 

study concluded that there was 

a positive link between social 

capital and household welfare. 

volunteering contributes both to a more cohesive, stable society 

and to a more economically prosperous one. In his classic 

study of regional government in Italy, Putnam (1993) concludes 

that differences in performance between regions can be 

accounted for largely by differences in levels of social capital. 

This he defined as ‘features of social organization, such as 

trust, norms and networks, that can improve the efficiency of 

society by facilitating coordinated actions’. One of Putnam’s 

key measures of social capital was participation in voluntary 

associations, or horizontal ‘networks of civic engagement’. 

Several recent studies have pointed to a link between social 

capital and economic advance in developing countries. Krishna 

and Uphoff (1999), for example, found a positive relationship 

between levels of social capital (as measured by informal 

networks and mutual support) and performance of settlements 

with a watershed conservation and development programme in 

India; while Narayan (1997) found a link between involvement 

in voluntary associations and household welfare in Tanzania. 

Just how social capital performs this function is not clear from 

the literature but three main ways have been suggested: by 

facilitating the sharing of information among members of groups; 

by increasing cooperation; and by facilitating collective decisionmaking. 

In a separate study Narayan (1999) draws a distinction 

between ‘bonding’ social capital developed within groups and 

‘bridging’ social capital arising from the interaction between 

groups. For social capital to contribute to social integration 

there needs to be not only high levels of associational activity 

but a dense network of cross-cutting ties among groups. The 

point is powerfully illustrated by Varshney (1998) in a study of 

communal riots in India. In seeking to explain why some towns 

with a mix of Hindu and Muslim populations remain free from 

conflict while others with a similar population profile erupt into 

ethnic violence, Varshney looks at the role played by voluntary 

associations and informal community networks in building 

social capital. He concludes that those areas with low levels 

of communal strife are characterized not simply by high levels 

of associational activity but by high levels of cross-cutting 

engagement between the Hindu and Muslim populations. 

Bazan and Schmitz (1997), in their turn, carried out an in-depth 

study in the town of Dois Irmaos in Southern Brazil, which




PART I – 



PART I – 



Page 20 

highlighted a strong association between the development of 

the local industrial community and their stock of social capital. 

In the specific case of Dois Irmaos, the strong social cohesion 

– and correlated high stock of social capital – stemmed from 

the ties between migrants, formed along ethnic and cultural 

lines: 

‘In terms of social relations, Dois Irmaos represented a highly 

integrated community during the first stage of its economic 

development. Like many other Brazilian-German settlements, 

solidarity and involvement in community affairs were commonplace. 

For many years, community members acted in close 

cooperation to build up their churches, to establish and keep 

their own community schools, to found mutual-self help societies, 

and to create various leisure associations as diverse as 

bowling clubs, shooting clubs and choral societies… people 

participated in all types of associations. This corresponds to 

what Gluckman (1967) has termed ‘multiplex relations’; a 

situation in which members of a community belong to more 

than one association. There were also many examples of 

associations in the economic field… The number of cooperative 

practices suggests a high degree of trust amongst members of 

the pre-industrial community. This was an important aspect of 

the social capital generated in Dois Irmaos during this period.’ 

(Bazan and Schimtz, 1997: 14–16) 

As a result of the aforementioned practices, Dois Irmaos 

accumulated a vast stock of social capital, which, according 

to Bazan and Schmitz (1997), positively influenced the industrial 

development of the town (heavily concentrated in the shoe 

industry) through the quality of the relationships within the group 

of entrepreneurs, and between entrepreneurs and labourers. 

Co-operation within the group of entrepreneurs helped them 

to mobilize resources and to overcome barriers to the effective 

use of resources. This was carried out through practices such 

as exchanging technical knowledge and information, and the 

borrowing materials and tools. In a later stage, new forms of 

cooperation emerged, such as a number of industrial organizations 

concerned with promoting or defending the collective 

interests of the shoe producers. 

Co-operation between entrepreneurs and labourers, in its turn, 

has been described as follows: 

Page 21 

‘Reciprocity and cooperation in intra-firms relations took the 

form of a dense market of economic and social exchanges 

between entrepreneurs and workers, in which the payment for 

an exchange did not have to be made with the same coin in 

which it had been received. The type of exchange varied 

according to individuals’ particular demands or assets. Workers, 

for example, felt that they received from entrepreneurs the 

opportunity to maintain their contact with the land, or at least 

the opportunities for their families to do so (Schneider, 1994). 

Some workers would try to start their own enterprises and 

were often helped by their employers; most of the new firms 

that were emerging in this period were owned by ex-employees 

of shoe manufacturers. In addition, workers received economic 

and social support from entrepreneurs ranging from loans to 

build up their houses to providing mediation in family conflicts. 

In return, workers were highly committed to their jobs, and 

entrepreneurs benefited in a number of ways as a result of 

workers’ loyalty. For example, workers were understanding 

when there were payment delays; they were prepared to work 

overtime so that delivery times could be met; and absenteeism 

was low.’ (Bazan and Schmitz, 1997: 27) 

The period of high social cohesion in Dois Irmaos eventually 

evaded, with corresponding consequences to the local economy. 

However, after the period in which the initial spontaneously 

constructed stock of social capital eroded, there have been 

conscious efforts from the local entrepreneurs to rebuild it 

through dialogue. Inter-firm forums have been organised to 

discuss problems between shoe makers and suppliers, and 

intra-firm courses or meetings have been initiated at which 

managers discuss a broad range of issues with the labourers. 

Health and well-being 

There is also evidence about the importance of social cohesion 

in the realm of health as evidenced, for example, by the work 

of Wilkinson (1996). One illustration is the town of Roseto 

(Pennsylvania, USA). This town attracted the attention of 

researchers because its population had death rates – particularly 

from heart attacks – much lower than neighbouring and 

similar towns from the mid – 1930s. 

The population of Roseto, USA, consisted mainly of descendants 

of migrants from Italy, who arrived in the USA in the 1880s. 

After failing to explain the health differentials on the basis of the




PART I – 



PART I – 



Page 22 

usual risk factors, researchers on the subject began to draw 

explanations related to social cohesion. For instance: 

‘From the beginning the sense of common purpose and the 

camaraderie among the Italians precluded ostentation or 

embarrassment to the less affluent, and the concern for 

neighbors ensured that no one was ever abandoned. This 

pattern of remarkable social cohesion, in which the family, as 

the hub and bulwark of life, provided a kind of security and 

insurance against any catastrophe… Throughout the years of 

study of this community the indicators were that the strength 

of unconditional interpersonal support and family and community 

cohesiveness had served to counteract the effects of life 

stress… The data obtained over a span of twenty years in the 

Italian-American community of Roseto, when compared with 

those of neighbouring communities, strongly suggests that the 

cultural characteristics – the qualities of a social organization – 

affect in some way individual susceptibility to myocardial 

infarction and sudden death. The implication is that an 

emotionally supportive social environment is protective and 

that, by contrast, the absence of family and community support 

and the lack of a well-defined role in society are risk factors.’ 

(Bruhn and Wolf, 1979: 134, after Wilkinson, 1996: 117–118) 

The Construction of Social Cohesion and Capital 

The reasoning developed above notes the pivotal importance 

of social cohesion for development. The construction of social 

cohesion in urban areas – particularly in the larger centres – is 

an important task. On one hand, as already noted, cities and 

towns are strategic for the formation of social capital as they 

constitute spatial entities where people congregate. On the 

other hand, they constitute a challenge, especially the largest 

cities, considering that heterogeneity is a hallmark of urban 

communities. Such communities lack the spontaneous stock of 

social capital which is generally available in places where the 

inhabitants share the same ethnic-cultural background. A 

straightforward policy implication would be the need to invest 

in the construction of social cohesion. Governments have a 

role to play in investing in social capital, in supporting the 

voluntary and community organizations which nurture it. As 

Putnam (1993) has put it: ‘For political stability, for government 

effectiveness, and even for economic progress social capital 

may be even more important than physical or human capital’. 

Page 23 

3.4. Cultural Heritage and Local Pride 

The preservation/reinstatement of the cultural values of a 

society has a significant impact on development. Deterioration 

of historically important material cultural assets – structures, 

sites, objects, books and archives – results in loss of heritage 

and identity, as does the disappearance of cultural expression 

– music, language, folklore and crafts. A given community 

tends to have a greater stake in a development initiative when it 

relates to – or at least respects – the community’s cultural 

foundations. Cultural heritage also plays a very important role in 

reinforcing the pride of a community vis-à-vis the place where it 

lives. There is a social identification with a given city/town as a 

place (geographical entity): everybody within a local population 

belongs to the same place. Therefore, urban conservation 

enhances the social identification of the population with its city. 

On the contrary, many initiatives are wasted precisely because 

they overlook cultural foundations – exemplified by cases of 

vandalism in public infrastructure and buildings and the lack of 

use of public facilities. Therefore, it is imperative to preserve 

and reinstate the cultural dimension of the settlements, and to 

reinforce the sentiment of pride that the citizens feel towards 

their built milieu. 

The preservation of culture largely depends upon voluntary 

actions of individuals and groups – e.g. preservation within 

one’s private property; care of public spaces and buildings; 

collective efforts to restore endangered monuments and 

intangible assets, etc. These are attitudes which cannot be 

‘bought and sold’ in the private market; they are fundamentally 

based in voluntary/free will. 

The relationship between volunteerism and cultural heritage/local 

pride, if supported, provides the opportunity for the establishment 

of a virtuous cycle. This includes the preservation of the 

local culture; enhancement of the local pride increases people’s 

motivation to further invest in their settlement (i.e. increased 

propensity to do volunteer work). This additional investment in 

their place will generate further impact on the cultural heritage, 

local pride and so forth.




PART I – 



PART I – 



Page 24 

3.5. Benefits to the Volunteer 

Volunteering also brings benefits to the volunteer. In many parts 

of the world mutual support provides the essentials of life – 

food, clean water, health care, education – i.e. self-help schemes, 

as already noted. Volunteering is bound into the very fabric of 

life and is indivisible from the struggle for survival. In other parts 

of the world volunteering serves a very different function. Here 

volunteering is much more a life-style choice. People can chose 

whether or not to spend part of their free-time in a voluntary 

activity. Many millions do so and attest to the benefits of 

participation. Volunteering enables people to meet new friends; 

learn new skills; gain in confidence and self-respect. Perhaps 

above all, volunteering brings personal satisfaction. In one 

study in the UK volunteering was identified as the second 

greatest source of joy after dancing (Argyle, 1996). 

Page 25 

employment and the daily struggle for survival leaves little 

time or energy for voluntary work. There is a forceful critique 

of volunteering, particularly in the developing world, which 

dismisses volunteering as a ‘tax’ on the poor, in particular on 

poor women, already shouldering much of the burden of family 

care and (increasingly) of economic survival. But there is an 

alternative viewpoint: by shifting the focus away from service 

to others and emphasizing the personal benefits of involvement 

– broadening of networks, acquiring of skills and experience, 

help with finding paid employment – volunteering can be seen 

as a powerful empowering strategy for those suffering from 

economic and social disadvantage. For volunteering to 

contribute most effectively to social integration it is essential 

that opportunities for greater involvement be opened up to 

people from excluded groups. 

