Regional Formation 2012,1 - KlaipÄdos universitetas

KLAIPĖDA UNIVERSITY 

SOCIAL SCIENCE FACULTY 

REGIONAL FORMATION 

AND 

DEVELOPMENT STUDIES 

(Human Resources – the Main Factor of Regional Development) 

Journal of Social Sciences 

No. 1 (6) 

Klaipėda, 2012

Regional Formation and Development Studies 

(Human Resources – the Main Factor of Regional Development) 

Klaipėda University 

Social Science Faculty 

Scientific Editor 

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Antanas Bučinskas Klaipėda University (Lithuania) 

Deputy of scientific editor 

Prof. Dr. Ligita Šimanskienė Klaipėda University (Lithuania) 

Editorial board: 

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ciprian Beniamin Benea University of Oradea (Romania) 

Prof. Habil. Dr. Remigijus Čiegis Vilnius University (Lithuania) 

Prof. Dr. Larisa Emeljanova I. Kant Federal University (Russia Federation) 

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sebastian Gadal University of Versailles Saint Quentin en Yvelines (France) 

Prof. Dr. Hilmar Þór Hilmarsson University of Acureyri (Iceland) 

Prof. Dr. Vytautas Juščius Klaipėda University (Lithuania) 

Prof. Dr. Jose Manuel Lasierra Zaragoza University (Spain) 

Prof. Dr. Vaidutis Laurėnas Klaipėda University (Lithuania) 

Prof. Habil. Dr. Tadeusz Palmowski Gdansk University (Poland) 

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Romana Provazniková Pardubice University (Czech Republic) 

Prof. Habil. Dr. Bronislaw Sitek Alicide De Gasperi University (Poland) 

Prof. Dr. Biruta Sloka Latvia University (Latvia) 

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Eduardas Spiriajevas Klaipėda University (Lithuania) 

Prof. Dr. Rimantas Stašys Klaipėda University (Lithuania) 

Prof. Habil. Dr. Gerhard Strohmeier Alpen-Adria Universitat Klagenfurt (Austria) 

Prof. Habil. Dr. Stasys Vaitekūnas Klaipėda University (Lithuania) 

Prof. Habil. Dr. Povilas Zakarevičius Vytautas Magnus University (Lithuania) 

Lithuanian language editor: Vilma Urbonavičiūtė (Lithuania) 

Layout: Karolis Saukantas (Lithuania) 

Cover design: Vilhelmas Giedraitis (Lithuania) 

The first number was published in 2007. 

There are 3 annual volumes in Lithuanian, English languages. 

The first numbers of journal were included in EBSCO Publishing Business Source Complete databases 

(http://www.ebscohost.com/titleLists/bth-journals.pdf.). 

Address: 

Herkaus Manto g. 84, LT-92294 Klaipėda, Lietuva, tel. (370 46) 39 88 95, fax (370 46) 39 89 99 

Internet address: http://www.ku.lt/leid 

© Klaipėda University, 2012 

© Social Science Faculty, 2012 

Every paper is revised by two reviewers 

ISSN 2029-9370

PREFACE 

This journal seeks to invite scientist from social sciences to discuss about problems in regional development. 

The important direction in regional development is – social, economic and development problems 

in borderlines; so here a very important line is dispose of researches and frame of proposals for sustainable 

development in borderlines. The new scientific theme remains the same important scientific and practical direction 

– problems of regional development. Organizations management determines different regional development, 

therefore corporate social responsibility and studies of small and medium – sized organizations are 

like the main engine of regional development, also are very important for sustainable regional development 

and timely. Journal is turned to change title to more clear description about basic problem in our region “Regional 

Formation and Development Studies”. This was decided at Klaipėda University Senate (2011 05 06 

Nr. 11-55). We hope that these changes will encourage social sciences scientists to do more researches in this 

field and to have also practical value to region. 

Deputy of scientific editor 

Prof. Dr. Ligita Šimanskienė (Klaipėda University, Lithuania) 

PRATARMĖ 

Žurnalas siekia pakviesti socialinės srities mokslininkus diskutuoti apie problemas, kurių kyla regionuose. 

Svarbi regionų vystymosi kryptis – pasienio regionų socialinės, ekonominės ir plėtros problemos. Šia 

kryptimi atliekami tyrimai, pateikiama pasiūlymų, kaip darniai vystyti pasienio regionus. Nevienodą regionų 

išsivystymą lemia organizacijų valdymas, todėl įmonių socialinės atsakomybės, smulkaus ir vidutinio dydžio 

organizacijų tyrimai, kaip pagrindinis darnaus regionų vystymo variklis, yra svarbūs ir savalaikiai. Žurnalas 

siekia išgryninti tematiką, todėl keičiamas pavadinimas: „Regionų formavimo ir plėtros studijos“. Tai 

nuspręsta Klaipėdos universiteto Senate (2011 05 06 Nr. 11-55). Tikimės, kad šie pokyčiai paskatins socialinių 

mokslų mokslininkus atlikti daugiau tyrimų šia tematika, kartu suteiks praktinę vertę regionų vystymuisi. 

Redaktoriaus pavaduotoja 

Prof. dr. Ligita Šimanskienė (Klaipėdos universitetas, Lietuva) 

3

TURINYS 

Angelija Bučienė 

The Shrinking Rate of Utilised Agricultural Land and its Components 

in the Baltic Sea Region Countries / 6 

(Naudojamų žemės ūkio naudmenų ir jų komponentų mažėjimo tempai Baltijos regiono šalyse) / 14 

Trung Quang Dinh, Hilmar Þór Hilmarsson 

What Are the Economic Justifications for the Existence of Export Credit Agencies 

and How Can They Facilitate Cross Border Trade to Emerging Market Economies? / 15 

(Ekonominės eksporto kreditų agentūrų egzistavimo prielaidos, jų galimybės paskatinti 

užsienio prekybą su kylančiomis rinkos ekonomikomis) / 25 

Anna Belova 

International Cooperation of Border Settlements in Strategies for Development 

of Small and Semi-Medium Cities: Case-Study of Kaliningrad Region (Russian Federation) / 26 

(Tarptautinis pasienio gyvenviečių bendradarbiavimas mažų ir vidutinių miestų 

vystymo strategijose: Kaliningrado srities pavyzdys (Rusijos federacija)) / 35 

Jaroslav Dvorak 

Sustainability of Evaluation Function in Lithuanian Public Administration / 36 

(Vertinimo funkcijos tvarumas Lietuvos viešajame administravime) / 46 

Gražina Jatuliavičienė, Marija Kučinskienė 

Export Promotion Changes of Sme’s for Export Expansion Directions Development in Lithuania / 47 

(Smulkaus ir vidutinio verslo įmonių eksporto skatinimo pokyčiai Lietuvoje, eksporto plėtros kryptys) / 59 

Janis Kleperis, Ilze Dimanta, Justs Dimants, Biruta Sloka 

Lessons from Teaching Renewables: Domestic and Cross-Border Education Action – Latvian Solar Cup / 60 

(Atsinaujinančių išteklių pamokos: vietinių ir kitų šalių moksleivių mokymas – Latvijos „Saulės taurė“) / 66 

Valentyna Oleynik, Sergii Iaromenko 

Problems and Prospects of Development of Green Rural Tourism in Ukraine / 67 

(Žaliojo kaimo turizmo Ukrainoje plėtros problemos ir galimybės) / 73 

Janis Paiders, Juris Paiders 

Quantitative Measurement of Cross-Border Interactions (Example of Africa) / 74 

(Kiekybinis pasienio sąveikos matavimas (Afrikos pavyzdys)) / 81 

Liudmila Parfenova, Andrei Pugachev, Vytautas Juščius 

Stimulation of Innovative-Investment Process: World Experience / 83 

(Inovatyvaus investavimo proceso skatinimas: pasaulinė patirtis) / 92 

Gintarė Pociūtė 

The Problem of Klaipėda Region Peripherality / 93 

(Klaipėdos regiono periferiškumo problema) / 103 

Ilmars Purinsh, Toms Reizinsh, Girts Braslinsh, Natalja Svitlika 

Decision-Making Process in Credit Grantig / 104 

(Sprendimų priėmimo procesas teikiant kreditus) / 113 

Arnaud Serry 

Circulation at Russian-Baltic States Boundary: a Cut and a Seam / 114 

(Cirkuliacija Rusijos ir Baltijos šalių pasienyje: apribojimai ir sandūra) / 123 

4

Eduardas Spiriajevas 

Hindrances and Suggestions for Sustainable Development of Lithuanian Coastal Strip (Zone) / 125 

(Lietuvos pajūrio juostos darnios plėtros kliuviniai ir pasiūlymai, kaip jų išvengti) / 136 

Ligita Šimanskienė, Darius Burgis, Diana Līduma, Māra Zeltiņa 

Verslo bendradarbiavimas Klaipėdos regiono ir Latvijos pasienyje / 137 

(Business cooperation in the cross-border of Klaipeda region and Latvia) / 145 

Rasa Viederytė, Giedrė Strakšienė 

Practice of Cross Border Cooperation in Capacity Building Project: 

Ensuring Sustainable Development / 147 

(Tarptautinio bendradarbiavimo praktika gebėjimų ugdymo projekto atveju: ilgalaikės plėtros 

užtikrinimas) / 159 

Daiva Viningienė 

Darbuotojų darbo motyvacijos ir pasitenkinimo darbu sąsajos / 161 

(Employees Relationship between Work Motivation and Job Satisfaction) / 169 

Jekaterina Vozņuka 

Place Marketing Strategy of Latgale Region Development / 171 

(Latgalos regiono vietos rinkodaros strategija) / 182 

Vytautas Jonas Žilinskas, Jelena Dementjeva 

Lietuvos inovacinės veiklos tendencijos ir tobulinimo galimybių analizė Europos Sąjungos kontekste / 183 

(Lithuanian Innovation Activity Trends and Analysis of Opportunities for Improvement in the Context of 

the European Union) / 192 

Aurimas Župerka, Erika Župerkienė 

Studentų verslumo ugdymo tyrimas Vakarų Lietuvos regione / 195 

(Research of Students’ Entrepreneurship Education in West Lithuanian region) / 207 

5


THE SHRINKING RATE OF UTILISED AGRICULTURAL LAND AND ITS COMPONENTS IN THE BALTIC SEA REGION COUNTRIES 

THE SHRINKING RATE OF UTILISED AGRICULTURAL LAND 

AND ITS COMPONENTS IN THE BALTIC SEA 

REGION COUNTRIES 

Angelija Bučienė 1 

Klaipėda University (Lithuania) 

ABSTRACT 

The temporal and spatial changes of land use are important while studying the rural landscapes on both the regional-geographical and environmental 

scales. In the Baltic Sea region with nine countries (including Russian Federation, represented by Kaliningrad oblast, the utilised 

agricultural land (UAL) makes about 34 % of total region area on the average. The current research revealed the trends of different shrinking 

rate of UAL in nine studied countries from 1993 to 2008: it varied within the range between 3 % in Denmark and 43 % in Estonia. Research 

focus was given to the changes in ratio between arable land and area under meadows and pastures: it increased from 6.5 to 10.9 during 15 

years period (1993–2008) on the average, that shows the increase in land use and farming intensity even the UAL area was shrunk. 

KEY WORDS: utilised agricultural land, arable land, meadows and pastures, shrinking rate. 

JEL codes: Q 16, Q 15. 

Introduction 

Agriculture is shaping most of the European landscapes and it is diverse, ranging from intensively farmed 

monocultures that put heavy pressure on the environment, to extensively farmed semi-natural areas creating 

much less pressure (Mücher, Wascher, 2007: 38). One of the problems is land abandonment, which is already 

a common phenomenon in regions where agricultural productivity is relatively low (Baldock et al., 1996). The 

shrinking of agricultural land is natural, where agriculture is becoming less important as economic activity, or 

where the soils are less favored, either the urbanisation level is high. However when looking from the world 

perspective, the agricultural land resources in many areas of our Planet are limited, the recent agricultural land 

is particularly important to be utilised as much as the soil fertility allows. The situation is particularly worrying 

in the central and Eastern Europe, where political and economic change has negatively affected the conditions 

for farming (EEA, 2004). This is evident in the south-eastern Baltic sea coast region too: during the last 20 years 

the farming has experienced tremendous changes after the collapse of Soviet Union in 1991 and during the 

transition to market economy period in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kaliningrad oblast of Russian Federation 

(RF), Poland and Eastern Germany (Korneevets, 1997: 23; Bučienė, 2002: 15; Dobele, 2004: 34; Contemporary 

changes…, 2008: 7, 21; Agriculture, Fisheries, 2012: 3; Vinokurov, 2007: 120–122; Celevaja programma..., 

2006: 51–52). New membership in EU has made the impact on the farming and land use as well, since many 

of farmers, particularly elder, could choose to farm further or not. With more sustainable development of rural 

landscapes and more rational usage of land, its important to carry on all forms of farming, involving more 

younger people from the countryside and making life there more attractive (Europe in figures, 2009; Bučienė, 

1 

Angelija Bučienė – Klaipėda University, Department of Social geography, prof. dr., scientistic interest: agroecological, environmental 

and social geographical aspects of rural landscapes in the Baltic Sea region. 

E-mail: angelija.buciene@ku.lt 

Tel.:+370 46 398661 

6

ISSN 2029-9370. Regional Formation and Development Studies, No. 1 (6) 

2003: 158). Thus it was important to focus not only on quantitative, but also on qualitative changes of rural 

landscapes (Andersen, 2003; Nikodemus et al., 2010). The aim of this research was to analyse the shrinking 

rate of utilised agricultural land (UAL) and its components and to reveal the trends of agricultural land use and 

farming intensity in nine Baltic Sea region countries during 1993–2008 period. 

1. Materials and methods 

It is not easy to make a sustainability assessment of rural landscapes with different land use, farming 

intensity, etc. due to the complexity of structural elements and their inwrought relations (Sustainable agriculture, 

2012: 43). Our research in Lithuania has revealed that leaching of nitrate nitrogen via drainage runoff is 

almost 10 times higher from the arable crop plots, than from the permanent long term pasture on the average 

(Bučienė, 2009: 13). Other research in the Baltic region also has shown the same trends (Towards a Baltic 

Sea..., 2007). Thus the ratio between arable and grassland areas is important from the sustainability point of 

view. In this research the attempt was done to focus on the trends of changes of UAL and its components: 

arable land area, area under the meadows and pastures and their ratio. 

After the compilation of agricultural land use data, the main trends in time and space were revealed. The studied 

countries were grouped in accordance to the main trend of land use change. Four types of UAL shrinking rate trends 

in the research region during the period from 1993–1995 to 2005–2008 were determined: 1) Countries where the 

UAL decreased a little in the area; 2) Countries where the UAL decreased on the average from 10 to 20 %; 3) Countries 

where the UAL decreased from 20 to 30 %; 4). Countries where the UAL decreased more than 30 %. 

According to the ratio of arable land and area under the meadows and pastures, countries were grouped 

into the 4 groups: 1) Countries where this ratio decreased mostly; 2) Countries where the ratio remained as 

it was or slightly decreased; 3) Countries where the ratio increased from 10 to 20 %; 4) Countries where the 

ratio increased more than 20 %. 

The research region – nine Baltic Sea region countries: Latvia, Estonia, Finland, Sweden, Denmark, 

Germany (Mecklenburg-Vorpommern and Schleswig-Holstein Federal Lands), Poland, Kaliningrad oblast 

of RF and Lithuania with total area 137,300 thous. ha. For this research databases of FAO, EUROSTAT and 

National Statistics Departments of studied countries were used. 

2. Results 

2.1. The main trends of distribution and changes of UAL in EU and Baltic Sea region countries 

The shrinking of agricultural land was observed also in older EU member countries (EU-15), but this process 

was not drastic (Fig.1). The UAL for most of EU-15 decreased by 2.5 % between 1990 and 2000, affecting mainly 

permanent grasslands and permanent crops, not the arable land crops. The total number of livestock units was quite 

stable from 1990 to 2000, but trends vary for different livestock types and regions. In 1990, 44 % of the agricultural 

area of EU-15 was managed by high-input farms, but this decreased to 37 % in 2000. Low-input farms occupied the 

lowest share of the agricultural area (26 %) but this share increased to 28 % in 2000. In some regions the livestock 

stocking density has increased by more than 10 % mainly due to higher pig stocking density in Denmark, northern 

Germany, and north-eastern Spain. And there was indicated that Spain had large land cover flows from forest/seminatural 

land to agriculture and from agriculture to forest/semi-natural land. Italy and Portugal showed land cover 

flow only from agriculture to forest/semi-natural land (EEA..., 2005). At the same time, there was an active participation 

of farmers of EU-15 in the different environment protection schemes, and this also decreased the shrinking 

of UAL. Almost one-quarter of all utilised farmland in the EU-15 has been included in an agri-environment scheme, 

although this figure varies greatly among the Member States in 2002. 

7



The changes of UAL in all agricultural farms/holdings of studied nine Baltic sea region countries can be 

seen from the Table 1. 

Figure 1. Regional importance of the dominant agricultural land uses and the trend 1990–2000 

Source: EEA, 2005 

Table 1. The changes of UAL area in thous. ha and % in all agricultural farms/holdings of 9 Baltic sea region 

countries from 1993 to 2008 

Country/region Thousands ha Difference in 2008 as to the 1993 

1993 2008 ± thous. ha ± % 

Denmark 2740 2668 -72 -2.6 

Estonia 1400 803 -597 -42.6 

Finland 2692 2297 -395 -14.7 

Germany* 2656 2352 -304 -11.4 

Kaliningrad oblast (RF) ** 580 423 -157 -27.0 

Latvia 2530 1825 -705 -27.9 

Lithuania 3524 2672 -852 -24.2 

Poland 18715 16154 -2561 -13.7 

Sweden 3361 3093 -268 -8.0 

Total/average 38198 32287 -5911 -15.5 

Note: * Mecklenburg-Vorpommern and Schleswig-Holstein, data for 1995 and 2008 

** For Kaliningrad oblast data for1995 (Bučienė, 2002) and 2005 

8


The shrinking of UAL took place in all studied countries of Baltic Sea region: it decreased by almost 

16 % during the research period in the region. However the grouping of countries according to the shrinking 

rate has revealed some differences of this process (Fig. 2). 

Figure 2. The main groups of Baltic sea region countries with different shrinking rate of UAL 

The least decrease in UAL during the studied period was characteristic to Denmark (about 3 %) and Sweden 

(8 %) (group 1). The group 2 (North Germany, Poland, Finland) distinguished with decrease of UAL by 

13 % on the average. The area of UAL was shrunk by 26 % in the group 3 (Lithuania, Kaliningrad oblast of 

RF, Latvia) on the average, and the country, which experienced the largest shrinkage – almost 43 % – was 

Estonia (group 4). 

2.2. Recent trends of shrinking rate of utilised arable land area 

The largest areas of arable land in absolute figures are characteristic to Germany and Poland, however 

as to the % of total land area, the leader country is Denmark (about 57 %), and the second two countries are 

Poland and Germany (Bučienė, 2010: 11). Lithuania remains in the fourth place (almost 29 %). The arable 

land has shrunk from 1993 to 2008 by 14 % for whole the region; however there were differences between 

the countries in shrinking rate (Table 2). 

9



Table 2. The changes of utilised arable land area in thous. ha and in % in all agricultural farms/holdings 

of 9 Baltic sea region countries from 1993 to 2008 


1993 2008 ± thous.ha ± % 

Denmark 2540 2400 -140 -5.5 

Estonia 1114 598 -516 -46.3 

Finland 2580 2256 -324 -12.6 

Germany* 1963 1755 -208 -10.6 


Latvia 1687 1170 -517 -30.6 

Lithuania 2300 1862 -438 -19.0 

Poland 14305 12571 -1734 -12.1 

Sweden 2780 2626 -154 -5.5 

Total/average 29619 25461 -4158 -14.0 



Thus countries with the least shrinkage were again two: Denmark and Sweden (about 6 %). The second 

group of 4 countries (North Germany, Poland, Finland and Lithuania) showed the trend to decrease from 10 

to 20 %. The third group with 2 countries (Latvia and Kaliningrad oblast of RF) was distinguished by the 

shrinking of arable land area from 20 to 30 %. And again, the country, which showed the largest shrinkage 

of utilised arable land, was Estonia (about 46 %). 

2.3. Recent trends of utilised area under meadows and pastures 

The largest areas under the permanent grassland of total land area in the Baltic sea region were typical for 

North Germany, Lithuania, Poland and Latvia (Bučienė, 2010:11), however Denmark was the only country 

in the region, where the area under the meadows and pastures increased from 1993 to 2008 (Table 3). In other 

countries there was evident shrinkage, which varied from 9 % in Kaliningrad oblast of RF to almost 69 % in 

Finland (with about 21 % on the average). 

Table 3. The changes of utilised meadows and pastures in thous. ha and in % in all agricultural farms/holdings 

of 9 Baltic sea region countries from 1993 to 2008 


1993 2008 ± thous. ha ±% 

Denmark 197 261 64 32.5 

Estonia 243 197 -46 -18.9 

Finland 106 33 -73 -68.9 

Germany* 690 590 -100 -14.5 


Latvia 819 648 -171 -20.9 

Lithuania 1173 783 -390 -33.2 

Poland 4047 3184 -863 -21.3 

Sweden 576 458 -118 -20.5 

Total/average 8071 6354 -1717 -21.3 



10


In Lithuania the majority of utilised meadows and pastures are concentrated in private farms: from 24 to 

43 % (Kazakevičius, 2011: 98). Tat shows that private farms are creating more diverse and more sustainable 

rural landscape in Lithuania, than the large agricultural companies with higher farming specialisation and 

more intensive land use for arable crops. 

2.4. The ratio between utilised arable land and area under the utilised meadows and pastures 

The higher values of this ratio show the more intensive land use and farming, and in opposite, the lower 

values show the more extensive land use and farming, but at the same time more diverse landscape. Calculation 

results are presented in Table 4. 

The calculations show the different trends in different countries. In general the ratio increased from 6.5 to 

10.9 showing some tendency to the more intensive farming even the UAL area was shrunk. However more 

evident differences between countries can be seen from the Fig.3. It shows, that in the group 1 (Estonia, 

Kaliningrad oblast of RF, Denmark) there was a trend towards more extensive land use, and the same but 

less expressed trend was observed in North Germany and Latvia (group 2). Differently, in the groups 3 (Lithuania, 

Sweden and Poland) and 4 (Finland), the ratio increased showing the trend towards more intensive 

land use and farming. 

Table 4. The changes of ratio between arable land and area under the utilised meadows and pastures all agricultural 

farms/holdings of 9 Baltic sea region countries from 1993 to 2008 

Country/region Ratio Difference in 2008 as to the 1993 

1993 2008 ± ratio ±% 

Denmark 12.9 9.2 -3.7 -29 

Estonia 4.6 3.0 -1.6 -35 

Finland 24.3 68.4 44.1 181 

Germany* 2.8 3.0 0.2 -7 

Kaliningrad oblast (RF) ** 1.6 1.1 -0.5 -31 

Latvia 2.1 1.8 -0.3 -14 

Lithuania 2.0 2.4 0.4 20 

Poland 3.5 3.9 0.4 11 

Sweden 4.8 5.7 0.9 19 

Average 6.5 10.9 4.4 68 



As the other research conducted in the Middle of Lithuania revealed the productivity point of agricultural 

farming lands, sensitivity of soils to erosion processes and favorable conditions for the development of large 

farms and agricultural farming land areas – these are the factors having not much impact on the changing 

processes of farming lands. Land users, human migration processes in rural areas, the origin of abandoned, 

uncultivated land areas and economic factors have the largest impact on the change of farming land at present 

(Atkoceviciene et al., 2011: 35). In order to make more grounded conclusions it is necessary to analyse these 

reasons for other Baltic Sea region countries in further research. 

11



Figure 3. The main groups of Baltic Sea region countries with different trends of changed ratio between 

utilized arable land area and area under the utilized meadows and pastures, 1993–2008 

Conclusions 

After the analysis of results above, few conclusions might be drawn: 

1. The determined shrinking of UAL in nine studied countries from 1993 to 2008 was almost 16 %. 

The highest shrinking rate was determined in Estonia, followed by Latvia, Kaliningrad oblast of RF 

and Lithuania. For arable land it was characteristic to shrink as it is shown mostly also in Estonia, 

followed by Latvia and Kaliningrad oblast of RF. 

2. Denmark was the only country in the region, where the area under the meadows and pastures increased 

from 1993 to 2008 (by 32 %), and Finland was one, where it decreased mostly (by almost 

69 %). In the rest of countries the area under the utilised meadows and pastures decreased from 14 to 

33 %, and arable land area decreased from 12 to 19 %. 

3. Two main trends of changes in ratio between the area of utilised arable land and area under the meadows 

and pastures were determined in the research region: 1). Trend towards extensive land use and 

farming – mostly evident in Estonia, Kaliningrad oblast of RF, Denmark, and less evident in North 

Germany and Latvia; 2). Trend towards more intensive land use and farming – mostly evident in 

Finland and a little less evident in Lithuania, Sweden and Poland. 

12


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our identity in the countryside. LANDSCAPE EUROPE / KNNV. B. Pedroli, A. Van Doorn, G. De Blust, M. L. Paracchini, 

D. Wascher, F. Bunce (eds.). Website: http://www.landscape-europe.net/files/37-43%2520correctie.pdf (visited 

11th January, 2012), p. 38–43. 

Nikodemus, O., Bell, S., Penēze, Z., Krūze, I. (2010). The influence of European Union single area payments and less 

favoured area payments on the Latvian landscape. Europ. Countrys, Vol. 1, p. 25–41. 

Statistics Division FAO. (2010). Website: http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/ess/ess_test_folder/Publications/ 

yearbook_2010/a04.xls (visited on 8th January, 2012). 

Sustainable agriculture. (2012). Ch. Jakobsson (ed.). Ecosystem Health and Sustainable Agriculture, Vol. 1. The Baltic 

University Programme, Uppsala University. 

Towards a Baltic sea unaffected by eutrophication. (2007). HELCOM Overview, HELCOM Ministerial Meeting Krakow, 

Poland, 15 November 2007. Website: http://www.helcom.fi/stc/files/Krakow2007/Eutrophication_MM2007. 

pdf (visited on 9th January, 2012). 

Vinokurov, E. (2007). Kaliningrad: Enclaves and Economic Integration. Thinking ahead for Europe, Special Report, 

CEPS (Centre for European Policy Studies). Website: http://www.ceps.be (visited on 9th January, 2012). 

Website: www.stat.gov.de 

Website: www.stat.gov.ee 

Website: www.stat.gov.fi 

Website: www.stat.gov.lt 

Website: www.stat.gov.lv 

Website: www.stat.gov.pl 

Website: www.stat.gov.se (all visited on 9th January 2012). 

Целевая программа Калининградской области «Осножные направления развития агропромышленного комплекса 

Калининградской области на 2007–2016 годы». Приложение к постановлению Правительства Калининградской 

области от 2006 года (in Russian). 

13



NAUDOJAMŲ ŽEMĖS ŪKIO NAUDMENŲ IR JŲ KOMPONENTŲ 

MAŽĖJIMO TEMPAI BALTIJOS REGIONO ŠALYSE 


Klaipėdos universitetas (Lietuva) 

Santrauka 

Erdviniai ir laikiniai žemėnaudos pokyčiai reikšmingi tiriant kaimo kraštovaizdžio kaitą tiek regioniniugeografiniu, 

tiek ir aplinkosauginiu aspektais. Nagrinėjamame Baltijos regione (9 šalys, kur Rusijos Federacijai 

atstovauja Kaliningrado sritis), naudojamos žemės ūkio naudmenos vidutiniškai sudaro apie 34 % 

bendrojo regiono ploto. Atlikus tyrimą nustatyta bendra tendencija – naudojamų žemės ūkio naudmenų ploto 

mažėjimas nuo 1993 m. iki 2008 m. – 16 % visame regione (mažiausias sumažėjimo tempas užfiksuotas 

Danijoje – 3 %, didžiausias Estijoje – 43 %). Tyrimais nustatytas ir skirtingas naudojamų žemės ūkio naudmenų 

bei jos komponentų – ariamosios žemės, pievų ir ganyklų – mažėjimo tempas pavienėse Baltijos 

regiono šalyse. Be Estijos, dideliu naudojamų žemės ūkio naudmenų plotų mažėjimu per minėtą laikotarpį 

pasižymėjo Latvija, RF Kaliningrado sritis ir Lietuva. Šiose šalyse labiausiai sumažėjo ariamosios žemės 

plotai. Danija buvo vienintelė šalis regione, kurioje per 1993–2008 m. padidėjo naudojamų pievų ir ganyklų 

plotas (32 %), tuo tarpu Suomijoje jis sumažėjo labiausiai – net 69 %. Likusiose šalyse (šiaurinėje Vokietijos 

dalyje, Lenkijoje, Švedijoje) naudojamų pievų ir ganyklų plotai sumažėjo nuo 14 iki 33 %, ariamosios žemės 

plotai – nuo 12 iki 19 %, atsižvelgiant į šalį. 

Išryškėjo dvi naudojamų žemės ūkio naudmenų kaitos tendencijos regione: 1) žemės ūkio ekstensyvėjimo 

tendencija, kai sparčiau traukėsi ariamosios žemės plotai, lyginant su pievų ir ganyklų plotais; 2) žemės 

ūkio intensyvėjimo tendencija, kai ariamosios žemės dalis, nors ir traukėsi naudojamų žemės ūkio naudmenų 

plotai, santykinai padidėjo. Pirmoji tendencija akivaizdi Estijoje, RF Kaliningrado srityje ir Danijoje, šiek 

tiek mažiau ryški šiaurinėje Vokietijoje ir Latvijoje, antroji akivaizdi Suomijoje, šiek tiek mažiau ryški Lietuvoje, 

Švedijoje ir Lenkijoje. 

PAGRINDINIAI ŽODŽIAI: naudojamos žemės ūkio naudmenos, ariamoji žemė, pievos ir ganyklos, 

mažėjimo tempas 

JEL kodai: Q 16, Q 15. 

14


WHAT ARE THE ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATIONS 

FOR THE EXISTENCE OF EXPORT CREDIT AGENCIES 

AND HOW CAN THEY FACILITATE CROSS BORDER TRADE 

TO EMERGING MARKET ECONOMIES? 

Trung Quang Dinh 1 , Hilmar Þór Hilmarsson 2 

School of Business and Science, University of Akureyri (Iceland) 

Abstract 

Export Credit Agencies (ECAs) have played an important role in cushioning the downturn in cross border trade during the current 

economic and financial crisis. This article discusses the role of ECAs in facilitating cross border trade to emerging markets as well 

as the economic rationale for the existence of such agencies. It also demonstrates how selected risk mitigation instruments of ECAs, 

namely: (i) buyer credit guarantee, (ii) supplier credit guarantees and (iii) export loans have been applied in practice. Finally cases 

are presented that highlight how companies have used the service of ECAs, for example, to obtain better terms, including longer term 

loans and/or lower interest rates. 

KEY WORDS: Cross border trade, emerging markets, financial crisis, export credit agencies (ECAs), commercial and non-commercial 

risks, and risk mitigation instruments. 

JEL codes: F14, F21, G01, G24, G32 

Introduction 

The current economic and financial crisis resulted in a sharp fall in international trade in the second half 

of 2008 and early 2009. According to a recent IMF working paper export credit agencies (ECAs) played 

an important role in cushioning this downturn. The same IMF paper also argued that ECAs “may also have 

played an important signaling role by reassuring the private sector that official institutions stand ready to 

back up at difficult times” (Asmundson, 2011: 33). But what are ECAs? On the website of the OECD one can 

find the following information „Governments provide official export credits through Export Credit Agencies 

(ECAs) in support of national exporters competing for overseas sales. ECAs provide credits to foreign 

buyers either directly or via private financial institutions benefiting from their insurance or guarantee cover. 

ECAs can be government institutions or private companies operating on behalf of the government” (OECD 

n.d.). ECAs thus facilitate cross border trade by providing insurances or guarantees against commercial and 

non-commercial/political risks. But what are those risks? 

MIGA defines political risk broadly as “the probability of disruption of the operations of MNEs by political 

forces or events, whether they occur in host countries, home country, or result from changes in the international 

environment. In host countries, political risk is largely determined by uncertainty over the actions of 

1 

Trung Quang Dinh – School of Business and Science, University of Akureyri (Iceland), M.Sc. student, International Business. 

E-mail: ha110243@unak.is 

Tel.: +354 841 0499 

2 

Dr. Hilmar Þór Hilmarsson – School of Business and Science, University of Akureyri (Iceland), professor, scientistic interest: 

financial investitions, economics. 

E-mail: hilmar@unak.is 

Tel.: +354 460 8620 

15


WHAT ARE THE ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATIONS FOR THE EXISTENCE OF EXPORT CREDIT AGENCIES AND HOW CAN THEY FACILITATE CROSS BORDER TRADE... 

governments and political institutions, but also of minority groups, such as separatist movements. In home 

countries, political risk may stem from political actions directly aimed at investment destinations, such as 

sanctions, or from policies that restrict outward investment” (MIGA, 2009: 28). The Oxford Handbook of 

international Business defines political risk as “the probability of disruption to an MNE’s operations from 

political forces or events and their correlates. It involves governmental or societal actions, originating either 

within or outside the host country, and negatively affecting foreign companies’ operations and investments. 

Political risk reflects the degree of uncertainty associated with the pattern of decisions made by the political 

institutions such as governmental and legislative agencies” 3 (Luo, 2009: 2). Commercial risk is defined by 

the OECD (in the context of export credits) as “the risk of nonpayment by a non-sovereign or private sector 

buyer or borrower in his or her domestic currency arising from default, insolvency, and/or a failure to take 

up goods that have been shipped according to the supply contract” (OECD, 2003). 

For the purpose of this article we will primarily be concerned with commercial and non-commercial risks 

faced by exporters who wish to engage in cross border trade to emerging market economies. Those economies 

are often undergoing a political and economic transition which makes private sector engagement more 

challenging then when exporting to developed economies. Companies entering emerging markets can expect 

to face higher market barriers and more political uncertainties than those entering developed countries. The 

primary question to be answered in this article is: What is the economic justification for export credit agencies 

and how can they facilitate cross border trade to emerging markets? 

1. Are there any economic justifications for government involvement in trade finance? 

According to Raoul Ascari 4 the rationale for establishing an ECA has never been spelled out in a definite 

way. Furthermore he states that the “economic literature on this line of research has almost disappeared over 

the last two decades” (Ascari, 2007: 3). Ascari, however, refers to the World Bank Research Observer from 

1989 that lists some rationales behind export credit. Those are: domestic distortions, capital market failures 5 ; 

risk uncertainty and incomplete insurance markets; moral hazard 6 , and adverse selection 7 . As Ascari points 

out moral hazard and adverse selection may rise premium above the threshold at which exporters are willing 

to buy insurance (Ascari, 2007: 3). Other rationales for export credit and insurance are: industrial policies; 

export externalities; employment and balance of payments and matching other countries programs (For detail, 

see Fitzgerald and Monson, 1989; Ascari, 2007). 

According to a report published by the WTO in 1999 aggravated asymmetric information 8 in cross border 

trade, and the inability or unwillingness of private commercial banks to take on economic/commercial risks 

and political/non-commercial risks is often seen as an economic justification in trade financing (Finger and 

Schuknecht, 1999). This is especially true for large and long-term trade contracts to countries with less developed 

financial systems. Obviously asymmetric information can be significantly larger in international trade, as 

compared with domestic trade. This is because information about foreign companies (e.g. importers) is often 

more limited or less familiar to the supplier or exporter and his bank than in the case of domestic clients. This 

problem relates to commercial risks. Another problem associated with distant market has to do with policy 

3 

Different conceptualization of political risk can lead to different data sources, analytical tools, and interpretation of results (Luo, 2009). 

4 

At the time of writing his paper (2007) Raoul Ascari was the CFO of SACE. Currently he is the Chief Operating Officer of 

SAGE. In an email to the authors dated February 22, 2012 Ascari confirmed that according to his knowledge this gap in the 

literature still exists. 

5 

Incomplete information on export risk can, for example, cause lenders to charge higher rates or to demand more collateral. 

6 

Moral hazard is a problem created by asymmetric information after the transaction occurs. This occurs when the borrower engages 

in activities that are undesirable for the lender in the sense that they make it less likely that the borrower can pay back the loan. In 

the case of ECAs moral hazard would exist if the insured exporter has an incentive to change its behavior once it has the insurance. 

The exporter would sell to a riskier importer and transfer higher risk than he would want bear in the absence of insurance. 

7 

Adverse selection is the problem created by asymmetric information before the transaction takes place. This occurs, for example, 

when the borrower who is least likely to produce a desirable outcome most actively seeks a loan and thus is most likely to get the 

loan. Exporters would have an incentive to insure only high risk sales but not those that are considered low risk. 

8 

This implies that one party does not have enough information about the other party to make decisions. For example, the borrower 

who takes a loan often has better information on the potential returns on an investment project than the lender has. 

16


changes which make transfer of foreign exchange difficult or impossible thereby preventing the importer/ 

purchaser from making a payment to the exporter/supplier. This problem relates to non-commercial risks. 

ECAs from developed countries can help in this process if they guarantee exports to emerging markets 

and by doing so reduce the needs for domestic financing. ECAs can provide cover for both commercial and 

non-commercial risks as discussed below. In fact most developed countries have ECAs that help promote 

exports. As Finger and Schuknecht point out ECAs provide trade related financing through three main instruments: 

(i) credits for trade transactions which would be difficult, or more costly to finance via commercial 

lending, (ii) guarantees for repayment of credits which help exporters receive more favorable lending terms 

from their local or international banks, (iii) insurance for exporters against commercial and non-commercial/ 

political risk (Finger and Schuknecht, 1999: 9). 

2. Export credit agencies and their risk mitigation instruments 

When private companies engage in cross border trade in emerging markets, the risks they face is a key 

concern. Managing those risks will be one of the primary objectives of the company. Not only small and 

medium sized companies need to evaluate and assess the risks they are faced with carefully, but also large 

corporations with stronger financial capabilities need to protect their business from risks. In order to meet 

this existing demand the political and commercial risk insurance industry has been formed. The leading association 

in this industry is the Berne Union (founded 1934) with 73 members including mainly ECAs, multilaterals, 

and private insurers (MIGA, 2010). ECAs are either public-sector institutions in their respective 

countries, established to provide support for the exports of that country, or private-sector companies that act 

as a channel for government support for exports from the country concerned (Yescombe, 2002). 

In general, these ECAs will charge a premium to those companies who use their products. According to 

MIGA the “OECD country ratings are designed to set guidelines to price the default risk on export credit and 

to set minimum premium rates charged by participating ECAs” (MIGA, 2010: 63). The ratings known as 

the Knaepen Package came into effect in 1999, is a system for assessing country credit risk and classifying 

countries into eight risk categories, from 0 to 7 (OECD n.d). Basically, ECAs will assess political risk and 

commercial risk when they issue guarantees to exporters or foreign buyers. ECAs use country ratings by 

OECD as platform to assess political risk or country risk while commercial risk is assessed based on each individual 

corporate’s information such as operation and background information, financial and audited annual 

reports, project feasibility studies, etc. Companies who are eligible to use products or services provided by 

an ECA must have their operations relevant to national interest of the country where the ECA is located. In 

other words, the companies must contribute to national economic development of that country in a direct 

or indirect way. For instance, a company must have production facilities located in the home country of the 

ECA. The ECA can also support a home company who has production facility in a host country. 

There are various products or risk mitigation instruments offered by ECAs and these products can be 

the same or very similar from one ECA to another. Products of ECAs include, for example: Bond Guarantee, 

Investment Guarantee, Project Financing Guarantee, Financing Guarantee, Project Delivery Guarantee, 

Working Capital Guarantee or Reinsurance. 

The products that this article focuses on and analyses are: (i) Buyer Credit Guarantee, (ii) Supplier Credit 

Guarantees and (iii) Export Loans. The authors of this article chose those three products based on their research 

of a large European company in connection to its business expansion in Vietnam. These products seem 

to be the most suitable in terms of risk mitigation when companies export goods or services to their buyers 

in emerging markets. However, companies need to find what product suits them best on a case by case basis. 

A Buyer Credit Guarantee is basically a guarantee issued by an ECA to a bank that lends money to a foreign 

importer to pay for an order of goods or services from an exporter in the country where this ECA is located 

(see figure 1). In emerging economy countries, both local and international banks are cautious when deciding 

17



to lend capital to companies. A research 9 among the largest fisheries processors (ranked by VASEP 10 ) in Vietnam 

conducted by the authors in November 2011 found that when companies applied for medium or longterm 

loans (up to 5 years) to invest in their processing equipment they usually only got 50 to 55 percent of 

the amount requested. If a company has good working experience and good relations with a local bank and 

the feasibility study of their project is highly assessed, the amount of loan could be increased to 70 percent 

of the total loan requested. The companies had to use their own funds for the rest of the investment. Some 

processors said that they could hardly obtain any medium or long term loan if the size of the loan is up to few 

millions US dollars. This has been one of the companies´ main constraints and it prevents companies from 

investing intensively in comprehensive and modern processing lines. 

Figure 1. Model of Buyer Credit Guarantee of the Danish ECA – EKF 

Buyer Credit Guarantee can help foreign buyers in emerging markets to obtain larger loans from international 

banks with longer lending term and at more favorable interest rates. This can also be done through a local 

bank but it would normally take longer time as the ECA is more likely to know the international banks. The 

bank will then be covered from buyer’s default in repayment due to commercial or non-commercial risks. 

A Supplier Credit Guarantee is a guarantee issued by an ECA to the supplier or the exporter and this 

exporter can then grant the foreign buyer extended credit on amounts payable for the order. The supplier or 

the exporter will be protected against the risk of not being paid by the buyer or the importer due to political 

or commercial risks. The exporter can take advantage of supplier credit guarantee to lend the foreign buyers 

in an emerging market where an extended credit period may be the key incentive for the buyers to select the 

most competitive supplier over the others. Supplier Credit Guarantee helps the buyer or the importer repay 

the order in a longer period (see figure 2). This can be very advantageous for a buyer who may have limited 

cash flow and has difficulty in accessing funds. During a research conducted by the authors of this article 

9 

In co-operation with Marel Food Systems, the authors selected, visited and interviewed 4 of the largest Vietnamese pangasius 

processors in order to understand their difficulties and constraints in modernizing their processing lines. Export value of these 

processors on a yearly basis varied from USD 17 million to USD 61.7 million in 2010 (according statistic from VASEP sent via 

email July 22, 2011). These companies are thus an important source of foreign exchange for Vietnam. 

10 

Vietnam Association of Seafood Exporters and Producers (VASEP) is a non-governmental organization, established on June 

12th 1998, based on the principles of volunteer, autonomy and equality. VASEP members include leading Vietnamese seafood 

producers and exporters and companies providing service to the seafood sector. 

18


among 20 largest Vietnamese fisheries processors in August 2011, a questionnaire was sent out. All of those 

who answered indicated that they have to pay the supplier within 3 to 6 months after the equipment has been 

fully installed and checked. This short term repayment period for the equipment from the supplier is one of 

their main constraints especially for companies who lack working capital and have difficulty in obtaining 

loans. The field research conducted by the authors in November 2011 found that these companies have not 

been offered an extended credit period from any supplier. They have to apply for loans from local banks with 

high interest rates. Most loans lent to them are both short term loans (less than 12 months) and the amount 

allocated is far lower than the amount they requested. This constraint appears to be one of the reasons why 

Vietnamese fisheries processors could not purchase sophisticated processing equipment from European manufacturers 

on a large scale. 

Figure 2. Model of Supplier Credit Guarantee of the Danish ECA – EKF 

They only purchased a small part of the equipment needed from these manufactures and the rest of processing 

lines were locally made or imported from more affordable Asian manufacturers like China, Korea or 

Japan. This suggests that if buyers from an emerging market like Vietnam were offered an extended credit 

period, it might affect their investment decision which means that they would perhaps invest more sophisticated 

processing equipment on a larger scale. Some of the processors in Vietnam indicated that if they were 

granted a longer repayment period from the supplier and at reasonable cost they would consider to invest 

and modernize their processing lines more comprehensively. See figure 2 for the description of how Supplier 

Credit Guarantee works. 

An export loan is a lending scheme to help the exporter’s foreign buyer when this buyer is unable to secure 

credit facilities from banks for purchasing products and services from the exporter (see figure 3). In the 

case of EKF, the Danish Export Credit Agency, they would facilitate the export loan through a bank, and the 

loan is based on the bank’s lending terms. It depends on each individual ECA whether or not they offer the 

export loan product and how long the lending term will be. But this product is very important during financial 

crisis when banks are unable to provide loans to companies. The EKF offers export loans as a result of the 

crisis and application for an export loan from EKF can be made until end of 2015. 

19



Figure 3. Model of Export Loan of the Danish ECA – EKF 

However, the costs associated and premium for this Export Loan scheme is not necessary cheaper than 

other traditional lending schemes because the export loan is granted jointly by a bank (usually the exporter’s 

bank) and an ECA to the foreign buyer on a commercial basis and market conditions. Export loan can be 

even more expensive but it also can be critically important in international trade especially during financial 

crisis time where many banks are unable to provide funds to companies. The next chapter will illustrate how 

this produce is applied with a case in Jordan. 

3. Cases. The application of ECAs’ risk mitigation instruments 

Continuous opening up of emerging market economies provides companies with many new opportunities 

but at the same time it involves international business risks. This chapter discusses some success stories 

of companies who used products of the Danish Export Credit Agency, EKF when engaging in cross border 

trade. These cases are quoted directly from cases published on the EKF’s website. 

3.1. Olam International Limited and the use of Buyer Credit Guarantee from Danish ECA – EKF – for a 

manufacturing facility in Vietnam (2009) 

Olam is a leading global supply chain manager and processor of agricultural products and food ingredients. 

With direct sourcing and processing in most major producing countries for various products, with the 

headquarters in Singapore, Olam has built a global leadership position in many businesses, including cocoa, 

coffee, cashew, sesame, rice, cotton and wood products. Olam operates an integrated supply chain for 20 

products in 65 countries, delivering these products to over 11,000 customers worldwide (Olam, 2011). 

20


The Challenge 

In the year 2009, Olam was looking to invest in equipment for its new coffee manufacturing facility in 

Vietnam. Olam chose a Danish company namely GEA Process Engineering A/S as the supplier. Unfortunately, 

the global economic and financial crisis made it difficult for Olam to secure the financing it needed to 

buy the equipment. At the same time, Olam’s bank was reluctant to secure long term financing. “Owing to the 

lack of liquidity in the financial market in February 2009 it would in all probability have been impossible to 

secure financing with a repayment term beyond 2–3 years for Olam,” says Antero Ranta from Olam’s bank, 

ANZ Structured Asset and Export Finance, in Singapore 

The Process 

Thanks to long standing working relations between GEA and EKF, GEA proposed that EKF be involved 

in the process of procuring financing for Olam’s project in Vietnam. “I was convinced that EKF would be 

able to assist in putting the financing in place. For our part, it was all plain sailing, as, right from the start, 

our custo mer and ANZ were keen to take over and deal with EKF directly,” says Jesper Duckert, Project 

Finance Manager, GEA Process Engineering A/S. In order to implement the financing negotiations, EKF 

decided to send its representatives to Vietnam and had a meeting with representatives from Olam and ANZ 

Structured Asset. After the visit to Vietnam, EKF had better basis for assessing the actual credit risk entailed 

by the project. 

The Solution 

After the meeting and negotiation EKF came up with a detailed assessment of the project and was able 

to offer a buyer credit guarantee. This guarantee meant that EKF assumed a share of the risk of extending a 

loan to Olam, and therefore, ANZ could secure financing for Olam as they needed. “With an export credit 

guarantee from EKF we were able to offer Olam a loan with a repayment term of 8.5 years,” says Antero 

Ranta from ANZ Structured Asset and Export Finance in Singapore. “In spite of the financial crisis we were 

able to secure long-term financing for our activities on a growth market,” says Arun Sharma, Senior Vice 

President, Coffee Division, Olam (EKF, 2009a). 

3.2. A Jordanian company namely Modern Cement & Mining Company, and the use of Export Loan 

and Buyer Credit Guarantee from Danish ECA – EKF (period of credit: 2010 to 2017) 

The Challenge 

In July 2008 the Jordanian company Modern Cement & Mining Company chose a Danish company 

namely FLSmidth as an equipment supplier for its new cement plant in the south of Amman. The first deliveries 

were already paid by the Jordanian company but the main part of the order was to be financed by a 

local bank. However, due to the global economic and financial crisis, the bank turned down applications for 

new loans. This threatened the progress of the construction and the order of FLSmidth. FLSmidth decided to 

contact EKF in the spring of 2009 because FLSmidth had previously been assisted by EKF with guarantees 

for financing solutions. 

The Process 

EKF had meetings with a number of international and local banks who expressed their interest in taking 

on the risks of the project provided that EKF would guarantee most of the loans. Furthermore, through the 

export lending scheme EKF was able to offer a loan to the buyer of FLSmidth services. Then EKF quickly 

endorsed the project. “EKF’s endorsement was conditional to the approval of the risks and terms in the transaction, 

its environmental impact and the extent of the Danish eco nomic interest in the transaction – aspects 

which all needed further examina tion and subsequent negotiation with the parties involved” (EKF, 2010). 

21



The Solution 

Finally the solution came into place in May 2010. “Half of the FLSmidth contract was financed with 

equity from the owners of the cement plant while the other half was financed with loans. More than half of 

the debt financing came from the Danish export lending scheme administered by EKF, while the remainder 

was provided by a group of local banks” (EKF, 2010). HSBC London arranged the EKF financing. HSBC 

London is also acting as agent bank on behalf of EKF. Thanks to EKF’s loan and guarantee, the construction 

of the cement plant in Jordan could continue as planned. And the plant is expected to be ready for production 

start-up at the beginning of 2012 (EKF, 2010). 

3.3. Grain and seed exporter Nibulon Company in Ukraine used EKF’s Buyer Credit Guarantee to borrow 

money from a European Bank at a far lower interest rate than in Ukraine 

The Challenge 

In 2009, a Danish company, Cimbria Unigrain received the first of two large orders worth EUR 20 million 

from Nibulon, Ukraine’s largest grain and seed exporter and a high-growth company. This order consisted 

of eight silo facilities for storing, drying and loading grain and seed. And Nibulon uses this equipment 

to extend and standardize its storage and transportation facilities by the rivers of Ukraine and the Black Sea. 

However, the Ukrainian buyer’s constraint was that they had to borrow at a high interest rate in Ukraine to 

pay Cimbria Unigrain. And this might create uncertainty regarding the order from the Danish manufacturer. 

The Process 

Cimbria contacted EKF and EKF agreed to assess the viability of the export order and work on the financing 

options via a guarantee from EKF. “Even allowing for the premium payable to EKF, Nibulon is making 

a big saving,” says Sales Director Henning Roslev Bukh. He adds that Nibulon regards Cimbria Unigrain and 

EKF as important and regular business partners. 

The Solution 

Finally EKF offered a buyer credit guarantee to Nibulon. This meant that Nibulon was able to secure a 

loan from a Western European Bank at a far lower interest rate than in Ukraine. “Nibulon is very pleased that 

it was possible to arrange a Danish guarantee for this order. We might well have got the order anyway, as 

Nibulon has ordered from us for many years and is very satisfied with our products. Nibulon could perhaps 

have financed the purchase with equity, but it is often cheaper to borrow the money than to use equity, and 

equity is greatly needed in a growth-oriented company such as Nibulon,” says Henning Roslev Bukh. And 

in 2010. Nibulon made another order for eight silo facilities – and once again, EKF provided a guarantee for 

the buyer’s payments. Thanks to this order Cimbria Unigrain has hired 30 employees in 2010 (EKF, 2009b). 

4. Marel Food Systems expansion in Vietnam 

Marel Food Systems is one of the leading manufactures internationally in food processing equipment and 

solutions. Marel is headquartered in Iceland 11 and has production facilities for processing lines in fish, poultry, 

and meat in numbers of European countries, USA, Brazil and in Asia. Marel is ambitious to expand their 

business in emerging markets where food processing industry is becoming more important like for example 

11 

Iceland has an ECA called TRÚ. This agency has so far been inactive and has never processed a transaction. Since Marel 

Food Systems has production facilities in several countries the company can use the services of the ECAs in those countries. 

Iceland, like several small states, also has limited membership in international financial institutions (IFIs) and is not member 

of the regional development banks (see, for example, Hilmarsson, 2011). This limits the access of Icelandic companies to the 

risk mitigation instruments of IFIs. For more detail about the application of IFI risk mitigation instruments in emerging market 

economies see, for example Hilmarsson, 2012. 

22


in China, Thailand and Vietnam. However, the purchasing volume of buyers from these markets remains low 

especially in Vietnam. The research conducted by the authors in cooperation with Marel, mentioned earlier, 

among largest pangasius processors in Vietnam, found that Vietnamese buyers bought some limited number 

of equipment rather than investing in comprehensive processing lines. During in-depth interviews with 

4 of the largest Vietnamese processors, the authors were told that most of the equipment made by European 

manufacturers is very sophisticated and advanced, however, this equipment is too expensive for them to 

purchase on a large scale. Instead, they needed to select some equipment which is most important for them. 

The remaining equipment they bought from more affordable manufacturers from China, Korea or Japan and 

some other equipment is locally made. When asked, these processors said they were aware of the fact that 

having advanced equipment in their processing lines would enable them to export more of their products to 

high income markets like USA, Europe and Japan. The critical issue is lack of funding which prevents them 

from investing intensively. The issues here include low amount of loan allocation from local banks, limited 

availability and accessibility to long term loans especially in foreign currency like USD, high interest rates, 

short repayment period to the equipment suppliers etc. 

At the same time, the authors visited and interviewed some ECAs in Europe like EKF (Denmark), EKN 

(Sweden) and Atradius (Netherlands), and ECICS in Asia (Singapore). In response to the question what 

products offered by ECAs they thought would be most suitable for Marel and its buyers in Vietnam given 

the constraints mentioned above, these ECAs thought that two products should be suitable which are Buyer 

Credit Guarantee and Supplier Credit Guarantee. The recommended products of ECAs could help Marel 

achieve its goal which is to expand its business in Vietnam. However, the ECAs also said that in order to be 

supported by ECAs’ instruments, the Vietnamese buyers need to fulfill requirements in terms of being able 

to provide sufficient and transparent information about their companies, especially financial information, 

including audited annual reports. The readiness and good “home-work” of Vietnamese buyers will help the 

process of ECAs in assessing their creditworthiness and making decision on their request quicker. Most of 

the Vietnamese fisheries processors now are working with local banks both state owned and private, however, 

ECAs indicated that if foreign buyers work with international banks it will normally make the process 

faster because ECAs have more working experience with large international banks than local banks in a 

specific country. 

Conclusions 

ECAs have played an important role in cushioning the downturn in cross border trade during the current 

economic and financial crisis. The article discussed the role of ECAs in facilitating cross border trade to 

emerging markets as well as the economic rationale for the existence of such agencies. 

Continuous opening up of emerging market economies provides companies with many new opportunities 

but at the same time it involves international business risks. When companies engage in cross border trade 

they are likely to face higher risks than in domestic markets. These risks can be political and commercial 

risks and the level of risk is also different in different markets. In order to cover the existing demand and to 

promote the export of its home products, ECAs worldwide provide various risks mitigation instruments for 

cross border trade. Through the research done by the authors and the cases described in this article, we can 

see that there are real possibilities for companies to have risks covered thus enhance their business development 

especially when they tap into emerging markets. 

Among the key factors for success is the ability of ECAs to assess the creditworthiness of companies involved 

especially the foreign buyers. Therefore, in response to this issue, foreign buyers should provide full 

and transparent financial information to help the process move faster, including audited annual reports. Also, 

ECAs prefer working with international banks that they know and already have a business relationship with 

so it would be advantage for foreign buyers to seek loans from international banks such as ANZ and HSBC 

or international financial institutions such as the Asian Development Bank and the International Finance 

Corporation of the World Bank Group, etc. The products offered by ECAs show that the risks associated with 

23



political and commercial risks in emerging markets can be managed, and the cases discussed in this article 

are tangible evidence of recent success during a global economic and financial crisis. 

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http://www.sace.it/GruppoSACE/export/sites/default/download/wpsacen02.pdf (accessed on February 25, 2012). 

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wp1116.pdf (accessed on February 25, 2012). 

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(accessed on November 14, 2011). 

EKF. (2009b). Case: Ukraine Orders Create Jobs in Thisted, Denmark. Available at: http://www.ekf.dk/en/How-it-works/cases/Pages/Cimbria.aspx 

(accessed on November 14, 2011). 

EKF. (2010). Case: EKF Secures Financing of Large FLSmidth Order to Jordan. Available at: http://www.ekf.dk/en/ 

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with less advanced economies and what lessons can they learn from the international development programs 

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pdf (accessed on December 12, 2011). 

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(accessed on December 12, 2011). 

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on October 15, 2011). 

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en_2649_34171_1901105_1_1_1_1,00.html (accessed on December 12, 2011). 

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en_2649_34169_1_1_1_1_1,00.html (accessed on February 25, 2012). 

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14, 2011). 

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(accessed on August 31, 2011). 

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24


ekonominės eksporto kreditų agentūrų egzistavimo 

prielaidos, jŲ galiMYBĖS paskatinti užsienio prekybą 

su kylančiomis rinkos ekonomikomis 


Verslo ir mokslo mokykla, Akureyri universitetas (Islandija) 

Santrauka 

Eksporto kreditų agentūros (EKA) suvaidino svarbų vaidmenį švelninant finansų krizės padarinius užsienio 

prekybai. Šiame straipsnyje aptariamas EKA vaidmuo skatinant užsienio prekybą su kylančiomis rinkos 

ekonomikomis, aptariamos ekonominės tokių agentūrų egzistavimo prielaidos. 

Straipsnyje parodoma, kaip praktikoje taikomos EKA rizikos mažinimo priemonės: 1) pirkėjo kredito 

garantijos; 2) tiekėjo kredito garantijos; 3) eksporto paskolos. Pateikiama pavyzdžių, kaip organizacijos 

naudojosi EKA paslaugomis, pavyzdžiui, siekdamos geresnių sąlygų, tokių kaip ilgesni paskolų terminai ir/ 

ar mažesnės palūkanos. 

PAGRINDINIAI ŽODŽIAI: užsienio prekyba, kylančios rinkos, finansų krizė, eksporto kredito agentūros 

(EKA), komercinė ir nekomercinė rizika, rizikos mažinimo instrumentai. 

JEL codes: F14, F21, G01, G24, G32 

25

Anna Belova 

International cooperation of border settlements in strategies for development of small and semi-medium cities: case-study... 

International cooperation of border settlements 

in strategies for development of small 

and semi-medium cities: case-study of Kaliningrad 

Region (Russian Federation) 

Anna Belova 1 

Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University (Russia) 

Abstract 

The role of cross-border cooperation of Kaliningrad region’s of Russian Federation border municipalities in its development strategies 

are observed. Significance of cross-border cooperation of small and semi-medium cities for its socio-economic development is 

analysed. The main spheres of cooperation between small and semi-medium border settlements of Kaliningrad region, Poland and 

Lithuania have been defined. The theoretical base on cross-border cooperation (Russian and foreign researchers) was analysed, and 

five geographical methods were used on preparation the article. 

KEY WORDS: development strategy, cross-border cooperation, border settlements, small and semi-medium-sized cities, socio-economic 

development. 

JEL Codes: R120, R230, R500, R580, R590, O180, O190, F500, F590 

Introduction 

Kaliningad region of Russian Federation due to its geographical location has the exclave status for the 

country. And the cross-border cooperation of the Kaliningrad region with surrounding EU countries (Lithuania 

and Poland) plays significant role for socio-economic development of Kaliningrad region. It is important 

to mention that only Kaliningrad region is separated from Russian territory by other states. And the 

border regions of Russia consider the cross-border cooperation as one of the ways towards socio-economic 

development of the territory. Mostly small and semi-medium-sized cities are located along the borders of 

Russia, and its cooperation reflected in the development strategies of the border regions of the Russian Federation. 

Compared to other Russian peripheral territories, semi-medium sized cities of the Kaliningrad region 

actively participate in cross-border and transnational cooperation. All of them enjoy partnerships and twinning 

relationships with overseas neighbouring, and even with geographically remote cities. The strategies 

for socio-economic development of semi-medium sized cities of Kaliningrad region plays significant role for 

cross-border and trans-border cooperation for its development. 

The main aim of the article is to analyse the strategies for socio-economic development of semi-mediumsized 

cities of Kaliningrad region on issue of the cross-border cooperation and to define main sectors for 

cooperation of semi-medium sized cities of Kaliningrad region with border municipalities of Lithuania and 

Poland. Also it is the objective to analyse the role of the border cities of Kaliningrad region for the settlement 

system o the region. 

1 Anna Belova – Head of the European Union information center of the Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University, Kaliningrad, 

scientific interests: social geography, international cooperation. 

E-mail: polyotkina@mail.ru 

26


1. Research review 

There are many Russian (Soviet) scientists have dealt with settlement systems, region planning and role 

of the settlements in socio-economic development of the territory. Among Russian scientists in this sphere 

it is needed to pay attention to economic geographers as B. S. Khoreev, S. G. Smidovich, G. M. Lappo, 

D. G. Khodzhaev, G. M. Fedorov (Lappo, 1997; Fedorov, 2001; Pustovgarov, Fedorov, 2001) and others. 

Among foreign scientists – W. Crystaller and A. Lesh, H. Hotellinag, J. Tunen, W. Laundhart, A. Weber and 

others (Simagin, 2009). 

As soon as for border regions and territories, many scientists in their research work paid attention to 

border as the significant resource for improving the socio-economic situation in peripheral areas. There are 

such scientists as Russian (Soviet) geographers: P. Y. Baklanov, Y. N. Gladky, Y. M. Zverev, T. N. Chekalina, 

V. S. Korneevets, N. V. Kaledin, V. A. Kolosov, A. G. Manakov, B. B. Rodoman (Baklanov, Ganzej, 2004; 

Kaledin, Korneevets, Chekalina, 2008; Kolosov, Turovskij, 1998; Rodoman, 2002) and others; economists: 

O. V. Butorina, L. B. Vardomski, N. M. Mezhevich, N. Y. Oding (Mezhevich, 2002; Oding, Fedorov, 2009); 

politologs: I. N. Barygin, K. K. Khudoley, O. V. Plotnikova and others (Barygin, 2009; Plotnikova, 2005; 

Khudoley, Lanko, 2009). 

Significant role plays the research works of such foreign scientists as Е. Antola, Е. Buchhover, V. Goermar, 

P. Joenniemi, U. Kivikari, M. Lindstrоm, K. Lihuto, Т. Palmovsky, E. Spiriajevas, I. Samson, F. Tassinari, 

H. Timmermann, K. Wellmann, J. Zaleski (Rosas, Antola, 1995; Buchover, 1994; Kivikari, Lindstrom, 

Liuhto, 1998; Palmowski, 2004; Spiriajevas, 2004; Timmermann, 2001; Tassinari, 2004). 

As for the strategic planning for the regional development in boder regions and muniipalities, it is important 

to note such scientists as V. S. Bilchak, G. M. Fedorov, D. A. Bolotova, V. A. Lapina, V. Y. Liubovny, 

M. Y. Mahovej, N. M. Mezhevich, M. A. Nikolajeva, S. N. Yurkova (Bilchak, 2001; Fedorov, Zverev, Korneevets, 

2008; Mezhevich, 2009; Shirokov, Yurkova, 2004) and others. 

2. Methodology 

During preparation of the present research the following methods used in research of social and economic 

geography have been applied (Djakonov, 1996): 

• y bibliographical method (study of works of Russian (soviet) and foreign geographers on the present 

subject); 

• y comparative and geographical method (to reveal general tendencies of social and economic development 

of the small and semi-medium-sized border cities and other border settlements of Kaliningrad 

region and border areas of Lithuania and Poland, and to analysis the strategic documents of the border 

municipalities of Kaliningrad region); 

• y method of spontaneous study of populated places (to reveal problems of border small and semi-medium 

cities of the Kaliningrad region); 

• y method of analysis of statistic data (to compose tables of forms and types of the crosborder cooperation 

of the border small and semi-medium cities of the Kaliningrad region with the view of their 

further analysis); 

• y cartographical method (aiming at presentation the border settlements of the region and adjacent EU 

states). 

3. Research results 

Regional strategies and policies of semi-medium sized cities and their adjacent areas were elaborated 

with regard to the specific geographical situation of the Kaliningrad region and the experience of cross-border 

and transnational cooperation. 

27

Anna Belova 


The Medium and Long-term Strategy for Socio-economic Development of the Kaliningrad region links 

the prospects of regional development to three interrelated problems (Strategy of soc. econ. develop. of Kaliningrad 

region, 2007): 

1. Ensuring the Kaliningrad region’s effective integration into chief socio-economic processes currently 

in progress in the Baltic region, with priority given to industrial-technological issues, transport, cultural 

development and migration issues. It requires synchronization of regional development both 

with closest neighbours and with other Russian regions. 

2. Defining the role of the Kaliningrad region in achieving the strategic goals set on the Federal level 

viewed as an incentive for restructuring regional economies and for competitiveness enhancement. 

3. Defining the baseline scenario of the EU-Russia relations development and the role of the Kaliningrad 

region in its implementation. Among the options considered there are: a) Russia’s full membership in 

the EU; b) creation of a common market, including labour and capital markets, which suggests harmonization 

of Russian and European legislations; c) cooperation in several strategically significant 

areas (strategic partnership); e) maintenance of the status quo in the relationships. 

Current socio-economic processes in the Baltic macro-region are regarded as fundamental factors of the 

regional development strategy in the Kaliningrad region. Along with the formation of a common market 

of labour, capital and transport services; together with technological upgrading, production management 

improvement (especially outsourcing, including the redistribution of businesses from the countries of old 

Europe to Poland and the Baltic States), we are witnessing the reform of general and vocational education, 

aimed at the formation of a common European space of higher education in the context of Bologna Process 

(Russia included). On top of this, great importance is attached to changes in migration issues and to the transformation 

of urban environment into a more environmentally – and investment-friendly milieu, with cities 

functioning as Pan-Baltic business centres or tourism hubs and emerging transnational urban agglomerations 

(Copenhagen-Malmo, in the long run – Tallinn-Helsinki) (Kaledin, Korneevets, Chekalina, 2008). 

The Strategy emphasizes that “culture is becoming a factor of productivity growth and economic development, 

promoting an inflow of investments, mobile personnel, and information”. It is these processes that 

account for a large share of tourism in the Baltic macro-region. The Kaliningrad region is facing the challenge 

to form a single tourist and recreational space jointly with some Polish and Lithuanian regions, and 

to enhance cross-border and international cooperation with the countries whose history is closely connected 

with the history of the area (including France, Holland, Italy, Austria, and the Czech Republic). 

North-western Russian regions are also integrating into the spatial dimension of the Baltic region (Strategy 

of soc. econ. develop. of Kaliningrad region, 2007). 

An example of cross-border collaboration is set by the Baltijsk municipality. Baltijsk, whose role until 

recently was limited to servicing the naval base, is now embarking on the path of developing civilian infrastructure, 

promoting SMEs, using its tourist potential, etc. Prospects for the district’s advance are linked 

primarily to the development of port infrastructure and integration into the South Baltic Sea area transport 

system. The formation of the transport network in Baltijsk is remarkable for being part of the conversion 

process. The Ministry of Defence has already handed over two objects for civilian use (the third and fourth 

basins); two berths have been equipped for receiving ferries in Basin 3, and a ferry line has been launched 

with the itinerary Ust-Luga – St. Petersburg – Baltijsk. A railway terminal and a railway ferry service have 

been also launched, running Ust-Luga – Baltijsk – ports of Germany. A harbour station and a hydro-acoustic 

harbour are listed among prospective constructions. 

The District Administration is determined to promote cross-border cooperation and to integrate into the 

world economy. The city is actively involved in relations with neighbouring cities (Strategy of soc. econom. 

development of Baltijsk, 2008). 

Baltijsk’s participation in the network of international transport corridors implies, above all, attracting 

freight and passenger flows and investment, business development, solution of acute social issues (including 

employment of laid-off officers to the reserve) and prevention of environmental pollution. On the whole, it 

28


will contribute to the prosperity of the Kaliningrad region, its socio-economic alignment with neighbouring 

countries and, ultimately, to the increase of living standards of its population. 

It is the expansion and modernization of the Baltijsk port complex that is bound to boost competitiveness 

of Kaliningrad ports. It is necessary to build partnership relations between Kaliningrad and Klaipeda ports to 

set the specialization areas and ensure competitiveness for the cross-border consortium. 

In the Baltijsk urban development strategy until 2015, cross-border issues are clearly set in the mission of 

the territory, stating that it is the Baltic sea gate of Russia and her outpost in the West; the key constituency 

in the development of the Kaliningrad region of the Russian Federation at the intersection of trade routes 

East-West, North-South; a centre for international cooperation, education, recreation, health improvement 

and tourism. 

What accounts for most of the municipality’s growth points is chiefly the function of servicing transit 

cargo and passenger flows, and simultaneous development of cross-border links with neighbouring regions, 

namely, Lithuania, Poland and Sweden (Strategy of soc. econom. development of Baltijsk, 2008). 

The main advantage of the urban district of Svetly is its location along the Kaliningrad sea canal – the 

major infrastructural component of the transport complex in the Kaliningrad region, opening up the shortest 

way to the Baltic Sea, provided with equipped mooring lines, and offering a wide choice of transport 

communications (water, rail-, motor- ways), as well as the availability of developed transport infrastructure 

and several sea terminals. Among the noteworthy strengths of the district, are a number of major infrastructural 

facilities of regional significance located on its territory (JSC “Lukoil-Kalinigradmorneft”, PLC 

“Commonwealth-Soya”, PLC “Optim”, etc.). A long-term cooperation with these enterprises is considered 

highly promising for the port. The district is also counting on benefits from the expansion of foreign economic 

relations and the growth of Russian exports. Another potential feature is vested in socio-economic 

cooperation with Kaliningrad, as well as with Russian and Polish settlements on the coast of the Vistula Bay 

(Strategy of soc. econom. development of Svetly, 2008). 

As is stated in the mission, the Baltijsk district aims to form a modern urban industrial centre with the 

dominating role of a complex, embracing industrial (manufacturing) and freight handling facilities. In its 

strategy the District is not focused on the search of its own niche, but rather on the qualitative development 

of already emerging areas of specialization (Strategy of soc. econom. development of Baltijsk, 2008). 

The urban districts of Svetly, as well as those of Baltijsk, Svetlogorsk, Guryevsk, Mamonovo, Bagrationovsk 

and the Zelenogradsky region (western part of the Kaliningrad region) in the long run could join the 

metropolitan area with its centre in the city of Kaliningrad. 

In its development strategy, the Sovetsk urban district indicates among its internal strengths the proximity 

to the border equipped with crossing points, accessible external resources and a well-developed versatile 

industrial infrastructure. The participation in the Euro region “Saule” and other international projects; the 

district’s tourist potential; its geographical location in the transport network both in the Kaliningrad region 

and prospective international corridors – these features add to the strengths of the district (Strategy of soc. 

econom. development of Sovetsk, 2009). 

The district’s external opportunities comprise: attraction of investments (including foreign ones) for the 

development of manufacturing, tourism, life-support systems and for implementing social programs; increasing 

its liaison function of the border and cross-border cooperation; location on the left bank of the River 

Neman, which is an international waterway; forwarding, warehousing, logistics and other services within 

servicing a newly built transportation corridor (Strategy of soc. econom. development of Sovetsk, 2009). 

The Strategy for the medium- and long-term socio-economic development of the Kaliningrad region 

stresses that it is desirable to consider the potential of creating a strong freight-cargo hub on the basis of the 

conurbation ‘Gusev – Cherniakhovsk’, with the further relocation of logistics, sorting and the administrative 

centres for freight and rail haul to the hub. This measure would partially ease Kaliningrad’s cargo transportation 

burden and thereby allow Kaliningrad to focus on specializations inherent in the capital city as a tourist 

and recreation centre, and a location of foreign and national businesses. This will also contribute to creating 

a more balanced spatial pattern of the Kaliningrad region, which now lacks the “second city” – the point 

29

Anna Belova 


of attraction for labour and production technologies (Strategy of soc.econ. develop. of Kaliningrad region, 

2007; (Programme of soc. economic development of Kaliningrad region, 2006). 

In the development strategy for the urban district of Cherniakhovsk, its international ties are regarded as 

one of the challenges whose solution is aimed at creating a favourable natural environment and at improving 

the quality of life (Strategy of soc. econom. development of Cherniakhovsk, 2009). 

As points of growth the municipality specifically addresses two economic clusters: a transportation and 

logistics centre and the East-European Centre of horse husbandry. The transportation and logistics centre is 

defined as a facility unit for processing goods and for traffic servicing, which includes transportation networks 

(railways, roads), facilities infrastructure (warehouses, terminals) and services infrastructure (temporary 

storage warehouses, customs office, hotels, catering businesses, service stations). Although the transport 

sector of the Cherniakhovsk urban district is already an economic cluster, additional investments are badly 

needed into the accompanying infrastructure, such as logistics companies and hotel service (Strategy of soc. 

econom. development of Cherniakhovsk, 2009). 

Gusev urban district also connects its prospects with the development of rail and road transport infrastructure 

and the Goldap-Gusev border crossing. Gusev is actively involved in cross-border cooperation 

projects under the neighbourhood programme including Lithuania, Poland, and the Kaliningrad region of 

Russia. The district is leading in a number of projects among municipalities, being engaged in attracting investments 

into processing industries (based on local resources) and agriculture. Currently, it is implementing 

the development of techno polis in partnership with I. Kant Baltic Federal University, and it also aims to 

develop cross-border cultural, historical and natural tourism. The municipality is actively working within the 

Euro region “Neman” (Programme for soc. econom. development of Gusev, 2009). 

