introduction what is social anthropology? - University of St Andrews

Department of
Social Anthropology
SA1001
Handbook
2012/13

INTRODUCTION
Social Anthropology explores and compares the ways that different peoples around the world
live. Today, anthropologists are as likely to work in a Western urban context, as they are to
work amongst African Pygmies or Australian Aborigines. In this introductory course, a wide
range of examples will be drawn upon to illustrate the many varieties and possibilities of
human existence. Wherever they work, anthropologists hope to gain insights into the broad
spectrum of human being through an approach that is sensitive to different social and cultural
contexts. Anthropologists try to understand other cultures by looking at all aspects of their
experience; this results in a number of different specialisations that can include economic and
political anthropology as well as other areas such as religion and even sport.
Anthropologists use a specialised methodology called participant observation. This involves
long periods of intensive field research during which the anthropologist tries to gain a deep
understanding of the daily experiences of the people with whom he or she is living. The
research conducted by the lecturers on this course covers Africa, Europe, the Pacific and the
Americas, providing the students with a truly global view on the modern world.
Anthropologists all have their own agendas and yet they all stress the importance of
understanding other ways of life. It is this increased understanding of a shared planet that is
the invaluable gift that anthropology has to offer.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
This module aims to provide students with both an appreciation of cultural and social diversity,
and an understanding of what it is that anthropologists do. Students who have completed the
course should also gain a basic understanding of anthropological theory. As a result, the course
has the following learning outcomes:
1. A knowledge of how an anthropological approach can be beneficial to the understanding of
other peoples.
2. A familiarity with ethnographic examples from a number of geographical areas thereby
enhancing the students’ awareness of social and cultural diversity. This should lead to an
understanding of the dangers of stereotyping and prejudice, a very important issue in the
troubled times in which we all live.
3. An appreciation of the importance of cross‐cultural understanding in a globalising world.
4. A familiarity with key concepts, debates and theoretical issues found within the academic
discipline of Social Anthropology.
5. An appreciation of the relevance of anthropological issues outside academia. With the rise of
the development and tourism industries and the on‐going arguments over globalisation and
migration, an anthropological frame of reference is particularly pertinent for all those
concerned about the predicaments of the present day world.
6. The module will train students to develop their own analytical, reflective and conceptual
skills with respect to the understanding and judgement of the values of their own culture,
and also those of other peoples who have value systems different from their own.
7. A firm grounding in Social Anthropology will be achieved, allowing students to progress well
in their future studies, whether in Anthropology or other related disciplines.
2

8. The Sub‐Honours modules are primarily designed to lay the foundations for further study at
Honours level in Social Anthropology. The Sub‐Honours programme gives students the
opportunity to develop and explore their interests in Social Anthropology, through
ethnographic study as well as discussion and evaluation of particular anthropological issues
and problems.
TRANSFERABLE SKILLS
Through taking this module, students will also develop a range of other skills that are not
necessarily specific to Social Anthropology. These will include:
1. Comprehension and analytical skills. Students will be expected to read and understand quite
complex materials that will initially seem quite alien to them. They will be expected to
discuss what they have read during tutorials and to ask relevant questions.
2. Writing skills. In each module, students will be expected to produce three essays that will be
marked by their tutors. In order to help bridge the gap between what was expected at
school and what is expected at university, tutors will provide feedback to help students
improve their essay writing technique.
3. Time allocation skills. The students are obliged to research and write essays with set due
dates. They are also obliged to read the set readings for their weekly tutorials.
4. Communication skills. Students are expected to contribute to discussions during tutorials.
They may also be asked by their tutors to give oral presentations.
5. Research skills. Students are expected to make extensive use of all the library facilities
available within the university when researching their written work and in preparing for
tutorials.
6. Information Technology skills. Students are expected to use a word processor for all written
work. They should also make use of the module information on MMS and/or Moodle as well
as the Internet when recommended to do so. They are encouraged to use e‐mail in case
they need to contact their tutors or lecturers.
3

SA1001
ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE WORLD
This module provides an introduction to some of the key issues and debates in Social
Anthropology. We begin by asking what is Social Anthropology, and in what ways it is different
and similar from other ways of learning about the world. The guiding motive for the module is
that all social anthropologists, no matter their approach or their subject of study, deal with one
basic question, what does it mean to be human? In this module we approach this fundamental
question by focusing on five sets of issues and questions that have been central to the
development of our discipline:
• Introduction: the distinctiveness and scope of Social Anthropology.
• Hunter‐gatherers and other so‐called ‘primitive’ peoples, usually represented in Euro‐
American society as our living ancestors and as the remnants of an unchanging preindustrial
world.
• Movement in a globalising world and the ways in which people such as Gypsies, tourists,
migrants and exiles make sense their transient environments. Just what is ‘home’?
• Issues of power and resistance, and the ways in which peoples across the world have
resisted and continue to resist their domination by others.
• Tourism as an industry and a component of globalisation and the cross‐cultural encounters
it engenders.
• Children and young people and their place in anthropological studies.
___________________________________________________________________________
Module Convener:
Lecturers:
Dr Stan Frankland (mcf1). Please address all problems to him.
Dr Stan Frankland (mcf1), Dr Mattia Fumanti (mf610), Professor Christina
Toren (ct51), Dr Stavroula Pipyrou (sp78)
Credits: 20
Teaching:
Lecture Hour:
Tutorials:
Ethnographic films:
Weekly lecture series, ethnographic films, workshops and tutorials
4pm Buchanan Lecture Theatre on Monday, Tuesday, Thursday and
Friday
These are held WEEKLY in either the department seminar room or in the
Arts Building
Films will be shown on Fridays at 4pm in the Buchanan Lecture Theatre
Course Assessment: Two assessed essays = 60% Two hour examination = 40%
A Reader Pack is available for this module. It contains key readings for the course including all
those necessary for the tutorials and a core of those required for the essays. The packs can be
purchased through the Online Shop, https://onlineshop.standrews.ac.uk/ and collected from
the Departmental Office. Other readings are available in Short Loan and, in some cases, via
MMS.
4

INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY?
WEEK 1
Dr Stan Frankland mcf1@st‐andrews.ac.uk 1st Floor, 71 North Street
WEEK 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE AND TO SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY
The module begins with a general introduction to Social Anthropology, raising a number of
broad themes that will be picked up on throughout the semester. In the first three lectures,
you will be introduced to the central concepts, the way of thinking, and the methods and the
modes of presentation that constitute professional anthropology today. The aim of this
introductory session will be to provide a solid grounding for the more detailed sections of the
module to follow. It will also begin the process of promoting an awareness of the assumed
notions that each one of us has about social values, and encouraging a consciousness and
questioning of such values through the use of anthropological approaches and data.
KEY READINGS
While there is no particular textbook for this module, all of these books provide useful
introductions to the complexities of social anthropology. They will be useful in providing
students with a clear overview of the subject and will also be helpful in relation to all other
aspects of the module.
• Barnard, A., 2006. Social Anthropology: Investigating Human Social Life. Abergele:
Studymates
• Eriksen, T.H., 2001. Small Places. Large Issues. An Introduction to Social and Cultural
Anthropology. London. Pluto Press.
• Eriksen, T.H., 2004. What is Anthropology? London: Pluto
• Hendry, J., 1999. An Introduction to Social Anthropology: Other People’s Worlds. London:
Macmillan Press.
• James, W., 2003. The Ceremonial Animal: A New Portrait of Anthropology. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
• Keesing, R.M. & Strathern, A.J., 1998. Cultural Anthropology: A Contemporary Perspective.
Forth Worth: Harcourt Brace College Press.
• Monaghan, J. & Just, P., 2000. Social and Cultural Anthropology: A very short introduction.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Rapport, N. & Overing, J., 2000. Social and Cultural Anthropology: The Key Concepts.
London: Routledge.
LECTURE 1: WHY ANTHROPOLOGY?
This lecture stresses the importance of studying anthropology in the current era of
globalisation and of understanding the connections and disconnections in the modern world.
How do we make sense of the apparent chaos that confronts us everyday?
5

LECTURE 2: WHAT IS ANTHROPOLOGY?
Through the comparative study of human societies and cultures, anthropology attempts to
make sense of the initially overwhelming diversity of human ideas and behaviour. It is the finegrained
analysis of these social, cultural and political variations as well as the common
humanity that underpins them that lies at the heart of social anthropology.
LECTURE 3: HOW DO WE DO ANTHROPOLOGY?
Anthropologists acquire their information through a distinctive method termed ‘participant
observation’. By living for prolonged periods and sharing experiences with those whom they
are researching, the anthropologist’s goal is to gain an in‐depth understanding of all aspects of
that particular social environment. In this lecture, we will look at exactly what this
methodology entails and how it brings about a unique anthropological perspective on the
world.
LECTURE 4: ETHNOGRAPHIC FILM ‐ BARZAKH (2011 DIR. MANTAS KVEDARAVICIUS)
Barzakh is a multi‐award winning ethnographic film that is a superb example of the
combination of anthropology and filmmaking. In a Chechen city recovering after the war, a
man disappears. As daily life goes on, those in search are drawn into a world where encounters
with diviners and legal advisors, with the torturers and the tortured, with secret prisons and
mythical lakes all become commonplace. When the disappeared do return in dreams, they are
said to come from Barzakh – a land between the living and the dead.
6

SECTION 1
HUNTER‐GATHERERS
WEEKS 2 & 3
Dr Stan Frankland mcf1@st‐andrews.ac.uk 1st Floor, 71 North Street
At the heart of anthropological thought lies the basic question, what does it mean to be
human? In this part of the course, we look at how that question has been answered by
Anthropology in relation to the many peoples across the globe that use hunting and gathering
as their mode of subsistence. With a particular focus on the Pygmies of Central Africa, we will
analyse a number of critical questions: Are such people ‘primitive’ relics of a pre‐industrial past
that tells us the story of our own origins and evolution? Is war or peace the ‘natural’ condition
of humankind? Are there moral and material differences that distinguish hunter‐gatherers from
the rest of humanity? To what extent can hunting and gathering lifestyles continue in the world
today? What role do globalizing forces play in the lives of contemporary hunter‐gatherers?
KEY READING
• Lee, R. & Daly, R. (eds), 1999. The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Hunters and Gatherers.
Cambridge: CUP. (Short Loan)
LECTURE 1: INVENTING THE PRIMITIVE
In this opening lecture, we will explore how ideas of the ‘savage’ and the ‘primitive’ have
developed within European and American thought. Within this context, we will also look back
at the emergence of the notion of hunting and gathering socialities and how this has framed
the development of both anthropological and popular understandings of human difference.
Certain key strands of thought will be examined as will the way they continue to shape our
perceptions of the world.
• Barnard, A., 2000. History and Theory in Anthropology. Cambridge: CUP. (Chap 2) (Short
loan)
• Blanchard P. et al (eds.), 2008. Human Zoos: Science and Spectacle in the Age of Colonial
Empires. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press.
• Ellingson T‐J., 2001. The Myth of the Noble Savage. Berkeley: University of California Press.
• Jahoda G., 1999. Images of Savages: Ancient Roots of Modern Prejudice in Western
Culture. London & N.Y.: Routledge.
• Kuper A., 1988. The Invention of Primitive Society: Transformations of an Illusion. London
& N.Y.: Routledge.
• Kuper A., 2005. The Reinvention of Primitive Society: Transformations of a Myth. London &
N.Y.: Routledge.
• Lindfors B. (ed.), 1999. Africans on Stage: Studies in Ethnological Show Business.
Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
• Schrire, C. (ed.), 1984. Past and Present in Hunter‐Gatherer Studies. Orlando, Fla:
7