Volunteering brings particular benefits to those suffering from 

social exclusion, bearing in mind the extent of this problem in 

the settlements throughout the developing world. For people 

with disabilities participating in volunteering can aid social 

integration and challenge negative stereotypes of disabled 

people as passive recipients of care. For unemployed people 

volunteering can improve employability by providing essential 

work-experience and opportunities for skills development and 

training. For young people volunteering offers opportunities 

for self-development and risk-taking and provides a valuable 

grounding in the practice of citizenship. For older people 

volunteering has a positive contribution to make to the process 

of ‘active ageing’ by helping the newly retired adjust to life 

without the structure of the workplace, by providing 

opportunities for life-long learning and by improving physical 

and mental well-being. In addition to age-specific benefits, 

volunteering can help to ease tensions between age groups 

and foster notions of intergenerational solidarity through such 

mentoring initiatives as Foster Grandparent schemes. 

And yet in many countries there is an inverse relationship 

between volunteering and social exclusion. The most 

marginalized groups in society are the least likely to participate. 

The barriers to participation are well documented: poverty, 

unemployment, youth alienation, poor organizational practice 

etc. One should be wary of trying to foist volunteering on those 

at the margins of society. For many people the search for paid




PART II – THE UNITED NATIONS VOLUNTEERS 

PROGRAMME 

Page 26 

Page 27 

1. Introduction to UNV 

Set up as a UN subsidiary organ in 1970, the United Nations 

Volunteers (UNV) Programme is administered under the 

auspices of the United Nations Development Programme 

(UNDP). Its headquarters was moved from Geneva to Bonn 

in 1996. 

UNV’s urban agenda is built upon this agency’s overall 

framework of action, outlined above. That will be elaborated 

after a brief discussion on the general context of international 

assistance to urban development. 

UNV’s framework of action can be divided into two broad 

components: (i) promotion and support of the different types 

of volunteerism, and (ii) mobilization of UN Volunteers. In 

practice these two components are often – although not 

always – linked together. For the sake of better understanding, 

each component will be outlined separately. 

The promotion and support activities of UNV target all four 

types of volunteerism analysed in the first part of this paper 

(self-help, service to others, participation and advocacy). In 

many circumstances and places, local volunteers – be they 

institutions or individuals – have problems of their own. They 

may not be able to provide alone the volunteer response 

necessary for a given development problem. In such cases, 

UNV complements the local response and also builds local 

volunteer capacity, securing sustainability. 

In its turn, the mobilization of UN Volunteers fits within the 

volunteerism category of ‘service to others’. The UN Volunteers 

are professionals who work in support of a wide range of 

development initiatives of governments, civil society organizations, 

private sector and international organizations. They are 

recruited on the basis of specific needs and post descriptions 

in the light of the blend of qualifications, skills and experience 

sought. UNV has a set of characteristics, which distinguishes it 

from other development actors (whether international or local). 

The role of a UN Volunteer in a given development project is 

different from that of a local volunteer. The UN Volunteer is 

able to tap immediately into the informational and technical 

apparatus of the UN system and to bring fresh and quick 

responses to emerging problems in the field. Furthermore, the 

neutrality of UNV helps in reducing the vulnerability level of a 

programme to internal political pressures, and in mediating 

between local stakeholders in a given project.




PART II – 

THE UNITED NATIONS VOLUNTEERS PROGRAMME 

PART II – 


The international response to the urban problems of developing countries and UNV’s role 

Page 28 

2. The international response to the urban problems of 

2. developing countries and UNV’s role 

The importance of volunteerism in urban development, highlighted 

in the first part of this paper, has been recognized by 

many international agencies. Such agencies have offered 

promotion and support to volunteerism in specific sectors 

within their respective frameworks of action. For instance, 

WHO has supported volunteer contributions to improve urban 

health; UNICEF has supported similar contributions in fields 

of action related to children living in cities, UNESCO has done 

the same in the field of cultural heritage, etc. 

UNV’s framework of action, in its turn, includes volunteerism 

in general, that is, cutting across the various sectors of urban 

development. This has an important added-value, considering 

that urban development is by definition multisectoral. UNV has 

been catalysing the synergies and complementarity between 

the volunteer contributions in the different sectors of the 

development of a given city or town. UNV has also promoted 

and supported volunteer co-operation between different cities 

and towns. 

UNV also provides an added-value through the specific work 

of the UN Volunteers. By and large, the international agencies 

have responded to the urban problems of developing countries 

through macro-level initiatives. For example, there are many 

international initiatives of support for local/urban activities such 

as awareness-raising campaigns, processes of partnership 

building among the different urban stakeholders, and/or 

assistance to policy-making (see, for instance, Werna, 1996, 

2000, for reviews). At any rate, in order to be effective and 

sustainable, urban development initiatives need to be solidly 

anchored with the local stakeholders. This process requires 

labour-intensive, in-depth, long-term work. This is where the 

forte of the UN Volunteers exists. 

Page 29 

dation of the process with the stakeholders at the local level. 

However, the anchoring of development processes (especially 

those which are externally induced) at the local level is often 

not simple, and there are many examples of initiatives which 

have not fully succeeded. Therefore, UNV is well placed to 

secure the establishment of such initiatives, especially at the 

grassroots, through the extensive day-to-day, face-to-face, work 

of the UN Volunteers with the local stakeholders. 

In other cases, activities of international agencies do reach the 

local level, often via allied local organizations which operate in 

the field on a day-to-day long term basis. UNV also has a 

contribution to offer in such cases. Firstly, the work of the UN 

Volunteers in the field can help to expand the reach of international 

initiatives. In addition, the UN Volunteers can work with 

and within the very local organizations which are responsible 

for the implementation of these initiatives. Such organizations 

often face difficulties and have problems of their own, which 

UNV can help to address – e.g. through capacity building, 

technical assistance, institutional strengthening and other 

activities which again require the type of intervention that 

characterise the work of the UN Volunteers – e.g. labourintensive, 

in-depth, long-term work. Such interventions strengthen 

the implementation process through the local organizations. 

In some instances, the aforementioned urban actions of international 

agencies remain at the macro level (for example, 

workshops with city stakeholders, consultancy missions, fast 

campaigns to motivate local stakeholders to build synergies 

or/and to carry out specific tasks, etc.). It is expected that such 

short-term and intensive tasks would constitute the trigger or 

lay the necessary seeds for the replication and final consoli-



PART II – 


PART II – 


UNV’s niche in urban work 

Page 30 

3. UNV’s niche in urban work 

Following UNV’s overall framework of action, and its specific 

role as partner in international assistance for urban development, 

its urban agenda can be divided into two broad components: 

(i) promotion and support to the different types of volunteerism, 

and (ii) the mobilization of UN Volunteers. 

3.1. Promotion and support to volunteerism 

– Isolated initiatives: Each city or town comprises several 

volunteer organizations as well as individuals which 

contribute to the various sectors of its development. For 

example: grassroots (self-help) groups; solidarity groups 

with specific purposes, corporate volunteerism (e.g. private 

enterprises supporting communities), among others. UNV 

strives to strengthen existing initiatives, to support the 

creation of new ones in strategic areas, and to catalyse 

complementarity between them. 

– Collective attitudes and behaviours: volunteerism does not 

consist only of calculated and focused actions of organized 

groups (important as they are). Collective attitudes and 

behaviours such as the respect of human rights, the 

preservation of culture and of the environment largely depend 

upon voluntary actions. That is, they cannot be ‘bought and 

sold’ in the market place, rather they are fundamentally 

based on free will. Such collective attitudes and behaviours 

strengthen the social foundations of urban development, 

they therefore also have UNV’s support. 

– City-wide approach: UNV also promotes the establishment 

of mechanisms to put together in a systematic way all the 

volunteer activities in a given city or town. One way to do 

this is via the local government, the political authority which 

represents the city or town as a whole. Another way is the 

creation of a city-wide volunteer centre. 

– Inter-city volunteerism: this is important not only to support 

the development of poorer settlements, but also to create 

a broader sense of solidarity among people who live in 

different localities. UNV has promoted schemes of 

co-operation between local authorities, as well as inter-city 

corporate volunteerism. 

Page 31 

– New forms of volunteerism: UNV also strives to keep abreast 

with innovations in the field of volunteerism. One recent 

example is corporate volunteerism, which challenges the 

traditional view that volunteerism happens only via civil 

society organizations. Another example is the use of 

information technology (on-line volunteering). Further forms 

of volunteering are also taking shape. One of the most 

interesting is service credit, or time-dollar schemes, in 

which people who take part in voluntary activity are ‘paid’ in 

time donated by other volunteers. Advocates for such 

schemes point to their value in building social capital and in 

challenging traditional stereotypes of volunteering as charity 

by the explicit emphasis on exchange and reciprocity. All 

these forms of volunteerism have a role to play in urban 

development. 

The aforementioned actions are carried out through different 

means. In some cases, they take place directly via support from 

UNV Headquarters and in others via UNV Programme Officers 

stationed in the field. Some examples of such actions are: 

building partnerships, linking donors and local volunteer groups, 

connecting two different groups which want to establish an 

alliance based on voluntary exchanges, disseminating 

information about volunteerism, conducting awareness raising 

campaigns, etc. 

In other cases, the activities included in this first component of 

UNV’s urban agenda are often linked to the second component 

(based on the work of the UN Volunteers). For example, UN 

Volunteers directly build the capacity of and provide technical 

assistance to volunteer organizations in the field. In such cases, 

the outputs are enhanced because such initiatives benefit from 

the increased synergy accruing from volunteer-to-volunteer cooperation. 

A detailed view of the work of the UN Volunteers is 

presented below. 

3.2. The Mobilization of UN Volunteers 

The second component of UNV’s urban agenda is based on 

the ‘service to others’ type of volunteerism. It entails the use of 

the comparative advantage of the UN Volunteers providing an 

added value in international co-operation for urban development. 

Such ‘service to others’ work of the UN Volunteers has been 

instrumental not only in supporting ‘pure’ volunteer activities




PART II – 



PART II – 



Page 32 

(explained above), but also in providing volunteer component 

of broader initiatives, for instance, in supporting government 

gencies and the development of the private sector in the South. 

Selected attributes of the UN Volunteers to carry out urbanrelated 

work 

– Outreach work at the urban grassroots: human resources, 

labour-intensity, long term presence: overall, grassroots 

work is highly labour-intensive – as it entails long-term, dayto-day, 

face-to-face activities. According to Moser (1993), 

who studied and wrote widely on urban community work, 

the key component in such work is professionally trained 

staff to assist the communities in developing their own 

projects. According to her, ‘resources (other than human) 

to start these projects are often of secondary importance – 

especially because many of such projects, initiated or 

supported by civil society organizations, recognize the need 

to encourage self-reliant development without dependency. 

Consequently, project funds were most frequently spent 

not on physical infrastructural materials, but on the fielding 

of professionally-trained staff to assist the community in 

developing their projects.’ This clearly highlights the 

relevance of UNV’s contribution. 

Within the UN System, UNV is becoming known as an 

‘outreach’ agency, since the UN Volunteers often work 

directly with communities, fostering local participatory 

approaches to sustainable development. This ‘field 

perspective’ shapes the character of UNV’s work, 

emphasizing the kind of projects/programmes that can 

show direct impact down to the community level. At times, 

UN Volunteers also live in the communities with which they 

work, thus experiencing their problems first-hand as well 

as identifying strengths and mobilizing indigenous resources. 

UNV is able to carry out outreach activities during extensive 

periods of time (considering, for instance, the extent of the 

assignments of the UN Volunteers); thus ensuring an in-depth 

contribution to the communities. 