Analysing the cross-border cooperation of border cities (small and semi-medium-sized) of Kaliningrad 

region, sustainable networks have been established with small and medium-sized cities of the border countries 

– Lithuania and Poland (Table 1). 

Table 1. Existing cross-border cooperation of the border small and semi-medium-sized cities of Kaliningrad region 

№ Border city of 

Kaliningrad region 

Cooperation border 

country 

Cooperation border city 

and sphere of cooperation 

1 Sovetsk Lithuania Panemune (transport and logistic, culture, 

tourism) 

Shilale (Culture) 

Pagėgiai (business, tourism, culture, youth 

policy, sport) 

Taurage (transport and logistic, business, 

culture, tourism, youth policy, sport, 

education) 

Plunge (common food production 

enterprise) 

2 Nesterov Lithuania Virbalis (culture, education) 

Kybartai (border crossing point, transport 

and logistic) 

Vilkaviškis (culture, entrepreneurship) 

3 Neman Lithuania Siauliai, Taurage (within euro region 

“Saule”, tourism, culture, environmental 

protection) 

Siauliai, Vilkaviškis, Kazlu Ruda, 

Kalvarija, Marijampole, Jurbarkas (within 

euroregion “Sheshupe”, environmental 

protection) 

30


№ Border city of 

Kaliningrad region 

Cooperation border 

country 

Cooperation border city 

and sphere of cooperation 

4 Svetlyj Poland Svinoustje (tourism, environmental 

protection) 

Kalwarija Zebzhydovska (environmental 

protection, tourism) 

Novy Dwor Gdanski (culture, sport, 

education) 

Frombork (tourism, culture) 

Kentrzyn (culture, sport, education, social 

cooperation, environmental protection) 

Common Union of the coastal gminas 

of the Vistula lagoon (12 cities) for 

development of the marine yacht tourism 

5 Ozersk Poland Elk (agrotourism, culture, 

entrepreneurship) 

Ostroda (social sphere) 

Sopot (social sphere, tourism) 

6 Gusev Poland Goldap (culture, sports, social sphere, 

tourism, environmental protection) 

Pabjanice (culture, sport, social sphere) 

7 Baltijsk Poland Elblag (transport, tourism, social sphere, 


Krynica Morska (transport, tourism) 

Commun Union of the coastal gminas 



8 Mamonovo Poland Branevo (environmental protection, 

transport and logistic, social sphere) 

Prabuty (social support of the local 

inhabitants) 

Pish (culture, entrepreneurship, tourism) 

Penezhno (entrepreneurship, culture, 

historical and cultural heritage) 

Commun Union of the coastal gminas 



9 Bagrationovsk Poland Lidzbark (social sphere, education, culture, 

sport, youth policy, entrepreneurship, 

cooperation between non-governmental 

organisations) 

Korshe (culture, tourism) 

Bartoszyce (transport and logistic, 

entrepreneurship, culture, environmental 

protection, tourism) 

Ilawa (culture, social sphere, 


Sourse: Prepared by Author 

According to the spheres of cross-border cooperation of small and semi-medium sized cities with 

neighbouring border cities of Poland and Lithuania, culture and tourism are in leader position (Fig. 1). 

31

Anna Belova 


Figure 1. Cooperation spheres of the border cities of Kaliningrad region of RF, Lithuania and Poland 

Source: Prepared by Author 

According to the Fig.1, as it was mentioned above, culture and tourism are leaders of cooperation of the 

border cities. Also, social sphere, sport and entrepreneurship have significant role in cross-border cooperation. 

NGO cooperation is not well-developed, but thanks to euro regional cooperation and such cooperation 

tool as Cross-border cooperation Programme Lithuania-Poland-Russia 2007–2013, there are more and more 

NGO establishing and start to cooperate. 

Conclusions 

Every semi-medium sized town of the Kaliningrad region benefits from of its geographical location and 

economic situation. It is these benefits that predetermined the growth in the size of these towns compared to 

other municipal town of the region (excluding the city of Kaliningrad) and created the necessary prerequisites 

for their further dynamic development. These prerequisites can be realized under several conditions, if 

the Kaliningrad region (as it can be expected) starts to play a more important role in international economic 

relations of Russia, and if Russia’s economy continues its rapid development. Secondly, if industrial cooperation 

develops in the south-east of the Baltic Sea region, thus forming a single territorial Russian-Polish- 

Lithuanian economic system, called “Trehgradie” (Gdansk – Gdynia – Sopot – Kaliningrad – Klaipeda). 

Apart from it, a lot depends on the growth in the labour recourses of the Kaliningrad region as a result of 

the implementation of the programme of re-settlement of Russian citizens, who now live abroad, in the Kaliningrad 

region. Another condition is to be fulfilled – the development of transport infrastructure, including 

extensive development of the rail roads and highways, connecting the Kaliningrad region with other Russia 

regions and European countries. The ports of the Kaliningrad region are to increase their capacity. 

Baltijsk and Svetly, being Kaliningrad Avant posts, are parts of the Kaliningrad agglomeration and the 

Kaliningrad transport junction. The development of these two towns as satellites of Kaliningrad should be 

closely connected with the development of the whole agglomeration, its industrial and, to a greater extent, 

social infrastructure, as well as its rapid changes in labour recourses and the necessity to solve common environmental 

problems. Cross-border cooperation of these cities with border cities of neighbouring states is 

mostly connected with transport and logistic, and sports and social sphere. 

Cherniakhovsk and Gusev trend to create a single territorial system, developing as one whole. These 

towns could counterbalance further concentration of the industrial potential in the west of the Kaliningrad 

32


region. From the point of view of the development of urban-rural partnership, Cherniakhovsk plays an important 

role in agro-industrial cooperation and providing services to the rural population in the south-east 

of the region. Cherniakhovsk, developing its integration with Gusev and forming a single territorial system, 

may become even more active in providing services to the neighbouring rural population. 

Sovetsk can use the advantages of its proximity to the border for further strengthening its economic ties 

with the neighbouring districts of Lithuania. While developing, Sovietsk may include Neman and Slavsk 

into the sphere of its influence, thus creating a small agglomeration in the north of the Kaliningrad region. 

As soon as Sovetsk is one of the biggest border-crossing point, which is significant not only for Kaliningrad 

region, but also for Russia, the transport and logistic are main cooperation sphere with neighbouring Lithuanian 

settlements. Other significant cooperation spheres’ are: entrepreneurship, social sphere, culture and 

tourism. Also Nesterov and Chernyshevskoje settlement of Kaliningrad region are cooperate with Lithuanian 

border settlements first of all as crossing-border points, and within different social spheres. 

The cross-border cooperation of small and semi-medium-sized cities of Kaliningrad region and border 

states – Lithuania and Poland strengthening from year to year. People-to-people contacts of the border 

settlements also rising up. This is possible due to cooperation tools such as euroregional cooperation and 

cooperation Programmes (CBC ENPI Lithuania-Poland-Russia 2007–2013, Baltic Sea Region Programme 

2007–2013 and South Baltic Programme), and also due to significant role of cross-border cooperation in 

development strategies of border cities and municipalities, as well as the Kaliningrad region as a whole. 

Cross-border cooperation of border cities of Kaliningrad region with Lithuanian and Polish ones is very 

important for regional socio-economic development. It allows experiencing exchange and to get and implement 

the best practices in different spheres, such as environmental protection, innovative industry, social 

sphere, education, etc. 

It is necessity improving the socio-economic situation of the border areas due to opening the small crossborder 

movement between Poland and Kaliningrad region. 

Further coordination of the development strategy of the Kaliningrad region and its municipalities with 

the development strategies of the neighbouring Baltic Sea region countries will definitely facilitate positive 

trends in the development of semi-medium sized towns and the Kaliningrad region as a whole. 

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Москва, 78 с. 

34


Tarptautinis pasienio gyvenviečių bendradarbiavimas 

mažų ir vidutinių miestų vystymo strategijose: 

Kaliningrado srities pavYzdys (Rusijos federacija) 

Anna Belova 

Emanuelio Kanto Baltijos federalinis universitetas (Rusija) 

Santrauka 

Kaliningrado regionas yra Rusijos Federacijos eksklavas, todėl pasienio bendradarbiavimas su jį supančiomis 

ES šalimis (Lietuva ir Lenkija) ypač svarbus socioekonominiam regiono vystymuisi. Kaliningrado 

regione yra devyni vidutiniai pasienio miestai, kurie, kaip ir kiekviena gyvenvietė, regione išnaudoja savo 

geografinės padėties privalumus. 

Baltijskas ir Svetly yra Kaliningrado aglomeracijos ir transporto mazgo dalis. Šių dviejų miestų vystymasis 

labai priklauso nuo visos aglomeracijos vystymosi tendencijų. Šių miestų bendradarbiavimas su kaimyninių 

valstybių pasienio miestais daugiausia susijęs su transportu, logistika, sportu ir socialiniais ryšiais. 

Černiachovskas ir Gusevas sudaro vieningą teritorinę sistemą ir vystosi kartu. Šie du miestai gali išlyginti 

šiuo metu pastebimą pramonės susitelkimą Kaliningrado regiono vakaruose. Černiachovskas vaidina svarbų 

vaidmenį plėtojant agropramoninį bendradarbiavimą ir teikiant paslaugas pietrytinei regiono daliai. 

Sovetskas gali pasinaudoti pasienio teikiamais privalumais ir toliau stiprinti ekonominius ryšius su kaimyniniais 

Lietuvos regionais. Besivystantis Sovetskas gali įtraukti Nemano ir Slavsko miestus į savo įtakos 

zoną, taip sukurdamas nedidelę aglomeraciją regiono šiaurėje. Transportas ir logistika yra pagrindinės bendradarbiavimo 

su kaimyniniais Lietuvos regionais sritys, kitos svarbios sritys yra verslas, socialinė sritis, 

kultūra ir turizmas. 

Kaliningrado regiono, Lietuvos ir Lenkijos pasienių bendradarbiavimas metams bėgant darosi vis aktyvesnis. 

Žmonių bendravimas pasienyje taip pat aktyvėja, tam labai padeda bendradarbiavimą skatinančios 

programos (tokios kaip CBC ENPI Lithuania-Poland-Russia 2007–2013, Baltic Sea Region Programme 

2007–2013, South Baltic Programme), pasienio miestų, savivaldybių ir regionų plėtros strategijos, kur pasienio 

bendradarbiavimui skiriamas didelis dėmesys. Pasienio bendradarbiavimas leidžia keistis patirtimi 

įvairiose srityse, tokiose kaip aplinkosauga, moderni pramonė, socialinė sritis, švietimas ir pan. 

Tolesnis Kaliningrado srities ir jos savivaldybių vystymo strategijų koordinavimas su kaimyninių Baltijos 

jūros regiono valstybių vystymo strategijomis, paskatins smulkių ir vidutinių miestų bei viso Kaliningrado 

regiono tolesnį vystymąsi. 

PAGRINDINIAI ŽODŽIAI: vystymo strategija, pasienio bendradarbiavimas, pasienio gyvenvietės, maži 

ir vidutiniai miestai, socioekonominis vystymasis. 

JEL klasifikacija: R120, R230, R500, R580, R590, O180, O190, F500, F590 

35


SUSTAINABILITY OF EVALUATION FUNCTION IN LITHUANIAN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION 

SUSTAINABILITY OF EVALUATION FUNCTION 

IN LITHUANIAN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION 

Jaroslav Dvorak 1 


Abstract 

This article sets out to examine the public policy evaluation model, which is applied for evaluating public policy in Lithuania. The 

data was collected from the papers published by local researchers, official documents available at the ministries and agencies web 

sites and other printed materials. Qualitative data for this paper was taken from the series of individual interviews with public officials 

and evaluators (conducted 200–2010). The data was supplemented with quantitative data from the survey about the scope and 

significance of evaluation in Lithuania (conducted in 2010). It was found that monitoring system was weak designed and required 

significant reinvention. The reinvention of the monitoring system will built base for the future evaluation of the results. It is suggested 

that that the greatest demand for the effectiveness, efficiency and productivity in the government leads to the highest use of performance 

management and evaluation as a tool for decision-making. 

KEY WORDS: evaluation, program, monitoring, Lithuania. 

JEL codes: D730, D780, D790, H830, L380 

Introduction 

Evaluation of public policy has been applied in Lithuania only recently, and a certain impact of this tool 

is noted while administering the support of the EU Structural and Cohesion Funds. However, the information 

about evaluation has not been perfect yet. Evaluation is institutionalized in the Lithuanian administration 

system. An evaluator is a new social role, and, as we know from anthropology and sociology, rights, duties, 

expectations, etc. are typical for any role. In addition, the role of an evaluator is related to other roles, 

i.e. politicians, administrators or citizens. Rules of behaviour exist for any given pair of relationship or the 

norms and corresponding configurations of power; thus not only time, but also will is necessary to include 

evaluation into the agenda. In the process of evaluation consolidation, the evaluator has the right to ask specific 

questions and demand for certain information and charge the people to use evaluation results. While 

analyzing the development of the evaluation function, it is important to know how evaluation influence appears, 

mediates, is blocked or develops or, speaking instrumentally, how the influence of any evaluation may 

be increased. The research on policy evaluation, as well as many other retrospective instruments of public 

policy, faces the lack of data. 

The amount of data about the outcomes of public policy instruments, which was provided a decade ago, 

is significantly bigger in comparison to the information on public policy evaluation provided only several 

years ago. Apparently, the need to clarify how public policy evaluation is applied in the Lithuanian political 

and administrative environment exists. Of course, it is not necessary to wait for several decades for the 

information about the implementation of public policy evaluation in post-communist countries. The more 

1 

Jaroslav Dvorak – Klaipėda University, Department of Public Administration and Law, lect. dr., scientific interest: evidence 

based administration, public services delivery, evaluation of public policy. 

E-mail: jvd@takas.lt 

Tel.: +370 610 310 01 

36


institutionalized evaluation is, the more difficult it will be to make changes while reconstructing the process 

of evaluation/the mechanism and compare with earlier stages of implementation. 

The aim of this paper to analyze and generalize the public policy evaluation model, which is applied for 

evaluating public policy in Lithuania. 

The configurative-idiographic method of case study was applied for the analysis of public policy evaluation 

in Lithuania. The application of this case study type allowed understanding the internal way of operation 

of the case and the fundamental characteristics of evaluation in Lithuania. The data for the analysis 

were collected using the conception of triangulation and using several sources: (i) document analysis (legal 

or administrative documents, protocols, reports and media reports); in-depth expert interview of direct contact 

and contact by telephone; (iii) quantitative questionnaire of public officials on the internet; (iv) content 

analysis of decision-making evaluation reports; (v) statistical analysis of the data; (vi) logical distribution 

and classification. 

1. Description of the concept of public policy evaluation 

The general definition of evaluation influences the formation of understanding the concept of public policy 

evaluation. Policy evaluation has a different meaning for different people and it can serve different purposes. 

Because there is no definition of evaluation which is accepted universally, every definition provided 

in the scientific literature is limited from one or another perspective because it is always possible to find the 

kinds of activities that are universally accepted as an evaluation but they are not comprised to the definition 

proposed by one or another author. 

First of all, it is possible to claim that evaluation is the systematic assessment of the worth or merit of some 

object. Evaluation is the systematic acquisition and assessment of information to provide useful feedback 

about some object (Trochim, 2006). As we can see from the provided definition, the concept of evaluation 

is intermingled with the assessment of worth and merits of a certain object. In the context of evaluation, a 

merit is understood as a correspondence to evaluation standards and specifications or, in other words, whether 

the assessment object performs something as well as it had to. If a programme has merits, it should serve 

the purpose to improve peoples’ welfare. In Dahler-Larsen’s (2007) opinion, different evaluation values 

and standards lead to different evaluations. Therefore, it is important for the evaluators to certify the value 

structure, according to which the evaluation conclusions will be made. There is an opinion that the concept 

of quality is the equivalent of a merit (Stufflebeam, Shinkfiled, 2007: 12). 

In turn, analyzing the concept of worth, it is possible to distinguish that even though the merits of the evaluation 

object may be evaluated very well, but its worth may be low. The benefit of public policy evaluation 

is measured by the validity of evidence, the reliability of evaluation for the state, politicians, administrators, 

citizens and other intended users of the results and the impact of evaluation information on public policy, 

programme action or programme results. Naturally, if the policy is valuable, the highest value has to be 

created. The main feature of worth is the exclusiveness of the object under evaluation, which determines its 

competitiveness against others. 

According to Widmer (2010), an evaluation is defined as a research-based service providing a systematic 

and transparent assessment of an object. Thus the term service underlines the fact that the evaluations are 

oriented towards a client (the government, the stakeholders) and are performed because of the public benefit, 

i.e. the services, the usage of which provides the collective benefit. However, it is necessary to add that 

the provision of evaluation services may influence the political environment; therefore, evaluation services 

may provide both advantages and disadvantages for the political environment. To be precise, the evaluation 

service may have not only output, but also a specific effect or impact on the environment. Thus it is possible 

to maintain that there is a specific relationship between the output of the evaluation service provision and the 

result (impact/effect). Irrespective of other factors, in order to evaluate the impact/effect of the evaluation 

service, a meta-evaluation is used, which helps to evaluate the efficiency and effectiveness of this service. 

Another important aspect included into Widmer’s definition, is the reference to transparency. Obviously, 

37



the public interest demands that the evaluations would be directed to honesty, fairness, transparency and 

the evaluation of ethic behavior. Evaluations have to check the correspondence of the programmes to moral 

standards without any compromise (Stufflebeam, Shinkfiled, 2007: 14). 

As one can see from the provided definitions, the evaluations are performed in order to assess the merits 

and value of a certain object. Evaluation society has created its own vocabulary; therefore, the evaluation 

object is called an evaluand or an evaluandum. If the evaluation object is a person, it is suggested to call him/ 

her an evaluee. The evaluator has to be sure about the definition of his/her evaluand. However, logically, it 

may be difficult to achieve this because different interest groups may have different opinions what is an evaluand 

or how it has to be described. The objects that can be evaluated comprise various activities. In many 

cases, the evaluation object influences the complexity and complication of the public policy evaluation process. 

As it is noted by Geva-May ir Thorngate (2003), programmes are an easier target for changes, as they 

can be easily evaluated, stopped or changed, while it is more difficult to change policies because they form 

the system of general approaches or the programme structure and the strategies of function. The changes also 

may occur before the beginning of evaluation, during it or after its finish. 

2. Values of the public interventions and budgetary process 

Lithuanian experience has parallels with other post-communist countries; there have not been deep discussions 

about the measure of public sector intervention. Summing this experience, Careja and Emmenegger 

(2009) note that the state was asked to provide support not only for those who lost jobs because of economy 

restructurization, but also for those who had to retire earlier or wanted to change qualification to meet the 

needs of the new competitive job market. The intervention scope has increased significantly because of the 

politicians’ will to approach to the model of the welfare state of old European Union members because it was 

aimed to finance many state functions (social security, health service, education and science, defense, economics, 

security of the society). However, incompatibility between these wills and possibilities has become 

apparent because of limited budget resources (Bivainis, 2005: 74; Kuodis, 2008: 103). 

In this context it is important to note that national policies are reactive and unmatched with strategic planning 

documents and other programmes; the government activities are not integrated to the system of strategic 

planning; therefore, no attention is paid to the achievement of medium and long-term aims, as current 

conjectural aims dominate. This means that decisions are usually made only then, when the government has 

already faced the problem and there is no time to suggest alternatives and analyze them because the decision 

has to be made quickly, while evidence-based government policy attempts to envisage future problems and 

foresee the transitional solution stages. According to Diskienė, Marčinskas and Vaškelis (2008), ‘only the 

thirteenth and fourteenth governments got a real possibility to relate their programmes with the Long-term 

Economic Development Strategy of Lithuania until 2015 and National Development Strategy.’ Apparently, 

the previously mentioned activity vectors are logical. Strategic thinking and decision – making culture could 

not be created in Lithuania, as well as the capacity to use the strategic analysis instruments (Smilga, Laurėnas, 

2005: 1; Diskienė, Marčinskas, Vaškelis, 2008: 28). 

Even though national budget expenses increased several times from 2002 to 2009 but important political 

debates took place in the input phase rather than because of the foreseen output and outcomes, which shows 

that the main struggle between the political parties exists because of the amount of resources allotted to the 

protected organizations and institutions rather than the citizens. These are listed in the table below. A wide 

range of beneficiaries (companies and individuals) have started to use various tax concessions, which were 

invented in the input phase and unchecked by ex-ante evaluation. Inapprehension of object concessions, 

planning of intervention and evaluation caused legal premises in the change of concession object, which was 

used by businessmen and residents. However, the implementation of taxation policy was ineffective because 

there was no operative reaction towards the changes of concession object (Kuodis, 2008: 103). Mortgage 

concessions preconditioned the rise of realty price bubble, the explosion of which became the beginning of 

the economical and financial crisis (Kuodis, 2008: 103). 

38


As the table 1 shows, the number of budget programmes constantly increased in Lithuania in 2000–2007, 

and only in 2008 the number of programmes decreased to 682 programmes, in 2009 the number of budget 

programmes reduced to 596 and in 2010 till 502. But still there are hundreds of programmes in Lithuania, 

which have various priorities, initiatives, financial resources, and criteria for choosing projects and different 

schedules for their implementation. Besides, the programmes are oriented towards spending rather than aiming 

at a specific development level. 

Table 1. The amount of budget programmes and dynamic of expenditures 2000–2010 year 

Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 

The amount of budget 

programmes 

515 438 533 623 653 676 672 709 682 596 502 

National budget 

expedintures, billion, Litas 

(together with EU funds) 

6,7 7,4 10,1 10,1 13,8 15,7 18,8 20,7 26,6 26,9 29,3 

The increase of programme number may be explained by factors distinguished by De Leon (1987), which 

are the following: dynamic conservatism and coalitions of programme anti-termination. In the case of dynamic 

conservatism, programme administrators had to terminate the programmes after achieving their aims; 

however, new aims were set and legitimated, which caused continuation of the programmes. Meanwhile, 

anti-termination coalitions were prevalent when financing in a certain area or provision of public goods were 

aimed to be decreased, therefore, the Government tended to continue the activities of the programmes that 

had already terminated. When the new education reform (2009) started, we see that the government seeks to 

change the old model of higher education financing; however, opponent coalitions formed immediately, the 

aims of which are to resist the implementation of the new model. 

A big number of programmes in Lithuania require additional human and financial resources. These are 

transaction costs of budget programmes, which are often invisible, but they exist. Transaction costs decrease 

programme efficiency and the programme itself has less resources. It is also emphasized that it is difficult to 

plan, require accountability, perform state audit and evaluate. Apparently, the number of programmes should 

be adequate to the strategic aims of the institutions. A project of the budget is not usually based on the aims 

of budget programmes but on the needs of appropriation managers. Programme providers and evaluators are 

the same subjects who implement them (National Audit Office, 2007: 16). 

The programmes are prepared without clearly distinguishing activity areas and deciding on the optimal 

number of programmes necessary to reach one aim; the principles of proportion of programme scope are 

not obeyed. It is noted that the programme aim often specifies a process rather than a result. It happens that 

the programme aim does not have a logical connection with the aim of the strategy, and the most common 

problem is that the need for unreal financing is provided (KTU Savivaldos mokymo centras, 2008). It is also 

possible to state that the programme management system is unstable because of often changes in the rules, as 

well as new programmes are created, which partly double the already existing programmes, and this restricts 

effective and efficient usage of programme resources. 

3. Reinventing the monitoring system 

In Lithuanian, in different areas of public policy, monitoring rules and requirements were approved by 

orders of the ministers or other legal acts after accessing the European Union (Gudelis, 2009: 93). Sector 

ministries collect quite a big amount of perfomance information; however, data quality is of an average level. 

Municipalities are also involved into the process of collection and presentation the monitoring data, thus the 

burden of data collection went to the street – level bureaucracy, who is already over tasked and who rarely get 

some feedbacks how the data are used in the further decision making or if it is used at all. This influences data 

39



quality because lower level public servants are not willing to do routine tasks, that possibly will not make 

any benefit for their work. As there is a big number of uncoordinated monitoring systems and a centralized 

strategic planning system, it is necessary to create a national integrated monitoring system. 

Figure 1. Monitoring cycle and existing issues 

In the monitoring system being analyzed, one can see the obstacles prevalent in different stages of monitoring 

cycle (Figure 1). Insufficient regulation of the monitoring process and weak quality of evaluation 

criteria are faced in the preparatory stage of monitoring (Lithuanian Government, 2009: 4). According to 

the conception, it is necessary to regulate monitoring in order to ensure the quality of evaluation criteria 

because the documents of institutions do not define monitoring implementation of activity and the processes 

of document analysis, as well as personal employees’ responsibility for achieving the aims and objectives 

(Lithuanian Government, 2009: 4). On the one hand, the appearance of such regulation, which provides a 

mandate for monitoring, may be an impetus, legitimizing monitoring in Lithuania, where the necessity of 

a legal instrument is a condition for each government reform. On the other hand, the regulation would not 

guarantee that efforts will be put to create a monitoring system. 

It was found out that in the preparatory stage of monitoring, only one fourth of institutions have methodical 

explanations, where the methodology for counting criteria importance would be provided (Lithuanian 

Government, 2009: 4). Nowadays, the public administration institutions have to think of the criteria themselves, 

as there are no methodologies or rule how to do that. While formulating the criteria, there is a lack of 

leadership and participation of highest-level authorities and politicians. The criteria are mainly formulated 

by the responsible officials, who lack knowledge and experience (Lithuanian Government, 2009: 4). Annual 

monitoring plans are not formed in the institutions or departments responsible for monitoring. The activities 

are fragmented, and sometimes they are influenced by the European Union orders, which may be evaluated 

positively, as it is probable that the good practice will be used for learning purposes. 

40


In the implementation stage of monitoring, a superficial analysis is sometimes made while evaluating 

the degree of criteria achievement. In the strategic documents, the institutions do not formulate logical programme 

models or theories of change, therefore, the reasons for not achieving the criteria are rarely provided 

(Lithuanian Government, 2009: 5). According to the public servant, 

While making an audit, logical nonsense’s are often noticeable. For instance, there is a programme and its 

evaluation criteria. Evaluating the achievement of criteria, it seems that they are achieved in 200 per cent, while 

evaluating in terms of money; it is noticeable that a part from the subsidies of this programme is ‘moved’ to another 

programme, i.e. almost a half of the programme value. Then we express a lot of pretensions about the evaluation 

criteria and that the achieved results of the programme are not taken into consideration while providing financing for 

the next year. It is also clear that evaluation criteria are the main problem. 

This example expresses the performance paradox (Van Thiel, Leeuw, 2002: 267) very clearly, which is not 

foreseen, because public servants attempt to increase the level of criteria achievement to an unbelievable degree. 

This happens because of lack of analysis of expenses usage and it is not aimed at using monitoring information 

for making decisions. The ministries hardly use monitoring information preparing budgets or accounting for the 

usage of expenses or they use this information for choice (Lithuanian Government, 2009: 5). 

The research, ordered by the Ministry of the Interior (2009), analyses the introduction of performance management 

characteristics in all ministries in Lithuania. The analysis of the data about monitoring and evaluation 

shows that the level of introduction depends on the definition of monitoring and evaluation at the ministries. 

It is seen that monitoring and evaluation are introduced the best in the ministries that dispose only 21 % of the 

budget resources (Ministry of Education and Science, Ministry of Transport and Communication, Ministry of 

Energy, Ministry of Foreign Affairs) (Table 2). Monitoring and evaluation are introduced by 100 % by the by 

the customer of the research, the Ministry of the Interior. This may also be treated as an unintended consequence 

(Van Thiel, Leeuw, 2002: 267) of performance measurement because the ministries think of the criteria 

applicable to themselves in order to correspond to them. This way they can use the information and attempt to 

manipulate the evaluations, which does not correspond to the logic of organizational education. On the contrary, 

the introduction of monitoring and evaluation is bad in the ministries that dispose 67 % of the budget resources. 

According to the features of monitoring and evaluation distinguished in the research, the Ministry of Finance 

has neither monitoring, nor evaluation. Both elements are very poorly introduced in the Ministry of Agriculture 

which has a department of national programmes monitoring and evaluation (30 %). 

In the Ministry of Social Security and Labour, the capacities of monitoring and evaluation were trained 

and developed while implementing a project of the World Bank. The project was pursued for five years; the 

civil servants participated in the educational programme that lasted for three years, also a permanent annual 

preparation of social reports was initiated. However, according the mentioned research, there is no monitoring 

in this ministry as well and evaluation is introduced only in 15 %. In the monitoring conception, the lack 

of leadership was mentioned while defining criteria; however, it can be seen that the Ministry of the Interior 

takes the role of leadership and attempts to show which ministry has the management system introduced the 

best but this is done grounding on the criteria that do not correspond to the actual situation of the ministries. 

In the final monitoring stage, the following problems are possible: monitoring information is used for 

accounting rather than for management improvement; monitoring information is usually used preparing reports, 

but it is not aimed at improving internal processes of the institution. It is emphasized in the conception 

that prepared reports are poor quality and they lack transparency because the data sources are not always 

revealed, the benefit for the society is explained insufficiently, the reaction towards the results and activity 

outcomes is not shown (Lithuanian Government, 2009: 5–6). In our opinion, this is done purposefully because 

if the sources are not provided, an external analyst or evaluator will not be able to perform a metaevaluation 

of the prepared report. 

41



Table 2. Introductions of monitoring and evaluation in the ministries (Prepared according Ministry of Interior 2009) 

Ministry 

State expenditures 

in the ministry, 

percentage 

Quantitative 

assessment of 

monitoring, 

percentage* 

Quantitative 

assessment of 

evaluation, 

percentage* 

Ministry of Finance 32 0 0 

Ministry of Agriculture 14 30 30 

Ministry of Social Security and Labour 14 0 15 

Ministry of Economy 7 60 40 

Ministry of Education and Science 7 100 70 

Ministry of Transport and Communication 7 100 25 

Ministry of National Defence 5 0 70 

Ministry of Interior 4 100 100 

Ministry of Health 2 30 70 

Ministry of Energy 2 100 85 

Ministry of Environment 1 60 85 

Ministry of Culture 1 60 100 

Ministry of Foreign Affairs 1 100 100 

Ministry of Justice 0 60 40 

* – horizontal line (good), if the proper weight of indicators equal 80% and more; grey colour (satisfactory) – 

if the proper weight of indicators more than 59, but less than 80 %; Down diagonal line(poor), if the proper weight 

of indicators 50 % inclusively. 

4. Managing evaluation function 

Coordination of evaluation function. National audit office, as an active supervisor of programme implementation, 

enumerated the absence of appropriate evaluation system as one of the problems, i.e. the 

evaluations for financing the programmes of Lithuanian public sector institutions lack qualitative evaluation 

criteria. The respondent confirmed this: 

In the national level, we started creating evaluation system, first requirements appeared in the legal acts to perform 

evaluation, but the system itself is still not created, as there no evaluation skills or methodology, and conclusions are 

still not used in decision making, i.e. refusing budget programmes or continuing them. 

The overall impression from the literature review was that the majority of the researchers were discouraged 

and skeptical that Lithuania does not have an institution responsible for the coordination of budget programmes 

evaluation and monitoring, while the reports are only started to be integrated into further planning. 

According to Vilpišauskas (2007), this was influenced by the lack of evaluation capacity, political and institutional 

motivators. The reform is not finished in the central level of public administration and even though 

the number of qualified human resources, being able to implement projects according to the requirements of 

the changing environment, is increasing, there is still lack of them. One should admit that the first evaluation 

plan should be prepared at 2012, however it isn’t publicly available yet, and that causes the fact that there is 

no budget to hire external evaluators. The evaluation methodology was approved by the Ministry of Finance, 

however Lithuanian evaluation community as main stakeholder in evaluation process wasn’t involved in the 

disputes about the content of methodology. 

Evaluation capacity. Programme evaluation is fragmented, even though the Government order for the 

evaluation of budget programme implementation, which existed until 2007, prescribed that the ministers, 

heads of Government institutions have to provide programme implementation reports and evaluation of aims 

42


fulfillment according to evaluation criteria so that the evaluation results would be discussed in the Strategic 

Planning Committee and the Government. In addition, the requirement to collect information did not appear 

in the programme management mechanism to enable it to be comparable with other projects, programmes 

and to be meaningfully used for analysis and education. 

Only two ministries (Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Agriculture) have evaluation departments, while 

such skills have not been developed in other ministries and municipalities at all, thus there is a gap in this 

area and, consequently, the skills of report evaluation are poorly developed. In Lithuania, a more significant 

part of evaluation is focused on resources rather than outcomes and administrational processes rather than 

economical and social impacts. When programme implementation problems appeared, institutionalization of 

evaluation system started. In the present situation, there are no appropriate and developed procedures how to 

initiate, implement and use evaluations in the process of public policy. The hierarchy of central bureaucracy 

is dominated by lawyers, for whom evaluation is an unknown exercise. According to the respondent, 

In the institutions, which had the departments of statutory officials for a long time, the realization 

of evaluation function faces quite a bureaucratized administration culture. 

One of the qualities of Lithuanian administration culture is that departments are subordinate to the Ministries 

rather than the Government. The contractual research is provided to the ministry but not to the Prime 

Minister’s Office, which impedes the diffusion of knowledge in the public management system. On the other 

hand, the Prime Minister’s Office may press the departments of the ministries, especially if it has a strong 

support from the Prime Minister; however, evaluation performance and usage is fragmented in Lithuania. 

Political parties impede the professionalization of bureaucracy. Being weak, political parties attempt 

to weaken a potential competitor (Dvorak, 2008: 101). It should also be noted that the existing tradition 

of administration in Lithuania and administrative law contributed quite a lot to the evaluation of the civil 

servants for the legitimization of their activities rather than their results. To be precise, first the procedures 

appeared but nobody thought about the outcomes of public interventions. The Lithuanian public service was 

politicized for a long time after regaining the independence, and only after adopting the new public service 

law, politicization significantly decreased. Therefore, qualificational maturation of Lithuanian bureaucracy 

was significantly late and even though unqualified bureaucracy managed to compete with partocracy (Laurėnas, 

2001: 221), it still remained responsible for routine provision of public services and has not become an 

expert of the prestigious evaluation function. Naturally, the ability to compete is influenced by the fact that 

the bureaucracy communicates with clients and interest groups much more often than politicians; therefore, 

it has more information what is appropriate in politics. 

In the survey, it was asked what role is played by evaluation in the process of formation national budget 

and implementing it (figure 3). The biggest part of the respondents (34 per cent) emphasized that the role of 

evaluation is not very important, while 32 per cent of the respondents think that it is important, and 18 per 

cent of the respondents claim that the role of evaluation is very important. Also, 8 per cent noted that the 

role of evaluation in making national budget and implementing it is not important and the same number of 

respondents said that they do not know. 

The same question was provided to some respondents of the interview. Respondents believe that, it is 

possible to maintain that in the present situation, the change from the subsystem of evaluation of the EU 

Structural funds to the subsystem of making and implementation of national budget. In this subsystem, the 

clear evaluation function is little developed because the budget making process is of political nature. Public 

servants avoid performing an in-depth interim evaluation while making the budget because they may experience 

political pressure. For this purpose, there is a possibility to avoid clash with politicians. The Ministry 

of Finance does not perform regulatory impact assessment while preparing a ruling about the distribution of 

subsidies according to the programmes confirmed by the budget of the Lithuanian Republic for the year ‘N’ 

because it is claimed that it is not a normative act but a task of technical character, for which a regulatory 

impact assessment note is not necessary (LR Finansų Ministerija, 2010). In principle, the National audit 

43



office provides its position in this stage; however, it depends on Seimas (Lithuanian Parliament) whether its 

remarks and recommendations would be taken into consideration and how it manages to use the additional 

value of such evaluation. The situation of programme evaluation has not changed significantly when provisions 

about the possibilities to review budget programme appeared in the strategic planning methodology, as 

a systematic review and evaluation is performed by a small number of institutions. 

Figure 2. Role of evaluation in the budgetary process of Lithuania 

Conclusions 

After the analysis of public intervention values and the functioning of the budget process, a conclusion 

can be made: Lithuania does not learn from earlier lessons. Imitating the Western experience and forming 

pre-conditions for the unmeasured interventions, the point of view had to change in the new situation of the 

crisis; however, while allotting money, nobody mentions or promises that such interventions will be evaluated. 

The evaluators do not dare to tell the society that interventions have to be measured and evaluated. The 

present political regime sends signals to the international business and policy community that “something is 

being done” and it is invested into evidence-based symbols of politics. It is wrong to think that symbol politics 

does not have consequences. There is some basis to claim that the evaluation function is scarcely developed 

in the formation and implementation of national budget, the decision impact process is not performed, 

even though the budget is confirmed by a different law every year and it is also comprised from strategic 

elements. From this point of view, the budget is the basis for the Government programme or the coalition 

platform. Apparently, the budget process has not become a learning process. 

The theory teaches that monitoring requires methodological accuracy; however, in Lithuania many uncoordinated 

systems of monitoring and evaluation are legalized, which require an integrated monitoring 

and evaluation strategy. In the monitoring cycle, the existing problems show the consequences of the lack 

of monitoring coordination and planning: insufficient regulation of the monitoring process; poor quality of 

evaluation criteria; superficial data analysis; undeveloped analysis of monitoring data; unused monitoring information 

in order to improve management; poor quality of activity reports. The results of the research show 

that the introduction of monitoring and evaluation into the ministries depends on their definition criteria. 

The meta-analysis of another research forms the pre-conditions to maintain that the unforeseen paradoxes 

of activity measurement appear in Lithuania when the ministries think of the criteria that correspond to 

them with the aim to have a leading position in the activity management area. Unfortunately, the evaluators 

44


do not object against such activities while carrying out such investigation. Besides, there is no programme 

evaluation coordinator, even though several reorientations to the performance of coordination and strategic 

planning functions are performed in the office of the Prime Minister. Political parties inhibit the creation of 

evaluation competencies for a long time: as they are weak, they attempt to weaken their potential rival, i.e. 

state office. 

References 

Bivainis, J. (2005). Lietuvos valstybės išlaidų masto ir struktūros lyginamieji vertinimai. Ūkio technologinis ir ekonominis 

vystymasis, Nr. 11 (2), p. 71–77. 

Careja, R., Emmenegger, P. (2009). The Politics of Public Spending in Post-Communist Countries. East European 

Politics & Societies, Vol. 23, No. 2, p. 165–184. 

Dahler-Larsen, P. (2007). Evaluation and Public Management. In: E. Ferlie, E. Laurence Lynn jr., Pollitt Chr. (ed.) The 

Oxford handbook of public management. Oxford: University Press. 

De Leon, P. (1987). Policy termination as a political phenomenon. In: D. J. Palumbo (ed.). The politics of program 

evaluation. Sage: Newbury Park, CA. 

Diskienė, D., Marčinskas, A., Vaškelis, V. (2008). Valstybės strateginio planavimo subjekto dilema. Ekonomika, No. 81, 

p. 26–35. 

Dvorak, J. (2008). A Theoretical Interpretation of Policy Evaluation in the Context of Lithuanian Public Sector Reform. 

Baltic Journal of Law & Politics, Vol. 1, No. 1, p. 95–110. 

Geva-May, I., Thorngate, W. (2003). Reducing Anxiety and Resistance in Policy and Programme Evaluations: A Socio- 

Psychological Analysis. Evaluation, Vol. 9, No. 2, p. 205–227. 

Gudelis, D. (2009). Lietuvos savivaldybių veiklos matavimo būklės vertinimas. Viešoji politika ir administravimas, 

No. 29, p. 91–98. 

KTU Savivaldos mokymo centras. (2008). Strateginio veiklos planavimo ir programinio biudžeto sudarymo vadovas 

Lietuvos savivaldybėms. Kaunas: Technologija. 

Kuodis, R. (2008). Lietuvos ekonomikos transformacija 1990–2008 metais: etapai ir pagrindinės ekonominės politikos 

klaidos. Pinigų studijos, Nr. 2, p. 97–105. 

Laurėnas, V. (2001). Normalios politikos genezės atvejis. Klaipėda: Klaipėdos universiteto leidykla. 

National Audit Office of Lithuania. (2007). Programme budget system. Performance audit report, No. VA-60-1P-1. 

Website: http://www.vkontrole.lt/naujienos_pranesimas.php?260 

Ministry of Interior. (2009). ŽIPVP 4 prioriteto 2 uždavinio rodiklio Valstybės išlaidų, kurias apima veiklos valdymo 

sistemos visose 13 ministerijų, dalis (procentais) dydžio nustatymo tyrimas. Website: http://www.vakokybe.lt/ 

Nakrošis, V. (2008). Strateginis valdymas Lietuvoje: Ar turime rezultatų vyriausybę? Vilnius: VU TSPMI. 

Smilga, E., Laurėnas, V. (2005). Strateginio efekto problemos Lietuvoje. Tiltai, Nr. 4, p. 1–9. 

Stufflebeam, D. L.,Shinkfield, A. J. (2007). Evaluation Theory, Models and Applications. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 

Trochim, W. M. K. (2006). Introduction of Evaluation. Research Methods Knowledge Base. Website: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/intreval.php 

Van Thiel, S., Leeuw, F. L. (2002). The Perfomance Paradox in the Public Sector. Public Perfomance & Management 

Review, Vol. 25, No. 3, p. 267–281. 

Vilpišauskas, R. (2007). Programinio biudžeto svarba Lietuvos finansų sistemai. Website: http://www.lrinka.lt/Pranesim/Ramunas%20Vilpisauskas_LR%20Prezidentura.pdf 

Vilpišauskas, R., Nakrošis, V. (2005). Ko verta politika? Vilnius: Eugrimas. 

Widmer, T. (2010). Evaluation and Sustainability: Immersion or Distortion? Conference: Sustainable Develompment 

Evaluations in Europe, Brussels, November 17–19, 2010. 

45



VERTINIMO FUNKCIJOS TVARUMAS LIETUVOS VIEŠAJAME 

ADMINISTRAVIME 



Santrauka 

Viešosios politikos vertinimas neseniai pradėtas taikyti Lietuvoje ir tam tikra jo įtaka jau pastebima 

administruojant ES Struktūrinių ir Sanglaudos fondų paramą. Tačiau informacija apie vertinimą kol kas 

netobula. Vertinimas institucionalizuotas Lietuvos administracinėje sistemoje. Vertintojas – naujas socialinis 

vaidmuo. Kaip žinome iš antropologijos ir sociologijos, kiekvienam vaidmeniui būdingos teisės, pareigos, 

lūkesčiai ir kt. Be to, vertintojo vaidmuo susijęs su kitais vaidmenimis – politiko, administratoriaus, piliečio. 

Kiekviena duota santykių pora turi tam tikras elgesio taisykles, arba normas, ir atitinkamą galią, tad reikia 

ne tik laiko, bet ir valios, norint vertinimą įtraukti į darbotvarkę. Vertinimo įtvirtinimo procese vertintojui 

suteikiama teisė užduoti specialius klausimus, reikalauti tam tikros informacijos ir įpareigoti žmones naudoti 

vertinimo rezultatus. Analizuojant vertinimo funkcijos raidą, svarbu žinoti, kaip atsiranda vertinimo įtaka, 

arba, kalbant instrumentiškai, kaip gali būti padidinta bet kokio vertinimo įtaka. Tyrinėjant politikos vertinimą, 

kaip ir daugelį kitų retrospektyvių viešosios politikos instrumentų, aktualus duomenų trūkumas. 

Prieš dešimtmetį pateiktos informacijos apie viešosios politikos instrumentų taikymo padarinius yra gerokai 

daugiau, palyginti su viešosios politikos vertinimo informacija, pristatyta tik prieš keletą metų. Svarbu 

išsiaiškinti, kaip viešosios politikos vertinimas taikomas Lietuvos politinėje ir administracinėje aplinkoje. 

Be abejo, nebūtina laukti dešimtmečių, kol atsiras žinių apie viešosios politikos vertinimo taikymą pokomunistinėse 

valstybėse. Kuo labiau institucionalizuotas taps vertinimas, tuo sudėtingesnius bus galima atlikti 

pakeitimus, keičiant vertinimo procesą / mechanizmą, palyginti su ankstesnėmis įgyvendinimo stadijomis. 

PAGRINDINIAI ŽODŽIAI: vertinimas, programa, viešasis administravimas, stebėsena. 

JEL klasifikacija: D730, D780, D790, H830, L380 

46


Export promotion changes of SME’s for export 

expansion directions development in Lithuania 

Gražina Jatuliavičienė 1 , Marija Kučinskienė 2 

Vilnius University (Lithuania) 

Abstract 

The article aims to show that conditioned by globalization processes integration tendencies in the world economy stimulate the 

search of new export expansion directions and development methods. Their evaluation and implementation are important driving forces 

for national economic growth and sustainable development of regions. Current Lithuanian state’s position in export promotion, 

as it enters into exchanges with the ever-changing global environment, must be conceptually justified, enabling equal participation in 

the international trade and the ability to withstand globalization’s challenges. Most importantly, export promotion and development 

mechanisms and instruments should allow for timely responses towards the increasing liberalization of economic relationships and 

encourage the introduction of prerequisites for the acceleration of economic growth through export expansion. 

KEY WORDS: internationalization, globalization, SME’s, export promotion, export development. 

JEL codes: F130; F140; F150; O110; R110. 

Introduction 

The new era of globalization, being operated through World Trade Organization (WTO), and marked by 

liberalization of trade through elimination of all physical and fiscal barriers, has unfolded multitude of opportunities 

and challenges. Constantly changing global business environment encourages the search for new 

growth opportunities, thus creating background for the stimulation of international business relationships. 

International trade is a key feature of economic globalization. Economic theory as well as empirical evidence 

clearly shows that countries which are more open to trade are also those that grow the fastest. 

Regarded as priority export orientation of the national economy is expected to ensure its sustainable and 

dynamic progress, economic and financial security and, in the end, growth of common wealth. Increased 

liberalization of international trade that resulted from globalization processes has brought pressure to bear 

on Lithuanian exporters to be more competitive both in price and quality to succeed in the European Union 

and global market. Lithuania had adopted export orientation as a development policy. Yet, Lithuania’s export 

performance has remained not enough. 

Export promotion measures that can be utilized under the current World Trade Organization (WTO) system 

can be treated as the tool for economic development. State support for exporters becomes a necessity due 

to inevitable competition with economy subjects from other states who are in a more favorable position. This 

1 

Gražina Jatuliavičienė – Vilnius University (Lithuania), Faculty of Economics, Business Department, Lecturer, Doctor of social 

sciences, scientific interest: export development. 

E-mail: grazina.jatuliaviciene@ef.vu.lt 

Tel.: +370 5 219 32 30 

2 

Marija Kučinskienė – Vilnius University (Lithuania), Faculty of Economics, Business Department, Head of Business Department, 

Professor, Doctor of social sciences, scientific interest: business strategies. 

E-mail: marija.kucinskiene@ef.vu.lt 

Tel.: +370 5 236 61 37 

47


EXPORT PROMOTION CHANGES OF SME’S FOR EXPORT EXPANSION DIRECTIONS DEVELOPMENT IN LITHUANIA 

advantageous position is acquired not only through the longer experience in the global market but also from 

effectively functioning export promotion processes management system in their countries. 

States are not always capable of fully implementing export development due to specific restrictions that 

exist internally. Management of successful export development processes is a complex task, as it requires a 

lot of efforts, resources and persistence in comparison with traditional export promotion methods. Consequently, 

it defines concentration of theorists’ efforts for new export development strategic directions formation, 

new internationalization and export development trajectories models creation. The challenges in the management 

of export development in the context of global area create new requirements for the states, their 

national institutions and economy subjects. They are challenged to adopt new strategic export development 

decisions that would encourage focus on the creation and acceptance of new skills. Such innovations would 

allow overstep the boundaries of traditional business and enable the acquisition of competitive advantage in 

the global area product markets. 

Three major issues have recently emerged that influence export promotion: growing interest in the environment 

and sustainable development, the importance of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) as 

exporters and the scope for increasing trade in goods and services. The export potential of small and medium-sized 

enterprises has been a growing subject of interest. The current trend points strongly towards a 

sustained growth in this share, supported by expanding output and employment. Recognizing their growth 

potential, most governments in developing countries are giving priority to SMEs through policy support and 

other incentives. 

The main aim of the article is to reveal the importance of small and medium- sized business for 

export growth and to review export promotion and development impact taking into account the factual 

export performance of Lithuanian SME’s s and their attitude to export promotion activities. 

Research methods: logical analysis and synthesis of related literature, comparison and generalization, 

deduction and conceptualization, empirical research. 

1. Internationalization trajectories 

Current dynamic globalization processes create international business environment that radically differs 

from the former providing new challenges and trade-offs. Literature studies reveal that separate authors 

present different definitions of globalization but uniting features in all definitions are that they highlight 

the trend towards greater political, economical, cultural and technological interdependence among national 

institutions and economies (Czinkota, Ronkainen, Moeffett, 2005; Daniels, Radebaugh, Sullivan, 2007; Hill, 

2009). Discussing the current peculiarities of the global economy it is useful to evaluate as it opens possibilities 

to enter into new markets, provides extensive choice of the human and other resources and creates 

competitive pressure (Kucinskiene, Jatuliaviciene, 2002). Market openness, associated with globalization, 

has increased the speed, frequency and magnitude of access to worldwide markets, including all tangible 

and intangible aspects of commerce thus attracting attention of all concerned: both theorists of international 

business, state institutions, interested in export development and business sector enterprises. 

The stimulation of rapid globalization has tremendously influenced the patterns of firms’ internationalization. 

The term internationalization has been defined differently by many scholars depending on their field 

of research. Johanson, Vahlne (1977), early developers of the idea of internationalization, have defined it as 

a gradual and incremental process in which the firm involves on the international markets through a series of 

incremental stages. The broadest definition that can be applied in every single concept developed is that internationalization 

is the process of increasing involvement in international markets (Welch, Luostarinen, 1988). 

There are many empirical researches existing that analyze the process of internationalization of small and 

medium-sized enterprises (SME’s). The patterns of internationalization, developed by some of the authors, 

involved into internationalization patterns research, and described as a sequence of stages based on a mixture 

of classification criteria, including length of export criteria, export involvement, volume of exports as a 

percentage of sales, countries exported to, etc. are presented in Table 1. 

48


Johanson, J., 

Wiedersheim, P. F 

(1975) 

Table 1. Different perspectives to internationalization stages 

Author/Year Criterion Specification of stages 

Market entry 

mode 

Bilkey, W. J., 

Tesar, G. (1977) 

Cavusgil, S. T. 

(1980) 

Johanson, J., 

Wahlne, J. E. (1990) 

Kotabe, M., 

Czinkota, M. R. 

(1992) 

Albaum, G., 

Duerr, E., 

Strandskov, J. 

(2005) 

Sequence of 

learning stages 

Export 

involvement 

Resource 

commitment 

Experience 

Choice of 

countries for 

exporting 

Stage1. No regular export activities 

Stage 2. Export via independent representatives (agent) 

Stage 3. Sales subsidiary 

Stage 4. Production/manufacturing 

Stage1. Management is not interested in exporting and would not even fill 

an unsolicited order 

Stage 2. Management is willing to fill unsolicited orders, but makes no 

effort to explore the feasibility of active exporting 

Stage 3. Management actively explores the feasibility of exporting 

Stage 4. The firm exports experimentally to some psychologically close 

country 

Stage 5. The firm is an experienced exporter to that country 

Stage 6. Management explores the feasibility of exporting to additional 

countries, psychologically more distant 

Stage1. Experimental involvement 

Stage2. Active involvement 

Stage3. Committed involvement 

Stage1. Irregular export activities 

Stage 2. Export via independent sales representative 

Stage 3. Establishment of overseas sales subsidiary 

Stage 4. Establishment of foreign manufacturing subsidiaries 

Stage 1: Partial Interest in Exporting. Prepared to fill an unsolicited export 

order, but does not make the effort to explore the feasibility of exporting 

Stage 2: Exploring Exports. Actively exploring the feasibility of exporting, 

but exporting less than 5 % of total sales 

Stage 3: Experimental Exporter. Exporting on an experimental basis to 

countries that are geographically close or which share a culture similar to 

the domestic market, with exports representing over 5 % of total sales 

Stage 4: Emerging Exporter. Export sales exceeding 5 % of total sales; ready 

to adjust export offerings to changes in the commercial environment, but still 

exporting only to countries that are close geographically or culturally 

Stage 5: Experienced Exporter. Export sales are greater than 5 % of total 

sales; currently exploring the feasibility of exporting to additional countries 

that are distant and have different cultures 

Stage1. No interest in exporting 

Stage 2. Fill unsolicited orders 

Stage 3. Explore feasibility of exporting 

Stage 4. Export on experimental basis to psychologically close country 

Stage 5. Experienced exporter to country of stage 

Stage 6. Explore feasibility of exporting to other countries 

Passing the stages reflect evolution of orientation from primarily a domestic firm to a global player. Internationalization 

entails a notion of exchange, or, more precisely, trade, and progress through stages leads 

a firm presumably ending with no longer being solely an exporter but introducing some forms of overseas 

production. Therefore, as Dicken (2003), Hill (2009) point out, economic activities are becoming not only 

more internationalized, but that, more significantly, they are becoming increasingly globalized. These terms are 

often used interchangeably although they are not synonymous. Internationalization is related with increasing 

geographical expansion of economic activities over a national country’s border (Dicken, 2003, or, according 

to Hill, 2009). internationalization occurs as firms extend products and services into foreign markets, accordingly 

it is relatively easy to measure internationalization via the proportion of international sales (exportimport) 

to total sales Globalizations is more advanced and complex form of internationalization, emerging 

as the norm in a growing range of economic activities Dicken (2003) and is the process by which businesses 

49



create value by leveraging their resources and capabilities across borders, and includes the coordination of 

cross-border manufacturing and marketing strategies (Hill, 2009). 

2. Impact of exporting on economic development 

Accelerating changes of the global business environment evoke the need for an updated understanding 

of the possible benefits of exporting and in a new way to evaluate its attitude towards long term perspective. 

The obvious and potential benefit of exporting for the state’s economic growth and development requires 

exploitation of propelling challenges in the global arena. It is widely accepted that an increase in the export 

volumes has a positive impact both on the development of separate regions, states as well as individual subjects 

of the economy (Rakauskienė, 2006). Regions and states, which are tied together by globalization, 

experience faster economic growth than the ones that integrate into the world economy at a slower pace. 

Empirical researches (Sena, 2004; Kearney, 2004; Beck, 2006) reveal the impact of speedier globalization 

processes for the state’s involvement into political, technological, cultural integration processes. Exports 

have become a major source of national income for many small, open economies and a source of growth and 

survival for many small and medium-sized and large enterprises, especially in Europe. World trade recorded 

its largest ever annual increase in 2010 as merchandise exports increased 14.5 per cent, buoyed by a 3.6 per 

cent recovery in global output as measured by gross domestic product (GDP) (World trade report, 2011). 

As it could be seen from the Table 2, world GDP at market exchange rates increased by 3.6 % in 2010, 

one year after an unprecedented contraction of 2.4 % that accompanied the financial crisis in 2009, while 

world trade increase achieved 13.5 percent in 2010. 

Table 1. GDP and merchandise trade by region, 2007–2010 (Annual % change) 

a Includes the Caribbean. 

b Hong Kong, China; Republic of Korea; Singapore and Chinese Taipei. 

Source: World trade 2010, prospects for 2011 

Therefore, the international trade can be seen as a crucial factor for success in development – without an 

increase in international exchanges, there can be no development. 

Regarded as priority export orientation of a national economy is expected to ensure its sustainable and 

dynamic progress, economic and financial security and, in the end, growth of common wealth. Expansion 

of regional trade relations becomes intermediate necessary step striving to participate in the global trade and 

50


allows for business subjects to acquire necessary experience to successfully compete in the global markets 

(World trade report, 2011). 

Considering the importance of exports for economic development, the question of the day is how states, 

regions and their economy subjects should improve export performance in the markets radically changed 

by globalization? Concept of export-led growth (growth though exports), especially stresses significance of 

exports for economic growth, accumulation of foreign exchange reserves, the necessity to create production 

facilities to serve export markets resulting in increased employment levels, to attract foreign private investment 

and technology to build new export industries with improves productivity and, ultimately – enhance 

prosperity, also to create export promotion and development strategies and export promotion institutional 

structure (Czinkota, 1994; Jatuliaviciene, Kucinskiene, 2005; Todaro, Smith, 2006). 

The global market offers opportunities for exporting small to medium-sized enterprises products and 

services. Because there is no single globally accepted definition of SMEs, definitions of SMEs are various 

in different countries depending of the number of employees, kind of the economic activity and the amount 

of sales (Small and medium-sized enterprises: 2010). The European Union has adopted a new standardized 

definition of SMEs concerning the definition of micro, small and medium-sized enterprises with updated 

financial thresholds that entered into force for EU members on January 1, 2005. (Commission recommendation, 

2003). This definition is to be used for all cases where eligibility is to be assessed and programms are 

to be targeted. 

The export potential of small and medium-sized firms has been a growing subject of interest. Why should 

today’s export promotion strategies focus on SMEs, rather than on large enterprises? Small and medium 

enterprises (SMEs) occupy unique position in most of the countries and are found in a wide array of business 

activities. SME does also play a central role in the European economy. In 2010 Europe’s 23 million 

SMEs, accounted for two thirds of jobs in the private sector and 59 % of total value added in the non-financial 

business economy as of 2010 around 80 % of new jobs over the past five years have been created by SMEs 

(Small Business, Big World, 2010). 

However, European SME’s are ill equipped to capitalize on exporting opportunities. A considerable number 

of European SMEs are engaged in international activities yet only a small percentage is involved in 

internationalization beyond the Internal Market. The two most common modes of internationalization are 

exports and imports: 25 % of SMEs within the EU 27 export, of which about 50 % also go beyond the Internal 

Market (13 %); 29 % of SMEs within the EU 27 import, again 50 % import from countries outside 

the Internal Market (14 %). (Internationalization of European SME’s, 2010). Europe needs to boost their 

internationalization process and provide the necessary support to SMEs when going international (Small 

Business, Big World, 2010). 

3. The concept of export promotion and export development 

Another important aspect in the research of exporting expansion is export promotion. Export promotion 

has become a popular policy for promoting economic development growth in state and local economies since 

the 1930’s. Realignments on both macro and micro levels are occurring on a daily basis, making past orientations 

obsolete and compelling companies to seek new business beyond national borders. Exports and export 

promotion activity that have received interest only recently due to the balance of trade deficit, unemployment 

and domestic growth slowdown, are becoming important components of the state economic development 

program (Todaro, Smith, 2006). The promotion of export activities through government and other public or 

private sector institutions has received wide attention from both policy makers and academic researchers. 

This interest reflects, on the one hand, recognition of the potential usefulness of export promotion for businesses 

and, on the other hand, that the well-performed export promotion activities have a major impact on 

trading businesses competencies abroad and thus bring in the economic well-being of a country. 

Governments consider exports as engine of growth and worldwide provide assistance applied to improve 

their enterprises performance by providing the knowledge and competence applied to export market develo- 

51



pment (Gencturk, Kotabe, 2001). As the states enter into more and more into international exchanges, new 

export promotion mechanisms evolve in the global trading system striving do not protect local industry but 

forcing it to compete internationally. 

The broadest definition, presented by Czinkota, Ronkainen, Moeffett (2005) defines export promotion 

as the government attempts to stimulate exports by giving incentives to exporting firms. Incentive programs 

are designed to attract more firms into exporting by offering help in product and market identification and 

development, pre-shipment and post-shipment, financing, trading, payment guarantee schemes, trade fairs, 

trade visits, foreign representation, etc. (Export promotion. Business dictionary). Assistance for exporters 

may take many forms. Some of export promotion activities are new and not explored; others are widely used 

and confirmed empirically. The most interesting among them deal with exporting not as an end in it but as a 

part of a package of trade development initiatives. 

The understanding that export expansion is needed to achieve further growth and development induced 

the governments of various countries to create export promotion policies, export strategies, establish export 

promotion institutions and create programms for export promotion. Successful export growth relies not only 

on governmental institutions activities but also on private sector institutions initiatives and activities. The 

who and where gives the assistance for exporters, and the form of assistance varies among the countries 

according to the country’s history, political and economic circumstances, economic and social structure. This 

occurs because there is not uniform agreement on the nature or extent of involvement by private and public 

sector in export promotion. 

Governments were responding to greater liberalization of foreign trade regulations and increased competition 

from abroad. Export promotion strategy is an important component of country’s economic growth 

and development and is related with possibilities to increase exports. In a study about export performance 

of firms in Chile, Alvarez (2004) has shown that permanent and successful exporters have used public export 

promotion programms more intensively than less successful exporters. The further discussion of both such 

traditional and innovative approaches in export promotion or export development should shed more light 

into the matter. 

Differences between two concepts export promotion and export development strategy evidence in their 

orientation. Export promotion activities are to encourage increased sales of products that are currently available 

for export. All promotional efforts are based on existing production and aim at increasing the value of 

foreign sales by a given target. 

Today’s export promotion strategies must reflect the changing nature of the international trade environment. 

As a reaction to the challenges of the contemporary globalization processes, many scientists, such as 

Hibbert (1998), Czinkota (2002), Evans (1997) distinguished new and innovative approach to export promotion 

that is export development conception which emphasizes the importance of non-traditional export development. 

This type of development would include creation of new exportable products and/or penetration 

into the new, previously inapproachable, markets as well as development and diversification of non-traditional 

export areas thus creating more dynamic and competitive business environment. Representatives of this 

concept argue that for the research and implementation of export development methods and means there is a 

need to identify opportunities, which not only allow sustaining traditional markets or entering the new ones, 

but also provide help while creating competitive advantages in the enterprise, product sector and state levels. 

The export development approach clearly requires more effort, resources, and persistence than the simple 

traditional export promotion approach (Hibbert, 1998). Both strategies, export development and export 

promotion, have their own rationale and are related to different problems and consequences for a country. 

States are not always capable of fully implementing export development due to specific restrictions that 

exist internally. Management of successful export development processes is a complex task, as it requires a 

lot of efforts, resources and persistence in comparison with traditional export promotion methods. The challenges 

in the management of export development in the context of global area create new requirements for 

the states, their national institutions and economy subjects. They are challenged to adopt new strategic export 

development decisions that would encourage focus on the creation and acceptance of new skills. Such inno- 

52


vations would allow overstep the boundaries of traditional business and enable the acquisition of competitive 

advantage in the global area product markets. 

4. Lithuanian export development subjects interests’ diagnostics 

Lithuania, as a small country, with small domestic market, historically has had little choice but to implement 

export led-growth. Foreign trade now plays a significant role in determining the overall growth rate of 

the Lithuanian economy. Export of goods and services is regarded in Lithuania as one of the most important 

priorities of national economy development. Lithuania has a very open market and carries out most of its 

foreign trade with the EU. The trade to GDP ratio reached 126.7 percent in 2008–2010 (Country profile: 

Lithuania) 

In 2010 Lithuanian merchandise exports reached 20.8 billion US$ and commercial services exports 4,07 

billion respectively (Country profile: Lithuania). Lithuanian foreign trade shows a deficit insofar as the value 

of imports is greater than that of exports. This can largely be explained by the fact that the country imports a 

large quantity of gas from Russia, whose prices were raised in recent years. 

The export performance of SMEs is of great significance to Lithuania, given the contribution of small and 

medium-sized business to economic growth and job creation. The Lithuanian export promotion system is in 

accordance with relevant international rules (WTO and EU rules and regulations) and enables Lithuanian 

exporters to participate under fair competitive conditions in international markets. Overall, Lithuania has 

reshaped incentives provided to exporters, eliminated subsidies in order to harmonize foreign trade policies 

and increased transparency of export subsidy programs. Due to WTO regulations and EU Customs Union, 

Lithuania now applies measures indirectly assist exporters such as: export finance and insurance as well as 

marketing assistance. However, large scale export promotion programms are difficult to implement under 

the budget constraints. Active debate about export promotion system reform concerns questions of an export 

promotion support access evaluation. 

The aim of the research. To reveal Lithuania’s SMEs export development possibilities improvement 

during the process of internationalization in the context of current state of globalization. 

In order to achieve the aim of the research detailed objectives are formulated: 

1. To reveal obstacles that are suppressing Lithuanian SME’s export development and to evaluate motivation 

for Lithuanian export promotion activity transformation through the use of empirical research. 

2. Through the use of the results from the empirical research, to foresee areas and means for the improvement 

of Lithuanian SMEs exporting. 

The following criteria for the achievement of empirical research aims were distinguished: 

1. By type of impact (influence on export growth). 

2. By impact object (SME’s in manufacturing industry and services (wholesale and retail trade and 

construction) industries. 

3. By utility of impact according to internationalization stages. 

Survey data has been used to test statistical hypotheses: 

H.1. Evaluation of export promotion encouragement depends on the type of firm’s activity area; 

H.2. With the growing export experience, the application of export promotion is evaluated more favorably. 

The survey questionnaires were based on theoretical considerations. Based on the parameters of this 

material sampling, adaptation to empirical research, has been identified, and questions had been formulated. 

Questionnaire consists of open and closed questions which are divided into two parts. First part of the questionnaire 

analyzes current situation of respondents’ enterprises exporting situation whilst defining their current 

internationalization stage. In the second part, testing of raised hypotheses is conducted and respondent 

attitude to export promotion state is identified. 

53



During research 380 Lithuanian enterprises were questioned. Survey data were processed and analyzed 

by using statistical data analysis methods such as statistical data analysis packet SPSS 13.0, Mann-Whitney 

and Kruskal-Wallis test criteria as well as Spearman correlation ratio. 

The results of the research 

Striving for long term economic growth under conditions of current globalization, at first it is needed to 

evaluate current economy’s exporting position and potential 

As the respondents named the types of economic activities they are in, while answering questions based 

on the nominal scale, their answers showed that more than half of the enterprises operated within the manufacturing 

sector – 52.6 percent while less than half of them operated within trade and construction sectors- 

47.4 percent. Through the use of the interval scale, responses regarding length of companies’ activities were 

gathered. The results showed that there were 21.1 percent of companies that had the operational history of 

up to 5 years, 40 percent five to nine years, 30.3 percent ten to fifteen years and 8.7 percent operated longer 

than 20 years. According to the size of the companies by the number of people employed, there were 23.2 

percent of up to 9 employees, 55.8 percent of 10 employees and 21 percent of the companies had 50 to 249 

employees. 

The experience in the export activities was measured, and the results revealed (see x table) that 

13.4 percent of the companies have never exported and show no intention to do so. 7.9 percent of the companies 

with no exporting experience wanted to start internalization process. 

Figure 1. The experience in export activities 

There were not many companies that would consider themselves as experienced exporters to geographically 

and culturally remote countries – 6.3 percent. The majority of the researched companies failed upon 

their first exporting experiences – 32.1 percent. There were 24.3 percent of the companies that successfully 

exported and wanted to expand their export further and 21.1 percent of the companies were experienced 

exporters selling to geographically and culturally proximate countries. 

Evaluating export involvement, enterprises that only fulfill occasional export orders, make up for just 

over one fifth of the responders – 21.3 percent. Companies that fulfill regular export orders, but do not intend 

to research active export possibilities are dominating the research – 35.8 percent. Only 18.4 percent of respondents 

are actively researching the possibilities to export. Furthermore, only 6.3 percent of the companies 

had prepared an export marketing plan. Similarly, only 6.1 percent of the companies have prepared their 

long-term export strategy. 

54


Figure 2. Export involvement evaluation 

The majority of the respondents (61.8 percent) were companies whose export part of sales was 10 to 

49 percent, 26.2 percent of the companies had 10–19 percent export part of sales, 35.6 percent had 20 to 

49 percent and 16.1 percent had more than 50 percent of export as part of their sales. Equally, 11.4 percent 

and 10.7 percent of the companies had accordingly up to 5 percent or 5 to 9 percent as their export part from 

the sales. 

Figure 3. Export part of sales 

In regards to the levels of goods and services adaptation and standardization levels, almost half of the 

exported products are the same as the products being sold internally – 44.6 percent. Products, which have 

been minimally adapted, play quite a significant role reaching to 33.9 percent. However, only 19.6 percent 

of adapted and/or new products are exported to the foreign markets. 

The export-led growth strategy is not an un-mixed blessing and its success is conditioned by the export 

of diversified capital intensive and value-added products 

55



While evaluating the help in promoting export, the majority of respondents thought it was average 

(44.1 percent), 31.4 percent believed it to be negative and only 24.6 percent evaluated the help positively. 

During the analysis of respondent opinion on the export promotion evaluation, some of hypothesis were 

sought to confirm: 

Hypothesis 1: Evaluation of export promotion encouragement depends on the type of company’s activity 

area 

From all of the respondents that negatively evaluated export promotion, 56.8 percent were manufacturing 

and 43.2 percent were services sector companies. Within the manufacturing companies, 33.7 percent evaluated 

the help negatively. In the services sector 28.7 percent evaluated the help negatively. 

From all of the respondents that positively evaluated export promotion in Lithuania, manufacturers make 

up to 42.5 percent and service industries – 57.5 percent. Within the manufacturing companies, 19.8 percent 

evaluated the help positively. Within the services industry, 29.9 percent evaluated the help positively. The 

help was valued as average by 55.8 percent of manufacturing companies and 44.2 percent service companies’ 

respondents. 

It can be thus confirmed that opinion on export development evaluation and the type of firm’s activity 

area are not related, i.e. the differences of opinions are statistically unimportant since (Chi-Square) p = 0,085, 

hypothesis is not confirmed. 

Hypothesis 2: With the growing export experience, the application of export promotion is evaluated 

more favourably. 

Among the companies that have never exported and are not intending to do so, 16.7 percent evaluated the 

export promotion encouragement negatively, which represented 7.2 percent of overall respondents. 18.8 percent 

evaluated help favorably, which represented 10.3 of overall respondents. 64.6 percent or 19.9 percent of 

overall respondents evaluated help as being average. Since p = 0.007, there is a dependency and the numbers 

are statistically reliable. 

Among the companies that have never exported but would like to start the export, the export promotion 

help was valued favorably by 21.5 percent of respondents, or 6.9 percent of overall respondents with 

25.0 percent (or 6.3 percent overall) valuing it negatively and 53.6 percent (or 9.6 overall) valuing it as being 

average. Since p = 0.0556, the valuation of export promotion and export experience are not interrelated, i.e. 

statistically insignificant. 

Having compared the results for the statement “Started exporting but the results were disappointing” together 

with “How do you value export promotion help in Lithuania”, 28.0 percent or 29.7 percent of overall 

respondents valued it negatively and 40.7 percent or 30.8 percent of overall respondent valued the help as 

being average. 31.4 percent or 42.5 percent of overall respondents valued help positively. Since p = 0.110 the 

differences are statistically insignificant. It is confirmed then, that respondents that experienced export downfalls, 

also value export promotion help in Lithuania negatively. 

Among the experimental companies that have successfully exported and wanted to carry on, export promotion 

help was valued unfavorably by 51.7 percent of respondents, or 41.4 percent of overall respondents, 

with 28.1 percent (or 16.0 percent overall) valuing it as being average and 20.2 percent (or 20.7 overall) 

valuing it favorably. Since p = 0.000, values are statistically reliable. 

Among the companies that are experienced exporters into geographically and culturally close markets, 

export promotion help was valued unfavorably by 20.0 percent of respondents, or 11.7 percent of overall 

respondents. 15.4 percent (or 11.5 percent of overall respondents) valued the help favorably. 64.6 percent (or 

26.9 percent of overall respondents) did not have an opinion. Since p = 0,001, values are statistically reliable. 

Among the companies that are experienced exporters into geographically and culturally distant markets, 

export promotion help was valued favorably by 56.6 percent of respondents, or 14.9 percent of overall 

respondents. 21.7 percent (or 3.2 percent of overall respondents) did not have an opinion while 21.7 percent 

(or 4.5 percent of overall respondents) valued the help unfavorably. Since p = 0.001, values are statistically 

reliable. 

56


It can be therefore summarized, that research results showed interdependence between company’s internationalization 

level and its opinion toward the usefulness of export promotion, most favorably evaluated 

by the experienced exporters into geographically and culturally close markets. Hypothesis, that with the 

growing export experience, the application of export promotion is evaluated more favorably, was partially 

confirmed. 

Conclusions 

Current internationalization and globalization processes create new opportunities and challenges for international 

business development. Considering export benefit, every state is interested in active support as 

for its economy subjects export opportunities improving, as helping for current or potential exporters to 

widen or strengthen their activities in the international markets. Regarded as priority export orientation of 

the national economy is expected to ensure its sustainable and dynamic progress, economic and financial 

security and, in the end, growth of common wealth 

Support for SME’s and their goods and services becomes prerogative, therefore export promotion means 

should be more oriented to SME’s enterprises 

Export promotion means should provide better accesses to the recent foreign markets and more knowledge 

about them. Export development aims at producing new export products and/or penetrating new markets 

that were not accessible before. Strategic implications should be specific programs to address the constraints 

for exporters in different internationalization stages. 

Lithuania depends heavily on trade in general. The majority of the country’s exports come to European 

Union member countries. Empirical research on Lithuanian SME’s revealed a rather pessimistic evaluation 

of current export development condition and disadvantages of Lithuania SMEs export supply, as well as lack 

of knowledge on export promoting institution help. 