Academic Press. (Chapter by Schrire) (Short loan)
• Trouillot M‐R., 2003. Global Transformations: Anthropology and the Modern World. NY:
Palgrave Macmillan.
LECTURE 2: THE STATE OF NATURE: WAR OR PEACE?
What is ‘man’s’ place in the state of nature? Are we inherently peaceful or are we naturally
warlike? Can we or should we think of contemporary hunter‐gatherers as living embodiments
of ‘our’ own past? In answering these questions, comparisons and contrasts will be drawn
between the‘peaceful’ Mbuti Pygmies of Central Africa and the ‘warlike’ Yanomamö of the
Amazonian rainforest.
• Biesbrouk, K. et al (eds.), 1999. Central African Hunter‐Gatherers in a Multidisciplinary
• Perspective. Challenging Elusiveness, Universiteit Leiden: CNWS. (Chapter by Frankland)
(Short loan)
• Chagnon, N.A., 1977. Yanomamö: the fierce people. New York, Holt Reinhart and Wilson.
(Short loan)
• Ferguson, R.B., 1992. “A Savage Encounter. Western Contact and the Yanomami War
Complex”. In: Ferguson, R.B. & Whitehead N.L. (eds.), War in the Tribal Zone: Expanding
States and Indigenous Warfare. Santa Fe: School of American Research Press. (Short loan)
• Ferguson, R.B., 1992. Yanomami Warfare: A Political History. Sante Fe, N.M.: School of
American Research Press.
• Kelly, R.C., 2000. Warless Societies and the Origin of War. Ann Arbor: University of
Michigan Press. (Chapter 1 & 2) (Short loan)
• Klieman K.A."The Pygmies were our compass": Bantu and Batwa in the history of west
central Africa, early times to c. 1900 C.E. Portsmouth, NH : Heinemann.
• Lizot J., 1991. Tales of the Yanomami: Daily Life in the Venuzuelan Forest. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
• Turnbull, C., 1961. The Forest People. London: Chatto and Windus. (Short loan)
• Turnbull, C., 1982. “The Ritualization of Potential Conflict between the Sexes among the
Mbuti”. In: Leacock, E. & Lee, R. (eds.). Politics and History in Band Societies. Cambridge:
CUP.
LECTURE 3: EGALITARIANISM AND THE POLITICS OF THE BAND
In this lecture, we explore the social organization of band societies. Many anthropologists have
claimed that such societies are egalitarian and without forms of social hierarchy. To what
extent are these claims matched by the ethnographic realities on the ground? What roles do
women play within such societies?
• Leacock, E. & Lee, R. (eds.), 1982. Politics and History in Band Societies. Cambridge: CUP.
(Chapters 1, 2 & 6) (Short loan)
• Turnbull, C., 1965. Wayward Servants. The Two Worlds of the African Pygmies. London:
Eyre & Spottiswoode. (Short loan)
• Woodburn, J., 1998. “Egalitarian Societies”. In: Gowdy, J.,(ed.). Limited Wants, Unlimited
Means: A Reader in Hunter‐Gatherer Economics and the Environment, pp. 87‐110.
Washington D.C.: Island Press.
• Woodburn, J., 2005. Egalitarian Societies Revisited. In: Widlock, T. & Tadese. W.G. (eds.),
Property and Equality Volume I: Ritualisation, Sharing, Egalitarianism, pp. 18‐31. New York
& Oxford: Berghahn Books.
8

LECTURE 4: ETHNOGRAPHIC FILM ‐ A CATERPILLAR MOON (BBC UNDER THE SUN, 1995)
This documentary looks at the life of the Aka Pygmies and their relationship with the rainforest
environment. Focusing on the seasonal caterpillar hunt, the film deals with the rituals that
surround this annual activity and the importance of sharing within the ‘Pygmy’ lifestyle. It
presents us with a classic example of the egalitarian mode of thought that typifies the
anthropological understanding of hunter‐gatherers in general. Although rather romanticised at
times, the film also explores the complex relationship between the Aka and local villagers. In
this context, A Caterpillar Moon tackles the inequalities that underlie this relationship and the
denigration endured by the Aka.
LECTURE 5: STONE AGE ECONOMICS
Continuing on from the theme of the previous lecture, we will examine the economic
conditions of hunter‐gatherer societies. How are ideas of egalitarianism reflected within the
economic sphere? Certain key concepts, such as immediacy and sharing, will be analysed
within this context.
• Gowdy, J.,(ed.), 1998. Limited Wants, Unlimited Means: A Reader in Hunter‐Gatherer
Economics and the Environment. Washington D.C.: Island Press. (Chapters by Bird‐David
and Lee) (Short loan)
• Lee R.B., 1979. The !Kung San: men, women and work in a foraging society. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
• Lee, R. & Daly, R. (eds), 1999. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers.
Cambridge: CUP. (Chapter by Gowdy) (Short Loan)
• Sahlins, M., 1968. “Notes on the original affluent society”. In: Lee, R. & DeVore, I. (eds.),
Man the Hunter, pp. 85‐89. Chicago: Aldine. (Short loan)
• Sahlins, M., 1974. Stone Age Economics. London: Tavistock Publications. (Chapters 1 & 3)
(short loan)
• Woodburn. J.C., 1980 Hunters and gatherers today and reconstruction of the past. In:
Gellner, E. (ed.), Soviet and western anthropology. London: Duckworth, pp. 95‐117. (Short
loan)
LECTURE 6: THE KALAHARI DEBATE
One of the key areas of debate regarding hunter‐gatherers is the extent to which we can say
that they have been isolated from the wider world or whether they are ‘victims’ a range of
external forces. In this lecture, we will assess the relative merits of the positions taken up
within the so called Kalahari debate. What happens when hunting and gathering is no longer
the primary mode of subsistence? How is the foraging mode of thought sustained in the face of
both internal and external impetuses for change? The key topics discussed will be
encapsulation, commercialisation and discrimination.
LECTURE 7: THE DEBATE
• Barnard, A. 2000. The Hunter‐Gatherer Mode of Thought. Anales de La Academia Nacional
de Ciencias de Buenos Aires. (Reading pack)
• Lee R.B., 1984. The Dobe !Kung. NY: Holt, Rinehart & Wilson.
• Lee R.B., 2006. Twenty‐first century indigenism. In: Anthropological Theory, 6(4), pp.455‐
9

479.
• Gowdy, J. (ed.), 1998. Limited Wants, Unlimited Means: A Reader in Hunter‐Gatherer
Economics and the Environment,. Washington D.C.: Island Press. (Chapters by Burch and
Lee) (Short loan)
• Wilmsen, E.N., 1989. Land Filled with Flies: A Political Economy of the Kalahari. Chicago:
CUP. (Chapter 1). (Short loan)
• Wilmsen E.N., 2009. To see ourselves as we need to see us: Ethnography’s primitive turn in
the early Cold War years. In: Critical African Studies, 1, pp.1‐73.
CONTEMPORARY ‘BUSHMEN’
• Garland E. and Gordon R.J., 1999. The Authentic (In)Authentic: Bushman Anthro‐Tourism.
In: Visual Anthropology, 12, pp.267‐287
• Kent, S. (ed.), 2002. Ethnicity, Hunter‐Gatherers and the ‘Other’: Association or
Assimilation in Africa. Washington: Smithsonian IP. (Chapters by Guenther, Kent, and
Marlowe) (Short loan)
• Robins S., 2003. Whose modernity? Indigenous modernities and land claims after
Apartheid. In: Development and Change, 34(2), pp.265‐285
• Solway J., 2009. Human Rights and NGO ‘Wrongs’: Conflict diamonds, culture wars and the
‘Bushmen’ question. In: Africa, 79(3), pp.321‐346
• Sylvain R., 2002. “‘Land, Water and Truth’: San Identity and Global Indigenism”, American
Anthropologist 104(4):1074‐1085
• Sylvain R., 2005. Disorderly development: Globalization and the idea of "culture" in the
Kalahari. In: American Ethnologist, 32(3), pp.354‐370.
• Widlok, T. & Tadese. W.G. (eds.), 2005. Property and Equality Volume II: Encapsulation,
Commercialisation, Discrimination. New York & Oxford: Berghahn Books. (Chapter by
Guenther) (Short loan)
LECTURE 8: A BARE LIFE IN ‘PYGMYLAND’.
In this lecture, we will return to the ‘Pygmies’ and look at the ways in which Forest Peoples
have responded to external forces.
• Agamben G., 1988. Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life. Stanford, CA: Stanford
University Press.
• Biesbrouk, K. et al (eds.), 1999. Central African Hunter‐Gatherers in a Multidisciplinary
Perspective. Challenging Elusiveness, Universiteit Leiden: CNWS. (Chapters by Waehle,
Frankland, and Köhler) (Short loan)
• Grinker, R.R., 1994. Houses in the rainforest. Ethnicity and inequality among farmers and
foragers in Central Africa. Berkeley & Los Angeles University of California Press. (Short
loan)
• Kent, S. (ed.), 2002. Ethnicity, Hunter‐Gatherers and the ‘Other’: Association or
Assimilation in Africa. Washington: Smithsonian IP. (Chapter by Lewis & Köhler) (Short
loan)
• Knight J., 2003. Relocated to the roadside: preliminary observations on the Forest Peoples
of Gabon. In: African Study Monographs, 28, 81‐121.
• Lewis J., 2008. Ekila: blood, bodies, and egalitarian societies. In: Journal of the Royal
Anthropological Institute, 14, pp.397‐315.
• Pottier J., 2007. Rights violations, rumour, and rhetoric; making sense of cannibalism in
Mambassa, Ituri (Democratic Republic of Congo). In: Journal of the Royal Anthropological
10

Institute, 13, pp.825‐843.
• Turnbull, C.M., 1983. The Mbuti Pygmies: Change and Adaptation. New York, Holt
Reinhart, and Wilson. (Short loan)
• Widlok, T. & Tadese. W.G. (eds.), 2005. Property and Equality Volume II: Encapsulation,
Commercialisation, Discrimination. New York & Oxford: Berghahn Books. (Chapters by
Lewis, Kenrick, and Köhler) (Short loan)
LECTURE 9: FIELDWORK STORIES
In this lecture, I will discuss my long‐standing relationship with the Basua ‘Pygmies’ of Western
Uganda from my early experiences as a tourist to my most recent research trips. This will not
be an academic lecture. Instead it will cover areas normally excluded from the ethnographic
genre.
11