– Broad scope of action and flexibility: problems and needs 

vary widely from city to city, and within cities. Therefore, 

broad scope of action and flexibility allow UNV to offer 

tailor-made responses to each specific situation and to 

adapt to many different circumstances. Universality in 

Page 33 

selection and placement is a distinguishing characteristic of 

the programme. For instance, during the period 1971–2001, 

more than 16,000 UN Volunteers from some 140 nations 

have worked in an equal number of countries. Such a 

diversity allows UNV to support a broad scope of initiatives 

in many different sectors of activity and geographic regions. 

The UN Volunteers are recruited on the basis of specific 

needs and post descriptions in the light of the blend of 

qualifications, skills and experience sought. They are people 

from different age groups, from mid-20s to over 60 years 

old. The average age of the UN Volunteers is 39. They are 

recruited from both developing and industrialized countries. 

There are more than 4,000 candidates on the UNV roster, 

in some 110 professional categories. 

There is also a variety of types of UN Volunteers. A given 

project can be supported by the most appropriate 

combination of profiles of UN Volunteers, including: 

- International and national UN Volunteers Specialists: They 

are university graduates with considerable professional 

experience in many different fields. Also, the use of 

national volunteers has the added advantage of building 

local capacity through on-the-job training. 

- International and national UNV Field Workers: Majority 

of them drawn from local communities for their active 

leadership profiles. They contribute as UN Volunteers 

through their inside/personal knowledge of grassroots 

communities. 

- UNV advisors recruited under two special programmes, 

TOKTEN (returning professionals to serve on short-term 

assignments) and UNISTAR (short-term advisory services, 

mainly in business development activities), as well as 

short-term specialists (especially in situations of conflict). 

- On-line services: In addition to mobilizing people to work 

directly in the field (‘on-site’ UN Volunteers), UNV is now 

also mobilizing volunteers who cannot travel to the field 

but can work from home using information and 

communication technology.




PART II – 



PART II – 



Page 34 

- Mixed teams: often different types of UN Volunteers work 

together in one project. This mixed team approach provides 

the necessary combination of skills in a given project, and 

allows the UN Volunteers to learn from each other and to 

enhance the effectiveness of the project. 

- Special characteristics: UNV makes a continuous effort to 

design and provide innovative approaches. One illustration 

is the use of what could be called ‘mirror volunteers’, 

volunteers who have experienced a problem/need similar 

to that of the target population of a given project. For 

example, the use of local government volunteers. UNV 

offers its administrative apparatus to facilitate the fielding 

of public officers from the local government of a given city 

to travel to another city to provide assistance to their 

counterparts there. 

Mirror volunteers may also be used to empower excluded 

groups. For example, the use of disabled UN Volunteers 

in a project which aims to increase the socio-economic 

opportunities of a group of disabled people. Another 

initiative of UNV in this front is the use of HIV-infected 

patients as UN Volunteers in a project targeting HIV-AIDS. 

The use of mirror volunteers in a given project provides a 

unique added-value that can only be achieved through the 

personal interaction between people who have 

experienced the same problem or need. In addition, the 

granting of UNV status to people such as the disabled 

and HIV-AIDS patients conveys a powerful symbolic 

message, i.e. that the U.N. recognizes the capacity of 

people that society often excludes. 

– Neutrality/impartiality: The existence of internal differences 

within and between urban communities and between 

different urban stakeholders often lead to conflicts. This 

highlights the value of another attribute of UNV. Being part 

of the UN system, UNV operates under the principles of 

both neutrality and impartiality in situations of conflict and 

of potential conflict among stakeholders. This helps in 

reducing a programme’s vulnerability to internal political 

pressures and in mediating between stakeholders in a 

given project/programme. 

Page 35 

– Speed of technical response: emergency situations 

constitute a sad and constant feature of many cities and 

towns in developing countries – taking into consideration 

that the urban poor live in precarious conditions (housing 

built with deficient materials and in hazardous settings, lack 

of food security, rise in urban violence, etc). When grassroots 

organizations need help from international agencies, the 

existence of intermediaries between the two often delays 

the process. Bearing this in mind, the unique combination 

of working at the grassroots level while being directly linked 

to the international system allows UNV to tap directly and 

constantly from the informational and technical apparatus of 

the UN, hence delivering fresh and quick technical 

responses to emerging problems in the field, whenever 

required. 

– Voluntary ethos: the UN Volunteers are able to use the above 

attributes in association with their voluntary ethos, which, 

as noted throughout in this paper, brings benefits of its own. 

– Human resources (volunteers) management: UNV can 

relieve other organizations from the complex process of 

managing human resources, i.e identifying, contracting, 

placing, administering and monitoring volunteers anywhere 

in the world. There are some 70 UNV Programme Officers 

in more than 60 countries, dedicated to managing the work 

of the volunteers in the field, and identifying opportunities 

for UNV. Over the years UNV has developed stable, proven 

procedures (including standard ‘Conditions of Service’) to 

manage and co-ordinate volunteer operations globally. 

A case for sustainability 

As in the case of any other form of external/international 

assistance, attention should be paid to the sustainability of 

the actions of the UN Volunteers. Therefore, their interventions 

are designed with such a concern in mind. In this regard, it is 

important to note that it is not only possible to achieve this 

objective, but in many cases the very work of the UN Volunteers 

becomes the agent of sustainability. Because, in many circumstances, 

the sustainability of development projects is consolidated 

through long-term work at the grassroots, i.e. exactly the type 

of work carried out by the UN Volunteers. The next section will 

present a selected number of concrete activities of UNV, 

through which the aforementioned attributes are realized.




PART II – 



PART II – 



Page 36 

Selected types of contributions of UN Volunteers in urban 

related work 

– Organisational/institutional strengthening: as noted in a 

previous publication produced by UNV (1995: 45): ‘In 

most cases… external catalysing agents play an important 

role in initiating and consolidating the development process 

[of communities], or accelerating what otherwise would 

have taken much longer to evolve’. An important part of 

such work concerns the strengthening of grassroots 

organizations, such as CBOs (community-based organiza 

tions). These organizations have played a crucial role in the 

development of urban communities – e.g. by constituting a 

forum for each community to get together, organize itself 

and strengthen its social cohesion/capital; by representing 

the whole community vis-à-vis the government and other 

external actors, by catalysing external support, etc. 

However, such organizations have problems of their 

own. While they are generally spontaneously formed, 

without technical planning or managerial backing, they often 

end up carrying out significant institutional tasks. A large 

number of urban communities have thousands of members, 

sometimes even hundreds of thousands (such as the Tondo 

in Manila, Rocinha in Rio, among others). In such cases, the 

tasks – and challenges – of urban grassroots organizations 

are often closer to those of local government – at least in 

terms of being a representative of the local population, 

fighting for them along with other stakeholders and bringing 

in external resources. The difference is that local governmental 

institutions are planned from the outset, and receive 

managerial and technical support of various types and 

sources. However, in order to be maximally effective, these 

urban grassroots organizations often need support of 

varying nature. Like other types of sizeable organizations, 

they need a proper institutional design, and a plan of action 

for proper institutional functioning. The role played and tasks 

undertaken by the CBO’s directly benefit from the interactive 

attributes of UN Volunteers, such as: (i) ability to do 

labour-intensive work, (ii) long term involvement, (iii) broad 

scope of action (to address the range of institutional needs 

throughout the world), (iv) flexibility (to address the 

differences within and between grassroots organizations), 

(v) neutrality (to deal with heterogeneous communities) and 

(vi) volunteerism (to enhance the voluntary ethos of such 

Page 37 

organizations). Beside CBOs, other organizations such as 

local NGOs and even local government authorities often 

need the same type of support, and therefore may benefit 

from UNV’s inputs. 

– Managerial capacity-building: the aforementioned institutions 

often lack managerial skills to deal with many day-to-day 

hurdles or to incorporate the institutional changes noted 

above. Capacity-building constitutes another type of task 

which would gain from the unified effect of some of the 

characteristics of the UN Volunteers, i.e. (i) labour-intensive, 

(ii) long term work, (iii) flexibility (to address differences 

within and between organizations); (iv) volunteerism (to 

secure more intense interpersonal connection and synergism, 

especially in the case of voluntary organizations). Another 

route to capacity-building is the substantive involvement of 

national UN Volunteers, who learn through on-the-job 

training during the execution of the project(s). 

– Technical capacity-building: the aforementioned institutions 

also have deficiencies in technical staff (accountants, information 

agents, fund-raisers, among many others), therefore 

require training schemes. Also, many urban communities 

have a considerable number of people working in the same 

professional field (e.g. fishermen, bricklayers, rickshaw 

drivers, domestic servants, etc.), a fact which could justify 

the establishment of a training scheme in such a field. This 

type of task is similar to the previous one, therefore would 

also benefit from UNV’s inputs. 

– Community animation/orientation: most urban community 

members are not aware of their rights and opportunities in 

the city – due to illiteracy and/or recent migration – therefore 

do not benefit from them. In addition, newcomers are often 

not aware of the risks and challenges of urban life. Such a 

situation reveals the importance of a professional who raises 

the awareness, among the community members, of their 

rights and orients them in respect of the risks and challenges 

as well as the opportunities and the benefits of urban living. 

This constitutes another type of assignment which matches 

UNV’s forte, as it has to be carried out within the communities 

on a day-to-day, face-to-face basis over extensive periods of 

time. The field worker (Section 1) is one type of UN 

Volunteer that would be particularly appropriate for such an




PART II – 



PART II – 



Page 38 

assignment. Field workers are community members themselves, 

who could therefore well convey their experience in 

the city to their less knowledgeable/prepared counterparts. 

– Participatory work: the utmost importance of social 

cohesion/capital has already been noted in this publication. 

It suffices to say that participatory work is at the heart of 

the process of construction of social cohesion/capital. 

External support to carry out this type of work is of utmost 

importance because: (i) participatory processes are often 

more difficult to build in cities due to the hurdles of urban 

life (less time to do the ground work necessary to start the 

process) and due to the heterogeneity of the communities 

(lack of a common ethnic-cultural background); (ii) 

community participation was (sometimes still is) politically 

repressed in a number of countries; (iii) some cultures do 

not have a strong tradition of participatory work. The role 

and importance of UNV in the construction of social 

cohesion/capital was noted before in this paper. The same 

applies, by association, to participatory work. 

– Mediation between local stakeholders: the current worldwide 

attention on (urban) governance has already been noted. 

Urban governance concerns the relationship between local 

authorities and civil society, entailing negotiations and joint 

ventures between different local stakeholders. It may be 

seen as a participatory process at the city level. Therefore, 

it would benefit from the type of work described above. It is 

also worth noting that the neutrality/impartiality of the UN 

Volunteers may be particularly valuable in such a context of 

mediation. There are of course qualitative differences 

between the construction of a participatory process within 

a community, and the construction of a governance process 

within a city. The type of professional required for each task 

is therefore different. 

Page 39 

from professionals who could establish the initial links and 

start up the whole process. 

– Technical assistance: although external technical assistance 

has been criticized for not being sustainable, it is still vital 

particularly in least developed countries and/or in situations 

of emergency. Under such circumstances, technical 

assistance may be pivotal for development and many times 

(such as in emergencies) even a matter of life and death. 

There is a wide range of technical activities – especially at 

the grassroots – which would benefit from the interactiveness 

of the attributes of the UN Volunteers, as they are labourintensive, 

volunteer-oriented, long term activities (for example, 

the whole range of mutual self-help construction work). Also, 

technical assistance can indeed be combined with capacitybuilding, 

a fact which would reinforce the sustainability of 

the activities. 