Research also revealed the need for more value added exports, more adapted or new products and enlarging 

the involvement base of Lithuanian SME’s companies in exporting. Export promotion and development 

support should be oriented to providing better access to the foreign markets and more knowledge about them 

providing specific programs to address the constrains. 

Export encouragement, the choice of priority subjects, identification of the most perspective export development 

markets for SMEs, depending on the stage of internationalization as well as concentrated export 

support towards those SMEs, in authors’ opinion, would allow seeking for directed export development in 

the context of globalization conditioned integration processes. 

Improving export promotion and development activities in Lithuania would strengthen its export capability, 

enhance its competitiveness and boost demand for products, thereby stimulating economic growth and 

development in the global market. 

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58


Smulkaus ir vidutinio verslo įmonių eksporto skatinimo 

pokyčiai LietuvoJE, eksporto plėtros kryptys 


Vilniaus universitetas (Lietuva) 

Santrauka 

Šiuolaikinės integracijos tendencijos, nulemtos globalizacijos procesų, skatina kurti naujus eksporto 

plėtros kryptis ir plėtros metodus. Jų įvertinimas ir įgyvendinimas yra svarbi varomoji jėga ekonominiam 

augimui ir darniam regionų vystymuisi. Straipsnyje siekiama atskleisti, kad dabartinė Lietuvos valstybės 

pozicija, įsitraukiant į tarptautinius mainus dinamiškoje globalioje aplinkoje, eksporto skatinimo požiūriu 

turi būti konceptualiai pagrįsta, leidžiant lygiaverčiai dalyvauti tarptautinėje prekyboje ir tinkamai reaguoti į 

globalizacijos iššūkius. Svarbiausia, kad eksporto skatinimo ir eksporto plėtros mechanizmai bei instrumentai 

leistų laiku reaguoti į vis spartėjantį ekonominių santykių liberalizavimą ir skatintų ekonominį augimą, 

atsižvelgiant į eksporto plėtrą. 

PAGRINDINIAI ŽODŽIAI: internacionalizacija, globalizacija, smulkus ir vidutinis verslas, eksporto 

skatinimas, eksporto plėtra. 

JEL kodai: F130; F140; F150; O110; R110. 

59


LESSONS FROM TEACHING RENEWABLES: DOMESTIC AND CROSS-BORDER EDUCATION ACTION – LATVIAN SOLAR CUP 

LESSONS FROM TEACHING RENEWABLES: 

DOMESTIC AND CROSS-BORDER EDUCATION ACTION – 

LATVIAN SOLAR CUP 

Janis Kleperis 1 , Ilze Dimanta 2 , Justs Dimants 3 , Biruta Sloka 4 

University of Latvia (Latvia) 

Abstract 

From 2008 the education action – Latvian Solar Cup – is organized in University of Latvia. In this event, intended for pupils and 

students, the basics of one of the types of renewable energy – solar photovoltaic – are taught, and pupils from 5 th to 12 th classes are 

being taught, and students – those who teach. Lectures about renewable technologies are organized for pupils, and materials are 

distributed them for homework – to built up just a solar-powered vehicle. First Solar Cup became with an active participation of 

Czech colleagues (University of Ostrava) and their experience in organizing similar initiatives. Over the next few years the German 

colleagues from the University of Kassel (Germany) shared with their experience from German Solar Cup activities. 

KEY WORDS: renewable energy technologies, solar cup, education action, photovoltaics. 

JEL codes: Q130; Q290 

Introduction 

Renewable energy resources and technologies are ready to meet our energy needs, probably only partly 

today and fully in the future (Hearps and McConnell, 2011: 58). They are cleaner and safer than coal, oil, also 

nuclear power. Use of them helps improve public health and energy security, as well as reduce the emissions 

of the primary global warming pollutant – carbon dioxide. Hydropower still represents the dominant source 

in renewable electricity generation, but has become less important during recent years. This technology 

accounted for 94 % of green electricity generation by 1990 while by 2008 its share had decreased to below 

60 % (EU Working Document, 2011: 41). This is caused by strong development of emerging renewable 

energy technologies, such as wind, sun and biomass. However the Lithuania was the most dependent country 

between all 27 EU states of electricity import in 2010, and main reason of it was closing the Ignalina nuclear 

power plant (Paskevicius, 2011: 16). Net electricity import in Latvia constituted 12 % in 2010 (23 % in 2009) 

(CSB, 2010). Therefore the sooner we make the transition to renewable energy, the more our nations will benefit. 

Which prevents them from introduction? Renewable energy technologies are ready to be implemented, 

1 

Janis Kleperis – Institute of Solid State Physics, University of Latvia (Latvia), Seniour Researcher, Head of Laboratory of Hydrogen 

and Gaseous Sensors, Dr. phys., scientific interestests: renewable energy technologies; hydrogen energy; education of next generation. 

E-mail: kleperis@latnet.lv 

2 

Ilze Dimanta – Faculty of Biology, University of Latvia (Latvia), Doctoral student, Mg. biol., scientific interests: renewable 

energy technologies; hydrogen energy; creation of hydrogen energy on basis of biology sources. 

E-mail: ilze.dimanta@gmail.com; ilze.dimanta@lu.lv 

3 

Justs Dimants – Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Latvia (Latvia), Doctoral student, Mg. admin., scientific 

interests: renewable energy technologies; hydrogen energy; hydrogen economy, marketing of hydrogen energy. 

E-mail: justs.dimants@gmail.com; justs.dimants@lu.lv 

4 

Biruta Sloka – Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Latvia (Latvia), Professor, Dr., scientific interests: 

marketing research; regional development; education development. 

E-mail: biruta.sloka@lu.lv; biruta@eurofaculty.lv 

60


but increased public confidence, regulatory reforms, and a system of economic incentives for development 

of these resources are needed to make large-scale use of renewables a reality. 

Education is an important first step in making this transition. Renewable energy is an ideal topic for 

middle and high school classrooms (Brown, 2008: 100). Renewable energy resources and technologies can 

be used to teach basic scientific principles: the Sun as renewable (in the scale of human life – infinite) source 

of Earth’s energy, conversion of energy from one form to another, or electricity generation electricity storage 

and finally – a reasonable spending power. Natural science, physics, biology, chemistry teachers can incorporate 

activities on renewable energy into a unit on the environmental impact of energy use. Social studies teachers 

can select renewable energy activities that demonstrate how the marketplace and our political system 

govern the way energy decisions are made. But this applies not only to primary schools, as well as or even 

more importantly it is for future engineers in high schools. High schools struggle to get and keep students engaged 

in the study of science, while industry struggles to attract employees with advanced technical skills in 

renewable energy technologies. As it is mentioned by Brown (2008:100), progressive teachers and lecturers 

see a great opportunity to combine the growing national interest in renewable energy with research science 

and hands-on skills to provide a truly integrated, contextual curriculum to engage pupils and students: 

• y Renewable energy provides a political, economic and technical framework for the study of scientific 

concepts and methodology; 

• y Renewable energy utilization rests on the development of advanced technical skills in engineering 

research and design, electrical power production, storage, transmission and utilization, manufacturing, 

transportation modeling, urban planning and design; 

• y The translating of scientific concepts into working physical models offers unparalleled opportunities 

for students to practice creative and critical thinking, and to problem-solve in a tangible context. 

In this article we summarize the experience in organizing Latvian Solar Cups for pupils from Latvia’s 

schools in period from 2008 to 2011. 

1. Goal and objectives of Latvian Solar Cup 

The goal of activity is to understand the Sun as an energy source and an energy resource, as well as to 

acquire primary knowledge about technologies to collect energy from the Sun and to put it in use. Next 

objectives are set and realized every year in one-day event, which usually falls on a Saturday in mid-May: 

1. To gain knowledge about the energy from the Sun and ways to harvest it, the fundamentals of photovoltaic 

devices, the implementation of renewable energy technologies in Latvia, Europe, the World. 

2. To design and build car/boat/plane small prototype which can perform following tasks: 

2.1 In the Speed Class the car must drive the given distance (8–10 m) as quick as possible using 

only currently (on the competition day) available Sun energy; 

2.2 Cars in the Strength Class must drive the given distance with relief (artificial grass with small 

hills, 6–8 m) as quick as possible using only currently available Sun energy; 

2.3 the boats must move as quickly as possible the distance (10–20 m) in specially arranged pool 

using only currently available Sun energy; 

2.4 The plane must stay in the air at least 10 seconds or has to make the furthest flight after running 

start on horizontal ramp, using only currently available Sun energy. 

2. Practical realization 

The one of the first tasks of the Solar Cup organization has to figure out workable tasks for pupils aged from 

12 to 18 years. Organizing 1st Latvian Solar Cup we were modest, and the student team, consisting of up to 

3 participants were given only the task to build a small toy car, whose engine is powered by solar battery. To 

create a vehicle which could then participate in the race should use a constant size solar cells. Since the solar 

61



cells are already experiencing a third, even fourth generation, each of which has its own special technology 

and the different technical parameters, it is clear that all partner teams should have the same type and same 

area solar cells. Photovoltaics is a technology for converting light directly into electricity (renewables are Ready, 

2003). Most photovoltaic cells have two layers of “semiconductor” material – the same material used in 

computer chips. When light hits the photovoltaic cell, electrons travel from one layer to the other, creating a 

voltage (or charge) that can power an electrical device. Photovoltaic cells (also called PV or solar cells) were 

first developed to power space satellites. Technical advances have steadily increased PV cell efficiencies, and 

their cost has dropped significantly. Solar cells are widely used in calculators and for remote power applications 

not connected to an electricity grid (such as rural villages, communications relays, and emergency lights, signs, 

and telephones). They are not yet economically competitive for large-scale electricity generation. 

No one measure can not be organized without the financial investment, and, reflecting on the event-building 

tactics, we decided that the most important thing is to invest in solar cells, small electric motors and fans. Purchased 

parts are shared equally by each team, which has applied for, and sent to their addresses. Encapsulated solar modules 

SOL2 are made of interconnected photovoltaic solar cells, which convert sunlight into DC voltage to power electronic 

circuits and projects. A solar module may be used alone, or two or more modules can be wired together in series or 

in parallel (or both) into larger “solar panels” to increase the useful voltage or current. Just as with batteries, modules 

wired together in series will increases the voltage, and modules wired together in parallel will increase the available 

current. When even more power is needed, solar panels may be similarly expanded into „solar arrays“. Solar cells and 

modules are great for charging batteries, powering miniature motors and small circuits, science fair demonstrations 

and projects, or just experimenting with the possibilities. Four our pupils we chosed 2 cells from Velleman for one 

team with total area 120–125 cm 2 . Specifications of one SOL2 photovoltaic solar cell (Velleman) are next: 

• y cell technology: polycrystalline silicon; 

• y working output voltage: 0.5 V DC; 

• y current: 800 mA; 

• y connections: red and black wire leads; 

• y dimensions: 6.5 cm x 9.2 cm x 0.5 cm; 

• y encapsulated. 

Main participants are pupils from schools (average age 12–18 years), but students and adults are welcome 

as well and will participate in a separate class. A team is formed from 1–3 participants, to apply the team 

needs a Team Name (also distinguishing marks for groups are welcome – motto, flags, caps, shirts etc.). In 

the first Latvian Solar Cup the solar cars created by pupils took part in the speed and power tracks, but in the 

second and next Solar Cups also solar boats and solar planes participated. Description of tracks: 

Speed Track: 

Orientation – from South to North; laminate surface 8 m long, 0.5 m wide (from 6 standard floor sheets); 

wood laths bounded both sides of track (see figure 1): 

Lath separates two tracks 

55cm 

8 m 

Figure 1. Organisation of Speed Tracks in Solar Cups 

Source: Contest Regulations, Institute of Solid State Physics, University of Latvia 

62


The Force Trace: 

Orientation – from South to North; artificial grass surface (wires 2 cm high) 6 m long and 50 cm wide 

with 2–3 humps (10–20 cm high); both sides of Trace are bounded with vertical wood laths (see figure 2): 

55cm 

6 m 

Figure 2. Organisation of Force Trace in Solar Cups 


The Water Trace: 

Orientation – from Southwest to Northeast; the pool (artificial river) with film inlay and deepness 30–60 

cm, length 6 m and the width 2 m. The Sun boat needs a couple of hooks – one in the bow and second – in 

the tail, to use a string, if the problem will arise with reciprocal motion (see figure 3): 

2 m 

6 m 

Figure 3. Organisation of Water Trace in Solar Cups 


The Air Trace: 

The orientation is free. Possible variants depending on the ability of participating models (will be evaluated 

just before the competition): 

• y The Sun plane starts vertically – the time is fixed when defined height is reached (6–8 meters). 

• y The Sun plane needs the runway – it will be arranged directly on place. 

The process of Start and Competition: 

• y The Sun vehicle (boat) is laid on the Start just before the start line with covered Sun panels (from 

distance). 

• y After starting signal the cover is removed; 

• y If vehicle (boat) does not begin to move, it can be pushed slightly with one finger; 

• y The time is fixed between two events – when the front of vehicle is crossing the start line and when 

the tail of vehicle is crossing the finish line. 

63



Dividing the Sun vehicles and Sun boats: 

The Judges team is dividing the vehicles and boats in classes: 

• y A – Folk Class: the vehicle or boat is using Solar panels with active area not exceeding 125 cm 2 and 

does not use electronics; 

• y B – Master Class: The tuning of Solar Panels is made (concentrators etc.) or electronics is used to store 

Solar energy (before competition the stored energy must be discharged); 

• y C – Extra Class: The active area of Solar panels exceeds 125 cm 2 , hydrogen is used to store the solar 

energy and more extras); 

The competition takes place sequentially – Folk Class, Master Class, and Extra Class starting with Speed 

Trace, then Force Trace, then Water Trace and finishing with Air Trace. During the time when the tracks are 

not used for competition they can be used for trial experiments; 

• y Two drives will be allowed for every vehicle (boat, plane), and the best results will be judged. 

• y Awards will be for the best 3 places in all Tracks and Classes. 

The Place of Latvian Solar Cups 2008–2011 trditionally is the Car Parking place of Institute of Solid 

State Physics, University of Latvia (address: Latvia, Riga, Kengaraga Street 8). In case of rain the solar cars 

only will compete in the Vestibule of second floor, the lighting will be arranged with six 300 W halogen 

lamps situated 1.5 m above the track. However, the chosen date of the Latvian Solar Cup race – Saturday in 

mid-May – is usually sunny in Latvia, as it shows by long-time meteorological observations. 

Participants and results 

Latvian Solar Cup events are normally involved 80–120 participants (maximum 80 teams) from 35– 

60 schools, aged between 12 and 18 years. The younger participants had up to 4 years. Each year, the Sun 

Cup is also an international event – either a team from a foreign country or a lecturer from abroad. An excellent 

teacher and lecturer at the first Latvian Solar Cup was Professor Bohumil Horák from Ostrava University, 

Czech Republic (Horák, 2008). 

University of Kassel (Germany) Professor Jürgen Zick participated in Latvian Solar Cup events two times – 

2009 and 2011 (Hessen Solar Cup, 2011). He told that this kind of events are taking place in Hessen for more 

than ten years – every year to organize competition of solar boats, solar ultra-light mobile, remote-controlled 

solar-Mobile or Solar Robots; it is the issue of “energy revolution now” involving German pupils, students. 

Let describe just one of our events, the Latvian Solar Cup 2009. On the 16th May the 2nd Latvian Solar 

Cup took place at Institute of Solid state Physics of University of Latvia. Organized events included lectures 

and races. Totally 120 participants were divided in 59 teams (applied 86), there were also teachers, parents 

and fans. Pupils came from different schools in Latvia: Riga (Agenskalna National Gymnasium, the Riga 

School of Crafts, Jugla Secondary School, Riga 64th Secondary School, Riga 84th secondary school, pupils 

from Riga Pupils Castle, Riga State 1. Gymnasium, the Riga State Technical School, , Gymnasium of Nordic 

languages and technical innovation group TJN Annas-2/RTU); from country – A.Upītis Skriveru Secondary 

School, Auce Secondary School, Blome Elementary School, Liepaja 5th Secondary School, Jaunjelgava 

School, State Jelgava Gymnasium, Malpils Secondary School, Preili National Gymnasium, Priekuļi Secondary 

School, Saldus Gymnasium, Sigulda State Gymnasium, Smiltene Centre College and Smiltene Gymnasium. 

Lectures were started with academic speech of director of Institute of Solid state Physics (ISSP), 

Andris Šternbergs, overview oh Hessen Solar Cup by Professor Jürgen Zick. It was followed the lecture 

on organic photovoltaics by new researcher of ISSP Andrew Tokmakov and the presentation about Latvian 

solar testing plantation in Physical Energetic Institute – lecturers Martins Vanags and Janis Blums. Although 

Saturday morning began with a great Sun, when lectures ended, the Sun was hiding in the clouds. Sun’s 

missing then was the key to why the solar planes stood on the land, and why the speed of solar cars and boats 

was low. During the race of solar cars the participants were divided into three classes – Folk Classs, Master 

64


Class and Extra Class. The races were on the speed track (distance 7.5 meters long), power track (6 m long 

artificial grass covering of the hills) and solar boat race in water (6 m long pool). Even in cloudy conditions, 

winners beat speed track in less than 4 seconds (from students – Tinky team from Sigulda State Gymnasium, 

albeit for a slower solar car it took almost 2 minutes. In the power track only two teams finished all way – it 

took 9 seconds for winning team and 1 minute 19 seconds for second place. The water race received much 

agreement from participants, but in cloudy conditions, only a few teams fought for the award-winning sites. 

Close of the Latvian Solar Cup event was the award ceremony, which awards students with different various 

prizes, which were brought upon sponsors: ISSP, University of Latvia, Latvian Academy of Sciences, 

Latvenergo, Latvian Council of Science, Riga Energy Agency, Riga City Council Education, Culture and 

Sports Department, VISC ESF project “Dabaszinātnes un matemātika”, Publisher company Lielvārds, Ltd. 

Perpetuum Nova Science, Journal “Ilustrētā Zinātne”, Ltd. Viessmann, Ltd. Rīgas Piensaimnieks, L’Oreal 

and Ministry of Environment. 

There were also questioning arranged in each Latvian Solar Cup summarizing all recommendations to 

organizers. 

Conclusions and Summary from evaluations of participants 

It is important to understand that solar car, boat or another device is not simple, but system containing 

several important parts. We must begin by understanding each part of the system and setting realistic goals as 

to what can be done in the same time that lies ahead. Lofty goals are great, but if they are set unrealistically 

high, the project may not be completed in time. One the other hand, if we choose a very simplistic approach, 

there may not be enough challenges to hold interest for the team. 

In order to not only physical race of solar cars and solar boats, but also intellectual contribution to develop 

young researchers, it would be useful when Solar Cup race could begin with descriptions from each Team 

of their research building up their model: energy capacity, available speed, payload, another capabilities or 

functions. From the beginning it always useful to make experiments with solar cells to see who will come out. 

The sun shines during the day and the intense summer than in winter, the wind blows differently, depending 

on the time and place. On the other hand, the plug at any time day or night “blindly” plugged into the 

socket. To run the TV, computer, fridge, heating pump, the toaster or hair dryer, no matter when and for how 

long. This leads to the central question: How can the consumption and production of electricity at any time 

be brought into balance? What can we do to achieve a full supply of renewable energies? What is the role of 

the conscious use of energy in everyday life? How can electrical energy be stored? How can we orient our 

personal consumption at the supply of renewable energies? How to drive our cars without ejecting CO 2 

and 

without gasoline and diesel fuels? It is not about science fiction. To develop meaningful utopias and displayed! 

Get creative with your pupils and students! Find out what everyone can do now is get closer to target the 

“100 % renewable energy”? 

References 

Brown, M. A. (2008). Introduction to Renewable Energy Technology: A Year-Long Science & Technology Course. 

Lakewood High School, 100 pages. Available online from: http://www.nrel.gov/education/pdfs/educational_resources/high_school/re_intro.pdf 

CSB. (2010). Consumption of energy resources in Latvia in 2010. Central Statistical Bureau (CSB) of Latvia. Available 

online from: http://www.csb.gov.lv/en/notikumi/consumption-energy-resources-latvia-2010-31967.html 

EU Working Document. (2011). Recent progress in developing renewable energy sources and technical evaluation of 

the use of biofuels and other renewable fuels in transport in accordance with Article 3 of Directive 2001/77/EC and 

Article 4(2) of Directive 2003/30/EC. EU Commission Staff Working Document, Brussels, 31.1.2011, 41 pages. 

Available online from: http://ec.europa.eu/energy/renewables/reports/doc/sec_2011_0130.pdf 

Hearps, P., McConnell, D. (2011). Renewable Energy Technology Cost Review. Melbourne Energy Institute Technical 

Paper Series, 58 pages. Available online from: http://www.garnautreview.org.au/update-2011/commissioned-work/ 

renewable-energy-technology-cost-review.pdf 

65



Hessen Solar Cup. (2011). Available online from: http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb16/solarcup/news_archiv.ghk 

Horák, B. (2008). Renewable and Aletrnate Power Sources. Pilot projects at VSB-TU Ostrava VSB. Available online 

from: http://dtsw-mitglieder.de/deutsch/Bohumil_Horak.pdf; http://poweredbysun.vsb.cz 

Paskevicius, V. (2011). Electricity Sector Development in Lithuania. Report in Forum “Energy in Latvia 2011”, 7-12-2012, 

Riga, 16 pages. Available online from: http://konferences.db.lv/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/7_Paskevicius_Eng.pdf 

Renewables Are Ready: A Guide to Teaching Renewable Energy in Junior and Senior High School Classrooms. (2003). 

By the Union of Concerned Scientists. Available online from: http://www.ucsusa.org/assets/documents/clean_energy/renewablesready_fullreport.pdf 

Velleman: Encapsulated Solar Cell (0.5V/800mA). Available online from: http://www.velleman.eu/products/ 

view/?id=339363 

Acknowledgement 

Authors acknowledge financial support to organize Latvian Solar Cups from ERFP project No Nr. 2DP/2.1.1.1.2.0./10/ 

APIA/VIAA/010. 

More information about Latvian Solar Cups: http://www.cfi.lu.lv/saules-kauss/ 

Atsinaujinančių IŠTEKLIų pamokos: vietiniŲ ir KITŲ 

ŠALIŲ MOKSLEIVIŲ mokymas – latvijos „saulės taurė“ 


Kietųjų būsenų fizikos institutas, Latvijos universitetas 

Santrauka 

Nuo 2008 metų Latvijos universitete rengiami mokymai Latvijos „Saulės taurė“. Renginyje, kuris skirtas 

mokiniams ir studentams, kalbama apie vieną iš atsinaujinančių išteklių – saulės fotogalvaninę energiją. 

Studentai moko 5–12 klasių mokinius. Mokiniams vedamos paskaitos, užduodami namų darbai: sukurti vien 

saulės energija varomą transporto priemonę. 

Iš pradžių „Saulės taurė“ vyko aktyviai dalyvaujant Čekų kolegoms (Ostravos universitetas), remiantis jų 

patirtimi organizuojami panašūs renginiai. Vėliau kolegos iš Vokietijos Kaselio universiteto dalijosi patirtimi 

iš Vokietijos „Saulės taurės“ renginių. 

PAGRINDINIAI ŽODŽIAI: atsinaujinančios energijos technologijos, „Saulės taurė“, mokymo iniciatyva, 

fotogalvanika. 

JEL klasifikacija: Q130; Q290 

66


PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT OF GREEN 

RURAL TOURISM IN UKRAINE 

Valentyna Oleynik 1 , Sergii Iaromenko 2 

Odesa National Academy of Food Technologies (Ukraine) 

Abstract 

The article is dealing with problems of emergence of green tourism in Ukraine, analyzing trends of eco-tourism in the world and in Ukraine. 

The research presented in this paper is the initial step of complex research of green tourism on the theoretic basis of social geography. The 

green tourism we consider as phenomenon that affects the development of rural areas, and makes a multiplier effect in the socio-economic 

and cultural spheres of rural areas. The paper is focussing on the regional difference in the development of tourism. The findings of O. Beydyk 

who created the recreational ranking methods, were taken as a methodological basis for this research. The economic estimation of GDP and 

the index of recreational and tourist potential of the regions in Ukraine are compared during this research stage. 

KEY WORDS: green tourism, agri-tourism, rural tourism, api-tourism, homesteads and farmsteads. 

JEL codes: R110 

Introduction 

The concept of rural areas’ multifunctional development is more prevailing concept in Ukraine, and 

it makes possible the simultaneous development of several economic activities. At the same time special 

attention is given to non-agrarian ways. It becomes apparent in time of information technologies that rapid 

development of scientific and technological progress, priority role of service sector, the agrarian production 

only as such can’t provide the necessary wealth to rural inhabitants. 

Prolonged socio-economic crisis reflects on social problems of population, mostly rural. However, acutely raises 

the question of overcoming inequalities of social and economic development between regions and within these 

regions. During the Soviet epoch and now various methods and principles to overcome this problem were and are 

declared. In the 1920s the principles of the elimination of economic, political and cultural backwardness were declared 

(Lanovyk, Matysyanevych, Mateyko, 1999). In 1930s a new economic politics with idea of rise of industrial 

level in backward agricultural areas was proclaimed (Skrypchenko, 1932). In 1950s principle of economic recovery 

act of each republic, equal status of all people of the USSR were declared (Danilov, Mukhin, 1959). 

Subsequently and still the basic principle of regional policy is the principle of equalization of socio-economic 

development of territories. This topic is widely debated between scholars of public administration, 

economics, geography. Famous works of F. Zastavny, Z. Varnaliya, Y. Shevchuk, I. Prokop, O. Topchiev, 

M. Baranovsky, I. Smal and many others embrace the extremely wide spectrum of research: backwardness, 

depression areas and their rehabilitation, development, management issues, etc. 

1 Valentyna Oleynik – Odesa National Academy of Food Technologies, Restaurant, Hotel and Touristic Business, Associate Professor, 

PhD in Geographical Sciences, Regional economy, Demography, Economic and Social Geography. 

E-mail: v.oleynik777@mail.ru 

Tel.: +380 67 783 00 56 

2 Sergii Iaromenko – Odesa National Academy of Food Technologies, Restaurant, Hotel and Touristic Business, Assistant, PhD in 

Geographical Sciences, Regional economy, Political Geography, Economic and Social Geography. 

E-mail: syaromenko@gmail.com 

Tel.: +380 63 137 72 51 

67


PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT OF GREEN RURAL TOURISM IN UKRAINE 

1. Methodology 

Scoring is mostly used in the study of natural phenomena and socio-geographical nature, and helps to 

improve the analysis of obtained data. When assessing the summary index, distribution of points for the 

reference value gradations is important. In this study, reference value, which we translated into points (from 

1 to 5 stars), has 25 shades (the number of regions of Ukraine). Thus, the degree of accuracy causes share 

these gradations unit for 5 points. Note also that all components of the scale (25 regions corresponding rates) 

have the same value (the difference between the first gradations are as important as between the latter), so 

it is logical distribution of the reference range between points evenly. These positions developed a number 

of scoring matrices of recreational resources of Ukraine, which became the basis of their overall rating. On 

the basis of relevant quantitative indicators, the expert approach, expeditionary significant experience with 

5-point scale assessed current and recreational potential of Ukraine regions, Autonomous Republic of Crimea 

and filled a number of auxiliary tables. Data have been summarized in Table 1. 

Administrative 

units 

Table 1. Recreational resource raking of Ukrainian regions 

Raking, points 

Socio-geographical 

Natural 

Natural 

and 

anthropogenic 

Architectural 

and historical 

Infrastructure 

Biosocial 

Event 

resource 

Sum 

of 

points 

Summary 

index of 

recreational 

rank 

AR of Crimea 2 5 5 5 5 5 5 32 5 

Vinnytsia 5 4 1 4 1 5 3 23 4 

Volyn 1 3 2 4 1 3 4 18 2 

Dnipropetrovsk 4 2 1 2 3 2 1 15 2 

Donetsk 3 1 1 1 5 1 2 14 1 

Zhytomyr 4 1 1 2 1 5 2 16 2 

Zakarpatska 1 5 4 3 1 2 1 17 2 

Zaporizhia 3 1 3 1 2 1 1 12 1 

Ivano-Frankivsk 2 4 2 3 1 4 5 21 3 

Kyiv 4 1 2 5 3 5 5 25 4 

Kirovohrad 5 1 1 1 1 2 1 12 1 

Luhansk 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 11 1 

L’viv 1 4 1 5 2 5 5 23 4 

Mykolaiv 5 2 1 1 2 2 3 16 2 

Odesa 5 2 1 3 4 5 5 25 4 

Poltava 4 1 1 2 1 5 2 16 2 

Rivne 2 2 3 3 1 1 4 16 2 

Sumy 3 2 2 2 1 4 1 15 2 

Ternopil 2 3 1 4 1 2 2 15 2 

Kharkiv 4 2 1 3 1 3 4 18 2 

Kherson 4 2 4 1 2 1 1 15 2 

Khmelnytsky 3 3 1 5 1 2 3 18 2 

Cherkasy 4 3 2 2 1 4 2 18 2 

Chernivtsi 3 4 1 3 1 2 2 16 2 

Chernihiv 3 1 3 4 1 5 2 19 3 

Source: Beydyk, O. (2004). Methods of recreational ranking. Kyiv. 

68


O. Beydyk created seven major recreational resource blocks (“big seven” recreational resources: social, 

geographical, natural, natural and anthropogenic, architectural and historical, infrastructure, biosocial, event 

units) which are evaluated in the amplitude of 1–5 points. For ease of evaluation minimal and maximal criterion 

(extreme positions: 1 and 5 points) were determined. The cumulative score was determined by ranking 

(also a 5-point scale) amounts of score evaluations. 

V. Oleynik created ranking in GDP by regions of Ukraine (25 points). GRP rating to the regions defined 

as ranking evidence of GRP (maximum and minimum of real GRP by 25 regions). 

2. Results and Discussion 

One of the important directions of sustainable function of regional economy can be accelerated development 

of the tourism industry. All regions of Ukraine have a certain tourist and recreation resources. Beydyk 

(2001) identifies and ranks regions in accordance to indicators of tourist and recreation resources provision. 

The first in this rank is an Autonomy Republic of Crimea with the highest rates because it has the unique 

climate, natural diversity and rich history of region. 

The second group consists of Vinnytsia, Kyiv, Lviv, and Odesa regions (or oblasts in Ukrainian), in which 

anthropogenic and natural components are organically combined. 

The third group includes Ivano-Frankivsk and Chernihiv regions with rich historical and cultural, natural 

recreational areas and centers. 

The fourth group is quite numerous. It is formed by Volyn, Dnipropetrovsk, Zhytomyr, Zakarpatska, Mykolaiv, 

Poltava, Rivne, Sumy, Ternopil, Kharkiv, Kherson, Khmelnytsky, Cherkasy and Chernivtsi regions. 

The fifth group consists of Donetsk, Zaporizhia, Kirovohrad, Luhansk regions with lowest ratings. 

Comparing ranks of regions by classification of O. Beydyk (2001) and the main economic indicators 

(GRP) one can see the significant differences. That shows about existing and possible to issue potential of 

tourist and recreational resources (Table 2). 

Table 2. Rank indicators of tourist and recreational resources potential and gross regional product in regions of Ukraine 

Regions 

Rank of recreational 

resource 

Rank of GRP indicator Differences in ranks 

AR of Crimea 1 10 -9 

Vinnytsia 4 12 -8 

Volyn 8 23 -5 

Dnipropetrovsk 18 2 16 

Donetsk 22 1 21 

Zhytomyr 13 17 -4 

Zakarpatska 12 22 -10 

Zaporizhia 23 7 16 

Ivano-Frankivsk 6 14 -8 

Kyiv 2 6 -4 

Kirovohrad 23 21 2 

Luhansk 25 5 20 

L’viv 4 8 -4 

Mykolaiv 13 11 2 

Odesa 2 4 -2 

Poltava 13 9 4 

Rivne 13 19 -6 

Sumy 18 15 3 

Ternopil 18 24 -6 

Kharkiv 8 3 5 

69



Regions 

Rank of recreational 

resource 

Rank of GRP indicator 

Differences in ranks 

Kherson 18 20 -2 

Khmelnytsky 8 16 -8 

Cherkasy 8 13 -5 

Chernivtsi 13 25 -12 

Chernihiv 7 18 -11 

The significant part of these regions consist the rural areas, so “growth point” can and should be the green 

rural tourism in these regions. 

The green rural tourism can be a factor in solution of region backwardness problems in preferred direction 

of integrated development of rural areas. For example, in the Europe has become popular the green 

tourism in holydays. The main factors of this process are (Grushchynsky, Krakovia-Bal, Kazmir, 2007): 

• y ethno-cultural and socio-demographic changes in society, securing a healthy lifestyle, understanding 

of the environment values, natural products in mass production of artificial and synthetic materials, 

the need for urban residents to rest in rural areas; 

• y difficult economic situation in agriculture; 

• y release (due to technological progress in industry) workers of agriculture and the need for job creation 

in rural areas; 

• y the desire to “self-sufficient” rural families get extra income from renting accommodation and free 

sale of agricultural quality natural products; 

• y in time of the commercialization has increased the popularity of alternative tourism that promotes 

recreational activities; 

• y ecologically clean environment; 

• y the need to protect and restore rural landscapes. 

Thus, on the one hand, there was demand for recreation in the country side, on the other hand, was the offering 

responding to this demand by creating green tourism in a basis of farms and providing related services. 

There are several types of tourism nowadays. The rural tourism is a form of recreation in the country side 

which is closely related to local history, ethnic, cultural tourism and directly uses the attractiveness of rural 

areas. This form of tourism is valued for the fresh air, hospitality, local natural and cultural attractions. 

It is possible to identify several forms of rural tourism (Kravchenko, 2007): 

• y rural tourism – recreation in the country side; 

• y agritourism (a form of rural tourism is closely connected with agriculture (animal husbandry, fishing, 

gardening) or agri-recreational tourism that develops on the basis of households rural or farm lands, 

provides for recreation in nature and voluntary participation in the holiday farm work, but work on 

their land is the main source of family needs for food and getting extra cash benefits; 

• y green rural tourism (ecotourism variety), where the subject of tourism demand is ecologically clean 

areas, natural diversity, attractive landscapes. The basis for its development of rural settlements is 

located within or near the sites of nature. 

There are different possible combinations of types and forms of tourism. It may be cultural, educational, 

industrial, sports and health tourism, which developes on the basis of rural settlements. This can vary greatly 

in range of services. Separate homestead (farmstead; in Ukrainian – sadyba) can specialize in hunting, 

fishing, horseback riding, organizing holidays. Significant spread of rural tourism gained in Europe, which 

operates in two admissions: first – based on farms that specialize in various kinds of agricultural production 

and provide additional travel services, the second – only focuses on serving tourists. Green tourism provides 

employment for 0.5 to 0.9 million in EU (Oleynik, 2010). Over 2 million tourists may get the accommo- 

70


dation in rural homesteads in Europe. A profit from green tourism reaches 10–20 % of the total income of 

tourism industry. 

In Latin America ecological tourism has become an alternative to timber industry and was competitive. 

Foreign exchange receipts from tourism exceed the environmental benefits from the export of bananas, 

coffee, textiles. 

The alternative version of development of eco-tourism and rural tourism activities are becoming popular 

in the African continent. Tourism became a protected segment model of national parks instead of the old 

colonial scheme as unique natural areas intended, primarily, as an exclusive possession for ‘white’ tourists, 

scientists and hunters. Local residents could visit the holy places, historical monuments. Now the situation 

has changed. The basis of environmental models is the principle, the essence of which is: unique species of 

flora and fauna, fragile ecosystems can be saved if the population that lives near the area to be financially 

interested in the development of protected areas, conservation of nature. Through eco-tourism the local inhabitants 

have to be compensated for the loss of other income (hunting, logging). 

The development of green tourism in Ukraine began much later than in the Europe and completely 

on other principles. First (by Ganin, 2011), consumers of services in the eco-tourism are usually the poor 

Ukrainians and foreign (especially Russians), and secondly, rural tourism is developing as an alternative 

activity that provides employment for agriculture which suffered decline. Unfortunately, for our fellow citizens 

(basically) green tourism is not yet to become an important type of recreation and continues to be some 

‘unexplained exotic’. According to opinion polls only 15 % of Ukrainian tourists prefer green tourism over 

other types of recreation. 

In 2010, the country offers nearly 1,000 different farms with a total capacity of 10 thousand places each 

year for 800,000 visitors. For comparison, known locally as agritourism in Poland are functioning about 12 

thousand households, in France, United Kingdom and Germany – at least 20 thousand in each country. In 

Ukraine, hosts are mainly concentrated in the traditional tourist regions: in Crimea, close to Azov Sea, and 

the Carpathian Mountains, where about 90 % of rural tourism estates are concentrated. It should be noted that 

the supply of domestic agritourism products, services and products covers a rather narrow range. First of all 

rural villages offer tours, traditional cuisine, wellness and active forms of tourism activities. Investigation of 

the main types of agritourism activities in the Carpathian region showed that a high share offers in promotional 

publications account for a variety of recreation classes, trips to area attractions, hiking and gathering 

mushrooms and berries. 

Such tourist activities associated with the traditional known locally as agri-tourism, agri-therapy, agrientertainments, 

here are not sufficiently developed. World experience of agri-tourism products and services 

using indicates that a wide range of proposals in various spheres of activity are proposed. In particular, the 

innovative nature of them have the products and services in a special zoo corner in farmsteads, field games of 

the new generation, hypnotherapy, different types of agri-entertainments. In Ukraine, these innovative classes 

are not enough popular and little used in practice of the green rural tourism and agri-tourism. Therefore 

it is important to study these new forms of tourism activities in rural areas. 

Along with the development of Ukrainian agriculture tourism in organizational terms is different from 

European ones. Unlike the practice of European countries Ukrainian began to develop this sphere conducted 

“from above”. However, every year more and more local authorities and governments, civil society organizations 

involved in rural tourism development, approved policies and programs. The media has special role 

in this process that promotes the possibility of rest in the village, pays attention to existing unused resources. 

For example through the activities of the Union to promote rural tourism, in Ukraine actively implemented 

in tourist market agri-tourism product, known as the “green tourism”. Twenty-two regions of the country 

representing the properties of homestead that provides accommodation, meals, attraction to the work of 

local residents and foreign tourists. At the same time, given the approaching tourist season 2012, the soccer 

championship Euro-2012 and the International Congress Apimondia in 2013 to almost new version is being 

prepared for the Ukrainian information and tourist guide to api-tourism environment that will order the selected 

services and clarify the issue of location: 

71



1) owners of farmsteads (sadybas) of rural tourism with an apiary and bee offered for medical purposes; 

2) beekeepers offering bee products in medician purposes and services of accommodation and meals in 

their own sadybas; 

3) information materials with invitation about the possibilities of recreation and api-therapy; 

4) contacts of sadybas’ owners of rural tourism and beekeepers; 

5) commentaries with experts on api-therapy. 

Promoting of rural tourism in Ukraine is suspended by the absence of perfect legislation. In the January 

2009, in Ukraine was not adopted a law on rural or ecological (green) tourism – unlike some neighbouring 

countries (Poland, Hungary). In consideration taken as the basis – the first reading – the draft law “On rural 

and green tourism” (Resolution of Parliament № 2179 of 16.11.2004 town) was not repeatedly discussed at 

Ukrainian Parliament. In Parliament (Verkhovna Rada) there were bills “On rural tourism” № 0920 from 

25.06.2006, and “On the village green tourism” № 3467 of 12.04.2007. However, in the autumn of 2007, the 

Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine the next convocation withdrew them from consideration. 

Currently the Parliament is not pending any special law on green tourism. Registered bills in tourism 

related solely to tour operators and travel agents. Law of Ukraine “On Tourism” № 324/95 of 15.10.1998, 

the total is for all types of tourism and tourist activities. Some clarification of policies explains procedure 

to provide services to temporary accommodation, approved by the Government (Cabinet of Ministries) of 

Ukraine on March 15, 2006, N 297. 

Conclusions 

There is a need of funds in addition to the organization of rural tourism. The modern village has no better 

times. For proper execution of homesteads, procurement of necessary equipment and transport the help from 

the state is necessary. It would be needed to establish a public fund for the development of rural tourism, to 

introduce the provision of targeted loans at low interest rates. 

The problem is also how to create competitive regional tourism products: it is important to improve bad 

roads, inadequate development of rural infrastructure, low information basis for potential tourists, reducing 

the attractiveness of recreational resources of natural and anthropogenic origin due to irrational use and lack 

of effective measures for their protection. 

References 

Бейдик, О. О. (2001). Рекреаційно-туриські ресурси України: методологія та методика аналізу, термінології, 

районування. Київ: Видавничо-поліграфічний центр “Київський університет”. 

Ганін, В. В. (2011). Зелений туризм в Криму як елемент громадської дипломатії. Тези міжнародної конф. „Розвиток 

сільських територій: економічний, соціальний і екологічний аспекти“, 17–18 березня. Київ. 

Грущинський, Є., Краковя-Баль, А., Казьмір, Л. (2007). Агротуризм як важливий чинник активізації розвитру 

сільських територій: Польський досвід і Українські перспективи. Географія. Економіка. Екологія. Туризм. 

Регіональні студії. Збірник наукових праць. За ред. І. В. Смаля. Ніжин. ТОВ. “ВидавництвоАспект-Поліграф”. 

Данилов, А. Д., Мухин, Г. Н. (1959). Размещение отраслей народного хозяйства СССР. Москва: Госпланиздат. 

Державний комітет статистики України. Режим доступу: http://www.ukrstat.gov.ua/ 

Кравченко, Н. (2007). Роль сільського туризму в розвитку проблемних регіонів Полісся. Географія. 

Економіка. Екологія. Туризм. Регіональні студії. Збірник наукових праць. За ред. І. В. Смаля. Ніжин. ТОВ. 

“ВидавництвоАспект-Поліграф”. 

Лановик, Б. Д., Матисяневич, З. М., Матейко, Р. М. (1997). Економічна історія України і світу. Київ: Вікар. 

Олійник, В. (2010). Суспільно-географічна оцінка депресивних територій України. Автореферат дисертації на 

здобуття звання канд. геогр. наук. 

Сайт Верховної Ради України. Електронний ресурс. Режим доступу: http://w1.c1.rada.gov.ua/pls/radac/pd_index_n 

Сільський зелений туризм. Електронний ресурс. Режим доступу: http://www.greentour.com.ua/ukrainian/news. 

Скрипченко, О. (1932). Основні принципи раціонального географічного розміщення продуктивних сил у СРСР у 

другій п’ятирічці. Харків. 

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Смаль, І. (2007). Туризм як форма господарського освоєння депресивних регіонів. Географія. Економіка. Екологія. 

Туризм. Регіональні студії. Збірник наукових праць. За ред. І. В. Смаля. Ніжин. ТОВ. “ВидавництвоАспект- 

Поліграф”. 

Смаль, І. (2007). Туризм як форма господарського освоєння депресивних регіонів. Географія. Економіка. 

Екологія. Туризм. Регіональні студії. Збірник наукових праць. За ред. І. В. Смаля. Ніжин. ТОВ. “Видавництвоc 

Аспект-Поліграф”. 

Зінько, Ю. В., Горішевський, П. А., Рутинський, М. Й. (2011). Інноваційні форми занять в сільському туризмі 

та агротуризмі. Тези міжнародної конф. “Розвиток сільських територій: економічний, соціальний і екологічний 

аспекти“, 17–18 березня. Київ. 

Žaliojo kaimo turizmo ukrainoje PLĖTROS problemos 

ir galimybės 


Odesos nacionalinė maisto technologijos akademija (Ukraina) 

Santrauka 

Žaliojo turizmo tyrimas Ukrainoje yra svarbus. Valstybinio Ukrainos statistikos komiteto teigimu, apie 

32 % Ukrainos gyventojų gyvena kaimo vietovėse. Pereinant prie rinkos ekonomikos žemės ūkio sektoriuje 

vyksta gyventojų nutekėjimas į miestus. Viena vertus, tą galima paaiškinti didesne mechanizacija, kita vertus 

– besitęsiančia urbanizacija. Sprendžiant šią krizę, išeitis būtų – industrializacija ir turizmo, kaip regioninio 

ekonominio multiplikatoriaus, plėtra. Žaliasis turizmas Ukrainoje turi daug galimybių plėtrai: dideli 

žemės ūkiui naudojami plotai, kraštovaizdžio įvairovė, žmogiškieji ištekliai. 

Taikydami O. Beydyk rekreacinių išteklių matavimo metodą ir V. Oleynyk atsilikusių regionų tyrimo metodus, 

straipsnio autoriai atliko lyginamąją sąlygų skirtumų analizę. Tyrimas parodė, kad tokie regionai kaip 

Krymo autonominė respublika, Černihiv, Čerkasy, Zakarpatska turi didelį rekreacinį potencialą, bet mažą 

bendrąjį nacionalinį produktą (BNP). Tai rodo menką regionų išsivystymą. Tai galėtų pagerėti išnaudojus 

turizmo sektoriaus privalumus. 

Šiame straipsnyje taip pat įvertinama kai kurių Europos valstybių patirtis ir pateikiamos bendros pasaulio 

turistinių regionų charakteristikos. Būsimi tyrimai turėtų sietis su planavimo schemų administraciniuose 

vienetuose kūrimu, turizmo išteklių inventorizavimu, perspektyviausių turizmo plėtros sričių nustatymu. 

PAGRINDINIAI ŽODŽIAI: žaliasis turizmas, agroturizmas, kaimo turizmas, namų ūkiai ir sodybos. 

JEL klasifikacija: R110 

73


QUANTITATIVE MEASUREMENT OF CROSS-BORDER INTERACTIONS (EXAMPLE OF AFRICA) 

QUANTITATIVE MEASUREMENT OF CROSS-BORDER INTE- 

RACTIONS (EXAMPLE OF AFRICA) 

Janis Paiders 1 , Juris Paiders 2 

University of Latvia (Latvia) 

Abstract 

Cross-border cooperation is one of the advantages of the EU that presented conditions for economic growth of all Member States 

when the organization was formed. The aim of the work was to look for quantitative indicators and data processing methods that 

would characterize cross-border interactions, while looking for and marking out high-integration regions. The authors’ previous studies 

(Paiders, Paiders, 2010) were aimed at conducting measurements of cross-border interactions in the cluster of European states. 

In this work, the authors use the already-familiar methodology and indicators in order to analyze the cross-border interactions of 

African states. The layout of highly integrated borders allowed marking out four groups of African states with the greatest economic 

integration with neighboring states. 

KEY WORDS: spatial autocorrelation, Africa’s regions, neighbour effect. 

JEL Codes: C020, F150, Y910 

Introduction 

Cross-border cooperation is one of the advantages of the EU that presented conditions for economic 

growth of all Member States when the organization was formed. The aim of the work was to look for quantitative 

indicators and data processing methods that would characterize cross-border interactions, while 

looking for and marking out high-integration regions. As evidenced by the authors’ previous studies (Paiders, 

Paiders, 2010: 31), cross-border interaction must be viewed in a much wider context, not only in geographical, 

economic, or political categories. Cross-border influence (migration, exchange of information, etc.) 

affects cultures, social and demographic areas, which is reflected in indicators connected with these areas. 

The authors’ previous studies (Paiders, Paiders, 2010) were aimed at conducting measurements of crossborder 

interactions in the cluster of European states. In this work, the authors use the already-familiar methodology 

and indicators in order to analyze the cross-border interactions of African states. 

Application of European experience in the economic and social transformation of the continent of Africa 

became particularly significant in the beginning of 2010, when social processes in North Africa (the Arab 

Spring), and several other Middle Eastern countries marked a shift from authoritarianism to searching for 

democratic models in state administration. Revolution in Egypt, Tunisia, Libya has a negative impact on almost 

all economic sectors in these countries. Also, the possibility of successful future economic development 

if the demographical situation stays the same is not likely to happen (Noury, 2011). 

1 

Janis Paiders – Latvian University (Latvia), Geography and Earth science department, student, scientific interest: economic 

geography. 

E-mail: paidersjanis@inbox.lv 

2 

Juris Paiders – Latvian University (Latvia), Geography and Earth science department, doctor of geography, associated professor, 

scientific interest: economic geography. 

E-mail: jpaiders@inbox.lv 

74


The authors were personally encouraged to conduct a study in this area by European Commissioner for 

Development Andris Piebalgs, as the results of the work may be used to apply quantitative indicators and 

methods of quantitative analysis to define areas with a high tendency of integration and mark those state 

borders that have become real barriers interfering with regional cooperation and development. 

1. Data and methods 

Information on the amount of trade is obtained from Trademap (Trade Map, 2009) data on external trade 

of countries, based on official sources (COMTRADE, Eurostat, etc). Hence for this research annual changes 

in gross domestic product (GDP) per capita, based on purchasing-power-parity (PPP) valuation, were selected 

as an indicator, using International Monetary Fund World Economic and Financial Surveys obtained 

from the World Economic Outlook Database. Gross domestic product (GDP) per capita: annual changes 

based on purchasing-power-parity (PPP) valuation. Data of Human Development Index are based on United 

Nation statistic sources (Human Development, 2009). 

As a parameter for determining the weight of the weighted average for neighbour territories, authors have 

used the proportion of length of the land border of neighbour territories against the total length of the land 

border. The weighted average for neighbour territories was obtained according to the formula 

X 

n 

∑ Rn 

× X 

1 

n 

= 

n 

∑ 

where n – the number of territories that border territory i; 

X 

n 

– the weighted average parameter of neighbour territories; 

R 

n – the total length of border with the respective territory; 

1 

R 

n 

n 

X 

n 

– the value of the respective parameter in the neighbour country. 

Further in the regression analysis it was assumed that an indicator of a territory is a function of the 

weighted average of the respective indicator in all neighbour countries. 

In this case, the border will serve as a variable that describes spatial interaction, assuming that the longer 

a border between corresponding territories, the stronger the spatial interaction between them. However, not 

all borders can serve as measures of spatial interaction. If there are indicators that describe spatial interaction 

between two countries, the value of the indicator (compared against the length of border) would serve to 

describe the amount of interaction. 

Following the standard used by Frolova (2005), the zero hypothesis was tested for regression models, 

checking whether zero was included in the credibility interval of the regression coefficient (t-statistic) but 

significance of determination coefficient (R Square in tables) was tested using F empirical . 

As a measure to characterize interaction, external trade turnover was chosen; borders were classified 

according to the size of this indicator per border kilometre. 

Since often significant inequalities are seen in neighbour countries’ mutual trade agreements, the authors 

have used an improved formula to calculate the economic permeability of borders. 

( Xeksp 

+ Yimp) 

+ ( Yeksp 

+ X 

C = 

2R 

where C – economic permeability of border; 

imp 

) 

75



R – the length of border (km); 

X exp 

– exports of country X to country Y; 

Y imp 

– imports of country Y from country X; 

Y exp 

– exports of country Y to country X; 

X imp 

– imports of country X from country Y. 

It is possible to calculate the economic permeability of borders in a simpler manner by using the following 

formula: 

T 

C = 

R 

where C – economic permeability of border; 

R – length of border (km); 

T – mutual amount of external trade between countries (imports + exports). 

Whereas in the previous study the authors focused on cross-border interactions as a scalar field, the present 

study has obtained the first results by looking at international trade in the form of a vector field. 

International trade can be expressed spatially as a vector whose numeric value is proportional to the trade 

balance amount, while the vector’s direction is determined by the trade surplus (the vector’s plus sign) or 

trade deficit (minus sign). 

At the time when data for the study was being collected, South Sudan had not yet declared its independence 

– therefore, the work and figures use the former borders of Sudan. 

, 

2. Results and discussion on the influence of autocorrelation 

and cross-border measurement 

The obtained results (tables 1, 2) force to conclude that there are parameters and geographical territories, 

for which the neighbour influence is extremely high. Results show that, for many economic and other 

indicators, including the average changes of the same indicator in surrounding territories explains most of 

dispersion in regression analysis. For instance, for all world countries the GDP per capita (2007) closely 

correlates to the average GDP per capita of neighbour countries (R 2 = 0.67). 

Table1. Neighbour effect (spatial autocorrelation) in World countries 

Indicators Number of countries R Square F-empirical t-statistic 

GDP per capita 2007 143 0,67 290,47 17,04 

GDP per capita 2008 143 0,61 223,43 14,95 

Increase in GDP per capita 2007 / 2006 143 0,66 269,57 16,42 


Average lifespan 2009 142 0,78 482,39 21,96 

Average lifespan (men) 2009 142 0,75 409,67 20,24 

Average lifespan (women) 2009 142 0,80 549,76 23,45 

Birth rate 2009 143 0,77 479,77 21,90 

Child mortality 142 0,61 222,56 14,92 

Average number of children per woman 2009 142 0,71 341,78 18,49 

Change in population 2007/2006 143 0,67 291,23 17,07 

Human Development Index (HDI) 2007 140 0,80 564,65 23,76 

Source: author’s calculations. 

76


When looking at various indicators characterizing the development of states in Africa (Table 2), it can be 

noted that the autocorrelation of values of neighboring African states is generally significantly weaker than on 

the global scale (Table 1). However, for all examined indicators, the correlation between the weighted average 

of a state and its neighboring states is still statistically significant. The reason why the interlinking of a state 

and its neighboring states is lower on a continental scale is connected with the fact that, when shifting from 

the global scale to a smaller (continental) scale, the variation in values of the examined parameter is reduced. 

Table 2. Neighbour effect (spatial autocorrelation) in African countries 

Indicators Number of countries R Square F-empirical t -statistic 

GDP per capita 2007 46 0,37 26,08 5,11 

GDP per capita 2008 46 0,28 17,48 4,18 



Average lifespan 2009 46 0,48 41,32 6,43 

Average lifespan (men) 2009 46 0,45 36,72 6,06 

Average lifespan (women) 2009 46 0,53 48,66 6,98 

Birth rate 2009 46 0,52 47,77 6,91 

Child mortality 46 0,21 11,76 3,43 

Average number of children per woman 2009 46 0,45 35,66 5,97 

Change in population 2007/2006 46 0,34 22,44 4,74 

Human Development Index (HDI) 2007 46 0,26 15,40 3,92 

Source: author’s calculations. 

Figure 1 shows the African state borders that practically act as barriers. As evidenced by the obtained 

results, the African continent is splintered, due to both geographical and political reasons. Moreover, splintering 

is characteristic to parts of Africa with different climatic and geographic specialization, which could 

complement each other. In Sub-Saharan Africa informal trade can be explained by the fact that land borders 

are not similar to the local ethnic group borders (Walther, 2009) Barriers in African land borders have a negative 

impact on the future economic development of African countries (Sipetean, Ivan Oana, 2010). Borders 

that practically function as barriers are the main obstacle that prevents Africa from using the opportunities 

that cross-border cooperation gives to, for example, Europe. In the other hand income inequality is a barrier 

in successful future economic development in African countries (Fanta, Upadhyay, 2009). Also, informal 

sector cross-border trade plays a much larger role in Africa than in Europe (Peberdy, 2000). 

Areas with a high level of cross-border cooperation are shown in Figure 2. It displays the African borders 

with the greatest border throughput – where the border’s economic throughput exceeds USD 600,000 per 

year per one kilometer of the border. Such level of throughput is comparable with the least-integrated borders 

of European states in the Balkans and Eastern Europe. Intra-regional trade in Africa as a part of the total trade 

has traditionally been low in comparison to other forms of integration (Bilas, Franc, 2010). 

When comparing the level of integration in Europe and Africa, it must be concluded that the differences 

are statistically significant. In essence, borders that would be defined as barriers within the context of Europe 

must be viewed as highly integrated in Africa. 

Figure 3 displays Africa’s cross-border cooperation in the form of a generalized vector space, revealing 

the main directions and centers of international trade. 

Figures 1–3 served as the basis for developing the regionalization scheme of Africa’s cross-border interactions 

(Figure 4). 

The work has resulted in the development of a regionalization scheme (Figure 4), marking out Africa’s 

regions with a high level of cross-border interactions. The layout of highly integrated borders allowed marking 

out four groups of African states with the greatest economic integration with neighboring states. 

77



Figure 1. African land borders with low economic permeability in 2008 

Source: Trade Map, 2009; author’s calculations 

Figure 2. African land borders with high economic permeability in 2008 


78


Figure 3. Direction of cross-border trade flow in African countries (2008) 


A – Arab states of North Africa. This group includes Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt. 

These states, in spite of the relatively great lengths of the borders between them, are characterized by large 

border throughput, compared to the average level of Africa. This is largely due to being populated by one 

nation (Arabs) and having a unifying religion (Sunni Islam). Considering that instability negatively affects 

tourism and international trade, it can be expected that the revolutions in Tunisia and Egypt in spring 2011, 

as well as the Libyan civil war, will have affected the integration of this region’s states negatively in the short 

term. However, upon removal of the political obstacles, the Arab states of North Africa could become one of 

the most promising examples of high integration in the future. 

B – Coastal states of the Gulf of Guinea. This group includes both coastal states of the Gulf of Guinea 

and the border-states thereof, with which there is rather significant economic integration. The central and 

economically most powerful states of this group, Ivory Coast and Ghana, also have significant economic 

throughput on the land borders. The borders of this area on which the economic integration exceeds USD 

600,000 per year per kilometer are the ones connecting coastal states with landlocked states. The great economic 

throughput is largely explained by the need of landlocked countries (Mali, Burkina Faso) to access the 

sea. It must also be noted that the high economic throughput per kilometer is largely due to the small length 

of these borders. 

C – East Africa Community (EAC). This group includes Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi. 

The economic integration of all of these states, except for Burundi, is rather high on the overall African 

background. The most integrated borders in this group are those with Kenya, which is the most developed 

country of the region. One of the specific tasks of the EAC is to facilitate the mutual economic integration 

of these states. 

79



Figure 4. Zones in Africa with high cross-border interactions in 2008 


D – Republic of South Africa and its neighboring states (mostly Southern African Development 

Community countries). This group includes South Africa, as well as Namibia, Botswana, Zambia, Mozambique, 

and Swaziland. The high integration of the borders of these states is connected with the relationship of 

South Africa as an economically powerful center with its less-developed neighboring states. The economic 

relations of South Africa with its neighboring states are characterized by a significant trade surplus. South 

Africa acts as an economic engine dragging up the neighboring states. Southern African Development Community 

has higher regional integration between member countries compared to East African Community 

(Sissoko, Sohrabji, 2010). Unlike the Arab region of North Africa, in which there is no marked economic 

leadership or dominance, this region is mono-centric. 

Conclusions 

African regions with the greatest economic integration with neighboring states are Arab states of North 

Africa, Coastal states of the Gulf of Guinea, East Africa Community, Republic of South Africa and its 

neighboring states. 

African borders with the greatest border throughput are comparable with the least-integrated borders of 

European states in the Balkans and Eastern Europe. 

Republic of South Africa and its neighbor countries could become one of the most promising examples 

of high integration in the future. 

80


References 

Bilas, V., Franc, S. (2010). Globalization, Regionalization and Information – Communication Convergence of Africa. 

Interdisciplinary Description of Complex Systems, No. 8(2), p. 104–118. 

Frolova, L. (2005). Korporatīvā sektora attīstība Latvijā un to ietekmējošie faktori. (The Development of the Corporate 

Sector in Latvia and Factors Influencing it.) 690. [sēj.]. Latvijas Universitātes Raksti. Vadības zinātne. Rīga: Latvijas 

Universitātes akadēmiskais apgāds, lpp. 52.–67. (In Latvian) 

Human development reports statistics. (2009). http://hdr.undp.org/ne/statistics/data 

Noury, V. (2011). N African revolution: counting the cost. African Business, Issue 374. p. 46–50. 

Paiders, J., Paiders, J. (2010). Measuring Influence of Neighbour Effect on Sustainable Development of Countries. Homan 

Resources – the Main Factorof Regional Development. Journal of Social Sciences, No. 3. Klaipėda: Klaipėda 

University, p. 29–35. 

Peberdy, S. (2000). Border Crossings: Small Enterpreneurs and Cross-border Trade between South Africa and Mozambique. 

Journal of Economic & Social Geography, Vol. 91, Issue 4, p. 361–378. 

Sipetean, C., Ivan Oana, N. (2010). Beyond the Borders of Globalizations EU-AFRICA, Economy and Conflict. Annales 

Universitatis Apulensis – Series Oeconomica, Vol. 12, Issue 2, p. 589–593. 

Sissoko, Y., Sohrabji, N. (2010). Current account sustainability in African economic communities: Are there regional 

differences? China-USA Business Review, Vol. 9, Issue 10, p. 13–29. 

Trade Map: Trade statistics for international business development. (2009). http://www.trademap.org/Index.aspx 

Walther, O. (2009). A Mobile Idea of Space. Traders, Patrons and the Cross-Border Economy in Sahelian Africa. Journal 

of Borderlands Studies, Vol. 21, Issue 1, p. 34–46. 

Kiekybinis pasienio sĄveikos matavimas 

(Afrikos pavyzdys) 


Latvijos universitetas 

Santrauka 

Pasienio bendradarbiavimas buvo vienas iš ES teikiamų privalumų, lėmusių visų organizacijos narių 

ekonominę plėtrą. Šio darbo tikslas – nustatyti kiekybinius rodiklius ir duomenų apdorojimo metodus, kurie 

leistų apibūdinti pasienio sąveiką, kartu ieškant ir išskiriant labai integruotus regionus. Ankstesni autorių 

(Paiders, Paiders, 2011) darbai skirti matuoti pasienio sąveiką Europos valstybių klasteryje. Šiame darbe ta 

pati metodologija ir rodikliai naudojami Afrikos valstybių pasienio sąveikai įvertinti. Ankstesni autorių tyrimai 

sutelkti ties pasienio sąveika kaip skaliariniu lauku, o šiame darbe tarptautinė prekyba vertinama vektorių 

forma. Tarptautinė prekyba gali būti išreikšta vektoriumi, kurio skaitinė reikšmė proporcinga prekybos 

balansui, tuo tarpu vektoriaus kryptį nulemia prekybos perviršis (teigiama vektoriaus reikšmė) arba prekybos 

deficitas (neigiama vektoriaus reikšmė). 

Lyginant Europos ir Afrikos integracijos lygį, padaryta išvada, kad skirtumai yra statistiškai svarbūs. 

Iš esmės sienos, kurias galima apibūdinti kaip skiriančias ribas Europos kontekste, Afrikoje būtų laikomos 

labai integruotomis. Ištyrus labiausiai integruotas sienas, išskirtos keturios Afrikos valstybių grupės, kurios 

labiausiai ekonomiškai integruotos su kaimyninėmis valstybėmis. 

Tyrimo išvados: 

1. Labiausiai integruoti Afrikos regionai yra arabų valstybės šiaurėje, pakrantės valstybės Gvinėjos 

įlankoje, rytų Afrikos bendruomenė, Pietų Afrikos Respublika ir jos kaimyninės valstybės. 

2. Labiausiai integruoti Afrikos regionai Europos kontekste būtų lygintini su mažiausiai integruotais 

Balkanų ir Rytų Europos regionais. 

81



3. PAR ir jos kaimyninės valstybės ateityje turėtų tapti didesnės ekonominės integracijos Afrikoje pavyzdžiu. 

Tyrimo rezultatai gali būti panaudoti taikant kiekybinius rodiklius ir kiekybinius tyrimo metodus, apibrėžiant 

regionus, kur didžiausias integravimosi potencialas, ir pažymint tas valstybių sienas, kurios tapo 

skiriamąja riba, stabdančia regioninį bendradarbiavimą ir vystymąsi. 

PAGRINDINIAI ŽODŽIAI: erdvinė autokoreliacija, Afrikos regionai, kaimynystės efektas. 

JEL klasifikacija: C020, F150, Y910 

82


STIMULATION OF INNOVATIVE-INVESTMENT PROCESS: 

WORLD EXPERIENCE 

Liudmila Parfenova 1 , Andrei Pugachev 2 , Vytautas Juščius 3 

The Yaroslavl Demidov State University (Russia), Klaipėda University (Lithuania) 

Abstract 

In the article results of the comparative analysis of world experience of stimulation of innovative-investment process through the 

formation of a favorable tax climate are generalized. Development of tax stimulation of innovation activity is considered as a crucial 

factor in building a new model of economic growth. It is concluded that within the subject principle there are three elements of the 

stimulation instrument: amortization privileges, preferences concerning the profits tax, indirect measures of tax stimulation. Conclusions 

on potential use of foreign tax instruments of stimulation of innovation activity in the Russian conditions are presented. 

KEY WORDS: tax stimulation, innovation activity, tax credits, investment tax credit, tax research credit, amortization, profit tax of 

the organizations, R&D, modernization. 

JEL codes: H250, O110. 

Introduction 

In different regions and countries stimulation of innovative-investment process depend on strategic aims 

and existing economic policy. In some countries direct support of the innovation enterprises prevails, in others 

– support in the preference system, in the third complex of support of innovations is balanced between 

direct and indirect measures. However tax stimulation is to some extent used in all countries with the developed 

innovative sphere. 

Forming of a favorable tax climate becomes one of prime problems of the Russian economy within the 

task of a transition to the new model of economic growth based on innovations, the private initiative, a qualitative 

financial infrastructure (Budget Message of the President of the Russian Federation on fiscal policy 

in 2012–2014). The urgency receives introduction and development of tax stimulation instruments of innovation 

activity which become the integral vector in space of the state financial mechanisms of stimulation 

of innovative-investment process. Ample opportunities of use, outstanding performance and simplicity of 

the organization and application of tax stimulation cause its appeal to business and the state that practice of 

application of tax stimulation in the developed economy confirms. The favorable tax climate doesn’t mean 

1 

Parfenova Liudmila – the Yaroslavl Demidov State University, Economic Faculty, Prof. habil. dr., scientific interest: International 

finances, European integration. 

E-mail: decan@econom.uniyar.ac.ru 

Tel.: +4852 728256 

2 

Pugachev Andrei – the Yaroslavl Demidov State University, Economic Faculty, Doctoral student, scientific interest: Finances, 

Tax systems, Investment policy. 

E-mail: andrxim@yandex.ru 

Tel.: +4852 728256 

3 

Juščius Vytautas – Klaipėda University, Social Sciences Faculty, Prof. dr., scientific interest: Globalization, Business social responsibility. 

E-mail: ek.smf@ku.lt 

Tel.: +370 46 398 677 

83


STIMULATION OF INNOVATIVE-INVESTMENT PROCESS: WORLD EXPERIENCE 

today decrease in tax burden within the general system of taxation, and even on the contrary – preference 

consists in development of local tax stimulation – branch, regional, target, one of which directions is tax 

stimulation of innovative-investment activity. 

The object of the research – stimulation of innovative-investment process. 

The paper aims to identify world practice and opportunities use of foreign tax instruments of stimulation 

of innovation activity in the Russian conditions. 

The objectives set for the research are: 

• y to examine world experience of activation of innovative-investment process through the formation of 

a favorable tax climate; 

• y to examine the experience of tax stimulation of innovation activity and possibilities of improving 

innovation activity in Russia. 

The research methods are based on literature review, its generalization and systematization, comparative 

analysis of secondary statistical data. 

1. World experience of tax stimulation of innovation activity 

Today it is obvious that Russia can’t provide strategic economic growth without development of scientific 

potential, as almost 40 % of gross national product are created at the expense of raw export, and the high 

technology production has no due development. Export of hi-tech goods constitutes only 2.3 % of industrial 

export of Russia. In the USA this indicator constitutes 32.9 %, in China – 32.8 % (OECD, STAN Indicators 

Database, 2009). Degree of depreciation of fixed assets in 2009 has reached 46 %, and on machines and 

the equipment exceeds 50 % (Statistical Yearbook of Russia, 2009, p. 331–332). Such data are primarily 

due to low internal costs of R & D, which is now 1.1 % of GDP, much lower than in developed countries 4 . 

Inflow of foreign investments to the Russian economy is reduced also: according to Bank of Russia in II quarter 

2011 reducing of direct foreign investments has constituted in relation to I quarter 2011 of 27.5 %, by 

II quarter 2010 – 13.6 %, and by II quarter 2008 – 55.6 % (Direct investment in the Russian Federation in 

2007 – I–II quarters in 2011). 

Also, lagging in sphere of high technologies is caused in many respects by imperfection of the Russian 

legislation in the field of R&D. So inadmissibly long time was absent legislatively fixed accurate and actual 

concept of innovative activity, that is there were no even criteria of reference of this or that activity to innovation 

that caused uncertainty in revealing the base of granting the innovative stimulation. 

Among the countries-leaders in the field of innovation development it is difficult to allocate a general 

variant of the successful scenario of forming of the given sphere. However tax stimulation is to some extent 

used in all countries with the developed economy. 

Figure 1 shows the proportion of direct and indirect funding of R&D activities by governments of OECD 

countries as at 2008. It can be observed that Korea, Belgium, Ireland, Hungary, Japan, Portugal, Netherlands 

and Canada support their R&D initiatives more through tax incentives. However, the United States, France, 

Czech Republic and Spain are more dependent on direct government funding. 

4 

According to the Federal State Statistics Service (Rosstat) in Russia the share of domestic R & D expenditures were as follows: 

1990 – 2.09 %, 2001 – 1.18 %, 2004 – 1.15 %, 2006 – 1.08 %. In Japan, Sweden, Israel this indicator is 3.5–4.5 % of GDP in 

the U.S. – 2.8 %, Germany – 2. 5%. According to the OECD, China rapidly increasing expenditure on R & D (1.7 % of GDP). It 

is expected that in the next decade China will overtake the U.S. in terms of research spending. Rapidly rising costs of R & D in 

India, by 2012 they will reach 2 % of GDP. The European Union has set the task to increase R & D spending to 3 % of GDP. 

84


Figure 1. Direct and indirect government funding of business R&D and tax incentives 

for R&D, 2008, as a percentage of GDR 

Source: Tax incentives to promote innovation, 2011 

Figure 2 illustrates the tax subsidy rate for USD1 of R&D expenditure. It can be seen from the chart 

that the R&D tax incentives of most countries do not differentiate between large companies and small and 

medium enterprises (SMEs). However, Canada, Japan, United Kingdom and Netherlands grant higher tax 

subsidies to SMEs than large companies while the reverse position is observed in Korea. 

Figure 2. Tax subsidy rate for USD1 of R&D, large firms and SMEs, 2008 

Source: Tax incentives to promote innovation, 2011 

85



Within the tax stimulation of innovation activity it is possible also to allocate a number of the directions 

used in the international practice. Tax instruments of stimulation of innovation activity can be classified by 

objective and subject principles. 

The objective principle determines a direction of the application instrument of influence. Here we will allocate 

the tax tools stimulating the offer of innovations (amortization privileges, privileges on the profits tax 

of the organizations, on installments for a social assistance) and demand for them (amortization privileges, 

privileges under the VAT), the instruments directed on attraction of citizens to innovation activity (privileges 

concerning the incomes tax) and the across-the-board measures of tax character stimulating also innovativeinvestment 

process. 

The subject principle assumes determination actually the mechanism of stimulation. World experience 

shows that within the subject principle there are three elements of classification – the stimulation instrument: 

amortization privileges, preferences concerning the profits tax, indirect measures of tax stimulation (directed 

not particularly on support of the innovation enterprises, but promoting of innovation activity). 

So, the most widespread tax incentive in the international practice is possibility of accelerated amortization 

of the equipment concerning research activity. In Finland, Germany, Sweden depreciation at a rate 

of 30 % of cost of such equipment is used, in Denmark – 20 %, in France there is a possibility of a choice 

of 100 % at a time or 20 % within 5 years (Andreosso-O’Callaghan, 2000), Great Britain, the Netherlands, 

Spain, Canada gives free rain of depreciation of assets (including buildings), concerning innovation activity. 

Privileges concerning the profits tax of corporations are the most widespread among the tax concessions 

in the countries with the developed innovation environment at simultaneously high level of the tax load 

under this tax. In Denmark there is a possibility to write off in an investment reserve to 25 % of the sum of 

the profits tax due to payment for the future expenses on experimental activity, in Sweden it is authorized to 

subtract 30 % of a salary of foreign research assistants from taxable surplus, in Great Britain research associations 

are released from the profits tax, and the enterprises acquire the right of a deduction from the profits 

tax of 175 % and 130 % of expenses on research works for small, average, and large enterprises accordingly, 

in Germany losses from innovation activity can be carried both on the past, and for the future periods (Tax 

incentives of innovation processes, 2009, p. 72, 141–144). 

It is necessary to note practice of granting of the tax research credit in Great Britain, the USA, Japan and 

France which, according to specialists, became the basic financial stimulus of innovation activity in these 

countries. The essence of the mechanism consists in granting of a deduction from the profits tax of a part of 

costs for innovation activity. In France the percent of the tax research credit constitutes 50% in the first year, 

40% in the second year and 30 % in following years (Riffe Stern), in Great Britain – 24 %, in the USA the 

maximum rate constitutes 20 % (Research tax credit, 2011), in Japan besides 30 % of a deduction from the 

profits tax of corporations within the tax research credit there is a system of additional stimulus at expansion 

of innovation divisions and stimulation of innovation activity (Stuart-Smith, 2009), also the discount to 20 % 

of the profits tax of corporations is provided in Japan as stimulus of joint surveys. 

Also in world practice indirect tax incentives of innovative process are presented: in Finland on 30 % the 

incomes tax for foreign research assistants decreases (Andreosso-O’Callaghan, 2000); in Germany by means 

of privileges under the tax to cars demand for harmless cars also is stimulated in Japan the assets used in 

the research purposes, are released from taxes to the acquired property, from taxes to the property, from the 

specialized land tax and the tax to development of cities. 

Let’s consider separately experience of the countries with innovative environment successfully developing 

recently – Israel and China. 