SECTION 2
WORLDS IN MOTION: MOVEMENT, MIGRATION, DIASPORA
WEEKS 4 & 5
Dr Stavroula Pipyrou sp78@st‐andrews.ac.uk 1st Floor, 71 North Street
This section of the course examines constructions of ‘home’ and ‘movement’ in transitional and
transnational contexts. Until recently, home was associated in anthropology with ideas of fixed
space, time and culture. We will address the notion of movement in direct relation to identity,
space and cultural environment. Various forms of movement will be critically assessed through
ethnographic examples of Gypsies, labour migrants, refugees and exiles. Considering the
construction of Sameness and Difference through dance performances that bring together
people from diverse cultural environments, analytical dichotomies such as rural/urban and
insider/outsider will be critiqued as inadequate tools to capture the dynamic complexity of
global movements. We will also explore the role of the anthropologist as a ‘global mover’ in
terms of research and employment, considering such concepts as ‘Anthropology at Home’.
LECTURE 1: INTERNAL MOVEMENTS: URBAN‐RURAL/ RURAL‐URBAN, OR ‘URBAN VILLAGERS’
The flows of migrants within a state and the new social dynamism introduced by these
movements suggest that analytical categories such as ‘rural’ and ‘urban’ are not adequate to
explain the complexities of moving across diverse environments. This lecture introduces some
of these complexities with reference to urban‐rural and rural‐urban movements and the
different ‘ways of life’ created.
• Forsythe, D. (1980) 'Urban Incomers and Rural Change. The impact of migrants from the
city on life in an Orkney community', Sociologia Ruralis, Vol. 20.
• Goddard, V. (1996) Gender, Family and Work in Naples. Oxford: Berg.
• Irving, A. (2010) ‘Everyday Adventures in London’, in Reveries of Home, Williksen, S. and
Rapport, N.J. (eds.) Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars.
• Kenny, M. and D. Kertzer (1983) Urban Life in Mediterranean Europe: Anthropological
Perspectives. London: University of Illinois Press.
• Pahl, R. (1968) 'The Rural‐Urban Continuum', in Readings in Urban Sociology, Oxford:
Pergamon Books.
• Pipyrou, S. (2010) ‘Urbanities: Grecanici Migration to the City of Reggio Calabria, South
Italy’, History and Anthropology, Vol. 21, No. 1, pp: 19‐36.
• Rapport, N.J. (1986) 'Cedar High Farm: Ambiguous Symbolic Boundary. An essay in
anthropological intuition', in Cohen, A.P (ed.) Symbolising Boundaries: Identity and
Diversity in British Cultures, Manchester: Manchester University Press.
• Sutton, S. (1986) ‘Family and Work: New Patterns for Village Women in Athens’, Journal of
Modern Greek Studies, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp: 33‐49.
12

LECTURE 2: GLOBAL MOVEMENTS: TRANSNATIONAL LABOUR MIGRANTS, ITALIANS, GREEKS
AND OTHERS
This lecture introduces the concept of diaspora and the idea that the nation can be ‘expanded’
beyond physical space. We will look at Appadurai’s concept of ‘ethnoscapes’ with reference to
labour migrants in order to account for fluidity in the contemporary world. We will explore how
the idea of diaspora constitutes a new landscape of people in the context of the modern
nation‐state.
• Amit, V. (1998) ‘Risky hiatuses and the limits of social imagination: Expatriacy in the
Cayman Islands’, in Migrants of Identity, Rapport, N.J. and Dawson, A. (eds.) Oxford: Berg
Books and Kegan Paul.
• Appadurai, A. (1990) 'Disjuncture and Difference in the Global Cultural Economy', Theory,
Culture and Society, Vol. 7, No. 2‐3, pp:295‐310.
• Ballard, R. (1987) ‘The Political Economy of Migration’, in Eades, J. (ed.) Migrants, Workers,
and the Social Order. New York: Tavistock.
• Eades, J. (ed.) (1987) Migrants, Workers and the Social Order, London: Tavistock Books.
• Georges, E. (1990) The Making of a Transnational Community: migration, development,
and cultural change in the Dominican Republic. New York: Columbia University Press.
• Gilroy, P. (1987) There Ain't No Black in the Union Jack. London: Routledge
• Gilroy, P. (1996) The Black Atlantic: modernity and double consciousness. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
• Hannerz, U. (1987) 'The World in Creolisation', Africa, Vol. 57, No. 4. pp: 546‐59.
• McGrew, A. (1996) ‘A Global Society?’, in Hall, S., Held D. and McGrew, A. (eds.) Modernity
and its Futures, Cambridge: Polity.
• Rapport, N.J. and A. Dawson. (eds.) (1998) Migrants of Identity: Perceptions of Home in a
World of Movement. Oxford: Berg
• Robertson, R. (1990) 'Mapping the Global Condition: Globalization as the Central Concept',
Theory, Culture and Society, Vol. 7, No. 2‐3, pp: 15‐30.
• Schiller, N.G., Basch, L., and C. Szanton Blanc (1995) ‘From Immigrant to Transmigrant:
Theorizing Transnational Migration’, Anthropological Quarterly, Vol. 68, No.1, pp: 48‐63.
LECTURE 3: FORCED MOVEMENTS: REFUGEES AND EXILES
With reference to the painful events of the forced population exchange between Turkey and
Greece after the Lausanne Treaty 1923, we will explore the idea of ‘up‐rootedness’. What are
the politics of memory for refugee populations in their attempt to construct and re‐construct
familiar ways of life in foreign environments?
• Gilad, L. (1996) ‘Cultural Collision and Human Rights’, in Giles, W., Moussa, H. and P. Van
Esterik. Development and Diaspora, Toronto: Artemis Books.
• Danforth, L. and R. van Boeschoten. (2012) Children of the Greek Civil War: Refugees and
the Politics of Memory. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Hirschon, R. (1989) Heirs of the Greek Catastrophe: the social life of Asia Minor refugees in
Piraeus. Oxford: Berghahn Books.
• Hirschon, R. (ed.) (2004). Crossing the Aegean: an appraisal of the 1923 compulsory
population exchange between Greece and Turkey. Oxford: Berghahn Books.
• Jansen, S. (1998) ‘Homeless at home: Narrations of Post‐Yugoslav identities’, in Rapport, N.
J. and. A. Dawson. (eds.) Migrants of Identity, Oxford: Berg Books.
13

• Kirtsoglou, E. and D. Theodossopoulos. (2001) ‘Fading Memories, Flexible Identities: the
rhetoric about the self and the other in a community of ‘Christian‘ refugees from Anatolia’.
In Journal of Mediterranean Studies, Vol 11, No. 2, pp: 395‐416.
• MacGaffey, J. (2000) Congo‐Paris: transnational traders on the margins of the law. Oxford:
International African Institute.
• Pentzopoulos, D. (1962) The Balkan Exchange of Minorities and its Impact upon Greece.
Paris: Mouton.
• Rapport, N.J. (1998) 'Coming home to a dream: a study of the immigrant discourse of
“Anglo‐Saxons” in Israel’, in Rapport, N. J. and Dawson A. (eds.) Migrants of Identity,
Oxford: Berg Books.
• Zografou, M. and S. Pipyrou. (2011) ‘Dance and Difference: Toward an Individualization of
the Pontian Self’, Dance Chronicle, Vol. 34, No. 3. pp: 422‐446.
LECTURE 4: FILM ‐ ‘VILLAGE MAN, CITY MAN’
This film deals with the way in which one man, Shripal, views his life as a city man whose
kinship ties and duties still bind him to his natal village. Shripal now works in a New Delhi cloth
factory, 400 miles west of his village in central Uttar Pradesh, India, sending home a third of his
wages to pay a family debt. For several weeks of each year he leaves the walled factory in the
city and returns to the village world where his wife, children, parents and other relatives live.
The particular problems of village life seem in sharp contrast to Shripal's city environment
where he experiences the problems of a factory worker.
LECTURE 5: DIASPORAS AND MINORITIES
This lecture deals with the political significance of the concept of minority in policy making. Can
the concept of diaspora also be liberally applied to minority groups? We will question how
global frameworks of representation shape the political claims of minority populations.
• Clifford, J. (1994) ‘Diasporas’, Cultural Anthropology, Vol. 9, No. 3, pp: 302‐338.
• Cohen, R. (1997) Global Diasporas: an introduction. Seattle: University of Washington
Press.
• Crowley, J. 2001. ‘The Political Participation of Ethnic Minorities’, International Political
Science Review, Vol. 22, No. 1.
• Danforth, L. (1995) The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World.
Princeton: Princeton University Press.
• Giles, W., Moussa, H. and P. Van Esterik. (1996) Development and Diaspora, Toronto:
Artemis Books.
• Hall, S. (1990) ‘Cultural Identity and Diaspora’, In Rutherford, J. (ed.) Identity, Community,
Culture, Difference. London: Lawrence and Wishart.
• King, R. (ed.) (2001) The Mediterranean Passage: migration and new cultural encounters in
Southern Europe. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press.
• Pipyrou, S. (2012) ‘Commensurable Language and Incommensurable Claims among the
Greek Linguistic Minority of South Italy’, Journal of Modern Italian Studies, Vol. 17, No. 1,
pp: 70‐91.
• Whyte, W. F. (1943) Street Corner Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
LECTURE 6: GYPSIES AND TRAVELLERS
14

