{ Earth Science Reference Tables - New York State Museum

The University of the State of New York • THE STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT • Albany, New York 12234 • www.nysed.gov 

Earth Science Reference Tables 

RADIOACTIVE 

ISOTOPE 

Carbon-14 

Potassium-40 

Uranium-238 

Rubidium-87 

Radioactive Decay Data 

DISINTEGRATION 

HALF-LIFE 

(years) 

C 14 

K 40 

U 238 

Rb 87 N 14 

Ar 40 

Ca 40 

Pb 206 

Sr 87 5.7 × 10 3 

1.3 × 10 9 

4.5 × 10 9 

PHYSICAL CONSTANTS 

4.9 × 10 10 

Properties of Water 

MATERIAL 

solid 

Water liquid 

{ gas 

Dry air 

Basalt 

Granite 

Iron 

Copper 

Lead 

Energy gained during melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 calories/gram 

Energy released during freezing . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 calories/gram 

Energy gained during vaporization . . . . . . . . 540 calories/gram 

Energy released during condensation . . . . . 540 calories/gram 

Density at 3.98°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.00 gram/milliliter 

Specific Heats of Common Materials 

SPECIFIC HEAT 

(calories/gram • C°) 

0.5 

1.0 

0.5 

0.24 

0.20 

0.19 

0.11 

0.09 

0.03 

cm 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 

Percent deviation 

from accepted value 

Eccentricity of an ellipse 

Gradient 

Rate of change 

Density of a substance 

EQUATIONS 

2001 EDITION 

This edition of the Earth Science Reference Tables should be used in the 

classroom beginning in the 2000–2001 school year. The first examination 

for which these tables will be used is the January 2001 Regents 

Examination in Earth Science. 

difference from accepted value 

deviation (%) = × 100 

accepted value 

eccentricity = 

gradient = 

rate of change = 

density = 

distance between foci 

length of major axis 

change in field value 

distance 

mass 

volume 

change in field value 

time 

EURYPTERUS 

New York State Fossil 

15 

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 

(Revised November 2006)

NEW ENGLAND PROVINCE 

(HIGHLANDS) 

HUDSON HIGHLANDS 

MANHATTAN PRONG 

ATLANTIC COASTAL PLAIN 

LOWLANDS 

CHAMPLAIN 

TACONIC MOUNTAINS 

LAKE ONTARIO 

TUG 

HILL 

PLATEAU 

LAKE 

ERIE 

ALLEGHENY PLATEAU 

ADIRONDACK 

MOUNTAINS 

HUDSON – MOHAWK LOWLANDS 

THE 

CATSKILLS 

NEWARK 

LOWLANDS 

Generalized Landscape Regions of New York State 

ST. LAWRENCE LOWLANDS 

GRENVILLE PROVINCE 

(HIGHLANDS) 

INTERIOR LOWLANDS 

ERIE–ONTARIO LOWLANDS 

(PLAINS) 

KEY 

Major Geographic Province Boundary 

Landscape Region Boundary 

State Boundary 

International Boundary 

N 

APPALACHIAN PLATEAU (UPLANDS) 

2 Earth Science Reference Tables — 2001 Edition (Revised November 2006)

Generalized Bedrock Geology of New York State 

modified from 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 

1989 

N 

ISLAND SOUND 

LONG 

Niagara River 

GEOLOGICAL PERIODS AND ERAS IN NEW YORK 

CRETACEOUS, TERTIARY, PLEISTOCENE (Epoch) weakly consolidated to unconsolidated gravels, sands, and clays 

LATE TRIASSIC and EARLY JURASSIC conglomerates, red sandstones, red shales, and diabase (in Palisades Sill) 

PENNSYLVANIAN and MISSISSIPPIAN conglomerates, sandstones, and shales 

DEVONIAN limestones, shales, sandstones, and conglomerates 

SILURIAN Silurian also contains salt, gypsum, and hematite. 

ORDOVICIAN 

CAMBRIAN 

} 

} 

limestones, shales, sandstones, and dolostones 

CAMBRIAN and EARLY ORDOVICIAN sandstones and dolostones 

Moderately to intensely metamorphosed east of the Hudson River. 

CAMBRIAN and ORDOVICIAN (undifferentiated) quartzites, dolostones, marbles, and schists 

Intensely metamorphosed; includes portions of the Taconic Sequence and Cortlandt Complex. 

TACONIC SEQUENCE sandstones, shales, and slates 

Slightly to intensely metamorphosed rocks of CAMBRIAN through MIDDLE ORDOVICIAN ages. 