In Israel the innovative companies, whose projects are approved by specialized state institute, receive 

exemption from payment of all taxes to 2 years, besides, within 7 years are released from tax discharge on 

profit from the moment of its occurrence (Tax incentives of innovation processes, 2009, p. 118). Also the 

system of the tax concessions stimulating participation of the foreign capital in the innovative companies’ 

functions, here privileges are provided on the profits tax and the dividend tax. Besides, the fiscal privileges 

86


are provided for the enterprises depending on a site in territory of the country, the arrangement of the innovative 

companies is stimulated in its central part. 

It is necessary to mention an extensive system of tax concessions developed recently in China. So, there 

are various options of a reduction in tax for profit: from exemption from payment for 2 years from the 

moment of profit origin before decrease in the rate of the tax to 10 items of the item from 25 % to 15 % 

(Corporate and Indirect Tax, 2010). Stimulus are differentiated depending on a type of activity (the hi-tech 

enterprises, the hi-tech enterprises with participation of the foreign capital, the hi-tech enterprises with 70 % 

export revenue in revenue total amount, start-ups, the enterprises rendering consulting services in the field of 

a science and technologies, and also accounting, tax and legal consulting). In China accelerated amortization 

is used also: 2 years for manufacturers of integrated schemes, 3 years for the software. Privileges under the 

VAT are widely applied: from the tax are released: import of the equipment intended for sphere of R&D and 

complete returning of the VAT arising at realization of the hi-tech equipment. Besides from the incomes tax 

are released: academicians of the Chinese academy of Sciences, the Chinese academy of the engineering 

sciences, specially invited professors, receive partial exemption employees, whose activity is connected with 

technology transfer (Tax incentives of innovation processes, 2009, p. 150). 

However, do not believe that foreign practice of tax incentives for innovation is flawless. The R&E tax 

credit has never been made a permanent part of the tax code (it has been renewed 11 times during its 25-year 

history) and has been modified several times since its enactment indicate a lack of understanding and hence 

consensus on the part of policy makers with respect to the precise roles and expected impacts of different 

tax incentives for R&D. For example, the credit was originally 25 percent of the increase in R&D spending 

relative to a base level determined by formula. The Tax Reform Act of 1986 reduced the credit to 20 % 

(Tassey, 2007, p. 4). However, almost all scholarly studies conducted since the early 1990s, including newer 

analyses conducted in the last 5 years, have found that the credit is an effective tool and that at minimum 

it produces at least one dollar of research for every tax dollar forgone (Atkinson, 2007). Other studies have 

found even greater benefits, with the research investment to tax-cost ratio between 1.3 and 2.9 (Coopers and 

Lybrand, 1998). 

It is possible to present classification of tax instruments by a subject principle of stimulation of innovation 

activity abroad in the tabular form. 

Table 1. Tax stimulation of innovation activity abroad 5 

No. 

Country 

1. United 

Kingdom 

Instruments of tax stimulation of innovation activity 

Amortization 

Privileges(concessions), 

privileges(concessions) concerning the profits tax 

Free depreciation of Research associations are released 

assets, including buildings from the profits tax, and the 

enterprises acquire the right of a 

deduction from the profits tax of 

175 % and 130 % of expenses on 

research works (for small both 

average, and large enterprises 

accordingly) The tax research 

credit (24 %) 

2. Denmark Accelerated amortization 

of 20 % 

Possibility to write off in an 

investment reserve to 25 % of 

the sum of the profits tax due to 

payment for the future expenses 

on experimental activity 

Privileges(concessions) under 

other taxes 

5 

Here data of foreign experience in tax incentives for innovation activity is based on generalizations of the following sources: 

Andreosso-O’Callaghan, 2000; Borisov, 2011; Owens, 2010; Tax incentives of innovation processes, 2009; Tax incentives to 

promote innovation, 2011. 

87



Instruments of tax stimulation of innovation activity 

No. Country Amortization 

privileges(concessions) 

Privileges(concessions), 

concerning the profits tax 

3. Israel Accelerated amortization Exemption from tax discharge till 

of 20 % 

7 years 

4. China Accelerated amortization Wide system of privileges: from 

(to 2 and till 3 years) exemption from payment for 2 

years from the moment of origin 

of profit before decrease in the 

rate of the tax from 33 % to 15 

% and to 10 %; the right of a 

deduction from the profits tax of 

150 % of expenses on research 

works 

5. USA Accelerated amortization The tax research credit (20 %) 

6. Finland Accelerated amortization 

of 30 % 

7. Germany Accelerated amortization 

of 30 % 

8. France At a time 100 % or 

accelerated amortization 

of 30 % 

9. Sweden Accelerated amortization 

of 30 % 

10. Japan Accelerated amortization 

(to 25 %) 

Losses from innovation activity 

can be carried both on the past 

and for the future periods 

The tax research credit (40 %) 

It is authorized to subtract 30 % 

of a salary of foreign research 

assistants from taxable surplus 

The tax research credit (20 %); a 

discount in 20 % of the sum of the 

paid tax for the companies leading 

joint surveys 

11. Korea Revenue expenditure – enhanced 

deduction; tax exemption – tax 

holiday; tax credit; Intellectual 

property – special deduction. 

Privileges(concessions) under 

other taxes 

Import of the equipment intended 

for sphere of researches and 

developments is released, 

complete returning of the VAT 

arising at realization of the hitech 

equipment; income tax 

exemption of some categories of 

research assistants 

On 30 % the incomes tax for 

foreign research assistants is 

lowered 

Privileges under the tax to cars 

for harmless cars; stimulation of 

expenses on advanced training 

The tax credit on training; the 

tax deduction for support of byproduct 

of research; privileges 

under the land tax and the real 

estate tax 

The assets used in the research 

purposes, are released from taxes 

to the acquired property, from 

taxes to the property, from the 

specialized land tax and the tax 

to development of cities 

Thus, clearly that the tax concessions and preferences are the major instruments of stimulation of innovation 

activity in the countries with the innovative environment developed for today. The classification of 

tools of stimulation presented in the table by a subject principle shows that in the countries-leaders in the 

field of innovations measures of direct tax influence – amortization privileges and privileges concerning the 

profits tax are considered as the most widespread. However the measures of indirect tax stimulation uniting 

privileges under other taxes are to a greater or lesser extent used also. But the main thing in world experience 

of tax stimulation of innovative activity – the complex approach to system of really working privileges and 

preferences, studying and realization of this aspect in domestic tax stimulation becomes actual. 

2. The practice of tax stimulation innovative activity in Russia 

If to understand as stimulation prompting, creation of interest to actions, and under tax stimulation of innovation 

activity – prompting to generation and introduction of innovations by means of the tax concessions 

88


and preferences, then in the modern Russian taxation system it is possible to carry following elements to it 6 

(classification by an objective principle): 

1. Directed on stimulation of innovative-investment process regarding the offer of innovations: 

• y accepting to a deduction of expenses on R&D at determination of tax base on the profits tax of the 

organizations (possibility of application of the raising coefficient) (clause 262 of the Tax Code of the 

Russian Federation); 

• y accepting in expenses of costs on training, vocational training and retraining of workers (item 3 of 

clause 264 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation); 

• y duty remission on profit of the means gratuitously received by the organizations of a science and funds 

of support of science and education (sub item 14 of item 1 of clause 251 of the Tax Code of the Russian 

Federation); 

• y decrease in the rate of insurance installments for the organizations and the individual businessmen having 

the status of the resident of a special economic zone and producing payments to physical persons, 

working in territory of a special economic zone (sub item 5 of item 1 of clause 58 of the Federal Low 

from 7/24/2009 N 212-FL); 

• y amortization privileges (clause 259.3 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation); 

• y the investment tax credit (clauses 66, 67 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation); 

• y privileges for project participants of “Skolokovo” (clause 145.1 item 5.1, clause 284 items 19, 20, 

clause 381 item 10, clause 395 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation; clause 58.1 of the Federal 

Low from 7/24/2009 N 212-FL). 

2. Stimulating demand for innovations: 

• y exemption from the VAT of accomplishment of the researches and development concerning creation 

of new goods and technologies (sub item 16.1 of item 3 of clause 149 of the Tax Code of the Russian 

Federation); 

• y entering of the rate of 0 % and exemption from the VAT of alienation and transfer of results of intellectual 

activity (sub item 31 of item 3 of clause 149 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation). 

3. Stimulating citizens to participation in innovative activity: 

• y the tax deduction on training under the PIT (sub item 2 of item 1 of clause 219 of the Tax Code of the 

Russian Federation). 

4. The across-the-board measures of tax character stimulating innovation activity: 

• y exemption from the land tax and the property tax within first five years after statement on accounting 

of the corresponding ground area or the property considered on the balance sheet of the organizationsresidents 

of a special economic zone (item 3 of clause 395 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation); 

• y a reduction in tax for profit of the organizations and preserving behind regions of the right of decrease 

in the rate in a part enlisted in the sub federal budget (item 1 of clause 284 of the Tax Code of the 

Russian Federation). 

However, the stimulating potential of each instrument actually becomes sufficiently limited. It is possible 

to consider the measures accepted regarding decrease of loading on the profits tax of the organizations hardly 

effective from positions of stimulation of economy in recession. Decrease in the rate of the tax conflicts to 

interest of the enterprises for use of the tax concessions (soft terms of accepting of expenses on research and 

development with a view of the profit taxation; increase in the amortization award with 10 to 30 %), hence, 

and to carrying out of scientific developments as the more low the tax rate, smaller sum can be saved by 

6 

Classification of the presented instruments is resulted on the basis of the analysis of acting practice of the taxation and studying 

of scientific researches on problems of tax stimulation of innovation activity: Gordeeva, 2009; Tax incentives of innovation 

processes, 2009; Vasiliev, 2008. 

89



means of use of privileges. At the same time, if in the conditions of profit reducing at a stage of recession 

decrease in the rate of the tax and entering of privileges hasn’t to the full opened stimulating effect, then at 

a stage of an overcoming the crisis influence of the given measures sharply increases. Besides, rate decrease 

has passed for economy as a whole, and stimulation is a prompting to certain behavior, that is there is 

a convention share as a whole at reference of the given privilege to tax stimulation of innovation activity 7 . 

The same situation with convention in reference to instruments of stimulation of innovation activity and 

with amortization privileges (in particular, possibility of single write-off of 30 % of cost of fixed assets of 

the third-seventh amortization groups) – application for general stimulation of capital investments, but not 

accurately R&D, however, we will notice that the given measure as a whole corresponds to experience of the 

leading countries in the field of innovations. 

Accepting to a deduction of expenses on R&D at determination of tax base on the profits tax of the organizations 

with possibility of application of coefficient 1.5 became possible the most stimulating instrument, 

however its appeal has been partially lost owing to decrease in the rate of the profits tax of the organizations, 

and also negative influence of financial crisis (decrease in profit of the innovation companies and growth 

of a share unprofitable among them). Let’s notice also that in China similar measures have been entered in 

2008 on the contrary – the profits tax rate has been lowered for the innovation hi-tech enterprises working in 

priority industries of economy, and the additional deduction has been given all taxpayers at whom positive 

dynamics of growth of expenses on R&D was observed (Borisov, 2011, p. 53), that, in our opinion, has much 

bigger stimulating effect in comparison with the Russian analogy. 

Transition to system of insurance installments, and in particular increase of their rate since January, 1st, 

2011, became an essential brake of development of the companies implementing innovations and R&D. It 

is connected by that insurance installments have the most essential share in the tax load of the given companies 

as the specific weight of costs for payment in total amount of expenses for the sphere connected with 

introduction of R&D, is very high. 

The following tool of the taxation system which changes have concerned, is the VAT. In recession the 

order of confirmation of the rate of the VAT of 0 % is simplified at export of goods. Term of representation 

of documents for zero rate confirmation is increased. Besides, the VAT is entered at the process equipment 

import which analogs aren’t produced in Russia. VAT decrease is represented as optimum step from positions 

of release of necessary resources for investment and economy revival. It is connected by that the VAT is paid 

even by the unprofitable enterprises. Besides, the basic receipts from the VAT go from industries where now 

and introduction of innovations is necessary. However, privileges under the VAT are directed in a greater 

degree on stimulation of demand for innovations, and a question on necessity stimulation of demand for innovative 

goods is sufficiently disputable. So, on the one hand, demand for innovations needs stimulation, the 

offer differently won’t be claimed, however, on the other hand, the offer is claimed already owing to that the 

innovative product bears in itself new qualitative characteristics, or economy at the expense of introduction 

of the innovative elements reducing its cost value, or at the expense of an intensification, etc. That is, the 

stimulating potential of the given instrument also is limited enough. 

It is objectively difficult to say about stimulating influence of privileges for special economic zones that 

is caused by obviously accurate restriction of sphere of influence of instruments. 

Conclusions 

The tax concessions and preferences are the major instruments of stimulation of innovation activity in 

the countries with the innovative environment. In the countries-leaders in the field of innovations measures 

7 

In this article by innovation we mean activities (including scientific, technological, organizational, financial and commercial 

activities) aimed at implementation of innovation projects, as well as the creation of innovation infrastructure and support its 

activities in accordance with Federal Low from 21.08. 2011 № 254-FL “On Amending the Federal Law “On Science and State 

Science and Technology Policy”. 

90


of direct tax influence – amortization privileges and privileges concerning the profits tax are considered as 

the most widespread. 

The estimation of tax stimulation in Russia indicates that stimulus are entered or fragmented (the limited 

insufficient influence of the stimulating potential), or, conversely, is too general (stimulating influence on 

economy as a whole, and not just on sphere of innovations). There is no interdependence between general 

system of the taxation and a kit of available privileges and preferences, there is no accurate legislative interpretation 

of various aspects of tax stimulation. 

There should be systematic in application of the tax concessions in interdependence with a taxation general 

regime, to develop various stimulus which would cover a wide range of the various enterprises focused 

on research and development, and, as a whole, to create the favorable environment for application of tax 

stimulation of innovative activity with resource utilization of authorities on places, potential of small and 

average business, development of consultation centers on corresponding questions, thus it is necessary to 

apply world experience of forming of a favorable tax climate with its translation on a context of the Russian 

conditions. 

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Federation: the role and importance in overcoming the global financial crisis: a collection of research papers. 

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at: http://www.cbr.ru/statistics/print.aspx?file=credit_statistics/inv_in_country.htm&pid=svs&sid=ITM_23050 


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Policy. 

Gordeeva, O. (2009). Tools of the tax regulation of innovation activity. Taxes, Vol. 48, p. 7–14. 

OECD, STAN Indicators Database. (2009). 

Owens, J. (2010). Taxes for innovation. Available at: http://www.oecdobserver.org/news/fullstory.php/aid/3271 (accessed 

17 January 2012). 

Research tax credit. (2011). Grant Thornton LLP. Available at: http://www.grantthornton.com/portal/site/gtcom/menu 

item.91c078ed5c0ef4ca80cd8710033841ca/?vgnextoid=17fd7c2ad6ac5010VgnVCM100000308314acRCRD (accessed 

22 January 2012). 

Riffe Stern, S. Tax Relief. Paris School of Economics. Available at: http://www.parisschoolofeconomics.eu/en/becoming-a-partner-of-pse/tax-relief/ 


Statistical Yearbook of Russia. (2009). Rosstat, Moskau, 795 p. 

Stuart-Smith, J. (2009). Japan: More generous R&D tax credit approved. Available at: http://deloitte.12hna.com/newsletters/2009/WTA/a090814_8.pdf 


Tassey, G. (2007). Tax incentives for innovation: time to restructure the R&E tax credit. The Journal of Technology 

Transfer. Published online: 1 August 2007. 

Tax incentives of innovation processes. (2009). Moskow: IMEMO RAN, 160 p. 

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Appendix%20II_EDIT.pdf (accessed 17 January 2012). 

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The Tax Code of the Russian Federation (Part One) from 31.07.1998 N 146-FL (as amended on 06.07.2011). 

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Federation, 120 p. 

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и Китае. Налоговая политика Российской Федерации: роль и значение в преодолении последствий мирового 

финансового кризиса: сборник научных трудов. Москва: Финансовый университет, с. 46–54. 

Бюджетное послание Президента Российской Федерации о бюджетной политике в 2012–2014 годах. 

Васильев, С. (2008). Правовые средства налогового стимулирования инновационной деятельности. Москва: 

Торгово-промышленная палата Российской Федерации, 120 с. 

Гордеева, О. (2009). Инструменты налогового регулирования инновационной деятельности. Налоги, № 48, c. 7–14. 

Налоговое стимулирование инновационных процессов. (2009). Москва: ИМЭМО РАН, 160 с. 

Налоговый кодекс Российской Федерации. (2000). Часть вторая. Oт 05.08.2000 N 117-ФЗ (ред. от 19.07.2011). 

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годов. Министерство экономического развития Российской Федерации. Доступ из: http://www.economy.gov. 

ru/minec/press/news/doc20110921_014 (обращение 24 декабря 2011). 

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Федерации. Доступ из: http://www.cbr.ru/statistics/print.aspx?file=credit_statistics/inv_in-country. 

htm&pid=svs&sid=ITM_23050 (обращение 17 января 2012). 

Российский статистический ежегодник. (2009). Стат.сб./Росстат. Москва, 795 с. 

Федеральный закон Российской Федерации от 21.08.2011 № 254-ФЗ «О внесении изменений в Федеральный 

закон «О науке и государственной научно-технической политике». 

Inovatyvaus investavimo proceso SKATINimas: 

pasaulinė patirtis 


Valstybinis Jaroslavo Demidovo universitetas (Rusija), Klaipėdos universitetas (Lietuva) 

Santrauka 

Straipsnyje aptariama pasaulinė inovatyvių investavimo procesų, kuriant palankų mokestinį klimatą, skatinimo 

praktika, apibendrinama lyginamoji analizė. Mokestinio skatinimo sistema inovacinei veiklai yra 

esminė kuriant naują ekonomikos augimo modelį. Taigi egzistuoja trys skatinimo instrumento elementai: 

amortizacijos ir pelno mokesčio lengvatos, netiesioginės mokestinės stimuliavimo priemonės. Pateikiamos 

išvados dėl galimų mokestinių inovacinės veiklos stimuliavimo instrumentų naudojimo Rusijos atveju. 

Pagrindiniai žodžiai: mokestinis skatinimas, inovacinė veikla, mokesčių reguliavimas, inovacijų 

skatinimas, mokesčių kreditai, investavimo mokesčių kreditai, tyrimo mokesčių kreditai, amortizacija, pelno 

mokestis, R&D, modernizacija. 

JEL klasifikacija: H250, O110. 

92


THE PROBLEM OF KLAIPĖDA REGION PERIPHERALITY 

Gintarė Pociūtė 1 

Institute of geology and geography (Lithuania) 

Abstract 

This article presents the socioeconomic and demographic situation in Klaipėda county that is illustrated by chosen indicators’ analysis. 

In this article Klaipėda county has been chosen as an example territory to measure the peripherality phenomenon. Thus, in order 

to measure the peripherality the chosen indicators’ values were compared with Lithuanian average and state’s centres’ values. The 

article stresses the most peripheral regions in Klaipėda county which needs the governance attention and also the strongest one that 

leads all the county. The article finds out that the cooperation question is essential for both – county’s peripheries and centres – as it 

provides possibility to stay stable or even endows a potential to grow. 

KEY WORDS: Klaipėda county, core-periphery, peripheral region, cooperation. 

JEL codes: R100 

Introduction 

The peripherality question is one of the most essential ones’ while discussing about the region’s possibility 

to compete and at the same time cooperate with other regions. In the cooperation sphere the priority 

is usually given to the stronger and more centrality features worth regions as these regions have enough of 

social, economical, demographical stock. 

In this case appears the question: which regions might me noticed as central ones and which ones should 

be underlined as peripheral? Thus, this article takes a task to clarify this question while taking Klaipėda 

region as an example for measuring peripherality of this specific region. In this article the peripherality 

phenomenon is going to be declared via chosen socioeconomic and demographic indicators provided by 

Department of Statistics of Lithuania. 

The general purpose of the article is with the help of the most relevant up to date statistical data (that include 

the most essential according to the author social, economic, and demographic indicators) to underline the 

current situation of Klaipėda region. In this way the article seeks for the answer if Klaipėda region should be 

declared as central region in Lithuania that has enough potency for the domestic and international cooperation 

or still this region should be considered as peripheral one. In order to clarify the region’s position, it is necessary 

Klaipėda region’s statistical findings compare with Lithuanian average data. Also, in the research it is imposed 

Vilnius city and Kaunas city municipalities’ statistical data as these two largest country’s cities are considered as 

Lithuanian centres. Thus, in the peripherality research it is informative material in order to notice the difference. 

Generally, peripherality question is being analyzed by broad amount scientists taking into account geographers, 

sociologists, economists and others (Krugman, Venables, 1995; Schmidt, 1998; Knox, Marston, 

2001; Jerabek, 2006; Daugirdas, Burneika, 2006; Marada, Chromy ir kt., 2006; Nagy, 2006, Pociūtė, 2011). 

Summarizing scientists’ proposed definitions and this article author’s ideas, peripheral region might be un- 

1 

Gintarė Pociūtė – Nature research centre, Institute of geology and geography, Laboratory of Human Geography, PhD student. 

Scientific interests: peripheral regions in Lithuania, regional geography, regional policy, territorial polarization. 

E-mail: Gintarei.pociutei@gmail.com 

Tel.: +370 607 711 37 

93



derstood as the territorial unit, located outside the centre boundary, and related with the centre on the dependence 

link, characterized by the lagging behind from the average and lowest geographic, socioeconomic, 

demographic, cultural, and political indicators. However, the research in this article excludes some of the aspects 

proposed in the definition and takes into account several socio-economic and demographic indicators. 

Peripherality is closely linked to centrality researches as these are the two poles of the dichotomy model. 

Therefore, working on peripherality evaluation researches it is important to understand how the core-periphery 

(CP) model works because this model allows to understand the place of the periphery in the territory 

system and at the same time points out the periphery relations with other unites of this system (Fig. 1). The 

idea of CP model appeared in the middle of XX century and firstly was produced by J. Friedmann (Friedmann, 

1966) and it should be stressed that the model was modified since its first idea. Nowadays scientists 

introduce other territorial unites in between of centre and periphery poles. For instance, Z. Norkus (Norkus, 

2009) gives an idea that the territorial disparities’ model should have four levels (Fig. 1). The author underlines 

that the strongest regions should be called centres that are usually surrounded by peripheries. Thus 

Z. Norkus defines these territories around centres as centre-peripheries. According to author, the weakest 

regions in the country are pointed out as peripheries. But at the same time, these weakest regions have the 

local centres that are more developed territories in the regions. Accordingly, these better developed territories 

in peripheral region are named periphery-centres (Fig. 1). 

Figure 1. Centre-periphery model (according to Z. Norkus idea) 

Source: Norkus, 2009 

The model that is developed using Z. Norkus (Norkus, 2009) idea might be adapted for Klaipėda region 

as this region is particularly diverse. Klaipėda county has strong centre which is Klaipėda city with the national 

level seaport. Also this county has deep peripheral territories that are mostly located in country’s border 

zones. Furthermore, Klaipėda region has centre-peripheries and periphery-centres in between. Thus, one of 

this article goals’ is to underline the differences in this particular Klaipėda county. The portrait of the current 

situation in Klaipėda region would allow to take specific measures in order to improve the conditions for 

national and international cooperation. 

As the one of the purposes’ of this article is to compare chosen for the survey territories with the Lithuanian 

average, the methodology for this survey has been chosen in this way: 

• y for the selected socioeconomic indicators’ analysis: the Lithuanian average (LT average) is equated to 

100 %, thus this allows to see the regions deviation (negative or positive) from the LT average value; 

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• y selected demographic indicators’ analysis is prepared comparing general statistical data of chosen 

regions with Lithuanian average values. The percentage comparison is not applied to demographic 

indicators due to appearing logic mistakes influenced by sufficiently big differences between values. 

1. The general picture of Klaipėda county 

The first thing that has to be mentioned while talking about Klaipėda county is this region’s special geographical 

position that makes this county unique in Lithuania. The region is situated in Western Lithuania 

on the coast of Baltic sea and is an important district in terms of marine business, recreation and tourism, 

industry and agriculture as well. The county borders with two countries – Latvia and Kaliningrad region 

(Russian Federation). Moreover, Klaipėda county might be interesting for other countries to cooperate as it 

has such strategic objects like Palanga Airport and especially Klaipėda State Seaport which is the only sea 

gate in Lithuania (Portrait of…, 2008). Thus, geographic location makes Klaipėda county favourable for 

developing international cooperation relations. 

Table 1. The comparison of Klaipėda county with Lithuanian average 

Vilnius, Kaunas and Klaipėda cities statistical data 23 

INDICATORS 

Density (people/ km ²) 

(2011) 

Population number (thousand) 

(2011) 

Gross value added (GVA) (for 1 

person) (thousand) (2010) 

Foreign direct investment (FDI) 

(LTL/1 person) (2010) 

Unemployment rate (%) 

(2012) 

Employment rate (%) 

(2010) 

Level of entrepreneurship (per 

1000 population) (2012) 

Recipients of social assistance 

benefits (per 1000 population) (2010) 

Natural increase (per 1000 

population) (2010) 

Old-age pension beneficiaries (per 

1000 working age population (2010) 

Ageing index 1 (persons) (2011) 

Number of pupils in general schools 

(per 1000 population) (2010-2011) 

Net migration (per 1000 population ) 

(2010) 

LT average 49.7 3244.6 3 25.8 10958 11.0 58.5 20.5 55.9 -2 283 144 128.2 -24.0 

Vilnius city 1381.7 554.1 37.7 37831 9.3 69.4 39.4 19.2 3.5 251 132 121.4 -14.6 

Kaunas city 2145.9 336.9 28.1 10003 9.8 63.8 29.1 30.6 -0.4 287 157 130.8 -34.4 

Klaipėda 1814.4 177.8 32.3 13309 8.6 65.4 29.1 30.7 0.8 261 143 119.3 -28.6 

city 

Klaipėda 

county 

70.4 366.9 26.7 9128 9.9 59.9 22.9 44.5 -0.3 262 134 124.0 -26.0 

Source: Lithuanian Labour Exchange, Counties of Lithuania 2010, Statistical Yearbook of Lithuania 2011, Economic 

and Social Development in Lithuania2011/12, Demographic Yearbook 2010 

In order to attract the attention of neighbour countries and encourage the border cooperation the region 

should be attractive not only by geographic factor but also by socioeconomic and demographic aspects. 

Thus, the current situation of Klaipėda county is presented in Table 1. Also, the table presents information 

that concerns Vilnius, Kaunas and Klaipėda cities and Lithuanian average data. Therefore, the statistical 

data in the table allow to compare Klaipėda city and county with Lithuanian centres and state’s average and 

2 

Ageing index: the number of elderly people (aged 60 and over) per 100 children under 15 (Department of Statistics of Lithuania: 

http://zodynas.stat.gov.lt/index/detail.aspx?id=73) 

3 

Total number of residents’ in Lithuania. 

95



in this way it is possible to notice if Western Lithuanian region appears peripheral or central in Lithuanian 

context. However, it should be stressed that while presenting the statistical data we still have to understand 

that positive numbers do not mean that the situation in the region is perfect as there might be hidden factors 

that could strain the real region’s situation. For instance, it might be noticed the growing numbers of foreign 

direct investment for a person but at the same time it might be admitted that these numbers are growing influenced 

by the decreasing county’s inhabitants’ number. Thus, one statistical data should supplement other 

and the overview of the situation in the region should be based on interpretations of taking into account the 

group of various indicators. 

The article is based on researches of peripherality, thus, the indicators were selected in order to measure 

this phenomenon. Meanwhile peripherality is being understood as the deviation from the average towards 

negative side, in order to notice if Klaipėda might be called as peripheral region there is the need to compare 

the regions’ statistical data with Lithuanian average (Fig. 1). 

Figure 2. The comparison of socioeconomic indicators between 

Klaipėda, Vilnius and Kaunas cities, Klaipėda county municipalities’ and Lithuanian average 

Source: Lithuanian Labour Exchange, Counties of Lithuania, 2010; Statistical Yearbook of Lithuania, 

2011; Economic and Social Development in Lithuania, 2011/12; Demographic Yearbook, 2010 

As the figure shows, it obvious that the best rate of socioeconomic indicators’ values are in Vilnius city 

municipality. These findings should not astonish because Vilnius city as the Lithuanian centre attracts much 

more attention. As well, being political, economical, social centre Vilnius is interesting for international 

companies. Thus, the foreign direct investment in Vilnius city is more than 3 times bigger comparing with 

Lithuanian average. Besides, Vilnius city municipality interfere less with such social problems as employment 

rate which is 20 % higher in comparison with LT average (Fig. 2). Also, Vilnius city municipality 

strongly leads in the comparisons of level of entrepreneurship that is more than 90 % higher than LT average 

(Fig. 2). It is obvious that Vilnius city municipality takes all the advantage in this socioeconomic comparison 

and reflects relevantly big disparities within Lithuania. Thus, there might be ideas that while looking for peripherality 

in Lithuania Vilnius city municipality should be eliminated. However, on the other hand, keeping 

Vilnius city municipality in the research is the way to show the distance from centre to the periphery region. 

In this comparison work Kaunas city municipality stands in the third position. Though, it should be stressed 

that with its socioeconomic indicators’ values are more common to Klaipėda city than to Vilnius city. 

In this paper work the biggest attitude should be paid to Klaipėda city and county. Thus, it should be 

noticed that the most recently presented statistical data show that in general Klaipėda county goes around Lithuanian 

average and lags behind Vilnius city municipality according to the chosen for the survey indicators’ 

96


values. However, the statistical data that present Klaipėda city are much more higher than Klaipėda county’s 

data. Klaipėda city taking into account its statistical information stands in the second position overtaking 

Kaunas city and standing behind Vilnius. Klaipėda city municipality is the strong centre in Klaipėda county 

(according to the model in Fig. 1: “Centre’s centre”) that pulls ahead all the region. But these differences 

within the county would be unravelled in another article’s section. 

27.5 % of all Klaipėda county residents’ are living in rural area and it is around 20 % less comparing 

with Lithuanian average (Fig. 2). Unemployment rate in the county is 10 % less in comparison with average. 

Meanwhile in Klaipėda city this indicator is more than 20 % less than LT average. Klaipėda county (11 % 

higher than LT average) and Kalipėda city (42 % higher than LT average) have better indicators’ values if 

talking about the level of entrepreneurship. Moreover, in Klaipėda region the number of recipients of social 

assistance is around 20 % lower than LT average and in Klaipėda city even 45 % lower. While talking about 

foreign direct investment (FDI) it should be underlined that Klaipėda county receives around 15 % less comparing 

with LT average (Fig. 2). But if taking only Klaipėda city, the FDI indicator is relatively high (25.2 % 

higher than LT average). According to this indicator Klaipėda city oversteps Kaunas city and is competing 

with Vilnius city. 

Taking into account demographic indicators it might be also noticed the differences between these chosen 

for the survey Vilnius, Kaunas and Klaipėda cities, Klaipėda county and Lithuanian average (Fig. 3). 

Generally, the statistical data that provide the view of current demographic situation in Vilnius, Kaunas and 

Klaipėda cities, Klaipėda county or present the Lithuanian average are threatening. According to up to date 

numbers, natural increase (except Vilnius and Klaipėda cities) and net migration indexes that are counted 

for 1000 inhabitants are negative. As well, ageing index stresses the growing problematic situation while 

showing that there are more elderly people aged 60 and over than children under 15. This ageing problem 

is underlined by old-age pension beneficiaries and number of pupils in general schools indicators (Fig. 3). 

The best demographic situation as well as the socioeconomic is in Vilnius city municipality and this is directly 

connected with state capital status. The positive natural increase is detected only in Vilnius city which 

reaches 3.5 ‰ and Klaipėda city with 0.8 ‰ while the LT average is -2 ‰. Whereas, in Klaipėda county and 

Kaunas city the natural increase is higher more than 5 times comparing with Lithuanian average and reaches 

-0.3 ‰ in Klaipėda county and in Kaunas -0.4 ‰. 

Nowadays the migration topic is quite common. This problematic topic is exceptional because of the growing 

emigration numbers. The statistical data showing the portrait of current Lithuanian migration situation 

are daunting. In 2010 the LT net migration average was -24 ‰. In Klaipėda county this number reached 

-25 ‰ while in Klaipėda city even more bigger counting -28,6 ‰. The worst numbers were detected in Kaunas 

city – reaching -34 ‰. Only in Vilnius city the net migration indicator’s value was better than LT average 

but still negative -14.6 ‰ (Fig. 3). 

As it was already mentioned, the indicators are closely connected to each other. Therefore, the natural 

increase or net migration indicators’ values has an influence on ageing index, old-age pension beneficiaries 

or number of pupils in general schools indicators’ values. This connection might be disclosed by noticing 

that usually emigration is based on younger generation. Thus, the consequences might be seen in decreasing 

number of population. Moreover, the growing emigration and decreasing population amount increases the 

progressing number of elderly people and decreasing number of pupils at schools. The biggest problems appear 

when there is imbalance in the society: too many old people, too little children and not enough working 

people (tax payers). 

Lithuanian average ageing index is 144. Therefore, it means that for 100 children under 15 falls 144 elders. 

There are almost half more old-aged people comparing with children. The ageing index in comparison 

with LT average is lower in Vilnius city municipality (reaching 132), Klaipėda county (counting 134) and 

Klaipėda city (counting 143). Whereas in Kaunas city the aging index is higher and reaches 157. 

97



Figure 3. The comparison of demographic indicators between 

Klaipėda county, Vilnius and Kaunas cities municipalities’ and Lithuanian average 



2. The disparities within Klaipėda county 

While the general picture of Klaipėda county looks pretty good in the Lithuanian context with mostly all 

the indicators’ numbers above the state’s average, the disparity’s question within Klaipėda county is much 

more problematic. In this county might be underlined the districts with one of the worst rates’ in Lithuania 

(for example, Skuodas district, which according to model in Fig. 1 might be equalled to “Periphery’s periphery” 

term) and at the same time with one of the best state’s rates’ (for instance, Klaipėda city municipality 

– “Centre’s centre”) (Mano finansai…, 2012). Therefore, analyzing these Klaipėda county’s districts 

separately would benefit in stressing the most sensible regions within this county. As well, the districts of the 

county are compared with Lithuanian average in order to estimate the peripherality level (Fig. 4; 5). 

It is essential to stress that Klaipėda city, Neringa and Palanga municipalities are the territories that differ 

from other this county’s districts as these three municipalities are urban taking into account the lifestyle 

while other county’s districts that are rural in there way of life. As well, Klaipėda city, Neringa and Palanga 

municipalities are the resorts that during the summertime attract a lot of holidaymakers. Moreover, Neringa 

municipality is the most exceptional in Klaipėda county according to the statistical data. The values of indicators 

presenting Neringa municipality are relatively high comparing not only with Klaipėda county districts 

but also with Lithuanian average or state’s centres. However, it does not mean that Neringa municipality 

does not face with any problems and the living situation is the most favourable in all the Klaipėda county or 

even state. Probably it is even right to declare that the current statistical data does not reflect the real situation 

98


in this municipality. The situation in Neringa municipality is strained because of the economic profit while 

wealthy residents from other Lithuanian regions buy or invest in real estate in Neringa without a will to live 

there but only keep there estate as the summer houses. Such people register as Neringa municipality residents 

in order to get discounts while taking ferry or avoid the municipality entrance fee. On the other hand, 

taking into consideration the border cooperation Neringa municipality is open minded, interesting, active and 

attractive for investors, thus perfectly suitable for cooperation. 

Taking into account the cooperation question one of the possibilities to reveal the region’s potential 

might be pointing out the level of entrepreneurship. This indicator underlines the residents’ activity level and 

susceptibility for development. Thus, the level of entrepreneurship is higher in the centres where residents 

usually seek for innovation. Meanwhile the rural or peripheral regions lack behind according to this indicator 

because these regions are more traditional and more passive for the novelty. Besides, the low level of entrepreneurship 

might be also determined by demographic indicators as when the population number is low and 

even decreasing there is no need to establish new enterprises. Therefore, the highest level of entrepreneurship 

in Klaipėda county might be noticed in Klaipėda city (42 % higher than average), Neringa (86.3 % higher 

than average) and Palanga (56.6 % higher than average) municipalities (Fig. 4). While the lowest level of entrepreneurship 

is detected in Skuodas (56.6 % less than LT average) and Šilutė (36.1 % less) districts (Fig. 4). 

Gross value added (GVA) created by municipalities in Klaipėda county are relatively low comparing with 

LT average. Only Klaipėda city’s GVA is 25.2 % higher that Lithuanian average. The other districts have lower 

GVA that state’s average. The lowest GVA in 2010 was detected in Neringa (31.8 % lower than average), 

Palanga (31 % lower) and Skuodas district (30.6 % lower) municipalities (Fig. 4). 

The highest unemployment rate in Klaipėda county is detected in Skuodas district (33.6 % higher than LT 

average), Palanga city (27.3 % higher) and Šilutė district (20 % higher). While the best situation is in Neringa 

municipality (60 % below LT average) and Klaipėda city (21.8 % below average). One of the reasons why 

the situation in this case in Neringa is the best is because of the registered people who mostly exist in statistical 

papers but actually work and live in Vilnius, Kaunas or other places. Meanwhile, V. Bortelienė (Bortelienė, 

2012) prepared a research about Klaipėda city where she stresses that still existing positive numbers of 

current situation in Klaipėda city hide escalating problems. Currently unemployment rate in Klaipėda city in 

general number is 8.6 % which is above state’s average and one of the highest in the county. But as the author 

points out, this indicator in Klaipėda city is growing not because of stable economy but mostly because of 

the terrifically vanishing the number of registered resident’s. Therefore, high numbers of employment rate 

might be an alert of emigration. 

The best employment rate is counted again in Klaipėda city that is 11.8 % above LT average. It has to be 

noticed that this is the only municipality in this county that is above LT average. According to this indicator 

Neringa municipality stays behind other Klaipėda county’s districts and is 20.7 % lower than Lithuanian 

average. This huge difference appears because most Neringa municipality residents’ own their business and 

work only during the summer time earning money for the rest of the year. The similar situation is with Palanga 

municipality that is lagging lacing 12.3 % behind LT average. 

In 2010 the biggest amount of foreign direct investment (FDI) lied in Klaipėda district and counted 

28.2 % higher than LT average. As well 21.5 % higher than average FDI got Klaipėda city. Whereas, Skuodas 

and Šilutė districts seem to be less interesting for investors and were more than 90 % below LT average 

according to FDI indicator (Fig. 4). 

Statistical data show that Skuodas and Šilutė districts have the biggest amount recipients of social assistance 

benefits. According to this indicator Skuodas district oversteps LT average by 33.5 % and Šilutė 

district by 38.5 %. This indicator underlines the residents’ humble life conditions and problematic social 

situation. The minimal number (84.8 % less than LT average) of recipients of social assistance benefits is 

detected in Neringa municipality. This indicator and its value has direct link to unemployment rate and that 

is obviously noticed in the Fig. 4. 

99



Figure 4. The comparison of socioeconomic indicators within Klaipėda county 



In Klaipėda county the most rural district is considered to be Skuodas district which oversteps LT average 

twice thus it is counted that the rural population in this district is 109.1 % higher than LT average. 

The demographic situation within Klaipėda county is also controversial enough. There are huge differences 

in the municipalities while comparing indicators’ values (Fig. 5). 

If the Lithuanian average talking about natural increase indicator is -2.0 per 1000 population, in Neringa 

this indicator is positive and counts 3.2 per 1000 population. Positive natural increase is also in Klaipėda city 

(0.8) and Klaipėda district (1.6). While the lowest natural increase level is detected in Skuodas district and 

reaches even -6.5 per 1000 population (Fig. 5). 

Net migration indicator is the lowest in Šilutė municipality and counts -42.7 per 1000 population while 

LT average is -24.0 per 1000 population. The negative numbers declare unfavourable conditions for living 

and working. Meanwhile Neringa municipality counts positive migration net which reaches 40.0 per 

1000 population. As it was mentioned, this high number is influenced by registered in this municipality but 

not constantly living but owning real estate residents. Above the LT average is also Klaipėda district municipality 

which counts -10.9 per 1000 population. According to V. Bortelienė (Bortelienė, 2012) Klaipėda district 

municipality gets the higher values as this municipality receives more and more residents from Klaipėda 

city. Previous Klaipėda city’s residents chose the comfortable life out of the city in growing new settlements 

in Klaipėda district municipality. This migration from Klaipėda city to the district appears a problem for the 

city municipality as the residents leaving city leave blank houses of flats. Moreover, the taxes that were paid 

by them to the city are now directed to the district municipality. 

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Figure 5. The comparison of demographic indicators within Klaipėda county 



The ageing index declares the existing problem of growing number of elderly people but this is the problem 

relevant not only in this county but also in all the state, thus seeking for the solution should be based 

on state governance. The average ageing index in Lithuania is 144.0. The worst situation according to this 

indicator in all Klaipėda county is noticed in Palanga municipality (175.0 per 1000 working age population) 

where old-age people are almost twice more than young or working residents (Fig. 5). As well, this index is 

high in Skuodas district (147.0 per 1000 working age population). The best situation is in Klaipėda district 

(114.0 per 1000 working age population) that is also connected with the immigration from the city and in Šilutė 

district (114.0 per 1000 working age population) which has high enough young children number (Fig. 5). 

Šilutė district has one of the lowest old-aged pension beneficiaries’ number’s (222.0 per 1000 working age 

population) one of the highest counting the number of pupils in general schools (140.9 per 1000 population). 

According to old-age pension beneficiaries indicator, Skuodas district has the worst position in the county 

reaching 311.0 per 1000 working age population while the LT average is 283.0 per 1000 working age population 

(Fig. 5). 

Taking into account the demographic Klaipėda county situation it seems that the worst situation is in 

border districts – Skuodas and Šilutė. Considering that the indicators underline peripherality, Skuodas and 

Šilutė districts would be noticed as peripheral regions in Klaipėda county. 

Conclusions 

Klaipėda county is relatively strong in Lithuanian context and according to the indicators chosen for the 

survey is most of the time above LT average and can compete with Lithuanian centres. Therefore, in general 

Klaipėda county can not be called peripheral region. However, despite the fact that Klaipėda county is one 

of the strongest ones in Lithuania, the differences within this county are big enough. The worst situation 

101



and biggest deviation from Lithuanian average values are in Skuodas and Šilutė districts while the best indicators’ 

values are detected in Klaipėda city, Neringa and Palanga municipalities. Therefore, applying the 

CP model to Klaipėda county taking into account data provided by Department of Statistics of Lithuania, 

Klaipėda city, Neringa and Palanga municipalities would be seen as “Centre’s centres”, whereas Skuodas 

and Šilutė districts would reflect another model’s pole which is “Periphery’s periphery”. These differences 

are mostly influenced by geographical location (border phenomenon) and strategically beneficial position 

(resorts, state sea port). 

It is essential to underline that it is not possible to evaluate objectively only via statistical data the region’s 

peripherality and potential for cooperation. The statistics just gives the general view of the territory, whereas 

there are subjective features influenced by cultural, historical conditions or mental apprehension which 

should be also taken into account. 

There is no question if this Western Lithuanian region should cooperate with neighbour countries. The 

question is how the border-cooperation should be developed in order to benefit for all the cooperating countries 

and at the same time solving the rising problems of Klaipėda region. Should the cooperation be implemented 

only via centres while leaving aside the weakest county’s regions? Or if we are talking about border-cooperation 

should the most serious action be taken in border regions in this case the peripheral regions 

excluding the centres? There are several scenarios how the border-cooperation might be realised and up to 

the county and district’s governance decide the most suitable way. 

References 

Counties of Lithuania 2010. (2011). Lietuvos statistikos departamentas. Vilnius. 

Daugirdas, V., Burneika, D. (2006). Patterns and problems of peripheriality in Lithuania – borderland of the EU. Europa 

XXI. Regional periphery in Central and Eastern Europe, Vol. 15, p. 119–133. 

Demographic Yearbook 2010. (2011). Lietuvos statistikos departamentas. Vilnius. 

Economic and Social Development in Lithuania2011/12. (2012). Lietuvos statistikos departamentas. Vilnius. 

Friedman, J. (1966). Regional development policy: a case study of Venezuela. Cambridge: MIT Press, 279 p. 

Jerabek, M. (2006). Research into peripheral areas in the Czech Republic – changes in the landscape and land use in the 

model regions, Europa XXI. Regional periphery in Central and Eastern Europe, Vol. 15, p. 171–183. 

Knox, P. L., Marston, S. A. (2001). Places and Regions in Global Context. Human Geography. Prentice Hall: New 

Jersey, 526 p. 

Krugman, P., Venables A. (1995). Globalization and the Inequality of Nations, Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 60, 

p. 857–880. 

Marada, M., Chromy, P. ir kt. (2006). Space polarisation and peripheral regions in Czechia. Europa XXI. Regional periphery 

in Central and Eastern Europe, Vol. 15, p. 29–34. 

Norkus, Z. (2009). Nepasiskelbusioji imperija. Vilnius: Aidai, 476 p. 

Pociūtė G. (2011). Periferinio regiono sampratos problema Lietuvoje. Annales Geographicae, Vol. 43–44(1–2), p. 128–143. 

Portrait of the regions of Lithuania. (2006). Lietuvos statistikos departamentas. Vilnius, 154 p. 

Schmidt, M. H. (1998). An integrated systemic approach to marginal regions: from definition to development policy. 

Ed. Jussila et al. Perceptions of marginality: theoretical issues and regional perceptions of marginality in geographic 

space, p. 45–66. 

Statistical Yearbook of Lithuania. (2011). Lietuvos statistikos departamentas. Vilnius. 

Websites 

Bortelienė, V. Klaipėda nyksta ir skursta. Lietuvos žinios. http://www.lzinios.lt/Ekonomika/Klaipeda-nyksta-ir-skursta 

(žiūrėta 2012 01 27). 

Department of statistics of Lithuania. http://www.stat.gov.lt/en/pages/view/?id=1350 (žiūrėta 2012 01 25). 

Lithuanian labour exchange. http://www.stat.gov.lt/en/pages/view/?id=1350 (žiūrėta 2012 01 27). 

Mano finansai. „Swedbank“ Asmeninių finansų instituto buveinė internete https://www.manofinansai.lt/lt/menesio-tema/240/finansines-situacijos-zemelapis-arba-kodel-lietuvai-gresia-rygos-sindromas 

(žiūrėta 2012 01 25). 

102


KLAIPĖDOS REGIONO PERIFERIŠKUMO PROBLEMA 


Geologijos ir geografijos institutas (Lietuva) 

Santrauka 

Įprasta, kad didesnio dėmesio, investicijų, projektų ar bendradarbiavimo pasiūlymų susilaukia regionai, 

turintys gerą ekonominį, socialinį, demografinį, geografinį ar kitokį įvaizdį. Dažniausiai patrauklios tampa 

centrų vaidmenį atliekančios vietovės, tuo tarpu periferiniai regionai nustumiami į šalį. Tačiau egzistuoja 

dilema, kurios teritorijos įvardijamos kaip centrai, o kurios – kaip periferija? Atsakymas į šį klausimą yra 

vienas šio straipsnio uždavinių. 

Periferiškumo fenomenui analizuoti autorė pasirinko keletą socioekonominių ir demografinių rodiklių, 

kurie, autorės nuomone, geriausiai identifikuoja teritorinius netolygumus atitinkamais aspektais. Svarbu pabrėžti, 

kad šiame darbe periferiškumas suvokiamas kaip neigiamas nuokrypis nuo vidurkinių reikšmių: taigi, 

kuo didesnis neigiamas nuokrypis nuo vidurkio, tuo didesnis periferiškumo laipsnis. Svarbu pastebėti ir tai, 

kad šiame darbe pateikiamas tik statistinis periferiškumo nustatymas, tuo tarpu visapusiškam periferiškumui 

nustatyti reikėtų remtis ir subjektyvumo turinčiais tyrimais: psichologinio suvokimo, istorinių ar kultūrinių 

elementų įtakos visuomenės nuomonei analize. 

Straipsnyje analizuojama Klaipėdos apskritis, kuri ganėtinai įdomi dėl savo įvairumo: čia veikia tiek 

valstybės lygmens centras, kuris aukštais socioekonominiais ir demografiniais rodikliais išsiskiria iš likusių 

apskrities savivaldybių, kartu ji yra viena silpniausių ir periferiškiausių savivaldybių valstybės lygmenyje. 

Šie skirtumai dažniausiai nulemti geografinės padėties: visoje Lietuvoje egzistuoja tendencija, kad pasienio 

regionai atsiduria periferinėje zonoje. 

Klaipėdos regiono periferiškumo klausimas analizuojamas lyginant šio regiono duomenis su Lietuvos 

vidurkinėmis reikšmėmis ir didžiaisiais Lietuvos miestais – Vilniumi ir Kaunu, kurie valstybės lygmenyje 

atlieka centrų funkcijas. Gauti duomenys parodė, kad visų rodiklių aukščiausios reikšmės aptinkamos politinėje, 

ekonominėje, socialinėje bei geografinėje sostinėje – Vilniaus mieste. Tuo tarpu Klaipėdos miestas, 

nors ir atsilieka nuo Vilniaus rodiklių, pralenkia Kauną ir pasižymi puikiais statistiniais rezultatais. Klaipėdos 

miestas, remiantis statistiniais rodikliais, gali būti įvardytas kaip strategiškai svarbus centras ne tik Vakarų 

Lietuvos, bet ir visos valstybės mastu. Žemiausios reikšmės teko ir labiausiai nuo Lietuvos vidurkinių 

reikšmių (t. y. periferiškiausi) Klaipėdos apskrityje atsilieka Skuodo ir Šilutės rajonai. Statistiniai duomenys 

pabrėžia vis didėjančias regione socialines ir demografines problemas, kurioms spręsti turi būti imtasi atitinkamų 

priemonių. Šie pasienyje išsidėstę regionai yra labiausiai nutolę nuo centro, todėl viena iš išeičių šiems 

regionams būtų užmegzti santykius su kaimyninės valstybės pasienio regionu. 

Taigi galima konstatuoti, kad Klaipėdos regionas yra tinkama erdvė bendradarbiavimo santykiams kurti 

ir plėtoti, turinti tiek socioekonominio, tiek demografinio potencialo. Tačiau iškyla diskusinis klausimas, 

į kurį vienareikšmiško atsakymo nėra: kaip reikėtų bendradarbiauti Vakarų Lietuvoje, kad būtų naudinga 

visoms bendradarbiaujančioms valstybėms, kartu būtų bandoma išspręsti vis aštrėjančias problemas, su kuriomis 

susiduria Klaipėdos apskrities rajonai? Ar bendradarbiauti turėtų tik centrai, eliminuojant silpnus, 

merdėjančius regionus, ar didesnis dėmesys galėtų būti skirtas būtent periferiniams regionams? Taigi yra 

keletas scenarijų, kuria linkme reikėtų plėtoti bendradarbiavimą, tik savivaldybių vadovams ir pačioms bendradarbiaujančioms 

struktūroms reikėtų apsispręsti, kurį iš tų scenarijų pasirinkti. 

PAGRINDINIAI ŽODŽIAI: Klaipėdos apskritis, centras ir periferija, periferinis regionas, bendradarbiavimas. 

JEL klasifikacija: R100 

103


DECISION-MAKING PROCESS IN CREDIT GRANTIG 


Ilmars Purinsh 1 , Toms Reizinsh 2 , Girts Braslinsh 3 , Natalja Svitlika 4 

BA School of Business and Finance (Latvia), Ventspils University College (Latvia), University of Latvia 

(Latvia), BA School of Business and Finance (Latvia) 

Abstract 

In recent years many countries have experienced stagnation or even decline in the amount of mortgage credits granted to households. 

The credit-granting process has become significantly complicated, less transparent and excessively time consuming. This study seeks 

to define the improvement opportunities for credit granting through creation of a simple, transparent and accountable framework of 

decision-making process. To achieve this purpose the authors used qualitative method – structured interview and graphical tools – 

decision tree. The developed framework makes it possible to identify areas of the credit granting that might have potential for considerable 

improvements. The empirical results of the study indicate that decision-making process in credit granting has considerable 

potential for improvements. The developed framework is supposed to help commercial banks to improve the quality and efficiency 

of the decision-making process in the credit granting and reduce cost of credit granting process. This is possible to achieve by cutting 

down the duration time of alternative solutions with negative outcome – credit denial. This research introduces a valuable framework 

of transparent and accountable model of decision-making process in the credit granting. The authors have found that the introduced 

framework is suitable not only for commercial banks but also for a wide range of organizations having similar complicated and 

multiple staged decision-making processes. 

KEY WORDS: lending, credit granting, process analysis, decision making 

JEL codes: C44, G21, M10 

Introduction 

In recent years many countries experienced stagnation or even decline in the amount of mortgage credits 

granted to households. Statistic data processed by the Financial and Capital Market Commission (FCMC) of 

Latvia indicates that commercial banks of Latvia experience a decrease of households mortgage credit portfolio 

by 4.96 % in 2009, 5.7 % in 2010 and by 7.4 % in the first half of 2011 5 . Partly his negative dynamic 

could be described by stiffened standards and regulation in credit granting over past three years. 

1 

Ilmars Purinsh – BA School of Business and Finance (Latvia), Aspirant of Business Administration, scientific interest: 

international finances. 

E-mail: ilmars@klinika.lv 

Tel.: +371 296 317 56 

2 

Toms Reizinsh – Ventspils University College (Latvia), Doctoral student of Business Administration, scientific interest: 


E-mail: toms.reizins@gmail.com 

Tel: +371 283 578 82 

3 

Girts Braslinsh – University of Latvia (Latvia), Doctoral student of Economic, scientific interest: international finances. 

E-mail: girts.braslins@inbox.lv 

Tel.: +371 294 030 57 

4 

Natalja Svitlika – BA School of Business and Finance (Latvia), Doctoral student of Business Administration, scientistic interest: 


E-mail: natalja.svitlika@gmail.com 

Tel.: +371 291 212 82 

5 

Association of Commercial Banks of Latvia: Bank performance data 2007–2010. [on-line] Available at: http://www.bankasoc.lv/ 

lka/statistika/bankas/index2.php 

104


Households as well as bank officials admit that a credit-granting process has become more complicated, 

excessively time-consuming, and non-transparent compared to previous years. Bank officials explain it by significant 

changes that took place in commercial banks practices since the beginning of the crisis. Previously 

the power of credit granting decision-making was delegated to the middle managers of commercial banks, 

but currently a decision-making mandate is significantly reduced and only belongs to the credit committees. 

This paper seeks to define an opportunity for improvements of the credit granting process in commercial 

banks through the creation of a simple, transparent and accountable framework of the decision-making process. 

The developed framework is supposed to help commercial banks to improve the quality and efficiency 

of the decision-making process in the credit granting and reduce cost of credit granting process. 

The authors define the following objectives to reach the purpose of the study: 

1. Transformation of complicated household mortgage credit granting process into a simple, transparent 

and accountable framework by using a graphical tool – a decision tree. 

2. Identification of problem areas of decision-making process in credit granting. 

3. Development of practical recommendations for commercial banks for improvement of the decisionmaking 

process in credit granting. 

4. Assessment of potential of the developed framework. 

To achieve the objectives of the study the authors defined four tasks: 

1. Conduct structured interviews with loan officers from Latvian commercial banks. 

2. Transform results of interviews to the credit granting decision-making tree and fix the time and probability 

of the each alternative solution. 

3. Carry-out the verification of the developed credit granting decision-making tree. 

4. Remark the results of the credit granting process decision-making tree. 

The rest of the paper is structured in the following way: Section 1 presents background of the research. 

Section 2 introduces the experiment carried out by the authors. The results of the study are presented in 

section 3. And finally, section 4 is devoted to the conclusions. 

1. Background of the research 

The credit granting process, according to the structure suggested by the authors, consists of two interrelated 

components: credit granting policy (procedures) and decision-making. The credit granting policy 

(procedure) represents credit granting methodology to assess credit risk by establishing a wide range of 

requirements and standards for credit granting. Decision-making, in turns, represents a set of consistent and 

sequential actions that should be carried out by the loan officers in order to meet all standards and requirements 

established in the credit granting procedures. The main task of the decision-making process in credit 

granting is to obtain approval or denial of credit granting from relevant authority of commercial banks (in 

most cases – the credit committees). 

The authors’ intention is to research decision-making issues of the credit granting process, because this 

component usually is neglected by commercial banks. And to the mind of the authors it is a mistake, because 

this component might have considerable potential for improvements of the credit granting process and therefore 

should be properly reflected and resolved. 

Credit granting is a trade-off between the perceived default risk of a credit applicant and potential returns 

from granting credit (Keasey, Veronesi, 2008: 18). “Trade-off” is a subjective and capacious criterion that 

is represented by credit risk management. Credit granting procedures of commercial banks include a wide 

range of requirements and standards aimed to establish boundaries on level of acceptable credit risk. Most of 

the requirements and standards of commercial banks are similar and include standards on market segment, 

quality and liquidity of property, its value, collaterals, loan limits, creditworthiness and credit reputation of 

a credit applicant. 

105



Reverting to the decision-making process of the credit granting the authors have observed lack of proper 

analysis and documentation of it in the procedures of commercial banks. At best commercial banks have 

made an attempt to reflect the credit granting process either in descriptive or visual way. However used for 

this purpose techniques such as flow-charts and Entity-relationship model are not sophisticated enough to 

provide comprehensive precept of complicated, multiple staged and diversified process of decision-making 

in credit granting process. 

Lack of proper reflection and documentation of decision-making process in credit granting implies that 

commercial banks have not paid detailed attention to that and might have little control over this process. 

As a result, the authors find that commercial banks might have opportunities for considerable improvement 

in decision-making process, which, in turns, would result in better efficiency of the whole credit granting 

process. Efficiency of the credit granting process could be measured by the time and labour costs spent on 

proceeding of a credit application. Knowledge and clear understanding of the decision-making process in 

credit granting could enlarge range of tools used by commercial banks to increase customer’s satisfaction by 

achieving better efficiency and quality of the credit granting process. 

By highlighting the lack of proper analysis of decision-making in credit granting the authors set a task to 

develop a framework of decision-making process in credit granting using a decision tree concept that would 

bring required simplicity, transparency and accountability. 

After brief searching of current literature on credit granting process the authors have identified a lot of researches 

devoted to the credit risk management. At the same time there is a lack of researches devoted to the 

analysis of the decision-making process in credit granting. Therefore in this paper the authors introduce one 

of first empirical study on analysis of the decision-making process in credit granting and provide a valuable 

insight into acknowledgment of interdependencies, critical issues and areas for improvements in decisionmaking 

process of the credit granting. The finding of the study gives rise to a series of new researches. 

The empirical study of this paper is limited to the development of the framework of credit granting process 

that relates to only mortgage credit granted to households. The aim of this paper is not to introduce any 

new standards and requirements in credit risk management. The aim of this paper is to examine the decisionmaking 

process as a set of consistent and sequential actions that is carried out to reach decision on approval 

or denial of granting a credit and state recommendations for its improvements opportunities. 

2. The Experiment 

Used by commercial banks techniques for reflection of the decision-making process such as flow-charts 

or Entity-relationship model are useful for training of new employees to introduce them with a general percept 

of the credit granting process. However, those techniques do not ensure feedback to commercial banks 

regarding time and resources spent to handle a credit application. But the weakest side of the used techniques 

is enclosed in their inability to describe whether the credit granting process is organized properly and in 

efficient way? And the authors find that a graphical tool, particularly a decision tree, as the proper concept 

that allows overcoming of drawbacks of above mentioned techniques. It enables transformation of the decision-making 

process of the credit granting into a simple, transparent and accountable framework. A ground 

of the authors’ certainty in graphical tool’s relevance for solution of the defined problem is knowledge that 

a decision tree is an instrument that explicitly interprets any process and can be stated as a strategy where 

actions of decision makers can be determined, in the same time the stochastic state of nature can be kept as 

given. The main purpose of creating a decision tree is that afterwards the decision makers can easily decide 

how to act in each decision node and follow their decision further in depth. In that case, the pace of the process 

execution depends mainly on the state of nature. A decision tree provides the opportunity for decision 

makers to analyze and compare different paths of a decision tree. 

To achieve the task of the research, the authors have carried out the experiment based on the 

methodology provided by Reizinsh and Rutitis (Reizinsh, Rutitis, 2006: 324–329), who introduced 

formalization of experts’ opinion method consisted of three iterations and reflected in Figure 1. 

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Figure 1. Formalization of the experts’ opinion 

Source: Reizinsh, Rutitis, 2006: 324–339. 

The main goal of the experiment is to provide a theoretical background and develop a practically trustful 

and applicable transparent and accountable framework of decision-making process in credit granting. 

Taking into account that adopted methodology include qualitative methods – structured interview with 

the experts. A structured interview is a valuable technique to gather as much information as possible, meanwhile 

sticking to the agenda of this research. So, the authors have interviewed the experts with more than 

10 years of experience in credit granting field. Experts’ extensive experience in banking sector allowed the 

authors to gather valuable information and understanding of the decision-making process in credit granting 

and decrease subjectivity error typical for qualitative methods. 

During the 1 st iteration the expert performed a structured interview. During the interviews the selected 

experts provided the authors with the decisions that are involved in credit granting process. Results obtained 

from the interviews made it possible to draw an initial decision tree. The conducted interviews during the 

first iteration of experts’ opinion formalization has provided the authors with the exact sequence of decisions 

that take place in the credit granting process of commercial banks. It appeared that the credit granting process 

consists of 6 phases – 1 st appointment, 1 st analysis of gathered data performed by a loan officer, intermediate, 

2 nd appointment, 2 nd analysis of gathered data performed by loan officer, and, finally, credit committee which 

has mandate on credit approval or denial. There are numerous decisions in defined 6 phases of the decision-making 

process, which an applicant and a loan officer must carry out during each phase, before to reach 

approval and denial on credit granting. That makes a total of 40 statements to which an answer is required 

before decision-making process can be moved to the credit committee. At the end of the first iteration the 

authors have drawn an initial decision tree. 

The 2 nd iteration starts with the validation of the decision tree drawn during the first iteration. During this 

formalization stage the authors’ task is to define whether the developed initial decision-making tree corresponds 

to the decision-making process that takes place in credit granting. If not, proper adjustments had to 

been made. Validation of the drawn initial decision-making tree indicated certain difficulties with incorporation 

of dome of the experts’ answers into a decision tree and highlighted the necessity of adjustment regarding 

107



to the legislation issues. To overcome appeared drawbacks the authors were focused to trace adjustments and 

modifications that the experts had required under legislative framework. In addition, the experts were asked 

to paraphrase their statements that had been changed by the authors due to legislative framework during the 

first iteration. This stage of the formalization process proved to be most time-consuming, because before to 

come out with the validation results the authors had spend considerable amount of time on the explanation 

of the concept of a decision tree to the experts in order they can understand the task of validation. After the 

experts had been given the approval of the provided sequence of decisions in the credit granting process, the 

structure of the decision tree became stable and the third stage of the formalization can be performed. 

The 3 rd iteration is the essence of the carried experiment. During this stage the expert provided the authors 

with the empirical distribution of probabilities of each alternative branch of the developed decision tree. It was 

carried out through incremental evaluation and analysis of each of all 40 statements of the decision tree that 

belongs to a particular phase of the credit granting process. Afterwards a combined probability was formulated 

as a product of all probabilities enclosed in a particular decision tree branch. In the same way the experts shared 

their experience regarding the time required to perform tasks enclosed in each statement. In the end of the third 

iteration the authors calculated the cumulative time that describes particular decision tree branch. 

The formalization process was finalized by the development of the decision tree, which bring desired and 

expected transparency and accountability of a decision-making process in credit granting. 

3. Results of the credit granting decision tree 

The carried out experiment brought clarity and complete understanding of the decision-making process, 

that take place in credit granting. Obtained knowledge allowed to develop a decision-making tree, which 

brought transparency and accountability to the decision-making process of the credit granting, as well as 

to define execution time of each particular outcome. The most important outcome gained from the transformation 

of the decision-making process into decision tree is development of a flexible framework, which 

encloses opportunity to analyze and evaluate decision-making process in credit granting from different sides. 

The developed credit granting decision-making tree happens to be excessively voluminous, which make 

its displaying in full rather complicated. Giving this limitation the authors presents only a tiny fragment of the 

developed credit granting decision-making tree, corresponding to 1 st appointment, in Figure 2. The developed 

decision-making tree of the credit granting process was subject of statistical and mathematical data processing. 

Figure 2. Graphical fragment of the credit granting decision-making tree 

108


The decision-making tree of the credit granting process consists of the decision nodes and sections of the 

decision nodes. Every decision of the credit granting decision-making process is described in terms of time 

it takes to make (reach) it and fixed probability of occurrence. 

The authors’ analysis of the developed credit granting decision-making tree is based on exploration of the 

core alternative solutions of the decision-making process. Decision tree branches were measured by the probability 

of the node of each event. Values of the decision tree branches have been determined by the common 

time capacity. Values of the event nodes have been disclosed as time instants of the credit granting process. 

The characteristics of the credit-granting decision tree shown in Table 1 illustrate that 35.02 % of alternative 

solutions are solutions that theoretically might take place in the credit granting process, but according 

to the experts’ experience have never took place and their realization probability is close to zero. The authors 

called this group of alternative solutions as “empty sets” and have excluded them from further analyses due 

to lack of practical implementation. 

The largest share of alternative solutions in the developed decision-making tree belongs to the alternatives 

solutions that have been rejected and represent 35.82 % form total number of alternative solutions. These alternatives 

solutions are characterized as alternative solutions that never take place in the credit granting process. 

The alternatives solutions characterized as realized represent 29.17 % from the total number of the alternative 

solutions and are described as alternative solutions that are regular decisions in credit granting. 

Table 1. Characteristics of the credit granting decision-making tree 

Characteristics 

Results 

Rejected alternatives solutions 29.17 % 

Realized alternative solutions 35.82 % 

“Empty sets” 35.02 % 

From the results of statistical analysis of the developed credit granting decision tree presented in Table 2 

the authors found that a positive outcome, when credit granting is approved, take place in only 14.60 % of cases. 

This statistically obtained result required additional verification due to suspiciously small rate of positive 

outcome. To verify the obtained result the authors refer to the credit granting statistic data provided by the 

experts. The experts’ statistic data on the credit granting identifies that 100 experts’ meetings with the credit 

applicants per month turn into only 15 signed loan agreements. The conducted verification confirmed that 

the developed framework of the credit granting decision-making process is proper and truthful. This made 

possible to conclude that the derived results are valid and can be used as credible data for further analysis. 

A negative outcome, when credit granting is denied, takes place in 85.40 % of cases. The authors suppose 

that the improvement of the credit granting process can be achieved by decrease of time spent on coming up 

with a negative decision. The relived time can be redirected to serve larger number of the credit applicants. 

Table 2. Groups of alternative solutions 

Indicator 

Results 

Positive outcome (approval of credit granting) 14.60 % 

Negative outcome (denial of credit granting) 85.40 % 

Implementation of the developed credit granting decision-making tree would help commercial banks to 

identify irrational and time-consuming alternatives solutions (branches) in the decision making process of 

the credit granting. Identification of such alternative solutions, in turns, encloses considerable opportunity to 

improve the credit granting process. 

In order to set a time standard for optimal duration of the alternatives solutions, the authors have calculated 

several variables, including the maximum, the minimum, the average decision duration, the median, the 

109



mode and the weighted average of the time consumed to come out with a decision. The results of calculation 

are shown in Table 3. 

The calculated variables help to compare the decision-making duration of each alternative solution to 

other alternatives solutions in the same group or with alternative solutions form other group. Alternative 

solutions which decision-making duration exceeds the average duration have to become a subject for further 

analysis, because they are a source for improvements of whole decision-making performance in credit 

granting. 

The maximum time necessary to come out with a decision is 4064 minutes (8.47 working days), while 

the minimum time – 3 minutes. The average time of decision-making duration of alternatives solutions is 

2512 minutes (5 working days). 

The maximum duration of alternative solutions to come out with a positive decision takes 4064 minutes 

(8.47 working days), the minimum duration – 564 minutes (1.18 days) and the average duration – 2412 minutes 

(5.23 working days). As it can be seen the dispersion between the maximum time and minimum time 

spent to come out with a positive decisions is considerable. The mode of the positive decision is 1591 minutes 

(3.31 working days) and the median – 2441 minutes or slightly more than 5 working days. 

Table 3. Decision-making duration of alternative solutions in the credit granting 

Groups of alternative solutions Variable Value 

minutes 

working 

days 

Overall in the credit granting Maximum duration 4064 8.47 

process 

Minimum duration 3 0.01 

Average duration 2512 5.23 

Positive decisions Maximum duration 4064 8.47 



Mathematical expectation 782 1.63 

Median 2441 5.09 

Mode 1591 3.31 

Negative decisions Maximum duration 3764 7.84 



Mathematical expectation 107.28 0.22 

Media 2081 4.33 

Mode 2431 5.07 

The maximum duration of the alternative solution to come out with a negative decision takes 3764 minutes 

(7.84 working days), but the minimum duration constitutes to 3 minutes and the average duration – 

2130 minutes (4.44 working days). The dispersion between the maximum and the minimum time consumed 

to come out with a negative decision is even bigger that in case with a positive decision. The mode of the negative 

decision of the alternatives solutions is 2431 minutes (5.07 working days) and the median – 2081 minutes 

(more than 4 working days). 

The results demonstrate that the negative decision of alternative solutions can be reached faster that the 

positive decision of the alternative solutions (2412 minutes to 2130 minutes). The most frequently repeated 

duration time of the alternative solutions, presented by the mode, is considerably shorter for the alternatives 

solutions with a positive outcome than for the alternative solutions with a negative outcome (1591 minutes 

to 2431 minutes). 

As it was mentioned earlier so considerable dispersion between the maximum and the minimum duration 

time of the alternatives solutions is appropriate for both – positive and negative decision branches. Therefore 

110


in order to set standards for optimal duration time of the alternative solutions, new variable should be introduced. 

The authors have calculated variable that is supposed to identify the highest probability and represent 

the most common duration time of the alternative solutions to reach the final decision – credit granting 

approval or denial. The authors entitled this variable as the “mathematical expectation”. According to the 

data provided in Table 3 the mathematical expectation for the alternative solutions with a positive decision 

corresponds to 782 minutes or 1.63 working days, but in case of a negative decision corresponds to 107 minutes. 

These ranges should be considered as a standard for optimal duration of the alternatives solutions to 

come out with a decision. The alternative solutions that exceed the value of the mathematical expectation are 

subject to further detailed analysis and a source for improvements of the decision-making in credit granting 

process. The main agenda of the suggested analysis is determination of reasons that cause an increase of 

decision-making duration and develop recommendation for overcoming those challenges. 

Figure 3. Graphical representation of positive decisions 

in credit granting process 

Figure 4. Graphical representation of negative 

decisions in credit granting process 

The value of mathematical expectation of positive decisions and negative decisions of the alternative solutions 

indicates that a negative decision can be achieved faster than a positive decision. This should be considered 

as reasonable approach, because each minute spent to come out with a decision generates expenses 

and can be defined as a waste of time for both participants of the credit granting process – commercial banks 

and credit applicants. A negative decision of the alternative solutions does not generate income for commercial 

banks and is waste of time for credit applicants. Therefore duration time of the alternatives solutions with 

a negative decision should take as less time as possible to ensure efficiency of the credit granting process. 

Conclusions 

In the framework of this research the authors have elaborated a decision-making tree provides an opportunity 

to analyze and evaluate the whole credit granting process. The experiment that was carried out demonstrates 

that the provided methodology of transformation of the complicated credit granting process into 

a decision tree is appropriate and relevant. The conducted verification of the developed decision-making tree 

proves that this way of reflection is credible and valuable for practical implementation by commercial banks. 

The reflection of the credit granting process as a decision tree ensures its transformation into easily understandable 

graphical diagram. The applied method made it possible to calculate the decision-making duration 

of each node, the cumulative time of each alternatives solution, as well as the probability of occurrence 

for each alternative solution’s outcome. 

111



The developed credit granting decision tree provides a significant material for further analysis of the 

credit granting process, which might result in a wider range of recommendation for improvements of the 

process itself, process quality, efficiency and customer satisfaction. 

When a drawn decision tree becomes excessively voluminous and it graphical visualization is rather 

complicated, it can be revert to numerical matrix and its further analysis can be performed mathematically. 

The applied approach of the credit granting process’s reflection made it possible to express a decisionmaking 

duration of each alternative solution in time units. This opportunity ensures accountability of the 

whole credit granting process and let to compare and evaluate a decision-making duration of alternative 

solutions in different profiles. The authors suggest comparing of decision-making duration of alternative 

solutions to a value of the mathematical expectation. Alternative solutions which cumulative time exceeds a 

value of the mathematical expectation for particular group of the alternative solutions (positive or negative 

outcome) most likely contains opportunities for improvements. Therefore, the improvement of the credit 

granting process can be achieved by finding, understanding and negotiating the reason of a decision-making 

duration of alternative solution that exceed the mathematical expectation. 

Main benefit of the elaborated framework is achieved transparency and accountability of the credit granting 

decision-making process and opportunities for its improvement. Time component of the credit granting 

process introduced by the authors is a key indicator in assessment of the costs caused by the process to 

commercial banks. Costs of the credit granting process can be expressed also in labour cost per hour. Adding 

the labour cost component to the credit granting decision-making tree makes it possible to calculate and set 

boundaries for costs that alternative solutions can generate within the credit granting process. 

This study presents one of a few researches of decision-making process analysis in the credit granting and 

provides material for further analysis and researches. The authors find that the presented framework of the 

credit granting process is helpful tool to overcome part of challenges existing in the credit granting process. 

