Researching-the-Urban-Dilemma-Baseline-study

A review of the literature confirms how lethal violence tends to be clustered in cities and in particular areas of
cities. Homicidal violence, in particular, appears to be concentrated in lower income areas, and amongst
lower-income families. 154 Across time and space, lower income urban areas tend to experience higher rates of
violence and victimization and within these areas, poor, marginal and vulnerable social groups are more at risk
than others. 155 A number of specific case studies in large cities in Brazil confirm the socio-spatial concentration
of urban violence amongst lower income groups. For example, Briceno-Leon and Zubillaga (2002) observe how
homicide rates were several times higher in “low-income” areas of Rio de Janeiro (177 per 100,000) than in
“middle class” (59 per 100,000) and “tourist” areas (39 per 100,000). What is more, these patterns also hold
constant over time. Multi-generational household surveys in Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paolo reveal how
successive generations of low-income residents in favelas have disproportionate numbers of family members
killed in “wars” involving armed groups. 156
It is also worth noting that even within low-income urban settings, certain population groups are impacted
more, or differently, by urban violence than others. Specifically, there are clear gender dimensions to the
experiences of violence (Moser 2004, Winton 2004). At the global level, male homicide rates are roughly
double female rates for all age groups. 157 At the national level, the ratio tends to be even more extreme. For
example, in Bogota, Cali and Medellin, there are 12 reported male homicides for every single reported female
homicide. 158 Likewise, in San Salvador, young men were at least 10 times more likely to be murdered than
young women. 159 In one review of more than 8,500 homicide incidents in Puerto Rico (2001-2010) Zavala et al
(forthcoming) found that the risk of homicide death in males is 13 times greater than among females. The
highest rates are observed among males 20-24 years of age (198.4 homicides per 100,000). 160 And in all three
settings, whether Colombia, El Salvador or Puerto Rico, as well as in the slums of Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo,
it is the highly urbanized and poorer areas of municipalities which present the highest risks of homicide.
Although men are more likely to kill or be killed in urban and rural settings alike, the rates of non-fatal
victimization by violence are more equal by gender. For example, overall, men are only slightly more likely
than females to be victimized by violence in urban settings. 161 While males tend to experience higher rates of
physical assault and violent robbery, women tend to suffer from dramatically higher rates of sexual violence,
including rape. In South Africa, for example, studies of a selection of cities have determined that women are
consistently more likely to suffer violence than men. 162 Women are also especially susceptible to domestic
violence, with an estimated 1 in 3 women worldwide experiencing domestic violence over the course of her
154 And while the relationship is believed to hold true in the case of “conflict-related” lethal violence, there is a major silence in the
literature on this issue. See Raleigh et al (2010).
155 See Winton (2004).
156 See Campbell (2008).
157 See Krause et al (2011) and WHO (2002).
158 See the work of the Conflict Analysis Resource Center at www.cerac.org.co.
159 See Cruz and Beltrán (2000).
160 Firearms are used in at least 80 per cent of homicides in Puerto Rico in any given year. The average lifetime risk of homicide death
for males is 1 in 34. Young adult males with access to firearms are at greatest risk of homicide in Puerto Rico.
161 See World Bank (2010).
162 See Vogelman and Lewis (1993) and Abrahams (2004).
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