With reference to Gypsies and Travellers we will discuss the idea of virtual communities. How
do groups constantly on the move find new ways to define belonging? What is the political
significance of boundaries and how is the notion of belonging exploited for political purposes?
• Gay y Blasco, P. (1999) Gypsies in Madrid: Sex, Gender and the Performance of Identity.
Oxford. Berg.
• Gay y Blasco, P. (2002) ‘Gypsy/Roma Diasporas: Introducing a Comparative Perspective’,
Social Anthropology, the Journal of the European Association of Social Anthropologists,
Vol. 10, No. 2, pp: 173‐188.
• Marantzidis, N. and G. Mavrommatis. (1999) ‘Political Clientelism and Social Exclusion: the
case of Gypsies in the Greek town of Sofades’, International Sociology, Vol. 14, No. 4, pp:
443‐456.
• Okely, J. (1983) The Traveller‐Gypsies, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Rehfisch, F. (ed.) (1975) Gypsies, Tinkers and Other Travellers London: Academic Books
• Sutherland, A. (1975) Gypsies: The Hidden Americans, London: Tavistock Books.
LECTURE 7: ‘AT HOME?’: ANTHROPOLOGISTS IN MOTION
Are anthologists different from any other travellers and wanderers? What is the place of the
anthropologist in a discipline which dictates constant movement? This lecture takes the idea of
movement in ‘doing fieldwork in motion’. The anthropologist may conduct fieldwork in far off
lands or in their ‘home’ town whilst being employed in a ‘foreign’ institution. What is the
meaning of ‘home’ for an anthropologist?
• Jackson, A. (ed.) (1987) Anthropology at Home. London: Tavistock.
• Messerschmidt D. (ed.) (1981) Anthropologists at Home in North America. Methods and
Issues in the Study of One's Own Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Periano, M. (1998) ‘When Anthropology is at Home: The Different Contexts of a Single
Discipline’, Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 27, pp: 105‐128.
• Rapport, N.J. and Dawson, A. (1998) 'Home and Movement: A Polemic', in Rapport, N.J.
and Dawson, A. Migrants of Identity: Perceptions of Home in a World of Movement, New
York: Berg Books
LECTURE 8: DEBATE TOPIC: GLOBAL MAFIA NETWORKS: EXPORTING NOTIONS OF BELONGING
It could be argued that mafia is the ultimate global network of movement – people, business,
commodities and notions of family and belonging. This debate will assess the manner in which
mafia consolidate power in a transnational context discussing the exportation of notions of
belonging and family.
Suggested Reading:
• Chubb, J. (1996) The Mafia, the Market and the State in Italy and Russia. In Journal of
Modern Italian Studies, Volume 1, Issue 2 Spring 1996, pp. 273‐291.
• Pipyrou, S. (2010) Power, Governance and Representation: an anthropological analysis of
kinship, the ’Ndrangheta and dance within the Greek linguistic minority of Reggio Calabria,
South Italy. PhD Thesis, Durham University. (Especially Chapter 7 – available online).
• Saviano, R. (2007) Gomorrah: Italy’s other Mafia. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
• Schneider, J. and P. Schneider. (1976) Culture and Political Economy in Western Sicily. New
York: Academic Press.
15

• Schneider, J. and P. Schneider. (2003) Reversible Destiny: Mafia, Antimafia, and the
Struggle for Palermo. Berkeley: University of California Press.
• Varese, F. (2001) The Russian Mafia: private protection in a new market economy. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
16

SECTION 3
POWER AND RESISTANCE
WEEKS 6 & 7
PLEASE NOTE:
Classes will take place on Raisin Monday as usual (29/10/12)
Dr Mattia Fumanti mf610@st‐andrews.ac.uk Room 19, United College
Power, a concept understood in many different ways, has been the focus of many
anthropological studies. From the first accounts of ‘headless’ and egalitarian societies, to
the analysis of the impact of colonialism and to the more recent works on structural
violence anthropologists have always been interested in power. But in what ways have
anthropologists understood it? What theoretical frameworks have they used to represent
power? In this set of lectures we will explore some of these anthropological approaches to
power. First we will focus on anthropological theories on power and the renewed interest
for the study of the elites. In the second part, we will look at the ways in which people
studied by anthropologists have resisted power by challenging the dominant classes and
groups. As we will see in a number of fascinating ethnographies, in some cases people have
used open confrontation and violence to resist; in others they have resisted in more indirect
and hidden ways. The aim of these lectures is to introduce some key concepts with which
anthropologists have understood the struggles and conflicts over power that have taken
place historically and in contemporary times.
LECTURE 1: THE ANTHROPOLOGY OF POWER
In this first lecture we will look at some of the ways in which anthropologists have understood
and conceptualised power. We will also look at Foucault’s important legacy for anthropological
conceptualisation on power.
• Foucault, Michel. 1995. Discipline and Punish: the birth of the prison, New York, Vintage.
[See esp. Part 3 ‘Docile Bodies’]
• Foucault, Michel. 1992. The history of Sexuality vol. 1, New York, Vintage. [See esp. Part 1
and 2]
• Gledhill, J. 2000 Power and its disguises: anthropological perspectives on politics, London,
Pluto Press
• Hall, Stuart. 1992. ‘The West and the Rest: discourse and power’, in Hall, Stuart and
Gieben,
• Bram (eds.) Formations of modernity. Milton Keynes, Open University Press.
• Mbembe, A. 1992 ‘The Banality of Power and the Aesthetics of Vulgarity in the Postcolony’,
Public Culture 4 (2): 1‐30.
• Wolf, E. 2002 Facing power, old insights, new questions in Vincent, J. (ed.) The
anthropology of Politics: a reader in ethnography, culture and critique, London, Wiley‐
Blackwell
17

LECTURE 2: POWERFUL PEOPLE: ELITES, BIG MEN AND LEADERS
With the current world economic crisis and ongoing conflicts in many parts of the world, the
study of elites become of crucial importance to understand the nature of power,
domination and resistance. But who are the elites? How does someone join the ranks of the
elite? Following from the previous lecture on power, in this lecture we will look at some
ethnographic case studies to explore how anthropologists have studied, defined and
conceptualized those who holds power.
• Fumanti, M. 2007a. ‘Burying E.S: Educated Elites, Subjectivity and Distinction in Rundu’,
Journal of Southern African Studies, 33(3): 469‐483.
• Lentz, C. 1994. ‘Home, Death and Leadership: Discourses of an Educated Elite from northwestern
Ghana’, Social Anthropology, 2 (2): 149‐169.
• Marcus, G.E. 2000. ‘The Deep Legacies of Dynastic Subjectivity: The Resonances of a
Famous Family Identity in Private and Public Spheres’ in de Pina‐Cabral, J. and Pedroso de
Lima, A. (eds.), Elites. Choice, leadership and succession. Oxford and New York: Berg.
• Nadel S. 1956. ‘The Concept of Social Elites’ International Social Science Bulletin, 8 (3): 413‐
424.
• Pedroso de Lima, A. 2000. ‘“How Did I Become a Leader in My Family Firm?” Assets for
Succession in Contemporary Lisbon Financial Elites’, in de Pina‐Cabral, J. and Pedroso de
Lima, A.(eds.) Elites: Choice, leadership and Succession. Oxford and New York: Berg.
• Sahlins, M. 1963. ‘Poor Man, Rich Man, Big Man, Chief: Political Types in Polynesia and
Melanesia’, Comparative Studies in Society and History 5 (3): 285‐303.
• Scott J. 1990. ‘Introduction’ in The sociology of Elites Vol. 1. Aldershot: Edward Elgar.
• Scott, J. 2008. ‘Modes of power and the reconceptualisation of the elites’, in Savage, M. &
Williams, K. (eds.) Remembering Elites. London: Blackwell Publishing.
• Weber, M. 1968. On Charisma and Institution Building. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
• Werbner, R.P. 2008. ‘Responding to Cosmopolitanism: Patriots, Ethnics and the Public
Good in Botswana’, in Werbner, P. (ed.) Anthropology and the New Cosmopolitanism.
Oxford: Berg.
LECTURE 3: POWER, SOCIAL SUFFERING AND STRUCTURAL VIOLENCE
In recent years, some anthropologists, who have been influenced by critical medical
anthropology, have focused their attention on questions of social suffering and structural
violence. These approaches recognise that suffering and trauma must be embedded in
cultural and political context. By linking personal experiences of injury and disease with
political economy, the cognitive, psychological, and somatic are shown to be inextricably
tied to the structural and political.
• Bourgois, Philippe. 2003. In Search of Respect: Selling Crack in El Barrio.
Cambridge:Cambridge University Press. (See Esp. Introduction and Chapters 3 and 4)
• Connors, Margaret. 1996. ‘Sex, Drugs, and Structural Violence: Unravelling the Epidemic
Among Poor Women in the United States’ in Paul Farmer, Margaret Connors, and Janie
Simmons (eds.) Women, Poverty, and AIDS: Sex, Drugs, and Structural Violence, Maine,
Common Courage Press.
• Farmer, Paul. 2004. ‘An Anthropology of Structural Violence’, Current Anthropology 45(3):
305‐25. (Including CA* commentary on the article)
• Kovats Bernal, J. Cristopher. 2006. ‘Sleeping Rough in port‐au Prince’ an ethnography of
street children and violence in port‐au prince, University press of Florida (see Introduction
18

and chapters 1, 3 and 5)
• Napolitano Quayson, Valentina. 2005. ‘Social Suffering and Embodied States of Male
Transnational Migrancy in San Francisco, California’, Identities 12 (3): 335‐62.
• Tapias, Maria. 2006. ‘Emotions and the Intergenerational Embodiment of Social Suffering
in Rural Bolivia’, Medical Anthropology Quarterly 20 (3): 399‐415.
LECTURE 4: FILM ‐ ‘THE SECOND RED LINE’, 2004, (VEERA LEHTO MICHAUD)
In HIV testing the second red line indicates a positive test result. Filmed in Buduburam Refugee
Camp in Ghana, the film follows the work of two volunteers providing home‐based care for
people with AIDS. The work is often emotionally straining for the volunteers as in the difficult
environment the only thing they can offer for their patients is care and compassion.
LECTURE 5: THE WEAPONS OF THE WEAK: LANGUAGE, EMOTIONS AND THE ARTS OF
RESISTANCE
A significant feature of anthropology engagement with power and resistance has been the
analysis of unexpected forms of resistance (weapons of the weak; hidden transcripts etc.)
Building on Scott’s seminal work, this lecture will explore ‘the weapons of the weak’ through a
number of ethnographic examples.
• Abu‐Lughod, Lila. 1990. ‘The romance of resistance: tracing transformations of power
through Bedouin women’, American Ethnologist 17 (1): 41‐55.
• Constable, Nicole. 1997. Maid to order in Hong Kong: an ethnography of Filipina workers,
Cornell University Press [See Esp. chapters 1 and 6]
• Humphrey, Caroline. 1994. ‘Remembering an “Enemy”. The Bogd Khaan in Twentieth
Century Mongolia’ in Watson, Rubie S. (ed.) Memory, History and Opposition Under State
Socialism, Santa Fe, School of American Research Press.
• Scott, James C. 1985. Weapons of the weak: everyday forms of peasant resistance. New
Haven,Conn: Yale University Press. [See esp. chapters 2 and 8]
• Scott, James C. 1990. Domination and the arts of resistance: hidden transcripts. New
Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. [See esp. chapters 1, 6 and 8]
• Werbner, Pnina. 1990. The Migration Process, Oxford, Berg. [See. esp. chapter 9]
• Werbner, Pnina. 1986. 'The Virgin and the Clown: ritual elaboration in Pakistani weddings’,
Man (N.S.) 21 (2): 227‐50.
LECTURE 6: THE SOUND OF FREEDOM: RESISTANCE THROUGH MUSIC
This lecture will explore the ways in which music helps people resist oppression,
marginalisation and discrimination.
• Kaya, A. 2002 Aesthetics of diaspora: contemporary minstrels in Turkish Berlin, in Journal
of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 28 (1): 43‐62
• Lashua, B. 2006 The art of the remix: ethnography and rap, in anthropology matters, vol8,
(2)
• Ogbar, J. 2007 Hip‐hop revolution: the culture and politics of rap, Kansas, University Press
of Kansas
• Pardue, D. 2008. Ideologies of Marginality in Brazilian Hip Hop, Palgrave McMillan Press.
• Pardue, D. 2004. "Putting Mano to Music: The Mediation of Race in Brazilian Rap."
19