The authors recommend using the introduced approach not only for the transformation of the credit granting 

decision-making process in commercial banks, but also in other organizations having the same multiple 

staged and complex decision-making process, for example in insurance, auditing companies and universities. 

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Sprendimų priėmimo procesas teikiant kreditus 


Finansų ir verslo administravimo mokykla (Latvija), Ventspilio universitetinė kolegija, Latvijos 

universitetas, Finansų ir verslo administravimo mokykla (Latvija) 

Santrauka 

Pastaraisiais metais dauguma valstybių išgyveno stagnaciją, kuri susijusi su kreditų nekilnojamajam turtui 

išdavimu namų ūkiams. Pripažįstama, kad kredito išdavimo procedūra dabar ilgesnė, sudėtingesnė ir ne 

tokia skaidri kaip anksčiau. Šiame straipsnyje, siekiant patobulinti kredito išdavimo procesą komerciniuose 

bankuose, sukurta paprasta ir suprantama sprendimų priėmimo schema. 

Šiame tyrime autoriai pateikia sprendimo priėmimo medį, kuris leidžia išanalizuoti ir įvertinti visą kredito 

išdavimo procesą. Atliktas eksperimentas parodė, kad sprendimų medžio taikymas vietoj sudėtingų 

kredito išdavimo procedūrų yra patikimas ir tinka taikyti komerciniuose bankuose. 

Sprendimų medžio analizė paremta alternatyvių sprendimų vertinimu sprendimo priėmimo procese, ji 

padeda nustatyti, kodėl pailgėjo sprendimo priėmimo procesas, ir parengti rekomendacijas, kaip to išvengti. 

Neigiamas sprendimas komerciniams bankams neduoda pelno ir nesuteikia išteklių asmenims, kurie siekia 

gauti kreditą. Taigi laikas, skirtas neigiamų sprendimų alternatyvoms svarstyti, turėtų būti kuo trumpesnis. 

Autoriai nurodo, kad pateikta kredito išdavimo schema tinka taikyti, siekiant įveikti kai kurias kredito 

išdavimo sprendimo priėmimo procese kylančias problemas. Autoriai rekomenduoja pateiktą prieigą naudoti 

ne tik sprendimo priėmimo dėl kredito išdavimo komerciniuose bankuose procese, bet ir kitose organizacijose, 

kurios taiko panašius daugiaetapius sprendimo priėmimo procesus, kur sąveikauja bent dvi šalys, 

pavyzdžiui, draudimo, audito bendrovėse ir universitetuose. 

PAGRINDINIAI ŽODŽIAI: paskolos, paskolų išdavimas, proceso analize, sprendimų priėmimas. 

JEL klasifikacija: C44, G21, M10 

113

Arnaud Serry 

Circulation at Russian-Baltic states boundary: a cut and a seam 

Circulation at Russian-Baltic states boundary: 

a cut and a seam 

Arnaud Serry 1 

CEDETE – University of Orleans (France) 

Abstract 

Disintegration of the USSR and join of Baltic States to European Union made this one a border territory between Russia and EU. 

After the collapse of Former Soviet Union, the new boundary remained almost easy to cross. In the beginning of the 21th century, 

it became no more fuzzy but rather fixed. Since European enlargement that had taken place in 2004, the crossing has become more 

regulated. People need visas that meant administrative papers and cost. The evolution of cargo flows has been more contrasted. 

Economic policies, political stakes and traditional links, are elements to understand East Baltic area. Kaliningrad Oblast, the Russian 

exclave lying by the Baltic Sea, strengthens the interest of the purpose. 

KEY WORDS: circulation, border, Baltic States, discontinuity. 

JEL Codes: O180, R400 

Introduction 

After the collapse of the USSR and the enlargement of the European Union to the Baltic, their eastern 

border became the border between Russia and EU. This paper focuses on flows of goods and persons through 

boundaries between Russia, and Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania). The purpose is to analyze the 

role of this boundary after the enlargement of the EU. 

Thus, the independence of the Baltic early in 1990 and EU enlargement of 1 May 2004, displaced the 

European Union border to the east, introducing a discontinuity in the area of the eastern Baltic. Meanwhile, 

this border improved, reactivated, and in particular by increased flows’ controls. However, this border space 

is an area of significant exchanges with Russia and Belarus, including trade, tourism and travel. Scale games 

are omnipresent in the apprehension of this new discontinuity and its impact on mobility and cross-border 

traffics. 

1. The context 

The geographic characteristics of the region give to the Baltic-Russian border a central role in Russian 

international trade relations: spatial link between the northern, western, central and eastern Europe, trading 

hub are to define the Baltic sea. 

1 

Arnaud Serry – University of Orléans, Department of Management, assoc. prof. dr., scientific interest: Logistics and Transport, 

Geography. 

E-mail: arnaud.serry@univ-orleans.fr 

Tel.: + 33 (0)6 23 81 94 36 

114


1.1. Geographical 

The Russian-Baltic boundary appears as a specific space, at the intersection of two regions on the sidelines. 

Is it the margins of EU and the margin of Russian Federation? So is it only a periphery, or a new center? 

The peripherality of the region is tempered by the strong mesh that connects the main poles of the network. 

The Russian-Baltic boundary is a dynamic space, and also a margin, for several reasons that this area is conducive 

to innovation: 

• y As in the periphery, it is less controlled than the central place; 

• y New European frontier, it is a locus where the gradients are the strongest on the shorter distance; 

• y Finally, many networks, physical and institutional, are crossing this space. 

This border is a discontinuity between two constructed territories. It causes differences and thus induces 

various spatial effects. It is also a limit in highly charged symbols and representations. But it doesn’t juxtapose 

any difference in mesh or network, because they are largely inherited from the Soviet period. At late 

twentieth century, when the political discontinuities have moved, transportation networks have persisted. 

Transport contributes, therefore, to question boundaries. 

1.2. Historical 

At the end of the Soviet period, Baltic States were mainly linked to USSR and COMECON Main international 

gateways were the ports. There were no international airlinks, just a few trains towards Eastern 

and Central Europe. In the early 90’s there was a drop of the links with Former Soviet Union due to several 

factors: economic collapse, social crisis, nationalism. 

In subsequent years, the situation has normalized, but 2004 enlargement of EU changes the nature of the 

border with FSU (Former Soviet Union). It displaced the European Union border to the East, introducing a 

discontinuity in this area of the eastern Baltic. 

Trade flows implications of the Baltic-Russian border are much less studied than geopolitics: for instance, 

Russia often uses energy products’ trade for political purposes. 

1.3. Methods 

Paper deals with theoretical and empirical research. The approach is mainly through port and railway 

traffics for goods, and through air networks for passenger flows. This study is therefore based on rail and 

air transport statistics. It also relies on the analysis of transport networks and, more particularly, on regular 

international lines: trains, buses and air links. 

Furthermore, knowledge of the field strengthens the results and completes the reading of papers on the 

same theme. It makes possible the understanding of cross-border circulations in the region and helps to characterize 

them at different scales. 

Moreover, the mapping of traffic of people and commodities establish a new perception of the impact of 

the new EU border in the region. It reinforces the understanding of situation and spacializes it more clearly. 

2. Cargo flows between Baltic States and Russia 

Baltic States are mainly transit territories for goods coming from or going to post-soviet states. So, the 

transport system is based on the complementarities of ports and railways. 

115

Arnaud Serry 


2.1. The port system 

After the collapse of the USSR, half of the former Soviet port capacity of the Baltic sea was located 

outside Russia. 

In the mid-1990s, Russia had to find a safe and cheap way for its products to the Atlantic. Past the time of 

extreme nationalism, the Baltic economic actors have realized that their domestic market could not enough 

and they had to use the networks and relationships forged with neighboring Russia (Serry, 2011). So, the new 

border between former Soviet Republics has seen the revival of traditional commercial traffics. 

Today, the Baltic port range still keeps particularities of the Soviet system: 

• y The purpose of the port system remains mostly similar: Exports of raw materials from Russia and the 

CIS countries and import of manufactured goods; 

• y Transit flows remain the major components of port traffics. 

Four features define the evolution of maritime traffic in the Baltic Range: increasing traffic of crude oil, 

based on Russian exports, growth of container movements, increase of intrabaltic roll on – roll of flows and 

geographical concentration of traffic in some ports. Today the main ports of the range are Saint-Petersburg 

and Primorsk oil terminal. 

There is a Baltic ports range with its own characteristics and a specific organization, in which the ports 

have linked commons with the combination of competition, complementarities and cooperation 2 . 

2.2. A Soviet inheritance: the large share of railway transportation 

The following table clearly shows the regional specificity in terms of freight transport (See Table 1): it is 

dominated by rail, especially for international circulation. Even if rail share in freight transport is decreasing, 

it is still higher than in the other EU countries. Road transport is yet minor and volatile. As statistics about 

road transport are not available, only rail transport is here analyzed. 

Table 1. Part of rail in fret transportation (%) 

1998 2000 2005 2009 

EU 19.7 17.7 16.5 

Estonia 67.3 62.7 64.6 52.7 

Latvia 76.0 73.5 70.2 69.8 

Lithuania 59.5 53.4 43.9 40.1 

Source: Eurostat, 2010. 

Main international rail freight flows in the Baltic States concern Russia, as a result of port transit activities. 

For instance crude oil exported by Tallinn-Muuga is carried by rail from Russia. We can notice a spatial 

differentiation of intensity and distribution of international rail freight: 

• y In Lithuania, flows exist with most post-Soviet states (See Figure 1); 

• y In Latvia, the distribution of flows is much more concentrated, with the absence of the Caucasus 

countries; 

• y Estonia seems to be in an intermediate position. 

There is also a phenomenon of neighborhood, for example between Lithuania and Belarus (Klaipėda 

exports Belarus fertilizers to EU and USA). 

Apart traditional goods (metals, minerals, oil, etc.), a new kind of traffic dramatically increases: container flows. 

2 

Unfortunately there is little information on Russian operators and investors in the Baltic States’ ports. Russian actors are present, 

but they are discreet to avoid offending national sensitivities. 

116


Figure 1. Lithuanian international rail freight 

2.3. Block-trains, the beginning of cooperation 

Ports, railway companies and new operators (shipping and stevedoring international companies) are setting 

up block-trains 3 between the Baltic States and FSU and China. Block-trains enable “door-to-door” delivery, 

safety and easy border crossing as well as customs procedures (CIS/EU border in 30 min). 

The most successful pattern is the shuttle train “Viking”, launched in 2003, between Klaipeda (Lithuania), 

Odessa and Illichivsk (See Figure 2), which carries about 40,000 TEUs per year. Railways and shipping 

companies, ports of Lithuania and Ukraine, cooperate to simplify customs procedures, so trains can travel 

in 52 hours the 1,734 kilometers that separate the two ports. Today, Georgia intends to join the Viking intermodal 

project. In addition, negotiations are underway with Moldova, Turkey, Syria, Azerbaijan, Finland, 

Sweden and Norway. 

3 

A block train, is a train in which all the wagons making it up are shipped from the same origin to the same destination, without 

being split up or stored en route. 

117

Arnaud Serry 


The “Baltica transit” is a twice weekly train-block service between Riga and Almaty (Kazakhstan). Transit 

time is 8–10 days. In Latvia, the train is operated by LDZ Cargo in cooperation with FESCO (Far Eastern 

Shipping Co) for the Russian part. 

Figure 2. Block-trains between Baltic States and CIS countries 

Nowadays, many projects appear. In 2012, Lithuanian and Russian railways are planning a container 

train Mercury between the ports of Kaliningrad and Klaipeda and logistics centers in Moscow. AS Baltic Rail 

wants to develop scheduled container trains from Šeštokai to St. Petersburg, Moscow and Central Asia. The 

choice of Šeštokai railway station is not trivial because it is the oriental terminus of European gauge railway 

lines. The idea is to make this technical constraint an asset for the development of network interoperability, 

particularly with the forthcoming opening of the Rail Baltica. 

2.4. Cross border entrepreneurship 

The first economic opportunity lies in the existence of old economic partners. Trade relations have developed 

on a foundation derived from past acquaintances. The main advantages of trade between Baltic States 

118


and Russian and Belarusian border regions are to find raw materials at a lower price or find a larger market 

for goods, services, or tourism activities. 

Border trade is boosted by a multitude of regional companies. Business collaborations are more present 

in the border regions of the Baltic States than on their coastlines. Small structures benefit from the vagueness 

of the law to trade without taxes. These commercial flows regularly take the appearance of cross-border business 

cooperation, the most developed forms are: 

• y Export of certain Baltic productions (dairy products, paints, packaging…); 

• y Russian Imports of goods in the Baltic States (rubber, wood, fish, fuel…); 

• y Recreation and accommodation for the Russian or Belarusian people; 

• y Transport services (cars, people). 

The rapid economic development of the Baltic States has caused some differences in price levels, which 

favors the interest of entrepreneurs in cross-border trade, although the price difference has decreased. Moreover, 

the Baltic accession to the EU amended the legislation particularly with regard to imports from third 

countries. In contrast, the large Russian market remains attractive for Baltic businessmen. 

3. People circulation particularities 

3.1. Main international passenger flows 

In the region, means distribution of international transport of passengers is similar to the traditional division: 

domination of the air but rail and road has still a significant share. 

In the Soviet past, all the regular commercial flights in the Baltic republics airports were flown as domestic, 

inside USSR. After the independences the network changed dramatically. Today less than 20 % of the 

destinations of Baltic airports are located in FSU. A long time second after Vilnius, Riga airport is now the 

first one in the Baltic states for passengers carried and movements (4.6 million and 68 145 in 2010 respectively). 

It is also the first by the number of FSU destinations. This is a consequence of the firm strategy of Air 

Baltic, the main air company in the region. It created a hub in Riga in 2004, working as a gate-way between 

EU and FSU (See Figure 3). 

During the 90’s flows and flights decreased even to 100 %. Many destinations in FSU were closed. In the 

beginning of the 21 st century, more flights are operated, mainly with the capitals (Moscow and Kiev). But 

flights to other towns are not yet re-operated. Priority for Baltic States air network is development of links 

with the EU. After exclusive links, to USSR, then to EU, Riga airport and Air Baltic intend to win a central 

position in the middle of the two regions. 

The Baltic Soviet republics were in direct railway connections with many towns of the USSR, even in 

its Asian territory. Those links disappeared in the beginning of the 90’s. Today, apart Kaliningrad, the only 

remaining trains travel to the capitals of the neighbor countries. 

Road transport is difficult to analyze due to lack of reliable information. I tried to use busses schedules, 

network maps and global statistics. Road transport seems to have an important place in cross-border flows, 

probably in relation with little cross-border business (See Figure 4). After the entrance of the Baltic States in 

the Schengen area, visas were introduced. Therefore regional international passenger flows decreased. 

119

Arnaud Serry 


Figure 3. Regular flights between Baltic States and FSU 

Source: Serry, Thorez, 2011. 

Figure 4. Lithuania, international busses 

Source: Serry, Thorez, 2011. 

120


But it is impossible, without personal enquiry at the border cross-points to evaluate individual car international 

flows. Obviously, there is a lot of “Tchelnoki” 4 from both side of the border. 

3.2. Shuttle trade 

The opening of borders in the early 1990’s has instantly resulted in the development of a specific type of 

cross-border mobility. This is the small business or commercial tourism, also called suitcase trade. 

Border trade has mainly developed because of economic or fiscal differentials. Many people embrace 

the border to make money. To do this, some did not hesitate to travel hundreds of kilometers under very uncomfortable 

conditions. Hundreds of thousands of people have specialized in their suitcase using the slight 

differences in prices (see Table 2). Some goods are cheaper in Russia. The favourite products are cigarettes 

and vodka. All border regions have benefited from trade in goods. 

Table 2. Prices comparison 

August 2008 (€) Finland Estonia Latvia Lithuania Russia 

Box of cigarettes 3.85 1.90 2.00 1.73 0.90 

Litre of petrol 

1.50 1.08 1.17 1.10 0.77 

Source: Orcier, 2009. 

In fact, the phenomenon has different spatial effects like open sky markets or specific flows in some 

areas. Markets, mostly informal, are created along the borders, like in Gariūnai near Vilnius. Currently, this 

small business takes place mainly from Russia to the Baltic States, as a price difference persists. But the suitcase 

trade had to adapt to a new configuration from December 2007 and the entry of the Baltic States into 

the Schengen area. In many ways, the introduction of visas has been felt as a step backwards. So, the EU 

has allowed short-stay visas. Even so, this permit is limited to the border area. Last but not least, for those 

reasons, nowadays shuttle trade decreases. 

4. Two particular situations 

4.1. The case of Narva-Ivangorod 

The question of discontinuity is reinforced in some cases, particularly in a border town like Narva 

(67,000 inh.), the easternmost and second Estonian city. The city is 90 % Russian-speaking, situation inherited 

from the Soviet period. On the right bank of the river, lies Ivangorod, a small Russian town of 10,000 inhabitants 

(Orcier, 2009). Russian citizens of Narva, which have a permanent residence permit, can travel to 

Russia with their simple passport. Estonian citizens need a visa to cross the border. 

The price differences is generating constant back-and-forth border of the inhabitants of Narva (two million 

crossings each year). There is no city bus connecting Ivangorod to Narva. Thus, residents wishing to 

visit the other side must do it by foot. A passage and a checkpoint for pedestrians have been built. The border 

crossing in Narva is thus characterized by a continuous queue of pedestrians. 

Even if trade is now more difficult, it is estimated that only 5 % of people enter the Russia as tourists or 

for business. All others go to Ivangorod, where gas stations have sprung up, to buy petrol and then return to 

Narva. They are called “benzovoz”. A system of queuing tickets was established, with two ways to cross the 

border. The “benzovoz” can “queue up” at home. For this, they withdrew a ticket with their car registration 

4 

The term refers to inhabitants of border regions, who live traffic of vodka, cigarettes and fuel. 

121

Arnaud Serry 


number and their place in the queue. They follow the movement of the tail from their computer and, when 

their turn comes, they drive to the checkpoint, and then to Ivangorod. 

Narva-Ivangorod seems emblematic of an exceptional border situation because. It became a gateway to 

the European Union but a deadbolt for local population mobility. 

4.2. Kaliningrad oblast 

After the independence of Lithuania, Kaliningrad became separated from the Russian Federation. The 

enclave raises many questions related to the problems of discontinuity: 

• y Problems of territory discontinuity. For Kaliningrad oblast, crossing the borders does not necessary 

means going abroad, but going to the heartland; 

• y Mobility freedom between the enclave and the Russian territory. Since 2007, all the habitants of Kaliningrad, 

need a Schengen visa to enter Poland and Lithuania; 

• y Differences in prices and economic conditions on both sides of the border which can generate a vital 

cross-border trade. Although the standard of living in the enclave is greater than the Russian average, 

it remains well below Lithuanian and Polish ones. 

Suitcase trade, legal or illegal, was very well developed before EU enlargement. After EU enlargement, 

2004 data’s show the negative impact on border crossings. The number of persons crossing the border decreased 

by 9.1 million in 2002 to 7,000,000 in 2004 (see table 3). In fact, this decline is mainly due to the 

gradual decrease in the activities of border trade. It is mainly due to two following reasons: 

• y first, stricter custom controls at borders and probably a decline in corruption due to the presence of the 

customs of other EU states; 

• y secondly, the introduction of visa regime with Lithuania. 

Table 3. Border crossing evolution 

Border crossing (Millions) 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 

People 8.6 8.9 9.0 9.1 7.9 7.0 

Cars 2.9 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.3 2.9 

Source: Vinokourov, 2007. 

When speaking about circulation, the traditional means of transport between Kaliningrad oblast and the 

Russian Federation is train (about 70 % of total passengers in enquiry in 2005) 5 . The need of transit visas 

impacted passenger practice towards air companies. In 2011, there are still 2 daily trains between Kaliningrad 

and Moscow, but not less than 10 daily flights. In addition, railway remains dominant for freight with a 

share of about 80 %. But fees for transit are higher for Russian imports and exports, than using Baltic States 

or “continental” Russian ports. Moreover, Russian shipping companies operate ro-ro and container ships 

between Ust-Luga and Kaliningrad in order to insure the supply of the oblast. 

As a final point about Kaliningrad, the border became a factor of territorial discontinuity for Russian 

Federation. It is a drawback to Russian flows. 

5 

International Organization for Migration, Vilnius office, Migration and transit as seen by Kaliningrad population, Representative 

public opinion survey of the Kaliningrad population, 2005 

122


Conclusions 

The dichotomy of cross border circulations is evident: 

• y Massive and long-distance trade flows, continental or intercontinental, are based on a specific transport 

system giving to the region a gateway vocation; 

• y Short and diffuse traffics are needed for local people or regional development. 

As wrote Claude Raffestin 6 , the border between Russia and the Baltic States has contradictory impacts: it 

is a cut and a seam. In a general evolution characterized by traffic drop in the early 90’s followed by recovery 

after 1999 and growth in the 2000’s, borders are easily crossed by international and transit flows organized by 

international operators. Business and practices are against political borders. Ports are positioned as gateways 

between Russia and Europe and participate in the building of a single integrated reticular regional space. 

At local scale the border became a frontier. Local mobility, especially cross-border practice, is now more 

difficult. 

We could conclude that the border is a seam in global transport system, but a cut in local mobility. There 

is an evident need of cooperation between EU and Russia to facilitate mobility and circulation of population 

across the border. 

References 

Guichonnet, P., Raffestin, C. (1974). Géographie des frontiers. Puf. 

Lobtach, A. (2005). Belarus on the EU borders: The impact of enlargement on trade and cross-border cooperation. Institute 

for world economies Working papers, 17 p. 

Orcier, P. (2009). Les recompositions territoriales dans la région de la Baltique orientale (Finlande, Estonie, Lettonie, 

Lituanie), Thèse de Géographie, Ecole Normale Supérieure – Lettres et Sciences humaines, 447 p. 

Serry, A. (2011). La réorganisation portuaire de la Baltique orientale – L’émergence d’une nouvelle région en Europe. 

Editions Universitaires Européennes, 376 p. 

Serry, A., Thorez, P. (2011). The Russian-Baltic states boundary: a limit between peripheries or a link between European 

Union and the post-soviet states. ASN Conference “Twenty Years after 1991: The Reshaping of Space and 

Identity”. Moscow. 

Vinokourov, E. (2007). L’enclave russe de Kaliningrad: spécificité territoriale et intégration à l’économie mondiale. 

Thèse de doctorat, Université de Grenoble, 409 p. 

cirkuliacija rusijos ir baltijos šalių pasienyje: 

APRIBOJIMAI IR SANDŪRA 

Arnaud Serry 

CEDETE – Orleano universitetas (Prancūzija) 

Santrauka 

Šiame straipsnyje nagrinėjamas prekių ir žmonių judėjimas tarp Rusijos ir Baltijos šalių (Lietuvos, Latvijos 

ir Estijos). Straipsnio tikslas – išanalizuoti šių ribų vaidmenį išsiplėtus Europos Sąjungai. 

Sugriuvus TSRS ir Baltijos šalims įstojus į ES, siena tarp šitų valstybių tapo riba, kuri skiria ES nuo Rusijos. 

Periferinės ES Baltijos šalys, kaip ir Vakarų Rusija, visada buvo tranzitinės teritorijos, kurioms buvo 

būdinga didelė žmonių ir prekių cirkuliacija. Baltijos šalys iš esmės ir liko tranzitinės teritorijos prekėms, 

6 

Raffestin, C. (1986). Éléments pour une théorie de la frontière. Diogène, n°134. 

123

Arnaud Serry 


kurios juda iš ir į posovietines valstybes, jų transporto sistema paremta uostų ir geležinkelių suderinamumu. 

Ekonominė politika, politiniai sprendimai ir tradiciniai ryšiai leidžia geriau suprasti Rytų Baltijos regioną. 

Pagrindiniai krovinių srautai Baltijos šalyse juda iš Rusijos, tačiau ne tik – svarbios ir Kaukazo bei Centrinės 

Azijos valstybės, susijusios su Baltijos šalimis. 

Regiono tarptautinio keleivių transporto sistema panaši į tradicinę: vyrauja oro transportas, nors išlieka 

svarbūs ir geležinkeliai bei kelių transportas. Atgavus nepriklausomybę, skrydžių skaičius iš Baltijos šalių 

nuolatos didėjo: Rygos oro uostas šiuo metu yra didžiausias keleivių vežėjas Baltijos šalyse. 

Būdingas savitas pasienio mobilumas: smulkiojo verslo arba komercinis turizmas. XXI a. pradžioje jis 

tapo nuolatinis, išsiplėtus ES sienos kirtimas labiau reguliuojamas. Žmonėms reikia vizų, kurių išdavimas 

susijęs su administraciniais dokumentais ir išlaidomis, taigi kirsti sieną tapo sudėtingiau. Tam tikrais atvejais, 

tokiais kaip Kaliningrado sritis ar Narva-Ivangorod miestai, siekiama gerinti padėtį. Taigi vietos lygmenyje 

siena tampa skiriamąja riba, kuri mažiau pastebima vertinant didesnės apimties ir nuotolių prekybos srautus. 

PAGRINDINIAI ŽODŽIAI: cirkuliacija, siena, Baltijos šalys, netolydumas. 

JEL klasifikacija: O180, R400 

124


HINDRANCES AND SUGGESTIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE 

DEVELOPMENT OF LITHUANIAN COASTAL STRIP (ZONE) 

Eduardas Spiriajevas 1 


Abstract 

In this article there are being analyzed the natural and social economic structures of Lithuanian coastal strip. The research is based 

on survey about the hindrances and proposed suggestions for sustainable development. There are presented authors’ results about 

geographic profile of Lithuania’s coastal region, degree of exploitation and processes of spatial planning, suggestions for improvement 

of sustainable development of coastal strip. There are distinguished the types of bad examples as institutional, projects related, 

shortage of financial issues, private housing and the types of good examples as legislative, institutional, projects related, NGOs 

related for exploitation and sustainable development of coastal strip. 

KEY WORDS: sustainable development, Lithuania, coastal strip (zone). 

JEL Codes: Q01, Q20, Q56, R11, Y10, Y91. 

Introduction 

The researches of coastal strips (zones) and coastal regions is a topic of high importance among the countries 

of the Baltic Sea region. The master plans of coastal areas indicate the principles and recommendations 

for sustainable development in theory and practice. Particularly, the issue of sustainability always is a topic 

of discussions in territorial planning, regional formation and development studies. Due to that fact, there are 

appearing the contradictions between public and private interests. The visibility of them is obviously seen 

in natural, social economic environment of the coastal strips, areas, regions. The coastal strips are indicators 

like that show the efficiency of legislative system of the country, implementing the principles of sustainability 

and decisions of territorial planning, deficiencies of planning actions and positive solutions as the outcomes. 

The survey of Lithuanian coastal strip has been performed within the frames of the Baltic Green Belt 

project. The hindrances and suggestions for sustainable development are analyzed and described by author in 

geographic comparative context, distinguishing the natural and social economic differentiation of Lithuanian 

coastal strip, indicating the suggestions towards sustainability. 

The aim of research – to analyze the causes of hindrances for coastal strip’s development and to maintain 

geographic suggestions for implementation of sustainability for Lithuanian coast. 

There were used retrospective, comparative, statistical-mathematical, GIS and mapping, descriptive methods 

of research as well. 

The data in tables are calculated and re-calculated by author using different sources of previous studies, 

projects, reports, web-portals, satellite images. The article contains the analysis of geographic profile, degree of 

exploitation, existence of spatial planning measures and suggestions for sustainable coastal strip development. 

1 

Eduardas Spiriajevas – Klaipėda University, Faculty of Social Sciences, Head of Department of Human Geography, Assoc. Prof. 

Dr., scientific interests: Social economic problems of border regions and their development, Impact of border as a barrier for cooperation 

of South-East Baltic regions, Impact of tourism for development of border regions and regional disparities of tourism 

development, Economic geographic differentiation of industries, Geographic problems of cultural heritage protection. 

E-mail: geostudijos@gmail.com 

Tel.: + 370 46 398 674 

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HINDRANCES AND SUGGESTIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF LITHUANIAN COASTAL STRIP (ZONE) 

1. Geographic profile of Lithuania’s coastline and coastal region 

The Baltic coast of Lithuania extends to 91.6 km, and it is one of the shortest national coastlines in 

Europe. The northern part (46 km) of the Lithuanian Baltic coast belongs to three municipalities: Klaipėda 

city municipality, Klaipėda district municipality and Palanga municipality, and the southern part (45.6 km) 

belongs to Neringa municipality and Klaipėda city municipality as well. 

Klaipeda is the third largest city with 167 000 inhabitants (2011) and the city is Lithuania‘s major seaport. 

Palanga is the biggest seaside resort with 17 600 inhabitants (2011). Neringa is an elite seaside resort 

with 3600 inhabitant (2011). Klaipėda district municipality is adjoining area like and its administrative center 

Gargždai with 16 100 inhabitants is situated inland (18 km eastwards from Klaipėda city), but this municipality 

has territorial access to the Baltic sea and the Curonian lagoon as well. In the western part of Lithuania reside 

about 400 000 inhabitants (13.3 % of total population), in the meantime, along the coast (up to 5 km in land) 

there live nearly to 210 000 inhabitants (7 % of total population). According to economic activities there are 

about 10 000 SMEs, the economy of the region generates nearly to 12 % of Lithuania’s GDP. The incomes from 

fishery industries generates nearly to 0.7 % of Lithuania’s GDP as well (2011). The region is rich with natural 

recreational resources and cultural heritage. The industries of tourism serve about 1 000 000 of national visitors 

and 500 000 international visitors per year roughly. The most attractive sites are located on or nearby the Baltic 

coast: the Kuršių nerija national park, the Pajūrio regional park, Klaipėda, Palanga, Šventoji. 

The Lithuanian coastal strip belongs to the southeast Baltic region of graded coasts, which took their 

present shape during Pleistocene and Holocene. The morphological structure of the coast is rather simple. 

The southern half is formed by the Kuršių nerija (the Curonian Spit), a narrow concave peninsula separating 

the Kuršių marios (the Curonian Lagoon) from the Baltic Sea. The Kuršių nerija is a sandy stretch of land 

extending 98 kilometers, half of which belongs to Lithuania, the other half to Russia. The width of the peninsula 

varies from 400 m to 3.8 km. 

Four different dynamic types of coasts could be distinguished along the Lithuanian Baltic coast: 

1. Slight accretion prevails between Nida and Juodkrante. Shoreline is relatively stable there. The beach 

is relatively wide, covered by medium-sized sand grains with admixture of gravel. It is framed by the 6 to 

8 m high artificial foredune. The foredune is covered by marram grass, sea rocket and other perennial grasses, 

while the dune blow-outs are overgrown mainly by willows. The foredune was artificially created in the 

19th century in order to protect coastal villages from the devastating sand drift. It stretches along the entire 

Lithuanian Baltic coast except few places north of Klaipėda. 

2. The coastal strip between Juodkrantė and Melnragė is characterized by a relatively strong accretion. 

The average advance of the shoreline to the sea is up to 2 m there (except the places adjacent to the Seagate 

of the Klaipėda harbour). The beach is wide (50–70 m), covered by a wellsorted medium-sized sand. It is 

framed by a 12 to 14 m high artificial foredune. The nearshore is very shallow. 

3. The coastal strip between Melnragė and Nemirseta is characterized by a moderate erosion and shoreline 

retreat up to 1 m annually. Glacial coastal scarps and bluffs prevail here covered with the sand of the 

Holocene Aeolian accumulation and forming coastal formations, which are unique for Lithuania. 

The height of the coastal cliff near the Olando Kepurė is up to 24.4 m at Karklė. The cliff is active, not 

covered by vegetation, with numerous traces of landslides and landslips, fallen trees and sliding bushes. The 

beach in the strip between Melnragė and Nemirseta is relatively narrow, 15–25 m width, covered by mixed 

sediments, where the gravel prevails with admixture of medium-sized sand, pebble and boulders. Therefore, 

this area is one of the most important spawning places for the Baltic herring. 

126


Table 1. Geographic data of Lithuania‘s coastline and coastal region 

Length of national coastline 

Continental (northern) 

Share of coastal area in Lithuania 

The Kuršių nerija (southern) 

Share of coastal area in Lithuania 

National coastal zone in total with: 

200 m inland 

500 m inland 

National parks 

ThePajūrio regional park 

Protected area in total 

Protected area of territory 

Protected area in the Baltic sea 

Forested area 

Length of protected coastline 

Share of total national coastline 

Settlements 

Population 

The Kuršių nerija national park 

Protected area in total 

Protected area of territory 

Protected area in the Baltic sea 

Forested area 

Protected area in the Kuršių marios 

Length of protected coastline 

Share of total national coastline 

Settlements 

Population 

Municipalities 

Klaipėda city municipality 

Area (km²) 

Population 

Density of population 

Adjoining settlements on the coast 

Klaipėda district municipality 

Area (km²) 

Population 

Density of population (per km²) 

Palanga urban municipality 

Area 

Population 

Density of population 

Settlements 

Neringa municipality 

Area 

Population 

Density of population (per km²) 

Settlements 

91.6 km 

46 km 

50.2 % 

45.6 km 

49.8 % 

18.2 km² 

45.3 km² 

5 865 ha 

2 735 ha 

3 130 ha 

30 % 

15 km 

16.5 % 

Karklė, Kalotė, Nemirseta 

750 

26 461 ha 

9 761 ha 

12 500 ha 

75 % 

4 200 ha 

45.6 km 

49.8 % 

Nida, Juodkrantė, Preila, Pervalka 

3 500 

98 km² 

167 000 

1 704 per km² 

Melnragė, Giruliai 

1336 km² 

53 000 

39.7 km² 

79 km² 

17 600 

222.8 (km²) 

Šventoji, Būtingė 

94.4 km² 

3600 

38.1 per km² 

Nida, Pervalka, Preila, Juodkrantė 

Source: Elaborated by Spiriajevas, 2011. 

4. North of Nemirseta the grading of the coast during the series of the Baltic Sea transgressions all through 

the Holocene created favorable conditions for sand accretion. The shoreline is relatively stable (except the 

places adjacent to the Palanga pier and Butingė waste-water discharge pipeline). The beach is relatively wide 

127



(50–90 m), covered by a well-sorted medium-sized sand. The beach is framed by the 3 to 6 m high artificial 

foredune. The foredune is covered by marram grass, sea rocket and other perennial grasses, while the dune 

blow-outs are overgrown mainly by willows. Therefore, this area is also among the most suitable spawning 

places for the Baltic herring. The major landmarks of this area are two parabolic dunes: the Birutė hill and 

the Nagliai hill reaching 20 m altitude (Povilanskas, Urbis, 2004; Povilanskas, 2002; Dubra, Grecevičius, 

Dubra, 2011; Grigelis, 2000; Methods for Conflicts..., 2006; Schernewski et al., 2004; Žilinskas, 2005; 2008; 

4th NATIONAL Report...2009). 

2. Degree of exploitation of the coastal strip 

The exploitation of the coastal strip is appropriate for industrial, fishing and recreational actions mostly. 

Most of them are concentrated on the northern part of coastline, i.e. from Klaipėda seaport up to Būtingė oil 

terminal close to Latvia, and both objects are considered as the main hot spots on Lithuanian coast. The rest 

of area remained unexploited intensively and some of them are under protection. 

The starting places for local fishing enterprises are in Melnragė, Karklė, Nemirseta, Šventoji, Juodkrantė, 

Nida, but there are no proper jetties and their installations for fishing activities. The fishing boats are being 

kept on the beach or they are being transported inland and outland from various keeping places nearby the 

settlements. 

The recreational exploitation is the following: 

1. The northern part of coastal strip is in intensive recreational use, mainly by recreationist on the beach. 

During the summer season the biggest territorial congestion of recreationists is appropriate for Melnragė, 

Giruliai, Palanga and Šventoji, as well on the northern part of the Kuršių nerija so called Smiltynė, which 

territorially belongs to Klaipėda city municipality. 

2. The coastal strip of Palanga resort is in intensive use. Especially, during the summer season, during one 

day the beaches of Palanga are being visited nearly to 180 000 visitors per day. 

3. More extensive use of recreational resources is appropriate for the Kuršių nerija. Relatively high ferry 

fares for cars transporting through the Kuršių marios (approximately 12 Eur per car) and collections of ecological 

fees (approximately 8 Eur per car), makes the park more attractive for wealthy national and foreign 

visitors. The beaches of Smiltynė are very popular among the inhabitants of Klaipėda city; they are less 

crowded and distinguished for better quality of sand and cleaner water. The rest of coastal strip is under the 

law of protection, except fishing by quotas is permitted. 

Hereby, in the law of Seaside Strip issued in 2002, there are noted that the building activities are not permitted 

closer than 100 m before the coastline of the Baltic Sea, and no closer than 50 m before the coastline 

of the Kuršių marios, except the buildings, installations devoted for infrastructural and public needs (piers, 

wavebrakers, harbours’ needs and etc.). The action of exploitation for private housing is permitted only if 

there were old homesteads that need to be rejuvenated, restorated, and it is not permitted to increase the space 

of the homesteads in comparison to the previous ones. 

According to the intensity of exploitation of private housing in coastal strip, there are performed ranking 

of settlements, indicating the change in number and in time. The change of rejuvenation intensity (in decreasing 

order) of private housing on Lithuanian coast (2005–2011) is the following: 

• y The northern part of coastal strip: Palanga, Šventoji, Melnragė, Giruliai, Karklė, Nemirseta; 

• y The southern part of coastal strip: Nida, Juodkrantė, Pervalka, Preila, Smiltynė, Alksnynė. 

Depicting rejuvenation intensity of private housing only 200 m inland from the Baltic Sea, the settlements 

of Šventoji and Karklė experienced the most intensive mentioned process. The use of coastal zone for 

private housing might be estimated only on expert level, because in Lithuania there is no trustworthy data. 

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Figure 1. Areas of beaches in intensive use in Lithuania‘s coastal strip 


Nowadays, the exploitation is oriented to industrial reclamation of coastal strip, including the littoral 

zone. In general, coastal strip is not adjusted for the servicing of marine recreational needs. There is still 

the lack of piers, not sufficient infrastructure for sustained access to the sea (especially in the northern part). 

There is a lack of renting of marine recreational equipment and bicycle, marine recreational services for 

visitors, catering services, informational infrastructure on the sites, parking places, other services for public 

needs (public transport, drinking water sources). In the future, the small harbour installations are planned to 

build up in Karklė and Nemirseta. Where is permitted, the areas are urbanized intensively and in state owned 

forests the building of new additions is not permitted. 

Estimating the exploitation of coastal strip according to mentioned activities, there are presented the 

following data: 

Table 2. Data about the degree of exploitation of coastal strip 500 m inland 

Klaipėda Oil Terminal 

Būtingė Oil Terminal 

Small harbours installations 

Beaches in intensive 

recreational use 

Recreational infrastructure 

43,34 ha 

0,86 ha 

0,30 ha 

119,82 ha 

In continental part 59,16 ha 

In the Curonian Spit 60,66 ha 

8,77 ha 

129



Natural areas under 

protection 

Hydrotechnical installations 

Settlements 

Other former military 

buildings 

2750 ha 

The Pajūrio regional park 

750 ha 

The Kuršių nerija national park 2000 ha 

1,5 ha 

151,37 ha 

4 ha 


In Lithuania there were no any small harbours’ installations and private pier, and until now they aren’t 

built. There are no any proper conditions for amateur fishermen activities. Palanga resort does not provide 

any marine recreational services for visitors and the Palanga Bridge could have provide the function as the 

pier as well, but there are no entrepreneurs wishing to undertake the services of marine recreation. 

Concerning the distribution of protected area on Lithuanian coast, the network of protected areas is rather 

dense. The Kuršių nerijos national park is involved in the heritage list of UNESCO. The Nemunas Delta 

regional park (by the Kuršių marios) is involved in the group of wetlands that are protected by RAMSAR 

convention. All the national parks and reserves including their aquatories in the Baltic Sea and the Kuršių 

marios included in the NATURA 2000 for protection of birds’ species. Relatively, all the protected areas are 

devoted for protection of natural habitations within NATURA 2000 (exept the central and southern aquatories 

of the Kuršių nerija national park). 

Concerning the dredging actions, the most active processes of dredging are appropriate within the Klaipėda 

strait for operation of shipping, and in the proximity to the Būtingė oil terminal for operation of oil 

transportation. The both places are considered as the hot spots on Lithuanian coast. 

The aquatory close to the Būtingė oil terminal is not under protection, but the northern part of the Kuršių 

nerija is close to the Klaipėda strait is under protection of NATURA 2000. 

Concerning the national legal system and spatial planning system both have procedures that guarantee 

the biodiversity, recreational and ecosystem values will be protected and takes seriously into account at 

all new proposals for exploitation in the coastal strip (0–200 m and up to landwards and in the same area 

(0–500 m) seawards. The strong mandatory rules for biological and ecological inventories studied. 

Generally, the system of legislation concerning environmental protection in Lithuania is developed rather 

sufficient. In some cases the laws are even to strict to perform any economic activities in protected areas. Otherwise, 

most of the laws are being kept with no fully involved regulations, because the capabilities of state 

authorities are not sufficient to keep all the validations or to supervise them in the reality. One of the reasons 

is that the competencies of public administration are still remaining too weak and besides they are facing the 

contradiction between public and private interests. 

The following findings considered concerning the interaction between exploitation and protection of 

coastal strip: 

• y In the aquatory of the Pajūrio regional park there is being protected boulders’ sites between Karklė and 

Giruliai, wherein is the main spawning place of fish communes; 

• y Lithuanian coastal strip is important for birds’ wintering (on Lithuanian coast for wintering there are 

being gathered about 10 % of the total population of Siberian eider ducks); 

• y The main fishing areas in intensive use are in the distance of 2 km seawards from the coastline, in the 

meantime extensive fishing areas are in the distance of 500 m seawards from the coastline; 

• y Amount of fishermen is decreasing annually, thus the scopes of traditional fishing is decreasing as well. 

130


Figure 2. The National parks and reserves in Lithuania‘s coastal strip 


The coastal strip of Lithuania is protected rather sufficient by legislation and by practical solutions as 

well. The efficiency of practical solutions depends on the responsibilities and competencies of the administrations 

of national parks. The main goal of the Programme for the Lithuanian Coastal Strip Management 

(Lithuanian continental coast of the Baltic Sea) is to save natural complexes of the coastline and create optimal 

conditions for the sustainable use of natural resources. 

According to carried out interview of the Pajūris regional park administration (8 th November, 2011), concerning 

the plans for coastal development, there were determined the following findings: 

• y Legislative basis for coastal strip protection is sufficient. The coastline is under protections of Coastal 

Strip Law (2002). The coastal strip is a state owned land, where any possible economic activity is 

being strictly regulated; 

• y For the protections of coastal strip there are being adjusted different laws and the documents of territorial 

planning; 

• y Insufficient functional use of public and private buildings and their architectural expression is not 

strictly determined by laws and general plans; 

• y Coastal strip is developing for recreational purposes, new additions performs the function of second 

homes (in Nida, Juodkrantė, Giruliai, Palanga, Šventoji); 

131



• y In the areas that are outside the national parks, the new additions have no appropriate architectural 

style (in the surrounding of 2–3 homesteads there are built the blocks of flats, which do not match the 

harmony of coastal landscape itself. 

• y Architects ignore different measures of laws and regulations concerning protection of coastal strip as 

an integrated system; 

• y Environmental protection is sufficiently regulated by laws. The core problem is undeveloped centralized 

sewage system in villages and blocks of dwellings. Most of them have installed autonomous 

sewage equipments. 

• y The capacities of public infrastructure are to low to serve the needs of locals. 

• y The Law on Coastal Strip protection occurs the area about 100 m inland, that is state owned, but some 

exceptions exist in Karklė (one dwelling house is built almost on the dune, and due to coastal erosion 

the local cementary is situated to close to the sea. Also, conflicts of illegal new additions in the Kuršių 

nerija near the coast of the Kuršių marios in Preila and Pervalka). 

• y Possible negative impact on coastal protection can make planning development of the ports in Melnragė 

and Šventoji; 

• y The status of deep water port and its perspective still remains undetermined. Better solution for place 

in Būtingė. 

• y Priority has to be given for infrastructural projects, than for construction projects. 

• y Better solution to leave territories without intervention until the infrastructure will be developed. Development 

of coastal strip has to be in parallel to development of infrastructure. 

• y Concerning the protection of biodiversity, the suggested way of urbanization has to be in dot-like manner, 

i.e. some places are developed, and in the meantime some of them have to be remaining pristine. 

Between the dots of urbanization there has to be distinguished space for extensive exploitation. 

• y Along the Lithuanian coastal strip there are two national parks that keep the balance between urban 

development, exploitation of resources and environmental protection. 

• y The network of protected areas tries to sustain exploitation of territories (including their aquatories); 

• y Rather intensive fishing and to small fishes’ population. There are legislative regulations concerning 

fishing periods, the use of nets and the size of “eyes” in the nets. 

In the Pajūrio regional park there are situated nature reserve of Placio lake, Olando Kepurė, Nemirseta 

and Šaipiai landscape, Karklė botanical-zoological, Karklė talasological (in the aquatory) and Karklė ethnocultural 

reserves, recreational and agro territories. 

In the Kuršių nerija national park there are situated Naglių and Gobšto nature reserves, Lapnugario, Juodkrantės, 

Karvaičių, Parnidžio landscape reserves as well. 

Both national protected areas (including their aquatories as well) are involved in Natura 2000. Since 2011 

there were approved the special plan for development of continental part of coastal strip. 

3. Existence of spatial planning in the coastal zone 

Questions of spatial planning in the coastal strip of Lithuania always have been on a high level of importance. 

As it is known, during the Soviet period the Neringa peninsula had the status of semi-closed area. The 

visiting was allowed only having issued permission for visiting of relatives, friends. The recreational facilities 

were limited. The sites like Juodkrantė, Nida used to be to accept the visitors only with invitations, which 

have been planned at least 6 months in advance. Thus, the amount of visitors to peninsula was controlled 

rather strong. Otherwise, Neringa as well as other places like Karklė, Nemirseta and Šventoji had the status 

of border areas that were watching and controlling by the Soviet regime, and these areas were semi-closed 

for visitors as well. Nevertheless, the spatial planning existed in terms of planned economy. For the needs 

of local inhabitants there were devoted the following places like Smiltynė (beaches), Melnragė (housing 

and beaches), Giruliai (beaches, campsites for teenagers (so called pioneers) (in Giruliai was established the 

132


sanatorium for kids and teenagers for heeling of tuberculosis). Palanga resort was very popular among all 

the inhabitants of Lithuania, especially during the summer time. At that time Palanga played an important 

role performing the functions of wellness, heeling, there were operated sanatoriums, pool with warmed-up 

sea water. 

Since Lithuania regained the independence, the coastal areas faced a plenty of conflicts in the process 

of regaining the land, houses as a property that was owned before the 2 nd World war. The conflicts between 

public and private interests in coastal region always have been the question of high importance on national 

level. The tendencies of market economy put aspects of chaotic territorial development, i.e. regained land, 

houses as a private property attracted new inhabitants (owners) that had no previous experience how to deal 

their lifestyle in coastal zone, in use of resources. The remaining of Soviet public infrastructure lost their 

physical shape and value. The new additions of public infrastructure started to appear at once. 

Recently, the natural process of market makes permanent penetration for intensification of urbanized 

process that leads towards congestion of urban structures in areas where that process is possible according 

to national relevant laws. 

In the entire coastal area Palanga and Klaipėda, both are two separate places with dot-like principle of 

urban development around their axes. The rest of the areas are appropriate for extensive exploitation. The 

Kuršių nerija has only 2 % of urbanized territory and there is kept the balance between urban development 

and environmental protection, balance between functional balance and traditional architecture. In the general 

plan of Lithuania the coastal strip is distinguished as an important areal for sustainable development. For the 

continental part of coastal strip prepared integrated plan for exploitation, environmental protection, formation 

directions of landscapes and other measures for development. 

Particularly, every municipality has confirmed general and detail plans of their areas. The general plan of 

coastal strip is a legal basis towards territorial sustainability, i.e. planning of new territorial projects, strategic 

documents, allocation of financial support of EU funding, adjusting public and private interests, etc. 

4. Suggestions for sustainable coastal strip development 

The core problem 

The coast and coastal strip both have still rather weak approach as an integrated territorial system. Even 

the perception of coastal region faces the lack of public and institutional approach in public administration. 

Thus, the infrastructure is being developed apart from integrated approach of coastal zone management. 

Territorial planning decision makers face the contradiction between public and private interests, even though 

there are confirmed general plans and detail plans, the separate private interests are prevailing especially in 

unprotected areas of coastal strip (Melnragė, Giruliai, Šventoji). Mandatory specific planning for coastal 

zone management has to be the legal measure for sustainable development. Thus, the approach towards 

ICZM (Integrated coastal zone management) has to be integrated. 

The suggestion for improvement towards sustainability 

The elaboration and legislative approval of the scheme within the action of public administration on municipal 

and national levels will make the implementations of ICZM principles more transparent. The duties 

of responsibilities have to be shared and clearly defined within institutions on municipal and national levels. 


The process of development of settlements also has no clear vision, because the developing settlements, 

villages are overtaking the urban culture and life style, thus they are not preserving rural culture, but becoming 

a part of cities. 


For urban planning in coastal areas has to be elaborated clear vision in perception of coastal landscape 

related to traditional and re-establishing historical architectural style with strict legislative regulations. The 

priority for public needs has to be over private interests. 

133




In the coastal areas, traditional businesses have been fishery and cattle-breeding. Now the cattle-breeding 

is almost disappeared and does not play the role of incomes for locals. Traditional fishery business is becoming 

weak due to the lack of proper installations, state support, quotas for fishing, almost lost fishing habits. 

Also, the self-cost of traditional fishing became too high and unprofitable. 


The former plots for cattle-breeding have to be kept using available methods of sustainability, i.e. introducing 

sheeps and goats as alternatives. 

The government has to recognize traditional fishing on the same level as traditional handicrafts that are 

recognized as alternative economic activities in rural areas. In the meantime these activities are eligible for 

state support as heritage. 


The plots for agriculture are not in use by farmers. Just some of them are in extensive use. The agriculture 

as an economic activity lost its value and its importance as the source of incomes. Especialy, in the northern 

part around Nemirseta, Karklė there are some gazing plots for sheeps, goats and horses. This action was introduced 

by different EU environmental projects for prevention of gazing plots against the processes of grass 

over. In other places are prevailing the meadows covered by chickweeds. The locals are not undertaking the 

farming activities due to the need to use the areas for second homes. Therefore, the state has to take care of 

natural trim. 


The private areas in the coastal territories that are not well kept, there have to be implemented legislative 

measures with defining more transparent responsibilities of land owners. 

The experience for implementation of principles of IZCM has to share noting transparent outcomes of the 

actions. There has to be elaborated monitoring system with description of good and bad examples and shared 

experience. There has to be generated the joint master plan for monitoring and transparent methodology for 

assessment of risen up changes and their peculiarities not only in nature, but in socio-economic processes 

as well. The suggestion to prepare the study about desolate buildings and objects of infrastructure in former 

borderlands and it must have a clear vision for readjusting of these constructions for recreational and other 

public needs (in general, along the entire coastal strip of Lithuania, there are counted 55 desolate ownerless 

buildings). There is suggested to elaborate thematic atlas about different processes of coastal development 

and comparative descriptions with cartographic representations. 

Conclusions 

The bad examples on sustainable development and exploitation of the coastal strip are distinguished into 

the following types: 

• y Institutional – the lack of inter-institutional share of responsibilities that is a cause of the problems 

related to ICZM. 

• y Projects related – the plans to build up the deep water harbour in Melnragė that is a cause of broking 

up of sustainable development of coastal strip. 

• y Shortage of financial issues – due to shortage of financial issues, the local authorities are able to execute 

the fixings of dunes only in critical spots. The self-cost for the reinforcements of the dunes on the 

coastal strip is for about 15 000 EUR per 1 km of coastline. 

• y Private housing – it is appropriate for sites where were re-established the rights for the private property. 

There were issued the permits for reconstruction of the buildings and in many cases the process 

of reconstruction did not match the peculiarities of coastal landscape and morphological processes. In 

some places after the rejuvenation of buildings and enlargements of their yards, there were closed public 

accesses to the beaches. Some of accesses became narrowed. Thus, ignoring the public interests, 

some plots of them became “semi-private”, what do not match the national legislation. 

134


The good examples on sustainable development and exploitation of the coastal strip are distinguished 

into the following types: 

• y Legislative – the basis for environmental protection is rather sufficient and diversified. Lithuania had 

ratified and accepted the majority of international conventions and on the base of them elaborated the 

additions for national legislation of environmental protection for the coastal zone. 

• y Institutional – the role is different according to the capabilities of public administrations, but the 

administrations of the natural parks are in a very principle in dealing with many solutions concerning 

the protection of coastal zone, and they have a strict legislative approach towards implementation of 

any solutions. 

• y Projects related – the actions towards protection and development of the coastal areas are being implemented 

by different institutions (municipalities, agencies of environmental protection, institutions of 

research and higher education, local communities and NGO’s as well. During the period of 2003–2011 

on the continental part of coastal zone there were implemented the projects related to tourism system 

development, preservation of flora and fauna, implementation the principles of sustainable rural 

development and land use, project related to artificial nourishment of the aquatories and beaches by 

sand, reinforcement of dunes using geotextile and natural materials, development of recreational infrastructure 

using natural materials, and other educational projects. 

• y NGOs related – the actions supports the dissemination of information about the hot spots in the coastal 

zone, represents the societal interests in protection of public needs in the parts of coastal zone that devoted 

for industrial use. One of the most well know NGO in western Lithuania related to protection of 

Lithuanian coastal zone is ecological club „Žvejonė“ established in Klaipėda and is in intensive action 

since 1993 for green movements. 

References 

Dubra, V., Grecevičius, P., Dubra, J. (2011). Current Changes of Sandy Seashore of Lithuania within the Impact of 

Natural and Anthropogenic Processes. Littoral 2010, 06006. 

Grigelis, A. (2000). Implications of Accelerated Sea Level Rise (ASRL) for Lithuania. Proceedings of SURVAS expert 

workshop on European vulnerability and adaptation to impacts of accelerated Sea-Level Rise (ASLR). Hamburg, 

Germany, 19–21 June, 2000. 

Methods for Conflicts Resolutions at Lithuanian Coastal Zone. Project COASTMAN. (2006). 

Povilanskas, R. (2002). EUROSION Case study. Klaipeda: EUCC Baltic Office. 

Povilanskas, R., Urbis, A. (2004). National ICZM strategy and initiatives in Lithuania. 

Schernewski, G., Löser, N. (eds.) (2004). Managing the Baltic Sea. Coastline Reports, No. 2, p. 9–15. 

Žilinskas, G. (2005). Trends in dynamic processes along the Lithuanian Baltic coast. Acta Zoologica Lituanica, Vol. 15, 

No. 2. 

Žilinskas, G. (2008). Distinguishing priority sectors for the Lithuanian Baltic Sea coastal management. Baltica, Vilnius, 

Vol. 21 (1–2), p. 85–94. 

4th NATIONAL Report of the Republic of Lithuania to the Convention on Biological Diversity. The Ministry of the 

Environment of the Republic of Lithuania. (2009). 

135



LIETUVOS PAJŪRIO JUOSTOS DARNIOS PLĖTROS KLIUVINIAI 

IR PASIŪLYMAI, kaip jų išvengti 



Santrauka 

Lietuvos Baltijos jūros kranto ilgis yra 91,6 km – vienas trumpiausių tarp Europos valstybių. Šalies 

pajūrio juosta (kranto zona) labiausiai naudojama pramonės poreikiams, žvejybai, rekreacijai. Daugelis šių 

ekonominių veiklų sutelktos šiaurinėje pajūrio juostos dalyje, t. y. nuo Klaipėdos uosto iki Būtingės naftos 

terminalo, šalia Latvijos pasienio. Šie abu pramonės objektai ir jų teritoriniai kompleksai yra pagrindiniai 

ekologinės rizikos skleidėjai Lietuvos pajūryje. Kitoms pajūrio teritorijoms būdinga ekstensyvi ekonominėūkinė 

plėtra. 

Iš esmės Lietuvos pajūrio juosta nepritaikyta jūrinei rekreacijai plėtoti, trūksta prieplaukų, sutvarkytos 

viešosios infrastruktūros ir priėjimų prie jūros (ypač šiaurinėje dalyje), taip pat jūrinės rekreacijos, dviračių 

nuomos ir maitinimo paslaugų, informacijos infrastruktūros lankomose vietovėse, kitų viešųjų paslaugų 

(viešojo transporto, įrengtų geriamojo vandens šaltinių, higienos įrenginių). 

Rinkos sąlygos ir dėsniai skatina urbanistinių procesų skverbimąsi į pajūrio teritorijas, dėl ko didėja 

urbanistinių struktūrų koncentracija, todėl pati pakrantė ir pajūrio juosta tampa problemiška teritorine sistema. 

Net šalies viešojo administravimo sistemoje pastebima pakrančių regiono, pakrančių teritorijos, kranto 

zonos, pajūrio juostos sąvokų tapatybės problema. 

Remiantis atlikto tyrimo rezultatais, nustatyti gerosios ir blogosios praktikos pavyzdžiai, susiję su pajūrio 

juostos ūkiniu naudojimu. Išskirti 4 blogosios praktikos pavyzdžių tipai, susiję su institucijų veikla, stambios 

infrastruktūros investicijų projektų įgyvendinimu, finansinių išteklių trūkumu, privačios nuosavybės teisėmis. 

Išskirti ir 4 gerosios praktikos pavyzdžių tipai, susiję su įstatyminės bazės pakankamumu, institucijų 

veikla, investicinių projektų įgyvendinimu, nevyriausybinių organizacijų veikla. 

Svarbiausi pasiūlymai dėl darnios plėtros apima siūlymus sukurti pajūrio juostos stebėsenos sistemą, kur 

būtų kaupiami gerosios ir blogosios praktikos faktai, susiję su pajūrio juosto ūkiniu naudojimu. Siūloma sudaryti 

ir teminį atlasą, kuris vaizduotų skirtingus pajūrio juostos plėtros procesus, tai sudarytų sąlygas atlikti 

palyginamąją analizę su kartografinio atvaizdavimo priemonėmis. 

PAGRINDINIAI ŽODŽIAI: darni plėtra, Lietuva, pajūrio juosta (zona). 

JEL kodai: Q01, Q20, Q56, R11, Y10, Y91. 

136


Verslo bendradarbiavimas Klaipėdos regiono 

ir latvijos pasienyje 

Ligita Šimanskienė 1 , Darius Burgis 2 , Diana Līduma 3 , Māra Zeltiņa 4 

Klaipėdos universitetas (Lietuva), Liepojos universitetas (Latvija) 

Anotacija 

Straipsnyje nagrinėjamas organizacijų bendradarbiavimas pasienio regionuose, pristatomi Klaipėdos regiono organizacijų apklausos 

dėl bendradarbiavimo su Latvijos organizacijomis rezultatai. Nustatyta, kad bendradarbiaujama nepakankamai, tačiau yra nemažai 

organizacijų, kurios tokiu bendradarbiavimu suinteresuotos. Siekiant išsiaiškinti, kas trukdo bendradarbiavimą plėtoti, nustatyta, kad 

užsienio kalba tokia kliūtimi negali būti laikoma, nes jos nemokėjimas sukelia problemų tik mažai daliai regiono organizacijų. Kaip 

didžiausią kliūtį galima įvardyti informacijos apie galimybes plėtoti verslą ir bendradarbiauti su Latvijos organizacijomis trūkumą. 

Siekiant šias kliūtis pašalinti, siūloma daugiau dėmesio skirti informacijos apie bendradarbiavimo galimybes regione sklaidai. 

PAGRINDiniai žodžiai: Klaipėdos regionas, Latvija, bendradarbiavimas, pasienis. 

JEL klasifikacija: R, F230. 

Įvadas 

Pasaulinės ekonomikos globalizacija daugelyje šalių skatina decentralizacijos ir dereguliacijos procesus, 

dėl kurių vis didesnį vaidmenį vaidina pagal individualų modelį besivystantys regionai (Šimanskienė, Vaitekūnas, 

Bučinskas, 2006). Tačiau regionų plėtros kontekste dažnai užmirštamas ekonominis potencialas, 

kylantis iš bendradarbiavimo tarp įvairių verslo šakų organizacijų. ES šalių narių ir kitų Europos valstybių 

tarpregioninis bendradarbiavimas sukuria prielaidas šių regionų ekonomikos ir rinkos plėtrai, politiniam 

stabilumui bei saugumo politikai įtvirtinti, padeda išvengti neigiamų regionų savitarpio konkurencijos padarinių. 

Ypač aktualus tampa pasienio regionų bendradarbiavimas (Česnavičius, Stanaitis, 2008, Kosiedowski, 

Stanaitis, 2009). Svarbi užduotis šiuo atveju – sukurti institucinius mechanizmus tarpregioniniam organizacijų 

bendradarbiavimui skatinti. 

1 

Ligita Šimanskienė – socialinių mokslų daktarė, profesorė. Klaipėdos universiteto Socialinių mokslų fakulteto Vadybos katedra. 

Mokslinės kryptys: organizacinė kultūra, konfliktai organizacijose, komandinis darbas, regionų plėtra. 

El. paštas: ligita_simanskiene@yahoo.com 

Tel.: +370 46 398 666 

2 

Darius Burgis – asistentas. Klaipėdos universiteto Socialinių mokslų fakulteto Vadybos katedra. Doktorantas. Vytauto Didžiojo 

universiteto Ekonomikos ir vadybos fakulteto Vadybos katedra. Mokslinės kryptys: krizinių situacijų valdymas, informacinių 

technologijų taikymas valdyme. 

El. paštas: darius@itinovacijos.lt 

Tel.: +370 46 398 666 

3 

Diana Līduma – lektorė. Liepojos universiteto Gamtos ir socialinių mokslų fakultetas. Ekonomikos krypties magistrė. Mokslinės 

kryptys: verslo ekonomika, logistikos valdymas, regionų plėtra. 

El. paštas: diana_liduma@inbox.lv 

Tel.: +371 292 659 76 

4 

Māra Zeltiņa – asistentė. Liepojos universiteto Gamtos ir socialinių mokslų fakultetas. Daktarė (biologijos mokslai). Mokslinės 

kryptys: aplinkosaugos vadyba, darni plėtra, regionų plėtra. 

El. paštas: mara.zeltina@liepu.lv 

Tel.: +371 294 250 50 

137


Verslo bendradarbiavimas Klaipėdos regiono ir latvijos pasienyje 

Šis straipsnis paremtas tyrimo, kuris atliktas rengiant projektą „Regionų verslo plėtros skatinimo metodologinių 

pagrindų kūrimas“ (LT-LV [LV-LT/1.1/LLIII-152/2010]), duomenimis. Juo siekiama pagerinti 

verslo aplinką, skatinti verslumą Lietuvos ir Latvijos pasienio regionuose (Klaipėdos ir Kuržemės regionai). 

Pagrindinė problema, su kuria susiduria Lietuvos ir Latvijos pasienio regionas, – žemas konkurencingumas, 

o vienas iš būdų jį padidinti – aktyvinti pasienio regionų organizacijų bendradarbiavimą. 

Šio straipsnio objektas: Klaipėdos regiono ir Latvijos organizacijų bendradarbiavimas. 

Tikslas: ištirti Klaipėdos regiono organizacijų bendradarbiavimą su Latvijos organizacijomis. 

Uždaviniai: 

1. Ištirti teorines organizacijų bendradarbiavimo pasienio regionuose prielaidas. 

2. Įvertinti Klaipėdos regiono ir Latvijos organizacijų bendradarbiavimo lygį. 

3. Nustatyti, kas trukdo bendradarbiauti. 

4. Nustatyti, kas gali paskatinti aktyviau bendradarbiauti. 

Metodai: mokslinės literatūros analizė ir apibendrinimas, tyrimas atliktas taikant anketinės apklausos 

metodą. 

1. Teorinės tyrimo prielaidos 

Siena intuityviai suvokiama kaip riba, skirianti dvi ar daugiau skirtingais požymiais pasižyminčių teritorijų. 

Anot T. Komornicki, ši riba gali būti teisinė, administracinė, infrastruktūros, ekonominė ar psichologinė (remiantis 

Michalski, 2008). Dažnai viena riba skatina kitų atsiradimą, bet gali paskatinti ir bendrą veiklą, kuri nulemtų 

viso pasienio regiono vystymąsi ir jame veikiančių organizacijų konkurencingumo didėjimą (Dolzblasz, 

Lesniak, 2005). Siekiant plėtoti pasienio regionų organizacijų bendradarbiavimą būtinos tam tikros sąlygos. 

Informacinės komunikacijos technologijos (IKT) gali būti pagrindinė sąlyga, būtina, norint koordinuoti skirtingose 

geografinėse vietovėse esančių individų ir organizacijų veiklą, taigi jas galima laikyti tarptautinio ir 

regioninio bendradarbiavimo pagrindu (Czochanski, 2006; Contractor, 2007). IKT ne tik palengvina apsikeitimo 

informacija tarp skirtingose geografinėse vietovėse esančių organizacijų procesą, bet ir leidžia sukurti 

modernias koordinavimo sistemas, kurios užtikrina tinklinių organizacijų veikimą (Burgis, Ribačonka, 2011). 

Kita svarbi sąlyga, nulėmusi tarptautinį bendradarbiavimą verslo srityje, – anglų kalbos tapimas visuotinai 

priimta bendravimo priemone. F. J. Contractor (2007) nurodė, kad 85 procentai tarptautinių asociacijų vartojo 

anglų kalbą kaip pagrindinę bendravimo priemonę, o 33 procentai bendrauja tik anglų kalba. Kalbant apie 

posovietinio bloko valstybes ir regionus reikėtų paminėti, kad ilgą laiką pagrindinės tarptautinio bendravimo 

priemonės vaidmenį čia atliko rusų kalba, dažnai jos svarba skatinant bendradarbiavimą jaučiama ir dabar. 

Organizacijų bendradarbiavimas tampa esmine naujo verslo organizavimo modelio globalioje ekonomikoje 

dalimi. Šiandien didžiausi ekonominiai dariniai yra ne multinacionalinės korporacijos, bet globalūs 

verslo tinklai, kuriuos sudaro vienu metu ir konkuruojančios, ir bendradarbiaujančios organizacijos (Castells, 

2005). Pastebėtina, kad intensyvėjo tiek vertikalus (bendradarbiaujančios organizacijos užima skirtingas tiekimo 

grandinės pakopas), tiek horizontalus (susivienijimus vienija partneriai, kurie sutelkia jėgas ir turimus 

išteklius toms pačioms verslo funkcijoms įgyvendinti) bendradarbiavimas (Contractor, 2007). Tuo tarpu 

A. Saxenian (1994) teigia, kad skatinant darnią klasterių plėtrą, regioniniai horizontalūs lankstūs tarporganizaciniai 

tinklai, sujungiantys mažas ir vidutines organizacijas, yra daug svarbesni nei vertikalia integracija 

besiremiantis bendradarbiavimas. T. Arita ir kt. (2006), tyręs Japonijos organizacijas, nustatė, kad bendradarbiauti 

su kitomis institucijomis linkusios organizacijos, tikėtina, augs sparčiau nei bendradarbiauti nelinkusios. 

Ypač svarbus horizontalus bendradarbiavimas tarp skirtingų verslo šakų organizacijų ir universitetų. 

Svarbus vaidmuo šiame procese tenka valstybinėms institucijoms, pavyzdžiui, P. L. Chee (1984), tyrinėjęs 

ASEAN organizacijų bendradarbiavimą, siūlo regioniniame lygmenyje valstybei koordinuoti savo veiksmus 

skatinant verslą. Kiekvienoje šalyje galėtų būti paskirta institucija ar agentūra, kurios pagrindinis uždavinys 

būtų koordinuoti regioninį bendradarbiaujančių organizacijų tinklą, kuris skatintų keistis informacija ir puoselėti 

naujus bendradarbiavimo ryšius. 

138


2. Klaipėdos regiono ir Latvijos organizacijų bendradarbiavimo tyrimas 

Anketinei apklausai atlikti sudarytas klausimynas, tyrimo imtis apskaičiuota pagal Panioto formulę (Kardelis, 

2005). Kadangi tyrimas buvo atliekamas Klaipėdos, Kauno ir Kuržemės regionuose, o apklausiami šiuose 

regionuose veikiančių organizacijų vadovai, tiriamąją populiaciją sudarė trijuose regionuose veikiančios organizacijos, 

konkrečiai: 10254 + 16168 + 16846 = 43268. Įrašę duomenis į Panioto formulę gauname tyrimo imtį: 

n = 1/(0,05² + 1/43268) = 396,336, taigi norint gauti rezultatus, kurių patikimumas būtų 95 %, reikia apklausti 

396 organizacijų vadovus trijuose regionuose. Siekiant patikimesnių rezultatų nuspręsta apklausti 450 organizacijų. 

Padalijus gautą skaičių iš trijų, gautas organizacijų, kurias reikia apklausti kiekviename regione, skaičius 

– 150. Kad būtų tiksliai atskleista bendra regiono situacija, nuspręsta atsižvelgti į organizacijų ekonominės 

veiklos šaką, tai yra tam tikros ekonominės veiklos šakos organizacijų, kurios turi būti apklaustos Klaipėdos 

regione, skaičių lemia šios šakos santykis tarp visų organizacijų, veikiančių Klaipėdos regione (žr. 1 lentelę). 

1 lentelė. Organizacijų, kurias būtina apklausti Klaipėdos regione, skaičius pagal ekonominės veiklos šaką 

Ekonominės veiklos šaka Organizacijų regione skaičius % 

Būtinų apklausti 

organizacijų skaičius 

Žemės ūkis, miškininkystė ir žuvininkystė 187 1,82 3 

Pramonė 862 8,4 13 

Aplinka ir energetika 69 0,67 1 

Statyba 996 9,71 15 

Prekyba 2404 23,44 35 

Paslaugos 3356 32,72 49 

Finansinė ir draudimo veikla 64 0,62 1 

Viešasis administravimas 46 0,44 1 

Švietimas 357 3,48 5 

Sveikata ir socialinis darbas 288 2,8 4 

Kita 1625 15,84 24 

IŠ VISO 10254 100 150 

Šaltinis: Statistikos departamentas prie Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės, 2010. 

Apklausoje dalyvavo 159 organizacijos, kurios turėjo nurodyti savo ekonominės veiklos grupę. Klaipėdos 

regione dauguma organizacijų užsiima paslaugų teikimu ir prekyba (atitinkamai 33,5 % ir 23,5 %), 

šios dvi grupės kartu sudaro 56 % visų regione apklaustų organizacijų, taigi tyrimo požiūriu ši organizacijų 

grupė yra pati svarbiausia. Kitos veiklos šakos, būdingos Klaipėdos regionui, – pramonės ir statybos sektoriai, 

kuriuose apklausta atitinkamai 7,0 % ir 7,5 % veikiančių organizacijų. 12,0 % apklaustų organizacijų 

nurodė „kitą“ veiklos šaką, tačiau daugeliu atvejų šias organizacijas būtų galima vertinti kaip kitas paslaugas 

teikiančias organizacijas. Apklaustų organizacijų skaičius ir pasiskirstymas pagal veiklos šaką atitinka tyrimo 

metodologijoje apskaičiuotą imtį (apklaustos 159 organizacijos, imtis – 150) bei pasiskirstymo pagal 

ekonominės veiklos šakas Klaipėdos regione santykį. 

Daugelis tyrime dalyvavusių organizacijų yra smulkios, jose dirba mažiau nei 10 darbuotojų (mikroįmonės), 

tai sudaro 61,1 % visų apklaustų organizacijų. 18,9 % apklaustų organizacijų priskirtinos mažų įmonių 

kategorijai, jose dirba nuo 10 iki 50 darbuotojų. Net 80,3 % tyrime dalyvavusių organizacijų turėjo mažiau 

kaip 50 darbuotojų, tai atitinka bendrą regiono tendenciją, kad didžiąją dalį organizacijų sudaro smulkiojo ir 

vidutinio verslo organizacijos. Vis dėlto apklausoje dalyvavo ir 10,2 % didelių organizacijų, kuriose dirba daugiau 

kaip 250 darbuotojų. Panašią tendenciją matysime ir vertindami tyrime dalyvavusias organizacijas pagal 

jų metinę apyvartą. 77,4 % tyrime dalyvavusių organizacijų metinė apyvarta nesiekia 7 milijonų litų, 89,2 % 

organizacijų metinė apyvarta neviršija 24 milijonų litų. Apie 6,9 % atsakiusiųjų nurodė, kad jų metinė apyvarta 

yra tarp 24 ir 138 mln. Lt. Tik 3,8 % atsakiusiųjų nurodė, kad metinė apyvarta didesnė kaip138 mln. Lt. 

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Atsižvelgiant į tai, kiek metų veikia tyrime dalyvavusios organizacijos, jos pasiskirstė gana tolygiai: 

didžioji dalis organizacijų veikia nuo vienerių iki dešimties metų, 34 % organizacijų jau veikia ilgiau kaip 

vienuolika metų. 

Apibendrinant galima teigti, kad tyrime dalyvavusių organizacijų pasiskirstymas pagal ekonominės veiklos 

šaką, darbuotojų skaičių ir metinę apyvartą atitinka Klaipėdos regiono organizacijų pasiskirstymą pagal 

šiuos parametrus, be to, apklaustos įvairios gyvavimo trukmės organizacijos, o tai leidžia teigti, kad gauti 

duomenys tinkamai atskleis bendrą Klaipėdos regiono situaciją regioninio bendradarbiavimo aspektu. 