MIDDLE PROTEROZOIC gneisses, quartzites, and marbles 

Lines are generalized structure trends. Intensely Metamorphosed Rocks 

MIDDLE PROTEROZOIC anorthositic rocks (regional metamorphism about 1,000 m.y.a.) 

} 

} 

} 

Dominantly 

Sedimentary 

Origin 

Dominantly 

Metamorphosed 

Rocks 

Earth Science Reference Tables — 2001 Edition (Revised November 2006) 3

Surface Ocean Currents 


Tectonic Plates 

Mid-Atlantic Ridge 

KEY: 

Philippine 

Plate 

Fiji 

Plate 

Divergent Plate Boundary 

(usually broken by transform 

faults along mid-ocean ridges) 

Mid-Ocean Ridge 

Sandwich 

Plate 

overriding 

plate 

subducting 

plate 

Convergent Plate Boundary 

(Subduction Zone) 

Transform Plate Boundary 

(Transform Fault) 

Complex or Uncertain 

Plate Boundary 

Relative Motion 

at Plate Boundary 

Mantle 

Hot Spot 

NOTE: Not all plates and boundaries are shown. 


Metamorphism 

Cementation 

SEDIMENTARY 

ROCK 

Heat and/or Pressure 

METAMORPHIC 

ROCK 

Rock Cycle in Earth’s Crust 

Melting 

Melting 

Burial 

Compaction 

(Uplift) 

Weathering & Erosion 

Heat and/or Pressure 

Metamorphism 

(Uplift) 


Melting 

MAGMA 

Deposition 

SEDIMENTS 

Erosion 

(Uplift) 


IGNEOUS 

ROCK 

Solidification 

PARTICLE DIAMETER (cm) 

100.0 

10.0 

1.0 

0.1 

0.01 

0.001 

0.0001 

Relationship of Transported 

Particle Size to Water Velocity 

BOULDERS 

COBBLES 

PEBBLES 

SAND 

SILT 

CLAY 

25.6 cm 

6.4 cm 

0.2 cm 

0.006 cm 

0.0004 cm 

0.00001 

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 

STREAM VELOCITY (cm/sec) 

*This generalized graph shows the water velocity needed to 

maintain, but not start, movement. Variations occur due to 

differences in particle density and shape. 

Scheme for Igneous Rock Identification 

GRAIN 

SIZE 

TEXTURE 

IGNEOUS ROCKS 

ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION 

EXTRUSIVE 

(Volcanic) 

INTRUSIVE 

(Plutonic) 

Obsidian 

(usually appears black) 

Pumice 

Vesicular Rhyolite 

Rhyolite 

Granite 

Pegmatite 

Vesicular 

Andesite 

Andesite 

Diorite 

Basaltic Glass 

Vesicular Basaltic Glass 

Vesicular 

Scoria 

Basalt 

Basalt 

Gabbro 

Dunite 

less than 

1 mm 

1 mm 

to 

10 mm 

10 mm 

or 

larger 

Glassy 

Fine 

Coarse 

Very 

Coarse 

Vesicular 

(gas 

pockets) 

Noncrystalline 

Peridotite 

Nonvesicular 

Nonvesicular 

CHARACTERISTICS 

LIGHT 

LOW 

FELSIC (Al) 

100% 

Potassium 

feldspar 

(pink to white) 

COLOR 

DENSITY 

COMPOSITION 

DARK 

HIGH 

MAFIC (Fe, Mg) 

100% 

MINERAL COMPOSITION 

(Relative by Volume) 

75% 

50% 

25% 

Quartz 

(clear to 

white) 

Plagioclase feldspar 

(white to gray) 

Biotite 

(black) 

Amphibole 

(black) 

Pyroxene 

(green) 

Olivine 

(green) 

75% 

50% 

25% 

0% 

0% 


INORGANIC LAND-DERIVED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 

TEXTURE GRAIN SIZE COMPOSITION 

COMMENTS ROCK NAME MAP SYMBOL 

Clastic 

(fragmental) 

Pebbles, cobbles, 

and/or boulders 

embedded in sand, 

silt, and/or clay 

Sand 

(0.2 to 0.006 cm) 

Silt 

(0.006 to 0.0004 cm) 

Clay 

(less than 0.0004 cm) 

Scheme for Sedimentary Rock Identification 

Mostly 

quartz, 

feldspar, and 

clay minerals; 

may contain 

fragments of 

other rocks 

and minerals 

Rounded fragments 

Angular fragments 

Fine to coarse 

Very fine grain 

Compact; may split 

easily 

Conglomerate 

Breccia 

Sandstone 

Siltstone 

Shale 

CHEMICALLY AND/OR ORGANICALLY FORMED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 

. . . . . 

