11. Hsu WC. Consequences of delaying progression to optimal therapy in patients with type 2 diabetes not achieving glycemic goals. South Med J. 2009;102(1):67-76. 12. Turner R, Stratton I, Horton V, et al. UKPDS 25: autoantibodies to islet-cell cytoplasm <strong>and</strong> glutamic acid decarboxylase for prediction of insulin requirement in type 2 diabetes. UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group [published correction appears in Lancet. 1998;351(9099):376]. Lancet. 1997;350(9087):1288-1293. 13. Kahn SE, Haffner SM, Heise MA, et al. Glycemic durability of rosiglitazone, metformin, or glyburide monotherapy. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:2427-2443. 14. Selam JL, Koenen C, Weng W, Meneghini L. Improving glycemic control with insulin detemir using the 303 Algorithm in insulin naive patients with type 2 diabetes: a subgroup analysis of the US PREDICTIVE 303 study. Curr Med Res Opin. 2008;24(1):11-20. 15. Rodbard HW, Jellinger PS, Davidson JA, et al. 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Jenkins N, Hallowell N, Farmer AJ, Holman RR, Lawton J. Initiating insulin as part of the Treating To Target in Type 2 Diabetes (4-T) trial: an interview study of patients’ <strong>and</strong> health professionals’ experiences [published online ahead of print June 30, 2010]. Diabetes Care. 2010;33(10):2178-2180. 20. Hirsch IB. Insulin analogues [review]. N Engl J Med. 2005;352(2):174-183. 21. The ORIGIN Trial Investigators. Basal insulin <strong>and</strong> cardiovascular <strong>and</strong> other outcomes in dysglycemia [published online ahead of print June 11, 2012]. N Engl J Med. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1203858. 22. Nathan DM, Buse JB, Davidson MB, et al; <strong>American</strong> Diabetes <strong>Association</strong>; European <strong>Association</strong> for Study of Diabetes. Medical management of hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes: a consensus algorithm for the initiation <strong>and</strong> adjustment of therapy: a consensus statement of the <strong>American</strong> Diabetes <strong>Association</strong> <strong>and</strong> the European <strong>Association</strong> for the Study of Diabetes [published online ahead of print October 22, 2008]. Diabetes Care. 2009;32(1):193-203. 23. Cooke CE, Lee HY, Tong YP, Haines ST. Persistence with injectable antidiabetic agents in members with type 2 diabetes in a commercial managed care organization. Curr Med Res Opin. 2010;26(1):231-238. 24. Buysman E, Conner C, Aagren M, Bouchard J, Liu F. Adherence <strong>and</strong> persistence to a regimen of basal insulin in a pre-filled pen compared to vial/syringe in insulin-naive patients with type 2 diabetes [published online ahead of print July 11, 2011]. Curr Med Res Opin. 2011;27(9):1709-1717. 25. Bazzano LA, Lee LJ, Shi L, Reynolds K, Jackson JA, Fonseca V. Safety <strong>and</strong> efficacy of glargine compared with NPH insulin for the treatment of type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis of r<strong>and</strong>omized controlled trials. Diabet Med. 2008;25(8):924-932. 26. Garber AJ, Clauson P, Pedersen CB, Kolendorf K. Lower risk of hypoglycemia with insulin detemir than with neutral protamine hagedorn insulin in older persons with type 2 diabetes: a pooled analysis of phase III trials. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2007;55(11):1735-1740. 27. Jang HC, Guler S, Shestakova M; PRESENT Study Group. When glycaemic targets can no longer be achieved with basal insulin in type 2 diabetes, can simple intensification with a modern premixed insulin help? results from a subanalysis of the PRESENT study [published online ahead of print May 9, 2008]. Int J Clin Pract. 2008;62(7):1013-1018. 28. Riddle MC, Rosenstock J, Gerich J; Insulin Glargine 4002 Study Investigators. The treat-totarget trial: r<strong>and</strong>omized addition of glargine or human NPH insulin to oral therapy of type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Care. 2003;26(11):3080- 3086. 29. Rodbard HW, Blonde L, Braithwaite SS, et al; AACE Diabetes Mellitus Clinical Practice Guidelines Task Force. <strong>American</strong> <strong>Association</strong> of Clinical Endocrinologists medical guidelines for clinical practice for the management of diabetes mellitus. Endocr Pract. 2007;13 (suppl 1):1-68. 30. <strong>American</strong> Diabetes <strong>Association</strong>. St<strong>and</strong>ards of medical care in diabetes-2012. Diabetes Care. 2012;35 (Suppl 1):S11-S63. 