Nors Lietuva ir Latvija yra mažos ir panašiai ekonominiu požiūriu išsivysčiusios kaimynės, dažniausiai 

jos ieško partnerių didesnėse rinkose, kaip Europos Sąjungos šalys, Rusijos Federacija ar panašiai. Todėl 

tyrimo metu gauti rezultatai, kad tik 18,2 % apklaustų organizacijų turi partnerių Latvijoje, nenustebino 

(žr. 2 lentelę). 

2 lentelė. Klaipėdos regiono ir Latvijos organizacijų bendradarbiavimas 

Ar turite verslo partnerių Latvijoje? Organizacijų skaičius Procentas 

Neatsakė 3 1,9 % 

Taip 29 18,2 % 

Ne 127 79,9 % 

Iš viso 159 100,0 % 

Kaip matome iš pateiktų duomenų, 29 verslo organizacijos turi verslo partnerių Latvijoje, tačiau pažiūrėję, 

su kokiomis veiklos šakomis bendradarbiaujama (3 lentelė), pamatysime, kad šios įmonės užmezgusios 

42 bendradarbiavimo ryšius su įvairių verslo šakų organizacijomis Latvijoje. Tai rodo, kad dalis verslo 

organizacijų bendradarbiauja su keliomis skirtingose šakose veikiančiomis organizacijomis. Manome, kad 

tokios geros bendradarbiavimo patirties reikėtų paskleisti ir kitoms verslo organizacijoms, kad jos matytų 

tokio bendradarbiavimo naudą. 

3 lentelė. Klaipėdos regiono organizacijų partneriai Latvijoje pagal ekonominės veiklos šakas 

Ekonominės veiklos šakos 

Atsakymai 

Partnerių skaičius Procentais 

Žemės ūkis, miškininkystė ir žuvininkystė 1 2,4% 

Pramonė 5 11,9 % 

Aplinka ir energetika 1 2,4 % 

Statyba 3 7,1 % 

Prekyba 12 28,6 % 

Paslaugos 8 19,0 % 

Finansai ir draudimas 1 2,4 % 

Viešasis administravimas 2 4,8 % 

Švietimas 7 16,7 % 

Sveikata ir socialinis darbas 2 4,8 % 

Iš viso 42 100,0 % 

Daugiausiai partnerių turima Latvijos prekybos (28,6 %), paslaugų (19,0 %) ir švietimo (16,7 %) sektoriuose. 

Akivaizdu, kad būtent šios sritys yra lanksčiausios, labiausiai ieškančios naujų rinkų, galimybių. Partnerių 

Latvijoje turinčių Klaipėdos regiono organizacijų bendradarbiavimo pobūdis pavaizduotas 4 lentelėje. 

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4 lentelė. Klaipėdos regiono ir Latvijos organizacijų bendradarbiavimo pobūdis 

Bendradarbiavimo pobūdis 

Atsakymai 

Organizacijų skaičius Procentai 

Žaliavų pirkimas 5 11,4 % 

Prekių pirkimas 8 18,2 % 

Paslaugų pirkimas 15 34,1 % 

Gamyba 3 6,8 % 

Bendri prekybos kanalai 8 18,2 % 

Kita 5 11,4 % 

Iš viso 44 100,0 % 

Remdamiesi gautais duomenimis matome, kad bendradarbiavimo pobūdis atitinka esamų partnerių šakas: 

paslaugų pirkimas (34,1 %), prekių pirkimas (18,2 %) ir bendri prekybos kanalai (18,2 %). Mažiausiai 

bendradarbiauja gamybos įmonės. Penkios organizacijos, pasirinkusios variantą „kita“, nurodė atitinkamai: 

„transporto paslaugos“ (šį atsakymą reikėtų dėti prie paslaugų pirkimo, taigi ši bendradarbiavimo rūšis padidėtų 

iki 36,36 %); „akademinis bendradarbiavimas“; „inovacijos“; „bendra tiriamoji veikla“. Akademinį 

bendradarbiavimą ir bendrą tiriamąją veiklą, kaip bendradarbiavimo pobūdį, nurodė švietimo srityje veikiančios 

organizacijos, akivaizdu, kad tai labai svarbi bendradarbiavimo kryptis. Bendradarbiavimą inovacijų 

srityje nurodžiusi organizacija yra verslo paramos agentūra, tai puikus skirtingų šalių organizacijų bendradarbiavimo 

pavyzdys. 

5 lentelė. Klaipėdos regiono organizacijas dominantys partneriai Latvijoje pagal ekonominės veiklos šakas 

Domintų šių šakų partneriai 

Atsakymai 

Skaičius Procentai 

Žemės ūkis, miškininkystė ir žuvininkystė 5 4,5 % 

Pramonė 12 10,9 % 

Aplinka ir energetika 8 7,3 % 

Statyba 12 10,9 % 

Prekyba 21 19,1 % 

Paslaugos 29 26,4 % 

Finansai ir draudimas 6 5,5 % 

Viešasis administravimas 3 2,7 % 

Švietimas 8 7,3 % 

Sveikata ir socialinis darbas 1 0,9 % 

Kita 5 4,5 % 

Iš viso 110 100,0 % 

Kaip matome iš 5 lentelėje pateiktų duomenų, Lietuvos verslininkai norėtų daugiau bendradarbiauti su 

įvairių verslo šakų partneriais. Palyginę šiuos duomenis su ankstesniais duomenimis (kuriose šakose organizacijos 

turi partnerių), pamatytumėm, kad siekiama turėti daugiau partnerių nei turima dabar visose šakose. 

Tai rodo, kad galima ir reikia toliau plėtoti kaimyninių šalių bendradarbiavimą. Būtina tų verslo šakų verslininkams 

padėti daugiau sužinoti apie galimus bendradarbiavimo būdus įvairiose verslo šakose. Lietuvos 

verslininkai nori bendradarbiauti žemės ūkio srityje: nustatytas 1 bendradarbiavimo ryšys, norima penkių; 

pramonėje – nuo 5 bendradarbiavimo ryšių iki 12 norimų; aplinkos ir energetikos srityje – nuo 1 bendradarbiavimo 

ryšio iki 8 norimų; statybos versle – nuo 3 bendradarbiavimo ryšių iki 12 norimų; prekyboje – nuo 

12 bendradarbiavimo ryšių iki 21 norimų; paslaugų sektoriuje – nuo 8 bendradarbiavimo ryšių iki 29 norimų; 

finansų ir draudimo šakose – nuo 1 bendradarbiavimo ryšio iki 6 norimų; viešojo administravimo – nuo 

2 bendradarbiavimo ryšių iki 3 norimų; švietime – nuo 7 bendradarbiavimo ryšių iki 8 norimų. 

Bendras Klaipėdos regiono organizacijų domėjimasis partneriais Latvijoje pavaizduotas 6 lentelėje. 

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6 lentelė. Partneriais Latvijoje besidominčios Klaipėdos regiono organizacijos 

Ar Jus domintų verslo partneriai Latvijoje? Organizacijų skaičius Procentas 


Taip 68 42,8 % 

Ne 88 55,3 % 

Iš viso 159 100,0 % 

Kaip matome iš pateiktų duomenų, 42,8 % Klaipėdos organizacijų norėtų bendradarbiauti su Latvijos 

organizacijomis, tai galima vertinti kaip gana didelę dalį. Teigiamai nuteikia ir tai, kad šiuo metu partnerių 

Latvijoje turi 18,2 % visų tyrime dalyvavusių organizacijų, norėtų turėti 42,8 %. Kaip matome, šis skaičius 

išaugo daugiau negu dvigubai. Jei šios verslo organizacijos pradėtų bendradarbiauti su kaimyninės šalies 

verslininkais, būtų akivaizdi ekonominė nauda tiek Lietuvos, tiek Latvijos ekonomikai. Turint omenyje tokį 

didelį turinčių ir norinčių turėti partnerių Latvijoje skirtumą, galima daryti prielaidą, kad egzistuoja tam tikri 

bendradarbiavimą ribojantys veiksniai, vienas jų pavaizduotas 7 lentelėje. 

7 lentelė. Informacijos apie verslą Latvijoje stoka 

Ar Jums pakanka informacijos apie verslą Latvijoje 

(įstatymai, mokesčiai, ir kt.)? 



Taip 44 27,7 % 

Ne 108 67,9 % 

Iš viso 159 100,0 % 

Didžioji dalis respondentų teigė, kad informacijos jiems nepakanka, prisiminus, kad dalis respondentų 

nesiekia turėti partnerių Latvijoje, galima būtų teigti, kad menkas susidomėjimas gali būti susijęs su informacijos 

apie verslo galimybes trūkumu. Manome, kad papildoma informacija skatintų verslininkus pagalvoti 

apie perspektyvą plėsti verslą / paslaugas kaimyninėje šalyje. Turėtų būti daugiau galimybių sužinoti verslo 

naujienas, kas vyksta Latvijoje, taip būtų sudarytos sąlygos naujiems verslo santykiams. Bendradarbiavimą 

įvairiose verslo šakose puoselėja 29 organizacijos, o 108 verslo organizacijos teigia, kad joms reikia papildomos 

informacijos, taigi dar yra galimybių verslo informaciniams centrams ar vietos savivaldybėms aktyviau 

skleisti informaciją. 

Bendradarbiavimą regione galėtų stabdyti ir užsienio kalbos nemokėjimas. Respondentų atsakymų į šį 

klausimą pasiskirstymas pavaizduotas 8 lentelėje. 

8 lentelė. Užsienio kalbos nemokėjimas, kaip kliūtis plėtoti verslą Latvijoje 

Ar užsienio kalba yra kliūtis plėtoti verslą Latvijoje? Organizacijų skaičius Procentai 


Taip 44 27,7 % 

Ne 112 70,4 % 

Iš viso 159 100,0 % 

27,7 % respondentų teigė, kad tai trukdo plėtoti verslą, tačiau didžiosios respondentų dalies teigimu, tai 

ne kliūtis. Kadangi tiek Lietuva, tiek Latvija yra nedidelės šalys, jų gyventojai priversti mokytis užsienio 

kalbų. Tradiciškai vyresnioji karta moka rusų kalbą, beje, abiejose šalyse dalis vietos gyventojų (piliečių) 

yra kitataučiai: rusai, baltarusiai, ukrainiečiai, todėl gali susikalbėti šia kalba. Jaunesnioji karta dažniausiai 

moka anglų kalbą, tai pasaulyje pripažinta verslo kalba, todėl verslo organizacijos randa galimybių bendrauti. 

Be abejo, kiekviena šalis turi savitą kultūrą, istoriją ir kalba, kaip priemonė jai išreikšti, yra ypač svarbus 

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elementas, padedantis sukurti nuoširdumo atmosferą. Jeigu žmonės nemoka kalbėti kurios nors šalies gimtąja 

kalba, sumažėja galimybių visiškai laisvai išreikšti mintis, poreikius, lūkesčius versle, suvokti tautinį 

identitetą, norint geriau pažinti partnerį. Tačiau plėtojant verslą tai dažniausiai nėra esminė problema, nebent 

tai būtų verslas, nukreiptas tik į vietinę rinką, tada mokėti vietinę kalbą būtų būtinybė. 9 lentelėje matome 

Klaipėdos organizacijų informacijos dėl verslo galimybių Latvijoje poreikį gimtąja kalba. 

9 lentelė. Informacijos dėl verslo galimybių Latvijoje poreikis lietuvių kalba 

Ar Jums reikia informacijos apie verslo galimybes Latvijoje 

lietuvių kalba? 



Taip 82 51,6 % 

Ne 74 46,5 % 

Iš viso 159 100,0 % 

Nors didžioji dalis respondentų teigė, kad kalbos nemokėjimas nėra kliūtis plėtoti verslą, tačiau 51,6 % 

vis dėlto norėtų turėti informacijos apie verslo galimybes Latvijoje lietuvių kalba. Tai dar kartą patvirtina, 

kad informacijos trūkumas yra akivaizdus. 

Išanalizavus verslo šakas ir darbuotojų skaičių jose galima konstatuoti, kad didžioji dalis yra mažos įmonės, 

kurios turi apie 10 darbuotojų. Tokie rezultatai yra žemės ūkio, miškininkystės ir žuvininkystės verslo, aplinkos 

ir energetikos, finansų ir draudimo, viešojo administravimo organizacijose. Pramonės, prekybos ir paslaugų 

verslo organizacijos buvo įvairaus dydžio (ir smulkios, ir vidutinės, ir didelės). Švietimo, socialinio darbo ir 

sveikatos verslo organizacijos buvo arba mažos, arba jose dirbo daugiau kaip 250 darbuotojų. Ši informacija 

tyrimui taip pat svarbi, nes reikia žinoti, kaip pateikti informaciją verslo šakų atstovams, kad ją suprastų, o 

svarbiausia – gautų. Jeigu organizacijos labai didelės, dėl gausaus įvairios informacijos kiekio informacija apie 

verslo galimybes Latvijoje gali ir nepatekti ten, kur priimami sprendimai dėl galimo bendradarbiavimo. 

Rezultatai rodo, kad didžioji dalis apklaustų organizacijų veikia nuo 7 iki 10 metų. Tik viena organizacija 

dirbo metus. Didžiausias pasiskirstymas prekybos ir paslaugų organizacijose, jos visos dirba daugiau negu 

metus laiko, kai kurios – daugiau kaip 11 metų. Todėl galime teigti, kad tai patirties turinčios organizacijos, 

sugebėjusios išlikti per ekonominę krizę. Puiku, kad šios organizacijos ieško bendradarbiavimo galimybių 

ne tik savoje, bet ir kaimyninėse šalyse. 

Rezultatai rodo, kad organizacijų, kurios turi verslo partnerių Latvijoje, metinė apyvarta yra tiek pat 

įvairi, kaip ir organizacijų, kurios neturi verslo partnerių Latvijoje. Reikia tik priminti, kad organizacijų, 

turinčių verslo partnerių, skaičius gerokai mažesnis, bet ir ten yra organizacijų, kurios viršija 138 mln. litų 

apyvartą. Tiek organizacijose, kurios turi verslo partnerių, tiek organizacijose, kurios jų neturi, darbuotojų 

skaičius yra vienodas. Todėl negalime teigti, kad tik mažos ar didelės organizacijos linkusios bendradarbiauti, 

tai labiau priklauso nuo organizacijos įgyvendinamos strategijos. Įdomu pažymėti, net 82,8 proc. tyrime 

dalyvavusių organizacijų, turinčių verslo ryšių su kaimynine šalimi, teigia, kad joms reikia informacijos apie 

verslo galimybes Latvijoje lietuvių kalba. Taigi galime teigti, kad tokiu bendradarbiavimu šios organizacijos 

patenkintos, tiesiog nori dar daugiau sužinoti ir praplėsti bendradarbiavimo galimybes. Tuo tarpu organizacijos, 

turinčios verslo partnerių Latvijoje, apskritai dėl informacijos apie verslo galimybes Latvijoje stokos 

nesiskundžia ir didelio poreikio tam neturi. Bendros informacijos apie verslo galimybes Latvijoje labiau 

norėtų organizacijos, kurios šiuo metu nebendradarbiauja su kaimyninės šalies verslo organizacijomis. 

Organizacijos, kurias domintų verslo partneriai Latvijoje, teigia, kad joms reikia informacijos apie verslo 

galimybes Latvijoje. Įdomu paminėti, kad net tos organizacijos, kurios teigia nesidominčios verslo partneriais 

Latvijoje, teigia, kad joms trūksta informacijos apie verslo galimybes kaimyninėje šalyje. Reikia pažymėti, 

kad organizacijas, kurias domina galimybė rasti verslo partnerių Latvijoje, iš tiesų nelabai stabdo latvių 

kalbos nemokėjimas. Tik 14 galimybe bendradarbiauti su Latvija besidominčių verslo organizacijų nurodė, 

kad kalbos nemokėjimas yra kliūtis, tuo tarpu net 53 verslo organizacijos tokios kliūties neįžvelgia. 

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Išvados 

Organizacijų bendradarbiavimas sudarant horizontalius tinklus yra vienas pagrindinių naujo verslo modelio 

globaliame pasaulyje bruožų. Organizacijų bendradarbiavimas yra vienas jų plėtrą skatinančių veiksnių. 

Tikėtina, kad sparčiau vystantis organizacijoms gerės ir bendra pasienio regionų ekonominė situacija, 

mažės socialinė ir ekonominė atskirtis. Palankias sąlygas šalių organizacijų bendradarbiavimui sudaro IKT 

paplitimas ir anglų, kaip universalios, kalbos vartojimas. 

18,2 % tyrime dalyvavusių organizacijų nurodė turinčios verslo partnerių Latvijoje, daugiausia bendradarbiaujama 

prekybos (28,6 %), paslaugų (19,0 %) ir švietimo (16,7 %) sektoriuose. Tai, kad labiausiai 

bendradarbiauja prekybos ir paslaugų organizacijos, lemia ir bendradarbiavimo pobūdį: paslaugų pirkimas 

(34,1 %), prekių pirkimas (18,2 %) ir bendri prekybos kanalai (18,2 %). Kaip papildomos bendradarbiavimo 

sritys nurodyti akademinis bendradarbiavimas, bendradarbiavimas inovacijų srityje ir bendra tiriamoji 

veikla. Atliekant tyrimą paaiškėjo, kad nors šiuo metu Klaipėdos regiono ir Latvijos organizacijų bendradarbiavimas 

nėra intensyvus, egzistuoja didelis tokio bendradarbiavimo poreikis: net 42,8 % tyrime dalyvavusių 

organizacijų norėtų bendradarbiauti su Latvijos organizacijomis, tai yra beveik du kartus daugiau nei 

bendradarbiauja šiuo metu, ši tendencija pastebima visose ekonominės veiklos šakose. 

27,7 % respondentų teigia, kad užsienio kalbos nemokėjimas trukdo bendradarbiauti su Latvijos organizacijomis. 

Kadangi tiek Lietuva, tiek Latvija yra nedidelės šalys, jų gyventojai priversti mokytis užsienio 

kalbos. Tradiciškai vyresnioji karta moka rusų kalbą, jaunesnioji dažniausiai moka anglų kalbą, kuri pasaulyje 

pripažinta kaip verslo kalba, todėl verslo organizacijos paprastai suranda galimybių bendrauti. Didesnė 

kliūtis Klaipėdos regiono ir Latvijos organizacijų bendradarbiavimui yra informacijos apie verslo vykdymo 

sąlygas Latvijoje trūkumas. Net 67,9 % tyrime dalyvavusių organizacijų nurodė, kad tokios informacijos 

jiems trūksta, taip pat išsakytas pageidavimas tokios informacijos gauti lietuvių kalba. 

Siekiant paspartinti Klaipėdos regiono ir Latvijos organizacijų bendradarbiavimą reikėtų daugiau informacijos 

apie verslo plėtojimo galimybes Latvijoje, jei įmanoma tokia informacija turėtų būti prieinama 

lietuvių kalba, reikėtų koordinuojančio didesnio abiejų valstybių institucijų vaidmens, kurti horizontalius 

bendradarbiavimo tarp valstybės, švietimo ir verslo organizacijų tinklus, tinklinių organizacijų veikloje galėtų 

dalyvauti ir partneriai iš Latvijos. 

Literatūra 

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their Growth in Japanese Industrial Clusters. RURDS, Vol. 18, No. 3 p. 209–228. 

Castells, M. (2005). Tinklaveikos visuomenės raida. Kaunas: Poligrafija ir informatika. 

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Litvy). Problemy V spolpracy Gospodarczej V regionie Baltyckim V kontekšcie integracji Europejskiej, s. 105–114. 

Dolzblasz, S., Lesniak, M. (2005). Conditions of competitiveness in the borderlads in the context of European integration. 

Problems of regional and local development in Polish, Russian and Lithuanian parts of South Baltic arc., p. 29–42. 

Kardelis, K. (2007). Mokslinių tyrimų metodologija ir metodai. Kaunas: Technologija. 

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framework of regional development in cross- border areas of north-eastern Poland and the Kaliningrad oblast. 

Gdynia-Pelpin, s. 33–43. 

Lepik, K. (2009). Euroregions as mechanisms for strengthening cross-border cooperateon in the Baltic Sea region. 

TRAMES: A Journal of the Humanities & Social Sciences, Vol. 13 Issue 3, p. 265–284. 

Michalski, T. (2008). Global, continental and regional context of the functioning of new European borders. Tiltai, Nr. 1, 

p. 7–14. 

144


Saxenian, A. (1994). Regional Advantage: Culture and Competition in Silicon Valley and Route 128. Cambridge, MA: 

Harvard University Press. 

Statistikos departamentas prie Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės. (2010). Ūkio subjektai. Pagrindiniai duomenys. 

Šimanskienė, L. (2007). Research of Regional and Territorial Development problems including the initiatives of Cross 

Border Cooperation in fields of Science and Technologies. Establishment of the Bipolar Area of Science and Research 

Klaipeda-Kaliningrad. Scientific analytical reports. Klaipeda: Klaipeda University, p. 44–99. 

Šimanskienė, L., Vaitekūnas, S., Bučinskas, A. (2006). Regional problems of Lithuania in the context of the EU. In: 

W. Karaszewkiego, S. Kunikowskiego (eds.). Polityka Rozwoju Europy Srodkowo-Wschodniej. Aspekty makroekonomoczne 

i regionalne. Wloclawek: Lega Oficina Wydawnicza, p. 225–242. 

Business cooperation in the cross-border of KlaipĖda 

region and Latvia 


Klaipėda University (Lithuania), Liepaja University (Latvia) 

Summary 

In this article we analyse the cooperation of business organisations of Klaipėda region with Latvian organizations. 

One of the main problems of this region, located in the cross-border with Latvia, is low competiveness 

of its organisations and high levels of unemployment. One of ways of coping with this problem is promoting 

the cooperation between organisations in the region among themselves and also with organisations in 

neighbouring Latvia. In this article we present the results of the research done in 2011 among top managers 

of organizations in Klaipėda region, the aim of the research and also this article is to examine the state of 

cooperation between organizations of Klaipėda region and Latvia. The tasks of the article are: 1) to analyse 

the theoretical premises for cooperation in cross-border regions; 2) determine the level of cooperation of 

organisations from Klaipėda region and Latvia; 3) determine the obstacles for cooperation; 4) establish the 

measures that could stimulate more active cooperation of organisations of Klaipeda region and Latvian organizations. 

To achieve these goals we used the analysis of scientific literature and survey research. 

A total of 159 organisations took part in the survey, to better reflect the real situation in the region, we 

decided to survey organizations according to their branch of economic activity, that is the number of organizations 

surveyed in each branch of economic activity was determined by the proportion of organizations in 

specific branch of economic activity among total number of organizations in the region. Most organizations 

that participated in the survey are engaged in services and trade, 33.5 % and 23.5 % respectively. Most of 

the organizations that participated in the research have fewer than 10 employees (micro enterprises), they 

constitute of 61.1 % of all questioned organizations, 18.9 % are small enterprises employing between 10 

and 50 employees. Even 80.3 % of organizations participated in the research had fewer than 50 employees. 

77.4 % of surveyed organizations had annual turnover below 7 million LTL. The distribution of enterprises 

by number of employees and by the annual turnover of the organizations that participated in the survey correspond 

with the actual situation in Klaipėda region, where most of the organizations are small and medium 

enterprises, mostly engaged in services and trade branches of economic activity. 

After analysing the scientific literature and the data from the survey research we came to the following 

conclusions: 

Cooperation by forming horizontal networks is one of the main aspects of doing successful business in 

a globalised world. Cooperation between organizations is one of stimulating factors of their development, 

this could lead to the improvement of overall economic and social situation in the region. Two of the most 

145

Ligita Šimanskienė, Darius Burgis, Diana LīDuma, māra ZeLtiņa 

Verslo bendradarbiaVimas Klaipėdos regiono ir latVijos pasienyje 

important factors that facilitate the international cooperation between organizations are the spread of information 

communication technologies and the establishment of English language as a universal mean of 

communication in the business world. 

18.2 % of organizations that took the survey declared that they have business partners in Latvia, the 

sectors where most of cooperation takes place are trade (28.6 %), services (19.0 %) and education (16.7 %). 

The type of cooperation corresponds to the branch of economic activity of the partners, most common are 

purchase of services (34.1 %), purchase of goods (18.2 %) and common channels of trade (18.2 %), as 

additional areas of cooperation respondents determined the academic cooperation, cooperation in the area 

of innovations and joint research activities. After analysing the data from the survey it became evident, that 

although the level of cooperation between organizations of Klaipeda region and Latvia is quite low, there is 

a big need for such kind of cooperation, 42.8 % of all the organizations that took the survey stated that they 

would like to cooperate with Latvian organizations and that is more than twice the number of organizations 

that are currently cooperating, this tendency can be seen in all branches of economic activity. 

only 27.7 % of the respondents stated that the lack of knowledge of foreign language is an obstacle to 

cooperate with Latvian organizations. Because Latvia and Lithuania are both small countries their people 

are forced to learn foreign languages. Traditionally the older generation knows Russian and the younger 

employs English, which is a universal language for doing business internationally, this, is why most of organizations 

in the region find one or another way to communicate with Latvian organizations. The bigger obstacle 

for organizations of Klaipeda region to cooperate with Latvian organizations is the lack of information 

about Latvian business (tax, legal rules, etc.). Even 67.9 % of the organizations that took part in the survey 

stated that they lack such information and also stated the need of such information in Lithuanian language. 

To facilitate the cooperation of organizations from Klaipeda region and Latvia, more information about 

Latvian business should be provided; if possible it should be in Lithuanian language. There also should be 

a bigger coordinating role of government institutions from both countries in forming the horizontal cooperation 

networks, especially between organizations from business, government and science sectors, partners 

from Latvia could participate in those networks, making them more productive. 

KEY WoRDS: Klaipeda region, Latvia, cooperation, cross-border. 

JEL coDES: R, f230. 

Acknowledgment 

This paper is written using data from project “formation of methodological framework of regional business 

growth promotion (LT-LV)” (Project Nr. LV-LT/1.1/LLIII-152/2010). 

146


PRACTICE OF CROSS BORDER COOPERATION 

IN CAPACITY BUILDING PROJECT: 

ENSURING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 

Rasa Viederytė 1 , Giedrė Strakšienė 2 


Abstract 

The article presents the practice of Capacity Building project (CBP) activities underlining the sustainable development importance 

in the context of Cross Border Cooperation, which was implemented in Denmark, Germany, Poland, Sweden and Lithuania. The 

article is based on the analysis of statistical data and South Baltic Program documents adopted by the European Commission. The 

knowledge and experience of CBP formulated in this paper could be useful for future capacity building initiatives in the South Baltic 

region or in other territorial cooperation programmes. Article authors were official representatives of this project in Lithuania Region 

and actively participated during the Capacity Building project activities implementation process, took responsibilities during the 

interview and questionnaire givens collecting in Lithuania, were mentoring the Rent-of-Expert process and made individual consultations, 

organized trainings and workshops. 

KEY WORDS: Cross Border Cooperation, Capacity Building project, South Baltic Programme. 

JEL codes: O19, O22, O31, O57. 

Introduction 

The ‘EU Strategy for the Baltic Sea Region’ is described in three documents: (1) a Communication from 

the European Commission to the Council and the European Parliament, (2) an associated Action Plan which 

complements the Communication, presented to the Council and European Parliament at the same time and 

(3) a Working Document of the European Commission’s Services which presents the background, approach 

and content of the strategy. 

The priority areas are organized into four thematic ‘pillars’ and one horizontal section. It is important 

to appreciate, however, that this is only for ease of analysis. In fact, every pillar relates to a wide range of 

policies and will have impacts on the other pillars: they are interlinked and interdependent. Each priority 

area starts with a presentation of the issue providing background information on the topic. Then, the hotspots 

(main problems) are indicated and the added value of the action for the Baltic Sea Region is presented. 

The priority areas are implemented through detailed actions which are explained. Some actions are strategic 

for the Baltic Sea Region as they are designed to address specific and important issues for its regions, 

citizens and enterprises. Others are cooperative, meaning they are based on the benefits in improving cooperation 

on issues where Member States and stakeholders are ready to do so. In some cases, actions might 

1 

Rasa Viederytė – Klaipėda University, project Management Department, the head of project Management Department. Scientific 

interest: management of projects. 

E-mail: rasa.viederyte@ku.lt 

Tel.: +370 46 398 776 

2 

Giedrė Strakšienė – Klaipėda University, project Management Department. Scientific interest: management of projects. 

E-mail: giedre.straksiene@ku.lt 

Tel.: +370 46 398 776 

147


PRACTICE OF CROSS BORDER COOPERATION IN CAPACITY BUILDING PROJECT: ENSURING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 

require a change in the policy orientation or national legislation of the Member States in the Baltic Sea 

Region. In others, they require financing which could be provided by private or public funding (EU, national, 

regional or local funds). All actions should be understood without prejudice to the existing exclusive 

Community competences (Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, 

the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions concerning the European 

Union Strategy for the Baltic Sea Region Action Plan (2009). 

The period of 2007–2013 brings several major changes to the South Baltic Programmes dealing with 

the territorial co-operation in the European Union. Most importantly the territorial co-operation objective 

includes three main aspects: 

• y development of economic and social cross-border activities (cross-border cooperation); 

• y establishment and development of transnational co-operation, including bilateral co-operation between 

maritime regions; 

• y increasing the efficiency of regional policy through interregional promotion and cooperation, the 

networking and exchange of experiences between regional and local authorities (interregional cooperation). 

The South Baltic Programme is developed right on this initiative. In formal terms it is the so called multilateral 

cross-border co-operation Programme created on the maritime border between the Southern Baltic 

Sea regions. In practical terms the South Baltic Programme is a completely new co-operation area where 

cross-border co-operation structures have not been developed to the full scale yet. The programme area, 

however, shows strong cross-border links developed through cooperation in Euroregion Baltic, Euroregion 

Pomerania, the South Baltic Four Corners Cooperation and many bilateral initiatives. These initiatives managed 

to contribute to stronger connection and economically beneficial development of neighbouring areas, 

and therefore may form a fundament for the programme actions. 

Considering the new changes in the Programme was started the Capacity Building project, that aims were 

to attract better the main target group (newcomers, especially from local authorities and NGO’s) to the South 

Baltic Programme and to strengthen their capacity to prepare and later to implement good projects within 

the Programme. 

The project realised the afore-mentioned aims through three principal activity strands: 

• y National trainings – an introduction to international project development, addressed mainly to beginners; 

• y Cross-border workshops – addressed to beneficiaries with an identified project idea for a project within 

the South Baltic Programme; 

• y Rent-an-expert facility – individual advisory services on project development. 

Problem. Various cross-border initiatives were provided within the South Baltic Programme, but there’s 

no evaluation on the program applying abilities and knowledge, based for starting to participate in the Program. 

Capacity building project (CBP) was launched to help with the South Baltic Programme participation 

issues, by providing real help on how to start project planning process, how apply the proposal, where to 

look for partners, etc. It is also believed that the knowledge and experience of CBP formulated in this paper 

could be useful for future capacity building initiatives in the South Baltic region or in other territorial cooperation 

programmes. In addition, the findings of this paper could potentially be used to better tailor ETC 

programmes in the next funding periods. There’s question how Capacity Building project ensure sustainable 

development at least among countries-participants. 

Purpose of article: to disclose practice of Capacity Building project emphasizing the sustainable development 

in the context of Cross Border Cooperation. 

The research objectives are: theoretically substantiate the concept of Capacity Building project in 

the South Baltic programme, empirical surveying barriers and support for project development and to compare 

results. 

148


The following methods were applied: analysis of scientific literature and documents, questionnaire-in 

written; interview-in-written, statistical analysis of data. 

1. The concept of Capacity Building project 

Capacity Building Project (CBP), realized within the South Baltic Programme, was launched to help 

potential beneficiaries of the Programme in the preparation and implementation of cross-border projects. 

The project arose from the analysis of results of the two first application rounds within the South Baltic Programme, 

which showed that there was a strong interest and demand for funding cross-border co-operation 

among local public authorities, publicly owned corporations, regional public authorities, universities and 

non-governmental organizations. However, there was a significant discrepancy between the number of applying 

institutions and the number of successfully applying institutions. Although many projects presented 

valuable ideas, their quality was not sufficient to receive funding. This proved that there was an apparent 

lack of knowledge and experience in cross-border projects’ development among the Programme’s potential 

beneficiaries. The Capacity Building Project aimed to bridge this gap through various trainings and tailored 

assistance and to facilitate development of joint project proposals of cross-border character. 

The aim of the Capacity Building Project was to support participation in the South Baltic Programme, 

particularly among local authorities and NGOs who constitute the target group of the Project. Capacity Building 

was offering the following free-of-charge services: 

1. Training on project development – trainings in national languages, introduced the participants 

to a variety of tools and methods used to identify, develop and manage projects; the participants learned how 

to generate project ideas, identify partners, plan and prepare projects, estimate costs etc; 

2. Cross-border workshops – the workshops were addressed to beneficiaries who have already identified 

concrete ideas for development of projects within the SB Programme; participation in the workshops 

prepared beneficiaries for concrete cooperation in joint projects 

3. Individual project consultations – potential beneficiaries could receive free-of-charge consultations 

on project development. 

Beginners were given guidelines and tools necessary for project development during national trainings. 

More advanced beneficiaries took part in the cross-border workshops, were they received structured feedback 

on their ideas from a panel of experts. Many projects received support under the Rent-an-Expert service: 

they were supported in the development of their project idea by either an external expert or a mentor 

from the CBP team. 

1.1. Training sessions 

The CBP on 2010 started training sessions for potential programme beneficiaries. The goal of the training 

is was develop skills and knowledge of the potential programme beneficiaries which lead to their increased 

participation in the SBP. Trainings were held in national languages, in groups of 15 up to 25 people. The 

trainings were delivered by Action Learning method, i.e. participants were working with case studies and 

exercises to allow them to understand the process of project development. The participants learned how to 

generate project ideas, identify partners, plan and prepare projects, estimate costs etc. There were 3 one-day 

training sessions planned in all partner countries. 

In September and October partners of the Capacity Building Project, with the help of Regional Contact 

Points, organized trainings for the beneficiaries of South Baltic Programme. 

Fifteen training sessions were held in all Programme countries: 3 in Lithuania (Kretinga, Klaipeda and 

Taurage), 3 in Denmark (2 on Zealand and 1 in Ronne), 3 in Germany (in Rostock), 4 in Sweden (in Kalmar, 

Blekinge, Skane and Kronoberg). The participants included representatives of regional administration, 

municipalities, NGOs, museums and universities and various associations. The trainings were moderated by 

Capacity partners. 

149



The trainings concentrated on the development of international projects, with special focus on SBP. They 

were delivered by Action Learning method, i.e. participants worked with case studies and practical exercises 

that allowed them to understand the process of project development. The trainers introduced the participants 

to general skills on project development and management such as creating a Gannt chart or planning activities 

and basic knowledge about projects as such. The participants learnt about the specific features of South 

Baltic projects and equipped with this knowledge they stared working on own project ideas. They defined 

objectives and results and learnt how to frame them into South Baltic Programme. Some activities were devoted 

to the identification of project activities and outputs. Trainers explained also how to find partners and 

form partnership. 

These training sessions were addressed to beginners, with little experience in international project development. 

Most of the material presented was in national languages, though texts from real applications were 

kept in English, in Sweden, in German, in Lithuanian and in Danish. A very practical and hands on material 

was produced by the Capacity Building Project and used during all trainings. Since many of our interviewees 

considered the application process as complicated, our training materials highlighted some important parts of 

the application form, to get rid of the perception of it being more complicated that it really is. Trainees were 

introduced to basic concepts of project development. 

The national training conducted by the partners in the SBP CAPACITY project has been well received 

and evaluated by the participants. Project have trained about 270 persons in the entire region, out of which 

88 in Sweden, 66 in Poland, 43 in Lithuania, 42 in Denmark, and 28 in Germany. Project administration 

group hoped that the basic project development skills will allow them to develop new projects and applications 

for future calls. The implementation of the national training package that was planned within CAPA- 

CITY means that this part has been completed. 

1.2. Workshops 

For those who have already got some project ideas, project conducted two cross-border workshops in 

Klaipeda (29 participants) and in Gdynia (43 participants). The two workshops were also received extremely 

well, and participants met new potential partners, learnt from each others’ experiences and got professional 

advice from experts. All in all, they had a chance to get the feeling that developing projects in the South 

Baltic Programme is not so extremely difficult. 

From October 21st – lunch – till October 22nd – lunch, 2011 the first Capacity Building Project crossborder 

workshop took place in Klaipeda, Lithuania. The workshop gathered 29 participants from all countries 

in the area of the South Baltic Programme; beneficiaries that wanted to have their project ideas assessed 

and discussed by a panel of experts and Partners from the Capacity Building project. 

The work for the participants had started prior to the workshop itself. The beneficiaries had worked with 

their project ideas, presented them in writing and prepared 10 minutes presentation. 

Most had used the template for structuring a project idea provided by the Capacity Building Project. All 

participants were eager to have their feedback. The experts pointed out both strengths and weaknesses with 

the presented projects, one by one and also made recommendations. It became obvious that many projects 

had similar weaknesses; some comments could be expressed more in general. Quite a few also needed to 

extend their partnership, and thanks to the fact that all participants had listened to all projects some projects 

got offers from other participants that knew organizations back home that probably would be interested to 

join. Contact details were exchanged. 

Some projects did not fit into the South Baltic Project at all, mainly because they were more local, had 

no cross-border value. These projects were recommended other funding possibilities to start with, and later 

on extend, in many cases interesting scopes, to include a wider geographical area. To make a budget is not 

always easy. 

150


1.3. Individual consultations 

If beneficiaries felt that trainings and workshops were not enough, they were taking individual project 

consultations. Capacity Building pool of experts consisted of 50 professional consultants who were ready 

to offer their knowledge and experience to help develop project idea into a good project application. The 

consultations were free of charge. All beneficiaries had to do was fill an on-line application form available 

on website www.sbpcapatity.org and submit before the deadline. Provided that application was approved, an 

expert was allocated to beneficiary to guide through the process of preparing the application. 

If beneficiaries had some problematic question or uncertainty, before asking for full scale Rent-an-Expert 

service, beneficiaries were always welcome to ask Project Contact in them country for mentoring assistance. 

2. Analysis of barriers for Project development 

To achieve its objectives the CBP carried out an analysis aimed at identifying the obstacles and needs 

of support among the Programme’s potential beneficiaries. The analysis was based on the results of questionnaires 

and interviews. It aimed to shed some light on the barriers that hamper a smooth development of 

projects and thematic areas the beneficiaries are most interested in. 

The analysis was carried out in two steps. The first step was a standardized web-based or printed closedquestion 

questionnaire. The broad group of potential Programme beneficiaries were encouraged to fill-out 

the questionnaires in order to define specific reasons for a lack of their activity in the international programmes 

and SBP in particular. In total 220 questionnaires were analysed (22 of which 20 were New comers 

(NC) from Denmark, 36 (30 = NC) from Germany, 51 (46 = NC) from Lithuania, 71 (62 = NC) from Poland, 

38 (26 = NC) from Sweden and two unidentified both of which were NC) 

The second step was followed by deeper interviews with selected potential beneficiaries in each country. 

The interviews were conducted both through face-to-face meetings and over the phone. The analysis was 

made, taking into consideration all aspects of the cross border projects’ development and implementation. In 

total 56 interviews were conducted 10 in Denmark, 10 in Germany, 16 in Lithuania, 10 in Poland and 10 in 

Sweden. 

In the questionnaire issues related to the thematic areas as well as the greatest barriers were being investigated 

for potential beneficiaries especially newcomers. The general applicants including those with more 

experience and knowledge of the programme are also asked. The questionnaire was structured into four main 

parts. The first one was about the thematic areas that the potential beneficiaries are interested in. The second 

part examined the familiar of the SB program in the regions. The third and four parts focused on the barriers 

that people encounter when they apply and implement projects and what support they need. 

3. The obstacles for participating in the SBP 

It is of great importance for the Capacity Building Project to have identified the barriers for participation 

within the South Baltic Programme. In order for the project to help newcomers overcome their main obstacles 

the input from this part of the analysis has been very valuable and useful when developing the training 

materials. 

The question posed in the questionnaire: “What do you perceive as the main obstacles for participation 

in international projects (You may select several obstacles, please prioritize them by selecting a number from 

1–5, where 5 means the biggest obstacle)” 

The barriers for participation within the South Baltic programme differ between the countries. The below 

statistics will provide an overview of the most important issues in each country: Denmark, Germany, Lithuania, 

Poland and Sweden. 

151



f. not in national language 

e. Application process complicated 

d. We do not know how to find partners 

c. financial capacity to pre-finance 

b. financial capacity to co-finance 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

a. not enough human resources 

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 

Figure 1. Denmark: Main obstacles for participation in projects identified by Danish beneficiaries 

Source: Analysis of Barriers for Project Development, 2011 

For the Danish respondents the English language (as official programme language) does not discourage 

potential participants from taking part of the programme to a significant extent. The main barriers rather consist 

of the lack of human resources, the financial capacity to pre-finance and co-finance and the difficulties 

of the application process. 

Three obstacles stood out among the Danish interviewees: Finding partners overseas, the financial issue 

(the uncertainty of getting money back but also the need of having a great liquidity to begin with) and the 

lack of time and capacity. It was also considered hard and complicated to apply for EU-funding both due to 

the complexity, hard conditions and lack of knowledge of the programme but also because of national laws. 

Accounting was also considered to be an obstacle. 

Most of the Danish interviewees considered it to be possible to overcome some of the barriers themselves 

through capacity building and by using the right people within the organization and finding the right partners 

to fill the gaps. Regarding the co-financing it was argued that this is mostly a problem for smaller organizations 

and they won’t be able to conquer this obstacle themselves. 

Most of the Danish Interviewees welcomed external assistance only one claimed that assistance wasn’t 

needed to overcome the barriers (the barriers mentioned by this person was finding partners and liquidity). 

The desired support was mainly guidance in general (dialogue with authorities, the JTS or help from “rentan-expert” 

which “sounded very good” and was a “good idea”) and help with the budget. 

f. Application documents not in national language 

e. Application process too complicated 

d. how to find partners 

c. no financial capacity to pre-finance 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 


0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100 

% 

Figure 2. Germany: Main obstacles for participation in projects identified by German beneficiaries 


152


In Germany three obstacles stood out as very problematic: The financial capacity is the main problem 

(pre-financing and co-financing being rated as the two greatest barriers to overcome). These are closely 

followed by the lack of human resources which more than 30 % of the respondents considered to be of very 

high importance. The application process and how to find partners were considered as barriers but to a significantly 

less extent. The smallest barrier to overcome for the German respondents was that the application 

documents are not translated into the national language. 

Two out of 10 German interviewees not commented on the main obstacles. The most obstacles were to 

acquire money for pre-finance, co-finance and lack of support from regional decision-makers. The barriers 

mentioned were: language difficulties, no transparent work of administration, dread of competition, third 

party founds hardly expected, finding partner, cooperation partner structure, contacts, guidelines, competences 

and resources in term of time and personnel. Most of the German interviewees claimed that the language 

obstacles could be overcome by themselves for example through dialogue. However most of them stated that 

they would also need assistance from regional decision-makers, partners. 

f. Application documents 

not in national language 

e. Application process 

too complicated 


c. financial capacity to 

pre-finance 

b. financial capacity to 

co-finance 

a. not enough human 

resources 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% 

Figure 3. Lithuania: Main obstacles for participation in projects identified by Lithuanian beneficiaries 


The greatest obstacles for the Lithuanian respondents were financial capacity to pre-finance and financial 

capacity to co-finance. The rest of the barriers mentioned were considered less important and were almost 

equally ranked. 

About one third of the interviewed did not know which the main obstacles could be or chose not to answer 

the question. Of those who answered the main issue was co-financing followed by workload and lack of 

information. Other reasons mentioned were negative institutions, lack of partners, short time to prepare, lack 

of experience, unclear forms and a different culture of communication. 

The answers to whether these barriers could be overcome by the organizations themselves were quite 

varying. While a few considered it to be possible by strengthening the English skills for example some said 

it might be possible but very difficult and others considered it to be out of their power. Regarding assistance 

to overcome the barriers it was agreed by all who answered that question that external support was important. 

None of the Lithuanian interviewees had considered applying for the SBP but later refrained from it. 

153



f. Application documents not in national 

language 





1 

2 

3 

4 

5 


0% 10 

% 

20 

% 

30 

% 

40 

% 

50 

% 

60 

% 

70 

% 

80 

% 

90 

% 

100 

% 

Figure 4. Poland: Main obstacles for participation in projects identified by Polish beneficiaries 


Once again the financial aspects (pre-financing and co-financing) were identified as the biggest obstacles, 

but in relation to the other countries none of the barriers stood out to the same extent in Poland. All were 

considered to be of relatively high importance. 

Few of the Polish interviewees had refrained from applying for funding with in the South Baltic Programme. 

For those who had the main reason seemed to be lack of partners or other problems which were not 

related to the programme itself. 

They perceived the main obstacles to be staff shortages, trouble finding partners and the language barrier. 

It was also evident that the focus had been on other projects (mostly infrastructure) where funds were tied up 

which had led to a lack of funds. It was evident that the obstacles were not considered possible to overcome 

without external assistance, but it wasn’t clear who should be responsible, and of what. Consultancy companies, 

institutions and advisory bodies were suggested to mediate contacts, and give support in the creation 

and implementation of the project. Although most of the interviewees could not point at any specific barriers 

during the application process a few were mentioned; language barriers, communication barriers (no cooperation 

with partners from abroad) and trouble formulating the application. 

f. Application documents not in national 

language 





1 

2 

3 

4 

5 


0% 10 

% 

20 

% 

30 

% 

40 

% 

50 

% 

60 

% 

70 

% 

80 

% 

90 

% 

100 

% 

Figure 5. Sweden: Main obstacles for participation in international projects identified by Swedish beneficiaries 


Similar to the situation in Denmark the usage of English is not considered to be an important barrier and 

neither is finding partners. The main obstacle for the Swedish respondents is the lack of human resources. 

154


Overall, lack of time seemed to be the key-problem. Whether it is needed to familiarize oneself with the 

programme, to find partners or to write an application the interviewee’s organizations simply didn’t have 

the time or were resistant to take the risk of investing large amounts of time into a project. Language- and 

cultural differences were also problems as well as difficulties in writing an application and meeting the high 

demands of the programme. It was believed that there is a mental barrier when it comes to international programmes 

(due to ignorance and lack of experience) which could be bridged by providing information and 

marketing the benefits of international projects and by educating potential beneficiaries in understanding the 

rules and regulations and adjusting an application to these. The Capacity Building initiative is much welcomed, 

but those familiar with the South Baltic Programme also point out that the contact points have been 

very supportive and helpful in the past. Most agreed that external support is needed to overcome the main 

barriers. Some of the interviewees were specific with what support they desired. The suggestions ranged 

from help to focus the project and help with writing an application to getting help with leading the project 

and reimbursements for translators (since they quickly eat up the budget). There was also a request to target 

information so that when a measure related to certain issues comes up information regarding this would be 

directed to those concerned, they argued that there is limited time to cover what’s happening and relevant 

information often drowns among the massive amounts of information they receive. However no one had a 

clear idea of who should provide these services and whom should be responsible. Suggestions ranged from 

the contact points, the JTS, and the Capacity building projects to the county councils or special consultants. 

Another barrier mentioned was that it is hard to find partners and once you have it’s hard to get them 

together to talk the project over thoroughly. Money for pre-meetings is needed. 

In more than one case the SBP had been considered but didn’t seem to be the most strategic choice when 

applying for funds. Regional funds often seemed to be a wiser choice for many reasons: No language- and 

cultural barriers. The international dimension sometimes demanded that the project became bigger than 

necessary. Others had decided not to apply in the SBP because their partners had found the programme timeconsuming 

and the application process difficult in the past. 

4. The most useful supports 

Out of the 220 questionnaires reviewed 199 would be more interested in applying for funds from the SBP 

if they got support. Below the answers are first specified by country and finally what the newcomers have 

identified as the most useful support. The question posed in the questionnaire: “which type of support is the 

most useful for your organization in order to apply to South Baltic Programme?” 

In Denmark the greatest needed for support seems to be during the budget preparations. Information on 

the application procedure is another issue where the need of assistance is evident. The third most important 

area for support is getting help to find relevant partners followed by “description of activities”. The two remaining 

issues (developing a complete application and tailoring a project idea) do not need as much support. 

This is particularly true for tailoring the project idea which was only identified as a barrier by approximately 

10 % of the Danish respondents. 

Nothing stood out when the Danish interviewees considered which type of support would be most useful 

for their organization in order to apply to the south Baltic Programme. Three people mentioned Finding 

Partners and two rent-an-expert. The rest of the suggestions were only mentioned by one person: Developing 

a project idea; formulating the project idea; Dialogue with JTS and CP’s; Time management; Matching 

the programme; Budget and Technical information. The support was mainly needed in the beginning while 

addressing the above issues, finding partners, developing the project idea etc. Few of the interviewees could 

consider paying for support, among those who couldn’t one stated that he would if there was a guarantee that 

the application would be approved. During the application process the main barrier seemed to be related to 

partners. Mentioned problems were; finding them in the first place, getting everyone together, the wishes and 

needs of many organizations, communication with partners and getting the process to flow and partners who 

quit the last minute. Other obstacles mentioned were formulating the application, waiting for a long time 

155



without getting any response and not being able to do anything in the meantime. A few people didn’t have 

any experience and chose not to comment although one pointed out that it looked extensive and bureaucratic. 

Almost none of the Danish interviewees had received support previously. Those who had experienced it had 

done so through partners, programme administration, volunteers and internal capacities. 

In Germany once again budget preparations are in greatest need of support. Developing a complete 

application, tailoring a project idea and describing the activities are also important. The development of a 

complete application is higher ranked in Germany than in other countries. From the analysis we can also 

draw the conclusion that all areas of support are generally of high importance. 

The most useful support for the interviewees organizations were conditions for entrance, search for partners 

and help with the application process, budget planning, accounting and reporting, hence most support 

was needed in the beginning. Only two out of 10 interviewees would not be willing to pay for support 

although one of them came with the reservation of it depending on the financial situation. 

The mentioned bottlenecks during the application procedure were guarantee of partners and red tape 

(excessive regulations). Most of them had received external support previously (one mentioned that it was 

through external agencies, one mentioned from ViaBalticaNordica, BSR Innoreg, BalticBiogas) in the areas 

of funding, content and the application process. Both perceived it as a positive experience such as pleasant, 

good advice and very helpful. In general they felt that they had received good assistance. 

In Lithuania the help with the budget preparations are again the most useful support. The other predefined 

barriers all seem to be in need of assistance and are of almost equal importance. Generally all areas 

are of importance for the Lithuanian respondents. 

Mostly the Lithuanian interviewees desired advice and consultations in general. The areas specifically 

mentioned were formulating and framing the idea, financial matters, preparing proposals and drafting trainings. 

Help with translations was another suggestion. 

Most of the interviewees wished for quite extensive support throughout the application process. It is 

possibly because of their lack of knowledge about the programme. The people who had been specific all 

agreed that the support beginning was the most important reasons mentioned were that they needed help to 

formulate a clear idea to begin with since the rest is based on this. They also mention that having trainings in 

preparations of the application would be useful. However, only two have stated that they are willing to pay 

for such support. 

Only three people reported that they considered there to be bottlenecks during the application process. 

These mentioned the language barrier and the lack of knowledge and partners. 

In Poland the main field of support identified by the polish respondents is “Providing information on 

application procedure”. Similarly to the other countries the budget preparation is mentioned as one of the 

greatest barriers to overcome. But all areas pre-defined were acknowledged as important. 

There was a desire from the interviewees to receive consultations throughout the process of creating and 

implementing the project, especially in the beginning with the writing and help in finding information on 

the application procedure. Many also wished for help in finding partners. Although the support was much 

desired only two out of the ten would be willing to pay for assistance. All of the polish interviewees had 

experience of support from previous projects and had perceived it “as expected”. 

In Sweden the support in budget preparations was highly prioritized by the Swedish respondents. The 

second highest priority was help in finding partners and providing information on the application procedure. 

Developing a complete application was ranked as the biggest obstacle when taking only the highest scores 

into account, but when taking the second highest scores into account it loses its importance slightly. 

To have someone review/examine the application and make sure you have framed the project in accordance 

with the Programme measures and used clear wording etc. was mentioned more than once, as was 

budgeting. Help with the application and how to structure and facilitate results was also mentioned. Educations 

also came up. A project school about intercultural communication was suggested and also an inspirational 

day with information and education to show the benefits of cross-border cooperation. Guidance was 

considered necessary to overcome the mental barriers. 

156


Most interviewees would like to receive support in the beginning and the only processes mentioned specifically 

were writing the application including a budget and the process from generating the idea to writing 

the application. 

The interviewees would generally be willing to pay for support if the benefits exceeded the costs, but they 

were clear about this matter being a question for the management to prioritize. 

Figure 6. Needs for support in project development indicated by newcomers 


In Denmark “Providing information on application procedure” and “Developing parts of application 

(budget preparation)” stood out. 

In Germany “Tailoring project idea” had the highest score 

In Lithuania “Developing parts of application (budget preparation)”, “Helping to find partners” and 

“Tailoring project idea” had almost the same high score. 

In Poland “Providing information on application procedure” got a higher score than the other options. 

In Sweden “Developing parts of application (budget preparation)” got the highest score closely followed 

by “Helping to find partners” and “Developing complete application” 

Here are a few examples of other suggestions of support mentioned: accounting – follow-up; project 

management; financial support; translation into English. 

5. Quality analysis of CBP services 

Quality analysis was based on feedback and opinions received from project beneficiaries, external experts 

and CBP team. In order to get a broad picture of all services our project offered, 4 questionnaires were developed: 

1. Post-training questionnaire – distributed among national trainings participants; 

2. Post-workshop questionnaire – distributed among the participants of cross-border workshops; 

3. Rent-an-Expert evaluation questionnaire for experts and mentors; 

4. Rent-an-Expert evaluation questionnaire for beneficiaries – distributed among Lead Beneficiaries of 

projects who received expert/mentoring support. 

The aim of the training (a) and workshop (b) questionnaires was to determine whether these events 

proved useful for the beneficiaries. They focused on the concept and structure of these events, usefulness 

157



of presented material and topics covered. Beneficiaries were also encouraged to share their suggestions for 

possible improvements and any other observations they might have. 

Rent-an-Expert (c) and Mentoring (d) questionnaires were structured into two main parts. The first one 

focused on the cooperation between the beneficiary and expert/mentor. The second part examined the procedures 

of Rent-an-Expert service and the quality of CBP support in the arrangement of experts/mentors’ help. 

In total 243 questionnaires were analyzed: 139 post-training questionnaires, 64 workshop questionnaires, 

19 questionnaires from Rent-an-Expert users and 21 questionnaires from experts and mentors. The results 

were similar in all countries covered by the analysis that is why no country division is used in presenting the 

results. However, if any serious discrepancies were revealed in any of the examined aspects, this is taken into 

account and presented accordingly. 

The CBP supported its beneficiaries through three types of activities: national trainings, cross-border 

workshops and Rent-an-Expert facility. All these services were designed based on the beneficiaries’ needs 

identified in the Analysis of Barriers. 

Conclusions 

1. The interviews mirror the questionnaires quite well when it comes to the thematic areas if the different 

measures. The deviations are explained by the relatively small number of people interviewed in 

comparison with the number of people who filled out the questionnaire. 

2. After analysing the interviews the conclusion follows that the answers to most of the issues touched 

upon in the questionnaire and during the interviews are evident for most EU-funded programmes and 

not only the South Baltic Programme. 

3. After analysing both the questionnaires and interviews it was evident that there was a contradiction 

regarding the English language as a barrier in the application process. While the questionnaires 

showed that this was not really a problem the interviewees on the other hand identified this barrier 

as an important one. This contradiction could be explained by the lack of language skills among 

the human resources. Even though there is enough staff in a company there is still a lack of human 

resources if they do not have the relevant skills. The lack of human resources was a far bigger issue 

in the questionnaire than the English language but the two might be related which would explain the 

deviations between questionnaire and interview results. While the questionnaire points out lack of 

human resources the interviewees state the English language to be a barrier as well. The reason might 

be that the human resources don’t have relevant skills, such as English. 

4. In the interviews those who couldn’t point out any specific barriers where in many cases the same 

people who had no experience in the application process. 

5. All areas of support are generally important in the South Baltic Programme. Since it is assumed there 

is a need for long-term support to build up capacity. 

References 

About Capacity Building project. (2010). Website: http://www.sbpcapacity.org/info/about 

Analysis of Barriers for Project Development. (2011). Website: http://www.sbpcapacity.org/documents /pdf/Analysis_report.pdf 

Capacity Newsletters Nb. 1, 2 and 3. (2010–2011). Website: http://www.sbpcapacity.org/info/temp 

Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the council, the European Economic and Social 

Committee and the Committee of the Regions concerning the European Union Strategy for the Baltic Sea region 

Action Plan. (2009). European Commission. Brussels, SEC (2009) 712/2. 

EU Strategy for the Baltic Sea Region. (2010). Website: http://en.southbaltic.eu/index/?id= 18997733 ec258 

a9fcaf239cc55d53363 

Galimi paramos gavėjai ir partneriai. (2010). Website: http://www.pietubaltija.lt/index.php/programa /galimi- paramos 

-gavejai- partneriai. html 

Management extra. Project management. (2007) Elsevier. 

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Orr, A. D. (2007). Advanced project management: a complete guide to the key processes, models and techniques. London 

and Philadelphia: Kogan page. 

Self-evaluation report of the Capacity Building Project. (2011). 

South Baltic Cross-border co-operation programme 2007–2013. Operational programme approved by the European 

Commission on 20th December. (2007). Website: http://en.southbaltic.eu/files/ ?id_plik =176 

South Baltic Cross-border Co-operation Programme 2007–2013, Programme Manual, 8th Call for Proposals. (2007). 

Website: http://en.southbaltic.eu/files/?id_plik=3079. 

South Baltic publications. (2011). Website: http://en.southbaltic.eu/files/?id_plik=1517 

Young, T. L. (2006). Successful project management. 2 edition. London and Philadelphia: Kogan page. 

TARPTAUTINIO BENDRADARBIAVIMO PRAKTIKA GEBĖJIMŲ 

UGDYMO PROJEKTO ATVEJU: ILGALAIKĖS PLĖTROS 

UŽTIKRINIMAS 



Santrauka 

Straipsnyje analizuojama Pietų Baltijos regiono strategija Europos kontekste, apžvelgiama Pietų Baltijos 

programa, skirta spartinti šio regiono plėtrą, didinant jo konkurencingumą ir žmonių bei institucijų integraciją. 

Atsižvelgiant į Pietų Baltijos programos prioritetus, joje gali dalyvauti projektai, kuriais skatinamas ekonominis 

konkurencingumas: verslumo plėtra, aukštojo mokslo ir darbo rinkos integracija ir transporto prieinamumas, 

bei nagrinėjamos Baltijos jūros aplinkos valdymo, energijos taupymo, atsinaujinančios energetikos, 

gamtinio ir kultūrinio paveldo naudojimo regioninei plėtrai temos, įgyvendinamos vietos bendruomenių iniciatyvos. 

Siekiant ugdyti pareiškėjų gebėjimus, PB programos dalimi tapo projektas „Gebėjimų ugdymas“. 

Šio projekto (CAPACITY) tikslas – padėti potencialiems paramos gavėjams (ypač naujokams iš regioninių 

savivaldybių ir NVO) plėtoti labiau susijusias su realiu įgyvendinimu ir geriau parengtas projektų paraiškas. 

Straipsnio tikslas – gebėjimų ugdymo projekto pavyzdžiu akcentuoti tvarų vystymąsi tarpvalstybinio 

bendradarbiavimo praktikos kontekste. 

Tyrimo uždaviniai: teoriškai pagrįsti Pietų Baltijos programos „Gebėjimų ugdymas“ projekto koncepciją, 

atlikti empirinę dalyvavimo projektuose barjerų ir paramos analizę ir palyginti skirtingų šalių atsakymų 

rezultatus. 

Taikyti šie darbo metodai: mokslinės literatūros ir dokumentų analizė, klausimynas ir interviu raštu, statistinė 

duomenų analizė. 

Įgyvendinant „Gebėjimų ugdymo“ projektą buvo organizuojami mokymai pareiškėjams nacionalinėmis 

kalbomis, tarptautiniai mokymai, sudaryta galimybė nemokamai gauti ekspertą konsultuotis dėl projekto 

paraiškos rengimo. Iš viso apmokyta apie 270 asmenų visame regione, iš jų: 88 – Švedijoje, 66 – Lenkijoje, 

43 – Lietuvoje, 42 – Danijoje ir 28 – Vokietijoje. Tikimasi, kad įgyti pagrindiniai gebėjimai, kaip rengti projektą, 

leis plėtoti naujas projektų idėjas ir teikti paraiškas ateityje, paskelbus naujus kvietimus. 

„Gebėjimų ugdymo“ projekto partneriai, padedant Regionų kontaktiniams atstovams, savo šalyse surengė 

praktinius mokymus potencialiems Pietų Baltijos programos projektų pareiškėjams. Net 15 mokymo 

sesijų suorganizuota įvairiose Pietų Baltijos programos šalyse: 3 Lietuvoje (Kretingoje, Tauragėje ir Klaipėdoje); 

3 Danijoje (2 Zealand ir 1 Ronne); 3 Vokietijoje (Rostock); 4 Švedijoje (Kalmar, Blekinge, Skane 

ir Kronoberge). Mokymų sesijų dalyviai susirinko iš regioninių apskričių, nevyriausybinių organizacijų, 

159



muziejų, universitetų ir kitų organizacijų. Jiems vadovavo „Capacity Building“ projekto partneriai. Mokymai 

skirti tarptautinių projektų plėtrai, akcentuojant pagrindines Pietų Baltijos programos idėjas. Užsiėmimų 

metu taikyti aktyvaus mokymosi (angl. Action Learning) metodai, t. y. dalyviai mokėsi analizuodami 

konkrečius studijų atvejus ir praktinius pavyzdžius, kurie leido jiems suprasti ir numatyti projekto plėtros 

procesą. Mokymų konsultantai/ekspertai lavino pagrindinius dalyvių gebėjimus, kaip plėtoti ir rengti projektą, 

pavyzdžiui, tokius kaip struktūros kūrimas, veiklos planavimas, pagrindinių žinių apie projektą teikimas 

ir pan. Kad mokymų metu būtų veiksmingai perteikta informacija, 2010 m. rugsėjį išleistas naujas leidinys 

(mokymo medžiaga), kaip plėtoti projekto idėją, parengti projekto paraiškos veiklų bei biudžetines dalis, 

kaip susirasti partnerių ir pan. 

Siekiant sukurti efektyvias priemones ir metodus, vykdytas empirinis tyrimas (interviu ir klausimynas), 

kurio tikslas – išsiaiškinti, kas trukdo plėtoti projektus, kokios pagalbos pageidautų pareiškėjai. 

Pagrindiniai projektų plėtros barjerai yra šie: nepakankamas anglų kalbos mokėjimo lygis, nepakankami 

organizacijų žmogiškieji ištekliai, problemos dėl avanso teikimo ir kofinansavimo, bendrosios informacijos 

apie Pietų Baltijos programą, partnerių stoka ir kt. 

Pagrindinės pageidaujamos pagalbos sritys: projekto idėjos generavimas, projekto biudžeto sudarymas, 

partnerių paieška, bendravimo tarp skirtingų šalių partnerių palaikymas ir puoselėjimas, informacija apie 

paraiškų pateikimo ir vertinimo procesus. 

PAGRINDINIAI ŽODŽIAI: tarptautinis bendradarbiavimas, gebėjimų ugdymo projektas, Pietų Baltijos 

programa. 

JEL kodai: O19, O22, O31, O57. 

160


DARBUOTOJŲ DARBO MOTYVACIJOS IR PASITENKINIMO 

DARBU SĄSAJOS 

Daiva Viningienė 1 


Anotacija 

Straipsnyje aptariama darbuotojų motyvavimo ir pasitenkinimo darbu samprata, reikšmė, teoriniai aspektai. Straipsnyje siekiama 

atskleisti, kaip motyvacija ir pasitenkinimas darbu susiję. Keliama teorinė prielaida, kad darbo motyvacijos lygis ir darbuotojų 

pasitenkinimas savo darbu yra tiesiogiai susiję. Ši prielaida patvirtinama tyrimu. Tyrimo rezultatai rodo, kad siekiant organizacijoje 

sukurti vieningą motyvacijos ir pasitenkinimo darbu sistemą, reikėtų atlikti papildomus kokybinius tyrimus, kurie atskleistų, kokie 

motyvuojantys veiksniai didina Lietuvos organizacijų darbuotojų pasitenkinimą darbu. 

PAGRINDINIAI ŽODŽIAI: darbuotojai, motyvacija, pasitenkinimas darbu, sąsaja. 

JEL klasifikacija: M000 

Įvadas 

Lietuvos darbdaviai vis labiau kreipia dėmesį į savo darbuotojus, jų lūkesčius ir pasitenkinimą darbu. Tai 

svarbu siekiant užtikrinti savo įmonės produktyvumą, veiklos efektyvumą, teigiamą įtaką regiono ekonomikai, 

nes taip stengiamasi išlaikyti gerus specialistus, kuriamas teigiamas organizacijos klimatas. Straipsnyje 

atskleidžiama problema: dėl nepakankamai motyvuotų darbuotojų ir menko jų pasitenkinimo darbu didėja 

darbuotojų kaita organizacijose, o tai lemia vis didėjančias organizacijos išlaidas dėl naujų darbuotojų 

paieškos. Darbuotojai, kaip žmogiškieji ištekliai, yra vienas svarbiausių ekonominių veiksnių, turintis įtakos 

organizacijų veiklos rezultatams. Lietuvai įstojus į Europos Sąjungą, nemažai įvairių sričių specialistų išvyko 

iš Lietuvos į kitas šalis. Svarbus uždavinys ne tik įmonių, bet ir valstybės mastu, kaip išlaikyti darbingus 

žmones Lietuvoje ekonominiu sunkmečiu. Apie ilgalaikes plėtros perspektyvas mąstančios organizacijos 

stengiasi išlaikyti esamus darbuotojus ir ypatingą dėmesį skiria jų motyvacijai, nes dėl migracijos darosi vis 

sunkiau rasti kvalifikuotų, motyvuotų darbuotojų. Visoms įmonėms darbuotojų motyvacija yra aktuali, nes 

ne tik didina dirbančiųjų pasitenkinimą darbu, bet ir teikia apčiuopiamos naudos: produktyvesnis darbas, 

geresnis įmonės įvaizdis, patrauklios darbo vietos, noras išlaikyti darbo vietą, garantuotos pajamos, užimtumas. 

Visa tai užtikrina stabilų regiono ekonominį vystymąsi. 

Jei darbuotojas nejaučia pasitenkinimo darbu, nėra pakankamai motyvuotas, jis gali pasirinkti kitą, patrauklesnę 

organizaciją. Taigi darbdaviui kyla dilema, kaip nepatirti nuostolių dėl darbuotojo išėjimo, juk į jį 

buvo mažiau ar daugiau investuota, o dėl naujo darbuotojo paieškų vėl bus patiriamos papildomos išlaidos, 

radus tinkamą darbuotoją, į jį darbdavys turės vėl investuoti. Įmonių vadovai turėtų ieškoti būdų, kaip sumažinti 

darbuotojų kaitą įmonėje, kas leistų taupyti su darbuotojų samda susijusias išlaidas. Tačiau nepaprasta 

nuspręsti, kaip išlaikyti darbuotoją organizacijoje, nes atlyginimas nėra vienintelis kriterijus. Galima teigti, 

1 

Daiva Viningienė – Klaipėdos universiteto Socialinių mokslų fakulteto Vadybos katedra, asistentė. Mokslinės kryptys: personalo 

valdymas. 

El. paštas: v.daiva@gmail.com 

Tel.: +370 682 482 42 

161


DARBUOTOJŲ DARBO MOTYVACIJOS IR PASITENKINIMO DARBU SĄSAJOS 

kad svarbu surasti kompleksą motyvavimo priemonių, kurios tiktų daugumai įmonės darbuotojų, kad jų kaita 

būtų minimali. Svarbu tinkamai įvertinti, kas gali paskatinti darbuotojus, sudominti siekti įmonės tikslų, 

suderinti įmonės ir darbuotojo asmeninius interesus. 

Šio straipsnio objektas – darbuotojų motyvacija ir pasitenkinimas darbu. 

Tikslas: atskleisti darbo motyvacijos ir pasitenkinimo darbu sąsajas prekybos sektoriaus organizacijose. 

Uždaviniai: 

• y išnagrinėti darbuotojų motyvacijos ir pasitenkinimo darbu sąsajų teorinius aspektus; 

• y nustatyti prekybos sektoriaus organizacijose darbuotojų motyvacijos ir pasitenkinimo darbu ryšį. 

Tyrimo metodai: lyginamoji mokslinės literatūros analizė, anketinis tyrimas, duomenų sisteminimas 

ir grupavimas, apibendrinimas. Tyrimo duomenims apdoroti naudotas SPSS programinis paketas. Atliekama 

pradinė analizė, taikoma aprašomoji statistika: a) duomenys pateikiami grafiškai; b) apskaičiuojamos 

pagrindinės charakteristikos, duomenų statistiniam ryšiui nustatyti taikyta koreliacinė analizė. Vidurkiams 

palyginti naudotas t testas ir dispersinė analizė. 

1. Darbuotojų motyvacijos ir pasitenkinimo darbu sąsajos teorinis aspektas 

Straipsnyje motyvavimas analizuojamas kaip procesas, susiejantis individo interesus ir organizacijos 

galimybes. Kitaip tariant, įmonė skatina individą duodama tai, ko reikia norint patenkinti jo poreikius, o 

darbuotojas už tą gerovę atsilygina siekdamas bendrovės tikslų. Keliama teorinė prielaida, kad motyvacijos 

lygis ir darbuotojų pasitenkinimas savo darbu veikia vienas kitą, t. y. yra tiesiogiai priklausomi. 

Kai kalbama apie motyvaciją gerai dirbti, turimi omenyje veiksniai, skatinantys darbuotis: darbo užmokestis, 

pagarba, karjeros didinimo galimybė, kūrybinė atmosfera, premijos ir pan. Tačiau motyvaciniai veiksniai 

skirtingus žmones motyvuoja nevienodai, todėl darbdaviams privalu žinoti kai kurias subtilybes. Vienas 

svarbiausių veiksnių, lemiančių darbo motyvaciją, yra darbo užmokestis. Darbuotojui svarbus faktinis darbo 

užmokesčio dydis ir tai, kad jaustųsi gavęs teisingą atlygį už darbą. Atlyginimas turi užtikrinti žmogaus saugumo 

ir tikrumo jausmą. Jei už darbą atsiskaitoma neteisingai arba nesąžiningai, asmuo jaučia nuoskaudą, 

kuri reiškiasi kaip nenoras stengtis darbe ir siekis keisti darbą. 

Taigi motyvacijos reikšmę rodo pasekmės, kai skatinimo sistemos nėra arba ji neveiksminga. Jei darbuotojo 

pastangos lieka nepastebėtos, jis jaučia nepasitenkinimą darbu, pradeda galvoti apie esamos darbo vietos 

keitimą. Motyvuotas darbuotojas jaučia didesnę atsakomybę įmonei ir klientams, pasitenkinimą darbu. 

Nemažai autorių motyvacijos sąvoką sieja su asmens poreikiais ir motyvais, nuo kurių priklauso individo 

veiksmai, elgesys darbe. K. Lukoševičius, B. Martinkus teigia, kad „motyvacija – tai žmogaus norai ir 

poreikiai“ (Lukoševičius, Martinkus, 2001, p. 101). Pasak R. C. Appleby (2003), motyvacija vadinami individo 

polinkiai, troškimai, paskatos ir poreikiai, kurie nukreipia, kontroliuoja arba paaiškina žmogaus elgesį. 

P. Zakarevičiaus teigimu, motyvavimas – tai „veiksnių, skatinančių darbuotojus geriau atlikti jiems pavestus 

darbus (pareigas), išaiškinimas ir poveikio priemonių, būdų, aktyvinančių veiklą šių veiksnių pagrindu, „sugalvojimas“ 

bei panaudojimas“ (Zakarevičius, 2008, p. 79). JAV ekonomistai J. A. F. Stoner, R. E. Freeman, 

D. R. Gilbert (2000) motyvacijai įmonėje skiria gana svarbų vaidmenį, nes motyvacija padeda vadovams 

tvarkyti darbo santykius organizacijose: jei vadovai žino, kas skatina žmones dirbti, jie gali pritaikyti darbo 

užduotis ir atsilyginimą taip, kad priverstų juos tikėti. Nemažai autorių motyvacijos sąvoką sieja su asmens 

poreikiais ir motyvais, nuo kurių priklauso individo veiksmai, elgesys darbe. 

2000 metais atlikę tyrimą dvylikoje Lietuvos gamybos įmonių ir apklausę 559 įvairių lygių vadovus tyrimo 

autoriai V. R. Kulvinskienė ir A. Marčinskas daro išvadą, kad vadovų motyvavimą tirti metodologiškai 

sudėtinga dėl dvilypio jų vaidmens: vadovas vienu metu yra ir motyvacijos objektas, ir subjektas. Kitaip 

tariant, jis yra motyvuojamas, kartu turi motyvuoti ir savo pavaldinius. 

Vienas iš šiuolaikinių požiūrių – polinominė teorija, teigianti, kad motyvavimą sudarančių elementų 

reikšmės per laiką gali kisti. Teorijos autorius M. Priemoli (2003) pateikia gana paprastą darbuotojo motyvacijos 

pavyzdį. Teigiama, kad darbuotojo motyvaciją lemia šie veiksniai: atlyginimas (20 %) + viršininkas 

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(50 %) + įtaka (10 %) + darbo grafikas (10 %) + darbo atmosfera (5 %) + bendradarbiai (5 %). Jie veikia 

skirtingai. 