Ethnomusicology Forum 13(2), pp. 253‐286.
• Pardue, D. 2004. "'Writing in the Margins': Brazilian Hip‐Hop as an Educational Project."
Anthropology and Education Quarterly 35(4).
• Perry, I. 2004 Prophets of the Hood: politics and poetics in hip‐hop, Duke, Duke University
Press
• Solomon, Thomas. 2005: “‘Living Underground is Tough’: Authenticity and Locality in the
Hiphop Community in Istanbul, Turkey,” Popular Music 24(1)
• Weiss, B. 2009 Street Dreams and Hip Hop Barbershops: Global Fantasy in Urban Tanzania.
Bloomington, Indiana University Press (esp. Chapter 7)
LECTURE 7: TAKING TO THE STREETS: RIOTS, UPRISINGS AND THE GLOBAL CRISIS
This lecture will look at the ways in which people resist economic and social inequalities by
taking to the streets. We will look at a number of ethnographic examples, with particular
attention to popular responses to the current economic crisis, Greece, Spain and Occupy Wall
Street, and also we will look at last summer riots in England.
• Hot Spots: Beyond the Greek Crisis, Cultural Anthropology, 31/10/2011 Availaible online at
http://www.culanth.org/?q=node/432 This is a special issue with a lot of interesting short
articles. See in particular:
• The Irregularities of Violence in Athens, Dimitris Dalakoglou, University of Sussex
• Hunger Striking for Rights: The Alien Politics of Immigrant Protest, Alexandra Zavos,
Panteio University
• Spain and the Indignados:
• Durgan, A. and Sans, J. (2011) ‘The 15th May movement in the Spanish State’, International
Socialism, 132: 23:34
• Corsín Jiménez, A., & Estalella, A. (2011, August). #spanishrevolution. Anthropology Today,
27(4), pp. 19‐23.
• Occupy Wall Street:
Here are some interesting blogs and online articles for your interest.
http://savageminds.org/2011/10/30/the-public-sphere-of-occupy-wall-street/
http://aotcpress.com/articles/liberalism-politics-occupy-wall-street/
http://www.anthropologiesproject.org/2012/03/anthropology-occupy.html
English riots:
What motivated the rioters in England? Was it poverty? Was it a response to police violence
and racism? An attempt to address a long history of structural violence? Or else?
This is a very comprehensive look at the riots. Browse through the website.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/series/reading‐the‐riots
• Jones, J. (2011) ‘August 2011: a Riot of our own’, International Socialism, 132: 35‐58
20

LECTURE 8: WRITING ON POWER AND RESISTANCE: AN ANTHROPOLOGIST’S PERSONAL
ACCOUNT
In this final lecture I will talk about my own personal interest for power and resistance. I will tell
you why I decided to carry out research on these themes and how I ended up writing about
irreverent and subversive performances among a group of young men in Namibia and a
Ghanaian woman’s Methodist fellowship in London.
• Fumanti, Mattia. 2007. ‘Imagining post‐apartheid society and culture: playfulness,
officialdom and civility in a youth elite club in Northern Namibia’, in Transitions in Namibia,
which changes for whom? H. Melber (ed.), Uppsala, Nordic African Institute
• Fumanti, Mattia. 2010. ‘A light‐hearted bunch of ladies: Irreverent Piety and Gendered
Power in the London Ghanaian Diaspora’, Africa, 80 (2): 200‐224
21

SECTION 4
ANTHROPOLOGY AND TOURISM
WEEKS 8 & 9
Dr Stan Frankland mcf1@st‐andrews.ac.uk 1st Floor, 71 North Street
Tourism is one of the fastest growing and largest industries in the world. The huge movement
of people it engenders and the cross‐cultural encounters it generates mean that tourism is a
key aspect of globalisation. The practice of tourism has become intrinsic to our lifestyles,
helping to shape our understanding of the world. It also has had a profound impact on peoples
of the world and the environments in which they live. In this section of the module, we explore
the phenomenon of tourism from an anthropological perspective.
LECTURE 1: PATTERNS OF TRAVEL
Can tourism be described as a product of the Twentieth Century? In this opening lecture, we
explore the historical antecedents of contemporary tourism such as pilgrimage and the Grand
Tour. Drawing upon accounts of earlier forms of travel, we assess their relevance to present
day tourism. Can we find traces of the past in the present or is there a qualitative difference
between the then and now? In dealing with such questions, we begin to uncover the complex
levels that make up the modern tourist industry and set the scene for the rest of this section of
the module.
• Abram S. et al., 1997. Tourists and Tourism: Identifying with People and Places. New York:
Berg.
• Burns, P.M., 1999. An introduction to tourism and anthropology. London: Routledge.
• Lofgren, O., 1999. On Holiday. A History of Vacationing. Berkeley and Los Angeles:
University of California Press.
• Appadurai A. 1990. ‘Disjuncture and Difference in the Global Cultural Economy’. In:
Featherstone M. (ed.), Global Culture: Nationalism, Globalization and Modernity (a Theory,
Culture & Society Special Issue). London: Sage. Also available at: www.intcul.tohoku.ac.jp/‐
holden/MediatedSociety/Readings/2003_04/Appadurai.html
• MacCannell, D., 1992. Empty Meeting Grounds. The Tourist Papers. London: Routledge.
• Nash D., 1977. “Tourism As a Form of Imperialism.” In: V.L. Smith (ed.), Hosts and Guests:
• The Anthropology of Tourism. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Pp. 33‐47.
• Sharpley, R., 1994. Tourism, tourists and society. Kings Ripton: ELM Publications.
• Tilley, C., 1997. “Performing culture in the Global village”. In: Critique of Anthropology,
17(1), pp.67‐89.
• Towner, J., 1996. An historical geography of recreation and tourism in the Western world.
Chichester: Wiley.
• Urry, J., 1990. The tourist gaze: Leisure and travel in contemporary societies. London: Sage.
LECTURE 2: A SACRED JOURNEY?
Certain major themes emerge as the stereotype of the mass tourist is broken down into
multiple categories that reflect that reflect the fragmentation of contemporary tourism. What
22

are we doing when we go on holiday? What are we looking for or expecting to find? What
shapes our experience?
• Graburn, Nelson H. H. 1977. Tourism: The Sacred Journey. In: V.L. Smith (ed.), Hosts and
Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Pp.
33‐47.
• Belhassen Y et al, 2008. The search for authenticity in the pilgrim experience. In: Annals of
Tourism Research, 35(3), pp.668‐689.
• Bruner, E.M., 1991. “Transformation of self in tourism”. In: Annals of Tourism Research, 18,
pp.238‐251.
• Cohen E., 1984. The Sociology of Tourism: Approaches, Issues, and Findings. In: Annual
Review of Sociology, 10, pp. 373‐392
• Collins‐Kreiner N., 2009. Researching pilgrimage: Continuity and Transformations. In:
Annals of Tourism Research, 37(2), pp.440‐456.
• Dann, G., 1979. “Anomie, ego‐enhancement and tourism”. In: Annals of Tourism Research
4 (4), pp.184‐194.
• Morinis A. (ed), 1992. Sacred journeys: the anthropology of pilgrimage. Westport, CT :
Greenwood Press. (Chapter by Cohen).
• Sharpley R. and Sundaram P., 2005. Tourism: a Sacred Journey? The Case of Ashram
Tourism, India. In: International Journal of Tourism Research, 7, pp.161‐171.
• Turner, V. & Turner, E., 1978. Image and pilgrimage in Christian culture. Oxford: Basil
Blackwell.
LECTURE 3: PROBLEMS OF AUTHENTICITY
Authenticity has been one of the main issues of debate in the study of tourism. Just how “real”
are our experiences as a tourist? How authentic is the souvenir we buy or the “native” dance
performance we watch? What happens when our perceptions of authenticity differ from what
we actually experience? Is authenticity the same for both hosts and guests?
• Baudrillard, J., 1983. Simulations. New York: Semiotext(e).
• Eco, U., 1986. Travels in hyperreality: Essays. London: Pan Books
• MacCannell, D., 1976. The Tourist. A new theory of the leisure class. New York: Schocken
Books. Especially Chapter 6 on “Staged Authenticity”.
• Boorstin, D., 1964. The Image. A Guide to Pseudo‐Events in America. New York: Harper.
• Bruner, E. & Kirshenblatt‐Gimblett, B., 1994. “Maasai on the lawn: tourist realism in East
Africa”. In: Cultural Anthropology 9 (4).
• Daniel, Y., 1996. “Tourism dance performances: authenticity and creativity”. Annals of
Tourism Research 23 (4).
• Hughes, G., 1995. “Authenticity in tourism”. In: Annals of Tourism Research 22 (4).
• Kim H. & Jamal T., 2007. Touristic Quest for Existential Authenticity. In: Annals of Tourism
Research, 34(1), pp.181‐201.
• Lau R.W.K., 2010. Revisiting Authenticity: A Social Realist Approach. In: Annals of Tourism
Research, 37(2), pp.478‐498.
• Martin K., 2010. Living Pasts: Contested Tourism Authenticities. In: Annals of Tourism,
Research, 37(2), pp.537‐554.
• Ning Wang, 1999. “Rethinking authenticity in tourism experience”. In: Annals of
Tourism,Research 26 (2).
• Reisinger Y. and Steiner C.J., 2006. Reconceptualizing Object Authenticity. In: Annals of,
23