In short, this section has presented selected types of contributions 

of UN Volunteers to urban development – without 

pretending to have exhausted all possibilities. Rather than overlapping 

with or duplicating efforts of other development agencies, 

UNV is able to offer a unique contribution. Next, UNV’s 

specific contribution in the different sectors of urban development 

will be elaborated, with concrete examples. 

– Mobilization of resources: in several instances, urban projects 

require external resources, as cities and their communities 

are often not self-sufficient in everything – especially in such 

globalized times of increasing interdependence. However, it 

is precisely the most resourceful cities and communities 

which have the means (skills, contacts, communication 

technology, etc.) to obtain further resources. The poorest 

settlements lack such means. Therefore, they would benefit




PART II – 


PART II – 


Thematic view and illustrations 

Page 40 

Page 41 

4. Thematic view and illustrations 

There are different ways to disaggregate the complex and 

multisectoral field of urban development. In this paper, this field 

will be divided into five broad domains (which are not mutually 

exclusive): political & institutional, social, economic, physical 

and cultural. 

UNV has acted in all these domains through the two components 

of its urban agenda i.e. promotion and support to the different 

types of volunteerism, and the mobilisation of UN Volunteers. 

4.1. The political & institutional domain 

Municipal management 

The roles of local and municipal authorities in developing 

countries are changing fast, due to several facts which may 

occur independently or concomitantly in a given city or town, 

for instance: 

– The process of privatisation of public services in the urban 

areas: it is wrong to say that this process entails only a 

transfer of activities and responsibilities from the public to 

the private sector (which could lead to the conclusion that 

the role of the public sector would become ‘easier’). This 

process entails a change of roles in the public sector, and 

some of the new roles may be much more complex and 

difficult than the previous ones, for example the public 

regulation of an expanding number of private enterprises, 

new systems of a public-private mix (subcontracting, 

bidding, franchising, etc.). 

– The process of democratisation, which includes community 

participation and governance building: this process also 

entails roles for local authorities (vis-à-vis the civil society) 

which are very different from traditional roles such as 

paternalistic administration, clientelism, let alone non-democratic 

administration (e.g. unelected mayors ). 

– The process of political-administrative devolution, which 

transfers roles and responsibilities from upper layers of the 

government to the local authorities. 

A -------------------------------------------- 

Volunteer support to the 

Municipalities’ Association of 

Nepal 

---------------------------------------------- 

MuAN (Municipalities Association 

of Nepal) is an umbrella 

organisation, which represents 

all the municipalities in the 

country. Its current and planned 

duties include advocacy, facilitation, 

resource mobilisation, and 

technical assistance in specific 

fields. The UNV role in this 

project is to strengthen MuAN’s 

capacity. 

Support to address MuAN’s 

constraints requires activities 

which match UNV’s strengths. 

These activities include institutional 

re-organisation, managerial 

and technical capacity building, 

and mediation between stakeholders. 

Such activities fit into 

the UNV preferred pattern of 

labour-intensive, outreach, longterm 

work, and neutrality/impartiality. 

Also, the fact that the 

project is linked to an umbrella 

organisation responsible for all 

municipalities provides a unique 

opportunity for the UN Volunteers 

to promote and strengthen 

volunteerism at the urban level 

throughout the whole country 

through (I) advice to policymaking, 

(II) direct contacts with 

local authorities, and (III) demonstration 

activities in partnership 

with civil society organisations. 

The project was formulated in 

partnership with MuAN, UNDP 

Nepal and GTZ. The project 

lasts for 3 years, and concludes 

with a ‘phasing-out’ period during 

which the UNV team will just be 

monitoring the activities of the 

local staff, who will be in full 

control of the day-to-day operations, 

and will also be involved 

in the formulation of activities to 

be implemented after the end of 

the project. This will ensure 

sustainability. The local partners 

also will contribute in kind and/or 

in cash for the execution of the 

demonstration activities included 

in the project. In addition, all 

local authorities already contribute 

to MuAN. These facts not only 

guarantee the commitment of 

such partners, but also illustrate 

evidence of the existence of 

local resources — which can be 

used after the termination of the 

project. Finally, the project is 

designed in such a way that 

MuAN takes full ownership of it. 

The leadership of MuAN will be 

supported and strengthened by 

the project. 

– The process of globalisation: local authorities increasingly 

need to adapt themselves to respond to changes and 

challenges accruing from the rapidly moving international 

milieu, which affect the local level. 

A large number of local governments in developing countries 

face strong difficulties in coping with such an overwhelming 

wave of changes, and would benefit from types of UNV 

assistance noted in the previous section, such as institutional 

strengthening, capacity building, resource mobilisation and 

technical assistance. UNV has a growing portfolio of projects 

in this area in different parts of the world. One example is the 

on-going project in Nepal, illustrated in text A.




PART II – 



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Page 42 

Page 43 

City-to-city co-operation 

UNV is also supporting municipal management by way of cityto-city 

co-operation. 

A large number of cities from industrialised countries have 

established programmes of direct assistance to cities from 

developing countries. A number of cities in the developing 

world itself are also engaged in similar activities to support 

their counterparts in need. Such co-operation between cities 

is already a noticeable fact, with hundreds of ‘donor’ cities at 

work. This has been increasingly noted in the technical as well 

as academic literature on development, which already coined 

terms to refer to this widespread phenomenon: ‘city-to-city cooperation’, 

‘local level co-operation’ or ‘decentralised co-operation’. 

In addition, considering the widespread global trend of politicaladministrative 

devolution of power, municipal governments are 

likely to gain even more autonomy from central governments. 

This means that city-to-city co-operation is likely to grow even 

more. 

City-to-city support is significant to a large number of local 

authorities. The roles of such authorities throughout developing 

and transitional countries are changing fast, due to several facts 

already described in this paper. These changes have imposed 

extra burdens on municipalities. 

International assistance to municipalities has not been able to 

address their limitations and accommodate the changes properly. 

One difficulty — widely heralded by local stakeholders – is that 

multilateral or bilateral aid often (or forcibly) comes via central 

government authorities. This fact delays or severely cuts down 

the aid to the targeted municipalities. This is due to inefficient 

administration of central government staff, malfeasance and/or 

boycott (e.g. when a local authority is from an opposition party). 

In this context, city-to-city co-operation plays a significant role, 

as it can provide direct support to local governments. 

There is also an alternative argument justifying the inefficiency 

of international assistance to municipalities. It does not focus 

on the possible problems of central government authorities, but 

on the simple fact that the needs of municipalities are just 

enormous, vis-à-vis the limited resources of the multilateral and 

bilateral agencies. Also, in this alternate scenario, the importance 

of city-to-city co-operation surfaces. The resources of donor 

B -------------------------------------------- 

Enhancing volunteerism in cityto-city 

co-operation in different 

parts of the world 

----------------------------------------------- 

UNV has an on-going project 

with IULA (International Union of 

Local Authorities), which includes 

two components. The first 

component consists of support 

to two IULA regional offices for 

the establishment of a campaign 

to mobilise donor cities, and the 

establishment of a database to 

match supply and demand for 

city-to-city cooperation. The 

second component focuses on 

the support to a number of 

individual initiatives of city-tocity 

co-operation in different 

parts of the world (the initiatives 

are selected by IULA). Overall, 

the project promotes and 

fosters solidarity between local 

governments. 

C -------------------------------------------- 

Volunteer support to urban 

governance in Port Harcourt 

(Nigeria) with a focus on children 

----------------------------------------------- 

UNV has provided support to the 

implementation of the Child 

Friendly Cities Initiative in Port 

Harcourt, Nigeria. Child Friendly 

Cities is a global initiative of 

UNICEF, and is currently being 

launched in a number of 

countries. It is based on an 

integrated approach to urban 

development where all local 

stakeholders are encouraged to 

form partnerships to defend the 

rights and address the needs of 

the urban children, especially 

cities are often independent of those of other international 

donors, which means that they constitute an added-value in 

such a context. 

City-to-city co-operation is related to UNV’s framework of action 

because it entails volunteerism and solidarity among local 

governments. It includes the work of experts funded by and 

sent from one city to another. Therefore, it constitutes an innovative 

type of volunteerism: ‘local government volunteers’. 

The importance of UNV’s support to city-to-city co-operation 

comes from the fact that the missions of the experts from the 

donor cities often represent an extra burden to their local 

governments. This is because they entail many procedures, 

which are not part of the day-to-day business of local authorities: 

that is, administrating the trip and taking care of experts overseas. 

These procedures are part of UNV’s day-to-day business. 

Therefore, UNV’s support in this field increases the efficiency 

of the programmes of the cities which already send their experts, 

and, at the same time, provides an opportunity for new cities 

which do not have the means to do it on their own. UNV is 

open to work with individual cities, and at the same time, it has 

developed a broader initiative with IULA (International Union of 

Local Authorities) (see text B). 

Urban governance 

The growing importance of urban governance has been noted 

in this publication. In many instances, local stakeholders do not 

have the collective skills to start such a process naturally, due 

to lack of tradition or due to a history of repression. Also, in 

many circumstances, the construction of links between local 

stakeholders is pre-empted by conflicting interests. These facts 

underline the importance of UNV mediators at least in the initial 

stages of the process, plus participatory work. 

It is also important to recall the role that volunteerism plays in 

the formation of social cohesion, already mentioned. 

Considering that governance entails relationships between 

public authorities and civil society, it greatly depends upon the 

establishment of strong cohesion between the stakeholders. 

UNV has implemented a number of projects, which relate to 

urban governance in different ways. Some of them concentrate 

on specific problems or needs, and build a governance process




PART II – 



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Page 44 

between local authorities and local communities with a focus 

on addressing their problems and needs. Examples include the 

support to urban environment improvement in N’djamena (Chad) 

and Dakar (Senegal), public services to markets in Tema (Ghana) 

and children’s issues in Port Harcourt (Nigeria). Other projects 

include an urban component as part of a broader governance 

initiative (e.g. in Kyrgyzstan, Burkina Faso and The Gambia). 

Text C and text D illustrations given below briefly describe the 

projects which build processes of urban governance around 

the solution of specific needs, i.e. children’s issues in Port 

Harcourt, and municipal taxes in Tema. Text D also illustrates 

more explicitly the connection between volunteerism and social 

cohesion. Text E illustrates one project in which urban 

governance is part of a broader initiative, i.e. decentralisation in 

Kyrgyzstan. 

the poor and most disadvantaged. 

The efforts of all local stakeholders 

are centred on an axis 

linking community-based organisations 

and local government 

authorities. The specific activities 

of the initiative to be implemented 

in a given city are designed and 

gathered under the framework 

of a Local Plan of Action. 

The UNV project aims to anchor 

the Child Friendly Cities Initiative 

with the key local partners in 

the municipality of Port Harcourt, 

Nigeria. UNV has fielded a team 

constituted by two specialists 

and ten field workers. The UN 

Volunteer specialists have trained 

the staff of the governmental 

agencies on the Child Friendly 

Cities concept, reinforced the 

connections between the local 

government and the local 

communities, and co-ordinated 

at the local level the implementation 

of the Plan of Action. The 

field workers have strengthened 

the participation of the community 

in the implementation of the 

Plan of Action. 

The project has also started to 

produce concrete benefits for 

the communities targeted such 

as improved sanitary facilities 

and a health centre that have 

been made possible through the 

participation of the UN Volunteers. 

Water sources have also been 

improved by applying modern 

and durable building methods. 