Taigi pasirinkto darbuotojo atveju labiausiai motyvuoja dirbti viršininkas, tada reikšmingumo požiūriu – 

atlyginimas, įtaka, darbo grafikas, atmosfera ir bendradarbiai. Anot M. Premoli (2003), darbuotojo motyvacija 

priklauso nuo gyvenimo ir karjeros fazės. Jei darbuotojas ką tik baigė universitetą ir tai jo pirmi žingsniai 

įmonėje, svarbiausias motyvuotojas bus viršininkas. Motyvai keičiasi: jei darbuotojas ima paskolą namui 

pirkti, svarbiausia tampa alga; jei turi vaikų, svarbiausiu veiksniu gali tapti darbo grafikas. 

Dauguma žmonių, įsisukę į gyvenimo ir pragyvenimo rutiną, nesvarsto pasitenkinimo darbu klausimo. 

Šiandien, ekonominiu sunkmečiu, svarbu turėti darbą ir jo neprarasti – tokios pagrindinės tendencijos visuomenėje. 

Jos sunkiai siejamos su pasitenkinimu darbu, veiksmingumu darbe ar darbdavio lūkesčiais. 

Reikėtų aptarti, kas yra pasitenkinimas darbu. Tai žmogaus emocinė reakcija į savo darbą. Kiekvienas 

atėjęs į darbą (Jonaitytė 2007) „atsineša“ savo vertybes. Jeigu darbe puoselėjamos tos pačios vertybės, jaučiamas 

pasitenkinimas. Žmonių požiūriai į tai, kas svarbu, ir į tai, kas teikia pasitenkinimą, labai skirtingi. 

Pasitenkinimas ar nepasitenkinimas darbu – individo nuostata į savo darbą – neabejotinai vienas dažniausiai 

studijuojamų organizacinės elgsenos dalykų. D. W. Organ ir T. S. Bareman teigia, kad iki 1950 metų vadybos 

literatūroje dažniausiai vartota moralės sąvoka iš karinės terminologijos (Taločkienė 2002). Kadangi praktikoje 

taikytos nuotaikos, moralinės būklės matavimo priemonės perimtos iš psichologijoje taikomos nuostatų 

skalių aiškinimo technikos, ilgainiui nuotaiką, moralinę būseną pakeitė nauja – nuostatos dėl darbo sąvoka. 

Vėliau ši sąvoka pradėta interpretuoti kaip lygis, kiek patenkinami individo poreikiai darbe. Dėl to sąvokos 

nuostata dėl darbo ir pasitenkinimas darbu tapo sinonimais (Taločkienė 2002). 

J. R. Schermerhornas, J. G. Huntas ir N. R. Osbornas (2004) pateikia kiek išsamesnį apibrėžimą: „Pasitenkinimas 

darbu nulemia, kokio stiprumo teigiamas arba neigiamas emocijas žmogus patiria dėl savo darbo. 

Tai santykinai pastovi nuostata arba emocinė reakcija į užduotis bei į fizines ir socialines darbo sąlygas“ 

(Chomentauskienė, 2008, p. 142). 

Apibendrinant galima teigti, kad nuostatos yra vertinamojo pobūdžio – tai palankūs arba nepalankūs pareiškimai 

apie objektus, žmones ar įvykius. Nuostatos atskleidžia, ką žmogus dėl kažko jaučia. Sakydamas 

„man patinka mano darbas“, išreiškia nuostatą dėl savo darbo. Žmogus gali turėti tūkstančius nuostatų, tačiau 

šiuo atveju dėmesys sutelkiamas tik į labai ribotą skaičių su darbu susijusių nuostatų, tai: pasitenkinimas 

darbu, įsitraukimas į darbą ir įsipareigojimas organizacijai (Robbins Stephen, 2003). 

Pasitenkinimo darbu pasekmės lygiai taip pat svarbios, kaip ir veiksniai, lemiantys pasitenkinimą ar 

nepasitenkinimą. Viena pasekmių – pasitenkinimas darbu ir produktyvumas. Iš pirmo žvilgsnio atrodytų 

viskas pozityvu: darbuotojas patenkintas darbu, jam sukurtos puikios sąlygos, todėl savaime suprantama, 

kad produktyvumas turėtų būti užprogramuotas. Deja, atsitinka taip, kad turėdamas patogią aplinką darbui 

darbuotojas pradeda užsiimti asmenine veikla. Teigti, kad pasitenkinimas darbu visada lems produktyvumą, 

negalima. Šiuo metu manoma, kad ne pasitenkinimas lemia darbo produktyvumą, o produktyvumas – pasitenkinimą 

(Robbins Stephen, 2003). 

Ryšys tarp pasitenkinimo darbu ir savanoriškos darbuotojų kaitos nenustatytas. Viena grupė tyrinėtojų 

nustatė, kad 18–25 metų moterų pasitenkinimas darbu joms juos keičiant išsilaiko vienodame lygyje. Kita 

vertus, kuo ilgiau jos dirba viename darbe, tuo mažesnė savanoriško išėjimo iš darbo galimybė. Didesnis darbo 

stažas vienoje organizacijoje mažina nepasitenkinimą darbu ir tarp dirbančių vyrų. Šiuo atveju iškyla dar 

vienas veiksnys – įsipareigojimas organizacijai, kuris svarbus pasitenkinimo darbu ir savanoriškos darbuotojų 

kaitos santykyje. Kitas veiksnys – šalies ekonomika. Jei ji yra aukšto lygio ir maža bedarbystė, darbuotojų 

kaita didėja, nes žmonės ieško galimybių įvairiose organizacijose. Net jei darbuotojai ir patenkinti savo 

darbu, jie tiki pažadais, kad kitur bus geriau. Kita vertus, jei darbą sunku susirasti, kas būdinga ekonominiam 

sunkmečiui, nepatenkinti darbuotojai ir toliau čia dirbs. Daugelis pritaria nuomonei, kad kiekvienai organizacijai 

svarbu, kad darbuotojai būtų patenkinti savo darbu. Bet kai kurie kritikai tam nepritaria, jie remiasi 

tuo, kad kol kas įrodytas visiškai nedidelis tiesioginis teigiamas efektas (Taločkienė, 2002). 

Apibendrinant, reikėtų atkreipti dėmesį, kad veiksniai, darantys įtaką pasitenkinimui darbu, bei pasitenkinimo 

pasekmės yra labai įvairūs, kaip ir motyvacijų teorijos. Taigi visuomenę sudaro individai su labai 

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skirtingais poreikiais, lūkesčiais ir asmenybinėmis savybėmis. Ieškant bendrų sprendimų, kaip kurti motyvavimo 

sistemą konkrečioje įmonėje, pirmiausiai reikia susiformuoti šiuolaikišką ir kūrybišką, gal ne visai 

tradicišką poziciją, kuri galėtų būti lemiamas veiksnys, užtikrinantis įmonės sėkmę. 

Taigi motyvuoti žmonių elgesį, nukreipiant įmonei ar organizacijai svarbia kryptimi, yra labai svarbu. Ir 

nors vidiniai bei išoriniai veiksniai, lemiantys žmogaus elgesį darbe, yra sugrupuoti ir teoriškai paaiškinti, 

realybėje juos paaiškinti gana sunku. Beje, anksčiau analizuotos teorijos turi ir savo kultūrinį atspalvį, todėl 

lietuvių visuomenei tiesiogiai netaikytinos. Prieš aptariant motyvacijos ir pasitenkinimo darbu sąsajas, reikėtų 

trumpai apžvelgti situaciją Lietuvoje. 

Lietuvos įmonėse ir organizacijose vis didesnis dėmesys skiriamas darbuotojų poreikiams bei lūkesčiams, 

vis dažniau taikomos priemonės, kurios galėtų padidinti darbuotojų pasitenkinimą darbu. Besiformuojantys 

rinkos santykiai neišvengiamai turėtų keisti ir Lietuvos dirbančiųjų vertybių sistemą, vis dėlto 

ryški išlieka elgsena, kai nepasitikima savo jėgomis, trūksta suinteresuotumo, iniciatyvos, savikritiškumo. 

Aukštas nedarbo lygis ir žemas pragyvenimo lygis yra viena priežasčių, lemiančių Lietuvos darbuotojų 

žemą vidinę motyvaciją. Pasak N. Vasiljevienės (2007), Lietuvos kultūrai svetima sėkmės, pasitikėjimo savo 

jėgomis etika, čia akcentuojami suvaržymai ir nuolankumas. Nuolankumo matmenį kultūroje sustiprino fatalizmo 

idėjos, kurios skatina pasyvumą. Apibendrinant teorinius samprotavimus ir Lietuvoje atliktų tyrimų 

išvadas, galima teigti, kad visuomenėje, kuriai būdingi pasyvesni individai, negalime taikyti motyvacijos 

standartų, taikomų aktyviems individams. 

Apibendrinant galima teigti, kad skyriaus pradžioje iškelta prielaida, jog motyvacija ir pasitenkinimas 

darbu tiesiogiai susiję, pasitvirtino. Pasitvirtino ir tai, kad motyvavimo priemonės turi sudaryti vieningą, bet 

kiekvienai įmonei ar organizacijai skirtą individualią sistemą, kuri, be abejonės, priklauso nuo organizacijos 

vizijos, tikslų ir kultūros. 

2. Prekybos sektoriaus darbuotojų motyvacijos ir pasitenkinimo darbu ryšio 

tyrimo analizė 

Atliktas kiekybinis tyrimas, kreipiant dėmesį į koreliacijas, nes siekiama atskleisti ryšį tarp prekybos 

sektoriaus darbuotojų motyvacijos ir pasitenkinimo darbu. 

Tyrimui naudota P. E. Spectoro pasitenkinimo darbu skalė (angl. Job Satisfaction Survey – JSS). Metodika 

vertina dalykinį pasitenkinimą darbu. Lietuvišką skalės variantą, autoriui leidus, parengė P. Žakaitis ir 

M. Rugevičius (2004). Skalę sudaro 9 subskalės, pagal kurias įvertinamas pasitenkinimas šiais dalykiniais 

darbo aspektais: atlygiu, paaukštinimo galimybėmis, vadovavimu, papildomomis lengvatomis, kolegomis, 

pripažinimu komandoje, veiklos sąlygomis, veiklos turiniu, bendravimu. 

Darbo motyvacijos tyrimui pasirinktas motyvacijos darbe nustatymo testas (darbuotojų motyvacija remiantis 

F. Herzbergo dviejų veiksnių teorija). Kiekvienas teiginys reiškia tam tikrą motyvacijos veiksnį: 

finansinį, pripažinimo ir dėkingumo, atsakomybės, santykių su vadovu, karjeros, rezultatų, darbo turinio, 

bendradarbiavimo. Šis testas gali padėti nustatyti darbo motyvacinių veiksnių stiprumą. 

Formuluojamos šios tyrimo hipotezės. 

1 hipotezė. Kuo didesnis pasitenkinimas darbu, tuo didesnė darbo motyvacija. 

2 hipotezė. Didesnį darbo stažą turintys darbuotojai pasižymi didesniu pasitenkinimu darbu, o trumpiau 

dirbantieji – aukštesniu motyvacijos lygiu. 

Tyrimas buvo atliekamas 2011 m. lapkričio–gruodžio mėnesiais. Kaip respondentai pasirinkti Klaipėdos 

apskrities statybinių medžiagų prekybos įmonių darbuotojai: vadovai (41,9 %) ir pavaldiniai (58,1 %). Apklausti 

105 respondentai. Tyrime dalyvavo 54,3 % moterų ir 45,7 % vyrų. Šiame tyrime dalyvavo daugiausia 

31–40 metų respondentai. Jie sudarė 41,9 % apklaustųjų. 20 % dalyvaujančiųjų buvo 26–30 metų asmenys. 

Trečioji, didžiausia, grupė buvo vidutinio amžiaus žmonės (41–50 metų), kurie sudarė 18,1 %. Gauti duomenys 

rodo, kad ketvirtadalis (24,8 %) respondentų turi mažesnį nei 5 metų darbo stažą, 21,0 % apklaustųjų 

sudarė asmenys, kurių darbo stažas – 6–10 metų. Likusieji pasiskirstė panašiai: 19,0 % – 16–20 metų, 

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18,1 % – daugiau kaip 20 metų ir 17,1 % – 11–15 metų. Galima teigti, kad tyrime dalyvavo pakankamą darbo 

patirtį turintys asmenys. 

Šiame tyrime gauti rezultatai atitinka nustatytus vidinio suderinamumo rodiklius (nuo 0,60 iki 0,82). 

Taigi gauti rezultatai yra patikimi, nes pasitenkinimo klausimyno kronbacho alfa (Cronbach alfa) – 0,638; 

motyvacijos klausimyno – 0,703. 

1 pav. Tiriamųjų motyvacijos veiksnių išreikštumo lygio vidurkiai 

Šaltinis: sudaryta straipsnio autorės, remiantis tyrimo duomenimis 

Analizuojant motyvacijos veiksnių vidurkius didžiausios reikšmės yra ties finansiniu veiksniu – 21,13 ir 

darbo turinio veiksniu 20,61 balo, tai rodo, kad šie veiksniai, darbuotojų nuomone, yra svarbiausi. Mažiausiai 

svarbūs darbuotojams atrodo karjeros (vidurkis – 14,3 balo), pripažinimo ir dėkingumo (vidurkis – 15,11 balo). 

Toliau analizuojami tyrimo rezultatai, gauti iš pasitenkinimo darbu ir motyvacijos klausimyno. Baigiamojo 

darbo temai atskleisti išsikeltos kelios tyrimo hipotezės. 

1 hipotezė. Kuo didesnis pasitenkinimas darbu, tuo didesnė darbo motyvacija. Šiai hipotezei tikrinti 

panaudotas Pirsono koreliacijos koeficientas, kuris rodo, ar yra ryšys tarp dviejų požymių. Koreliacijos koeficientas 

r įgyja reikšmes nuo -1 iki 1: kuo arčiau 1, tuo ryšys stipresnis. Neigiamas r rodo atvirkštinį ryšį, 

teigiamas – tiesioginį. Rezultatų reikšmingumo lygmuo žymimas p, jeigu p



Ryšys tarp rezultatų ir finansinio motyvo, pripažinimo, atsakomybės, santykių su vadovu, karjeros motyvų 

nėra reikšmingas, nes p (reikšmingumas) yra didesnis nei 0,05. 

Reikšmingi ryšiai tarp darbo turinio ir santykių su vadovu (r = -0,444, p = 0,000) bei rezultatų (r = -0,262, 

p = 0,007) yra atvirkštiniai. Tiriamiesiems, kurie akcentavo, kad jiems svarbus darbo turinys, santykių su 

vadovu ir rezultatų motyvas yra mažiau svarbus. 

Tyrimo rezultatai atskleidė reikšmingą atvirkštinį ryšį tarp bendradarbiavimo ir finansinės (r = -0,424, 

p = 0,000) bei karjeros (r = -0,527, p = 0,000) motyvacijos. Kuo svarbesnis bendradarbiavimas, tuo mažiau 

svarbūs finansinis ir karjeros motyvai. Pripažįstantieji bendradarbiavimą (darbą komandoje, su kolegomis) 

nesureikšmina materialinio motyvo ir galimybės siekti karjeros. 

Ryšys tarp pasitenkinimo darbu ir finansinės, karjeros bei darbo turinio motyvacijos yra tiesioginis – kuo 

didesnis pasitenkinimas darbu, tuo svarbesnis finansinis, rezultatų ir darbo turinio motyvas. Gauti tyrimo 

duomenys neleidžia šių rodiklių interpretuoti kaip statistiškai reikšmingų (p


1 lentelė. Darbo stažo ir pasitenkinimo darbu bei motyvacijos koreliacinė analizė 

Veiksniai 

Finansinis 

Pripažinimo ir dėkingumo 

Atsakomybės 

Santykių su vadovu 

Karjeros 

Rezultatų 

Darbo turinio 

Bendradarbiavimo 

Pasitenkinimas 

Koreliacijos koeficientas r 

Darbo stažas 

Rezultatų reikšmingumo lygmuo p 

r -0,019 

p 0,851 

r 0,101 

p 0,306 

r -0,002 

p 0,986 

r 0,051 

p 0,603 

r -0,360 

p 0,000 

r 0,087 

p 0,375 

r 0,029 

p 0,766 

r 0,173 

p 0,078 

r 0,207 

p 0,034 

Šaltinis: sudaryta straipsnio autorės, remiantis tyrimo duomenimis 

Tyrimo duomenų koreliacinė analizė išryškino du svarbiausius veiksnius, kurie reikšmingai susiję su 

darbo stažu. Tai karjera ir pasitenkinimas. 

Gauti duomenys rodo atvirkštinį ryšį tarp karjeros ir darbo stažo: kuo didesnis darbo stažas, tuo mažiau 

svarbi karjera (r = -0,360, p = 0,000). 

Tuo tarpu pasitenkinimo ir darbo stažo ryšys yra tiesioginis: kuo didesnis darbo stažas, tuo labiau asmuo 

patenkintas darbo vieta, darbu (r = 0,207, p = 0,034). Galima teigti, kad ilgiau dirbantys asmenys jaučia didesnį 

pasitenkinimą darbu, nei asmenys, turintys mažesnį darbo stažą. 

Antroji hipotezė (didesnį darbo stažą turintys darbuotojai labiau patenkinti darbu, o trumpiau dirbantieji 

– labiau motyvuoti) pasitvirtino iš dalies. Koreliacinė analizė atskleidė, kad darbo stažo ir pasitenkinimo 

darbu ryšys yra tiesioginis ir statistiškai reikšmingas. Tuo tarpu daugelio motyvacijos veiksnių ir darbo stažo 

ryšys nereikšmingas (išskyrus karjeros veiksnį). 

Apibendrinant tyrimo rezultatus, atkreiptinas dėmesys į tai, kad tiriama konkreti žmonių grupė, užsiimanti 

statybinių medžiagų realizavimu, čia priimti standartai pasiteisina ne visada. Beje, įvertinant situaciją 

reikia atkreipti dėmesį ir į tai, kokioje politinėje ir ekonominėje atmosferoje respondentai pildė anketas. 

Galbūt tiriamųjų atsakymus lėmė ir neigiamas požiūris į sunkmetį, kylantis nerimas dėl išlikimo, apatija. 

Atliekant tyrimus pasitaiko atvejų, kad respondentai savo motyvus kartais nutyli, anketas pildo neatidžiai ar 

nenuoširdžiai. Tai galima interpretuoti įvairiai, tačiau ryšys tarp pasitenkinimo darbu ir finansinės, karjeros 

bei darbo turinio motyvacijos yra tiesioginis: kuo didesnis pasitenkinimas darbu, tuo svarbesnis finansinis, 

rezultatų ir darbo turinio motyvas. Pasitenkinimas darbu šiuo atveju gali būti lyg kūrybinio potencialo paskata, 

leidžianti siekti didesnio atlygio, demonstruoti savo galimybes, generuoti naujas idėjas, tikintis teisingo 

atlygio už darbą, įvertinimo ir darbo turinio kaitos. Tačiau gauti tyrimo duomenys neleidžia šių rodiklių 

interpretuoti kaip statistiškai reikšmingų. 

Tie respondentai, kuriems svarbus bendradarbiavimas, kur kas mažiau sureikšmina materialinį motyvą 

arba karjeros siekimą. Bendradarbiauti linkę žmonės tenkina partnerystės ir bendravimo poreikį, tai svarbu 

kiekvienam individui. Draugiški ir palaikantys kolegos skatina pasitenkinimą darbu – bendrai sukurtu rezultatu 

ir produktu. Be abejonės, verta atkreipti dėmesį, kad bendradarbiavimas svarbus visuomeniškiems 

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žmonėms, kur kas mažiau – individualistams, kurie puikiai jaučiasi dirbdami vieni. Vadovas turėtų pasirinkti 

tokį darbo stilių, kad būtų sukurta tinkama atmosfera ir tiems, kurie yra linkę bendradarbiauti, ir tiems, kurie 

turi kitų motyvų. 

Ne visus tyrimo rezultatus įmanoma interpretuoti tik teoriškai, svarbu įvertinti vidinius ir išorinius veiksnius, 

tiriamosios grupės poreikius politiniame-ekonominiame šalies fone bei psichologinį žmonių nusiteikimą. 

Ar galima būtų teigti, kad vadovaujantieji darbuotojai pasižymi aukštesniu motyvacijos ir pasitenkinimo 

darbu lygiu, eiliniai darbuotojai – žemesniu? Tyrimo rezultatai, gauti tiriant finansinius, pripažinimo, atsakomybės, 

dėkingumo, santykių su vadovu, karjeros veiksnius, reikšmingo skirtumo tarp vadovaujančiųjų 

asmenų ir pavaldinių neatskleidė. Tačiau statistiškai reikšmingai skiriasi vadovaujančių asmenų ir pavaldinių 

rezultatų veiksnio vertinimas. 

Hipotezė, teigianti, kad didesnį darbo stažą turintys darbuotojai labiau patenkinti darbu, o trumpiau dirbantieji 

– labiau motyvuoti, pasitvirtino iš dalies. Tai iliustruoja tyrimo rezultatai: ilgiau dirbantys asmenys 

jaučia didesnį pasitenkinimą darbu, nei asmenys, turintys mažesnį darbo stažą. Mažesnį stažą dažniausiai 

turi jauni žmonės, neseniai baigę mokymo įstaigą, pradėję savarankišką gyvenimą, turintys sėkmingo (finansinė 

nepriklausomybė) gyvenimo planą, kuriam įgyvendinti reikia, geriausiu atveju, teisingo darbo užmokesčio, 

kuris, be abejonės, siejamas su pripažinimu, įvertinimu ir karjera. Didesnį darbo stažą turintiesiems 

tai gali būti jau praėjęs etapas: sukurta buitis, užauginti vaikai ir pan. Saviraiškai ir savirealizacijai belikęs 

darbas, kuriame žmogus randa bendraminčių, pramogą, kūrybinio potencialo įgyvendinimo sąlygas, kelia 

didžiulį pasitenkinimą. Tačiau gali būti ir atvirkščiai: jeigu žmogus dirba iš įpročio, nes nieko kito, mano, 

nemoka daryti, jeigu praeityje savęs nerealizavo, t. y. nebuvo įvertintas ar pripažintas, pasitenkinimo darbu 

nejaus. Tyrimo rezultatai, leidžiantys daryti išvadą, kad kuo didesnis darbo stažas, tuo mažiau svarbi karjera, 

gana įtikinami. 

Išvados 

Teorinė prielaida, kad darbo motyvacijos lygis ir darbuotojų pasitenkinimas savo darbu veikia vienas 

kitą, t. y. tiesiogiai priklausomi, pasitvirtino. Darbuotojų motyvavimo sistemos kūrimas konkrečioje įmonėje 

ar organizacijoje turi remtis konkrečiais darbuotojų tyrimais, įmonės ar organizacijos tikslais, kultūra ir 

galimybėmis. 

Atliktas motyvavimo ir pasitenkinimo darbu kiekybinis tyrimas, kuriam pasirinkti Žemaitijos regiono 

statybinių medžiagų parduotuvių darbuotojai (vadovai ir pavaldiniai), iš dalies patvirtina arba paneigia darbe 

iškeltas hipotezes. Vieningos motyvacijos ir pasitenkinimo darbu sistemos kūrimas turi būti ne tik savalaikis, 

bet ir labai dinamiškas, šiuolaikiškas. Motyvavimo priemonių taikymas organizacijoje yra ribotas ir darbuotojai 

dėl to yra mažiau patenkinti savo darbu, tai sietina su pakankamu / nepakankamu darbuotojų motyvavimu. 

Pasitenkinimas darbu lemia ne tik aukštesnę darbo kokybę, bet ir organizacijos darbuotojų lojalumą. 

Tuo tarpu žemas pasitenkinimo lygis rodo, kad organizacijoje yra tam tikrų personalo problemų. 

Prekybos sektoriuje atliktas tyrimas atskleidė ryšį tarp pasitenkinimo darbu ir motyvacijos. Tyrimo duomenys 

rodo, kad tarp pasitenkinimo darbu ir motyvacijos veiksnių yra koreliacija, bet ji nėra statistiškai 

reikšminga. 

Palyginus darbo motyvacijos ir pasitenkinimo darbu lygį, atsižvelgiant į statusą, darbo stažą ir išsilavinimą, 

paaiškėjo, kad tiriamoje grupėje tai nėra pagrindiniai veiksniai. Reikšmingas skirtumas tarp vadovų ir 

pavaldinių atskleistas vertinant rezultatų veiksnį: vadovaujantiesiems asmenims rezultatai yra svarbesni nei 

pavaldiniams. Hipotezė, kad didesnį darbo stažą turintys darbuotojai pasižymi didesniu pasitenkinimu darbu, 

o trumpiau dirbantieji – aukštesniu motyvacijos lygiu, pasitvirtino iš dalies. Koreliacinė analizė atskleidė 

tiesioginį reikšmingą ryšį tarp darbo stažo ir pasitenkinimo darbu: didesnį darbo stažą turintys darbuotojai 

jaučia didesnį pasitenkinimą darbu. 

Taigi, nors kiekvieno asmens atliekamos veiklos motyvacija yra asmeniška ir unikali, vis dėlto yra tam 

tikrų dėsningumų, kurie leidžia išskirti motyvų grupes ir kurti darbuotojų motyvavimo sistemas. Šios sistemos 

leidžia įmonei išlaikyti darbuotojus ir skatina juos efektyviai dirbti. Įmonės vadovų dėmesys ir išlaidos, 

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skirtos darbuotojų motyvacijai didinti, visada atsiperka, o darbuotojai skleidžia teigiamą informaciją apie 

įmonę ir išlieka lojalūs savo organizacijai. Siekiant sukurti efektyvią motyvacijos ir pasitenkinimo darbu 

sistemą tirtose organizacijose, rekomenduojama atlikti papildomų kokybinių tyrimų, kurie atskleistų konkrečius 

veiksnius, motyvuojančius ir keliančius pasitenkinimą darbu Žemaitijos regiono statybinių medžiagų 

pardavėjams. 

Literatūra 

Appleby, R. C. (2003). Šiuolaikinis verslo administravimas. Vilnius: Charibdė. 

Chomentauskienė, R. (2008). Žmonės – organizacijos turtas. Prieiga internetu: http://www.psichologijatau.lt 

Grauslytė, D. (2008). Darbuotojų motyvacijos modelis. Prieiga internetu: http://gyvenimas.delfi.lt. 

Jonaitytė, A. (2007). Į darbą kaip į šventę. Pasitenkinimas darbu. Prieiga internetu: www.infoverslas.lt 

Jonušienė, D. (2008). Nuo ko priklauso pasitenkinimas darbu. Prieiga internetu: www.lrytas.lt 

Kulvinskienė, V. R., Marčinskas, A. (2002). Gamybos vadovų motyvacinės orientacijos. Inžinerinė ekonomika, 

Nr. 4(30). Kaunas: Technologija. 

Lukaševičius, K., Martinkus, B. (2001). Verslo vadyba. Kaunas. Kauno technologijos universitetas. 

Marcinkevičiūtė, L. (2008). Darbuotojų motyvavimo modeliai. Tiltai, Nr. 1 (34), p. 11–18. Klaipėda: KU. 

Premoli, M. (2003). Motivation: The Polynomial Theory. Star Tribune Sales and Marketing Published. Prieiga internetu: 

http://www.e-syma.com 

Robbins, S. P. (2003). Organizacinės elgsenos pagrindai. Kaunas: poligrafija ir informatika. 

Stoner, J. A. F., Freeman, R. E., Gilbert, D. R. (2000). Vadyba. Kaunas: poligrafija ir informatika. 

Taločkienė, V. (2002). Pasitenkinimo darbu veiksniai. Prieiga internetu: http://www.verslobanga.lt/lt/patark. 

full/3d889566595eb 

Vasiljevienė, N. (2006). The new managerial technologies and processes of ethics institutionalisation. Tiltai, Nr. 34, 

p. 101–109. Klaipėda: KU. 

Zakarevičius, P. (2008). Modernios organizacijų valdymo teorijos. Kaunas: poligrafija ir informatika. 

Žilinskas, V. J., Zakarienė, J. (2007). Darbuotojų skatinimas – aktuali mokslo ir praktikos problema. Tiltai, Nr. 3 (40), 

p. 25–34. Klaipėda: KU. 

employees relationship between work motivation 

and job satisfaction 



Summary 

The task set was to research and find out information about work motivation and job satisfaction relationships. 

Achievement of the objectives was formulated as follows: to examine workers’ motivation and 

job satisfaction of theoretical aspects of a motivation and job satisfaction in selected organizations, to establish 

a link between them, compared to male and females groups based on motivation and job satisfaction 

levels and a comparison of work motivation and job satisfaction levels, depending on service status, seniority 

and education. Themes and challenges in the disclosure have set itself five hypotheses: the higher job satisfaction 

rates, the greater the motivation to work, the rank and file workers – lower; greater length of service 

personnel with a higher job satisfaction, and shorter working – a higher motivation level. 

PE Spector used in the study of job satisfaction scale, motivation at work test and demographic questionnaire. 

The choice of building materials stores in the region of Klaipėda: personnel, managers and subordinates. 

Interviewed total of 105, out of which 57 were female and 48 male, ages between 31–40 years 

169



old, 24.8 % of respondents had up to 5 years work experience, 21.0 % of the respondents were people who 

had 6–10 years work experience. Most of the interviewed were people with higher education. The larger 

percentage were subordinate workers (58.1 %), the remaining (41.9 %) were higher position workers such 

as managers directors. 

During this task an analysis of employees motivation, the significance of the organization, disclosed the 

essential aspects of the theory of motivation, the diversity of measures of reasoning, an introduction to the 

concept of job satisfaction, job satisfaction analysis of determinants and consequences. After the motivation 

and job satisfaction survey, the following were revealed concerning the motivation and job satisfaction and 

access to defy or partially confirmed the hypothesis raised by the work is as follows: a comparison of work 

motivation and job satisfaction levels, depending on the status, work experience, showed that the group is 

not the major factors of job motivation and job satisfaction. 

KEY WORDS: job motivation, job satisfaction, employees. 

JEL codes: M000 

170


PLACE MARKETING StraTEGY OF LATGALE 

REGION DEVELOPMENT 

Jekaterina Vozņuka 1 

Baltic International academy (Latvia) 

Abstract 

In this paper the author has developed place marketing strategy model for Latgale region that could be used as the base for working 

out programs of social and economic development. The author defines essence and specific of the marketing places conception, analyses 

Latgale region as marketing object based on segmentation and research of target markets. Interrogatory methods were used to 

investigate target audience of the region. The results of analysis of Latgale region and the results of the research of its target markets 

became empirical base for Latgale region place marketing strategy model. The developed place marketing strategy for Latgale region 

is based on regular and systematic investigation of the condition of the territory and its development tendencies in order to take 

rational decisions and to choose the priority development directions in the conditions of limited resources in accordance with real or 

potential demand of the target markets and to allocate the existing resources for its satisfaction. 

KEW WORDS: development, target market, positioning, place marketing. 

JEL codes: R190, R580, M310 

Introduction 

Today the non-homogenous regional development is one of the most significant problems in many 

countries. In the conditions of economic crisis the situation in low-developed regions becomes even more 

complicated. The growing competition, the increase of social problems, the deficit of financial support and 

disbalance of budget enhance the problem. In these conditions the change of approaches and paradigms is 

essential both in economics and management as the perception of humans, their behavior and motives have 

changed. The understanding of the aforementioned situation enables to find new resources and opportunities. 

Economic crisis makes corrections in development programs and scenarios, and only appropriate strategies, 

adjusted to current situation, will matter. 

To stimulate regional development and to remedy crisis situation, it is possible to use marketing approach, 

considering the advantages of territory as a project that certain target audiences are interested in. 

Place marketing is a little developed economic tool in Latvia and a new direction of Latvian economic 

science. The problem of the use of place marketing in Latvia is topical due to several reasons. First of all, 

globalization and capital integration process is developing; secondly, the competition between different territories 

for resources and buyers increases; thirdly, the EU regulations stimulate free circulation of capital, 

goods and people and, therefore, it becomes significant to pay more attention to place marketing sphere; 

fourthly, there are internal problems in the country, including the above mentioned non-homogenous development 

of Latvian regions as well as low loyalty of population to the regions, a high level of migration etc.; 

fifthly, a complicated economic situation in the country requires the search of new development approaches. 

1 

Jekaterina Voznuka – Baltic International academy, docent, doctoral degree in Economics (Dr. oec.), marketing consultant. Scientific 

interest: marketing strategy. 

E-mail: katja.bki@inbox.lv 

Tel.: +371 267 722 41 

171

Jekaterina Voznuka 

PLACE MARKETING SRTATEGY OF LATGALE REGION DEVELOPMENT 

The level of regional economic development is characterized by the following indicators: gross domestic 

product, the number of economically active companies, the amount of non-financial investments, population 

and the rate of unemployment. According to the most of these indicators, Latgale region has the lowest position 

amongst the other regions of Latvia, despite the fact that the guidelines of regional development of Latvia 

were approved and the conception of regional development policy was adopted more than ten years ago. 

The object of the research is Latgale region of Latvia. 

The purpose of the article is to research the opportunities of the use of place marketing in Latgale region 

development. In order to achieve this purpose, the following tasks have been set up: 

1. To analyze the opportunities of the use of place marketing in the development of territories by 

generalizing and comparing modern place marketing conceptions and developing a precise overall 

marketing technology for use in territory development programs; 

2. To research Latgale region as a marketing object and to analyze the target markets of the region and 

their needs; 

3. To analyze the real and potential product of Latgale region from the standpoint of households, business 

environment representatives and visitors; 

4. To develop place marketing strategy model for Latgale region, aimed at the stimulation of its social 

and economic development, by generalizing and systemizing theoretical and practical information, 

based on the results of the conducted researches. 

In the research conventional theoretical and empirical qualitative and quantitative methods have been used, 

including informative analysis and generalization of monographs and other sources; comparative analysis and synthesis 

method; processing of statistical data, using comparison analysis; researches, based on secondary information; 

interrogation by using questionnaires and focus groups, based on descriptive and analytical statistical method. 

1. Place Marketing Conception 

In the conditions of limited resources one of the main territory management tools is the improving of 

the quality of the existing resources ad the creation and attraction of new resources. The enhancement of the 

level of territory development can be achieved, using marketing approach. 

The novelty of place marketing conception is related to the fact that the territory is considered not as an 

administrative unit, but also as an economic subject and object that satisfies the needs of external and internal 

audience in order to increase its wealth. 

Based on the research and generalization of place marketing conception (Ashworth, Voogd, 2007; Kotler, 

2004; Olins, 2003) and definitions, the author suggests the following interpretation: place marketing is a 

target-oriented action that includes market research, product planning, creation, management and promotion 

in the market in order to satisfy the needs of interested target audiences and to achieve the objectives of the 

territory, related to its economic and social development (Вознюк, 2008: 283). 

The target markets of place marketing cover a very wide scope of audiences, as different features of territory 

and the objects of different spheres can draw one’s attention depending on the objectives (Kotler, 1993: 22–33). 

From the author’s point of view, first of all target markets should be distinguished depending on their objective 

related to the territory; in order to facilitate segmentation process, the author suggests to consider the target markets, 

taking into account their “location” – in the territory our out of the territory. Therefore the target markets 

can be classified to internal and external markets, as shown in the scheme, developed by the author (Figure 1). 

Inside of each target market several segments can be distinguished, that could be considered as actually 

or potentially attractive for the territory, and visa versa – the segments that consider the territory as attractive 

for their specific objectives. At the same time one should recognize that the advantages of one of the same 

territory cannot be interesting for all markets. The so-called non-differenced marketing strategy is not available 

for small territories with limited resources and weakly exposed potential, low competitiveness and 

economic development. 

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Target markets of the territory 

External markets 

Internal markets 

Investors 

The companies 

outside the territory 

(within the borders 

of the internal 

market of another 

territory, 

international 

markets) 

Visitors (tourists, 

job seekers, business 

trips; trips, aimed at 

the investigation of 

opportunities of the 

territory etc. 

Companies 

(production, 

IT, trade, 

services and 

other 

branches) 

Residents 

(workers of 

different 

qualifications, 

students, 

pensioners, 

businessmen 

etc.). 

Figure 1. Target Markets in Place Marketing 

Source: Praude, Vozņuka, 2008: 105 

The author suggests using the marketing complex approach “4P” (Product, Price, Place, Promotion) in 

place marketing, taking into account the particularities and specifics of territory. 

Product is the variety of resources and products of the territory, their amount and quality the target markets 

are interested in. As an example, geographic location, nature objects, infrastructure, living standards, 

business activity and many other advantages that can stimulate the interested groups to use the territory for 

their objectives can be mentioned. 

The determination of product price depends on the particularities of the consumers of this territory. For 

households these are life values, the level of income and social benefits as well as the value of specific products. 

For tourists service prices as well as the presence and availability of cultural and historical monuments 

will matter. Potential investors will consider the attractiveness of the value of the available resources, tax 

rates, the features of local legislation and regulations that impose limitations or stimulate investments etc. 

Product place is the concentration and availability of material resources, intellectual and technological 

potential for interested groups and their locations. It should be taken into account that it is impossible to 

move the product (territory advantage) and to offer it to potential consumers within the same territory. A reverse 

process takes place, i.e., the consumers should move around in order to get the product of the territory. 

An exception is the activities of territory in export market, however, even in this case the location of territory 

is of great importance as the distance from it and the expansion of the covered markets influence the price of 

the product, therefore the territory can reduce the competitiveness of its product. 

Product promotion is a complex approach of marketing communications that includes the creation of 

information and distribution channel, its content, form, bearer, amount and implementation time. 

The working out and planning of place marketing strategy, aimed at region development, is based on 

extended researches in different fields. The directions of the researches (Figure 2) determine marketing 

planning stages. 

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Planning stages 

Territory analysis 

The research of competitive 

environment 

Determination of target market, 

segmentation and analysis 

The determination of territory products 

Territory positioning 

The development of place marketing strategies and programs 

The development of observation and control mechanisms 

Figure 2. Place Marketing Conception Development Stages 

Source: the scheme is developed by the author 

Compared to strategic planning, that is widely used in the working out of territory development strategies 

and in regional policy, the place marketing conception is more oriented in market demand, adjusted to market 

conditions and, therefore, in author’s opinion, can provide more efficient results. 

2. The Analysis of Latgale Region as Place marketing Object and its Target Markets 

In the analysis of Latgale region as place marketing object the main attention was paid to the segmentation 

of target markets of the region and the analysis of real and potential product of Latgale region from the 

standpoint of households, business environment representatives and visitors. 

In the process of development of place marketing strategy for households’ target market, first of all, one 

should determine the possible product of the territory, i.e., the advantages and disadvantages that can satisfy 

the needs of the households for the place of residence, or, on the contrary, create negative attitude and stimulate 

them to change their place of residence. 

In order to research the households’ attitude and their satisfaction with their place of residence, interrogations 

have been made in focus groups and using questionnaires (quota selection method, the selection 

scope – 400 respondents). 

The analysis of the results has showed that the contentment with the place of residence is determined by 

many factors. The following factors are the most important ones: 

• y The existence of working places; 

• y The availability and quality of medical services; 

• y Ecologically sound environment; 

• y Good condition of roads and the availability of urban amenities; 

• y Security and low crime level. 

At the same time, along with social and economic indicators satisfaction with the place of residence is 

also influenced by the features that mostly relate to human communication environment, affinity, nationality 

and mother tongue. 

The correspondence of all factors to Latgale region has been evaluated. The results show that the total 

level of evaluation of the factors that determine satisfaction with the place of residence in Latgale is lower 

174


compared to the households’ demands. Such factors as “the existence of working places” and “good condition 

of roads and the availability of urban amenities” do not correspond to the situation in the region at all – 

these are on the last positions; amongst the most demanded factors only “ecologically sound environment” 

has been treated as the feature that corresponds to Latgale district. The availability and quality of telecommunications, 

bank services and consulting as well as the existence of preschools are the closest ones to the 

households’ requirements in terms of situation evaluation; however, it should be noted that these features 

have a moderate influence on the satisfaction of people with their place of residence. 

Despite the fact that the largest part of population associate Latgale with their home and Motherland, the 

level of loyalty can hardly be considered as high, as a total of approximate 35% of respondents consider the 

opportunity to leave Latgale. 

Based on the analysis of the factors that determine satisfaction with the place of residence and the features 

of Latgale region in respondents’ opinion, the author concludes: Latgale as a place of residence is 

evaluated negatively as the most significant factors that determine the satisfaction of people with their place 

of residence in respondents’ valuations are amongst the deficiencies of the region. 

No doubt, in case the territory does not have any other real advantages the strategy of region positioning 

as a place of residence can be based on the features of secondary importance (for example, quality of telecommunications 

and bank services), creating the demand for these features, emphasizing their importance 

and necessity. This technology is based on reorientation of public opinion and attention to other less important 

aspects in order to switch attention from problematic branches and to gain time for liquidation of negative 

features. It is not expedient to assume the probability of sustainable success without changes in living 

conditions of Latgale region, implementing the strategy, based on the features of secondary importance, as 

well as to hope for endless loyalty of population. 

The mentioned problematic issues stimulate the development of negative image of Latgale region, as 

perceived by the population, and require a prompt solution, as all these directions have a great importance in 

the planning of region development strategy. 

The behavior and activities of local and foreign businessmen, export and investors’ target markets are 

interconnected; therefore the author analyzed these markets jointly. 

Business activity is the main condition of the increase of economic development of the region. The general 

economic situation in Latgale is described with the same tendency as is in the country overall, both in 

terms of economic growth and crisis. However, economic situation in Latgale is worse than in Latvia overall. 

Today the local businessmen perceive ambiguously not only business development, but also existence in 

Latgale. Unfavorable forecasts, the general reduction of economic activity as well as the drop in purchase 

power of the households enhance the negative attitude of businessmen and their willing to search for the 

solution of this unfavorable situation. 

As a rule, amongst the most important factors for local and foreign businessmen, export and investors’ 

target markets the following factors can be distinguished: the conditions of business startup and favorable business 

environment and tax system; the situation in labor market and the availability of labor force; the level of development 

of infrastructure and bank sector and the availability of finance; competitiveness policy and the efficiency 

of normative acts and courts country; the policy of development of small and middle enterprises (SME) and public 

organizations, acting in the interests of businessmen and in order to provide support for business development. 

Most of the mentioned factors are not exposed in territory level and are related to the overall territory of 

the country, therefore they cannot objectively distinguish Latgale region in any terms (positive or negative) 

amongst the other regions of Latvia and they should not be considered as the factors, determining business 

development in Latgale. However, there are also other objective factors that can influence the competitiveness 

of Latgale region as a place for business location amongst the other regions of the country. According 

to the results of the analysis there are the following advantages for business environment in Latgale region: 

• y Business development traditions: experience and the availability of qualified labor in different branches 

of national economy; 

• y Geographic location. 

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The territory can assign to business development traditions leading role in the determination of territory 

product, as the development of certain branches in the region does not only influence the direction of business 

image development, but also points to the experience and the existence of qualified labor in national 

economy branches. Amongst the major branches wood processing, metal processing and food processing 

industry as well as furniture production, transportations and transit can be mentioned. 

Geographic location of Latgale region is an objective advantage that can be used for many different business 

activities (export stimulation, the foundation of co-products and additional products manufacture and 

investments in these companies etc.). At the same time transportations and transit should be considered as 

one of the most important factors in the determination of the supply of place marketing product of the region. 

Amongst the other regions of Latvia, Latgale has all rights to be considered as the most promising region 

in terms of tourism development. The region offers various recreation options, especially active recreation 

outdoors and rural tourism. 

The natural conditions and historical traditions of Latgale region also influence the development of tourism 

sphere and the formation of a certain image in terms of visiting and resting in the region. One of the 

types of tourism that is developing in Latgale and is primarily associated with this region is rural tourism. 

The analysis of supply of Latgale companies, working in tourism sphere, enables to conclude that they try 

to use the potential of nature, as recreation in Latgale is mostly related to rural tourism and outdoor activities. 

Overall, the following Latgale region positioning features can be distinguished: 

• y Latgalian language; 

• y The land of blue lakes; 

• y Picturesque landscapes; 

• y Ceramics – the traditional “business card” of Latgale; 

• y Aglona church (is amongst the top 10 tourism objects in Latvia). 

The information on Latgale region as a resting place, provided by mass media, is limited and monotonous 

and it does not contain any special features that could make people interested to spend time in Latgale. The 

activities of public and private sector in this field are not coordinated, both work on its own. 

In order to determine and investigate the target market of potential visitors of Latgale region, the author 

used an interrogation, based on determinate selection. The analysis of motivation of spending free time in 

Latgale shows that the main motive is related to outdoor resting. Next significant motives are active resting, 

interesting excursions as well as beautiful and clean environment. If such motives as resting at the lake or 

river coincide with the components of Latgale region product and could be used in positioning, then active 

resting and interesting excursions should be considered as a potential component of the product and segment 

that is based on these motives and represents potential market audience. 

The main motive to spend free time in Latgale region has been fully justified, as this is also the main association 

with Latgale as “the land of blue lakes”. The strong association with the land of blue rivers points to 

a certain image, based on natural resources that in turn determine the main positioning component. Secondly, 

negative associations are mentioned relatively more seldom by the residents of the other regions of Latvia – 

this means that such significant factors as low level of infrastructure development and low living standards 

do not influence the image of Latgale region so far. 

3. Place marketing objectives and marketing complex of Latgale Region 

Despite the crisis situation, the author thinks that Latgale region still has potential that can be used for its 

development. No doubt, the accrued problems considerably exceed the opportunities to solve them; therefore 

it is extremely important to determine the priority directions correctly and to allocate resources for the 

activities that are the most advantageous in terms of territory development and profitability. In the conditions 

of limited resources the development of territory can be achieved by using place marketing conception and 

working out development strategy on its base. 

176


In author’s opinion, the formulation of place marketing objectives for Latgale region could be the following: 

• y To provide the maintenance of real products, improving their quality and availability; 

• y To retain the existing consumers by enhancing the level of satisfaction of their needs; 

• y To develop relations with place marketing activities intermediaries and facilitators (specialized institutions 

on the level of region, state level and international level); 

• y To increase the portion of attracted and retained consumers in each target market; 

• y To enhance the level of loyalty of consumers of territory products; 

• y To investigate the tendencies of region image formation in different audience and to make efforts to 

improve it; 

• y To develop and create new product components according to the needs and demand of target markets. 

Based on the main marketing mix elements („4P”), planning territory development strategy on the base 

of place marketing conception, in author’s opinion, it is expedient to pay attention to the mentioned strategic 

objectives as they determine the direction of development, the specifics of strategy and its realization opportunities 

(potential). 

When planning the development of place marketing strategy for Latgale region related to internal markets – 

households and companies, it should be taken into account that the territory products these audiences are interested 

in are related to several conditions in terms of life comfort, ability to work and development standpoint. 

Today the region can offer the following real products to the households: 

• y Ecologically sound environment; 

• y School and educational establishments, their high quality; 

• y The availability and quality of banks and other financial services; 

• y Life together with relatives and friends. 

When developing the most demanded product components, real product should be maintained as supported 

in order not to loose it in the most pessimistic case. In present situation, in order to develop the image 

of the region, these real features should be used in positioning process, as they, in spite of their secondary 

meaning according to the residents’ valuations, enable to create basis for positive image of Latgale region. 

The product strategy, related to business audience requires the biggest attention and resources to be involved. 

It is explained by the fact that Latgale region cannot offer to business target markets any especially attractive features. 

The location of the region at the border is traditionally used for transit (in other words, due to the absence 

of alternative), however, the completion of this function is also on a rather low development level, that in turn impacts 

the formation of business image of the region. Therefore today real product in this market today is formed 

by just one component – geographic location that is important for certain branches, for export or transit. All the 

other territory product components that could be interesting for business market segments are to be developed. 

Recreation outdoors forms a real product for both real and potential visitors of the region, as there are 

market expansions opportunities – the product can be promoted outside of Latvia. The rural tourism feature 

of Latgale region, compared with the supply of other territories of Latvia, is based on multiple lakes and the 

best remembered by many people name “the land of blue lakes”, as well as such features as different culture 

(as it is believed that the region has not only its own language, but also its specific cultural traditions). 

As the analysis of the results of researches showed, the following components of potential product related 

to the target segments of recreation enthusiasts and tourists should be developed: 

• y Fascinating tour, based on visiting significant places; 

• y Event marketing. 

Taking into account the specifics of territory and its products, the development of product distribution channels 

strategy is not demanded, as the product is related to the location of territory and a reverse process takes place – 

interest audiences should come for the product. The second issue – how advantageous, convenient and available 

in terms of geographic location the product is situated and can be accessed, taking into account the conditions of 

177



infrastructure development and transport connection. An interested person should make certain efforts, spend some 

resources as well as apply some skills and qualifications in order to visit some significant place, move to a new place 

of residence or to locate a production workshop in a certain territory. This aspect, related to marketing complex 

element – place, points once more to the interrelation and sometimes integrity of marketing complex elements. 

Pricing strategy is one more important part of marketing complex and a very complicated component, 

as the revenues of territory directly depend on price. A clever pricing, from one side, helps the territories to 

compete between each other for the attraction of target markets, but, from the other side, on regional level 

pricing policy is mostly determined by state policy and in some cases it is impossible to offer to the interested 

audiences price advantages. At the same time the status of backward territories of Latgale region with a 

low level of social and economic development enables to hope for both governmental support and a wider 

use of European funds allocations for the realization of their programs that are fully or partly aimed at the 

achievement of place marketing objectives. 

Promotion strategy is developed in order to provide the target markets with information on territory product. 

This strategy requires decision taking on the use of the main types of marketing communication, i.e., advertisement, 

sales promotion or stimulation measures, public relations, direct marketing and personal sales/servicing. 

The main communication objectives related to the target markets of Latgale region can be defined as follows: 

• y For the households’ target market: to provide people with a certain understanding of their place of 

residence, the advantages and disadvantages of the region and an adequate valuation of them; 

• y For business environment target market: to inform on advantages of the region in terms of realization of 

business activity, based on competition and using marketing mix components “price’ and “placement”. 

For the target market of visitors and recreation enthusiasts: to stimulate them to spend their free time in 

Latgale, therefore the main communication tools are related to sales promotion technologies. 

In Table 1 the model of place marketing strategy development for Latgale region is given, based on the 

results of the researches. 

Table 1. Place Marketing Strategy Model for Latgale region 

Target 

market 

Population 

(households) 

Business 

audience 

Visitors/ 

recreation 

enthusiasts 

Segmentation 

criterion 

People, living in 

the territory of 

the region (real 

consumers) 

Businessmen, 

export market, 

investors 

Place of 

residence: 

Latgale, other 

regions of Latvia, 

foreigners 

Objective 

To retain in the 

territory 

To develop 

relation and to 

attract 

To increase 

the number of 

segments 

Positioning, based on 

territory product 

Clean environment and 

beautiful landscapes 

The availability and 

quality of modern services 

Motherland, relatives and 

friends 

The proximity of the markets 

of the EU and CIS countries 

Cheap and highly qualified 

labor 

Hospitable land of blue 

lakes with ecologically 

sound environment, its 

own language and cultural 

traditions 

Territory 

image creation 

strategy 

Image 

reformation 

Image 

development 

Image 

improvement 

and 

enhancement 

Communication 

types 

Educative, 

explaining and 

persuasive 

Informing 

Stimulating 

Source: the table is composed by the author 

In present situation the objective of place marketing of Latgale region is based on retention of the target 

market, using the according products. These products obviously meet the requirements of the target markets 

178


only partly, however, the creation of new products requires time and resources, but the loss of segments of 

the target markets in current economic and social situation endangers not only the development opportunities 

of the territory, but also its survival. 

4. Positioning strategy and image of Latgale region 

Positioning strategy can be distinguished separately, as it has its own specifics in place marketing. When 

forming the position of territory, one should choose only those facts and events that correspond to the interests 

of each determined and deeply researched audience. 

Based on product strategy and the results of the research, the comparison of real and desired position, the 

analysis of association rows, territory advantages and opportunities and tendencies of its development, the 

author has developed the main positioning components for each target market: 

1) For households’ target market: 

• y The land of blue lakes, clean environment and beautiful landscapes; 

• y Motherland, relatives and friends; 

• y The availability and quality of modern services. 

2) For business environment target market: 

• y The proximity of the market of the EU and CIS countries; 

• y Cheap and highly qualified labor; 

• y Priority branches: logistics, wood processing, food industry, metal processing, rural tourism. 

3) For visitors’ target market: 

• y The land of blue lakes and ecologically sound environment; 

• y Own language and cultural traditions; 

• y Hospitality. 

The results of the research showed that the image of Latgale region is negatively evaluated by the households 

as the most important features that are necessary in order to provide that a person is satisfied with his 

or her place of residence are amongst the disadvantages of the region – they are not developed or are lowdeveloped. 

This makes the base for the conclusion on image creation strategy and the most complicated task 

for its implementation – to reform the image of the region. 

The region is evaluated more positively by potential visitors and recreation enthusiasts, but recreation 

place position is not that strong and cannot attract enough visitors. Therefore image strategy for this target 

market is to improve and enhance favorable attitude to the region. 

In business sphere Latgale region is evaluated ambiguously that point to a contradiction in region image. 

This in turn does not stimulate a stable interrelation with this sector’s representatives that could provide the 

region with the results of positive long-term cooperation and development. Therefore image development 

strategy for this target market requires initial efforts – image conception development and formation. 

Territory image formation technology is based on the chosen position, as its components make the major 

platform the territory image is formed around. The achievement of balance between the real and desirable 

position is the first step in image formation process. It is followed with the promotion of position, using integrated 

marketing communication. 

5. Integrated marketing communication 

Integrated marketing communication reflects the essence of place marketing strategy, joining together 

both all elements of conception and separate activities, that in certain conditions get transformed to competitive 

advantages or emphasize and draw attention to the components of product, offered by the territory, the 

target markets are interested in. 

179



No doubt, one cannot affirm that marketing communication programs, aimed at the presentation of the region, 

information of different audiences and drawing their attention, have not been used in Latgale region before. 

Latgale region participates in several projects, especially based on near-border cooperation. This opportunity 

obviously influences region development and enables to find new approaches as ideas. However, from place marketing 

standpoint the following negative aspect should be mentioned: the participation of regional administration 

and organizations in the projects is not structured and non-systemized that, in author’s opinion, does not stimulate 

the formation of identity of the region, even more – it creates an uncertain image that often contains ambiguous formulations 

and mottos. The author can explain it with the lack of unified conception and the variability of authorized 

organizations, amongst which each organization has its own opinions on Latgale image creation and the opportunities 

and ways of its development. Therefore the activities that directly or indirectly perform the functions of impact 

on target markets, are not coordinated and, due to the mentioned deficiencies, are not only unable to draw attention 

to the region, but also can reduce interest due to this uncertainty, especially in cases of repeated appeal. 

Based on the conception of the choice of integrated marketing communication tools and taking into 

account the main directions of the developed Latgale region place marketing strategy, a model of planning 

of marketing communication distribution tools is suggested in Table 2. 

As can be seen in table 2, nearly in all cases the traditional communication tools – TV as well as printed 

press – newspapers and magazines – can be used. The organization of special events and taking part in these 

events is specific depending on the segment, as for local population these could be local public events, for 

business environment representatives – visiting presentations, participation in thematic exhibitions and other 

events that can provide direct contact, but for visitors it could be the organization of attractions and participation 

in thematic tourism exhibitions. At the same time Internet is of great importance, not only based on 

the features of the target markets of the region and communication objectives of the target markets, but also 

taking into account the role of Internet and its obvious advantages in terms of information distribution, the 

coverage of audience and interest to the home pages, banners and other tools. 

Table 2. The Planning of Integrated Marketing Communication Distribution Tool 

Target 

market 

Local 

population 

Business 

environment 

Visitors 

Target market 

segments 

With positive/ 

neutral attitude 

With negative 

attitude 

Audience 

with previous 

experience, 

relatively 

informed 

Audience with 

low information 

level 

Audience 

with previous 

experience, 

relatively 

informed 

Audience with 

low information 

level 

To inform, to 

educate, to 

explain and to 

persuade 

To inform, to 

draw attention 

To inform, to 

draw attention, 

to stimulate 

actions 

Communication objective 

To enhance or to create 

positive attitude 

Communication distribution tools 

TV, radio, newspapers and 

magazines, outdoor advertisement, 

special events, Internet 

To change negative attitude TV, newspapers and magazines, 

special events, Internet 

To improve the attitude TV, radio, newspapers and 

magazines, outdoor advertisement, 

special events, Internet, printing 

production and souvenirs 

To create positive attitude 

To enhance recognisability 

and to improve positive 

attitude 

To create recognisability 

and positive attitude 

Source: the table is composed by the author 

TV, newspapers and magazines, 



TV, radio, newspapers and magazines, 

outdoor advertisement, special events, 

Internet, printing production and 

souvenirs 

TV, newspapers and magazines, 



180


Conclusions 

Based on the research, conducted in scope of the research, the author has made the following conclusions. 

In order to reduce the lag between Latgale region and the other regions of Latvia and to stimulate its 

social and economic development, it is necessary to use place marketing approach in the working out of region 

development strategy, based on the determination of real advantages of the region and their positioning 

according to the needs of the target markets. 

As the result of research and generalization of theoretic formulizations of place marketing, the author 

has systemized and supplemented marketing conception that can be used as a base for planning territory 

development strategy. 

Place marketing is a target-oriented activity that includes market research, product planning, creation, management 

and promotion in the market in order to satisfy the needs of interested target audiences and to achieve 

the objectives of the territory in economic and social development. The main feature of place marketing conception 

is its orientation on different target markets. The objective of market segmentation is to determine the 

relatively homogenous needs for the territory of each interested group, as each group can be interested in certain 

advantages or, in terms of place marketing, it can demand a certain product, offered by the territory. 

Latgale region has the lowest position amongst other regions of Latvia, as general development is usually 

evaluated, based on social and economic indicators, that, in turn, has a significant impact on primary attitude 

base and territory image formation. These indicators provide objective information; however, the target 

markets are interested in some specific features of the territory that are impossible to reflect objectively in 

statistical data. These features have been determined by the results of interrogatory researches and used as a 

base in development of the place marketing strategy. 

The place marketing of Latgale region is based on the supply of real territory product to the target markets 

as well as the development of potential product and the promotion of attractive features in order to 

inform the target market on distinctive advantages of Latgale region. Today Latgale region can offer the 

following real products: 

• y For households target market: ecologically sound environment; schools and educational establishments, 

their high quality; the availability and quality of banking and financial services as well as 

telecommunications; the place where relatives and friends live; 

• y For the businessmen’s target market (business environment): geographic location, traditions of production; 

• y For the visitors’ target market: resting outdoors. 

• y Based on the analysis, the author has developed the following recommendations for Latgale region 

local government: 

• y To use place marketing conception for territory management, creating supply that the existing or potential 

residents, businessmen, investors and the visitors of territory need and are interested in; 

• y To determine the segments of external and internal target markets of territory, including real, potential 

and desirable, and to research their needs, interests, priorities and expectations; 

• y To analyze the resources of territories, to plan their development and improvement in accordance with 

the needs of the target markets; 

• y To concentrate place marketing activities on priority groups: households and businessmen, involving 

both groups in cooperation as well as to inform them on the activities and results; 

• y To monitor place marketing elements on continuous base, starting from products and services and 

ending with tourism communication, to coordinate it so that all products of the territory can be recognized 

outside the territory. 

References 

Ashworth, G., Voogd, H. (2007). Place Marketing: Marketing in the Planning and Management of Places. Routledge. 

Kotler, P. (2004). Attracting investors: a marketing approach to finding funds for your business. Hoboken: Wiley. 

Kotler, P. (1993). Marketing Places: Attracting Investment, Industry, and Tourism to Cities, States, and Nations. Free Press. 

181



Olins, W. (2003). Wally Olins on brand. London: Thames and Hudson. 

Praude, V., Vozņuka, J. (2008). Classification of Target Market and Features of Segmentation in Marketing Places. 

Ekonomika, Nr. 81, p. 104–113. Vilniaus universitetas. 

Schiff, M., Winters, A. L. (2003). Regional Integration and Development. Oxford University Press. 

Vaidere, I., Vanags, E., Vanags, I., Vilka, I. (2006). Reģionālā politika un pašvaldību attīstība Eiropas Savienībā un 

Latvijā. Rīga: Latvijas Universitātes Akadēmijas apgāds, Latvijas Statistikas institūts. 

Vozņuka, J. (2008). Latgales reģiona iedzīvotāju dzīves vietas izvēles faktoru analīze. Latvijas Universitātes raksti. 

Ekonomika, t. 7, 737.sējums, lpp. 399. –412. 

Вознюк, Е. (2008). Маркетинговый подход к стратегическому планированию территории. Current Issues of 

the Economy and the Management of Business, University of Economics – Varna, Jubilee Scientific and Practical 

Conference, 27–28 Juna 2008, p. 281–288. 

Панкрухин, А. П. (2006). Маркетинг территорий. 2-е изд., дополн. СПб.: Питер. 

LatgalOs regiono vietos RINKODAROS strategija 


Tarptautinė Baltijos akademija (Latvija) 

Santrauka 

Skatinant regionų plėtrą galima pasinaudoti rinkodaros priemonėmis, vertinant teritorijos privalumus, 

kurie svarbūs tikslinei auditorijai. Investuotojų ir turistų pritraukimas, gerų verslo sąlygų vietos verslininkams 

užtikrinimas taip pat priklauso nuo rinkodaros, todėl jos strategijos rengimas šiuo metu ypač svarbus 

valstybiniame, regiono ir miesto lygmenyse. 

Vietos rinkodara – tai veiksmai, apimantys rinkos tyrimus, produkto kūrimą, valdymą ir rėmimą rinkoje, 

siekiant patenkinti vartotojų poreikius tam tikroje teritorijoje. Efektyvi vietos rinkodara pritrauktų atitinkamų 

vartotojų grupę į jų poreikius tenkinantį regioną. Vietos rinkodaros koncepcija gali padėti pasiekti rezultatą, 

nes ji nukreipta į rinkos poreikius – tam tikros vartotojų grupės poreikių nustatymą, kuriuos tenkinant 

naudos turėtų tam tikra teritorija. 

Nevienalytė Latvijos regiono plėtra yra viena pagrindinių šiandienos problemų. Latgalos regionas užimą 

paskutinę vietą tarp kitų Latvijos regionų. Ištyrus šį regioną nustatyta, kad jis visiškai pasirengęs taikyti vietos 

rinkodaros koncepciją, kuriant regiono plėtros programas. 

Latgalos regione sunkiai tenkinami vietos gyventojų ir verslininkų poreikiai, nes svarbiausi šios tikslinės 

rinkos veiksniai regione išvystyti silpniausiai. Kiek geriau tenkinami atvykstančiųjų į Latgalą poreikiai. 

Verslo aplinkos produktą sudaro geografinė padėtis, gamybos tradicijos ir rekreaciniai ištekliai Latgalos 

regione. Efektyvus šių produktų valdymas, pozicionavimas ir rėmimas skatintų pagrindinės tikslinės rinkos 

pritraukimą ir taip prisidėtų prie socialinio ir ekonominio regiono vystymosi. Latgalos regiono vietos rinkodaros 

strategijos modelis parengtas visoms tikslinėms rinkoms ir apima tokius elementus kaip: segmentavimas, 

tikslai, pozicionavimas, regiono vystymosi krypčių ir gairių rengimas, bendri komunikacijos kanalai ir 

priemonės vykdyti integruotą rinkodaros komunikaciją. 

PAGRINDINIAI ŽODŽIAI: vystymas, tikslinės rinkos, pozicionavimas, vietinė rinkodara. 

JEL klasifikacija: R190, R580, M310 

182


LIETUVOS INOVACINĖS VEIKLOS TENDENCIJOS 

IR TOBULINIMO GALIMYBIŲ ANALIZĖ 

EUROPOS SĄJUNGOS KONTEKSTE 

Vytautas Jonas Žilinskas 1 , Jelena Dementjeva 2 


Anotacija 

Pagrindinė politikos Europos Sąjungos regionų plėtros problemai spręsti dalis turėtų būti atitinkama regionų raidai skirta inovacijų 

politika, numatant joje įvairias regioninio ir tarptautinio konkurencingumo inovacijų srityje plėtojimo formas, tinkamas skatinti socialinę 

ir ekonominę raidą. Šiuo metu Lietuva Europos Sąjungos kontekste yra tarp pradedančiųjų inovatorių ir savo inovacinę veiklą 

plėtoja lėčiausiai. Straipsnyje nagrinėjama inovacijų svarba siekiant šalies konkurencingumo, analizuojama inovacinio indekso, kaip 

matavimo priemonės, struktūra, vieno iš prioritetinių Europe 2020 tikslų siekimo rodikliai, atliekama Lietuvos inovacinės veiklos 

tendencijų, stipriųjų ir silpnųjų pusių analizė, pateikiamos tobulinimo gairės siekiant regioninio ir pasaulinio konkurencingumo. 

PAGRINDINIAI ŽODŽIAI: inovacija, Europe 2020, suminis inovacijų indeksas, konkurencingumas. 

JEL klasifikacija: O300, O310, O330. 

Įvadas 

Europos Sąjungos regionų plėtros problemai spręsti būtinos kompleksinės priemonės, apimančios socialinės 

ir ekonominės politikos sritis. Todėl būtina skatinti verslą, užtikrinti užimtumą, didinti konkurencingumą 

Europos Sąjungos šalies narės vidaus ir užsienio rinkose, diegti aukštąsias technologijas, gerinti 

produktų ir paslaugų kokybę. Visa tai turi būti įgyvendinama kiekvienos šalies nacionalinės regionų plėtros 

politikos pagrindu. 

Straipsnio autorių nuomone, pagrindinė tokios politikos dalis turėtų būti atitinkama regionų raidai skirta 

Lietuvos inovacijų politika, numatant pastarojoje įvairias regioninio ir tarptautinio konkurencingumo inovacijų 

srityje plėtojimo formas, tinkamas skatinti šalies socialinę ir ekonominę raidą. Pažymėtina, kad Lietuvoje 

inovacinei veiklai skiriamas nepakankamas dėmesys, ypač inovacinėms idėjoms ir naujoms žinioms, 

kurios tiktų organizacijoms, generuoti ir komercializuoti. 

Mokslinė problema: remiantis Europos Sąjungos statistiniais duomenimis (Innovation Union Scoreboard, 

2012), Lietuva patenka į pradedančiųjų inovatorių (angl. Modest innovators) grupę ir nurodoma kaip 

lėčiausiai inovacinę veiklą plėtojanti šalis. Todėl norint užtikrinti šalies konkurencingumą Europos Sąjungos 

rinkoje, būtina atlikti Lietuvos inovacinės veiklos tendencijų analizę ir numatyti galimas tobulinimo gaires. 

1 

Vytautas Jonas Žilinskas – Klaipėdos universiteto Socialinių mokslų fakulteto Vadybos katedra, prof. dr. Mokslinės veiklos 

kryptis: mokslo tiriamosios ir eksperimentinės plėtros darbų rengimo skatinimas, optimalių sprendimų priėmimas, techninės 

kūrybos metodų taikymas, kuriant intelektinės nuosavybės objektus. 

El. paštas: zilinskas.vytautas@gmail.com 

Tel.: +370 699 36393 

2 

Jelena Dementjeva – Klaipėdos universiteto Socialinių mokslų fakulteto Vadybos katedra, asistentė, doktorantė. Mokslinės 

veiklos kryptis: kūrybos vadyba. 

El. paštas: jelena.dem@gmail.com 

Tel.: +370 6 12 58 415 

183


LIETUVOS INOVACINĖS VEIKLOS TENDENCIJOS IR TOBULINIMO GALIMYBIŲ ANALIZĖ EUROPOS SĄJUNGOS KONTEKSTE 

Tyrimo objektas – 2000–2012 m. Lietuvos inovacinės veiklos tendencijos. 

Tikslas: numatyti Lietuvos inovacinės veiklos tobulinimo galimybes užtikrinant konkurencingumą Europos 

Sąjungos rinkoje. 

Uždaviniai: 

• y išanalizuoti inovacijų svarbą regioninei plėtrai teoriniu aspektu; 

• y atlikti Lietuvos inovacinės veiklos Europos Sąjungos kontekste analizę bei identifikuoti šios veiklos 

stipriąsias ir silpnąsias puses. 

Tyrimo metodika: nagrinėjant inovacijų svarbą šalies konkurencingumui didinti analizuoti Lietuvos 

(Jakubavičius, 2003; Melnikas, 2004a; Melnikas, 2004b; Kasperavičius, 2004; Valentinavičius, 2006; Žilinskas, 

2007; Strazdas, 2010; Baležentis, 2011; Tvaronavičius, 2011) ir užsienio mokslininkų (Coconete, 2003; 

Howkins, 2007; Журавлев, 2008) tyrimų rezultatai. Lietuvos inovacinės veiklos analizei atlikti, stipriosioms 

ir silpnosioms pusėms šioje srityje nustatyti naudoti LR Statistikos departamento, Europos Sąjungos Eurostat 

statistiniai ir Europos Sąjungos inovacijų integralinės švieslentės (angl. Innovation Union Scoreboard) 

duomenys. 

1. Inovacijų svarba regioninei plėtrai 

Kiekviena šalis, siekdama ekonominės plėtros ir integruotis tiek į Europos Sąjungą (ES), tiek ir į pasaulinę 

ekonomiką, turi plėtoti savo ekonominę, socialinę veiklą. Mokslininkai (Howkins, 2007; Журавлев, 

2008; Baležentis, 2011; Tvaronavičius, 2011) pažymi, kad vienas veiksmingiausių modernizacijos būdų – 

inovacijų paieška ir diegimas. 

Pastaruoju metu inovacijos samprata labai išsiplėtė. Ji suvokiama ne tik kaip technologinės naujovės, 

sukurtos atliekant sudėtingus mokslinius tyrimus, bet ir kaip rinkodaros, proceso, valdymo metodų, produktų 

naujovės (Jakubavičius, 2003; Melnikas, 2004b; Kasperavičius, 2004; Valentinavičius, 2006; Žilinskas, 

2007; Strazdas, 2010; Baležentis, 2011; Tvaronavičius, 2011). Inovacijų būtinybę lemia trumpėjantis prekių 

ir paslaugų gyvavimo ciklas, naujų investicijų, kurios skatina organizacijas ne tik teikti esamas prekes ir paslaugas 

į rinką, bet ir ieškoti būdų, kaip jas tobulinti, pritraukimas. Inovacijos traktuojamos kaip organizacijos 

galimybė įgyti konkurencinį pranašumą, kita vertus, jos įvardijamos kaip vienas pagrindinių nacionalinės 

ir globalios ekonomikos augimo veiksnių (Tvaronavičius, 2011). Kaip pažymi A. Jakubavičius (2003), ES 

mokslinių tyrimų ir plėtros kooperacijos programa EUREKA inovaciją traktuoja kaip procesą, kuriame atliekant 

tyrimus gautos žinios ir inovacinės idėjos transformuojamos į naujus produktus ar paslaugas. Iš esmės 

inovacija – tai sėkmingas naujų idėjų, metodų ir technologijų komercinis pritaikymas, pateikiant rinkai naujus 

arba patobulintus produktus ir/ar procesus. Tyrimai / inovacijos (angl. research/innovation) apima naujų 

prekių ir paslaugų kūrimą (European Comission, 2012), kuris lems ekonomikos plėtrą, darbo vietų kūrimą 

ir skatins socialinius pokyčius. 

V. Tvaronavičiaus (2011) teigimu, mokslinėje literatūroje inovacijos sutelkiamos ties šiais dviem svarbiausiais 

aspektais: pirma, tai būdas organizacijoms išlikti ir tapti konkurencingomis konkrečiose rinkose; antra, tai 

vienas pačių svarbiausių nacionalinių ir globalių bendrųjų ekonomikos augimą skatinančių veiksnių. 

Ekonominio bendradarbiavimo ir plėtros organizacija (EBPO – angl. OECD), kaip pažymi S. Valentinavičius 

(2006), siūlo inovacijas taip klasifikuoti: mokslo, gamybos, paslaugų srities inovacijos. Inovacijos 

gamyboje klasifikuojamos į technologines ir netechnologines. Technologinės inovacijos yra trijų rūšių: 

1) produkto inovacijos apima tiek technologiškai naujus, tiek technologiškai pagerintus produktus; 2) proceso 

inovacijos – naujus gamybos būdus (technologijas), gamybos organizavimo metodus bei kitus produktų 

ir procesų pokyčius; 3) inovacinė veikla apima naujų žinių generavimą ir įgijimą, kitus gamybos proceso 

rengimo ir tobulinimo darbus bei naujų arba patobulintų produktų rinkodarą. 

Kalbant apie Lietuvos inovacinę veiklą Europos Sąjungos (ES) kontekste svarbu apibrėžti inovacijų vietą 

ES plėtros procese. Aktuali yra šio dešimtmečio augimo strategija – Europe 2020. Nuolat kintančiame 

pasaulyje ES ekonomika turėtų būti labiau apgalvota, darnesnė, tvaresnė, visa apimanti. Tai leistų ES ir kie- 

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kvienai jos valstybei narei (ES-27) pasiekti aukštą užimtumo, našumo ir socialinės sanglaudos lygį. Europe 

2020 strategijoje keliami penki ambicingi 2020 metais pasiektini tikslai, susiję su gyventojų užimtumo, inovacijų, 

švietimo, socialinės įtraukties ir klimato, energijos sritimis, kurių įgyvendinimą rodo aštuoni pagrindiniai 

rodikliai, pateikti oficialiame ES Komisijos tinklapyje (European Comission, 2012). Europe 2020 tikslų 

siekiama ir į juos atsižvelgiama tiek nacionaliniu, tiek ES lygiu. Straipsnio autorių nuomone, ypač svarbus 

Europe 2020 iškeltas strategijos tikslas, susijęs su inovacijų plėtra, kuri leidžia užtikrinti Lietuvos konkurencingumą 

regioniniu ir pasaulio mastu. 