Tourism Research, 33(1), pp.65‐86.
• Reisinger Y. and Steiner C.J., 2006. Understanding Existential Authenticity. In: Annals of
Tourism Research, 33(2), pp.299‐318.
• Rojek, C., & Urry, J. (eds.), 1997. Touring cultures: transformations of travel and theory.
London: Routledge. Chapters by Rojek and Ritzer & Liska.
• Urry, J., 1995. Consuming Places. London: Routledge. Chapters 10 & 14.
LECTURE 4: FILM ‐ CANNIBAL TOURS (DENNIS O’ROURKE 1988)
An extraordinary film that follows a group of ‘ecotourists’ as they venture down the Sepik
River. Highlighting the absurdities that emerge from the meeting between ‘civilised’ tourists
and ‘primitive’ Melanesians, O’Rourke’s documentary challenges the viewer to question their
own touristic experiences.
LECTURE 5: FROM BACKPACKING TO THE GAP YEAR
On a general level, we discuss the ways in which the figure of the tourist has been reinvented
within social theory; while on a more specific level, we chart the rise of alternative tourism. By
focusing on the idea of tourism spaces, we ask just what this alternative is. In so doing, we
examine the key figure of the backpacker. Is the backpacker a symbol of the alternative? What
has been her role in the development of the tourism industry? And what of the gap year? How
does this practice fit into patterns of travel and what does it tell us about the development
business?
• Luh Sin H., 2009. Volunteer Tourism – “Involve me and I will learn”? In: Annals of Tourism
Research, 36(3), pp.480‐501.
• Muzaini H., 2006. Backpacking Southeast Asia: Strategies of “looking local”. In: Annals of
Tourism Research, 33(1), pp.144‐161
• Noy C., 2004. This trip really changed me: Backpackers’ Narratives of Self‐change. In:
Annals of Tourism Research, 31(1), pp.78‐102.
• O’Reilly C.C., 2006. From drifter to gap yeat tourist: Mainstreaming backpacker travel. In:
Annals of Tourism Research, 33(4), pp.998‐1017.
• Richards R. and Wilson J. (eds.), 2004. The global nomad: backpacker travel in theory and
practice. Clevedon: Buffalo [N.Y.]: Channel View Publications. Especially chapter by Cohen.
• Scheyvens R., 2002. Backpacker Tourism and Third World Development. In: Annals of,
Tourism Research, 29(1), pp.144‐164.
• Simpson K. 2004. ‘Doing Development’: The Gap Year Volunteer‐Tourists and a Popular
Practice of Development. In: Journal of International Development, 16, pp.681‐692. (Short
loan) Available online through library website.
LECTURE 6: CONSUMING DIFFERENCE
In this topic, we explore tourism among the “primitives”, the classic subjects of anthropology.
Why are we so fascinated by the lifestyles of indigenous and minority groups? What is it that
makes their cultures so interesting that we seek out and consume them? Does this very act
bring about the destruction of the object of curious desire? Or can it help the people
themselves to protect their ways of life? How do the “weak” resist the seductive pressures of
globalisation that tourism brings?
24

Further readings
• Said, E., 1978. Orientalism. New York: Vintage. Especially the introduction and the
afterword in later editions
• Chambers E., 2000. Native tours: the anthropology of travel and tourism. Prospect Heights,
Ill: Waveland Press.
• Cohen, E., 1996. Hunter‐gatherer tourism in Thailand. In: Butler, R. & Hinch, T. (eds.),
• Tourism and Indigenous Peoples, pp. 227‐254. London: International Thomson Business
Press.
• Evans‐Pritchard, D., 1989. “How ‘they’ see ‘us’: Native American images of tourists”. In:
Annals of Tourism Research 16.
• Frankland, S., 2001. “Pygmic Tours”. In: African Study Monographs, Supplementary Issue
No.26.. Available online at: http://www.africa.kyotou.
ac.jp/kiroku/asm_suppl/abstracts/pdf/ASM_s26/16_FRANKLAND.PDF
• Nuttall, M., 1997. Packaging the Wild: Tourism Development in Alaska. In: Abram, S. et al
(eds.), Tourists and Tourism: Identifying with People and Places, pp. 223‐238. Oxford: Berg.
(Short loan)
• Sweet, J., 1989. “Burlesquing ‘the other’ in Pueblo performance”. In: Annals of Tourism
Research 16 (1).
• Stanley, N., 1998. Being Ourselves for You: the global display of cultures. London:
Middlesex University Press.
• Van den Bergh, P., 1994. The quest for the other. Ethnic tourism in San Cristobal, Mexico.
Seattle: University of Washington Press.
• Wels, H., 2004. About romance and reality: popular European imagery in postcolonial
tourism in southern Africa. In: Hall, C.M. & Tucker, H. (eds.), Tourism and Postcolonialism:
Contested discourses, identities and representations, pp. 76‐94. London & New York:
Routledge. (Short loan)
LECTURE 7: SEX AND TRAVEL
The popular image of sleazy exploitation associated with sex tourism is encapsulated in the
stereotypical figure of the overweight, middle‐aged male sex tourist. But how accurately does
such an archetype reflect the diverse practices that make up sex tourism? What lessons can we
learn from these divergent practices? Is it possible to say that sex tourism actually provides a
means to escape other forms of dominance? Does our own morality get in the way of our own
understanding?
• Annals of Tourism Research 22 (2), 1995 – special issue on sex tourism.
• Bowman, G., 1989. “Fucking tourists: sexual relations and tourism in Jerusalem’s old city”.
In: Critique of Anthropology.
• Dahles, H. & Bras, K., 1999. “Entrepreneurs in Romance: Tourism in Indonesia”. In: Annals
of Tourism Research, Vol.26, No.2.
• Enloe, C., 1989. Bananas, beaches and bases: making feminist sense of international
politics. London: Pandora Press. Chapter 2.
• Herold E. et al, 2001. Female Tourists and Beach Boys: Romance or sex tourism? In: Annals
of Tourism Research, 28(4), pp.978‐997.
• Oppermans, M., 1999. “Sex tourism”. In: Annals of Tourism Research 26
• Pruitt, D. & LaFont, S., 1995. “For love and money: romance tourism in Jamaica. Annals of
Tourism Research 22 (2), pp.422‐440.
25

• Ryan C. and Hall C.M., 2001. Sex tourism: marginal people and liminalities. London and
New York: Routledge
• Zinovieff, S., 1991. “Hunters and the hunted: Kamaki and the ambiguities of sexual
predation in a Greek town”. In: Loizos, P. & Papataxiarchies, E. (eds.), Contested Identities.
Princeton: Princeton University Press.
LECTURE 8: TRAVELLER’S TALES
Drawing from Dr Frankland’s long‐term experience of tourism in Uganda, this informal lecture
will pull together many of the themes discussed in the previous topics in a light‐hearted way.
26

SECTION 5
CHILD‐FOCUSED ANTHROPOLOGY
PLEASE NOTE:
There will be no class on St Andrews Day Graduation (30/11/12)
WEEKS 10 & 11
Professor Christina Toren ct51@st‐andrews.ac.uk 1st Floor, 71 North Street
Early anthropologists such as Malinowksi, Firth, Sapir and others recommended that children
be routinely included in anthropological studies, but even today this is not commonplace. Why
is this so? And why should children as informants be important to anthropologists? This series
of lectures shows how important child‐focused anthropology is to the comparative study of
what it is to be human.
LECTURE 1: THE CHILD IN ANTHROPOLOGY
This lecture considers ideas concerning relations between children and adults e.g. socialisation,
acculturation, pedagogy. Are these models adequate to understanding how children come to
grips with the world?
• Michael Carrithers, 'Why humans have cultures', Man (ns) 25:189‐206, June 1990
• Enfield, N.J. and Stephen C. Levinson. Eds. Roots of Human Sociality. Culture, Cognition
and Interaction. Berg. 2006.
• Goldin‐Meadow, Susan. ‘Meeting other minds through gesture: how children use their
hands to reinvent language and distribute cognition.’ In N.J. Enfield and Stephen C.
Levinson, eds. Roots of Human Sociality. Culture, Cognition and Interaction. Berg. 2006.
• Ingold, Tim. ‘The social child’. In Alan Fogel, Barbara King and Stuart Shanker, Eds. Human
Development in the Twenty‐First Century. A Dynamic Systems Approach to the Life
Sciences, Cambridge University Press, 2007.
• Christina Toren. Childhood, Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, London, Routledge, 2004.
• Christina Toren. Childhood, Encyclopedia of Globalization, MIT Publishing, 2006.
LECTURE 2: CHILDREN AS SUBJECTS AND OBJECTS
Knowing what a child is ‐ i.e. making the child an object of knowledge sets up the conditions
under which, over time, children become subjects. This lecture looks at anthropological studies
in which it is clear that 'knowing what a child is' has been important for the analysis of social
relations in the collectivity at large.
• Jean Briggs, Aspects of Inuit Value Socialization, Ottowa: National Museum of Man,
Mercury Series, 1979.
• Harry Hendrick, ‘Constructions and reconstructions of British childhood: an interpretive
27

survey, 1800 to the present’ in A.James & A.Prout (eds) Constructing and Reconstructing
Childhood, London, New York, The Falmer Press, 1990.
• S. Howell, ‘From child to human: Chewong concepts of self’, in J.Jahoda & I.M. Lewis (eds),
Acquiring Culture, London, Croom Helm 1988.
• W. Kessen, ‘The child and other cultural inventions’ in F.S. Kessel & A.W. Siegel (eds) The
Child and Other Cultural Inventions, Praeger Publishers, 1983.
• David F. Lancy, The Anthropology of Childhood Cherubs, Chattel, Changelings, Cambridge
University Press 2008
• Heather Montgomery, An Introduction to Childhood: Anthropological Perspectives on
Children's Lives, Wiley‐Blackwell, 2008.
LECTURE 3: GENDER AND PERSONHOOD
Looks at different peoples’ ideas of 'the person', 'the self', ‘gender’ etc. and also how they
come to hold those particular ideas.
• Allison James, Chris Jenks and Alan Prout, Theorizing Childhood, Polity Press 1998. See
Chapters 8 and 10.
• Elinor Ochs & Bambi B. Schieffelin, ‘Language acquisition and socialization: three
developmental stories and their implications’ in R.A.Shweder & R.A. LeVine (eds) Culture
Theory. Essays on mind, self and emotion, Cambridge University Press, 1984.
• Alan Prout and Allison James, ‘A new paradigm for the sociology of childhood?
Provenance, prmise and problems’ in A.James & A.Prout (eds) Constructing and
Reconstructing Childhood, London, New York, The Falmer Press, 1990.
• F.J. Porter Poole, ‘Coming into social being: cultural images of infants in Bimin‐Kuskusmin
folk psychology’, in G.M. White & J. Kirkpatrick (eds) Person, Self and Experience,
University of California Press, 1985.
• Bambi B. Schieffelin, ‘Teasing and shaming in Kaluli children’s interactions’ in Bambi B.
Schieffelin & Elinor Ochs (eds.) Language Socialization Across Cultures, Cambridge
University Press, 1986.
• Christina Toren The stuff of imagination: what we can learn from Fijian children’s ideas
about their lives as adults. Social Analysis Volume 55, Issue 1, 23–47 2011
LECTURE 4: THE CHILD IN KINSHIP
The study of kinship is of central importance to anthropology as a discipline. This lecture looks
at what we can learn about kinship and sociality by exploring ideas about the child’s place in
relations with others.
• Alma Gottlieb, The Afterlife is Where We Come From. The culture of infancy in west
Africa.: Chicago University Press. 2004
• Peter Gow, ‘The perverse child: desire in a native Amazonian subsistence economy’, Man,
(N.S.) 24, 299‐314, 1989.
• Peter Gow. ‘Helpless. The Affective Preconditions of Piro Social Life’, in Joanna Overing and
Alan Passes (eds) The Anthropology of Love and Hate: the Aesthetics of Conviviality in
Native Amazonia, London, Routledge. 2000.
• Christina Toren, ‘Compassion for one another: constituting kinship as intentionality in Fiji’,
1996 Malinowski Lecture, the Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, (N.S.) 5, 265‐
280 September, 1999.
28