This ensures that the communities 

are able to draw water from 

Page 45 

safe and sanitary sources thus 

ensuring better health conditions 

among the inhabitants. A particular 

area of great advantage is 

the building of a staircase in the 

Enugu Waterfront Community. It 

appears that before the staircase 

was constructed, many of the 

children and elderly were constantly 

hurt and displayed broken 

limbs as a result of having to 

jump from one side to the other. 

However, since its construction, 

the injuries have been greatly 

reduced to almost none. 

D -------------------------------------------- 

Social cohesion and volunteering: 

the construction of a process of 

governance involving taxpayers 

and local authorities in Tema 

(Ghana). 

----------------------------------------------- 

The project addresses causes 

of the shortcomings in the municipal 

system of collection and 

management of taxes. These 

shortcomings constitute a serious 

and recurring problem in Tema 

and in many other cities. They 

have a direct effect on the 

capability of the local governments 

to provide the urban infrastructure 

and services, and, 

consequently, to foster the local 

economy and to guarantee a 

minimum standard of living for 

the urban populations. There is 

widespread non payment of 

taxes, a problem which is fundamentally 

related to lack of social 

cohesion and confidence. Taxpayers 

do not trust local authorities 

regarding the management 

of the taxes collected. 

In this project, UNV therefore 

works with taxpayers and the 

local authorities to bring about 

a civic process to build trust 

and strengthen cohesion. The 

project also builds technical 

capacity within the local government. 

The project is based on 

the specific attributes of the UN 

Volunteers – outreach and grassroots 

work. Their neutrality, trustworthiness 

and solidarity are 

fundamental to brokering between 

stakeholders and to building 

their mutual confidence. The 

project is being implemented in 

partnership with the UMP 

(Urban Management Programme). 

The UMP contributes with 

technical supervision and backstopping 

of the UN Volunteers 

and with specific studies of 

municipal revenue systems. 

E -------------------------------------------- 

Volunteer support to 

decentralisation in Kyrgystan 

----------------------------------------------- 

This project is under the directive 

of UNDP. UN Volunteers in the 

country live in small urban settlements 

and in rural districts to 

assist communities in planning 

and carrying out development 

projects. The project reaches 

1,000,000 inhabitants. 

Mixed teams of 20 international 

and national UN Volunteers 

working as regional advisors, 

local development officials and 

fieldworkers form the outreach 

arm of the project. They get the 

people involved through local 

organisations to improve access 

to information and drum up 

funds for community projects. In 

one small municipality, for 

example, UNVs helped form 21 

organisations. 

Responses from three separate 

districts report that the benefits 

of such UNV intervention are 

manifest in the areas of capacity 

building, providing training skills 

through participatory methods, 

involving women in leadership 

and decentralisation.




PART II – 



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Page 46 

Volunteer organisations 

Volunteer organisations are surely of major importance in UNV’s 

urban agenda. A large part of the first component of this agenda 

– support and promotion of the different forms of volunteerism 

– is realised through working with such organisations, e.g. selfhelp 

groups, advocacy groups, service-to-other groups and 

others. The work of many UN Volunteers (second component 

of the agenda) also entails support to such types of groups. 

This publication highlighted that volunteer organisations based 

in urban areas have problems of their own, therefore benefiting 

from UNV support in areas such as institutional strengthening, 

capacity building, resource mobilisation and technical assistance. 

The outputs of the activities are enhanced because they 

benefit from the increased synergy accruing from volunteer-tovolunteer 

co-operation. 

Text F, G and H below exemplify different types of projects. In 

the first one UNV supports urban grassroots communities to 

strengthen their skills in the self-help and participation types 

of volunteerism. Text G describes a project in which UNV 

supports the creation of a university volunteer scheme 

to work on the reconstruction of settlements. Text H illustrates 

the assistance to volunteer groups which are formally involved 

in local government. 

F -------------------------------------------- 

Volunteer support to strengthen 

urban communities in Costa 

Rica and Honduras 

----------------------------------------------- 

This project entails supporting 

the implementation of urban 

community centres which were 

established with the support of 

UNCHS (Habitat). The centres 

are owned and managed by a 

local community-based organization, 

and aim at providing lowincome 

people better access to 

services/resources such as 

advice to local businesses, promotion 

of local products, job 

information, community loans. 

The implementation of the 

centres entails in-depth and 

long-term work with and within 

local communities. This implies 

not only co-ordinating the 

activities, but also setting in 

motion a process of capacity 

building and community 

strengthening, which ultimately 

guarantees the sustainability of 

the actions. Consequently the 

need for establishing the 

centres has been identified as 

an appropriate niche for UNV to 

intervene. UNV is constituted in 

such a way as to be able to 

carry out in-depth, outreach and 

capacity-building activities at 

the grassroots level, working 

with(in) local communities for 

long periods of time. 

G -------------------------------------------- 

The establishment of a 

university volunteers service to 

Page 47 

support the reconstruction of 

settlements in Nicaragua 

----------------------------------------------- 

This project is linked to a 

UNDP/UNCHS (Habitat) 

programme, which supports the 

development of outreach settlements 

in the aftermath of Hurricane 

Mitch. The UNV project 

contributes to anchoring the 

overall programme at the local 

level. 

The project builds upon the cooperation 

between UNV and 

two national universities in the 

context of a University Volunteer 

Service (UVS). Nicaraguan 

graduates support the field 

activities of the aforementioned 

programme and therefore not 

only contribute to the development 

of outreach settlements 

but also receive practical training. 

Their experiences are 

documented and used as learning 

material in the universities. 

In order to strengthen and 

formalise existing experiments 

of university volunteering, one 

UN Volunteer works directly 

with the universities, thus ensuring 

the sustainable design of the 

scheme. 

Altogether, the project promotes 

volunteerism among recently 

graduated professionals and 

community members in 

Nicaragua through activities 

related to urban areas. Ultimately, 

the inhabitants of the selected 

outreach settlements will 

benefit from this initiative and at 

the same time, the new 

professionals will profit from it 

in terms of personal and 

professional development. 

H -------------------------------------------- 

Volunteerism as a pillar of urban 

management in Bhutan 

----------------------------------------------- 

Starting in June 2000, a 

Volunteer Action Group (VAG) 

in each ward of Phuentsholing 

City in Bhutan meets at least 

once a month. Composed of 

residents and business owners 

interested in the welfare of their 

community and dedicated to 

improving overall life in 

Phuentsholing, the VAG can 

bring up any issue, from parking 

problems to waste disposal, 

with the PCC (Phuentsholing 

City Council). By creating 

pressure groups out of 

volunteers, PCC hopes to make 

its operations more accountable 

and responsive. The VAG 

depends on concerned residents 

who receive no compensation, 

yet are willing to give up their 

time for the welfare of their 

community. The scheme is supported 

by UNV and by VSO 

(the British volunteer-sending 

agency). 

Using a map devised by the 

surveyors, PCC has divided 

Phuentsholing into 15 wards, 

each of which has a VAG 

composed of 5–10 community 

volunteers nominated by the 

Ward Community. 

The volunteers, according to 

PCC VAG Guidelines, ‘should 

be driven by the desire to 

improve the environment of the 

Community as a whole. ‘ A 

PCC employee in each ward 

serves as a Ward in Charge, a 

liaison between the ward and 

PCC. The Ward-in-Charge 

relays the concerns brought up 

in the VAG meetings to PCC 

and ensures that PCC responds 

with some type of action. For 

example, the VAG may complain 

that residents repeatedly litter 

the community areas. The Ward 

in Charge informs PCC, which 

decides to authorize the VAG to 

issue fines to persistent litterbugs. 

Or the VAG may decide 

to act on its own and initiate an 

anti-littering campaign. Or PCC 

may decide to empty rubbish 

pits more often. The options are 

unlimited. The immediate purpose 

is communication and 

participation, mainly regarding 

sanitation, but the VAG can 

bring up any issue they like. 

School crossings, safety, and 

security – there’s no limit. By 

encouraging volunteers throughout 

Phuentsholing to participate 

in city planning, the VAG will 

give every resident and business 

a stake in the future of the city. 

The forging of a communal spirit 

can also improve the social 

cohesion of Phuentsholing.




PART II – 



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Page 48 

Page 49 

4.2. The social domain 

There is a whole set of social problems, which occur predominantly 

in urban areas. Largely they are derived from stressors 

related to urbanisation such as overcrowding, pollution, longdistance 

commuting in precarious circumstances, lack of sociocultural 

bonds, lack of access to basic services, etc. A selected 

number of social problems related to urbanization are discussed 

below. 

Abandoned children 

While this is an overwhelming – and continuously expanding – 

problem in urban settlements throughout the developing world, 

it seldom happens in rural areas. It is clearly connected to the 

urbanization process, and often takes place due to the breakdown 

of family bonds (associated with the loss of ethniccultural 

bonds in cities and/or to other effects of the pressures 

of urban living). Even when (low-income) families do not fall 

apart, the adults cannot frequently take proper care of the 

children — again due to urban pressures: stress and/or need to 

stay away from home to make a living (e.g. Werna et al., 1999). 

Solving this problem clearly requires preventive action, which 

in turn entails direct, long-term work with low-income families 

and communities, and with children at risk. This shows the 

advantages of UNV’s roles in tasks such as community animation 

and orientation, participatory work, income generation and 

grassroots technical assistance (psychologists, councillors and 

social assistants). 

In parallel to the above, curative actions are also necessary to 

assist the large numbers of children who are already on the 

streets. Again, direct, long-term work — in this case with the 

abandoned children themselves — is absolutely required to help 

this particular group which consists of often psychologically 

traumatized individuals, who are exposed to problems such as 

discrimination, homelessness, malnutrition, drug-taking, infections 

diseases, prostitution, crime and violence. Thus, UNV’s grassroots 

technical assistance is of primary importance (i.e. 

professionals working directly with the children). It is worth 

re-emphasising the importance of UNV’s volunteer ethos. The 

spirit of solidarity transmitted through voluntary work is crucial 

to build trust and confidence in such children in especially 

difficult circumstances. 

I -------------------------------------------- 

Volunteer support to street 

children in Latin America 

----------------------------------------------- 

Street children in Tegucigalpa, 

Honduras and Managua, 

Nicaragua have been piloting 

their own solutions to problems 

of exclusion, glue-sniffing and 

precarious income earning for 

themselves and their families 

with the help of UN Volunteers 

whose assignments were 

funded by the Government of 

Belgium. 

In other countries such as 

Ecuador and Brazil, UN 

Volunteers helped street children 

by providing training in handicrafts, 

introducing teenagers to 

potential employers and teaching 

language skills. 

In addition to the above ‘handson’ 

activities, street children in 

Latin America have also been 

supported through broader 

initiatives. For example, UNV is 

currently supporting the governments 

of Central American 

countries to address issues 

about sexual exploitation, child 

labour and unemployment. 

Since early 1999, 21 UN Volunteers 

have been working on 

such regional activities, focusing 

their efforts mainly at the legislative 

level. The UN Volunteers 

have helped to draft laws and 

train judges, lawyers and government 

officials on how to apply 

the Convention on the Rights of 

the Child. 

J -------------------------------------------- 

Volunteer support to 

adolescents involved in law 

violations in Central America 

----------------------------------------------- 

It is a known fact that many 

adolescents who commit minor 

offences are brutally treated by 

law enforcement officers. This 

often contributes not to prevent 

them from repeating the offences, 

but actually force them to climb 

the crime-ladder – as the 

youngsters feel mistreated by 

the official system, and feel that 

the only option is to immerse 

themselves in crime. Considering 

this, within the framework of the 

project related to the Convention 

on the Rights of the Child (see 

text I), UNV has provided 

support to youngsters in trouble 

with the law. 