. . . . 

. . . . . 

. . . . 

TEXTURE GRAIN SIZE COMPOSITION 

COMMENTS ROCK NAME MAP SYMBOL 

Crystalline 

Varied 

Varied 

Halite 

Gypsum 

Crystals from 

chemical 

precipitates 

and evaporites 

Rock Salt 

Rock Gypsum 

Varied 

Dolomite 

Dolostone 

Bioclastic 

Microscopic to coarse 

Calcite 

Cemented shell 

fragments or precipitates 

of biologic origin 

Limestone 

Varied 

Carbon 

From plant remains 

Coal 

TEXTURE 

Scheme for Metamorphic Rock Identification 

GRAIN 

TYPE OF 

SIZE COMPOSITION METAMORPHISM 

COMMENTS ROCK NAME 

MAP SYMBOL 

FOLIATED 

MINERAL 

ALIGNMENT 

BAND- 

ING 

Fine 

Fine 

to 

medium 

Medium 

to 

coarse 

MICA 

QUARTZ 

FELDSPAR 

AMPHIBOLE 

GARNET 

PYROXENE 

Regional 

(Heat and 

pressure 

increase 

with depth) 

Low-grade 

metamorphism of shale 

Foliation surfaces shiny from 

microscopic mica crystals 

Platy mica crystals visible from 

metamorphism of clay or 

feldspars 

High-grade metamorphism; 

some mica changed to feldspar; 

segregated by mineral type 

into bands 

Slate 

Phyllite 

Schist 

Gneiss 

Fine 

Variable 

Contact 

(Heat) 

Various rocks changed by 

heat from nearby 

magma/lava 

Hornfels 

NONFOLIATED 

Fine 

to 

coarse 

Coarse 

Quartz 

Calcite and/or 

dolomite 

Various minerals 

in particles 

and matrix 

Regional 

or 

Contact 

Metamorphism of quartz 

sandstone 

Metamorphism of 

limestone or dolostone 

Pebbles may be distorted 

or stretched 

Quartzite 

Marble 

Metaconglomerate 


(Fossils not drawn to scale) 

GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF NEW YORK STATE 

A B C D E F G 

H I J 

K 

L 

M 

N 

O 

P 

Q 

R 

S 

T 

U 

V W X Y Z 

Cryptolithus 

Elliptocephala 

Valcouroceras 

Phacops Hexameroceras 

Centroceras Eucalyptocrinus Tetragraptus 

Manticoceras 

Ctenocrinus 

Dicellograptus 

Coelophysis 

Stylonurus 

Eurypterus Mastodont 

Beluga 

Whale 

Bothriolepis 

Cooksonia Naples Tree 

Aneurophyton 

Condor 

Lichenaria Pleurodictyum Platyceras Mucrospirifer 

Cystiphyllum Maclurites Eospirifer 

Eon 

Millions of years ago 

0 

500 

1000 

2000 

3000 

4000 

4600 

PHANERO- 

ZOIC 

P R E C A M B R I A N 

ARCHEAN PROTEROZOIC 

L 

A 

T 

E 

M 

IDDLE 

E 

A 

R 

L 

Y 

L 

A 

T 

E 

M 

I 

D 

D 

L 

E 

E 

A 

R 

L 

Y 

Oldest 

multicellular 

life 

First 

appearance 

of sexually 

reproducing 

organisms 

Era 

Transition to 

atmosphere 

containing 

oxygen 

Oldest microfossils 

Geochemical evidence 

for oldest biological 

fixing of carbon 

Oldest known rocks 

Estimated time of origin 

of Earth and solar system 

CENOZOIC 

MESOZOIC 

PALEOZOIC 

QUATERNARY 

TERTIARY 

NEOGENE 

PALEOGENE 

CRETACEOUS 

JURASSIC 

TRIASSIC 

PERMIAN 

CARBONIF- 

EROUS 

Period Epoch Life on Earth 

PENNSYLVANIAN 

DEVONIAN 

SILURIAN 

MISSISSIPPIAN 

ORDOVICIAN 

CAMBRIAN 

Millions of years ago 

HOLOCENE 0 

0.01 

PLEISTOCENE 1.6 Humans, mastodonts, mammoths 

PLIOCENE Large carnivores 

5.3 

MIOCENE Abundant grazing mammals 

24 Earliest grasses 

OLIGOCENE Large running mammals 

EOCENE 

33.7 

Many modern groups of mammals 

54.8 

PALEOCENE 

65 Extinction of dinosaurs and ammonoids 

Earliest placental mammals 

LATE Climax of dinosaurs and ammonoids 

Earliest flowering plants 

Decline of brachiopods 

EARLY Diverse bony fishes 

142 

LATE 

MIDDLE 

EARLY 

206 

LATE 

MIDDLE 

EARLY 

251 

LATE 

EARLY 

290 

LATE 

EARLY 

323 

LATE 

EARLY 

362 

LATE 

MIDDLE 

EARLY 

LATE 

EARLY 

LATE 

MIDDLE 

EARLY 

LATE 

MIDDLE 

EARLY 

418 

443 

Earliest birds 

Abundant dinosaurs and ammonoids 

Modern coral groups appear 

Earliest dinosaurs and mammals with 

abundant cycads and conifers 

Extinction of many kinds of marine 

animals, including trilobites 

First mammal-like reptiles 

Earliest reptiles 

Extensive coal-forming forests 

Abundant sharks and amphibians 

Large and numerous scale trees 

and seed ferns 

Earliest amphibians, ammonoids, sharks 

Extinction of armored fish, other 

fish abundant 

Earliest insects 

Earliest land plants and animals 

Peak development of eurypterids 

Invertebrates dominant 

– mollusks become abundant 

Diverse coral and echinoderms 

Graptolites abundant 

490 

Earliest fish 

Algal reefs 

Burgess shale fauna 

Earliest chordates, diverse trilobites 

Earliest trilobites 

Earliest marine animals with shells 

544 

580 Ediacaran fauna 

Soft-bodied organisms 

Rock 

Record 

in 

NYS 

Time Distribution of Fossils 

(Including Important Fossils of New York) 

Lettered circles indicate the approximate time of existence of a specific 

index fossil (e.g. Fossil A lived at the end of the Early Cambrian). 

TRILOBITES 

B 

A 

NAUTILOIDS 

AMMONOIDS 

C F G 

E 

D 

CRINOIDS 

I 

H 

Earth’s 

first forest 

GRAPTOLITES 

DINOSAURS 

L 

K 

J 

EURYPTERIDS 

O 

MAMMALS 

N 

M 

VASCULAR PLANTS 

Q 

P 

S 

PLACODERM 

FISH BIRDS 

R 

Earth’s first 

coral reef 

CORALS 

V 

U 

T 

GASTROPODS 

X 

W 

BRACHIOPODS 

Z 

Y 

Rifting 

Tectonic 

Events 

Affecting 

Northeast 

North 

America 

Passive Margin 

Rifting 

Passive Margin 

Subduction 

Continental Collision 

Transform Collision 

Important Geologic 

Events in New York 

Advance and retreat of last continental ice 

Uplift of Adirondack region 

Sands and shales underlying Long Island and Staten 

Island deposited on margin of Atlantic Ocean 

Development of passive continental margin 

Initial opening of Atlantic Ocean 

North America and Africa separate 

Intrusion of Palisades sill 

Pangea begins to break up 

Extensive erosion 

Appalachian (Alleghanian) Orogeny 

caused by collision of North America 

and Africa along transform margin, 

forming Pangea 

Catskill Delta forms 

Erosion of Acadian Mountains 

Acadian Orogeny caused by collision of 

North America and Avalon and closing 

of remaining part of Iapetus Ocean 

Salt and gypsum deposited in evaporite basins 

Erosion of Taconic Mountains; Queenston Delta forms 

Taconian Orogeny caused by closing of 

western part of Iapetus Ocean and 

collision between North America and 

volcanic island arc 

Iapetus passive margin forms 

Rifting and initial opening of Iapetus Ocean 

Erosion of Grenville Mountains 

Grenville Orogeny: Ancestral Adirondack 

Mtns. and Hudson Highlands formed 

Inferred Position of 

Earth’s Landmasses 

TERTIARY 

CRETACEOUS 

TRIASSIC 

ORDOVICIAN 

59 million 

years 

ago 

119 million 

years 

ago 

232 million 

years 

ago 

DEVONIAN/MISSISSIPPIAN 362 million 

years 

ago 

458 million 

years 

ago 

Stromatolites 

1300 

8 Earth Science Reference Tables — 2001 Edition (Revised November 2006) Earth Science Reference Tables — 2001 Edition (Revised November 2006) 9 