• Viegas, Susana de Matos. “Eating with Your Favourite Mother: Time and Sociality in a
South Amerindian Community (South of Bahia/Brazil).” Journal of the Royal
Anthropological Institute 9, no. 1: 21–37, 2003.
LECTURE 5: THE CHILD IN RITUAL
We may be aware that our own behaviour has a ritualised dimension and even that ritual has a
powerful hold on ourselves as well as others, but where is the power of ritual located?
• Meyer Fortes, ‘Social and psychological aspects of education in Taleland’ in Time and Social
Structure and other essays, London: Athlone, 1970.
• Gilbert Herdt, ‘Sambia nosebleeding rites and male proximity to women’ in J Stigler et al
(eds) Cultural Psychology: Essays on comparative human development, Cambridge: CUP
1990.
• Borut Telban, Dancing Through Time: A Sepik Cosmology, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1998.
• Christina Toren, ‘Sign into symbol, symbol as sign: cognitive aspects of a social process’ in
Mind, Materiality and History. Explorations in Fijian Ethnography, London, Routledge,
1999.
• Christina Toren, ‘The Effectiveness of Ritual.’ In The Anthropology of Christianity. Fenella
Cannell, ed. Pp. 185–210. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. 2006
LECTURE 6: FIELDWORK WITH CHILDREN
This lecture is a personal look at the pros and cons of doing fieldwork with children, how it
differs (or not) from working with adults, and the degree to which the researcher has to modify
his or her research methods.
• Gillian Evans, Educational Failure and Working Class White Children in Britain, Palgrave
Macmillan 2006.
• Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger, Situated Learning, Cambridge University Press, 1991.
• Nabobo‐Baba, Unaisi. Knowing and Learning. An Indigenous Fijian Approach. Suva:
Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific. 2006.
• Christina Toren, ‘Making history: the significance of childhood cognition for a comparative
anthropology of mind’, Man (NS) 28:461‐478, 1993.
• Christina Toren, ‘Intersubjectivity as epistemology’ in What is Happening to Epistemology?
A special issue edited by Christina Toren and João de Pina‐Cabral. Social Analysis. Volume
53, Issue 2, 2009.
29

TUTORIALS
TUTORIAL 1
The aim of this tutorial is to think about ways in which foraging identities are constructed and
the impact this has on the people designated as ‘forest people’. Do the assumptions of
anthropologists’ and other ‘experts’ reflect the actual lived experiences of so‐called huntergatherers?
• Frankland, S., 1999. Turnbull’s Syndrome: Romantic fascination in the rainforest. In:
Biesbrouk, K. et al (eds.), Central African Hunter‐Gatherers in a Multidisciplinary
Perspective: Challenging Elusiveness. Universiteit Leiden: CNWS. (Short loan and Reader
Pack)
• Poyer, L. & Kelly, R.L., 2000. Mystification of the Mikea: Constructions of Foraging Identity
in Southwest Madagascar. In: Journal of Anthropological Research, 56(2), pp. 163‐185.
(Available online and in Reader Pack)
TUTORIAL 2
How do assumptions about what it is to be a ‘Pygmy’ by external agencies continue to impact
upon the life of the Baka? How do they respond? What are the assumptions? Who holds
them? And how do these perceptions influnce Baka development?
• Hewlett B.S 2000. Central African Government’s and International NGO’s Perceptions of
Baka Pygmy Development. In: Schweitzer P.P. et al (eds.), 2000. Hunters and Gatherers in
the Modern World. NY & Oxford: Berghahn Books. (Short loan and Reader Pack)
• Köhler A. 2005. Of Apes and Men: Baka and Bantu Attitudes to Wildlife and the

TUTORIAL 4
The Minority Politics of Victimisation
In this tutorial we will explore the ‘power of the powerless’ with reference to claims to
victimisation by minority and diasporic groups.
• Ballinger, P. (2003) History in Exile: Memory and Identity at the Borders of the Balkans.
Princeton: Princeton University Press. Introduction pp 1‐14 & Geographies Of Violence: 49‐
75
• Pipyrou, S. (2012) ‘Commensurable Language and Incommensurable Claims among the
Greek Linguistic Minority of South Italy’, Journal of Modern Italian Studies, Vol. 17, No. 1,
pp: 70‐91.
TUTORIAL 5
The elites occupy so much space in the media that we seem to think that we know a great deal
about them. But do we really? And what we hear about them is it truth or part of the myth to
create an aura around them? In today’s lectures we will discuss the way some people become
powerful individuals. You must chose one prominent and influential individual, not simply from
the field of politics, and find as much information as possible about him or her and reconstruct
briefly how did they become who they are today.
• Pedroso de Lima, A. 2000. ‘“How Did I Become a Leader in My Family Firm?” Assets for
Succession in Contemporary Lisbon Financial Elites’, in de Pina‐Cabral, J. and Pedroso de
Lima, A. (eds.) Elites: Choice, leadership and Succession. Oxford and New York: Berg.
TUTORIAL 6
In this tutorial we will discuss the ways in which music could be said to be an instrument to
articulate resistance. Bring your favourite music and lyrics you think would best capture the
struggle for freedom.
• Pardue, D. 2004. "'Writing in the Margins': Brazilian Hip‐Hop as an Educational Project."
Anthropology and Education Quarterly 35(4).
• Kaya, A. 2002 Aesthetics of diaspora: contemporary minstrels in Turkish Berlin, in Journal
of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 28 (1): 43‐62
TUTORIAL 7
The aim of this tutorial is to discuss issues relating to the debates on authenticity. How ‘real’
aremtouristic experiences? How has tourism transformed touristic spaces?
• Alneng V., 2002. ‘What the Fuck is a Vietnam?’: Touristic Phantasms and the
Popcolonization of (the) Vietnam (war). In: Critique of Anthropology, 22, pp.461‐488.
• Favero P., 2003. Phantasms in a “Starry” Place: Space and Identification in a Central New
Delhi Market. In: Cultural Anthropology, 18(4), pp.551‐584.
TUTORIAL 8
31

In this tutorial, students are expected to draw from their own experiences to discuss the
relative merits of backpacking and the gap year trip. Whose lives are transformed by these
experiences?
• Simpson K. 2005. Dropping Out or Signing Up? The Professionalisation of Youth Travel. In:
Antipode, pp.447‐469.
• Sørensen A., 2003. Backpacker Ethnography. In: Annals of Tourism Research, 30(4), pp.847‐
867.
TUTORIAL 9
Why does it make analytical sense to include children in anthropological studies of social
processes? What are the arguments against ‘the anthropology of childhood’?
• Robertson, A.F. The development of meaning: Ontogeny and culture. Journal of the Royal
Anthropological Institute (N.S.) 2, 591‐610. 1996.
• Christina Toren, Do babies have culture? Anthropological Quarterly, Volume 77, Number
1, Winter 2004, pp. 167‐179. George Washington University Institute for Ethnographic
Research.
• Christina Toren, ‘An anthropology of human development: what difference does it make?’
In Alan Fogel, Barbara King and Stuart Shanker, Eds. Human Development in the Twenty‐
First Century. A Dynamic Systems Approach to the Life Sciences, Cambridge University
Press, 2007.
TUTORIAL 10
What can we learn about the centrality of kinship for anthropology from ethnographic studies
that focus on children?
• Peter Gow. ‘Helpless. The Affective Preconditions of Piro Social Life’, in Joanna Overing and
Alan Passes (eds) The Anthropology of Love and Hate: the Aesthetics of Conviviality in
Native Amazonia, London, Routledge. 2000.
• Christina Toren, ‘Compassion for one another: constituting kinship as intentionality in Fiji’,
1996 Malinowski Lecture, the Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, (N.S.) 5, 265‐
280 September, 1999.
• Viegas, Susana de Matos. “Eating with Your Favourite Mother: Time and Sociality in a
South Amerindian Community (South of Bahia/Brazil).” Journal of the Royal
Anthropological Institute 9, no. 1: 21–37, 2003.
32

ESSAYS
Students must write TWO assessed essays for the module. The first essay question must be
chosen from the list below under Essay 1 (DEADLINE: 23.59 MONDAY 22nd OCTOBER) The
second essay question must be chosen from the list below under Essay 2 (DEADLINE: 23.59
MONDAY 19th NOVEMBER).
Essays should be submitted via MMS: https://www.st‐andrews.ac.uk/mms/
The word limit for each essay is between 1500‐2000 words.
ethnographic examples.
Please make full use of
ESSAY 1 ‐ DEADLINE MONDAY 22 ND OCTOBER
1. In what ways do ‘Western’ preconceptions continue to inform understandings of
hunter‐gatherers? (See readings from lecture 1).
2. What are the consequences of ‘development’ for either ‘Bushmen’ (See readings from
lecture 5) or ‘Pygmies’ (See readings from lecture 6)?
3. Discuss the new global landscape of movement with reference to labour migration.
4. With relevant ethnographic examples examine the manner minority and diasporic
groups form claims to difference and distinction.
ESSAY 2 ‐ DEADLINE MONDAY 19 TH NOVEMBER
5. In what ways suffering and trauma are said to be tied in with structure, culture and
politics?
6. Discuss the relationship between power and resistance.
7. Critically assess the comparison between tourism and pilgrimage. (See readings from
lecture 2).
8. Ethnic tourism destroys the object of its desire. Discuss. (See readings from lecture 5).
33

HINTS ON WRITING ESSAYS AND
EXAM ANSWERS
SA1001 is assessed as follows:
Two assessed essays, each 1500 to 2000 words in length, to be submitted by MONDAY 22 ND
OCTOBER and MONDAY 19 TH NOVEMBER. Each essay is worth 30% of the final mark.
One two‐hour long examination. The exam is worth 40% of the final mark.
Please note the following key points:
Essays should be typed and submitted via MMS (https://www.st‐andrews.ac.uk/mms/)
Essays should be properly referenced, especially direct quotations from books and articles, and a
bibliography should be attached. The bibliography should only contain items that have been
specifically referred to in the text. We strongly recommend that you follow the system explained in
the last section of this handbook. Consult your lecturer/tutor/supervisor if in doubt.
PLAGIARISM
Intentional plagiarism, i.e. the deliberate submission of someone else's work as though it were
one's own, is dishonest. But plagiarism may occur unintentionally through poor work practices, as
students may for example submit work that contains the words or ideas of others without realising
that they need proper acknowledgement. The University’s Academic Misconduct policy refers to
actions rather than intent, and a piece of work that contains plagiarised material will be subject to
a penalty irrespective of whether or not there was an intention to plagiarise. It is consequently
very important for you to understand how to avoid producing work that contains plagiarised
material.
Note that copying and pasting material from a web site or book into a piece of written work
without due acknowledgement is likely to be regarded as plagiarism, even if it is just one
sentence that is copied.
While students are certainly expected to read the work of others, their written work should be in
their own words, and the sources of information they are using should be acknowledged in a
footnote, specific reference list, or bibliography depending on the subject's requirements. Merely
changing a word here and there through a copied paragraph is not enough either, and nor is taking
the structure of another person's article and rephrasing the argument (known as paraphrasing). If
you wish to include material from one of your sources word‐for‐word, then it should be included
within quotation marks and have its source clearly stated. You will lose marks if you copy out
passages from books or articles and pass them off as your own, words (i.e. brief passages, are
permitted provided they are put in inverted commas and the author and page reference is
added). You will also lose marks if you copy another student's essay. Flagrant offences will lead
to zero marks for the assessment.
Plagiarism can also occur if students copy material from one or more other students. We point out
that allowing someone to copy your work is also an offence under this University’s policy, so both
the copier and the original author may face proceedings.
Likewise, re‐using your own work when it has already been submitted, in Social Anthropology or
another discipline, in this University or elsewhere, and passing it as new work for either the same
or another module, is also considered an unacceptable practice in the Department of Social
34