In parallel, in El Salvador and in 

other Central American countries, 

UN Volunteers go to detention 

centers and meet with hardened 

teenage criminals who have 

been denied their childhood. 

They bring with them their 

UNV can also use the ‘mirror volunteer’ approach to enhance 

the effectiveness of the curative actions. This means using 

ex-street children as UN Volunteers. As highlighted before, this 

approach provides a unique added value that can only be 

achieved through the personal interaction between people 

who have experienced the same problem or need. 

UNV is currently implementing a Child-friendly Cities initiative in 

Port Harcourt, Nigeria (presented in text J). It also implemented 

a similar activity in the Palestine. In addition, UNV has supported 

street children through other types of projects. Text I provides 

examples from Latin America. 

Violence and crime 

High rates of violence already constitute a crucial problem in 

many urban areas in developing countries, and the problem is 

continuously spreading to other cities and towns. The specific 

condition of urban violence is associated with urban features 

such as: 

– Intra-urban differentials: cities and towns are relatively small 

geographical areas, which concentrate high disparities in 

income and standard of living. There is a growing body of 

research which shows how the day-to-day/constant cognitive 

perception of the poor as worse-off than other members of 

society generate behaviour patters which lead to violence 

and crime (see, for instance, Wilkinson 1996 for a review). 

– Lack of social-cultural/family bonds: this already noted 

problem also has an effect on violence and crime (e.g. 

adolescents and young adults who grow up without proper 

family and communitarian support). 

– Anonymity and lack of social control: the fact that everyone 

virtually knows everyone else in a given rural village constitutes 

a deterrent to violent and criminal behaviour, as the 

culprit is easily identifiable. This is not the case in urban 

settlements, due to their much larger populations. 

– Economic vulnerability: as noted before, the urban poor are 

often extremely vulnerable to high prices and changes in 

income; and they do not have the option to fall back to an 

agrarian support system. Therefore, even when a given lowincome 

individual (or group) is not affected by the above




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Page 51 

factors, she/he (they) may resort to crime and violence to 

make a living. 

In order to be effective, projects which address the problems 

of urban violence and crime should include preventive measures 

at the community level. This is where/how social problems may 

be prevented, through bottom-up changes in people’s attitudes 

and responses – which is much more effective than top-down 

repression. This is exactly where UNV’s strength lies (i.e. outreach/grassroots 

work), and therefore UNV’s intervention in 

this area may make a considerable impact. 

UNV’s approach is to work with grassroots organisations to 

design preventive activities such as support to groups at risk 

of becoming criminals (children and adolescents in especially 

difficult circumstances); organisation of neighbourhood watch 

schemes (non-violent; community-based deterrents to violence); 

community/social reinsertion of minor offenders (before they 

escalate the crime-ladder); income-generation alternatives to 

criminal practices. Again, the ‘mirror volunteer’ approach (excriminals 

as UN Volunteers) is highly valuable. Text J provides 

some illustrations of UNV’s activities in Central America. 

Drug-abuse 

Cities and towns concentrate the majority of drug-related 

problems in developing countries, and the connection with 

urbanisation derives from the following: 

– Behavioural pre-conditions for drug-taking in sizeable shares 

of the urban population due to lack of socio-cultural/family 

bonds and livelihood pressures (noted before); 

– Large supply of drugs induced by the existence of concentration 

of people and therefore of large potential 

markets – broader/easier access to drug supply; 

– Anonymity and lack of social control – which makes things 

easier both for the drug dealers and takers. 

UNV has joint activities with UNDCP (United Nations Drug 

Control Programme) in different countries and regions (East 

Africa, Southeast Asia). Text K below illustrates a recently 

completed project in the Caribbean. 

Actions which are crucial and at the same time match UNV’s 

message to the affected adolescents 

and help them come to 

grips with the emptiness and 

despair caused by neglect. 

K -------------------------------------------- 

Volunteer support to reduction 

of drug consumption in the 

Caribbean 

----------------------------------------------- 

This project was conceptualised 

in the context of the Barbados 

Plan of Action, adopted at the 

Regional Meeting on Drug 

Control Co-operation and Coordination 

in the Caribbean, 

Barbados, 1996. The Plan 

comprised 87 recommendations 

in six thematic areas. UNV’s 

project with UNDCP concentrated 

on drug demand reduction 

with national and international 

partners. This choice of focus 

was well in keeping with UNV’s 

mandate, and was in tune with 

a change in international atti- 

tudes towards the drugs issue, 

as reflected in the resolutions of 

a special session of the UN 

General Assembly held 8–10 

June 1998, devoted to the fight 

against illicit drugs. The 

Session developed a forwardlooking 

strategy for the 21st 

Century. It gave high priority to 

‘drug demand reduction’, and 

recognised the significance of 

the need to address fundamental 

issues such as poverty, community 

participation, advocacy. 

In St. Vincent, for example, the 

project provided a UN Volunteer 

counsellor to assist an NGO 

(Marion House) in its role as the 

main organisation in the country 

involved in drug demand reduction 

and rehabilitation work. This 

UN Volunteer has provided 

support to prevention work with 

children and the youth at Marion 

House, counselling for the 

mentally ill at a psychiatric 

hospital and rehabilitation work 

with prisoners. The project also 

included other components in 

Barbados, Dominican Republic 

and Trinidad and Tobago. 

L -------------------------------------------- 

Volunteer support to sex 

workers in Madagascar 

----------------------------------------------- 

The government of Madagascar 

decided to embark on a crusade 

to improve the living standards 

of women. The issues were 

poverty alleviation, HIV-AIDS as 

well as other sexually transmitted 

diseases (STD). UNV has 

comparative advantages include: 

– Prevention: direct, long-term work with families and 

communities (awareness raising, strengthening of social 

and family cohesion, etc) and with individuals at risk. 

– Rehabilitation of drug users: again, direct long-term work – 

this time with the drug users themselves – is utterly necessary 

(e.g. psychologists, councillors, social assistants). It is also 

worth re-emphasising the significance of the solidarity 

transmitted via voluntary work to help heal this traumatised 

group of individuals. The use of mirror volunteers (ex-drug 

addicts) can also be highly effective. 

Prostitution 

Although many of those who face this problem do not come 

from cities or towns (i.e. they are amongst the rural poor), the 

setting of prostitution is often urban. Because of the socially 

disreputable character of this practice, the anonymity and lack 

of social control prevalent in urban areas is very convenient, for 

both prostitutes and clients. Cities and towns also have larger 

potential markets. 

Preventive actions need to be closely associated with 

programmes to combat poverty (both in urban and rural areas).




PART II – 



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They require direct long-term work with families and communities, 

therefore would benefit from UNV’s specific attributes. 

Curative actions with prostitutes also need to be face-to-face, 

labour intensive. Text L shows an example of such curative 

work in Madagascar. Again, the transmission of solidarity via 

voluntary work and the use of mirror volunteers (ex-prostitutes) 

can also add value. 

Health conditions 

There are specific health conditions associated with urban 

areas. Firstly, many infectious diseases, incidence of intoxication 

and accidents derive directly from physical features of 

the urban milieu alone or in association with poverty – e.g. overcrowding, 

particular sources of pollution, heavy traffic, lack of 

proper drainage systems, housing built in hazardous areas. 

Further health conditions derive from psycho-social behaviours 

associated with urban sources of stress. Several mental health 

conditions constitute examples (e.g. Harpham and Blue, 1995). 

The health problems of children derived from lack of proper 

care as a result of lack/loss of socio-cultural bonds constitute 

another illustration (Werna et al. 1999). Infectious diseases 

such as HIV-AIDS are also associated with lifestyles/behaviours 

that are more prevalent in urban areas (e.g. hypodermic use of 

drugs, prostitution, and multiple sexual partners). 

The improvement of health conditions associated with the 

physical features of urban areas requires direct action in such 

a milieu. This will be presented later on (section on ‘the 

physical domain’). In their turn, preventive actions for health 

conditions associated with behaviour require direct, long-term 

work with individuals, families and communities, therefore 

benefiting from UNV’s specific attributes noted in previous 

items. Curative actions also include face-to-face, labour intensive 

work (e.g. treatment of mental patients). Again, solidarity 

transmitted via voluntary work adds significant value to the 

joined in the crusade under the 

umbrella of ILO and UNFPA. A 

UN Volunteer nurse has 

provided training and education 

for the prevention of HIV- 

AIDS/STD and pregnancy. Of 

equal importance, UNV’s involvement 

also tries to give prostitutes 

an income-generation alternative, 

by providing training skills in 

various areas that would allow 

them to escape poverty and 

therefore avoid resorting to 

prostitution as a means to 

obtaining an earning. 

M -------------------------------------------- 

‘Mirror volunteers’: people living 

with HIV-AIDS in Africa and the 

Caribbean 

----------------------------------------------- 

UNV has lent much-needed 

support for HIV/AIDS-stricken 

communities in African and 

Caribbean countries. Because 

most of the UN Volunteers 

come from these regions, and 

some are themselves infected 

with the HIV virus, they 

understand what is needed and 

can deliver culturally sensitive 

assistance at the local level. 

One of the goals is to limit the 

spread of the disease by 

dissemination of information. In 

this respect, awareness 

campaigns are used to reach 

out to target groups through 

peer educators, especially 

working with young population. 

Second, UN Volunteers help 

create networks and support 

groups that can provide 

The fight against illiteracy in urban areas requires specific 

technical solutions. Firstly, the teaching programmes of elemencounselling, 

food and homebased 

care for those who are 

suffering. Third, they help survivors 

whose resources have been 

depleted by the loss of a family 

member. In some places, UN 

Volunteers have helped establish 

small chicken and pig farms, 

procured seeds and tools for 

vegetable gardens, etc. In other 

communities, UN Volunteers are 

teaching carpentry skills to 

orphans, so that they can begin 

to earn a living. 

This project involving UN 

Volunteers living with AIDS has 

targeted Malawi, Zambia, 

Jamaica, Dominican Republic, 

Cuba, Trinidad and Tobago, 

Haiti and Guyana. Similar 

initiatives will soon expand to 

Cambodia, India and French 

speaking African countries. 

N -------------------------------------------- 

‘Mirror volunteers’: the disabled 

in Phnom Pen, Cambodia 

----------------------------------------------- 

One in every 250 Cambodians 

has lost a limb to a landmine; 

countless others have been 

disabled by malnutrition and 

disease. Together they constitute 

one of the most economically 

deprived and socially isolated 

groups in the country. From her 

wheelchair, one energetic UN 

Volunteer has been a dynamic 

force behind the transformation 

of an abandoned building in 

Phnom Penh into a place where 

the disabled can get back to 

work, in spite of physical 

treatment of traumatised people (e.g. mental health patients, 

HIV-AIDS patients.). 

In addition, the existence of a correlation between social 

cohesion and health (explained in the first part of this publication), 

demonstrates further contributions of volunteerism 

to health – i.e. via its role in supporting the establishment or 

reinforcement of networks of social cohesion. 

Text M below depicts one project, which addresses a serious 

health problem that affects urban areas, i.e. HIV-AIDS. This 

project includes the use of mirror volunteers. 

Social Exclusion 

There are many excluded people living in cities and towns in 

developing countries, i.e. the poor in general, or specific groups 

such as the disabled, informal sector workers, street children, 

HIV-AIDS patients, among others. 