96-001TN (rev) 11/2006

Inferred Properties of Earth’s Interior 

ATLANTIC OCEAN 

MID-ATLANTIC 

RIDGE 

DENSITY (g/cm 3 ) 

2.7 continental crust 

3.0 oceanic crust 

MOHO 

PACIFIC 

OCEAN 

C 

ASCADES 

T 

RENCH 

NORTH 

AMERICA 

4 

CRUST 

RIGID 

MANTLE 

LITHOSPHERE 

ASTHENOSPHERE (PLASTIC MANTLE) 

STIFFER 

MANTLE 

OUTER CORE (IRON?) 

INNER CORE 

IRON & NICKEL 

3.3–5.5 

9.9–12.1 

12.7–13.0 

PRESSURE 

(millions of atmospheres) 

3 

2 

1 

0 

EARTH’S CENTER 

TEMPERATURE (°C) 

6000 

5000 

4000 

3000 

2000 

? ? 

? 

MELTING POINT 

? 

MANTLE 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

ACTUAL TEMPERATURE 

MELTING POINT 

1000 

PARTIAL MELTING OF 

ULTRAMAFIC MANTLE 

0 

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 

DEPTH (km) 


Average Chemical Composition 

of Earth’s Crust, Hydrosphere, and Troposphere 

ELEMENT 

(symbol) 

Percent by 

Mass 

CRUST HYDROSPHERE TROPOSPHERE 

Percent by 

Volume 

Percent by 

Volume 

Percent by 

Volume 

Oxygen (O) 

Silicon (Si) 

Aluminum (Al) 

Iron (Fe) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Sodium (Na) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Potassium (K) 

Nitrogen (N) 

Hydrogen (H) 

Other 

46.40 

28.15 

8.23 

5.63 

4.15 

2.36 

2.33 

2.09 

0.66 

94.04 

0.88 

0.48 

0.49 

1.18 

1.11 

0.33 

1.42 

0.07 

33.0 

66.0 

1.0 

21.0 

78.0 

1.0 

TRAVEL TIME (minutes) 

24 

23 

22 

21 

20 

19 

18 

17 

16 

15 

14 

13 

12 

11 

10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

Earthquake P-wave and S-wave Travel Time 

S 

P 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 

EPICENTER DISTANCE (×10 3 km) 

9 10 


1 

–33 

–28 

–24 

–21 

–18 

–14 

–12 

–10 

–7 

–5 

–3 

–1 

1 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

19 

21 

23 

25 

27 

29 

2 

–36 

–28 

–22 

–18 

–14 

–12 

–8 

–6 

–3 

–1 

1 

3 

6 

8 

11 

13 

15 

17 

19 

21 

23 

25 

27 

0 

–20 

–18 

–16 

–14 

–12 

–10 

–8 

–6 

–4 

–2 

0 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

28 

30 

–20 

–18 

–16 

–14 

–12 

–10 

–8 

–6 

–4 

–2 

0 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

28 

30 

3 

–29 

–22 

–17 

–13 

–9 

–6 

–4 

–1 

1 

4 

6 

9 

11 

13 

15 

17 

20 

22 

24 

26 

4 

–29 

–20 

–15 

–11 

–7 

–4 

–2 

1 

4 

6 

9 

11 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

5 

–24 

–17 

–11 

–7 

–5 

–2 

1 

4 

7 

9 

12 

14 

16 

18 

21 

23 

6 

–19 

–13 

–9 

–5 

–2 

1 

4 

7 

10 

12 

14 

17 

19 

21 

7 

–21 

–14 

–9 

–5 

–2 

1 

4 

7 

10 

12 

15 

17 

19 

8 

–14 

–9 

–5 

–1 

2 

4 

8 

10 

13 

16 

18 

9 

–28 

–16 

–10 

–6 

–2 

2 

5 

8 

11 

14 

16 

10 

–17 

–10 

–5 

–2 

3 

6 

9 

11 

14 

11 

–17 

–10 

–5 

–1 

2 

6 

9 

12 

12 

–19 

–10 

–5 

–1 

3 

7 

10 

13 

–19 

–10 

–5 

0 

4 

8 

14 

–19 

–10 

–4 

1 

5 

15 

–18 

–9 

–3 

1 

Difference Between Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures (C°) 

Difference Between Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures (C°) 

Dry-Bulb 

Temperature 

(°C) 