Inovacijų integralinėje švieslentėje (IIŠ, angl. Innovation Union Scoreboard – IUS), kuri yra Europos 

inovacijų švieslentės (angl. European Innovation Scoreboard – EIS) tęsinys, pateikiamas suminis (kompleksinis, 

integralinis) inovacijų indeksas (SII). Jis apima 25 rodiklius, kurie rodo ES šalių narių nacionalinius 

mokslinių tyrimų ir inovacijų veiklos rezultatus. Galimas SII ribų svyravimas tarp 0 ir 1 (Innovation Union 

Scoreboard, 2012). Atliekant ES-27 valstybių narių inovacijų diegimo rezultatų lyginamąjį vertinimą bei šių 

šalių mokslinių tyrimų ir inovacijų sistemų pranašumų bei trūkumų analizę, IIŠ yra stebėsenos priemonė, 

skirta padėti analizuoti Europe 2020 programos įgyvendinimo rezultatus. 

SII sudarytas iš šių dalinių vertinimo sričių (1 pav.): vykdytojai (angl. Enablers), organizacijų veikla 

(angl. Firm Activities) ir rezultatai (gaviniai) (angl. Outputs). Vykdytojai, t. y. žmogiškieji ištekliai, atviros 

ir patrauklios tyrimų sistemos, finansų ir paramos sistema, aprobuoja inovacijas įmonių išorinėje aplinkoje. 

Organizacijų veiklą apima rodikliai, susiję su organizacijų investicijomis į tyrimus ir diegimą, ryšiais ir verslininkyste 

bei intelektiniu kapitalu. Rezultatai matuojami per dvi dimensijų sritis – inovatorius ir ekonominį 

poveikį. 

Suminis inovacijų 

indeksas (SII) 

Vykdytojai Organizacijų veikla Rezultatai 

Žmogiškieji 

ištekliai 

Investicijos į 

tyrimus ir diegimą 

Inovatoriai 

Atviros ir patrauklios 

tyrimų sistemos 

Ryšiai ir 

verslininkystė 

Ekonominis 

poveikis 

Finansų ir paramos 

sistema 

Intelektinis 

kapitalas 

1 pav. Suminio inovacijų indekso (SII) struktūra 

Šaltinis: Innovation Union Scoreboard, 2012 

Europos Sąjungos šalys skirstomos į keturias grupes, atsižvelgiant į naujovių diegimo apimtis: inovacijų 

lyderiai (angl. Innovation leaders), inovacijų sekėjai (angl. Innovation followers), vidutiniai inovatoriai 

(angl. Moderate innovators), pradedantieji inovatoriai (angl. Modest innovators). 

Remiantis Inovacijų integralinės švieslentės SII ir Europe 2020 inovacijų strateginio tikslo rodiklių analize, 

toliau pateikiamos Lietuvos inovacinės veiklos pagrindinės tendencijos, nustatomos silpnosios ir stiprio- 

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sios sritys bei siūlomos inovacinės veiklos gerinimo galimybės siekiant užtikrinti šalies konkurencingumą 

ES kontekste. 

2. Lietuvos inovacinės veiklos Europos Sąjungos kontekste tyrimo rezultatai 

Analizuojant Lietuvos inovacinės veiklos tendencijas ES kontekste iš pradžių svarbu nustatyti, į kokią 

grupę patenka mūsų šalis ir kokia inovacijų kūrimo, diegimo bei plėtros situacija kitose ES-27 šalyse. Pagal 

inovacijų diegimo apimtis ES-27 taip skirstomos (2 pav.): 

• y Danija, Suomija, Vokietija ir Švedija yra inovacijų lyderiai; 

• y Austrija, Belgija, Kipras, Estija, Prancūzija, Airija, Liuksemburgas, Nyderlandai, Slovėnija ir Didžioji 

Britanija – inovacijų sekėjai; 

• y Čekija, Graikija, Vengrija, Italija, Malta, Lenkija, Portugalija, Slovakija, Ispanija – vidutiniai inovatoriai; 

• y Bulgarija, Latvija, Lietuva ir Rumunija – pradedantieji inovatoriai. 

Pradedantieji Vidutiniai Inovacijų 

Inovacijų 

inovatoriai inovatoriai sekėjai 

lyderiai 

2 pav. ES-27 suminis inovacijų indeksas, 2011 m. 


Kaip matyti (2 pav.) iš suminio inovacijų indekso (SII), Lietuva patenka į pradedančiųjų inovatorių grupę, 

kuri įvardijama kaip lėčiausiai inovacinę veiklą plėtojanti šalis (augimo reitingas – 0,7 proc.), lyginant su 

ES šalių vidurkiu. Lietuva, užimdama 25 vietą (SII – 0,227) tarp 27 ES šalių, gerokai atsilieka nuo ES šalių 

vidurkio (0,516). Tai rodo, kad šalies inovacinė veikla plėtojama gana ribotai. 

Analizuojant inovacijų augimo tempus ES šalyse (1 lentelė) matyti, kad sparčiausiai inovacijos plėtojamos 

Suomijoje, Kipre, Estijoje, Slovėnijoje, Maltoje, Portugalijoje ir Bulgarijoje, lėčiausiai – Danijoje, Švedijoje, 

nors šios šalys yra inovacijų lyderės, taip pat Liuksemburge, Didžiojoje Britanijoje, Graikijoje, Ispanijoje ir 

Lietuvoje. Akcentuotina, kad Lietuvoje iš visų ES-27 šalių inovacijų diegimo tempai yra patys lėčiausi. 

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Lentelė 1. Inovacijų diegimo tempai 

Grupės 

Inovacijų lyderiai 

Inovacijų sekėjai 

Vidutiniai inovatoriai 

Pradedantieji 

inovatoriai 

Diegimo 

tempai* 

Dideli Vidutiniai Lėti 

1,0 proc. Suomija (FI) Vokietija (DE) Danija (DK) 

Švedija (SE) 

2,4 proc. Kipras (CY), Estija Austrija (AT), Belgija (BE), Liuksembugras (LU), 

(EE), Slovėnija (SI) Prancūzija (FR), Airija (IE), Didžioji Britanija (UK) 

Nyderlandai (NL) 

2,5 proc. Malta (MT), 

Portugalija (PT) 

Čekija (CZ), Vengrija (HU), 

Italija (IT), Lenkija (PL), 

Slovakija (SK) 

4,4 proc. Bulgarija (BG) Latvija (LV), 

Rumunija (RO) 

Graikija (GR), 

Ispanija (ES) 

Lietuva (LT) 

* Vidutinis metinis augimo tempas apskaičiuotas per pastarųjų penkerių metų laikotarpį. 


Palyginimas tarptautiniu mastu. Kitų Europos šalių, kurios nepriklauso ES, inovacinės veiklos rezultatai 

rodo, kad Šveicarija yra inovacijų lyderė, Islandija – viena iš inovacijų sekėjų, o Kroatija, Norvegija ir 

Serbija – vidutinės inovatorės. Buvusi Jugoslavijos Respublika, Makedonija ir Turkija yra pradedančiosios 

inovatorės. Kroatijos, Serbijos ir Turkijos SII augimo tempai gerokai viršija ES-27 SII vidurkį. 

Lyginant ES-27 su pagrindiniais tarptautiniais konkurentais (3 pav.) matyti, kad JAV, Japonijos ir Pietų 

Korėjos inovacinės veiklos tendencijos pranašios į ES-27 vykstančius inovacijų kūrimo, plėtros ir diegimo 

procesus. Tai lėmė Pietų Korėjos ekonominis augimas, JAV ekonominis stabilumas ir Japonijos ekonominis 

nuosmukis. Pasaulio inovacijų lyderių JAV ir Japonijos SII rodiklis aukštesnis už ES-27 suminį inovacijų 

indeksą. Tai lėmė didesnės verslo išlaidos moksliniams tyrimams ir diegimui, glaudus viešojo ir privataus 

sektorių bendradarbiavimas, pasireiškiantis per šių sektorių bendrąsias mokslines publikacijas, užsienyje uždirbtų 

pajamų apimtis iš licencijų ir patentų, didelį pateiktų patentų paraiškų skaičių. Pietų Korėja, vis labiau 

pranokstanti ES-27, labiausiai skatina investuoti verslo sektoriuje į mokslinius tyrimus ir technologijų plėtrą 

(MTTP). ES-27 pasižymi inovacinės veiklos pranašumu, lyginant su Australija, Kanada ir visomis BRICS 

šalimis (Brazilija, Rusija, Indija, Kinija ir Pietų Afrika). 

JAV 

Japonja 

Korėja 

ES-27 

Kanada 

Australija 

Rusija 

Kinija 

Indija 

Brazilija 

Pietų Afrika 

3 pav. Pasaulio šalių ir ES-27 suminis investicijų indeksas, 2010 m. 


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Pagal Europe 2020 programą kiekviena ES šalis narė iki 2020 m. turi investuoti į mokslinius tyrimus ir 

technologijų plėtrą (MTTP) ne mažiau kaip 3 proc. nuo šalies BVP (LR Statistikos departamentas, 2012). 

4 pav. ES-27 bendrosios vidaus išlaidos MTTP, proc. nuo BVP 

Šaltinis: sudaryta autorių, remiantis: Eurostat. Science and Technology, 2012 

ES statistikos duomenimis (Eurostat. Science and Technology, 2012), Europos Sąjungos šalys MTTP per 

pastarąjį dešimtmetį skiria tik 1,8–2 proc. nuo bendrojo vidaus produkto (4 pav.). 

5 pav. Lietuvos bendrosios vidaus išlaidos MTTP, proc. nuo BVP 


Lietuvoje bendrosios vidaus išlaidos MTTP yra tik 0,6–0,7 proc. nuo šalies BVP (5 pav.), tai labai žemas 

rodiklis lyginant bendrai su ES-27 (apie 2 proc.) ir su numatytu strateginiu tikslu (3 proc.). 

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6 pav. ES-27 bendrosios vidaus išlaidos MTTP 2010 m., proc. nuo BVP 


Iš 6 paveikslo matyti, kad numatytą Europe 2020 inovacijų skatinimo tikslą jau pasiekė Suomija, Švedija 

ir Danija. Suomijos bendrosios išlaidos MTTP 2010 m. siekė beveik 4 proc. šalies BVP. Lietuva pagal šį 

rodiklį yra 20 vietoje iš 27 ES šalių. Labiausiai atsilieka Kipras ir Rumunija. 

Palyginus Europos Sąjungos išlaidų apimtis moksliniams tyrimams ir technologijų plėtrai su JAV ir Japonijos 

išlaidomis MTTP, galima matyti, kad 2000–2008 m. Japonijos rodiklis buvo didžiausias ir pakilo nuo 

3 iki 3,5 proc. nuo šalies BVP, o JAV rodiklis svyravo nuo 2,5 iki 2,7 proc. (7 pav.). ES inovacinės veiklos 

plėtros proceso požiūriu akivaizdžiai atsilieka. 

Svarbi ir apyvartos apimtis iš inovacijų. 8 paveiksle matyti, kad ES-27 šalių 2004–2008 m. apyvarta iš 

inovacijų vidutiniškai buvo apie 13 proc. visos apyvartos. Palyginus Baltijos šalis matyti, kad lyderė yra 

Estija (vidutiniškai apie 12 proc.), antroje vietoje – Lietuva (vidutiniškai apie 11 proc.), Latvija – trečioje 

vietoje (vidutiniškai apie 5 proc.). 

Išanalizavus bendras ES-27 inovacinės veiklos tendencijas svarbu nustatyti, kokiose srityse šalys lyderės 

yra ypač aktyvios ir kokios yra silpnosios Lietuvos pusės. 9 paveiksle matyti, kad aukšti inovacijų lyderių 

verslo sektoriaus investicijų į inovacinę veiklą ir intelektinio kapitalo rodikliai, kiek žemesni žmogiškųjų 

išteklių, finansų ir paramos sistemos, ryšių ir verslininkiškumo bei ekonominio poveikio rodikliai. Inovacijų 

sekėjų gana gerai išplėtota atvira ir patraukli tyrimų sistema, aukštas ryšių ir verslininkiškumo rodiklis. 

Vidutiniai inovatoriai turi gana gerą ekonominio poveikio rodiklį, o pradedančiųjų inovatorių gana aukštas 

žmogiškųjų išteklių rodiklis, žemiausi – ryšių ir verslininkiškumo bei tyrimų sistemų rodikliai. 

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7 pav. JAV, Japonijos ir ES bendrosios vidaus išlaidos MTTP, proc. nuo BVP 


8 pav. Apyvarta iš inovacijų, proc. nuo bendros šalies apyvartos 

Šaltinis: sudaryta autorių, remiantis Eurostat. Science and Technology, 2012 

Remiantis anksčiau pateiktais statistiniais duomenimis ir detalizuotais ES Inovacijų integralinės švieslentės 

duomenimis (Innovation Union Scoreboard, 2012, p. 14), skiriamos šios Lietuvos inovacinės veiklos 

stipriosios ir silpnosios pusės: stipriosios – žmogiškieji ištekliai (daug aukštąjį išsilavinimą turinčių žmonių, 

mokslo daktarų); silpnosios (mažos investicijos į MTTP nuo BVP, menkos privačių įmonių investicijos 

į naujoves, nepakankamai išvystyta tyrimų sistema, patenkinamai išvystyta finansų ir inovacijų paramos 

sistema, silpni ryšiai ir verslininkiškumas, mažas inovacinių organizacijų skaičius, menkas darbo jėgos įdarbinimas 

inovacijoms imliuose sektoriuose, menkas vidutinių ir aukštų technologijų produkcijos eksportas, 

mažai perkama (neperkama) užsienio licencijų ir patentų). 

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Ekonominis 

poveikis 

Žmogiškieji ištekliai 

Tyrimų sistemos 

Pradedantieji inovatoriai 

Vidutiniai inovatoriai 

Inovacijų sekėjai 

Inovacijų lyderiai 

Inovatoriai 

Finansai ir parama 

Intelektinis kapitalas 

Įmonių investicijos 

Ryšiai ir verslininkystė 

9 pav. ES-27 šalių inovacinės veiklos stipriosios ir silpnosios pusės 


Lietuvos inovacinės veiklos plėtrai aktyvinti siekiant konkurencingumo ES ir tarptautiniu mastu siūloma: 

pirma, efektyviai išnaudoti aukštųjų mokyklų mokslinį potencialą įtraukiant būsimuosius specialistus 

(studentus), kuriant ir diegiant naujoves. Taigi galima pasinaudoti Lietuvos žmogiškųjų išteklių potencialu. 

Be to, siūloma plėtoti intelektinį kapitalą, t. y. švietimo įstaigose įtraukti į studijų programas intelektinės 

nuosavybės, kūrybingumo valdymo dalykus. 

Antra, privačios organizacijos turėtų daugiau investuoti į tyrimus siekiant ilgalaikės naudos. Sąnaudoms 

minimizuoti organizacijos turi kooperuotis kuriant ir diegiant naujoves. Organizacijos gali pasinaudoti ir vienos 

iš inovacijų lyderių – Japonijos patirtimi, įsigijus licencijų užsienyje taikyti šiuolaikines technologijas 

savo versle. 

Trečia, Vyriausybės lygmeniu siūloma pritraukti daugiau tiesioginių užsienio investicijų į inovacijoms 

imlius sektorius ir pasinaudoti frančizės privalumais bei labiau skatinti verslininkiškumo plėtrą diegiant inovacijas, 

t. y. kuriant inovacinius inkubacinius centrus ir technologinius parkus. 

Išvados 

1. Inovacijų sąvoka traktuojama skirtingai, tačiau bendras bruožas – inovacijos yra sėkmingas naujų 

idėjų, metodų ir technologijų komercinis pritaikymas. Inovacijos skirstomos pagal jų taikymo sritį: 

mokslo, gamybos ir paslaugų srities. Įgyvendinant ES strategiją vienas iš ambicingų ir svarbių tikslų 

yra inovacinės veiklos plėtra visose ES šalyse. Siekiant šio tikslo siūloma speciali suminio inovacijų 

indekso (SII) skaičiavimo metodika, kuri yra tarsi stebėsenos priemonė. Lietuvai inovacinės veiklos 

plėtra ypač aktuali, nes tai visų pirma yra silpna šalies ūkio vieta, antra, aktyvi inovacinė veikla gali 

užtikrinti šaliai konkurencingumą regioniniu ir pasaulio mastu. 

2. Remiantis inovacijų integralinės švieslentės SII ir Europe 2020 inovacijų strateginio tikslo rodiklių 

analize, ES-27 mastu Lietuva patenka į pradedančiųjų inovatorių grupę, jos inovacijų diegimo tempai 

yra patys lėčiausi. Labai mažai investuojama į MTTP, menkai į naujoves investuoja ir privačios 

įmonės, nepakankamai išplėtota tyrimų sistema, patenkinamai išplėtota finansų ir inovacijų paramos 

sistema, silpni ryšiai ir verslininkystė, mažas inovacinių organizacijų skaičius, vidutinių ir aukštų 

technologijų produkcijos eksportas, mažai darbo jėgos įdarbinama inovacijoms imliuose sektoriuose, 

mažai perkama (neperkama) užsienio licencijų ir patentų. Todėl straipsnio autoriai siūlo efektyviai 

išnaudoti aukštųjų mokyklų mokslinį potencialą įtraukiant būsimuosius specialistus į naujovių kūrimą 

ir diegimą, plėtoti intelektinį kapitalą įtraukiant į studijų programas intelektinės nuosavybės, kūry- 

191



bingumo valdymo dalykus. Privačios verslo organizacijos turi kooperuotis kurdamos ir diegdamos 

inovacijas, įsigydamos licencijas užsienyje ir taikydamos šiuolaikines technologijas savo versluose. 

Vyriausybiniu lygmeniu siūloma pritraukti daugiau tiesioginių užsienio investicijų į inovacijoms imlius 

sektorius ir pasinaudoti frančizės privalumais bei skatinti verslininkiškumą diegiant inovacijas. 

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Valentinavičius, S. (2006). Inovacinio verslo plėtra: problemos ir galimybės. Ekonomika, Nr. 74. 

Žilinskas, V. J., Kasperavičius, P., Kiškis, M. (2007). Intelektinė nuosavybė ir jos teisinė apsauga. Klaipėda. 

Журавлев, В. А. (2008). Копайте глубже... Креативное мышление, креативный менеджмент и инновационное 

развитие общества. Креативная экономика, № 4. Москва: Роспечать. 

LITHUANIAN INNOVATION ACTIVITY TRENDS AND ANALYSIS 

OF OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT IN THE CONTEXT 

OF THE EUROPEAN UNION 



Summary 

The focus of European Union regional development policy to address should be relevant to the development 

of regional innovation policy, the latter providing a variety of regional and international competitiveness 

forms of innovation in the development, useful for promoting social and economic development. 

Lithuania‘s innovation activity development is particularly actually and important because it is, notably, 

the country’s weak economic position, and secondly, appropriate innovation activity can ensure the country‘s 

competitiveness regionally and globally. It should be noted that in Lithuania, paid insufficient attention 

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to innovative activities, especially to generate and commercialize innovative ideas and new knowledge in 

organizations. 

The article aims – to provide the Lithuanian innovation activity development opportunities to ensure the 

competitiveness of the European Union market. 

Each country aim to economic development and integration in the European Union (EU) and the global 

economy, have often to improve their economic and social activities. Scientists notes that one of the most 

effective ways of modernization – the innovation development and use in all economic sectors. Innovations 

are necessary because the shorter period for goods and services life cycle, attract new investment, which encourages 

organizations to not only provide goods and services available on the market, but also look for ways 

to improve them. Innovations to be construed as organizations options, enabling a competitive advantage, 

and on the other hand, identifies innovation as a key national and global economic growth factors. 

The article analyzes the importance of innovation for competitiveness of the country, analyzed the summary 

innovation index as a measuring tool, the structure, one of Europe 2020 priorities objectives indicators 

of innovative activities carried out in Lithuania trends, analysis of the strengths and weaknesses, and provide 

guidelines for improving regional and global competitiveness. 

Very topical is the growth strategy of the decade – Europe 2020. Europe 2020 objectives are taken into 

account both national and EU level. The authors consider, that crucial Europe 2020 strategies objective is 

associated with the development of innovation, which enables to ensure Lithuania‘s competitiveness regionally 

and globally. 

Based on the average innovation performance, the Member States fall into four performance groups: The 

performance of Denmark, Finland, Germany and Sweden is well above that of the EU27 average. These 

countries are the ‘Innovation leaders’. Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Estonia, France, Ireland, Luxembourg, 

Netherlands, Slovenia and the UK all show a performance close to that of the EU27 average. These countries 

are the ‘Innovation followers’. The performance of Czech Republic, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Malta, Poland, 

Portugal, Slovakia and Spain is below that of the EU27 average. These countries are ‘Moderate innovators’. 

The performance of Bulgaria, Latvia, Lithuania and Romania is well below that of the EU27 average. These 

countries are ‘Modest innovators’. 

A comparison with other European countries not belonging to the European Union shows that Switzerland 

is the overall Innovation leader continuously outperforming all EU27 countries. Iceland is part of the 

Innovation followers, Croatia, Norway and Serbia of the Moderate innovators and the Former Yugoslav Republic 

of Macedonia and Turkey of the Modest innovators. For Croatia, Serbia and Turkey growth has been 

well above the EU27 average. 

Comparing the EU27 with a selected group of major global competitors shows that the USA, Japan and 

South Korea have a performance lead over the EU27. This lead has been increasing for South Korea, has remained 

stable for the US and has been decreasing for Japan. The global innovation leaders US and Japan are 

particularly dominating the EU27 in indicators capturing business activity and public-private cooperation. 

The EU27 has a performance lead over Australia, Canada and all BRICS countries (Brazil, Russia, India, 

China and South Africa). This lead has been increasing compared to Canada, Russia and South Africa, has 

remained stable to Australia and has been decreasing to Brazil and in particular to China and India. China 

has been closing the innovation gap to Europe continuously in the last few years. 

Lithuania Gross domestic expenditure on R&D on the country’s GDP is low compared to the EU-27 overall 

and with the strategic objectives. Provided for Europe 2020 objective in innovations development have 

reached Finland, Sweden and Denmark. 

So, Lithuania in the European Union that is the Modest innovators and their innovative activity developing 

the slowest. It was found that very few investment in R&D, is limited private enterprise investment 

in innovations, not sufficiently developed research system, but sufficiently developed financial and support 

system, are weak links and enterpreunership, low innovative organizations, weak labor recruitment in innovative 

sectors, weak meduim and hight-tech products export, and low purchases of foreign licenses and 

patents. The authors present proposal to improve the innovation activities in Lithuania. 

193



In order to activate the development of innovative activities in Lithuania for the competitiveness of the 

EU and internationally proposed: first, to effectively exploit the scientific potential of higher education including 

future professionals (students), developing and promoting innovation. In this way to can take advantage 

of Lithuanian human resources potential. 

In addition, the proposed development of intellectual capital, i.e. to include in education programs intellectual 

property, creativity management disciplines. Second, private organizations should invest more 

in research to the long-term benefits. For cost minimization organizations need to cooperate to innovation 

development. Organizations can take advantage of one of the “innovation leaders”, the Japanese experience 

– acquiring foreign licenses to use modern technologies in their business. Third, the governmental level, 

it is proposed to attract more foreign direct investment in innovation-intensive sectors and take advantage 

of the franchising benefits. Moreover, it must do more to promote entrepreneurship development through 

innovation, i.e. to develop innovative technological incubation centers and parks. 

KEY WORDS: Innovation, Europe 2020, the summary innovation index, competitiveness. 

JEL codes: O300, O310, O330. 

194


Studentų Verslumo ugdymo tyrimas 

vakarų Lietuvos regione 

Aurimas Župerka 1 , Erika Župerkienė 2 


Anotacija 

Straipsnyje ištirta Vakarų Lietuvos regiono studentų verslumo ugdymo situacija. Nagrinėjama, kaip aukštojo mokslo institucijų lygyje 

ugdyti studentų verslumą, skatinant kurti nuosavą verslą. Straipsnyje apibendrinta mokslinė literatūra verslumo ugdymo tematika; 

išskirti kritiniai studentų verslumą lemiantys veiksniai; atliktas studentų verslumo ugdymo Vakarų Lietuvos regione situacijos tyrimas; 

pateikiama siūlymų, kaip tobulinti verslumo ugdymo procesą Vakarų Lietuvos aukštosiose mokyklose. 

PAGRINDINIAI ŽODŽIAI: verslumas, verslumo ugdymas, vadyba, verslininkas. 

JEL klasifikacija: M100 

Įvadas 

Šiuolaikinės visuomenės ekonominiuose, socialiniuose, psichologiniuose vystymosi procesuose verslumo 

reikšmė didėja. Visuomenės pažangos kryptis ir vystymosi trajektorija priklauso nuo verslininkų skaičiaus ir jų gebėjimų. 

Individo verslumas padeda suvokti ir įžvelgti naujas veiklos plėtros galimybes, taip puoselėjant visuomenės 

gerovę. Ekonominė, socialinė, psichologinė verslumo reikšmė, aktualizuoja individo verslumo ugdymo klausimą. 

Studentų, kurie savo karjerą sieja su nuosavo verslo kūrimu ir plėtojimu, verslumo ugdymas tampa svarbia 

akademinių tyrimų sritimi, tačiau tai menkai suprastas reiškinys. Nors verslumo ugdymo poreikis analizuojamas 

mokslinėje literatūroje, ugdymo proceso rezultatyvumas vis dar yra nepakankamas. 

Studentų verslumo ugdymas yra mažai tyrinėtas, sudėtingas, kompleksinis, daugelį mokslinės ir praktinės 

veiklos sričių (ekonomikos, vadybos, edukologijos, psichologijos) siejantis reiškinys. 

Užsienio šalių ir Lietuvos mokslininkų tyrimuose verslumo ugdymas nagrinėjamas įvairiais aspektais. 

Diskutuojama dėl verslumo sąvokos (Drucker, 1985; Hisrich, Peters, 1998; Timmons, Spinelli, 2003; Kirby, 

2003), skiriamos verslaus asmens savybės ir bruožai, kuriuos reikia ugdyti (Robinson ir kt., 1991; Caird, 

1993; Utsch ir kt., 1999; Cromie, 2000; Henry ir kt., 2003, 2005), atskleidžiamas gebėjimų, kuriais pasižymi 

verslus asmuo, turinys (Gartner, 1988; Garavan, O’Cinneide, 1994b; McCarthy, 2000; Raffo ir kt., 2000) bei 

tie gebėjimai, kurių reikia norint kurti verslo įmonę ar dirbti organizacijoje (Gibb, Nelson, 1996; Rae, 1999, 

2000; Galloway ir kt., 2005). Verslumas nagrinėjamas kaip procesas ir teigiama, kad šis procesas bei verslumo 

ugdymas turi būti glaudžiai tarpusavyje susiję, išlaikomas holistiškumas ir dermė (McMullan, Long, 

1987; O’Gorman ir Cunningham, 1997; Kirby, 2003; Timmons, Spinelli, 2003; Heinonen, Poikkijoki, 2006). 

1 

Aurimas Župerka – Klaipėdos universiteto Socialinių mokslų fakulteto Vadybos katedra, lektorius. Moksliniai interesai: 

rinkodaros valdymas, verslumo problemos. 

El. paštas: aurimas_zuperka@hotmail.com 

Tel.: +370 610 211 41 

2 

Erika Župerkienė – Klaipėdos universiteto Socialinių mokslų fakulteto Vadybos katedra, lektorė. Moksliniai interesai: personalo 

valdymas, vadovavimas, vadovavimo asmeninės ir dalykinės savybės, vadovavimo savybių bei verslumo ugdymas, paslaugų 

vadyba ir rinkodara. 

El. paštas: erikazuperkienė@gmail.com 

Tel.: +370 689 384 15 

195


Studentų Verslumo ugdymo tyrimas vakarų Lietuvos regione 

Lietuvoje ekonomikos, edukologijos, vadybos, psichologijos moksliniuose tyrimuose taip pat analizuojamas 

verslumas, verslininkui būdingos savybės, bruožai ir gebėjimai. Apibūdintos verslininko, verslumo 

ir verslininkystės sąvokos (Lydeka, 1996), nagrinėta verslumo, kaip asmenybės savybės, raiška moksleivių 

populiacijoje (Valuckienė, Ruškus, Balčiūnas, 2004), analizuotos verslo rūšys ir verslininkystė, kaip ūkinės 

veiklos forma (Martinkus, Žickienė, 2006). Tačiau tyrimų, kur būtų nagrinėjama studentų verslumo ugdymo 

įtaka studentų nuosavo verslo kūrimo ketinimams Vakarų Lietuvos regiono kontekste, neatlikta. 

Konceptualaus ir metodologiškai pagrįsto požiūrio į studentų verslumo ugdymą nebuvimas yra aktuali ir 

spręstina mokslinė problema. Straipsnyje sprendžiama mokslinė problema: kaip aukštojo mokslo institucijų 

lygyje ugdyti studentų verslumą, skatinant kurti nuosavą verslą. 

Tyrimo objektas – Vakarų Lietuvos regiono studentų verslumo ugdymas. 

Tyrimo tikslas: išskiriant studentų nuosavo verslo kūrimo ketinimams įtakos turinčius veiksnius, 

numatyti Vakarų Lietuvos regiono studentų verslumo ugdymo perspektyvas. Siekiant suformuluoto tikslo 

sprendžiami šie tyrimo uždaviniai: 

• y išanalizuoti mokslinę literatūrą, kur nagrinėjama verslumo ugdymo samprata; 

• y išskirti kritinius studentų verslumą lemiančius veiksnius; 

• y atlikti studentų verslumo ugdymo Vakarų Lietuvos regione situacijos tyrimą; 

• y pateikti siūlymų, kaip tobulinti verslumo ugdymo procesą Vakarų Lietuvos aukštosiose mokyklose. 

Mokslinio tyrimo metodai: atliekant tyrimą taikyti mokslinės literatūros analizės, sisteminimo, sintezės, 

apibendrinimo ir palyginimo metodai bei anketinė apklausa. 

1. Verslumo ugdymo sampratos analizė 

Verslumo ugdymo sampratos atsiradimui įtakos turėjo skirtingos nuomonės dėl verslumo ugdymo galimybių. 

A. Adcroft, R. Wills, S. Dhaliwal (2004) teigia, kad vadybos studijos gali išmokyti techninių gebėjimų, 

bet negali daryti įtakos prigimtinėms verslumo savybėms. G. Gorman, D. Hanlon ir W. King (1997) teigia, kad 

verslumo galima išmokyti arba bent jau padrąsinti imtis verslo. M. Anselm mano, kad žmonės gimsta su polinkiu 

į verslumą, bet jo lygis bus aukštesnis, jeigu bus ugdomi jų verslumo gebėjimai (Garalis, Strazdienė, 2006). 

S. Jack ir A. Anderson (1998) verslumo ugdymą santykinai skirstė į meną ir mokslą. Autoriai teigia, kad 

mokslo srities, kuri apima funkcinius valdymo gebėjimus, gali būti mokoma. Tuo tarpu meno, kuris integruoja 

asmens kūrybiškumo ir inovatyvumo savybes, išmokyti neįmanoma. C. Henry ir kt. (2005) nuomone, 

mokyklos ir universitetai turi imtis iniciatyvos ugdyti asmens verslumo savybes. 

Verslumo ugdymas apima žinių teikimą, įgūdžių lavinimą, nuostatų ir asmeninių savybių formavimą, atitinkančias 

asmens amžių ir suvokimo lygį. Ugdant verslumą, asmuo supažindinamas su idėjomis, suteikiant 

teorinių ir praktinių žinių. Šia veikla siekiama, kad asmuo gebėtų planuoti savo karjerą, sėkmingai plėtotų 

verslą. V. Gronskas (1995) skiria du verslininkų tapsmo ir ugdymo būdus: egzogeninį (verslininkų aktyvumas, 

kūrybiškumas bręsta veikiant išorinėms aplinkos jėgoms, o ne dėl jų vidinių galių) ir endogeninį (verslininku 

tampama išnaudojus savo vidinę [psichinę, intelektinę, fizinę] energiją ir valią). Egzogeninį verslininkų tapsmą 

lemia verslumo ugdymo sistemos sudarymas, o endogeninis sutelktas ties verslumo ugdymo turiniu. 

Vieningo verslumo ugdymo suvokimo stoka rengiant būsimus verslininkus verčia taikyti skirtingas verslumo 

ugdymo programas, todėl iki šiol neaišku, kaip verslumas galėtų būti geriausiai ugdomas. 

2. Verslo ugdymo galimybių problematika 

Verslumo ugdymo galimybių problematika pasireiškia mokslininkų požiūrio skirtumais verslumo ugdymą 

skirstant į mokslą ir meną. Pirmoji mokslininkų grupė teigia, kad individo gebėjimas užsiimti verslu 

priklauso nuo prigimtinių jo savybių (Saee, 1996). Priešingą požiūrį pateikia K. Vesper (1982), J. Kantor 

(1988), kurie pabrėžia individo galimybę įgijus praktinių gebėjimų tapti versliu asmeniu. 

196


Nuosaikesnės nuomonės verslumo ugdymo galimybės klausimu laikosi G. Gorman ir kt. (1997). Autoriai 

(Gibb, 1999; Rae, Carswell, 2001; Wilde, 2004; Leger-Jarniou, 2005; Fayolle, Gailly, 2008 ir kt.) teigia, kad 

verslumui individą galima paskatinti, ugdant verslininkui būdingas savybes ir lavinant gebėjimus. 

Remdamiesi verslumo ugdymo definicija, A. Fayolle ir B. Gailly (2008) siūlo skirti mokymo ir ugdymo 

sampratas. Autorių teigimu, mokymas yra veiksmingas suteikiant individui būtinų žinių. Kadangi verslumas 

siejamas su individualia iniciatyva, kūrybiniu potencialu ir inovacijomis, verslininkų buvimo visuomenėje 

negalima užtikrinti vien tik žinių perdavimu. 

Mokslininkų A. Gibb (1999), D. Rae (2000) nuomone, analizuojant verslumo ugdymo galimybes, reikia 

susitelkti ties studentų poreikiu pradėti nuosavą verslą ir vadybos gebėjimų lavinimą. Praktinės veiklos 

požiūrio taikymas sudaro galimybę ugdyti potencialius verslininkus (Blieck, 2005; Kyrö, 2005). Studentų 

verslumo ugdymo procese „mokymosi veikiant“ metodo taikymas suteikia asmeninio pasitikėjimo, padeda 

suvokti savo siekius ir elgesį. Mokslininkai (Ferguson, 2003; Wilde, 2004), analizuodami verslumo mokymo 

galimybes, palaiko verslumo kompetencijų ugdymo taikant praktinės veiklos ugdymo metodą požiūrį. 

Verslumo ugdymo sistema, pagrįsta mokymo metodais ir programomis, neparengia asmenų sėkmingai 

verslo veiklai (Garavan, O’Cinneide, 1994a; Gorman ir kt., 1997). Verslumą nagrinėjantys mokslininkai 

sutaria, kad jis ugdomas per patirtimi grįstą veiklą (Gibb, 1987; Deakins, Freel, 1998). Realios aplinkos 

modeliavimas verslumo ugdymo procese, suteikiant studentams galimybę formuoti elgesio nuostatas, padėtų 

kaupti patirtį, kurios reikia kuriant nuosavą verslą. 

Nors dauguma verslininkams būdingų savybių, tokių kaip pasitikėjimas savimi, atkaklumas ir aktyvumas, 

negali būti lengvai įgyjamos kabinete, verslumo dėstytojai ir mokytojai atlieka pagrindinį vaidmenį, 

perteikdami analitinių metodų sampratą, kas svarbu kuriant naują verslą. Dauguma verslumo ugdymo iniciatyvų 

mažai atitinka verslininkų praktinius poreikius. Viena iš tai lemiančių priežasčių yra tai, kad dėstytojai 

neturi mažų įmonių valdymo organizacinės ir profesinės-techninės patirties, nesupranta praktinių verslininkų 

problemų (Henry ir kt., 2003). Verslumo ugdymo programos turinys labiau orientuotas į užduotis nei į 

elgesį, susitelkiant ties mažų įmonių valdymo, finansų ir rinkodaros įgūdžių mokymu, o ne ties kūrybiškumo, 

inovatyvumo ir problemų sprendimo gebėjimų ugdymu. 

Analizuojant verslumo mokymo galimybes galima daryti išvadą, kad būsimus įmonių verslininkus galima 

išmokyti techninių žinių, sunkiau – pakeisti jų asmenines savybes ir vertybes. Nepaisant didelio dėmesio, 

kuris skiriamas verslumo ugdymo galimybių problemai, verslumo ugdymo samprata yra „kūdikio“ stadijoje. 

Todėl ties šios problemos sprendimu dirbantys mokslininkai yra susitelkę į šios problematikos diskusijas. 

3. Tyrimo metodologija 

Lietuvos aukštojo mokslo institucijų ir studentų verslumo ugdymo problema nagrinėjama tik verslumo 

definicijos lygmenyje. Verslumo ugdymo, integruojančio institucijos ir individo pastangas, stoka suformuoja 

problemą, kuri leidžia pagrįsti sudaromos metodologijos poreikį. 

Atliekant tyrimą taikomas kiekybinis metodas, padedantis įvertinti studentų verslumui įtakos turinčius 

veiksnius. Tyrimui pasirinktas šiuo metu bene svarbiausias sociologinis pirminės informacijos rinkimo metodas 

– anketavimas. 

Sudarant anketą naudoti kelių rūšių klausimai: 

• y klausimai, numatantys atsakymų vertinimą pagal reikšmingumo skalę (skalė, vertinanti tam tikro reiškinio 

ar savybės svarbą, kur 1 – visiškai nesvarbu; 2 – nesvarbu; 3 – iš dalies svarbu; 4 – svarbu; 5 – 

labai svarbu); 

• y klausimai, pasirenkant atsakymą (siūlantys rinktis iš dviejų ar daugiau atsakymų). 

Statistiniai duomenys suvesti, apdoroti, analizuoti naudojant statistinį duomenų analizės paketą SPSS 15.0. 

Tyrimu siekta išsiaiškinti, kokie verslumo ugdymo instituciniame lygmenyje elementai yra svarbūs skatinant 

individo pageidavimą ir galimybę užsiimti nuosavo verslo kūrimu. 

197



4. Respondentų demografinės charakteristikos 

Tyrime dalyvavę respondentai skirstomi pagal demografinius rodiklius, kuriuos išskirti padeda respondentų 

amžius, lytis, tėvų išsilavinimas, studijuojamas dalykas, studijų forma, studijoms pasirinkta konkreti 

institucija ir pasiskirstymas pagal studijas universitete ar kolegijoje. 

78,23 proc. apklaustųjų sudarė moterys, 21,77 proc. – vyrai. 

32,85 proc. respondentų buvo iki 25 metų amžiaus, 45,56 proc. – nuo 26 iki 30 metų. 

Atliekant tyrimą universitete studijuojančių studentų iš viso apklausta 70,74 proc., kolegijose – 29,26 proc. 

Daugelis apklaustų studentų studijavo verslo vadybos (61,39 proc.), ekonomikos (19,66 proc.) ir viešojo 

administravimo specialybes. 

5. Verslumo ugdymo tyrimas 

Per apklausą studentai, vertindami institucijos tikslus ugdant verslumą, skyrė svarbiausius institucijos 

prioritetus: orientaciją į objektyvumą sprendžiant problemas (3,53 balo), į pasikeitimą idėjomis ir informacija 

(3,47 balo) ir į verslaus mentaliteto ugdymą (3,52 balo). Gauti standartinio nuokrypio rezultatai rodo 

respondentų atsakymų panašumą vertinant išskirtus institucinius verslumo ugdymo tikslus. Institucijos verslumo 

ugdymo tikslų vertinimas pateikiamas 1 lentelėje. 

Studentai, vertindami institucijos verslumo ugdymo turinį, išskyrė svarbiausius institucijos prioritetus: 

verslumo ugdymo turinį lemia gebėjimas rizikuoti (3,35 balo), asmeninių savybių (3,28 balo) ir tam tikro mąstymo 

lavinimas (3,04 balo). Rezultatai pateikiami 2 lentelėje. Reikia pabrėžti, kad respondentai, vertindami 

ugdymo galimybes, teigia, jog verslumas yra išugdoma kompetencija, bet ugdymą riboja gebėjimas suformuoti 

verslininkams būdingas savybes (3,09 balo), kuriomis jie skiriasi nuo kitos žmonių populiacijos. Standartinio 

nuokrypio rezultatai rodo respondentų atsakymų panašumą vertinant institucinio verslumo ugdymo turinį. 

Taikomų verslumo ugdymo metodų vertingumas šiame tyrime analizuotas pagal mokslinėje literatūroje 

išskirtas atskiras su versliu asmeniu siejamas asmenines savybes – pasiekimais, pasirengimu rizikuoti, vidine 

kontrole ir pasitikėjimu savimi. Nors individualus ugdymo metodas vertintas atskirai pagal kiekvieną 

savybę, galima pastebėti, kad išskirti metodai su tam tikromis išlygomis vienodai lemia išskirtų asmeninių 

savybių ugdymą. Nustatyta, kad ugdant individo verslumą, atsižvelgiant į pasirinktus ugdymo metodus, kaip 

reikšmingiausius studentai įvardijo praktinę veiklą, t. y. darbą verslo įmonėje, antras pagal reikšmingumą 

ugdymo metodas, veikiantis asmeninių savybių grupę, yra problemų sprendimo metodas, trečias pagal reikšmingumą 

kritinio mąstymo metodas taikomas verslaus asmens savybėms ugdytis (3 lentelė). 

Lentelė 1. Institucijos tikslų ugdant verslumą vertinimas 

Teiginiai N Vidurkis 

Standartinis 

nuokrypis 

Ugdant individo verslumą svarbesni praktiniai įgūdžiai, o ne asmeninės savybės 417 2,99 1,00 

Ugdant individo verslumą reikia taikyti analogiškus metodus, kaip ir mokant 

kitų dalykų 

417 3,15 0,86 

Ugdant individo verslumą problemas reikia spręsti objektyviu būdu, o ne 

emociškai įsitraukti į jų sprendimą 

417 3,53 0,92 

Ugdant individo verslumą reikia perimti kitų idėjas ir keistis informacija, o ne 

veikti vienam 

415 3,47 0,95 

Ugdant individo verslumą reikia ugdyti verslininkišką mentalitetą, o ne sutelkti 

pastangas į konkrečius vadybos metodus 

415 3,52 0,80 

Ugdant individo verslumą problemas reikia spręsti taikant metodines ir 

racionalias procedūras, o ne pasitelkiant įžvalgą ir asmeninę intuiciją 

416 3,25 0,92 

Šaltinis: sudaryta autorių 

198


Lentelė 2. Verslumo ugdymo turinio vertinimas 

Teiginiai N Vidurkis 

Standartinis 

nuokrypis 

Verslumas yra išugdoma kompetencija, o ne įgimtas polinkis ar kultūros 

bruožas 

417 3,09 0,85 

Asmeninės savybės, tokios kaip kūrybiškumas, novatoriškumas, gali būti 

greitai patobulintos individui išklausius mokymo kursus 

416 3,03 0,91 

Ugdyti individų verslumą sunku, nes tik maža žmonių dalis turi verslininkams 

būdingų savybių 

416 3,28 0,82 

Talentas gebėti rizikuoti verslininkui kur kas svarbesnis nei formalus verslo 

funkcijų mokymas 

416 3,35 0,94 

Verslumas yra griežtai akademinis mokymo dalykas 416 2,30 0,88 

Ugdant individo verslumą svarbiau suteikti studentams verslo organizacijos 

funkcijų pagrindus (finansų, rinkodaros, apskaitos žinių), nei skatinti jų 

416 2,84 0,90 

kūrybiškumą, vaizduotę ir novatoriškumą 

Verslumo ugdymo tikslas – lavinti aukštesnio lygio mąstymą, o ne praktinius 

įgūdžius 

415 3,04 0,91 

Ugdant individo verslumą svarbiau skatinti studentą analizuoti save, savo 

emocijas ir vertybes, nei mokyti specialių verslo funkcijų 

417 2,92 0,88 


Vertinant verslumo ugdymo auditorijos reikšmę, tirta grupė skirstoma atsižvelgiant į tai, studentas studijuoja 

universitete ar kolegijoje, į studijų formą, dalyką, lytį ir amžių. 

Lentelė 3. Verslumo ugdymo metodų vertinimas 

Savybės 

Metodai 

Pasiekimai Pasirengimas rizikuoti Vidinė kontrolė Pasitikėjimas savimi 

Knygų skaitymas 3,7 3,07 3,65 3,49 

Paskaitos 3,9 3,35 3,49 3,53 

Verslo plano rengimas 4,02 3,7 3,31 3,47 

Vizitai verslo įmonėje 4,07 3,91 3,51 3,8 

Konsultacijos 4,17 3,96 3,89 3,97 

Darbas verslo įmonėje 4,44 4,12 3,84 4,08 

Dialogai 3,79 3,68 3,8 3,95 

Modeliavimas kompiuteriu 3,56 3,34 3,05 3 

Vaidmens imitavimas 3,56 3,57 3,62 3,69 

Atvejų analizė 3,81 3,98 3,74 3,72 

Pranešimų rengimas ir aptarimas 3,68 3,42 3,58 3,88 

Ugdomasis vadovavimas 3,68 3,65 3,63 3,76 

Smegenų šturmas 3,66 3,6 3,65 3,68 

Komandiniai projektai 4,05 3,8 3,71 3,94 

Problemos sprendimas 4,21 4,13 4,04 4,11 

Kritinis mąstymas 4,22 4,18 4,02 4,05 

Tarpdalykinis žinių taikymas 3,91 3,64 3,51 3,59 


Vertindami verslo studijų rezultatą (4 lentelė) studentai išskyrė, kad studijuojant lavinami jų socialiniai ir 

vadovavimo įgūdžiai (3,5 balo) ir jie įgyja žinių, kurios būtinos norint pradėti verslą (3,42 balo). 

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Lentelė 4. Verslumo ugdymo proceso instituciniame lygmenyje vertinimas 

Procesas N Vidurkis 

Standartinis 

nuokrypis 

Skatina asmenį plėtoti naujas verslo idėjas 417 2,63 0,91 

Lavinami socialiniai ir vadovavimo įgūdžiai 416 3,50 0,90 

Suteikia žinių, kurios būtinos norint pradėti naujos verslo įmonės veiklą 417 3,42 0,91 

Skatina tarpdalykinių studentų komandų sudarymą 414 3,00 0,89 

Užtikrina glaudžius ryšius su verslą skatinančiomis institucijomis 416 2,51 0,97 

Skatina naujų verslo įmonių kūrimo procesą 417 2,57 0,97 


Studijų rezultatų vertinimas verslumo ugdymo kontekste padeda identifikuoti ir silpnąsias ugdymo proceso 

puses. Pagrindinis verslumo ugdymo trūkumas pasireiškia nepakankamu asmens skatinimu plėtoti naujas 

verslo idėjas (2,63 balo), silpni ryšiai su verslą skatinančiomis institucijomis (2,51 balo), menkas naujų 

verslo įmonių kūrimo proceso skatinimas (2,57 balo). 

Vertinant versliems asmenims būdingas savybes skiriamos dvi proaktyvumo ir kūrybiškumo savybės. 

Proaktyvumo savybė vertinta remiantis trimis studentams pateiktais teiginiais. Atlikta apklausa parodė, kad 

proaktyvumo savybė būdinga apklausoje dalyvavusiems studentams. Vidutinis teiginių vertinimas pagal 

konkrečius teiginius kinta nuo 3,58 iki 3,89 balo. Standartinis nuokrypis rodo, kad daugumos respondentų 

vertinimas yra arčiau nurodyto vertinimo reikšmės, atitinkamai kinta nuo 0,8 iki 0,88 (5 lentelė). 

Kūrybiškumo savybei įvertinti pateikti trys teiginiai. Tyrimu vertinant, ar asmeniui būdingas kūrybiškumas, 

nustatyta, kad respondentai iš dalies linkę sau priskirti kūrybiškumą, kaip būdingą savybę. Pateiktų 

vertinti teiginių reikšmė kinta nuo 2,45 iki 3,47 balo. Standartinio nuokrypio reikšmės yra aukštesnės nei 

vertinant proaktyvumo savybę. Jos atitinkamai pagal kiekvieną teiginį kinta nuo 0,84 iki 0,95 (5 lentelė). 

Lentelė 5. Asmens savybių vertinimas 

Savybės N Vidurkis 

Standartinis 

nuokrypis 

Proaktyvumas 

Aš visada ieškau geriausių veiklos atlikimo būdų 415 3,89 0,83 

Jeigu tikiu idėja, jokie sunkumai man nesutrukdys jos įgyvendinti 417 3,74 0,88 

Jeigu matau tai, kas man nepatinka, aš tai pakeičiu 414 3,58 0,80 

Kūrybiškumas 

Dažniausiai aš neturiu naujų idėjų 416 2,45 0,95 

Aš sugalvoju kūrybišką problemos sprendimą 415 3,31 0,84 

Gerinant savo veiklos rezultatus sugalvoju naujų ir praktiškų idėjų 417 3,47 0,84 


Kitas institucinio verslumo ugdymo vertinimo elementas apibrėžiamas individui priskiriant vertybes, 

kuriomis grindžiamos asmens veiklos savame versle nuostatos. Tyrimu identifikuotos vadybos ir verslo 

administravimo kryptyje studijuojantiems studentams būdingos vertybės. Svarbiausios vertybės siejamos su 

praktine verslo veikla. 

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Lentelė 6. Individualių vertybių reikšmė 

Vertybės N Vidurkis 

Standartinis 

nuokrypis 

Veiksminga konkurencija rinkoje 418 4,01 0,81 

Didelės pajamos 418 3,97 0,79 

Veikla, teikianti asmeninį pasitenkinimą 418 4,22 0,81 

Visuomeninis pripažinimas 411 4,08 0,82 

Bendruomenės problemų sprendimas 416 3,73 0,80 

Verslo palaikymas 417 4,18 0,75 

Teigiamo augimo išlaikymas 417 4,29 0,74 


Respondentams svarbus nuosavo verslo teigiamo augimo išlaikymas (vertintas 4,29 balo), reikšminga 

vertybė siejama su praktine veikla, kuri asmeniui teikia asmeninį pasitenkinimą (vertinta 4,22 balo), bei 

verslo palaikymas (vertintas 4,18 balo) (6 lentelė). Nors remiantis atliktu tyrimu respondentai ir sutinka, kad 

bendruomenės problemų sprendimas yra svarbus aspektas, tačiau yra mažiau reikšmingas nei su nuosavu 

verslu siejama vertybė. Socialinis vertybės aspektas individui yra mažiau reikšmingas nei verslo, kartu ir 

asmeninė sėkmė (6 lentelė). 

Lentelė 7. Verslininkui priskiriamų įgūdžių reikšmingumas 

Įgūdžiai N Vidurkis Standartinis nuokrypis 

Galimybių nustatymo 416 3,99 0,83 

Finansinio raštingumo 415 4,04 2,15 

Problemų sprendimo 415 4,46 0,70 

Vadovavimo 416 4,61 0,60 

Bendravimo 414 4,44 0,72 

Naujų produktų/paslaugų kūrimo 416 4,09 0,82 

Bendradarbiavimo 416 4,35 0,70 

Kontaktų užmezgimo 416 4,51 0,66 

Pardavimo 415 4,23 0,76 

Verslo plano rengimo 417 4,17 0,83 

Planavimo 417 4,45 0,68 

Derybiniai 417 4,41 0,68 

Skaičiavimo 417 4,00 0,83 

Emocijų kontrolės 417 3,98 0,83 

Tyrimo 417 3,71 0,83 

Technologijų taikymo 416 4,05 0,84 


Lentelė 8. Studentų verslumo įgūdžių reikšmingumas 


Galimybių nustatymo 416 3,41 0,75 

Finansinio raštingumo 417 3,54 2,56 

Problemų sprendimo 416 3,87 0,72 

Vadovavimo 417 3,70 0,86 

Bendravimo 417 4,12 0,79 

Naujų produktų/paslaugų kūrimo 416 2,92 0,97 

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Bendradarbiavimo 417 3,91 0,80 

Kontaktų užmezgimo 416 3,78 0,85 

Pardavimo 416 3,45 2,68 

Verslo plano rengimo 417 3,10 0,97 

Planavimo 415 3,73 0,81 

Derybiniai 417 3,52 0,91 

Skaičiavimo 415 3,67 0,93 

Emocijų kontrolės 415 3,79 0,90 

Tyrimo 416 3,14 0,89 

Technologijų taikymo 415 3,47 0,99 


Atliekant verslumo įgūdžių tyrimą, pirmiausia respondentų prašyta nustatyti versliems asmenims priskiriamų 

įgūdžių reikšmingumą. Pastebėtina, kad išskirti remiantis teorija aprašyti įgūdžiai įvardijami kaip 

svarbūs arba labai svarbūs. Tyrimo rezultatai, nusakantys versliems asmenims būdingų įgūdžių vertingumą, 

pateikiami 7 lentelėje. Kitu žingsniu respondentų prašyta įvertinti, kiek jiems asmeniškai būdingi tie patys 

įgūdžiai (8 lentelė). Vertinant gautus apklausos rezultatus nustatyta, kad pagal kiekvienam asmeniui būdingą 

įgūdį studentai identifikuoja silpniau išlavintus savo verslumo įgūdžius. 

Tyrimu siekta nustatyti, kaip universitetų ir kolegijų studentai suvokia verslumą. Gauti tyrimo duomenys 

rodo, kad verslumas, siejamas su išskirtinėmis asmens savybėmis, kūrybiškumu, novatoriškumu, vaizduote, 

įvertintas 3,83 balo; užsispyrimu, išradingumu, mokėjimu įtikinti kitus – 3,80 balo. Tyrimu atskleistas ir 

kitas svarbus verslumo suvokimo aspektas. Respondentai, remiantis duomenimis, verslumą sieja su išskirtų 

savybių praktiniu taikymu (3,79 balo). Pastebėtina, kad verslumo sampratos problematika, siekiant pateikti 

tikslų šio reiškinio apibrėžimą, išlieka aktuali ir tai rodo atliktas tyrimas, kuriame matyti, jog verslumas peržengia 

asmeninių savybių ir įgūdžių tam tikrose veiklos srityse ribas (3,88 balo). Apibendrintai galima teigti, 

kad verslumą studentai sieja su asmeninėmis savybėmis, turimais įgūdžiais ir praktiniu jų taikymu. Verslumo 

suvokimo tyrimo duomenys pateikti 9 lentelėje. 

Lentelė 9. Studentų verslumo suvokimas 

Verslumo suvokimas N Vidurkis 

Standartinis 

nuokrypis 

Būti versliu reiškia turėti nuosavą verslą ir jį valdyti 418 3,15 0,98 

Verslus asmuo tas, kuris pradeda naują verslą 418 2,93 0,90 

Verslumas siejamas su praktiniais savo verslo valdymo aspektais 411 3,37 0,81 

Verslūs žmonės yra tie, kurie skiriasi nuo kitų žmonių savo savybėmis – 

kūrybiškumu, novatoriškumu, vaizduote 

416 3,83 1,01 

Verslumas tapatinamas su asmeninių savybių – kūrybiškumo, novatoriškumo ir 

vaizduotės – išnaudojimu 

416 3,79 0,88 

Verslininkai – tai žmonės, turintys tam tikrų savybių – užsispyrimo, 

išradingumo, gebantys įtikinti kitus 

415 3,80 0,90 

Būti sėkmingu verslininku reiškia daugiau nei būti įžvalgiu svajotoju ir 

charizmatišku vadovu, turinčiu įgūdžių specialiose verslo srityse (rinkodaros, 418 3,88 0,91 

finansų valdymo ir kt.) 

Verslininkai išsiskiria iš kitų žmonių stipriu pasiekimo ir pasisekimo siekiu 416 3,60 0,97 

Verslininkais galima vadinti žmones, kurie kuria naujas verslo organizacijas, 

naujas prekes ar paslaugas 

417 3,67 0,87 


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Siekiant įvertinti individo ketinimus ateityje kurti nuosavą verslą, tyrimas grindžiamas požiūrio (santykio) 

į verslą vertinimu. Teigiamas požiūris į verslą pagrįstas individo ketinimais kurti nuosavą verslą, turint 

galimybę ir norint užsiimti nuosavo verslo kūrimu. 

Santykis į verslą, kaip vieną iš galimų veiklos alternatyvų, tyrime vertintas per asmeninį, referentinių 

grupių, šeimos ir visuomenės požiūrį į nuosavo verslo kūrimą. Tyrimu nustatyta, kad asmeninio, šeimos, 

referentinių grupių ir visuomenės požiūrio vertinimu, vyrauja silpnas santykis dėl nuosavo verslo kūrimo 

perspektyvos. Įvertinimo reikšmės kinta nuo 2,49 iki 3,17 balo (10 lentelė). Balo reikšmės aiškinamos kaip 

nesvarbios ir iš dalies svarbios. Teigiamo santykio į nuosavo verslo kūrimą trūkumas apibrėžiamas kaip 

„įsitikinimas, kad Lietuvoje neįmanoma tapti verslininkais“. Apibendrinant gautus tyrimo rezultatus, galima 

teigti, kad ugdant individo verslumą viena iš siekiamybių būtų teigiamo požiūrio į nuosavą verslą formavimas. 

Ši verslumo ugdymo kryptis yra reikšminga, nes teigiamas požiūris į nuosavo verslo kūrimą didina 

asmens galimybes ir norą kurti nuosavą verslą. 

Lentelė 10. Požiūrio į nuosavą verslą vertinimas 

Teiginiai, išreikšiantys požiūrį į nuosavo verslo kūrimą N Vidurkis 

Standartinis 

nuokrypis 

Mano šeima verslininko karjerą vertina palankiau nei kitų profesijų pasirinkimą 417 2,69 1,01 

Mano šalies kultūra palanki kurti verslą 418 2,49 0,95 

Verslininkų ekonominė nauda mano šalyje visiškai nevertinama 418 3,00 0,92 

Mano draugai verslą vertina palankiau nei kitas veiklas 415 3,05 0,94 

Dauguma mano šalies žmonių mano, kad neturi galimybių tapti verslininkais 417 3,44 0,95 

Manau, kad mano šalyje, nepaisant kylančios rizikos, verta užsiimti verslu 418 3,17 0,85 

Mano draugai verslininko veiklą vertina labiau nei kitas karjeros galimybes 410 2,90 0,92 

Mano šalyje vyrauja nuomonė, kad verslininkai apgaudinėja kitus visuomenės 

narius 

417 3,07 0,99 


Tyrime respondentams pateikti vertinti teiginiai grupuojami į dvi pageidavimų ir galimybių kategorijas. 

Lentelė 11. Pageidavimo kategorijos vertinimas 

Teiginiai, apibrėžiantys individo pageidavimą kurti nuosavą verslą N Vidurkis 

Standartinis 

Nuokrypis 

Verslininko karjera man visiškai nepriimtina 418 2,15 0,92 

Mano draugai palaikytų mano sprendimą kurti nuosavą verslo įmonę 416 3,70 0,84 

Aš padaryčiau viską, kad tapčiau verslininku 418 2,95 0,97 

Aš sutelksiu visas pastangas, kad įkurčiau ir valdyčiau nuosavą verslo įmonę 415 3,24 1,01 

Mano šeima pateisintų sprendimą kurti nuosavą verslo įmonę 417 3,69 0,99 

Verslininko karjera man teiktų pasitenkinimą 418 3,54 0,97 

Mano profesinis tikslas – verslininko karjera 417 2,89 0,98 

Verslininko karjera suteikia daugiau pranašumų nei trūkumų 415 3,29 0,89 

Aš neketinu kurti nuosavos verslo įmonės 418 2,43 1,09 


Gauti tyrimo rezultatai (11 lentelė) rodo referentinių grupių (įvertinta 3,7 balo) ir šeimos palaikymą (įvertinta 

3,69 balo) asmeniui renkantis verslininko karjerą. Vertinant individo verslininko karjeros pasirinkimą, 

kaip pageidaujamą prielaidą, fiksuojamos silpnesnės asmens nuostatos. Perspektyvoje verslininko karjera, 

kaip teikianti pasitenkinimą, vertinta 3,54 balo. Galima teigti, kad studentų pageidavimas ateityje užsiimti 

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nuosavo verslo kūrimu vertintas kaip tarpinė kategorija tarp iš dalies svarbios ir svarbios reikšmės. Studentų 

pageidaujamas verslininko karjeros pasirinkimas, kaip profesinis tikslas, tyrime įvertintas 2,89 balo. 

Remiantis tyrimo rezultatais galima konstatuoti, kad verslumo ugdymo plėtros kryptis turėtų būti sutelkta į 

pageidaujamą verslo kūrimo skatinimą instituciniame lygmenyje. 

Tyrimu identifikuota galimybės kategorijos reikšmė formuojant nuosavo verslo kūrimo ketinimus 

(12 lentelė). Nustatyta, kad respondentų galimybę užsiimti nuosavo verslu kūrimu riboja ištekliai ir galimybių 

įžvalgų stoka (3,86 balo). Galimybę ateityje savo karjerą susieti su nuosavo verslo kūrimu vertinta 

3,34 balo. Naujos verslo įmonės kūrimo proceso valdymo gebėjimai vertinti, kaip iš dalies svarbūs vertinant 

galimybę kurti nuosavą verslą (3,18 balo). Nuosavo verslo kūrimo galimybės tyrime apibrėžiamos individo 

patirtais sunkumais, jo pasirengimu, abejonėmis, kūrybiniu potencialu ir žiniomis, kurių reikia, norint kurti 

verslą. Išskirtų aspektų pagrindimo vertinimas kinta nuo 2,54 iki 3,05 balo. Gautos vertinimų reikšmės aiškinamos 

kaip iš dalies svarbios. 

Lentelė 12. Galimybės kategorijos vertinimas 

Teiginiai, apibrėžiantys individo galimybę kurti nuosavą verslą N Vidurkis 

Standartinis 

Nuokrypis 

Man būtų lengva įkurti verslo įmonę ir plėtoti jos veiklą 417 2,61 0,84 

Aš manau, kad esu nepasirengęs tapti verslininku 413 2,87 1,11 

Aš sugebėsiu valdyti naujos verslo įmonės kūrimo procesą 417 3,18 0,84 

Aš abejoju, kad ateityje kursiu nuosavą verslo įmonę 414 2,68 1,08 

Jeigu turėčiau galimybių ir išteklių, kurčiau nuosavą verslo įmonę 417 3,86 1,05 

Aš esu pasirengęs ateityje kurti nuosavą verslo įmonę 418 3,34 0,97 

Jeigu bandyčiau kurti nuosavą verslo įmonę, turėčiau daugiau galimybių 

pasiekti sėkmę versle 

415 3,05 0,84 

Man būtų sunku sukurti verslo idėją 417 2,54 0,93 

Aš iš esmės žinau, kaip pradėti kurti nuosavą verslą 418 2,83 0,96 


Tyrimų rezultatų vertinimas baigiamas individo ketinimų nuostatų kurti nuosavą verslą vertinimu. Gauti 

tyrimo rezultatai atskleidė, kad 69,64 proc. respondentų yra svarstę galimybę užsiimti nuosavo verslo kūrimu. 

Šio tyrimo rezultatas atskleidžia teigiamas Lietuvos studentų ketinimų nuostatas dėl nuosavo verslo 

kūrimo. Tačiau verslumo ugdymo procesas realizuojant studentų teigiamus ketinimus turi būti sutelktas į 

pageidavimo ir ypač galimybės kategorijų plėtojimą. 

Išvados 

Atliktas studentų verslumo ugdymo vertinimas padėjo nustatyti, kad skatinant kurti nuosavą verslą reikia 

skatinti studentų norą ir galimybę juo užsiimti. Empirinis vertinimas atskleidė, kad skatinant studentų 

nuosavo verslo kūrimo galimybę ir norą, reikia ugdyti asmens proaktyvumo ir kūrybiškumo savybę, skatinti 

palankų požiūrį šeimos ir draugų aplinkoje, lavinti verslumo įgūdžius. Atliktu tyrimu nustatyta, kad ugdant 

studentų verslumą reikšmingas yra su verslumu siejamų asmeninių savybių proaktyvumo ir kūrybiškumo 

vystymas. Proaktyvumo savybė ugdoma lavinant techninius ir bendravimo įgūdžius, formuojant palankų 

šeimos ir draugų požiūrį į nuosavo verslo kūrimą. Kūrybiškumo savybė ugdoma lavinant techninius įgūdžius. 

Į verslumą orientuotos vertybės veiksmingiausiai ugdomos, taikant mentaliteto lavinimo, praktinės 

veiklos ir informacijos teikimo metodus, kuriais tobulinami bendravimo, konceptualūs ir techniniai įgūdžiai. 

Techniniams verslumo įgūdžiams ugdytis tikslingiausia taikyti modeliavimo-imitavimo (modeliavimą kompiuteriu, 

vaidmens imitavimą), bendravimo verslumo įgūdžiams ugdytis – praktinės veiklos (vizitai verslo 

įmonėje, konsultacijos, darbas verslo įmonėje) ir mentaliteto lavinimo (kritinis mąstymas, problemos spren- 

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dimas, tarpdalykinių žinių taikymas) metodus; konceptualiems verslumo įgūdžiams ugdyti – mentaliteto 

lavinimo metodus. 

Remiantis tyrimo rezultatais, studentų verslumo ugdymą rekomenduojama plėtoti koreguojant vadybos 

programų turinį ir plečiant verslumo ugdymo institucinę sistemą. Plėtojant verslumo ugdymą Lietuvoje, 

institucinė verslumo ugdymo sistema turi būti kuriama verslaus universiteto aplinkoje, kurioje universitetas 

prisiima verslumo kultūros ugdymo, skatinimo, verslo kūrimo ir plėtros rėmimo funkcijas. 

Verslumo kultūrą reikia plėtoti skatinant studentų verslumo suvokimą ir integruojant mokslinių tyrimų 

ir mokymo veiklas. Verslumo skatinimą būtina grįsti veikla, kuri nukreipta į paramos teikimą studentams, 

įgyvendinantiems realia verslo idėja paremtą verslo planą. 

Plėtojant studentų verslumo ugdymo sistemą reikia atsižvelgti į studentų poreikius. Galimybių versliai 

veikti aukštojo mokslo institucijos aplinkoje sudarymas pirmiausia turi pasireikšti studentų motyvacija, 

naujovių ir pokyčių siekiu. Įgyvendinant studentų praktinės veiklos etapą institucinės verslumo ugdymo 

sistemos aplinkoje būtina sukurti socialinio įgaliojimo sistemą, kuri būtų pagrįsta socialiniais santykiais, 

ryšiais, praktika. Reikšmingas vaidmuo šioje sistemoje turi būti numatytas verslo inkubatoriams, kurie teikia 

paslaugas studentams ir universiteto absolventams. Plėtojant studentų verslumo ugdymą universiteto lygmenyje, 

skleidžiant verslumo ugdymo idėjas, tikslingas būtų verslo centrų kūrimas. Verslumo centrams reikėtų 

priskirti verslumo ugdymo ir skatinimo funkciją universiteto lygmenyje. Universitete veikiantys verslumo 

centrai vykdytų ryšių su valdžios institucijomis ir verslo partneriais užmezgimo ir palaikymo funkciją, koordinuotų 

verslumo ugdymo politiką tarp skirtingų universiteto fakultetų ir katedrų. 

Literatūra 

Adcroft, A., Wills, R., Dhaliwal, S. (2004). Missing the point? Management education and entrepreneurship. Management 

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Research of STUDENTS’ ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION 

IN west LITHUANIAN region 



Summary 

The lack of conceptual and method-based attitude to student’s entrepreneurship development is a relevant 

and a scientific problem to be solved. The scientific problem – how to develop the entrepreneurship of students 

in the level of higher educational institutions, by activating intentions of own business establishment – 

is analysed in this article. 

The object of research is entrepreneurship development of students in West Lithuania Region. 

The goal of the research is to build a model of entrepreneurship development by indicating factors, 

influencing students’ intentions of own business establishment, on which basis the perspective trends of entrepreneurship 

development of students in Lithuania could be foreseen. While seeking a formulised goal, the 

specific tasks of this research are the following: 

• y To analyse scientific literature, analysing the concept of entrepreneurship. 

• y To indicate critical factors, inducing individual’s entrepreneurship. 

• y To identify personal features and skills, required for students’ entrepreneurship development. 

To provide proposals how to improve a process of entrepreneurship development in Higher Educational 

Institutions of West Lithuania. 

Methods of scientific research 

Scientific literature analysis, systemization, synthesis, generalisation and comparative methods are used 

for theoretical researches. In order to receive information on students’ entrepreneurship development, a 

direct data collection by interviewing target group of research was carried out. SPSS program was used for 

research data summarization and quantitative data processing methods were applied. Descriptive statistics 

methods were applied to setting and evaluation of significant factors of entrepreneurship development, an 

interpretation of average evaluation was calculated. 

A concept of entrepreneurship development is based on two differentiated opinions of entrepreneurship 

development opportunities in scientific researches. A part of authors support a position (Vesper, 1982; 

Kantor, 1988; Jack and Anderson, 1998; Adcroft, Wills and Dhaliwal, 2004), that by mean of management 

studies students may be trained for technical skills, but natural individual’s entrepreneurship features may 

not be influenced. Authors (Gorman, Hanlon and King, 1997; Gibb, 1999; Rae and Carswell, 2001; Wild, 

2004; Leger-Jarniou, 2005; Fayolle and Gailly, 2008) state, that entrepreneurship may be taught or at least an 

individual may be encouraged to start business establishment. Others relate a leaning to entrepreneurship to 

human nature, but stress the possibility to change an entrepreneurship level of individual (Saee, 1996; Henry, 

Hill and Leitch, 2005; Garalis, Strazdienė, 2006). 

It is offered to transform entrepreneurship development from teaching towards development attitude, as 

the authors A. Fayolle and B. Gailly (2008) say, teaching is useful while enduing individual with required 

knowledge, since an entrepreneurship must be related to definition of development. Expression of entrepreneurship’s 

development possibilities is related to students’ need to start own business. Application of attitude 

of practical activity creates a possibility to develop potential entrepreneurs (Blieck, 2005; Kyrö, 2005). 

While formulating goals of entrepreneurship development in higher educational institution it is essential 

to clearly define them by combining with a result, to be achieved. Selected goals influence studying methods 

and means. Although method of lectures’ procedures is widespread in management and administration studies 

field, however, as theoretical and practical analysis show, it is of low efficient while activating behavior 

207



of enterprising students. Being activating students’ intentions of own business establishment it is a possibility 

to influence them within integration of business and entrepreneurs into process of studying and wider analysis 

of cases as well as usage of methods in participating in specific projects. Efficiency of students’ entrepreneurship 

development in the aspect of intentions of own business establishment, with reference to research 

carried out in this dissertation, increase while applying practical activities, where possibilities to study for 

students and entrepreneurs are built. 

By offering subjects, encouraging entrepreneurship development of students in Lithuania, it is important 

to create system of efficiency control, where career intentions of a student could be evaluated. Evaluating 

changes of personal features and efficiency of applied methods and activating students’ intentions of own 

business establishment, as it was set data during the analysis of this dissertation, must compose components 

of control system. By increasing efficiency of business management programs, they must be supplemented 

by subjects, encouraging new business opportunities, as well as helping to recognize and use them. 

It is offered to relate a trend of entrepreneurship development to development of personal and application 

features. While developing students’ entrepreneurship, development of competences must be formed by 

developing their perception, skills and knowledge, positive attitude and motivation to own business establishment. 

Training of entrepreneurship skills and presentation of knowledge determine a framework of 

individual’s strength of creative potential, which an individual may use while discovering new possibilities 

of own business establishment. Perception of entrepreneurship in the context of entrepreneurs “making” and 

“being” provides with a reason of dual development of entrepreneurship. Acquired knowledge and skills are 

more significant for business “making”, and “being” an entrepreneur is related to an attitude to own business 

and internal motivation of individual. However, only presentation of knowledge and training of skills will 

not compose assumptions to individual to overcome internal barriers of fear and pessimistic moods, while 

realising potential intentions of own business establishment. It is necessary to propagate rules of optimistic 

attitude towards own business establishment while training individual’s entrepreneurship development. 

Key words: entrepreneurship, entrepreneurship development, management, entrepreneur. 

JEL codes: M100. 

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EU Enlargement – 20 Myths and Facts about Enlargement. (2006). European Commission. Luxembourg: 

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Nugent, N. (2006). Introduction: Does Size Matter in the European Union? European Integration, 

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Klaipėdos universiteto leidykla 

REGIONAL FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT STUDIES 

Journal of Social Sciences 

No. 1 (6) 

Klaipėda, 2012 

SL 1335. 2012 04 11. Apimtis 26,5 sąl. sp. l. Tiražas 90 egz. 

Išleido ir spausdino Klaipėdos universiteto leidykla, Herkaus Manto g. 84, 92294 Klaipėda 

Tel. (8 46) 398 891, el. paštas: leidykla@ku.lt; interneto adresas: http://www.ku.lt/leidykla/ 

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