One way to support the excluded population is through projects 

which address structural causes of the problem such as illiteracy. 

Although illiteracy is not specifically urban, it has specific and 

harmful effects in urban areas. To say the least, the access of 

the rural poor to basic needs is less dependent on one’s ability 

to read and write – especially in subsistence societies. However, 

it is very difficult and sometimes even impossible for 

illiterate people to live in urban areas, because of the complexity 

of urban production and consumption patterns.




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tary education often focus on aspects of the daily life of the 

students – therefore preparing them to deal with such aspects 

better. Consequently, there should be an urban specificity in 

such programmes. Secondly, the teaching programmes also 

have to be adequate themselves to address the requirements 

of the time- and space-compressed pace of urban living. 

As noted earlier in this publication, one of the main areas of 

activity which match UNV’s attributes is capacity-building (thus 

including teaching), which in turn constitutes the core activity 

of educational programmes. Similar to the case of the other 

issues, UNV’s intervention can be either direct with the target 

beneficiaries or/and through local institutions. 

Other projects which address the causes of the problem include 

confidence building, the generation of income to the excluded 

group, and awareness-raising campaigns to change the discriminatory 

perception about specific groups by the population 

in general . 

The aforementioned types of project can be implemented on 

their own or together with initiatives tailor-made to specific 

groups. Previous side text have included examples with street 

children, HIV-AIDS patients and prostitutes. Text N illustrates 

a case with the disabled. The next section of this publication 

contains an illustration focusing on the informal sector. 

4.3. The economic domain 

Urban settlements include specific types of economic activities. 

Therefore, support to such activities requires particular technical 

solutions. At the same time that the urban economy requires 

macro-level support and policies of integration with the national 

and international systems, it also requires intervention at the 

grassroots. For instance, the urban poor need support in at 

least three main areas: processes of production, regulatory 

framework, and credit. 

Processes of production 

Some industrialized countries are witnessing a certain level of 

economic fusion (and therefore lack of differentiation) between 

urban and rural areas - e.g. people based in the rural areas but 

providing services in cities (telecommuting), factories moving to 

challenges. With its lively café, 

arts and crafts shop and traditional 

massage services offered 

by blind professionals, the 

National Centre for Disabled 

Persons has become a popular 

tourist destination. It is also a 

place where the disabled can 

reclaim their lives, through training 

and employment opportunities 

and by belonging fully to a 

community. 

O -------------------------------------------- 

Support to urban enterprises in 

developing countries through 

corporate volunteerism 

----------------------------------------------- 

Corporate volunteerism is a 

growing trend in the private 

sector. It constitutes a type of 

activity directly linked to UNV’s 

mandate and to its objective of 

promoting volunteerism. So far, 

corporate volunteerism has 

progressed mostly in companies 

based in industrialised countries 

(although a limited number of 

cases in developing countries 

also exist). Corporate volunteerism 

has focused mainly on 

employees working with nearby 

communities. At the same time, 

one of the specialisms of UNV 

is to administer individuals or 

teams of volunteer experts 

working in outreach projects. 

UNV provides the travel arrangements, 

and supports the experts 

in the countries where they 

would work. Therefore, UNV’s 

strategy for partnership in the 

field of corporate volunteerism 

is to offer its added value to 

expand the current employeecommunity 

relations beyond the 

local realm: 

- To support companies from 

industrialised countries to move 

beyond projects in their home 

countries – hence to send their 

employees for projects in 

developing countries. 

- To support companies from 

developing countries to move 

beyond local projects – hence 

to send their employees for 

projects in outreach areas in 

the country and in other 

countries. 

This initiative includes the 

benefits of ‘mirror volunteers’ – 

the countryside, etc. However, in most of the developing world 

(and indeed in many other parts of the industrialized world) 

there is still a sharp division between urban and rural processes 

of production. Cities concentrate services and/or industrial 

production; therefore, the skills required for the urban economy 

are specific. 

Technical assistance and capacity building are fundamental 

in fostering the urban processes of production in developing 

countries: in particular to help the poor establish and develop 

a productive niche in the urban economy. As already noted in 

this paper, UNV has comparative advantages for carrying out 

such activities. Besides the fact that these activities are based 

on labour-intensive, extensive work, they also benefit from other 

attributes of UNV such as flexibility, broad scope of action and 

speed of response. These attributes are especially important in 

addressing the fast pace and constant shifts and challenges of 

the urban economy (e.g. abrupt changes in demand). UNV 

administers a volunteer programme (UNISTAR) through which 

international executives and technical experts offer their expertise 

in developing countries and promote corporate volunteerism 

worldwide (see text O). 

Finally, the correlation between social cohesion and economic 

development (explained before) demonstrate further contributions 

of volunteerism in the economic realm – i.e. via its role in 

building or strengthening social cohesion.




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Regulatory framework 

Many units of production in developing countries are part of 

the informal sector, which means that such firms operate 

outside the regulatory framework of the government. There is 

ample evidence that the urban informal sector plays a very 

important role in the economy of developing countries. It has 

also had a particular impact on the alleviation of urban poverty. 

The advantages of this sector to the poor and less skilled 

producers include less or no need for paperwork, for formal 

training and for initial capital (ease of entry). The proportion 

of the labour force engaged in urban informal production in 

developing countries ranges from 20 to 70 percent. As for 

consumption, many goods supplied by the informal sector would 

otherwise not be accessible to poor people – because formal/ 

larger-scale firms lack the interest to cater for them or because 

their prices are higher (e.g. UNDP, 1991; Werna, 1997). 

Although the informal sector is not exclusive to urban areas, it 

has particular features in such areas, which therefore require 

specific technical answers. Firstly, each process of production 

has specific regulatory aspects - and, as noted before, there 

are processes of production which are specific to urban areas. 

Secondly, because informal producers operate outside government 

control, they are susceptible to coercion, which may 

disrupt their business. Informal producers in rural areas often 

escape control, because they work in a subsistence economy 

(which needs no economic regulation), and live in isolation or 

in remote regions. Urban informal producers, in their turn, are 

directly exposed to coercion on a daily basis. They work faceto-face 

with the police and with sectors of the population who 

are unhappy with their presence for different reasons (e.g. 

informal producers represent unfair competition vis-à-vis formal 

producers; they overcrowd the streets; they cater mainly for 

the poor and therefore ‘attract poverty’). 

Although there has been growing recognition of the need to 

support the informal sector, in many countries informal producers 

are still harassed and even prevented from working. The solui.e. 

private sector employees 

supporting their counterparts 

in other countries. The initiative 

targets both urban- and rural 

based enterprises alike. 

P -------------------------------------------- 

Volunteer support to the 

informal sector in Zanzibar, 

Tanzania 

----------------------------------------------- 

UNVs’ initiative to combat 

poverty among women in 

Zanzibar, Tanzania takes the 

form of entrepreneurial training. 

A UN Volunteer gave training to 

business extension workers, 

helped women organise 

themselves into groups to 

exchange problems and 

solutions, and conducted a 

market survey of microbusiness 

opportunities. She also 

facilitated the groups in 

acquiring legal status and 

access to formal banking 

services. 

Q -------------------------------------------- 

Volunteer support to the urban 

economy in Liberia through 

micro-credit schemes 

----------------------------------------------- 

UNV is actively involved in 

Liberia in the UNDP/UNV- 

Trickle UP collaboration Project 

‘Promotion and Support for 

Income Generating Activities 

Among Vulnerable Groups In 

Liberia’. This tripartite initiative 

started in 1995 with UNV as 

the executing agency. The project 

follows the Trickle UP grants 

approach and beneficiaries are 

the most vulnerable groups 

such as ex-militants, single 

headed female households and 

youths disabled during the 

internal conflict. The project 

targets the poorest 30% of the 

population providing them a 

grant of US $100, paid in two 

installments of US $50. The 

tion is definitely not to evict informal producers from cities and 

towns and to prevent them from carrying out their business. 

This would only increase the ranks of the unemployed, with its 

multiplier effects (poverty, violence, etc.). Moreover, considering 

that the informal sector is the supplier of particular services/ 

goods for the urban poor, suppression of informal production 

would also exacerbate the needs of this part of the population. 

Solutions to the problems of the informal sector require intense 

negotiations between the different urban stakeholders (e.g. 

local authorities, representatives of the formal private sector, 

the informal producers). Such negotiations fall within the broad 

framework of ‘urban governance’, already analysed in this paper. 

Consequently, this shows the role of UNV as mediators at least 

in the initial stages of the process. In addition, the process of 

gradual ‘formalisation’ of informal producers requires labourintensive 

training on issues such as paperwork and other 

bureaucratic procedures. 

Finance 

The urban economy is often more monetarized than its rural 

counterpart, therefore exposing urban producers to a greater 

need for credit. At the same time, urban financial schemes also 

entail qualitative changes. To give a well-known example: the 

successful experience in micro-financing of the Grameen Bank 

started in Bangladesh and is being replicated in many countries 

worldwide. This experience has focused mainly in rural areas, 

and its success is strongly based on the social and solidarity 

bonds between community members (which prevent each 

member from defaulting on payment). However, as emphasised 

throughout this paper, such social/solidarity bonds in urban 

areas are often much weaker. Consequently, the counterpart 

urban micro-finance schemes have to be qualitatively different: 

they have either to build/strengthen such bonds, or to use an 

alternative approach, which does not rely on them. Either way, 

such equivalent schemes can take advantage of UNV’s attributes, 

as they need day-to-day intensive work directly with local 

communities. Text Q below provides the illustration of a project 

in Liberia.




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project was implemented in the 

city of Monrovia and surrounding 

areas and later expanded to 

other localities in the country. 

Through businesses that have 

been established by grants provided 

by the project, it has provided 

sustainable livelihood for 

approximately 9,132 beneficiaries 

of the program and their families. 

They have been able to provide 

food security, healthcare and 

education for their families. 

Fifteen NGOs participated in 

the final phase. 

The beneficiaries have demonstrated 

good business acumen and 

innovations in their trade. One 

innovative person started with 

selling dry goods but quickly 

moved to textile printing. Another 

young entrepreneur 

started a soap making business, 

now he sells to bulk buyers. 

A further very good example of 

working with little means is a 

cutlery-making workshop. This 

skilled worker runs a pottery 

business. He makes moulds out 

of sand or clay for household 

utensils and pours melted metal 

recovered from used cans and 

bottles in that mould. Finally he 

scours the rough edges of the 

spoons and pans and sells them. 

This business also has an environmental 

component, as it recycles 

waste by utilizing scrap metal 

found in the streets as raw 

material for their products. 

R -------------------------------------------- 

Volunteer support to housing 

provision and inner city 

renovation – cases from 

Namibia and Poland 

----------------------------------------------- 

A small team of UN Volunteers 

– an urban planner, a community 

worker and a building 

engineer – worked with 

Namibia’s Ministry of Local 

Government and Housing, 

the National Housing Enterprise 

and local authorities. They 

analysed constraints in housing 

delivery, helped prepare a 

national shelter strategy, organised 

implementation of self-help 

housing at community level, 

surveyed lands and allocated 

plots, and gave training in lowcost 

building. This Namibia Build 

Together programme won the 

Best Practices Award at the 

1995 Dubai International Conference 

on Best Practices in 

Improving the Living Environment. 