1 

28 

40 

48 

55 

61 

66 

71 

73 

77 

79 

81 

83 

85 

86 

87 

88 

88 

89 

90 

91 

91 

92 

92 

92 

93 

93 

2 

11 

23 

33 

41 

48 

54 

58 

63 

67 

70 

72 

74 

76 

78 

79 

80 

81 

82 

83 

84 

85 

86 

86 

0 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

–20 

–18 

–16 

–14 

–12 

–10 

–8 

–6 

–4 

–2 

0 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

28 

30 

3 

13 

20 

32 

37 

45 

51 

56 

59 

62 

65 

67 

69 

71 

72 

74 

75 

76 

77 

78 

79 

4 

11 

20 

28 

36 

42 

46 

51 

54 

57 

60 

62 

64 

66 

68 

69 

70 

71 

72 

5 

1 

11 

20 

27 

35 

39 

43 

48 

50 

54 

56 

58 

60 

62 

64 

65 

66 

6 

6 

14 

22 

28 

33 

38 

41 

45 

48 

51 

53 

55 

57 

59 

61 

7 

10 

17 

24 

28 

33 

37 

40 

44 

46 

49 

51 

53 

55 

8 

6 

13 

19 

25 

29 

33 

36 

40 

42 

45 

47 

49 

9 

4 

10 

16 

21 

26 

30 

33 

36 

39 

42 

44 

10 

2 

8 

14 

19 

23 

27 

30 

34 

36 

39 

11 

1 

7 

12 

17 

21 

25 

28 

31 

34 

12 

1 

6 

11 

15 

20 

23 

26 

29 

13 

5 

10 

14 

18 

21 

25 

14 

4 

9 

13 

17 

20 

15 

4 

9 

12 

16 

Dry-Bulb 

Temperature 

(°C) 

12 Earth Science Reference Tables — 2001 Edition (Revised November 2006) 

Dewpoint Temperatures (°C) 

Relative Humidity (%)

Temperature 

Pressure 

Water boils 

Human body 

temperature 

Room 

temperature 

Ice melts 

Fahrenheit Celsius Kelvin 

220 

200 

180 

160 

140 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

–20 

–40 

–60 

110 

100 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

–10 

–20 

–30 

–40 

–50 

380 

370 

360 

350 

340 

330 

320 

310 

300 

290 

280 

270 

260 

250 

240 

230 

220 

Weather Map Symbols 

one 

atmosphere 

1013.2 mb 

millibars 

1040.0 

1036.0 

1032.0 

1028.0 

1024.0 

1020.0 

1016.0 

1012.0 

1008.0 

1004.0 

1000.0 

996.0 

992.0 

988.0 

984.0 

inches 

30.70 

30.60 

30.50 

30.40 

30.30 

30.20 

30.10 

30.00 

29.90 

29.80 

29.70 

29.60 

29.50 

29.40 

29.30 

29.20 

29.10 

29.00 

Station Model 

Temperature (°F) 

Present weather 

Visibility (mi) 

Dewpoint (°F) 

Wind speed 

28 

1 

2 

✱ 

27 

whole feather = 10 knots 

half feather = 5 knots 

total = 15 knots 

Amount of cloud cover 

(approximately 75% covered) 

196 

+19/ 

.25 

Barometric pressure 

(1019.6 mb) 

Barometric trend 

(a steady 1.9-mb rise 

the past 3 hours) 

Precipitation 

(inches past 6 hours) 

Wind direction 

(from the southwest) 

(1 knot = 1.15 mi/hr) 

980.0 

976.0 

972.0 

968.0 

28.90 

28.80 

28.70 

28.60 

28.50 

Drizzle 

✱ 

Snow 

Rain 

Sleet 

Present Weather Air Masses 

Front Symbols Hurricane 

Smog 

Freezing 

Rain 

Hail 

Fog 

Thunderstorms 

∞ 

Haze 

Rain 

Showers 

✱ 

Snow 

Showers 

cA continental arctic 

cP continental polar 

cT continental tropical 

mT maritime tropical 

mP maritime polar 

Earth Science Reference Tables — 2001 Edition (Revised November 2006) 13 

Cold 

Warm 

Stationary 

Occluded

Selected Properties 

of Earth’s Atmosphere 

km 150 

mi 

Temperature 

Zones 

Atmospheric 

Pressure 

Water 

Vapor 

75 

100 

Thermosphere 

Altitude 

50 

Mesopause 

Mesosphere 

50 

25 

Stratopause 

Stratosphere 

Sea Level 

0 

0 

Tropopause 

Troposphere 

–100° 0° 100° 

–90° –55° 15° 

Temperature (°C) 