31. Meneghini L, Koenen C, Weng W, Selam JL. The usage of a simplified self-titration dosing guideline (303 Algorithm) for insulin detemir in patients with type 2 diabetes-results of the r<strong>and</strong>omized, controlled PREDICTIVE 303 study. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2007;9(6):902-913. 32. 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Peyrot M, Rubin RR, Lauritzen T, et al; International DAWN Advisory Panel. Resistance to insulin therapy among patients <strong>and</strong> providers: results of the cross-national Diabetes Attitudes, Wishes, <strong>and</strong> Needs (DAWN) study. Diabetes Care. 2005;28(11):2673-2679. 36. Woudenberg YJ, Lucas C, Latour C, Scholte OP, Reimer WJ. Acceptance of insulin therapy: a long shot? psychological insulin resistance in primary care [published online ahead of print December 12, 2011]. Diabet Med. 2012;29(6): 796-802. 37. Cowie CC, Rust KF, Ford ES, et al. Full accounting of diabetes <strong>and</strong> pre-diabetes in the US population in 1988-1994 <strong>and</strong> 2005-2006 [published online ahead of print November 18, 2008]. Diabetes Care. 2009;32(2):287-294. 38. Miech RA, Kim J, McConnell C, Hamman RF. A growing disparity in diabetes-related mortality US trends, 1989-2005 [published online ahead of print December 5, 2008]. Am J Prev Med. 2009;36(2):126- 132. 39. Huang ES, Brown SE, Thakur N, et al. Racial/ethnic differences in concerns about current <strong>and</strong> future medications among patients with type 2 diabetes [published online ahead of print November 18, 2008]. Diabetes Care. 2009;32(2):311-316. 40. Hatcher E, Whittemore R. Hispanic adults’ beliefs about type 2 diabetes: clinical implications. J Am Acad Nurse Pract. 2007;19(10):536-545. 41. Davis RE, Peterson KE, Rothschild SK, Resnicow K. Pushing the envelope for cultural appropriateness: does evidence support cultural tailoring in type 2 diabetes interventions for Mexican <strong>American</strong> adults [published online ahead of print February 22, 2011] Diabetes Educ. 2011;37(2):227-238. 42. Cabellero AE, Tenzer P. Building cultural competency for improved diabetes care: Latino <strong>American</strong>s <strong>and</strong> diabetes [review]. J Fam Pract. 2007;56(9 suppl):S7-S13. 43. Gavin JR III, Wright EE Jr. Building cultural competency for improved diabetes care: African <strong>American</strong>s <strong>and</strong> diabetes [review]. J Fam Pract. 2007;56(9 suppl):S22-S28. 44. Brown AF, Gerzoff RB, Karter AJ, et al; TRIAD Study Group. Health behaviors <strong>and</strong> quality of care among Latinos with diabetes in managed care. Am J Public Health. 2003;93(10):1694-1698. 45. Russell BE, Gurrola E, Ndumele CD, et al; Community Health <strong>and</strong> Academic Medicine Partnership Project. Perspectives of non-Hispanic black <strong>and</strong> Latino patients in Boston’s urban community health centers on their experiences with diabetes <strong>and</strong> hypertension [published online ahead of print February 24, 2010]. J Gen Intern Med. 2010;25(6):504-509. 46. Philis-Tsimikas A, Zhang Q, Walker C. Glycemic control with insulin glargine as part of an ethnically diverse, community-based diabetes management program. Am J Ther. 2006;13(6):466-472. 47. Castillo A, Giachello A, Bates R, et al. Community-based diabetes education for Latinos: the Diabetes Empowerment Education Program [published online ahead of print June 10, 2010]. Diabetes Educ. 2010;36(4):586-594. D&D Joseph M. Tibaldi, MD, FACP, is an assistant clinical professor of medicine at Weill Cornell Medical College in New York, New York. Dr. Tibaldi can be reached at jtibaldi@aol.com. 10 <strong>Dialogue</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Diagnosis</strong> // September 2012
AFTER METFORMIN Introducing <strong>and</strong> titrating glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist therapy for patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus Jeffrey S. Freeman, DO Metformin has remained the cornerstone of therapy for patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) who do not have contraindications to its use <strong>and</strong> who can tolerate it. Metformin’s widespread use is based on its glucose-dependent mechanism of action (with a low risk of hypoglycemia), its lack of association with weight gain, its durability of effect, its long history of safety, <strong>and</strong> its generic availability. 1 <strong>Dialogue</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Diagnosis</strong> // September 2012 11
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