Another award-winning UNVassisted 

initiative is the 

Renovation Strategy for the 

Inner City Area of Szczecin in 

Poland. Wide public consultation, 

together with balanced application 

of social, environmental and 

commercial criteria, ensures 

investment is attracted while 

existing housing is upgraded, 

additional accommodation 

provided and an architecturally 

historic area is preserved. 

4.4. The physical domain 

This domain is the ‘hardcore’ of urban development, and includes 

housing and the provision of physical infrastructure and 

engineering-related urban services, such as: transport, water, 

sewerage, drainage, garbage collection, roads, etc. 

The urban poor often live in neighbourhoods – such as shanty 

areas, squatter settlements and slums - which are substantially 

different from the central areas of cities, and therefore require a 

specific type of solution for their problems. In a previous section, 

this paper analysed the community-based approach in urban 

development, and highlighted the role of mutual, voluntary and 

self-help processes throughout the developing world. This 

certainly encompasses the elements of the physical domain, as 

many low-income urban settlements are literally built entirely, or 

at least with a large amount of input, from its own residents. 

Consequently, there is a need to support grassroots communities 

to carry out these tasks, therefore making the most of 

UNV’s specific abilities to work with grassroots communities 

Depending on the circumstances, housing and the other physical 

elements of urban development are provided by other urban 

agents. In such cases, UNV may also be of value, through the 

types of support that it can provide to local authorities, NGOs 

and to the private sector, as described elsewhere in this 

publication. 

UNV has acted widely in the physical domain, e.g. in housing 

and infrastructure provision and rehabilitation in different 

countries and regions (see text R and text S below for some 

examples). 

In addition to the fact that the physical domain of urban development 

includes primary human needs (such as housing and 

water), it acquires further importance due to the frequent 

incidence of natural disasters in several developing countries. 

Such disasters mean death or serious injury for those who 

do not have the proper physical protection. The assistance 

provided by governments, private agencies (both for-profit and 

not-for-profit) as well as by the international community has 

been limited. At the same time, there is a vast array of simple 

and effective solutions within the reach of low-income communities, 

which could prevent many disasters. Therefore, it is




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imperative to work directly with low-income communities, again 

highlighting the UNV’s role in such a context. In the case of 

mitigation of disasters, speed of response is also a crucial 

attribute – let alone the value of solidarity transmitted via 

voluntary work to help heal the traumatised group of individuals 

affected by a given calamity. An example of a UNV project 

focusing on post-disaster reconstruction – and future mitigation 

– is the one which entails the setting up of a university 

volunteer scheme in Nicaragua, presented in text G. Another 

similar example is a project in Guatemala, with the University of 

San Carlos, which focuses on disaster prevention. 

S -------------------------------------------- 

Volunteer support to urban 

environment improvement – 

cases from the Philippines, 

Indonesia, Fiji and Botswana 

----------------------------------------------- 

UNV and the NGO Megacities 

enabled National UN Volunteers 

and local volunteers in the 

Philippines to share with other 

urban poor communities of 

Metro Manila the waste management 

techniques adopted by 

KALAHIG, the 400-member 

Payatas Association of Waste 

Pickers. Included was a visit to 

Egypt in which KALAHIG garbage 

industry workers compared 

notes with Cairo’s Zabbaleen 

scavengers and their 

Environmental Development 

Programme. The visit galvanised 

research, innovation transfer, 

social marketing and above all, 

an enterprise approach. 

In Cipinang Besar, Jakarta, 

Indonesia, a UN Volunteer 

suggested composting the biodegradable 

rubbish from the 

market and public housing. A 

shed was built from junkyard 

scrap steel and soon three tons 

of compost was being produced 

each month. Unusually for 

Jakarta, the scheme is run by 

the community itself, providing 

work for twelve employees and 

yielding income from sales to 

market gardens, shrimp ponds 

and golf courses. 

International and National UN 

Volunteers in Fiji assisted the 

NGO SPACHEE (South Pacific 

Action Committee for Human 

Ecology) with environmental 

education, primary health care 

strategies, mobilising local 

volunteer contributions and 

networking. With funding from 

the United Kingdom Government, 

the pilot project tested participatory 

approaches to using 

community-level National UN 

Volunteers in primary environmental 

care in low-income 

urban contexts. 

UN Volunteers in Botswana had 

schoolchildren conduct baseline 

surveys, which exposed poor 

environmental practices in 

some of the country’s settlements. 

A year’s promotional 

work followed, through the 

Health Ministry’s Family Welfare 

Educators, and handbooks 

were published in Setswana. 

The result was the contractedout 

construction of hundreds of 

latrines within the National 

T -------------------------------------------- 

Cultural Heritage Volunteers: 

cases from Nepal and 

Uzbekistan 

----------------------------------------------- 

UNV has joined UNESCO and 

the Co-ordinating Committee 

on International Voluntary 

Service to respond to the 

World Commission on Culture 

and Development’s call for an 

enhanced programme of 

Cultural Heritage Volunteers. 

This joint on-going project aims 

to preserve or restore monu- 

4.5. The cultural domain 

The relationship between volunteerism and cultural heritage 

was elaborated in the first part of this paper. It explains UNV’s 

attention to this aspect of urban development. In addition to 

supporting such a relationship as a whole, UNV has specific 

attributes to reinforce the cultural foundations of communities, 

and to strengthen their bonds with the surrounding milieu. This 

is carried out by community motivators and instructors who 

raise the awareness and understanding of the communities 

about: (i) their cultural foundations, (ii) the importance of 

respecting such foundations, (iii) the relationship between the 

built milieu (i.e. the very neighbourhoods where they live) and 

culture, and (iv) the importance of preserving the built milieu.




PART II – 



PART II – 



Page 62 

Page 63 

UNV has included the above approach in a number of projects. 

One example is the project with the university volunteer scheme 

in Nicaragua, presented before, which includes not only a focus 

on physical reconstruction, but also on the recuperation of the 

cultural heritage of the settlements. UNV also has a project 

with UNESCO, entitled Cultural Heritage Volunteers, which 

include the protection of heritage sites in Palestine, Nepal, 

Uzbekistan, Guatemala and India (see text T). 

ments and support activities to 

safeguard cultural heritage in 

other ways. The countries 

included in this project are 

Guatemala, India, Nepal, 

Palestine and Uzbekistan. This 

text includes illustrations from 

two of these countries. 

In Nepal, UNV’s involvement is 

part of an overall safeguarding 

campaign for Kathmandu Valley. 

The project covers seven sites 

with a total of 132 buildings 

that are in urgent need of 

attention. The intention is to 

restore the buildings and make 

them suitably attractive for 

tourism. The project’s seven 

sites are: Durbar Square at 

Bhaktapur, Durbar Square at 

Patan, Pashupati, Durbar 

Square at Bhadgaon, 

Changunaraian, Swayambhu 

and Bodanath. 

The specific restoration work 

carried out is architectural in 

nature, and in most cases, it 

includes roof repair and 

structural reinforcement. This 

has become necessary because 

of damage caused by earthquakes 

as well as uncontrolled 

urbanisation and demographic 

growth. UNV’s work in helping 

the local population has already 

started with the restoration and 

repair of dilapidated traditional 

wells and water stone spouts. 

Community participation, 

especially of women and youth, 

was encouraged in these 

restoration activities. With the 

help of an awareness programme 

and lectures, the local people 

began to appreciate the quality 

of ground water, hygiene and 

the importance of the use and 

future maintenance of the stone 

spouts. Other project activities 

likewise feature community 

participation activities. 

In Uzbekistan, the proposal has 

been conceived as a pilot 

project to provide on-the-job 

training to Uzbek architects in 

the use of modern restoration 

and conservation technology. 

The project targets sites in 

Shah-I-Zindah Mausoleum in 

Samarkand, Ismanid 

Mausoleum and the Buyan Kuli 

Khan Madrassa in Buhkara. 

4.6. An integrated approach 

As noted at the beginning of this section, urban development is 

a complex and multi-sectoral field. While this section divided it 

into five broad domains (for the sake of simplifying the presentation), 

it should also be noted that many of the projects 

presented above in fact cut across more than one domain and 

through different sectors of urban development. For example, 

the project in Port Harcourt develops a governance process 

while bringing concrete improvements for the children; one of 

the activities in Monrovia mixes income generation with garbage 

recycling; the project in Nicaragua mixes post-disaster reconstruction 

with the recuperation of cultural heritage; to mention 

just a few cases. 

The multisectoral character of urban development actually 

highlights a significant advantage of UNV’s contribution as a 

partner in development assistance. UNV’s framework of action 

includes volunteerism in the different sectors. Therefore, UNV 

is able to catalyse the synergies and complementarity between 

the volunteer contributions in the different sectors of the




CONCLUSION 

Page 64 

Page 65 

This paper has shown the importance of volunteerism in the 

development of human settlements as well as the urban agenda 

of UNV, noting the comparative advantages and the ability of 

this agency to add value. In his evaluation of a set of UNV 

projects, Cohen (2000: 3) noted that this agency has the 

distinctiveness of… ‘possessing the leverage of being located 

within the UN system but in many ways operating with the 

flexibility of an NGO’. This is a simple encapsulation of how 

UNV differs from other UN agencies, as well as from non-UN 

agencies working at the grassroots. 

In specific relation to work at the urban grassroots, a quotation 

from research conducted by UNRISD provides a good summary 

of its importance, as well as of the role of UNV in particular: 

‘The main conclusion of this study is that UNV has an important 

role to play in urban grassroots development, or more correctly, 

in fostering social cohesion and development in cities and 

towns. The research has confirmed earlier findings of UNV’s 

action research in urban communities showing that a rapidly 

integrating global economy is disproportionately disadvantaging 

vulnerable and marginalized groups, many of whom are either 

already in cities or on their way. Moreover, while these global 

forces may instigate collective action at certain points, in the 

long run they erode the capacity of community and volunteer 

organisations to respond effectively to the negative impacts’. 

(Westendorff, 1999: 16.) 

but also shortly before ‘Istanbul + 5’ (in June 2001) which will 

review global achievements in urban development since the 

‘Istanbul’ Conference of 1996 and also discuss future actions. 

Therefore IYV 2001 and Istanbul + 5 together constitute an 

excellent opportunity to discuss ways of consolidating and 

strengthening UNV’s value and contribution as a partner in the 

international effort to combat urban problems in the developing 

and transitional countries. 

While volunteerism is fundamental in human settlements, it is 

still overlooked as a resource. It is important, therefore, to discuss 

ways to expand the role of volunteerism in urban development. 

Cities are shaped by the sum of the innumerable daily decisions, 

attitudes and behaviours of individuals and groups. Many of the 

maladies that currently plague urban areas could be ameliorated 

or even abolished if such decisions, attitudes and behaviours 

were impregnated with a greater degree of solidarity. 

Volunteerism can be instrumental, among other things, to help 

develop norms of solidarity and reciprocity, which are essential 

to stable communities. Volunteerism can build the foundations 

for the construction of caring cities. 

This approach is important in order to; 

‘… overcome the rather instrumental use of concepts such as 

partnership, collaboration and participation evident in many 

development programmes and projects. It will also highlight the 

personal, cultural and locally specific contributions to social 

development. These are necessary antidotes to the homogenised 

development formulas now in vogue, which continue to leave 

the majority in deep poverty’. (Westendorff, 1999: 16.) 

UNV’s current urban agenda has been the result of thirty years 

of experience and learning. As noted in the introduction of this 

paper, it has evolved from scattered activities to systemic 

programming, culminating with the choice of urban development 

as one of the agency’s priorities. This publication has come out 

not only during the International Year of the Volunteer (IYV 2001)




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