10 –4 

10 –3 

10 –2 

10 –1 

10 0 

Pressure (atm) 

0 20 40 

Concentration 

(g/m 3 ) 

cm 

0.000,000,000,1 

0.000,000,001 

0.000,000,01 

0.000,000,1 

0.000,001 

0.000,01 

0.000,1 

0.001 

Electromagnetic Spectrum 

0.01 

0.1 

1.0 

10 

100 

1,000 

cm 

10 –10 

10 –9 10 –8 10 –7 10 –6 10 –5 10 –4 10 –3 10 –2 10 –1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 

Gamma rays 

x rays 

Microwaves 

Ultraviolet 

Visible 

Infrared 

Radio waves 

Decreasing Wavelength 

Visible Light 

Increasing Wavelength 

Violet Blue Green Yellow Orange Red 

4.0 × 10 –5 

4.3 × 10 –5 

4.9 × 10 –5 

5.3 × 10 –5 

5.8 × 10 –5 

6.3 × 10 –5 

7.0 × 10 –5 

DRY 

N.E. 

WET 

S.W. 

WINDS 

DRY 

N.E. 

WINDS 

WET 

S.E. 

WINDS 

DRY 

N.W. 

WINDS 

WET 

S.E. 

DRY 

60° N 

60° S 

30° N 

30° S 

0° 

Tropopause 

Polar Front Jet Stream 

Polar Front 

Subtropical 

Jet Streams 

Planetary Wind 

and Moisture Belts 

in the Troposphere 

The drawing to the left shows 

the locations of the belts near 

the time of an equinox. The 

locations shift somewhat with 

the changing latitude of the 

Sun’s vertical ray. In the 

Northern Hemisphere, the belts 

shift northward in summer and 

southward in winter. 

Polar Front Jet Stream 


Luminosity and Temperature of Stars 

(Name in italics refers to star shown by a + ) 

Luminosity (Relative to the Sun) 

1,000,000 

Massive 

Stars 

10,000 

100 

1 

0.01 

Small 

Stars 

0.0001 

Blue 

Supergiants 

Blue Stars 

Rigel 

+ 

Main Sequence 

+ Sirius 

Red 

Dwarfs 

Barnard’s 

Star + 

20,000 10,000 5,000 2,500 

Temperature (°C) 

White Stars 

Color 

Supergiants 

Polaris + 

White Dwarfs 

+ Procyon B 

+ 

+ 

Sun 

Yellow Stars 

Red Giants 

Betelgeuse 

+ 

+ Aldebaran 

Alpha Centauri 

Red Stars 

Luminosity is the 

brightness of stars 

compared to the 

brightness of our 

Sun as seen from 

the same distance 

from the observer. 

Solar System Data 

Object 

Mean Distance 

from Sun 

(millions of km) 

Period 

of 

Revolution 

Period 

of 

Rotation 

Eccentricity 

of 

Orbit 

Equatorial 

Diameter 

(km) 

Mass 

(Earth = 1) 

Density 

(g/cm 3 ) 

Number 

of 

Moons 

SUN — — 27 days — 1,392,000 333,000.00 1.4 – 

MERCURY 57.9 88 days 59 days 0.206 4,880 0.553 5.4 0 

VENUS 108.2 224.7 days 243 days 0.007 12,104 0.815 5.2 0 

EARTH 149.6 365.26 days 23 hr 0.017 12,756 1.00 5.5 1 

56 min 

4 sec 

MARS 227.9 687 days 24 hr 0.093 6,787 0.1074 3.9 2 

37 min 

23 sec 

JUPITER 778.3 11.86 years 9 hr 0.048 142,800 317.896 1.3 16 

50 min 

30 sec 

SATURN 1,427 29.46 years 10 hr 0.056 120,000 95.185 0.7 18 

14 min 

URANUS 2,869 84.0 years 17 hr 0.047 51,800 14.537 1.2 21 

14 min 

NEPTUNE 4,496 164.8 years 16 hr 0.009 49,500 17.151 1.7 8 

EARTH’S 149.6 27.3 days 27 days 0.055 3,476 0.0123 3.3 — 

MOON 

(0.386 from Earth) 