Anthropology and is usually referred to as ‘self‐plagiarism’. This applies to fragments of a piece of
work as much as to whole pieces of work. Whilst making connections across modules is
unavoidable and in some cases may even be encouraged, you should not try to pass ‘old’ work as
‘new’. If you think it is necessary to refer to a previous piece of work that you have submitted, you
should acknowledge this and reference it. If you are ever in doubt as to what is allowed, please ask
the teaching staff associated with the assignment.
ACADEMIC MISCONDUCT
The University defines academic misconduct as including, among other things, the presentation of
material as one’s own when it is not one’s own; the presentation of material whose origin is
academically inappropriate; and inappropriate behaviour in an examination or class test. It includes
any work that is submitted for informal feedback and evaluation.
The University will use all available means to detect academic misconduct including the use of
Turnitin plagiarism detection software. Academic misconduct is completely unacceptable in this
University and will be treated severely. Repeated offences will lead to expulsion from the
University. The University Code is published at:
http://foi.st‐andrews.ac.uk/PublicationScheme/servlet/core.generator.gblobserv?id=1030
Please check the following link for additional information:
www.standrews.ac.uk/staff/policy/tlac/academicmisconduct/avoidingallegations/#d.en.52465
ESSAY WRITING
1. Writing an essay or report is an exercise in the handling of ideas. It is not the mere transcription
of long and irrelevant passages from textbooks. To gain a pass mark, an essay or report must show
evidence of hard thinking (ideally, original thinking) on the student's part.
2. When a lecturer sets you an essay or report he or she is explicitly or implicitly asking you a
question. Above all else your aim should be to discern what that question is and to answer it. You
should give it a cursory answer in the first paragraph (introduction), thus sketching your plan of
attack. Then in the body of the essay or report you should give it a detailed answer, disposing in
turn of all the points that it has raised. And at the end (conclusion) you should give it another
answer, i.e. a summary of your detailed answer. Note If the question has more than one part you
should dedicate equal attention to each one.
3. An essay or report must be based on a sound knowledge of the subject it deals with. This means
that you must read. If you are tempted to answer any question off the top of your head, or entirely
from your own personal experience or general knowledge, you are asking for trouble.
4. Make brief notes as you read, and record the page references. Don't waste time by copying out
long quotations. Go for the ideas and arrange these on paper. Some people find that arranging
ideas in diagrams and tables makes them easier to remember and use than verbal passages. You
will find it easier to do this if you keep certain questions in mind: What is the author driving at?
What is the argument? Does it apply only to a particular society, or are generalised propositions
being made? How well do the examples used fit the argument? Where are the weaknesses? Also
think about the wider implications of an argument. Copy the actual words only if they say
something much more aptly than you could say yourself. It is a good plan to write notes on the
content of your reading in blue and your own comments on them in red. There is another aspect of
your reading which should go hand in hand with the assessment of any one item: you should
compare what you have read in different books and articles. Test what one author proposed
against evidence from other societies: what do the different approaches lend to one another? In
this way you should begin to see the value (and the problems) of comparison and learn that writers
35

disagree and write contradictory things, and that all printed matter is not indisputable just because
it lies between hard covers. Note that as well as showing evidence of reading of set texts, good
answers link the essay topic back to material given in lectures or tutorials. You can also gain marks
by including additional reading, providing it is clear from your essay that you have actually read it!
5. Don't then sit down and write the essay or report. Plan it first. Give it a beginning, a middle, and
an ending. Much of the information you will have collected will have to be rejected because it isn't
relevant. Don't be tempted to include anything that hasn't a direct bearing on the problem
expressed in the title of the essay or report. Note that in the introductory paragraph it is a good
idea to make it absolutely clear to the reader exactly what you understand by certain crucial
concepts you will be discussing in the essay ‐these concepts will probably be those which appear in
the essay title. Define these concepts if you think there may be any ambiguity about them. Note
also that when you give examples to illustrate a point be careful not to lose track of the argument.
Examples are intended to illustrate a general (usually more abstract) point; they are not a
substitute for making this point.
6. When you finally start on the essay or report, please remember these points:
(a) Leave wide margins and a space at the end for comments. Any work that is illegible, obviously
too long or too short, or lacking margins and a space at the end will be returned for re‐writing.
Essays should be typed, preferably on one side of the paper and double‐spaced.
(b) Append a bibliography giving details of the material you have read and cited in the essay.
Arrange it alphabetically by author and by dates of publication. Look at the Journal of the Royal
Anthropological Institute as an example of the style of presenting a bibliography.
N.B. In the body of the essay or report, whenever you have occasion to support a statement by
reference to a book or article, give in brackets the name of the author and date. To acknowledge a
quotation or a particular observation, the exact page number should be added. For example,
'Shortly after the publication of The Andaman Islanders, Radcliffe‐Brown drew attention to the
importance of the mother's brother (Radcliffe‐Brown 1924). What kindled his interest in the South
Africanmaterial was the pseudo‐historical interpretation of Henri Junod (Radcliffe‐Brown 1952:
15) ...........' If you are not sure how to do this, look in the journal Journal of the Royal
Anthropological Institute or some monograph in the library to get an idea of how this is done.
Alternatively, footnote your references. Note that if you simply copy a writer's words into your
essay without acknowledgement you will lose marks, and could even receive a zero mark.
7. Footnotes should be placed either at the foot of each page, or all together at the end. If on each
page, they should be numbered consecutively from the beginning of each chapter, e.g. 1‐22. If
placed all together at the end, they should be numbered consecutively throughout the whole
research project, e.g. 1‐103, in which case do not start renumbering for each chapter.
8. Footnote references in the text should be clearly designated by means of superior figures, placed
after punctuation, e.g. ................the exhibition. 10
9. Underlining (or italics) should include titles of books and periodical publications, and technical
terms or phrases not in the language of the essay, (e.g. urigubu, gimwali).
10. Italicize: ibid., idem., op.cit., loc.cit., and passim.
11. Single inverted commas should be placed at the beginning and end of quotations, with double
inverted commas for quotes‐within‐quotes.
12. If quotations are longer than six typed lines they should be indented, in which case inverted
commas are not needed.
36

13. PLEASE TRY TO AVOID GENDER‐SPECIFIC LANGUAGE. Don't write he/him when you could be
referring to a woman! You can avoid this problem by using plurals (they/them).
Referencing:
Correct referencing is a critical aspect of all essays. It is the primary skill that you are expected to
learn and it also guards you against the dangers of plagiarism. Make sure that when you are
reading texts that you note down accurately the source of information by recording the name of
the author, the book title, page number and so forth. This will enable you to reference correctly
when it comes to writing your essay. Adequate referencing requires you to indicate in the
appropriate places in body of your essay the source of any information you may use. Such
references vary in kind, but a general guide to the correct format would be: A general reference: …
as Turnbull’s (1983) work demonstrates …
… the romanticisation of Pygmies has been commonplace in anthropology (e.g. Turnbull 1983) …
Note: In this example, the author is referring to Turnbull’s work in a general way. If the author was
referring to specific ideas or details made by Turnbull, then the page number needs to be specified.
A paraphrase: … Turnbull describes how the Ituri Forest had remained relatively untouched by
colonialism (Turnbull 198 3: 24) …
Note: This is more specific than a general reference as it refers to a particular point or passage by
an author. It is your summary of a point made by someone else (in this case Turnbull). When
paraphrasing, you must always include the page number in your reference. A quotation: … under
these circumstances, “the Mbuti could always escape to the forest” (Turnbull 1983: 85).
Note: All quotes from anyone else’s work must be acknowledged and be placed within speech
marks. The page number or numbers must be referenced. If you need to alter any of the words
within the quote to clarify your meaning, the words changed or added should be placed in square
brackets [thus] to indicate that they are not those of the original author.
Bibliography:
All tests referenced within the body of your essay must be included within the bibliography. Entries
in the bibliography should be organised in alphabetical order and should contain full publication
details. Consult an anthropological journal, such as the Journal of the Royal Anthropological
Institute (JRAI), to see how the correct format should appear. This is available both electronically
and in hard copy. The standard format of bibliographic referencing is as follows:
Book:
Turnbull, C.M. 1983. The Mbuti Pygmies: Change and Adaptation. New York, Holt Reinhart and
Wilson.
Edited Collection:
Leacock, E. & R. Lee (eds) 1982. Politics and History in Band Societies. Cambridge:Cambridge
University Press.
Chapter in edited collection:
Woodburn. J.C. (1980). Hunters and gatherers today and reconstruction of the past. In Soviet and
western anthropology (ed.) E. Gellner. London: Duckworth.
Journal article:
Ballard, C. 2006. Strange alliance: Pygmies in the colonial imaginary. World Archaeology,38, 1, 133
151.
37

Web pages:
It is unadvisable to use web sites unless directed to them by a lecturer. There is a great deal of
rubbish on the Internet. However, if you do, it is important that you provide full details of the webpage
address as well as the date on which the page was accessed.
Miller, J.J. 2000, Accessed 22/09/2006. The Fierce People: The wages of anthropological
incorrectness.
Article available electronically at: http://www.nationalreview.com/20nov00/miller112000.shtml.
If you are not sure how to do this, look in the journal JRAI or some monograph in the library to get
an idea of how this is done. Alternatively, footnote your references. Note that if you simply copy a
writer's words into your essay without acknowledgement you run the risk of plagiarism and will
lose marks, and may even receive a zero mark.
8. Please also note the following:
(a) Spellings, grammar, writing style. Failure to attend to these creates a poor impression. Note,
especially: society, argument, bureaucracy.
(b) Foreign words: Underline (or italicize) these, unless they have passed into regular English.
(c) PLEASE TRY TO AVOID GENDER‐SPECIFIC LANGUAGE. Don't write he/him when you could be
referring to a woman! You can avoid this problem by using plurals (they/them).
38