8 hr 


Properties of Common Minerals 

HARD- COMMON DISTINGUISHING 

LUSTER NESS COLORS CHARACTERISTICS USE(S) MINERAL NAME COMPOSITION* 

Metallic Luster 

Either 

Nonmetallic Luster 

1–2 

2.5 

5.5–6.5 

6.5 

1–6.5 

1 

2 

2 

2–2.5 

2.5 

2.5–3 

3 

3.5 

4 

5–6 

5.5 

6 

6 

6.5 

7 

7 

CLEAVAGE 

FRACTURE 

✔ 

✔ 

✔ 

✔ 

✔ 

✔ 

✔ 

✔ 

✔ 

✔ 

✔ 

✔ 

✔ 

✔ 

✔ 

✔ 

✔ 

✔ 

✔ 

✔ 

✔ 

silver to 

gray 

metallic 

silver 

black to 

silver 

brassy 

yellow 

metallic silver or 

earthy red 

white to 

green 

yellow to 

amber 

white to 

pink or gray 

colorless to 

yellow 

colorless to 

white 

black to 

dark brown 

colorless 

or variable 

colorless 

or variable 

colorless or 

variable 

black to 

dark green 

black to 

dark green 

white to 

pink 

white to 

gray 

green to 

gray or brown 

colorless or 

variable 

dark red 

to green 

black streak, 

greasy feel 

very dense (7.6 g/cm 3 ), 

gray-black streak 

attracted by magnet, 

black streak 

green-black streak, 

cubic crystals 

red-brown streak 

greasy feel 

easily melted, 

may smell 

easily scratched 

by fingernail 

flexible in 

thin sheets 

cubic cleavage, 

salty taste 

flexible in 

thin sheets 

bubbles 

with acid 

bubbles with acid 

when powdered 

cleaves in 

4 directions 

cleaves in 

2 directions at 90° 

cleaves at 

56° and 124° 

cleaves in 

2 directions at 90° 

cleaves in 2 directions, 

striations visible 

commonly light green 

and granular 

glassy luster, may form 

hexagonal crystals 

glassy luster, often seen as red 

grains in NYS metamorphic rocks 

pencil lead, 

lubricants 

ore of 

lead 

ore of 

iron 

ore of 

sulfur 

ore 

of iron 

talcum powder, 

soapstone 

vulcanize rubber, 

sulfuric acid 

plaster of paris 

and drywall 

electrical 

insulator 

food additive, 

melts ice 

electrical 

insulator 

cement, 

polarizing prisms 

source of 

magnesium 

hydrofluoric 

acid 

mineral 

collections 

mineral 

collections 

ceramics 

and glass 

ceramics 

and glass 

furnace bricks 

and jewelry 

glass, jewelry, 

and electronics 

jewelry and 

abrasives 

Graphite 

Galena 

Magnetite 

Pyrite 

Hematite 

Talc 

Sulfur 

Gypsum 

(Selenite) 

Muscovite Mica 

Halite 

Biotite Mica 

Calcite 

Dolomite 

Fluorite 

Pyroxene 

(commonly Augite) 

Amphiboles 

(commonly Hornblende) 

Potassium Feldspar 

(Orthoclase) 

Plagioclase Feldspar 

(Na-Ca Feldspar) 

Olivine 

Quartz 

Garnet 

(commonly Almandine) 

*Chemical Symbols: Al = aluminum Cl = chlorine H = hydrogen Na = sodium S = sulfur 

C = carbon F = fluorine K = potassium O = oxygen Si = silicon 

Ca = calcium Fe = iron Mg = magnesium Pb = lead Ti = titanium 

✔ = dominant form of breakage 

C 

PbS 

Fe 3 O 4 

FeS 2 

Fe 2 O 3 

Mg 3 Si 4 O 10 (OH) 2 

S 

CaSO 4 •2H 2 O 

KAl 3 Si 3 O 10 (OH) 2 

NaCl 

K(Mg,Fe) 3 

AlSi 3 O 10 (OH) 2 

CaCO 3 

CaMg(CO 3 ) 2 

CaF 2 

(Ca,Na) (Mg,Fe,Al) 

(Si,Al) 2 O 6 

CaNa(Mg,Fe) 4 (Al,Fe,Ti) 3 

Si 6 O 22 (O,OH) 2 

KAlSi 3 O 8 

(Na,Ca)AlSi 3 O 8 

(Fe,Mg) 2 SiO 4 

SiO 2 

Fe 3 Al 2 Si 3 O 12 

16 Earth Science Reference Tables — 2001 Edition (Revised November 2006) 

DET 633TN

{ Earth Science Reference Tables - New York State Museum

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